Full text of "Military dictionary: comprising technical definitions; information on raising and keeping troops; actual service, including makeshifts and improved matériel; and law, government, regulation, and administration relating to land forces"

MILITARY DICTIONARY:

COMPRISING

TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS;

INFORMATION

RAISING AND KEEPING TEOOPS ;
ACTUAL SERVICE,

INCLUDING

MAKESHIFTS A1S T D IMPEOYED MAT&RIEL;

LAW, GOVERNMENT, REGULATION, AND ADMINISTRATION
RELATING TO LAND FORCES.

' 4

COLONEL IT. L. SCOTT,

\ \ m

INSPECTOR-GENERAL, U. S. A.

NEW YORK :
D. YAET KOSTRAND, 192 BKOADWAY.

LONDON:
TRUBNER & CO.

1864.

KIT* BID, Moordlnf to Act of Congrw*. in the year 1SC1, l y

HENRY L. SCOTT,

In DM Clerk's Offlc of the DUtrlct Court of tho fi ,:tr,l Ftatoi for the
Bouthero DUtrlct of New York.

PKINTID HT

PKEFACE.

A MILITARY dictionary which, with technical definitions, com-
prises information on actual service ; on law, government, regu-
lation, and administration ; on raising and keeping troops, and^
on makeshifts and improved materiel^ is much needed ; and the
design of the present work is in some measure to occupy that
gap in military literature.

In legal articles, plain decisions from constitutional ex-
ponents of law have been accepted as conclusive ; but w r hen
without such a guide, an endeavor has been made to set forth
the true intent and meaning of laws in dispute, by simple, clear,
and logical annotations. Much interesting law matter has been
abridged from Prendergast's Law relating to officers of the
army ; and in respect to courts-martial, actual service, improved
materiel, &c., &c., the author is indebted to many standard
authorities, sometimes only designated by name in different ar-
ticles ; but, in such cases, referred to fully by the titles of their
works in the list of abbreviations which follows this preface.

It is only deemed necessary to add, that the work was not
prepared in view of existing disturbances, but was begun some
years ago, and that the few additions made since it was put in
the hands of the publisher in January last, refer only to im-
provements in materiel.

TITLES OF WOBKS

REFERRED TO BY ABBREVIATIONS IN THE TEXT, AND EXPLANATIONS
OF OTHER ABBREVIATIONS USED.

Act. Act of Congress of the United States. Reference embraces date of act.
Aide Memoire to the military sciences framed from contributions of officers of

different services, and edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers

in Dublin.

Aide Memoire d'Artillerie a 1'usage des Officiers d'Artillerie. Paris, 1855.
Art. (Articles of War,) included in an act of Congress for establishing rules and

articles for the government of the armies of the United States, approved April

10, 1806. Reference embraces the number of the article.
BARDIN. Dictionnaire de l'Arme"e de Terre, ou Recherches Historiques sur 1'Art et les

Usages Militaires des Anciens et des Modernes. Par le General Bardin, &c.

Ouvrage termine" sous la direction du General Oudinot de Reggio. 6,337 pp.

Paris, 1851.

BAUCHER. Method of Horsemanship. Philadelphia, 1851.
BENTON. Ordnance and Gunnery. By Capt. J. G. Benton, U. S. Ordnance.
BLACKSTONE. Commentaries, with Notes. 4 vols. London, 1844.
BOTTVIER. Law Dictionary adapted to the Constitution and Laws of the United

States. By John Bouvier. Philadelphia, 1839.
BRANDS; Encyclopedia of Science, Literature, and Art.
BUGEAUD. Apergus sur quelques Details de la Guerre. Par le Marshal Bugeaud.

Ibid. Instructions Pratiques. Bugeaud.
BURNS. Naval and Military English-and-French Technical Dictionary. By Lieut.-

Colonel Burns, Royal Artillery. London, 1852.
CAVALLI. Memoire sur divers Perfectionnements Militaires. Par J. Cavalli, Colonel

d'Artillerie, &c., &c. Traduit de I'ltalien. Paris, 1856.
COUTURIER. Dictionnaire Portatif et Raisonne. Par le General Le Couturier. Paris,

1825.
DE HART. Courts-martial. By Captain W. C. De Hart, 2d U. S. Artillery.

ABBREYIATIONS, AND TITLES OP AUTHORITIES.

D* U IWUqw des Troto Amw : Infcnterie, Caralerie, Artillcric. Par C.
T, UML-GolOMl, *e., Ac.
DrU* N'aral Gonoery. By Om. Sir Howard Douglas.

deTartiqae. Par le General Dufour.
r.-Dige* of Laws of the United Slate*.

Jr. By oOeen of the Ordnance in Small-Arms. 1 or,, (official.)
FAT* Hbloirv eft Tactiqoe dM TroU Arrows et phi* Partk-i/.i; ivm.-i.t <! rArtilloric

d CbnpafM. Par lid. Fare, Capiuinc d'Artillerie.

FoMLAXit . The Administration and Organization of the British Army, with es-
pecial inference to Supply and Finance. By Edward Harrington de Fonblanquc,
Art. ComlMaryGenermL London, 1858.

CAITWI. The Art of TrareL By Francia Galton. London, 1860.
OlMOP. The ArUUcrUf. Manual. By Copt. John Gibbon, 4th U. S. Artil!
0<iO> TTItMl of Law of the United States.

OVUIOT. UfUaUoo et Administration Militairo, ou Programme Detailli des
IUtttis Eoseignees a 1'Ecolc Impcriale de 1'Eiat Major. Par M. Uon GuU-

!*,*.

HAltlOT. Btatfatiqoe llilitaire, ct Rrcherches sur 1'Orpranization dcs Armces tran-
gerM. Par C. T. Hatllot, Chcf-d'Escadron d'Artilleric.

Dmst. Ororf and Hctzel'a Military Laws of the Uuited States.

BOOOIL Military Law Authorities. By Lieut-Colonel Hough, Deputy Judge-advo-
cate General, ic.

H TDK. Elementary Principles of Fortification. By John Hyde, Professor Military

Jm. Practical Treatise on Attack and Defence. By Colonel Jcbb, Royal

iBftoeera.

Jom jii. Tableau Analitique.

Kt*ot RT Artillrrr and Infantry. By Captain Kinpsbury, Ordnance Department.
U OtAiw. DictkNinaire Miliuire Portatif. Par Lc Gmn-l.
MicoMa, CoorUHnartial By Major-General Ma comb. New York, 1
McCtm AV Military Commisrion in Europe. Report by Cajxain McClrllan,

V. a Army.

-Field Fortification*. By Professor Mahan, U. 8. Military Academy.
M*TO and Morttoji. Army and Nary Pension Laws. Washington, 1852.
J/.^riW dea (Meiers d'Infanterie et de Caralrrir. Paris, 1846.
MtMSjciL Digs* of Military Laws. By Major Mordecai, U. S. Army.
K*rotaov MaxioM of War.

of Federal Courts.
r The Law relating to Officers in the Armv. Hv H.-m is Prendcrgmst

of Uocol.'. Ion, Esq., Ihrrirtrr-at -U w.

de TOfflcicr d'Etat Major rn rampapno. Pnr M. Do
<TEut Major, Aidc^e^amp dc son Ex. le Marechal

ABBREVIATIONS, AND TITLES OF AUTHORITIES. 7

RUFFIN. Manuel d'Administration et de Comptabilit6 a 1'usage des Ofliciers des
Compagnies ou Escadron dea Corps dlnfanterie et de Cavalerie. Par M.
Ruffin.

SCOTT. Orders and Correspondence of Gen. "Winfield Scott, Congressional Docu-
ments, &c.

SKINNER. Youatt on the Horse. By Skinner.

VATTEL. Law of Nations. Philadelphia, 1817.

WHEATON. Elements of International Law. Philadelphia, 1846.

YOUATT. Youatt on the Horse. By Skinner.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

ABANDONING A POST, OR MISBEHAVIOR BEFORE AN ENEMY. Pun-
ishable with death, or otherwise, as a court-martial shall direct ; (Art. 52.)

ABATIS (French) are rows of felled trees deprived of their
smaller branches, the remainder sharpened to a point, and employed
for defence. Abatis should be placed so as not to be exposed to the
fire of artillery. In redoubts or intrenchments, they are usually fixed

FIG. 1.

in an upright position against the counterscarp, or at the foot of the
glacis, the plane of which is broken so as to conceal the abatis from
the view of the enemy, and to guard against obstructing the musketry
fire from the parapet in their rear.

FIG. 2.

Abatis are also an excellent means of blocking up a road, when

MILITARY DICTION A [lM

treeagrow on cither side. If branches arc pn.ju.rly placed, and inter-
twined one within another, their diM-s:-::. MI. lv di:'
An abali* will ttUu.- auxiliary
to thedefeifv I" houses or Isolated posts, if jndieiously placed within
range of mu*kt; . When close in front of tin- \\ind..\vs on tho
ground Boor, or used as a cover to the entnmee doo r. it \\ill bo ex-
ttwnely difficult fur the en ; int.. t!..- buil

ABSENCE, WITH LEAVE. -lonel ' "tlu-r o!nV,-r C..TH-

UHTC^ting a regiment, troop, or company, and actually iju::!-:. :..! \\ith

>ughs to iimi-comm
numU*r,an(l for so long a time, as ho shall ju.lj. tobemosl

e pood of the service; and a captain or oth.-r inf-r'..-r ..ilurr,
commanding a troop or company, or in :

of the United States, (his li r lu-inn ul.s.-nt.) may pvr furlouirlis

to non-commissioned officers or soldiers for a tinu- ;
days in six in->nth. but not inure than two prrs. , . t<. I.,- ab i;i at tlu-
Mine Ume, excepting some extraordinary occasion should require it ;

Hie law docs not specify by whom leaves < t may bo gi

to oommiio?iotl officers, and tho omission has bcrn supprud 1>\ orders
of the Prc*id.

LEAVE, FROM CAMP, P.M: u

Punished, by sentence of a court-martial, according to tho nat
the V 41, 42, 43, and 4 1.)

ABUSES AND DISORDERS. Every commnndir h dl

ksrpgofMl unli-r, and, to the utmost of his po\\ m all abn^.

disorders v l>e committed by any oflicor or soldier 't'his r..m-

msnd. If, ii] MID r.. m plaint made to him of officers or soldiers b, atinr l
or otherwise ill-treating, any person, of distnrbinjr fairs <T m.n-kots, or
ofeommittinjz any kinds of riots, t.. the dis.jui. th,- of il,. . f the

i .. i . ommmdi i- shall refoa or on i t.. M

Jttstlos done to the offend- r -r offcn.lrrs and reparation ma V t<> tho
party or parties injn- i' th<- off nd. i '* pay -hall (liable

him or them, he shall, upon proof th r. of. be ra-hi. r>-<\. or -t!
punijihrd. :rt-martial shall dis-

AC HM Military Aoadomy of th

located at West Point, N. ubjeet

to the rule* and art 1 !, , , n-

fWariotlsl ation of the i ..f the

^atri row. E.I- Mtativn

at the Military Am -it besides the number HO appointed, the

Ace.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. H

President of the United States annually appoints ten cadets from at
large. The Academy furnishes about forty graduates a year, who
receive commissions of the lowest grade in some one of the different
corps of the army, provided vacancies exist. If there be no vacancies,
the graduates are attached to different corps as supernumerary officers
of the lowest grade, not exceeding one to each company. The Military
Academy was founded by act of Congress in 1802. Its present high
reputation is mainly due to Colonel Sylvanus Thayer, who did not be-
come Superintendent until 1817.

At the breaking out of the war of 1812, there were about seventy
graduates of the Academy holding commissions, and but little knowledge
of the military art and of the science of war prevailed. At the breaking
out of the Mexican war, the officers of our army were mostly graduates
of the Academy. Every branch of the service was filled with men of
talent and military information ; volunteer corps raised during the
war sought and obtained as their commanders graduates of the Mili-
tary Academy. General officers from political life appointed staff* offi-
cers from the same class. In all positions which the graduates held
during that brilliant war, the honor and glory of the United States were
sustained, and the great usefulness of an institution, which annually costs
little, if any more than the maintenance of one frigate afloat, was satis-
factorily demonstrated to the people of the United States. (See SUPER-
INTENDENT.) Military Academies, modelled upon that at West Point,
have also been established within their respective limits by the States
of Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Alabama,
and perhaps others.

ACCOUNTS. Officers accountable for public money or property
render quarterly accounts to the Treasury Department, if resident in
the United States ; and every six months, if resident in a foreign coun-
try. Additional returns may be required by the Secretary of War,
if the public interest requires it; (Act Jan. 31, 1823.) Every officer
or agent offending against the foregoing provisions may be dismissed
by the President of the United States; (Act Jan. 31, 1823.) The
method of rendering accounts by Administrative Agents of the appli-
cation of all public money and material passing through their hands,
has been prescribed by regulations made pursuant to law. The object
of a system of accountability should be, in respect to the army, to
obtain plain statements of the operations and results of Military Ad-
ministration. The system should be neither complex nor cumbrous,
but should be adapted to a state of war ; and while carefully guarding
against losses to the Government, should, at the same time, by prompt

MILITARY DICTION ART. [Ace.

through government agents, present with armies in the
with accumulations of papers, which manifestly subject
Ire officers to great losses, evm if they were not frequently
yean before obtaining a settK nu-nt of their accounts.

By the present system of accountability it is prescril i : 1. That
all accounts whatever in which the United States arc shall

be settled and adjusted in the Treasury Department ; (.!

It is made the duty of the second and third auditors of the
Tliiasiiij. to receive and examine all military accounts ; to receive from
the second comptroller the aoo nuts \\hieh shall lu\e l-.-.-n finally ad-
justed; to preserve such accounts; to record all warrants drawn by
the SrcrcUry of War ; and moke siu-h rep< .rts on Hie business o>
to them as the Secretary of War may deem necessary. and remf.
the service of his Department ; ( Jr/Maivh 3, 1817.) 3. It is tho duty
of the second comptroller to examine all accounts settled by tin- -
and third auditors, and certify the balances ariMiiu' theivon to tho Seo-
reUry of War; to countersign all I-M! warrants drawn by th-
of War ; to report to & Secretary of War the official forms to be issued
w the different offices for disbursing the public money, and (lie it
and form of k I staling the accounts of the persons employed

therein ; and it shall also bo tho Comptroller's duty to superintend
the preservation of tho public accounts subject to his n \
March 3,1

The great obv 'he simplification and prompt set t lenient of

army accounts interposed by law consist : 1. In tin- requirement that
military accounts shall be adjusted and settled at the Treasury I ). -part-
ment, instead of being settled by the \\ ar D.-partm.-nt. and n ;
to the Treasury ; 2. In making the second and third auditors and -
comptroller officers of the Treasury instead of officers of the War De-
partment ; 3. In authorizing the second romptr-.li. lish forms

for keeping and stating military account juiiin^ him iu

those matters to conform to th.- directions of tho Secretary of War ; and,
4. In withholding from the War Department the ; appointing

gents to accompany armies in the field for the prompt settlem
account*. With the changes of law here suggested, it would i
the^ar Department, thr iri<>ns rjrad. s i" the leyera] admiiiis-

trative staff departments, to establish a simple syst- -untability

with requisite means of control and supervision, whieh would o]

to the povernment, ami to individual ajrenK. I'nder

sent systeifk there in. and must b, . d.le similarity in tho

4uU0a of all grades of the staff ad 1 1 irtmeota (CJonsult

Ace.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Cours d' Administration, par VAUCHELLE, Tntendant Militaire ; Cours
d* Etudes sur /' Administration Militaire, par ODIER : Memorial des
Officiers d'lnfanterie et de Cavalerie, 1846.)

ACCOUTREMENTS. Black leather belts, &c., furnished by the
ordnance department.

PARTS.

Infantry.

Artillery.

Cavalry.

$cts.
1 10

$cts.

lets.

$cts.
95

Waist belt private's

Waist belt plate . . .

Sabre belt

1 03

1 35

Sword belt

1 00

Sword belt plate

Sword belt, non-commissioned officer's and musician's. . .
Sword belt plate do do.
Waist belt do. do.
Waist belt plate do. do.
Carbine cartridge box

62
10
37
60

10
37

Pistol do.

Holsters, with soft leather caps .*. *

2 63

Carbine sling

Carbine swivels

Bullet pouch.

Flask and pouch belt

Powder flask

1 20

Waist belt, sapper's, with frog for sword bayonet, $1.

Infantry accoutrements for 100 men, including non-commissioned
officers' shoulder-belts and plates, weigh 330 Ibs. ; rifle accoutrements
for 100 men, including non-commissioned officers' shoulder-belts and
plates, weigh 329 Ibs. ; 100 carbine slings and swivels, 110 Ibs. (See ARMS.)

Mr. Dingee's directions for reblacking Belts. Brush them with a
hard brush, to clean the surface ; if they are very greasy, use a wire
scratch-brush. Then, with a soft brush or sponge, apply the following
mixture, viz. : one gallon soft water, two pounds extract of logwood,
half a pound of broken nutgalls, boiled until the logwood is dissolved.
When cold, add half a pint of the pyrolignite of iron made by dis-
solving iron filings in pyroligneous acid, as much as the acid will take
up. The dye thus made should be well stirred, and then left to settle.
When clear, bottle it free fnom sediment, and keep it well corked for
use. Dye the belts in the shade ; then apply a little sperm or olive oil,
and rub well with a hard brush. Should any bad spots appear, scratch

, ! MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ADD.

op the surface with the wire brush, and wet two or three times with a
simple decoction of gmllnuts or sumach, and again apply the dye. Log-
wood is not essential, and a solution of copperas may be used instead
of the acetate of iron.

ADDRESS. An address to a court>marti:d, by cither party, must
be i: nsult J/ouph't Law Aut/torilitt.)

A KM 'T ANT, (Latin adjutor, aid.) An officer selected by the
colonel of the regiment from the subalterns. II.- communicates the
order* of the colonel, and has duties in respect to his regiment
Uated to those of an adjutant-general with an army.

A1UI I M.KAL. The principal organ of tin*, coin-

miffff* of an army in publishing orders. The same organ of the
commander of a division, brigade, geographical division, or department,
Is styled Assistant Adjutant-general. The la\\s ,.f the lUit. .1 B
however, provide for but one Adjutant-general with the rank of col-
onel, (made by regulations chief of a bureau of the War D* -par
and charged with the recruiting service. turns, &c.,) one As-

btaot Adjutant-general with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and twelve
other assistants \u?h the rank of major ami captain. (Sec ARMY

OaOAXIXATlOX.)

The bureau duties of Adjutants-goneml and assistants are : puMi-hing
orders in writing; making up written instructions, ainl transmitting
them; reception of reports and returns; disposing of them ; forming
tables, showing the state and position of corps ; regulating details of
serrice; corresponding with the administrative departments relative
to the wants of troops; corresponding with the corps, detachments, or
individual officers serving under the orders of the same commander ;
. methodical arr.iie.'emcnt and < are of the ivcupls and papers of
htsoffice. Theacti\*e duti. s of Adjutants-Lreneral consist in .^taMisli-
i&g ramps; visiting guards and outposts; mustrrin^ and in-peeting
troops; inspecting guards and d ' i!, i ; forming j i lines

of battle; the conduct and control , ri and j.rl

nr^iiii/iMfrtnrrji ; and in general discharging such other active duties as

\L OF A STATE. (See MILITIA.)

AKH-'I lAL.DEPUTY.A.. An ad makm- further

proirWon for the army, nnd for other purp proved -Inly t,

ides: Soc. 2, That to any army of the Vnit.-d States. ,,thor
than that in whi<-h tho ndj'/ -.il. inspect. .r-irenoral, fjnarter-

fnsster -general, and paymaster of the army, shall serve, it shall be
lawful for the President to appoint one deputy adjutant-gen, ral,

ADM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 15

one deputy inspector-general, one deputy quartermaster-general, and
one deputy paymaster-general, who shall be taken from the line of
the army, and who shall, each, in addition to his pay and other emol-
uments, be entitled to fifty dollars per month, which shall be in full
compensation for his extra services. And that there shall be, to
each of the foregoing deputies, such number of assistant deputies (not
exceeding three to each department) as the public service may require,
who shall in like manner be taken from the line, and who shall each be
entitled to thirty dollars per month, in addition to his pay and other
emoluments, which shall be in full compensation for his extra ser-
vices, &c.

ADMINISTRATION, ADMINISTRATIVE. These words are derived
from ministrare, administrare, to serve. Administration is a branch of
political economy j it is the action of administrative agents in executing
laws or regulations conformable to law. The aim of a system of ad-
ministration is to secure the performance of public duties, either di-
rectly, ministerially, or through the intervention of sub-agents. It is
exercised over individuals or things, in civil , matters, in courts of law,
in political bodies, in the army and in the navy, and in general in all
financial matters of government. Administration consists in estab-
lishing the ways and means of public receipts and expenditures ; in
watching over such employments ; in the collection, care, and distribu-
tion of material and money ; and in rendering arid auditing accounts
of such employments. Army Administration also embraces in war the
means by which an army is supported in foreign countries by a general
in campaign, when without regular supplies, without resorting to pillage.
The wars of the French revolution brought into use REQUISITIONS, a
moderate kind of marauding, weighing more heavily upon countries
than upon individuals. Requisitions are, however, an uncertain and
unequal means of supply, and only enable an army to live from hand
to mouth, and although practicable in offensive wars, are only justifiable
in rapid movements, where time does not admit the employment of
more certain means of supply. The system is less odious than pillage.

Bonaparte skilfully adopted another method, in harmony with the
spirit of wars of invasion, and also more reliable as a means of sup-
port. He substituted himself in place of the supreme authorities of
the invaded country, and exacted pecuniary contributions, paying, or
promising to pay, for all provisions and other supplies needed for his
army. Some writers think that even this modified system can only
succeed in gigantic operations, where an army upon a new soil succes-
sively gives repose to that previously occupied. Such a system was,

MILITARY DICTIONARY. -Aj>*.]

ww^-r, -. , ~J by Marshal Suchet in Spain, and a similar sys-
tem was also matured and published In orders by General Scott while
'hi MT** A treaty of peace, however, soon afUr was made, whieh
put so end to military operations, and the sy nly

partially executed. But with a sufficient army in a fertile country, the
^gMifanOft pf tto world has shown that if the inhabitants are protected
from injuries they will very generally sell to tho best paymastrrs. It
Is therefore the Intenwt of an invading army not to in h the

ordinary avocations of citizens, and such is th.- modern usage.

Bonaparte (according to Las Casas) thought that an entire revolu-
tion in the habits and education of the soldier, and perhaps aU<> in
of the officers, waa essential to the formation of a veritable self-subsist-
ing army. Such an army (he said) cannot exist with pn
nagazinea, administration, wagons, dec., ecc. Such an army will
v bcn. . Romans, the soldier shall n eorn,

shall personally carry his mill and cooking utensils, cook his own
bread, &<x, &c n and when the present frightful paper administration has
with. He addrd that lie had meditated upon all those
a period of profound peace was necessary to put them in
If he had been constrained to keep a large army in pea
would have employed it upon the public works, and given it an ..r-ani-
zation, a dress, and a mode of subsistence altogether special. It* MU h a
scheme be practicable, no approach to it yet exists.

Hie French have made some progress in developing a systei
administration suited to a large army, but hardly a step in the dir
pointed out by Napoleon. The l-'m:ch administrative service is a.
powerful means of moving armies in unforeseen emeriM-neies. Its f,,re-
aight provides resources, and tho adversary soonest ready has the
greatest chance of success. Not a century sine.', the Fro*
ment required six months* preparation before an army cnld D
DOW, in tho language of Gen. Lamar.jue, "The cannon is l-aded. and
the blow may be given at tho same moment as the manif. st<>. and. if
Dsosssary, the blow may precede it." Ordinary army administration
eonsVrts in the organization and other means by which various adminis-
trative duties are performed, necessary to provide for the wants of
troops, and for all the foreseen demands of a state of war, including
labor ami the supplier for garrisons, sieges, dec. Sueh dutie^ . -mln-ace.
subsistence magazines, daily rations, forage, dress, encampi
racks, hospitals, transportation, A 'lie administrative duties

of engineers, and of the ordnance d .untability,

payments, recruiting, and in general the receipt and proper application

ADM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 17

of money. The Secretary of War, under the orders of the President,
is the head of military administration in the United States. The object
of such administration is to provide, through the resources placed by law
at his disposition, for the constant wants, regular or accidental, of all
who compose the army. Good administration embraces a foreknowledge
of wants, as well as the creation, operation, and watchfulness of the ways
and means necessary to satisfy them ; the payment of expenses, and
the settlement of accounts.

Army administration is divided into several branches determined
by law. These different branches constitute the administrative service
of an army, the operations of which should be so regulated that the
Secretary of War will be always informed of the condition of each, and
be able to exercise, subordinate to law, a complete financial control over
each. These different branches of administration are : 1. The recruiting
service, and the custody of records and returns of personnel ; 2. The ad-
ministrative service of engineers and topographical engineers ; 3. The
ordnance department ; 4. The quartermaster's department ; 5. The sub-
sistence department ; 6. The pay ^department ; 7. The administrative sei-
vice of the medical department ; and, 8. The settlement of army accounts.
Bureaux of the War Department charged with these different matters
have been organized by the President and Secretary of War, under the
joint authority given these functionaries by the act of Congress of 1813
(See REGULATION) to make regulations better defining the powers and
duties of certain staff officers. The adjutant-general of the army and the
heads of administrative corps have each been assigned a bureau in the
War Department, under the direction of the Secretary of War, for the
management of the administrative duties with which they have been
respectively charged. Administration and Command are distinct. Ad-
ministration is controlled by the head of an executive department of
the government, under the orders of the President, by means of legally
appointed administrative agents, with or without rank, while Com-
mand, or the discipline, military control, and direction of military ser-
vice of officers and soldiers, can be legally exercised only by the mili-
tary hierarchy, at the head of which is the constitutional commander-in-
chief of the army, navy, and militia, followed by the commander of the
army, and other military grades created by Congress. (See ACCOUNTS ;
ACCOUNTABILITY ; ADJUTANT-GENERAL ; ALLOWANCES ; AMBULANCES ;
APPROPRIATIONS ; ARREARS OF PAY ; ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES ;
ARMY REGULATIONS ; AUDITORS ; BAGGAGE ; BAKING ; BARRACKS ; BED ;
BOOKS ; BONDS ; BOUNTY ; BRIDGE ; CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; CARPEN-
TRY; CASEMATE; CLERKS; CLOTHING; COMMISSARY; COMMISSION;
2

Ig MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ADM.

COMITROLLER ; COXOMCM; CONSCRIPTION; CONTRACTS; COUNCILS OF
'MIAOE; DECEASED; DEFAULTERS; DELINQUENTS;

l I >EPOT J DISBURSING OFFICERS; DISCHARGE J

ENT ; EXOIXEER CORPS ; KSOINBERS, (Topoouu UK \i
. or PRISONERS ; EXECUTION OF L MPTS ;

EXTRA EXPENSE* ; EXTRA ALLOWANCES ; GRATI ITV : 1
no ; LAWS (MILITARY) AND REFERENCES ; LOSSES ; Loois .
SHALB; MEASURES; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; MILEAGE; MILITIA; MI-
TER; x OF LAWS; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT; ORD-
VAVCB SERGEANTS ; ORGAN KN ; PASSPORTS ; PAY ; PAY DEPART-
URE ; PATMASTER-GENERAL ; PENSION ; PONTON ; POSSE COMI i
PRESIDENT; PURCHASING; QUARTERS; QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT ;
QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL; RAISE AND REFERENCES; RATION ; RECIM-IT-
ixii ; KKEM IHTINO ; REGULATION ; REMEDY ; RETURNS ; ROADS ; SALE ;

IRT PRECAUTIONS ; SAPPERS ; SAW-MILL ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SER-
. STAFF; STATE TROOPS; STANDARDS; STOREKEEPERS; STOP
or PAT ; SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT ; SUIT ; SUPERINTENDENT ; TELE-
GRAPH ; TEXT ; TOOLS ; TRADE ; TRANSFERS ; TRAVELLING ALLOW-
AXCES; TREATY ; UNIFORM; UTENSILS; VALUE; VETERAN; VKI i K

NTEERS; WAGON; WAU; WEIGHTS; WILLS, (\ MVK);

nt. (Consult BARDIN, Dictionnaire de FArmee de Terre ; L<
lion ft Administration Militairt, par M. LEON GUILLOT ; Afilit'iry
L*wt of tht United StaUt ; Gen. SCOTT'S orders mM

ADMISSIONS. The judge advocate is author!/. .]. wlu-n ho sees
proper, to Rdmit what a prisoner expects to prove by absent witnesses.

ADOBES are unlmrnt brick made from earth of a loamy char
omuining about two-thirds fine sand mixed intimatdy with om'-thir.I
or UM of cUyey dust or sand. StifT day will not unswor, as tin- rays
of the son would crack it in pieces. The adobe, un.lrr the action of the
eon, becomes a compact HUMS. Upon our Indian frontiers in New M. \
too, in Mexico, and in Central America, adobe houses and adobe dcfc!..-es
tho Indians are common siruetun-s. Four men usually work
making adobe brick. One mixes the mass in a h..le, an.l
the barrow, two carry it on a common han.l-barrow. an.l tJie
moulds the brick. Tho moulder has a double moul.l, or one
which forms two adobe*, each eighteen ii.eh.-s l,,,,-, nine inohee wicte,
and four inchce thick. The partition between the two eomj.:.rtments
I he of one and a half inch stuff, th- .,tl,rr parts of im-h boanl ;
a dat oo either outer aide, extending the length of the mould, permits
the mould to be easily bandied. It must be well morticed together

ADO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 19

so as not to wabble. The moulder has no bottom, the adobe being depos-
ited on the surface of the ground, made tolerably level, and without
reversing, as in brick making. The mould is raised gradually and
slowly away from the moulded masses. Before placing it on the ground
to mould another couple, the inner sides of the mould are washed with
water, kept at hand ; this is all that is required to preserve the mud
from sticking and thus breaking the adobe. The mould is emptied a
second time on the ground at about three inches from the first couple,
and in refilling, the balance of the mud left over from the first moulding
is cast in the compartments, and the two men with the barrow of mud
throw their load directly upon the mould, and all that is over and above
what is necessary to fill it is scraped off by the moulder's hands toward
where his next couple is to be. The dumping of the mud from the
barrow is facilitated by casting into the barrow a little finely powdered
dry manure or dust.

An adobe eighteen inches long, nine inches wide, and four inches
thick, is the best average size for moulding and for building. They
are sometimes made sixteen inches long and twelve inches wide ; in
such cases they are all laid as headers ; but with the eighteen inch
adobe they afford the means of binding the wall strongly by alternating
headers and stretchers, as in brick-laying. In the hot spring and sum-
mer suns two or three days uninterrupted drying is sufficient at the
first ; the adobes are then carefully turned up on edge, so as to expose
the under or still wet face to the southern and western sunshine. They
should be left in this position from a week to fifteen days to dry thor-
oughly, when, if not wanted for immediate use, they may be stacked
on edge and covered from the weather. Houses in New Mexico are
seldom built over one story high. This enables the builder to place on
the roof-covering at once, if necessary. But in all cases, intervals in the
work must be allowed, or the house will not only be unsafe, but, if
immediately occupied, damp and disagreeable. The inside plastering
with mud is most frequently done before the roof is covered in, so as to
dry with the wall. If the wall must be left unfinished through the fall
rains or the winter, the top of it is covered with a bushy weed called
cachanilla, and this is covered with earth, to exclude water and protect
it till the ensuing year. If door and window frames are at hand, the
Mexicans prefer to put them in as they build ; but oftener they leave
gaps for doors and windows, unfilled with the frames, till the whole is
finished. The adobes are laid with mud mortar made from the earth
at the base of the wall ; the holes thus formed are readily filled again
with the rubbish from the house when completed. When the wall is

MILITARY DICTION ART. [ADY.

ready to receive the roof-covering, heavy joists arc laid, about two feet
apart, on the top of the walla, strong enough to bear near a foot of
earth all over the roof; the joists, as they rest upon the wall, are sup-
upon boards, or plates, as they are called, to distribute the

of the roof, and prevent the joists from crushing into tin- walls.
Across the joists, and over the whole roof, averaging about t\\o inches
In diameter, poles are now placed, the largest on the highest side of the
roof to begin the slope, and on this is placed a close covering of the
codk4//a, which is aromatic and keeps out bugs ; it is evergreen, and
a plant of the most suitable length to fill the interstices in the poles.
Small willow brush Is often used in the absence of cachanilla. The
earth-covering of the roof is now put on, extending all round the roof to
the parapet above the joists, which is only one-half the width of tho
wall below ; this brings the dirt roof to cover over one-half the width
or thickness of the wall, by which leaks in the room below are pre-
vented. An adobe house, if well secured, is warmer in winter, and
cooler in summer, than one of wood or brick. The brick is cold and
damp, the adobe is dry and a much worse conductor of heat no fur-
rowing nor lathing is necessary and tho rough inside can be white-
waahed or slapped with plaster. The durability of adobe walls is ex-
traordinary. The Pecos Church, not far from Santa Fe, is doubtless
one hundred years old ; its mud walls (adobe) are as firm to this day
as a rock, and they cannot be less than fifty f.-ct hi-jh.

ADVANCED. Any portion of an army which is in front of the
li.-d to tho promotion of officers and soldiers.

ADVANCED COVERED WAY is a terra plein, on the ex-
f the advanced ditch, similar to the first cover.-.] way.

ADVANCED DITCH is ttton beyond tho glacis of tho

win/?, having its surface on the j-n-loii-jation of that slope, that an
enemy may find no shelter when in the ditch.

ADVANCED GUARD. A detachment of troops which precedes
the march of the main body.

ADVANCED LfM. ITKS are works resembling bastions of
ravelin*, having (aces and flanks. They are formed upon or 1
U glad*

ADVANCED WORKS are such as are constructed bc } ,,,,,] the
wsy and glacis, but within the range of the musketry of the

v \ NCES of public money may be authorized by the President
f the United States to persons in the military or naval service employed

1 otherwise; (Act Jan. 31, Is-.

ALL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 21

ADVISING TO DESERT. Punishable with death or otherwise,
as a court-martial may direct ; (Art. 23, Articles of War.)

AFFAIR. Any slight action or engagement. Affair of outpost ;
affair of rear-guard, &c.

AFFIDAVITS, being admissions upon oath, are evidence as such
against the parties who made them, (Rough.) In the trial of cases not
capital, the deposition of witnesses not of the staff or line of the army,
taken before a Justice of the Peace in presence of the prosecutor and
person accused, may be read in evidence ; (Art 10.)

AIDES-DE-CAMP are ex-offido assistants adjutant-general ; (Act
March 2, 1821.) They are confidential officers selected by gen-
eral officers to assist them in their military duties. A lieutenant-
general appoints not exceeding four in time of war, and two in peace,
with the rank of lieutenant-colonel ; a major-general two, and a briga-
dier-general one. Attached to the person of the general, they receive
orders only from him. Their functions are difficult and delicate. Often
enjoying the full confidence of the general, they are employed in repre-
senting him, in writing orders, in carrying them in person if necessary,
in communicating them verbally upon battle-fields and other fields of
manoeuvre. It is important that Aides-de-Camp should know well the
positions of troops, routes, posts, quarters of generals, composition of
columns, and orders of corps : facility in the use of the pen should be
joined with exactness of expression ; upon fields of battle they watch
the movements of the enemy ; not only grand manoeuvres but special
tactics should be familiar to them. It is necessary that their knowl-
edge should be sufficiently comprehensive to understand the object and
purpose of all orders, and also to judge in the varying circumstances
of a battle-field, whether it is not necessary to modify an order when
carried in person, or if there be time to return for new instructions.

AIM. (See FIRING; TARGET.)

ALARM-POST is the place appointed for every regiment or
detachment to assemble, in case of a sudden alarm.

ALARMS, FALSE. Any officer who shall occasion false alarms
in camp, garrison, or quarters, shall suffer death or other punishment
as a court-martial may direct ; (Art. 49.)

ALIBI. Elsewhere. An Alibi is the best of all defence if a man
is innocent ; but if it turns out to be untrue, it is conclusive against
those who resort to it; (Hough.}

ALLOWANCES. The receipts of an officer consist of pay and
allowances, sometimes called pay and emoluments. Allowances are
vegular and occasional ; they consist of money for servants, forage,

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AMU.

travelling expense* ; and of fuel and quarters, stationery,
straw for frfm**g, transportation of baggage, and forage in kind under
certain circumstance*. An allowance for servants and forage is only
given where the servants and horses allowed are actually kept in ser-
vice by the officer. Doable rations arc given to the comma:. d.-r < I the
, the commander of an army in the field, a geographical dh

military post and arsenal; and ten dollars per month
is allowed to the actual commander of a company. Armies have ah\ a \ s
been paid by moans of pay and allowances. It is the least e.\j>
mode of supporting an army, and it is at the same time the most just
method of graduating the pay according to circumstances. In the
United States army, however, the allowances made are not sunVi- nt,
nd not properly graduated. Several of the allowances given in Ku-
artnies, are withheld from our own ; and of those withheld, some
which press v . tlicers in campaign, when

all their energies are need. d for thu service of the country. Of the
allowances given in European armi.-s. but withheld from the United
arn.; lowing arc the most important : Allowance, as

money at the beginning of a campaign, marching all..-..
f.. r I..SM-S in tin- fn-ld, prize money, and barrack furniture
allowance, (Sr* INDEMNIFICATION.)

AMBU.AXCKS (Jri<rA) are Hying hospitals so orgui.
that they can follow an army in all its movements, and arc intended
to succor the wounded as soon as possible. Other sick an aU >
in Ambulance, but the Ambulances are emptied as soon as li\. d

V. ft. EBTICB.

pitals are at hand. In the Frmrh army, an Ambulance of infantry is
n.pneed of fire wagons containing case* of instruments for amput

AMM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 03

and trepanning, bandages for divers fractures, utensils of all kinds,
medicines, and 8,900 dressings. The Ambulance of cavalry is com-
posed of three wagons, containing the articles above enumerated, with
4,900 dressings. The Ambulances are distributed as follows : Each
division of infantry has one Ambulance of infantry, and each division
of cavalry an Ambulance of cavalry. The headquarters of an army
corps is allowed two Ambulances ; the grand park of artillery one Am-
bulance of cavalry ; the reserve of the arrny at general headquarters

FIG. 4.

AMBULANCE CART PROPOSED FOR THE U. 8. SERVICE.

six Ambulances; four of infantry, and two of cavalry. The number of
Ambulance carts and wagons recently ordered for the United States ser-
vice, in case of war, greatly exceeds the foregoing allowance, and would
be doubtless required in operations of small detachments, or wherever,
from any cause, it is impracticable to establish fixed hospitals, or leave
wounded to the care of inhabitants. (See SURGERY ; WAGON.)

AMBUSCADE. A body of men lying in wait to surprise an
enemy.

AMICUS CURIJE. Counsel, or^at least Amici Curise, (friends
of the court,) are allowed to prisoners in all cases, but no person is per-
mitted to address the court, or interfere in any manner with its pro-
ceedings, except the parties themselves. (HougHs Law Authorities.}

AMMUNITION is a term which comprehends gunpowder, and
all the various projectiles and pyrotechnical compositions and stores
used in the service.

Any commissioned officer convicted at a general court-martial
of having sold without a proper order, embezzled, misapplied
or, through neglect, suffered provisions, forage, army clothing, am-

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AilM.

military stores belonging to the United States to be
spoiled or damaged, shall at his own expense make good the loss or
damage, and shall forfeit his pay and be dismissed from the service ;
(Art, 36.) Any non-commissioned officer or soldier \s ho shall be con-
victed at a regimental court-iuwtial of having sold, or designedly, or
through neglect, wasted ammunition delivered to him, shall be pui
at the discretion of such court; (.!

The quantity of ammunition with troops is usually fixed at two
hundred rounds for eaeh piece of ordnance. These supplies are trans-
ported in caissons, and an army should be followed, in all cases, by a
second supply at least equal to the first. The ammunition which can-
not be carried in the caissons attached to pieces will he kept in boxes
In reserve.

Additional supplies of ordnance stores are placed in convenient
depots, according to circumstances.

Ammunition for Small Arm*. This supply consists of one hundred
rounds to each man: forty rounds in cartridge box, and sixty in re-
serve. Percussion caps should exceed by one-half tho number of ear-
tridges. Cuts 5 and G represent the bullets of new arms.

Fio. 5.

CLUCT roB ALTERED MUSKET.

W%bt of Ull, 7BO grain. ; weight of powder, 70 grain*.

To use tho new cartridge carrying the powder and elongated ball
to each other, tear th- fold and pour out tho powder; then

seise the ball md firmly l*'twmi th- thumb and forrfm^ r of tin- ri^'ht
hand, and strike the % : i lt Mow- across tho

muzzle of the piece ; this breaks the cartridge and exposes the 1
of the ball ; a slight pressure of the thumb and f .n i i the

ball into the bore clear of all cartridge paper. In striking th, cartridge,
the cylinder should be held square across, or at right anpl.-s to the
muzzle; otherwise, a blow given in an oblique dinc-i-.n would only
bend the cartridge without rupturing it.

AMM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.
FIG. 6.

BULLETS FOE NEW EIFLE-MU8KET AND PISTOL-CARBINE.

Weight of No. 1, 500 grains. Weight of No. 2, 450 grains.

Weight of powder, 60 grains. Weight of powder, 40 grains.

No. 1, section of musket bullet. No. 2, section of pistol-carbine ballet.

Both bullets have the same exterior.

Ammunition for a siege train of one hundred pieces, consisting of
the following :

C 24-pounder about one-third the whole number 32

Guns < 18-pounder, one-tenth the whole number.

( 12-pounder, " " "

Howitzers. 8-inch siege, one-eighth u "

10-inch siege, one-seventh " "

8-inch siege, one-fourteenth " "

Stone Mortars, one-seventh " "

Mortars

Coehorn Mortars (in addition to the 100 pieces) 6

Wall Pieces, Jor the attack of one front 40

The 18 and 24-pounders should be furnished with one thousand rounds
each, the 12-pounders with twelve hundred rounds, the 8-inch howitzers
and mortars with six hundred rounds. In addition to .the above, fifty
rounds of spherical-case shot should be furnished to each gun. Powder
magazines, containing from fifty to one hundred thousand pounds of
powder, must be accessible.

Cartridges for siege and garrison service are usually one-fourth the
weight of the shot ; but the charge varies according to circumstances
from one-third the weight of the shot (for a breaching battery) to one-
sixthiof that weight for firing double shot, or hot shot, and still less
for ricochet firing. The charges for mortars and howitzers vary ac-
cording to the required range. For columbiads and sea-coast howitzers,
the cartridge should always occupy the whole length of the chamber ;
for this purpose, in firing with reduced charges a cartridge block is placed
in the bag over the powder. For mortars, cartridge bags may be made
in the same manner as for guns, but the charge is usually poured loose
into the chamber. Charges vary for mortar shells from 11 Ibs. to 4

MI LIT ART DICTIONARY. [AMV.

ox. according to the iie of the mortar, and whether the intention be to
fill the shell, to burst it, or simply to blow out the fuse. For Lot
Ao/, cartridge bags are made double by putting one bag five fn >m holes
within another, (for full detail* concerning ammunition, including its
preparation, <te., consult ORDHAMCE MANUAL, 1850; consult also Ex-
periments with small amis by Ordnance Officers, 1856. See ARMS ;
Camara; CARTRIDGE; FRICTION TUBES; FUZE; GRAPE SHOT; GUN
POWDER; ORDNANCE AND ORDNANCE STORES; RIFLED ORDNANCE;
SABOT ; SHELLS ; SOLID SHOT ; SPHERICAL-CASE.)

AMNESTY. An act of oblivion, or forgiveness of past offences.

ANGLE OF DEFENCE is that formed by the meeting of the
flank and lino of defence, or the face of the bastion produced.

ANGLE OF THE POLYGON is that formed by the meeting
of two of the sides of the polygon; it is likewise called the polygon

JEffe

APOLOGY when made and accepted, debars the officer who
accepts from bringing forward the matter as a substantive, accusation,
M.)

APPEAL. Any officer or soldier who may think himself wronged
by his colonel or the commanding officer of his regiment, and after
duo application to him, is refused redress, may appeal to the next higher
commander, who is to examine into said complaint, and take proper
measures for redressing the wrong complained f, an<l transmit, as soon
as possible, to the Department of War, a true statement of such com-
plaint, with the proceedings had thereon; (Art 34.) If any inferior
officer or soldier shall think himself wronged 1>\ his captain, or othrr
officer, he is to complain thereof t<> the commanding oflirrr of the regi-
ment, who is Inquired to summon a n^imental court-mart ial for doing
justice to the complainant; from which regimental court-martial, eilher
party may. if he thinks hims. If still n^u'ricved, appeal to a pem-ral
martini. Hut if, upon a second hearing, the appeal shall appear
us and groundless, th,- person so appealing shall !><> punished
At the discretion of tho said court-martial ; ( I/ /. :;:>.) (See REMKDY.)

The wrongs here alluded to, have reiVnn., chiefly to matters of
accounts betweeO the captain, or commander of the company, and the
Oldier, Hating to clothing and other supplies, as well us to p:n
the regimental court, in examining into such transactions, may 1
fdereA more as a court of inquiry than a court-martial; or, it may
be r.ewed as an arbitration board, called on to adjust and settle
diff/rencc* arising in tho settlements of accounts bet \\een the captain
af4 his men. One reason why a power of appeal is declared to be a

APP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 27

matter of absolute right to inferior officers, or soldiers, complaining of
being wronged by their officers, doubtless is, that a regimental or gar-
rison court-martial has not the power of inflicting any punishment on
commissioned officers. It can do no more than express its opinion
that the complaint is just, or the contrary, and where it is practicable and
proper, relieve the sufferer as to any existing grievance ; but, the injury
complained of, however flagrant, must still have remained unredressed,
as far as punishment is concerned, if an appeal to a general court-mar-
tial had not been declared to be a matter of right to the party aggrieved.

APPOINTING- POWER, &c. It has been contended by advo-
cates of executive discretion, that army appointments are embraced in
the power granted to the President in the 2d section* of the Constitu-
tion, to nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, appoint " all other officers of the United States, whose appoint-
ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which may be estab-
lished by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment
of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in
the courts of law, or in the heads of departments." If due regard, how-
ever, be paid to the words, " whose appointments are not herein other-
wise provided for" the pretension set up in favor of Executive power,
will receive no support from the terms of the Constitution. The powers
granted to Congress to raise and support armies, and to make all rules
for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces, are
necessarily so comprehensive in character, as to embrace all means
which Congress, according to circumstances, may deem proper and
necessary in order to raise armies, or to govern them when raised.
Rules of appointment to office, rules of promotion another form of
appointment and all rules whatever in relation to the land and naval
forces, save the appointment of the commander-in-chief of those united
forces, who is designated by the Constitution, are hence within the com-
petency of Congress.

It is true that this great power vested in Congress has been exer-
cised by them, in most cases, by giving to the President a large dis-
cretion in appointments and other matters connected with the army.
But the principle itself that supreme command is vested in Congress
has been often asserted in our military legislation. Contemporaneously
with the foundation of the government laws have been passed, giving to
general and other officers the right of appointment to certain offices ; in
other cases, the President has been confined in his selection to classes
designated by law ; again, rules have been made by Congress for the
promotion of officers, and in 1846 an army of volunteers was raised

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Arr.

by Congress, the officers of which Congress directed should be ap-
pointed, according to the laws of the States in \vhu -h the
raised, eioepting the general officers, who were to be appointed by the
President ind flrnsUi a clear recognition that the troops thus n'.-ed
were United States troops, and not militia. (See CONGRESS; PRO-

MOT!' NTKERS.)

A1T<>1.\T M 1 : \ T is Office, Rank, Employment, Equipment.
APPRO AGUES are the first, second, and third parallels,
trenches, saps, mines, ccc., by which the besiegers approach a fortified

APPROPRIATIONS for the support o/ armies, are limited by
the Constitution to a term not to exceed two years. The President is
authorized to transfer appropriations for subsistence, forage, the in
and quartermaster's department, from one 'branch of military oxpend-
iture to any other of the above-mentioned branches; (Act May 1,
1820.) (Sw TRANSFERS.)

APRON. A piece of sheet lead used to cover tin- \vnt

APPUI, POINT D'. A term applied to any pven point upon
which a line of troops is formed.

ARDENT SPIRITS. The introduction of ardent spirits into
Indian Territory, under any pretem-e, prohil.ited ; (Act July 9, 1832.)
The President of the United States may take such measures as he may
deem expedient to prevent or restrain tin- vending or distributing of
spirituous liquors among Indians. Goods of traders introducing it
forfeited ; (Act* March 30, 1802, and May 6, 1832.)

ARM. Infantry, artillery, ami cavalry, arc arms of the ser\ let,

ARMISTICE, Armistifiittn, i. e. sistcre ab armis. A temporary
or suspension of hostili:

ARMORER. The person who makes, cleans, or repairs arm,.

ARMORY. A manufactory or place of dcp irma, (See

IAL; OR DK A NCB DEPARTMENT.)

ARMS, SMALL. Casting awny arms and ammunition punishal.lo
with death or otherwise according to the sentence of a general n.urt-
martial ; (Art. 62.) Officers, ; Missioned oiVir.-rs. and soldiers

should be instructed and practised in the nomenelature of the arms, ih,.
manner of dismounting and mounting the,,,, and the precautions and
care required for their prmorvation. Each soldier should have a screw-
driver and a wiper, and each squad of ten a wire and a tuml.hr pun. h,
and a spring vice. No other implements should be used in taking
arms apart or in setting them up. In the inspect

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

should attend to the qualities essential to service, rather than a bright
polish on the exterior of the arms. The arms should be inspected in
the quarters at least once a month, with the barrel and lock separated
from the stock.

PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, ETC., OP SMALL ARMS.

Dimensions.

Rifle muskets.

Rifles.

Pistol
carbine.

1822.

1840.

1855.

1841.

1855.

f Diameter of bore

Inches.
.69
.015

.82
1.25
42.
16.
41.96
57.64
73.64

Inches.
.69
.015
8.85
1.25
42.
18.
41.70
57.80
75.80

Inches.

.58
.0025
.78
1.14
40.
18.
39.60
55.85
73.85

Inches.
.58
.0025
.90
1.15
33.
21.7
33.
48.8
71.3

Inches.
.58
.0025
.90
1.14
33.
21.7
33.
49.3
71.8

Inches.

.58
.0025
.82
1.
12.

Variation allowed, more

Diam'r at breech between flats.
[ Length without breech screw.

12.
17.6

Arm } -yyj t b a y 0n et fixed. . .

complete. ^ With but V p i ece

28.2
3
4.
.30

.005
.008

Lbs.

1.4
.6

3
6.
.36

.005
.015

Lbs.

4.
*95
.73

3
6.

.36
.005
.015

Lbs.

4.19
.95
64

3
6.
.30
.005
.015

Lbs.
4.28

.81
72

3
6.
.30
.005
.013

Lbs.

4.8
.55
3 05

3
6.
.30
.005
.013

Lbs.

4.8
.81
3.05

Twist .

Width

WEIGHTS.

Barrel without breech screw

Lock with side screws

( Without bayonet

9.06

9.82

9.51
10.15

9.18
9.90

9.68
12.72

9.93
12.98

3.56

Arm Kyith bayonet ...

complete. ] With bu } t . piece ,

5.09

HEIGHTS OF HAUSSE, ETC.

Table of approximate heights for rear sights of new arms, measured from the line of
metal of the barrel. Pieces fired from the shoulder and rest.

New Rifle musket.

Rifle musket (altered).

Distance.

Weight of ball, 500 grains.
Weight of powder, 60 grains.

"Weight of ball, 730 grains.
Weight of powder, 70 grains.

Yards.

Inches.

100

.40

.42

The top of the front

200
300
400

.54

.70
88

.62

.82
1 08

sight is seen "fine"
through the notch

500

1.10

1.34

of the rear sight.

600

1.35

1.65

700

1.63

1.96

800

1.94

2.28

900

2.28

2.61

1000

2.63

2.94

* Mayuard primer.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Ai

PKNBTRA 1

TUfc of sia*'S*Mi w toff* M^ ^ *anud vliU

**fUe*<m* oMdakatf i*A* apart.

o*4

thi,-l,

Arm.

V...

P.--, -,>:> ,.

literal rifle...

AlswediMi

\\, .-. ,r

U1L

GnUM.
ftK)
730
600
460

600
780
600
460

780
600
600

Onlu.
60
70
60
40

60
70
60
40

70
60
60

Diameter Planks
of bullet, penetrated.

Inch. Number.

.6778

.686

.6776

.6776
.685
.6776
.6776

.686
.6776 "
.6776

DfcftBStft.

TartU.

200
200

500
100
6QO

1000
1000
1000

At 1,000 yards, a bullet from the new ri do- musket passed completely
through the frame of the target, which was made of solid white pine,
three inches thick.

The elongated musket bullets do not cease to ricochet on level gn >nnd,
at the distance of 1,000 yards. A strong wind M.\\ inn perpendicularly
to the direction of the rifle-musket bullet, will deflect it from its course
12 feet in 1,000 yards, about 3 feet in 500 yards, and about foot in
800 yards. The effect of wind on the pistol-carbine bullets is somewhat
greater, for the same distance. \V hen t wo oblong bullets are fired from
the new rifle-musket, or altered rifle, with the ordinary service charge
of CO grains, they separate from eaeh other and from the plane of fire
bout 4 f.-ot in a distance of 200 yards. If the piece be held firmly
against the shoulder, no serious ineonvnii.-n.-e will l.e frit in firing this
increased charge ; the only precaution necessary to be observed in Aim-
ing, Is to give the barrel greater rl,-vati.. n than for the sin pi. bullet, in
the pr f feet f,, r 200 yards. In cases of emergency, firing

with two bullets might be effectively empl-.y. d against masses of in-
frntry and cavalry, if the distance does not exceed Koo \ ar Is. Mu//U-
loadiog small arms can be discharged two or three times in a minute,
and breech.lom/ling arms about ten times. Rapidity of Kidm- and
discharging firtsarms is however of doubtful advantage in actual
as soldiers are apt to discharge their pieces without proper aim, and

ARM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY,

of %

MODEL OF 1855.

Fig. 7. Barrel, one-seventh size, a, breech ; b, cone-seat ;
c, rear-sight ; d, front-sight and bayonet stud ; e,
muzzle.

Fio. 8.

Fig. 8. Breech-screw, full size, a, plug with threads ;
tenon ; c, tang ; d, tang-screw hole ; e, face.

FIG. 9.

FIG. 9'.

Fig. 9. Cone, full size, a, nipple ; 5, square ; c, shoulder ;

d, screw-thread ; e, vent.
Fig. 9'. Cone-seat screw, full size, a, stem ; 6, head ; c, slit ;

d, thread.

FIG. 10.

Fig. 10. Tang-screw, full size,
fy. 11. Ramrod, one-seventh size, a, stem; 6, swell; c, head; c?, cup; , screw.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AR*

FM.U

JV !* totr+yK Ml . ide
Tiev, complete. 1, 2, 3, 4, grad-
ual ion-mark* on the bae, a.

. 18. Section through
a, 0^ full size.

FIO. 14.

. Section through
6, 6, full size.

FIO. IS.

15. J>a/, full siae. a, frame ; 6, slot ; d, tongue ; e, joint-pin hole ; /, Fight-
notch ; 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, graduation-marks.

FIO. 11

FIO. 17.

/If ! X/priV, full nitc. a, blade ; A, screw-hole ; , thickness.

full nize. a, bead ; 6, stem ; c, c, holes for screw-,], iv, r.

FIO. 10.
a

06
06

/^. It.

M . a, Uek^Uot ; 6, 6, grooTes; e, e, riret-holcs ; rf, d, han-
dle*; , aifhUxHch; /./, riTcta.
/If. It. flNAyrfcy. foil rite. , rigbt-ootch ; 6, 6, riret-holes; c, thicknen.

ARM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Fio. 21.

Fig. 21. Front-sight and bayonet-stud, full size, a, sight ; 6, stud.
Figs. 22, 23. Bayonet-clasp, full size, a, body ; b, b, stud ; c, bridge;

d, groove ; e, e, stops ; /, scre^v.
Fig. 24. Bayonet, quarter size, a, blade ; 6, neck ; c, socket ; c?,

bridge ; e, stud mortise ; /, clasp.

FIG. 25.

Fig. 25. Zoefc, outside view, half size, a, hammer; 6, lock-plate;"
c, magazine-cover ; d, tumbler-screw ; e, joint-pin ; /, side-

screw hole.

FIG. 26.

H4-

Fig. 26. Zocfc, inside
view, half size, show-
ing the parts with the
hammer at half cock.
a, hammer; b, tum-
bler; c, bridle ; d, bri-
dle-screw; e, sear, ;/,
sear-screw ; g, sear-
spring ; h, sear-spring
screw ; i, mainspring;
j, swivel; Tc, cover-
catch.

MILITARY DICTIONARY,
IfeK,

[ARM.

* Lf*'p***'* fc*tf *iw. showing the position of the holes, &c. o, cone-seat
notch; A, bolster; <, mainspring notch; <f, hole for mainspring pivot; e, hole
for arbor of tumbler ; /, hole for cover-catch ; g, hole for cover hinge stud ;
A, A, idecrtw bo1e; i, hole for bridle-*crew ; j t hole for sear-screw; A,
bole for t*arprfag ; /, hole for catch-spring screw ; n>, sear-spring stud-mortise ;
, fct44bger *Iot ; o, bridle pivot hole ; />, feed-finger-spring-scrcw hole.

r,,,. so.

/Tp. 18. IRyaMfM-eowr, full size, a, body; 6, 6, jaws; r, <r, holes for joint-pin.
/V- * CVt*r-Ain^ fW, full size, two views, a, head; 6, joint-pin hole; <
/V> ^ &wr-feA and ervw, full size, two views, a, head ; 6, notch ; r, r, foot ;
4 screw-bole ; , catch-screw.

. SI. Zodt-wmw, full die, and ide-rrt*>, half site, a, &, sidc-crewi ; c, sear-
crew ; J, brid!c-*crcw f ear-tpring screw ; /, tumbler-screw.

In all th< *<**, the part* are the stem, the head, the slit, the thread.

TJa

Fig. 32. Mainspring-swivel, full size, a, a, body ; 6, axis ; c, tumbler-pin hole ; d,

finger-pivot hole.
Fig, 33. Feed-finger, full size, two views, a, a, eye-pivot ; b, crook ; c, c, finger.

FIG. 34.

*f^rt < ' -ii

Fig. 34. Feed-finger spring, full size, a, eye ; 6, long branch ; c, short branch ;

d, screw.

FIG. 85.

FIG. 86.

la--

Fig. 35. Hammer, half size, a, body ; 6, head ; c, comb ; d, countersink, slit, and

knife-edge ; e, tumbler-hole.
Fig. 36. Tumbler, half size, two views, a, body ; b, arbor ; c, squares ; <?, pivot ; e,

swivel-arm and pin-hole ; f, tumbler-screw hole.

FIG. ST.

FIG. 88.

Fig. 37. Bridle, half size, two views, a, body ; b, eye for tumbler-pivot ; c, pivot ;

d, hole for bridle-screw ; e, hole for sear-screw.

Fig. 38. $ear, half size, two views, a, body ; b, nose ; c, arm ; d, screw-hole ;

e, screw.

FIG. 89.

Fig. 39. Sear-spring, half size, two views, a, blade ; b, upper branch : c, lower
branch; d, stud; e, screw-hole.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AJUI.

Pfy. 40. J/ai*tpri*g t half sUe, two views, a, upper branch ; 6,
lower branch ; c, hook ; d, pivot; *, Ung.

Rg. 41. Stock, one-ninth size, a, butt ; 6, handle ; c, head ; d,
bod for lock ; , shoulder for lower band ; /, bed for band-
pring 5 y, shoulder for middle band ; A, bed for band-spring ;
t, shoulder for upper band ; ;, bed for band-spring ; *, shoul-
der and tenon for tip.

Fio. 42.

f\g. 42. Butt-plat* and creiM, quarter size, three views, a, body;
6, toe ; c, heel ; d, d, screw-holes ; , , screws.

Kir.. 4."..

fig. 48. 71/>, full ni/.o, two views, a, recess for stock ; 6, groove
for ramrod ; r, rivet-hole ; d, rh

quarter size, a, body ; 6, 6, bolsters ; c,' c, trigger-stud and
; rf, < holes for guard-bow ; , , for wood screws ; /, for trigger-screw ;

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY.

FIG. 46.

Fio. 48.

FIG. 48. Fig. 45. Guard-bow, quarter size, two views, a, body ; b t b,
> ^^ stems ; c, c, nuts ; d, d, swivel ; e, rivet.

Vj Fig. 46. Trigger, half size, a, blade ; b, finger-piece ; c, hole

H for screw ; d, screw, full size.

3 Fig. 48. Guard-screws, half size.

FIG. 49.

FIG. 50.

FIG. 51.

Fig. 49. Upper band, half size.
Fig. 60. Middle band, half size.

Fig. 61. Lower band, half size, a, body; 6, b, creases; U denotes the upper edge
c, swivel-stud (on middle band only) ; d, swivel.

Fm. 52.

FIG. 53.

FIG. 54.

Figs. 52, 63, 54. Upper, middle, and lower band-springs, half size, a, stem ; b, wire ;
c, shoulder ; e, tang.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

FW.M.

[ARM.

Fio. 67.

r, full size, a, countersink ; 6, hole for screw.

IFi/wr, roll dz. a, body; 6, o, prongs ; c, screw-hole for rod.
/*a//-rr*, full sue. a, body ; 6, Ung ; c, screw-hole for rod ; d, screw to
draw the ball

l^. 58. /8crtMWwr, half
size, two views, a, cone-
wrench ; 6, 6, 6, blades ;
r, rivet ; d, d, collets for*
rivet.

ta M

Fio. 60.

. 59. Spring-vice, half size, two vio*.

o, bolster ; 6, slide ; c, .-lido-mortise ; <^

slide screw ; , thumb-screw.
Fig. 60. Upper side of hlii<>.

61. Tampion, half size, a, head; 6,

body ; c, rivet ; d, leather washer ; e t

slot. '
F\g. 62. COM, (spare,) we fig. 9.

Fio. 62.

ARM.]

Fio. 63.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

3J)

Wiper. Ball-screw. Screw-driver. Spring-vice.

Tompion.

Spare cone.

Tumbler and "Wire Punch.

MATEEIALS OF WHICH THE PAETS ARE MADE.

Steel

Tumbler; Lock-swivel, Feed-finger; Finger-
spring ; Cover-catch ; Sear ; Sear-spring ; Main-*
spring ; Band-springs ; Ramrod ; Rear-sight
(except the screw) ; Screw-driver ; Wiper ;
Ball-screw ; Cone ; Tumbler, and Wire Punch.

Brass.
Tip for Stock ; head of Tompion.

Wood.
Stock ; Tompion.

Iron.

Socket of the Bayonet, and all other parts
not enumerated.

40 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [A*M.

RCLM ro DttMOCimxo TH Rirn MUSKIT, MODEL OF 1855. 1st.
Unfit the bayonet (34). 2d. Put the tompion (60) into the muzzle of
the barrel 8<L Draw the ramrod (11). 4th. Turn out the tang.
craw (10). 5th. Take off the lock ('Jo) : to do this, first put tho
hammer at half-cock, then unscrew partially the side-screws (31, a, b),
and, with a alight Up on the head of each screw with a wooden instru-
ment, loosen the lock from ita bed in the stock ; then turn out the side-
screws, and remove the lock with the left hand. 6th. Remove the side-
tcrews (31, a, 6), taking care uoC to disturb the washers (55). 7th.
Take off the upper band (40). 6th. Take off the middle band (50).
9th. Take off the lower band (51). (Note. The letter U, on bands,
idicate the upper side in assembling.) 10th. Take out the barrel
(?) : in doing this, turn the musket horizontally, with tho barrel d< >\vn-
ward, holding the barrel loosely with the left hand below the rear sight
he right hand grasping the stock by the handle ; and if it docs
not leave the stock, tap the tompion in the muzzle gently against the.
ground or Boor, which will loosen the breech end from tho stock. This
U preferable to lifting the barrel out by tho muzzle, because if the tang
of. the breech-screw (8) should bind in the wood, tho head of the stock
(41 f) would be liable to be split by raising the muzzle first.

The foregoing parts of the rifle musket are all that should usually
be taken off or dismounted. The soldier should never dismount the
band-tprinyt, guard, tide-screw washers, butt-plate, rear-sight, cone, and
cofM*M/ screv, except when on officer considers it necessary. The
breech screw should be taken out only by an armorer, and never in
ordinary cleaning. The lock should not be taken apart, nor the bay-
onsfrdasp taken off, except \vli.-n absolutely necessary in tho opinion
of an officer. If proper and regular care be taken of the arm, this will
U wry ttldom **Mary. Tho musket being thus taken to pieces. the.
soldier, under ordinary circumstances, will

To clean the barrel 1st. Stop tho hole in tho cone (9, c) with a
peg of soft wood ; pour a gill of water (warm, if it can be had) into
the muixlo ; let it stand a short time, to soften the deposit of tho pow-
der ; put a plug of soft wood into tho muzzle, and shake tho wat< -r up
and down the barrel I ir thi* out and repeat the washing until

the wat*r runs dear; take out tho peg from tho e,.ne, an.l stand
the barrel, nnuxlo downwards, to drain, for a few moments. 2d.
Screw the wiper (56, c) on to the end of tho ramrod (11, e) an.l put a
piece of dry elotk, or to, round it, sufficient to prevent it from chafing
the grooves of the barrel ; wipe the barrel quite dry, changing '" 'Irv-
ing the doth two or three times, 3d. Put no oil into the vent (0, c\

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 41

as it will clog the passage, and cause the first primer to miss fire ; but,
with a slightly oiled rag on the wiper, rub the bore of the barrel, and
the face of the breech-screw (8, e), and immediately insert the tompion
(61) into the muzzle. 4th. To clean the exterior of the barrel, lay it
flat on a bench, or board, to avoid bending it. The practice of sup-
porting the barrel at each end and rubbing it with a strap or buff-stick,
or with the ramrod, or any other instrument, to burnish it, is perni-
cious, and should be strictly forbidden. 5th. After firing, the barrel
should always be washed as soon as practicable; when the water comes
off clear, wipe the barrel dry, and pass into it a rag moistened with oil.
Fine flour of emery-cloth is the best article to clean the exterior of the
barrel .

To clean the lock. Wjpe every part with a moist rag, and then a
dry one ; if any part of the interior shows rust, put a drop of oil on
the point or end of a piece of soft wood dipped into flour of emery ;
rub out the rust clean and wipe the surface dry ; then rub every part
with a slightly oiled rag.

To $lean the mountings. For the mountings, and all iron and
steel parts, use fine flour of emery moistened with oil, or flour of
emery-cloth. For brass, use rotten-stone moistened with vinegar, or
water, and avoid oil or grease. Use a hard brush, or a piece of soft
pine, cedar, or crocus-cloth. Remove dirt from the screw-holes by
screwing a piece of soft wood into them. Wipe clean with a linen
rag, and leave the parts slightly oiled. In cleaning the arms, the
aim should be to preserve the qualities essential to service, rather than
to obtain a bright polish. Burnishing the barrel (or other parts)
should bo strictly avoided, as it tends to crook the barrel, and also to
destroy the uniformity of the exterior finish of the arm.

It is not essential for the musket to be dismounted every time that
it is cleaned ; for, after firing in fine weather, or when dampness could
not get between the barrel and the stock, it can be perfectly cleaned
as follows: Put a piece of rag or soft leather on the top of the cone,
and let the hammer down upon it ; pour a gill of water into the muzzle
carefully, so that it cannot run down the outside ; put a plug of wood
into the muzzle, and shake the gun up and down, changing the water
repeatedly until it runs clear. Then withdraw the leather, and
stand the musket on the muzzle a few moments ; then wipe out the
barrel (as told in the second rule for cleaning), and also wipe the ex-
terior of the lock and the outside of the barrel around the cone and
cone-seat, first with a damp rag, and then with a dry one, and lastly
with a rag that has been slightly oiled. In this way, all dirt from

,-.. MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ann.

firing may be removed without taking out a screw. If, ho

the hammer works stiffly, or grates upon the tumbler, the lock must

immediately be taken off, and the parts cleaned and touched \\ ith oil.

To r+4uembU At muticet. The parts of the musket are put to-
gether in the inverse order of taking them apart, viz. : 1st. The barrel.
Drop the barrel into its place in the stock, and squeeze it d..\\n with
the hand ; give the butt of the stock a gentle tap against tin- floor to
settle the breech end of the barrel against the head of the st... .. , 1 1 . , ).
2d. Put on the lower band with the letter U upward, being careful not
to mar the stock, or barrel, in sliding it into its place ; apply the thumb
to the band-spring to see that it plays freely. 3d. Put on tin- midd :
4th. The upper band, in the same manner. 5th. The lock. Half-cock
the hammer ; take the lock in the right hand, with the main spring and
sear toward you, holding the stock with the left hand l.v the swell,
with the butt between the knees. Enter the lock fairly into the lock-
bed, taking care to keep the arm of the sear clear of th press
the plate well down into the wood, and then turn the musk.
holding the lock and stock together \\ith tin- let! hand. (ith. With the
right hand, turn in the side-screws, after having touched their screw-
threads with oil. Observe that the point of the rear-screw is ft. and
should not project beyond the plate, to interfere with the hammer.
Th. fp.nt sen w has a round point. 7th. Turn in the tang--
having oiled the screw-thread. Bo careful to sec that each of th.-so
screws are turned firmly home, but not forced. Observe that the lock
plays f iiout friction, ami that no limb is bound by the wood.
Mh. Keturn the ramrod. 9th. Helix the bayonet, after having oiltM
the clasp and socket to prevent chafing. 10th. Replace the tompion.
Oil the flock well with sj.erm or linseed oil; let it stand a lew hours,
and thm rub it with a woollen rag until the wood is perfect I \ flrj . LY-
peat this fr . time, and it will produce a polish which moisture
will not affect Linseed oil is the best for this purpose, and it should
be used while the arm is dUmmm 1

Jin If $ for the mare complete dismount hi ^ nf tic r(t1c-nmskrt.
cbantd by an armorer. 1st. The parts \\hi.-h should l>e dismounted
by an --d ftrinomr will bo given in their regular Order 1-1-

lowin- 1 Th. Unscrew the cone, keeping the wreneh well

down on the square of the cone, to prevent the corners from being
injured. I out the cone-neat screw (<>'). l.'lih. Take out

the upper, middle, and lower bandnprings (52, 53, 54), using a wiro
punch rife 11 | (48). 2$ole.

The guard, butt-plate, and side-screw heads have concave slits, for

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 43

which the screw-driver is adapted : this lessens the danger of the
stock being marred by accident or carelessness in letting the screw-
driver slip out, while in the act of turning the screw : great care
should be used U> prevent such injuries. 15th. Take out the guard,
and be careful not to injure the wood at each end of the guard-
plate (44). 16th. Take out the side-screw washers (55) with a drift-
punch. 17th. Take out the butt-plate screws (42) with the largest
blade of the screw-driver, and remove the butt-plate (42). 18th. Re-
move the rear sight (12), by turning out the leaf-spring screw (17),
which will release the sight from the barrel. 19th. Turn out the
breech-screw (7), by means of a " breech-screw wrench " suited to the
tenon (b) of the breech- screw (8). No other wrench should ever be
used for this purpose, and the barrel should be held in clamps fitting
neatly the breech (7, a).

In re-assembling the parts, the armorer is to observe the inverse
order of taking them apart, viz. : 1st. Breech-screw to be screwed into
the barrel after being oiled ; 2d. Rear-sight to be affixed ; 3d. Butt-
platfe and screws ; 4th. Side-screw washers ; 5th. Guard ; 6th. Guard-
screws ; 7th. Lower, middle, and upper-band springs ; 8th. Cone-seat
screw ; 9th. Cone. The remaining parts follow as given for the sol-
dier, commencing with the barrel (see page 42).

Order in which the Lock is taken apart. 1st. Cock the piece, and
put the spring-vice (59) on the mainspring ; give the thumb-screw a
turn sufficient to liberate the spring from the swivel (32) and main-
spring notch (27, c). Remove the spring ; 2d. The sear-spring screw :
Before turning this screw entirely out, strike the elbow of the spring
with the screw-driver, so as to disengage the pivot from its mortise :
then remove the screw and spring ; 3d. The sear-screw and sear ; 4th.
The bridle-screw and bridle ; 5th. The tumbler-screw ; 6th. The tum-
bler. This is driven out with a punch inserted in the screw-hole, which
at the same time liberates the hammer. 7th. Detach the mainspring
swivel from the tumbler with a drift punch. 8th. Take out the feed-
finger and spring. The magazine-cover should never be taken off except
when absolutely necessary ; 9th. The catch-spring and screw. The lock
is re-assembled in the inverse order of taking apart, viz. : 1st. The
catch-spring ; 2d. The feed-finger and spring ; 3d. Mainspring swivel ;
4th. Tumbler and hammer ; 5th. Tumbler-screw ; 6th. Bridle and screw ;
7th. Sear and screw ; 8th. Sear-spring and screw ; 9th. Mainspring.

Before replacing the screws, oil them slightly with good sperm-oil,
putting a drop on the point of the screw ; also on the arbor and pivot
of the tumbler ; between the movable branches of the springs, and the

44 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [AWL

lock-piste ; on the hook and notches of the tumbler. After the lock
i- put together, avoid turning the screws in so hard as to make the
limbs bind: to insure this, try tin* motion of i-aoh limb In-fore and
after its spring is mounted, and see that it moves without friction.
When a lock has, from any cause, become gummed with oil and dirt,
it may be cleaned by being boiled in soapsuds, or in pearl ash or soda
water, to loosen the thick oil ; but heat should never be applied t< any
part of it in any other way. As rust and dirt are produced by explod-
ing caps or primers, although no charge bo fired, the parts of the bar-
rel and cone exposed should be carefully wiped and oiled after sucji exer-
cise. Besides the precautions in dismounting, remounting, and clean-
ing, which have been pointed out in the foregoing pages, habitual care
in handling arms is necessary to keep them in good and srrv'uval.lc
condition. In ordering arms on parade, let the butt bo brought gently
to the ground, especially on pavements or hard roads. This will save
the mechanism of the lock from shocks, highly injurious to it, from
the loosening of screws and splitting the wood-work.

Rifled arms should not have the ramrod sprung in the bore "with
unnecessary force. It batters the head of the rod and wears injuriously
the grooves. The soldier should let the rod slide down gently, sup-
ported by the thumb and finger ; and the inspecting officer can satisfy
himself of the condition of the bottom of the bore by gently tapping
with the rod. The face of the breech can be polished, aft r wash!
means of a cork fixed on the wiper or ball-screw ; the polished surface
can be seen if the muzzle is turned to the light.

In slacking arm*, care should be taken not to injure the bayonets

. il.ly straining the edges against each other. The stack can le

as well secured without such force being used. No cutting, marking,

or scraping, in any way, the wood or iron should be allowed ; ami no

part of the gun should be touched with a file. Take every pnssill.

care to prevent water from getting in bot\\r, n tho lock, or barrel, ami

stock. If any should get there, dismount the gun as soon as jn.^il.l,-,

.m.l nil tho parts as directed, and see that they are perfectly dry

before re-assembling them.

To plan ad ><-rt in th magazine. Lot down the ham-

mer; Open the map.i Bulling back tin; head of tin- rovr-catch

with the thumb-nail of tho left hand, while the thumb-nail of tho right
hand is pushed under the cover at the bottom. Remove th. oorermg
paper from th- rimers; separate any parts that may haj-jM-M

:.-th.r; nnwii bj j.la--e th- coil in the ma-a-

xine, and the free end of it in tin- groove, fiat-side to wan Is the cone,

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 45

and one primer beyond the end of the feed-finger ; close the magazine.
Should an exploded primer fail to ignite the charge, there must be
moisture, or some obstruction, in the vent ; or the gun may be im-
properly loaded. After a night in a damp place, a drop of moisture
sometimes collects in the vent, and, unless removed, prevents the first
primer, or cap, from igniting the charge. If, by accident, a coil of
primers becomes softened by dampness, it can be made good again by
a short exposure to a dry warm atmosphere. Should the cocking of
the hammer fail to feed out properly the primer, open the magazine
and notice, while working the hammer, the cause of the difficulty. It
can generally be readily corrected.

RIFLE-MUSKET (1842). This arm differs from the original model
in the following particulars : 1st. The bore is grooved. 2d. It has a
rear sight similar to that for the new musket, and a front sight of iron
attached to the upper strap of the upper band. To prevent the band
from moving sideways, a short stud is attached to the under side of the
strap, which fits into a groove in the barrel. 3d. The head of the ram-
rod is reamed out to fit the pointed end of the ball. 4th. The lock is
altered to the Maynard principle, differing from the one described for
the new rifle-musket of 1855, by its size, the absence of the swivel, and
the facts, that the mainspring is fastened by a screw, and the finger
spring by a pin. 5th. To adapt the cone seat to this modified lock, a
portion of the breech of the barrel is cut off, and a new breech piece
with cone seat attached, is screwed on in its place. Breech piece : body,
shoulder, screw thread, chamber (conical), tang, tenon, tang screw hole,
chamfer, notch for side screw, cone seat, vent, vent screw, vent screw
thread, cone thread.

RIFLE-MUSKET (1822). The bayonet of this arm has no clasp, or
ramrod spring ; in all other respects the nomenclature is the same as
that of the rifle-musket (1842).

PERCUSSION-RIFLE (1841). The bore of this arm is reamed up and
re-rifled ; it also has a rear sight similar to the rifle-musket of 1855,
and a stud and guide attached for a sword bayonet.

RIFLE (1855). The exterior size of the barrel is nearly the same
as that of the model of 1841. The barrel has a stud and guide for at-
taching a sword bayonet. The breech and cone seat are finished like
the same parts of the new rifle-musket. Lock : Identical with that of
the new rifle-musket. Hear sight : Similar to that of the new rifle-
musket. Mountings : Similar to those of the new rifle-musket, ,with
the addition of a catch box, smaller than the one on the rifle of 1841.
Ramrod: Similar to the new rifle-musket. Sword bayonet: Blade

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ Ai v

r, back, edge, bcrel, point, curvature, groove, tang rh
rivet hole, rivet, llilt : Gripe ridges, back, beak, slot for stiul. sU
for guide, hole for 6nger pie* -r spring screw, hole for riv, t

(tang), mortice for tang : Finger piece head, notch. Finger piece
spring blade, screw hole, boss: (fuanl long and short branch,
knobs, muzzle socket Scabbard: Black leather, with brass band
and tip.

Material*. Steel. Tumbler, lock swivel, feeding finger, cover a
sear, all the springs, ramrod, blade of sword bayou, t. : v, rear

tight, except screw, cone, screw driver, bull screw an.l wiper. Brags.
--Sword bayonet handle, front sight, and all the mountings. Wood.
Stock (black walnut), /row. All tin- remaining parts.

PISTOL-CARBINE (1855). Barrel: Muzzle, front sight, breech, breech
pin threads, flats, bevels and oval, cone seat, vent, vent screw, bore,
grooves, lands. This barn 1 tapers with a straight line from breeeh to
muzzle. The portion of the flat in rear of the cone seat is parallel to
the axis of the bore. Breech screw: Plug, with threads (16 to the
inch), tenon, shoulders, tang, tang screw hole, bevel sight mortice.
Cone: Same as for musket. Rear sight: Base, ears, joint
screw hole, 1st, 2d, and 3d leaves, 4 sL'ht notches, eye joint, s<-rew
boles. Tang screw : Shoulder. Lock: Same as for rifle-mi;
except in size,which is reduced to conform to a magazine capable of hold-
ing one-half a strip of primers. Mountings : Band, swivel, and .v,
correspond to the middle band, swivel, and spring of the new musket.
Guard plate : Butt nip screw hole, tang. Butt sf rap holes for catch
spring and hook, tang, strap, and guard plate screws, shoulders for
breech screw tang, and butt cup tang, r. inton-es for hook, and catch
spring. Cup screw head, eye. Swivel ring. The remaining mount-
ings are similar to the corresponding parts of the new nlle-nmsk.-t.
Ramrod: Head (riveted on), cup, foot with a female screw, Kamrod
t*irr/; Two side bars, screw, cross bar, riveted into the side bars.
Sloe*: Butt, handle, curve, fecin-s r. inf., re... chase; thoiil.l.r* f,, r Land

p, grooves for barrel and ramrod ; beds for tnng and tenon. ]>. k,
washer*, guard plate, nuts for guard bow and trigger stud, butt plat.-.
band spring, Up. butt nip an.l strap, butt piece cap, and catch spring,
hook nut; mortices for trigger, hook, and catch sprinir; hole* for PM],
tip rivet, band spring, side screws, tang screw, cup screw, strap screw,

late screws, and cap screws. Buttpirrr : pintr two wood K<
!!... upper and lower tang, screw holes, two woo

Hoi handle, hook, stem, nut; spr screw, head, blade;

finger piece, loop for spring, screw thread, rivet and nut.

ABMY OF U. S.J MILITARY DICTIONARY. 47

Materials. Steel. Cone, tumbler, lock swivel, finger, sear, lock
springs, band springs, ramrod, except the head, rear sight except screw,
spring catch, screw driver, wiper and ball screw. Brass. Butt plate,
butt cup, cup, guard plate and bow, band, and tip. Wood. Stock
and butt piece. Iron. Head of ramrod, and remaining parts (Con-
sult ORDNANCE MANUAL ; ALLIN'S MANAGEMENT OF RIFLE-MUSKET,
&c. ; SMALL ARMS, 1856.)

ARMY. In its widest signification, Army is the military force of
the state. It is the active and paid portion of the militia. It is an
assemblage of agents and instruments proper and necessary to carry
on war abroad, or suppress insurrection and repel - invasion at home.
The MILITARY ART organizes and combines its elements, and gives
force and activity to armies.

In the United States, Congress raises, supports, governs, and regu-
lates armies. RAISING is the prescribed means of organizing and collect-
ing ; SUPPORTING is the system of administration ; GOVERNMENT consists
in the creation of a hierarchy, with rules for rewarding and punishing ;
and REGULATION embraces the precise determination of methodical rights
and duties, including the systems of tactics to be practised. Different
armies are designated as follows : Standing or Regular Army ; Army
in the field ; Army of Observation ; Army of Invasion ; Army of Oc-
cupation ; Besieging Army ; Covering Army ; Offensive Army ; De-
fensive Army ; Army of the East ; Army of Mexico ; Army of Re-
serve, &c. The military art divides Armies into different ARMS ; upon
the theatre of war, it assembles an army in one or in many camps or
cantonments ; it links the army to a BASE by means of a LINE OF
OPERATIONS ; during the course of its movements, the army rests upon
fortresses or entrenched camps ; marches in combined columns, or
columns in mass ; for battle, it is distributed into Army Corps, Divi-
sions, Brigades, and Battalions, and upon the day of action it is assem-
bled between an advanced and rearguard, and flanking parties. The
advance guard clears away the front, and secures all defiles ; the rear-
guard watches over the safety of communications, and the flanking par-
ties secure the flanks. The military art ranges an army according
to circumstances ; it determines the calibre of the ordnance, and the
manner of using it. Laws and lawful orders are the basis of the daily
duties of troops. Orders of the day direct movements ; breaking up
camps ; maintain discipline ; and provide for, and watch over, the
distribution of supplies.

ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES (ORGANIZATION OF THE).

I-

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Y or U.

-. '_

5 3

M^drocate.
| luepaoior pfimiral
IQinrteniiMtor^.Mr.1.
Aariat. Qpartermnatan fenr ral

| Quartvrmactcra,
Auistant yuartcnnaatcra.

ill}! Illj
llll

a
14g

1 1 88

1 885 .

l! T* '-'

Ordnance Department.

' r - - .

Two Regttnenta of Cavalry

fegtattt of Mooted Riflemen

F oar tUftmenU of Artillery ,

Ten RflnnU of Infantry

.. ,...11 ... JU. .-,-

l4Ullllii4tt

1188 8680188528

fjSiamJ^Mftr? A f ^ Ul ' t *t* 1> * r ^{~y m
^P^l belaw HM! odd In Uwlr atrencth. are. to a

ttS3!USSFteStt'#&KS .,< p-c

^wataSftacSS&^^Z'aSsS

v-olpllt

xclndc<l, a
.-^; and
the

AKMY OF U. S.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Adjutants.

i
i

c
<p

First Lieutenants.

Second Lieutenants.

Sergeant Majors.

Quartermaster Sergeants.

Principal or Chief Musicians.

"bl

Ordnance Sergeants.

Hospital Stewards.

Corporals.

B*
1

2
p

Artificers.

Enlisted men of Ordnance.

Total commissioned.

Total enlisted.

Aggregate. t

2
40
11
175
28
146
39
454

107

" '&'

4 13
6
4 17

4 17

12
10
12

11
8
1

8
e
3

...

46
39

100

400

4 20

1,000

1,230

1,304

4 20

e
4

1,000

1,230

765

1,304

2 10

e
1

640

801

8 48

d
4

e
5

192192

h
2,148

213

2,732

2,945

20100

100

e
4

400

200

4,200

...

844

5,240

5,584

50245

I,?

d
19280

213

7:;

802 802

100

298

9,066

400

1,085

11,838

12,923

(&) By the act of March 3, 1853, section 9, a Lieutenant of Engineers, Topographical Engineers,
and Ordnance, ha'ving served "fourteen years' continuous service as Lieutenant," is entitled to pro-
motion to the rank of Captain ; but such promotion is not to increase the whole number of Officers,
iu either of said corps, beyond the number previously fixed by law.

(c) The Jire Aids-dc-camp, being taken from regiments, in the strength of which they are in-
cluded, are, to avoid counting them twice, excluded, as Staff officers, from the columns, "total com-
missioned,'' and " aggregate "

(d) The Adjutants of Artillery and Infantry (14), and all the Regimental Quartermasters (19),

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AJUIT or U. &

ComayofUfbtAr
Ommtrny of Artillery

The

tderstood to consist of OM Light and / Heavy companies.

. f..r In their p.n-er.il reclment.* n< belonging t
8Ui/ officers, from the columns M total commissioned," and "ag-

>r the 4th section of the act of April , 1818, "making further provision f..r th, <
r**aOM Brvvet Beooad Lieutenant Is allowed to every ":.m|,:uiy." Tho number authorize,! is, con-
teaUy. ww kmmdrtd and *>n,i v . n inf. The number, now attach, .1 t.. th- A: :
\f) Bytaeact of April MM*, section 3d, M i>t fixation of

py tf MMber ^.P*****"*? 8nr* nu cannot cxcved "on* for each military ]>oat" The number,

(f ) By Ike MI of Anrt 1C, 1864. section 2-!. {.rovMing for a nrcrwary Increase and better organization
f UM Mi J oal ad Hp4Ul Departmeat of tin- \rn.v." th,- numlH-r of ll,spltal Stewards cannot exceed "<m
uf eMfc Military poet * Tb nanber. actually In service. In *ixty-tight.

.' eowpiMle* la UM let and Sd. and ats of artUlery, being

Majafii Ltekt Artlll*ry. are allowed. In con
per em*ay. *ee act -to lacreaee the rai k and ilio of the Am

(O By UM art of Jane 17. 10, " to IncreMP the rank and fllo . f tl- Army." AT., section 2,1. tl
deal M aathortftxl. waeejever UM cxIflaadM of the service require it, to increase to ttrtnty-four, t;..-

r of Mlvale* la aay oooipaair, -M-rvInc at the
MrtdtotaAtalaUoM." fiitae table. 1 1, n.inin

f l>rag Jk eto^Amr to a company . .

If all tae cwmrank^i belon^lnc to "refflmi-ntV (I&M were serving at distant sta-
-w*Wbel7AH,adtae-a f rrr.

mbof of oOorn In the army, l.ut not their rank: tl I

> brevet

Deportment, and

rrv Four Burgeon* and f t.i have been n<

oM8lMaO(DoercMUd, with the rank of M;jor, since .the preparation of

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 51

The most glaring deficiency in the military legislation of the United
States, is the want of a GENERAL LAW, regulating the organization of
all troops that Congress may see fit to raise, so that, upon adding to,
or diminishing, the public force in any emergency, it will be only
necessary to prescribe what number of men are to be added or taken
away. This general law should embrace general officers, staff corps,
and departments, engineers, and regiments of cavalry, artillery, and
infantry ; it should establish rules of promotion and appointment ; it
should regulate the recruiting service ; it should provide for the re-
pression of military crimes and disorders ; it should not fail to stimu-
late the appetite for rewards ; it should make just rules concerning
captures, which would recognize the rights of captors ; it should regu-
late the indemnification for losses; and it should provide for the
organization of a suitable board, which would take advantage of all
improvements in the military art and suggest, from time to time, such
modifications of the general law as might appear just and proper. In
respect to Army Organization, there are two acts of Congress of the
general character here suggested. One, an act to regulate the medical
establishment, approved March 2, 1799 ; and the second, an act for the
better organizing of the troops of the United States, and for other pur-
poses, approved March 3, 1799. Both of these acts were drawn by
Alexander Hamilton, as he explained in a letter to the Secretary of
War, " as permanent rules to attach to all provisions of law for the
increase or diminution of the public force." Subsequent legislation
has, however, without providing any other permanent rule regulating
the organization in respect to general officers, staff corps, and depart-
ments, &c., according to the increase or diminution of force, almost
entirely superseded the provisions of the remarkable acts here referred
to. (See ARTICLES OF WAR.)

ARMY REGULATIONS a book so called, published in the
name of the President of the United States " for the government of all
concerned." The Constitution provides that " Congress shall have
power to make rules for the government and regulation of the Land and
Naval forces." The only acts of Congress in force, authorizing the
President to make regulations, better defining the powers and duties of
officers, are contained in the 5th section of the act of March 3, 1813,
and the 9th section of the act approved April 26, 1816. The first of
these acts is an act for the better organization of the general staff of
the army, and the second relates (with the exception of the last section,
concerning forage and private servants) to the same subject. By the
5th section of the act of 1813, it is provided, " That it shall be tho

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ARM.

duty of the Secretary of the War Department, and ho is hereby au-
thorised, to prepare general regulations, better defining and prescribing
the respective duties and powers of the several officers in the adjutant-
general, inspector-general, quartermaster-general, and commissa
ordnance departments, of the topographical engineers, of the aides of
generals, and generally of the general and regimental staff; which regu-
lations, when approved by the President of the United States, shall be
respected and obeyed, until altered or revoked by the same authority.

he said general regulations, thus prepared and approved, shall be
laid before Congress at their next session/'

Remarking here, that the regulations to be prepared and approved
refer only to the powers and duties of the officers of the several staff
departments, enumerated in the act, it follows that no other n nulations
made by the President can derive any force whatever from this act.
The 9th section of the act of 1816 therefore only continued this then
existing power of the President in providing " That the. several oflicers
of the staff shall r.-pectively nveive the pay and emoluments, and re-
tain all the privileges, secured to the staff of the Army, by the act of
March 3, 1813, and not incompatible with the provisions of this act:
and that the regulations in force before the reduction of the Army be
recognized, as far as the same shall be found applicable to the service ;
subject, however, to such alterations as the Secretary of War may
adopt, with the approbation of the President." It would se. in, thcre-

!iat whatever may be contained in th- President's Army regula-
tions of a legislative, character concerning officers of the Army, not
belonging to staff departments, must, if valid, be a legitimate deduc-
tion from some positive law, or depend for its legality upon the

i'rity delegated to the constitutional commander-in-chirf or otli.-r
military commander, in the rules made by <

ment of the Army. Congress has delegated to the President, authority
to prescribe the uniform < f the Army ; authority to establish the ra-
tion; and besides the authority given by law to other military com-
mander*, he also has been author ieve, in ses,n
inefficient military commander from duty with any command ; 1>
assign sny senior to duty with mixed corps, so that the command may
fill by law on such senior in rank ; to limit the discretion of command-
ing officers in special canes, in regard to what is needful for
and hence also he has been given authority to carve out sj
tnands from general commands, in particular cases ; (r,2d

These are all-important functions, but they do not authori/e
ea$9 to be made general rules, and it is much to be regretted

ARR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 53

that the lines of separation between regulations and the orders of the
commander-in-chief have not been kept distinct. (See COMMAND; CON-
GRESS; OBEDIENCE; ORDERS. Consult opinions of Attorneys-general,
particularly the opinion of Mr. Berrien, July 18, 1839.)

ARREARS OF PAY. The troops shall be paid in such manner
that the arrears shall, at no time, exceed two months, unless the cir-
cumstances of the case shall render it unavoidable ; (Act March 16,
1802 ; Act March 3, 1813.) This provision of law has been strangely
executed by never paying troops oftener than once in two months, and
not unfrequently neglecting to pay them for a much longer time.

ARREST IN ORDER TO TRIAL. Before an officer or sol-
dier, or other person subject to military law, can be brought to trial,
he must be charged with some crime or offence against the rules and
articles of war, and placed in arrest. The articles of war direct that
whenever any officer shall be charged with a crime, he shall be arrested
and confined in his barracks, quarters, or tent, and deprived of his
sword by the commanding officer. And that " non-commissioned offi-
cers and soldiers, charged with crimes, shall be confined until tried
by a court-martial, or released by proper authority ; " (ARTS. 77, 78.)
The arrest of an officer is generally executed through a staff-officer ; by
an adjutant, if ordered by the commanding officer of a regiment ; or
by an officer of the general staff, if ordered by a superior officer ; and
sometimes by the officer with whom the arrest originates. On being
placed in arrest, an officer resigns his sword. If this form be some-
times omitted, the custom is invariably observed, of an officer in arrest
not wearing a sword. By the custom of the army, it is usual, except in
capital cases, to allow an officer in arrest the limits of thft garrison or even
greater limits, at the discretion of the commanding officer, who regu-
lates his conduct by the dictates of propriety and humanity. A non-
commissioned officer or soldier is confined in charge of a guard ; butj
by the custom of the service, the non-commissioned staff and sergeants
may be simply arrested. The articles of war declare, " that no officer
or soldier, who shall be put in arrest or imprisonment, shall continue
in his confinement more than eight days, or until such time as a court-
martial can be conveniently-assembled ; (ART. 79.) The latter part of
this clause evidently allows a latitude, which is capable of being abused ;
but, as in a free country there is no wrong without a remedy, an action
might be brought against the offender in a civil court, (See INJURIES,)
if the mode of redress for all officers and soldiers, who conceive them-
selves injured by their commanding officer, be not sufficient. (ARTS.
34, 35.)

MILITARY DICTIONARY [ARE.

It is declared by the articles of war, that " no officer commanding
a guard, or provost-marshal, shall refuse to receive or keep any prisoner
committed to his charge, by any officer belonging to the forces of the

1 States ; provided, the officer committing shall, at the same time,
deliver an account in writing, signed by himself, of the crime with which
the said prisoner is charged ; " and it is also declared, that "no oilicer
commanding a guard, or provosUmarshal, shall presume to releas
prisoner committed to his charge, without proper authority i
doing, nor shall ho suffer any person to escape, on the penalty of bring
MX! for it by the sentence of a court-martial. Every officer or
provost-marshal, to whose charge prisoners shall be committed, shall,
within twenty-four hours after such commitment, or as soon as he shall
be relieved from his guard, make report in writing, to the commanding
officer, of their names, their crimes, and the names of the officers who
committed them, on the penalty of being punished f>r disobedi.
neglect, at the discretion of a court-martial ; (ARTS. 80, 81, 82.)
Thus the liberty of the citizen, under military law, so far as is con-
with the ends of justice, seems to be guarded with precautions little

which secure personal liberty under the civil l.i
tile state. The penalty of an officer's breaking his arrest, or leaving his
confinement before he is set at liberty by his commanding officer. <>r by
a superior officer, is declared to be cashiering by s
court-martial; (ART. 77.) A court-martial has no control over the
nature of the arrest of a prisoner, except as to his personal freed
court; the court cannot, even to facilitate hi* defence, inter'
cause a close arrest to be enlarged. The officer in command is alone
responsible for tin- prisoners under his charge. Individuals pla-
arrest, may be released, without being brought before a court-martial ;
by the authority ordering the arrest, or by superior authority. It is
M the commander to place an officer in arrest, on ap-
plication to thnt effect from an officer under his command. He will
ttM*dse a sound discretion on the subject. But in all applications for
redress of supposed grievances inflicted by a superior, it will be his

in case he shall not deem it proper to order an investigation, to
give his reasons in writing, for declining to a< t ; thetC if not

Mtis&ctory, the complain may, should he think fit so to do,

forward to the next common superior, together with a copy of 1
plies' dress. An officer has no right to demand a court-

martial, either on hims-lf f or on others; the. gcneral-in-chi, f or ollieer
competent to order a court, being the judge of its necessity or pro-

. Nor has any officer, who may have been placed in arrest, any

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 55

right to demand a trial, or to persist in considering himself under ar-
rest, after he shall have been released by proper authority. An officer
under arrest will not make a visit of etiquette to the commanding
officer, or other superior officer, or call on him, unless sent for ; and in
case of business, he will make known his object in writing. It is con-
sidered indecorous in an officer in arrest to appear at public places.

ARREST BY CIVIL AUTHORITY. By section 21, Act January 11,
1812, no non-commissioned officer, musician, or private, can be arrested
on mesne process, or taken or charged in execution for any debt con-
tracted before enlistment under twenty dollars, nor for any debt what-
ever, contracted after enlistment. (See MESNE PROCESS.)

ARSENAL. A place of deposit for ordnance and ordnance stores.
There are also arsenals of construction and repairs. (See ORDNANCE.)

ARTICLES OF WAR. There can be no doubt that the prerog-
ative to command and regulate the whole military force of the king-
dom, whether consisting of the feudal tenants, or of the militia, or of
paid troops, resided in the Crown of England. Nevertheless the power
of the sovereign was restricted by a provision, that he should exercise
his military jurisdiction only " according to the laws and usages of
the realm." In the reign of Edward VI., however, parliament as-
serted authority over military matters by passing an act for the
government of the army ; various offences, as losing, selling, or fraudu-
lently exchanging horses or armor ; desertion ; detaining the pay of
soldiers ; and taking rewards for granting them discharges, were put
under the jurisdiction of the civil magistrate. It was also provided
that the act should be read once a month by every field officer to the
soldiers under his command, and once a quarter by the governor or
captain of every garrison or fortress. At this period, however, there
was no standing army, the feudal system was still in force, every man
in the realm was more or less a soldier ; military law was accord-
ingly restricted to such persons as were actually serving in the field,
the process of civil judicature being obviously inapplicable to their
case but directly the soldier ceased to belong to the force in actual
campaign, the civil power stepped in and claimed cognizance of his
offences.

Until the Civil War in the reign of Charles I., it is probable that no
regular permanent code of rules or articles for enforcing military disci-
pline was in existence ; the ruling authority had promulgated its orders
for the government and regulation of the army as occasion required.
Each war, each expedition, had its own edict, which fell into disuse again
upon the disbanding of the army, which inevitably followed the cessa-

MILITARY DICTIONARY. AKT .]

tion of hostilities. Several instances, indeed, of rules and ordinances
for military government l>y the ancient kings are still >ne of

Richard I., for the government of those going by sea to tin Ib.!\ Land.
is to be found in Kym. r's Fosdcra. An elaborate code of "statutes,
ordonnances, and cuM>ms to be observed in the army," made in tin- I'th
year of Kiehard II., is to be found among tlic Cottonian MS. in tin- Brit-
ish Museum and those of Henry V., Henry VII., am! 1 1. my VIII.,
have not been lost.

The experience of ages and the precedents of former wars, there-

nahlcd the authorities to frame a sufliei. ntly compn hensive code
Incase of nrrd ; accordingly, soon after the outbreak of the civil \\ar.the
necessities of the case compelled the parliament to enact ordinances
or articles of war. The first complete " Lawes and Ordinances of
Warrt" (as he called them) were i*sn. d by Essex, the commander-in-
chicf of the parliamentary army in h'-IJ. The-.- articles are remark-
able an<l int. -n stint:, as undoubtedly forming the groundwork of
now in use. T\\ \ the publication of Essex's ord'n .

on the marching of the Scott i-h army into England, soon ; : fi,. r the
ratification of the solemn league and covenant, ' Articles ,,f War"

issued for its government. These articles, although very dis-
similar to those of I -.. 001 dderl L: that both were in fV.ivc in
the same kingdom at the same time, and were applicable to armies
fighting on the same side, nevertheless treat mainly of the same
offences. The C>rm of judicature established, consisted of two courts
died "<'., uneils of War," the one superior, and the other
inferior. The superior court, also called the " Court of War," took
Cognizance of the more serious ofT-nees, and likewise heard appeals from
tbo decision of the lower court, called the " Marshal Court." N.
of the constitution of th, so courts is now to be found except that
judges were sworn to do justice.'' Within a f.-w months of the pro-

"n of tl, I . 1644,) tho same parliame!

the author f if the pe< ,| a ii ordinance, establishing a

system of martial law. applicable n.it only to soldiers, but to all per-
sons alike. By this ordinanee, t|,,. ]: ;ir j () f ]%., N , .-aptain-ijciieral of the
parliamentary forces, together with fifty-six ..tli.-rs nam.d therein,
were peers, meml>ors : II..nse of ( 'ominous, gentry,
of tho army.) \\.-re nmstitutp.l ^commissioners," and any

I of th.-iii auth'.ri/ d to hear nnd determine, all sneh causes as
M belong to military cognizanc*'," acconlini to the artiel.-s m.-iitione.-l
in tho ord d to proceed to the trial, condemnation,

. "f all offenders against tho said articles, and to inflict upon

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 57

them such punishment, either by death or otherwise, corporally, as
the said commissioners, or the major part of them then present,
should judge to appertain to justice, according to the measure of the
offence. Under cover of this ordinance, which, after one refusal by the
peers, was subsequently renewed, parliament proceeded to issue a vari-
ety of orders for the conduct of the war, and the regulation of the army ;
and many persons were tried by court-martial and executed. After the
expiration of this last ordinance, the absolute executive power, in all mat-
ters of military law, fell into the hands of Cromwell, who claimed it as
his right, in virtue of his office of general-in-chief. " The general," says
Whitlocke, " sent his order to several garrisons, to hold courts-martial,
for the punishment of soldiers offending against the articles of war ; pro-
vided that if any be sentenced to lose life or limb, that then they transmit
to the judge-advocate the/examinations and proceedings of the court-
martial, that the General's pleasure may be known thereon."' On one
occasion, deeming it necessary for the sake of discipline, to make an
immediate example, Cromwell seized several officers with his own
hand, called a court-martial on the field, condemned them to death,
and shot one forthwith at the head of his regiment. It will thus
be seen, that the administration of martial law was almost inva-
riably in the hands of the most considerable power in the state it
alternated between king and parliament, and -between parliament and
dictator, as each became uppermost in the realm. On the restoration
of Charles II., the army, with the exception of about five thousand men,
consisting of General Monk's regiment called " the Coldstream," the
first regiment of foot, the royal regiment of Horse Guards, called " the
Oxford Blues," and a few other regiments, was disbanded. The force
kept on foot was die first permanent military force, or " standing army,"
known in England ; and from it the present army dates its origin.

A statute passed in the reign of Charles II., intituled, " An act
for ordering the forces in' the several counties of this kingdom,"
recites that, " within all his majesty's realms and dominions, the sole
and supreme power, government, command, and disposition of the
militia, and of all forces by sea and land, and of all forts and places of
strength is, and by the laws of England ever was, the undoubted right
of hie majesty, and his royal predecessors, kings and queens of Eng-
land." With the exception of some slight encroachment on the part
of the Crown, and protests on the part of the parliament, matters re-
mained in very much the same state till the revolution, at which period
military law assumed a permanent and definite form, as it now exists.
The only allusions to the military power of the Crown, in the Bill of

58 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ART.

Rights, are, " that the raising and keeping of a standing army in time
of peace, without constnt of parliament, is contrary to 1 ! that

** subjects, if Protestants, may have arms for their defence, suitable to
their condition, an 1 as allowed by law." In the first year, however,
of the reign of NVilliam ui ; i regiments, jealous of tfce sup-

posed preference shown by William for his Dutch troops, ninth.:
Ipswich. The king suppressed tho mutiny with :i strong hand, at the
same time communicating the event to parliament. Parliament, anxious
to devise means for the convenient application of a code of laws t',.r tho
regulation and management of the army, and at the same time

i to place a check upon tin- exercise of the military power of the
king, passed, on tho 3d April, 1689, for a period of six months only,
the first mutiny act, the preamble, of which is as follows:

Whereas, the raising or keeping a standing army within this
kingdom'-, in time of peace, unlesse it be with tho consent of Parlya-
ment, is against law; ami whereas it is ju \. by tlirir

majestyes an 1 this present parlyarncnt that, during this time of warr,
severall of the forces which are now on foote should bo continued ami
others raised, for the safety of tho kingdomo, for the common <!
of the. Protestant religion, and for the reducing of Ireland. And
whereas no man can be prejudged of life or limb, or subjected to any
kinde of punishment by inartiall law, or in any other manner than by
the judgment of his pe.-i-.-. an 1 according to the knowne and established
lawes of this real me ; yet, nevertheless, it beini: requisite for retaining
such forces as are or shall bo raised during this exigence of afia
their duty, that an exact discipline be observed ; and that soldiers \\h<>
shall mutiny or stirr up sedition, or who shall desert their ma;
service, be brought to more exemplary and speedy punishment than
the usual formes of law will all

The act provides for the assembling and constitution of court s mar-
tial, for the oath of m-mb.-rs f> the punishment of desertion, mutiny,
sedition, false musters, Are.; f,, r the regulation of billets; ami is or-
dered to be read at the head of every regiment, troop, or company, at
every miuter. " that noe soldier may pretend ignorance." No power
is, however, reserved to the sovereign to make articles of w:>.r. This
ct was renewed soon after its expiration; and with the exception of
bout throe years only. viz.. from 10th April. 1W8. to 20th February.
has bwi annually ro-onac'ed (with many alterations and amend-
ments) ever since. Tbe firat statutory recognition of articles of war,
occurs in the 1st Anne, statute ., a clause, which saves to hit

majesty the right of making articles of war, for tho regulation of her

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 59

forces " beyond the seas in time of war." It is not until the 3d Geo.
1, c. 2, that we find the sovereign distinctly empowered by the mutiny
act to make articles of war for the government of the troops at home.
A clause in that act, after reciting that no effectual provision has been
made for the government of his majesty's land forces, empowers the
king to make and constitute, under his sign manual, articles for the
better government of his majesty's forces, " as well within the king-
doms of Great Britain and Ireland as beyond the seas." This privilege
has been annually re-enacted, and annually exercised by the Crown to
the present day.

Under the Constitution of the United States, Congress only can
make rules of government and regulation for the land forces, and those
rules, commonly called Articles of War, were originally borrowed
jointly from the English mutiny act annually passed by parliament,
and their articles of war established by the king. The existing
articles for the government of the army of the United States, en-
acted April 10, 1806, are substantially the same as those originally
borrowed July 30, 1775, and enlarged by the old Congress from the
same sources, Sept. 20, 1776. The act consists of but three sections.
The first declares : The following shall be the rules and articles by
which the armies of the United States shall be governed ; " and gives
one hundred and one articles, all noticed in these pages. Each article
is confined, in express terms, to the persons composing the army. The
second SECTION contains the only exception in the cases as follows : " In
time of war, all persons, not citizens of, or owing allegiance to, the
United States of America, who shall be found lurking, as spies, in or
about the fortifications or encampments of the armies of the United
States, or any of them, shall suffer death, according to the law and
usage of nations, by sentence of a general court-martial." The third
section merely repeals the previous act for governing the army.

The Articles of War, therefore, are, and under th< Constitution of
the United States can be, nothing more than a code for the government
and regulation of* the army. On, in other words, within the United
States, these articles are " a system of rule superadded to the common
law, for regulating the citizen in his character of a soldier," and appli-
cable to no other citizens. Beyond the United States another code is
essential ; for, although armies take with them the Rules and Articles of
War, and the custom of war in like cases in a foreign country, the
soldier must be tried by some tribunal for offences which at home
would be punishable by the ordinary courts of law. It is impossible
to subject him to any foreign dominion, and hence, in the absence of

00 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ART.

rules made by Congress for the government of the army under such
circuiiisuuoes, the wUl of the commander of the troops, ex necessitate
rei, takes the place of law, and the declaration of his will is called
MARTIAL LAW. (See MARTIAL LAW.)

The most casual reader of our Articles of War will be struck by
the fact, thi* whereas the mutiny act of Great Britain is annually sub-
jected to the supervision of parliament, and altered or modified accord-
ing to circumstances, yet the Rules ami Articles of War, passed in 1806,
have remained upon our statute b<><>k from that day to the present
ut any general revision. Another fact equally important is, that
while the king of Great Britain not only commands, but gover
British army, and then-tore mo.lifiea the government of the army at
his pleasure, the President of the United States is simply the
mander of our army, under such rules for raising, supporting, gov-
erning, and regulating it, as Congress may appoint. Tho necessity of
attention to the military establishment on the part of Congr

lanifrst, and it is most earnestly to bo hope.l that, in their
wisdom they will, at some early day, fulfil their constitutional obliga-
tions of raising, governing, and regulating armies : 1. By establishing
system of recruiting which will bring into the ranks, soldiers who
will make good officers; 2. By providing that all commissioned offi-
cers shall be appointed from enlisted soldiers, or from military acad-
emies, and making rules precisely regulating the manner in win. h
mich appointments shall bo made ; 3. In making rules for a system of
promotion partly by seniority, and partly by merit; 4. In passing
other remunerative laws, such as prize money, field allowances, indem-
nification for losses, ozc. ; 5. In accurately defining the powers, rights
and soldiers; 6. In providing remedies for

wrongs, including appeals to federal civil courts, to determine the true
exposition ,,f military laws in dispute; and 7. In revfabg th
code, and better adapting it to a system of government whieh will pro-
wards for good conduct, and not simply punishments for bod.
Sff ABAXDOSISO A POST; ABSENCE wn , . i I.KAVE; ABSENCE wmi
LEAVE; ABUSES AND DISORDERS; ALARMS; AMMUNITION; APPEAL;
.\K%|f. AWAY;) ARREST; BREACH OF ARREST; BREVET; P.KIHK

t; BOOTY; CASTING AWAY; CERTIFICATES OF Mr
TKS, (FALSE;) CHALLENGES, (DIFFER i. NT KINDS;) CHAPLAIN;
COMMAND ; CONDUCT .so AN OFFICER AND A GENTLEMAN ; CON-

TFM. T ; CORPORAL; CORRESPONDENCE, i

AH ENEMY;) COURTS-MARTIAL, AND REFERENCES UNDER THVI
COURTS OF INQUIRY ; COWARDICE ; CRIMES ; CUSTOM OF WAR ; P>

AKT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 01

DECEASED , DEPARTMENT ; DEPOSITION OF WITNESSES ; DETACHMENT ;
DESERTION ; DISCHARGE ; DISMISSION ; DISOBEDIENCE ; DISORDERS ;
DISRESPECT ; DRUNKENNESS ; DUELS ; EMBEZZLEMENT ; ENGINEERS ;
ENLISTMENTS ; ENTICING ; EXACTIONS ; FALSE ; FRAUDS ; FRAYS ;
FURLOUGHS ; GENERAL OFFICERS ; GRIEVANCES ; HARBORING AN
ENEMY ; HIRING OF DUTY ; INJURING PRIVATE PROPERTY ; JUDGE-
ADVOCATE ; JURISDICTION; LEAVE; LINE; LYING OUT OF CAMP OR
QUARTER ; MENACING ; MILITIA ; MISBEHAVIOR ; MITIGATION ; MONEY ;
MONTHLY RETURNS ; MUSTERS ; MUTINY ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OF-
FENCES NOT SPECIFIED ; OFFICERS ; ORDERS ; PARDON ; PAROLE : PIL-
LAGE ; POST ; PRESIDENT ; PRISONER ; PROCEEDINGS ; PROMULGATION ;
PROVOST-MARSHAL ; QUARRELS ; RANK ; REDRESSING WRONGS ; RE-
ENLISTING ; REFUSAL TO RECEIVE PRISONERS ; RELEASING PRISONERS ;
RELIEVING AN ENEMY ; REPROACHFUL SPEECHES ; RETAINERS ; RE-
TURNS ; SAFEGUARD ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SELLING ; SENTENCE ; SEN-
TINEL ; SPIES ; STAFF ) STATE TROOPS ; STORES ; STRIPES ; STANDING
ARMY ; SUBSCRIBING ; SUSPENSION ; SUTLERS ; TRIALS ; UPBRAIDING ;
VIOLENCE ; WASTE OR SPOIL ; WATCHWORD ; WITNESS ; WORSHIP ;
WRONGS ; and references under the heading of Law, all military laws
being rules for the government and regulation of the army, although
they may also include other matters. (Consult PIPON'S MANUAL OF
MILITARY LAW.)

ARTIFICER. Military workman ; two allowed to each com-
pany of artillery.

ARTILLERY. The word is more ancient than the use of powder,
and was applied to machines of war, and all projectiles that the masters
of artillery had under their direction. In foreign armies the word Ar-
tillery is still indifferently applied to an arm of the service, the ma-
terial used, and branch of science. By Artillery in the U. S. army is
usually, but not always, meant an arm of the service, designed to use
mountain, field, and heavy ordnance, and the knowledge requisite for such
use. There are four regiments of Artillery in our army, in each of which
the law authorizes two companies to be equipped as harnessed batteries ;
(See ARMY, for their organization.) The remaining companies are, from
supposed necessities of service, usually employed as infantry, but- their
name, and liability at any time to become artillerists, must cause officers
not to neglect such knowledge of their arm as may be derived from
books, and the establishment of the school of practice at Fort Monroe
cannot fail to have the happiest effects in making skilful artillerists.
The instructions for field artillery, and heavy and mountain artillery,
are contained in books published by the War Department, one called

i;-J MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Aw.

a Instruction for Field Artillery, I loree and Foot," aiidai Heavy

Artillery** being " -a complete system of instruction for Si
sou, Sea coast and Mountain Artillery," and a third "Evolutions of
Field Artillery," by Major Kobi-rt AndKMtt.

Competition of a fold battery on the war establishment. Four 12-
pounders or four six-pounder guns, and two 24-pounders or 12-poumler
howitzers. Six pieces mounted to eaeh battery. Carriages including
caissons, spare gun-carriages, forges, and battery wagons, accompany
each battery, together with implements and equipments specified in
the ordnance manual. Draught horses, six to each battery wagon,
and 12-pounder gun-carriage, four to other carriages, and one twelfth
spare. Harness corresponding to the number of horses to the
carriage.

Tactics. A battery going into lino with other troops, is usually
formed in column of sections, and deployed into line as the enemy is
approached. Under ordinary circumstances the best formation is the
column doubled on the centre section, as the deploy is then toward both
wings at the same time, and more promptly performed. Unl
extreme cases, the cannoneers should never be mounted on the boxes
when the battery is within range of the enemy, as the explosion of a
caisson might destroy nearly every cannoneer belonging to a piece.
When several batteries are united, they are formed by sections in one
or several parallel columns, or in double columns on the centre, or still
. in two columns joined, and presenlinj: a front, of four pieces
with the same intervals as in line. Sometimes they are formed in close
column with a front of four or six pieces, and the batteries bcinir spaced
a distance apart equal to the interval between two pieees. When de-
ployed, the d'lHt.r en the batteries is double this. "When hrse-
artill.-ry ami mounted batteries are placed together, the former are
placed on the Nungs, and the distances and intervals of the \\holo con-
M of hor>e-artillery ; as in manoeuvring no regard is paid
to inversion*, it frequently happens that the batteries chain:'' their
>o positions, and it is then necessary that eaeh span- should be
largo enough to contain a horse-artillery battery. A el..-.- eoluimi of
several batteries is deployed in the same manner as a column of eav-
the leading battery moving oil* at an increased put, a'nd the
Others, obliquing to the ri^ht or left, jnin their inlet-sals and f.i m in
line or battery to the front as usual. The changes of front to fire to
the right and left oro, mn<le on the \\in^s in the same manner as with a
single battery ; but it i-< better to make these changes on the <-. ntns
y. But four of these changes are pra< ti< able, viz., two to fire to

AKT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 63

the right by throwing the left wing to the front or rear, and two to fire
to the left by throwing the right wing to the front or rear. In the
other four changes of front, the pivot pieces would be masked by the
rest of the carriages, and could not commence their fire soon enough.
On this account the pivot carriages, in these changes, should be on the
side towards which the fire is to be delivered. In defensive battles,
the contour of the ground is of the first importance, and if properly
taken advantage of, may be made to double the force and importance
of artillery.

Artillery, held in reserve, arriving in mass or deployed upon the
field of battle, occupies positions determined by circumstances and
localities. Heights and commanding positions should be secured, and
those positions, also, from which an oblique fire may be obtained upon the
enemy. In a defensive position, those points are sought from whence the
enemy may be discovered at the greatest distance. Advantage should be
taken of all local circumstances to render the artillery fire most effective,
and at the same time shelter it from the fire of the enemy. The guns
should be placed, if possible, under cover. This is easily effected upon
heights, by keeping them so far back that the muzzles only are to be seen
over them. Ravines, banks, ditches, &c., also offer facilities for the pur-
pose. The perfection to which the materiel of field artillery has been,
brought, gives it comparatively great mobility of action ; but large quan-
tities of ammunition must be consumed to attain any positive result from
its employment in battle. The transportation of this ammunition with
an army involves serious economical considerations, constituting no small
impediment to armies, from the number of horses, wagons, caissons,
&c., required for each battery. The improvements made in the mate-
riel of artillery will not, therefore, in all probability, cause a more fre-
quent employment of light batteries; but on the contrary, the long
range which has been given to the rifle and musket, and the facility
with which the horses and gunners of field batteries may be picked off
at 1,000 yards, will probably cause even the rifled field gun to become
an arm of RESERVE, which brought up at a decisive moment may influence
the result of a battle, defend entrenchments against attack, and be use-
fully employed against isolated field works.

Smooth-bore field pieces, fired at a distance of five or six hundred
yards, will penetrate from one yard and a half to two yards in para-
pets recently constructed, and will traverse walls of ordinary construc-
tion ; but a 12-pounder is necessary to make a breach in walls of good
masonry four feet in thickness, and in this case the position of the bat-
tery must be favorable, and the operation is even then a slow one.

MILITARY DICTK'NAUY.

Moderate charges are employed in firing upon gates, block-houses, pal-
isades, and in general upon all wooden structures. The heaviest siege
pieces, by their great force of penetration, are best adapted for funning
a breach in the walls of permanent fortifications. Their superior accu-
racy, and the mass of their projectiles, render them also very effective

firing. Balls of smaller calibre have not sufficient moss to
destroy carriages offering such resistance as those employed in the de-
fence of places. The force of pm.-tration of balls in different substances
increases with their calibre ami \vhnity : at one hundred yards, a 24-
pound ball fired with a cartridge of 12 pounds will be one yard in briek
masonry, nearly tw<> f t in rubble work, one yard and a half in oak
wood, two yards in pine, two yards and a half in well rammed earth,
and nearly live yards in a recent embankment. The ball of an 18-
pounder, fired with a charge of nine pounds under the same circum-
stances, will give penetrations nearly six-sevenths of those indicated
Bore,

Field guns, in general, may be employed to cannonade with force
and perseverance ; to reinforce the weakest points of positions, whether
\e. or defensive; to secure a retreat by the occupation of points
established as the base of defence of particular ground, or of any im-
portant object, as the defence of a village or defile, or the passage of a
river, and to overthrow such obstacles as palisades, rampart walls,
doors, Ace., interposed by art; to prepare the way for an assault,
and aid, at a decisive moment, to secure the victory by a united
fire. A field cannon ball has suilieieiit force to disable seven or eight
men at a distance of 000 yards. It is stated that a single cannon ball,
at the battle of Zorndor^ disabled 42 men. Rifle projeeliles, having
more momentum, are elli r-tive at <jreatrr distances.

The following tables of Charges and Ranges for United States Field

:t/ers,and Heavy Ordnance, are taken from Robert >' Hand-
book of Artillery.

CHARGES FOR A FLATTENED RICO-
CHET FOB SiEoE-omrs.

CHARGES FOR A FLATTENED Rir<>

FOR SIEGE-HOWITZERS.

POTAWOt.

SUTATtOK.

OBAMB.

DOTAMCB.

KLKVATIOH

CItAltOK.

AIM yard*.
650 "

** 46'
9*

Vn wt. of ball.

tj .1 ii

050 yards.
440

1 45'
2*lfi'

:< li,-.

8' 15'

'/,,

830

2 16'

l Hi.

nan

8* 8ft'

',. "

220 "

2 46'

1 U.

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY.

CHARGES FOB A CURVATED RICOCHET FOR SIEGE-HOWITZERS.

DISTANCE.

ELEVATION.

CHARGE.

BEMABKB.

550 yards.
440
330 "
220 "

7 30'

II
II

1 lb. 4 oz.
1 lb. 1 oz.
14 oz.
10 oz.

The height of the object above
the level of the battery being
supposed to be 20 feet.

The charges vary with the elevation ; or, if the elevation be fixed at
any particular angle, they must be determined by the range.

CHARGES FOR FIELD-GUNS AND FIELD-HOWITZERS.

*
KIND.

FOE GUNS.

FOE HOWITZEES.

Mountain.

Ibs.
2.5
1.5

Ibs.
1.25
1.

Ibs.

2.5
2.5
3.25

Ibs.

1.75
2.
2.50

Ibs.

0.75
1.
1.

Ibs.

0.5
0.5
0.5

For spherical case or canister

( small charge ...

For shells, j ^.| ?""".:.....".

CHARGES FOR HEAVY GUNS, COLUMBIADS, AND HOWITZERS.

GUNS.

COLUMBIADS.

HOWITZERS.

10-inch.

Siege 8-in.

SEA-COAST.

10-in.

8-in.

Ibs.
10.5

Ibs.
8.

Ibs.
6.

Ibs.
4.

Ibs.
14.

Ibs.
8.

Ibs.
4.

Ibs.
2. .

Ibs.
12.

Ibs.
8.

GREATEST CHANGES OF SEA-COAST, SIEGE, AND COEHORN MORTARS.

SEA- CO AST.

SIEGE.

COEHOKN.

BTONE MOETAB.

.
1

4'~ l

1
1

P.-S

9fS

Ibs.

lb.

20.

10.

0.5

1.5

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

RAMOKS or FIKLD Guns AD Howrrzns.

KUD or riaoB.

r -w i

Bail

K . Vfr
lion.

Range.

Remark*

6-Pounder Field Gun.

It*.
1.26

Shot,
it

II
U

1
5

yard*.
818
647
867
1188
1256
1528

P. B. Range.

Time of flijrlu ii'
do. ' 8'
do. 4*

Sph. cue.

2
2 30
3

650
840
1050

la-Pounder Field Gun.

2.5

Shot.

14
41
II
l|
41
11

1
1 30

8
4
5

847
Ml

785

'.Ii in

1269
1465
1668^

P. B. Range.

Time 2 seconds.
,i 8

.. 4

1.5

Sph. cose,
u

1
1 45
2 80

670
950
1250

12-Pounder Field
Howitzer.

Shell

it
it
it

1
2
8
4
6

195
639
640
847
975
1072

Time 2 seconds.

II It

u 4 i.

0.75

Sph. case.

2 15
3 15
8 45

485
715
1050

24-1'ouiider i-icJu
Howitzer.

Shell.

it
it
it

tt
it

1
2
3
4
6

295
616
7M
976
1278
1822

Time 2 seconds.
, s

.. 4

" 8 "

1.76
2.

Sph. case.

u
it

3
6 30
3 80

600
800
1050
880

M-Pounder Field
Howitzer.

2.6

Shell,
ii

u
It
II
II

1
2
3
4
6

290
631
779

1208
1504

Tin 10 JJ sivoniK

Sph. cam,.

Mounuia Uowiuer.

0.6

Shell,
ii

u
II

14
II
II

1
2
2 80
I
4
5

17"
800
892
BOO

687
786
1005

Timo 2 seconds.
Tinio ?, 6,-.,-,.-

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY.

RANGES OF FIELD GUNS AND HOWITZERS (Continued.)

KIND OF PIECE.

Powder.

Hull.

Eleva-
tion.

Range.

Remarks.

Mountain Howitzer

Ibs.
0.5

Sph. case.

yards.
160

Continued.

2 30

450

Time 2 seconds.

500

700

Time 2| seconds.

4 30

800

Time 3 seconds.

0.5

Canister.

4 to 6

25U

RANGES or HEAVY AETILLEET.

KIND OF PIECE.

Powder.

Ball.

Eleva-
tion.

Range.

Remarks.

18-Pdr. Siege and Gar-

Ibs.
4.5

Shot.

yards.
641

rison Gun on Barbette

1 30

800

Point Blank.

Carriage.

950

1256

((

1450

1592

24-Pdr. Siege and Gar-

Shot.

412

rison Gun on Siege

842

Carriage.

1 30

953

Point Blank.

1147

1417

1666

1901

883

1170

1454

1639

1834

32-Pdr. Sea-Coast Gun

Shot.

1 45

900

on Barbette Carriage.

713

1 30

800

1 85

900

1100

1433

1684

1922

10.67

780

1155

1517

42-Pdr. Sea-Coast Gun

10.5

Shot.

775

on Barbette Carriage.

1 30

860

1010

1300

1600

1955

14.

770

1128

1380

1687

1915

MILITARY DICTION AKY.

RAVOU OF HEAVY ABTILLEBT (Continued.)

. ;. i

Ball

hi, A a

Uon.

Range.

Remark*.

t'.-lli Shell

Tim d

jo-iu. r^utMi.

U A

435

u ]^

618

i o "

u g u

t*s

H .,

124]

u u ii

1 80

J -J.su

24-Pdr. Iron Howitzer

17-lb. Shell

(

296

on a Flank Catenate

616

Carriage.

Sph. cases.

1322
600

Time 2 seconds.

1050

u 4

880

It II

8-inch Sea-Coast How.

45-lb. Shell.

406

itxer on a Barbette

652

Carriage.

875

1110

1300

672

828

947

1168

1463

646

909

1190

1532

1800

10-inch Sea-Coast How-

12.

o-lb. ShelL

680

itzer on Barbette Car-

891

Time 3 seconds.

riage.

1185

u 4 ii

8 80

1300

1426

" .4 "

1660

44 6 "

8-in. Columbiad on Bar-

10.

65-lb. Shot.

982

Axis of guu 16 iect

bette Carriage.

1116

almvi- the wain.

1401

1608

1847

2010

2397

asod lo ri-

t on the

BMI

water.

4875

4481

15.

27 80

4812

10.

60-lb. Shell.

919

1409

1697

1818

L980

2203

ART.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

RANGES OF HEAVY AETILLEET (Continued.)

KIND OP PIECE.

Powder.

Ball.

Eleva-
tion.

Range.

Remarks.

Ibs.

yards.

8-in. Columbiad on Bar-

10.

50-lb. Shell.

2657

bette Carriage Con-
tinued.

3556
3716

.<(

25
27

4387
4171

15.

27 30

4468

10-inch Columbiad on

18.

128-lb. Shot.

394

Axis of gun 16 feet

Barbette Carriage.

752

above the water.

1002

1230

1570

1814

2037

Shot ceased to rico-

2519

chet on the water.

2777

3525

4020

4304

4761

5433

20.

39 15

5654

12.

100-lb Shell.

800

1012

1184

1443

1604

18.

448

747

1100

1239

1611

1865

2209

. 8

2489

2848

3200

3885

4150

4651

4828

Time 35 seconds.

13-in. Sea-Coast Mortar.

20.

200-lb. Shell.

4325

Time 40 seconds.

10-in. Sea-Coast Mortar.

10.

98-lb. Shell.

4250

Time 3fi seconds.

10-inch Siege Mortar.

90-lb. Shell.

300

Time 6.5 seconds.

1.5

700

' 12. "

(

1000

' 14.

2.5

1300

< 16.

1600

' 18. "

3.5

1800

' 19.

2100

4 21. "

Ibs. oz.

8-inch Siege Mortar.

45-lb. Shell.

209

Time 6.75 sec'da.

376

650

< 11.5

1 4

(

943

" 14.

1 8

(

1318

16.5

1 12

1522

" 18.5 "

1837

20.5 "

MILITARY II'

RANGES or HEAVY ARTILLERY (Continrtfd.)

11*11

i ..

tion.

i.i .

24-Pounder Cochorn
Mortar.

OS.

0.6
1.
1.5
, 1.75
2.
2.75
4.
6.
8.

17-lb. Shell

45
u

148
165
260
422
900
1200

Stone Mortar.

Ib*.
1.5

Stones
120 Ibs.

i 15 6-pdr.
| shells.

60
83

5150
to
250
50
to 150

Fuze 15 seconds.

Nor*. Flre-balK according t> their sire, are fired from mortars of corresponding calibre*
With a charge of OWE TWKMTY-rurru iu weight, the ball is thrown 600 to 700 yards.

Howitzers are used to drive the enemy from positions when he
can only be reached by shells ; against covered ground, and particularly
forests and defiles; against strong cavalry attacks ; to prepare the way
for an attack of fortifications and posts, and to burn combustible ob-
jects of great extent. (Consult Aide Afemoire, par GASSENDI ; GIBBON;
ROBERTS ; BBNTON ; KINOSBURY ; ffittoire et Tactique des Trois Armcs,
par ILD.FAVE". <Sfe AMMUNITION ; RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

ASSAULT. In any -assault, it is necessary that the officer, com-
manding and responsible for the whole operation, should be in immediate
communication with the troops during the assault, and be present with
the reserve or supporting party ; 2. The troops destined for this duty
should be divided into two portions, each equal in strength to tlmr-
foiirths of the garrison attacked : one portion being the attacking party,
and the other half, the reserve or supporting party ; 3. Each column
attacking party will also be subdivided into advance, main body,
and support, whatever may be the number of these columns ; 4. The
disposition of tho attacking party, as it reaches the point of attack, will
be regulated by the engineer officer, under the orders of the officer
commanding th-y having made tho necessary reconnoissances ; the
party must be furnished with tools, ladders, and proper implements,
adapted to the circumstances of the moment, and accompanied by a
detachment of sappers; 5. The disposition of the reserve, .-.jiial, as
before observed, to the whole attacking force, should be regulated by
the officer intrusted with tho execution of the assault; and this re-
serve should be accompanied or not, according to circumstances, by
cavalry and field artillery. When these descriptions of force are

Ass.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 7!

present, the former should be placed under cover or out of gun shot
about 1,500 yards distant ; the artillery should be kept in hand until
the attacking party is engaged, when the guns should be spread out on
the flanks, and open a vigorous fire upon the works ; the infantry,
brought immediately in rear of the leading attack, should be placed
under cover, if possible, from fire of grape and musketry, and halted
until the issue of the first assault is seen ; 6. It is impossible to regu-
late an assault by any minute suggestions for the advance, except to
observe that it is usual for each column to attack the salient points of
the works, and least defended portions ; to throw out skirmishers and
firing parties under any cover available, and keep up a rapid and com-
pact fire upon the defenders ; to follow with the sappers and grenadiers
to force alb obstructions ; and then to advance the main body, the sup-
ports of each column being judiciously planted in the rear. Eventually,
as success occurs and the whole move on, points of security should be
taken up, such as the reverse, or the exterior slope of the works ; build-
ings, walls, as well as gorges and flanks, which frequently give cover.
Men should be planted under an officer, with instructions to take no
notice of the pell-mell, but to keep up a heavy firing in front ; employ-
ing the sappers in entrenching the position taken up by the supporting
party, or in collecting wagons, carts, carriages, &c., capable of being
made into a barricade ; 7. Either on the supposition that the success
of the assault is doubtful, or that there is a check, or repulse, the re-
serve, in case of doubtful success, to render the attack doubly sure,
should move forward under the officer commanding the whole assault-
ingforce, and relieve the assailants, who take their places as the reserve
as soon as order can be restored ; the artillery brought into position in
the openings, between the advancing columns, would be directed upon
the retreating or resisting forces ; and if success is finally complete, the
cavalry, in the event cf their being employed, will move forward, either
through the openings cleared, or by a detour, if a fortified town, in
pursuit.

In the second case that of a check the reserve, on the reconnois-
sance of the officer commanding, will either march forward in support
of the attack, or to cover the retreat, if further perseverance in the
assault is deemed impracticable the artillery and cavalry being
warned as to the intention. In the event of the assault being repulsed,
the reserve,, which should be in echelon, having advanced guards in
front, will allow the retreating party to move through the intervals,
and the advanced guard will endeavor to check the pursuit ; if over-
powered, they will fall back on the reserve, and the whole may in that

7;> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ass.

manner retreat until beyond gun shot, endeavoring to make a stand,
repulse the garrison, and if possible convi-rt failure into success, if tho
lit has been badly and without due caution. As an

important rule in all assaults, except in partial attacks, as an outwork,
or any particular work in which a lodgement is to be made, the com-
position of the forces should be by regiments and corps, and not by de-
tachments ; and each non-commissioned officer should be provided with
the means of spiking a gun, for which purpose even an old nail is suf-
ficient Assaults, if feasible, would seldom fail with th itions,
and there are few posts not open to assault, by taking the proper op-
portunity, an officer intrusted with tin- defence of a place should there-
fore exercise the most unremitting vigilance. (Consult DUFOUR, Toe-
tique dts Trots Armes ; Aide Afemoire by British Officers.) e

ASSEMBLY. Drum beat to order troops to assemble ; assembly
for skirmish. !*, a bugle sound.

ASSIGNMENT. If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, differ-
ent corps of the army shall happen to join, or do duty together, the
i rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia,
by commission, there on duty or in quarters, shall command the whole,
and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise spe-
cially directed by the President of the United States, according to the
nature of the case ; (ART. 62, Rules and Articles of War.)

It has been contended that the last clause of this article enables tho

President to make rank in the army vary at his pleasure, by an order of

assignment. But inasmuch.as the authority given to tho President l.y

the last clause of Article 02 is equally applicable to all commissions in

.f the army, marine corps, or militia, it would follow, under

e.. nst ruet ion, that the laws creating rank did not fix a range of

'nafii.il ; or. in other words, that Congress, after creating rank,

or a range of subordination, and establishing rules of appointment and

tuiro seniority or gallant and meritorious ser

and the sail -ho Senate for the attainment of si i.h promotion,

hare updone their whole work by giving to the, President the power to
o rank of tho only quality which gives it consideration. Tho
bare statement of this proposition is sufficient to show that su.h could
never have been the me.-min^ ,,f the last clause of Article <> of the
Rules I ' W:ir. and an attentive and candid examination of

the article will, it" is 1 M that its purpose was to de-

clare that the of ,ank should command whenever dii;

corps came M unless otherwise tpcrialfy directed f>>/ the President

of the United States, according to the nature of the case." That

AST.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 73

say, unless the President, in any special case, should deem the highest"
officer inefficient or incompetent ; then he might supersede him, by
withdrawing him from the command. Or, in other cases, the Presi-
dent might desire to carve out of the general command particular
trusts, or limit the discretion of the commanding officer in regard to
what is needful for the service. This plain interpretation of the dis-
puted passage in no case permits the violation of the rights of any
officer, by placing a junior over a senior ; but the Authority which it
gives the President is indispensable to a proper administration of his
great office of commander-in-chief. And it may be here stated that,
during the Mexican war, Mr. Folk's administration after much deliber-
ation emphatically disavowed the possession of any legal authority to
assign a junior major-general to command a senior. (See article RANK,
for a statement of the case of Major-general Benton. See also BREVET ;
DETACHMENT ; LINE ; PRESIDENT.)

ASSIGNMENT OF PAY. No assignment of pay made by a
non-commissioned officer or soldier, is valid ; (Act of May 8, 1792.)

ASTRAGAL Small convex moulding used in the ornamental
work of ordnance, and usually connected with a fillet or flat moulding.

ASYLUM, (MILITARY.) The persons entitled to the benefits of the
Asylum, or Soldier's Home, as it is now called, located in the District of
Columbia, are : 1. All soldiers, and discharged soldiers of the army of
the United States, who may have served honestly and faithfully for
twenty years. 2. All soldiers, and discharged soldiers of the regular
army, and of the volunteers, who served in the war with Mexico, and
were disabled by disease or wounds contracted in that service and in
the line of their duty, and who are, by their disability, incapable -of
further military service. This class includes the portion of the marine
corps that served with the army in Mexico. 3. Every soldier, and dis-
charged soldier, who may have contributed to the funds of the Soldier's
Home since the passage of the act to found the same, March 3, 1851,
according to the restrictions and provisions thereof, and who may have
been disabled by disease or wounds incurred in the service and in the
line of his duty, rendering him incapable of military service. 4. Every
pensioner on account of wounds or disability incurred in the military
service though not a contributor to the funds of the Institution who
shajl transfer his pension to the Soldier's Home during the period he
voluntarily continues to receive its benefits. No provision is made for
the wives and children of those admitted.

No mutineer, deserter, or habitual drunkard, or person convicted
of felony or other disgraceful crime of a civil nature, while in the army

: I MILITARY \KY. [Art.

or after his ffignhap, is admitted into the asylum without satisfactory
evidence being shown to the Commissioners of the Soldier's Home of
subsequent service, good conduct, an. I reformation of character. Tho
Commissioners are : the adjutant-general, the commissary -general of sub-
sistence, and the surgeon-general. The Soldier's Home has its governor,
secretary, and treasurer, appointed from the army ; (Act March 3, 1851.)
ATTACK AND DEFENCE. (See REDOUBT.) A redoubt may be
armed with cannon, or only defended by infantry. In the former
case, it may be necessary to silence cannon by cannon; in the latt. -r,
we may march at once to the attack. Light infantry, principally rifle-
men, envelop the work, and even, at a distance of 1.000 yards.
their fire tipon the interior of the work and crest of the parapet, so as
to prevent the defenders from showing themselves, or at least to cause
th<*n to fire hurriedly. Gradually approaching and converging their
fire, the riflemen groove the parapet, and assert the superiority of their
arm. Arrived at a short distance from the ditch, they run and leap
into it, unless prevented by obstacles such as pali-ad.-s abatis, and
trous-de-loup. In that event, they IM riil <-f the ol.sta* 1, s l>y means of
their axes, or fill the trous-de-loup with fascines, with which they have
previously provided themselves. Tho whole number, however, do not
throw themselves into the ditch, a portion remain upon the counter-
scarp, to fire upon any one daring to show himtMif behind the parapet.
When the troops have taken breath at tho bottom of the ditch, they
owau//, and to do this the soldiers aW each other in uimmtin^ upon
the bfrme. From thenco they mount together upon tho parapet. Lap
into the redoubt, and force-the defenders to ground their arms. If the
redoubt is armed \\ith cannon, and is of greater strength than has been
supposed, it might be necessary at first to cannonade in such a manner
at to break ades, dismount the pieces, and plough up tho par-

apet Favorable positions for the cannon used in the attack \\ill I.e.
sought: these positions shot dd command the work, or be on the pro*
longntion of its faces, so as to give an enfilading fin-. If t he redoubt is
pierced with embrasures, it is necessary to direct one or two pieces
... h < mliravuretoas to dismount the pieces, and to penetrate into
the interior of the work, in order t.. demoralize tho defenders. Somo
good riflemen will also approach towards the embrasures, shunninu' their
range, and fire upon the artillerymen, who may attempt to re-
load their piece*.

^ only after the attacking artillery has produced its desired
that the light infantry envelop the \\ ->rk, and do what has been already
indicated. When infantry of the line take part in tho attack, it is

ATT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 75

formed in as many columns as there are salients of attack. Each of
these columns is preceded by men armed with axes and carrying lad-
ders. It is a wise precaution to give to front rank men, fascines, which
not only serve as bucklers, but are also useful in filling up part of the
ditch. The light infantry open to allow the passage of the columns,
but redouble their fire to sustain the attack at the moment that the
assailants begin to climb the parapet. The essential thing in this de-
cisive moment for the assailants is unity of effort, and to leap into the work
from all sides at once. It is necessary, then, that the troops stop a
moment upon the berme, and await the concerted signal to clamber up
the exterior slope, in order to mount upon the parapet. If the redoubt
be not aided by other troops, or strengthened by works upon its flanks,
it will be difficult to resist an attack thus directed when valiantly ex-
ecuted. Whatever may be the result, it is the first duty of the com-
mandant of a post to sustain and invigorate the morale of his soldiers,
by his own confident air, his valiant resolutions, and his activity in
putting every thing in the best order. If the attack is not immediate,
the commandant will surround the redoubt with abatis ; he will pro-
vide heWy stones for the defence of the ditches ; he will endeavor to
procure bags of earth, to make embrasures upon the parapet. Want-
ing these he will supply himself with sods, making loopholes, through
which the best marksmen will fire upon the enemy. A beam placed
across these sods may, at the same time, serve as a protection to the
marksmen, and a means of rolling down the assailants. Cannon be-
gins the defence. As soon as the batteries of the enemy are discovered,
the fire is opened. But when once the batteries have taken their po-
sitions, when their pieces are partly covered by the ground, and their
fire begins to produce an effect, the struggle is no longer equal. It is
then necessary to withdraw the cannon of the work into its interior, or
to leave those pieces only which are covered by good traverses, throw-
ing, however, from time to time, some canister among the light in-
fantry, who may press too nearly. The artillery is at first only
aided by a few good marksmen placed in the angles, behind trav-
erses, or wherever the fire of the enemy is least felt. But when the
work is so closely pressed that the artillery of the assailants cannot
continue its fire without danger to their own men, the defenders mount
upon the banquettes, the guns are brought back, and the warmest fire
is directed upon the columns of attack, and upon the squads of light
infantry, who seek to make a passage through the abatis to the coun-
terscarp. This is the moment to explode such small mines as have been
previously prepared under the glacis, or in the interior of the work.

70 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [An

If, notwithstanding such efforts, the enemy reaches the ditch, and
collect* his force for the assault, all is not yet lost. The defenders roll
upon him shells, trunks of trees, and heavy stones, and then mounting
upon the parapet, stand ready to receive him at the point of tho bay-
onet, or to use the butt .f tho mu>k ry records the fail
more than one attack from such conduct on the part of the defenders ;
and if we reflect upon the disorder of tho assailants, and the physical
advantage which those standing upon the parapet must possess, it is
necessary, for the success of the attacking force, that they should have
a great moral superiority. This does often exist, but the commander
of A work may infuse his own indomitable spirit into his men.

iporary works may be attacked by SURPRISE or by OPEN FORCE.
In all cases, the first thing to be done is for the commander of tho at-
tack to obtain the fullest possible information that circumstances u ill
admit, of the character of the work, garrison, ground aroun.l it. d. ;
robable aid at hand, dec. If on intrenched village is to be att;.
it should be ascertained by what means tho streets and roads leading
into it have been closed, whether by stockades or breastworks; how
these obstacles are flanked ; what obstructions are placed in froht of
them, csc., &c. If the post is an isolated building, such as a country
house or church, attention should be directed to tho mode in which the
doors have been barricaded, or the windows blocked tip ; how the loop-
holes are arranged ; what sort of flank defence has been provided ; in >w
it can best be approached ; what internal preparations have been made
for prolonging tho defence, &c. Part of this knowledge may be ob-
tained from s^ies, and reconnoissance must do the rest. In tho attack
of military posts, infantry are frequently thrown upon thoir own re-
sources. They have no guns or howitzers for tearing up and d
ing stockades, abatis, palisading, chevaux-de-frizo, &c. Their r-lianee
must therefore 1..- ti, tivity and fertility of invention. Al.atis

may sometimes be fired by lighted fagots, or else passed by cutting
away a few of the smaller branches. Small ditches may l.e filled up
'undies of hay ; chevaux-de-frizo may be displaced by
main force with a rope, and a good pull together, or they may 1-e ,-ut
Mown to pieces by a box of powder. Stockade work or palisad-
y be escaladed with ladders brought up in a lino under the j, ro-
tation of a firing party, and carried by two or four men accord ing to
their length ; or a stockade, barricaded doors, gates, and window
be breached by a bag of powder, <fcc. By such measures, d, -isiv.-ly
and boldly used, troops would be a match for nny of the ordinary ob-
struction* which might oppose their advance, whether the attack were

BAG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 77

made by night or day, by surprise or by open force. (Consult Du-
FOUR; Aide Memoire, <kc.)

ATTACK AND DEFENCE OP PERMANENT FORTIFICATIONS. (See
SIEGE.)

ATTENTION Cautionary command addressed to troops, pre-
paratory to a particular exercise or manoeuvre.

ATTESTATION. A certificate, signed by the magistrate before
whom a recruit is sworn in as a soldier.

AUDITORS. (See ACCOUNTABILITY for their duties.) They may
administer oaths ; (Act March 3, 1817.)

AUTHORITY, (CiviL.) Any commissioned officer or soldier ac-
cused of a capital crime, or of having used violence, or committed any
offence, against the person or property of any citizen of any of the
United States, such as is punishable by the known laws of the land,
must be delivered over upon application of the civil authority ; and all
officers and soldiers are required to use their utmost endeavors to de-
liver over such accused persons, and likewise to be aiding and assisting
the officers of justice in apprehending and securing the persons so ac-
cused in order to bring them to trial. Any commanding officer or
officers, wilfully neglecting or refusing upon application to deliver over
such accused persons, or to be aiding and assisting the officers of justice
in apprehending such persons, shall be cashiered ; ART. 33. (See COM*
MAND ; EXECUTION OF LAWS.)

AUXILIARY. Forces to aid. -

AWARD. The decision or sentence of a court-martial.

BAGGAGE OF AN ARMY Called by the Romans impedimenta,
and by Bonaparte emlarras. No question is more* important in giving
efficiency to an army, than the regulation of its baggage. Nothing so
seriously impairs the mobility of an army in the field as its baggage-
train, but this baggage is necessary to its existence ; and the important
question therefore arises, How shall the army be sustained with least
baggage 1 Sufficient attention is not paid by Government to this sub-
ject in time of peace, and in war the commander of the troops finds
himself therefore obliged to use the unstudied means which his Govern-
ment hastily furnishes. In respect to artillery and artillery equip-
ments, the minutest details are regulated. It should be the same with
other supplies. In the United States Army, the quartermaster's de-
partment has charge of transports, and some steps have been taken to

78 MI LIT ART DICTIONARY.

regulate the subject ; but legislation is required for tho necessary mil-
Itary organiiation of conductors and drivers of wagons, and perhaps,
also, unless our arsenals may be so used, for the establishment of de-
pota, where a studied examination of field transportation may bo made,
which will recommend rules, regulating the kinds of wagons or carts to
be used in different circumstances ; prescribing tho construction of the
wagon and its various parts in a uniform manner, so that tho correspond-
ing part of one wagon will answer for another, giving the greatest pos-
sible mobility to these wagons consistent \\ ith strength ; prescril>in<: the
harness, equipment, valises of officers, blacksmith forges, tool chests,
ohesU for uniforms, bales of clothing, packing of provisions, and, gen-
erally, the proportion, form, substance, and dimensions of articles of
supply ; what should be tho maximum weight of packages ; the
means to be taken for preventing damage to tho articles ; the grade,
duties and pay of the quartermasters, wagon masters, and drivers
should be properly regulated ; rules for loading should be given ; ami.
finally, a complete system of marks, or modes of recognition should bo

'.././ i. W.'h Mi'-li mitt, :ti:d tin- adoption of a kitclun c<irf.
(5W WAOON,) together with small cooking utensils for field servi.
which may be carried by the men, an army would no longer always bo
tied to a baggage train, and great results might bo accomplished by
the disconnection. (Set CONVOY ; WAGON.)

BAKING. Troops bake their own bread, and the saving of
per cent, thus made in flour is carried to the credit of tho Post Fund.
(& OVENS.)

BALKS are joist-shaped spars, which rest between the cleats upon
the saddles of two pontoons, to support the chess or flooring.

BALL. (S*c CHAIN BALL ; NAIL BALL ; SOLID SHOT.)

BALLISTICS is that branch of gunm ry which treats of tho Mo-
tion of Projectiles. The instruments used to determine the initial
Telocity of projectiles are the gun-pendulum, tho ballistic pen.lulutn,
and the llistio machine. By the latter machine, the velocity

hi projectile ftt nny point of its trajectory is also determined. The

mined by tho pun pendulum, by suspending the

'piece itself at a pendulum, and measuring the recoil impressed on it l.y

the discharge; the expression for tho velocity is deduced from the fact,

that the quantity ated to tho pendulum N e,,nal to

that given to the projectile, charge of powder, and the air. The second

apparatus is a pendulum, the bob of whieh is made strong and heavy

to receive the Impact of the projectile; and the expression for the

velocity of the projectile is deduced from the fact, that the quantity of

BAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 79

motion <tf the projectile before impact, is equal to that of the pendulum
and projectile after impact. These machines have been brought to
great perfection in France and in the United States. By the electro-
ballistic machines wires are supported on target frames, placed in the
path of the trajectory, which communicate with a delicate time-keeper.
The successive ruptures of the wires mark on the time-keeper the in-
stant that the projectile passes each wire, and knowing the distances of
the wires apart, the mean velocities, or velocities of the middle points

can be obtained by the relation velocity = s ~*^

The electro-ballistic machine of Capt. Navaez of the Belgian service,
has been found too delicate and complicated for general service ; that
devised by Capt. J. G. Benton, Ordnance Department, is used at the
United States Military Academy. (For description, &c., consult BEN-
TON'S Ordnance and Gunnery.}

BAND. Musicians, as Regimental Band, Post Band, &c. They
are enlisted soldiers, and form a band of musicians under the direction
of the adjutant, but are not permanently detached from their com-
panies, and are instructed in all the duties of a soldier.

BANQUETTE is the step of earth within the parapet, sufficiently
high to enable the defenders, when standing upon it, to fire over the
crest of the parapet with ease.

BARBETTE. Guns are said to be in barbette when they are
elevated, by raising the earth behind the parapet, or by placing them
on a high carriage, so that, instead of firing through embrasures, they
can be fired over the crest of the parapet. In this position, the guns
have a wide range, instead of being limited, as in firing through em-
brasures.

BARRACKS from the Spanish barraca, are buildings erected
by Government for lodging troops. Where the ground is suffi-
ciently spacious, they are made to enclose a large area, for the pur-
pose of exercising and drilling. Barracks should be very commo-
dious, comprising mess-rooms, cooking-houses, guard-houses, magazines,
&c. United States troops are generally badly quartered, sometimes
in casemates of fortifications, and often in cantonments constructed by
themselves. Officers and soldiers' quarters should be properly fur-
nished by the Government ; but in the United States, officers' quarters
are bare of all conveniences when assigned to them for occupancy.
The quarters of soldiers are provided with bunks, tables, &c. (Con-
sult, for detailed information upon the proper construction of Barracks,

M 1 1 .IT ART DICTIONARY.

[BAR.

and their necessary furniture, &c,, BARDIX'S Dictlonnaire de TArmte de

r J/iVi'MiV*-, ilr. ; Britith Regulation*.)

BARRICADES. Th.- following series of Barricades afford moans
of closing openings in various ways, most of them practicable under all

1. Palisading; movable or fixed. } Lcopholed; the bottom of tin-

Stockade of trees. ( loophole not less than S

8. Stockade of squared baulk. ) above ground outside.
4. Abatis; with or without parapet of earth and ditch In-hind.
(See PALISADES ; STOCKADE ; AND ABATIS.)

Fio. 64.

Fig. 64 represents a barricade in a street, with its means of com.
munha

Fio. 65.

/. 65. Barricade made in haste with tier. , .. l...\.-s. wagon 1><
Ace., and filled with earth or dung, avoiding j... tones.

'. 00. Barricades made with bales of merchandise, barrels of

BAS.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

sugar, with the approaches also obstructed. Sand-bag parapets may
also be used as barricades. (See REVETMENT.)

BARRIER. Carpentry obstructions in fortifications. The pur-
pose regulates the construction. If the barrier is to be permanently
defensible, it should be musket-proof, and then becomes a Stockade.
If occasionally defensible, palisading will suffice, with a sand-bag or
other temporary parapet when required, behind and near enough to
fire between the palisades. The gates in both the above should, if pos-
sible, be of palisading, as the heavy stockade gate is unwieldy. Barrier
gates should never be left unprotected.

BASE OF OPERATIONS. That secure line of frontier or for
tresses occupied by troops, from which forward movements are made,
supplies furnished, and upon which troops may retreat, if necessary.

BASTION. A work consisting of two faces and two flanks, all the
angles being salient. Two bastions are connected by means of a CUR-
TAIN, which is screened by the angle made by the prolongation of the
corresponding faces of two bastions, and flanked by the line of defence.
Bastions contain, sheltered by their parapets, marksmen, artillery,
platforms, guards. They are protected by galleries of mines, and by
demi-lunes and lunettes outside the ditch, and by palisades, if the ditch
is inundated. Bastions should be large, and contain five or six hundred
infantry, with the necessary artillery. The boyaux of the besiegers are
directed towards the CAPITAL of the Bastion. The FACES of the BAS-
TION are the parts exposed to being enfiladed by ricochet batteries, and
also to being battered in breech. (See FORTIFICATION ; SIEGES.)

Bastion (Demi) is that which has only one face and one flank, cut
off by the capital like the extremities of horn and crown works.

Bastion (Empty). When the mass of rampart and parapet follows
6

v j MILITARY DICTIONARY. [AT.

the windings of the faces and flanks, leaving an interior space in tho

of the bastion, on the level of tho ground, it is called a hollow

or empty bastion. In standing in a bastion, and looking towards the

y, the face and flank on tho right hand are called tho right face

n the It-ll hand, the left face and Hank.

Bastion (Flat). When the demi-gorges and gorge arc in tho same
line, and the f .rmcr is half of the latter, the work is called a flat
bastion.

Haitian (Farts) are the most perfect of closed field works, with
reference to flanking defences, as each side or front consists of two
faces, two flanks, and a curtain.

Bastion (/-W). "When the. interior space is filled up to tho level
of th- tcrrc plcin of the rampart, tho construction is called a full
bastion.

BAT, BAT MEN, BAT HORSE, BAT AND FORAGE ALLOWANCE.
who take chart:*' -f tho baggage of officers and companies. Allowance
.it tin- beginning of a campaign in tho English army is called I'../
and Forage allowance.

BATARDEAU is a strong wall of masonry built across a ditch.
to sustain the pressure of tho water, when one part is dry and tin-,
other wet. To prevent this wall being used as a passage across th-
ditch, it is built up to an angle at top, and armed with iron spikes;
and to render tho attempt to cross still more difficult, a to\\
masonry is built on it. In the batardeau is the sluicegate, by tho
opening or cl'^in^ .f which the manoeuvres of the water can be

BATTALION. An aggregation of from two t, t.-n compan';
the United States Service. Their instruction is regulated by Infantry
and I.i.'ht Infantry ta

BATTERY. A battery consists of two or more pieces of artillery
in the field. Tho term Battery also implies the emplacement of Old-
Hint destined to act offensively or defensively. It also refers to the
company charged with a certain number of pieces of ordnance. Ti
nance const it < it* s the iJatt. r\ . Men terre the Batter II-
and epaulments may fell \ battery may bo with or without

embrasures. In the latter case it is en barbell, , and the h- i-lit of the
genoutllfre varies according to the description of the gun cat
The ordnance constituting the battery p-quires substantial bearings

1 for field-piece*, ,, r of timber, plank, or ma

platforms, for h- aw artillery. I'a'teries are sometimes designated as
follows: Barbette battery, one without embrasures, in which tho guns

BAT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 83

are raised to fire over the parapet; Ambulant battery, heavy guns
mounted on travelling carriages, and moved as occasion may require,
either to positions on a coast, or in besi eged* places ; Covered battery,
intended for a vertical fire, and concealed from the enemy ; Breaching
battery; Joint batteries, uniting their fire against any object ; Counter
battery, one battery opposed against another ; Coast battery Direct
battery Cross batteries, forming a cross fire on an object ; Oblique bat-
tery forms an angle of 20 or more, with the object against which it is
directed, contradistinguished from direct battery ; Raised battery, one
whose terre plein is elevated considerably above the ground ; Sunken
battery, where the sole of the embrasures is on a level with the ground,
and the platforms are consequently sunk below it ; Enfilading battery,
when the shot or shell sweeps the whole length of a line of troops or
part of a work ; Horizontal battery, when the terre plein is that of the
natural level of the ground, consequently the parapet alone is raised
and the ditch sunk ; Open battery, without epaulment, or other covering
wholly exposed ; Indented battery, or battery a cremaillere, battery con-
structed with salient and re-entering angles for obtaining an oblique, as
well as a direct fire, and to afford shelter from the enfilade fire of the
enemy ; Reverse battery, that which fires upon the rear of a work or
line of troops ; Ricochet battery, whose projectiles, being fired at low
angles, graze and bound without being buried ; Masked battery, arti-
ficially concealed until required to open upon the enemy.

Field Batteries, in sieges, are usually of two kinds, viz., Elevated
Batteries and Sunken Batteries, and they are placed either in front of the
parallel, in the parallel itself, or in rear of it. In an elevated battery,
the platforms for the guns or mortars to stand upon, are laid on the
natural level of the ground, and the whole of the covering mass, or
parapet, is raised above that level, the earth for forming it being ob-

FTG. 67.

tained from a ditch in front ; (Fra. 67.) In a sunken battery, the whole
interior of the battery is excavated about three feet deep, and the platforms
laid on the bottom, the earth is thrown to the front, and the parapet is

* I MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bii

formed out of it ; (Fio. 68.) An inspection of these figures will show
the difference ; and it will be obvious that the whole of the parapet
in the elevated battery has to be raised, and that in a sunken battery
part of the cover is obtained by taking advantages of the excavation

Fio. 6&

made f>r forming the mass. This construction is frequently used in
turning the portion of a parallel into a battery, by increasing the width
of the interior excavation of the trench so as to make room for the
platforms of the guns. Great care must bo taken that no rise in the
ground before the battery obscures the view from the soles of the em-
brasures ; for this purpose, the officer laying out the battery should lie
down and look along the ground, in order to be sure that his guns can
range freely from their embrasures, before he fixes his details for con-
struction. When guns are fired with an elevation when the soil is
sandy or gravelly when the weather is dry or the ground elevated,
this construction is approved. The depth of the* excavation for the in-
terior must depend on the height of the carriages upon whirh the
guns are mounted : it should be deeper in rear than in front, that it
may be drained. The interior slopes of these batteries, and the di< . ks
of the embrasures, must be supported by field revetments of gabions,
fascines, sand-bags, casks, or sods. In batteries exposed to a heavy die,
especially of shells, it is necessary to provide as much cover as possible
for the men serving in them; for this purpose, traverses are usually
placed between every two guns ; and as these masses servo to j>n t e< -t t he
men from the splinters of the bursting shells, they are generally ealle.l
plinUr-proof traverse. There is nearly twice as nindi work in the elevated
as in the sunk*-?. ( JEHU'S Attack and Defence; see EMDRA

ISATTKUY WAUON. A battery wagon accompanies each fn-M-
batt. FOROK.)

BATTU:. Battles are either v ,,rnUd or oblique, and thox
ttrateyir when, in consequence of a plan of campaign, they are fought
upon a given and ol.j M, Ml r or Austerlitz.

The foil f.,r battle are usually made by great

melon* : All disposable troops are held in hand ; the readiness of

(he troops is ascertained by inspection of arms ; proper nourishment is

given to them before going into battle ; the projects of the day are

BAT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 85

communicated from grade to grade; the points for the ambulances
and caissons are indicated ; the rendezvous for rallying or retreating are
made known ; measures are taken to secure the rear and communica-
tions, in order to retain the mastery of the base of operations ; the
army is ranged ordinarily in two lines, and the position of reserves
given in the order of battle ; the three arms are disposed according to
the nature of the ground ; decisive points are occupied ; open or flank-
ing batteries are established on proper elevations ; the front and flanks
of the army are furnished with artillery, in number, kind, and calibre
according to circumstances. These are preparations for battle; the
action commences ordinarily as follows : Marksmen are thrown for-
ward, sometimes acting in conjunction with artillery. Either the
enemy shows an equal disposition to attack, or else one party insults
the other to bring on a combat. When the advanced guards have felt
each other, the army disposed to make battle begins or increases its
cannonade, to constrain the adversary to deploy his MASSES, show his
different arms, and thus make known the composition, number, im-
portance, and the direction to be given to the adverse forces. The re-
serves remain stationary, while the cavalry, properly sheltered from
fire, watch their opponents, and throw themselves upon weakened or
staggered lines of infantry. When the affair has begun, and the po-
sition and dispositions of the enemy are known, and the proper effect
has been produced by firing, the infantry may march to the charge,
with the arms at a carry or on the right shoulder, leaving to the in-
stinct of the soldier the determination of the proper moment of bring-
ing the musket to the position of charge bayonet.

These details, however, constitute the mechanical parts of a battle.
The art and science of battles consist, according to Professors of
STRATEGY, in the subordination of tactical movements to the rule of
attacking only with such FORCES, as can overthrow those of the enemy,
either by numbers, position, or vigor ; in creating alarm upon many
points to induce your adversary to take false steps ; in surprising him
in the midst of his bold movements, and punishing him in his irresolute
ones ; in penetrating his designs to neutralize their effects, or taking
advantage of his faults ; in occupying commanding positions ; in avoid-
ing masks or curtains, and in acting always, if possible, on the OFFEN-
SIVE. When the action has seriously begun, the important business
of the general is to follow it up to advantage. If he is skilful and
valiant, he will preserve the ALLIGNMENT and intervals of his battalions,
by standing firm, or by marching ; he will strengthen his flanks by en-
terprises against those of the enemy ; by employing his fire so as not

80 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [BAT.

to stop the fire, at the same time, of all arms ; by filling up, at the
expense of the cavalry or second line, the holes made in the first line ;

M forcing or reanimating all corps which give way or falter; by

: none in unfavorable positions ; by sheltering the reserves from
cannon shot ; by bringing up, at opportune moments, fresh troops ; by
preserving the rear lines from being broken, while opening a free pas-
age to repulsed troops ; by exposing, when needed, his own person,
securing united efforts in attacks, vigor in charges, and promptitude in
rallying. Such is the theory of battles ; but GENIUS and experience are
necessary to apply the theory, an^ victory will be in vain sought from
the mechanical application of any dogma whatever. Battles upon the
same ground rarely occur, and never with soldiers of the same morale,
the same arms, the same numbers, and the same relative proportions.
It is by study of the campaigns of great commanders, by his own
experience, and his own genius, that battles are properly initiated
and won by a skilful general. (See MANOEUVRES IN COMBAT.)

BAYONET. At the battle of Spires, in 1703, charges of infantry
were first made with fixed bayonet. From that time, however, until the
wars of the French Revolution, the bayonet was more threatening than
murderous. Since then it has changed, throughout, the whole system
of the military art; cavalry has ceased to be the terror of foot ; and
the fir- f battle, even with new arms cnVetive in range at 1,000

yards, does not impair the usefulness of the bayonet; and although Su-

"> maxim that " La balle est folio'' c:mnnt le admitted, vet it is
true that " la bayonnette est sage." (Consult Manual of bayonet Exer-

v CAPT. G. B. MCCLELLAN.)

1IKD. Straw and bedsacks are allowed to soldiers for bedding.
The introduction of single iron bedsteads will make it necessary t.. in
crease the allowance of bed furniture. In Prussia and other eoiintries,
hammocks are used in place of bedsteads. Bed has also other appliwi-

us mortar bed; camped; bed of * gtm lock ; bedofftnd
of a rivrr ; to separate the beds of stone in a quarry, &o.

1 I (See ACCOUTREMENTS.)

m.KMK. Narr-.w path round fortificat'.. . n the parapet

and t! urti) fn m falling in.

SlEOE.)

BILLET. No soldier shall, in time beqVtttmd in any

house without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, l.ut in (lie

\te prescribed 1 ',//,///* to tic Consti-

) The manner "f, jnart. -riii- time i,f war i* nsu.-dly }.y

Billets, but no manner has been jtretcribed by law in the Untied States.

BLA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 87

The constables and other persons duly authorized in England are re-
quired to billet the officers and soldiers of the army, arid also the horses
belonging to the cavalry, staff, and field-officers, in victualling and
other houses specified in the mutiny act ; and they must be received
by the. occupiers of these houses, and provided with proper accom-
modations. They are to be supplied with diet and small beer, and
with stables, hay, and straw, for the horses ; paying for the same
the several rates prescribed by law. Troops, whether cavalry or in-
fantry, are in no case to be billeted above one mile from the place
mentioned in the route. Where cavalry are billeted, the men and
their horses must be billeted in the same house, except in case of
necessity. One man must always be billeted where there are one
or two horses; and less than twcx men cannot be billeted where
there are four horses ; and so in proportion for a greater num.
ber. No more billets are at any time to be ordered than there are
effective soldiers and horses present ; and all billets are to be delivered
into the hands of the commanding officer. Commanding officers may,
for the benefit of the service, exchange any men or horses billeted in
the same town, provided the number of men and horses so exchanged
does not exceed the number at the time billeted on each house ; and
the constables are obliged to billet those men and horses accordingly.
Any justice may, at the request of the officer or non-commissioned
officer commanding any soldiers requiring billets, extend the routes or
enlarge the district within which billets shall be required, in such man-
ner as may be most convenient to the troops. In Scotland, officers and
soldiers are billeted according to the provisions of the laws in force in
that country at the time of its union with England ; and no officer is
obliged to pay for his lodging, where he shall be regularly billeted,
except in the suburbs of Edinburgh.

BILL HOOK. An instrument for cutting twigs.

BIVOUAC. (See CAMP.)

BLACKING. (For SHOES.) Take three ounces of molasses, three
ounces of ivory black, one ounce muriatic acid, one ounce sulphuric
acid, and a spoonful of olive oil. Mix the ivory black and molasses,
then add the muriatic acid, and subsequently the oil ; when the paste
is well formed, incorporate with it the sulphuric acid.

BLACKING-, LIQUID. (For SHOES, &c.) Three parts of white wax,
seven and a half parts essence of turpentine ; one and a half parts of
ivory black. The wax is cut into small pieces and put into a glazed ves-
sel. Spread the turpentine over it, and leave it for 24 hours. Then
mix it by degrees with ivory, black. To use it, spread it with a Tag in
a thin layer on the leather, and afterwards rub with a soft brush.

MII.ITAKV Dionon

I>LA< KI\; ( ! I|VK\KS>.) Yellow wax, four parts in weight,
six parts essence of turpentine, one part of mutton suet, and one part
' ut the wax into small pieces, and leave it to soak tw ntv-
fur h>nrs in the QMonoe of turpentine ; grind in separately the ivory
black and MI. t until there is a perfect mixture of the whole mass.
When * lost its color, it may be restored by the mud of

ink, or :i;ite of iron in a thick solution, spread upon the edges.

BLACKSMITH AND FARRIER Allowed to cavalry regiments.
(Sec FORGE; ARMY ORGANIZATION.)

BLINDAGE. A siege work contrived, when defilement is im-
possible, as a shelter against a cross or ricochet fire of artillery. It is
also used to guard against tin- ellects of shells. The powder maga/ines,
the hospitals, the cisterns, certain doors ami windows arc thus blinded
by means of earpentry work, or she-It. -rs l..;nleil with earth. dm
Ulin.lap- of tin- tivmln-s is also necessary, particularly when the be-
siegers begin the crowning of the OOTered \\.-iy l-y m.-aiis of the sap.
Blindages are thus used to guard against stones or hand grenades
n by the besieged. This blindage is entirely exposed to sorties,
and also to the danger of being burned by the besieged.

BLOCK AND TACKLE. The power is equal to the weight di-
\id.-d l.y the number of ropes attached to the lowor block, or by twi.-e
the number of raising pulleys.

BLOCK-HOUSE (Redoubt of wood.) A common defetK* a-ainst

at two diagonal angles of a picket work. ! ,:id 70,

Fio. 69. Fio. 70.

Of MOWN* 'kOOM

BOM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 89

with dimensions in metres, show the construction used by the French
in Algiers ; or it may be built of logs 18 inches square on the ground
floor, and 12 inches square in the upper story. Height of each story
ten feet ; loopholed ; the upper story projecting all round, beyond the
ground story, as machicoulis. Hatches should be made in the roof for
the escape of smoke, and be grated.

BOARDS. A board composed of ordnance officers, designated by
the Secretary of War, as the Ordnance Board, decides, with the ap-
proval of the secretary, on the models and patterns of all ordnance and
ordnance stores for the land service of the United States.

Boards of Examination are instituted to determine upon appoint-
ments in regiments, composed of army officers, and for appointments
and promotion in the medical staff.

Boards of Survey are to examine injured stores, &c., and to take
an inventory of the public property in charge of a deceased officer.

Boards of Inspectors determine upon the fitness of recruits for service.

BOAT. A boat has been invented by Colonel R. C. Buchanan, of
the army, which has been used in several expeditions in Oregon and in
Washington Territory, and has been highly commended by several ex-
perienced officers, who have had the opportunity of giving its merits a
practical service test. It consists of an exceedingly light framework of
thin and narrow boards, in lengths suitable for packing, connected by
hinges, the different sections folding into so small a compass as to be
conveniently carried upon mules. The frame is covered with a sheet
of stout cotton canvas, or duck, secured to the gunwales with a cord
running diagonally back and forth through eyelet-holes in the upper
edge. When first placed in the water the boat leaks a little, but the
canvas soon swells so as to make it sufficiently tight for all practical
purposes. The great advantage to be derived from the use of this
boat is, that it is so compact and portable as to be admirably adapted
to the requirements of campaigning in a country where the streams are
liable to rise above a fording stage, and where the allowance of trans-
portation is small. It may be put together or taken apart and packed
in a very few minutes, and one mule suffices to transport a boat with
all its appurtenances, capable of sustaining ten men. Should the can-
vas become torn, it is easily repaired by putting on a patch, and it
does not rot or crack like india-rubber or gutta-percha ; moreover, it
is not affected by changes of climate or temperature. MARCY'S Prairie
Traveller. (See BRIDGE ; PONTON.)

BOMB. The shell thrown by a mortar is called a bomb-shell ; and
the shelters made for magazines, &c., should be bomb-/>roo/.

90 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bo*.

BOMBARDMENT. A shower of shells and other incendiary
projectiles. y employed against fortifications, but not against

open commercial cities.

HOOKS. Regimental books to be kept, are: 1. General order
book ; 2. Regimental order book ; 3. Letter book ; 4. ImK-\ f Letters ;
5. Siie or descriptive book ; 0. Monthly returns. Company books re-
quired are : 1. Descriptive book ; 2. Clothing book ; and 3. Order book.

The following rules for keeping books at the head-quarters of the
army and in the adjutant-general's office may, with modifications that
will readily occur, be used with armies in the field, at the head-quar-
ters of divisions, departments, regiments, &c. :

1. LETTERS RECEIVED. (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.)
1. All official communications received will be entered in this ! k,
excepting only such letters of mere trunsmittal of orders, returns, cer-
tificates of disability, requisitions, &c., as need not be preserved. The
orders, returns, certificates, requisitions, &c., themselves, will be appro-
priately entered in other books specially provided for the purpose.

2. Preliminary to being enter. -d every letter will bo folded ami en-
dorsed. Letter paper will be folded in three equal folds Cap pa
four. The endorsement will give the place and date of letter, name,
and rank of writer, and a summary of its contents, and if other i
accompany the letter, the number transmits -d will also bo noted <>n the.

.:i ml ink. Each enclosure will be numbered and bear the same
office marks as the letter transmitting it. Figures A, b, c, exemplify
the manner of endorsing.

3. Every letter required to bo preserved will bo entered ntphnli-ti-
cally and numbered the series of numbers beginning and terminating
with the year, and including all Inters dated (whether received <>r ii"t)
within the year. Only one number will be given to each letter re-
ceived with its enclosures, so that the sum of the numbers under each
alphabetical entry in the book of" Letters Ree. i\,-d,'' during an\

will *h\v the number f 1 -tiers received in that v

4. An a general ru letter will be entered in the name of its
; but there are cases \\here it is p referable, for coin -eni. M< < of i -f-

erenoe, to enter it in the name of the person wh> forms the sub]

that of the writer. Applications from eiti/.ns f,, r
the discharge of soldiers, <Scc.. |f - f this nature. Usually, a single

losurcs will suffice, but it may som<

be necessary, in addition, to make entries in the names of one or tUOft

If to wh.. m it relates. Such entries, however, will not

be numbered, bu ..main the date of receipt, name of individual,

Boo.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Fig. A. Ji'j- b. fig. c .

G. 1

FOBT ADAMS, E. I., )

May 8, 1849. j

Col. ,

3d Artillery, Com'd'g.

Relative to unhealthi-

ness of quarters at the

Post, and enclosing Sur-

^cou *3 rcDort

on the subject, dated

Apr. 30, 1849 ; forwards

also a copy of a report,

dated Aug. 16, 1840, of

a Board of Officers as-
sembled to examine into
the condition of the

G. 1. (Hd. Qrs.)
May 11, 1849.

quarters.

[Two enclosures.]

Rec'd (Hd. Qrs.)

May 11, 1849.

place and date of the letter concerning him, with a reference, in red ink,
to the number of that letter. Fig. E is an illustration of an entry of
this kind.

5. The book of " Letters Received " will contain a side index ex-
tending throughout, and will be divided among the several letters of
the alphabet according to the probable space required for entries under
each letter. The book will be paged, and each page divided into three
columns, headed " When received," " Name," " Date and purport of
letter," respectively, as shown by figure J), which also exhibits the
entry in the book of the letter represented by figure A.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Boo.

ISM,

LETTERS RECEIVED

When reeled,

Date and purport of letter.

May llih.

[Surgeon .]

Fort Adams, R. I., May 8, 1840.

See No. 1, Letter O.

Fig. D.
LETTERS RECEIVED.

IMA

When rewired.

Name.

Date and purport of letter.

May llth.

Col. ,

FOBT ADAMS, R. I.,

3d Artillery, command 1 g.

May 8, 1849.
Relative to unhealthiness of quar-

ters at the Post, and enclosing

Surgeon 's report on the

subject, dated April 80, 1849 ; for-

wards also copy of a report, dated

Aug. 10, 1840, of a Board of

Officers assembled to examine into

the condition of the quarters.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 93

6. Each entry will be separated from the one preceding it by a red
ink line ; and where two or more letters relate to the same subject they
will be either filed together, or made to refer to each other by their
numbers, and the filing or reference be noted in the book as well as on
the letters themselves.

7. Letters from the Executive and Staff Departments and other
public offices in Washington, will be entered alphabetically in the
names of the departments or offices themselves, but the entry will al-
ways exhibit the writers' names likewise ; thus, communications from
the War Department would be entered in the letter W, as follows :
" War, Secretary of, (Hon. ,) &c."

8. Communications from the President will be entered in the letter
P from State Department, in S Treasury, T War, W Navy, and
its bureaux, N Post Office and its bureaux, P Interior, / Attorney-
general, A Adjutant-general's office, A Quartermaster-general, Q
Subsistence, S Surgeon-general, S Paymaster-general, P En-
gineer Department, E Topographical Engineers, E Ordnance,
Recruiting service, Superintendent of, R Pension Office, P Comp-
trollers, (1st and 2d,) C The several Auditors, A Treasurer U. S., T
Commissioner Indian Affairs, / General Land Office, L Solicitor's
Office, S and Patent Office, P.

9. Communications from Governors of States will be entered in the
names of the States, the entry showing likewise the Governors' names ;
thus a letter from the Governor of New York would be entered in
the letter N, as follows : "New York, Governor of, (His Excellency

,)"&'

10. Letters from Staff Officers, written by direction of their gen-
erals, will be entered in the names of the Generals themselves ; thus a

communication from General K 's Staff" Officer would be entered in

the letter K, as follows :

Bvt. Major Gen'l , comd'g West'n Div'n,"

(by Assist. Adjt. Gen'l .)"

11. Communications addressed to the War Department or Adju-
tant-general's office, and thence referred, without an accompanying letter,
to head-quarters for report, or to be disposed of, will be entered, in
the ordinary way, in the names of their writers, a note (in red ink)
being simply made in the second column of the book, to show the fact
of reference, thus" (from A. G. O.)"

12. Where letters are referred from the office for report, &c., a note
of the fact must be made (in red ink) in this book with a citation of the
page, (or number of the letter,) in the " Endorsement " or " Letter

.,1 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo-

Book" where the reference is recorded, thus Ref'd for report to
Comd'g Offi'r Fort T., May 11 we Book of " Endorsements," p. 3,
(or, a see Letter No. 7, vol. 1st.") \Vhcn the communication is
returned, a memorandum to this effect will bo made in the book " Re-
turned with report, May 2. r >th. '

13. Should the portion of this book appropriated to any particular
letter of the alphabet prove insuflifirnt for entries under that letter, they
will be transferred to a few of the last leaves allotted to some other
letter of the alphabet, where there is more space than will probably be
required. The fact of transfer will be noted in large characters, (in
red ink,) at the bottom of the page from which transferred, and at the
top of the page to which carried, as follows :

** TRANSFERRED TO PAGE 250," and " BROUGHT FROM PAGE 60."
II. LETTER BOOK. (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.} 1.
letter recorded in this book is numbered, (in red ink.) the
numbers commencing and terminating with the year, and each letter is
separated from the one which follows it by a red line.

2. The address of all letters should be at the top, the surname being
written conspicuously in the margin, followed by the official title (if
any) and Christian name, thus :

Bvt. Maj. Gcn'l .

Comd'cr, &c., &c., dec., or
Esq. Samuel II.

3. Each letter should bo signed in the record book by its writer.

4. Wh, -never copies of letters are furnished, the names of the per-
sons to whom they are sent should be noted in red ink in the margin

he dute, when the last differs from the date of the letter itself. In
like manner, when a letter is addressed to one officer, under cover to his
commander, Ace.. hould also be noted in red ink in the mar-in.

6. The name of every person to whom a letter is addressed is in-
dexed alphabetically, in black ink, ami the names of tin- individuals
whom it principally concerns are indexed in red ink. A red ink line
is drawn in the body of the letter under the names so indexed, to facil-
itate a reference to thorn. In the margin, immediately under the name
of the person to whom a letter is addressed, there are two references,
above and below a short red line, the one above (in red) indicates the
last preceding letter to the same individual, nnd the one below (in
black) the next following. A detached in 1. \ is us, d until the ree.,nl
book is full, uhon the names are arranged under each letter as in City
Directories, and thus classified they are transferred to the permanent
index attached to the record book.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 95

III. GENERAL ORDERS. (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.)
1. Every order recorded in this book should be signed by the staff
officer whose signature was attached to the originals sent from the
office, and each order should be separated from the one following by a
red line.

complied with ; and where orders are sent to one officer, under cover
to his commander, (which course ought always to be pursued,) or fur-
nished at a date subsequent to that of their issue these facts should
likewise be added : where the order has been printed, it will be suffi-
cient to write the word "printed" in red ink in the margin, to indicate
that the widest circulation has been given to it.

3. There are two indexes attached to the book one of names, the
other of subjects every order will be indexed in the latter immediately
after being copied.

For najpes, a detached index will first be used until the record book
is full, when they will be arranged under each letter as in City Directo-
ries, and thus classified, transferred to the permanent alphabetical index
attached to the record book. Every proper name will be indexed and
a red line drawn in the body of the order under it, to facilitate a refer-
ence to it.

IV. SPECIAL ORDERS. (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.)
1. Every order recorded in this book should be signed by the staff
officer whose signature was attached to the originals sent from the
office, and each order should be separated from the one following by a
red line.

2. The mode of numbering, distribution, and general form of orders
are prescribed by the Regulations (see paragraphs 904, 905, and 908,
edition of 1847 ;) but the distribution in each particular case should be*
noted in red ink in the margin, to show that the Regulations have been
complied with ; and where orders are sent to one officer, under cover
to his commander, (which course ought always to be pursued,) or fur-
nished at a date subsequent to that of their issue these facts should
likewise be added.

3. There are two indexes attached to the book one of names, the
other of subjects every order will be indexed in the latter immediately
after being copied.

For names, a detached index will first be used until the record book

; MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo.

is full, when they will be arranged under each letter as in City 1 >
ries, and thus classified, transferred to the permanent alphabetical index
attached to the record book. Every proper name will be indexed and
a red line drawn in the body of the order under it, to facilitate a
ence to it.

V. ENDORSEMENTS AND MEMORANDA. (5 quires, Cap Russia, with
spring bark.) 1. Kvory endorsement made on letters or other communi-
cations sent fr>m the office will be copied in this book, and be signedby
the staff officer whose signature was attached to the endorsement itself. A
brief description of the communication sent out (the name of its writer,
date, subject, and office marks) should precede the record of the en-
dorsement, to render the latter intelligible ; and where such communica-
tion has been entered in tho book of " letters received," the disposition
made of it should also be noted in that book, \\ith a citation .f tho page
where tho endorsement is recorded. Should the communication l>c
returned to head-quarters, a memorandum will bo made* to that

with the date when received back, in all the books where the fact of the
reference from the office may have been not. .1.

2. In the case of such papers as proceedings of general courts-mar-
tisl, certificates of disability for tho discharge of sol.licrs, requisitions
for ordna-uv, &c., which are not filed at head-quarters, but f -rwarded
thence for deposit in other offices, it will gem-rally suffice to make

f memorandum of tho gcncral-in-chief's action upon tlu-m, in-
stead of copying the endorsements. \V!

H any rule or principle, it oii-ht, of courso, to bo copied in full.

3. The name and address of every oflieer to whom a communication
rred will be written in the margin, and all proper names, no

r in what connection employed, must be. index, ,|.

4. Tb MUM of the person t> whom a communication is sent will

ho names mentioned in the description
d to the endorsement on tho communication, as wvll as in th<

t itself, will be indcxrd in red ink. To facilitate a
cnce to these last names, n red line will bo drawn under tin -m. In
the margin, immediately under the name of tho person t.. \\hom a
communication is addressed, then- an- t\\o r - fen-invs. above and below
a short red line; the one above (in red) indicates the la*t preceding
reference to the sain* individual, and tho one below (in black) the

foltfv

VI. P. .o K or RKTURNS.

Besides tho foregoing blank books of appropriate size neeordn- t >
circumstances, the following books of arc necessary : Hi

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 97

Military Laws ; Army Regulations ; Ordnance Manual ; Artillery
Manual ; Prescribed Tactics for Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry ; Me-
CLELLAND'S Bayonet Exercise ; Aide Memoire du Genie ; Aide Memoire
d'Etat Major ; WIIEATON'S International Law ; KENT'S or STORY'S Com-
mentaries ; MAHAN'S Field Fortifications ; Military Dictionary.

BOOM is a chain of masts, or a large cable, or other obstacles
stretched over a river for the protection of a military bridge which has
been thrown across, or under the fire of fortifications to bar access
within a harbor.

BOOTY. (SAXON, bot, bote, lawful profit, gain, advantage, distin-
guished from plunder or pillage.) Despoiling a people or city is barbar-
ous and not tolerated in civilized warfare, but legitimate subjects of booty
are well described in an act of the British Parliament (2 William IV.,
c. 53) : as arms, ammunition, stores of war, goods, merchandise, and
treasure belonging to the state or any public trading company of the
enemy, and found in any of the fortresses or possessions, and all ships
and vessels in any road, river, haven, or creek belonging to any such for-
tress or possession. It should be the duty of commanding generals to
cause an exact account of such captures to be kept, in order that the
captors may be remunerated by the government for such stores as are
reserved for the public service, and in order that all such prizes of war
may be legally and equitably divided amongst the captors. Such is the
practice in England. There land prizes are divided according to an
established rule of division. In the Piedmontese army the administra-
tion of booty is intrusted to a special staff corps ; the French laws (says
Bardin, Dictionnaire de 1'Armee do Terre) are silent on this subject, or
else those which are in force announce nothing positive ; and in their
silence, there is inhumanity, hypocrisy, and mental reserve. In a
memorial presented by the Duke of Wellington he claimed of his
government for the English army, more than a million sterling which
had been used in the king's service from captures made by the British
army in Spain and France, and the English budget of 1823 shows that
the amount so claimed was given to the army. The 58th article for
the government of the armies of the United States provides, that " All
public stores taken in the enemy's camp, towns, forts, or magazines,
whether of artillery, ammunition, clothing, forage, or provisions, shall
be secured for the service of the United States ; for the neglect of which
the commanding officer is to be answerable." This article of war is
borrowed from a corresponding British article, which directs that the
same stores shall be secured for the king's service. But by proclamation
in Great Britain the money value of all captures is invariably divided
7

MILITARY DICTION ART. [Boo.

amongst the captors. No practice can be more wise ami just, tor al-
though it is necvasary to proscribe marauding or pillage, it is impos-
sible to extirpate the desire of gain tn>m the human heart, and it is
therefore necessary that the law should frankly provide for an equit-
able distribution of captures amongst the army. The absence of a law
n tends to introduce into an army the greatest evils: sol-
diers disband thi-m-, Ives in search of pillag.-. ,-md their cupidity leads
to the greatest horrors. These great evils are avoided by a legal divi-
sion of booty, when all soldiers, animated by the hope of sharing the
fruits of victory, are careful not to abandon to the greedy, the cowardly,
and the wicked amongst themselves advantages properly belonging
he gallant victors. In the hope that ( ' ingress may y< i do justice to
our army in respect to captures made in the war with Mexico, the rules
established in Great Britain arc annexed in a series of prize procla-
mations taken from Prcndergast's Law Relating to Officers of the
Army:

I. Prize Warrants.

1. SGINDE BOOTY.

VICTORIA K.

Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the .Faith, To all to whom tin - pres-
ents shall come, Greeting: "Whereas the Commissioners of our Treas-
ury have represented unto us, that certain hostilities \\viv carried on in
the year 1848 against tho Ameers of Scinde by our land 1 the

land forces raised and paid by the F.ist India Company, in which a por-
tion of the Indus Flotilla eo-opcratcd : and that during the said hostili-
ties certain b at t lea wt -re fought, and a quantity of booty and plunder
captured or taken possession of. consisting of L r "ld and silver 1-ars and

m, of Ornaments, jewels, and ornamented arms, and of guns, cattle,
and other property, of which the following schedule or account has li.-.-n
rendered to our said commissioners, (that is to say,)

i in to the Public Treasury in , ()g g
on account of the articles sold, about )

Realized nt Kurrachie . . . . . . 17,743

Value of Si!, g64

Isold . 1

Gold remaining in natedat. . . 1 '.' ''>

Lead, valued at 15,000

to which are to be added the ium due from the Government for articles

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 99

transferred to public departments, the sum due from individuals for
articles sold in Scinde, and the sum which may be produced by the sale
of the jewels, &c., which are at present in deposit at Bombay, but have
been ordered to be sold ;

And whereas it has been further represented unto us that the said
booty and plunder do of right belong to us in virtue of our Royal pre-
rogative, and that the said booty and plunder should be given and
granted in such manner as to us may seem meet and just ;

And whereas our said commissioners, under all the circumstances
of this case, have recommended unto us to give and grant the said cap-
tured booty and plunder, or the produce or value thereof, as before
stated, according to the following scheme, (that is to say :)

Such articles of personal use and ornament to be reserved for the
Ameers as may be selected for that purpose by the Governor-general
of India in council, with the approbation of the Commissioners of our
Treasury ;

The remaining property to be divided into sixths :

One-sixth to be given to all such of the troops stationed at, or be-
tween Shikarpoor, Seikkur, and Kurrachie, and all such of the Indus
Flotilla stationed between Seikkur and Kurrachie on any day between
the 17th of February and 24th of March, 1843, both included, as shall
not be otherwise entitled to share in the booty ;

The Major-general commanding in Scinde, and the officers of the
general staff of the forces serving under his orders in the above-men-
tioned operations, to share in this portion as well as in the other por-
tions hereinafter specified.

The remaining five-sixths (subject to the deductions hereinafter speci-
fied) to be divided in two equal parts, one moiety to be given to the
troops who fought at Meanee, and the other to those who fought at
Hyderabad ; the troops who were in both battles receiving a share of
each moiety ; and from the share or shares accruing to each individual
under the distribution to be made of this portion of the booty there
should be deducted and repaid into the Company's Treasury the amount
of the Donation of Batta, which the individual entitled to the said share
or shares has received under the general order of the Government of In-
dia, dated 28th of February, 1844, as having been present at the battles
of Meanee or Hyderabad;

And our said Commissioners likewise recommend that the troops
under Lieutenant-colonel Outram, who were detached previously to the
battle of Meanee, and directed to fire the Shikargah on upon the right
flank of the army, as well as the detachment which so gallantly defend-

100 MILITAKY DICTION ? ARY. [Boa

ed the British Residency on the l. r >th of February, and also such portion
of the Indus Flotilla as was engaged in that .1- . o-operated with

the detachment under Colonel Outram, or was in any other way in im-
mediate connection with the army that achieved the victory of Mcanee*
should share as if they had all been actually present at the battle of
Meanee; and in like manner the garrison of Ihdi -rabad should be
entitled to share in the sum alloted to those engaged in the second*
battle;

Now know ye that Wo, taking tho premises into our Royal consider-
ation, are graciously pleased to approve the said scheme, and do, with
the advice and recommendation of our said Commissioners, by this our
Royal Warrant, under our Royal sign-manual, give and grant the said
captured booty and plunder, or the produce or value thereof as before
stated, unto the Directors of the East India Company, or to such person
or persons as they shall appoint to receive the same, upon tho trust
following, (that is to say,) upon trust, after making the reservations and
deductions above stated, to distribute tho remainder amonu our land
forces, and tho land forces of tho snid Company, and the. office v
crews of the Indus Flotilla, engaged in the aforesaid hostilities in ac-
cordance with the scheme hereinbefore mentioned and set forth, and
with the usage of the army of India ;

And we are graciously pleased to order and direct that, in case
doubt shall arise respecting tho claims to share in the distribution afore-
said, or respecting any demand upon tho said captured booty or plunder,
the same shall bo determined by tho Directors of the East India Com-
pany, or by such person or persons to whom they shall refer the same,
which determination thereupon made shall, with all eonv. nient speed,
ifii-d in writing to the Commissioners of our T: ind tho

same shall be final and conclusive to all intents and purjM^es. unless,
within three months after tho receipt thereof at the othYe ..f the Com-
missioners of our Treasury, We shall bo graciously pleased oth
to order, hereby reserving to ourselves to make such < -rd. r th.-rein as
to us shall seem meet.

-n at our Court at Win. is r ('a^tl.-. this llth da\
in the Oth year of our reign, ami in the year of our Lord
iler Majesty's Command,

(Signed) 1 II.M.Y

J. MILNES GASKELL,
WILLIAM < 'KIPPS.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 101

2. TARRAGONA BOOTY.

(Conjunct Expedition of British Land and Sea forces.)
GEORGE R.

Whereas ordnance arms, stores, magazines, and other booty have been
captured from the enemy during the year 1813, at Tarragona, by that
part of the British army under Field-marshal the Duke of Welling-
ton, in Spain, which was under the immediate orders of Lieutenant-
general Lord William Bentinck, and by H.M.S. Malta, Fame, Invin-
cible, Merope, Buzzard and Volcano, forming part of the fleet under Ad-
miral Lord Exmouth, then under the immediate orders of Admiral Sir
Benjamin Hallowell, and appropriated to the public service ; And
whereas an Act passed in the 54th year of the reign of our late Royal
Father, entitled an Act for regulating the payment of Army prize-
money, and to provide for the payment of unclaimed and forfeited
shares to Chelsea Hospital ; And whereas application hath been made
to us by the said F.M. the Duke of Wellington and Admiral Lord Ex-
mouth to grant the sum of 31,531 185. (being the estimated value of
such ordnance and stores) in trust, ty be distributed as booty to the of-
ficers, non-commissioned officers, and privates serving in that part of the
British army under his command in Spain, which was under the immediate
orders of Lieutenant-general Lord William Bentinck, and to the officers,
non-commissioned officers, seamen, and marines, on board H.M.S. Malta,
Fame, Invincible, Merope, Buzzard and Volcano, placed by Admiral
Lord Exmouth under the immediate orders of Admiral Sir Benjamin
Hallowell, at Tarragona ; And whereas the said Field-marshal the Duke
of Wellington, having expressed his wish not to participate in the dis-
tribution of the booty as Commander-in-chief of the British army serv-
ing in Spain ; We, taking the same into our Royal consideration, arc
graciously pleased to give and grant, and do hereby give and grant, to
the said Lieutenant-general Lord William Bentinck and Admiral Lord
Viscount Exmouth the said sum of 31,531 18s. ; and that the said sum
be issued and paid without any fee or other deduction whatsoever, in
trust, for the benefit of the said Lord William Bentinck and the officers,
non-commissioned officers, and privates serving under him, and of Ad-
miral Lord Viscount Exmouth, and the officers, non-commissioned
officers, seamen, and marines actually on board of our before-mentioned
ships employed in that service, as booty and prize, or bounty money
in the nature of prize-money, under the provisions of the said Act
passed in the 54th year of the reign of our late Royal Father, to be
distributed under the provisions of the said Act of Parliament, and

lirj MlUTAK'i VRY. [Boo.

agreeably to our Proclamation for tho distribution of prize, in force at
10 of the said expedition, and this our Royal grant, in manner and
several proportions following, (that is to say,) such sums being
. eight equal parts :

.t.-general Lord Wm. U. -ntinek, Admiral, Lord Viscount
uouth, and such General Officers and Admirals under their >m-
mand, who were actually present at the capture of tho said booty, so
that the said Lieut.-gcn. Lord Win. 1 lent i nek and Admiral Lord YU-
count Exmouth shall take one moiety, and the other General Officers
and Admirals who wero actually present at the capture of the said
booty, the othor moiety in equal proportions One-eighth.

Colonels, Lieut-colonels, and Majors in the army, and Captains
and Commanders in tho navy, who were actually present at the
capture of tho said booty, to be equally distributed among them,
and tho persons entitled by tho usage of our army to share with
t hern Ttro-ei<jh ths.

To tho Captains in tho army and Lieutenants in tho navy, and other
description of persons entitled by tho usage of our army and navy
respectively to share with them One-eighth.

To the Lieutenants, Cornets, Ensigns, and Quartermasters in tho army,
and Warrant and other Officers in the navy, and otln-r description
of persons entitled by the usage of our army and navy to share with
them One^ighth.

in tho army and Petty Officers in tin- navy, and other
description of persons entitled by the usage of our army and
respectively to share with them Onc-ciijhth.

'[' tli.- Trumpeters and Soldiers Seamen, and Marines, and other descrip-
tion of persons entitled by the usage of our army ami navy respect-
to share with them. 7Vo-,/y/,///.v

And we are further pleased to direct that all such r< sums

of money shall be distributed as pri/e or bounty money. Of money in

the nature of prize-money, according to tho provisions of the .said Act

-f tho 54th year of tho r Iff Il'-yal Father, and

tho several ftlqg to the distribution of prtefrmQMy in our nary,

i r said 1' r <_r:int, and the rul-s ;md ens-

tOOkl heretofore used and observed iii our army and navy resj.ectively

in that behalf, and tho agents intrusted with the distribution ther
Hhe said Lieutei d Lord William U.-jitim-k and Admiral I.ord

Viseoi. Mth shall give all such iioiie,-s. and make sueh ii'.tiliea-

;tion. as are required by tho said Act of Par!;
I'arliamrnt in foree nlatini; to the d'r-ii.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 103

of prize-money in our army, and our said Proclamation, and pay over
all unclaimed shares to Chelsea and Greenwich Hospitals respectively,
to be hereafter paid to the persons entitled thereto, or remain for the
benefit of the said respective Hospitals according to the provisions and
regulations of the said Act of Parliament and the several Bills in force
relating to the distribution of prize-money in our navy ; And We are
further graciously pleased to order and direct that in case any doubt
shall arise respecting the said distribution, or with respect to any other
matter or thing relating thereto, the same shall be determined by the
said commanders of the said land and sea forces, Lieutenant-general
Lord William Bentinck and Admiral Lord Viscount Exmouth, or by
such person or persons to whom the said commanders of the said land
and sea forces shall refer the same ; and such* determination shall be
final and conclusive upon all persons concerned, and as to all matters
and things relating to the said distribution.

Given at our Court, at Carlton House, this 7th day of June, 1820,
in the first year of our reign.

By his Majesty's command,

(Signed) BATHURST.

3. GENOA BOOTY.

(Conjunct Expedition of British and Allied Forces.)

In the name and on behalf of His Majesty,
GEORGE P. R. *

Whereas it has been represented to us that, at the capture of the Terri-
tory and City of Genoa and its dependencies, on the 18th of April, 1814,
a quantity of ordnance, military and naval stores, ships and vessels, and
other booty, being public property belonging to the enemies of the
Crown of Great Britain, was seized and taken possession of by our sea
and land forces, under the command of Vice-admiral Sir Edward Pel-
lew, Bart, (now Lord Exmouth,) and Lieutenant-general Lord William
Cavendish Bentinck, Knight of the Bath, commanding our naval and
military forces in and upon the coasts of the Mediterranean, assisted by
certain Sicilian and Italian troops, and troops in British pay, and has
been condemned to us as good and lawful prize taken in the said conjunct
expedition ; And whereas no instructions were given by us for the divi-
sion or distribution of the booty to be captured on the said conjunct
expedition ; And whereas application hath been made to us that we
would be graciously pleased to order and direct that the same ordnance,
military and naval stores, ships, vessels and other booty may be dis-
tributed between the officers and crews of our ships, and those of our

104 MILITARY DICIK'N A KV. [Boo.

Ally the King of tho Two Sicilies, ami the officers and men of our land
forces, and those of our Ally the Kin-; of the T\\o Sicilies, according to
any plan of dUtributi.n \\ e shall bo graciously pleased to apj

premises into .-ur K..\;tl consideration, are graciously
pleased to give and i:r.mt, and do li -reby give and grant, to tl.
Vice-admiral Sir Edwfcrd Follow (now Lord Exmouth), Commandcr-
: our fleet and vessels employed on the said expedition, and
:i;int-gcncral Ix>rd William Cavendish Hentim-k. Knight ol" the
Hath. Commander-in-chief of our land forces employed on the said ex-
n. the said ordnance, military and naval stores, ships, vessels, and
other booty, so as aforesaid taken and condemned to us, in trust, to
:te the samo amongst tho commanders-in-ehicf, general and flag
officers, and all other officers serving on the said expedition in the fol-
: manner, (that is to say), that the divisi-.n of the booty l>
ny ami na\ya-id the said Sicilian and Italian ships and troops
.1. 1 expedition, shall be i --ling to the follwing

scheme or schemes: the whole being first divide. 1 into equal parts:

1 To the Commanders-in-chief and to tho Flag and (Jeiieral ( Mh'eers

serving in tho said expedition, one-eighth, to be distributed amongst
them, so that each Commander-in-chief shall take double that share
which eaeh (Iciieral and Flag Officer (not being Commander-in-
chief) shall take; but if the number -f Flag and CJeneral < >!:

of the two Commanders-in-chief, shall ur, in that

case a moiety of the said one-eighth shall he divided between the
two Commanders-in-chief, and the other moiety amongst the other
Flag and General Officers Om'-n't/Jtf/i.

2 To the Colonels, LSeuteaantrolonels, and Majors in the army, and

Post Captains and Masters and Commanders in the navy, and /<>
the pertont of like rank belonging to the mi!>/ Firi/;<w tn,>l Jttilinn
h ipi and troops, to be equally distributed amongst th-m (>m--i /;//////.
'' T >; ( -lins of Marines ami land forces, and tho eca Lieutenants,
and other deor5pt ion of persons entitled by our Proclamation for the
distribution of pri/.e of the llth November, 1S07, pf 1-y the usage

ir army, t share with them, and tn tic persons in ///'
Ion ,-/ I in linn ah i jts and troops One-eiyh tli .

he Lieutenants and Quartermasters . ,f marines, and Lieutenants,
Ensigns, and Quartermasters of land :id the HoaNwains,

GUI sern in the navy, and other description of ]

titled by our said Proclamation or by tho usage of our army, to
share with them, and to tit persons in Ukr r<mk firlonyiny to the said
Sicilian and Italian ships and troops Ont-ciy/it/i.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 105

5 To the Midshipmen, Captains' Clerks, Sergeants of marines and land

forces, and the other description of persons entitled by our said
Proclamation or by the usage of our army, to share with them, and
to the persons in like rank belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian
ships and troops One-eighth.

6 To the Trumpeters, Quarter-gunners, Seamen, Marines, and Soldiers,

and the other description of persons entitled by our said Proclama-
tion, or by the usage of our army, to share with them, and to the
perso?is in like rank belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian ships
and troops One-eighth.

And that the portion of the said booty, so belonging to our said land
forces employed on the said expedition, and the persons belonging to the
said Sicilian and Italian troops, shall be distributed between the Com-
manders-in-chief, officers, and privates composing the same, according to
the rule heretofore used and observed by the army, under the above
scheme or schedule ;

And that the portion of the said booty so as aforesaid belonging
to our naval forces employed in the said expedition, and the persons
belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian ships, be distributed amongst
the Commander-in-chief, flag and other officers, and men belonging to
our navy employed on the said expedition, and the persons belonging to
the said Sicilian and Italian ships, agreeably to our Proclamation for
the distribution of prize in force at the time of the said expedition.

And we are graciously pleased to order and direct that, in case any
doubt shall arise respecting the said distribution, or respecting any
charge or demand upon the said captured property,. the same shall be
determined by the Commanders- in-chief, and flag and general officers, or
such of them as can conveniently be assembled, or by such person or
persons to whom they, or a majority of them, shall agree to refer the
same ; which determination so thereupon made, shall, with all convenient
speed, be notified in writing to the Clerks of our Council, and the same
shall be final and conclusive to all intents and purposes, unless within
three months after the receipt thereof at our Council Office, we shall be
pleased otherwise to order ; hereby reserving to ourself to make such
orders therein as to us shall seem fit. Given at our Court at Carlton
House, this second day of August, 1815, in the 55th year of our reign.
By command of II.R.H. the Prince Regent, in the name, and on the
behalf of, His Majesty. (Signed) BATHURST.

II. India Prize-Money.
The following is the present standing scale of distribution of prize-

100 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boa

money in India, to European commissioned and non-commissioned
officers, private^

Souucs.

Commander-in-chief of the whole.

.ral Officers 1,500

Colonels 600

Lieut.-colonels, Adjutant-gen, and Quartermaster-
general of Her Majesty's and the Hon. Company's
troops, Commissary -general, Members of the
Medical Board, Inspector of Hospitals of lit r
Majesty's Troops 360

Majors, Deputy Adjutant-general, and Deputy Quar-
t. r master-general of Her Majesty's and the Hon.
Company's Troops, Deputy Commissary-general,
and Superintending Surgeons .... 240

Captains, Surgeons, Assistant Adjt.-general, and As-
sistant Quartermaster-general of HIT Majesty's
and the Hon. Company's Troops, Assistant Com-
-sary -general, Deputy Assistant Adjutant-gen-
eral, Quartermaster-general and Commissary-gen.,
Paymaster, Surgeon to 1 1 is Excellency the Com-
mander-in-chief, Brigade-majors, Aides-de-camp to
His Kxeelleney the Commander-in-chief and Gen-
eral Officers, and Commissaries of Ordnance. . 120

iiants, Assistant-surgeons, Cornets, Ensigns,
Adjutants and Quartermasters of Her Majesty's
Dragoons and Infantry, Veterinary Surgeons, Dep-
uty Commissaries, and Deputy Assistant Commis-
saries of Ordnance 60

Conductors, Hiding Masters, Apoth. <.:

Sub-assistant and Veterinary Surgeons and Provost
Martial 15

Sub-conductors, Ajafetant-Ajxtthecaries, Assistant-
stewards, Regimental Sergeant-majors, Staff-brigade
and Farrier-sergeants of Horse Art ill. rv, Park s

'. Armorer, ami Sergeants of Artillery . 8

Tru: . 'Saddler

geants, Schoolmaster-sergeants, Hospital-*.

r^eants, Color-sergeants, Armorer-ser-
geants, Drum-majors, Brigade and Staff-sergeants
of Foot A rt i ! .izmc-sergemits, Laboratory-
sergearit-s, and Serg.-ants 2

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 107

SHARES.
Fife-majors, Corporals, Bombardiers, Trumpeters,

Farriers, Rough Eiders, Gunners, Drummers, and

Privates 1

Volunteers 1

The following scale of distribution of prize-money, for the several
classes and ranks of native troops, has been adopted at all the Presi-
dencies of India.

SHARES.

Subedar, Syrarig I 6

Woordee, Major, Russaldar^ j

Jemedar, Tindal I 2

Naib Russaldar j

Havildar, Native Doctor ...... 1

Naik, Drummer .......

Trumpeter, Gun Lascar . . . .

Private, Puckallie . . . . .

Native Farrier, Duffadar ......

Nishan Burder, Nuggurchee .....

Vakell and Hirkarrah

Gun-driver, Bheestie

Nakeeb

For the Royal Army there is no standing scale of distribution,
though, by the foregoing Prize Warrants, it will be seen that a uniform
practice is generally observed.

III. Prize Proclamation for the Russian War 0/1854.
VICTORIA R.

"Whereas by our Royal Proclamation, bearing date the Twenty-ninth
day of March, One thousand eight hundred and fifty-four, We have
ordered and directed that the net proceeds of all prizes taken during the
present War with Russia, by any of our ships or vessels of war, after
the same shall have been to us finally adjudged lawful prize, shall be
for the entire benelit of the officers and crews of such ships and vessels
of war (save as therein excepted), in which 'Proclamation We have
directed in what proportion the land forces, doing duty as Marines,
shall be entitled to share : And whereas in the said Proclamation We
have reserved to ourselves the division and distribution of all prize and
booty taken on any conjunct expedition of our ships and vessels of war
with our army ; and it is desirable that We should provide for the
division and distribution of all prize and booty taken on such conjunct

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Boo.

expedition, M also by our army alone : We therefore hereby order and
that in such cases the net proceeds of the share which shall ho

assigned by us to our army, under our 1 loyal Sign Manual, shall be
1 and distribute 1 in the following manner and proportions, viz. :

{One-fourth of One-
t.nth part of the
net proceeds.

General Officers :

1st Class. General Officers command-
ing Divisions, and other Officers, dec.,
holding equivalent Staff Appoiii
merits

2d Class. pther General Officers, and
all other Officers, &c., holding equiva-
lent Staff Appointments .

Field Officers :

1st Class. Colonels, Lieutenant-colonels,
and Brevet -Lieutenant-colonels, and other Of-
ficers holding Staff Appointments equivalent
thereto

2d Class. Brevet Lieutenant-colonels

not holding an Appointment qualifying th m to

share in the preceding Class of Field Officers,

and all Majors, Regimental or Brevet, and all

Ming Appointments equivalent

thcr

Ther> Three

fourths of One-
tenth part of the
net proceeds; the
same to be so (lidd-
ed that a G< '
Officer, Ac., of the
1st Class shall re-
( One-half more
in amount f/
Genera I Officer, &c.,
of tfie 2d Class.

One-ciahth of the re-
mainder of the
net proceeds; tic
same to be so divi<l-
ed that a Field Of-

'-., of the

1st Class shall rc-

> Oiic-lmlf more

in amount than a

)ktr <r-r.

of the 2d Class.

The remainder <>f the net proceeds shall be distributed in the f. 1 hav-
ing Claaoes, so that < .M-CMiiimissionrd Officer. A:c., sh.ill
norive shares or a share according to his Class, as set forth in tl.
lowing w\ii

1st Class. Captains, and all other O(V

led according to the usage of our
army to share in that rank
3d da*. Subalterns, and all other Of-
ficers entitled according to the usage of
oar army to share in that rank

Thirty-tire Shares

Twenty Shares
each.

BRE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 109

3d Class. Sergeant majors, Quartermas-
ter Sergeants, and ail other Staff Ser-
geants, and others holding equivalent j Ten Shares each '
rank . . . .

4th Class. Sergeants, and others holding j

equivalent rank ' [ ^9^ Shares each.

5th Class. Corporals .... Four Shares each.

6th Class. Private Soldiers, Trumpeters, \

Drummers, &c } Three Shares each.

And in the event of any difficulty arising with respect to the Class
in which any Officer, &c., shall be entitled to share, our will arid pleasure
is, that the same shall be determined and adjusted by the Commander-
in-chief of our land forces for the time being. .

Given at our Court at Buckingham Palace, this Eleventh day of
August, in the year of our Lord One thousand eight hundred and fifty-
four, and in the eighteenth year of our reign.

GOD SAVE THE QUEEN,

BOUNTY. " Every able-bodied musician or soldier, re-enlisting in
his company or regiment within two months before, or one month after
the expiration of his term of service, shall receive two months' extra
pay, besides the pay and allowances due him on account of the uncx-
pired period of his enlistment ; " (Act March 2, 1833.) Bounty lands
have also been given by Congress for military service. The principal
characteristic of those acts has been to reward alike all grades, and to
make no distinction of service, except by granting forty acres for the
minimum degree of service, and one hundred and sixty acres for the
maximum of service. A very marked and utterly indefensible departure
from the principle upon which such rewards of merit and services were
made by the several States immediately after the Revolutionary War.

BOYAU is a small trench, or a branch of a trench, leading to a
magazine, or to any particular point. They are generally called boyaus
of communication.

BREACH. Rupture made in a fortification to facilitate the as-
sault. The best mode of doing this is by dividing the wall up into
detached parts by making one horizontal and several vertical cuts, and
battering each part down. The easiest way to make the cut is to direct
the shots upon the same line, and form a series of holes a little greater
than a diameter apart, and then fire at the intervals until the desired
cut is made. The horizontal cut is finished first. The vertical
cuts are then commenced at the horizontal cut, and raised until the

110 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Da*.

wall sinks, overturns, and breaks into pieces. The effective !:
ing power of rifle cannon has been shown l.y recent successful ,
nicnts in England, against a martello tower 30 feet high and 48 feet
r. the walls being of good solid brick masonry, from 7 to 10
feet thick. Armstrong guns with 40 and 80-poun.hr solid sliot, and
100-pounder percussion shells were used at a distance <>t 1 <
more thnn twenty times the usual breaching distance. The 80-pounder
issed completely through the masonry, (7 feet 3 inches,) and the
40-pounder shot and 100-pounder percussion sliells lodged in the brick-
work, at a depth of fi\e t. . t. Alter firing 170 projectiles, a small por-
tion of which were loaded shells, the entire land side of tin t<>\\
thrown down, and the interior space was filled with the debris of the
vaulted roof, forming a pile which alone saved the opposite side from

. The superior breaching power of rifle projectiles d-
not only on penetration, but on accuracy of flight and consequent con
cent rat ion 'on any desired point; (BENTON.)

BREACH OF ARREST. Any arrested officer who shall leave
his confinement, before he shall be set at liberty by his commanding
. or by a superior officer, shall be cashiered ; (ART. 77. 7W*\ and
Articles of War.)

BREAK GROUND is to commence the siege of a place by open-
ing trenches, &c.

BREASTWORK is a hastily constructed parapet, not high
enough to require a banquette, or at least generally without one ; (See
FIELD WORKS.)

BREECH. The mass of solid metal behind ihe bottom of the. bore
fa _'' extending to the rear of the base ring. The base of the breech
is a frustum of a cone or spherical segment in rear of tin !

Breech of a musket ; Breech screw ; Br<-lt j>in. (For l>ne. -h -load-
inu f nnns. See GARDINER ; PISTOL.)

r.KLYLT. i />.,..-/,.) I: is derived from Latin. '.hieh

a brief; a pan hrnent containing an annotation or not if,

ninire tic CAnncedc Tcrrc.) So also, according to Ains-

/ trriV, Mandatum, n / PHIKVK emittere. This Latin

word breve, brevia, is also still ! in Kurdish law. as signifying

a writ, or mandatory issued by the authority, and in the name

of the sovcreir '<% a writ, Ilrcvc dt . I rit of

right, Brevia Formula, the register of Miits; (BOUVIER'S /

So also in Scots Law, Breve Testatum (Lat.) an aeknowledgment in writ-

1 practice, was made out ..n the land at the time

i ng possession to the vassal, and signed by the superior ; (OOILVIE.)

BRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. HI

The word brevet in French signifies, when applied to officers in the
army or navy, commission ; (SPIERS and SURENNE.) Brevet was taken by
the English from the French with this meaning. As used in the United
States army, brevet was borrowed with our Articles of War from
England, and in the British service it means a commission in the army
at large, distinctive of a commission in a particular regiment or corps.
But, as both in the British service and our own, payments are made for
the authorized number of officers of the various grades in the several
corps composing an army, ordinary English lexicographers have set down
the meaning of brevet as a commission which gives an officer title and
rank in the army above his pay ; (WEBSTER, WORCESTER, and OGILVIE.)
This would be the true meaning of brevet, if there was no legislation
on the subject of rank by brevet other than that authorizing such rank
to be conferred. But as rank by brevet is given in the army of the
United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for
" gallant actions or meritorious services," the laws have justly provided
that, whenever an officer is on duty, and exercises a command' according
to his brevet, he shall be entitled to the pay of such grade ; (Acts of
1812 and 1818.) Brevets, however, being commissions in the army at
large, it would also follow, if there was no further legislation, that such
commissions would be exercised in the particular regiment in which an
officer was mustered. To avoid this, and also to give efficacy to com-
missions in particular corps where different corps come together, the
61st and 62d Articles of War have regulajted the whole subject. The
61st Article provides that within a regiment or corps officers shall take
rank and do duty according to the commissions by which they are
mustered in their regiments or corps, but brevets or former commis-
sions may take effect in detachments and courts-martial composed of
different regiments or corps. As rank, however, means a range of sub-
ordination in the body in which it is held, it is manifest that rank in any
particular body, as a regiment, corps, or the army at large, would not
of itself give the right to command out of that particular body, without
being enabled by further legislation. Hence the necessity of the 62d
Article of War, \s hich provides that, when different corps come together,
the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or mili-
tia, by commission there on duty or in quarters shall command the
whole, and give orders for what is needful for the service, unless other-
wise specially directed by the President of the United States, according
to the nature of the case; (See COMMAND ; DETACHMENT; LINE;
PRESIDENT ; RANK.)

BRIBE AT MUSTER. Art. 16 of the Rules and Articles of

llv> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bui.

\Yar provides that any officer convicted of taking any bribe on mus-

IN, shall be displaced from his ollice,and

rly disabled from . holding any ollice or employment

in the service of the 1'nited States.

BUICULE. Men's hamcss for dragging guns, length 18 fi- -t us, ,1
for hariu*!iing men to guns \\hen horses cannot be used.

lilllDGE. If you arc at the side of a narrow but deep and rapid

MI the banks of which trees grow long enough to r, -a. h I
one or more should In? felled, confining the trunk to its own bank, and
letting the current force the head round to the opposite side ; but if
" the river be too wide to be spanned by one tivi and if two or three
men can in any manner be got across let a largo tree be felled into the

"n each side, and placed close to the banks opposite t<. <M< h other,
with their heads lying up-streamwards. Fasten a rope to the 1
each tr the trunks, shove the heads off to r. oefane the force of

the current, and ease off the ropes, so that the branches m:iy n

i Idle of the river, at an angle pointing upwards. The branches
of the trees will be jammed together by the force of the current, and
so be sufficiently united as to form a tolerable communication,
cially when a few of the upper branches have been cleared away. If in-
sunVi, nt. towards the middle of the river, to bear the weight -f men cross-
ing, a : I, with forks left near their heads, may be thrust down
through the branches of the trees to support them ; " (Siu II. I > >

\Vhi-n a river, which cannot bo forded, must be crossed by animals
and carriages, a bridge becomes necessary ; and in all cases it is b
if possible, to cross by a bridge than by a ford, unless the 1

u'ly shallow. Military bridges may be of t hive kinds : 1st

ires of timber. . 'n^-brid-jes. .'id. Flying-bridges. Timber

bridges may be either supported on piles or on trestles. Pile-bridges are
the most secure, and when- bridges are required to remain in use fora
considerabl >e which may be constructed on the li

f an army, with its base of operations, this form of
bridge will generally be ado] ',d. T t a .! j.il. --br

kilYd labor is neeessary, and an ample supply

of materials essential. When the bottom of the channel is linn, and
them* to (1, ,o,ls, a pile-bridje may be construct. -d with-

out dfliculty, and will be very durable. Th- piles mu-t be driven by
H engine, \\ hieh mny be constnict<-d of an 8-inch or 10-inch shell run
full of 1 by ft rope over a pulley. This may be v

by hand, and wiil drive piles to ft depth sumYient to allow of the
passage of st artillery over the bridge. The pulley of the

BRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 113

pile engine should be supported on a framework, some 16 feet high,
which may be made to act as a guide to the shell during its fall, and
also for the pile while it is being driven. This -framework should be
erected upon a large flat-bottomed boat. If such a boat is not to be
procured, a raft must be made to answer the purpose. When timber
of a considerable length can be procured for the joists of the bridge, it
will be advisable to make the intervals between the piers or rows of
piles, as great as the length of the joists will allow, so that the current
of the river may be impeded as little as possible, and its action on the
bridge be reduced to a minimum. By this arrangement, too, as much
space as possible is given for the passage of floating bodies, and the
danger of their damaging the bridge is proportionately diminished.
When all the piles have been driven as far as the power of the engine
can accomplish, they must be sawn off to the same level, and the super-
structure of timber be strongly and carefully fitted. With bays of 20
feet, and a roadway 14 feet wide, there must be at least five or six
beams not less than 7 inches by 8. With wider bays, timbers of
larger dimensions will be necessary. The planking should not be less
than 2 inches thick laid transversely. Bridges on piles, for the passage
of infantry over shallow rivers only, may be expeditiously constructed,
as the piles may be slight, 6 inches in difameter would suffice, and they
can be driven by hand by heavy mauls, or by two men using a beetle.
See diagram, Fig. 71.

FIG. 71.

Here the pile is set and kept in its place by means of two spars of
planks resting their extremities upon a stool placed on the bank. A
plank is then laid across, on which one or two men may stand to drive
the pile. The weight of the men may be increased, if necessary,

114

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Bui.

by stones placed on the platform assisting to force the piles into the
ground. When one row of piles is placed, and the floor laid to a cross
beam fixed UIH.II them, another row may be set and driven in the same
manner, fixm- the stool on that part <-f th.- tloor which will thus have
been compl- i Pttti driven in this way may be safely de|
upon to bear infantry with a front of two or three files in open ranks,
not keeping st

Bridget on Trestles. When rivers arc shallow, and not liable to
sudden floods, and when their channels are firm and even, very us, -nil
bridges may be constructed on trestles. Trestles for this purpose
should each consist of a stout transom or ridge piece some 8 inehes
square and 10 feet long; to this should be fitted four legs adapted
to the depth of the river slanting outwards from the vertical, and
strengthened by diagonal bracing, (Fig. 72.) For large bridges it N\ ill

be found advantageous to add
an additional pair of legs to
each trestle. These, from the
difficulty of fitting six legs to
the uneven surface of the bot-
t"'n of the river, should not
le attached until the trestle is
placed in position; they should
then le. driven into the bed
of the river. and their upper
extremities should be firmly
nailed to the ridge piece. When

the different parts of the trestles are all prepared 1>< forehand, they
can be speedily put together and the bridge completed with irn-at
expedition. Fascines may bo used for flooring, win-re plank cannot
be obtained. When the intervals or Lays are t- n f Bt, the dimensions
of the trestle and beams may be as follows :

Length.

nrrwltli.

ThlckoflM.

SI Head 1

1C.

4 Len.

1 Bn

fidlu

Flanks for flo<

If there b as . a cable should be stn i--h. <1 BOTOM the

river on each side of th.- bridge, and th- be firmly lashed to

It may, moreover, sometimes be necessary to load the trestles

BBI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. H5

with shot or stones, to keep them in their position until the flooring is
laid upon them.

Floating-Bridges are those generally adopted for the passage of troops
over rivers. They may be very expeditiously constructed, and can be
made strong enough to carry the heaviest artillery. During the last
century boats were generally used for this purpose ; and, although on
navigable rivers, boats are readily found, it was frequently a work of
time and difficulty to collect a sufficient number, particularly if the
enemy had had the opportunity of removing or destroying them pre-
viously. The inconveniences and delays resulting from this cause, al-
ways hazardous and often fatal to the success of an expedition, led to
the introduction of regular bridge equipages or pontoon trains, duly
organized to accompany the march of armies. An efficient pontoon
train renders an army independent of the rivers which may intersect
its route. By its aid rivers of very considerable magnitude may be
bridged in a few hours, and a march of a given distance may thus be
with certainty completed in a given time a matter often of momentous
importance to the success of military operations.

Bridges of Boats. Boats of almost any kind will make a serviceable
bridge. For wide rivers the boats should be large. The boats of which
a bridge is constructed should, if possible, be nearly of the same size,
unless they are all very large, and then variations in dimensions will
be of little consequence. Should some be large and some small, the
passage of large bodies of troops, of heavy guns and ammunition
wagons will depress them unequally, causing the flooring of the bridge
to assume an irregular line, straining and injuring, and in some cases
fracturing, the timber and destroying the bridge. When boats, all of
the same size, cannot be obtained, the larger boats should be placed at
wider intervals, so that they may sustain a heavier weight, proportioned
to their greater capacity, during the passage of troops, and be depressed
to an equal distance with the smaller. The superstructure will consist
of balks of timber laid across the gunwales of the boats, and securely
fastened, and the flooring of planks laid transversely over. A certain
rigidity results from this arrangement, by which, if the boats were
subject to much motion, the bridge would be speedily destroyed. In
tidal rivers, where a considerable swell must generally be encountered,
this manner of securing the timbers will not answer. In this case, it
will be found advantageous to erect a trestle or support in the centre
of each boat, over which the timbers may be bolted to each other : thus
each boat will be allowed independent motion, and this will not en-
danger the fracture of the bridge.

116

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Bu.

The boats should be moored head and stern, and should be kept at
their relative distances by timbers fixed at the head and at the stem,

i .

stretching across the bays, so as to remove unnecessary strain from
the timbers of the bridge. The timbers should be as nearly as possible
square, and of dimensions proportioned to the space of the intervals.
With good timbers, 8 inches by 6, twenty feet may bo allowed from
trestle to trestle. The width of the bridge should also be proportional
to the dimensions of the timbers. With five balks of 7 inches by 8,
the bridge should not exceed 14 fret in width. If too wide there will
be danger of the beams being broken by the overcrowding of troops on
the bridge.

When there is no regular pontoon train, and boats cannot be pro-
cured, rafts may be used in place of boats. These rafts may bo
of casks, which, if properly arranged and securely lash, ,1, will
all the purposes of pontoons. Eight or ten casks, all of the
same size, should be placed side by side on a lev* 1 piece <>f ^r-un.l,
rig each other, bung-holes uppermost. Two stout balks, 4^ inches
square, and about 2 feet longer than the sum of the diam.-t.T* .f the
casks which are to form the pier, must then be prepared ami laid along
the upper surface of the casks, parallel to each other, a::.! a. h about
distant from the line of the bung-holes. A piece of .'J-in.-h r.pe
should then be attached to one end of each of these l.alks, passed under
all the casks, and secured to the other end of the same balk.

These ropes aro then drawn up towards the balks and ti-htly lashed
by small ropes between every pair of casks, and the smaller r
the one side are agaii across to those of the other side

74.) The whole pier thus becomes so compact that it may be rolled

BRI.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

117

and launched and rowed with as little danger of breaking up as though
it were a single pontoon. Piers of casks constructed in this way may
be used exactly like pontoons, and will form a most efficient bridge.

FIG. 74.

Pontoons are vessels of various forms and dimensions, and are made
of various materials. They are generally boat-shaped, of wood, of
copper, or of tin, sometimes with decks, and sometimes without. Each
boat, or pontoon, is carried on a suitable wagon, which also conveys
the portion of superstructure necessary for one "bay or interval.

Flying-Bridges. A flying-bridge is an arrangement by which a
stream with a good current may be crossed, when, from a want of time
or a deficiency of materials, it may not be possible to form a bridge.
It consists of a large boat or raft firmly attached by a long cable to a
mooring in the centre of the stream, if the channel be straight, or on
the bank if the channel be curved. By hauling the boat or raft into
proper positions, it will be driven across the stream in either direction
as may be desired.

The bridge is made usually of two,
(Fig. 75,) three, and sometimes six boats,
connected together, and very solidly
floored over, the beams being fastened
to the gunwales of the boats with iron
bolts or bands, and the flooring planks
nailed down upon them. The floor is
sometimes surrounded with a guard-rail. The most suitable boats are
long, narrow, and deep, with their sides nearly vertical, in order to offer
greater resistance to the action of the current. At the end of the rope
is fixed an anchor X, which is moored in the channel, if this is in the
middle of the stream. If the channel is not in the middle, the anchor
is placed a little on one side of it toward the most distant shore. By
means of the rudder, the bridge is turned in such a direction that it is
struck obliquely by the current, and the force resulting from the de-
composition of the action of the current makes it describe an arc of a

I is MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ KKI.

circle around the anchor as a centre, and this force acquires its
imum effect sides of the boats make an angle of aboi;

with the direction of the current.

Suppose M N (Fig. 76) to represent the side of the boat, and A B
the resultant of the forces of the current against it. The force A 1
be decomposed int.. two forces; the one, A C, will act in tin- dir
M N as friction, and may be neglected, and the other, A I >, u ill :

pendicularly to the side of

Fw> -5. boat. "Were th.> boat free to

move, and headed in the same
direction, it would descend the
river, at the same time crossing
it. A D is then decomposed
into two other forces, the one
A E, in the direction of the cur-
rent, causing the boat to drift, the

other A F, perpendicular to this, which pushes the boat across. If tho
boat is now attached to a fixed point by the rope A X, tho force A E
will be neutralized, and all the effort of the current will be reduced to
the force A F, which makes the boat revolve around tin-, point X. Tho
length of rope used should be once and a half or twice the -width of tho
river. With a shorter rope the arc described by tho bridge is too
great, and it performs the ascending brunch with difficulty ; with a
longer one, the rope becomes too heavy, sinks in tho \\
the movement. Generally, the arc described by the bridge should not
be more than 90. To prevent the rope from dragging over tho deck,
which would interfere with tho load, it is held up by an arrant'
such as is indicated in Fig. 76, and buoyed out of the water nearly to
the anchor by skiffs, empty casks, or other floating bodies. AY hen the
stream to be crossed is not very wide, a flying-bridge may be made
with two ropes, one fastened on each sh<>n -. the r>|,,-s being used al-
ternately. If the stream, on tho contrary, is very wide, several boats
are fastened together, floored over, and anchored in the. niid.i
communication k-pt nj> with each shore by a flying-bridge, like the one
already described. In about o M <- hour 'M men ran n.nstruet allying
bridge composed of 6 bridge-boats, and capable of carrying 'J50 in-
fantry, or 2 piece* of artillery and 12 horses. At least one spare
r should always be carried on the bridge, to anrhr it in case the
rope should break or become detached ; and oars, a small boat, and a
long rope, should also be pnv'nlnl. A flying-bridge may, in case of
emergency, be made of any kind of boats with the means of fixing rud-

BRI.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

110

FIG. 77.

ders to them. For want of an anchor, a large stone, mill-stone, or a
bag or box of sand may be made use of. A flying-bridge may be made
of a raft, the best form being lozenge-shaped, with the front angle about
55. It is attached to a rope stretched across the stream by three
others with pulleys, which slide along the first rope, this being tightly
stretched across and not allowed to hang in the water. Buttresses con-
structed on boats or trestles, according to the means at hand, are
formed on both sides of the river, at the points where the flying-bridge
lands. Wagons impermeable to water may, by means of a rope at-
tached to the wagon body, be used to pass a company with its baggage.

Where large bodies are to be crossed, a common contrivance is the
RAFT of logs, but it is the last expedient to be adopted from its want
of buoyancy and general manage-
ability, and is inapplicable when the
passage of a river is likely to be con-
tested with animation. Its merits
are that, at the expense of time,
it can be constructed with less ex-
perienced workmen ; it saves car-
riage, as it can only be made of ma-
terials near the spot. It is, however,
an indifferent substitute for boats,
pontoons, or casks. An independent
raft will require two rows of trees,
at least, to float as many men as can
stand upon it, and the logs are best
bound together by withes, or ropes,
and stiffened with cross and diagonal
traces.

Timber Bridges. The rudest form [_
of arch is very strong, easy of con-
struction, and of frequent occurrence; the timbers being roughly
notched into each other as in log-houses, and gradually jutting over

FIG. 78.

120

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Bat

the pier or abutment near each other. A few of tho upper courses
may be trenailed down. Figure 79 shows the manner of const*, u. >n
with hewn or rough timber.

Fio. 7*.

The wagon bodies now made for the United States army are gal-
vanized or zincked iron ; the lower and upper rails are of oak wood, cov-
ered with sheet iron ; wooden supporters are framed into the lower
rails like the usual wagon body, the tail piece is hung upon hinges. An
important application of those iron wagon bodies, (suggested by Lieuten-
ant-colonel Grossman, United States army,) would be their employment
as boats in bridging rivers. If they are so perfected as to rend. -r them
water-tight, they might be readily converted into a system of pontoons,
each one carrying a portion of the string pieces and planks necessary
to construct a bridge, without materially interferini: with tin- usual
load. Arranged and lashed together in double n>\\s they w.-uld a<l>nl
a sufficient breadth of roadway for the passage of both cavalry and
artillery with facility.

Large treet may be felled to enable infantry to cross narrow str<
placing them so that their butts may rest upon the K-mks \\iih tho,
top directed obliquely up the stream ; if one is not lonp rnmiirh, others
may be floated down so at to extend across, being guided nn<l secured

a way may be formed by laying plm

hurdles over them, and their branches should be chopped oil" nearly to
the level of the water and intertwined below ; poles also *nay be
driven into the I river, t. aid in supporting the trees by at-

taching the boughs to them. Wheel ^carriages used to form I

BRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 121

bridge may be connected by beams ; or a single pair of wheels with
an axle-tree to admit two strong posts may be attached and placed in
the centre of the stream if it is not too wide. Poles reaching from each
bank may be secured to the posts, and the wheels would act as a
trestle. With a flooring over the poles, a slight bridge could be

FIG. 80.

rapidly constructed for an advanced guard. Hide boats are made of
four buffalo hides strongly sewed together with buffalo sinew, and
stretched over a basket work of willow 8 feet long and 5 feet broad,
with a rounded bow, the seams then being covered with ashes and tallow.
Exposed to the sun for some hours, the skins contract and tighten the
whole work. Such a boat with four men in it draws only four inches
of water. Inflated skins have been used since the earliest times for
crossing, and if four or more are secured together by a frame, they
form a very buoyant raft. Canvas (rendered water-proof by a com-
position of pitch 8 Ibs., beeswax 1 lb., and tallow 1 lb., boiled together
and laid on quite hot) will serve as a raft or pontoon, if placed over
framework or wicker work ; (Consult Memorial des Officiers d'Infanterie
et Cavalerie ; Aide Memoire of the Military Sciences ; DOUGLAS'S Prin-
ciples and Construction of Military Bridges ; HYDE'S Fortifications ;
GIBBON'S Manual; HAILLOT, Instruction sur le Passage des Rivieres et
la Construction des Fonts Militaires.)

BRIDGE-HEAD (la tete du pont) is a work consisting of one
or more redans or bastions, constructed on the bank of a river, to
cover a bridge, to protect a retiring army in crossing the river, and to
check an enemy when pressing upon it. (See REDAN.)

BRIDOON. The snaffle and rein of a military bridle, which acts
independently of the bit, at the pleasure of the rider.

BRIGADE. .Two regiments of infantry or cavalry constitute a
brigade. (Act March 3, 1799.)

BRIGADIER-GENERAL. Rank next below major-general. The
commander of a brigade. Entitled to one aide-de-camp.

BRIGADE-INSPECTOR. (See MILITIA.)

122 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bui.

IWICAH. ^A.IOB. An officer appointed to assist the general
commanding a brigade in all his duties. (See MILITIA.)

I : I 1 U - 1 N * , (See BKIDOBS ; CARPKNTUY.)

BUILDINGS, DEFBXCI OF. The objects now under consideration
are churches, country-houses, factories, prisons, or other substantial
1'uil. lings ; and as there is but little difference in the mode to be pur-
sued for placing any of them in a state of defence, an explanation of the
details applied to a single house will perhaps be sufficient to convey an
idea on the subject. A building proper for defensive purposes, should
possess some or all of the following requisites : 1. It should COMMAND
all that surrounds it 2. Should be SUBSTANTIAL, and of a nature to
funiiv ill useful for placing it in a state of defence. 3. Should

be of an EXTENT PROPORTIONED TO THE NUMBER OF DEFENDERS, and only
require the TIME AND MEANS which can be devoted to completing it. 4.
Should have walls and projectings that mutually FLANK each other. 5.
Should be DIFFICULT OF ACCESS on the side exposed to attack, and yet
have a SAFE RETREAT for the defenders. 6. And bo in a situation proper
for fulfilling the object for which the detachment is to be posted. A
church will be found usually to unite all these good properties more
than any other building. It may be remarked that though good strong
walls arc an advantage, yet their thickness should be limited to 2 or 3
feet, from the difficulty there would be in piercing loopholes; unless
when they are likely to be battered by artillery, in which case the mus-
rnust be confined to the windows, and the inure solid the, walls
"er. It should also be remembered that brick houses and
walls are preferable, on several accounts, to those built of stone ; for
when exposed to artillery, a round shot merely makes a small hole in
the former, but stone is broken up in large masses, and dangerous
splinters fly from it in all direct ions. It is much easier also to make
loopholes through brickwork than through m;i><>i,ry. \Yoodcn houses,
or those made of plaster, arc to be avoided, from the facility with which
n enemy can set fire to them, and they arc tYe<|ti.-ntly n..t even musket -
proof. Thatched houses are equally object ionaMc, on account of fire,
unless there is time to unroof them ; and after all it must not be for-
gotten, that earthen works, wlien exposed to artillery, are to be j.re-
ferred to houses, as far as affording s-curity to the <1. tenders i

!. In seeking this ft4M>urit\, bowerer, U should lie home in mind

that they are not so defensible for troops cannot be run into .1 house ;

but they are not exempt from such an intrusion in an earthen work of

^ ure under discussion. Tho two t ,n 1> made to form

a more respectable post than either can be made into singly, for the

Bui.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 123

merits of both will be enhanced, and the defects be modified, by the
union. A building is therefore at all times a capital base to go to
work upon. The walls may be partially protected from cannon shot
by throwing up earthen parapets round it, and the house may " recip-
rocate " by acting the part of a keep, and afford the garrison a placo
of refuge, in which they may either defend themselves with advantage,
or if it " suits their book," resume the offensive and drive the assailants
out again.

An officer will be able to make his selection at first sight, with ref-
erence to most of these points, but it requires a little more considera-
tion to determine whether a building and its appliances are convertible
into a post, of a size proportioned to the force under his command.
The average number of men, however, proper for the defence of a
house, may be roughly estimated on some such data as the following :
That in a lower story it might generally be proper to tell off one
man for every 4 feet that the walls measured round the interior. In
the second story one man for every 6 feet, and in an attic or roof one
man for every 8 feet. For example, if a house of three stories high
were found, on pacing it, to measure 140 feet round the interior walls,
the number of men for its defence on the above data would be deter-
mined thus :
Feet.

140 Would give 35 ; which would be the number of men for the lower
4 story.

_ Would be about 23 men for the second floor.
6

J-^ Would be 18 men for the attic.
8

making a total of 76 men for the three stories ; to which about one-
sixth of the whole, say 14 men, should be added as a reserve, making
altogether a garrison of 90 men. If there were out-buildings or walls
in addition, the number of men required for their defence, would be
determined in a similar manner, by assuming certain data adapted to
the circumstances as a guide in the calculation. These numbers are not
to be considered definitive, but merely to convey an idea on the subject ;
for if a detachment were much weaker in proportion to the extent, a
vigorous defence might still be made. The force might be concentrated
where most required, as it is not a matter of course that a place will
be attacked on all sides at once ; or if a building were found so large
that the disposable force would be too much disseminated, or if there
were a want of materials and time for putting the whole of it in a stato

1-2 \ MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boi.

of defence, a part of it only might be occupied. Should there exist any
doubt about having sufficient time to complete all that might be wished,
it would become matter for consideration what were the points which
it would be of the greatest importance to secure first, so as to be in a
condition to repel an immediate attack, because such points would nat-
urally claim attention to the exclusion of all others. In such a cafe, it
might be well to employ as many men as could work without hindering
each other by being too crowded. 1. To collect materials and barri-
cade the doors and windows on the ground floor, to make loopholes in
them, and level any obstruction outside that would give cover to the
enemy, or materially facilitate the attack. 2. To sink ditches oppo-
site the doors on the outside, and arrange loopholes in the windows of
the upper story. 3. To make loopholes through the walls generally,
attending first to the most exposed parts, and to break communications
through all the party-walls and partitions. 4. To place abatis or
any feasible obstructions on the outside, and to improve the defence of
the post by the construction of tambours, &c. 5. To place out-build-
ings and garden walls in a state of defence, and establish communica-
tions between them. To make arrangements in the lower story espe-
cially, for defending one room or portion after another, so that partial
possession only could bo obtained on a sudden rush being made. These
different works to bo undertaken in the order of their relative impor-
tance, according to circumstances; and after securing the immediate ob-
ject for which they were designed, they might remain to be improved
up"ii if opportunity offered. An endeavor will now be mode to explain
the mode of executing these works in the order in which they are men-
tioned.

Collecting Materials. The materials that will be found most useful
in barricading the passages, doors, and windows, are 1> s, cart

bodies, bricks, stones, cinders, dung, dec., and timber of any sort that.
comet to hand; if they cannot be found elsewhere on tin- premises,
the roof and floors must be stripped to furnish what is required.

Barricading Doors. In the application of these materials, tho boxes
and casks filled with cinders or dung, and plan d against the doors to a
height of feet, will prevent their being forced open, and loopholes
may be made through the upper portions, whi< h <-an l>c rendered mus-
'>of to protect the men's heads ; short lengths t.f timber piled one
upon another to the same height, leaving a space bet we, n any two of
them in a convenient situation for firing through, and their ends 1,,-ing
secured in the side walls of a passage, or propped with up:
on the inside, will effect the same object; or a door may be loosely

BUT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 125

bricked up, leaving loopholes, &c. If it is probable that artillery will
be brought up for knocking away these barricades, and so forcing an
entrance, a passage may be partially filled with dung or rubbish to the
thickness of 8 or 10 feet, or thick beams of timber may be reared up
on the outside of a door, and the interval filled with the same, or with
earth if more convenient. A hole, about 3 feet square, may be left
through an ordinary barricade for keeping up a communication with
the exterior ; but for effecting a retreat, or making sorties, it will be
necessary to make a door musket-proof, by nailing on several additional
thicknesses of plank, and arrange it so as to open as usual, or contrive
something on the spot which shall equally protect the men when firing
through the loopholes, and yet be removable at pleasure.

Barricading- Windows. Windows do not require to be barricaded
so strongly as doors, unless from their situation an entrance may. easily
be effected, or an escalade be attempted. The principal object is to
screen and protect the defenders whilst giving their fire ; any thing,
therefore, that will fill up the window to a height of 6 feet from the
floor, and that is musket-proof, will answer the purpose. Thus two or
three rows of filled sand-bags, laid in the sill of a window, Fig. 81, or

FIG. 81.

short lengths of timber would do ; or a carpet, a mattrass, or blankets
rolled up, would be ready expedients. Loopholes would, in all cases,
be arranged whatever materials were used. If time presses, and win-
dows could not be blocked up, one means of obtaining concealment,
which is the next best thing to security, would be to hang a great coat
or blanket across the lower part of them as a screen, and make the
men fire beneath it, kneeling on the floor. The glass should be removed
from windows before an attack commences, as it is liable to injure the
defenders, when broken by musketry.

Levelling Obstructions outside. Any shrubberies, fences, or out-
buildings, within musket-shot, which would favor an attack by affording

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[BUL

cover to an enemy, and allowing him to approach unperceived, should
be got rid of as soon as possible. The trees should be felled, 1<
the stumps of different heights, so as to encumber the ground, and the
materials of walls, dec,, should be spread about with tin s.nm \i.-\\ ;
but whatever is convertible for barricades should be cini.d to t In-
house. The thatch from roofs, and any combustibles, should also bo
removed or destroyed.

Ditches in Front of the Doors, <Cc. As a means of preventing a door
being forced, a ditch may be dug in front of it, about 7 t t wide and 5
feet deep ; such a ditch is also necessary in front of the lower windows,
if tin- loopholes cannot be conveniently made high enough from the out-
side to prevent an enemy reaching them. These partial ditches may
n ft rr wards be converted into a continued ditch all round a house if
opportunity offers, as it would contribute to the defence of the post.
TTie floors may also be taken up on the inside, opposite the doors or
windows open to attack.

Loopholes. If the walls are not too thick, they may be pierced for
loopholes, at every 3 feet, in the spaces between the windows, dec.
(Fig. 88.)

Fio. 83.

Two tiers of these loopholes may be made if opportunity offers, and
a temporary scaffolding of furniture, benches, casks, or ladders, dec.,
erected for firing from the upper ones : on the lower story a r
loopholes may be made close to the ground. The floor must, in this
case, be partly removed, and a small excavation made brtwrm th
beams for the OO&Ttttaoi of making use of th-m. Just nn.Yr tin-
eaves of a roof there is generally a place where loopholes can be mado

BUJ.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

127

with great facility, and a tile or slate knocked out hero and there with
a musket, will give other openings, from which an assailant may be
well plied as he comes up.

Communications. A clear communication must be made round the
whole interior of the building, by breaking through all partitions that
interfere with it : and for the same purpose, if houses stand in a row
or street, the party walls must be opened, so as to have free access
from one end to the other. Means should likewise be at hand for
closing these openings against an enemy, who may have obtained any
partial possession. Holes may also be made in the upper floors to fire
on the assailants, if they force the lower ones, and arrangements made
for blocking up the staircases, with some such expedient as a tree, pre-
pared in the same manner as for an abatis, or by having a rough pali-
sade gate placed across. Balconies may be covered or filled up in front
with timber or sand-bags and made use of to fire from downwards.
(Fig. 83.)

FIG. 83.

Abatis. The partial levelling of any object on the outside, that
would give concealment to an enemy, and favor an attack, is supposed
to have been already attended to : but if time admits, after loopholes,
&c. are completed, this system must be extended and perfected, and
the formation of a more regular abatis should be commenced, and any
other obstruction added that opportunity permits. The best distance for
such obstructions, if they are continuous and cannot be turned, is within
20 or 30 yards of a work, or even less, so that every shot may tell

l-J-s

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Bci.

whilst the assailants are detained in forcing a passage through them ;
within such a distance also of defenders securely posted, it would not
be pleasant for a hostile force in confusion, to " Fall in," or " Re-form
Column. 11 If hand-grenades are to play their part in the defence of a
post, the obstruction, \\hute\vr it may be, should be placed within their
influence. A man will easily throw them 20 yards, but a trial on the spot
will hest d.-t.Tinine the distance at which they can be used with .

Tambours. If the building that has been selected has no porches,
wings, or projecting portions from which flank defence can be obtained,
it will be Advisable to construct something of a temporary nature to
afford it. Stockade work offers a ready means of effecting this object ;
it may be disposed in the form of a triangle, projecting 8 or 10 f t in
front of a door or window, planted as described in Article STOCKADE,
and with the precautions of having the loopholes high enough. A
small hole should be left in the barricade of the door or window to
communicate with the interior. Three or four loopholes on each fac<
of the projection cut 1> tween the timbers will be found very useful ii t
the defence. These contrivances are usually termed tarrbours, and i!
constructed at the angle of a building, will flank two sides of it. (Fig. 84.)

Fio. 84.

Out-building t and TTa/to. When the defences of the main building
are in a state of forwardness, any out-buildings or walls \vhich have
been found too solid to be levelled at the moment, or which \\\\\
preserved for the chance of having time to fortify them, and thus to
increase the strength of the post, must be looked to. They may be
placed in a state of defence by the m. uns already described, and sep-
arate communications should be established between them and the

BUN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 129

principal building by a trench, or a lino of stockade work, and by
breaking through the walls when necessary. In this way a post may
be enlarged in any required proportion, by turning all objects that
present themselves, such as out-buildings, sheds, walls, hedges, ponds,
&c., to the best account ; first taking the precaution to secure what is
absolutely necessary for immediate protection, and for placing it ill a
state to be defended on the
shortest notice. An exterior
wall or fence, tolerably close
to a house and parallel to
it, may be retained for the
purposes of defence, with-
out the danger of afford-
ing cover, and thus facili-
tating an attack, by throwing up a slope of earth on the outside of
it, or planting an abatis in the same situation ; (Fig. 85.) An enemy
would thus remain completely exposed, and it would be worse than
useless to him. If a post of the description under consideration were
composed of two or more buildings, and it were to be left to itself, and
were open to attack on all sides, the stockades or trenches, forming the
communications between them, would obviously require to be so ar-
ranged as to afford cover, and the means of resistance on both sides.
This would be effected by merely making them double, as shown in
Fig. 82 ; but for greater security, the exterior of such communications
should be laid under fire from the buildings at their extremities. If
cover cannot from circumstances be obtained, screens should be con-
trived that will conceal the movements that may be necessary. In
arranging the defences of such posts, it is an essential point to make
each portion of them so far independent of the others, that if any one
part, such as a building for instance, be taken, it shall not compromise
the safety of the remainder, nor materially impair the defence they will
make by themselves ; so that whilst free communications are essential
in most cases to a vigorous defence, the means must be at hand for in-
stantly cutting them off by some such expedients as would be afforded
by a loopholed, musket-proof door, or rough gates, or by letting fall a
tree, prepared as for an abatis, and which till wanted might be reared
on its end in the situation required, the means of bringing a close firo
upon it having been previously secured ; (JEBB'S Attack and Defence.)

BULLET. (See AMMUNITION ; ARMS ; PERCUSSION BULLET ; PRO-
JECTILES ; RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

BUNK. A word used in the army, a place for bedding.

130 MILITARY DICTIONARY. (Bc.

BUKKAU of the War Department. During the absence of the
quartermaster-general, or the chief of any military bureau of the \Viir
Department, his duties in the bureau, prescribed by law or regulations,
devolve on the officer of his department empowered by the President to
perform thmi in his absence; (Act July 4, 1836.)

BURIAL. The funeral honors paid to deceased officers and sol-
diers are prescribed by orders from the President contained in the
Army Regulations. The coffin is furnished by the quartermaster's
depart iiu'iit.

BUSHING A GUN is drilling a hole into the piece where the
vent is usually placed, about one inch in diameter, nnd screwing therein
a piece of metal which had previously a vent; the metal used in bushing
is pure copper for brass pieces.

CADET. A warrant officer ; students at the West Point Military
Academy are cadets of the Engineer Corps. The number of cadets by
appointments hereafter to be made shall be limited to the number of
representatives and delegates in Congress and one for the District of
Columbia ; and each Congressional District, Territory, and District of
Columbia shall be entitled to have one cadet at said Academy ; nothing
in this section shall prevent the appointment of an additional number
of cadets, not exceeding ten, to be appointed at large, without bring
confined to a selection by Congressional Districts; (Act March 1,
1843, Sec. 2). Pay $30 per month. (See ACADEMY.)

CAISSON. The number of rounds of ammunition carried by each
caisson and its limber are for G-pounder guns 150 rounds ; 1'J p-mmler
guns, 96 rounds; 12-pounder howitzers, 117 rounds; 2-l-piunl-r
howitzer 69 rounds, nnd 32-pounder howitzers 45 rounds. The num-
ber of caissons with firM-batteries are: with a battery of 12-p-unlrrs.
8 caissons for guns, and 4 for howitzers ; and with a battery of 6-
pounders, 4 for guns, and 2 for howitzers.

CALIBRE. The calibre of bullets is determm* <! by the number

_'h a pound. The calibre of guns is dcsign:it<-.l by the

hot; siege and sea-coast howitzers, eolumhiads, mortars

by the number of inches of tlnir r- .liametrrs. ^ << '..n^ult,

ORDXAXCK MANUAL.)

CALLING FORTH MILITIA. Congress shall
provide for calling forth th militia to execute tho laws of th. 1'ni.m,
suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; ((' lt ,,stit,itinn. Art. I
8, Clowe 15.) By Act of Congress, Feb. 28, 1795, the Pn-sid.-nt is

CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 131

authorized to call f rth the militia whenever : 1. " the United States
shall be invaded or be in his judgment in imminent danger of invasion*
(from any foreign nation or Indian tribe ;) and to issue his orders for that
purpose to such officer or officers of militia as he may think proper.
2. In case of an insurrection in any State against the government
thereof, on application of the Legislature of such State, or of the Execu-
tive, (when the Legislature cannot be convened.) 3. Whenever the
laws of the United States shall be opposed, or the execution thereof
obstructed in any State, by combinations too powerful to be suppressed
by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or by the powers vested
in the marshals ; but whenever it may be necessary, in the judgment
of the President, to use the military force hereby directed to be called
forth in case of insurrection or obstruction to the laws, the President
shall forthwith, by proclamation, command such insurgents to disperse,
and retire peaceably to their respective abodes within a limited time ;"
(Act Feb. 28, 1795.) In cases where it is lawful for the President to
call forth the militia, it shall be lawful for him to employ for the same
purposes, such part of the land or naval forces of the United States as
shall be judged necessary, having first observed all the pre-requisites of
the law in that respect ; (Act March 3, 1807.) (See INVASION ; MARSHAL ;
OBSTRUCTION ; EXECUTION OF LAWS ; INSURRECTION.)

CAMEL. The camel is used in the East as a beast of burthen
from 3 to about 16 years of age, and in hot sandy plains, where water
and food are scarce, is invaluable. With an army, however, generally
speaking, it is not so valuable as the mule or horse. The camel under
a burthen is very slow-going, about half the pace of a mule, or from
1^ to 2 miles per hour ; he can, however, travel 22 out of the 24 hours,
and only requires food once a day. His load varies exceedingly in dif-
ferent countries. In Egypt it is as high as 10 cwt. ; and for the short
distance from Cairo to Boulac, even 15 cwt. is, it is said, sometimes
carried. But in Syria it rarely exceeds 500 Ibs., and the heaviest load
in the engineer equipment for the British army of the Indus is stated to
be 4 cwt. 48 Ibs., independent of the pack-saddle. About 400 Ibs. is a
sufficient load on the march. The pack-saddle or pad is secured in its
place by the hump on the back, a hole being made in the pad to let it
come through, also by a breast-plate and breeching ; no dependence is
placed on the girth, which is not kept tight. From the great size of
the camel, averaging about 7 feet to the top of the hump, and 8 feet
from his nose to his tail, when standing in a natural position, he is capable
of carrying light field artillery, and the 12-pounder mountain howitzer,
which, with its side arms, weighs from 330 to 350 Ibs. The bed or car-

I3 o MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CA*

riage is carried by a second, and the ammunition by a third camel. In
rocky or slippery ground the camel is apt to slip, and his fore feet then
|iu-ntly spread out right and left : when this is the case, he split*
up inside the arms, and dies, or becomes useless. Though patient and
obedient to his keeper, at whose command he lies down to be loaded, he is
ir. .juontly very savage with strangers, and his bite is very severe. Tho
camels introduced into the service of the United States on our Western
rs, carry from 300 to 600 Ibs. on continuous journeys, depending
on the kind of camel employed. These weights they will carry from
18 to 30 miles a day, according to the character of the country. With
lighter loads they travel a little faster. The saddle dromedary will
travel 50 miles in 8 or 10 hours ; and on an emergency they make 70
or 90 miles a day, but only for a day or two, on a level road. Their use
in the United States is still an experiment.

CAMOUFLET is a small mine, of about 10 Ibs. of powder, suf-
ficit-nt to compress the earth all around it, without disturbing the sur-
face of the ground. It is sometimes formed in the wall or side of an
enemy's gallery, in order to blow in the earth, and to cut off the retreat
of the miner.

CAMP is the temporary place of repose for troops, whether for
one night or a longer time, and whether in tents, in bivouac, or with
any such shelter as they may hastily construct, as sheds, bowers, &c.
Troops are cantoned when distributed at any time among villages, or
when placed in huts at the end of campaign. Barracks are permanent
military quarters. Tents (says Napoleon) are not wholesome. It is
better for the soldier to bivouac, because he can sleep with his feet
towards the fire, and he may shelter himself from the wind by means
of sheds, bowers, &c. In woods there is great facility in making warm
eneaippments, even in the most bitter weather. A young tree, wln-n
foiled, yields poles to support branches as shields against weather, and
flooring above the snow or damp. A common arrangement is as fol-
lows : A cross-bar is support-
ed by two uprights ; airaiii*t
this cross bar a number of
poles are made to lea:.
the back of the poles abun-
dance of fir branches are laid
horizontally; and, lastly, "ii
the back of the fir brain !.
another set of lean'mi: ]>'>]PS, in order to make all secure by their weight.
A cloth of any kind is made to give shelter by an arrangement of this

CAJL] MILITARY DICTIOyABY. 133

kind. The corners of the cloth should be secured by a simple hitch in
the rope and not by a knot. The former is sufficient for all purposes
of security, but the latter will jam, and you may have to injure both
cloth and string to get it
loose again. It is convenient
to pin a skewer in the mid-
dle of the sides of the cloth,
round the ropes.

Good water within a con-
venient distance is essential
in the selection of a camp,
as is also the proximity
of woods for firewood, ma-
terial for shelter, &c. Good roads, canals, or navigable streams are
important to furnish the troops with the necessaries of life if troops are
encamped for long periods. The ground should not be near swamps
or stagnant water. This requirement is essential to health. The
ground, to be suitable for defence, must admit the manoeuvres of
troops. The front of the camp of each battalion of infantry or squadron
of cavalry must, therefore, be equal to the front of the battalion or
squadron. And as far as possible camps for cavalry and infantry
should be established on a single line the cavalry upon the wings, the
infantry in the centre. The shelters or huts are alligned, a* well
as the nature of the ground admits, from one extremity of the camp
to the other, and arranged by companies in streets, perpendicular to the
front. The general thus has the whole extent of his camp in view, and
order can be better preserved. When the army is formed upon two
lines, there are two camps one in front of the other. The reserve
has also its particular camp. Artillery usually encamps behind the in-
fantry, and thus forms a little separate camp or camps of its own.
In establishing a camp, however, no universal rule can be laid down ;
but it is necessary (says Napoleon) that the genius of the commander
should, according to circumstances, decide whether an army ought
to be confined to one single encampment or to form as many as
it has corps or divisions ; where the vanguard and flanks should be
posted ; where the cavalry, artillery, and wagons should be placed, and
whether the army should occupy one or more lines ; what should be
the distance between the lines ; and whether the cavalry should be in
reserve behind the infantry, or should be placed on the wings.

Baron Larrey suggests the following sanitary considerations in relation
to camps : A camp, especially if permanent, should be selected so as to be

134 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CA*

accessible to the troops by easy marches ; it should occupy a spacious
plain, in a province exempt from both epidemical and endemical diseases;
the soil should be dry, but not too hard, so that it may quickly imbibe
the rain ; because it then becomes fit for military operations a few hours
after the most violent shower. This prompt absorption, moreover, pre-
serves the troops from the baneful influence of dampness without ex-
posing them to the iiu -nvi -uiences of want of water, since in such a soil
wells may be easily dug and water found at an ineonsi.K Table depth,
as is the case at Chalons. A good camp should not bo intersected by
streams or ditches, nor enclosed by large forests. The tents should not
be too closely packed, in order to insure good ventilation throughout,
and diminish the probability of epidemics. When a river is too near
a camp, and its banks are somewhat marshy, the breaking out of inter-
. er should bo prevented by deepening the bed of the river,
cleansing it as much as possible of all putrefying vegetable and animal
substances, raising tho banks and giving them at the same time a greater
imTmutioM, making channels for carrying off tho water, and establishing
tents and barracks at a sufficient distance, and as much as possible on
rising ground. When the supply of water to a camp is derived from
a river, tho latter ought to bo divided into threo sections: the first and
upper one to bo exclusively used for drink by the men, the second to
bo reserved f>r tho horses, and the third and lowermost for washing
tho linen of the troops. These demarcations should be strictly guarded
by sentinels stationed at tho proper places. To drive off dampness,
bivouac-fires ought to be lighted in the evening; each tent, iu r
should be surrounded with a gutter communicating with a main ditch to
carry off rain-water; the space occupied by certain corps should also bo
sanded over, to facilitate tho absorption of humidity by tho soil. In
I it, hing tents care should be taken to maintain between them a distant .
of at least two metres ; those of the general officers should bo situated
in the healthiest quarter. Tents made of white stuff are prejudicial to
the eyesight in summer, and should be therefore discarded. A tent
being liable to infection like a room, it ought not to !>< hermetically
doted, as is the custom with s.,l.li,-i-s, but, on the contrary, w, 11 aired ;
and the ground ought not only to be scraped and swept, but should also
be well rammed. Th-- m.n on^ht not .to sleep in the tents with their

heads near th ntn- and their r-.-f towards tho. cirmmfercner, l.ut in

theCWrtrary position, elae they breath" a vitiated instead of a |>nn- air. A
tent, generally calculated for 10 men, ought never fountain in. ire than
12 or 13 it - 10 cavalry. Of the different kinds of tent>

the conical Turkish tent is the best; for ambulances the man.

CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 135

erable. The tente-cTabri, which is made by joining two camp-sacks to-
gether by means of a wooden pole, and keeping them stretched by
small stakes stuck into the ground, is a most precious invention. Four
men can find shelter under it, and the weight it adds to their kit is
trifling, but it can only be used in provisional encampments. The
tents of the cavalry ought to be freed from the encumbrance of saddles
and accoutrements, which vitiate the air, and should be placed under small
sheds in front of the tents, or, better still, in the stable-barracks. The
men should be encouraged to cultivate little patches of ground around
their tents as gardens ; it is both an amusement and a means of purifying
the air, only they must not be allowed to manure the soil. As regards
sleeping, each soldier should fill a camp-sack with straw and lie down
on it as on a mattress, with his blanket to cover him ; or, better still, he
should get into the sack filled with straw a much better plan than al-
lowing the men to sleep together in couples on two sacks spread out o&
the straw, and with the same blanket to cover them. The ground on
which the men sleep ought to be swept daily and sanded over, for it
easily gets infected ; in which case it becomes necessary to shift the tents
a measure which is often sufficient to stop an epidemic at its outbreak.
A reserve of planks and trestles ought to be kept in store for extem-
pore bedsteads when the ground has become too damp ; or water-proof
canvas may be spread over to protect the straw from humidity. In
autumn a single blanket is not sufficient, each man should be provided
with two.

The guards of camps are : 1. The Camp-guard, which serves to
keep good order and discipline, prevent desertions and give the alarm ;
2. Detachments of infantry and cavalry, denominated pickets, in front
and on the flanks, which intercept reconnoitring parties of the enemy,
and give timely notice of the approach of an enemy ; and 3. Grand-
guards, or out-posts, which are large detachments posted in surrounding
villages, farm-houses or small field-works, from which they can. watch
the movements of the enemy. They should not be so far from the camp
as to be beyond succor in case of attack, and not so near as to prevent
timely notice being given to the main body of the army on the approach
of an enemy. If the 'camp is to present the same front as the troops in
order of battle, 400 military paces will be necessary per regiment of 500
files front. Immediately after arriving on the ground, the number of
men to be furnished for guards and pickets are detailed ; the posts to
be occupied by them are designated ; the places of distribution of pro-
visions are mentioned, and, in general, all arrangements made con-
cerning the interior and exterior police and service of the camp.

MILITARY PKTIO.VAKV.

[CAM.

The tente-cTabri has been introduced in the French service since
1887, when first used at the camp of Coinpiegne. These tents con-
sist of a tissue of cotton cloth impregnated with caoutchouc, and
thus made water-proof. Kvrry man carries a square of this doth,
\\ith buttons ami button-holes around it, by which it is attached to the
squares carried by his comrades, and an excellent shelter for six
rs is made as follows: Three tent-sticks are fixed into the
ground, whose tope are notched; a light con! is then passed round
their tops, and fastened into the ground with a peg at each end ;
(Fig. 88.) Two sheets, A and B, are buttoned together and thrown
over the cord, ami then two other sheets, C and D ; and C is buttoned
to A, and D to B. Lastly, another sheet is thrown over each of the,
slanting cords the one buttoned to A and B, and the other to Cund I ) ;
(Fig. 89.) of the tent are of course pegged to the ground.

Fio.

There are many modifications in the way of pitehing tl. . For

want luskets can be used.

!>aralion8 for a Slonn. Before a storm, dig a ditch as deep as
YOU can. round the outside of the tent, to turn aside the rain-\\at-r. and
to drain the ground on which tin- tent is standing even a furrow
scratched with a than nothing at all. Fasten guy-

ropes to the spike of the t<-nt-po], ; and be. ear. fid that the tent is not

ich on tho strain, else the further shrinking of the materials, under

tin 1 inllueiH f the rain, will certainly tear up the j 'h, banked

up round the bottom of the tent, will prexent gusts of wind from find-
ing their way beneath. The accompanying sketch shows a tent pitched

CAM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

137

FIG. 90.

for a lengthened habitation. It has a deep drain, a seat and table dug
out, and a fireplace. (Fig. 90.)

Tent Furniture. A
portable bedstead, with
musquito-curtains, is a
very great luxury, raising
the sleeper above the damp
soil, and the attacks of
most creatures that creep
on it ; where a few lux-
uries can be carried, it is
a very proper article of
baggage. It is essential
where white ants are nu-
merous. Hammocks and
cots have but few advo-
cates, as it is rare to find

places adapted for swinging them ; they are quite out of place in a
small tent.

Chairs and Tables. It is advisable to take very low strong and
roomy camp-stools, with tables to correspond in height, as a chamber is
much less choked up when the seats are low, or when people sit, as in
the East, on the ground. The seats should not be more than 1 foot
high, though as wide and deep as an ordinary footstool ; but without a
seat, a man can never write, draw, nor calculate as well as if he has
one. The stool represented in Fig. 91 is a good one ; it has a full-
sized seat made of leather or canvas, or else of strips of dressed hide.
For want of a chair, it is convenient to dig a hole or a trench in the
ground, and to sit on one side of it, with the feet resting on its bottom ;
the opposite side of the trench serves as a table, for putting things on,
within easy reach.

FIG. 91. FIG. 92.

&o tie clothes, or any thing, up to a smooth tent-pole, a strap with
hooks in it, to buckle round the pole, is very convenient. The method
shown in Fig. 92 suffices, if the pole is notched, or jointed, or in any

138 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM.

way slightly uneven. Bags, <Scc.,' are hung upon the bit of wood that
is secured to the loose end. The luxuries and elegancies practicable in
tent life are only limited by the means : ' The articles that

make the most show are handsome rugs, and skins, and pillows ; can-
teens of dinner and coffee services, &c. ; and candles, with screens of
glass, or other arrangements to prevent them from flickering. The art
of luxurious tenting is bettor understood in JVrski than in any other
country, even than in India.

Losing things. Small things are constantly mislaid and trampled
in the sand : to search for them, the ground should be disturbed as
little as possible it is a usual plan to score its surface in parallel lines
with a thin wand. It would be well worth while to make and use a
small light rake for this purpose.

Jfats. In making a depot, it is usual to build a house ; often th<>
men have to pass weeks in inactivity, and they may as well spend them
in making their quarters comfortable, as in idleness. Whatever huts
the natives live in are sure, if made with extra care, to bo sullicient l<>r
travellers.

Walls. The materials whence the walls of huts may be constructed,
are very numerous, and there is hardly any place which does not fur-
nish one or other of them. Those principally in use are as follows :
Skins, canvas, felt, tarpaulinp, bark, reed mats, reed walls, straw walls,
wattle-and-dab, log-huts, fascines or fagots, boards, &c., fastened by
Malay-hitch, brick, sunburnt or baked, turf, stones, gabions, bags or
mats filled with sand or shingle, snow huts, underground huts, tents
over holes in earth.

Roofs. Many of the above list would be perfectly suitable f.-r
roofs: in addition may be mentioned slating with flat stones, thatch,
sea-weed, and wood shingles.

Floors. Cowdung and ashes make a hard, dry, and clean floor, such
a* is used for a threshing-floor. Ox-blood and line Hay, kneaded to-
. are excellent ; both these compositions are used in all hot, dry
count;

Tarpaultnya, made in the sailors' way, are much superior to others
in softness and durability. As soon as the canvas is sown together, it
is thoroughly wetted with sea-water; and, while still wet. is dOB
on one side with tar and grease boiled together about two pan

-reasc. Boinjr hnnij up till dry. it is turned ; and the. other
side, being a second time w, 11 wett<xl, is at oUte painted over with the.
tar and grease just as the first side had be, done, before. The sailors
say that " the tar dries in as the water dries out."

CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 139

Bark. It is an art to strip it quickly the Australians understand
it well. Two rings are cut round the tree ; the one as high as can be
reached, the other low down. A vertical slit is then made, and the
whole piece forced off with axes, &c. In spring the bark comes off
readiest from the sunny side of the tree. A large sheet of bark is ex-
ceedingly heavy. It is flattened, as it lies on the ground, by weighting
it with large stones, and allowing it to dry, partially at least, in that
position.

Straw Walls of the following kind are very effective, and they have
the advantage of requiring a minimum of string (or substitute for
string) in their manufacture. The straw, or herbage of almost any
description, is simply nipped between two pair of long sticks, which are
respectively tied together at the two ends, and at a sufficient number
of intermediate places. The whole is neatly squared and trimmed ;
(Fig. 93.) A few of these would help in finishing the roof or walls of a
house. They can be made movable, so as to suit the wind, shade, and
aspect. Even the hut door can be made on this principle.

Log-huts. In building log-huts, four poles are planted in the ground
to correspond to the four corners : against these, logs are piled one
above another, as in Fig. 94 ; they are so deeply notched where they

FIG. 94.

cross one another, that the adjacent sides are firmly dovetailed together.
When the walls are entirely completed, the doors and windows are
chopped out, and the spaces between the logs must be well caulked
with moss, &c., or the log-cabin will be little better than a log-cage.
It of course requires a great many trees to make a log-hut; for, sup-
posing the walls to be 8 feet high, and the trees to average 8 inches in
diameter, it would require 12 trees to build up one side, or 48 to make
all four walls.

Malay hitch. I know no better name for the following wonderfully
simple way of attaching together wisps of straw, rods, laths, reeds,
planks, poles, or any thing of the kind, into a secure and flexible mat ;

140

MIUTAKY IHtTlONAKY.

[CAM.

l .... :,.

the sails used in the far East are made in this \v:iy. and the movable decks
are made of bamboos joined together \\ith a similar but rather more
complicated stitch ; ( 1 i-. 95.) Soldiers might bo trained to a great deal

of hutting practice in a \vry iuexpen-
Auy if they were drilled at put-
ting together huts whose roofs and
walls were made of planks lashed
together by this simple hitch, and
\\ hose supports were short scafl'old-
ini:- poles planted in deep holes dug
without spades or any thing but
tin- hand and a small stick. The
poles, planks, and cords might be
used over and over again for an in-
definite time. Further, bedsteads could bo made in a similar way by
<ross planks lashed toother, and resting on a framework of
horizontal poles lashed to uprights planted in the ground. The sol-
!>odding would not be injured by being used on these bedsteads,
in the way it would be if laid on the bare gound. Many kinds of

19 and experiments in hutting could be practised without i-\
in this simple way.

Snow-houses. Few travellers have habitually made snow-houses,
except Sir J. Franklin's party, and that of Dr. Rae. Great praises are
bestowed on the comfort of them by all travellers, but skill and prac-
tice are required in building them. The mode of erection of these.
dome-shaped buildings is as follows : It is to be understood that the
hard, compact, underlying snow is necessary for the bottom of the hut ;
and that the looser textured, upper layer of snow is used to build the
house. Firat, select and mark out the circular plot on which the hut
is to be raised. Then, cut out with knives deep slices of siiow. .six
Inches wide, three feet long, and of a depth equal to that of the la\cr

:'. ...-:;...-..:!.) \ . i. These elleei mre curved, so as to

'ilar ring when placed on their edges, and of a si/e to make
the first row of snow-bricks fr the house. Other slices are cut for the
Succeeding rOW8 ; and, \\hen the i-,,,.f Ins to 1-.- made, the siio\v-l>ricks
are Ollt \\ifh the necessary double curvature. A conical ping (ills up

the centre. Loose snow is then h.-aped over the house, to (ill up

crevices. Lastly, a doorway is cut out with knives: also a window,

i is glased with a sheet of the ] .it hand. For the inside

accominod.itin. there is a pillar or two. to support lamps.

Underground Hutt are used in all quarters of the globe. The ex-

CAM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

141

FIG. 96.

perience of the British troops encamped before Sebastopol tells strongly
in their favor, as habitations during an inclement season. The timely
adoption of them was the salvation of the British army. They are,
essentially, nothing else than holes in the ground, roofed over. The
shape and size of the hole correspond to that of the roof it may be
possible to procure for it ; its depth is no greater than requisite. If
the roof have a pitch of 2 feet in the middle, the depth of the hole need
not exceed 4 feet. In the Crimea,
the holes were rectangular, and
roofed like huts ; (Fig. 96.)
Where there is a steep hill side,
o, a, an underground hut, b, is
easily contrived ; because branch-
es laid over its top have sufficient
pitch to throw off the rain, with-
out having recourse to any uprights, &c. Of course the earth is re-
moved from d, at the doorway.

Tents pitched over excavations. A hole may be dug deeply beneath
the tent floor, partly as a store-room, and partly as a living-room when
the weather is very inclement. This, also, was done before Sebastopol
in the manner shown in the engraving.

Thatching. After the framework of the roof has been made, the
thatcher begins at the bottom, and ties a row of bundles of straw, side
by side, on to the framework. Then he begins a second row, allowing
the ends of the bundles composing it to overlap the heads of those in
the first row.

Wood Shingles are tile-shaped slices of wood, easily cut from fir-
trees, and used for roofing on the same principle as tiles or slates.

Fix hooked sticks, and cow or goat horns, round the walls, as pegs
to hang things on ; and if you went a luxurious bed, make a framework
of wood, with strips of raw hide lashed across it from end to end, and
from side to side ; (Fig. 97.) If you collect bed feathers, recollect that if

FIG. 97.

cleanly plucked they require no dressing of any kind, save drying and
beating. Concrete for floors is made of 80 parts large pebbles, 40
river sand, 10 lime ; lime is made by burning limestone, chalk, shells,

142 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM.

or coral, in a simple furnace, and whitewash is lime and water. Hark
makes a good roof. The substitutes for glass arc waxed or oiled
paper or cloth, bladder, fish-membranes, talo, and horn. Glass cannot
be cut with any certainty without a diamond ; but it may be shaped
and reduced to any siie by gradually chipping, or rather biting.
at its edges with a key, if the slit between its wards be just
enough to admit the pane of glass easily. A window, or rather a h..lo
wall, may be rudely shuttered by a stick run through loops
made out of wisps of grass. In hot weather tin- windows of the hut
may be loosely filled with grass, which, when well-watered, makes the
hut much cooler. A mosquito curtain may bo taken and suspended
10 bed, or place where you sit. It is very pleasant, in hot, mos-
quito-plagued countries, to take the glass sash entirely out of the win-,
dow frame, and replace it with one of gauze. Broad network, if of
fluffy thread, keeps wasps out. The darker a house is kept, tli
willing are flies, <fcc., to flock in. If sheep and other cattle be near the
house, the nuisance of flies, &c., becomes almost intolerable ; (GALTON'S
Art of Travel.)

Major II. II. Sibley, 2d Dragoons, has invented a tent in which
a firo can be made in its centre, and all soldiers sleep with their feet
to the fire. Major Siblcy's tent is conical, light, easily pitch*

F|0> ^ on a tripod holding a

single polo, and will < 'in-
fo rtably accommodate
twclvesoldierswith their
accoutrements. "Where

means of transportation

admit of tents being us- d.
Major Sibley *s will prob-
ably supersede all others.
(Fig. 98.)

A commander offr
usually sends in adv..
to prepare the camp. The
camping party
meiit may be the regi-
mental quartermaster,
and quartermaster
gennt,and a corporal and
two : The camp of a larger detachment is prepared by

the chief quartermaster or some officer of the general's staff, designated

CAM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

143

by the commander of the troops assisted by the company camping par-
ties of regiments. W ith camp colors the direction of the front line of the
camp is marked, and the extent of the front of each corps, the intervals
between corps, and the beginning, breadth, and direction of streets desig-
nated. When the encampment is on two lines, let there be 450 paces
between their respective fronts. Behind intrenchments there ought to
be about 300 paces between the entrenchments and the front of the
camp. The posts of the police guard will be designated, and the neces-
sary works to secure communication between the parts of the camp
will also be determined. Fig. 99 gives details for the camp of a regi-
ment of infantry.

FIG. 99.

mm mm mm mm
mm am u -i a ;j

a e B mo am

COMPAHV OFFICERS.

a a a mm

sTSImV **" QVM* JJ

Ha EH HI

QVM* JJCoL. COL.

RSS\**.

Camp of Cavalry. In the cavalry, each company has one file of tents
the tents opening on the street facing the left of the camp. The horses
of each company are placed in a single file, facing the opening of the tents,
and are fastened to pickets planted firmly in the ground, from 3 to 6
paces from the tents of the troops. The interval between the file of
tents should be such that, the regiment being broken into columns of
companies, each company should be on the extension of the line on

144 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM.

whieh the horses arc to be picketed. The streets separating the
squadrons are wiK r titan those between the companies by the int. rval
separating squadrons in lino ; these intervals are kept free from any
obstruction throughout the camp. The horses of tin- rear rank are
placed on those of their file-loaders. The horses of the lieu-

tenants are placed on the right of tlu-ir platoons ; those of the captains
on th Each horse occupies a space of about

paces. The number of horses in the company fixes the depth of the
camp, and th distance between the files of tents ; the forage is placed
between the tents. The kitchens are 20 poees in front of each file of
tents. The non-commissioned officers arc in tho tents of the front rank.
Camp-followers. *, &c., are in tho rear rank. Tho police guard

in the rear rank, near the centre of tho regiment. The tents of the
mints are 30 paces in rear of the file of their company ; the tents
of tho captains 30 paces in rear of the lieutenants. The colonel's tent
30 paces in rear of tho captains', near tho centre of the regiment ; the
lieutenant-colonel on his right ; tho adjutant on his left ; tho majors on
the same line, opposite tho 2d company on the right and left ; the sur-
geon on the left of the adjutant. Tho field and staff have their horses
on tho left of their tents, on tho same lino with the company horses ;
sick horses are placed in ono line on the right or left of tho camp. The
men who attend them have a separate file of tents ; the forg
wagons in rear of this file. Tho horses of the train anl of ramp-follow-
ers are in ono or more files extending to tho rear, behind the rhjit or
left squadron. Tho advanced post of tho police guard is 200 pa-
front, opposite tho centre of tho regiment ; the horses in one or two lih-s.
The sinks for tho men aro 150 paces in front those for officers 100
in rear of tho camp.

Camp o/Jr/i/Ary. Tho artillery is encamped near the troops to
it is attached, so as to bo protected from attack, and to contribute.
to the defence of the camp. Sentinels for the park are furnished by
the artillery, and when necessary, by tho other troops. For a battery
of six pieces the tents are in three files one for each section ; distance
between tho ranks of tents 15 paces ; tents opening to the front. The
hones of each section are picketed in one file, 10 paces to the left of
the file of tents. In the horse artillery, or if the number of hors-s make
it necessary, tho horses or ;,. s ,,n the H L r| lt and left of the file.

itchens are 26 paces in front of the front rank of
The tents of th- oOctfl ar- in the outside files of company tei
paces in rear of the rear rank the captain on the right, the lieutenants
on the left. The park is opposite the centre of the camp, 40 paces in

CAP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 145

rear of the officers' tents. The carriages in files 4 paces apart ; dis-
tance between ranks of carnages sufficient for the horses when
harnessed to them ; the park guard is 25 paces in rear of the park.
The sinks for the men 150 paces in front ; for the officers 100 paces in
rear. The harness is in the tents of the men. (Consult BARDIN; Me-
morial des Officiers d'Infanterie et de Cavalerie GALTON'S Art of Travel.}

CAMP AND GARRISON EQUIPAGE. (See CAMP ; CLOTHING ;
TOOLS ; UTENSILS ; QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT.)

CAMPAIGN. The period of a year that an army keeps the field
from the opening of a campaign until the return to quarters or canton-
ments at the end of the campaign. A series of continuous field opera-
tions. An ordinary campaign, in respect to recompense for length of
service, is counted as two years of effective service in the French army.
In all services excepting our own, additional allowances in campaign are
made to troops beyond those given at other periods. (See ALLOWANCES.)

CANISTER for field service, consists of a tin cylinder attached
to a sabot, and filled with cast-iron shot. For siege and garrison guns
the bottom is of cast iron, and the cover of sheet iron with a handle
made of iron wire. (See SABOT.)

CANNON. (See CALIBRE ; ORDNANCE.)

CANTEEN. A small tin caoutchouc or circular wooden vessel,
used by soldiers on active service to carry liquor, &c. A small trunk or
chest, containing culinary and other utensils for the use of officers. A kind
of suttling house, kept in garrisons, &c., for the convenience of the troops.

CANTONMENTS. Troops are said to be in cantonments when
detached and quartered in the different towns and villages, lying as near
as possible to each other. (See CAMP.)

CAPITAL. The line drawn bisecting the salient angle of a work.

CAPITULATION. Articles of agreement, by which besieged
troops surrender at discretion, or with the honors of war. The
terms granted depend upon circumstances of time, place, &c. Any
surrender in the open field without fighting was stigmatized fey Napoleon
as dishonorable, as was also the surrender of a besieged place without
the advice of a majority of a council of defence, before the enemy had
been forced to resort to successive siege-works, and had been once re-
pulsed from an assault through a practicable breach in the body of the
place, and the besieged were without means to sustain a second assault ;
or else the besieged were without provisions or munitions of war.

CAPONNIERE. Passage from the place to an outwork; it is
either single or double, sometimes bomb-proof and loopholed. (See
FORTIFICATION.)
10

146 MILITARY DICTIONABY. [CAP,

CAPS. Percussion caps fur small arms are formed by a machine
which cuts a star or blank from the sheet of copper, and transfers it
to a die iii which the cap is shaped by means of a punch. The powder
with which eajw are charged consists of fulminate of mercury, n
with half its weight of salt pi tre.

CAPTAIN. Rank in the army between major and 1st lieutenant,
charged with the arms, accoutrements, ammunition, clothing, or other
warlike stores belonging to the troops or company under his command ;
(AM, 40.)

CAPTURE. (See PRIZE ; BOOTY.)

CARBINE. A cavalry weapon intermediate in weight and length
between rifle and ji*t-l. and usually breech-loading. ( For PISTOL-CAR-
BIW, tee ARMS.) Carbines for the United States' service have been
obtained from the following manufactories : Samuel Colt's, Hartford,
Conn. Colt's Revolving Pistols, Hide-;, and Carbines ; Sharpe's Anns-
Manufacturing Company, Hartford, Conn., for Sharpe's Carbines and
lea; Charles Jackson, Providence, R. I., for Burnside's Carbines ;
and Maynard's Arms Company, Washington, D. C., for Maynard's
Kifles and Carbines. The breech-loading arms of the foregoing manu-
factories have lecn tried more or less in service, and favorably
upon by boards of officers. They are considered good cavalry
but neither have yet been pronounced tl:e, best by the ordnance depart.
ment. (See ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT.)

The distinguishing feature of a breech-loading arm is the method of
-ing the breech. One of the most serious defects ..f these arm-
the escape of pis through the joint. This defect has been removed by
-ing the joint at the moment of discharge by tho action of the gas
itself. This operation, called packing the joint, is accomplished : 1st.
By the use of cartridge cases of sheet bra-s, India rubber, or other
terial ; or, 2d. By the use of a th'n., elastic ring of steel, which ov.
the joint. By the first method tho case is permanently distended, (but
may be safely Used for several fire-.) and M.me arrangement is required
to remove it from tho chamber. In the second method, the ring or gas
check is a part of the arm ; and its elasticity causes it to return to its
original form after tho disch.r

Burntide'i Carbine is an example of the first method ; it has a mov-
able chamber which opens by turning on a hinge. A brass cart
case is used which packs the joint and cuts off the escape of the gas.
The advantages of this arm are: its str.-nth. ater-pro,,f cartri

lit. and working machi; disadvantages are

the cost, and difficulty of getting the cartridges.

CAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 147

Sharpens Carbine has a fixed chamber, and the breech is closed by
a slide which moves nearly at right angles to the axis of the barrel.
By boring a recess into the face of the slide, opposite to the chamber,
and inserting a tightly-fitting ring into it, so that the inner rim is
pressed against the end of the barrel at the instant of discharge, the
escape of gas is prevented.

Maynartfs Carbine has a fixed chambered piece, with the joint
closed by a metallic cartridge case. ( Consult BENTON.)

CARCASS. Combustible composition enclosed in globes, formed
with iron hoops, canvas, and cord, generally of an oblong shape, and
thrown from mortars or stone mortars ; it is used in bombardments,
firing shipping, &c.

CARPENTRY. An assemblage of pieces of timber connected by
framing or letting them into each other, as are the pieces of a roof, floor,
centre of a bridge, &c. It is distinguished from joiners' work, by be-
ing put together without using other tools than the axe, adze, saw,
and chisel. Troops frequently are obliged to hut themselves, make
bridges, &c., and some knowledge of rough carpentry is essential in
roofing and centring. The obvious mode of covering a building is to
place two sloping rafters upon two walls, meeting in the apex, where we
will suppose them connected. (Fig. 100.) It is plain that the weight
of this rafter will tend to thrust the walls from its vertical line. This is
prevented by tying together the feet of the rafters, by means of another
beam called a tie beam. Beyond certain lengths or spans, however, it
is apparent that the tie beam will itself have a tendency to bend or sag
in the middle, and accordingly it becomes necessary to resort to another
contrivance called a king post, but more properly a king piece, as it
performs the office of tying up the tie beam to prevent it from bending.
If the rafters be so long as to be liable to bend, two pieces called struts
are introduced, which have their footing against the sides of the king
post, and act as posts
to strut up the rafters
at their weakest point.
This piece of framing
thus contrived is called
a truss. It is obvious
that, by means of the
upper joints of the
struts, we can obtain
more points of sup-
port or rather suspension. It is not, however, necessary to truss

14 S MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAB,

all, but only tin- principal rafters of a building. These principal
rafters must never be more than MI feet apart, and by the inter
vention of a purline they are made to bear the smullor rat ins. the
down on the purlino. These common rafters are
received by or pitch upon a plate called a pole plate, and the pri
rafters which pit.-h up<>n the tic beam, are ultimately borne l.y a wall
\ .-anis in cither roofs or floors are so loni: that they can-

not be procured in one piece, two pieces to form the required len-jth
are tcarftd together, l>y indenting them at tlu-ir joints, and bolting them
together t .g. 101.)

Fio. 10L

The following simple manner of putting up balloon frames, that is,
frames without tenons or mortises, is given in tin; language of a build-
er in our western country : The best size for a small house is 1C by 32
feet, divided into three rooms and only one story high, unless roofing is
very expensive. For such a building six pieces of scantling are n -ijuin <!,

v 8, or 2i by 10 inches, 1C feet long for sills, and seventeen pieces
for sleepers, with seventeen pieces of same size, 18 feet long, f..r upper
floor joists. The studs must be 2 by 4, or 2$ by 5 inches, and 8, 9 or 10
feet long, as you wish the height of your ceiling. The end studs may
be longer, so as to run up to tho rafters ; but this is not important, since
studs maybe spliced anywhere by simply butting the ends to :
and nailing strips of boards upon each side, or the timbers may lap by-
each other and bo held in place by a few nails till the siding is nailed
on. But to begin at the foundation : Lay down two of th
timbers flatwise upon blocks or stones, if you can get them, and make

level all around. Nuil on strips where the ends of the sills butt
together, and hal\.- ..n the end sills and nail them together at the c<

rs, with a stout nail tord-in upm each side to hold
all your .side studs of an exact length ami square at

each end, and net up one- at each corner exactly plumb and fasten them
with stay-laths on the insid-. Now measure off for your doors and
windows -n th- sid. s, f the house, and set up studs for them. You are
now ready to p' plates, which are nothing but strips of inch

the width of your studs, spliced in length just as dim-ted f-r
splicing studs. Tho next step is to put up the rest of tho studs, nailing

CAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 140

through the plate into their tops, and toeing nails through the bot-
toms into the sills. Hands may now commence at once to nail the
sheathing-boards upon the sides, while others are putting up the
joists, which should be 18 feet long and either 2 by 8 or 2 by 10
inches, according to the strength of the timber. Pine and poplar
should always be of the larger dimensions. Cut notches one inch
deep in the lower edge of the joists, so that they will lock on to
the plate, and project over the sides one foot at each end. Nail up
through the plate into the joists with stout nails, having just as many
joists as pairs of rafters, the feet of which are to stand on and be nailed
to the joists, which project the eaves a foot beyond the sides. This,
however, may be dispensed with, if short eaves are preferred, or if tim-
ber cannot be got long enough. The end studs will be nailed both to
the sill and end sleeper and to the end joists, and to the rafter if long
enough to reach up, and if not splice them as before directed. Finish
sheathing the sides and ends before you put on the roof. The siding
may bo afterward put on at your leisure. Boards three-fourths of an
inch thick make good sheathing ; and the best plan is to put them on
without any regard to fitting the edges, and batten all the cracks on
the inside with waste pieces of boards or shingles. When shingles are
inexpensive they make a better siding and cheaper than sawed clap-
boards. You will find it a great saving of labor to lay the upper floor
before you put on the roof. If you wish to make your house one and
a half or two stories high, the following is the way the chamber floor
joists are supported : Take a strip of board one inch thick and five
inches wide, and let it into the face of the studs on the inside and nail
it fast and set your joists on this and nail them to the studs, and also
notch your floor boards in between all the studs and nail fast ; and you
will find, when done, that no old-fashioned frame with its heavy oak
timbers and months of mortising, with all its braces, was ever stifle r
than your " balloon," which two men can frame and raise, and cover and
lay the floors, and get ready to move into in one week's time. There is
no difficulty in making a balloon frame-house of any other size desired,
by putting in the partitions before you put on the upper joists, so as to
rest them upon the caps in the same way as upon the sides. For a house,
say thirty-two feet wide, the upper joists would be the same length as
for a house sixteeen feet, the inner ends resting upon the cap of a centre
partition, where they would be strongly spliced, as we have directed, by
nailing strips upon each side. The rafters of such a wide roof should
be stayed in the middle by strips nailed upon the sides of rafters and
joists, to prevent sagging ; as it is always to be borne in mind that all

150 MIUTAKY DICTIONARY. [CAK.

the timbers of such a building are to be as light as possible ; the strength
being obtained by nailing all fast together.

CARRIAGES. A gun carriage is designed to support it-
when fired, and also to transport cannon from one point t<> a
Field, mountain, and siege artillery have also limbers, which form \\lu n
united with the carriage a four-wheeled vehicle. Sea-coast carriages
are divided into barbette, catemate, and Hank defence carriages, depot id in-
upon the part of the work in which they are mounted. They ai
made of wrought iron and found to possess lightness, great strength, ami
stillness. The sea-coast carriages are made in a similar manner, and one
carriage can be altered to fit another piece by changing the trunnion-
plates and transom straps. The carriage consists of two cheeks of thick
beet-iron, each one of which is strengthened by three flanged iron-plates
bolted to the cheeks. Along tho bottom of each cheek, an iron shoe is
fixed with tho end bent upwards. In IV. -nt, this bent end is bolted to the
flange of the front strengthening plate. In rear tho bent portion is 1

at top by another bend, which I a point of appli-

cation fora lever on a wheel, when running to and iVoiu battery. The
trunnion-plates fit over the top ends of tho strengthening plates, which
around the bed, and are fastened to the flanges of the latter by
movable bolts and nuts. Tho cheeks are joined together by transoms
made of bar-iron. The front of the carriage is mounted on an axle-tree,
with truck wheels similar to the wooden casemate carriages. Tho ele-
vating screws are of two kinds: one for low angles of elevation, and the
second for coluinbiads where great angles of elevation are required.
The elevating arc is made of brass and attached to the upper edge of
the right cheek, and may be folded down. It is employed to measure
the elevation of the piece. ROBERTS & BENTON. (See CHASSIS ; Co-

LUMBIAD.)

CARTE BLANCHE. A blank paper sent to a person, to fill
up with such condition** as he may think proper to insert. In the
general acceptation of tho term, it implies an authority to act at dis-

CAKTKL. \i. igreemenf between t\\o h.-stib- p. a mu-

tual exchan- sVe WAR.)

CARTRIDGE. Bullets for small arms are made by
To prepare the had for the pn-^. i; is cast into cylinders or drawn
out into wires somewhat leas in diameter than the bull. ;. ( n.
ran make 3,000 bullets in nn hour. ay aKo be east in mould*

and afterwards waged in a die to proper siz, and sh

CAR.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

151

Table of dimensions for formers for making cartridges with elongated expanding butteU.
(The dimensions are referred to the plate by means of the letters placed opposite to them.)

Altered musket.

New rifle musket

Pistol carbine.

Inches.

a
d
c

3.5
2.5
5.26

3.5
2.25
4.25

\
> Outer wrapper.

a
e

1.1

2.75

1.
2.

.8
2.

t Cylinder case.

f
I

1.5

2.75
3.75 ,

1.3
2.2
3.

1.1
2.2
3.

> Cylinder wrapper.

The diameters of the round sticks on which the powder cases are
formed should be .69 inch for the old, and .58 inch for the new calibre.
This will make the exterior diameter of the case somewhat larger than
the bullet, and will prevent the outer wrapping from binding around its
base when the cartridge is broken. The outer wrapper should not be
made of too strong paper : that prescribed in the Ordnance Manual for
blank cartridges, and designated as No. 3, will answer a better pur-
pose for these cartridges than that designated as No. 1. The cylinder
case should be made of stiff rocket paper, No. 4 ; and its wrapper may
be made of paper No. 1, 2, or 3. Before enveloping the bullets in the
cartridges, their cylindrical parts should be covered with a melted com-
position of one part beeswax and three parts tallow. It should be ap-
plied hot, in which case the superfluous part would run off; care should
be taken to remove all of the grease from the bottom of the bullet, lest
by coming in contact with the bottom of the case it penetrate the paper
and injure the powder. The bullets being thus prepared, and the grease
allowed to cool, the cartridges are made up as follows, viz. : place the
rectangular piece of rocket paper, called the cylinder case, on the trape-
zoidal piece, called the cylinder wrapper, as shown by the broken lines
of Fig. 102, and roll them tightly round the former stick, allowing a
portion of the wrapper to project beyond both case and stick. Close
the end of the case by folding in this projecting part of the wrapper.
To prevent the powder from sifting through the bottom, paste the folds,
and press them on to the end of the stick, which is made slightly con-
cave to give the bottom a form of greater strength and stiffness. After
the paste is allowed to dry, the former stick is inserted in the case, and
laid upon the outer wrapper, (the oblique edge from the operative,
the longer vertical edge t % o wards his left hand,) and snugly rolled up.

MILITARY DICTION ARV.

I-;.. HA

The bullet is then inserted in the open end of the cartridge, the base
resting on the cylinder case, the paper neatly choked around the point

of the- bullet, and
fastened by two
half hitches of car-
tridge thread. The
former stick is thru
withdrawn, the
powder is poured
into the case, and
i!i- mouth of
the cartridge is
"pinched "or fold-
ed jn the usual
way. To use this
cartridge, tear the
fold and pour out
the powder ; thru
seize the bullet end
firmly between the
thumb and fore fin-
ger of the right
hand and strike the cylinder a smart blow across tin- mu/./le of the
piece ; this breaks the cartridge and exposes the bottom of tin- bullet ; a
pressure of the thumb and forefingers forces tin- bullet into the
bore clear of all cartridge paper. In striking the cartridge the cylinder
should be held square across, or at right angles to
the muzzle; otherwise, a blow given in an oblique
direction would only bend the cartridge without rup-
turing it. Cartridges constructed on these jrin-i-
ples pre SOl a neat and convenient form for earning
the powder and bullet attached to cadi other, and
they obviate, two important defects of the elongated
bullet cartridges in common use, \i/. : the n
position of the bullet in the cartridge, and the use
of tho paper wrapper as a patch. (Fig. 103.)

Cartridge-bags for field-pi' ^-ex should be made of

wild-bore, merino or bofobawtte, composed entirely

of wool, free from any mixture of thread or
which would be apt to retain fire in thn piece. The
texture and sewing should be close enough t> prc-

n* MA

CAS.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 153

vent the powder sifting through. Untwilled stuff is to be preferred.
Flannel may be used when other materials cannot be obtained. The
bag is of two rectangular pieces, which forms the cylinder, and a circular
piece for the bottom. As the stuff does not stretch in the direction of
its length, the long side of the rectangle should be taken in that direc-
tion, otherwise the cartridge might become too large for convenient use.

^Blank-cartridge Bags, or those intended for immediate use, may be
made of two rectangular pieces with semicircular ends sewed together.
The pieces are marked out with stamps made of one-inch board with a
handle in the middle of one side, and on the other two projecting rims
of copper or tin, parallel to each other and half an inch apart.

Siege and Garrison Cartridges consist of the charge of powder in a
bag, and the projectile always separate from the cartridge.

The Cartridge-bags are usually made of woollen stuff. They are
made of two pieces, in the form of a rectangle with semicircular end,
which are marked out with stamps and sewed together as described for
making blank-cartridge bags for the field service, and are filled, pre-
served, and packed in the same way.

Paper Bags. Bags for heavy ordnance may be made entirely of
paper. The bottom is circular, and one end of the cylindrical part is
cut into slips about one inch long, which are pasted over the paper bot-
tom on a cylindrical former. When a paper bag is filled, the open end
is folded down about three-fourths of an inch wide, and this fold is rolled
on itself down to the powder, and the part which projects beyond the
cylinder is turned in on the top of it. The bags are apt to leave
paper burning in the gun, for which reason those made of woollen stuff
are preferable. Bags are sometimes made of both paper and woollen
stuff, by forming the cylindrical part of paper, and sewing to it a bot-
tom of woollen stuff made of two semicircular pieces.

CARTS AND KITCHEN CART. A system of army transporta-
tion proposed by Colonel Cavalli. (See AMBULANCE ; WAGON.)

CASCABLE is the part of the gun in rear of the base ring ; it is
composed generally of the following parts : the knob, the neck, thej&feit,
and the base of the breech.

CASEMATE. Vaulted chamber with embrasures for guns. It is
necessary that they should be bomb-proof and distributed along the faces
and flanks of the bastion, to serve as quarters and hospital to the gar-
rison in war ; but such subterranean barracks are always unwholesome.

CASE SHOT are small balls enclosed in a case or envelope,
which, when broken by the shock of the discharge in the piece, or by a
charge of powder within the case, exploding during the flight of the case,

154 M1LITABY DICTIONARY.

acatten the balls. The kinds of case shot in use are GRAPE, CANISTER,
and SPHERICAL CASE.

CASHIERED. When an officer is sentenced by a court-martial,
to be dismissed the service, he is said to be cashiered.

CASTING AWAY Arms and Ammunition. Punishable with
death or other punishment, according to the nature of the offence, by
the sentence of a general court-martial ; (ART. &J.)

CASTRAMETATION. The art of em -ampment. (See CAMP.)

CA^l' A LTIKS. A word comprehending all mm who die, 1
or are discharged.

CAVALIER is a term applied to a work of more than ordinary
height. It is sometimes constructed upon the tcrre-plein of the bastion,
with faces and flanks parallel to those of the bust ion which it commands.
Cavaliers are not confined to bastions, but arc placed whercv. .- a
command of fire is required, and are sometimes traced straight, on other
occasions curved.

CAVALRY. There arc two regiments of dragoons, one of mount-
ed riflemen, and two styled cavalry in our army. It has been recom-
mended that these regiments should all bo called regiments of cavalry.
(Ste ARMY for their organization.) Cavalry is usually divided into
heavy and light cavalry. Heavy cavalry acts in heavy masses. Its
essential condition is united ranks. It finds its true type in the mailed
chivalry of the middle ages, but it is believed that the general introduc-
tion into service of rifled muskets \\ill render heavy cavalry ent in ly
useless in war. Formerly cavalry could move against infantry in
columns of squadrons first at a trot, then at a gallop, and finally at full
peed from a position taken up within 400 yards of infantry. Hut now
that the cavalry comes within range of the rifle at 1,000 yards, the in-
fantry must be greatly demorali/e-l before cavalry ran have the least
chance of success in a charge. Accordingly at the camp of Chalons,
where all arms of the service were supposed to bo repr. scute. 1, heavy
cavalry were not seen. Light cavalry on the e':t!.n\ is intended
rather to envelop an enemy. Quickness and agility arc its primary
conditions. Indefatigable and can less of repose it ought to occupy an
enemy during entire hours, harass an-1 fatigue him. If h lays himself
open pierce him with the quickness of lightning, and rut him t-
with th.- sal.r. . Tim cavalry soldier must consider his horse as pan of

If. and the porti-ct management of the horso cannot ! I
eith.-r in seh.M-U. or in a few weeks of practice. If daily exercises are
dispensed \\ horse and man return to their natural state, and

sueh m. -untod men cease to be efficient. The main body in all campaigns

CAT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 155

against Indians should be infantry. But a small mounted force, kept in
high condition, would add much to the efficiency of such a main body.
The horses should be well fed ; and upon long marches in uninhabited
districts this is impossible. The idea of employing such a force as a
main body, in order to make rapid marches, is also untenable ; for upon
long marches -of many days, infantry* will improve every day, accom-
plish a greater distance in many successive days, and have at the oppor-
tune moment greater vigor than a large cavalry force, necessarily with
broken-down horses from want of food ; whereas a small cavalry force
might be held in hand and maintained in the highest state of efficiency.
Cavalry is indispensable in time of war. It will always take a leading
part in pursuing a retreating enemy ; it is the proper arm in ordinary
reconnoissances ; it will always serve as eclaireurs, and as escorts, and
should, in the present state of the art of war, carry carbines and be pre-
pared for service on foot. It is weakened and destroyed when in a
country without forage. " Its first cost, its constant maintenance, the
defects of its employment, and the system of providing horses make it
expensive ; but it ought nevertheless to be maintained in a complete
state, for its art can only be exercised by rnen and horses that are
properly instructed.

Cavalry Tactics. The individual instruction of men and horses
should be regarded as the most important point of the whole system,
and should be as simple as possible ; the man should be taught to man-
age his horse with ease and address over all kinds of ground and at all
gaits, to swim rivers, to go through certain gymnastic exercises such
as vaulting, cutting heads, to fence, to fire very frequently at a mark, and
to handle his weapon with accuracy and effect at all gaits, and in all situ-
ations. Individual instruction has been recently made a supplementary
instruction in France. Every thing in reference to heavy cavalry, lan-
cers, hussars, &c., should be omitted. Insist upon the sabre being kept
sharp in the field, provide the men with means of doing so, and lay it down
as a rule that the strength of cavalry is in the " spurs and sabre." The in-
struction on foot should be carried no further than its true object requires
that is, to bring the men under discipline, improve their carriage, and
enable them to comprehend the movements they are to execute mounted.
The formation for review, parade, inspection, &c., to bo : the companies
deployed in one line, with intervals of 12 paces, or else in a line of col-
umns of companies by platoons, according to the ground. It should be
laid down as a fixed rule that no cavalry force should ever charge with-
out leaving a reserve behind it, and that against civilized antagonists the
compact charge in line should be used in preference to that as foragers.

150 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cwt

Columns to be formed with wheeling distance, and closed in mass;
wh.-n closed in ma>s the file-closers close up to 1 pace from the rank, and
th<- distance between the subdivisions to be just enough to permit each
company to wheel by fours. Marching columns to be by file. t\\s,
fours, or platoons; by fours and platoons in preference when tin- ground
permits. Columns of man<eu\rc to ! \>\ f. -u is, platoons, companies,
or in double column ; the latter always a regimental column, and to be
formed on the two central companies, or platoons, without closing the
interval between them. Deployments to be made habitually at a gal-
lop, and the individual oblique to be used as much as possible. The
Instruction in two lines to be provided for. The Russian tactics give a
good basis for the system of skirmishers, and charging as foragers.
For the use of the mounted rifles, and cavalry acting as such, a thoruu r h
ystcm for dismounting rapidly, and fighting on foot, has alreail ,
submitted by Captain Maury, and adopted. (Consult McCtELLAx.)

CENTRE OF THE BASTION is the intersection made by the
two dcmi-gorges.

CERTIFICATE. (See MUSTER.)

CHAIN-BALL. It has been proposed to attach a light body by
means of a chain to the rear of an oblong projectile, when tin-own under
high angles with a moderate velocity, so as to cause it to move with its
point foremost.

CHAIN-SHOT consist of two hemispheres, or two spheres con-
nected together by a chain. The motion <>f rotation of these proje. -tiles
in flight would render them useful in cutting the masts and riggings of
vessels, if their flight was not so inaccurate. When the mode of connec-
tion is a bar of iron instead of a chain, they .iro called P>ar-shot.

CHALLENGE. No officer or soldier shdl send a challenge to
another officer or soldier to fight a duel, or uceejt a challenge if sent,
upon pain if a commissioned officer of bein-j cashiered ; if a non-eom-
>ned officer or soldier, of suffering corporeal punishment at the
of a court-martial; (Aux. 25.) If any oommiafiofl d OT
non-com missioned officer commanding a iruard shall knowingly or wil-
lingly suffer any penoo frhataoerer to rr,, j;, rt h to fi^ht a dn.-l. he shall
l.c punished as a challenger; and all seconds, promoters. and carriers
<rder to duels, shall l.c demx-d principals, and le pun-
'v. And it shall be the duty . officer conmiand-

ing an army, regiment, company, post or detachment, who is knowing to
T accepted, by any officer, Mn4ommittione4
..r soldi. T nji.ler his command, or has reason to believe th. sani.-
to be the case, immediately to arrest and bring to trial such offenders ;

CHA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 157

(ART. 26.) Any officer or soldier who shall upbraid another for refus-
ing a challenge shall himself be punished as a challenger ; and all officers
and soldiers are hereby discharged from any disgrace, or opinion of dis-
advantage, which might arise from their having refused to accept chal-
lenges, as they will only have acted in obedience to the laws, and done
their duty as good soldiers, who subject themselves to discipline ;
(ART. 28.)

CHALLENGE OF MEMBERS OF COURT-MARTIAL. When a member
shall be challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge,
of which the court shall, after due deliberation, determine the relevancy
or validity, and decide accordingly ; and no challenge to more than one
member at a time shall be received by the court; (ART. 71.) Chal-
lenges of members are made in writing. The member withdraws and
the court is cleared for deliberation. If the challenge is disallowed the
member resumes his seat. Blackstone says : A principal challenge is
where the cause assigned carries prima facie evidence of malice or
favor ; as that a juror is of kin to either party within the 9th degree ;
that he has been arbitrator on either side ; that he has formerly been a
juror in the same cause ; that he is the party's muster, servant, &c..
These grounds of challenge, if true, cannot be overruled. Challenges to
the favor are, where the party hath no principal challenge, but objects
only on probable circumstances of suspicion, as acquaintance and the
like ; the validity of which is left to the triers ; (Houon.)

CHALLENGE OF A SENTINEL. Who goes there 1

CHAMADE is a signal made for parley bj; beat of drum.

CHAMBER OF A MINE is a cell of a cubical form, made to re-
ceive the powder.

CHAMBER of howitzers, columbiads, and rnortars, is the smallest
part of the bore, and contains the charge of powder. In the howitzers
and columbiads the chamber is cylindrical, and is united with a large
cylinder of the bore by a conical surface ; the angles of intersection of
this conical surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber, are
rounded (in profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch siege howitzer,
the chamber is united with the cylinder of the bore by a spherical surface,
in order that the shell may, when necessary, be inserted without a sabot.

CHAPLAIN. Punished by a court-martial for undue absence ;
(ART. 4.) One allowed to Military Academy who shall be professor of
geography, history, and ethics with pay of professor of mathematics.
Chaplains allowed to military posts, not exceeding twenty, are selected
by the council of administration of the post, and are also to be school-
masters, with $70 per month, 4 rations per day, and quarters and fuel ;
(Acts July 5, 1838 ; and Feb. 21, 1857.)

158 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ciu.

CHARACTKH. Whore a witness is introduced by a prison
prove character, the court may ask how long he has known the prisoner,
and whether he has known him from that time to the present without
interruption, and whether he speaks from his own knowledge or from
general report. Croft-examination by the prosecutor, of \\iti-esses in-
troduced by the prisoner to prove character, is not allowed. (Consult
PHILLIPS' Law of Evidence.)

CHARGE. Cavalry charges hnvo been sometimes made silently.
Those of Frederick the Great always began the HURRAH at fifty paces
from the enemy. If at the moment of the shock tin- infantry is nut
disturbed, but their bayonets and fire have on the contrary saved them
from the impulsive force of the charge, the fall of the front ranks of the
cavalry will have interposed a rampart behind which infantry <
fail t> bo victorious. But if the cavalry has practised the stratagem
of beginning operations by drawing the fire of infantry upon skirmislu T-,
and the commander of the cavalry ready for the charge has pushed for-
ward curtains of light cavalry in a single rank, who succeed, by means
of clouds of dust, in making an unskilful infantry believe that to be an
. \vlm-h in reality is only a feint, the infantry may fire its balls at
random the thinness of the curtain of light cavalry will render the in-
fantry's fire of little effect the infantry will be eager to reload, and this
may be done in agitation and disorder. The proper moment is then at
hand, and the heavy cavalry in mass, concealed by the dust of their
skirmishers, may charge, break, and sabre the infantry. The light
ry finish the. fugitives. The pas-a_ r - "f <1 fil.-s in retreat ought to )> se-
cured by a charge of cavalry. Coolne-s, silence, immobility . c.,ntem j>t of
hurrahs, and a reserved fire until within suitable range, arc the principal
means of resisting a charge of cavalry. The file-closers mnM pren nt
n..t ordered ; watch the execution of the fire by ranks; see that
it docs not commence at too great a distance, then enjoin ujvm the
soldiers to aim at the breast; to act only upon signals of the drum, or
at the command of officers on horseback, who occupy the rent re of ihe
square, and who from that height alone ran jn-l.L'e whether the charge
of cavalry is a mere feint or a real attack. This necessary impassi-
bility of infantry in obtained by discipline an 1 experience. and is only
perfected upon battli-fn-hK. Without sang froid, and also promptness
in manoeuvring upon any ground, infantry will not be able to exliil.it
thb whole strength of ite arm against the best cavalry. Charges by in-
fantry are made in order of battle, in column of attack, and in close
columns in mass. Ch.irir. H in order of battle are executed as follows : If
the combat is between infantry and infantry, the troops receiving the

MILITARY DICTIONARY. i;,<)

charge, fire at the moment at which it is almost joined with the enemy.
The troops making the charge, fire at one hundred or one hundred and
twenty paces from the enemy ; without waiting to reload, they march
forward at the quick step ; at two-thirds the distance take charging step,
and if the ground permits they subsequently take a running step, keep-
ing up the touch of the elbow, and throw themselves upon the enemy
with HURRAHS. Frederick the Great says that it is " better for a line
to falter in a charge than to lose the touch of the elbow," so necessary
is it that the charge should be en muraille.

In modern wars the charge in column has been used but not exclu-
sively, and sometimes with fatal results. But whatever may be the
form of the charge, success must not make the victor at once pursue
his enemy. He must, on the contrary, halt, rally his men, form line
if the charge was made in column, reload, fire upon the fugitives, and
continue thus to gain ground, by a regulated fire, until at last the cav-
alry which seconds him comes to his aid. It must be considered that
there may be a second line of the enemy, fresh troops, masked bat-
teries, flank fires, or squadrons of cavalry ready to oppose an unfore-
seen resistance. It may be, that the attacking party has experienced
some disadvantage, not far from the point where the infantry has just
triumphed in the charge. Such circumstances may cause the infantry
to pay dearly for its temporary success, a temporary success sometimes
owing to stratagem on the part of the enemy. These precepts are
given by the best writers on charges of infantry. ( Consult DECKER ;
BARDIN, &c., &c.) *

CHARGER. The horse rode by an officer in the field or in
action.

CHARGES AND SPECIFICATIONS. The form of indict-
ments tried by courts-martial. (See COURT-MARTIAL ; EVIDENCE.) As
to the perspicuity and precision of charges : If the description of the
offence is sufficiently clear to inform the accused of the military offence
for which he is to be tried, and to enable him to prepare his defence, it
is sufficient; (Opinions of Attorney-general, p. 189.)

A copy of charges, as well as a list of witnesses for the prosecution,
should be given to the prisoner in all cases as soon as possible. Ante-
cedent to arraignment, charges may be framed and altered by the party
who brings forward the prosecution, or by the officer ordering the court,
both in regard to substance and in other respects ; but the court, where
the deviation was material, would probably deehi it sufficient cause for
delaying proceedings upon application of the prisoner. As the wit-

ICO MILITARY DICTIONARY. Ku.

of an officer may be at a distance, the sooner a copy is given the
! I "i oil's Law Authorities.)

CHASE. The conical part of a piece of ordnance in front of the
reinforce,

CHASSIS. A traversing carriage. The barbette and cas.
carriages consist of gun carriages and chassis. The \v rough t-iron chassis
now made consists of \\\ rals of wrought iron, the cross-section of
each being in form of a T, the flat surface on t..p being for the
tion of the shoe-rail of the gun carriage. The rails are parallel to each
other, and connected by iron transoms and braces. The chassis is sup-
ported on traverse wheels. A prop is placed under the middle transom
of the chassis to provide against sagging. The pintle is the lixed centre
around which the chassis traverses. In the ordinary barbette, the pintle
is placed under the centre of the front transom ; but in the columbiad car-
riage, it is placed under the centre of the middle transom. (See COLUMBIAD.)

CHEMIN DBS RONDES is a bcrme from four to t \\vl\-
broad, at the foot of the exterior slope of the parapet. It is .sometimes
protected by a quickset hedge, but in more modern works by a low
wall, built on the top of the revetment, over which the defenders can
lire, and throw hand grenades into the diteh.

CHESSES arc the platforms which form the flooring of military
bridges. They consist of two or more planks, ledged together at the.
edges, by dowels or pegs.

CHEVAUX-DE-FIUSE. The principal uses of chevaux-d,
are to obstruct a passage, stop a breach, or form an impediment to
cavalry. Those of the modern pattern are made of iron, whose barn 1
is six feet, in length, and four inches in diameter, ca-h carrying twelve
spears, five feet nine inches long, the whole weighing sixty -live pounds.
(Set OBSTACLES.)
r CHoU'.KA. ($ C r SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

CIRCUMVALLATION. Works made by besiegers IT*
besieged place facing outwards, to protect their camp from enterprises

CITADEL. A ei'adel is a small strong fort, constructed cither

Within the jdaee. or on the HIM -.t inaeeevsilile part of its jj'-neral outline,

if ; it N intended as a r.-lVje for the garrison, in which

'lie place has fallen.

CIVIL AUTHORITY. (Set AUTIIOKITV ; CONTRACTS; EXECU-
TION or LAWS; INJURIES; REMEDY.)

CLERKS. ^- r suitable non-commissioned ofliecrs or pri-

vates cannot be procured from the line of the army, pa\ n

CLO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 161

the approbation of the Secretary of War, may employ citizens to per-
form the duties of clerks at $700 per year ; (Acts July 5, 1838 ;
and Aug. 12, 1848.) One ration per day allowed when on duty at
their station; (Act Aug. 31, 1852.)

CLOTHING. The President of the United States is authorized to
prescribe the kind and quality of clothing to be issued annually to the
troops of the United States. The manner of issuing and accounting for
clothing shall be established by general regulations of the War De-
partment. But whenever more than the authorized quantity is re-
quired, the value of the extra articles shall be deducted from the sol-
diers' pay ; and, in like manner, the soldiers shall receive pay according
to the annual estimated value for such authorized articles of uniform as
shall not have been issued to them in each year. And when a soldier
is discharged, it is the duty of the paymaster-general to pay him for
clothing not drawn; (Act April 24, 1816.) The quartermaster's
department distributes to the army the clothing, camp and garrison
equipage required for the use of the troops. Every commander of a
company, detachment, or recruiting station, or other officer receiving
clothing, &c., renders quarterly returns of clothing, according to pre-
scribed forms to the quartermaster-general. All officers charged with
the issue of clothing to majce good any loss or damage, unless they can
show to the satisfaction of the Secretary of War, by one or more depo-
sitions, that the deficiency was occasioned by unavoidable accident, or
was lost in actual service, without any fault on their part ; or, in case of
damage, that it did not result from neglect; (Act May 18, 1826.)
Purchasing clothing from a soldier prohibited under penalty of three
hundred dollars, and imprisonment not exceeding one year ; (Act
March 16, 1802, and Jan. 11, 1812.)

The French system of making up clothing is as follows : Officers com-
manding regiments make their requisitions for the regulated quantities
of cloth and other materials necessary for the clothing of the number
of men under their command. The intendant having checked this de-
mand gives an order for the issue, and the materials are made up by
soldiers in the regimental workshops under the direction of the clothing
captain, an officer holding an appointment in some respects analogous
to that of our quartermasters; a fixed rate being paid for each article.
Organized as the European armies are, those troops have always a large
proportion of skilled workmen undergoing their term of military ser-
vice ; but it is not so with us. Still there are many points in the
European system of clothing the troops which might, with advantage to
the soldier and with economy to the public, be adapted to the wants of

our service.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[CLO.

STATEMENT of tkt fott of dotting, Camp and Oarruon Equtpaa* for 0* Army of
tkt Unit**. State*, funUktd by tkt Quartirmaittr't Department, during <A year
mtneing July 1, 1869, wUk tk* aUowanc* of clotking to tack oldi*r during kit tnlut-
IIMM/, and AM proportion for tack ytar rttpectiixly.

may. at thrir option, reccireoiM pair of

af/tw win ..r i. H

NOTE. Metallic Kaglea, Castles, Shell and flame. Crossed Babres, Trumpets, Crossed Cannon.
Numbers, Tulip*, Plate*. Shoulder Scales, Kings, the Cap cord and tassels, an.l th<
l Artillery, the Beshes, Knapsacks and mrapa/Havreaacks, Canteens, Strap* of nil kin-K an l tho
will not be issued to the soldiers, but will be borne on the Return as company prp< rty while fit
will be charged on the Muster Bolls against the person In whose nso they wore when

CLO.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

1G3

CAMP AND GARRISON EQUIPAGE.

Bedsack, single $1 02

double 1 18

Mosquito bars 1 13

Axe 65

" helve 10

" sling 70

Hatchet 29

" helve 03

sling 40

Spade 63

Pickaxe >6

" helve. 10

Camp kettle 50

Mess pan 18

Iron pot 1 23

Garrison flag SO 66

"halliard 800

Storm flag 12 85

Recruiting flag 8 77

" halliard 20

Guidon 5 28

Caim> color 1 2

National color, Artillery 35 48

" " Infantry 85 48

Regimental color, Artillery 42 60

" Infantry 4T 60

Standard for Mounted Regiments 20 87

Trumpet 3 88

Bugle, with extra mouth-piece 3 12

Cord and tassels for Trumpets and Bugles 75

Fife, B 47

" C 41

Dnim, complete. Artillery or Infantry. 6 90

Drum head batter CO

" snare 19

sling. 45

sticks, pairs 23

" carriage , . . . . 64

cord 20

snares, sets 17

Drum case

AVall u-iit ^ .'$17' 86

* " ty 604

" poles, Mils l ig

" pins, seU 73

Sibley tent $32 80

" poles and tripod 472

" " sets 48

" " stove

Hospital tent $64 13

" fly 28 50

" poles, sets 5 60

" pins, sets 1

$20

24 v t ,

87 50
4 OU

Servant's tent

" poles, sets..
" " pins, sets. . .

$G 62
1 10

94 51

Tent pin, large size, hospital

" wall ,

" small size, common

Regimental book, order

" general .order.

letter

" index ,

" descriptive. . .

Post book, morning report

guard

" " order

" " letter...

$2 25

2 25

3 50

1 75

2 25

$-200
2 00
1 15
1 15

Company book, clothing $2 50

descriptive 1 80

" order 1 70

" morning report. . 2 0<)

Record book, for target practi

8 00
05
04
02

12 00

6 30

8 00
60

The tunic of the French infantry soldier lasts three years and a
half, the shell jacket two years, the great coat three years, and the
trowsers one year. In the Sardinian and Belgian armies the great coat
is intended to last eight years. Those governments credit every man
on his enlistment with about eight dollars as outfit money, which is
about the annual cost of the clothing of each soldier, and a daily allow-
ance of 10 centimes is given for repairs. Regimental master-tailors
are required to make all repairs at a fixed annual contribution from the
soldiers' pay. This does not often exceed 80 centimes ; and the surplus,
after the soldier has paid the cost of his clothing, is handed to him at
the end of the year. By this means the soldier is taught economy,
but if at any time an article of dress is found to be unfit for use, cap-
tains of companies may order it to be renewed at the cost of the sol-
dier. The great durability of the clothing of European armies is
attributable to the precautions taken to insure good materials from the
manufacturers by whom the cloth is supplied. Not only is every yard
of cloth, when delivered into store, subjected to several distinct and
minute examinations by boards of officers assisted by experts, who weigh
it, shrink it, and view it inch by inch against a strong light, so that the

164 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

slightest flaw may bo detected ; but they likewise apply chemical tests
to detect the quality of the dye, and the manufactories are at all times
open to inspectors, who watch the fabrication at every stage. When
('..tiling has once been manufactured, it is hardly possible with any
degree of accuracy to ascertain the quality of the material.

COEHORN MORTAR. Brass 24-pdr. mortar, weighing 164 Ibs.

COLONEL. Rank in the army between brigadier-general and

liellt :.!.

COLORS. Each regiment of artillery and infantry has two silken
colors, hut only one is borne or displayed at the same time, and on
actual sen-ice that is usually the regimental one.

COLUMBIAD. An American cannon invented by Colonel Bom-
ford, of very large calibre, used for throwing solid shot or shells, which,
when mounted in barbette, has a vertical field of fire from 5 d
sion to 39 elevation, and a horizontal field .f fire of 360. Those of
the old pattern were chambered, but they are now cn-t without, and
otherwise greatly improved. The 10-inch weighs 15,400 Ibs., and is

.ehes long. The 8-inch columbiad is 124 inches long and v.
9,240 Ibs. Rodman's 15-inch columbiad, represented in Fig. 104, \sas
cast at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by Knapp, Rudd & Co., under the
directions of Captain T. J. Rodman, of the Ordnance Corps, who con-
ceived the design, which ho has Jiappily executed, of casting guns of
large size hollow, and by means of a current of water introduced into
the core, which forms the mould of the bore, cooling it from the in-
terior, and thus making the metal about the bore the hardest and
densest, and giving the whole thickness of metal subjected to internal
strain its maximum strength. The gun has the following dimensions :

Total length 100 inches.

Length of calibre of bore, .... ].<> "

Mgth of ellipsoidal chamber, 9 "

Total length of b .... 1' '.."> "

\imiim exterior diameter, . . . 48 "

1 >i stance between rimbases, ... 48 "

Diameter at muzzle, 2." '

Thickness of metal behind the chamber, . 2."

kness at junction of bore with chamber, . 10J "
Thickness at muzzle, .... u

Diameter of shell, 14.0 "

.jjhtofgmi 40,100 Ibs.

Weight of shell, 320 "

Bursting charge, 17 "

COL.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

105

The gun is mounted upon the new iron centre pintle carriage, (Fig
104,) which with requisite lightness has great strength and stiffness ; and
to facilitate the pointing from
5 depression to 39 elevation,
a slot is cut in the knob of
the cascable, and a ratchet
is formed on the base of the
breech to receive a " pawl " at-
tached to the elevating screw.
If the distance be greater than
the length of a single notch of
the ratchet, the piece is rap-
idly moved by a lever which
passes through an opening in
the pawl. If the distance is
less, then the elevating screw
is used. The piece was fired
and manoeuvred during the
trials at Fort Monroe, with
great facility, being manned
by 1 sergeant and 6 negroes ;
the times of loading were
1' 15" and 1' 3". Time in
traversing 90 2' 20", and in
turning back 45 1'. Time
of loading, including depres-
sion and elevation, 4' and
3' 18".

The mean ranges at 6 ele-
vation, of ten shots, was 1,936
yards, and the mean lateral
deviation 2.2 yards ; 35 Ibs. of .6-inch grain powder being the charge
and 7" the time of flight. At 10 elevation and 40 Ibs. of powder,
large grain, the range was 2,700 yards, and time of flight H^.48.
At 28 35' elevation the range was 5,730 yards ; time of flight 27",
and the lateral deviation, as observed with a telescope attached to one
of the trunnions, very slight. (See ARTILLERY ; GUNPOWDER ; ORD-
NANCE AND ORDNANCE STORES ; RANGES.)

COLUMN of attack; in route; close column; column of divi-
sions ; column at half distance ; open column. (See MANOEUVRES IN
BATTLE ; TACTICS.)

\M MILITARY DICTION AKY. [Co*.

COMMAND. An officer nmy bo said to command at a separate
post, when ho is out of tho reach of the orders of the commander-in-
chief, or of a superior officer, in command in the neighborhood. Ho
must then issue the necessary orders to the troops under his command,
!_,' impossible to receive them from a superior officer; (PETER'S
Digest of Decision* of Federal Courts, vol. 1. p. 17 ( .>.)

Officers having brevets or commissions of a prior date to those of
the regiment in which they serve, may take place in courts-martial and
on detachments, when composed of different corps, according t tin-
ranks given them in their brevets, or dates of their former commis-
sions ; but in the regiment, troop, or company, to which such officers
:, they shall do duty and take rank, both in courts-martial and
on detachments, which shall be composed only of their own corps, ac-
cording to the commissions by which they are mustered in said corps ;
<il.) If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps
of the army shall happen to join and do duty together, the officer high-
est in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by com-
mission there, on duty or in quarters, shall command tho whole, and
s for what is needful to tho service, unless otherwise specially
d by the President of tho United States, according to the nature
of the case ; (AnT. 62.) The great principle that rank, when a^i officer
is on duty, and military command, are ideas only to be separated by
positive law, has always been recogni/. <1 in legislation. The 61st
Article of War, for instance, forbids the exercise of brevet rank with-
in tho regiment, troop, or company, to which such officers belong.
The 63d forbids engineers to assume, and declares they are not sub-
ject to be ordered on any duty beyond tho lino of their immediate pro-
fession, except by the special order of the President of the United
States. The acts of Congress giving rank to officers of tho medical
and pay departments of the army, provide that they shall not, in virtue
of such rank, le eivjitled to command in the line or other staff" depart-
ments of the army ; and so, if any other legal restrictions on rank
they must be found in some positive statute. This necessity is ma.le
plain by the consideration that military rank means a range of military
subordination. Higher rank therefore, created by law, cannot be made
subordinate to lower rank, except by positive law ; or, in other words,
a junior cannot command a senior, unless tho law shall otherwise de-
cree. The 61st Article of War declares that officers holding commis-
sions of a prior date to the regiment in which they serve, shall never-
theless take rank "both in courts martial and on detachments composed
only of their own corps, according to the commissions by which they

COM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY, 16T

are mustered in said corps." The 98th Article declares that militia
officers, when serving in conjunction with the regular forces, shall take
rank next after all officers of the like grade in said regular forces, rfot-
withstanding the commissions of such militia officers may be older than
the commissions of the officers of the regular forces of the United States..
The 27th Article declares that all officers have power to part and quell
all quarrels, &c., and to order officers into arrest, and whosoever shall
refuse to obey such officer (though of inferior rank) shall be punished,
&c. Here are cases in which Congress has decreed that seniors in com-
mission may be commanded by juniors ; and if any other cases exist,
they likewise must be found in some positive statute. The 62d Article
of War is ambiguous, from the use of the words " line of the army ; "
our legislation having applied those words to contradistinguish regular
troops from militia, and also, in many cases, the same words are cor-
relative and contradistinctive of staff of the army. " But," says Presi-
dent Fillmore, after a careful examination on his part, to determine
'this question, " I find but one act of Congress in which the words 'line
of the army ' have been employed to designate the regular army in con-
tradistinction to the militia, and none in which they have manifestly
been used as contradistinctive of brevet." Whatever ambiguity, there-
fore, may exist under the 62d Article, in respect to the right of com-
mand on the part of officers of staff corps and departments, the article
does not decree any restriction on brevet rank ; and hence ^he great
principle that rank on duty confers military command has its full force
in respect to commissions by brevet, and all other commissions not
restricted by law. T|ie President, as commander-in-chief under the
62d Article of War, may relieve any officer from duty with a particular
command, or he may assign some officer of superior rank to duty with
a command ; but the laws have not authorized him to place a junior in
command of a senior, and that power which creates rank, viz., Congress,
is alone authorized to place restrictions on its meaning. (See ASSIGN-
MENT ; BREVET ; LINE ; RANK.)

The word command, when applied to ground, is synonymous with
overlook ; and any place thus commanded by heights within range of
cannon is difficult to defend, if the enemy have been able to seize the
heights. (See BREVET ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; RANK.)

COMMAND OF FIRE. When a work has a sufficient elevation
over the work before it, to enable the defensive weapons to act in both
works at the same time upon an advancing enemy, even to the* foot of
the glacis, then the inner work is said to have a command of fire over
the other.

168 J1IL1TARY DICTIONARY. [COM.

COMMAND OF OBSERVATION. When the interior w..rk
has only sufficient elevation to look into or even over tin- work before
it, but not sufli. re clear of it, then it is said to have only a

command of observation.

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. The President shall be command r-

f of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia

of the several States, when called into the actual service of th.- I 'niu-.l

States ; (Se* CONSTITUTIONAL RELATION OF CONGRESS AND TUB PRESIDENT

TO THE LAND FORCES.)

COMMANDER OF THE ARMY. That whenever t , 1
dent shall deem it expedient, he is hereby empowered to appoint, by
an. I u ith the advice and consent of the Senate, a commander of the
army which may be raised by virtue of this act, and who, being com-
missioned as lieutenant-general, may be authorized to command the
armies of the United States ; (Sec. 5, Act May 28, 1798.)

COMMISSARY OF SUBSISTENCE. An officer of the sub-
sistence department. (See SUBSISTENCE.)

COMMISSION. The President shall commission all officers of
the United States ; (Sec. 3 Constitution.) Officers of the United States
army may hold their commissions through rules of appointment pro-
scribed by Congress under its authority to raise armies anl make, rules
for their government and regulation, but their eommissions must be
signed by the President. The words introduced into every officer's
parchment : " this commission to continue in force during the pleasure
.lent of the United States for the time being" have been
inserted without authority of law. There has been no legislation on
the subject of the form of an officer's commission. The form adopted
was borrowed originally from British commissions, and was " probably
the pen work of some clerk, or at the most, the hasty dim-lion of the
Secretary of War, without reflecting that the chief magistrate in a
republic is n-.t the fountain of all honor and power," and that Congress
alone has the power to raise armies, and to make nil. s for their gov-
ernment and regulation.

COMPANY. Companies are commanded by captains having
tinder their orders lieutenants, sergeants, corporals, musicians, and pri-
vates. (See ARMT ORGANIZATION.)

COMPTROLLER. (Sre ACCOUNT ABILITY.)

CONDUCT UNBECOMING AN OFFICER AND A GENTI I M AN pill

with dismission ..,. ra i ,.,,,,rt -martial. What

tutes the offence is not defined, but it is ]. -ft to the. moral sense of

nine.
CONFINEMENT. Non-commissioned officers and soldiers charged

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 169

with crimes shall be confined until tried by a court-martial, or released
by proper authority ; (ART. 78.) No officer, or soldier who shall be
put in arrest, shall continue in confinement more than eight days, or
uatil such time as a court-martial can be assembled ; (ART. 79.) (See
ARREST.)

CONGRESS. (See CONSTITUTIONAL RELATION OF CONGRESS.)

CONNIVING AT HIRING OF DUTY. If a non-commissioned
officer, shall be reduced. If a commissioned officer, punishecT by the
judgment of a general court-martial ; (ART. 48.)

CONSCRIPTION. The only means of raising a NATIONAL Army.
The system of voluntary enlistments will always divide an army into
two castes officers and soldiers, and the latter will hardly ever be
found qualified for promotion. The system of conscription is, too, the
only means of raising large armies. This was made plain during the
last war with England. Even with the largest bounties in land and
money, soldiers could not be procured, and the President and Secretary
of War (Messrs. Madison and Monroe) recommended in strong terms
a system of conscription. The legislature of New York passed an act
at the same time, for raising 12,000 troops by conscription. (See
DEFENCE, NATIONAL ; RAISE.)

CONSTITUTION. The following provisions of the constitution

relate to the land and naval forces : Preamble We, the people of the

United States, in order to * * provide for the common defence

* * do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States

of America.

ART. I. SEC. 1. All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vest-
ed in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate
and House of Representatives.

ART. I. SEC. 8. The Congress shall have power :

Clause 1. * * To pay the debts and provide for the common
defence and general welfare of the United States ; * *

Clause 9. * * To define and punish offences against the law of
nations ; * *

Clause 10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal,
and make rules concerning captures on land and water ;

Clause 11. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of
money to that use, shall be for a longer term than two years ;

Clause 12. To provide and maintain a navy ;

Clause 13. To make rules for the government and regulation of the
land and naval forces ;

Clause 14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the
laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ;

170 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cos.

Clause 15. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the
militia, and fur governing such part of them as may be employed in tin
service of the United States, reserving to the States, respo ti\. 1\, the ap-
pointment of tin- officers, and the authority of training the militia ac-
cording to the discipline prescribed by Congress.

Clause 10. To exercise exclusive legislation * * over nil
placet purchased, by consent of the legislature of the Slat- in which tin-
same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards,
and other needful buildings and

Clause 17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers
vetted by this constitution in the Government of the United States, or
in any department or officer thereof.

SEC. 9. Clause 2. * * The privilege of the writ of habeas
shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion,
the public safety may require it. * *

SEC. 10. Clause 2. * * No State shall, without the consent of
Congress * * keep troops or ships of war in time of peace * *
or engage in wnr, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger
aa will not admit of delay.

ART. II. SEC. 1. Clause 1. The executive power shall l>e vestal in
a President of the United States of America. * *

SEC. 2. Clause 1. The President shall be commander-in-ehicf of
the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of tho s
States, when called into the actual service of the United States. * *

SEC. 3. Clause 1. * * He shall take care that the laws be
faithfully executed ; and shall commission all officers of tho United

State*

ART. III. SEC. 3. Clause 1. Treason against the Dnlted States

shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to th. ir

enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convict. .1

is.n, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt

act, or on confession i?i p n court.

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment
of treason ; btit no attainder of treason shall work corruption of Mood,
OT for \--rjit during the life of the person attaint, -d.

ART. IV. SEC. 4. Clause 1. The United States shall guarantee to

Stat.- in this I'nion a republican form of government; and shall

protect each of th.rn against invasion, and on tho application of the,

legisla f tho executive, (when the legislature cannot bo con-

domestic violence.

CoN.J MILITARY DICTIONARY. 171

Amendments to the Constitution : 1. Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercis*
thereof; abridging the freedom of speech, of the press ; or the right of
the people peaceably to assembly, and to petition the Government for
redress of grievances.

ART. II. A well-regulated militia being accessary to the security of
a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
infringed.

ART. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any
house, without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, but in a
manner to be prescribed by law.

ART. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment by a grand jury,
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when
in actual service, in time of war, or public danger ; nor shall any per-
son be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life
or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use
without just compensation.

CONSTITUTIONAL RELATION OF CONGRESS AND THE
PRESIDENT TO THE LAND AND NAVAL FORCES OF THE UNITED STATES.
The power of making rules for the government and regulation of
armies, as well as the power of raising armies, having in express
terms been conferred on Congress, it is manifest that the President as
commander-in-chief is limited by the constitution to the simple com-
mand of such armies as Congress may raise, under such rules for their
government and regulation as Congress may appoint : " The authorities,
(says Alexander Hamilton, Federalist, No. 23,) essential to the care of
the common defence are these : To raise armies ; to build and equip
fleets ; to prescribe rules for the government of both ; to direct their
operations ; to provide for their support. These powers ought to exist
without limitation ; because it is impossible to foresee or to define the
extent and variety of national exigencies, and the correspondent extent
and variety of the means which may be necessary to satisfy them."
. . ? Defective as the present (old) Confederation has been proved
to be, this principle appears to have been fully recognized by the
framers of it ; although they have not made proper or adequate pro-
vision for its exercise. Congress have an unlimited discretion to make
requisitions of men and money ; to govern the army and navy ; to di-
rect their operations." " The government of the military is that branch

i; j MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Con.

of the code, (says BARDIN, Dictionnaire de T Armie de Terre,) wh.
braces the military Hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of i:
authority." From this principle proceeds the localization of t:
their disoipliuo, n-inuiMTati.ii lor important services, the repression of
nil infractions of Uic laws, and every thing in line \\hich the legislature
m av judge necessary cither by rules of appointment or promotion,
penalties or rewards, to maintain an enVient and well-disciplined army.
But, as if to avoid all miseonstnu-ti'-n on this point, the constitution not
onlv declares that Congress ahull make rules for the government, but
also for the reyulation ot the army ; and regulation signifies precise
determination of functions; method, forms and restrictions, not to bo
departed from. It is evident, tin retore, that the design of the iVamers
of the constitution, was not to invest the President with powers over
the army in any degree parallel with powers possessed by the king ot
Great Britain over the British army, whose prerogative embraces the
command and government ot all forces raised and maintained by him
with the consent of parliament, (BLACKSTONE;) but their purpose, on th.
contrary, was to guard in all possible ways against exeeutive usurpation
by leaving with Congress the control ot the Federal forces which it
possessed under the articles of the Confederation, and at the same time
to strengthen the powers of Congress by giving that body an unre-
stricted right to raise armies, provided appropriations for their support
should not extend beyond two years. The command ot the army and
navy and militia called into service, subject to such rules for their gov-
ernment and regulation as Congress may m ike, was given by t!
Btitution to the President; but the power of making rules of goVern-
uid regulation is in reality that of SUPREME COMMAND, and heii'-e.
the President, to use the language of the Federalist, in his relation to
the army and navy, is nothing more than the "\first General tu
miral of the Confederacy ;" or the first oflicer of the military hierarchy
with functions assigned by Congress. A curious example of th
teroporaneous const ru.-t ion of the constitution is found in a letter iV.-m
Sedgwiek to Hamilton (vol. 0, Hamilton's Works, p. :j<4.) Congr
raising a j d army in 1798, created the office of command, r

of the army with the title of Lieutenant-general. A year subse-
sion was made by law for changing this title to that of
General. This last provision gave great offence to Mr. Adams, then
President, who considered it as an evidence of the desire of Conpr
make " a general over the President" So strangely wa
with this id. a that h rnmissioned Washington as General, but

the latter died in his office of Zievlenan^cneral ; the President e\i

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 173

dently thinking that the title of General conveyed a significancy which
belonged to the President alone, although the commander of the
army might in his opinion very properly take the title of Lieutenant-
general, and thus have his subordination to the commander-in-chief of
the army and navy and militia clearly indicated. It is plain therefore
no less from the appointment by the constitution of the President as
commander-in-chief, than from all contemporaneous construction, that
his functions in respect to the army are those of First General of the
U. S., and in no degree derived from his powers as first civil magis-
trate of the Union. The advocates of executive discretion over the
army must therefore seek for the President's authority in his military
capacity, restrained as that is by the powers granted to Congress, which
embrace the raising, support, government, and regulation of armies ; or,
to use the language of the federalist, No. 23, " there can be no limita-
tion of that authority, which is to provide for the defence and protection
of the community, in any matter essential to its efficacy ; that is, in any
matter essential to the formation, direction, or support of the NATIONAL
FORCES." After the foregoing investigation of the unrestricted power
of Congress in respect to the army, save only in the appointment of the
head of all the national forces, naval and military, it will be plain that
the 2d Section of the constitution, in giving to the President the nomi-
nation and appointment, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, of all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are
not herein otherwise provided for, excludes officers of the army and navy.
The power of raising armies and making rules for their government and
regulation, necessarily involves the power of making rules of appoint,
ment, promotion, reward, and punishment, and is therefore a provision in
the constitution otherwise providing for the appointment of officers of
the land and naval forces. So true is this that the principle has been
acted on from the foundation of the Government. Laws have been
passed giving to general and other officers the appointment of certain
inferior officers. In other cases the President has been confined by
Congress, in his selection for certain offices in the army, to particular
classes. Again, rules have been made by Congress for the promotion
of officers, another form of appointment ; and in 1846, an army of volun-
teers was raised by Congress, the officers of which the acts of Congress
directed should be appointed according to the laws of the States in
which the troops were raised, excepting the general officers for those
troops, who were to be appointed by the President and Senate (Act
June 26, 1846) a clear recognition that the troops thus raised by
Congress were United States troops, and not militia. It is certainly

,71 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Con.

(

true that the military legislation of the country has for long years
yetted a large discretion iir the President in respect to appointments
and other matters concerning the army; but it may well !>.
whether fixed rules of appointments and promotion which would pre-
vent the exercise of favoritism by the executive might not, with the
greatest advantage to the army and the country, be adopted by Con-
gress t "Military prejudices (says Gen. Hamilton) are not only in-
separable from, but they are essential to the military profession. The
government which desires to have a satisfied and useful army mu>i
consult them. They cannot be moulded at its pleasure ; it is vain to
aim at it." These are maxims which should lead Congress to the adop-
tion of rules of appointment and promotion in the army which would
prevent all outrages to the just pride of officers of the army. Tho
organization of every new regiment, where the appointment of tho officers
has been left to executive discretion, shows that, if the desire has been
felt in that quarter to cherish or cultivate pride of profession among the
officers of the army, the feeling has been repressed by other consi. I ra-
tions. All pride of rank has been so far crushed by this system of
executive discretion that it is apparent, if Congress cannot provide a
rule for the government and regulation of tho army, a generous
rivalry in distinguished services must be superseded by political
activity. Rules of appointment and promotion limiting the discre-
tion of the President, and at the same time giving effect to opinions in
the army, might easily bo devised ; or borrowed from existing rules in
the French army, which, without ignoring the important principle of
ify, would at tho same time afford scope anl verm- for rewards
f >r distinguished services. (See PROMOTION.) No army can l>c 1
war in the highest vigor and efficiency without rewards for distinguished
activity, and tho appointment of Totlebcn at tho siege of Sevastopol
hows how far almost superhuman efforts may be prompted by in\< st-
ing a commander in the field with the power ..f selecting his immediate
assistants. Colonels of regiments with us now exercise this authority
in selecting regimental adjutants and ijnartrrniastrrs. \Yhy should not
the same trust be reposed in commanding generals of departments,
brigades, divisions, and armies? And why should not all necessary
restrictions (such as those in operation in the l-'rmi -h armic ) I" put
upon the President in making promotions for distinguished MTV'H
also in ori^- intmonts, in order to secure justice to the am

l >y promote tho best interests of the country? (Consult /
Ml; HAMILTON'S Work*; MADISON'S \\'<>rl-x ; Acts of Congress;
Report of Committee of the Senate; April 2.~>, 1822. See i
RAISE ; VirK-PRKSioiirr ; PROMOTION.)

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 175

CONTEMPT. Any officer or soldier who shall use contemptuous
or disrespectful words against the President of the United States, the
Vice-President, against the Congress of the United States, or against
the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States ia. which
he may be quartered, shall be punished as a court-martial shall direct.
Any officer or soldier who shall behave himself with contempt or dis-
respect towards his commanding officer, shall be punished by the judg-
ment of a court-martial; (ARTS. 5 and 6.)

No person whatsoever shall use any menacing words, signs, or ges-
tures, in presence of a court-martial, or shall cause any riot or disorder,
or disturb their proceedings, on the penalty of being punished at the
discretion of the said court-martial ; (ART. 76.) Contempts thus ren-
dered summarily punishable by courts-martial are of public and self-
evident kind, not depending on any interpretation of law admitting
explanation, or requiring further investigation. Courts-martial some-
times act on this power. At other times individuals so offending are
placed in arrest, and charges are preferred for trial. A regimental
court-martial may punish summarily, but are not competent to award
punishment to commissioned officers. A regimental court-martial in
such cases would impose arrest. Citizens, not soldiers, would be re-
moved from court ; ( HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.)

CONTRACTS. Supplies for the army, unless in particular' and
urgent cases the Secretary of War should otherwise direct, shall be
purchased by contract, to be made by the commissary-general on pub-
lic notice, to be delivered on inspection in bulk, and at such places as
shall be stipulated ; which contract shall be made under such regula-
tions as the Secretary of War may direct ; (Act April 14, 1818, Sec.
7.) No contract shall hereafter be made by the Secretary of State, or
of the Treasury, or of the Department of War, or of the Navy, except
under a law authorizing the same, or under an appropriation adequate
to its fulfilment; and excepting also contracts for the subsistence and
clothing of the army and navy, and contracts by the quartermaster's
department which may be made by the secretaries of those depart-
ments ; (Act May 1, 1820.) Members of Congress cannot be interest-
ed in any contract, and a special provision must be inserted in every
contract that no member of Congress is interested in it. Penalty
forfeiture of three thousand dollars for making contracts with members
of Congress ; (Act April 21, 1808.)

Liability of Contracts. By analogy to the rule which protects an
officer from the treatment of a trespasser or malefactor, in regard to
acts done by him in the execution of the orders of his own government,

170 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Co*.

a similar immunity is extended to him in respect to contracts which

ore into for public purposes within the sphere of his authority.

No private means or resources would otherwise be adequate to the

responsibilities which, under any other rule, would effectually deter the
best citizens of a state from rendering their services to the government.
On high grounds, then-fore, of public policy, it has long been established,
that no action will lie against any government officer upon contracts
made by him in his official character for public purposes, and within
the legitimate scope of his duties.

"Great inconveniences (says Mr. Justice Ashurst) would result
from considering a governor or commander as personally responsible
i:; (tab Oases. !': no man \\-uM accept of any dliec of trust under
government upon such conditions. And indeed it has been frequently
determined that no individual is answerable for any engagements which
he enters into on their behalf." "In any case (says Mr. Jus-
tice Buller) where a man acts as agent for the public, and treats in
that capacity, there is no pretence to say that he is personally liable."
This doctrine applies in full force to military officers in the exercise of
their professional duties. One of the earliest cases of this nature was
Macheath v. Hal dim and, in which it appeared that General Ilaldimand,
being commander-in-ehicf and governor of Quebec, had, in those capaci-
ties, appointed Captain Sinclair to the command of a fort upon Lake
Huron, with instructions to employ one Maelienth in furnishing sup-
plies for the service of the Crown. In pursuance of these orders, Mac-
li.ul furnished various articles for the use of the fort ; and Captain
Sinclair, according to his instructions from General Ilaldimand, drew
bills upon him f<r the amount. Macheath also remitted his accounts
to General Ilaldimand at Quebec, with the following words prefixed:
rnment debtor to George- Macheath for sundries paid by order
i or Sinclair." General Ilaldimand objected to
several of the charges, and refused payment of the amount; but ulti-
mately made a partial payment on account, without prejudice to Mac-
hcath's right to th- remainder. t<> recover \\hidi lie brought the present
At the trial it appeared so clearly that Macheath had dealt
with General Ilaldimand solely in the character of commander-in-chief,
and as an agent -f L"-vernment, that Mr. Justice Buller told the jury
they were bound to find for the defendant in point, of law. The jury
pave ii t accordingly ; and upon the express ground of General

Ilaldiman i's fr l-.m f r- -m p* r-onal liability in such a case, the Court

of King's Bench Were unanimous in refu-in,r a new trial.

In a case which was tried before Lord ,V . < .no Savage brought

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 177

an action against Lord North, as First Lord of the Treasury, for the
expenses which he (Savage) had incurred in raising a regiment for the
service of government ; and Lord Mansfield held that the action did not
lie. So in another case of Lutterlop v. Halsey, an action was brought
against a commissary for the price of forage, supplied to the army by
the plaintiff, at the request of the defendant, in his official character ;
and the commissary was held not to be liable. On another occasion,
a suit was instituted in chancery against General Burgoyne, for a spe-
cific performance of a contract for the supply of artillery carriages in
America. But Lord Chancellor Thurlow said there was no color for
the demand as against General Burgoyne, who acted only as an agent
for government; and his lordship dismissed the suit with costs. In
1818 an action was brought against Hall, the late purser of H. M. S.
La Belle Poule, by the purser's steward of the same ship, to recover
the amount of pay due to the latter for his services on board. It ap-
peared that the purser's steward could not be appointed without the
consent of the commander, and that he was entitled to the pay of an
able seaman, but usually received pay under a private contract with
the purser. The chief justice, Lord Ellenborough, at first felt some
difficulty in the case ; but considering how very extensive the operation
of the principle might be, if such an action could be supported, and if
a person, receiving a specific salary from the Crown in respect of his
situation, could recover remuneration for his services from the officer
under whose immediate authority he acted, and that the purser had no
fund allowed him out of which such services were to be paid, his lord-
ship was of opinion that the plaintiff had no right of action against the
purser.

It is quite immaterial also, whether the officer gives the orders in
person, or through a subordinate agent appointed by himself. The
creditor cannot, in the latter case, charge the officer with a personal
liability. In Myrtle v. Beaver, the plaintiff, a butcher at Brighton,
brought an action against Major Beaver, the captain of a troop in the
Hampshire Fencible Cavalry, for the price of meat supplied to the
troop when quartered at Brighton, in January and February, 1800.
One Bedford, a sergeant in the troop, had been employed by Major
Beaver, according to his duty as captain, to provide for the subsistence
of the men ; and so long as Major Beaver remained with the troop, he
regularly settled the butcher's bill monthly, up to the 24th January,
1800. At that datg Major Beaver was detached with a small party to
command at Arundel, the greater part of the regiment remaining at
Brighton under the command of the colonel ; and the command of
12

178 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Con.

Major Beaver's troop, with the duties of providing lor its subsistence,
ut -naiit Hunt, who continued to employ Sergeant Bed-
ford in providing supplies for the men, and gave him money for that
purpose. The plaintiff* furnished meat as before, under Sergeant Bed-
ford's orders, but it did not appear that he had been apprised of the
change of the authority, under \\hieh the sergeant gave those orders.
On the 20th February, and before the usual monthly period of settling
the butcher's bill, Lieutenant Hunt, who was also paymaster of the
regiment, absconded with the regimental moneys, and left the plaintiff's
demand and the regimental accounts unsettled. As Sergeant T><
had, in the first in-'ane. -, been accredited by Major Beaver, as his
for ordering the supplies, the plaintiff Myrtle contended that until ho
had been informed of the discontinuance of that authority, he had a
right to presume Its continuance, and to look to Major Beaver for pay-
ment as before. But the Court of King's Bench held, that although the
sergeant acted by Major Beaver's orders, he was not to be cons
as the agent of a private individual, as it was plain that he acted as
agent for whatever oflieer happened to have the command of the troop.
There wji, then-f -re. n<> ground for fixing Major Braver with any per-
sonal liability in the mat

An agent of government may, however, render himself personally
liable upon contracts made by himself in the execution <>f liK
On this principle an action was brought against General Burgoyn. . to
recover a sum of money duo to the plaintiff as provost-marshal of the
British army in America; the general having promised that the plain-
tiff should be paid at the same rate as the provost-marshal und< :
eral Howe had been. At tho trial, an objection was taken to tho

y i.f the action ; but Lord Mansfield refused to stop tho ca-
the plaintiff thereupon went into his evidenee. It appeared, however^
in the course of the inquiry, that the plaintiff's demand had been satis-
and, therefore, tin- verdict was in favor of General Burijoyne.
But it is < viilent from Lord Mansfield's suffering tho trial to go on, that
his lordship thought a commanding oflleer mi^ht so act as to make him-
self personally liable in such a case ; and the question, \vh.-ther he had
so acted or not, was for tho determination of a jury. In the next case
it was accordingly sought to fix a naval officer with a personal liability
for supplies furnished to his crew, on tho ground of the laniruaiio used
by him n tho oeeaM<n of ordering the supplies. Lieutenant T< tuple
was first lieutenant of II. M. S. Boync, and on her arrival at, Ports-
mouth from the West Indies, he inquired for a slop-* !! T t. supply tin-
crow with new clothes, saying, " lie will run no risk ; I will sco him

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 179

paid." One Keate being accordingly recommended for this purpose,
Lieutenant Temple called upon him and used these words, " I will see
you paid at the pay -table ; are you satisfied ? " Keate answered, " Per-
fectly so." The clothes were delivered on the quarter-deck of the Boyne,
though the case states that slops are usually sold on the main-deck.
Lieutenant Temple produced samples to ascertain whether his direc-
tions were followed. Some of the men said that they were not in want
of any clothes, but were told by the lieutenant that if they did not take
them he would punish them ; and others, who stated that they were
only in want of part of a suit, were obliged to take a whole one, with
anchor buttons to the jacket, suchtas were then worn by petty officers
only. The former clothing of the crew was very light, and adapted tc
the climate of the West Indies, where the Boyne had been last stationed.
Soon after the delivery of the slops, the Boyne was destroyed by fire,
and the crew dispersed into different ships. On that occasion Keate,
the slop-seller, expressed some apprehension for himself, but was thus
answered by Lieutenant Temple : " Captain Grey (Obtain of the
Boyne) and I will see you paid ; you need not make yourself uneasy."
After this the commissioner came on board the Commerce de Marseilles
to pay the crew of the Boyne, at which time Lieutenant Temple stood
at the pay-table, and took some money out of the hat of the first man
who was paid, and gave it to the slop-seller. The next man, however,
refused to part with his pay, and was immediately put in irons. Lieu-
tenant Temple then asked the commissioner to stop the pay of the crew,
but he answered that it could not be done. It was in evidence that
though the crew were pretty well clothed, yet from the lightness of
their clothing they were not properly equipped for the service in which
they were engaged ; and the compulsory purchases were not improperly
ordered by the officer. Under these circumstances, Keate, the slop-
seller, being unable to obtain the payment to which he was entitled,
brought his action against Lieutenant Temple for the price of the cloth-
ing ; and Mr. Justice Lawrence told the jury that if they were satisfied
that the goods were advanced on the credit of the lieutenant as imme-
diately responsible, Keate was entitled to recover the amount ; but if
they believed that Keate, on supplying the goods, relied merely on the
lieutenant's assistance to get the money from the crew, the verdict
ought to be in favor of the lieutenant. The jury found a verdict against
Lieutenant Temple, but- the Court of Common Pleas set it aside. Eyre,
C. J. : " The sum recovered is 5761. 7s. 8c?., and this against a lieuten-
ant in the navy, a sum so large that it goes a great way towards satis-
fying my mind that it never could have been in contemplation of the

180 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

defendant to make himself liable, or of the slop-teller to furnish the
good* on kit credit. I can hardly think that had the Boync not been
burnt, and the plaintiff been asked whether ho would have tin lieutenant
or the crew for his paymaster, but that ho would have given preference
to the latter. . . . 1 r<>iu the nature of the case it is apparent, tint tin-
men were to pay in the first instance; the defendant's words \\
will see you paid at the pay -table ; are you sati-!i. .1 > ' and the answer
was, ' Perfectly so ; ' the meaning of \vhirh was, that however unwilling
the men might be to pay of themselves, the officer would take care that
they should pay. ... I think this a proper case to be sent to a new
trial." The verdict found against lieutenant Temple was accordingly
set aside. But when- ;m olliet-r, acting in his private capacity an<f for
his own private purposes, enters into any contract with another oilieer
or a private individual, the ordinary rules and principles of law apply
to such cases in the same manner as between civilians. (Consult

DXROAST.)

CONVOYS have for their object the transportation of munitions
of war, money, subsistence, clothing, arms, sick, &c. If convoys to an
army do not come from the rear, through a country which has been
mastered, and consequently far from the principal forces of the enemy,
they will be undoubtedly attacked and broken up, if not earn
There is no more difficult operation than to defend a largo e
against a serious attack. Ordinarily, convoys are only exposed to the
attacks of partisan corps or light troops which, in eonse<pienre of

licant size, have thrown themselves in rear of the armv. It is to
guard against such attacks, that escorts are usually given to eoi.
These escorts are principally infantry, because infantry fights in all
varieties of ground, and in case of need may be placed in the intervals be-
tween the wagons, or even inside the wagons, when too warmly pressed.
Cavalry is, however, also necessary to spy out an enemy at invat ills-
traces, and give prompt information of his- m-. \.-m--nts. as well as to
participate in the defence of the convoy against cavalry. An enemy's
cavalry being able rapidly to pass from the front to the n-ar .f the,
train. \v,.iil.l easily find some part of it without oVf, -n, -, if the escort
were composed only of infantry. To give an idea of the ta< ility of > n .-h
attacks, it may be stated that a wagon drawn by four horses occupies
ten yards. Two humlrrd wagons marehini; in single, file and closed as
much as possible form a train more than 2,000 yards in extent. In a
long lino of wagons, th.-r- f,, r o. it would be impossible for infantry to
the tiints of cavalry and rrpulse real attacks.

The escort should then be composed of an advance guanl entirely

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 181

of cavalry preceding the train, some two or three miles, searching the
route on the right and on the left ; but as it may happen that the enemy,
eluding the vigilance of the advance guard, have made ambuscades be-
tween the advance and the head of the column, it is necessary to place
another body immediately in front of the train, with a small party in
advance and flankers on the right and left. The longer the train the
greater the danger of surprise, and consequently the greater the pre-
cautions to be used. A convoy is almost as much exposed to attack in
rear as in front ; it is therefore necessary to have, with a rear guard, some
horsemen, who may be despatched to give information of what passes
in rear. When the troops constituting the body of the escort are prin-
cipally composed of infantry, they are divided into three bodies. Work-
men will march with the advanced party, and the wagons loaded with
tools of all kinds, rope, small beams, thick plank and every thing neces-
sary for the repair of bridges and roads, will lead the convoy. The second
detachment will be placed in the middle of the column of wagons, and
the third in rear. Care is taken not to disseminate the troops along
the whole extent of the train. A few men only are detached from the
three bodies mentioned, to march abreast of the wagons, and to force
the drivers to keep in their prescribed order, without opening the dis-
tance between the wagons. If a wagon breaks down on the route its
load is promptly distributed among other wagons. A signal is made
if it is necessary for the column to halt, but for slight repairs the train
is not halted. The wagon leaves the column, is repaired on one side
of the road, and afterwards takes its place in rear. Soldiers should
never be permitted to place their knapsacks in the wagons, for a sol-
dier should never be separated from knapsack or haversack, and the
wagons would also become too much loaded. Whenever the breadth of
the road permits, the wagons should be doubled and march in two files.
The column is thus shortened one half, and if circumstances require it,
the defensive park is more promptly formed. This is done by wheeling
the wagons round to the right and left so as to bring the opposite horses'
heads together and facing each other turning towards the exterior the
hind wagon wheels. This movement requires ground and time. It
ought not to be ordered then except when absolutely necessary. It is
much better to hold the enemy in check, by manoeuvres of the escort
when that can be done, and let the convoy move on. When the park
has been formed, however, it constitutes an excellent means of defence,
under shelter of which infantry can fight with advantage even when
they have been compelled to take such refuge. A convoy usually halts
for the night near a village, but it should always pass beyond it, because

Isj MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cos.

on commencing its march in the morning it is better to have the defile
I >< hind than before it, in order to avoid ambuscades of the
Places for parking the wagons are sought where there are hedges or
walls, as those obstructions offer greater security than an y < >th. is. The
troops, with the excvption of the park guard, bivouac at a short distance

the park, in some position which oilers the bost military advan-
tages. An advance guard and a sufficient number of sentinels for tiie
and police of the park and bivouac* are then posted. The park is
ordinarily a hollow square, but locality will dictate its form. It should
furnish an enclosed space for the horses and drivers, and at the same time
be an intrrnchmunt in case of attack. The wagons are ranged either
lengthwise or side by side the rule being that the poles are turned in
the same direction and towards the place of destination. The wagons
laid lengthwise may be doubled, so that the intervals of ranks may be
closed by pushing forward the wagon of another rank. When the space
for the park is small and the number of wagons great, the wagons arc
placed upon many lines, and streets sufficiently broad to mi\c the
horses, &c., are mode parallel to each other. , The important principle
in defending convoys on the march is, that the escort should not con-
sider itself tied to wagons, but should repulse the enemy by marching
to meet him. It is only after the escort has been repulsed, that it
should fall back on the wagons and use them as an intrcnchment.
K\ en then a very long resistance may be ill judged if the enemy be
greatly superior. It is better to abandon a part of the convoy to save
the rest, or else try to destroy it, by cutting the traces, breaking the
wheels, overthrowing the wagons, and even setting fire to the most in-
flammable parts. An attack upon a flank is most dangerous because
the convoy-then presents a larger mark. The three detachments in this
case should be united on the side attacked and pushed f< >r\vard sufficiently

:ipel the enemy to describe a great circle, in order to put himself
out of reach when he wishes to attack the front or rear of the convoy.
The best position to take is that of three echelons, the centre in advance.
The convoy, which has doubled its wagons, continues to move forward,
regulating its march by the position of the troops which OOVOT it. If the
at t. 'irk l>e iu front, as soon as the enemy has been announced ly tin- lir*t
advance guard, which falls back at a gallop for the purpose, the wagons
are closed or formed in two IHe-i if the road permits ; the centre dctach-

join.s the first, either in echelon or according to locality, to pre-
vent a movement upon the flank of the convoy. The third detachment
should be held i: immediately at the li.-ad of the wagons. If

however this position bo too near that taken 1-y the first and sccoiid de-

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 183

tachments united, the reserve must then take some position on the flank
of the convoy. The defence against an attack upon the rear will be
conducted on the same principles. It may be concluded that, the attack
of a convoy is an operation in which little is to be lost and much gained ;
for if the enemy be deficient in numbers or skill, a part of his convoy
is easily destroyed or brought off. If the attack fail, nothing is to be
feared upon retiring. The corps which attacks should be half cavalry
and half infantry. It is clear, that if the attacking party has been con-
cealed behind a wood, a height, a corn field, &c., and has been able to sur
prise the front or rear of the convoy, and enveloped it before aid arrives,
full success will be obtained. But this negligence will not often occur
on the part of the commander of the escort. If his troops then be in
good order and united at the moment of the attack, it is necessary to
divide his attention by directing against him many little columns and
skirmishers, who seek to open a way to the wagons by killing the horses.
and thus encumbering the road. The cavalry making a circuit throw
themselves rapidly upon parts badly protected. If they reach some of
the wagons they content themselves with driving off the conductors and
cutting the traces of the wagons because all the wagons in rear are
thus stopped. If wo are at liberty to choose the time and place of
attack, it is clear that the best time is when the convoy is passing a
defile and we can envelop the front or the rear. Success is then cer-
tain ; the inevitable encumbrance of the defile preventing one part
of the troops from coming to the aid of another part. When the
whole or part of a convoy has been seized, the prize must be brought
to a safe place, before the enemy is in sufficient force to make us
abandon it.. But sooner than do this, the most precious articles should
be placed on horses, the wagons should be destroyed, and the horses
put to their speed. The attacking force should avoid further combat,
for its object has been accomplished. ( Consult DUFOUR ; BARDIN ;
Ordonnance sur le Service des Armees en Campagne).

COOKING. Bread and soup are the great items of a soldier's
diet : to make them well is, therefore, an essential part of his instruc-
tion. Scurvy and diarrhoea more frequently result from bad cooking
than any other cause whatever. Camp ovens may be made in twenty-
fbur hours. One hundred and ninety-six pounds when in dough hold
about 1 1 gallons or 90 pounds of water, 2 gallons yeast, and 3 pounds
salt, making a mass of 305 pounds, which evaporates in kneading, bak-
ing, and cooling about 40 pounds, leaving in bread weighed when stale
about 265 pounds. Bread ought not to be burnt, but baked to an equal
brown color. Tho troops ought not to be allowed to eat soft bread

1 > I MI LITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo.

fresh from the oven without first toasting it. Fresh meat .ui^ht n.-t to
be cooked before it lias luul time t bleed und to cool ; ami meats will
generally be boiled, with soup; and sometimes

baked. Meat may be kept in h t weather by half boiling it
posing it for a few minutes to a thick smoke. To make soup, put into
the vessel at the rato of five pints of water to a pound of tV-li meat;
apply aqui - make it boil promptly; skim oil* tin- loam, und

then moderate tho fire ; put in salt according to palate. A. Id the, vege-
tables of tho season one or two hours, and sliced bread s-.m,- minutes
before the simmering is i n !.. 1. When tho broth is sensibly reduced in
quantity, tliat is, after five or six hours' cooking, tho process will 1 >
pleto. If a part of the meat In- withdrawn before the soup is fully
made, the. quantity !* water must bo proportionally less. Hard or dry
vegetables, as tho bean ration, will be put in the camp kettle much ear-
. >les. The following receipts for army cooking are
taken from Soycr's Culinary Campaign :

SOYER'S HOSPITAL DIETS.

TOE IMPORTANCE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN THE ACCOMPANYING KI

IS FULLY RECOGM/.I.D ; IT IS THEREFORE NECESSARY THAT TKOOPS SIK'I ID
BE SUPPLIED WITH SCALES, AND WITH MEASURES roll I.lgflDB.

No. 1. SEMI-STEWED MUTTON AND BARLEY. SOUP FOR 100

Put in a convenient-sized caldron 130 pints of cold water, 70 Ibs. of

r ahut that quantity, lv> Ibs. of plain mixed vegetables, (tho

best that can be obtained,) 9 Ibs. C <>z. of barley, 1 Ib. 7 oz. of salt, 1

(lour, 1 Ib. 4 oz. of sugar, 1 oz. of peppor. Put all the in-

i:ts into the pan at once, oxn-pt tho flour; set it <>n the fire, and

when begimdng tO bofl, diminish the h- 'at, and simmer p-nlly fur t\\.

.half; take the joints of meat out, ami keep them warm in

'* pun ; add to the, soup ym- Hour, which y<m ha\e mixed

witli ciioii^'li \v -in a light batter; stir well to-jrl her with a

large sj n ; b.-.l another half-hour, skim ofHh,- I . tlie soup

and meat scpur.i: . Th.- meat, may 1..- put back into the soup f<-i

tes to warm again prior to s.r\'mi:. Tho sonp should be stirre.l

now and then \\ ^. t.. pr.-v-nt burning or sticking to tho bot-

'al.iron. The joints an whole, and aft. r\\ar.U -i:t.

i leases ; being cooked this way, in a rather thick stock,

the meat becotn

JVbfc. 'I a>K)Ut" i to the half and full diet, which

varies >eat ; but $ Ib. of mutton will always make

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 135

a pint of good soup : 3 Ibs. of mixed preserved vegetables must be
used when fresh are not to be obtained, and put in one hour and a half
prior to serving, instead of at first ; they will then show better in the
soup, and still be well done. All the following receipts may be in-
creased to large quantities, but by all means closely follow the weight
and measure.

No. 2. -BEEF SOUP. Proceed the same as for mutton, only leave
the meat in till serving, as it will take longer than mutton. The pieces
are not to be above 4 or 5 Ibs. weight ; and for a change, half rice may
be introduced ; the addition of 2 Ibs more will make it thicker and
more nutritive ; ^ Ib. of curry powder will make an excellent change
also. To vary the same, half a pint of burnt sugar water may be added
it will give the soup a very rich brown color.

No. 3 BEEF TEA. RECEIPT FOB six PINTS. Cut 3 Ibs. of beef
into pieces the size of walnuts, and chop up the bones, if any ; put it
into a convenient-sized kettle, with Ib. of mixed vegetables, such as
onions, leeks, celery, turnips, carrots, (or one or two of these, if all are
not to be obtained,) 1 oz. of salt, a little pepper, 1 teaspoonful of sugar,
2 oz. of butter, half a pint of water. Set it on a sharp fire for ten
minutes or a quarter of an hour, stirring now and then with a spoon,
till it forms a rather thick gravy at bottom, but not brown : then add
7 pints of hot or cold water, but hot is preferable ; when boiling, let it
simmer gently for an hour ; skim off all the fat, strain it through a
sieve, and serve.

No. 3A. ESSENCE OF BEEF TEA. For camp hospitals." Quarter
pound tin case of essence." If in winter set it near the fire to melt;
pour the contents in a stewpan and twelve times the case full of water
over it, hot or cold ; add to it two or three slices of onion, a sprig or
two of parsley, a leaf or two of celery, if handy, two teaspoonfuls of
salt, one of sugar ; pass through a colander and serve. If required
stronger, eight cases of water will suffice, decreasing the seasoning in
proportion. In case you have no vegetables, sugar, or pepper, salt
alone will do, but the broth will not be so succulent.

No. 4. THICK BEEF TEA. Dissolve a good teaspoonful of arrow-
root in a gill of water, and pour it into the beef tea twenty minutes
before passing through the sieve it is then ready.

No. 5. STRENGTHENING BEEF TEA WITH CALVES-FOOT JELLY, OR
ISINGLASS. Add | oz. calves-foot gelatine to the above quantity of beef
tea previous to serving, when cooking.

No. 6. MUTTON AND VEAL TEA. Mutton and veal will make good
tea by proceeding precisely the same as above. The addition of a little

1S6 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo.

aromatic herbs is always desirable. If no fresh vegetables are at hand,
use 2 oz. of mixed preserved vegetables to any of the above receipts.

No. 7. CHICKEN BROTH. Put in a stewpan a fowl, 3 pints of
water, 2 teaspoonfuls of rice, 1 teaspoonful of salt, a middle-sized onion,
or 2 oz. of mixed vegetables ; boil the whole gently for three-qi
of an hour: if an old fowl, simmer from one hour and a half t> two
hours, adding 1 pint more water ; skim off the fat and serve. A small
fowl will do.

Note. A light mutton broth may be made precisely the satu
using a pound and a half of scrag of mutton instead of fowl. For thick
mutton broth proceed as for thick beef tea, omitting the rice ; a table-
spoonful of burnt sugar water will give a rich color to the broth.

No. 8. PLAIN BOILED RICE. Put two quarts of water in a stew-
pan, with a teaspoonful of salt ; when boiling, add to it Ib. of rice,
well washed ; boil for ten minutes, or till each grain becomes rather
soft ; drain it into a colander, slightly grease the pot with butter, and
put the rice back into it ; let it swell slowly for about twenty minutes
near the fire, or in a slow oven ; each grain will then swell up, and be
well separated ; it is then ready for use.

No. 9. SWEET RICE. Add to the plain boiled rice 1 oz. of butter,
2 tablespoonfuls of sugar, a little cinnamon, a quarter of ;i j.int .f milk ;
stir it with a fork, and serve ; a little currant jelly or jam may be added
t" tin- rii-r.

No. 10. RICE WITH GRAVY. Add to the rice 4 tablespoonfuls of
the essence of beef, a little butter, if fresh, half a teaspoonful of salt ;
stir together with a fork, and serve. A teaspoonful of Soyer's Sultana
Sauce, or relish, will make it very wholesome and palatable, as well as
Invigorating to a fatigued stomach.

No. 11. PLAIN OATMEAL. Putin a pan \ Ib. of oatmeal, 1 oz.
of sugar, half a teaspoonful of salt, and 3 pints of water; boil slowly
for twenty minutes, "stirring continually," and serve. A quarter of a
pint of Ix.ilcd milk, an ounce of butter, and a little pounds! cinnamon
or spice added pn-\i..us to serving is a good variation. This ivc.-ij.t
has been found most useful at the commencement of dysentery l>y the
medical authorities.

No. I-' M.VES-FOOT JELLY. Putin a ] .M 2$

oz. of itine, 4 oz. of white sugar, 4 whites of eggs and

the pool of a lemon, the juice of three middle-sized lemons, half
a pint of Marsal "-at all well together with the. -^.|n-a:.

.1 f.-w minutes, then add 4$ pint* of cold water; set it on a slow fire,
and keep whipping it till boiling. Set it on the corner of the stove,

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 187

partly covered with the lid, upon which you place a few pieces of burn-
ing charcoal ; let it simmer gently for ten minutes, and strain it through
a- jelly-bag. It is then ready to put in the ice or some cool place.
Sherry will do if Marsala is not at hand. For orange jelly use only

1 lemon and 2 oranges. Any delicate flavor may be introduced.

JELLY STOCK, made from calves' feet, requires to be made the. day
previous to being used, requiring to be very hard to extract the fat.
Take two calf's feet, cut them up, and boil in three quarts of water ; as
soon as it boils remove it to the corner of the fire, and simmer for five
hours, keeping it skimmed, pass through a hair sieve into a basin, and
let it remain until quite hard, then remove the oil and fat, and wipe the
top dry. Place in a stewpan half a pint of water, one of sherry, half
a pound of lump sugar, the juice of four lemons, the rinds of two, and
the whites and shells of five eggs ; whisk until the sugar is melted, then
add the jelly, place it on the fire, and whisk until boiling, pass it through
a jelly-bag, pouring that back again which comes through first until
quite clear ; it is then ready for use, by putting it in moulds or glasses.
Vary the flavor according to fancy.

No. 13. SAGO JELLY. Put into a pan 3 oz. of sago, 1 oz. of
sugar, half a lemon-peel cut very thin, 1 teaspoonful of ground cinna-
mon, or a small stick of the same ; put to it 3 pints of water and a
little salt ; boil ten minutes, or rather longer, stirring continually, until
rather thick, then add a little port, sherry, or Marsala wine ; mix well,
and serve hot or cold.

No. 14. ARROWROOT MILK. Put into a pan 4 oz. of arrowroot,
3 oz. of sugar, the peel of half a lemon, teaspoonful of salt, 2% pints
of milk ; set it on the fire, stir round gently, boil for ten minutes, and
serve. If no lemons at hand, a little essence of any kind will do.
When short of milk, use half water ; half an ounce of fresh butter is
an improvement before serving. If required thicker, put a little milk.

No. 15. THICK ARROWROOT PANADA. Put in a pan 5 oz. of arrow-
root, 2^ oz. of white sugar, the peel of half a lemon, a quarter of a tea-
spoonful of salt, 4 pints of water ; mix all well, set on the fire, boil for
ten minutes ; it is then ready. The juice of a lemon is an improve-
ment ; a gill of wine may also be introduced, and oz. of calves-foot
gelatine previously dissolved in water will be strengthening. Milk,
however, is preferable, if at hand.

No. 16. ARROWROOT WATER. Put into a pan 3 oz. of arrowroot,

2 oz. of white sugar, the peel of a lemon, teaspoonful of salt, 4 pints
of water ; mix well, set on the fire, boil for ten minutes. It is then
ready to serve either hot or cold.

188 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coa

No. 17. RICE WATER. Put 7 pints of water to boil, add t
ounces of rice washed, 2 ox. of sugar, the peel of two-third! of a lemon;
boil gently lor three-quarters of an hour; it will reduce to 5 pints;
strain through a colander ; it is then ready. The rice maybe left in
the beverage or made into a pudding, or by the addition of a little

r jam, will be found very good for either children or invalids.
No. 18. BARLEY \ Put in a saucepan 7 pints of water, 2

or. of barl- v, \\hich stir now and then while boiling ; add 2 oz. of white
sugar, the rind of half a lemon, thinly peeled; let it boil gently for
about two hours, without covering it ; pass it through a sieve or col-
ander; it is then ready. The barley and lemon may be left, in it.

19. SOTER'S PLAIN LEMONADE. Thinly peel the third part of a

. which juit into a basin with 2 tnblespoonfuls of sugar ; roll the

with your hand upon the table to soften it; out it into two.

lengthwise, squeeze the juice over the peel, <fec., stir round for a minute

with u spoon to. form a sort of syrup ; pour over a pint of water, mix

.id remove the pips; it is then ready for use. If a very luri_ r e

lemon, and full of juice, and very fresh, you may make a pint and a

half to a quart, adding sugar and peel in proportion to the increase of

water. The juice only of the lemon and sugar will make lemonade,

but will then be deprived of the, aroma which the rind contains, the said

rind being generally thrown away.

No. 20. SEMI-CITRIC LEMONADE. RK I 50 PINTS. Put 1

oz. of citric acid to dissolve in a pint of water, perl -JO lemons thinly,

and put the perl in a large v. -si. with .'J Ibs. 2 ox. of whit.-

broken ; nll each lemon on the table to soften it, which will facilitate

n of the juice; cut them into two, and press out the juice

into a colander or sicv. -, <>v. r the pe> 1 and sugar, then pour half a pint

of water through the colander, so as to leave no jui. nmaining;

:te th sugar, juice, and peel together for a minuf. with a

spoon, so as to form a sort of syrup, and extract the aroma from the

peel tnd the dissolved citric neid; mix all well together. p..nr on . r >0

ir \\ell together; it is then ready. A little ice in

rammer is a* great addition.

No. 21. SOTER'S CHEAP CRIMEAN LEMONADE. Put into a basin 2
tablespoonfuN of white or brown sugar, % a tablespoonful of lime juice,
minute, add 1 pint of water, and the bever-
age is ready. A drop of rum will make a good variation, as lime jui, <
and n; soldiers.

No. 22. TARTARIC LEMONADE. Dissolve 1 oz. li/ed tar-

taric acid in a pint of cold water, which put in a Ian : when

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 189

dissolved, add 1 Ib. 9 oz. of white or brown sugar the former is pref-
erable ; mix well to form a thick syrup ; add to it 24 pints of cold
water, slowly mixing well ; it is then ready. It may be strained
through either a colander or a jelly-bag; if required very light, add 5
pints more water, and sugar in proportion ; if citric acid be used, put
only 20 pints of water to each ounce.

No. 23. CHEAP PLAIN RICE PUDDING, FOR CAMPAIGNING, in which
no eggs or milk are required : important in the field. Put on the
fire, in a moderate-sized saucepan, 12 pints of water ; when boiling,
add to it 1 Ib. of rice or 16 tablespoonfuls, 4 oz. of brown sugar
or 4 tablespoonfuls, 1 large teaspoonful of salt, and the rind of a lemon
thinly peeled ; boil gently for half an hour, then strain all the water
from the rice, keeping it as dry as possible. The rice water is then
ready for drinking, either warm or cold. The juice of a lemon may be
introduced, which will make it more palatable and refreshing.

THE PUDDING. Add to the rice 3 oz. of sugar, 4 tablespoonfuls of
flour, half a teaspoonful of pounded cinnamon ; stir it on the fire care-
fully for five or ten minutes ; put it in a tin or pie-dish, and bake.
By boiling the rice a quarter of an hour longer, it will be very good to
eat without baking. Cinnamon may be omitted.

No. 23 A. BATTER PUDDING. Break two fresh eggs in a^ basin, beat
them well, add one tablespoonful and a half of flour, which beat up with
your eggs with a fork until no lumps remain ; add a gill of milk, a
teaspoonful of salt, butter a teacup or a basin, pour in your mixture,
put some water in a stewpan, enough to immerge half way up the cup
or basin in water ; when boiling, put in your cup or basin and boil
twenty minutes, or till your pudding is well set ; pass a knife to loosen
it, turn out on a plate, pour pounded sugar and a pat of fresh butter
over, and serve. A little lemon, cinnamon, or a drop of any essence
may be introduced. A little light melted butter, sherry, and sugar
may bo poured over. If required more delicate, add a little less flour.
It may be served plain

No. 24. BREAD AND BUTTER PUDDING. Butter a tart-dish well,
and sprinkle some currants all round it, then lay in a few slices of bread
and butter ; boil one pint of milk, pour it on two eggs well whipped,
and then on the bread and butter ; bake it in a hot oven for half an hour.
Currants may be omitted.

No. 25. BREAD PUDDING. Boil one pint of milk, with a piece of
cinnamon and lemon-peel ; pour it on two ounces of bread crumbs
then add two eggs, half an ounce of currants, and a little sugar : steam
it in a buttered mould for one hour.

190 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

No. 26. CUSTARD PUDDING. Boil one pint of milk, with a small
piece of lemon-peel and half u bay-leaf, for three minutes; then pour
these on to three eggs, mix it with one ounce of sugar well to-
and pour it int.. a buttered mould : steam it twenty-live minutes in a
stowpan with some water, turn out on a plate and serve.

No. 27. RICH Ric PUDDING. Put in Ib. of rice in a stewpan,

washed, 3 pints of milk, 1 pint of water, 3 oz. of sugar, 1 lemon peel,

1 o*. of fresh butter; boil gently half an hour, or until the rice is ten-

add 4 eggs, well beaten, mix well, and bake quickly for half an

hour, and serve : it may be steamed if preferred.

No. 28. STEWED MACARONI. Put in a stewpan 2 quarts of water,
half a tablespoonful of salt, 2 oz. of butter ; set on the fir*' ; when boil-
ing, add 1 Ib. of macaroni, broken up rather small ; when boiled very
sod, throw off the water; mix well into the macaroni a taMesjiiumful
of fl'ur, add enough milk to make it of the consistency of thin melted
butter; boil gently twenty minutes; add in a tablespoonful of either
brown or white sugar, or honey, and serve. A little cinnamon, nut-
meg, lemon-peel, or orange-flower water may be introduced to impart
a flavor; stir quick. A gill ot milk or cream may now be thrown in
minutes before serving. Nothing can be more light and nutri-
tious than macaroni done this way. If no milk, use water.

No. 29. MACARONI PUDDING. Put 2 pints of water to boil, add
to it 2 oz. of macaroni, broken in small pieces ; boil till tender, chain
off the water and add half a tablespoonful of flour, 2 oz. of white
a quarter of a pint of milk, and boil together for ten minutes ; beat an
egg up, pour it to the other ingredients, a nut of butter ; mix well and
oake, or steam. It can bo served plain, and may bo flavored with either
cinnamon, lemon, or other essences, as orange-flower water, vanilla, dec.

No. 30. SAGO PUDDING. Put in a pan 4 oz. of sajjo, 2 oz. of
ugar, half a lemon-peel or a little cinnamon, a small pat of fresh but-
ter, if handy, half a pint of milk; boil for a few minutes or until rath, r
thiek, stirring all the while ; 1 -rs and mix qniekly with the

same ; i* is then ready for cither baking or steaming, or may be served
pl.iin.

No. 31. TAPIOCA PUDDING. Put in a pan 2 ot, ..f tapioca, 1$ pint
of milk, 1 oz. of white or brown sugar, a little salt, set on the (,,
gently for fifteen minutes, or until the tapioca is tender, stirring now
and then t it* Hticking to the bottom, or burning; the,, add

two eggs well beaten ; steam or bake, and serve. It will tako about
twenty minutes team in::, -T a quarter of an hour baking slightly.
Flavor wit '.--mon, cinnamon, or any other essence.

Coo.] % MILITARY DICTIONARY. 191

No. 32. BOILED RICE SEMI-CURRIED, FOR THE PREMONITORY SYMP-
TOMS OF DIARRHOEA. Put 1 quart of water in a pot or saucepan ; when
boiling, wash ^ a Ib. of rice and throw it into the water ; boil fast for
ten minutes ; drain your rice in a colander, put it back in the saucepan,
which you have slightly greased with butter ; let it swell slowly near
the fire, or in a slow oven till tender ; each grain will then be light and
well separated. Add to the above a small tablespoonful of aromatic
sauce, called " Soyer's Relish or Sultana Sauce," with a quarter of a
teaspoonful of curry powder ; mix together with a fork lightly, and
serve. This quantity will be sufficient for two or three people, accord-
ing to the prescriptions of the attending physician.

No. 33. FIGS AND APPLE BEVERAGE. Plave 2 quarts of water
boiling, into which throw 6 dry figs previously opened, and 2 apples,
cut into six or eight slices each ; let the whole boil together twenty
minutes; then pour them into a basin- to cool; pass through a sieve;
drain the figs, which will be good to eat with a little sugar or jam.

No. 34. STEWED FRENCH PLUMS. Put 12 large or 18 small-size
French plums, soak them for half an hour, put in a stewpan with a
spoonful of brown sugar, a gill of water, a little cinnamon, and some
thin rind of lemon ; let them stew gently twenty minutes, then put
them in a basin till cold with a little of the juice. A small glass of
either port, sherry, or claret is a very good addition. The syrup is
excellent.

No. 35. FRENCH HERB BROTH. This is a very favorite beverage
in France, as well with people in health as with invalids, especially in
spring, when the herbs are young and green. Put a quart of water to
boil, having previously prepared about 40 leaves of sorrel, a cabbage
lettuce, and 10 sprigs of chervil, the whole well washed ; when the
water is boiling, throw in the herbs, with the addition of a teaspoonful
of salt, and oz. of fresh butter ; cover the saucepan close,- and let
simmer a few minutes, then strain it through a sieve or colander. This
is to be drunk cold, especially in the spring of the year, after the change
from winter. I generally drink about a quart per day for a week at
that time ; but if for sick people, it must be made less strong of herbs,
and taken a little warm. To prove that it is wholesome, we have only
to refer to the instinct which teaches dogs to eat grass at that season
of the year. I do not pretend to say that it would suit persons in every
malady, because the doctors are to decide upon the food and beverage
of their patients, and study its changes as well as change their medi-
cines ; but I repeat that this is most useful and refreshing for the blood.

No. 36. BROWNING FOR SOUPS, &c. Put Ib. of moist sugar

192 M1LITAKY DICTIONARY. [Coo.

into an iron pan and m. It it over a moderate fire till quite black, stir-
ring it continually, whieh will take about twenty-live minutes : it nn;-i
color by degrees, aa too sudden ;i h< -at will make it bitt.-r ; then add 2
quart^ .and in ton minutes the sugar will be dissolved. Y..II

may thm b.ttl- it t'r use. It will keep good for a month, ami will
always be found very useful.

No. 37. TOAST-AND-WATER. Cut a piece of crusty bread, about
a | Ih. in weight, place it upon a toasting-fork, and hold it about six
Inches from th.- tin- ; turn it often, and keep moving it gently until of
a light-yellow color f then place it nearer tho fire, and when of a good
brown chocolate color, put it in a jug and pour over 3 pints of boiling
water ; cover tho jug until cold, then strain it into a clean jug, and it
is ready for use. Never leave the toast in it, for in summer it would
cause fermentation in a short time.

Baked Apple Toast-and- Water. A piece of apple, slowly toasted
till it gets quite lla-k ami added to the above, makes a very nice ami
refreshing drink for invalids.

Apple Rice Water. Haifa pound of rice, boiled in the above until
in pulp, passed through a colander, and drunk when cold. All kinds of
fruit may be done the same way. Figs and French plums are
lent; also raisins. A little ginger, if approved of, may bo used.

Apple Barley Water. A quarter of a pound of pearl barley instead

of toast added to the above, and boil for one hour, is also a very nice drink.

Citronade. Put a gallon of water on to boil, cut up one pound of

I, each one into quarters, two lemons in thin slices, put them in the

. and boil them until they can be pulped, pass the liquor through

a colander, boil it up again with half a pound of brown sugar, skim.

and bottle for use, taking care not to cork tho bottle, and keep it in a

cool place,

/or Sjtriny Drink. Rhubarb, in the same quantities, and done in
the same way as appk-s, adding more sugar, is very cooling. Also
green gooseberries.

For Summer Jtrink. One pound of red currants, bruised with
some raspberry, half a pound of sugar added to a gallon .f <M
well stirred, and allowed to settle. Tho juice of a lemon.

Mulberry. The same, adding a little l.-mon-peel. A little cream
of tartar or id added to these renders them more cooling in

summer and spring.

/Y/i/H I,nnnnn,lr. Put in very thin slices three lemons, put them
in a baain, add half a p. -mid of sugar, either white or brown ; bruiso
all together, add a gallon of water, and stir well. It is then ready.

Coo.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

193

FIG. 105.

French Plum Water. Boil 3 pints of water ; add in 6 or 8 dried
plums previously split, 2 or 3 slices of lempn, a spoonful of honey 01
sugar ; boil half an hour, and serve.

For Fig, Date, and JRaisin Water, proceed as above, adding the
juice of half a lemon to any of the above. Jf for fig water, use 6 figs.
Any quantity of the above fruits may be used with advantage in rice,
barley, or arrowroot water.

EFFERVESCENT BEVERAGES. Raspberry Water. Put 2 tablespoon-
fuls of vinegar into a large glass, pour in half a pint of water ; mix
well.

Pine-Apple Syrup. Three tablespoonfuls to a pint.

Currant Syrup. Proceed the same.

Syrup of Orgeat. The same.

FIELD AND BARRACK COOKERY FOR THE ARMY, BY THE USE OF SOYER'S
NEW FIELD STOVE, NOW ADOPTED BY THE MILITARY AUTHORITIES. Each
stove will consume not more than from 12 to 15 Ibs. of fuel, and allow-
ing 20 stoves to a regiment, the
consumption would be 300 Ibs. per
thousand men. Coal will burn with
the same advantage. Salt beef, pork,
Irish stew, stewed beef, tea, coffee,
cocoa, &c., can be prepared in these
stoves, and with the same economy.
They can also be fitted with an ap-
paratus for baking, roasting, and
steaming.

No. 1. RECEIPT TO COOK SALT
MEAT FOR FIFTY MEN. 1. Put 50
Ibs. of meat in the boiler. 2.
Fill with water, and let soak all
night. 3. Next morning wash the
meat well 4. Fill with fresh wa-
ter, and boil gently three hours,
and serve. Skim off the fat, which,
when cold, is an excellent substi-
tute for butter. For salt pork pro-
ceed as above or boil half beef
and half pork the pieces of beef
may be smaller than the pork, re-
quiring a little longer time doing.

Dumplings, No. 21, may be added to either pork, or beef in propor-
13

194 MILITARY DICTION ART. [Coa

tlon ; and when pork is properly soaked, the liquor will make n very

good soup. The large yellow peas, as usol by the- navy, may bo intro-

; it is important to have them, as they arc a great improvement.

When proper!^ SO*ked, Fn-n.-h haricot Leans and lentils may also be

used to advantage. By the addition of 5 pounds of split peas, half a

pound of brown sugar, 2 tablespoon fu Is i >i pepper, 10 onions; simmer

till in pulp, remove the fat and serve; broken biscuit may be

introdiK vd. This will make an exeellent mess.

No. IA. HOW TO BOAK AND PLAIN-BOIL THE RATIONS OF SALT BfiEF

AJTD PORK, ON LAND OR AT SKA. To each pound of meat allow about
a pint of water. Do not have the pieces above 3 or 4 11 is. in weight.
Let it soak for 7 or 8 hours, or all night if possible. Wash each piece
well with your hand in order to extract as much salt as possible. It
b then ready for cooking. If less time be allowed, cut the pieces
smaller and proceed the same, or parboil the meat for 20 mini
the above quantity of water, which throw off and add fresh. M> '
maybe soaked in sea water, but by all means boiled in fre>h ulu-n
possible. I should advise, at sea, to have a perforated iron 1><>\ made,
large enough to contain half a ton or more of meat, which box \\i\\
ascend and descend by pulleys ; have also a frame made on whirh the
box might rest when lowered overboard, the meat being placed outside
the ship on a level with the water, the night before using ; the water
beating against the meat through the perforations will extract all the
salt. Meat may be soaked in sea water, but by all means wa>hed.

No 2. SOYER'S ARMY SOUP FOR FIFTY MKN. 1. Put in the boiler
60 pints, 7 gallons, or 5^ camp kettles of water. 2. Add to it 50 Ibs.
of mca* >cef or mutton. 3. The rations of preserved or

vegetables. 4. T.-n small tablespoonfuls of salt. f>. Simmer three
hours and serve. When rice is issued, put it in when boiling. Three.
pounds will bo sufficient. About eight pounds of fre^h v-g tables. Or
four squares from a cake of preserved vegetables. A tablespoi.nful of
pepper, if handy. Skim off the fat, which, when cold, is an excellent
substitute for butter.

No. A. SALT PORK WITH MASHED PEAR, i IIM.KED MEN.

Put in two stove* . r >0 Ibs. of pork each, divide 24 Ibs. in four pudding-
>.1\ ti.-.l; putting to boil at the same time as your
pork, let all boil gently till done, sny about two hours ; take out the pud-
ding and peas, put all the meat, in out < -.iMpm, remove ihc liipior from
'iming back the peas in it, add two teaspoonfuls of pep-
per, a i 'I with the wooden spatula smash the
and serve both. The addition of about half a pound of flour, and two

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 105

quarts of liquor, boiled ten minutes, makes a great improvement. Six
sliced onions, fried and added to it, make it very delicate.

No. 3. STEWED SALT BEEF AND PORK. For a company of one
hundred men, or a regiment of one thousand men. Put in a boiler, of
well soaked-beef 30 Ibs., cut in pieces of a quarter of a pound each, 20
Ibs. of pork, 1 Ib. of sugar, 8 Ibs. of onions, sliced, 25 quarts of water,
4 Ibs. of rice. Simmer gently for three hours, skim the fat off the top,
and serve.

Note. How to soak the meat for the above mess : Put 50 Ibs. of
meat in each boiler, having filled them with water, and let soak all
night ; and prior to using it, wash it and squeeze with your hands, to
extract the salt. In case the meat is still too salt, boil it for twenty
minutes, throw away the water, and put fresh to your stew. By
closely following the above receipt you will have an excellent dish.

No. 4. SOYER'S FOOD FOR ONE HUNDRED MEN, USING TWO STOVES.
Cut or chop 50 Ibs. of fresh beef in pieces of about a \ Ib. each ; put in
the boiler, with 10 tablespoonfuls of salt, two tablespoonfuls of pepper,
four tablespoonfuls of sugar, onions 7 Ibs. cut in slices : light the fire
now, and then stir the meat with a spatula, let it stew from 20 to 30
minutes, or till it forms a thick gravy, then add a pound and a half of
flour ; mix well together, put in the boiler 18 quarts of water, stir well
for a minute or two, regulate the stove to a moderate heat, and let
simmer for about two hours. Mutton, pork, or veal can be stewed in
a similar manner, but will take half an hour less cooking.

Note. A pound of rice may be added with great advantage, ditto
plain dumplings, ditto potatoes, as well as mixed vegetables. For a
regiment of 1,000 men use 20 stoves.

No. 5. PLAIN IRISH STEW FOR FIFTY MEN. Cut 50 Ibs. of mutton
into pieces of a quarter of a pound each, put them in the pan, add 8
Ibs. of large onions, 12 Ibs. of whole potatoes, 8 tablespoonfuls of salt,
3 tablespoonfuls of pepper ; cover all with water, giving about half a
pint to each pound ; then light the fire ; one hour and a half of gentle
ebullition will make a most excellent stew ; mash some of the potatoes
to thicken the gravy, and serve. Fresh beef, veal, or pork \vill also
make a good stew. Beef takes two hours doing. Dumplings may be
added half an hour before done.

No. 6. To COOK FOR A REGIMENT OF A THOUSAND MEN. Place
twenty stoves in a row, in the open air or under cover. Put 30 quarts
of water in each boiler, 50 Ibs. of ration meat, 4 squares' from a cake
of dried vegetables or, if fresh mixed vegetables are issued, 12 Ibs.
weight 10 small tablespoonfuls of salt, 1 ditto of pepper ; light the fire,

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo.

simmer gently from two hours to two hours and a half, skim tin- fat
fr.-Ni the top, and serve. It will require only four cooks per regiment,
the provisions and water l. -'111-4 carried to the kitchen by fatigue parties ;
the kitchen being central, instead of the kitchen going to each company.
eaeh company sends t \\.-men to tin- kitchen with a pole to carry th.

No. 7. SALT PORK AND PUDDINGS WITH CABBAGE AND POTA-
TOES, Put 25 Ibs. of salt pork in each boiler, with 50 Ibs. from
. you have extracted the largo bones, cut in dice, and made into
puddings ; when on the boil, put five puddings in each, l>>il rath

o hours. You have peel e.l 1'2 ll.s. of potatoes and put in a net
in each caldron ; put also 2 winter cabbages in nets three-quart
an hour before your pudding is done; divide the pork, pudding, and
cabbage, in proportion, or let fifty of the men have pudding that day
and meat tin- other; remove the fut, and serve. The liquor will make
very good soup by adding peas or rice, as No. 1. For tho pudding.
paste put one-quarter of a pound of dripping, or beef or mutton suet,
to every pound of flour you uso; roll your pnMe ir each half an inch
thiek, put a pudding-cloth in a basin, flour round, lay in your past
your meat in proportion; season with pepper and a minced onion;
close your pudding in a cloth, and boil. This receipt is more applicable
to Imrrack and public institutions than a camp. Fresh UK at of any
kind may be done tho same, and boiled with either salt pork or beef.

No. 8. TURKISH PILAFF FOR ONE HUNDRED MEN. Put in tho cal-
dron 2 Ibs. of tat, which you have saved from salt pork, add to it 4 Ibs.
of peeled and sliced onions; let them fry in the fat for about ten min-
utes; add in then 12 Ibs. of rice, cover the rice over with water, the
rice being submerged two inches, add to it 7 tablespoonfuls of salt, and

1 of pepper; let simmer gently for about an hour, stirring it with a
spatula occasionally to prevent it burning, but when eoinmmeing to
boil, a very little fire ougnt to be kept under. Each grain ought to le
swollen t the full size of rice, and separate. In the other stove put fat
and onin tin- same quantity with the same seasoning; cut the flesh
of the mutton, veal, pork, or beef from tho bone, eut in dice of about

2 02. each, put in the pan with the fat and onions, set it going with a
very slurp lire, having put in 2 quarts of water ; steam p-nth , stirring
Occasionally for about half an hour, till forming rather a rich thiek
gravy. When Loth the rice and moat are done, take half the ri

at, and then the remainder of the meat and ri<
serve. Save the bones for soup for the following day. Salt pork or

A-oll soaked, may be used omitting tho salt. Any kind ot
tables may be frizzled with the onions.

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 197

No. 9. BAKING AND ROASTING WITH THE FIELD STOVE. By the re-
moval of the caldron, and the application of a false bottom put over the
fire, bread bakes extremely well in the oven, as well as meat, potatoes,
puddings, &c. Bread might be baked in oven at every available op-
portunity at a trifling cost of fuel. The last experiment I made with
one was a piece of beef weighing about 25 Ibs., a large Yorkshire pud-
ding, and about 10 Ibs. of potatoes, the whole doing at considerably
under one pennyworth of fuel, being a mixture of coal and coke ; the
whole was done to perfection, and of a nice brown color. Any kind of
meat would, of course, roast the same.

Baking infixed Oven. In barracks, or large institutions, where an
oven is handy, I would recommend that a long iron trough be made,
four feet in length, with a two-story movable grating in it, the meat on
the top of the upper one giving a nice elevation to get the heat from
the roof, and the potatoes on the grating under, and a Yorkshire pud-
ding at the bottom. Four or five pieces of meat may be done on one
trough. If no pudding is made, add a quart more water.

No. 10. FRENCH BEEF SOUP, OR POT-ATJ-FEU, CAMP FASHION. FOR
THE ORDINARY CANTEEN-PAN. Put in the canteen saucepan 6 Ibs. of
beef, cut in two or three pieces, bones included, |- Ib. of plain mixed
vegetables, as onions, carrots, turnips, celery, leeks, or such of these as
can be obtained, or 3 oz. of preserved in cakes, as now given to the
troops ; 3 teaspoonfuls of salt, 1 teaspoonful of pepper, 1 teaspoonful
of sugar, if handy ; 8 pints of water, let it boil gently three hours, re-
move some of the fat, and serve. The addition of 1 Ib. of bread cut
into slices, or 1 Ib. of broken biscuit, well soaked in the broth, will
make a very nutritious soup ; skimming is not required.

No. 11. SEMI-FRYING, CAMP FASHION, CHOPS, STEAKS, AND ALL
KINDS OF MEAT. If it is difficult to broil to perfection, it is consider-
ably more so to cook meat of any kind in a frying-pan. Place your
pan on the fire for a minute or so, wipe it very clean ; when the pan
is very hot, add in it either fat or butter, but the fat from salt and
ration meat is preferable ; the fat will immediately get very hot ; then
add the meat you are going to cook, turn it several times to have it
equally done ; season to each pound a small teaspoonful of salt, quarter
that of pepper, and serve. Any sauce or maitre-d'hotel butter may be
added. A few fried onions in the remaining fat, with the addition of
a little flour to the onion, a quarter of a pint of water, two tabjespoon-
fuls of vinegar, a few chopped pickles or picalilly, will be very rel-
ishing.

No. HA. TEA FOR EIGHTY MEN, which often constitutes a whole

lli> MILITAKY DICTIONARY. [Coo

company. One boiler will, with ease, make tea for eighty mm, allow-
ing a pint each man. Put forty quarts of water to boil, place the ra-
tions of tea in a fine net, very loose, or in a large perforated ball ; pve
one minute to boil, take out the fuv, if too much, shut down the ,
in tm minutes it is ready to si

No. 12. Com* A LA ZOUAVE FOR A MESS OF TEN SOLDIERS, as made
in the camp, with the canteen saucepan holding 10 pints. Put 9 pints of
into a canteen saucepan on the fire ; when boiling add 7^

h forms the ration, mix them well together with a spoon or
a piece of wood, leave on the fire for a few minutes longer, or until
ginning to boil. Take it off and pour in 1 pint of cold \\ater,
let the whole remain for ten minutes or a little longer. The dregs of
the coffee will fall to the bottom, and your coffee will be clear. Pour
it from one vessel to the other, leaving the dregs at the bottom, add
your ration sugar or, 2 teaspoonfuls to the pint ; if any milk is to bo
had, make 2 pints of coffee less ; add that quantity of milk to your
. the former may be boiled previously, and serve. This is a
very good way for making coffee, even in any family, especially a nu-
merous one, using 1 oz. to the quart if required stronger. For a
company of eighty men use the field-stove and four times the quantity
of ingredients.

13. COFFEE, TURKISH FASHION. "When the water is about

to boil add the coffee and sunar, mix well as above, let it boil, and

. The grounds of coffee will in a f-w stands f-dl t the liittni

of the cups. The Turks wis. ly leave it there, I would advise every qne

in (amp to do the same.

No 14. COCOA FOR EICHTV MK\. Break eighty portions of ration
OOCoa in rather small pieces, put them in the boiler, with live or six
pints of water, light the fire, stir the cocoa round till melted, and form-
ing a pulp not too thick, preventing any lumps fnrminji, add to it the
remaining water, hot or cold ; add the ration sugar, and when just boil-
ing, it is ready for serving. If short iu campaigning, put about
1 wh.-n in pulp, add half a pound of (lour or arrowroot.
EAST AND EX- AY OF CooMxr, IN K.\uTiiK\ P\N>. Avcry
favorite ami plain dish amongst the conval.-sivnt and orderlies at
lowing: Cut any part of either beef (die, k of
tail), veal, mutton, or pork, in fart any hard part of the animal, in
4-oz. slices; have ready for each \ < r :> <.t;i..ns and 4 or ~> pounds
of potatoes cut ; put a layer of potatoes at the bottom of
the pan, then a l.iy.-r of meat, season to each pound 1 teaspoonful of

d some onion you have already minced;

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 199

then lay in layers of meat and potatoes alternately till full ; put in 2
pints of water, lay on the lid, close the bar, lock the pot, bake two
hours, and serve. Remove some of the fat from the top, if too much ;
a few dumplings, as No. 21, in it will also be found excellent. By
adding over each layer a little flour it makes a rich thick sauce. Half
fresh meat and salt ditto will also be found excellent.

SERIES OF SMALL RECEIPTS FOR A SQUAD, OUTPOST, OR PICKET OF
MEN, which may be increased in proportion of companies. No. 15.
Camp Soup. Put half a pound of salt pork in a saucepan, two ounces
of rice, two pints and a half of cold water, and, when boiling, let simmer
another hour, stirring once or twice ; break in six ounces of biscuit, let
soak ten minutes ; it is then ready, adding one teaspoonful of sugar,
and a quarter one of pepper, if handy.

No. 16. Beef Soup. Proceed as above, boil an hour longer, adding
a pint more water.

Note. Those who can obtain any of the following vegetables will
find them a great improvement to the above soups : Add four ounces
of either onions, carrots, celery, turnips, leeks, greens, cabbage, or po-
tatoes, previously well washed or peeled, or any of these mixed to make
up four ounces, putting them in the pot with the meat. I have used
the green tops of leeks and the leaf of celery as well as the stem, and
found that for stewing they are preferable to the white part for flavor.
The meat being generally salted with rock salt, it ought to be well
scraped and washed, or even soaked in water a few hours if convenient ;
but if the last cannot be done, and the meat is therefore too salt, which
would spoil the broth, parboil it for twenty minutes in water, before
using for soup, taking care to throw this water away.

No. 17. For fresh beef proceed, as far as the cooking goes, as for
salt beef, adding a teaspoonful of salt to the water.

No. 18. Pea Soup. Put in your pot half a pound of salt pork, half
a pint of peas, three pints of water, one teaspoonful of sugar, half one
of pepper, four ounces of vegetables, cut in slices, if to be had ; boil
gently two hours, or until the peas are tender, as some require boiling
longer than others and serve.

No 19. Stewed Fresh Beef and Rice. Put an ounce of fat in a pot,
cut half a pound of meat in large dice, add a teaspoonful of salt, half
one of sugar, an onion sliced ; put on the fire to stew for fifteen min-
utes, stirring occasionally, then'add two ounces of rice, a pint of water ;
stew gently till done, and serve. Any savory herb will improve the
flavor. Fresh pork, veal, or mutton may be done the same way, and
half a pound of potatoes used instead of the rice, and as rations are

200 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

served out fur three days, the whole of the provisions may be cooked
at once.

No. 20. RECEIPTS FOR THE FRYING-PAN. Those who arc fortunate
i to possess a frying-pan will find the following receipts very
useful: Cut in small dice half a pound of solid meat, keeping the
bones for soup; put your pan, which should be quite clean, on the
fire; \\lu-n hot through, add nn ounce of fat, melt it and put in the
meat, season witli half a teaspoouful of salt ; fry fr ten minutes, stir-
\v and then ; add a tcaspoonful of flour, mix all well, put in half
a pint of water, let simmer for fifteen minutes, pour over a biscuit
nsly soaked, and serve. The addition ol a little pepper and
sugar, it* handy, is an improvement, as is also a pinch of cayenne, curry-
powder or spice; sauces and pickles used in small quantities would be
relishing; these are articles which will keep for any length of
time. As fresh meat is not easily obtained, any of the cold salt meat
may be dressed as above, omitting the salt, and only requires warming ;
or, for ft change, boil the meat plainly, or with greens, or cabbage, or
dumplings, as for beef; then the next day cut what is left in small dice
say four ounces put in a pan an ounce of fat ; when very hot pour
i;i the following : Mix in a basin a tablespoonful of flour, moisten with
to form the consistency of thick melted butt. r. tli. n p.uir it in
the pan, letting it remain for one or two minutes, or until set ; put in
the meat, shake the pan to loosen it, turn it over, let it remain
minutes longer, and serve. To cook bacon, chops, steaks, slices of any
kind of meat, salt or fresh sausages, blaek puddings, &c. : Make the
pan very hot, having wiped it clean, add in fat, drippinir, butt-r. r oil,
about an ounoeof either ; put in the meat, turn three or four tim<
season with salt and p.-j>p.-r. A few minutes will do it. If the m. at.
is salt, it must bo well staked previously.

No. 21. SUET DUMPLINGS. Take half a pound of flour, half a i a-

. .1 quarter teaspoouful of pepper, a quarter of a pound

(/chopped fat pork or beef suet, eight tablesjmonfuls !' water, mixed

It will form, a thick paste, and when formed, di\
into six or right piece*, which roll in flour, and boil with the m<

. minut.-H to h:.lf an hour. Little chopped onion or aromatic
herbs will give it a flavor.

A ; 'it is not to be obtained. Put the same quan-

| in a little more water, and make it

vide it in- ; b,,il about ten minuf. round

the m- plain pud-lini; may be made, of the nbov.

rice pudding thus: One pound of peas well tied in a cloth, or rice

Cou.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 201

ditto with the beef. It will form a good pudding. The following in-
gredients may be added : a little salt, sugar, pepper, chopped onions,
aromatic herbs, and two ounces of chopped fat will make these pud-
dings palatable and delicate.

CORDON is the coping of the escarp or inner wall of the ditch,
sometimes called the magistral line ; as from it the works in perma-
nent fortification are traced. It is usually rounded in front, and pro-
jects about one foot over the masonry : while it protects the top of the
revetment from being saturated with water, it also offers, from projec-
tion, an* obstacle to an enemy in escalading the wall.

CORPORAL. Grade between private and sergeant.

CORPOREAL PUNISHMENT, BY STRIPES AND LASHES. Pro-
hibited excepting for the crime of desertion ; (Act May 1C, 1812 and
Act March 2, 1833.)

CORPS. The Articles of War use the word corps in the sense of
a portion of the army organized by law with a head and members ;
or any other military body having such organization, as the marine
corps. A regiment is a corps ; an independent company is a corps a
body of officers with one head is a corps, as the Topographical Engi-
neers. Detachments of parts of regiments, or of whote regiments,
united for a particular object, whether for a campaign or a part of a cam-
paign, are not corps in the sense of the Rules and Articles of War, for such
bodies have neither head nor members commissioned in the particular
body temporarily so united ; but the officers with such detachment hold
commissions either in the corps composing the detachment, in the army
at large, in the marina corps, or militia.

CORRECTING PROOFS. (See PRINTING.)

CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE ENEMY. Whoever shall
be convicted of holding correspondence with or giving intelligence to
the enemy, directly or indirectly, shall suffer death or such other punish-
ment as shall be ordered by sentence of a court-martial ; (ART. 57.)

COSINE. The complement of the sine.

COUNCIL OF ADMINISTRATION. Under the act of Congress
of July 5, 1838, the council of administration may, from time to time,
employ such person as they think proper to officiate as chaplain ; who
shall also perform the duties of schoolmaster at such post. The chaplain
is paid on the certificate of the commanding officer, not exceeding forty
dollars per month, as may be determined by the said council of admin-
istration with the approval of the Secretary of War. Councils of ad-
ministration fix a tariff to the prices of sutler's goods regulate the
sutler in other matters, and make appropriations for specific objects de-

joj MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coc.

termined by regulations from the post and regimental fund*. Tho>r
funds are collected in great part by savings of flour, in making bread
by troops.

COUNCIL OF WAR. An assemblage of the chief officers in the.
army, summoned by the general to concert measures of importance.

COUNSEL. All writers admit it to be the custom to allow a
prisoner t. h.ivo conns 1.

COUNTER-BATTERY. When a number of guns are placed be-
:i parapet, for the purpose of dismounting or silencing by direct
fire the guns in an enemy's work, it is called a counter-battery.

COUNTERFORTS are the buttresses by which the revetment
walls are backed and .strengthened interiorly.

COUNTERGUARD is a work composed of two faces, forming a
salient angle, sometimes placed before a bastion, sometimes before
a ravelin, and sometimes before both, to protect them from being
breached.

COUNTERMINES are galleries excavated by the defenders of a
fortress, to intercept the mines, and to dcMroy the works of the bo-
siegers.

COUNTERSCARP. The outer boundary of the ditch revetted
with masonry in permanent fortification to make the ditch as steep as

possible.

COUNTERSIGN. A particular word given out by the highest in
command, intrusted to those employed on duty in camp and garrison,
and exchanged between guards and sentinels.

COUNTERSLOPE. In the case of a revetment, the slope is
within instead of on the outside; and is usually formed in steps. In
the case of a parapet, the slope is upwards instead of downwards.

COUP D'CEIL. The art of distinguishing by a rapid glance the
weak points . if an enemy's position, and of discerning the advantages and
disadvantages offered by any given space of country, 01 s. 1 .ling with
judgment the most advantageous position for a ramp or battle-field.
Experience is a great aid in the acquisition of this necessary military
faculty, but experience and science alone will not give it.

CGI* I 1 hi! MAIN'. A sudden and vigorous attack.

COUPURES arc short retrenchments made across thofaceofany
work, having a terre-plein. Tho ditch of the coupure is carried quite
across the tcrre-plein, and thnmiih the parapet of the work in which it
'. but not through the revetment.

COURT-MARTIAL, Any ^i-m-ral onVer commanding .111 army, or
colonel commanding a separate department, may appoint : - n< ml court-

Cou.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 203

martials whenever necessary ; (ART. 65.) General courts-martial may
consist of any number of commissioned officers, from five to thirteen, but
they shall not consist of less than thirteen, where that number can be
convened without manifest injury to the service ; (ART. 64.) But no
sentence of a court-martial shall be carried into execution until after the
whole proceedings shall have been laid before the officer ordering the
same, or the officer commanding the troops for the time being ; neither
shall any sentence of a general court-martial, in time of peace, extending
to the loss of life, or the dismission of a commissioned officer, or which
shall, either in time of peace or war, respect a general officer, be carried
into execution, until after the whole proceedings shall liave been trans-
mitted to the Secretary of War, to be laid before the President of the
United States for his confirmation or disapproval, and orders in the
case. All other sentences may be confirmed and executed by the
officer ordering the court to assemble, or the commanding officer for
the time being, as the case may be ; (ART. 65.) Whenever a general
officer commanding an army, or a colonel commanding a separate de-
partment, shall be the accuser or prosecutor of any officer of the army
under his command, the general court-martial for the trial of such officer
shall be appointed by the President of the United States, and the pro-
ceedings and sentence of the said court shall be sent directly to the
Secretary of War to be laid by him before the President for his con-
firmation or approval or orders in the case ; (Act May 29, 1880.)
Every officer commanding a regiment or corps may appoint, for his
own regiment or corps, courts-martial to consist of three commissioned
officers, for the trial and punishment of offences not capital, and decide
upon their sentences. For the same purpose, all officers commanding
any of the garrisons, forts, barracks, or other places where troops consist
of different corps, may assemble courts-martial, to consist of three com-
missioned officers, and decide upon their sentences ; (ART. 66.) No
garrison or regimental court-martial shall have the power to try capital
cases, or commissioned officers ; neither shall they inflict a fine exceed-
ing one month's pay, nor imprison, nor put to hard labor, any non-
commissioned officer or soldier, for a longer time than one month ;
(ART. 67.) The judge-advocate, or some person deputed by him, or
by the general, or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garrison,
shall prosecute in the name of the United States, but shall so far con-
sider himself as counsel for the prisoner, after the said prisoner shall
have made his plea, as to object to any leading question to any witness,
or any question to the prisoner, the answer to which might tend to
criminate himself; and administer to each member of the court, before

004 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

they proceed upon any trial, the oath prescribed in the Articles of \\ i
for General, Regimental and Garrison Court* mart iul. The pi.
of the court then administers an oath to the judge-ad vocat. ; (A 1:1.
09.) If a prisoner when arraigned stands mute, the trial goes on as
if he pleaded not guilty ; (ART. 70.) If a member be cliall. -ng. -.1 l.y a
prisoner the court judges of the n l.-vancy of the challenge. Only one
member can be challenged at a time ; (ART. 71.) All members are to
behave with decency and calmness, and in giving their votes to begin
with the youngest; (ART. 72.) All persons who give vi.lt nco are
examined on oath or affirmation ; (ART. 73.) On trials of cases not
capital before courts-martial, the deposition of witnesses, not in the lino
or staff of the army, may be taken before some justice of the peace and
read in evidence; provided the prosecutor and person accused are j.n-s-
ent at the taking of the same, or are duly notified thereof; (ART. 74.)
No officer shalr be tried but by a general court-martial, nor by officers
of inferior rank, if it can be avoided. Nor shall trials be earned on ex-
cept between 8 in the morning and 3 in the aftcrn ing in cases
requiring immediate example in the opinion of the officer ordering the.
court ; ( ART. 75.) No person to use menacing words, signs, or gest u res
before a court-martial, or cause any disorder or riot, or disturb tin ir
proceeding, on the penalty of being punished at the discretion of the
said court-martial; (AiiT. 76.) (Consult DE HART, KENNEDY, and
SIMMONS; See ADDRESS; ALIBI; AMICUS CURI.E; APPEAL; ARREST;
CHALLENGE OP MEMBERS; CHARACTER; CHARGES; CONTEMPT;
COUNSEL; CRIMES; CUSTOM OF WAR; DEATH; DECISIONS; DEFENCE;
DISMISSION ; EVIDENCE ; FALSEHOOD ; FINDING ; JUDGE-ADVOCATE ;
JURISDICTION; MISNOMER; NEW MATTER; NOTES; OATH; PLEA;
PRESIDENT ; PRISONERS ; PROCEEDINGS ; PROSECUTORS ; QUESTIONS ;
RECOMMENDATION; KK.IOINDKU ; RKPLY ; REVISIO
MIHO UP ; SUSPENDED ; TRIAL ; VERDICT ; VOTES ; WITNESSES ; and
References under the heading ARTICLES OF WAR.)

FORM No. 1.

Foi: -ral < >r.l<-r appointini: a General ("curt-martial.

ral Orders, 1 Ilea.l-|inrt-rs of the Army,

No. J March , 18.

A General Court-martial, to consist of thirt. . n n . ml., rs will >n-
vene at Fort Monn-e. in the State of Virginia, on Monday the \.| ,,f
April, 18 , at 1 1 oYl--.-k, A. M., or as M...H then-after as j.raetieal.le,
for the trial of Captain A. R., of the 1st Regiment of Artillery, and such
other prisoners as may be brought before it.

Coc.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 205

The following Officers are detailed as members of the Court :

1. Colonel A. B. 1st Regiment of

2. Colonel C. D. 3d Regiment of -

3. Lieut.-col. E. F. 1st Regiment of

4. Lieut.-col. F. G. 2d Regiment of

5. Major W. T. 3d Regiment of

6. Major N. M. 1st Regiment of

7. Captain A. N. 3d Regiment of

8. Captain B. N. 1st Regiment of

9. Captain C. N. 2d Regiment of

10. Captain D. M. 3d Regiment of

11. Captain E. L. 1st Regiment of

12. Captain F. H. 1st Regiment of

13. Captain G. W. 1st Regiment of

And the following Officers are detailed as supernumeraries :
Captain N. P. 2d Regiment of Infantry.

Captain D. B. 1st Regiment of Infantry.

Captain N. O. 1st Regiment of Artillery.

Captain S. R., of the 4th Regiment of , is hereby appointed

Judge-advocate.

By command of

Lieut.-general .

Adj utant-general.

FORM No. 2.

General Orders, | Head-quarters.

No. j

A General Court-martial is hereby appointed to meet at , on

the day of , or as soon thereafter as practicable, for the

trial of , and such other prisoners as may be brought before it.

Detail for the Court.

1. 5. 9. 13.

2. __ 6. 10.

3. - 7. 11.

4. __ 8. 12.

, Judge-advocate.

No other officers than those named can be assembled without mani-
fest injury to the service.

By order of ,

, Asst. Adjt.-gen.

Jo,; MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cou.

FORM No. 3.
General Orders, I Head-quarters of the Army,

No. f April , 18.

A General Court-martial, to consist of as many members [within
the prescribed limits] as can be assembled without manifest injury to

the service, will convene at , in the State of , on Tuesday

the 23d of April, 18-, at 10 o'clock, A. M., or as soon thereafter as
practicable, for the trial of Lieutenant C. D., of the 1st Regiment, and
such other prisoners as may bo brought before it.

The Commanding Officer, at , will cause the members of the

Court to be detailed from the officers of his command. First Lieut. -n-
ant B. M., 2d Regiment of Artillery, is hereby appointed the Judge-
advocate of the Court.

By order of ,

Major-general Commanding in Chief,
R.J.

Adjutant-general.

The above form delegating authority for the detail of members of a
Court-mariial to a distant commander, although not latterly used, is of
the greatest practical importance. It conforms to the custom of war
in other services, was long used in our own without question of its
legality, and might with great benefit to the service be revived.

FORM No. 4.

Mode of recording the proceedings of a General [or other] Court-
martial.

Proceedings of a General Court-martial, held at Fort Monroe, in
the State of Virginia, by virtue of the following Orders, viz. :

[More insert a copy of the Order convening the Court.]
Fort Monroe, Virginia,

Monday, April , 18 .
The Court met pursuant to the above Orders.

PRESENT.

1. Colonel A.B. 1st Rcgt. of , Presii

< olonel C. D. :;. Lieut-col. E. F.

J. Lieut-col. F. G. w 5. Maj.. r W. T.

M J 7. Copt A. N.

8. Capt B. N. 9. Capt. C. N.

Capt. D. M. 11. Capt. E. L.

12. Capt. R H. l.T Capt. W. G.

Captain S. R., Judge-advocate,

Con,] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 207

The Court then proceeded to the trial of Captain A. B., of the

Regiment of , who, being called into Court, and having

heard the General Order read, was asked if he had any objection to any
of the members named in the General Order, to which he replied in the
negative.

The Court was then duly sworn, in his presence, and Captain A. B.
was arraigned on the following charge and specifications, viz. :

[Here insert the charge and specifications.]

To which the prisoner pleaded as follows :

Not Guilty, to the 1st specification,
Not Guilty, to the 2d specification,
Not Guilty, to the charge.

All persons required to give evidence were directed to withdraw,
and remain in waiting until called for.

Lieut. A. B. of the 2d Regiment'of Infantry, a witness for the prose-
cution, being duly sworn, says : that on the day of ,'&c.

&c. .

Question by the Judge-advocate. ?

Answer. .

Question by the prisoner. ?

Answer. .

Question by the Court. 1

Answer. .

The prosecution was here closed, and the prisoner produced the fol-
lowing evidence :

Capt. C. D. of the Corps of , a witness for the defence, being

duly sworn, says : that on the day of , &c. &c.

Question by the prisoner. 1

Answer. .

Question by the Judge-advocate. ?

Answer. .

Question by the Court. 1

Answer. .

The prisoner, having no further testimony to offer, requested to be

indulged with days to prepare for his final defence. The Court

granted his request, and adjourned at o'clock, P. M., to meet

again at o'clock, A. M., on Wednesday, the day of .

Ji.s M1L1TAKV DICTIUNAKY. [Co*

SECOND DAT.

Wednesday, - , 18.

The Court nut j.ursuant to adjournment : present all the members.
The proceedings having been read over to the Court l>y the Judge-
advocate, the prisoner, Captain A. B., made the following address in
his defence :

[ I h-re insert the defence, or if it be too long, it may bo marked, and
MM!.]

The Court then closed, and proceeded to deliberate on the testimony
adduced, and pronounced the following

SENTENCE.

The Court, having maturely weighed and considered the evi.:
adduced in support of it, is of opinion that &c. - &c. - , and
does therefore - &c. - dec.

A. B. Col. 1st Regt. of -- ,

S. R. Capt. - Kegt. of - , President.

Judge-advocate.

FORM No. 5.

Form of an Order appointing a Garrison or Regimental Court-
martial.

Orders, lleail-ijunrt-r<.

No. j Fort Columbus, N. ^ .

April , 18.

A Garrison, [or Regimental Court-martial,] to consist of Captain C.
D. - , 1st Lieutenant D. F. - , and 2d Lieutenant G. II.
- , will convene at the PiWiilrnt's cjuartcrs to-morrow morning,
at 1 1 o'clock, for the trial of Sergeant D. E. of - Company, -
Regiment of Artillery, anl such other prisoners as may be brought lu-
ll.

By order of Colonel A. B.,

Commanding,
J.A.,

Adjutant.

N
Form of charges and specifications against a prisoner.

Charges and specifications preferred against Capt. C. D., of tl
Regiment of Infantry.

Cou.J MILITARY DICTIONARY. 209

CHARGE IST.
DISOBEDIENCE OF ORDERS.

Specification 1st. ... In this, that he, the said Captain C. D., of
the 1st Regiment of Infantry, being ordered, on the 30th day of Septem-
ber, 18 , at the Recruiting Depot, in the town of Newport, Kentucky,
by Colonel A. B., of the 1st Regiment of Infantry, the commanding
officer of said Depot, to take command of and march with a detachment
of recruits, to Jefferson Barracks, in the State of Missouri, did at said
town of Newport, at the time aforesaid, refuse to take command of and
march with said detachment of recruits, thereby disobeying the lawful
commands and orders of his superior and commanding officer, the said
Colonel A. B.

Specification 2d. . . . In this, that he the said Captain C. D., &c. &c.

E. F.
Major 1st Regiment of Infantry.

FORM No. 7.

Form of a General Order approving or disapproving the proceedings
of a General Court-martial.

General Order, | . Head-quarters of the Army,

No. f January , 18 .

I. . . At a General Court-martial, which convened at on the

of , 18 , pursuant to General Orders, No. of Jan-
uary 18 , and of which Brevet Brigadier-general is President,

was tried Captain , of the Regiment of Artillery, on the

following chargers and specifications preferred by Major , of the

Artillery, to wit :

CHARGE.

[Here insert charge. See Form No. 5.]
To which charge and specification the prisoner pleaded as follows :

To the 1st specification [plea.]

To the 2d specification [plea.]

And guilty [or not guilty] to the charge.

FINDINGS AND SENTENCE

The Court, after mature deliberation on the testimony adduced, find
the prisoner, Capt. , of Regiment of Artillery, as fol-
lows :

210 MILITARY DICTIUNAKY. [Coc.

Of the 1st specification [tnuling.]
Of tho2d specification -[finding.]
And guilty [or not guilty] of the charge.

Ami the Court do therefore sentence him, Captain , of

Regiment of Artillery, to [hero insert sentence.]

II. .. The proceedings, findings, and sentence are approved, [or
disapproved,] &c., &c., &c.

1 1 1 TO tho authority which constituted the Court will add such
remarks as he may think proper.)

III. . . Tho General Court-martial, of which Brevet Brigadier-
general is President, is hereby dissolved.

By Command of

Major-general ,

, Adjutant-general.

COURT OF INQUIRY. In cases where the general or com-
manding officer may order a court of inquiry to examine into the natuiv i.f
any transaction, accusation, or imputation, against any officer or soldier,
the said court shall consist of one or more officers, n<>t exceeding three,
and a judge-advocate, or other suitable person as a recorder, to reduce
the proceedings and evidence to writiiiL', all of whom shall be sworn to
tho faithful performance of duty. This court shall have the same power
to summon witnesses as a court-martial, and to examine them on oath.
But they shall not give their opinion on the merits of the case, <
ing they shall be thereto specially required. Tho parties accused shall
also be permitted to cross-examine and interrogate the \\itm^s-s so
as toil fully the circumstances in the question; (Am. 1M.)

The p; '* of a court of inquiry must be authenticated by the

signature of the recorder and the president, and delivered to th
manding officer, and tho said proceedings may be admitted as evidence
by a court-mart ial, in cases not capital, or extending to tho disin
of an officer, provided that tho circumstances are such that oral

cannot be obtained. But courts of inqnirv are prohibited, nidess
ed by tho President of the United States, or demanded b\ the a c-
cuscd ; (ART. 02.)

Tho court may bo ordered to report the facts of tho case, with or
without an opinion th.-re,,n. Such an order will not bo complied with,
by m< i :-tinu f tho. evidence or testimony; facts being tho result,

-liiM-'M e fal.Iishcd by weighing all tho testimony, oral/ind docu-
mentary, before the court.

Cou.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 211

When a court of inquiry is directed to be assembled, the order
should state whether the court is to report the facts or not, and also
whether or not it is to give an opinion on the merits. The court should
also be instructed, whether its attention is to be extended to a general
investigation, or to be confined to the examination of particular points
only, as the case may seem to require, in the judgment of the officer
under whose authority it is assembled. Where the subject is multi-
farious, the court should be instructed to state its opinion on each point
separately, that the proper authority may be able to form his judgment.

The court may sit with open or closed doors, according to the nature
of the transaction to be investigated. The coupt generally sits with open
doors ; but there may be delicate matters to be examined into, that
might render it proper to sit with doors closed.

The form of proceeding, in courts of inquiry, is nearly the same as
that in courts-martial : the members being assembled, and the parties
interested called into court, the judge-advocate, or recorder, by direction
of the president, reads the order by which the court is constituted, and
then administers to the members the following oath : " You shall well
and truly examine and inquire, according to your evidence, into the
matter now before you, without partiality, favor, affection, prejudice, or
hope of reward : so help you God ; " (ART. 93.)

The accusation is then read, and the witnesses are examined by the
court ; and the parties accused are also permitted to cross-examine and
interrogate the witnesses, so as to investigate fully the circumstances in
question; (ART. 91.)

The examination of witnesses being finished, the parties before the
court may address the court, should they see fit to do so ; after which
the president orders the court to be cleared. The recorder then reads
over the whole of the proceedings, as well for the purpose of correcting
the record, as for aiding the memory of the members of the court.
After mature deliberation on the evidence adduced, they proceed to find
a state of facts, if so directed by the order constituting the court, and to
declare whether or not the grounds of accusation are sufficient to bring
the matter before a general court-martial ; and also to give their opin-
ion of the merits of the case, if so required.

The court should be careful to examine the order by which it is
constituted, and be particular in conforming to the directions contained
therein, either by giving a general opinion on the whole matter, a state-
ment of facts only, or an opinion on such facts. The proceedings of
courts of inquiry have been returned to be reconsidered, when the court
has been unmindful of these points.

212 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cor.

It has been settled that a member of a court of inquiry may be ob-
jected to, for cause.

The proceedings must be authenticated by the signatures of the pres-
ident and recorder, and delivered to the commanding officer or author-
it} which ordered the court; and the said proceedings may be admitted
in evidence by a court-martial, in cases not capital, nor extending to the
dismission of an officer, provided oral testimony cannot be obtained;
92.)

Transactions may become the subject of investigation by courts of
inquiry after the lapse of any number of years, on the application of
the party accused, or by order of the President of the United States;
the limitation mentioned in the 88th Article of War, being applicable
only to general courts-martial.

It is not necessary to publish the proceedings or opinion of the court,
although it is usually done in general orders.

The court is dissolved by the authority that ordered it to convene.

COVERED WAY. A space between the counterscarp and the
crest of the glacis in permanent works, and within the palisades, over
which the garrison can run without being seen or subjected to the fire
of the enemy. The crowning of the covered way by the besiegers is a.
difficult operation, and often costs them dearly.

COWARDICE. In all coses where a commissioned i.ffioT is ca-

'1 for cowardice or fraud, it shall be added in the sentence, that

the crime, name, and place of abode and punishment of the delinquent be,

published in the newspapers, after which it shall be deemed scandal- -us

for an officer to associate with him ; (ART. 85.)

CRATER OF A MINE is the excavation or cavity formed in
the ground, by the explosion of the powder.

CREMAILLERE is an indented or zigzag outline.

CRENELLATED loop-holed.

CRIMES, DISORDERS, AND NBGLECTS. All crimes not capital, and
all disorders and neglects which officers and soldiers may be guilty of,
to the prejudice of good order and military discipline, though n>t m n-
tioned in the Articles of War, are to be taken cognizance of by a general
or regimental court-martial, according to the nature and degree of the
offence, and be punished at their discretion ; (ART. 99.) (See An H. >K-

CRIMINATE. (^EVIDENCE.)

CROTCHETS are openings cut into the glacis at the heads of
: HCS, to enable the defenders to circulate round them. These pas-
sages are dosed by a gate when necessary.

DAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 213

CROWNING. A lodgment prepared by besiegers upon the crest
of the glacis to make themselves masters of the covered way. It is
effected usually by means of the SAP a method apparently slow, but
which, advancing night and day without intermission, accomplishes great
objects. The work is done by sappers rolling before them a very large
gabion stuffed with wool or cotton, or fascines, to shelter themselves
from musketry. They fill thus one gabion after another, and do not
push forward until the portion of the trench already made has been
well consolidated.

CROWN-WORK is a similar worlf to horn-work, but consisting
of two fronts instead of one. It is connected to the main works in a
similar way, and is used for the same purposes as the horn-work.

CROWS' FEET are iron-pointed stars, or stout nails, so fixed
as to radiate, that in any position they may have a point uppermost.
They are strewed on the ground over which cavalry may be expected to
pass. (See OBSTACLES.)

CUNETTE is a narrow ditch in the middle of a dry ditch, to keep
it drained, as well as to form, especially when filled with water, an ob-
stacle to an enemy.

CURTAIN. The curtain is that part of the rampart of the body
of the place, which lies between two bastions, and which joins their
two flanks together. ^

CURTAIN ANGLE is that formed by the meeting of the flank
and the curtain.

CUSTOM OF WAR. The custom of war in like cases is the
common law of the army recognized by Congress in the 69th Article
of War, as a rule for the government of the army whenever any doubt
shall arise not explained by the rules and articles established by Con-
gress for the government and regulation of the army. To render a cus-
tom valid the following qualities are requisite : 1. Antiquity ; 2.
Continuance without interruption ; 3. Have been acquiesced in without
dispute ; 4. It must be reasonable ; 5. Certain ; 6. Compulsory, that
is, not left to the option of every man whether he will use it or not ;
7. Customs must be consistent with each other.

DAM. An impediment formed of stones, gravel, and earth, 'by which
a stream of water is made to overflow and inundate the adjacent ground.

DAMAGE. The costs of repairs of damage done to arms, equip-
ments, or implements, in the use of the armies of the United States,

214 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [DtA.

shall be deducted from the pay of any officer or soldier in whose core
or use the said arms, equipments or implements were when the said
damages occurred : Provided, the damage was occasioned by the abuso
or negligence of said officer or soldier. Every officer commanding a
regiment, corps, garrison, or detachment, to make once ivory two
months, or oftener if required, a written report to the colonel of ordnance
stating all damages to arms so belonging to his command, and naming
the officers and soldiers by whose negligence or abuse the damage
occasioned ; (Aft Feb. 8, 1815.)

DEAD ANGLE OB (DEAD GROUND) is any angle or piece
of ground which cannot be seen, and which therefore cannot be de-
fended from behind the parapet of the fortification.

DEATH. Sentence of death may bo rendered by a general court-
martial f r the following crimes only : 1. Beginning, exciting, ( .
or joining in, any mutiny or sedition in any troop or company in the
service of the United States, or in any party, post, detachment, or guard ;
(ART. 7.) 2. Being present at any mutiny or sedition and not using the
utmost endeavors to suppress the same, or coming to tho knowledge of
any intended mutiny and not giving without delay information to the
commanding officer ; (ART. 8.) 3. Striking his superior officer, or draw-
ing or lifting up any weapon, or offering any violence against him, he
being in the execution of his office, on any pretence whatsoever ; or dis-
obeying any lawful command of his superior officer ; (ART. 9.) 4. De-
sertion in time of war ; (ART. 20 modified by Act May 28, 1830.)
5. Advising or persuading an officer or soldier to desert tho servi.v ,
(ART. 23.) 6. Any sentinel found sleeping on his post, or leaving it
1). ing regularly relieved; (ART. 4C.) 7. Any officer occasioning
false alarms in camp, garrison, or <juarters, liy discharging fire-arms,
drawing of swords, beating of drums, or by any other means whatso-
ever ; (.\RT.49.) 8. Doing violence to any person who brings provi-
sions or other necessaries to tho camp, garrison, or quarters of the forces
of the United States employed in any parts out of the said Stat es ,
51.) 9. Misbehavior before the enemy, running away or .shameful
abandonment of any fort, post, or guard, which he may be commanded
to defend, or speaking words inducing others to do tho like ; or .
away arms and ammunition, or quitting his post or colors to plunder
and pillage ; (ART. 62.) 10. Making known tho watch-word t<. any per-
son not entitled to receive it, or giving a parole or watch-word different
from that received; (ART. 53.) 11. Forcing a safe-guard in !
parts; ">.) 12. Relieving tho enemy with money, victn

ammunition ; or knowingly harboring or protecting an enemy ;

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 215

56.) 13. Holding correspondence with, or giving intelligence to the
enemy, either directly or indirectly ; (ART. 57.) 14. Compelling their
commanding officer to give up to the enemy or abandon any garrison,
fortress, or post ; (ART. 59.) Every sentence of death in time of
peace (in time of war it may be carried into execution by the officer or-
dering the court, or by the commanding officer) must, before being car-
ried into execution, be laid before the President of the United States
for his confirmation or disapproval and orders in the case ; and no one
can be sentenced to suffer death, except by the concurrence of two-
thirds of the members of the court-martial, nor except in cases ex-
pressly mentioned ; (ARTS. 65 and 87.)

DEBLAI is the quantity of earth excavated from the ditch to form
the remblai. Under ordinary circumstances the one is equal to the
other, but not always ; as, from the nature of the soil, earth may have
to be brought to supply the remblai.

DEBT. All non-commissioned officers, artificers, privates, and
musicians enlisted in the actual service of the United States are ex-
empted, during their term of service, from all personal arrests for any
debt or contract ; (Act March 3, 1799.) No non-commissioned officer,
musician, or private shall be arrested or subject to arrest, or be taken
in execution for any debt under the sum of twenty dollars, contracted
before enlistment, nor for any debt contracted after enlistment ; (Act
March 16, 1802.)

DECEASED OFFICERS AND SOLDIERS. The major of
the regiment or, in his absence, the second in command, secures the effects
of an officer, and transmits an inventory to the department of war, that
his executor or administrators may receive the same ; (ART. 94.) In
the case of a soldier, the commanding officer of the troop or company,
in presence of two other officers, takes an account of the effects he died
possessed of, and transmits the same to the department of war, which
said effects are to be accounted for and paid to the representatives of
ich deceased non-commissioned officer or soldier ; (ART. 95.)

DECISIONS. On courts-martial the majority of votes decides all
questions as to the admission or rejection of evidence, and on other points
involving law or custom. If equally divided, the doubt is in favor of
the prisoner ; (HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.)

DEFAULTERS. If any officer employed or who has heretofore
been employed in the civil, military, or naval departments of the Govern-
ment, to disburse the public money appropriated for the service of those
departments respectively, shall fail to render his account or pay over,
in the manner and in the times required by law, or the regulations of

216 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dr.

the department to which he is accountable, any sum of m.-.u-y remain-
ing in the hands of such officer, the 1st or 2d comptroller of the treasury,
as the case may be, shall cause to be stated and entity the account
such delinquent officer to the solicitor of the treasury, who shall im-
mediately proceed to issue a warrant of distress against such delinquent
officer an 1 lea, directed to the marshal or marshals of the dist rut

or districts where they reside; and tho marshal shall proceed to 1* \ y
and collect tho sum remaining due by distress and sale of goods ai^ chat-
tels of suchtldinqiient officer; and, if the goods are not sufficient, tho
same may be levied upon the person of such officer, who may be com-
mitted to prison, there to remain until discharged by due course of law.
But the solicitor of tho treasury, with the approbation of the secretary
of th ' . may postpone for a reasonable time such proceedings

where, in his opinion, the public interest will sustain no injury by such
postponement. If any person shall consider himself aggrieved by any
warrant issued as above, he may prefer a bill of complaint to any
district judge of the United States, and thereupon tho judge may, if in
his opinion the case requires it, grant an injunction to stay proceed-
ings. If any person shall consider himself aggrieved by the decision of
such judge either in refusing to issue the injunction, or, if granted, on its
dissolution, such person may lay a copy of the proceedings had before
the district judge, before a judge of the supremo court, who may either
grant the injunction, or permit an ;r.j.-.il, as the case may !-, it', in his
opinion, the equity of tho case requires it; (Act May 15, 1820.) Tho
judgment on a warrant of distress under this act, and the proceedings
under tho judgment, are a bar to any subsequent action for the same
erase. U. S. v. Nourso, 9 Peters 8. (See DELIMIT KM.) No men
hereafter appropriated shall be paid to any person for his compensation,
who is in arrears to the U. S., until such person shall have accounted
for and paid into tho treasury, all sums f >r which ho may bo liaM. ;
provided, th.it nothing h.-n in contained shall be construed to extend to
balances arising solely from d. ;.? -<-iat ion of treasury notes received If
such person, to be expended m tho public service ; but in all cases
where tho pay or salary of any person is withheld, in pursuance of this
act, it shall b the duty of tho accounting oll'icers if demanded by tho
party, his agent or attorney, to report, forthwith, to tho agent of the
treasury department the balance due; and it shall ! th. duty of tho
aid agent, within sixty days thereafter, to order suit to I,.- commenced
against such delinquent and his sureties ; (Act January 25, 1828.) (See
REMEDY; STOPPAGE or PAT.)

DEFENCE (CoArr). Possible causes and objects of attack may be

DBF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 217

conquest or the destruction of commercial ports of more or less value ;
the possession of depots ; the destruction of naval docks ; or taking
advantage of the weakness or absence of troops, to levy contributions.
The parapets of all coast and harbor defences should be constructed of
earth, where favorable sites can be found ; but for low sites that can
be approached within grape-shot range, such batteries must give place
to masonry defences, and where masonry-casemated castles with three
tiers of guns in casemates, and with guns and mortars on the roofs are
resorted to, embrasures of wrought iron, like the model embrasures of
Fort Richmond, New York harbor, will be found applicable. With
such batteries well constructed, the direct fire of ships has little effect.
Movable columns of troops in numbers, depending on the probable
object of the enemy, must be held in some central position. If rail-
roads are to convey the troops, a central point within a radius of sixty
miles will be within good supporting distance. If railroads are not
relied on, the distance should not be greater than fifteen miles.' The
columns should be at least seven-tenths infantry, one-tenth cavalry, and
two-tenths field artillery. The latter being useful to oppose the de-
barcation of troops. The French charge both the fleet and the army
with the movable defence of coasts. Steamers and flotillas, armed
with howitzers, are particularly suited to that object. Corps of troops
assembled at some central position are held ready to be thrown upon a
threatened point. Batteries of howitzers give their aid to these corps.
Concerted signals are arranged.

The ordinance of Jan. 3, 1843, directs that in military ports the
naval forces shall be specially charged, under the orders of the com-
manding officer of the land forces, with the armament, service, and
guard of the batteries looking directly upon the harbors, and upon in-
terior roadsteads adjacent to these harbors, as well as upon the passes
conducting to these interior roadsteads. Whenever the works to which
those batteries belong do not form a principal part of the system of
defence on the land side of the place and its dependencies, the per-
sonnel of the permanent batteries intrusted to the land forces is fur-
nished from the artillery, by other troops, by the national guard, by
revenue service men, .or by ancient cannoneers taken from the coast
population, at the rate of five men to a gun, one of whom must be an
experienced gunner. The permanent works for defence are divided
into three classes, according to their importance : 1st Class. Works
for the defence of military harbors, large commercial harbors, and the
principal points of islands. These fortifications are composed of exte-
rior forts, capable, of resisting regular attacks, obstructing bombard-

218 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

ments, &c. 2d Class. Works which protect anchorages and channels
suited to ships of war. They consist of a system of forts or batteries

the place. 3d Class. Works defending small commer-
cial ports, anchorages suited to merchantmen, places of refuge for coast-
ing vessels. These consist of batteries with redoubts.

This classification regulates the supply of the batteries, but does not
determine absolutely their armament. This must be n -^ulatcd by
various circumstances, as must also the relative strength of t
doubts. The armament of batteries is regulated by the strength of the
ships they may have to repel, and the latter depend upon the nature
of the coast, and principally upon the depth of water. 32-pound* -r uuns
and 8-inch howitzers are employed against ships at a distance of 2,600
yards. Guns begin the fire with round shot ; the fire is continued u ith
hollow sh"t. 13-inch mortars, whose range extends to 4,300 yards,
are reserved for the ships at anchor. Experience has proved that a
battery of four pieces of heavy calibre has the advantage of a ship of
120 guns. Projectiles ricochet better uj>n the \vatrr than upon the
land, and lose less of their force; they can, after having r inched at
1,300 yards, pass through the sides of a thn e-d. < -kel ship. Hollow
projectiles penetrate the sWes underneath the water line, and open
large water holes by their explosion.

The number of 24 and 32-pound shot that timber ships have re-
i in their sides without being disabled, ought perhaps to have
caused their relincjuishment in the armament of coast batteries in Ku-
rope. With James* projectile (See RIFLED ORDNANCE) such pm^.
whrn rifled, will again play an important part in dH< n . In the
United States, such guns have been replaced by ;
the 42-p"imd r, retained of late ye-irs only as a hot-shot gun, may soon
give way to 8 and 10-inch e"liiml>iads capable of being used as shell or
hot guns; adding also, when necessary, Rodman's 15-inch >hn
which, with shells of from 305 to 410 Ibs., mi^ht with a single missile
disable, if not entirely destroy the vessel at which it was diivrted with
6 elevation, when 2,000 yards distant. In many trials at that distance

it ions were only from 1 t.. ."> \anU.and the time of
J to 7 seconds. With 28 35' elevation, and a <!.
lb., the range of the shell is from 5,435 to .">. is, and tii,

27 seconds.

ht to be given the battery above the level of the
> 16 yards. To fire at point blank: if the aim is a little
lower the ricochet brings it upon the ship. Red-lut shot may l>e
fired from columbiods. If engaged with many ships, direct all the

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 219

pieces of the battery upon that one most in range. Learn exactly the
distances of all the most remarkable points, and post the information
in the store-room and guard-room, in order that the distance of
vessels may be easily determined. Observe the ricochets upon the
water. Fire round shot upon disembarkations. Guard carefully
against surprises. Observe every thing going on at sea and on land.
Be attentive to all signals. Watch over the preservation of material
with care ; air the magazine in dry weather ; move the gun carriages
every day. It is important that a battery should have the elevation
above given. With that elevation it will not be exposed to ricochet
shot from ships, but the ricochets from the battery, losing but little
of their force upon the water, will enable even 24-pounder shots, fired
under four degrees, to pierce the side of a vessel, however strong it may
be, at a distance of 640 yards and more. It is important to direct a
heavy fire on ships before anchoring, especially upon the rigging, as
the loss of a spar and a few ropes may oblige them to anchor where it
is not intended, and thus derange the other ships. In the formation of
batteries, regard should be had to the probable number of men that
may be obtained to serve them. In the defence of coasts, booms are
essential either to bar access to a harbor or river, or to cut off the re-
treat of the enemy if an entrance has been effected by surprise. Booms
should be immediately under the fire of a battery, and are usually made
of heavy chains floated by logs. It is unsafe to trust to a single line
of booms in the main channel. Booms need not extend entirely across
an entrance. Shallow or otherwise inaccessible parts may be omitted,
and in order not to impede navigation unnecessarily, 100 yards of
boom may be withdrawn from the channel, but always kept ready for
replacing ; [Aide Memoire a V Usage d* Artillerie, cc.)

DEFENCE, BEFORE A COURT-MARTIAL. In point both of law and
reason, a court-martial has as much power over the evidence introduced
by the prisoner as over that of the prosecutor, and can reject the wit-
nesses of the one as well as the other, or any part of such witnesses'
testimony. Courts-martial are particularly guarded in adhering to the
custom which obtains, of resisting every attempt on the part of counsel
to address them ; but cases have occurred, in which professional gentle-
men in attendance have been permitted to read the defence prepared
for the prisoner. A court will prevent a prisoner from adverting to
parties not before the court, or only alluded to in evidence, further than
may be actually necessary. All coarse and insulting language should
be avoided, in any part of the defence ; (HOUGH'S Law Authorities.)

DEFENCE, (NATIONAL.) This subject is much associated, in

220 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dr.

the popular mind, with ships, forts, and the preparation and proper
distribution of all munitions of war; but important as they ar.
not here proposed to discuss those^questions. It is not necess
combat an idea which all history controverts, that a largo naval f.-nv

e able, by cruising in front of our extended coast, to j>
a hostile expedition from landing on our shores.* The reluctant ad-
mission of the historian Alison may be accepted, that in the f
greatly superior maritime forces, Ireland was, for sixteen davs. in 1 " .' .
at the mercy of Iloche's expedition of 25,000 men, and neither the
skill of English sailors, nor the valor of English armies, but the fury
of the elements, saved them from the danger. " While these consider-

.'' continues Alieon, " arc fitted to abate confidence in invasion,
they are, at the same time, calculated to weaken an overweening con-
fidence in naval superiority, and to demonstrate that the only base on
which certain reliance can bo placed, even by an insular power, is a well-
disciplined army and the patriotism of its own subject.*.

Nor is it necessary to waste argument on the exploded idea tlu.t
ships can contend witli f.rts.f The results of such contests in cur
country, at Fort Moultrie, Mobile Point, Stonington, and l-'.-rt
M- Henry, abundantly show that our sea-board defences, if empl<-t,'d

the supervision of our able engineers, and properly garrisoned,
will resist, successfully, any merely naval aggressions, and it has been
well said that in the British and French naval attack en Sebastopol,

17, 1854,) the final experiment of wooden ships against granite
and earthen walls was made, never we believe again to be repeated, un-
til iron clad-ships range up in line of battle; (Sec IRON PLATES.) But
the Crimean war did show with what facility large armies are transported
by water, and it conclusively proves that the great maritime ].. >\v
look to their armies to accomplish in future wars what it would be idle
to expect from a navy alone, and that by the organization of forces

! to bring into action the physical strength of the country with a

e;it knowledge of their duty and just ideas of discipline and sub-

"l Mi-'h armies must be met. The means here proposed to

accomplish this great unchanged the militia-

laws of the Union, but an 'effort will bo made to show in what manner

For ft sketch of UM principal maritime expedition* *e Jominl's Art of War, translated by-
Major Winahip and Lieut He-Lain. Bee ako the report of a board of officer, submitted at the
first seeaioD of UM Mtb ConfTMa (Hoe. 46). containing numerous Illustration* from history, show-
ing the Impracticability of eoTcrtnf even a nmall extent of coast by crnNnj: In fn-nt of It.

t The mbject Is ably diaeiuaed la "Halleck'a Military Art and Science," tinder tho head of

Report of Oca. CM* while 8*creUry of War, on National Defence,

DBF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 221

existing institutions may be applied to the great purpose in view, by
a simple enactment granting to the States, in the words of the Consti-
tution, the consent of Congress " to keep troops"

Francis Lord Bacon has wisely said that " the principal point of
greatness in any state is to have a race of military men ; " and else-
where, in his enumeration of the elements of true greatness in a state,
he writes : " that it consisteth also in the value and military disposition
of the people it breedeth, and in this that they make profession of arms.
And it consisteth also in the commandment of the sea." But he
writes : " In the measuring or balancing of greatness, there is commonly
too much ascribed to largeness of territory, to treasure or riches, to
the fruitfulness of the soil or affluence of commodities, and to the
strength and fortification of towns and holds." What was made evi-
dent to Bacon by the lore of ages is equally true now. If we, as a
people, neglect our military resources, do not foster the military spirit
of the people, but on the contrary disregard military merit, and even
neglect to honor and reward great military services rendered to the
state, we cannot breed a race of military men, and are. in danger of
verifying the assertion of de Tocqueville, in his Observations upon De-
mocracy in America, that " the military career "was little honored and
badly followed in time of peace." * * * That " this public disfavor
is a very heavy burden, which bows down all military spirit," and that
if such a people should undertake " a war after a long peace, they would
run a much greater risk than any other people of being beaten."

The existing institutions which may be used as aids in organizing a
system of National Defence are the Military Academy, the army of the
United States, and the militia of the States. The Military Academy is
already in successful operation. The first step, then, towards proper
State organizations should be to give attention to the regular army to
make it, in fact, an aid or staff for the perfect development of the physi-
cal strength of the country. To do this, a system of recruiting is
needed in harmony with our institutions and the manner in which all
militia force must be collected. It is the several States which furnish
the militia force ; let the regular army, therefore, be recruited by States.
Let every regiment have its depot in a particular district of country,
and, with the present rate of pay given to the non-commissioned officers
and privates, with the reward of promotion from the ranks bestowed
whenever merited, we should soon have an army, in the different
parts of which the various sections of the country would take a lively
interest. In an army thus collected, which offered a career worthy of
being sought, an esprit- de-corps would soon be developed which we may

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dir.

in vain sevk in our present establishment, and such an army, instead

H regarded by their countrymen as strangers in sympathy and

pursuit, might be made the nucleus of science and strength, around

which tho mental and physical force of the country could be con-

-d in war. To accomplish this great object, other changes are

also necessary, but much lies within tho discretion of the President, an. I

upon his recommendation it is not doubted that Congress will legislate

legislation is required.

If the idea be just that tho skeleton regular establishment is main-
tained in peace, as a nucleus to be expanded in war, to meet the wants
of the country, the President should be careful not so to distribute that
force as to make this great purpose unattainable or difficult when war
may impend. If it be possible so to locate tho troops as Jo give them
all possible instruction, and, at the same time, not neglect our Indian
frontiers, the latter object should not bo suffered to override thalf other
most paramount consideration.

Look at any map of the United States, and attempt for a moment
to realize the .vast extent of our possessions. Bring your mind back
to the period when railroads did not afford those facilities which wo
now have, in a portion of our country, for quickly passing over hun-
dreds of miles, and you may no longer consider that military posts in
Texas, New Mexico, California, Oregon, Ace., and on the routes to those
distant States and Territories, have such means of communication as
would enable us to bring together any respectable force in a short
period. Bear in mind that tho whole army of tho United States con-
sists of but one hundred and ninety-eight companies, and that these
companies are scattered in posts which dot our immense territory.
Realize this, and then answer, is it possible for the small mimic T of
troops thus stationed to prevent marauding parties of Indians from
passing between these posts and committing depredations either in
Mexico or upon our own people ? No candid inquirer will assert the
possibility! What, then, is remedy ? Settlers upon oir Indian fron-
tiers must be provided with arms ; and tho United States Government,
besides encouraging Indians to err: 1 < tin r arts f

peace, must hold tribes responsible W the acts of individuals. Whero
predatory bands of Indians have been known to proceed against M< \
ico or our own people, the tribe must be ma<l<> answerable, and no vain
pursuit be made after the marauding party. We must severely

o them understand that the United States r.-ijuire
head men to govern and control th.-ir young men. That, for tho acts
of any individuals of tho tribe, we will not fail, in any instance, to pun-

DEF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 223

ish the tribe for such predatory acts. An occasional campaign mado
against Indians to punish them for misdeeds, produces lasting effects,
and will always prove far more efficacious in guarding the lives and
property of our citizens, than the present system of small posts, which,
by the impunity they afford, only encourages a spirit of adventure in
Indian tribes. Another advantage in breaking up the present vicious
system of small posts, would be the establishment of schools of instruc-
tion for cavalry, artillery, engineers, and infantry. We now have a
preparatory school for the cultivation of military science, at West
Point ; but, if officers of the army, after graduating there, are left
without means or motives for improvement, and on remote stations
suffer their minds to degenerate from want of exercise and competition,
the Military Academy will have accomplished but very partially the
great object of its institution. If the army is to be made the rallying
point and instructor of our countrymen in war, it should keep pace with
the improvements made in Europe, and this can only be done by as-
sembling the engineers, and the three arms of the service, together, in
schools of practice. Let those schools of practice be properly located :
and, besides, the great results thus to be obtained by embodying the
troops, detachments could at any time be sent to strike and punish
tribes of Indians that failed to keep the peace. With one large detach-
ment on the Atlantic coast ; another at ^Jefferson barracks; a third in
New Mexico, and a fourth on the Pacific, the army might be kept in a
high state of discipline and efficiency, and soon made, by legislation, all
that it should be. With an army so established, it would be apparent
that all officers should be active, intelligent, and progressive. A retired
list should provide for veterans, and proper legislation would enable
commanding officer^ to appoint their own staff officers, in recognition
of the established principle that such officers are the assistants of com-
manders of troops. Such a change would be necessary to insure the
just responsibility of commanding officers, as well as proper instruc-
tion by alternation of duty in the line and staff; and by instituting a
rigid system of inspection, which would inform the general-in-chief and
Secretary of War of the legitimacy of the acts of all commanders, de-
fects of organization, errors of administration, and pernicious customs
of service would be made known and corrected by the Executive and
Congress.

General Orders, No. 17, of 1854, contain very well-considered reg-
ulations for carrying into effect the 5th section of the Act of Congress
of August 4, 1854, relative to the promotion of non-commissioned
officers. Let us now abandon a system of recruiting, which burdens

224 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [DKF.

the army with the scum of cities, and promotion from tho ranks would
follow aa. regularly as from a lower to a higher grade of commissions.
In a republican army caste should not exist, and it will help to break
down that distinction now dividing officers and solders, leaving only
the necessary dUK-rvm v in grades from private to general, if the army
should be r.oruitcd by means of regimental recruiting depots so located,
that different States shall consider different raiments as raised within
their respective limits.

Our army organized and collected, as herein recommended, could
easily, on tho approach of war, by tho addition to each regiment <.f two
battalions, and by increasing the number of privates in a company, be
mndo fifty thousand strong, and this federal f : as it would

In-, in harmony with State troops, would constantly have k. pt pace
with the advance of professional knowledge in Europe, and bo capable
of diffusing that knowledge throughout the country by means < f the
respective State organizations to be now considered.

If the first French revolution did not inaugurate tho ideas of liberty
and equality, it at least first inculcated by practice tho correlative duty
of every citizen to defend his country. Accustomed as Americans
are to borrow ideas from the English press, it is not remarkable that
the outcry made by that aristocratic community against I-Yeneh (in-
scription should have been echoed in our own country. But in tin-
language of General Knox, " It is the wisdom of political establishments
to make the wealth of individuals subservient to tho general good, and
not to suffer it to corrupt or attain undue indulgence. Every State
possesses not only tho right of personal service from its members, l.ut
the right to regulate the service on principles of equality f..r the gen-
eral defence. If people, solicitous to bo exoncrat id from tin 'ir propor-
tion of public duty, exclaim against tho only reliable means of defence,
as an intolerable hardship, it cannot be too strongly impressed nj.nn

hat while society has its charms, it also has its indispc
obligations. That to attempt such a degree of refinement as t<
erate the members of the community from all j , is to

render them incapable of the exercise and unworthy .f the characters
of freemen. 11

Let us, then, no longer permit the marv.-U of industry in which our
countrymen have been eminently successful, so far to dazzlo us as to
make us forget the lessons of past history. The Italian rej.uM
the Middle Ages had made groat strides in industry and tin arts. The
republic of the United Netherlands was enriched by commerce in the
time of DC \Vitf. But it has been well said, that in bcndin-

DEF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 225

whole energies to the attainment of riches, and neglecting their military
resources, Italy became the prey of foreigners, and Holland only se-
cured national independence by the sacrifice of political liberty.

The history of modern tactics proves " that preparation in peace
gives victory upon fields of battle." The mobility of troops, as now-
organized, armed, and instructed ; the quantity, and still more the kind
of artillery used, render a passive resistance, such as that formerly
made, impossible. The impossibility of resisting attacks by such means
causes the defence to seize the moment in which the attacking party
uncovers himself to resort to the offensive, and hence the issue is now
mo^e quickly decided, and conquest more rapid than it was a hundred
years ago. The ease with which large bodies of men are now trans-
ported, the rapidity of all preparatory manoeuvres, as well as the
greatly increased mobility in action of instructed troops, admits of the
ready concentration of great numbers of such men, without the machine
becoming too heavy or unmanageable, or its component parts losing
the sentiment of order. It therefore follows that the loss of a battle,
in consequence of the numbers engaged, is now much more important
than it formerly was, and that such loss resulting from incapacity to
manoeuvre, or want of discipline, may involve the most disastrous con-
sequences. If the people of the United States suppose that the facilities
which our railroads offer enable us to concentrate larger masses of men
in a short period, the answer must be made that DISCIPLINE is the soul
of an army, and that without the habit of obedience, an assemblage of
men in battle can never be more than a panic-stricken mob. Instances
in our own history are not rare to verify this truth. The fields of
Princeton, Savannah River, Camden, Guilford Court-House, &c., dur-
ing our Revolutionary War, not to speak' of later disasters, amply
sustain the declaration of Washington, that such undisciplined forces
are nothing more than a " destructive, expensive, and disorderly mob."
" When danger is a little removed from them, they will not turn out
at all. When it comes home to them, the well-affected, instead of fly-
ing to arms to defend themselves, are busily employed in removing
their families and effects ; while the disaffected are concerting measures
to make their submission, and spread terror and dismay all around, to
induce others to follow their example. Daily experience and abundant
proofs warrant this information. Short enlistments and a mistaken
dependence upon our militia, have been the origin of all our misfor-
tunes, and the great accumulation of our debt. The militia come in,
you cannot tell how ; go, you cannot tell when ; and act, you cannot
tell where ; consume your provisions, exhaust your stores, and leave
15

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dr.

you at last at a critical moment." Such facts, bringing tan-fully h un-
to us the contrast between indiscipline and discipline, it is hoped,
may yet cause our countrymen to heed the admonition of tin Father
of his country, that " lu peace we must prepare for war." Lot us not
*B ourselves by supposing that, when danger becomes imminent,
Congress will take the necessary measures to meet it. The steps which
are necessary call for sacrifices from tho people, and unless public
opinion sanctions tho means, Congress, in tho day of trial, will always
be found to represent misdirected popular opinions.

Tho veteran, Mr. Hales, in the National Intelligencer on tho occa-
sion of tho death of Mrs. Madison, gave a picture of the inertness of the
last session of the War Congress of 1814-1"). His recollections <>f tho
past furnish instructive lessons of what we may expect in the future,
if the attention of the people of the Unite* 1 States l>e not fixed on the
necessary sacrifices which love of country demands. So believi:
tracts from his historical sketch arc here quoted in the firm persuasion
that the measures, then recommended, are essential to tho safety of our
cities and towns, if some organization by States, at least, as eflleient as

;ie recommended by General Knox, with the sanction
of General Washington, be not adopted in time of peace when
tured scheme may be well digested. Mr. Gales writes: "Congress
had assembled on tho 19th of September preceding not, as might be
supposed from the date, in consequence of tho then recent capture of
y [of Washington] by the enemy, but in pursuance of a requisi-
tion by the President anterior to that event, calling Congress together
(as tho President informed the two Houses, in his message at the
opening of that session) for the purpose of supplying tho inadeqnat y
of the finances to the existing wants of the Treasury, and of making
further and more effectual provisions for prosecuting the war. During
tho recess of Congress, the honor of the arms of tho United States had
been gallantly sustained in every conflict by land and sea; politically
. the capture of Washingon itself, and the destruction of the

"thcr public buildings, so fir frmi bein-j a misfortune,
was for the administration a fortunate event, by its effect in exciting
indignant feelings throughout the country, uniting the people in support
common cause, and preparing their minds for the additional bur-
den of ti\ati>n which it had bee. .me ..b\ious that they must be called

All that was wanting to tho vigorous prosecution of tho
war, was tho prm Moo f men and money for tho purpose. Tho pro-
gress of recruiting for filling the ranks of tho regular army had nl
proved entirely too slow, if not total failure, as had tho resource of

DBF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 227

loans for the support of the Government, as well as for carrying on the
war. The army, whose organization was, on paper, more than 62,000
men, comprised an actual force of only 32,000, exclusive of officers, of
which force probably not more than one half could be relied on for
effective service ; and the credit of the Government had sunk so low
that plummet could hardly sound the depth of its degradation.

" At the opening of the session, the President, in his communication
to the two Houses of Congress, with eloquent persuasion, endeavored
to impress upon them the necessity of making immediate provision for
filling the ranks of the army, and replenishing the treasury. In this
purpose he was earnestly seconded by Secretary Monroe, of the War
Department, and the new Secretary (Mr. Dallas) of the Treasury De-
partment.

" Towards the first of these objects, a bill was soon matured, and
afterwards received the assent of Congress, extending the age at which
recruits might be enlisted to fifty years, doubling the bounty in land
to each, and removing the interdiction upon recruiting minors and ap-
prentices. This measure was a mere experiment, of no practical value,
as the event showed. The plan for filling the ranks of the army upon
which the Executive relied, and which was placed before the Senate in
a bold and energetic report from the War Secretary, was to form into
classes of 100 each, all the population of the United States fit for militia
duty, out of every class of which four men for the war were to be
furnished within thirty days after the classification, by choice or by
draught, and delivered over to the recruiting officer of each district, to
be marched to such places of general rendezvous as might be directed
by the Secretary of War. This plan, which, as the reader will perceive,
comprised all the essential features of the French conscription, though,
perhaps, the only one which at the time promised effective results,
found from the first no favor, especially in the House of Representa-
tives ; and became more and more obnoxious, the more the adminis-
tration seemed to have it at heart. Hardly any one in Congress had
the courage to allude to it. Mr. Troup did indeed prevail upon the
Military Committee, of which he was chairman, to allow him to report
a bill, conformable to the Executive recommendation, by the pregnant
title of ' An Act making provision for filling the ranks of the regular
army, by classing the free male population of the United States ; ' and
the bill was referred to a Committee of the whole House, and never after
heard of. In the course of the session some acts had passed, looking
to the employment of volunteers and detachments of militia, under the
old plan, for short terms ; and one of more importance, ' to authorize

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dr.

the President of the United States to accept the service of State troops
and volunteers.' This last was not only the most effective measure
which had passed towards the supply of men for carrying on the \\
but it was the most so that was likely to pass.

" The truth to say, indeed, notwithstanding tho nature of the emer-
gency, a dogged inertness seemed to paralyze the action of Congress
during the latter part of that session. The recommendation to recruit
the army by drafts from the militia was not only unwelcome, as we
have said, but revolting to the inclination of the popular branch of
Congress ; so much so, that a great proportion of the members of that
body (and among them some of the leading and most conspicuous
members of the republican party) shrunk from it as from the plague ;
and, as though the leprous influence of that proposition contaminated
every other part of the plans of the administration, it was with almost
equal reluctance that the House approached the consideration of ad-
equate measures (such as Mr. Secretary Dallas frankly and fearlessly
recommended) for the support of the public credit, and f >r strength
ing tho sinews of war." *

From the foregoing sketch of the past, it is evident that, unless tho
opinions and prejudices of the people of the United States bo greatly
any attempt to raise large armies in the most critical emer-
gencies, without the agency of States, must prove a failure. In order,
fore, to provide for the "common defence," the aid of State or-
ganizations will be necessary, and several plans, more or less efficient,
have consequently been proposed to better the organization of the
militia. All such attempts have, however, met with no favor from
t!..- people ; and, indeed, it is much to bo doubted whether tho consti-
tutional reservation to tho States "of training the militia according to
the discipline prescribed by Congress," and governing th. rn, except
when called forth "to execute the laws of the Union, sin ur-

"iis and repel invasions," will admit of any "good, ci n-

nniform, and national system of organization." The division of
auth- > by the constitution between tho United States and the

several States, in regard to the, militia, until called forth by tin- Federal
Government, has left with Congress only the right to provide for "or-
ganizing, arming, and disciplining tho militia;" but discipline, in that
restricted sense, without power to regulate the appointment of officers

la rtriklnf contra* with this Inertness of Congress, the Legislature of New Tork MMmbled
on the Nth of September. 1814, passed by the Mth of October a bill glrlng additional pay to the
militia from the Bute trwwary, an act to encourage prlrateerfng and an act to rniso twelve t
and State troops by conscription or classification. See Hammond's Political History of New
York, roLL pp. S80-L

DEF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 229

or otherwise to govern, means little more than prescribing a system
of tactics, and such discipline can never make soldiers.

There is, however, another suggestion in the Constitution of the
United States, for providing for the common defence, which is obnox-
ious to none of the objections made against large standing armies, and
which commends itself to favorable consideration, as being in harmony
with the Federal Government, and capable of furnishing any number of
disciplined soldiers which the exigency of our foreign relations may
require, without outrage to the instincts of the people of the States.
The tendency of the multiplication of States in our confederacy is to
restrict the authority of the general Government over the internal
affairs of the people of the States. This has been shown by breaking
down the Bank of the United States, establishing the independent
treasury, refusing appropriations for internal improvements, and, lastly,
leaving to the people of Territories the regulation of their own institu-
tions. The maxim " that the world is governed too much," has been
sturdily preached, and it may become necessary not to shrink from
maintaining our doctrine in the face of foreign powers. To do this we
must arm for defence, and the consistent mode of doing so, is for
Congress to give its consent for the several States to " keep troops;"
more particularly as the history of our country has shown that public
opinion will not admit any other efficient military organization. States
now have authority to keep troops in time of war, but for such troops
to be useful in war, they must be prepared in peace ; but as the Consti-
tution of the United States forbids States " to keep troops in time of
peace without the consent of Congress," that consent could be given with
conditions attached, and those conditions, besides providing for the
common defence in war, should require the organization and instruction
of State troops to conform with that of the army of the United States,
or rather wfth the cavalry, harnessed batteries of artillery, and infantry
of the army.

To encourage States in such organizations, let Congress provide for

the annual distribution of dollars among the several States

and Territories in proportion to their enrolled militia force, upon satis-
factory evidence being furnished to the Secretary of War, that such
States have organized camps of instruction during two months in the
year, containing a number of troops not less than one-twentieth of the
enrolled militia force of the State. Direct the President to furnish to
the several State governors, upon their requisition, such army officers
as they may desire to aid the commanders of the camps of instruction,
and the information collected and kept up in the army will thus be dif-

j;;o MILITARY DICTION A KY. [Der.

fused throughout the country. The different States will take pride in
their respective organizations, and would recruit their respective armies
according to the genius of their people. Their military codes would
react upon each other, and upon that of the United States. An :
in military affairs would take the place of present derision, and more
thffl all, the United States might laugh to scorn the efforts of any invader.
The Prussian Landwehr of the first ban, to which the proposed or-
ganization is assimilated, is considered a reserved army, n maining by
ii resides in times of peace, except during their annual seasons of
manoeuvring, but ready to appear in case of war upon the fust call,
organized, equipped, and armed to serve like the line of the am y,
either at home or abroad. The Prussian territory is divided into as
many districts as there are battalions of the Landwehr of the first ban.
Each district furnishes a battalion of infantry, a squadron of cavalry,
a company of artillery, and some other detachments. The battalions
and squadrons are named from the principal town of their distri

-; of arms, clothing, camp and garrison equipage, and cavalry and
artillery equipments, are there locate. 1. The districts of the Landwehr
are also the recruiting districts of the lino of the army ; and, as troops
the same district serve t.^,tii.r, there naturally exist Let \se.n
those corps ties of consanguinity, which dispel all feelings of superior-
id cause them mutually to sustain each other in time of da:
In each district of the Landwehr, the following small list of ofiieers
are permanently paid. For the infantry : one major commanding, one
adjutant, who is also accountant, four first servants, and four second
sergea: per company,) ei_ht eorpm-als, (two per coin pan \

one armorer. For the cavalry : one captain, or first licutcna

rmastcr-scrgcant, and three corporals. The paid commanders
of battalions are charged with the assistance of their stall* with the
pcrionncl and materiel of the Landwehr, and are accountable f.r the
ordnance and military stores in depot in their districts. Tin- fir
gcants keep the list of names In lin-iM- to their companies, and no man
can absent himself without notifying them.

If all the States of the Union did not deem it Letter under this sys-
keep up a small permanent force, it is supposed that they would
all find it necessary to maintain a small skeleton or^anixation of officers
and non-commissioned officers, similar to that of the Prussian Land\v-hr
first ban. And if such officers and n<>n-< ommissioned officers were
appointed by the States fr | and non-commissioned ofliecrswho

have honorably retin-d from the army, a new link would be established be-
tween the army and State troops which would prove mutually beneficial.

DEF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 231

To resume, then : the system of national defence or military organi-
zation herein suggested, as suitable for the United States is : 1. The
promotion of the most thorough organization and instruction of the
United States army, by concentrating troops at strategic points ; chang-
ing the system of recruiting ; creating a retired list for officers of the
army, and providing for alternation of duty in the line and the staff, so
that the whole army may be made really an aid or staff for the per-
fect development of the physical strength of the whole country. 2.
An act of Congress authorizing the several States to keep troops in
time of peace, provided their respective regimental organizations of cav-
alry and infantry shall conform to the regimental organization of those
arms instituted by Congress. 3. An annual appropriation by Congress
to be distributed among the several States in proportion to the enrolled
militia force of the State, provided satisfactory evidence is brought
before the Secretary of War that such State has had within its limits,
during two months of the year, organized camps of instruction in which
were assembled a number of troops not less than one-twentieth of the
enrolled militia force of the State. 4. Requiring the President to
furnish to State governors, upon their requisitions, such army officers
as may be desired to aid commanders of State camps of instruction, so
that the information collected in the federal army may be extended to all
State organizations. 5. Giving authority to the President to muster
into the service of the United States, State troops, in all cases in which
he is now authorized by law to call forth the militia. (See CALLING
FORTH.)

DEFILADING- consists in raising the parapets of a fortress or
field-work, or in depressing the terre-pleins so much as to conceal the
interior of the work from the view of an enemy on an elevated position.
It also consists in directing the magistral lines of its parapets toward
points, where local impediments, as rivers, marshes, lakes, &c., would
prevent a besieger from constructing batteries. The former is defilad-
ing by relief, the latter is termed defilading by the trace or plan.
When a field-work has been necessarily constructed in such a situation
that it may be commanded by some height within range of artillery,
the defilading is made by raising the parapet, or constructing traverses
in the interior of the work. The necessary trace for a field-work to
accomplish these objects is more expeditiously effected by the eye and
a few poles and profiles, than by resorting to theoretical and scientific
proceedings, which constitute a part of the art of the engineer, and
which are indispensable considerations in permanent fortification.

DEFILE. Any narrow passage as a ford, a bridge, a road

j:;j MILITARY DICTIONARY. [DEL.

through a village, mountain passes, dec., aro defiles. To pass a

. it is necessary first to drive away, as far as possible, the enemy.
Under cover of this engagement, other troops pass the defile as soon as
they reach it. The aim should be to pass the defile as quickly as pos-
sible ; whether advancing or retreating. The passage in double columns
wi^l facilitate the formation in order of battle on the right and on the
left after liaving passed the defile, and this order has the advantage of
occupying both sides of the road. But it cannot be too strongly urged
that quickness in the passage is the great consideration, and tin -n tic -al
.-way to this primary object If the defile is a
ford or bridge, and the passage in retreat, formations on the bank of the
after the passage, ought not to take place. Combats separated
by a river end in nothing, and the worst possible way of defending a
bridge or ford is taking positions too near it. The enemy Mould cer-
tainly unite his artillery upon the opposite bank, and not attempt the
passage until he had greatly worsted the defenders of the ford or bridge
by his projectiles. The defenders would lose many men, ami would
probably have been demoralized before coming to close quarters. It is
necessary then to wait until a portion of the enemy passes the 1. ridge or
f -rd. If the enemy be then vigorously attacked the defenders \\ill, by
a hand-to-hand conflict, render nugatory his artillery on the oppo-
site bank, as well as all of his troops that have not yet crossed. To
accomplish this intended purpose, it will only be necessary to place
troops at some point, at full cannon range from the bridge, or if the.
uts of ground admit of cover, nearer still to the bridge. If a
bridge is passed in advancim:, the troops which pass first are pushed
forward to gain as much ground as possible, and thus favor the passage
of other troops, by relieving them of the dangers of the eomliat. In
this ease the simplest and most rapid method of crossing is the 1-M.
(Consult Aperyu tur yttelques Details de la Guerre, par MAI
BCOE\

I H-UNMIKNT,' (DISBURSING OFFICERS.) Such officers n... ;
dismissed by the President of the United States on failure to n nder
f disbursements quarterly in the United States, and
six months if resident in a foreign country; (Act January 31,
1828.) y:u.)

DBMILUNE is a work constructed to cover the curtain and
shoulders of the bastion. I? is composed of two faees f..nnini: a salient
angle townr -miry, has two demi-jrnrires formed by the eoiinter-

scarp,and is surrounded by a ditch. The demilune issorm times termed
a ravelin.

DEP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 233

DEPARTMENT. Any general officer commanding an army, or
colonel commanding a separate department, may appoint general court-
martial, whenever necessary ; (ART. 65.)

Besides the territorial divisions, called Departments, in the Rules
and Articles of War, the term is also applied to the following branches
of the service : Adjutant-general's, Inspector-general's, Medical, Pay,
Ordnance, Quartermaster's, and Subsistence Departments.

DEPARTMENT OF WAR. There shall be an Executive Depart-
ment, to be denominated the Department of War ; and there shall be a
principal officer therein, to be called the Secretary for the Department of
War; (Act Aug. 7, 1789.) " He is to perform and execute such duties
as shall, from time to time, be enjoined on, or intrusted to him, by the
President of the United States, agreeably to the constitution, relative to
military commissions, or to the land forces or warlike stores of the United
States, or such other matters respecting military affairs, as the President
of the United States shall assign to said department. And furthermore,
that the said principal officer shall conduct the business of the said de-
partment in such manner as the President of the United States shall,
from time to time, order or instruct. That there shall be in said de-
partment an inferior officer, to be appointed by the said principal offi-
cer, to be employed therein as he shall deem proper, and to be called
the chief clerk in the Department of War, and who, whenever the said
principal officer shall be removed from office by the President of the
United States, or in any other ' case of vacancy, shall, during such va-
cancy, have the charge and custody of all records, books, and papers,
appertaining to said Department. The said principal officer, and every
other person to be appointed or employed in said Department, shall,
before he enters on the execution of his office or employment, take an
oath or affirmation, well and faithfully to execute the trust committed
to him ; " (Act Aug. 7, 1789.) It seems impossible to read this act of
Congress, and contend that officers of the army are a portion of the War
Department. And the statute book will be searched in vain to find
authority given to the Secretary over any officers other than officers of
Staff Departments, or over subjects disconnected with the custody of
public records, the support and supply of troops, the manufacture and
care of warlike stores, the keeping of exact and regular returns of all
the forces of the United States, or other kindred administrative matters ;
such as receiving the proceedings of courts-martial, and laying them
before the President of the United States for his approval or disap-
proval, and orders in the case. There is no act of Congress which
authorizes the Secretary of War to command the troops, and he being

j:M MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dip

no part of the army, the President, of course, cannot authorize him to
do so. But " the Secretary of War is (Peters' Digest of Decisions of
Federal Courts, vol. 1, p. 170) the regular constitutional organ of the
President for the administration of the military establishment of t lu-
nation ; and rules and orders publicly promulgated through him, mu-t
be received as the acts of the Executive, ami us such are liimling upon
all within the sphere of his legal anl constitutional authority."

By an act of Congress, approved March 3, 1813, it is provided:
" That it shall be the duty of the Secretary of War, ami he is hereby
authorized, to prepare general regulations, better defining and prescrib-
ing the respective duties and powers of the several officers in the adju-
tant-general, inspector-general, quartermaster-general, ami commissary
of ordnance departments, of the topographical engineers, of the aids of
generals, and generally of the general and regimental staff; which reg-
ulation, when approved by the President of the Init. .1 States, shall
be respected and obeyed, until altered or revoked by the same author-
ity." Here was a partial delegation of legislative power; ami umlcr
this power of legislation so confined to the several stall" department*,
the Secretary of War, with the approval of the President, established
bureaus of the War Department, making the head of caeli staff depart-
ment chief of a bureau, in all fiscal and administrative matters con-
nected with his particular department under the general direction of
the Secretary of War. The War Department thus cent rali/ed all army
administration, and efforts have since "been made to eentrali/e in tin-
same way the command and government and regulation of the army.
But as the 62d article of war declares that when different corpy
come together, the officer highest in rank shall command the whole,
and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise spe-
cially directed by the President of the United States, according to tho
nature of the case," while the 61st article gives tho command to the
senior regimental officer within his regiment, when other troops are not
present, such centralization, if not a violation of law, would be a \ ida-
f all military principles, destructive alike to discipline ami mili-
tary spirit. For (says Odier) : "Commands niv.n immediately by
_'hest authority cause agitation rather than action. The sujH-ri-r
ty becomes weakened in proportion as the \- ! ,-,,m,-s accus-
tomed to it. Fear of it ceases, and wh.-n the highest authority habitu-
ates itself to doing every thing, as soon as it ceases to be sulhY
do all, there is mithinp done. All degrees of rank and command have
degree of importance. Authority must regularly ascend and de-
scend. Every inferior grade is the lieutenant of its superior g

DSP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 235

to the oldest soldier, who replaces the corporal. Obedience is recipro-
cal to authority." Rules established by Congress, denning the rights,
powers, and duties of all officers and soldiers, are much needed. (See
SECRETARY OF WAR.)

DEPLOYMENT. All tactical manoeuvres intended to pass from
close column to the order of battle are deployments. Deployments,
however convenient or brilliant, which cause the soldier to turn his back
to the enemy, are not suited to war. (Consult Infantry and Light In-
fantry and Rifle tactics for the prescribed deployments.)

DEPOSITION OF WITNESSES when not of the line or staff
of the army, may be taken in cases not capital, provided the prosecutor
and accused are present at the taking of the same, or duly notified ;
(ART. 74. See WITNESS.)

DEPOT. The colonel of ordnance, under the direction of the Sec-
retary of War, is authorized to establish depots of arms, ammunition,
and ordnance stores, in such parts of the United States, and in such
numbers, as may be deemed necessary ; (Act Feb. 8, 1815.)

Three recruiting depots have also been established under the direc-
tion of .the Secretary of War, but a system of regimental depots is
much needed. In England and in France, regimental depots have been
found indispensable. In France, upon taking the field, a regiment
leaves in depot the quartermaster and the accounting officer of the
corps, the clothing officer, workmen, and stores ; infirm men, those too
old for war, and uninstructed recruits ; these make the depot ; the
wounded and sick are sent there to be re-established ; new levies are
received there, and detachments of able-bodied and instructed men are
successfully directed from the depot towards the army. The depot, like
the stomach, receives, elaborates, and gives life to its members. It is 4
at the depot that the clothing, and shoes, and all the wants of the regi-
ment are provided ; it is there that the accountability is centralized,
that the papers are kept ; it is at the depot that all regimental adminis-
tration goes on ; and for that purpose the major of the regiment re-
mains there, and likewise commands. In England, the depot company
is one left at home by regiments embarking for India, for the purpose
of recruiting. There are four reserve companies for all foreign stations
except India, which remain at home under the command of the senior
major. A roster is regularly kept of the officers at the depot ; and to
insure that each individual embarks in his proper turn to join the ser-
vice companies, a figure marking his place on the roster, is annexed to
every officer's name in the monthly returns transmitted to the adjutant-
general. Regimental records, with the attestations and service records

j;; ; MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dtr.

of the men doing duty with the regiment abroad, are left at the depot,
and filled up at stated per

DERRICK consists of a spar which is always kept in an oblique
position ; one end of it on the deck of a ship, the other supported by
guys, and generally used to hoi>t h. M\ y weights. (See Gix.)

l>i:SKi;Ti:i;. Punishable by stripes, by sentence of general
court-martial. Not punishable by death in time of peace. May be

and punished, although the term of enlistment may |.a\v <
previous to apprehension. (ART. 20, and Acts March 16, 1802, May
29, 1880, May 10, 1812, and March 2, 1833.)

Of a deserter from the enemy, we demand his name, his country ;
the motive of his desertion ; the number of his regiment ; the name of
his colonel ; his immediate general; that of the cominaiul r-in hit f ;
the strength of his particular corps ; that of the whole army ; whether
utiuiis are regular; how many cartridges each man has; how
many guns there are ; whether there arc many sick or wounded in the
camp of the enemy; whether the soldiers have confidciuv in their chief,
and whether he is well treated by them.

DETACHED BASTION is one which is separated from the en-
ceinte by a ditch.

DETACHED WORKS are those which are e<nstni.t,,l beyond
the range of the musketry of the main works; and as a Qonttai
steady communication with them cannot be kept up during a sieu
are frequently left to their own resources; nev.-rth. 1 -s. th.-y ou u ht to
exercise a general influence on the defence of tin- pla-e.

DETACHMENT. (French Origin.} BARDIN, J> 're de

fArmee de Terre thus defines it: A word whii-h has the same origin as
attach. It implies any fraction of a body, or an entire corps < h
particularly with functions which are dependent for their duration upon
circu instances in war or actual service. The Romans ex pr< >. 1 by tho
word Globut* nearly the meaning of detachment. Tho movable col-
umns of the French army were detachments formed sonn tiim -s of whole
corps, sometimes of fractions of corps. We rail also detachments, tin-
escorts of convoys of prisoners, those for evacuations, en-tain extra du-
tiet, some maritime expeditions. a patrol, &c, Agreeal.ly to the .Mini-
11 the instruetions of the year six, the many

men from a single or from different corps, and the subsequent n union
M men umler a military chief, constitutes a detachment. and it is
so considered, whether upon a voya<r<'. or stationed in a d. -pot of a corps

A troop; s q.wdmn, or p*rtj of oUlien; knot of men who JolnUy carry on any design.
AurawosTB's Latin Dictionary.

DET.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 037

or in garrison ; whether in cantonment, or whether in reference to the
means of transportation that may be necessary for it. In some cases,
picket and small detachments have the same signification. The follow-
ing illustrations of the meaning of detachment are drawn from various
sources :

Rules and Articles of War passed Sept. 20, 1776.

ART. XII. Every officer commanding in any of the forts, barracks,
or elsewhere, where the corps under his command consists of detachments
from different regiments, or of independent companies, may assemble
courts-martial, &c. ; [such courts were called detachment courts-martial.]
ART. II. SEC. 17. For the future, all general officers and colonels,
serving by commission from the authority of any particular State, shall,
on all detachments, courts-martial, or other duty, wherein they may be
employed in conjunction with the regular forces of the United States,
take rank, &c. When regiments or detachments are united, either in
camp, garrison, or quarters, the eldest officer, whether by brevet or
otherwise, is to command the whole ; (Regulations British Army.) The
detachments which are, from time to time, sent from the depots at home
to regiments abroad, &c. The periods of the year at which detach-
ments are required to embark for foreign stations, &c. ; (Regulations
British Army.) Whenever recruits are to be sent from a depot or
rendezvous to a regiment or post, a separate muster and description
roll, and a separate account of clothing of each detachment, will be placed
in the hands of the officer assigned to the command of such detachment;
( U. S. Army Regulations.) Any detachment so far separated from the
main body to which it belongs as to render it impracticable for the com-
mander of the latter to make muster and inspection enjoined by the
general regulations, is considered as a separate command within the
meaning and for the purpose of this regulation. Where a field-officer
is serving with detached companies of his regiment, the captains thereof
will make their company monthly returns through him, which returns
he will transmit with his own personal report to regimental head-quar-
ters ; (Regulations of the War Department, dated Feb. 10, 1855.)

SEC. * * And the said corps may be formed into as many com-
panies or detachments as the President of the United States may
direct. (Act of Congress.)

" Corps, formed by detachments, are the usual method in which
brevet officers are employed, as they cannot be introduced into regi-
ments without displacing other officers, or violating the right of succes-
sion, both of which are justly deemed injurious in every service. But
the reasoning is new by which the employing such officers in detached

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dr.

corps is made an infringement of tho rights of regimental officers;
(Letter of General Washing ton, dated August 11, 1780.)

DETAIL FOR DUTY is a roster, or table, for the regular per.
formanco of duty cither in camp or garrison. The general detail is
regulated by tho adjt.-general, according to the strength of the s.
corps. Tho adjutant of each regiment superintends tho detail of the
officers and non-commissioned officers for duty, and orderly sergeants
detail the privates.

DEVIATION OF FIRING. (See FIRING.)

DIMINISHED ANGLE is that formed by the exterior side and
the lino of defence in fortification.

DISBURSING OFFICERS. Exclusively of the paymasters of
the army, and other officers already authorized by law, no other p THIJI-
ncnt agents shall be appointed, either for the purpose of making con-
tracts, or for tho purchase of supplies, or for the disbursement in any
other manner of moneys for tho use of tho military establishment, but
such as shall bo appointed by the 1 >f tho United States, with

the advice and consent of the Senate. But tho President may appoint
such necessary agents in the recess of tho Senate to be submitted for
their advice and consent at their next session, provided that the com-
pensation allowed to either shall not exceed one per centum per annum,
nor be more than $2,000 per annum; (Act March 3, 1809.) All
purchases and contracts arc made under the direction of the S.-erctnry
of War; (Act March 3, 1809.) Shall givo bonds to bo regulated by
tho President, and may be dismissed by the President on failure t<> un-
der their account. (See DEFAULTER; DELINQUENT.)

DISCHARGE. After a non-commissioned officer or soldier shall
have been duly enlisted and sworn, he shall not be dismissed tho ser-
vice without a discharge in writing ; and no discharge grant id to him
shall bo suffirient, which is not signed by a field-officer of the regiment
to which he belongs, or commanding officer, \\ IK iv no field-officer of the
regiment is present ; and no discharge shall be jrivm to a non-commis-
sioned officer or soldier, before his term of service has expired, but by
of the President, the Secretary of War, the commanding officer
of a department, or the sentence of a general court-martial ; nor shall a
comm fficcr be discharged tho service but by order of the IV. s

i ! nt <.f the United States, or by sentence of a courtrmartial ; (ART.
11.) I'ndcr this article it has been contended that the Pn-si.l.-nt may
arbitrarily Mtrlnryf any commissioned officer from the service; but as
the Rules and Articles of War provide for the punishment of all military
rimes, disorders, or neglects, by courts-martial, all arbitrary and ca-

Dis.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 039

pricious action over such matters is thereby necessarily excluded. Be-
sides, dismission and discharge are essentially different. The latter, in
its primitive sense, means relieved of a burden or obligation. Thus, as
every individual who enters the army by enlistment or commission
must remain in it until regularly discharged, under penalty of being
considered a deserter, the article declares that no discharge of a com-
missioned officer is regular but by the order of the President of the
United States, or the sentence of a court-martial. Voluntary separations
from the service, therefore, or resignations, are only legal when accepted
by the President of the United States. No other military authority is
competent to release an officer from the obligations he assumes on enter-
ing the army, even on his own application. Hence the use of the word
discharge in the article, so as to embrace voluntary separations authorized
by the President, and involuntary separations by sentence of court-mar-
tial. But the article gives no power to the President to dismiss sum-
marily. Had such been the intention, the authority would have been
clearly given, as it has been by the act of Jan. 31, 1823, in the case of delin-
quent disbursing officers a power not needed, if it before existed under
Article 11. This rule of making the acceptance of an officer's resigna-
tion dependent upon the President or highest military authority, is
necessary ; because an officer who was amenable to punishment for in-
fractions of military law, might otherwise, by the resignation of his
commission, escape punishment. The Court of King's Bench in Eng-
land have decided, therefore, that an officer of the East India Company's
service has not the right to resign his commission under any circum-
stances, and whenever he pleased ; (case of Capt. Parker ; Prendergast,
p. 248.) In the case of Capt. Vertue, however, (Prendergast, p. 250,)
while the court held that Capt. Vertue's resignation was invalid, as
having been made in pursuance of an improper combination of a large
number of officers, yet Mr. Justice Yates intimated that there may be
a state of circumstances, under which an officer may have a legal right
to resign, and so to obtain a release of exemption from military law.

Such would undoubtedly be the decision of a civil court in the
United States. The power given to the President of accepting or with-
holding his acceptance of a resignation was intended for the maintenance
of justice, and not the oppression of individuals ; and if that power
should be perverted, a court of justice might, and no doubt would, in-
terpose its writ of habeas corpus.

DISCIPLINE. It ought to result from a perfect uniformity of
rules ; for stability, method, exactness, and even routine, are necessary
to insure its maintenance ; under a perfect discipline, troops in peace

C 10 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dis.

and in war, in garrison or in campaign, would be litt.-d for all the du-
ties of war. To attain this perfection, it is necessary that discipline
should rest entirely upon law ; it ought to have its roots in patriotism ;
to be adapted to tin- character of the people ; to the spirit of the age,
and the nature of the government. It is essential to make rights and
duties inseparable. This absolute necessity, and the importance of
regularity of pay, are truths dwelt upon by French writers. Discipline
may be distinguished as active and passive. The first derives its j. .\\vr
from a military hierarchy or range of subordination, skilfully estab-
lished and regulated; it is secured by calmness, impartiality, prompt-
ness, firmness, and the prestige of character in olliccrs. These qualities
are manifested by preventing wrongs rather than by punishing faults,
and by abstaining from arbitrary corrections when obliged to chastise.
Discipline, intrusted to such authorities enlightened by military cxpe-

. will partake of the character of paternal government, ami will
not be enforced with an unsparing harshness suited only to govern-
ments essentially despotic.

The dogma, that military discipline can only bo sustained by the
aid of severe and unpitying punishment, is far removed from the.
idea here suggested. That unpitying military discipline seems to
have prompted IVter the Great, when -he sacrificed a young.
who triumphantly fought the Swedes without orders. Tims also
thought Frederic the Great, when he executed the unfortunate /
who violated an order by keeping a light a little too long in his
tent. But such harsh principles are no longer inculcated in the best

.-d armies of Europe. Passive discipline is the fusion of indi-
vidual interest in national interest. The first military virtue is r rit
de corps, with fidelity to the oath taken upon assuming the military
character. These duties exact obedience to the laws, and to the lawful

< of the President of the United States, and officers set over us
according to law. These laws should command obedience from all

rs, and distinctly define the extent of all authority. They ou-ht

d the President or eommander-in-ehief as well as the simple sol-
us and DI-TIKS must be reciprocal, and be alike ,

by law, \\hi. h should, to maintain discipline, " precisely determine the
luti-, ai ..f all military men soldiers ollieers,

chiefs of corps, generals." Discipline that hlM attained tin*
supplies the deficiency of niimb.Ts. and gives new solidity to valor;
unded by dangers, the brave man f.-.-N that his
leaders and comrades are not less devoted, less vigorous, or less expe-
rienced than himself.

Dis.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 241

Discipline is sometimes used as meaning " system of instruction,"
but its signification is much broader. Its technical military sense in-
cludes not only the means provided for exercise and instruction, but
subjection to all laws framed for the government and regulation of tho
army. The good or bad discipline of an army depends primarily upon the
laws established for its creation, as well as its government and regulation.

DISEASE. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

DISEMBARKATION. In disembarkations, the first essential
matter is to determine by reconnaissance the proper point for landing
how near the landing can be approached with vessels of light draught,
to scour the beach and thus cover the operation ; and secondly, the man-
ner in which the men, horses, and some field-artillery are to be disem-
barked. The landing of heavy ordnance and all supplies is a subsequent
matter. Having chosen the point of debarkation, the troops are put
into flat-bottomed boats, previously provided, as expeditiously as pos-
sible, but without hurry or disorder they are to sit down in the boats,
and positively ordered not to load until formed on the beach. Each man
should carry three days' provisions cooked in his haversack, at least
forty rounds of ammunition, and his canteen filled with water. The
men should also carry their intrenching tools. The covering vessels
must be liberal with round shot, grape, and canister ; and under cover
of their fire, the^rs^ line of boats should pull boldly in, recollecting that
the men are to be landed, and that the sooner it is done the better.
When a boat grounds, the officer jumps out over the bow, and the men
follow also over the bow. If the boat is large, or there are rocks, so as
to render it unsafe for an accoutred man to jump, the gang-boards must
be used. The men follow the officer to the sheltered spot selected by
him for their formation. Without waiting for other boats, the officer
will consider his men part of a line of skirmishers, the supports of
which are behind. As soon as each boat is clear, she must shove off*,
and pull to the shipping for a fresh load.

The second division of boats will land as the first, but these will not
commence firing until the whole of each company has joined, when they
will act as supports, under the command of their proper officers. As
soon as a sufficient number of well-united companies are on shore, the
irregularly formed skirmishers first landed will be relieved, formed by
companies, and sent to their respective battalions. Boats employed
landing troops should have neither guns, masts, nor sails ; their equip-
ments should be gang-boards, oars, grapnels and painters, boat hooks,
bailers, hammers and nails, sheet lead, grease, and canvas ; the latter
articles to enable them to stop a small shot hole, in case of accident.
16

Jl -J MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dis.

Tho launches of men-of-war are used for disembarking field-artillery.
when opposed by tho enemy. Two planks are laid from the bow to
the item of tho launch, parallel to each other, at the distance of the space
of the wheels ; a bead in nailed to the inside edge, to prevent tho wheels
from slipping off. Two gang-boards, which can be laid out or taken on
board, are fitted to the bow ends of the planks, so as to reach from
t<> tho shore, as a ramp. These launches arc towed by smaller
boats. It is very desirable that this portion of artillery, with their offi-
cers and men, should bo on board men-of-war. Each two-deck
take a couple ; the guns are stowed away on tho upper deck, tho car-
riages and wheels in the chains, so that tho guns can be mounted and
ready to bo lowered into the boats in a very few minutes. The muzzle
of tho gun must point forward in tho launch, and as soon as the boat
touches ground, the gang-boards are put out and tho\ guns run ashore.
The artillery should endeavor to gain tho shore and land with the
troops. It is dragged by tho sailors or troops. A sufficient supply of
ammunition must bo at hand in a boat or two, close to the shore. In
an cmer L T '-ncy the harness may be at once sent ashore, and if tin- \
arc near, horses may be made to leap out and swim ashore. I
other circumstances, boats of proper capacity must be provided for the
disembarkation of horses, heavy ordnance, &c.; or it may be necessary
to establish temporary wharves on trestles, or by means of boats, and
to erect shears, cranes, or derricks.

On a smooth, sandy beach, heavy pieces may bo landed by rolling
them overboard as soon as the boats ground, and hauling them up with
sling carts. (See EMBARKATION. Consult Aide Memoire of the Mili-
tary Sciences; SCOTT'S Orders and Correspondences during the Cam-
paign in Mexico.)

DISINFECTANTS. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

DISMISSION. No sentence of a court-martial in time of peace

Mimissioned ofl'nvr, or which, in war or peace, af
general officer, shall be carried into execution without the approval <>f
the President of tho Tinted States; (ART. 05.) Disbursing onV.-rs
may be dismissed by the President alone, without the intervention of a
court-martial, on failure to account properly for moneys placed in their
hands; (An. .Ian.. !*:.",.) A general court-mart i:d in time of
may dismiss, with the approval of tho President, in all cases in which
Mtenoo to "death or such oilier punishment

as may be inflicted by a general court martial." (See DEATH.) Such
court may also - .missioned officer to be cashiered or dis-

missed tho service in the following cases : 1. Drunkenness on duty ;

Dis.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 243

(ART. 45.) 2. Breach of arrest ; (X\RT. 77.) 3. Conduct unbecoming
an officer and a gentleman ; (ART. 83.) 4. Using contemptuous or
disrespectful words against the President of the United States, against
the Vice-president- thereof, against the Congress of the United States,
or against the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States
in which he may be quartered ; (ART. 5.) 5. Signing a false certificate
relating to the absence of either officer or soldier, or relative to his or
their pay ; (ART. 14.) 6. Making a false muster of man or horse ;
(ART. 15.) 7. Taking money or other thing by way of gratification,
on mustering any regiment, troop, or company, or on signing muster
rolls. 8. Making a false return to the Department of War, or to any
of his superior officers authorized to call for such returns of the state
of the regiment, troop, or company, or garrison under his command ;
or of the army ammunition, clothing, or other stores thereunto belong-
ing ; (ART. 18.) 8. Sending and accepting a challenge to another
officer or soldier to fight a duel ; (ART. 25.) 9. An officer who com-
mands a guard, knowingly and wilfully suffering any person to go forth
to fight a duel, and all seconds, promoters, and carriers of challenges
shall be punished as challengers ; (ART. 26.) 10. Selling, embezzling,
misapplying, or wilfully, or through neglect, suffering provisions, arms,
&c., to be spoiled or damaged; (ART. 36.) .11. Any commanding
officer who exacts exorbitant prices for houses let out to sut-
lers, or connives at like exactions fr<5m others, or who by his own
authority and for his private advantage lays any duty or imposition
upon, or is interested in, the sale of any victuals, liquors, or other
necessaries of life brought for the use of the soldiers, may be discharged
the service; (ART. 31.) 12. Failure, by a commanding officer, to see
justice done to offenders, and reparation made to the party injured, by
officers or soldiers ill-treating any person, or disturbing fairs or markets,
or committing any kinds of riots to the disquieting of citizens of the
United States ; (ART. 32.)

DISMOUNT. To dismount the cavalry, is to use them as infantry.
Guards, when relieved, are said to dismount. They are to be marched
with the utmost regularity to the parade-ground where they were
formed, and from thence to their regimental parades, previously to
being dismissed to their quarters. To dismount a piece of ordnance,
is to take it from the carriage.

DISOBEDIENCE OF ORDERS punishable by a court-martial
with death or otherwise, according to the nature of the offence ; (ART. 9.)

DISORDERS. (See ABUSES; CRIMES.)

DISPART is the difference of the semi-diameter of the base-ring

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dia,

and the swell of the muzzle, or the muzzle-band of a piece of ordnance.
(Set ORDNANCE.)

DISRESPECT TO A COMMANDING OFFICER punished
by court-martial.

DISRESPECTFUL WORDS used by any officer or soldier
gainst the President, Vice-president, the Congress or the governor of
any State where he may be quartered, punishable with cashiering or
rwise, as a court-martial may direct ; ( AKT. 5.)

DISTANCES. Pacing Distances. " If you count tho strokes of
either of your horse's fore-feet, either walking or trotting, you will find
them to be upon an average about 050 to a mile. In a field-book, as you
note each change of bearing, you have only to note down al>o the num-
ber of paces (which scon becomes a habit) ; and to keep count of these,
it is only necessary to carry about thirty-five or forty small pieces of
wood, like dice (beans or peas will do), in one waistcoat-pocket, and at
the end of every 100 paces remove one to the empty pocket on the op-
posite side. At each change of bearing you count these, adding the odd
numbers to the number of hundreds, ascertained by the dice, to be
counted and returned at each change of bearing to the other p
You should have a higher pocket for your watch, and keep the two
lower waistcoat-pockets for this purpose. Now, to plot such a survey,
you have only to take the half-inch scale of equal parts, (on the six-inc-h
scale, in every case of instruments,) and allowing ten for a hun<livl. tin-.
half-inch will represent a thousand paces. You may thus lay down any
broken number of paces to a true scale, and so obtain a tolerably accu-
rate map of each day's journey. The latitude will, after all, determine
finally the scale of paces ; and you can at leisure adjust each day's
journey by its general bearing between different latitudes, and subse-
quently introduce tho details." (Sir THOMAS MITCHELL.)

A traveller, when the last of his watches breaks down, has no need
to be disheartened from going on with his longitude observations, espe-
cially if he observes occultations and eclipses. The object of a watch
is to tell the number of seconds that elapse between the instant of oo-
cultatinn, eclipse, &c., and that, a minute or two later, when the sextant
observation for time is made ; and all that it actually doet, is to beat
seconds, and to record the number of beats. Now, a string ami st<>nc
swung as a pendulum will beat time ; and a native who is taught
to throw a pebble into a bag at each beat will record it ; and, fr oper-
ations that are not tedious, ho will be as good as a watch. The rate
of the pendulum is, of course, determined by taking two sets of
rations, with three or four minutes' interval between them ; and, if tho

Dis.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 245

distance from the point of suspension to the centre of the stone be
thirty-nine inches, and if the string be thin, and the stone very heavy,
it will beat seconds very nearly indeed. The observations upon which
the longitude of the East African lakes now depends (1859) are lunars
timed with a etring and a stone, in default of a watch.

Units of length. A man should ascertain his height ; height of his
eye above ground; ditto, when kneeling; his fathom; his cubit; the
span, from ball of thumb to tip of one of his fingers ; the length of the
foot, and the width of two, three, or four fingers. In all probability,
some one of these is an even and a useful number of feet or inches,
which he will always be able to recollect, and refer to as a unit of
measurement. A stone's throw is a good standard of reference for
greater distances. Cricketers estimate by the length between wickets.
Pacing should be practised. It is well to dot a scale of inches on a
pocket-knife.

Angles to measure. A capital substitute for a very rude sextant
is afforded by the outstretched hand and arm. The span between
the middle finger and the thumb subtends an angle of 15, and that
between the forefinger and the thumb an angle of ll^- , or one point
of the compass. Just as a person may learn to walk yards accurately,
so may he learn to span out these angular distances accurately ;
and the horizon, however broken it may be, is always before his eyes
to check him. Thus, if he begins from a tree, or even from a book on
his shelves, and spans all round until he comes to the tree or book
again, he should make twenty-four of the larger spans and thirty -two
of the lesser ones. These two angles of 15 and lli are particularly
important. The sun travels through 15 in each hour ; and therefore,
by " spanning " along its course, as imagined, from the place where it
would stand at noon, (aided in this by the compass,) the hour before
or after noon, and, similarly, after sunrise, or before sunset, can be
instantly reckoned. Again, the angles 30, 45, 60, and 90, all of
them simple multiples of 15, are by far the most useful ones in taking
rough measurements of heights and distances, because of the simple
relations between the sides of right-angled triangles, whose other
angles are 30, 45, &c. As regards ll, or one point of the com-
pass, it is perfectly out of the question to trust to bearings taken by the
unaided eye, or to steer a steady course by simply watching a star or
landmark, when this happens to be much to the right or the left of it.
Now, nothing is easier than to span out the bearing from time to time.

Squaring. As a triangle whose sides are as 3, 4, and 5, must be a
right-angled one (since 5 2 =3 3 +4 2 ), we can always find a right angle

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Dis.

very simply by means of a measuring tape. We take a length of
twelve feet, yards, fathoms, or whatever it may be, and peg tlu- t\\.
ends of it, close together, to the ground. Next a peg is driven in at
the third division, and then the third peg is held at the seventh division
of the cord, which is stretched out till it becomes taut, and the peg is
driven in. These three pegs will form the corners of a right-angled

Measurements, <tc. The breadth of a river may bo measured with.
out instruments and without crossing it, by means of tho following
useful problem from the French " Manuel du Genie," which requires
pacing only :

To measure A B (Fig. 106), produce it any distance to D ; from D,
in any direction, take any equal distances, D C, C d, and produce B C
to b, making C b = C B ; join d b and produce it to a, where A C pro-
duced intersects it ; then a b is equal to A B. In practice, tho points
D C, <kc., are marked by bushes planted in tho ground, or by men
standing.

Colonel Everest, the late surveyor-general of India, has pointed out
the following simple way of measuring an angle, and therefore a triangle :
A B is the base, R R the river, C an object on the
. other side ; (Fig. 107.) Ho paces any length A
a 1 ; and an equal length A a"; also a' a", which
is tho chord of a' A a". In other words

Pio. 1M.

in the same way B is found. A B being known,

Fio. 107.

the triangle A B C is known, an.] tli.- l.roadth of the riv, no !>
fonn.I. Tho problem can 1..- workr.l out, ritl.rr by calculation or l.y
. (GALTON'S Art of Travel. See STADIA ; SURVEYS ; TAR-
GET; VELOCITIES.)

Dii.J MILITARY DICTIONARY. 247

DISTRIBUTION means, generally, any division or allotment
made for the purposes of war, and minor arrangements made for the
supply of corps.

DISTRICT. One of those portions into which a country is di-
vided, for the convenience of command, and to insure a co-operation
beween distant bodies of troops.

DITCH sometimes" called the Fosse is the excavation made
round the works, from which the earth required for the construction of
the rampart, parapet, and banquette is obtained. In besieging a forti-
fication, when the ditch is dry, and a descending gallery has been con-
structed, the passage of the ditch consists of an ordinary sap pushed
from the opening in the counterscarp wall to the slope of the breach,
and, when necessary, it is carried on to crown the summit of the breach.
If the ditch be full of water, and the locality favors its being drained,
every means must be used to break the batardeaux, to cause the water
to flow away entirely or in part. If none of the batteries can see the
batardeaux, the sluices must be sought and destroyed by shells, or
by mining. Should the assailants be unable to breach the batardeaux
or to destroy the sluices, a bridge or causeway must be thrown across.
This is one of the most difficult operations in a siege. The bridge or
causeway, with its epaulement, is constructed with pontoons or casks,
or, if without them, with fascines, hurdles, gabions, and sand-bags,
openings being left in the causeway to allow the free flowing of the
water, if it be a running stream, or can be made so by the defend-
ers. A wet ditch may sometimes be crossed by a raft of sufficient
length, which should be constructed along the counterscarp, and at-
tached by one end to the bottom of the descent. The raft is then al-
lowed to swing round with the current, if there be one, or is rowed or
pulled round, if there is not one, so as to form a connection across the
ditch with the breach.

The following experiment for crossing a wet ditch was successfully
tried at Chatham by Sir Charles Pasley : Two hundred large casks
were prepared, with their heads taken out ; they were lashed by fours,
end to end, so as to form hollow piers, about 18 feet in length, of un-
equal diameters, in consequence of the unequal size of the casks.
Each pier was launched in succession from a great gallery, represent-
ing that of the counterscarp in a regular siege. These piers had guys
at each end, by which they were hauled round into their intended
position, and there sunk by means of sand-bags. After this, the in-
tervals between the upper tiers of casks were filled in with long fas-
cines, and others were laid over these at right angles, till a general

348 MILITARY PI. TiuNAUY. [Dir.

level was obtained, when strong skids were laid over all, and
pounder, on a travelling carriage, was dragged through the gallery,
and passed along these skids to the other side. In this ma
piece of water, representing a wet ditch, was bridged over with < -a->c
and comparative expedition. This experiment was afterwards
with full success in the Mast Pond of Chatham Dockyard, wl.
ver^ strong current was produced, much stronger than could occur in
the ditches of an I place. It is stated. ih::t there was no per-

ceptible depression in the bridge as the 24-pounder passed over. The
same experiment was tried with common gabions, lashed together, end
to end, in like manner, forming hollow piers or cylinders, which were
similarly sunk 0110 over another until the upper' layer rose above the
water, and wore covered with fascines and ski- Is. These. aU<>, bore a
24-pounder, which caused a depression of more than 6 indies in the part
over which it was passing. The gabions were very weak and old. The
piers of casks were fastened as follows : on being placed end to end,
staples were driven into each cask, about 10 inches from their ends, in
three equi-distant parts of their circumference-; strong spun-yarn,
ting the staples, lashed the four casks together. Six or eight
bushel sand-bags were necessary to sink cadi pier with ease, yet with-
out making it sink too rapidly. To get thcrn into the water, they
w.-iv launched on ways made of planks. In making the gabion bridge,
eaeh pier consisted of four gabions lashed end to end like the casks, by
spun-yarn, at time e[ui-distant points of the circumference. These
were not loaded to make them sink. It was found, from the Irregu-
larity of their surface, that the second pier merely f..iv.-d the first out
from the bank to make room for itself; the third the second, and so on,
until the tier of gabions connected the two scarps. On rolling other
piers on the top of them, the lower ones sunk to the bottom, and brush-
wood and fascines were laid in the intervals of the gabions to form a
>K'S Fortifications.)

DIVISION. In the ordinary arrangement of the army, two regi-
meats of infantry or cavalry shall constitute a In 1 shall bo

commanded by a brigadier-general ; two brigades, a di\isi<.n. and shall
be commanded by a major-general. Provided always th..t it si
in the discretion of the commanding general t<> vary this ditp
be shall judge proper ; (Act March :'.. 1796 .8.)

DOMIl'IIj;. ry man's domicile, is in the country

where ho has his permanent residence. ..r to which he ordinarily returns

f T the purposo of rcsi-1, nee .-!! -i .;] ibtHMe-j ;::,| ill < a - of his

death, the right of succession to his goods and chattels and personal

Div.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 249

property of all sorts is regulated by the law of the country of his dom-
icile, although he may happen to die beyond its limits. As regards
military men, their employment on duty involving only temporary
absence in intention would not, on common principles, cause a change
of domicile; and as the laws of different States of the Union vary on
the subject of the right of succession to property, the subject is of great
interest to military men. Recently, an officer who was a native of
South Carolina died intestate in the city of New York, and no heirs
being forthcoming, his estate was taken possession of by the public ad-
ministrator, although the Rules and Articles of War enacted by Con-
gress provide that, in such cases, an officer of the army at the station
shall take possession of the effects for purposes of administration.

" Personal property, in point of law, has no locality, and in case
of the decease of the owner, must go wherever in point of fact situate,
according to the law of the country where he had his domicile." (ROB-
ERTSON'S Law of Personal Succession.)

The 14th Lord Somerville entered the army in 1745, and continued
in the service till the peace of 1763, during which period ho accompa-
nied his regiment to England, Scotland, and Germany, both in quarters
and on active duty. At his death in 1796, a question arose, whether,
under the circumstances, his domicile was English or Scotch ; and the
Master of the Rolls, (Sir R. P. Arden,) in giving judgment, said : " I am
clearly of opinion Lord Somerville was a Scotchman upon his birth,
and continued so to the end of his days. He never ceased to be so,
never having abandoned his Scotch domicile, or established another.
The decree, therefore, must be, that the succession to his personal
estate ought to be regulated according to the law of Scotland." His
honor must consequently have been of opinion, that a Scotchman en-
tering the British army does not thereby lose his original Scotch dom-
icile ; and since the union of England and Scotland, the army is cer-
tainly as much that of Scotland as of England.

Sir Charles Douglas, a Scotchman by birth and original domicile,
loft his native country at the age of twelve, to enter the navy. From
tlr.it time to his death, he was in Scotland only four times : 1st, as
captain of a frigate ; 2dly, to introduce his wife to his friends, on
which occasion he staid about a year ; 3dly, upon a visit ; and 4thly,
when, upon his appointment to a command upon the Halifax station, he
went in the mail coach to Scotland, and died there in 1789. He was
not for a day residen^there in any house of his own ; nor was he ever
there except for temporary occasions. He also commanded the Rus-
sian navy for about a year, and was afterwards in the Dutch service.

250 MILITARY DICTION [Div.

lie had no fixed residence in England till 177(>, in which year he took a
house at G?osport, where he lived as his home when on shore. This
was his only residence in the British dominions ; and when la- \
service he Kit his \\ife and family at (losport. At his death it became
necessary to decide whether his domicile was Scotch or English, be-
came ho hud made a will, bequeathing a legacy to his daughter, with
certain conditions, which were void by the law of Scotland, hut vali-1
by the law of Kit-land. The House of Lords decided that his original
domicile was Scotch, and that though he did not lose it in this first in-
stance, by becoming an ofiieer in the British navy, he abandoned it by
entering a foreign service, ami acquired a Russian domicile; that <>:i
returning to England, and resuming his position as a British ofli
acquired an English domicile, but did not recover his Scotch dom'u il ,
that his subsequent visits to Scotland, not being made aninio tnanendi,
did not revive his Scotch domicile, and that the succession to his prop-
erty, as that of an Englishman, was therefore to be governed by tho
1 1\\ of England, in which country he last acquired a domicile.

In connection with this subject, it may bo proper to notice an opin-
ion expressed by the Master of the Holls, during tho argument >!' I.or.l
Somerville's case that an officer entering the. military or naval -
of a foreign power, with consent of the British government, ami taking
a qualified oath of allegiance to tho foreign state, does not thereby
abandon or lose his native domicile.

In Forrest v. Funston, tho defendant was a lieutenant in tho king's
army, and held a situation of master gunner at Blackness Castle in
Scotland, where ho had the charge of considerable military stores, with
an apartment for his residence, lie was a native of Strabane in Ire-
land ; and it was held by the Court of Session, that though it was his
duty to reside at Blackness, he did not by the possession of his ofhVe
acquire a Scotch d'.mi< -Mr. With respect to the East India <
Service, the question of domicile does not turn upon the simple f.ict ,f
the party 1,,-ing under an obligation, by his commission, to serve in
India; but when an officer accepts a commission or cmphiyment, the
duties of which necessarily require residence in India, an. 1 then is no
stipulated period of service, and ho proceeds to India ae.-ordingly,
the law from such circumstances presumes an intention consistent with
his duty, and holds his residence to be animo et facto in India.

In tli.- recent case of CJeneral Forbes, in the Court of Chancery, the
subje ( ( \Q in its relation to military mA was extensively dis-

cussed before the Vioe-ohttHSelloT Wood. Nathaniel Forbes, afterwards
General Forbes, was bom in Scotland of Scotch parents; his father

Div.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 251

being possessed of an ancestral estate called Auchernach, on which
there was then no house. In 1786, Nathaniel Forbes, being then a
minor, and a lieutenant on half-pay in the 102d foot, a disbanded regi-
ment, contracted a marriage with a Scotch lady. He shortly after-
wards obtained an appointment in the service of the East India Com-
pany ; and in December, 1787, he sailed for India, where he continued
until 1808. He then obtained a furlough, and returned with his wife
to Scotland. On the death of his father in 1794 he had succeeded to
the family estate in Scotland ; and during 'his furlough he built a house
there, and furnished it, and made some improvements in the grounds.
In 1812 he returned with his wife to India, and remained there for several
years. The wife left India in 1818 : and in 1822 her husband, who had
then attained the rank of a general officer, and was colonel of a regi-
ment, also quitted India, according to the rules of the service, with the
intention of never returning to that country; and he never did return
thither. During the whole of his service under the East India Com-
pany General Forbes retained his commission and rank of a lieutenant
in the king's army. His domicile was without doubt originally Scot-
tish. After his final return from India he had an establishment at a
hired house in Sloane-street, London. He also kept his house at
Auchernach furnished : and had some servants there also. He likewise
became a justice of the peace and a commissioner of taxes in Scotland :
and kept his pedigree and papers (including his will) at Auchernach,
where he was in the habit of residing half the year, and where he had
constructed a mausoleum in which he wished to be buried. But his
health did not permit him to reside constantly at Auchernach, where
his establishment was also not suitable for his wife ; and his house in
Sloane-street was manifestly his chief establishment, and his wife re-
sided there. He died in 1851. His wife thereupon laid claim to a
share of his property according to the Scotch law of succession, and
contended that, in the events which had happened, he must be consid-
ered to have died possessed of his original Scottish domicile. The sub-
stantial question in the case was, whether his domicile was in England
or in Scotland. If he had been a single man his final domicile would
probably have been considered Scottish. But the court held that Sloane-
street, having been his chief establishment, and the abode of his wife,
must be taken to have been the seat of his domicile. In pronouncing
judgment upon the case, the learned Vice-chancellor ruled the following
points : 1. That the Scottish domicile of General Forbes, notwithstand-
ing his having gone to India during his minority, in the service of the
East India Company, continued until he attained the age of twenty-one :

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [DRA.

on the principle that a minor cannot change his domicile by his owu
:. Tli:it. on attaining twenty-one, he acquired an An^lo-Indian
domicile ; and thereupon his Scottish domicile ceased : on the principle
that a service in India, under a commission in the Indian arm;.
person having no other residence, creates an Indian domicile. 3. That
the circumstance of his being a lieutenant on half-pay in a disbanded
king's regiment, did not affect the question. 4. That the Anglo-Indian
ile of General Forbes continued unchanged until his departure
from India in 1822: the furlough, or limited leave of absence, implying
by its nature that it was his duty to return to India on its expiration.
5. That in 18*22 the Anglo-Indian domicile of General Forbes was
abandoned and lost : the possibility of his being called upon, as colonel
of a regiment, to return at some indefinite time to active- service in
India, being too remote to have any material bearing upon the qn<
0. That he had acquired by choice a new domicile in England on his
return from India.

DRAGOONS. There are two regiments of dragoons in our army.
(See ARMY ; CAVALRY.)

DRAG-ROPE. This is a 4" hemp rope, with a thimble worked
into each end, one of the thimbles carrying a hook. Six handles, made
folk or ash, are put in between the strands of the rope, and lashed
with marline. It is used to assist in extricating carriages lr MM <litKr-
ent positions ; by the men, for dragging pieces, &c. Length 28 i

DRAWING. (See RKCONNOISSANCE.)

DRILL. Thn mano?uvrcs and tactical exercises of troops.

DRUNKENNESS ON DUTY. Any commissioned officer who
shall be found drunk on his guard, post, or other duty, shall bo ca-
1. Any non-commissioned officer or soldier so offending, shall
suffer such corporal punishment as shall be inflicted by a court-mar-
tial ; (ART. 45.)

DUEL. Sending and accepting a challenge, or, if a commanding
officer, permit tint: knowingly a duel, or socmulinir, promoting, " r (i; ""'-\-
ing challenges in order in duels, punishable, with cashiering if eommis-
sioned officer*, and with corporal punishment in the case of non-com-
missioned officers and soldiers ; (A K\.) (See ( 11 OJ i NCKS.)

DUTY. In all military duties, the tour of duty is invariably fr.mi
the eldest downward*. P.ripade duties are those perlnniud by one
regiment in common with another. Lv^'mienta! duties are those per-
formed by the officers and companies of a regiment among thems. l\< -s.
:tial, th- i "('which have been assemble. 1 and sworn,

i- reckoned a duty, although they may have been dismissed without

EMU.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 253

trying any person. If an officer's turn for picket, general court-martial,
or fatigue, happens when he is upon any other duty, he is not obliged
to make good that picket, &c., when he comes off, but his tour passes
him ; however, if an officer is on the inlying picket, he is liable to bo
relieved, and placed on other duties. Officers cannot exchange their
duties without permission of the commanding officer. A guard, de-
tachment, or picket, having once marched off the place of parade, is
reckoned to have performed a duty, though it may have been dismissed
immediately afterwards. Officers, on all duties under arms, are to
have their swords drawn, without waiting for any word of command
for that purpose.

DYSENTERY. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

ECHELON. An arrangement of battalions, so that each has a
line of battle in advance or in rear of its neighboring battalion. (Con-
sult Infantry Tactics, vol. 3. See also MANOEUVRES IN COMBAT.)

ELEVATION. The elevation of a work is the projection of its
face on a vertical plane by horizontal rays. It shows the height or
depth of a work, and also its length, when the plane of projection is
parallel to the face. Applied to a piece of ordnance, the elevation is
the inclination of the axis of the j)iece above the plane on which the car-
riage stands.

EMBARKATION. Field-batteries should always be embarked
by the officers and men belonging to them, who will then know where
each article is stowed. Articles required to be disembarked first,
should be put in last. When there are several vessels laden with ord-
nance and ordnance stores for an expedition, each vessel should have on
each quarter, and on a signal at mast head, a number that can be easily
distinguished at a distance. The same numbers should be entered on
the list of supplies shipped in each vessel. The commander will then
know exactly what resources he has with him. Articles shipped must
be divided among vessels according to circumstances ; but, as a general
rule, place in each vessel every thing required for the service at the
moment of disembarkation, so that there will be no inconvenience,
should other vessels be delayed.

If boats are to be employed in the embarkation, and the boats are
much lower than the top of the wharf, the guns and ammunition boxes
will be lowered into the boat by means of cranes ; but when the gun-
wales are nearly level with the wharf, the ammunition boxes may be
more expeditiously put on board by hand, and if there are no cranes,

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Eun.

the guns may bo parbuckled into tho boats. Men told off to the car-
riages, will prepare them for embarkation. Each carriage, when called
for, is to be run forward to the boat or crane ; the gun nnlimhered and
dismounted; the ammunition boxes, shafts, wheels, &c., &c., to be
taken off; the washers and linen-pins carefully put away. If tin \ iro
left in tho nxlc-tree they are liable to be lost When a battery is mi-
barked in different vessels, every part should be complete, and a pro-
portion of general stores on each. Should two batteries be on the same
Teasel, they should be stowed on different sides of the vessel.

The embarkation of horses is more difficult than that of guns, par-
ticularly if it bo necessary first to take them alongside the vessel in
boats. In bad weather the guns and can 5.; isily hoisted, but

not tho horses. If the embarkation of both cannot go on, therefore, at
the same time, tho horses should bo embarked first. Horse ships are
always provided with slings for hoisting in the horses ; they are mado
of stout canvas, and are about 6^ or 7 feet long, and from 2J to 2^
feet wide. It may bo necessary to embark horses : 1st, when the
transports can come alongside the wharf, and tho horses are taken on
board at one operation ; or, 2d, when the transports cannot come along-
side the wharf, and tho horses. arc embarked first in boats ; or, 3d. when
the horses arc embarked in boats, from an open beaeh.

The first case is the best, easiest, and most expeditious resembling
in all respects the hoisting a cask in and out of the hold of a vessel.
Horses should generally bo blindfolded for this purpose, as this pre-
heir being frightened or troublesome. In tho second case there
are two operations : first, lowering the hnrso into the boat, and, after the
passage of the boat to the vessel, hoisting the horse into the transport.
Sheers or derricks are absolutely necessary for this purpose. l>e< -ause
the tackle must bo of such ;i description as to raise tho horse oil' the
ground instantaneously, which a crane cannot d>. The head of tin d< r-
riek must incline inwards while the horso is rising; but \vhen he is high
enough, the head of tho derrick or sheers must be forced out, to bring
the horse directly over tho boat. Horses may, in this \\.ty, be
embarked in boats from a beach. Sand or straw must bo put into tho
boats to preserve their bottoms, and to prevent tho horses from slip-
ping, s should stand athwart, tho head of one horse being on
the starboard side, and tho head of the next to him on the larboard side.
The conductors must sit on tho gunwale or stand between the horses.
Decked gun-boats or coasting vessel* arc very convenient for this pur-
pose when there arc time and materials for the necessary preparation, as
they not only hold a greater number of horses, but can come alongside

EMB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 255

of a wharf, and the horses, by means of a ramp, may be walked aboard.
The disembarkation of horses is carried on by the same means as their
embarkation. (See DISEMBARKATION. Consult Army Regulations for the
rules governing troops embarked on transports.)

EMBEZZLEMENT either of public property or money, punish-
able in the case of an officer with cashiering, and making good the loss ;
if a non-commissioned officer, by reduction to the ranks, corporal punish-
ment, and making good the loss ; (ART. 36 and ART. 39.)

By SEC. 16 of Act approved Aug. 6, 1846, using in any manner for
private purposes, loaning or depositing in bank any public money, and
any failure to pay over or to produce public money intrusted to per-
sons charged with its safe keeping, transfer, and disbursement, is made
prima facie evidence of embezzlement, and declared to be felony. The
taking of receipts and vouchers without paying the amount which they
call for, and all persons advising or participating in said act, are also
declared guilty of embezzlement by the same section.

EMBRASURE. An embrasure is an opening cut through the
parapet to enable the artillery to command a certain extent of the sur-
rounding country. The space between every two of these openings,
called the merlon, is from 15 to 18 feet in length. The opening of the
embrasure at the interior is two feet, while that towards the country is
usually made equal to half the thickness of the parapet. The interior
elevation of the parapet, which remains after cutting the embrasure, is
called the genouillere, and covers the lower part of the gun carriage.
The plongee, or slope given to the sole, is generally less than the incli-
nation given to the superior slope of the parapet, in order that the fire
from the embrasure may meet that of the musketry from the parapet
at a point within a few feet from the top of the counterscarp.

Fig. 108 represents the rear elevation of a two-gun portion of an ele-
vated battery revetted with gabions. In this figure the two gabions at the
necks of the embrasures are

made to assume a small de- FlG - loa

gree of slope which may
usually be done, because the
gabions, one with another, oc-
cupy rather less than the
regular average space of 2

feet each, when placed very close together, so that those of the upper tier
will generally admit of being closed at top, and eased at bottom, to favor
this arrangement. If not, the neck of the embrasure may be made of
equal, width throughout, without attempting the kind of slope alluded

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Kxo.

to; but the gabions which form the cheeks of the embrasures should
have a slope gradually increasing from tin- neck t.. \\anls the front, until
the fifth gabion (more than five will seldom be used) has u
least one-third of its height.

. 109 is the plan of a portion of parapet and embrasure, showing
the arrangement of gabions above adverted to.

Fig. 110 shows in elevation the arrangement of the gabions and of
the sand-bags above them, as well as the geiiouillere or solid purl of the

Fio. 109. Fio. 110.

-*--T- ...

embrasure, below the sole of it, in a construction that frequently arises
in sieges, especially in the offensive crowning batteries on the crest of
the glacis, where the depression of the sole of the embrasure is consid-
erable, to allow of the guns being pointed to spots of the wall some
distance below them.

EMOLUMENTS. (See PAY.)

ENCAMPMENT. (See CAMP.)

ENCEINTE is the body of the place, or the first belt of ran
ami parapets that inclose tin- place.

I N FILADE. To sweep the whole length of the face of any w >r!v
or line of troops, l.y a Lattery on the prolongation of tl. line.

ENGINEER CORPS. (See ARMY for its organization.) The func-
tions of the engineers being generally confined to the most elevated
branch of military Mtace, they are not to assume, nor are they siil.jeet
to be :.y duty beyond the line of their immc-.

sion, except by the special order of the President of tin- I'nited States ;
but tli .-ry mark - to which their rank in the

army may entitle them respectively, and are liable to bo transferred, at
the discretion of the President, from one corps to anoth> being

paid to rank; (ART. 03.)

The engineers are charged with planning, construct ins, :md repair-
ing all fortifications and other defensive works ; with disbursement of
money connected with these operations. In time of war, they present

ENT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 257

plans for the attack and defence of military works ; lay out and con-
struct field defences, redoubts, intrenchments, roads, &c. ; form a part
of the vanguard to remove obstructions ; and in retreat, form a part
of the rear guard, to erect obstacles, destroy roads, bridges, &c., so as
to retard an enemy's pursuit. (See SAPPERS AND MINERS.) (Consult
LAISNE, Aide Memoir e d F Usage des Officiers du Genie.)

ENGINEERS, TOPOGRAPHICAL. (See ARMY for their organiza-
tion.) The duties of the corps consist in surveys for the defence of the
frontiers, and of positions for fortifications, in reconnoissances of the
country through which an army has to pass, or in which it has to ope-
rate ; in the examination of all routes of communication by land or by
water, both for supplies and military movements ; in the construction
of military roads and permanent bridges connected with them ; and the
charge of the construction of all civil works, authorized by acts of Con-
gress, not specially assigned by law to some other branch of the ser-
vice. (Consult SALNEUVE, Cours de Topographic a F Usage des Eleves
de VEcole d'Etat Major. R. S. SMITH'S Topographical -Drawing .)

ENLISTMENTS are voluntary, and made for five years ; (Act
June 17, 1850.) Any non-commissioned officer or soldier who shall
enlist himself in any other regiment, troop, or company, without a reg-
ular discharge from the regiment, troop, or company in which he
last served, to be considered a deserter; (ART. 22.) Whenever enlist-
ments are made at or in the vicinity of military posts on the western
frontier, and at remote and distant stations, a bounty equal in amount
to the cost of transporting and subsisting a soldier from the principal
recruiting depot in the harbor of New York, to the place of such enlist-
ment be, and the same s is hereby allowed to each recruit so enlisted, to
be paid in unequal instalments at the end of each year's service, so that
the several amounts shall annually increase, and the largest be paid at
the expiration of each enlistment ; (Act June 17, 1850.) The amounts
and instalments have been fixed in the regulations for the Pay Depart-
ment. (See RE-ENLISTMENT.)

ENSIGN. Lowest grade of commisssioned officers of infantry.

ENTANGLEMENT. Abattis, so called, when made by cutting
only partly through the trunks, and pulling the upper parts to the
ground, where they are picketed.

ENTICING. Any person whatever who shall procure or entice a
soldier to desert the service of the United States, may be fined not ex-
ceeding $300, or imprisoned any term not exceeding one year, at the
discretion of any court having cognizance of the same; (Act March 16,
1802.)

v>;,s MILITAKY DICTIONARY. [EPA.

EPAULKMKNT. An elevation thrown up to cover troops from
tho firo of an enemy. It is usually composed of gabions filled with
earth, or made of sand-bags, &c.

EPAULETTE. Badge of rank, of bullion, worn by officers on the
shoulders. The Army Regulations prescribe these badges under author-
ity given by law to the President to establish the uniform of the army.

EPROUVETTE, (I'KMU-LUM.) The best method of testing the
projectile force of gunpowder, is to ascertain by experiment it*
when used in the same quantities in which it is to be employed in
service. This method has been adopted by establishing, at the Wash-
ington Arsenal, a cannon pendulum and a musket pendulum, whirh
are used fur proving samples of powder sent from the manufactories.
The apparatus shows the initial velocity of a ball fired from a cannon
or musket.

In the ordinary cpronvette, gunpowder of small grain and low -
fie gravity gives the highest range, whilst tho ballistic pendulum shows
that the greatest initial velocity in a shot from a heavy cannon i
duced by powder of great specific gravity and coarse grain. (Ordnance
Manual.)

EQUIPAGE, CAMP AND GARRISON are tents, kitchen ut.
axes, spades, &e. (See CLOTHING.)

EQUIPMENT. Tho complete dress of a soldier, including
accoutrements, dec.

ESCALADE, AND SURPRISE OP A FORTIFIED PLACE. A place is taken
by iurprixc. win-never a sufficient number of men are secretly intro-
duced into it to cause the defenders to abandon or surrender it. It is
taken by escalade, when ladders are used to cross the walls. (Ki.ir. 111.)

Tho surest way of succeeding in a surprise, is to have a ]>
knowledge of the interior of the place, or to be accompanied by reliable.

who know those parts of the place which may l.e p-n.
with least diflimlty. Such parts are ordinarily dilapidated port!
the body of the place; houses contiguous to the walls, the windows of
whieh i r red, dec., dec. Aqueducts and sewers have aKo soine-

beon used for the introduction of armed men, unknown to tho
garrison. I>nt when a place, is ladlv guarded, all parts are accessible
with ladders, and it is sometimes best to choose the highest walls for
the escalade, as tho enemy will probably, from a feeling of security. In-
lets vigilant at such parts of tho body of the place. Tins, at tho siege
of Bn) .daded the highest, walls in tho city,

and penetrated into the interior, while the. attack directed upon breaches
in the lower walls, although vigorously made, was repulsed. \Vh.-n

MILITARY DICTIONARY.
FIG. 111.

250

-,, MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Esc.

it is considered hpw slow a process it is to bring up ladders to the
counterscarp, in order to descend by them into the ditch, then t-
the ditch, and to rear the ladders against the escarp, and to mount
it is evident that success will, in a great measure, depend upon the
number of men that can mount at the same moment ; in other words,
upon the number of ladders. A ladder beyond a certain length be-
comes unwii-l.lv, and the rearing of it difficult. The distance from the
foot of the ladders to the wall should be at least equal to mu --fourth <>f
their height. If the distance be greater, the ladder will be easily I
under the weight of the men mounting them; if mueh less, they \\l\\
be so erect that the soldiers, as they ascend, must be continually in
danger of falling headlong down. The scaling ladders introduce! by
Sir Charles Pasley, are in pieces of 12' 8'' and 7' 6" in length, fitting
into each other with strong double iron sockets, and tied by stout
These can be arranged for any length, and quickly adjusted. Ladders
.made of long spars are awkward to carry ; especially if there 1
row sharp turnings in approaching the point of escalade : nor can long
sound spars be always procured. It is desirable that ladd.-rs should be
made of light, tough wood : teak wood is too heavy. If a guy-rope be
attached to each side of the ladder, they greatly assist in adjusting and
fixing it against the wall : the men told off for the guy-ropes should
stand close to the wall, within the slope of the ladder ; these guy-n>prs
should be fixed at 5 or 6 feet below the top of the ladder, to prevent
their being cut by the enemy on the wall. The total lengths of the

n should exceed the height to be escaladed 1 t. in order

that the men may step easily offlh<- ladders on to the parapet or wall.
Many failures have occurred from ladders being too short. It is desirable
to h ivea pair of stout lifting bars, 3 or 4 feet Ion::, with boo!,

TOMB u .-s-ealade is to take place, be sure to practise the men
intended f..r the service thoroughly in carrying, in fixing, in ascendinir,
and descending the ladders ; descendinu r , for going down a counter-
scarp; ascending, for getting up an escarp. Always use as many lad-
ders as possible. If there bo a counterscarp to d. ^, , nd. leave half the
ladders there, whilo the other half are used against the osca

: nay be lost Ascend the ladders together, on as large a front as
possible. When an escalade is opposed by an enemy, t that a

good firing party covers the escalade, with especial directions to fire.
upon any work that may flank the ladders. Avoid nijrht attad.

peculiar circumstances : the example of gallant men is lo*t
it, whilst timidity i Make all arrangements

cover of darkness, but assault at day.break.

Esc.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 201

At the moment of the escalade, the ladders should be filled with sol-
diers, and it is necessary, therefore, that they should be underpropped
about the middle. Soldiers exercised in gymnastics are capable of
mounting high walls with arms and accoutrements, by means of a hook,
helved to a pole sufficiently long to reach the top of the wall. This
exercise is practised by some French troops, and the walls of the cita-
del of Montpellier are thus escaladed with the greatest facility.

Precipitous rocks may be escaladed by grasping bushes and roots,
or by planting the bayonet in the crevices of the rocks, in order to
reach the top. Such escalades are very dangerous when an enemy de-
fends the height, as heavy stones may be rolled down upon the assailants ;
but activity and ingenuity accomplish much, as was shown by the
French in the attack upon Fort Scharnitz near Innspruck. They tied
their haversacks round their heads, and, protected by this buckler, they
scrambled up the rocks, despite the stones precipitated upon them.
And still later the difficult ascent at Alma was scaled by French troops,
in the face of Russian artillery and infantry.

The most favorable time for a surprise is that of a winter night,
when there is no moon. A long march may then be made without dis-
covery, and the troops may arrive an hour before day. This is the
propitious moment for the execution of the design. It is then that
men sleep most profoundly ; and it is at that hour the attacking force
may begin in the dark, and end the work by daylight ; such favorable
circumstances are much increased by heavy wind and rain during the
night, as the clanking of arms and other inevitable noises made by the
troops cannot be heard by the garrison, and the latter, besides, are
more disposed to negligence. It is extremely important for the men
to be able to recognize each other in the darkness, and the simplest
means of doing so is to put the shirt outside the dress, or to tie a white
band around the arm.

The party must be furnished with petards, axes, and levers, to force
open doors ; with beams and ladders, to overthrow and scale walls.
Hurdles and fascines are necessary to cross muddy ditches, or broad
planks may be used as a substitute for hurdles. With fascines small
ditches and pools are filled up. All these articles should be carried by
the men from the^ast halting-place. Wagons and animals would lead
to discovery, and are therefore left at a safe distance, while every pre-
caution is taken to maintain silence in the assailing party. The soldiers
should also not light their pipes, as the fire can be seen from a long
distance in the dark. Barking dogs must be quieted without the use
of fire-arms, and every one must be on the alert.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

The dispositions made for the attack will vary with circumstances,
hut in general it is well to divide the force into three parts: tin- first to
penetrate into the city ; the second to remain without and protect, if
necessary, the retreat of the first ; and the third to take such position an
is most likely to prevent aid from reaching the enemy.

When tlu first division has penetrated the city by escalade or other-
wise, it surrounds at once some of the adjacent quarters, and holds tin-
outlets of the principal streets, whilst detachments quickly opt n tin-
gates to the troops outside, after having taken or killed the guards. As
soon as tho gates are opened, and sufficient numbers are at hand, the
troops spread themselves in the city, at't.T leaving good reserves, upon
which to retreat in case of check. The house of the commandant, bar-
racks, arsenal, and the guards of the interior are at once sought, to pre-
vent, if possible, any re-union of the defenders, and to paralyze all their
efforts by tho seizure of the commanding officer. If time and means of
recovering from his stupor and concentrating his force in the interior
of the city be left to the enemy, great risk will bo run of being driven
out, as the attacking force is necessarily everywhere weak, from thu
great number of points occupied.

Tho famous example of Cremona, where Prince Eugene, after hav-
ing made himself master of a great part of the city, and after having
seized Marshal Villeroi, who commanded there, was nevertheless then
driven out by tho defenders, shows that all is not lost to tho defenders
when the enemy has seized tho exterior posts. Another example may
be cited in the surprise of Bergen-op-Zoom in 1814, by Gen. Graham.
where, although tho surprise was successful, yet tho assailants, in the
end, were obliged by tho garrison to surrender after consideiable loss.

Much may then bo done by defenders even under such cireu in-
stances, but much more may be accomplished by the most urn.
vigilance, and this quality, instead of bring relaxed in stnnuy nights,
should bo then redoubled. (Consult Corns de Taclique, par le 6

DUFO

ESCARP, (or SCARP) is the side of tho ditch next to tho place,
which, in j>- rmanent fortifications, is usually faced with masonry.

ESCORT. (See CONVOY.) There arc also funeral escorts ; escorts'
of h.nor ; color escorts ; &c., dec.

ESPLANADE. Empty space for exercising troops in fortified

pbcst,

ESPRIT DE CORPS. Tho brotherhood of a corps; military
and IT-.- . Nothing is so prejudicial to it, as tho failure !

unite the companies of a regiment. It might also be promoted

Evi.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 2G3

cording the distinguished services of a regiment on its colors. (See
SOLDIER.)

EVACUATE. To withdraw from a town or fortress, in conse-
quence either of a treaty or a capitulation, or of superior orders.

EVIDENCE is that which makes clear, demonstrates, or ascertains
the truth of the very fact or point in issue ; (3. Bl. Comm., 367.) Evi-
dence may be considered with reference to, 1, the nature of the evidence;
2T, the object of the evidence ; 3, the instruments of evidence ; and, 4, the
effect of evidence.

As to its nature, evidence may be considered with reference to
its being, 1, the primary evidence ; 2, secondary evidence ; 3, positive ;
4, presumptive ; 5, hearsay ; and, 6, admissions.

1. Primary evidence. The law generally requires that the best
evidence the case admits of shall be given ; (1 Stark. Ev., 102, 390.)

2. Secondary evidence is that species of proof which is admissible on
the loss of primary evidence. Before it is admitted, proof must be made
of the loss or impossibijity of obtaining the primary evidence.

3. Positive evidence is that which, if believed, establishes the truth
of a fact in issue, and does not arise from any presumption. Evidence
is positive when the very facts in dispute are communicated by those
who have actual knowledge of them by means of their senses ; (1 Stark.
19.)

4. Presumptive evidence is that which is not direct, but where, on
the contrary, a fact which is not positively known, is presumed from
one or more other facts or circumstances which are known ; (1 Stark.
18.)

5. Hearsay is the evidence of those who relate not what they know
themselves, but what they have heard from others. As a general rule,
hearsay evidence of a fact is not admissible. But evidence given on a
former trial by a person since dead is admissible, as is also the dying
declarations of a person who has received a mortal injury. A few
more exceptions may be found in Phillips' Ev., chap. 7 ; 1 Stark. Ev., 40.

6. Admissions, which are the declarations made by a party for him-
self or those acting under his authority. These admissions are gener-
ally evidence of facts declared, but the admissions themselves must be
proved.

The object of evidence is to ascertain the truth between the parties.
Experience shows that this is best done by the following rules, which
are now binding in law : 1. The evidence must be confined to the point
in issue ; 2. The substance of the issue must be proved, but only the
substance is required to be proved ; 3. The affirmative of the issue

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Eva

must be proved. A witness, on being admitted in court, is first sub-
jected to the examination of the party in whoso behalf he is called.
This is termed the examination in chief. The principal* rule to bo
observed by the party examining is, that leading questions are not to be
sked. The witness is then cross-examined by the other party. The
object of cross-examination is twofold: to weaken the evidence given
by the witness as to the fact in question, either by eliciting contrad'u -timis
or new explanatory facts; or, secondly, to invalidate the general credit of
the witness. In the latter case it is a general rule, that a witness may
refuse to answer any question, if his answer will expose him to criminal
liability. The general practice of English courts also seems to auth< >rize

: usal to answer any question which will disgrace him. The
of a witness may likewise bo impeached by the general evidence of others
as to his character ; but in this case no evidence can be given of par-
ticular facts which militate against his jreneral credit. "Witnesses are
excluded from giving evidence by: 1. Want of reason or understand-
ing; 2. Want of belief in God and a future state ; 3. Infancy ; and, -1.
Interest Besides witnesses, records and private writings arc also i-
struments of evidence.

1. Records, in all cases where the issue is mil ticl reord, are to be,
proved by an exemplification duly authenticated ; that is, an attestation
made by a proper officer, by which he certifies that a record is in due
form of law, and that the person who certifies it is the oflieer appointed
by law to do so. In other cases an examined copy, duly proved, will
in general be evidence.

2. Private writings are proved by 1 producing the attesting witness,
or, in case of his absence, death, or other legal inability to testify, as if,
after attesting the paper, he becomes int'mmu-.. his handwriting may bo
proved. When there is no witness to the instrument, it, may l.e j

lence of the handwriting of the j tarty, by a person who ha-
him writ.-, or in a course of >! -n -spundeni v has become acquainted with
his hand. Parol evidence is admissible to di-t'.-at a written instrument
on the ground of fraud, mistake, dec. ; or to apply it to its proper subject,
matter, or, in some instances, as ancillary to sn< h application, to explain
the meaning of doubtful terms, or rebut presumptions .M-isini: extrinsic-
ally. But in all cases the parol evidence does not usurp the. place or
Arrogate the authority of the writtm instrument. (Consult .jrrnerally
Trralitci on Evidence by PHILLIPS and STARKIK ; BOUVIXR'S Law Die*
tionary ; BRANDED Encyclopaedia.)
EVOLUTION- , x , M, ...,,,

EXECUTION OF LAWS. On all occasions when the troops are

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 265

employed in restoring or maintaining public order among their fellow-
citizens, the use of arms, and particularly fire-arms, is obviously attend-
ed with loss of life or limb to private individuals ; and for these con-
sequences, a military man may be called to stand at the bar of a criminal
court.' A private soldier also may occasionally be detached on special
duty, with the necessity of exercising discretion as to the use of his
arms ; and in such cases he is responsible, like an officer, for the
right use or exercise of such discretion. One of the earliest reported
cases on this subject occurred in 1735, when Thomas Macadam, a pri-
vate sentinel, and James Long, a corporal, were tried before the Admi-
ralty Court of Scotland, upon a charge of murder under the following
circumstances : They were ordered to attend some custom-house officers,
for their protection in making a legal seizure ; and being in a boat with
the officers in quest of the contraband goods, one Frazer and his com-
panions came up with them, leaped into the boat, and endeavored to
disarm the soldiers. In the scuffle, the prisoners stabbed Frazer with
their bayonets, and threw him into the sea. For this homicide the
prisoners were tried and convicted of murder by a jury ; and the Judge-
admiral sentenced them to death. But the High Court of Justiciary re-
versed this judgment, on the ground that the homicide in question was
necessary for securing the execution of the trust committed to the
prisoners. The report of this case contains the following remarks upon
it by Mr. Forbes, afterwards Lord President of the Court of Session of
Scotland ; and they appear to be of great importance to military men :
" Where a man has by law weapons put into his hands, to be employed
not only in defence of his life when attacked, but in support of the exe-
cution of the laws, and in defence of the property of the Crown, and the
liberty of any subject, he doubtless may use those weapons, not only
when his own life is put so far in danger that he cannot probably es-
cape without making use of them, but also when there is imminent
danger that he may by violence be disabled to execute his trust, with-
out resorting to the use of those weapons ; but when tljp life of the
officer is exposed to no danger, when his duty does not necessarily call
upon him for the execution of his trust, or for the preservation of the
property of the Crown, or the preservation of the property or liberty
of the subject, to make use of mortal weapons, which may destroy His
Majesty's subjects, especially numbers of them who may be innocent, it
it is impossible from the resolution of the Court of Justiciary .to expect
any countenance to, or shelter for, the inhuman act." This quotation,
in the latter part of it, has a direct bearing on the case of the unfortu-
nate Captain Porteus, whose trial took place in the following year, and

260 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ext

whose melanclu tho groundwork of Sir Walter

of Mid Lothian." In tin- '. tin- collector of customs on tho

coast of Fife mode a seizure of contraband goods of considerable value,
which were condemned and sold. Two of tho proprietors of these goods
took an opportunity of robbing the collector of just so nnu-h money as
these goods had sold for. They regarded this as merely a fair ivprisal,
and no robbery ; but they were nevertheless taken up, tried, and con-
demned to death for tho fact. With the exception of some smuggling
transactions, in which they had boon concerned, the prisoners were men
of fair character ; and tho mob expressed much dissatisfaction with their
v, and the prospect of their execution. On the Sunday preced-
ing the day appointed for the execution, the prisoners wen- taken to a
church near the gaol, attended by only three or four of tho city guards,
to hear divine service. None of tho congregation had assembled, and
the guards being feeble old men, one of tho prisoners made a spring
over tho pew where they sat, while the other, whose name \vas Wilson,
in order to facilitate his companion's escape, caught hold of two of the.
guards with his hands, and seized another with his teeth, and thus en-
abled his companion to join the mob outside, who bore him off to a
place of safety. Wilson then composedly resumed his own seat, with-
out making any attempt to recover his own liberty. This generous
conduct of Wilson created a strong public feeling in his favor ; and the
magistrates of Edinburghfcoon learned that an attempt would be. made
by the mob to rescue him at the place of execution. They therefore
procured some of the regular forces on duty in tho suburbs to be posted
at a convenient distance from the spot, so as to support tho city guard,
in case they should be vigorously attacked. The officer, whose turn it
was to do duty as captain of the city guard, being deemed unfit for tho
critical duties of the day, Captain Porteus, unfortunately for himself,
wat appointed to the command on the occasion. His men wen -
with Lull -cartridge ; and, by order of the magistrates, they loaded their
pieces when* hey went upon duty. The execution took j.la'-- without
any disturbance until the time arrived for cutting down the body, when
the mob severely pelted the, executioner with stones, which hit tho
guards as they surrounded the scaffold, and provoked them to fire upon
the crowd. Some persons at a distance from the place of
were thus killed. As soon as the body was removed, Captain Porteus
withdrew his men, and marched up tho West Bow, which is a narrow
winding passage. The mob. having recovered from the fri^h:
by tho previous firing, followed tho guard up this passage, and pelted
the rear with stones, which tho guards returned with some

SXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 267

shot, whereby some where killed, and others wounded. On reaching
the guard-house they deposited their arms in the usual form, and Cap-
tain Porteus went with his piece in his hand to the Spread Eagle Tav-
ern, where the magistrates were assembled. On his arrival there, he
was charged with the murder of the persons who had been slain by the
city guards, on the allegation that he had commanded the guards to fire.
The mob was very riotous, and called for justice upon him; and the
magistrates, after adjourning to the council chamber, committed him
to the Tolbooth for trial. The strongest feeling existed against him
on the part of the mob, until the hour of his trial before the High
Court of Justiciary arrived, when, to their great satisfaction, he was
found guilty, and condemned to be hanged. The higher classes of so-
ciety, however, unaffected by the popular prejudice against the unfor-
tunate prisoner, exerted themselves strenuously in his behalf, and suc-
ceeded in obtaining a reprieve. This created the greatest discontent
among the lower orders, who, on the night before the day originally ap-
pointed for the execution, broke open the gaol, dragged the unhappy
Captain Porteus down stairs by the heels, carried him to the common
place of execution, and there, throwing a rope over a dyer's pole, hanged
him with many marks of barbarity. The perpetrators of this outrage
were never discovered, and the subject gave rise to very warm debates
in Parliament, particularly in the House of Lords, with respect to the
conduct of the city magistrates and officers.

It was quite clear, however, with reference to the criminality of
Captain Porteus, that he had ordered his men to fire without sufficient
cause or justification ; and, under such circumstances, he was in point
of law justly found guilty of murder.

Ensign Hugh Maxwell, of the Lanarkshire Militia, was tried in
1807, before the High Court of Justiciary of Scotland, for the murder
of Charles Cottier, a French prisoner of war at Greenlaw, by improperly
ordering John Gow, a private sentinel, to fire into the room where Cot-
tier and other prisoners were confined, and so causing him to be mor-
tally wounded. It appeared that Ensign Maxwell had been appointed
to the military guard over 300 prisoners of war, chiefly taken from
French privateers. The building in which they were confined was of
no great strength, and afforded some possibilities of escape. The pris-
oners were of a very turbulent character, and to prevent their escape
during the long winter nights, an order was given that all lights in the
prison should be put out by nine o'clock, and that if this was not done
at the second call, the guard were to fire upon the prisoners, who were
often warned that this would be the consequence of disobedience with

V.Vs MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Exi.

regard to the lights. On the night in question, there was a tumult in
the prison, but of no great importance ; ami Ensign Maxwell's attention
having been on that account drawn to tin- prisoners, ho observed a light
burning beyond the appointed hour, ami twice ordered it to be put out.
This order not being obeyed he ordered the sentry to fire, but tho mus-
ket merely snapped. Ho repeated the order; the sentinel fired again,
and Cottier received his mortal wound. At this time there was no
symptom of disorder in tho prison, and tho prisoners were all in bed.
The general instructions issued from the adjutant-general's office in
Edinburgh, for the conduct of tho troops guarding tho prison, contained
no such order as that which Ensign Maxwell -had acted upon; and it
appeared that tho order in question was a mere verbal one, which had
from time to time, in tho hearing of the officers, been repeated by tho
corporal to the sentries, on mounting guard, and had never been coun-
tenn.imle.l by those officers, who were also senior to Ensign Maxwell.
The Lord Justice Clerk described tho case to the jury as altogether the
most distressing that any court had ever been called upon to con-

and laid it down most distinctly, that Ensign Maxwell could only
def.-n.l himself by proving specific orders, which ho was bound to obey
without discretion; or by showing that in the general discharge of his
duty he was placed in circumstances, which gave him discretion, and
called upon him to do what ho* did. His lordship was of opinion that
bqth these grounds of defence failed in tho present case; and tho jury
having found Ensign Maxwell guilty of the minor offence of culjmMe

?e, with a recommendation to mercy, tho court sentenced him to
nine months' imprisonment. Ensign Maxwell's conduct certainly ex-
hibit, d none of those gross features which characterize murder; but at
the same time he was guilty of a rash and inconsiderate act, which, if
he had not been engaged at the time in military duty, though ho was
mistaken in tho exercise of it, would probably have been held to amount
to murder. In Maxwell's case, tho soldier who fired the shot was not
prosecuted for tho act, nor was ho liable to such prosecution.

It is laid down in a book of authority, that if a ship's sentinel shoot

, because he persists in approaching the ship when he has been
Ordered not to do SO, it will bo munln-, nnl.-ss such an net was
sary for the ship's safety. And it will be murder, though the sentinel
had orders to prevent the approach of any boats, had ammunition given
to him when he was put on guard, and acted on tho mistaken impres-
sion that it was - . Thomas, the prisoner was sentinel
on board II. M.S. AcJiillr, when sho was paying off. The orders to him
from the preceding sentinel were to keep off all boats, unless they had

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 269

officers in uniform in them, or unless the officer on deck allowed them
to approach : and he received a musket, three blank-cartridges, and
three balls. The boats pressed, upon which he repeatedly called to.
them to keep off; but one of them persisted, and came close under the
ship, and he then fired at a man in the boat and killed him. It was put
to the jury to find whether the sentinel did not fire under the mistaken
impression that it was his duty ; and they found that he did. But the
case being reserved for the opinion of the judges, their lordships were
unanimous that it was murder. They thought it, however, a proper
case for a pardon : and further, they were of opinion that if the act had
been necessary for the preservation of the ship, as if the deceased had
been stirring up a mutiny, the sentinel would have been justified.

The cases already cited turned upon the improper exercise of dis-
cretion by the officers concerned. But in the following case, though
not attended with actual consequences involving a criminal charge, the
discretion in the use of arms was wisely exercised, and indicated great
presence of mind, and correctness of judgment.

Some years ago, the public journals of London recorded the meri-
torious behavior of a private sentry, upon the occasion of a riotous
mob assembled at ths entrance of Downing-street, with the intention
of attacking the government offices in that quarter of the town. This
man standing alone presented his musket, and threatened to fire upon
the crowd, if the slightest attempt were made to approach the particular
office for the defence of which he was placed on duty, and succeeded by
the terror thus created, though at a great risk of consequences to him-
self, in keeping the rioters at bay until a larger force arrived to assist
him.* The soldier's conduct was publicly much approved. It was also
clearly legal according to Macadam's case ; and if after the announce-
ment of his intentions the mob had pressed forward to execute their
purpose, he would have been held justified at law in firing at the rioters
upon his own responsibility. The Duke of Wellington, as Constable
of the Tower, testified his marked approbation of this man's conduct, by
promoting him at once to a Wardership at that fortress.

During the Irish insurrection of 1848, Smith O'Brien was arrested
at the railway station of Thurles, on a charge of high treason. A pub-
lic passenger train was on the point of starting for Dublin, and the
engineeer was mounted on the engine, with the steam up, and every
thing in readiness for the immediate prosecution of the journey. The
scene of the arrest lay in the disturbed distrct, which was in the occu-
pation of the troops employed to suppress the insurrection and prevent
its extension. General Macdonald's aide-de-camp, having been apprised

270 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Exi

of the arrest, proceeded instantly to the station, and there cr.mi

-nut from the engine, and to stop the train ; it lie-
ing of the utmost importance to the public safety and service that the
news of the arrest should not be carried along tlio line of railway, as
th6 country people might assemble in great numbers and destroy the
rails, and rescue the prisoner, or otherwise impede the conveyance of
the prisoner to Dublin. Sueh interference would obviously have occa-
sioned great l<-s of life, besides the danger to the public service at such
a season. The engineer at first refused to obey tho aide-de-camp's or-
hereupon the officer presented his pistol at the engineer, and
threatened him with instant death if he persisted in his refusal. The
man then dismounted ; but it is conceived that tho officer pursued a
correct line of conduct, and exercised upon the occasion a sound dis-
. which would have been a good legal defence to him, if ho had
ultimately proceeded to execute his threat upon the engineer. " Power
iu law (says Sir Edward Coke) means power with force."

The right of officers or soldiers to interfere in quelling a felonious
i.-ther with or without superior military orders, or the direction
of a civil magistrate, is quite clear, and beyond tho possibility of mis-
take. This subject, however, was formerly little understood; and
military men failed in their public duty through . nfion.

George III. and hit Attorney-general (\\Vddcrburn) both deservedly

acquired high credit for their energy in the crisis of the riots of 1780.

\Yhen the king heard that tho troops which had been marched i

all quarters were of no avail in restoring order, on account of a scruple

.oy could not be ordered to fire till an hour after the Riot Act

had been read, he called a cabinet council, at which ho himself presided,

and propounded for their consideration the legality of this opinion.

There was much hesitation among the councillors. a> iln-y r. nx mlieivd

:tcry that h i i !. m made by reason of some dca;hsfr..m the in-

nco of the military in Wilkes's riots, and the cairn-ness with

which grand juries had found indictments tor murder against those \\ho

had acted under the command of their superiors. At last the question

was put to the Attorney-general, who attended as assessor, and h

tr, Unhesitating, and unqualified answer to the Hll-et. that if the
mob v. .nitting .1 felony, ashy burning do\\n dwelling-houses,

MI dojnir so lv other nn ans, the military,

according to the l.iw of Kngland, might and ought to be ordered to fire,
upon them: tho reading of th- Ki-.t Act being wholly unnecessary
and nugatory under sii'-h circum ' words used by

him on this occasion arc not known ; but they must have 1>, \\ nearly

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 271

the same which he employed when he shortly afterwards expounded
from the judgment seat the true doctrine upon the subject. The re-
quisite orders were issued to the troops, the conflagrations were
stopped, and tranquillity was speedily restored.

This eminent lawyer having become Chief Justice of the Court of
Common Pleas, with the title of Lord Loughborough, delivered a
charge to the grand jury on the special commission for the trial of the
rioters of 1780, in the following terms : " I take this public opportunity
of mentioning a fatal mistake into which many persons have fallen. It
has been imagined, because the law allows an hour for the disp^r-
sion of a mob to whom the Riot Act has been read by the magistrate,
the better to support the civil authority, that during that time the civil
power and the magistracy are disarmed, and the king's subjects, whose
duty it is at alt times to suppress riots, are to remain quiet and pas-
sive. No such meaning was within view of the legislature, nor doe j
the operation of the act warrant such effect. The civil magistrates are
left in possession of all those powers which the law had given them
before. If the mob collectively, or a part of it, or any individual within
or before the expiration of that hour, attempts, or begins to perpetrate
an outrage amounting to felony, to pull down a house, or by any other
act to violate the law, it is the duty of all present, of whatever descrip-
tion they may be, to endeavor to stop the mischief, and to apprehend
the offender."

" A riot (says Mr. Justice Gaselee) is not the less a riot, nor an
illegal meeting, because the proclamation of the Riot Act has not been
read ; the effect of that proclamation being to make the parties guilty
of a capital offence if they do not disperse within an hour ; but if that
proclamation be not read, the common law offence remains, and it is a
misdemeanor ; and all magistrates, constables, and even private indi-
viduals are justified in dispersing the offenders ; and if they cannot
otherwise succeed in doing so, they may use %rce."

After the suppression of the great riots of London in 1780, by the
aid of the troops, as already mentioned, the government was acrimo-
niously attacked both in and out of parliament, on the ground that the
employment of a military force, to quell riots by firing on the people,
could only be justified, if at all, by martial law proclaimed under a
special exercise of the royal prerogative ; and it was thence argued that
the nation was living under martial law. But Lord Mansfield, the
Chief Justice of the King's Bench, addressed the House of Lords on this
subject, and placed it in its true light. " I hold (said his lordship) that
His Majesty, in the orders he issued by the advice of his ministers, acted

V.'7-> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Eat.

perfectly and strictly according to the common law of the land, anl tlie

principles of the Constitution Every individual in his private

capacity may lawfully int. rf< -ro to suppress a riot, much more to pre-
vent acts of felony, treason, and rebellion. Not only is ho authorized
to interfere for such a purpose, but it is his duty to do so : and if called
upon by a magistrate, he is punishable in case of refusal. AN' hat any
single individual may lawfully do for the prevention of < -rime and pres-

n of the public peace, may be done by any number assembled
to perform their duty as p us. It is the peculiar business of

alfoonstahles to apprehend rioters, t" endeavor to disperse, all unlawful
assemblies, and in case of resistance, to attack, wound, nay kill those
"who continue to resist; taking care not to commit unnecessary vio-

or to abuse the power legally vested in them. Every one is
justified in doing what is necessary for the faithful diseharLre of the

annexed to his office, although ho is doubly culpable if ho wan-
tonly commits an illegal act under the color or pretext of law. The
persons who assisted in the suppression of those tumults are to be
considered mere private individuals acting as duty required. My
lords, we have not been living under martial law, but under that law
which it has long been my sacred function to administer. For any
violation of that law the offenders are amenable to our ordinary courts
of justice, and may be tried before a jury of their countrymen. Sup-
posing a soldier or any other military person who acted in the course
of the late riots, had exceeded the power with vh' ( 'h he was in\
I have not a single doubt that ho may be punished, not. bv a court-mar-
tial, but upon an indictment to be found by the Grand Inquest of the.
City of London or the County of Middlesex, and disposed of before the
crmined judges sitting in Justice Hall at the Old Bailey. Conse-
quently the idea is false, that we are living under a military p..vern-
r that, since the commencement of the riots, any part of the
laws or of the Constitution has been suspended or dispensed with. I
believe that much mischief has arisen from a misconeeption of t!
Act, which .' after proclamation made persons pn

riotous assembly shall depart to their homes ; those \\h . remain there
above on hour afterwards shall be guilty of fel-.-iy and liable to sutler
'his it has been imagined that, the military cannot act,
M maybe committed in their sight, till an hour

it beon made, or, as it is termed, ' the Iliot. Act is
read.' But the Riot Act only introduces a new offence reman
hour after the proclamation without qualifying any pro-exist';!:;: law,

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 373

or abridging the means which before existed for preventing or punish-
ing crimes."

In the case of Plandcock v. Baker, which was an action brought against
the defendants, who were not constables, for forcibly detaining and con-
fining the plaintiff, in order to prevent him from murdering his wife,
Mr. Justice Heath made the following observations : " It is a matter
of the last consequence that it should be known upon what occasions
bystanders may interfere so as to prevent felony. In the riots which
took place in 1780, this matter was much misunderstood, and a gen-
eral persuasion prevailed that no indifferent person could interpose
without the authority of a magistrate ; in consequence of which much
mischief was done which might otherwise have been prevented." And
in the same case Mr. Justice Chambre said : " There is a great differ-
ence between the right of a private person in cases of intended felony
and breach of the peace. It is lawful for a private person to do any
thing for the prevention of a felony." And in so doing it becomes
quite immaterial whether the persons wounded or slain are taking any
active part in the riot. In the caseT>f Clifford v. Brandon, which was
an action by a barrister of great eminence against the box-keeper of
Covent Garden Theatre, who had arrested him in the theatre for wear-
ing in his hat a ticket with O.P. on it this being a badge of the party
by whom the celebrated O.P. riots relative to the prices of admission
were carried on and nothing else having been proved against him
the Lord Chief Justice, Sir James Mansfield, said : " If any person en-
courages, or promotes, or takes part in riots, whether by words, signs,
or gestures, or by wearing the badge or ensign of the rioters, he is him-
self to be considered a rioter, he is liable to be arrested for a breach of
the peace. In this case all are principals."

But notwithstanding the existence of a clear right and duty on the
part of military men voluntarily to aid in the suppression of a riot, it
would be the height of imprudence to intrude with military force, ex-
cept upon the requisition of a magistrate, unless in those cases where
the civil power is obviously overcome, or on the point of being over-
come, by the rioters.

With regard to the requisition of military aid by the civil magis-
trate, the rule seems to be, that when once the magistrate has charged
the military officer with the duty of suppressing a riot, th.e execution
of that duty is wholly confided to the judgment and skill of the military
officer, who thenceforward acts independently of the magistrate until
the service required is fully performed. The magistrate cannot dictate
to the officer the mode of executing the duty ; and an officer would
18

_>7 t MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ex*.

his duty if he submitted to receive any such orders from th,;

rate. Neither is it necessary for the magistrate to accompany
the officer in the execution of his duty.

The learning on these points may be gathered from the charge of
Mr. Justice Littledale to the jury, in the trial of the mayor of 1
for broach of duty in not suppressing the riots at that city in iNiJl.
"Another charge (said His Lordship) against the defendant is, that
upon bein^ required to ride with Major Beckwith, he did not do so.
In my opinion IK- was not bound to do so in point of law. I do not
apprehend it to be the duty of a justice of the peace to ride along and
charge with the military. A military officer may act without the au-
thority of the magistrate, if he chooses to take the responsibility ; but
although that is the strict law, there are few military men who will tako
upon themselves so to do, except on the most pressing occasions.
Where it is likely to be attended with a great destruction of life, a,
man, generally speaking, is unwilling to act without a magistrates
authority ; but that authority need not be given by his presence. In
this case the mayor did give his authority to act ; the order has been
read in evidence ; and he was not bound in law to ride with the sol-
diers, more particularly on such an occasion as this, when his presence
elsewhere might be required to give ireneral directions. If he Mas
bound to make one charge, ho was bound to have made as many other
charges as the soldiers made. It is not in evidence that the mayor was
able to ride, or at least in the habit of doing so; and to charge with
soldiers it is not only necessary to ride, but to ride in the same manner
as they do ; otherwise it is probable the person would soon be un-
horsed, and would do more harm than good : besides that, if the mob
were disposed to resist, a man who appeared in plain dotlies leading
the military would bo soon selected and destroyed. I do not appre-
hend that it is any part of the duty of a person who has to give gen-
eral directions, to expose himself to all kinds of personal danger. The,
general commanding an army does not ordinarily do so, and I can set-
no reason why a magistrate should. A case may bo eon< i\< -<1 where.
it might be prudent, but here no necessity for it has been shown/'

This rabjed \\as aU> luminously expounded l.y the late L,,rd Chief
Justice Tindal, in his charge to the grand jury on the special commis-
sion hell at r.rist.,1, on the 2d of January, 1832, for the trial of the par-
ties implicated in the formidable riots and devastations committed in

y during the autumn of the previous year: "It has been well
said that the uso of the law consists, first, in preserving men's persons
from death and violence ; next, in securing to them the free enjoyment

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 275

of their property ; and although every single act of violence, and each
individual breach of the law, tends to counteract and destroy this its
primary use and object, yet do general risings and tumultuous meet-
ings of the people in a more especial and particular manner produce
this effect, not only removing all security, both from the persons and
property of men, but for the time putting down the law itself, and

daring to usurp its place In the first place, by the common

law, every private person may lawfully endeavor, of his own authority,
and without any warrant or sanction of the magistrate, to suppress a
riot by every means in his power. He may disperse, or assist in dis-
persing, those who are assembled ; he may stay those who are engaged
in it from executing their purpose ; he may stop and prevent others
whom he shall see coming up, from joining the rest ; and not only has
he the authority, but it is his bounden duty, as a good subject of the
king, to perform this to the utmost of his ability. If the riot be gen-
eral and dangerous, he may arm himself against the evil-doers to keep
the peace. Such was the opinion of all the judges of England in the
time of Queen Elizabeth, in a case called ' The Case of Arms,' (Pop-
ham's Reports, p. 121,) although the judges add, that ' it would be more
discreet for every one in such a case to attend and be assistant to the
justices, sheriffs, or other ministers of the king in doing this.' It would,
undoubtedly, be more advisable so to do ; for the presence and author-
ity of the magistrate would restrain the proceeding to such extremities,
until the danger was sufficiently immediate, or until some felony was
either committed or could not be prevented without recourse to arms ;
and at all events the assistance given by men who act in subordination
to, and in concert with, the civil magistrate, will be more effectual to
attain the object proposed, than any efforts, however well intended, of
separate and disunited individuals. But if the occasion demands im-
mediate action, and no opportunity is given for procuring the advice or
sanction of the magistrate, it is the duty of every subject to act for him-
self, and upon his own responsibility in suppressing a riotous and tu-
multuous assembly ; and he may be assured that whatever is honestly
done by him in the execution of that object, will be supported and
justified by the common law. And whilst I am stating the obligation
imposed by the law on every subject of the realm, I wish to observe
that the law acknowledges no distinction in this respect between the
soldier and the private individual. The soldier is still a citizen, lying
under the same obligation, and invested with the same authority to
preserve the peace of the king as any other subject. If the one is bound
to attend the call of the civil magistrate, so also is the other ; if the one

276 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ext

may interfere for that purpose when the occasion demands it, without
the requisition of tin* magistrate, so may the other too; if the one
may employ arms for that purpose, when arms are necessary, the sol-
dier may do the same. Undoubtedly the same exercise of discretion
which requires the private subject to act in subordination to, and in aid
of, the magistrate, rather than upon his own authority, In fore recourse
is had to arms, ought to operate in a still stronger degree with a mili-
tary force. But where the danger is pressing and immediate, where
a felony has actually been committed, or cannot otherwise be prevented,
and from the circumstances of the case no opportunity is offered of ob-
taining a requisition from the proper authorities, the military subjects
of the kin::, like his civil subjects,' not only may, but are bound to do
utmost, of their own authority, to prevent the perpetration of out-
rage, to put down riot and tumult, and to preserve the lives and prop-
erty of the people."

It is one result of tho law, as laid down by the foregoing authorities,
that a military officer refusing or failing, on a proper occasion, to bring
into action against a riotous or an insurrectionary mob, the force under
his command, would be guilty of an indictable offence at common law,
and might be prosecuted accordingly for breach of duty, independently
of his liability to military censure.

The most recent case on this subject arose out of the conduct of the
military at Six-mile Bridge, in the. County of Clare, during tho parlia-
mentary election for that county in the year 1852. At tin ensuing
Spring Assizes hold at Ennis in February, 1853, nn indictment for
murder was preferred against the magistrate and the officers and mm
whose conduct was impeached ; but the grand jury throw out tho bill :
and the case is hero noticed only for the sake of the charge deliver.'. 1
to them by Mr. Justice Pcrrin, who thus commented upon the law in
its application to the offence of which the military Wtff a-vused :

" It appears that there was an escort of soldiers, consist in
men, with two sergeants, as a safe-guard for some persons going to the
hustings at Six-mile Bridge, under the command of a captain and a lieu-
tenant, and the conduct of a magistrate a very difficult and a very
nice sen \\ith respect to the requisition, its terms, grounds,

or sufficiency, the soldiers could have no knowledge. Tin orders of the
general, whi. h they are bound to obey, and not permitted to canvass,
were obligatory on them ; and for its sufficiency they arc not respon-
sible, and you are happily relieved from any inquiry into that matter.
Under that order, and the command of Captain Eager, and the. con-
duct of Mr. Delmege, they assembled. They proceeded to Six-mile

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 077

Bridge, and were there, with their arms in their hands, in obedience to
orders. Those orders will not justify any unlawful conduct or violence
in them, but it accounts for their presence there in arms : for ordinary
persons going on such an occasion as that to the hustings would act
very indiscreetly and very dangerously, if, perhaps, not very illegally,
to arm themselves with deadly weapons, in order to meet obstruction
or opposition, if it were expected. But the soldiers were bound, and
were there under orders ; and that which in other persons might denote
a previous evil or deadly intention, you will see, plainly suggests none
in them, for they must obey their orders as soldiers. There was noth-
ing illegal in their proceeding through the crowd with the freeholders,
possibly like any other body of freeholders and their companions, but
doing or offering no unnecessary violence, nor were they to be subject to
any violence beyond others. They had no right to force ft way through
the crowd by violence, nor to remove any obstruction by arms, still less by
discharging deadly fire-arms. They had no right to repel a trespass on
themselves, or on the escort, by firing or inflicting mortal wounds. You
will observe the distinction I take between removing an obstruction
and repelling a trespass in another part of the case. They had a right
to lay hold of, as every subject of Her Majesty has, and to arrest persons
guilty of any assault or trespass, or other act tending to a riot, either to
restrain or make them amenable. There is no distinction between sol-
diers and others in that respect, Lord Mansfield says, and his attention
was very much called to this subject, touching the military engaged,
not as soldiers, but, he says, as citizens, and I say, as subjects of Her
Majesty. No matter whether their coats be red or brown, they are
employed not to subvert, but to preserve the laws which they ought to
prize so highly, taking care not to commit any unnecessary violence, or
to abuse the power vested in them. Every one is justified in doing
what is necessary for the faithful discharge of his duty, although he is
deeply culpable if he wantonly commits any illegal act under the color
or pretext of law. Those persons who assist in the suppression of tu-
mults are to be considered as mere private individuals, acting as duty
requires. It is a mistake to suppose that having resort to soldiers, is
introducing martial law or military government, Suppose a soldier,
or any other military person, who acted in the course of the late occur-
rence, had exceeded the powers with which he was invested, there is no
doubt that he may be punished, not by a court-martial, but by an in-
dictment, to be found by the Grand Inquest of the County of Clare, and
to be disposed of before the criminal judge, acting with the assistance
of the jury, in the court of the county. If assaulted, or struck with

J7> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ext.

stones, they had a right to r. p. 1 force by force, but not with deadly or
mortal weapons ; though if provoked by blows, so as to lose the com-
mand of their tempera though toon f-.rlicarance. perhaps, would l>e
expected from soldiers than from others if they did, when so provoked,
use the mortal weapons in their hamU, not with any previous premedi-
tation on theii parts so to use them and I ha\v marked tin- distinction
between soldiers and others under sucli circumstances in suchrcj.nl.
sion or affray, the law, in consideration of the provocation and the
frailty of human nature, reduces the crime, which would otherwise !>>
murder, to manslaughter. And if it should still further appear that,
_: been so assailed and attacked, they had been guilty of no aggres-
sion, and repelling force by force, the \iol.-neo proceeded so far that,
without any misconduct on their part, their lives were threatened, and
in actual danger; and if it appears that, in order to save themselves
and their lives, they were obliged to fire, and did fire, in the del.
their lives, and slay, the homicide is excusable and justifiable. /;/// in
order to warrant that finding by the jury , or that proceeding by the sol-
diers, you must be convinced by actual proof that their conduct h
all through correct, and by actual proof not the sat/ in;/ nr (he opinions
of any individual that their lives were in <?<iit;/rr, <///</ were saved by the
firing, and only by the firing. In order to warrant sueh a finding as
that, you must entertain that conviction founded upon the evidence
given before you. The facts evincing danger imminent to their lives
and which could be prevented only by the firing, must bo established
by clear evidence, demonstrating that such danger existed, and eould be.
only by resorting to that deplorah!- Bering

that mclffcr, you will recollect that there were of the parti/ /'"//// soldiers
fully armed, with fixed bayonets, under the command of two officers and
(wo sergeants ; and further, that it is at 1 aM <loul>tful whether there
was any legal command upon them to fire. NoeOBUnanc!
by their officers I think that is admitted on all hands. And furthrr,
you must recollect that the firing cannot l,c justified ?//>"/< the <jr<>un<l >nrn ///
that otherwise the freeholders m it/hi cither have escaped or bcrn with-
drawn. ~*That would afford no justifimtinn fr sliyinn the (muni hints.
I .'.ill also OOOtktar \\here the matter x-eurred in thisr.sj
vorable to the accused a narrow lano. In another point of view, (but
r for inquiry.) it is said to i near the eourt-

house, and near an opm n-.-id. where th.Te was a large body f police,
-: detachment of soldiers stationed, and where several magis-
. You will also consider the matter I have
taken into consideration, whether the soldiers fired without or-

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 2^0

ders, and whether they showed the steadiness and forbearance that
they ought. I need not again repeat to gentlemen of your intelligence,
that when I state any thing, I merely state what I have been informed ;
and I will not state a word as to that, but you will look to the evidence
before you. If it shall appear to you that shots were fired, and some
persons were killed, at a considerable distance from the lane, and out
of that lane, and by some of the soldiers who had occupied and imme-
diately come from it, and gained the open ground without any continued
resistance where there was no pretence of danger to their lives, and
the persons were, some at a great distance, and some of them with their
backs turned if that state of facts appeared, without previous ex-
citement and previous provocation, it would amount to a case of mur-
der ; but it will be for you to say whether such a state of facts as to
some individual soldiers should appear whether there was any previ-
ous excitement and provocation (which, as I before told you, would re-
duce the killing, though it would not justify it, to manslaughter) con-
tinuing for a sufficient time, and preventing the blood from cooling.
You will consider how far that consideration in your mind operates,
and leads you to the conclusion that they acted, not from a deliberate
intention to take away life, but from the excitement and warmth pro-
duced by previous provocation. That would reduce the crime to man-
slaughter. Therefore, gentlemen, as to those persons who were slain
on what is called the Lodge Road, or near Miss Wilson's, your inquiry
will be : first, as to whether any persons were slain ; next, by whom they
were slain : because, unless it appears that the whole body of soldiers
were forward, and if it should appear there were only a few there, it
will be your duty to inquire with respect to them if it make any distinc-
tion in the finding to identify and particularize those individuals. If
you should find that the homicide was of the worst description, and that
they had unnecessarily, and without provocation and excitement to ex-
cuse, and also a warmth of blood, for which there is allowance made,
you could not visit their act upon the whole body ; and, therefore, it
will be material for you to ascertain who those individual persons were.
That is as much and as important a part of the bill as any other.
Then, gentlemen, if they be distinguishable, it is your duty to do so.
If you find them guilty of a higher degree of offence than any of the
others, you must be able to distinguish them : for you cannot find a
general verdict against all upon that. With respect to those slain in
the lane, if you are convinced that the soldiers were not the aggressors,
but that when they fired they were unlawfully assailed, so as to be in
real danger of their own lives, and could not otherwise save them as

^0 MIUTAKY DICTIONARY. [Ext

I befu; it would amount to justifiable homicide, and ought

to be so found. But if you think that, though they were not the aggress-
ors, and that they were assailed and struck, and, being thereby pro-
voked, repelled force by force, with the affray thickening, and they re-
ceiving blows, either from weapons in the hands, or from stones cast
upon them that they were provoked so, and repelled force by force,
so us to get their blood so heated that they fired and slew them I
think then you ought to find a bill of manslaughter against all, that is,
against every man who is proved to you to have discha msk* t

on that occasion ; but you must have such proof, < . And

whatever you find in respect to those slain in the lane manslaughter ur
ide in self-defence you ought to find a bill of manslaughter, at
the very least, against every soldier who is proved to have fired in the
broad street, or what is called the Lodge Road. These are the obser-
vations that I think it right to suggest for your assistance. I cannot,
of course, in my imperfect view of the facts, give you such advice and
.;--:- ..:.' a- 1 would p? a jury upon a case whieh I had heard ; but I
will be ready and happy, if you find any difficulty in applying any thing
said upon the evidence, to give you such further assistance as I
can, and answer any questions which you shall put to mo on the
subject."

It may, perhaps, be useful to subjoin a general order issued to the
commander-in-chicf at Madras, in April, 1825, during the government
of Sir Thomas Munro, shortly after a melancholy affair at Kitt>or. in
whieh one or two civil servants of the East India Company lost their
lives under circumstances whieh, in the opinion of the public authorities,
indicated, both in the civil and military functionaries, a want of general
knowledge respecting the subject of the order.

"The Honorable, the Governor in Council, deems it necessary to
lay down the following rules relative to the exercise of the authority
with whieh civil magistrates, and other < .(lien's acting in a simi
pacity, arc vested, for calling out military force to pr> peace

of the country :

1 . i first and most important rule is, that no civil oflieer shall
call out troops until he is convinced, by mature consideration of all the
iistances, that such a measure is necessary.

Whm tli-- -i\ il officer is satisfied of the necessity of the measure.
he should, before carrying it into execution, receive the sanction of
'.unless the delay requisite for that pnrjM.se is lik

d to the public interests. In that case, also, ho should
fully report the circumstances to government.

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 281

" 3. When the civil officer may not deem it safe to wait for the orders
of government, he should address his requisition for troops, not to any
subordinate military officer, but to the officer commanding the division,
to whom he should communicate his object in making it, and all the
information he may possess regarding the stength and designs of those
by whom the public peace is menaced or disturbed. His duty is confined
to these points. He has no authority in directing military operations.

" 4. The officer commanding the troops has alone authority to de-
termine the number and nature of those to be employed ; the time and
manner of making the attack, and every other operation for the reduc-
tion of the enemy.

" 5. Whenever the officer commanding the division may think the
troops at his disposal inadequate to the enterprise, he should call upon
the officer commanding the neighboring division for aid, and report to
government and to the commander-in-chief.

" 6. No assistant or subordinate magistrate is authorized to call out
troops. When any such officer thinks military aid necessary, he must
refer to his superior, the principal magistrate of the district.

" The foregoing rules are to be observed, when it can be done with-
out danger to the public safety. Should any extraordinary case occur,
which admits of no delay, civil and military officers must then act ac-
cording to the emergency and the best of their judgment. Such cases,
however, can rarely occur, unless when an enemy becomes the as-
sailant ; and therefore occasion can hardly ever arise for departing
from the regular course of calling out troops, only by the requisition
of the principal civil magistrates of the province, to the officer com-
manding the division.

" Ordered, that the foregoing resolutions be published in general or-
ders to the army, and be communicated for the information and guid-
ance of such civil officers as they concern." (Consult PRENDERGAST.
See CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; OBSTRUCTION OF LAWS ; INSURRECTION ;
MARSHALS ; POSSE COMITATUS.)

EXEMPTS FROM MILITIA DUTY. The Vice-president of the
United States ; the officers, judicial and executive, of the government
of the United States ; the members of both houses of Congress, and
their respective officers ; all custom-house officers, with their clerks ;
all post-officers and stage-drivers, who are employed in the care and
conveyance of the mail of the post-office of the United States ; all ferry-
men employed at any ferry on the post road ; all inspectors of ex-
ports ; all pilots and mariners actually employed in the service of any
citizen or merchant within the United States ; and all persons who

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Exr.

are or may be exempted by the laws of the different States ; (Ac:
8, 1792.)

EXPEDITION is an enterprise undertaken either by sea or 1>\
land against an enemy, the fortunate termination of which principally
depends on the rapidity and unexpected nature of its movements. To
be successful, the design and preparations for an expedition should, as
far as may be practicable, be carefully concealed ; the means employed be
proportioned to the object in view ; the plan carefully arranged, and its
execution intrusted to a general whose talents are known t<> fit him fr
such * command, and who possesses a perfect knowledge of the scene
of action.

EXPENSE MAGAZINES are small powder magazines contain-
ing ammunition, &c., made up for present use. There is usually one
in each bastion.

EXTERIOR SIDE is the side of the polygon, upon which a front
of fortification is formed.

i:\TERIOR SLOPE is a slope given to the outside of the para-
It is found by experience that earth of common quality will
naturally acquire a slope of 45, even when battered by cannon. This
inclination is therefore given to the slope.

EXTRA ALLOWANCES. Officers shall not receive any a.l.li-
tional pay, extra allowance, or compensation in any form whatev
disbursements of public money, or any other service or duty whatso-
ever, unless the same shall be authorized by law, and the appropriation
'r explicitly set forth ; that is, for such additional pay, extra al-
lowance, or compensation ; (Act Aug. 23, 1842.)

KXTRA EXPENSES. Where any commissioned officer shall bo
obliged to incur any extra expense in travelling, and sitting on general
courts-martial, he shall be allowed one dollar and twenty-five cents per
day, if not entitled to forage, and one dollar if so entitled ; (Act Jan.

FACE OF A GUN. The superficies of the metal at the extremity
of the mu//lo.

1 ACES OF A BASTION are the two sides extending fn,m th-
salient to the angle of tin- shoulder.

FACES OF A SQUAKK. Th- si.les of a battalion when form. ,1

V AGINGS, 'it of soldiers to the right, left, right

about, left aboii i.

FIE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 033

FALSE ALARMS. Punishable. (See ALARM.)
FALSE CERTIFICATES. Punishable with cashiering; (ART.
14.) (See CERTIFICATE.)

FALSEHOOD. The onus probandi in all accusations lies with
the accuser. If A accuses B of having told a falsehood, A must prove
it by legal evidence.

FARRIER AND BLACKSMITH. Allowed to cavalry regi-
ments. (See ARMY ; VETERINARY.)

FASCINES are long cylindrical fagots of brushwood, and when
designed for supporting the earth of extensive epaulements, are called
saucissons, and are about 18 feet long, and ten inches thick ; those for
the revetment of the parapets of batteries are eight or ten feet long ;
those for covering wet or marshy ground from 6 to 9 feet long. (See
REVETMENT for construction of fascines.)

FATIGUE DUTY. Soldiers on fatigue duty allowed an extra gill
of whiskey ; (Act March 2, 1829.)

That the allowance of soldiers employed at work on fortifications,
in surveys, in cutting roads, and other constant labor, of not less than
ten days, authorized by an act approved March second, eighteen hun-
dred and nineteen, entitled " An act to regulate the pay of the army
when employed on fatigue duty," be increased to twenty-five cents per
day for men employed as laborers and teamsters, and forty cents per
day when employed as mechanics, at all stations east of the Rocky
Mountains, and to thirty-five cents and fifty cents per day, respectively,
when the men are employed at the stations west of those mountains.
Approved August 4, 1854.

FAUSSE BRAIE is a second enceinte, exterior to, and parallel
to the main rampart, and considerably below its level.

FEVER. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS ; MEDICINE.)

FIELD. In a military sense, the scene of a campaign or battle.

FIELD DAY. A term used when a regiment is taken out to the field,
for the purpose of being instructed in the field exercise and evolutions.

FIELD MARSHAL. The highest military rank excepting that
of captain-general.

FIELD OFFICERS. Colonels, lieutenant-colonels, and majors,
are called field officers. They should always be mounted, in order to
give ground for movements, circulate orders, and correct pivots.

FIELD WORKS. Their object is to provide a body of troops, or
a town, with a secure protection against a sudden assault of superior
numbers by the interposition of a parapet of some material capable of
resisting the effects of projectiles. This parapet may be made of very

MILITARY DICTION ART.

miscellaneous materials, but is usually of earth, excavated from a ditch.
will itself be an obstacle to attack. The usual figure of a parapet
with its ditch is shown in Fig. 11.'

The exterior slope t /, which is always exposed to the action of the

Fio. 112.

weather, and during an engagement to enemy's shot, must have that in-
clination or slope which the materials composing it would assume when
poured loosely from a height, and at which they would therefore stand
without any additional support. This inclination for earth of ordinary
tenacity, is about 45 ; t. c., the base on which the slope stands is equal
to its height, or it has a depression of 1 in 1. The parapet would aflord
the best cover if its superior slope, d e, were horizontal, or rather
parallel to the plane of site ; but in this case a musket-shot, fired along
its surface, could not reach the ground within a very considerable dis-
tance in front of it; a gentle inclination is therefore given to it, and ex-
perience has fixed this slope at a depression of 1 in 6. The interior

'/ r, of this parapet must be nearly vertical, that soldiers^ may
lean against it and fire easily over it. It must, therefore, be supported
by a wall of some material, called a revetment. The base of this
slope is usually one-fourth the height. It has a depression, tin-ret-
4 in 1. A step, b c, called the banquette, is added, of a height sull'n lent
to enable a man of ordinary stature to fire conveniently <\cr the
and sloping away gently towards the rear to facilitate the alternate ad-
vance and retirement of each soldier to discharge and load his firelock.
The base of this slope is usually H to 2 times the height The dej.rcs-
1 in H or 2. The thickness of a parapet, that is, of
its superior slope, must be sufficient to withstand the Hl'eets of the pro-

s likely to be discharged against it. To afford security against
Musketry . . .its thickness must be 5 t

6-pounders
0-poundcrs .

rs
18-pounders .

j ;

]:
18 "

1 1 feet.

FtE.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

285

In field-works, which are seldom made to resist heavy artillery, a
thickness of parapet of 11 feet will generally be sufficient.

The height of a parapet will greatly depend upon its position. It
will readily be seen from Fig. 112, that a bullet striking the parapet
near the upper part will have to traverse a small portion only of the
thickness of the parapet in order to pass through.

It becomes necessary, therefore, to give to a parapet a height rather
greater than that to which cover is required. Hence on a plain where
the attacking and defending parties are on the same level, the height
of a parapet, to furnish cover to men 6 feet high, is usually 7 feet.
Should the parapet be situated upon the brow of a hill, the defenders
could obtain cover to any desired extent by merely retiring from it. In
this case a height sufficient to protect the soldiers while firing is all that
will be necessary ; this will usually be from 4 to 6 feet. (Fig. 113.)

Should these conditions be reversed, that is, should the attacking
party be in possession of the higher ground, a height of parapet up to
10 or 12 feet may be indispensable, and when the slope of the ground is
considerable, even this will afford cover to a small distance only behind
it ; (Fig. 114.) It may be said generally then that the height of para-
pets varies from 4 to 12 feet, and the thickness from 4 to 25 feet.

FIOB. 113, 114.

In the defence of field positions the following considerations require
special notice :

1st. The period likely to elapse before the position is attacked.

2d. The number of troops by whom the position is to be held.

3d. The number of men available for the construction of the work,
and the nature of the materials at hand.

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fit

On the first of these considerations will depend the height and thick-
ness of the parapet, depth and width of the ditch, and the nature of the
obstacles \\ hi. h may be added, as only a certain amount of work cm
be executed in a given time, and a work of even f< < -hie profile th<>
ly complete will be capable of a better defence than a stronger
only partially executed. The extent which it may be desirable to give
to the work will be limited by the number of men available for its !,-
fence. There must, at least, be suHk-it-nt to man the whole of the
parapet, and a reserve, in addition, is almost essential. The length of
crest line measured in yards, must not exceed half the number of n:- :i
allotted for its defence. When either labor or materials arc sc..
may be necessary to reduce the profile, and to contract the extent of the
work below that which would bo desirable under other circumst
but in this case the details should be so arranged as to admit of subse-
quent additions, should circumstances allow it, so as to bring the whole
work to that condition which might have been desirable, though unat-
tainable in the first instance. When time, labor, and materials are
abundant, a good parapet and ditch should always be made to
the defenders. The dimensions and construction of such a parapet have
already been given. But cover can be obtained f>r a limited number
of men in a more expeditious way. Thus a man will be equally pro-
tected from an enemy's fire, by standing behind a parapet feet hurl),
or in a trench 3 feet deep, with a bank of earth 3 feet high in front of
him. Now to dig a trench 3 feet deep, and throw the earth to the front
so as to form a bank 3 feet high, may be performed by the same num-
ber of men in at most ^ of the time required for the construction of a
complete parapet 6 feet high. A trench and breastwork then will be,
generally used when the time is limited, and when cover and not the
creation of an obstacle is the principal object of the work. Tig. 115

FIG. 11

represent* a Section of the sli^htiM work of this nature which can be of
any service. Here a trench 2$ feet deep is duir, and the earth thrown
to the front forms a rough parapet 2 feet high. The trench can contain
one rank only, and the total cover being 4$ feet high, the men will not

FIE.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

287

be safe except when sitting or stooping. A trench and breastwork of
these dimensions can be completed in about 1} hours. The next sec-
tion (Fig. 11G) is more serviceable; the total height of cover in this

FIG. 116.

case is 6 feet. The men will be safe therefore so long as they remain
in the trench, which provides room for one rank only at a time. The
completion of this work would require about 3 hours.

Fig. 117 is a section of a breastwork and trench of a capacity suffi-

cient for most of the purposes for which works of this nature are usually
required. The trench is wide enough to contain two ranks of men at
the same time, and affords cover 6 feet in height. Such a work can be
executed in about 5 hours.

Fro. 118.

Tig. 118 is a profile adapted to marshy or rocky situations where
shallow trenches only are practicable.

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [KiK.

This work can bo constructed very rapidly when labor is abun
as two working parties, one in front and the other in rear, can 1
ployed at the same time. The work to be performed then will gener-
ally be the excavation of a trench or ditch, and the formation of a para-
pet or breastwork, with the earth thrown out of it. It will in most
cases bo executed by the troops themselves, though sometimes laborers
may bo obtained. In constructing a simple trench and breastwork one
row of workmen only can bo advantageously employed at tho same
time, and it will be found desirable to place them 6 feet apart ; as at
this distance each man can use his arms freely, without interfering with
or injuring his neighlwr. "When the saving of time is of more conse-
quence than economy of labor, the diggers may be placed 4 feet apart,
and the completion of the work will be accelerated, though not in pro-
portion to tho increase in the number of workmen. An ordinary labor-
er or common soldier can excavate one cubic yard,t. e. 27 cubic feet, in
any but the hardest soils per hour ; and can continue working nt this
rate for 8 hours. Should the soil bo loose or sandy, so that the piekaxo
is seldom required, this estimate may bo nearly doubled. The
or breastwork will be completed in the time in which each man will
finish his portion, that is, a portion equal in length t<> the intn\al IK -
tween any two adjacent diggers : therefore the number of hours will l>e
equal to the number of cubic yards in such portion. "Whence the follow-
ing rule is at once obtained :

To find the time required for the construction of a trench or pnrnpet.
in ordinary soil

Multiply tho area of the section of the trench in square fret l>y tho
interval between the diggers (not less than feet), and divide this prod-
uct by 27, the quotient is- tho number of hours required for the con-
>n of tho work. Conversely, to find the area of tho section >f the
trench or breastwork which can be executed in a given time

Multiply the number of hours by 27, and divide the product l.y the
1 (in feet) between the diggers, the result will be tho area, in
square feet, of tho section of tho trench or breastwork.

It \vill frequently happen th.r n lie speedily obtained, and p<-

! defensible in a verv short time, l.y taking advantage of

the hedges, ditches, or walls, which mny be met with, or of the obstacles

which may be presented by the natural features of the Around, (leu-

eral rules for proceeding under all the various circumstances which may

occur cannot bo pivcn. but the following examples will show what may

eases, and indicate the character of the operations

usually required. Fig. 119 represents a common hedge and ditch

FIE.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

289

FIG. 119.

FIG. 120.

turned into a breastwork to be defended from the hedge side. If the
hedge be thick and planted on a bank, as is generally the case, and es-
pecially if the ditch be
tolerably deep and con-
tain water, the breast-
work will be rendered
strong at the expense of
little labor. A shallow
trench should be exca-
vated behind the hedge,
and the earth thrown up
to raise the bank suffi-
ciently to form a rough
breastwork some 18
inches thick at the top.
Should the hedge be
more than 6 feet high,
it should be cut to that
height, and the branches
interwoven with the low-
er part to strengthen it.
A hedge to be defended
from the ditch side (Fig.
120) is a ready-made trench and breastwork, and will become a conve-
nient work by a little scarping of the sides and widening and levelling of
the bottom of the ditch, and by the addition, if necessary, of a banquette.
A good nine-inch brick
wall is musket -shot
proof. Such a wall 4
feet high will require
no alteration, but may
be used as a parapet
by forming loopholes
with sand-bags laid on
the top, Fig.121. Should
there be time, a ditch
should be dug in front,
and the earth thrown up
against the front of the wall to prevent the enemy from using the loop-
holes against the defenders. A wall 15 feet high can be pierced with two
tiers of loopholes, one at 8 feet above the ground, the other at the top of
19

FIG. 121.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

r,,,

in Fig. 123.
must be dug

the wall. In rear a scaffolding must be erected of two stages to servo
as banquettes. Such an arrangement is shown in the diagram, (Fig. 122.)

A wall 8 feet high
may also be pierced with
two tiers of loopholes as
shown
trench

this case, to enable the de%
fenders to make use of
the lower tier of loop-
holes, and a scufloMinn
erected to serve as a ban-
quette for the upper. On
an emergency, mate rials
of almost any conceivable description, as sacks or casks of earth,
of sand, of coal, or even of com % or flour, boles of cotton, of cloth,
packs of wool, mattresses, trusses of hay, fagots, carts or wagons
of stable litter, brick rubbish or paving stones, may be formed into
parapets of defence, while the approach of an enemy may be rendered
exceedingly difficult, by a judicious combination of obstacles \\hidi, un-
der urgent circumstances, may be extemporized of trees, bushes, posts,
wagons, wheels, strong palings, chairs, tables, and miscellaneous articles
of furniture, with iron rails, pitchforks, and agricultural implements,
carefully arranged in the front, and secured by chains or ropes strongly
picketed to the ground. Every soldier should be able to form for him-
self a rifle pit. This can be accomplished by digging a hole in the
ground about 3 feet deep and 3 feet square at the top, with a little step
to enable him to get in or out with ease. The excavated earth should
be thrown up to the front to form a protection. A loophole should bo
made by three sand-bogs ; two placed longitudinally, and one across.

Fio. 124

A rill'- j'it nf this Co
-. 1'Jl.

truction is shown in plan, sort ion. ami el-

to fieM-works should bo rendered difficult

t
FIE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 091

by the formation of obstacles of various kinds, so that troops when
coming to the assault may be detained under heavy fire as long as
possible while they are endeavoring to force or surmount the obstacle.
Contrivances of this nature are very numerous. (See ABATIS, TROUS-
DE-LOUP, CROWS'-FEET, CHEVAUX-DE-FRIZE, INUNDATIONS.) In defensive
warfare it is frequently necessary to intrench towns and villages, to se-
cure them from the incursions of small parties, or to serve as points of
support for the movements of troops. If a town or village be com-
manded on all sides, or even by great elevations on one side, if the
houses be of wood and the roofs thatched, so as to be easily set on fire,
such a position should be avoided. Neither should a detachment of
troops occupy a town or village too extensive for their number, unless
a part of the village can be easily and effectually separated from the
rest. The number of the detachment should at least equal the number
of yards in the exterior line of Avorks by which the village is surround-
ed. To place a village in a state of defence, the first object will be to
complete a continuous line of defensive works, by which it may be en-
tirely surrounded. To this end advantage is taken of all buildings,
fences and walls, near the exterior edge. The buildings, when substan-
tial, may serve as bastions to flank the connecting lines of works, and
when due preparations have been made will become strong positions.
The walls and hedges must be strengthened by banks of earth, and will
form curtains connecting the stronger portions. All openings remain-
ing must be closed by parapets, strengthened by ditches, abatis, pali-
sading, and such obstacles as the locality may present, and the streets
must be barricaded at intervals. Barricades may be constructed of
materials of almost any kind of earth, of timber, of paving stones, of
wagons of stable litter ; (the wheels should be taken off.) In buildings
occupied for defence the doors and windows should be blocked up with
sand-bags, supported by frames of wood, and the glass
must be removed from the windows. Should there be
no projecting wings or porches, it will be necessary to
obtain a flanking fire by the construction of balconies
projecting from the windows, and furnished with loop-
holes in the sides and bottom, so that a flanking fire
can be brought to bear on the ground at the foot of
the wall. This arrangement is shown in the -diagram,
(Fig. 125.) The beams supporting the gallery or
balcony are bolted to the flooring within ; the balcony
is surrounded with good oak boarding of 4" or 5"
thick. That the communications of the defenders may be free,

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fit

all interior hedges and walls which can in any way impede their
movements must be levelled, so that they may be able to bring
support rapidly to any point pressed by an enemy. Those hedges
which it may be desirable to retain must be strengthened in the man-
ner already pointed out. The strength of the position may (when eir-
cdmstances admit) be greatly increased by the formation of an interior
keep, whither the defenders may retire and obtain favorable terms of
capitulation should they be unable to withstand the assaults of tl,
sailants. A substantial building within the town, as a gaol, may be con-
verted into a keep by blocking up unnecessary openings ; by covering
entrances or any unflanked portions of the walls with tambours ; by
loopholing the walls and surrounding them if possible with a ditch,
palisade, and abatis. In the absence of a building of this nature, it \\ ill
be desirable to construct a redoubt, of as strong a character as time
will allow. If the village be of considerable extent, and a position can
be found which cannot be commanded from the neighboring buildings,
the redoubt may be of earth, as in an ordinary field-work. While the
actual defences of the village are thus being prepared, parties will be
occupied on the ground without, in creating obstacles ami entanglements
in the immediate vicinity of the place, and in removing and levelling all
obstructions between such obstacles and the limits of rifle range. The
greatest obstacle which can be presented to an attacking force, will, in
future, be a long level tract, fully commanded by a sweeping fir
is, in fact, difficult to see how an assaulting body could pass over such a
tract of 1,000 or 800 yards in extent, to attack a work in daylight with-
out being annihilated. To remove every object, whether trco or bush,
rising ground, dry ditch, or hedge, which could afford cover or conceal-
ment to a rifleman, will be an object of primary importance in execut-
ing the arrangements for defence. Ditches full of water, or \\hidi .-an
be filled, may generally be left, as they impede, and cannot assist the
assaulting party. Fig. 120 gives an illustration of the Dtet&a, already
described, usually applicable for placing a village in a state of defence.

A very little time devoted to the study of the subject, won 1.1 enable.
an ofli'-rr in command of a picket or charged with the defence of an
outpost to determine the construction of all the. works that are re.jui-
He for protection and defence. TUB SKLKCTIOW or THE POST is what
will first engage attention, and the following considerations must have
their weight in determining the point :

TV inequalities of the ground, and the objects upon it, such as
buildings or f.-noes, Ace,, should be of sueh a nature, and in that relative
situation to each other, as to be convertible into a fortified post with

FIE.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Fid. 126.

' in/ nn'a^f L u'n : =^^^.

DEFENCE OF A FORTIFIED TILLAGE.

w, loopholed walls; P, parapets and ditches; c, ditto of casks; cr, abatis; r, stockades; &,
barriers ; 1 1, free communication, road or passage ; H, fortified house ; K, keep.

ATTACK OF THIS FOETIFIED VILLAGE.

D D, flying sap-parallel or trench of cover ; B, open field battery, first opened at about 350
yards' distance ; E, ditto, advanced to breach ; F, one 9-pounder and one 24-pounder howitzer, to
enfilade flanking defences e e' e", breaches ; A, storming party; Z, supporting ditto ; P, firing
party and skirmishers ; 8 a, false attacks, to divert the attention of the garrison at the moment of
the real assault.

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fir

THE LEAST POSSIBLE LABOR, AMD IN THE SHORTEST TIME. The position

should not be commanded, especially on the flanks or in the rear,
within the ordinary range of a field-piece. There should be plenty of

.ils on the spot fur the construction of temporary works, ami for
forming obstructions in front of thorn. The soil should be of a nature
that is easily worked, if it is foreseen that any trenches or ditches \\ill

be executed. It should generally be DIFFICULT OF ACCESS, and
yet offer the MEANS OF RETREATING in security. And should be in a

ii for fulfilling the object for which the detachment is to be
posted.

In arranging the general plan of defensive works, the following

will require more particular attention : It must be ascertained
from a minute examination of the posit ion, what figure will give the great-
est quantity of fire over the most accessible points of attack, and the
general contour of the intrenchmcnt .should make available buildings or
fences on the ground. THE OBJECT THE WORK is EXPECTED TO FULFIL

rence to the supporting force ; the distance from that force; or
whetln-r it is to bo left to itself to hold an enemy in check as long as
possible; or whether it is to be defended to the last extremity. ITS

MTTATION WITH RESPECT TO TIIK KNKMY aS tO distance, A.C. ; \\\\, \

is likely to be attacked by overwhelming forces, or only subject to the
brusque attack of cavalry or infantry in smaller bodies; u hither ar-
tillery is likely to bo brought up against it, lor in that ease earthen
works, v. hen merely for the purposes of cover, are in some r

than buildings or stockades ; the parapets, too, must In- thicker ;
\\hether it can be surrounded, for in such a case it must be inclosed
oil round, &c, THE NUMBER OF MEN TIIKKE WILL BE FOR ITS DEFENCE,
taking it as an established rule, that it is Letter to have a force <<

i too much distributed, and then fore injudicious to make
Works o fa- rnater : xtmt than can l>e well manned and vigorously de-

!. For instance, in small works there might bo a file of i.
every pace or yard in the length of their breastwork, and in larger
ones the same, with a reserve of from one-fourth to one-sixth of the
whole in addition. On some such general basis, a calculation -1 the
proportionate extent of a work mi-ht be made. All this of course de-
pends very much upon circumstances. THE NUMBER OF MEN, whether
rs or inhabitants, that can be collected together for \\>rking, and
r there are tools enough for them, so as not to und. rtake more
than can be well done. And, which is a very important
THE TIME THERE is TO DO IT is. Whether nn immediate attack is to be
nded, or otherwise, for this will decide not only the nature of

FIB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 295

the works, but the parts of them that require the first attention; as
will be more apparent when the details of execution are brought under
consideration. THE NATURE OF THE MATERIALS that can be had on the
spot, or procured in the neighborhood. This will have a great influence
on the details of the plan to be pursued, and will afford opportunity for
the display of considerable tact and intelligence, in appropriating and
adapting the means at hand for carrying the general plan into effect,
and securing its objects with the LEAST POSSIBLE LABOR. No one who
is not conversant with work of this description, can have any idea of
the great saving of time and labor that may be effected, by taking ad-
vantage of what might appear at a casual glance to be very unimpor-
tant and local features ; such, for instance, as gentle undulations in the
ground.

Details of Execution. The following description of tools and stores
would be found more or less necessary, where temporary works were
to be thrown up. They are classed in three divisions, that their sep-
arate uses may be apparent.

Class 1. Field Exercise Tools.

For sinking trenches, forming breastworks,

' \ felling timber, making abatis and obstructions,

Felling-axes, f

Bill-hooks,

Class 2. For Houses, Walls, &c.
Sledge-hammers,

Hand-borers, . .

~ , For forming loopholes, breaking through

Crowbars, I . -, c ,

~ > walls; preparing timber for barricades, stock-

kade work, &c.
Augers,

Spike-nails,
Class 3. General service and purposes of defence.

Sand-bags, The sand-bags for blocking up windows,

Rockets, I forming loopholes, &c. ; the rockets and

Small shells, [ shells for defence of houses and intrench-
Hand-grenades, I ments.

The proportions of these necessary to be demanded would of course
vary with the description of work which might be anticipated. For
example, in throwing up earthen works in an open country, a pickaxe
and shovel for every man that could be employed on the breastworks
would be wanted. If an abatis could be formed, and there were fences

;>jtj MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fit.

to be cut up and levelled, one-third of the men would be advantageously
employed with felling-axes and bill-hooks. In a case where houses \\
to be placed in a state of defence, walls would have to be bn km tin
for making loopholes, and windows, doors, and passages to be barri-
caded; here crowbars, hand-borers, sledge-hummers, spike-nails, and
saws would be required in greater proportion than spades ami pick-
axes. Sand-bags are included as being very useful for many purposes,
such as protect i 1:1; "uu \\hen firing ovor a parapet or breastwork,
quickly blocking up the lower parts of windows, &c.

A man will carry one hundred empty sand-bags, weighing about
60 Ibs., each of which will contain a bushel of earth, and whvn/u# they
are musket-proof. Rockets, small shells, and grenades, are mentioned
as being very powerful and attainable auxiliaries in the defence of posts
and houses ; and one great advantage of them is, that any body who
baa common sense may use them, or at least bo instructed in the requi-
site precautions in a few minutes. A CERTAIN DIVISION OF LABOR must
also be attended to, and a man should always have a tool put into his
hand that he has been accustomed to use ; carpenters should therefore
be employed where saws and axes are wanted ; miners and blacksmiths
where walls are to be broken through ; laborers -where the spade
pickaxe come into play. Those who never handled tools of these
scriptions, would be most usefully employed in collecting materials.
It would be well also to select such men for the first tour of duty, as
patrols, and sentries, and to employ the best workmen in overcoming
the greatest difficulties, which arc usually found in the commencement.
A little foresight will not bo misapplied in considering these points.
It is essential to obtain the assistance of the inhabitants in executing
works of this description, and an officer should always have authority
to enforce their attendance, and to pay them in proportion t. thru
ertions. They should also bo required to bring with them wha'<
tools they can best use, or that are most wanted.

A stick may be cut to measure lines, and stakes will be driven t<>
show the slope and general form of the profile necessary in each par-

dar case. Whatever form is to be given to a work, it is traced
upon the ground by laying off its angles according to the number of
their degrees, and its sides are designated by little furrows dug with
the mattock or spade along cords stretched in the pr..p.r direction.
To profile a work is to figure upon tho ground its elevation by means
nailed together ; (V\. 107.) The officer who directs
the work ou < with him f.ur or five soldiers who carry mat-

tocks, 100 pickets, twenty poles ten or l\\ ;;i\ laths,

FIE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 297

some camp colors, and a cord 65 feet in length. There ought also to
be a carpenter, who carries hammer, nails, and a saw.

FIG. 127.

Field-works necessary or desirable in the operations of an army
in the field to strengthen lines of battle, keep open lines of com-
munication, protect bridges from destruction, &c., will generally be
constructed under the supervision of engineers. They may have any
extent, from a simple redan, or a battery, to a line or several lines of
works, some of considerable magnitude, extending over a position of
ten or twenty miles. It will only be possible here to give a brief de-
scription of the works usually adopted for these purposes.
Field-works, then, are usually arranged in three classes :

First-Class, consisting of works open at the gorge
Redan Double Redan

Redan with flanks Tenaille Head

Lunette Bastion Head

Second Class, consisting of works inclosed all round
Redoubt
Bastion Fort

Third Class, consisting of lines both continuous or at intervals
Lines of Redans Lines of Bastions

Lines of Tenailles Lines at intervals

Indented Lines a la Cremaillere

A redan is a work of the simplest kind. It consists of two faces of
parapet and ditch, forming a salient angle. Redans serve to cover
bridges, causeways, avenues, &c., and being quite open at the gorge,
are only suited for positions in which their extremities rest on rivers
or other obstacles, so that they cannot be turned, or else when protected
by the full sweeping fire of works in their rear. Redans in front of
other works are generally mere covers for an advanced post ; for ex-
ample, if a strong redoubt occupies the commanding summit of a hill,

.x )S MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fit.

its elevation and position usually prevent the deep hollows and ap-
proaches by the valleys being fully seen from its faces. Redans may
then be advantageously constructed on the lower knolls, or under fea-
tures of the hill, to command all the hollows, which cannot always be
reached by the fire of the main redoubt.

Lines. Continuous lines of rampart, parapet, and ditch, are some-
times used to connect important redoubts, or to cover tho front of a
position, and they may have, according to circumstances, a variety of
tracings. To cover any considerable extent of country with continuous
lines is generally considered injudicious, but must not be altogether
condemned ; as in particular cases, especially on ground unfavorable for
manoeuvring, it may be an advantageous constructor Continuous lines
require a great expenditure of labor in their construction, and a largo
force is necessary for their defence ; if forced at one point, tho whole is
lost, and they interfere greatly with the offensive movements of the
troops they cover. When circumstances oblige any considerable ex-
tent of country to be defended, lines at intervals are more generally
adopted. Lines at intervals aro a series of detached works arranged in
two or more rows, mutually supporting each other, and each capable
of enduring an independent attack. In lines at intervals tho most ad-
vanced positions are usually occupied by simple works open at tho
gorge as Redans and Lunettes, within range of each other, that i
more than 600 or 700 yards apart. These works, being open at the
gorge, can be fully commanded by the works in rear, which can bring
a fire upon every point within them ; if taken by an enemy, they can-
not, therefore, be held by him until tho latter works are also subdued.
Tho second line of works are generally a series of redoubts, adapted
in shape to the features of tho ground, 400 or 500 yards behind the
salient works, covering their intervals, and protecting their faces and
ditches by a powerful flanking fire. If necessary, a third line of works
on similar principles may be added. Tho works in tho second line,
i. . the redoubts, must be made us strong in roar as in front, or an
enemy would not fail to attempt to carry them by an attack on the
rear, and tho faces of all tho works should, as far as possible, be di-
rected on ground which the enemy cannot occupy, so as to bo pr
from his enfilade fire. Tho annexed diagram (Fig. 128) exhibits a
tract of ground defended by lines at intervals, and will convey an idea
of the general arrangement of works of this nature.

In the construct i'.n ,,f these and all other field-works, the following
maxims must l>e strictly observed : 1st. That tho works to bo fl.
are never to be beyond tho range of tho weapons of the works flanking

FlL.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

299

them, that is, never out of the effective range of musketry. 2d. That
the angles of defence should be about right angles. 3d. That the salient

FIG. 128.

angles of works should be as obtu A as circumstances will permit 4th.
That, although ditches cannot always be as fully flanked, as in perma-
nent fortification, yet that partial flanking must be carried as far as
possible. 5th. That in the construction of field-works, reference should
not only be had to the direct and immediate obstacles that the work
itself presents to the enemy, and the positive effects of fire on the ap-
proaches to it ; but likewise the relative value of the work must be
considered, as to the support it can give to, or receive from, other
works. 6th. That the outline of a field-work should be proportioned
to the number of men intended to defend it. 7th. The ground over
which an enemy must pass to the attack should, if possible, be seen
both in front and flank. (Consult HYDE'S Fortifications ; JEBB'S Attack
and Defence ; Traite Theorique et Pratique de Fortification Passagere,
<&c., par M. ERNEST DE NEUCHEZE, Capitaine, &c. ; MAHAN'S Field For-
tifications ; Aid Memoir to the Military Sciences, Edited by a Committee
of the Corps of Royal Engineers.)

FILE generally means two soldiers, a front and rear rank man.
Each man occupies in line about 21 inches ; 10 files require a space of
7 paces ; 100 files, 70 paces. The French designate men ranged in four
ranks, as follows : the front rank men as chefs de file ; the second rank,
serres demi files ; the third chefs demi file ; and the rear rank serres
files.

800

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Fix.

FINDING. Before a court-martial deliberates upon the judgnn-nt,
the judge-advocate reads over the whole proceedings of the court ; he
then collects the votes of each member, beginning with the youngest.
The best mode of doing so is by slips of paper. The Articles of War
require a majority in all cases, and in case of sentence of death, two-
. It is not necessary to find a general verdict of guilt or acquittal
upon the whole of every charge. The court may find a prisoner guilty
of part of a charge, and acquit him of the remainder, and render sen-
tence according to their finding. This is a special verdict ; (Hooou's
Military Law Authorities.)

FIRE, (VARIETIES OF.) Direct fire is when the battery of guns is
ranged parallel to the face of the work, or the line of troops to be fired
at, so that the shot strike it perpendicularly.

Fio. 129.

A B rpprwvnU a lino of parapet, or of troops.

C U UM position of a battery, or line of infantry for direct fire on A a

D "f..r enfilade.

f..r NfWMh

ENFILADE. Enfilade fire is when the battery is ranged pcrpendicu-
th.> prolongation of the crest of a parapet, or to a line of troops,
so that the shot flies in the same direction, or parallel to the line or
parapet, sweeping along from one end to the otli

OBLIQUE. Oblique fire is when the battery of guns is ranged so as
to form an angle with tho front of the object to be struck.

PLUHOIKO. Plunuinu' fir.- is wh-n the shot is fired from a position
considerably higher than the object fired at.

Fa.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

301

RICOCHET. Ricochet fire is firing with a slight elevation, and with
small charges, in a direction enfilading the face of the work, so that the
shot are pitched over the parapet, and bound along the rampart from
end to end, with destructive effect on the guns and gunners.

REVERSE. Reverse fire is when the shot strikes the interior slope
of the parapet at an angle greater than 30.

SLANT. Slant fire is when the shot strikes the interior slope of the
parapet, forming with it a horizontal angle, not greater than 30.

VERTICAL. Vertical fire is that in which the shot or shell describes a
lofty curve through the air before it falls ; such is the fire from mortars.

FIRE BALL. Made like a light-ball, except that, being intended
to light the works of an enemy, it is also loaded with a shell.

FIRING-. In the discharge of fire-arms, it is necessary to know
the position and relations existing between the three following lines
(Fig. 130) : 1st, the line of sight, which is the prolongation of the visual

FIG. 130.

ray passing through the highest points of the breech and the muzzle ;
2d, the line of fire, which is the prolonged axis of the piece ; and 3d,
the trajectory described by the projectile.

The point-blank range ,is the second intersection of the trajectory
with the line of sight.

The causes of deviation in firing are :

"Wrong position of the sight.
Calibre not exact.
Barrel imperfect.
Too hard on the trigger.
"Windage,
f The recoil.

j Vibrations of the barrel,
[ (spring of barrel.)
Not exact measure.

Form of grain and variable quality of powder.
Its deterioration from dampness in transportation,

&c.

More or less ramming.
Sticking along the bore, from becoming foul and

damp.
. Getting foul or dirty.

(1.) From the construc-
tion of the arm.

(2.) From the
powder.

charge

Causes which can
be corrected.

"Which cannot be
corrected.

302 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FiR.

(3.) From the ball

(4.) From the atmos-
phere.

Not being of the exact weight and calibre.

More or less deformed in loading, or on leaving the

barrel
Not having the centre of gravity in the centre of

the figure, (spherical ball)

The effect of wind.

The temperature ; moisture in, and density of the

air.

The position of the sun.
I HiiVrence of level between the target and gun.

For the same kind of arm, the dimensions, charges, weights, projectile,
eing constant, the point-blank may bo considered as constant, and
serves as a point of reference in firing at different distunn s.

With a piece having a point-blank, that is, any piece having an nn^lo
in front, made by the line of sight and the line of fire, it is necrssury,
in firing at a point-blank object, to aim directly at the object. If the
be situated within the point-blank range, it will be necessary to
aim below. If the object be situated beyond the point-blank, wo must
aim above the object.

As the end of the gun obstructs the view of the object, in aiming above
the point to be reached, and, moreover, as it is difficult to dcterm:
certain distance the elevation that ought to bo given to tin- line of sight,
a haugse or tangent scale is placed upon the breech of the cannon, which,
by enlarging its diameter, increases the angle of sight and consequent ly
the point-blank range. The tangent scale is now generally used with
guns and howitzers, and the hausse, or rear sight, has also been attached
to small arms of 1855. In addition to the tangent or hausse some sim-
ple instrument may be used for determining distances. (See STADIA.)

Fir. d im-l.T angles of 4 15', 4 30', and 4 50', the new rifle mus-
ket, altered rifle, and altered musket have, respectively, a range of 1,000
yards. (See HAUSSE.) The elongated musket balls do not ceaso to
ricochet <>n l.-v. 1 ground at a distance of 1,000 yards. A strong wind,
blowing prrpendirularly to the direction of the rifle-musk. l ball, will
deflect it from its course 12 feet in 1,000 yards; about :\ i^t in 500
yards, and 1$ feot in 200 yards. The HlV.-t of wind n the pistol-car-
l.alls is somewhat greater for the same distai

When two oblong balls are fired from tho new rifle musket or nl-

ifle, with the ordinary service charge of 60 grains, they separate

.u-h other and in -m th- j.lane of fire about 4 feet in a disfa;

200 yards. If the piece be hold firmly against the shoulder, no serious

ice will be felt ; but for the two balls it is necessary, in aim-

FLA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 303

ing, to give the barrel greater elevation in the proportion of 6 feet for
200 yards. In cases of emergency, two balls might be employed
against masses of infantry or cavalry, at distances not exceeding 300
yards. The angle of maximum range for the mortar is nearly 42.
The angle of fall is the angle made by the last element of the trajectory
with the ground, and when this angle is small, the projectile rebounds
upon the earth and performs a series of ricochets, increasing in number
as the angle of incidence diminishes, or as the ground is firm and elastic.

The point-blank ranges of siege and garrison guns, with ordinary
charges, are respectively eight hundred yards for the 24-pounder, seven
hundred and seventy-five yards for the 18-pounder, and seven hundred
yards for the 12-pounder. For field-artillery, the point-blank ranges
are seven hundred and fifty yards for the 12-pounder, and six hundred
and seventy -five yards for the 6-pounder.

The point-blank is increased or diminished by the hausse or tangent
scale, and is then called the artificial point-blank. The practical rule
in aiming field-guns by means of the tangent is : give one-twelfth of an
inch on the instrument for each twenty-five yards beyond point-blank.

The direct fire is employed in breaching parapets or walls, against
troops in column, and in most cases where the object of attack is pos-
sessed of considerable depth or thickness.

The enfilade fire, with heavy ordnance, full charges and solid shot, is
especially effective in those circumstances which admit of its adoption ;
a single shot having been known to disable several guns, or to strike
down a whole rank of men.

Enfilade fire a ricochet is generally employed to dismount guns on
parapets, protected by traverses, at ranges varying from 400 to 600
yards.

The ricochet and vertical fires, being intended to act upon a surface,
and not an isolated point, may be executed during the night, as well
as by daylight. (See TARGET. Consult THIROUX ; KINGSBURY'S Ar-
tillery and Infantry ; Reports of Experiments by Ordnance Depart-
ment, U. S. A., 1856 ; HYDE'S Fortification.')

FLAG-. The flag of the United States shall be thirteen horizontal
stripes, alternate red and white. The Union shall be a number of white
stars in a blue field, corresponding with the number of States in the
Union. Upon the admission of a State to the Union, another star is
added to the flag on the 4th of July next succeeding her admission ;
(Act April 4, 1818.)

All flags captured from an enemy to be displayed in such public
place as the President may deem proper ; (Act April 8, 1814.)

;JO i MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FLA.

FLAGS OP TRUCE ore frequently sent by an enemy with tho
design of gaining information. To prevent this, it is usual for outposts
to halt the flag of truce, and if he is merely tho bearer of a letter, re-
oeipt for it, and order the party to depart, preventing all conversation
with sentries. It may sometimes, however, be necessary to send the
bearer of the flag to head-quarters, in this case, his eyes are bandaged,
and he is forwarded with an escort.

Flags of truce are used when an enemy is in position, on a march
or in action. The flag ought always to be preceded by a trumpeter 25
paces in advance, and when within range of the guns of the sentinels or
videttes, he halts, returns his sword to its scabbard, and at the same
moment raises and flourishes a white flag or handkerchief. If he is not
signalled to retire, he continues to advance step by step until ordered
to halt. If he remarks that it is sought to draw him into a snare, he
- at a gallop with his trumpet as soon as he is certain of tho bad
intention. When consent is given to receive him, he submits to all
measures that may be exacted of him for the fulfilment of his mission.

If it is during an action that a flag proceeds from the ranks of the
enemy, tho ranks that he leaves halt and cease their fire. He proceeds
towards tho chief of the adverse force, and at a suitable distance returns
his sabre to its scabbard, and raises his flag. If he is not signalled to
retire, and if the fire ceases in his front, he continues to advance and
executes his orders. Some serious motive is indispensable for sending
a flag during an action, for tho enemy is apt to believe that it is a strat-
agem, and therefore fires upon the flag, and follows up his aim more
vigorously, while the opposite party have lost time.

FLANK. The right or loft side of a body of men, or place. Flank
presupposes a formation more or less deep. A flank march is upon
the prolongation of the line to which a body faces. Thus, when wo say
the enemy, by a flank march, outflanked our right wing, it is understood
that the enemy, by marching parallel to our line of battle, put himself
in position upon our extreme right.

To disturb the flanks of a column or army is to throw an opposing
force upon either side of the route that it follows. By this manoeuvre
the march of the column is retarded, or it is forced to halt ; its baggage
is sometimes seized, ami terror and disorder fall upon tho masses.

Flank (To) is to cover and defend tho flanks. W.> flunk a camp
by posts placed on the right and left; a corps d'armeo is flanknl by de-
tachments which take roads parallel to the routes followed by tho larger
body ; smaller columns are flanked by flankers on tho right and left,
who keep in view the columns, warn them of the approach of an enemy,

FOB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 305

discover ambuscades, skirmish with them, and fall back when needed
upon the mass of the troops.

FLANK OF A BASTION is that si'de which connects the face,
and curtain. It is one of the principal defences of the place, as it pro-
tects the curtain, the face, and flank of the opposite bastion, and the pas-
sage of the ditch.

FLBCHE is a simple species of field-work. It consists of two
faces forming a salient angle. One simple rule for their construction is
to select a spot for the salient and throw up a breastwork on either
side, forming an angle of not less than 60, and allowing one yard for
each file.

FOOT in a military sense, implies infantry soldiers.

FORAGE. The hay, corn, fodder, and oats required for the sub-
sistence of the horses of an army. Generals, field-officers, cavalry-
officers, and staff-officers receive a commutation in lieu of forage for
each horse allowed by law, owned, and kept in service. (See PAY.) The
maximum ration of forage is fourteen pounds of hay or fodder and
twelve pounds of oats, corn, or barley. The established forage ration
is furnished by the quartermaster's department. The food of horses
however, like that of men, must be modified according to circum-
stances, by changing established proportions or by substituting one
article of food for another. A knowledge of the different descriptions of
food capable of maintaining a horse in working condition is essential.
Forage in garrison or established quarters is ordinarily obtained under
contract ; but in the field the resources of the country occupied must be
made immediately available. War deranges the proportions commonly
maintained between demand and supply, and cripples agricultural indus-
try. It is for the military administrator to counteract as far as possible
this tendency, and not alone to seize upon all the resources of supply,
but to render them continuously productive. Under the very best
arrangements, however, few countries when they become the theatre of
contending armies can long support the drain upon them, and afford
sufficient sustenance for the immense number of animals which accom-
pany an army, and a partial supply must under the most favorable
circumstances be drawn from without. While the army is acting in
the immediate vicinity of the sea-board there is little difficulty in main-
taining this supply, but when it advances inland, and the means of water
transport fail, it becomes a matter of extreme difficulty to provide the
requisite transport for so bulky an article as forage. The artillery can
render some assistance in this respect, and should be required to carry-
in their wagons at least three days' supply, but the cavalry soldier
20

M1LITAKY DICTIONARY. [Foa.

cannot always encumber himself with his forage ration, and at best can
only be expected to carry throe days' allowance of oats or barley,
fg ujMtn the supply department for his hay. Althodgb hay has
been packed by hydraulic pressure, tin- necessity of a further reduction
of bulk, both as a question of economy and of convenience, has always
been apparent. This consideration, und representations of the \\a-te in-
curred at the seat of war in the unloading of grain, and its transport to
the front, led Mr. Julynn, asst.-com.-gcn., B.A., to apply his iimntive
mind to the manufacture of what is now known as the Amalgamated
Field-forage." This consisted of a preparation of chopped hay, bruised
oats, bran, Arc., in the proportions usually issued to cavalry horses,
thoroughly mixed together, subjected to a chemical process for the < \-
pulsion of fixed air, and compressed by hydraulic power into thick <nk s
of great solidity. It was cut up into rations of 22 Ibs. each, and four
of such pieces were packed in one canvas cover, which was convertible
into a nose-bag. From these bags the horses were to have been fed, the
forage being restored to its original bulk and condition by moderate
friction and a few minutes' exposure to the air. This preparation thus
combined the advantages of extreme portability, full nutritious proper-
ty, cheapness, and (from its being almost impervious to air and fire, as
well as from its peculiar form) exemption from the accidents, deteri-
oration, and losses to which forage in its ordinary state is subject.

FORAGE MASTER. (See WAGON MASTER.)

FORAGING is properly the collection of forage or other sup-
plies systematically in towns or villages, or going with an escort to cut
nourishment for horses in the fields. Such operations l're.|Uently lead
to engagements with the enemy. Foraging parties arc furnished with
reaping hooks and cords. The men promptly dismount, make bundles
with which they load their horses, and are prepared for any thin^ that
may follow. The word foraging is sometimes inaccurately used i i
marauding. When foraging is effected in villages, it is best not to toko
the party into the village, but to send for the chief persons and stipu-
late with them that the inhabitants shall brinu r the required forage tad
other stores out to the troops. If the inhabitants do not promptly com-
ply with this moderate command, it is necessary to take the tn...j.s
into the village. In this event, all possible means must bo taken to
prevent disorder, as for instni:

1. A certain numWr of houses are assigned to each company, BO
that the commander of the detachment may hold each company respon-
sible for the disorders committed within its limits.

FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 307

2. Guards are posted and patrols sent out, who arrest any foragers
guilty of disorder.

3. If the form of the village permits, a part of the detachment re-
mains at the centre to pack the horses and load the wagons as fast as
the other men bring the forage from the houses.

In places where an attack may be expected, the foraging is conduct-
ed as follows : Either fatigue parties are sent with wagons, or parties
of cavalry with their own horses ; in both cases a special escort is added
for the protection of the foragers. In all cases, the strength of the
escort depends upon the degree of danger, the space over which the
foraging is to extend, and the distance from the enemy. During the
march of foragers to and from the foraging ground, if they consist of a
fatigue party with wagons, an escort is added, which acts in conformity
with the rules for escorting convoys. If the foragers consist only of
cavalry with their own horses, then on the outward march they move
in one body, observing the precautions prescribed for movements near
the enemy ; on the return march, if the horses of the foragers are
packed and led, the detachment acting as escort should not pack more
than 40 pounds on their horses, so that the load may not prevent them
from acting against the enemy. One hundred, and twelve pounds may
be packed on a horse, and the horse must be led ; 56 pounds are packed
in two trusses. Sometimes the escort, or a part of it, may be sent out
early to the foraging ground, to take measures for the security of the
foragers before they arrive. For the safety of the foragers when at
their work, the escort is divided into two or three parts, according to
circumstances; one part places a chain of outposts and sends out
patrols, to guard the whole ground ; another furnishes the supports of
the outposts, and if there are infantry or mounted rifles with it they
occupy the points which cover the approaches ; the third part is placed
in reserve near the centre of the ground, that it may easily reach any
point attacked. If the enemy attacks while the foraging is going on,
the escort should go to meet him or defend itself in position, endeavor-
ing to stop him until the foragers have finished their work, and are
drawn out on the road for their return march ; then the escort com-
mences its retreat, acting as a rear guard, and endeavoring to keep the
enemy as far from the foragers as possible. If it is impossible to hold
the enemy in check long enough to finish the work, they should at least
send forward and protect all the foragers who have packed their horses
or loaded their wagons ; the rest join the escort. If there is a prob-
ability of driving off the enemy by uniting all the foragers to the escort,
it is best to abandon the forage already packed, and^o begin foraging

MILITARY DICTIONARY. . [Fo*.

after i 1 the enemy. It is permitted to abandon the

forage entirely only in extreme urgency, when there is absolui
other \\ay of *a\ ing the foragers. If tho enemy is repulsed, we must
not be induced to pursue him except far enough to prevent a re-
newal of the attack, but must endeavor to complete the foraging.
The foraging must not be extended over any ground not guarded by the
escort. If the escort is too weak to cover the whole space designated
for foraging, the ground is divided into parts, and the forag
in the different portions successively. If the foraging ground is at a

icrable distance from the camp, it will be a proper precaution
to post a special detachment in support half way. Foraging in
places occupied by the enemy is undertaken only upon tho entire
exhaustion of the ground occupied by our own troops. Such for-
aging is covered by offensive operations, so that, having driven in
the enemy's advanced troops or other parties, we may rapidly seize
all the supplies to be found in the vicinity. This is called forced
foraying. The strength and composition of a detachment for forced
foraging must be such that it can overwhelm the enemy's troops, and
remain long enough in position to enable the accompanying detach-
ment of foragers to complete their work and retreat out of d
The main conditions of success in such an enterprise are suddenness,
rapidity, and determination in the attack, promptness in the work of
the foragers, and tenacity in holding the position taken from the enemy as
long as necessary. Success will be greatly facilitated by partial attacks
made upon different points of the enemy's position while the foraging
is going on. Attacks upon foragers should be sudden and rapid, in

. by not giving the escort time to defend tho points attacked, to
produce confusion among the foragers and thus prevent them from
working. The approach of the attacking party should be concealed.
rapid, and compact ; that is, it should not send out parties to an \
distance in front or on tho flanks, and, as a general rule, should not
divide its force prematurely, but only the moment before the attack.
ree of a detachment sent to attack foragers depends chiefly upon
the object of the attack that is, whether it is designed to capture tho
foragers, or only to prevent them from foraging by alarming th
to prevent them from carrying off forage air. 1 It U in all

oases advantageous to begin with several simultaneous false attacks by
small parties, to perplex the enemy and oblige him to divide the escort;
then to direct tho main party of tho detachment upon the prineij.nl point
of the enemy's arrangements, overthrow his weakened escort, an i
trate to the road of retreat, so as either to cut off and destroy a part of

FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 309

the escort and foragers, or to force them to abandon their work and fly,
by threatening to cut them off. If from the disproportion of force it is
impossible to prevent the foraging entirely, the attacking party confines
itself to delaying the work ; its operations, therefore, should consist in
partial attacks upon several points, in order to alarm and disperse the
foragers by breaking through the outposts at several points. Upon
meeting a considerable force of the enemy these attacking parties should
at once retreat, and renew the attack in a different place. In such
operations a portion of the attacking detachment should be kept together
and held in reserve, as a support and rallying point for the small par-
ties. If they do not succeed in preventing the foraging, they may try
to attack the foragers on the return march ; observing in this case the
rules laid down for attacks upon convoys ; (McCLELLAN's Military Com-
mission to Europe.}

FORCE. Any body of troops.

FORDS. In examining and reporting upon a ford, the main points
to be considered are : the firmness and regularity of the bottom, its
length, width, and direction ; the depth, (and its increase by tides or
floods,) the rapidity of the current, the facilities of access, security from
attack, and the means of rendering it impassable : a ford should always
be tried personally before making a report on its capabilities. The
depth of fords for cavalry should not be more than 4 feet 4 inches, and
for infantry 3 feet 3 inches ; but if the stream is not very rapid, and the
direction of the crossing is down-stream, the latter may pass by holding
on to the horses, even if the depth is four feet. Should the stream be
very rapid, however, depths much less than these could not be con-
sidered fordable, particularly if the bottom is uneven. Carriages with
wheels 5 feet in diameter may cross a ford 4 feet deep ; but if it is
necessary to keep their contents dry, the depth should not be more
than 2, or at most 2 feet. Fords are generally to be found above or
below a bend, and often lie in lines diagonally across the river ; small
gravel forms the best bottom ; and rock, on the contrary, the most
dangerous, unless perfectly regular and not slippery. They may be
sounded by means of a boat having a pole attached. But cavalry or
good swimmers may effect it with lances or poles, carefully feeling their
way before advancing. Parts which may be too deep, or even the
whole width, if the river is narrow, may be rendered fordable by
throwing in fascines parallel to the direction of the current, and loading
them with stones, which must afterwards be covered with smaller material
to render the surface level. The approaches should also be levelled,nd
where the soil is soft, rendered firm by covering them with fascines, &c v

310 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Foa.

so that the troops may advance with a brood front, and rapidly mount
the further bank. The extent and direction of the ford should be clearly
marked out by means of poles firmly fixed, and these may bo notched,
so that a dangerous rise in the river may bo observed. If the current
is rapid, a number of these placed along the upper edge of the ford, and
connected by ropes, will also be useful to prevent men on foot being
swept away ; and boats and horsemen should also be in readiness to
rescue them. The force of the current may be broken by the <
Crossing a little above them ; but if the bottom is sandy, tho cavalry
should cross after the infantry and artillery, as the passage of tho former
deepens a ford sometimes very materially. The opening and shutting
of the mill-sluices will sometimes alter the depth of fords, and floods
may even entirely destroy them ; they can be rendered impracticable
by means of large stones, harrows, planks with spikes, sharp stakes
driven in so as to be concealed by the water, abatis, &c., or by cutting
trenches across ; (Aide Memoir e.)

FORGE. One travelling forge and one battery wagon accompany
each field-battery. They are furnished with the tools and materials re-
quired for shoeing horses and for the ordinary repair and preservation
of carriages and harness. The total weight of tho forgo when loaded is
3,383 Ibs., that of the battery wagon loaded is 3,574 Ibs.

FORLORN HOPE. Officers and soldiers who generally volun-
teer for enterprises of great danger, such as leading tho attack whon
storming a fortress.

FORT is an inclosed work of the higher class of field-works. Tho
word, however, is loosely applied to other military works.

FORTIFICATION. A fortification in its most simple form con-
sists of a mound of earth, termed the rampart, which encloses tho space
fortified; a parapet, surmounting tho rampart and covering the UK n
and guns from tho enemy's projectiles ; a scarp wall, which sustains the.
pressure of the earth of tho rampart and parapet, and presents an ob-
stacle to an assault by storm ; a wide and deep <////, wh'n-h pr
the enemy from approaching near tho body of tho place; a coiintrrsmrp
wall, which sustains tho earth on the exterior of the ditch ; a covered way,
which occupies the space between the counterscarp and a mound of
earth, called a glacis, thrown up a few yards in iV"iit of tin- ditch for
irpose of covering the scarp of the main work. The work by
which the space fortified is immediately rnvdop.-.l is called l)\Qenccintr,
or body of the place. Other works are usually added to the cnceint*
toVrengthcn the weak points of tho fortification, or to lengthen the.
siege by forcing the cncrny to gain possession of them before he con

FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 31 1

breach the body of the place. These are termed outworks, when en-
veloped by the covered way, and advanced works, when placed exterior
to the covered way, but in some manner connected with the main work ;
but if entirely beyond the glacis and not within supporting distance of
the fortress, they are called detached works. In a basticned front the
principal outwork is the demi-lune, which is placed in front of the cur-
tain ; it serves to cover the main entrance to the work, and to place the
adjacent bastions in strong re-enterings. The tenaille is a small low
work placed in the ditch, to cover the scarp wall of the curtain and
flanks from the fire of the besiegers' batteries erected along the crest of
the glacis.

The places of arms are points where troops are assembled in order
to act on the exterior of the work. The re-entering places of arms, are
small redans arranged at the points of juncture of the covered ways of
the bastion and demi-lune. The salient places of arms, are the parts of
the covered way in front of the salients of the bastion and demi-lune.
Small permanent works, termed redoubts, are placed within the demi-
lune and re-entering places of arms for strengthening those works.
Works of this character constructed within the bastion, are termed in-
terior retrenchments ; when sufficiently elevated to command the ex-
terior ground, they are called cavaliers.

Caponnieres are works constructed to cover the passage of the ditch
from the tenaille to the gorge of the demi-lune, and also from the demi-
lune to the covered way, by which communication may be maintained
between the enceinte and outworks. Posterns are underground com-
munications made through the body of the place or some of the out-
works. Sortie passages are narrow openings made through the crest
of the glacis, which usually rise in the form of a ramp from the covered
way, by means of which communication may be kept up with the ex-
terior. These passages are so arranged that they cannot be swept by
the fire of the enemy. The other communications above ground are
called ramps, stairs, &c. Traverses are small works erected on the
covered way to intercept the fire of the besiegers' batteries. Scarp and
counterscarp galleries are sometimes constructed for the defence of the
ditch. They are arranged with loopholes, through which the troops of
the garrison fire on the besiegers when they have entered the ditch,
without being themselves exposed to the batteries of the enemy.

In seacoast defences, and sometimes in a land front for the defence
of the ditch, embrasures are made in the scarp wall for the fire of ar-
tillery ; the whole being protected from shells by a bomb-proof cov-
ering overhead ; this arrangement is termed a casemate. Sometimes

812 MIUTAKY DICTIONARY. [Fuu.

double ramparts and parapets are formed, so that the interior one shall
fire over the more advanced : tin- latter in t: fuusse

braie. If the inner work be separated from the other, it is calle.l a
retrenchment; and if it has a commanding fire, a caval<
of u bastion is a line bisecting its salient angle. All works compre-
hended between the capitals of two adjacent bastions, are called a
front.

In the Prussian system of fortification, the defence of the ditch i

r by casernated caponnieres, the necessity for breaking up
the outline of the enceinte into a succession of salient and r. - -ntering
angles, as in the bastion tracings, is altogether removed. The enceinte
may, therefore, lave that outline which in the particular ease is most
advantageous for defence, and best adapted to the natural features of the
position. This will generally bo a polygon, more or less regular, ac-
cording to the regularity or irregularity of the site. The caponnieres
for the defence of the main ditch may either be on the centre of the front,
or at the alternate salient angles ; the latter, as being more si cure from
an enemy's distant fire, appears the better. position. The length of the
exterior side may bo of almost any magnitude, though <0o
perhaps, as great as under any ordinary cireumstaiu s would be re-
quisite. The enceinte is a massive rampart and para pi t. IV< <nud by a
revetment, from 24 to 30 feet in height, which is sometimes wholly or
partially loopholed for musketry. The centre of the ditch is occupied
by the casemated caponnicrc, a massive work of masonry, capable of
containing two stages of five guns each, one on either face; so that the
ditch on either side of the capnnicro. is swept by the fire often guns.

The advocates for the Prussian system claim for it the following ad-
1 '. When the range of musketry is given up as the standard
.length of a line of defence, and that of artillery substituted for it, the
exterior sides of the polygons of fortification may evidently be much
extend. 1. v.M. The Prussian engineers prefer the cons: f case-

mated flanks for the defence of ditches, as 1 icing more M-I urc than the
ordinary flanks of the bastion system ; that. K tl,
from enfilade and vertical fire from a distance, and cannot be counter-
battered by direct fin-, until the assailant crowns the gkcit, 'I

rc for the defence of the main ditch, and fr the dith<s of the
ravelin. 8d. The ravelins can be made as salient as the d< t ;J . -h, .1 ravelins
of Chasseloup and Bousmard ; while the caponnicrcs- "r casemated pro-
jectionsby which their ditches an- defended, protect the body of the place.
fa br.ae)i'm<_r batteries of the enemy on the counterscarp, at the s .i-
lient angles of the ravelins. These ravelins are more under the, fire of the

FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 313

enceinte, than detached ravelins ; they contain a greater interior space ;
there is a saving of masonry at the gorge : and fewer troops secure
the work from assault. 4th. In the attack of these fronts, the ap-
proaches are opposed on the capital of the ravelin, by three mortars in
casemates under the parapet, cutting off the* salient of the ravelin, and
by guns on the terre-plein above. The glacis is protected on each side,
by the fire of 90 yards of the enceinte, and from 80 yards of the faces
of the ravelin, which (being covered by the advanced portions of greater
elevation) is very difficult to enfilade. 5th. The establishment of .bat-
teries on the counterscarp of the salient angle of the ravelin, is rendered
very difficult by countermines, and by a double tier of fire along the
whole width of the ditch, viz., from the caponniere and from the en-
ceinte behind it ; even supposing this caponniere to be silenced, its
massive ruins would prevent a serious breach being made in the en-
ceinte. 6th. The attempts of an enemy to lodge himself on the ad-
vanced part of the ravelin are opposed by countermines, prepared
in the work during its construction, and by the retrenchment behind :
moreover, any endeavor to establish a battery in the narrow part of the
angle, would be opposed by the fire of the whole enceinte behind the
ravelin ; by that of the casemated keep ; and by sorties having their
flanks fully protected. 7th. The permanent possession of the ravelin
can only be obtained after the destruction of the keep, (which com-
mands every part of the interior, and is not seen from the exterior ;)
and until this is accomplished the enemy cannot make his approaches
on the glacis, for the purpose of constructing his breaching batteries
against the enceinte ; or he would be taken both in flank and in reverse.
8th. The great caponniere flanking the ditch of the enceinte is indepen-
dent of the keep of the ravelin, (which, after being taken, would be open
to the fire of the enceinte and its detached escarp ;) while its double
tier of guns, sweeping the whole width of the ditch, can only be opposed
by batteries directly in front. The establishment of these batteries, and
of others for breaching the escarp at the salient, would, of course, require
the capture of two ravelins, between which the approaches would be
sheltered from the collateral works ; but the ground would be dimin-
ished in extent on advancing near the place, and consequently expose
the troops (concentrated in larger numbers) to a more destructive fire.
9th. From the great projection of the ravelin, and the obtuseness of the
angles of the polygon, the effects of ricochet on the enceinte are pre-
vented in an octagon, as the prolongations of the sides of the polygon,
or the enceinte, are intercepted by the ravelins ; which ravelins might
(in cases where the ground is favorable) be made to project still further,

314 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Koa.

to as to cover the ditch from enfilade by distant butteries, and thus
secure the great caponnieres from annoyance. 10th. Tin- salient angles
of the enceinte may also be retrenched by a detached loophole
which would bring a great extent of fire on the breach, llth. The.
Prussians consider that, by these arrangements, they obtain much su-
pcri-.rity 0m the ordinary bastion systems, including those of
mard aiul Chasseloup do Laubat. That greater means of resistance are
obtained at a comparatively small expense, which means might bo in-
creased when required, by cavaliers, by interior retrenchments, and by
A Covered way, with redoubts. 12th. Tho armament required would
be comparatively small, as in the flanks or caponniercs, which com-
pletely enfilade the main ditches at a short range, a few pieces only
would be necessary to prevent a coup-de-main, while a full supply to
resist a serious attack might be brought by easy and secure communi-

*. A few guns placed on the salients of tho ravelins would bo
sufficient to keep oft* an enemy until ho had broken ground ; while the
whole disposable guns of tho place might easily be brought upon tho
enceinte on that side, and tho second part of tho collateral ravelins.
13th. The fatigue attending the usual arrangements w<>nl<l also be
greatly diminished by tho easiness and security of tho communications.
The garrison need-not be numerous, as they are not required to expose
themselves in outworks beyond the main ditch ; they arc protected by

;itcs in the flank defences, which arc sufficiently strong to allow
of their concentrating nearly the whole force on the points of impor-
tance, and which, being concealed from the enemy, do not give known
points to his vertical fire.

Fort Alexander, which crowns a height commanding the, to\\

131,) is a beautiful specimen of the (Jerman system.
The position around Coblentz occupies tin- j'.ur opposite angles, mado
by tho Moselle and the Lahn, which rivers empty themselves into tho

. nearly opposite to each other; for the Lahn runs into the Uliino
bout above Coblentz. The ir-ner:il form of tin- ground i

favorable for the offensive or defensive operations of an army in pos-
session f it. mid its fortresses; and many of the hiizh roads from the.
most important towns in Germany pass in this direction ; whilst the
^o difficult of access, that it is n. -\t to impossible t,,

Cobh-nt/, is situated in tin- | . d by the. junc-

tion of the MosHlo with the Lhi- lends about three-firths

of a mile in raeh d'.n-etion. The m.-einte of tho town ft secure against
a coup-de-main. Its rampart forms a succession of salient and r
ing angles, which being obtuse are little liable to enfilade. ; while tho

FOR.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

315

ditches are flanked by good casemated batteries, having three guns in
each flank. The gateways are strong casemated barracks, containing

FIG. 181.

batteries to flank the ditches and approaches. These casemates are
separated from the ramparts on each side, and form a kind of citadel :
the profile of the rampart is nearly similar to Carnot's : the wall is
well covered. Should the neighboring works on the heights be reduced,
the town would be commanded and exposed to an enemy's fire. It is,
however, no easy matter for an enemy to get possession of these
commanding sites. The two most important of these are, Ehren-
breitstein on the right bank, and Fort Alexander on the left bank, of
the Rhine.

Ehrenbreitstein occupies a commanding rocky site, 400 feet above
the river, inaccessible on three sides, and on the approachable side from
the north, it i-? defended by strong double works ; having abundant
casemates for its garrison, stores, and artillery. It is the key of the
whole position, commanding all the surrounding works within its range,
and having smaller works detached from it, for looking into hollows,
that cannot be seen from the main works. It has a fine well, 300 feet
deep. The faces of the works defending the only approachable side, can
mount forty-three pieces of ordnance in casemates ; the ditches are well
defended by casemated batteries ; and the escarps are about 35 feet in
height. It is altogether a most formidable work. The piers that sep-

310 MIUTABY DICTIONARY. [Fo.

arate the casemates and support the arches are made to project ri-jht,
through to the front of the revetment, which is 10 feet thick : and tlu
courses, instead of being horizontal, are laid in successive arches the
joints forming rays from a centre. Tho whole is built of rough stone,
and grouted in, so as to settle in time into a solid mass.

Fort Alexander with its dependencies, commands all the approaches
to Coblentz between the rivers. The principal front of this work has
its exterior side about 650 yards, and its interior side about 500
yards in length. The ravelins and the counterguanls have their faces
directed so, that their prolongations do not fall upon the plateau in
front, but upon the hollows and ravines, &c., from which they cannot
be enfiladed. The flanking caponniere is very strong, l>e:ni: a case-
mated work for two tiers of guns ; each flank has five guns in the lower
tier fr flanking the ditch, and five in the upper tier for flank in:: the
terre-pleins of the countcrguards. The casemates in the faces or angu-
lar parts are loopholed for musketry. Each caponniere serves as a
good barrack for 1GO men, besides stores. This work is completely
covered in front by the counterguard or ravelin, which is only two feet
lower than the body of the place. Each flank of the enceinte contains
six casemates for guns to flank the ditches before them. The faces and
ditches of the ravelins are flanked by solid casemated caponnieres, which
cover the body of the place from any batteries that might be established
at the rounding of the counterscarp of the ravelin. The ditches of the
countcrguards are flanked by casemated batteries, placed in the faces
of the ravelins. The body of the work is an oblique parallelogram,
about 5 from a right angle : the side fronts are about 420 yards, and
the rear front 500 yards in length, in order to suit the ground. There
is a strong casemated tower at the gorge connected with a communica-
tion from l-'ort Constantino. There is no covered way ; the romiti-r-
guard.s answer the purpose. Good ramps and other arrangements are
made in tho countersloping glacis and its salients, favorable for s
It is calculated that 5,000 men would be sufficient to man all these
works on both sides of the river ; while it is evident that a vast army
might be securely canMi.-d within the circuit of the works A graft*
number of trees have been planted all around Fort Alexander; tho
roots of which, left in tho ground, would defy the ordinary work of
sappers and miners; and would therefore prove formidal.!
in the process of a regular attack, while the timber would be invaluable
in a siege; (HTDB'H I m.)

FORTIFICATION (FRONT OF) consists of all tho works OOH-
structed upon any one side of a regular polygon, whether placed within

Fou.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

317

or without the exterior side ; or, according to St. Paul, all the works
contained between any two of the oblique radii. Some authors give
a more limited sense to the term " front of fortification," by confining
it to two half bastions joined by a curtain. If the polygon be regular,
that is, if all the sides be of equal length, and the fronts of the same
description, it is called a regular work ; but if they differ, it is called an
irregular work.

FORTIFICATION (IRREGULAR) is that, in which, from the
nature of the ground or other causes, the several works have not their
due proportion according to rule ; irregularity, however, does not neces-
sarily imply weakness.

FORTIFICATION (NATURAL) consists of such objects formed
by nature, as are capable of impeding the advance of an enemy ; and
a station is said to be naturally fortified, when it is situated on the top
of a steep hill, or surrounded by impassable rivers, marshes, &c.

FORTIFICATION (REGULAR) is that in which the works are
constructed on a regular polygon, and which has its corresponding parts
equal to each other.

FORTRESS. A fortress is a fortified city or town, or any piece
of ground so strongly fortified as to be capable of resisting an attack
carried on against it, according to rule.

FOUGASS. Charges of gunpowder are frequently placed at the
bottom of a pit or shaft dug in the ground over which an enemy must
pass to the attack. In these cases they take the name of fougasses.
The chief difficulty attending the use of fougasses is to explode them at
the instant when the enemy is passing over, as any variation in the time
of explosion from this instant renders them altogether useless. It is,
therefore, recommended to place
an obstacle over them, as an
abatis or chevaux-de-frize, so
that the fougasses may be ex-
ploded while the enemy is occu-
pied in forcing his way over.
Sometimes a fougass is made
of several loaded shells placed
in a box, with a charge of pow-
der under. The box should be
pitched, to keep the charge dry.
(Fig. 132.)

A stone fougass (Fig. 133)
is made by excavating a shaft 6 feet deep, inclined to the horizon at

FIG. 132.

MILITARY DKTInVAUY.

[Fa*.

Fio. 184.

an angle of about 45. At the bottom place a charge of 55 Ibs. (a
cubic foot) of powder, then a strong shield of wood at least 6 inches
thick, in front of the charge, and over the shield throw in three or
four cubic yards of pebbles, of not less tlia:i half a pound %
each. A sufficient body of earth must be plae.-d vertically, al. ve
the charge, and retained over the upper part of the shaft, near the
edge, by a revetment of sods, to insure the effect taking place in (he
right direction. Fougasses arc usually fired by means of an
or casing tube, containing a hose or saucisson, &c., led up the side
of the pit or shaft, and then parallel to the surface of the ground,
at a depth of two or three t',-et ; or they may be fired, at the proper
Mt, by means of a loaded musket with its muzzle in the powder,
and a wire or string fastened to the trigger.

Analogous to fotigasses were the Kussian powder-boxes used at

>topol, Fig. 134.
Each consisted of A
double deal box, of a
ty sufficient to
e 'iitain '.\~i H)s. of pow-
der,waUr-ti-ht,andef-
f. dually secured from
the penetration of
damp ; into the top
of each box was in-
; a vertical tin
tube, connected with
a hori/ontal tin tube
at the surface of the

ground. Within the latter was a gla^s tube, filled with sulphuric acid,
and coated with a composition of chl- r.ii.- of j-'-ta^a, sugar, sulphur, and
gum water, which inunediat. ly takes fire on coming in contact with the
acid. The space between the interior of the tin tube and the cv
of the glass tube, as well ns the vertical tin tube, is filled with gun-
powder. A little earth spread lightly over the \\ho!e completes the
arrangement. A person walking over the ground, and treading on the
tin tube, crushes it, and the glass tube contained in it, .-ausinu' the. escape
of the su'phuric acid, nnd the explosion of the gunpo\vdT.

\ISKS are palisades placed horizontally or obliquely, at the
edge of a ditch on either sid, or projecting from the exterior slope of
a pnrnp. t. If the slope be very long, there are sometimes two rows
of fraises used.

Fez.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 319

FRAUD. Association of any officer with another officer convicted
by a court-martial of fraud or cowardice shall be deemed scandalous ;
(ART. 85.) (See COWARDICE.)

Fraud consists in unlawfully, designedly, and knowingly appro-
priating the property of another with a criminal intent. It is any trick
or artifice employed by one person to induce another to fall into an
error or detain him in it, so that he make an agreement in contracts
contrary to his interest. The fraud may consist in the misrepresen-
tation or in the concealment of a material fact ; (BOUVIER'S Law Dic-
tionary.)

FRAYS. (See QUARRELS.)

FRICTION PRIMER FOR CANNON consists of a tube charged
with gunpowder, to the top of which is fastened a cup containing fric-
tion powder, composed of two parts of chlorate of potassa, and one of
sul. of antimony, which is exploded by means of a slider pulled out
with a lanyard. The tube, cup, and slider are made of sheet brass. The
lanyard, for pulling off the primer, is a piece of strong cod line (about
.2 in. thick) 12 feet long ; to one end is attached a small iron hook, with
an eye for the line, and to the other end a wooden toggel, .75 in. diam-
eter, and 4 in. long. If injured by moisture, the primers become ser-
viceable again when dried, and they have the great advantage of
portability and certainty of fire.

FRONTIER. (See DEFENCE, NATIONAL.)

FUMIGATION. To correct and purify an infectious or confined
atmosphere, such as is often found in transports, fumigations are neces-
sary. The materials recommended for the purpose are brimstone with
sawdust ; or nitre with vitriolic acid ; or common salt with the same
acid. One fluid ounce of sulphuric acid mixed with two fluid ounces
of water, and then poured over four ounces of common salt, and one
ounce of oxide of manganese in powder, these latter ingredients being
previously placed in hot sand, are also recommended. Burning char-
coal is also a good disinfectant. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)
. FUNERALS. Army Regulations prescribe the honors to be paid
at funerals.

FURLOUGHS. The term is usually applied to the absence with
leave of non-commissioned officers and soldiers. (See ABSENCE WITH
LEAVE.)

FUZE is the means used to ignite the bursting charge of shells.
They are classified as Time, Concussion, and Percussion Fuzes. The
time fuze is composed of a case of paper, wood, or metal, inclosing a
burning composition. It is cut or bored to a length proportioned to

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GAB.

the intended range of the shell, so that it shall burn down and explode
the bursting charge, just us tin- slu -II strikes the ground, or earl in- if
desirable. Instead of driving the fuze composition into a wooden tube
as formerly, and requiring a saw to give the fuze its proper length ac-
cording to range, the shell is imw supplied with a plug of hard \\....d
or metal, having a hole reaped out exactly the size of a paper case con-
taining the composition. By 'varying this composition, the same length
suffices for all the ranges or times of burning required. And tin so
having the different compositions in paper cases of as many different
colors, the cannoneer at a field-piece may, in an instant, insert into the
plug the colored fuze required for the desired range. Similar fuzes
have been adopted for the columhiads, the plugs being of bronze instead
of wood. Three kinds of time fuzes are employed in the United States
Service, viz., the Mortar Fuze,, the Borman Fuze, and the sea-coast
fuze. The best and simplest form of the percussion fuze is the ordinary
percussion cap placed on a cone affixed to the point of the projectile.
The arrangement should be protected by a safety cap to prevent the
percussion cap taking fire by the discharge of the j

" Bick ford's fuze" is a small tube of gunpowder, sewed round with
tarred twine, and then pitched over. It is not injured by dan:;
when well made, will burn under water, and is used for firing the
charges of mines, &c. The Gomez Patent Electric Safety train or fuze
is made in the form of a tape, inclosing a chemical compound that, burns
at the rate of one mile in four seconds ; it may be used like the Bick-
ford fuze. (See RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

GABIONNADE. A work constructed with gabions.

GABIONS arc cylindrical baskets of various dimensions, open at
both ends, used to revet the interior slopes of batteries, the checks of
embrasures, and to form the parapet of trenches. (See REVETMK
the construction of gabions.)

GALLERY. In permanent fortification, a passage or rommuni-
to that part of a mine where the powder is lodged. Tin- princi-
pal gallery, from which other* on/mate, is constructed under th-
quette of the covered way, and follows that portion of the works
throughout its ulx.lc extent. Another gallery is formed in a dir
parallel to the first at 50 or 60 yards' distance, and communicates with

perpendicular to it. (Jailer.

lined with masonry. When finished they aro about six feet high and
four and a half :

GEO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 321

GARRISON designates the troops employed in a strong place
for its security, and it is also applied to the place itself when occupied
by troops. The President may employ such troops of the United
States as he may judge necessary as garrisons of fortifications ; (Act
March 20, 1794.)

GENERAL. Rank above lieutenant-general. There is no such
grade in the United States army.

GENERAL OFFICERS. All officers above the rank of colonel.
Any sentence of a court-martial affecting a general officer must be ap-
proved by the President. (See COURT-MARTIAL.)

GENOUILLfiRE. From the French genou, knee. It is that part
of the parapet of a battery which remains above the platform and under
the gun, after the opening of the embrasure.

GEOMETRY. The science which teaches the dimensions of lines,
surfaces, and solids. It is a necessary introduction to" fortification and
mechanics. It enables us to ascertain the distances of inaccessible
objects, the dimensions of a given surface, the contents of a given solid ;
to compute the distances and motions of the planets ; to predict celes-
tial phenomena ; and to navigate a ship from any given point to another
on the surface of the globe.

Geometry, besides other divisions, is divided into ancient and mod-
ern : ancient geometry being that form of demonstration and investi-
gation which was employed by the Greeks, and of which Euclid's
Elements form a well-known example ; modern geometry is that in
which algebra, or the differential and integral calculus, is employed.
We also speak of pure geometry, practical geometry, and applied ge-
ometry. Descriptive geometry was first employed by Monge, and sub-
sequently by other French geometers, to express that part of science
which consists in the application of geometrical rules to the representa-
tion of the figures, and the various relations of the forms of bodies, ac-
cording to certain conventional methods. It differs from ordinary per-
spective, inasmuch as the design or representation is made in such a
mariner that the exact distance between the different points of the body
represented can always be found, and consequently all the mathematical
relations resulting from the form and position of the body may be
deduced from the representation.

In descriptive geometry, the situation of points in space is rep-
resented by their projections on two planes, at right angles to each
other, called the planes of projection. It is usual to suppose one of
the planes of projection to be horizontal, in which case the other is ver-
tical ; and the projections are called horizontal or vertical, according as
21

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Gro.

they are on the one or the other of these planes. According to this
system, any point whatever in space is represented by drawing a per-
pendicular from it to each of tin- planes of projection : the point on
which the perpendicular falls is the projection of the proposed point.
As contiguous points in space form a line, so the projections of those
points, which are also contiguous, form a line in the same manner,
which is the projection of the given line. Hence as two projections
only are required f.r the determination of a point in space, they are
also sufficient for the determination of any curve whatever, whether of
single or double curvature.

The same mode of representation cannot bo employed with regard
to surfaces ; for, as the projections of the contiguous points of a surface
cover a continuous area on both planes of projection, tin-re is nothing
to indicate that any particular point on one of the planes of projection
corresponds to one point more than another on the second plane, and
consequently that it belongs to one point more than another in space.
But if we conceive the surface which is to be represented to be covered
with a system of lines succeeding one another according to a determin-
ate law, then, by projecting these lines on each of the two planes, and
marking the correspondence of the one projection with the other, the
projections of all the different points of the surface, will have an evident
dependence on each other, and the surface will be rigorously and com-
pletely determined.

Some elementary surfaces may, however, be represented in a much
more simple way. The plane, for example, is completely defined by
the straight lines in which it intersects the two planes of projection.
These lines are denominated the traces of the plane. A sphere is also
completely defined by the two projections of its centre, and th
circle which limits the projections of its points. A cylinder is defined
by its inter^K tion (or trace) with one of the planes of projection, and
by the two s .f one of its ends. A cone is rep:-

its intersection with one, of the planes of projection and the two pro-
jections of its summit,

The rmwt immediate, application of descriptive poom. try is the
representation of bodies, of which the forms are siiMvptiUc of rigorous
geometrical definition. Sculpture, architecture, paint ini:, and all the
mechanical arts, tho object of which is to pive to matter certain deter-
minate forms, borrow from d-w.-riptivo. peometry tin ir graphical pro-
cedures, by the aid of which all the parts of an object are faithfully rep-
reaente f l-f..n- the ol.jeet it^-lf is executed. Hut it was chiefly

in consequence of its application to civil and military engineering, and

Go*.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 323

to fortification, that this branch of geometry received a distinctive ap-
pellation, and is considered of much importance in the Polytechnic
school of France, and our own Military Academy. (Consult DA VIES'
Descriptive Geometry.)

GIN. The derrick, sheers, and gin have one common object, viz. :
to find a fulcrum in space, to which the pulley, in the shape of block
and tackle, is to be applied. In the derrick and sheers this is effected
on one and- two legs, and stability is given by guys. The gin usually
consists of three long legs, two of which are joined together by
cross bars, and the third, called the pry pole, elevates the gin. A
pulley is supported at the top, round which a rope is passed for
elevating the weight. Fig. 135 shows the manner of working
the gin. There are three kinds of gins used in service : the field and
siege, the garrison, and the casemate. The last
two differ from each other only in height ; the
first differs from the others in construction and
size. Either of them may be used as derrick or
sheers. The garrison and casemate gins differ
from the siege gin in having two braces of iron
instead of three wooden cross-bars or braces,
and in having the pry pole inserted between
the legs, which are kept together by the clevis
bolt. The upper pulley (generally treble) is
hooked to the clevis. (For description, setting up, and mechanical
manceuvres with gins, consult Instruction in Heavy Artillery.)

GIRDER. In building, the principal beam of a floor for support-
ing the binding or other joists, to lessen their bearing or length.

GLACIS. The superior slope of the parapet of the covered way,
extended in a gentle declivity to the surrounding country. It is seldom
used in field-works. (See FORTIFICATION.)

GLANDERS. A virulent and dangerous disease among horses,
principally shown in a mucous discharge from the nostrils. To prevent
this infectious disorder from spreading, it is necessary at once to re-
move the horse from his stall, and thoroughly wash with soap and
water the rack, manger, and every part of the stall from which the
horse has been removed. When the parts are thus made clean, they
must also be covered with a quick-lime wash immediately after it is
mixed, and afterwards three coats of oil colors given to it. The same
precautions are taken in FARCY. (See VETERINARY.)

GORGE. The gorge of a fortification or gorge of a work is the
opening on that side of the work corresponding to the body of the place,

;;j t MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Go*

or the side whence comes tho defence. In isolated works, the gorge
is sometimes intrenched. The gorges of works not attached to a for-
tress, but which are its dependencies, are in general open, or without
r that the runny may not cover himself from the fire
of the j'l.uv if he should seize such detached works. If tin- works are
liable to surprise, and their gorges cannot be shut, a row of palisades
are planted there, and mines are prepared so as to overthrow the
if he should seize the work, and attempt to construct a lodge-
ment there. The gorge of a bastion is usually an open space b

.treniities of tho flanks of the bastion. The larger this gorge is,
the better is the defence ; for when the ruined bastion is about to fall by
siege. into the hands of the enemy, the defenders can construct del.
works or dig small ditches in the gorge of the abandoned bastion. Such
resistance sometimes drives the besiegers to the necessity of battering
in breach the curtain.

GORGE OF MOUNTAINS is the passage, more or less compressed,
u two mountains which are used as a passage-way into valleys.
Gorges are important military points. If they lead to an intrenched
camp, it is necessary to fortify them, and post there ^rand guards;
these positions are the principal theatres for affairs of posts. A gorge
should never be entered without previous examination.

GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of the United States provides
that Congress shall make rules for the government and rojinl.v
armies. By government is understood not only the body of fundamen-
tal laws of a State, but also the body of persons charged with tho man-
agement of the executive power of a country, direction, power or author-
hieh rules a community, administration, rule, management ;
(WORCESTER'S Dictionary.)

ornment of the military (says BARDIN, Dictionnaire de VArmee
dt Terre) is that branch of the code which embraces the creation and
regulation of tho military hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of infe-
rior authority. The power of m.'iking rules of government is th.it of
SUPREME COMMAND, and from this living principle jroeerds the loealiza-

"f troops, their organization and distribution; rides for r
and punishments; and generally all rules of government and rniu'.itnm
whatsoever, which the legislature may judge necessary, to maintain an
efficient and well-disciplined army.

All authority over the land force* of the United States must th. r. -
fore be derived from Congress. For, although the President is the.
commander in < hi. f, yet his functions, as such, must he regulated by
Congress, under the 17th clause of Sec. 8 of the Constitution, as well

GBA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 305

as under the general authority of Congress to make rules for the gov-
ernment and regulation of the land forces. The President cannot bo
divested of power which Congress may assign to any inferior military
commander, because the authority of the greater includes that of the
less. But all authority over the land and naval forces save the appoint-
ment of the commander-in-chief rests with Congress, and no authority
can be exercised not delegated by Congress, except such as may be
fairly deduced from powers given for the effective discharge of the
duties annexed to his office. (See ADMINISTRATION, and references
under that head ; ADJUTANT ; ADJUTANT-GENERAL ; AID-DE-CAMP ; AP-
POINTING POWER ; ARMY ; ARMY, (Regular ;) ARMY REGULATIONS ; AR-
TICLES OF WAR, and references under that head ; ARTILLERY ; ASSIGN-
MENT ; BOOTY ; BOUNTY ; BREVET ; BRIGADE ; BRIGADIER-GENERAL ;
BRIGADE-INSPECTOR ; CADET ; CAPTAIN ; CAVALRY ; COLONEL ; COM-
MAND ; COMMANDER OF THE ARMY ; COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF ; COMMISSARY
OF SUBSISTENCE ; COMMISSION ; CONGRESS ; CONSTITUTION ; CORPORAL ;
CORPS ; COURT-MARTIAL and references under that head ; COURT OF IN-
QUIRY ; DEFENCE, (National;) DEPARTMENT; DETACHMENT; DISCI-
PLINE ; DIVISION ; ENGINEERS CORPS ; ENGINEERS, ( Topographical ;)
ESPRIT DU CORPS ; FIELD OFFICERS ; FLAGS ; FORAGE MASTER ; GARRI-
SON ; GENERAL OFFICERS ; GRATUITY ; GRENADIERS ; HIERARCHY ; IN-
DEMNIFICATION ; INDIAN ; INFANTRY ; JUDGE-ADVOCATE ; LAW, and ref-
erences under that head ; LAW, (Martial ;) LIEUTENANT ; LIEUTENANT-
COLONEL ; LIEUTENANT-GENERAL ; LINE ; LOSSES ; MAJOR ; MAJOR-GEN-
ERAL ; MARINE CORPS ; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; MILITIA ; NON-COM-
MISSIONED OFFICERS ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OFFICERS ; ORDERS ; ORD-
NANCE DEPARTMENT ; ORDNANCE SERGEANTS ; ORGANIZING ; PARDON ;
PAY ; PAY DEPARTMENT ; PAYMASTER-GENERAL ; PENSION ; PLATOON ;
POST ; PRESIDENT ; PROMOTION ; PUNISHMENT ; QUARTERMASTER'S DE-
PARTMENT ; QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL ; RAISE, and its references ;
RANK ; REGIMENT ; REGULATION, and its references ; REMEDY ; RE-
PRIEVE ; RETAINERS ; RIFLEMEN ; SAPPERS ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SE-
NIOR ; SERGEANT ; SERVICE, and its references ; SOLDIER ; STAFF ; STATE
TROOPS ; STANDARDS ; STORE-KEEPERS ; SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT ;
SUPERIOR ; SUPERINTENDENT ; SUPERNUMERARY ; SURGEON ; SURGERY,
(Military ;) SUTLERS ; TRADE ; TRAIN ; TRANSFERS ; TRAVELLING AL-
LOWANCES ; TREATY ; UNIFORM ; VETERAN ; VICE-PRESIDENT ; VOLUN-
TEERS ; WAR ; WARRANT.)

GRAND DIVISION. A division composed of two companies
in battalion manoeuvres.

GRAPE-SHOT. A certain number of cast-iron balls put together

|J-,V> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Gn.

by moans of two cast-iron plates, two rings, and one pin and nut. Canis-
ter lias superseded the use of grape in field-guns. Grape-shot are used
with the B-in. howitzers and the columbiad of that
calibre, by adopting the sabot of the sea-coast
howitzer, which serves for both pieces. The grape
for these 8-in. pieces is made of 6-pd. shot.

GRAPPLING-IRONS- consist of from four
to six branches bent and pointed, with a ring at
the root. A rope being fastened through this rin^,
any object at which the grappling-irons aro thrown,
may be dragged nearer.

GRATUITY. In the French service whenever
a non-commissioned officer is promoted, ho is
given a gratuity ^ called Gratification de Premiere
Mise cTOfficier, in order to provide his

as officer. In the same manner, at the beginning of a campaign, a sum
of money is given to all officers of the French army, according to grade,
as an equipment fund ; it is called Gratification <T entree en Camjuiynf,
ou Indemnite d 'entree en Campagne.

GRAVITY, GRAVITATION. These terms are used to express
the mutual tendency which all bodies have to approach each oth.-r if
not opposed by other resistance.

Force of Gravity Motion of falling bodies : Let t bo the time of
descent in seconds, of a body falling freely, in vacuo ; A, the space de-
scribed in the time t ; v, the velocity acquired at the end of that time,
and y the velocity acquired at the end of one second of time ; then :
h = gf', v = g t = -y/2 9 A

The velocity g, which is the measure of the force of gravity, varies
with the latitude of the place, and with its altitude above the 1 v. 1 <.f
the tea. The force of gravity at the latitude of 45 = 32.1808 f.-,-t ;
at any other latitude L ; g = 32.1803 feet 0.0821 cos. 2 L. If y*
represent tin- force of gravity at the height h above the sea, and r the
radius of the earth, the force of gravity at the level of the sea will !>

In thr latitude of London, at the level of the sea, g ::-J.l'.'l |

do. Washington, . do. do. g = 32.155 feet.
GRENADE. A shell thrown by hand or in K-iskets from stone
mortars. A hand-grenade is a small sh< 11 about 2$ inches in diameter,
Dg set on fire by means of a short fuze and cast among the

GUN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 327

enemy's troops, causes great damage by its explosion. They may bo
thrown 26 yards. Rampart-grenades are larger, and are used to roll
down ramparts, &c.

GRENADIERS. The right flank company of a regiment.

GRIEVANCES. (See WRONGS.)

GROOVES. Spiral grooves or "rifles" cut into the surface of
the bore of fire-arms, have the effect of communicating a rotary motion
to a projectile around an axis coincident with its flight. This motion
increases the range of the projectile, and also corrects one of the causes
of deviation by distributing it uniformly around the line of flight.
For expanding projectiles, experiment shows that broad and shallow
grooves with a moderate twist give range, endurance, accuracy of fire,
and facility in loading and cleaning the bores. The United States have
therefore adopted for arms three grooves, each in width equal to the
lands, or of the circumference of the bore ; and uniformly decreasing
in depth from the breech where it is .015 in., to the muzzle, where it
is .005 inch ; with a uniform twist, one turn in six feet for long barrels
or the musket, and one turn in four feet for short barrels or the car-
bine. The proper twist to be given to the grooves, depends on the
length, diameter and initial velocity of the projectile used ; but the most
suitable twist can only be determined by experiment.

GUARDS are used for security and police by troops in the field,
in camps, garrisons, and quarters. Guards are designated as advance
or van, and rear guards ; outposts and picket guards ; quarter, camp,
and garrison guards ; and general officers' guards. The tour of service
of guards is usually twenty-four hours. Sometimes a guard is detached
from a single corps, and sometimes from several corps. In either case
during the tour of service, the guard receives orders from the command-
ing officer and officers of the guard. It is for the time detached from
its corps. (The description and duties of guards are given in Army
Regulations.)

GUERILLA. (See PARTISAN.)

GUIDES. Men employed to give intelligence respecting a country
and the various roads intersecting it. All armies employed in an
enemy's country find it to their advantage to use guides.

GUIDES, (TACTICAL.) The duties of guides are given in the
Tactics.

GUIDONS. Each company of cavalry has a silken guidon pre-
scribed in Army Regulations.

GUN-COTTON is common cotton, steeped in a mixture of sul-
phuric acid and nitric acid, and when properly soaked, is well washed

;ij> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Qro.

ir running water, and then dried. The explosive force of three parts
of gun-cotton equals that of eight parts of gunpowder. Major Mor-
decai's experiments at Washington in the years 1845, 1847, and 1848, to
determine the fitness of gun-eotton as a substitute for gunpowder in the
military service, show : 1. Explosive cotton burns at 380 Fahr., therc-
: o to gunpowder when burnt in u loose state over
it. 2. The pn>jectilo force of explosive cotton, with moderate charges,
in a musket or cannon, is equal to that of about twice its v. -eight of tho
best gunpowder. 3. When compressed by hard ramming, as in filling
a fuze, it burns slowly. 4. By the absorption of moisture its force is
rapidly diminished, but the force is restored by drying. 5. Its burst-
- much greater than that of gunpowder, on whirh account it
is \\vll adapted for mining operations. 6. The principal residua of its
combustion are water and nitrous acid ; therefore the barrel of a gun
would be soon corroded if not cleaned after firing. 7. In consequence
of tho quickness and intensity of its action when ignited, it cannot be
used with safety in the present fire-arms. 8. An accident
such as the insertion of two charges before firing, would cause the
bursting of the barrel; and it is probable that the like etK t would
take place with the regular service-char- : ;d times repeated.

GUNNERS. For the service of field and heavy ordnanec. tln-ro
is wi'li i-aeh piece one man called a gunner, who gives all the. executive,
commands in action. lie is answerable that the men at the piece per-
form thi-ir duties correctly. (Consult Instruction for Field and Heavy
Artillery.)

GUNNER'S CALIPERS. Made of sheet brass, with ste, 1 i
The graduations show diamet.-rs of guns, shot, &c.

GUNNER'S PERPENDICULAR. This is made of sh-rt 1
the lower part is cut in the form of a cresemt. the points of which arc
made I small spirit lev 1 is listened to one side of the plate,

parallel to the lino joining tho points of the crescent, and a slide is
fastened to the same side of the plat--, perpendicular to tli- axis of the
level. The instrument is useful in marking tho points of sight on siege
guns and r h.-n the platform is not 1-

GUNNKi: S I'l NCERS. Iron with steel jaws, which have on the
end of v for drawing nails, &c.

GUNNER'S QUADRANT, (wood.) A graduate! .piadrant of
li.-s radius, attnehed to a rule 23.5 inch.-s Ion/, (\'\ : j. i:{7.) It
has a plumb-line and bob, which arc carried, when nt in OM, in a hole
in the end of the nil-- r.,v. l.ra^s plate. The quadrant, is ap-

plied cither by its longer branch to the face of tin- pi , or this branch

GUN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 329

is run into the bore parallel with the axis, and the elevating screv;
turned or the quoin adjusted until the required degree FIQ
is indicated.

GUNNERY. Laws regulating the resistance of
the air are complicated and undetermined. The at-
tempts also made to determine the volume and tension
of the gases produced by the combustion of powder
have given variable and unsatisfactory results. It ac-
cordingly follows, and it is now admitted, that it is impossible to solve
the problem of the trajectory described by projectiles by purely theo-
retical means. Multiplied experiments are therefore resorted to, in
order to form tables of fire, and such tables are the true guides in prac-
tical gunnery.

The maximum range of the largest cannon fired under an angle of
45 does not exceed 8,000 yards : siege guns fired under smaller an-
gles give ranges varying from 3,000 to 4,500 yards. The range of field-
pieces in their ordinary fire is from 1,790 to 2,200 yards. Tables of
ranges are given in Ordnance and Artillery Manuals, for the moun-
tain howitzers, field-guns and howitzers, heavy ordnance, and Bale's
war rockets. These tables give ranges at different elevations, the
charges of powder, the weight of the shot, spherical case shot or shell
in each case. They show the time of flight of the shell, and consequently
the length of fuze required ; and also at what angles of elevation, in the
8 or 10-in. columbiads, shot cease to ricochet upon the water. (See,
for such tables, articles : ARTILLERY ; BALLISTICS ; FIRING ; INITIAL VE-
LOCITY ; ORDNANCE ; RIFLED ORDNANCE ; ROCKETS.)

GUNPOWDER. In the United States, the proportion of ingre-
dients for the military service are : 76 or 75 of saltpetre, 14 or 15
charcoal, and 10 of sulphur ; for sporting, 78 or 77 saltpetre, 12 or
13 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. The powder is coarse or fine grained.
In the United States, to every 10 grains troy weight of powder, there
are 150 grains of cannon powder, 1,100 musket powder, 6,000 rifle,
and 73,000 sporting. The size of the grain is tested by sieves. Mus-
ket power is now recommended for all small arms.

A new powder, invented by Capt. Rodman, Ordnance Dept.,
shows great ingenuity, and has given most important results. An
ordinary grain of powder burns from the surface to the centre, and the
largest portion of the gas is evolved in the T f part of a second.
The force of the charge is therefore expended upon the projectile before
it is sensibly moved, and there is a corresponding strain upon the gun.
Capt. Rodman thought, if powder could be made to burn on an increas-

330 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GcK

1/1^7 instead of a decreasing surface, so that the gas should be evolved
completely but not so rapidly before the projectile left the piece, the
same velocity would be communicated, and the strain would be dis-
tributed uniformly over the whole piece. To accomplish this, ho
formed the " dust " into a coke, and inserted into it numerous small
wires, which, being pulled out, left corresponding avenues for the pas-
sage of flame and ignition of the mass ; thus making tin- interior sur-
face of combustion increasing instead of decreasing. The enormous
pressures from large charges of powder have thus been entirely obvi-
ated by the introduction into service of Rodman's hollow caked powder,
or its substitute, the large-grained powder, each grain being six-tenths
of an inch. This discovery, with the idea of Capt. Rodman of cooling
cast-iron cannon from the interior by means of a current of cold water
flowing through a hollow core, has enabled him to cast a 15-in. colum-
biad which, after three hundred rounds, with a charge of 40 Ibs. of pow-
der, showed no appreciable enlargement of either bore or vent, and
causes Capt. Rodman to believe that the piece will bear 1,000 rounds
without material injury; (BENTON; Experiments on Gunpowder by
MAJ. MORDECAI, Ordnance Dept.)

GUNS are long cannon without chambers, having their calibres
determined by tho woijjht of their balls. (See CALIBRE; ORDNANCE.)

GUNTER'S CHAIN is the chain commonly used for measuring
land. It is 66 feet or 4 poles in length, and is divided into 100 links,
each of which is joined to tho adjacent one by three rings; and tin-
length of each link, including the connecting rings, is 7.92 inches. The
advantage of this measure consists in the facility which it affords for
numerical calculations. The English acre contains 4,840 square yards ;
and Gunter's chain being 22 yards in length, tho square of whi h is
484, it follows that a square chain is exactly the tenth part of an acre.
A square chain, again, contains 10,000 square links, so that 100,000
square links are equal to nn acre; consequently, the contents <! u fit Id
being cast p in square links, it is only necessary to divide l>y 100,000,
or to cut off tho last five figures, to obtain the contents expr. ^,-d, in
ere* ; (BRAXDE'S Encyclopedia.)

GUY. A rope used to swing any weight, or to keep steady any
heavy body, and prevent it from swinging while being hoisted or
lowered.

HAIL. A sentinel hails any one approaching his post, with " Who
there ? n

HAU.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 331

HALT. A rest during a march, and a word of command in tac-
tical manoeuvres.

HAND. A measure four inches in length. The height of a horse
is computed by so many hands and inches.

HANDSPIKES. The trail handspike for fiefc carriages is 53
inches in length ; the manoeuvring handspike for garrison and sea-coast
carriages and for gins is 66 inches ; for siege and other heavy work it
is made 84 inches long and 12 Ibs. weight ; the shod handspike is par-
ticularly useful in the service of mortars and of casemate and barbette
carriages ; the truck handspike for casemate carriages, (wrought iron ;)
the roller handspike, for casemate carriages. It is made of iron, 1 inch
round, the point conical, whole length 34 inches.

HARBORING AN ENEMY. Punishable with death or other-
wise, according to sentence of a court-martial ; (ART. 56.)

HAUSSE OR BREECH SIGHT is a graduated piece attached to
the barrel near the breech, which has a sliding piece retained in its place
by a thumb screw, or by the spring of the slider itself. This slider
should have an opening through which the gun can be conveniently
aimed ; and is raised to such a height as we think will give the neces-
sary elevation for the distance. The term coarse sight means a large
portion of the front sight, as seen above the bottom of the rear-sight
notch ; and a fine sight is when but a small portion is seen. The effect
of a coarse sight is to increase the range of the projectile.

Graduation of rear-sights. If the form of the trajectory be known,
the rear-sight of a fire-arm can be graduated by calculation ; the more
accurate and reliable method, however, is by trial. Suppose it be re-
quired to mark the graduation for 100 yards : the slider is placed as
near the position of the required mark as the judgment of the experi-
menter may indicate ; and, with this elevation, the piece is carefully
aimed, and fired, say ten times, at a target placed on level ground at a
distance of 100 yards. If the assumed position of the slider be correct,
the centre of impact of the ten shot-holes will coincide with Jie point
aimed at ; if it be incorrect, or the centre of impact be found below the

FIG. 133.

point aimed at, then the position of the slider is too low on the scale.
Let P be the point aimed at, and P' the centre of impact of the cluster

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Fir, l:\9.

of shot-holes, we have, from close similarity of the triangles, A'F: FP ::
A' A" : PP ; from which we can determine A' A' the quantity that imi>i
be added to A A', to give the correct position of the graduation mark
for 100 yards. If the centre of impact had been above P, the trial
mark would have%een too high. Lay off the distance A A" above A",
on the scale, and we obtain an approximate graduation for 200 yards,
\\ liirh should be corrected in the same way as the pi and so

on. The distance P P 1 is found by taking the algebraic sum of the
distances of all the shots from the point P, and dividing it by the num-
ber of shots. It will be readily seen that an approximate form of the
trajectory may be obtained by drawing a series of lines through the
ditr.-rvnt graduation marks of the rear-sight, and the top of the front-
sight, and laying off from the front-sight, on each. line, the correspond-
ing range ; (BENTON.)

HAVERSACK. Bag issued to soldiers for carrying rations.
HAY. The forage ration is fourteen pounds of hay, and twelve
pounds of oats, corn, or barley. Cattle will eat many sorts of herbage
when cut small, but refuse it if uncut. They will eat reeds, sea\v .1.
leaves, Ace.

To cut Chaff, (Fig. i8fc)
Tie a sickle against a tree,
with its blade projecting ;
then, standing in front of
the blade, hold a handful of
reeds across it with both
hands, one hand on either
side of the blade; pull it
towards you, and the reeds
will l)o cut through; drop
the cut end, seize the bundle
-h, nml n-|.c:it the pro-
cess. In this way, after a
little 1'iMrtio-. dial!' is cut
\\ith great rase and quick-
ness. A broken sickle does
as well as a whole one, and
a knife may 1... ned, but the
curve of its edge, is ill adapt. <1
for the work. (See FORAGE.)
HKIGHT. KIrvation,
as to occupy or to crown a height; the height of a soldier, dec. (See
DISTANCES; SURVEYING.)

Hox.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 333

HELMET. Defensive armor or covering for the head used by
heavy cavalry.

HIERARCHY, (MILITARY.) The essential element for the gov-
ernment and service of an army is a military hierarchy, or the creation
of different grades of rank, to which different functions and powers are
assigned, the lower in regular subordination to the next higher in the
ascending scale. It should be founded on the principle that every one
acts in an army under the orders of a superior, who exercises his au-
thority only within limits established by law. This authority of the
superior should be greater or less according to rank and position, and
be proportioned to his responsibilities. Orders should be executed with-
out hesitation ; but responsibilities should be confined to him who gives
orders in virtue of the superior authority with which he is invested ;
to him who takes the initiative in an order ; to him who does not exe-
cute an order that he has received ; and to him who usurps a command
or continues illegally to exercise its functions.

The grades of the military hierarchy are : 1. The President of the
United States ; 2. The Lieut.-general ; 3. Major-generals ; 4. Brig-
adier-generals ; 5. Colonels ; 6. Lieutenant-colonels ; 7. Majors ; 8
Captains; 9. Lieutenants; 10. Cadets; 11. Sergeants; 12. Corpo-
rals; 13. Privates. 'Hie military hierarchy is determined and con-
secrated within its sphere of action by : 1. Grades of rank created
by military laws ; 2. By other laws regulating the exercise of rank ;
3. By military insignia; 4. By military honors; and 5. By the mil-
itary oath. (See PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, AND OTHER GRADES
or THE HIERARCHY ; BREVET ; COMMISSION ; COMMAND ; GOVERNMENT ;
LINE ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OFFICER ; ORDERS ; RANK ; REGULATION.)

HIRING OF DUTY. Punishable at the discretion of a regi-
mental court-martial ; (ART. 47.)

HOLSTERS. Cases attached to the pommel of the saddle, to hold
a horseman's pistols.

HONORS, (MILITARY) have been prescribed by the orders of
the President, and are paid by troops to the President and other public
functionaries, to military officers according to grade, to the colors of a
regiment and when two regiments meet. (Consult Army Regulations.)

HONORS OF WAR. This expression is used in capitulations ;
and the chief of a post, .when compelled to surrender, always demands
the honors of war in testimony of the vigor of his defence. As these
terms depend on the disposition of the victorious general, their limits
vary ; but in some instances garrisons have been allowed to march out,
with colors flying, drums beating, some field-pieces, caissons loaded,

334 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [IKo.

and baggage. In other cases the garrison marches out to a certain dis.
tance, and piles its arms, anil is cither released as prisoners upon pa-
role, or then becomes prisoners in :

HOOF. (Sw HORSE.)

HORN WORK is a work composed of two half bastions and a
curtain or a front of fortification, with two long sides called bran, -lies or
wings, directed upon tho faces of the bastions or ravelins, so as to be
defended by them. This work is placed before a bastion or ra \vlln,
and serves to inclose any space of ground or building, which could not
be brought within the enceinte,

HORSE. In selecting a horse choose one from 5 to 7 years old,
(the latter age preferable,) and from 15 to 10 hands high.

The saddle horse should bo free in his movements; have good
sight ; a full, firm chest ; be surefooted ; have a good disposition, with
boldness and courage ; more bottom than spirit, and not be too showy.

Tho draft horse should stand erect on his legs, be strongly built, but
free in his movements ; his shoulders should be large enough to give
support to the collar, but not too heavy ; his body full, but not too
long ; the sides well rounded ; tho limbs solid, with rather strong
shanks, and feet in good condition.

To these qualities he should unite, as much as possible, the qualities
of the saddle horse ; should trot and gallop easily ; have even gaits,
and not be skittish. The most suitable horse for tho pack-saddle is the
one most nearly approaching the mule in his formation. lie should bo
very strong-backed, and from 14 to 15 hands high.

Horses with very long legs, or long pasterns, should bo rejected, as
well as those which arc poor, lank, stubborn, or vicious.

The mule is preferable to tho horse in a very rough country, where
its suref-.ot. 'In.-ss is an important quality. There are two kinJs : the
mule proper, or product of the jarka^ and mare, which is preferable to
the product of the horse and ass. Tho former brays, the latter neighs.

The mule may be usefully employed from its fourth year to beyond
its twenty-fifth. It is usually from Lit to 15 hands high; is hardy,
'Mo,i. >h.,it 1 ,ut little; is easy to keep; is very surefooted,

pccially adapted for draught or packing.

!.orsos, their attitudes and lial.ils should ]..
al'l-. I, <nvirig the stable, they should be stopped at
the door ! ,m,. their eyes, tho pupils of which should

eontrart u|,.-n s'rurk by the light. Out of tho stable, they should
noith.-r bo allowed to remain quirt, nor to be worried. Care should bo
taken against being deceived by the effects of the whip, cries, &c. Tho

HOR.]; MILITARY DICTIONARY. 335

positions of a horse, his limbs, age, and height, should be examined at
different times. He should be walked about with a long rein, observ-
ing the action of his rear extremities when he moves off, of his fore
ones when approaching, and of both when moving with his flank towards
you. The examination should be repeated at a trot, observing in what
manner the horse gathers himself; whether he interferes, rocks in his
motions, or traverses his shoulders or haunches. Rein him backwards,
make one of the men get on him, and see if he is difficult to mount, and
whether or not he bears too hard on the bit. Make him gallop -a little,
to judge of his wind, and see whether his flanks heave. Have his feet
washed and examined carefully. Strike upon the shoe to determine
whether he is easily shod or not.

AGE. The age of a horse is determined by the appearance of his
teeth. When he is 5 years old, his mouth is nearly perfect with a full
set (40) of teeth, 20 in each jaw ; six of these are in front, and called
nippers, or cutting teeth ; a tush on each side of these, and on each side
of the back part of the jaws six molars, or grinding teeth.

At the birth of the colt, the 1st and 2d grinders have appeared, and
in the course of seven or eight days after, the two central nippers force
their way through the gums. In the course of the first month, the 3d
grinder appears above and below, and shortly after another of the inci-
sors on each side of the first two.

At the end of two months, the central nippers reach their full
height, and before another month the second pair will overtake them.
They then begin to wear away a little, and the outer edge ?> which was
at first somewhat raised and sharp, is brought to a level with the inner
one. So the mouth continues until some time between the 6th and 9th
month, when two other nippers begin to appear, making 12 in all, and
completing the colt's mouth. After this, the only observable difference,
until between the 2d and 3d year, is the wear of these teeth.

These teeth are covered with a polished and very hard enamel, which
spreads over that portion above the gum. From the constant habit of
nipping grass, and gathering up the animal's food, a portion of the
enamel is worn away, while in the centre of the upper surface of the
teeth, it sinks into the body of the tooth, forming a little pit. The in-
side and bottom of this pit, being blackened by the food, constitute the
mark of the teeth, by the gradual disappearance of which, from the
wearing down of the edge, we are enabled, for several years, to judge
of the age of the animal.

The teeth, at first presenting a cutting surface, with the outer edge
rising in a slanting direction above the inner, soon begin to wear down,

;;;;.} MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Uoa.

until both surfaces are level; and the war*, originally Ion? and narrow,

becomes shorter, wider, an.l faint. -r. Fig. 140 represents the appearance

of the animal's mouth at 1:2 months. The four middle teeth an- almost

nd the e..rner ones becoming so. The mark in tin- t\\<> middle

l and t-iint ; in the two next, dark , and nan

and in the extreme ones it is darkest, longest, and narrowest. '\ '
pearancc of the nippers, tg'thor with tho coming of four new grinders,
enables the ago of tho colt to be pretty nearly calculated.

months after, the mark in tho central nippers will l>o much
shorter and fainter; that in the two other pairs will have undergone an
evident change, and all tho nippers will be flat.

At two years old, this change will be still more manifest, and the
lower jaw of the colt will present the appearance represented in Fig.
111. About this period, too, a new grinder appears, making 20 in all,

Fio. 140. Fio. 141.

and a still more important change takes place. This consists in the
formation of tho permanent teeth which gradually come up from bc-
<//Mor/>, and take the place of the temporary, or milk teeth, as
they are called, and finally push the top parts of th out of

thoir places. These permanent teeth are much larger and stronger than
the first ones.

The teeth are replaced in the same order that they originally ap-
peared, and consequently, at the end of the second year, the first grind-
en are replaced by permanent and larger ones; then the central nip-
pen, and so on. At the end of tho third year, tin- colt's mouth \\ill
present the appearance shown in Fig. 142. The central teeth are larger
than the others, with two grooves in the on* nd the

mark is long, narrow, deep, and black. Not having yet attained their
full L'rowth, they are ratlu-r lower than the others. The mark in tho

rs is nearly worn out, and it is wearing away in t
trcme onea.

HOB.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

337

A horse at three years old ought to have the central permanent nip-
pers growing ; the other two pairs wasting ; six grinders in each jaw,
above and below the first and fifth level with the other, and the sixth
protruding. The sharp edge of the new incisors will be very evident
when compared with the neighboring teeth.

As the permanent nippers wear, and continue to grow, a narrower
portion of the cone-shaped tooth is exposed to attrition, and they look
as if they had been compressed. The mark, of course, gradually disap-
pears as the pit is worn away.

At three years and a half, or between that and four, the next pair
of nippers will be changed. The central nippers will have attained
nearly their full growth. A vacuity will be left where the second
stood, or they will begin to peep above the gum, and the corner ones
will be diminished in breadth, worn down, and the mark becoming
small and faint. At this period, too, the second pair of grinders will
be shed.

At four years, the central nippers will be fully developed ; the

FIG. 142.

FIG. 143

sharp edge somewhat worn off, and the mark shorter, wider, and fainter.
The next pair will be up, but they will be small, with the mark deep,
and extending quite across them. The corner nippers will be larger
than the inside ones, yet smaller than they were, flat, and the mark
nearly effaced. The sixth grinder will have risen to % a level with the
others, and the tushes will begin to appear. See Fig. 143. The small
size of the corner nippers, the want of wear in the others, the little
growth of the tush, the smallness of the second grinder, the low fore-
hand, the legginess of the colt, and the thickness and little depth of the
mouth, will prevent the horse from being passed off as over four years old.
The tushes are much nearer the nippers than the grinders, but this
distance increases witlT the age of the animal. The time of their ap-
22

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Hon.

pearance is uncertain, and it may vary from the fourth year to foul
years and six months.

At four years and a half the last important change takes place in
the mouth. The corner nippers are shed, and the permanent ones be-
gin to appear. The central nippers are considerably worn, and the
next pair are commencing to show signs of usage. The tush has now
protruded, and is generally a full half-inch in height. After the rising
of the corner nippers the animal changes its name the colt becomes a
horse, and the filly a mare.

At five years the corner nippers are quite up, with the long deep
mark irregular on the inside, and the other nippers bearing evidence of
increased wear. The tush is much grown, the grooves have nearly dis-
appeared, arid the outer surface is regularly convex, though the inner is
still concave, with the ecTge nearly as sharp as it was six months before.
The sixth molar is quite up, and the third wanting, which last cireuin-
stancc will be of great assistance in preventing deception. The three
last grinders and the tushes are never shed. Fig. 144 represents the
mouth of a 5-year old horse.

At six years the mark on the central nippers is worn out, though a
difference of color still remains in the centre of the tooth, and although
a slight depression may exist, the deep hole with the blackened surface
and elevated edge of enamel will have disappeared. In tin- next incisors
the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter; and in the corner teeth the
edges of the enamel are more regular, and the surface is evidently
worn. The tush has attained its full growth of nearly an inch in length ;
convex outwards, concave within, tending to a point, and the extremity
somewhat curved. The third grinder is fairly up, and all the grinders
are level.

At seven years, the mark is worn out in the four central nippers,

Fio. 144. Fio. 145.

HOB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 339

and fast wearing away in the corner ones. The tush is becoming
rounded at the point and edges ; still round outside, and beginning to get
so inside. (Fig. 145.)

At eight years old, the tush is rounded in every way ; the mark is
gone from all the bottom nippers, and nothing remains in them that
can afterwards clearly show the age of the horse.

An operation is sometimes performed on the teeth of horses, to de-
ceive purchasers in regard to age. This, called bishoping, after the in-
ventor, consists in throwing a horse, 8 or 9 years old, and with an en-
graver's tool digging a hole in the almost plane surface of the corner
teeth, of the same shape and depth of those seen in a 7-year old horse.
The holes {ire then burned with a heated iron, leaving a permanent
black stain. The next pair of nippers are also sometimes lightly
touched. An inexperienced person might be deceived by the process ;
but a careful examination will disclose the irregular appearance of the
cavity the diffusion of the black stain around the tushes, the sharpened
edges and concave inner surface of which can never be given again and
the marks on the upper nippers. After the horse is 8 years old, horse-
men are accustomed to judge of his age from the nippers in the upper
jaw, where the mark remains longer than in the lower jaw teeth ; so
that at 9 years of age it disappears from the central nippers; at 10
from the next pair, and from all the upper nippers at 11. During
this time, too, the tushes are changing, becoming blunter, shorter, and
rounder ; but the means for determining accurately the age of a horse,
after he has passed 8 years, are very uncertain.

The general indications of old age, independent of the teeth, are
deepening of the hollows over the eyes, and about the muzzle ; thinness
and hanging down of the lips ; sharpness of the withers ; sinking of the
back ; lengthening of the quarters ; and the disappearance of windgalls,
spavins, and tumors of every kind.

The perpendicularity with which a horse habitually stands, deter-
mines his good qualities and endurance. Viewed in profile, his front
legs should be comprised between two verticals : the one, A, (Fig. 146,)
let fall from the point of his shoulder, and terminating at his toe ;
the other, B, from the top of the withers, and passing through the el-
bow. A line, C, passing through the fetlock-joint, should divide the
limb into two equal parts. The hind legs should be comprised between
two verticals, A' falling from the hip, and B' falling from the point of
the buttock ; the foot at very nearly equal distances from these two
lines. A line, C', let fall from the hip-joint, should be equally distant
from these two lines A', B'.

340

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[IlOB.

wed in front, a vertical let fall from the point of the shoulder,
should divide the leg along its contra! line. In rear, a vertical tV< >m
the point of the buttock, should divide the leg equally throughout its
entire length.

FIG. 140.

A B

The height of the horse, measured from the top of the withers to the
ground, should be equal to his length from the point of the shoulder to
the point of the buttock. His chest, looking at him from the front,
should be broad ; and viewed from the rear, he should be broad, with
good muscle, and strongly built.

" The thoroughbred horse enters into every other breed, and adds
or often gives to it its only value. For a superior charger, hunter, or
addle horse, three parts or one-half should be of pure blood ; but for
the horse of all work, less will answer. The road horse, according to
the work required of him should, like the hunter, possess different de-
grees of blood. The best kind of coach horse is foaled by mares of
some blood, if the sire is a three-fourth or thoroughbred stallion of
sufficient size and substance. Even the dray horse, and every other
class of horse, is improved by a partial mixture of tho thoroughbred.

" The first point of a good hunter is that he should be light in hand.
For this purpose, his head must be small; his neck thin, especially
beneath ; his crest firm and arched, and his jaws wide. Tho head will
then be well set on. It will form a pleasant angle with the neck, which
gives a light and pleasant mouth."

HOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 341

" The road horse or hackney should be a hunter in miniature, with
these exceptions : his height should rarely exceed fifteen hands and an
inch. He will be sufficiently strong arid more pleasant for general
work below that standard. He should be of more compact form than
the hunter, of more bulk according to his height. It is of essential con-
sequence that the bones beneath the knee should be deep and flat, and
the tendon not tied in. The pastern should be short, and less oblique
or slanting than that of the hunter or race-horse. The foot should be
of a size corresponding with the bulk of the animal, neither too hollow
nor too flat, and open at the heels. The forelegs should be perfectly
straight ; for a horse with his knees bent will, from a slight cause and
especially if overweighted, come down. The back should be straight
and short, yet sufficiently long to leave comfortable room for the saddle
between the shoulders and the huck, without pressing on either. Some
persons prefer a hollow-backed horse. It is generally an easy one to
go. It will canter well with a lady ; but it will not carry a heavy
weight, or stand much hard work. The road horse should be high in
the forehead, round in the barrel, and deep in the chest."

A horse travels the distance of 400 yards at a walk, in 4^ minutes ;
at a trot, in 2 minutes ; at a gallop, in 1 minute. He occupies in the
ranks a front of 40 inches, a depth of 10 feet ; in a stall from 3^ to 4
feet front ; at a picket, 3 feet by 9. Average weight of horses 1,000
Ibs. each. A horse carrying a soldier and his equipments, (say 225
Ibs.,) travels 25 miles in a day, (8 hours.) Kpack horse can carry 250
to 300 Ibs. 20 miles a day. A draught horse can draw 1,600 Ibs. 23
miles a day, weight of carriage included. Artillery horses should not
]jje made to draw more than 700 Ibs. each, the weight of the carriage
included. The ordinary work of a horse for 8 hours a day may be
stated at 22,500 Ibs. raised one foot in a minute. In a horse mill, the
horse moves at the rate of 31 feet in a second. The diameter of the
path should not be less than 25 or 30 feet. Daily allowance of water
for a horse is four gallons. A horse-power in steam engines is esti-
mated at 33,000 Ibs. raised 1 foot in a minute ; but as a horse can exert
that power but 6 hours a day, one steam horse-power is equivalent to
that of four horses.

The actual mode of taking wild horses is by throwing the lasso,
whilst pursuing them at full speed, and dropping a noose over their
necks ; by which their speed is soon checked, and they are choked
down. Mr. Rarey's sixpenny book tells all that can be told on the
subject of horse-breaking ; but far more lies in the skill and horse-
knowledge of the operator, than in the mere theory. His way of mas-

;;iJ MILITARY DICTION AKY. [Ho*.

toning a vicious horse, is by taking up one fore-foot, and bending his
knee, and slipping a loop <>\ T tin- km -o until it comes to the postern*
joint, and then fixing it light. Hie loop must be caused to embrace
the part between the hoof and the pastern-joint firmly, by the help of
a strap of some kind, lest it should slip. The horse is now on three
legs, and he feels conquered. If he gets very mad, wait leisurely till
be becomes quiet ; thru caress him, and let the lru r down, and allow him
to rest Then repeat the process. If the horse kicks in harness, drive
him *lwly on three legs. In breaking-in a stubborn beast, it is con-
t to physic him until he is sick and out of spirits, or to starve
him into submission. Salt keeps horses from straying, if they are ac-
customed to come up to the camp and get it. But it is a bad plan,
as they are apt to hang about, instead of going off to feed. They are
so fond of it, that they have been known to stray back to a place where
they had been licking it, in front of the doors. (Consult GIBBON;
SKIN x ER'S Youatt ; BR ANDE'S Encyclopedia ; Memorial des Officiers (Tin-
fanterie et de Cavalerie. See PAY ; VETERINARY.)

HORSEMANSHIP consists in perfect mastery of the horse.
The principles laid down by Boucher in his method of horsemanship,
published in Philadelphia in 1851, profess to give any horse in less
than three months :

1. General suppling; 2. Perfect lightness; 3. Graceful position;
4. A steady walk ; 5. Trot, steady, measured, extended ; 6. Backing
as easily and as freely as going forward; 7. Gallop easy with either
foot, and change of foot by the touch ; 8. Easy and regular movement
of the haunches, comprising ordinary and reversed pirouettes ; 0.
ing the ditch and the bar ; 10. Making the horse raise his legs diago-
nally as in a trot, but without advancing or reeedini: ; 1 1. Halt from the
gallop by the aid of, first, tho pressure of the legs, and Oien a li-jht sup-
f the hand. " The education of tho men's horses, being less com-
1 than that of those intended for the officers, would be m.. re rapid.
The principal things will be tho supplinirs and the backing followed by
the Walk, the trot, and t ho frallop. while keeping the horse perfectly in hand."
nship in war consists in address in the exercise of arms
while skilfully using tho proper paces of the horse in dill', n nt ac id. nt.s
of ground, with ability in the rider to obtain immediate obedience in all

lo rationally demanded, '!' .. c..mplish this, con-
stant exercise is required of b,,th horse and cavalier, and the individual
iMstru- ' prescribed in ti , army gives this skil fulness, and

habituates hones to s :.i c;ich other, and to instant yielding

to the will of the rider. (Consult CAUCIIER ; Cavalry Tactics ; Travail
Individuel.)

Hon.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

343

HORSE EQUIPMENTS.

STATEMENT OF THE COST OP HOESE EQUIPMENTS, PATTEEN 1859,

FURNISHED BY THE OEDNANCE DEPAETMENT.

The regulations require that requisitions for Horse Equipments shall follow the form pre-
scribed for ordnance requisitions. Stirrups, saddle-bags, girths, and surcingles, to be entered sep-
arately instead of under the head SADDLK in the following list. CUES BBIDLES to embrace the
various kinds of curb bits, scutcheons, curb chains, and leather fittings complete. WATEEINCJ
BEIDLES to include every thing else instead of using separate heads for halters, blankets, &c., &c.

Price
per piece.

Price
per set

Amount.

SADDLE.

Saddle tree covered with raw hide with metal mountings attached.
Saddle flaps with brass screws, each

$ cts.
4 13
1 10
58
50
30
25
70
70
60
72
8 75
1 75
80
1 17

$ cts.
4 13
2 20
1 16
50
80
1 50
1 40
1 40
1 20
72
8 75
1 75
80
1 17

4 20

10
80
85
10
20
8

$21 98

6 33
2 50

1 70
1 10

2 49

Girth strap, lon<

u " short /. . . .

Cloak straps, each

Stirrups with hoods, each

Carbine socket and strap. . .

Saddle-bags

Crupper

Girth

Total cost

BEIDLB.

*Bit, No 1 $5 ) avera<Te per 100 sets

4 20

80
85
10
20
8

" Nos. 2, 3, and 4, $4 f

Keins

Front

Curb chain with hooks

Curb chain safe

Total cost

HALTEE.

Headstall, complete

2 00

Hitching strap

Total cost

WATEEING BEIDLE.

Snaffle bit, chains, and toggles

90
80'

Watering rein

Total cost

Spurs

Spur straps. ...

Total cost

Curry comb

20
94
20
1 15

Horse brush, wooden back

Picket pin

Lariat rope

Total cost

Total cost of equipment

36 10

Blanket for cavalry service, dark, with orange border, 3 Ibs., at 70
cents per Ib. .

2 10

2 10
75
20

2 10

2 10
75
20

Blanket for artillery, scarlet, with dark blue border, 8 ib's., 70 cents
per Ib

Nose-bag

Hitching strap

* No. 1 is Spanish ; Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are American.

344 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Uos.

HOSPITALS are under the immediate direction of their respec-
tive surgeons. The general regulations of the army prescribe the
allowance of attendants ; the issues to hospitals, &c., &e. (Sec AM-
BULANCE ; SURGEON; SURGERY.)

HOT SHOT. The charges for hot shot are from $ to $ the weight
of the shot. With small velocities, the shot splits and splinters the
wood, so as to render it favorable for burning. With great \vl.rity.
the ball sinks deep into the wood, is deprived of air by the closing of
the hole, and chars instead of burning the surrounding wood. It should
not penetrate deeper than 10 or 12 inches. Red-hot balls do not set
fire to the wood until some time after their penetration. They retain
suftieient heat to ignite wood after having made several ricochets upon
water. The wads are made of clay or hay. Clay wads should consist
of pure clay, or fuller's earth free from sand or gravel well kneaded
with just enough moisture to work well. They are cylindrical and one
calibre in length. I lay wads should remain in the tub to soak, at least
ten or fifteen minutes. Before being used, the water is pressed out of
them. When hay wads are used, vapor may be seen escaping from
the vent on the insertion of the ball ; but as this is only the effect of
the heat of the ball on the water contained in the wad, no danger
be apprehended from it. With proper precautions in loading, the ball
may be permitted to cool in the gun without igniting the charge. The
piece, however, should be fired with as little delay as possible, as the
vapor would diminish the strength of the powder. FURNACES FOR
HEATING SHOT are erected at the forts on the. sea-coast. These furna* s
hold sixty or more shot. The shot being placed, and the furnn. r-.l.l,
it n-ijuin-s one hour and fifteen minutes to heat them to a red heat ;
but after the furnace is once heated, a 24-pdr. shot is brought to a red
h -at in twenty-five minutes; the 32-pdr. and 42-pdr. shut require a few
minutes longer. Three men are required to attend the furnace : one
takes out the hot shot, and places them on the stand to be ser.
another scrapes them and puts them in the ladle ; and the third sup-
plies cold shot an.l fuel ; (GIBBON.)

HOURS OF SITTING. (See COURTS-MARTIAL.)

HOUSINGS. The cloth covering for saddles prescribed as part
of the uniform of the army in regulations.

HO W I I 7. 1 . II. A chambered cannon. (See CALIBRE.)

HURDLES. Pickets three feet high united by pliable twigs, so
as to make a breadth of two feet. They are used to rm.ler l.att. -ri -s
firm : t. pail "\ , l>oggy ground or muddy ditches. (See REVETMENT.)

1 1 T'RTER. The hurtcr is a piece of timber, from six to ten inches

IND.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 345

square, placed along the head of a gun platform, at the foot of the in-
terior slope of the parapet, to prevent the latter from being injured by
the wheels of the gun-carriage.

HUSSARS. Light cavalry.

HUTS are frequently constructed by troops on retiring to winter-
quarters. The quarters occupied by United States troops on our fron-
tiers are generally huts made by the troops. There have recently been
built portable houses, the parts of which correspond, and which are
readily put up. The experiment is not yet a success. (See ADOBE ;
CAMP; CARPENTRY; SAW-MILL.)

ICE. Ice two inches thick will bear infantry ; four inches thick,
cavalry or light guns ; six inches heavy field-guns ; 8 inches 24-pdr.
guns on sledges ; weight not more than 1,000 Ibs. to a square foot.
Water that is slightly frozen is made to bear a heavy wagon by cutting
reeds, strewing them thickly on the ice, and pouring water upon them.
When the whole is frozen into a firm mass, the process must be re-
peated.

IMPRISONMENT. Officers may be sentenced to imprisonment
by a general court-martial in any case where the court may have discre-
tionary authority. General, garrison, and regimental courts-martial
may sentence soldiers to imprisonment, solitary or otherwise, with or
without hard labor for various offences enumerated in the Articles of
War. A garrison or regimental court-martial, in awarding imprison-
ment, is limited to a period not exceeding thirty days. When a
court awards solitary imprisonment as a punishment, it is necessary
that the words "Solitary Confinement" should be expressed in the
sentence.

INDEMNIFICATION. In the French and English armies, there
is an indemnification established for losses in the military service, and
other allowances are also made in the nature of indemnifications ; as for
furniture ; fuel and light ; forage ; expenses of divine worship ; com-
mand money to general and field officers ; quarters ; expenses upon
routes ; provisions ; gratuity at the beginning of a campaign ; field al-
lowances ; mess ; carriage of baggage ; blood money ; permanent pen-
sions ; temporary pensions, or gratuities in lieu thereof; rewards for
meritorious conduct ; and pensions to widows and children of officers.

In the United States service, the law provides that if a horse be lost
in battle, an officer may receive not exceeding two hundred dollars for

346 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ix

his horse, and allowances are made for quarters, fuel, f

and trans p f baggage, and command money in certain cases.

INDIANS. The red man of America is so called, and as the troops
of the United States have always been the pioneers of civilization, their
contact with the Indians is always more or less immediate. The prob-
lem of the disappearance of the race is fast being solved ; and every
humane mind must contemplate with sorrow the destitution to which
the Indians have been driven. Something, it is believed, may be done
for them by the system of policy proposed in the article on national de-
fence, and that policy would be greatly promoted if the United States
maintained on our frontier a few Indian regiments, officered by details
from the army. The successful adoption of this policy in India by the
English, and in Algiers by the French, proves its praetiealulity, and no
men would make better light cavalry and light infantry than the Indians
on our western frontier.

The President is authorized to cause army rations to bo issued to
Indians ; (Act June 30, 1834.)

All purchases on account of Indians, and all payments to them of
money or goods, shall be made by such person as the President shall
iate for that purpose. And the superintendent, agent, or snl>-
agent, together with such military officer Iw the President may direet,
shall be present, and certify to the delivery of all goods and mom y r -
quired to be paid or delivered to said Indians. And the duties required
by any section of this act of military officers, shall lie performed without
any other compensation than their actual travelling expenses; (.!</
Juno 30, 1834.)

Army surgeons may be employed by the Secretary of War to vac-
cinate Indians; (Art May 5, 1832.)

A foreigner going into Indian territory without ;v passport from the
War Department, superintendent, agent, sub-agent, or from the othYer
commanding the nearest military post, or lemainin ;ally there-

in after the expiration of his passport, is subject to forfeit and pay the
urn of one thousand dollars; (Act Juno 30, 1834.)

It shall be lawful for the military force of tho United States to be
employed, in such manner and under such regulations a- the I'r.-sident
may direct, in the appreh. n>i->n of every person f.minl in the Indian
ry in violation of any of the provisions r.ftl. OMtt him

to be < -ial to the nearest civil author;- '^military

force may also bo employed in tho examination and sei/nro of stores,
packages, and boats, with spirituous liquor or Mine, and in prevent i?ig
tho introduction of persons and property into th- uniry con-

INF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 347

trary to law. Provided that no person apprehended by the military
force as aforesaid shall be detained longer than five days after arrest,
and before removal for surrender to the civil authority ; (Act June 30,
1834.)

When goods or other property are seized under this act, the process
of prosecutions shall be the same as in the case of goods, &c., brought
into the United States in violation of the revenue laws ; (Act June 30,
1834.)

Persons attempting to settle in Indian territory may be removed
by military force ; (Act 1832. See TREATY.)

INFANTRY. Its depth of formation has progressively diminished
since the centre and wings have been armed alike, and the use of pikes
discontinued. The formation in lines has fitted infantry for action on
all kinds of ground, and the invention of massing, the condensation of
ranks, and formations by size, have given it a perfect ensemble. Its
march has gained in rapidity by the simplification of evolutions, Jhe re-
sort $o guides, and turning upon PIVOTS ; it acts more skilfully in
affairs of plains and outposts, by the rapidity of its changes of direction,
formations in order of battle, and alternate ployments and deployments.
The general adoption of tactical inversions, it is thought, would add still
more to this skilfulness.

The improved rifle-musket, with thorough target practice, gives to
infantry immense advantages over cavalry and artillery. The effective
range of the new musket permitting skirmishers to open fire at 1,000
yards, fields of battle will cover more ground than formerly, and the
use of smaller columns than battalions of eight and ten companies will
probably be resorted to. An organization of battalions of six com-
panies of 100 men each, in two ranks, in lieu of the former, would be
an improvement ; and in the United States service this might be accom-
plished by adding two companies with two battalion-adjutants and ser-
geant-majors to each regiment. The front of each battalion would not
be too great. Columns would be formed by division in mass. There
would be three such divisions, and the square formed would have
its rifles in the first and fourth fronts, and each in the other two fronts.
Such well-instructed men, in firing, would be perhaps able to show, as
in the experiment at Hythe, that a piece of artillery with its men and
horses might, at 810 yards, be completely disabled by 30 riflemen in
three minutes, and also be an overmatch for cavalry.

Infantry has always guarded the frontier in war ; it supports cavalry
in great reconnoissances ; furnishes swimmers when the cork jacket is
resorted to j is employed both in the attack and defence of fortresses ;

:).|s MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!HF.

slings the musket and throws grenades ; mounts heights by escalade ;
escorts and attacks convoys ; supports foraging parties ; defends aba-
is at home in all accidents of ground ; finishes operations begun
by artillery ; crowns heights which horses and pieces of artillery can-
not reach ; decides the fate of battles, sometimes with the aid of caval-
ry, and sometimes alone. Costing little, active, occupying relatively
little ground ; readily lodged, maintained, and renewed, it is easily sub-
sisted, and often finds in its knapsacks, haversacks, and utensils can
by the men, all its wants supplied, when separated from baggage trains.
It has been made a question whether excellent cavalry may not
beat mediocre infantry, and whether excellent infantry would not be
overthrown by mediocre cavalry ?

Tin-re is this great difference between infantry and cavalry : infantry
has always changed its tactics at the same time with its arms, whereas
cavalry cannot change its manner of fighting, although it has more than
once attempted the forms of infantry tactics.

Cavalry cannot operate as a whole, except upon unbroken ground ;
it is unsuited to firing ; the order of battle is its great means of action ;
the sabre or lance is its only reliance ; the invention of powder has not
improved the art it exercises. Squares of cavalry are useless ; the cir-
cular formation which has been conceived is a chimera ; defence is not
its strength; movement is its life, an unbroken field its element, and
the charge its principal means of offence. But within range, of the rifle,
at 1,000 yards, it must bo destroyed before reaching its object.

The elementary tactics of infantry consists in securing its rear and

its flanUs ; in never being entirely disfurnished of its fire ; in attacking

with the bayonet; in defending itself by firing within pro] . and

^restively, rather than simultaneously ; using the aid of the grenade

and rocket, and in resorting to the bayonet, as prescribed in the 1

exercise. In the offensive movements of a fiel.l of battle, infantry
ought never to be disfurnished of its fire, except when the enemy falls
back, and it is known that his retreat is n<>t a stratagem to draw tli.
of the assailants, in order to push down upon them masked cavalry.

Infantry being suited for close or distant combat, the aim of its tac-
tics is to prescribe the best order for the shock, and the l.est orders for
firing. The chef-d'oeuvre of art consists in the most rapid and success-
ful transformations of these orders; in the mechanism of changes of
front ; and in the ploymcnts and deployments of columns of attack and
the formation of squares against cavalry.

In campaign, infantry prefeniMy occupies broken ground, woods,
&C, A trench, abatis, or chevaux-de-friso is sufficient to secure its

INI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 349

safety. In crossing plains, its head and flanks should be covered by
cavalry ; in retreat, the infantry forms the rear guard, to protect the
column of cavalry. For this purpose it occupies hills or ravines, or,
standing firm in heavy masses, the cavalry denies until it has gained
ground suited to cavalry operations. When the cavalry has reached
such a position, it deploys, faces to the rear to cover in its turn the re-
treat of the infantry.

Didactic authors, as well as historians, recognize the superiority of
infantry. VOLTAIRE calls it the soul of armies ; MACHIAVEL, the sinew ;
it is the principal force and lever of power in time of war ; it can act
alone ; other arms move to second it : thus good infantry is the true
strength of nations ; every one in an. army feels its importance ; its
posts guard the army ; its duties are, of all others, the most constant,
the most simple, the most easily regulated, and the most certain and
most important.

The duties of engineers and artillery require more learning ; those
of cavalry, in war, are sometimes more dashing and brilliant ; but the
services of infantry are always in demand. In attack and defence of all
kinds ; the descent into the ditch ; or the defence of the breach, the
trench, and the rampart ; the insult of palisades, or the fire from the
parapet ; in ambuscades ; or on any field of battle whatever, infantry
must exercise its skilfulness and attest its valor. Valleys, fords, de-
files, water-courses, ravines, abatis, forests, heights, plains, parallels,
camps, outworks, covered ways, advance guards, and rear guards, are all
in turn its theatre of action. All kinds of troops mutually aid each other,
and it is the skilful combination of their efforts which constitutes, in part,
the science of the general-in-chief. To make good infantry, it is essential
that it should pass some months in a camp of instruction. The soldier
must be taught to take care of his arms and accoutrements, to march,
to fire well, to build huts, to handle the axe, spade, and shovel, to make
cartridges, fascines, hurdles, and gabions, suited to field-works, to cook,
and to consider his knapsack, haversack, &c., as part of himself. (See
DISCIPLINE ; ARTICLES OF WAR ; TACTICS ; MANOEUVRES IN COMBAT.
Consult BARDIN.)

INFORMANT. In case a civil person is the complainant, he be-
comes the principal witness before a court-martial, and after giving his
evidence may remain in court, in order that the judge-advocate may re-
fer to him ; (HOUGH.)

INITIAL VELOCITY. The velocity with which a projectile
leaves the piece, that is, the space in feet then passed in a second, is
called its initial velocity ; the space passed over in a second at any sue-

350

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[I.VJ.

oeeding point of the trajectory its remaining velocity, and the terminal
Telocity is the velocity with which it strikes the object. The greatest
initial velocities do not exceed four or five hundred yards, and are
by charges not exceeding one-third the weight of the hall ; the feeblest
are produced by charges of about one-twenty -fourtli the weight of the
ball. The musket pendulum used at Washington Arsenal has sh"\\n
the initial velocity of the elongated ball for the rifle-musket to be 9C3
feet per second, and that of the pistol-carbine 603. For ordinary prac-
iiere the weight of the powder and the projectile alone vary, initial
v !'< ities may be considered din-ctly proportional to the square root of
the weight of powder divided by the square root of the weight of the pro-
jectile.

In the experiments made at Washington by Major MorJecai with
the gun and ballistic pendulums combined for the purpose of as<
ing the initial velocities produced by equal charges of powder in the
same piece of ordnance on balls of different weights, it was found thai,
with a 24-pounder gun and a charge of 4 Ibs. of powder, the windage
being .175 inch, the initial velocity of a shell filled with l-a<l and weigh-
ing 27.68 Ibs., was 1,325 feet; of a marble ball weighing 9.29 11
2,154 feet; and of a lignum vite ball weighing 4.48 Ibs., was
The two first of these velocities are nearly in the inverse ratio of the
square roots of the weights of the shot ; but the two last are nearly as
the cubo roots of the weights inversely. (Consult BENTON. See BAL-
LISTICS.)

TABLE OP INITIAL VELOCITIES WITH 8EP.VK T. < IIAKOES.

KIM.

or PROJIM

rriL.

KIXD or CAICWOW.

Chanreof

l',,u,!,r.

Shot

Sheila.

SpWr-l

. mi

REMARKS.

e-ndr. FloM....

Ibs.
125

tot

1 i

feet

feet
1 857

Wlion (ho Inltlnl vo-

1*-|*lr. Ki,-M...,

2.80

I486

I \-n

IX-pdr. Flvkl HowlUer
24-jMlr. BlegvGun.... {

1.00
6.00

rlcnl cane shot
are g)v<

Howlucr....

8.00
400

1,870

lTO

"<>:

of the charge

si ,,!

JW-t-lf. -.r-r,, :v >t (inn.. .

- .11

1 r.j'i

15-Inch Columbia*! . . .

i '. ->

I N. JURIES, LIABILITY FOR PRIVATE Ix.n nn.s. In the exercise of
professional duty by military officers, injuries may frnjnently bo oc-
casioned to (tther officers, or to private individuals, \vhns.* l'-ir;il r-me-
:-ilT. (1. As bet woo 11 i.fliei-rs thenisolv. s. tin- language
Arti.l.s of War in suffi.-iently comprehensive to bring most of
such cases within the cognizance of a court-martial ; but a court-martial

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 351

has no power to award pecuniary damages for injurious conduct. Its
jurisdiction is criminal, and its judgments are penal. It may happen,
too, that the common feeling of the service, to which the offending or
the complaining party belongs, would in many cases render an applica-
tion to such a tribunal utterly fruitless; as the general sentiment of the
members of a particular profession or class of society, respecting a mat-
ter of professional or corporate right or conduct, is often found to be at
variance with the public law of the land. Civil actions are therefore
maintainable against commissioned officers, for exceeding their powers,
or for exercising them in an oppressive, injurious, and improper man-
ner, whether towards military persons or others. Extreme difficulties,
however, lie in the way of plaintiffs in actions of this nature ; for no
such action is maintainable for an injury, unless it be accompanied by
malice or injustice : and the knowledge of this, (says Mr. Baron Eyre,)
while it can never check the conduct of good men, may form a check on
the bad. Where an officer (says the same learned judge) makes a slip
in form, great latitude ought to be allowed ; but for a corrupt abuse
of authority none can be made.

It will be convenient to consider the law upon this subject : 1st,
as it applies to wrongs committed by officers towards persons under
military authority ; and, 2dly, as it applies to persons not subject to
such authority. Some of the decisions that will be quoted were
pronounced in cases where naval officers were concerned ; but the
principle of the decisions applies equally to both services. I. Wrongs
towards Persons under Military Authority. A notion appears to
have at one time extensively prevailed that an officer could have
no remedy against ill treatment received from his superiors in the
course of professional duty, except by bringing the offending party
to a court-martial, and subjecting him to the penalties of the Arti-
cles of War. This opinion, however, was quite unfounded in point
of law ; and such a state of things might oftx'u be productive of the
worst consequences. The question was distinctly raised in Grant v.
Shand, where an actioa was brought by an officer in the army against
his superior officer for oppressive, insulting, and violent conduct. The
plaintiff was directed to give a military order : and it appeared that he
sent two persons, who failed. The defendant thereupon said to the
plaintiff, " What a stupid person you are," and twice struck him ; and
although the circumstances occurred at Gibraltar, and in the actual
execution of military service, it was held by the learned judge at the
trial that the action was maintainable ; and a verdict was found for the
plaintiff. An application was afterwards made to the Court of King's

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!NJ.

Bench to set aside the verdict ; and Lord Mansfield, the chief-justice,
was very desirous to grant a new trial ; but the court, after argument,
refused to disturb the verdict. So also an action will lie for unjust
treatment under the t'.nn of discipline, as in Swinton v. Molloy, where
the defendant, who was captain of the Trident man-of-war, put tho
purser into confinement, kept him imprison, -d for three days 'without
inquiring into the case, and then released him on hearing his i!<
The purser brought his action against Captain Molloy, for this unlawful
detention in custody ; and, upon the evidence, Lord Mansfield said, th.it
such conduct on the part of the captain did not appear to have been a
pp-per discharge of his duty, and therefore that his justification under
the discipline of the navy had failed him. The jury gave 1,000 dam-
ages. In the foregoing case no want of uprightness was attributed to
Captain Molloy ; and the decision rested wholly on tho circum
of his having committed an injustice, although without a corrupt inten-
tion. Cruelty or unnecessary severity, when wilfully committed in the
exercise of superior authority, are also good causes of action. Thus in
Wall v. Macnamara, the action was brought by the plaintiff, as captain
in the African corps, against the defendant, Lieutenant-governor and
Military Commandant of Senegambiu, for imprisoning the plaintilV for
the space of nine months at Gambia, in Africa. The def< IK . \\as a jus-
tification of the imprisonment under tho Mutiny Act, for the disobedience
of orders. At the trial it appeared that tho imprisonment of Captain
Wall, which was at first legal, namely, for leaving his post without
leave from his superior officer, though in a bad state of health, was ag-
gravated with many circumstances of cruelty, which were adverted to

i (1 Mansfield, in the following extract from his charge to the jury :
" It is admitted that the plaintiff was to blame in leaving his post,
there was no enemy, no mutiny, no danger. His health was de< -liniiu:,
and he trusted to tho benevolence of the defendant to consider tho cir-
cumstances under which ho acted. But supposing it to have been tho

! int's duty to call the plaintiff to a military account for his miscon-
duct, what apology is there for denying him tins, use of the common air
in a sultry climate, and shnttiti!i him up in a gloomy prison, when them
was no possibility of bringing him to a trial 1 months thrro

not being a sufficient number of offic mi a court-martial?

These circumstances independent of the direct evidence of ma!'.
sworn to by one of the witnesses, are sufficient for y< >u to prc-nme a
bad, malignant motive in tho defendant, which would destroy his juMifi-
cation, had it even been within the powers delegated to the defendant
by his commission." The jury thereupon found a verdict, for Captain

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 353

Wall, with 1,000 damages. An undue assumption of authority in
matters not within the range of military discipline, is also a good ground
of -action against a superior officer. This appears from the case of
Warden v. Bailey, where the plaintiff was a permanent sergeant in the
Bedford regiment of local militia, of which the defendant was the adju-
tant. In November, 1809, the lieutenant-colonel issued a regimental
order for establishing an evening school at Bedford. He appointed the
sergeant-major the master, and ordered all sergeants and corporals, in-
cluding the plaintiff, to attend and pay eight-pence a week towards the
expenses of the school. The plaintiff and some other of the scholars
having afterwards omitted to attend, several were tried by court-martial
and punished. The plaintiff, however, was only reprimanded, and he
promised regular attendance in future. Shortly afterwards he was
ordered to attend a drill on parade, when the defendant, who appears
to have been a shopkeeper, shook his fist at the plaintiff, called him a
rascal, and told him he deserved to be shot. The defendant then direct*
ed a sergeant to draw his sword and hold it over the plaintiff's head,
and if he should stir to run him through ; and, by the defendant's direcs
tion, a corporal took off the plaintiff's sash and sword. The plaintiff
was then conducted, by the defendant's order, to Bedford gaol, with
directions that he should be locked up in solitary confinement, and kept
on bread and water. He was thus imprisoned for three days. He was
then brought up before the colonel and the defendant, and other officers
of the regiment, and again remanded to the gaol. The plaintiff's health
having been impaired by the continuance of this treatment for several
weeks, he was afterwards conducted to his own house, and there kept a
close prisoner until January, 1810, when he was escorted by a file of
corporals from Bedford to Stilton, to be tried by court-martial for
mutinous words spoken on parade at the time of his arrest, and for
thereby exciting others to disobedience. He was tried accordingly, but
liberated in March, 1810. Upon this he brought his action against the
adjutant for the wrongful imprisonment, when an objection was taken
that the question of the propriety of the arrest was not within the
jurisdiction of the civil courts The Court of Common Pleas, however)
overruled this objection. Sir James Mansfield, C. J. : " It might be
very convenient that a military officer might be enabled to make the
men under his command learn to read and write, it might be very
useful, but is not a part of military discipline. Then, further, there is

a tax of 8d. a week for learning to read and write The

subject cannot be taxed, even in the most indirect way, unless it origi-
nates in the Lower House of Parliament." Mr. Justice Lawrence :
23

;;.Vl MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Isj.

a It is no part of military duty to attend a school, and learn to write
and read. If writing is necessary to corporals and sergeants, the supe-
rior officers must select men who can write and read ; and if tli. \ do
not continue to do it well, they may be reduced to the ranks. Nor is
it any part of military duty to pay for keeping a school light and
warm : this very far exceeds the power of any colonel to order.*' In a
subsequent stage of the same case, when it was attempted to justify or
defend the mutinous expressions used by Wan 1m on parade as above
stated, on the ground of the illegality of the order whii-h gave rise to
them, the court held, that although Warden had been unlawfully ar-
rested for disobedience to that order, sueh a circumstance afford* d no
warrant for insubordinate language on Warden's part, and there!
exemption from military arrest and punishment for the same. " Nor
will he (said Lord Ellenborough, C. J.) be less an object of military
punishment, because the order of tho lieut.-colonel, to which this lan-
guage referred, might not be a valid one, and such as he was strictly
competent to make There may be disorderly conduct to tin-
prejudice of good order and military discipline, in the manner and tuns
used and adopted by one soldi r in dissuading another soldier not to
obey an order not strictly legal. If every erroneous order on tho part
of a commanding officer would not only justify the individual disobe-
dience of it by the soldier, but would even justify him in mak;
fiammatory and reproachful public comments upon it to his fellow-sol-
diers, equally the objects of sueh order \\ith himself, is it possible that
military order and discipline could bo maintained 1 " The common de-
fence of officers, against whom actions of this nature are brough
justification of their conduct as agreeable to the discipline of tl
vice, and contributory to the maintenance of that discipline. And there.
can be no doubt, that where the conduct brought into question is not an
oppressive, malicious, or unreasonable exercise of j
amount to an excess or abuse of authority, an action is wholly unsus-
tainable. The principles upon which tho Courts of Law pr..e,-ed in
actions arising out of the abuse of military power, will n ive further
from tho language of Lord Mansfield, in summing up the
the jury in Wall ?. Maenamara. Hi* lordship thus CX-
promcd himself: In trying the legality of acts done by military oilieers
exercise of their duty, particularly beyond the seas, where cases
may occur without tho. possibility of application for prop, r advic, .
latitude ou^ht to be allowed ; and they ought n<>t to suffer for a slip of
form, if their intention appears by the evidence to hav.- hem upright,
he same as when complaints are brought against infivrior civil

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 355

magistrates, such as justices of the peace, for acts done by them in the
exercise of their civil duty. There the principal, inquiry to be made by
a court of justice is, how the heart stood? and if there appear to be
nothing wrong there, great latitude will be allowed for misapprehension
or mistake. But, on the other hand, if the heart is wrong, if cruelty,
malice, and oppression appejar to have occasioned or aggravated the
imprisonment, or other injury complained of, they shall not cover them-
selves with the thin veil of legal forms, nor escape under the cover of a
justification the most technically regular, from that punishment, which
it is your province and your duty to inflict on so scandalous an abuse
of public trust." It is no legal objection to an action for the abuse of
military authority, that the defendant has not been tried and convicted
by a court-martial, for that argument holds in no case short of felony.
The infliction of an unjust or illegal sentence, pronounced by a court-
martial, is a good cause of action by the prisoner, against all or any of
the members 0f the court, and all persons concerned in the execution of
the sentence ; such a sentence, if it exceeds the authorized measure of
punishment, being not merely invalid for the excess, but absolutely
void altogether. The most remarkable case on record of this kind is
that of Lieutenant Frye, of the Marines, who, after an unnecessary
previous imprisonment for fourteen months, was brought to trial before
a naval court-martial at Port Royal in the West Indie^, and sentenced to
be imprisoned for fifteen years, for disobedience of orders, in refusing to
assist in the imprisonment of another officer, without an order in writ-
ing from the captain of Her Majesty's ship Oxford, on board of which
Lieutenant Frye was serving. At the trial the written depositions of
several illiterate Blacks were improperly received in evidence against
him, in lieu of their oral testimony, which might have been obtained
and sifted by cross-examination ; and the sentence pronounced was
itself illegal for its excessiveness, the Act 22 George II., which contains
the naval Articles of War, not allowing any imprisonment beyond the
term of two years. On the return to England of Admiral Sir Chaloner
Ogle, the president of the court-martial, Lieutenant Frye brought an
action against him in the Court of Common Pleas for his illegal conduct
at the trial, when the jury, under the direction of the Lord Chief-Justice
Willes, gave a verdict for the plaintiff, with 1,000 damages. The
Chief-Justice at the same time informed Lieutenant Frye that he might
have an action against all or any of the other members of his courts
martial ; and Lieutenant Frye accordingly issued writs against Rear
Admiral Mayne and Captain Renton, upon whom the same were served
as they were coming ashore at the conclusion of the proceedings of the

356 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [I*J.

day at another court-martial, of which they were acting meml><
the trial of Vice-admiral Lestock, for his conduct in a naval riijiaviement
with the French fleet off Toulon, in tin- arly part of the same yeac
This was deemed a great insult by the members of the sitting court
martial, who accordingly passed some resolutions or remonstrances in
strong language, highly derogatory to tlu rhirf-justire, which th
warded to the Lords of the Admiralty, by whom the affair was reported
to the king. His Majesty, through the Duke of Newcastle, signified to
the Admiralty *' his great displeasure at the insult offered to the court-
martial, by which the military discipline of the navy is so much affected ;
and the king highly disapproved of the behavior of Lieutenant Kryo on
the occasion." The Lord Chief-Justice, as soon as ho heard of the reso-
lutions of the court-martial, ordered every member of it to be taken
into custody, and was proceeding to uphold the dignity of his court, in a
very decided manner, when the whole affair was terminated in Nov.,
1746, by the members of the court-martial signing and eending to his
lordship a very ample written apology for their conduct. On the re-
ception of this paper in the Court of Common IMra*, it was read aloud,
and ordered to be registered among the records as a " memorial,
the Lord Chief-Justice, "to the present and future ages, that \\li<. \, r
set themselves up in opposition to the laws, or think themselves alx.vo
the law, will in the end find themselves mistaken." The proc< >
and the apology were also published in the London Gazette oi
Nov., 1746. At a naval court-martial for the trial of Mr. Crawford, a
midshipman of Her Majesty's ship Emerald, for contempt and <lis. ,l.
dience to the orders of his superior officer, Captain Knell, the court in-
advertently found Mr. Crawford guilty only of having been <//\o/v/rr///
when a prisoner at large, which formed no part of the offence of which
h* was accused ; and he was reprimanded accordingly. Mr. Crawford
thereupon brought an action against the captain for damages ; and the.
learned judge who presided at the trial, having made some
animadversions on the illegality of the proceedings the jury awarded
heavy damages. A similar action was brought against Colonel 1
colonel of the Middlesex militia, for improperly flogging a pri\
the militia, and the jury gave 600 dama^. In Moore v. Bastard also,
an action was brought against the president of a court-martial for im-
.c plaintiff upon an alleged charge of subornation >f per-
jury gave 300 damages. An action was tried in IV
Ir. Harron IVrp.t, at the spring assizes for the county .f I >. \,, n ,
t the officers of the Devon militia, for inflicting 1,000 lasl
.intiff, in pursuance of their sentence pronounced against him at a

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 357

court-martial, held to try him upon a charge of mutiny ; the only act
proved being that the plaintiff had written a letter to the colonel of the
regiment, which was not communicated to any one else, telling him that
the men of the regiment were discontented. The jury gave 500 dam-
ages ; and the case is quoted with approbation by Mr. Justice Heath,
who also intimated, that if the plaintiff had died under the punishment,
all the members of the court-martial would have been liable to be hanged
for murder. There was also another case of an action against Captain
Touyn, a naval officer, in which the plaintiff recovered damages for the
infliction of several dozen lashes without a court-martial, for a single
offence, thereby exceeding the custom which had prevailed in the navy,
that commanding officers might inflict one dozen lashes (called a start-
ing) without a court-martial. No action, however, will lie for merely
bringing a man to a court-martial, nor for the previous arrest or sus-
pension ; such acts being clearly within the limits of military author-
ity, and exercisable, like all other such powers, in a discretionary man-
ner, under the safeguards and at the risks provided by the Articles of
War. A commanding officer has, of necessity, a discretionary power to
arrest, suspend, and bring to trial by court-martial, any person under
his orders. But though this power is indispensable, and its limits can-
not, like those of the power of punishment, be exceeded in point of
extent, it may, nevertheless, be oppressively, or improperly used ; and
therefore, by the Articles of War, such conduct is of itself a distinct
military offence, triable by a military jurisdiction. This was the opin-
ion of the Judges of the Exchequer Chamber, in the case of Button v.
Johnstone, and it seems also to be a just inference from the judgment in
the same case, that when an officer is expressly charged and found guilty
before a court-martial, of having improperly brought another to trial
before a similar tribunal, an action is sustainable for the special damage
resulting from the offence ; but that, until the officer procuring the first
trial has been found guilty of improper conduct by a court-martial, a
court of law cannot interfere ; no civil tribunal being capable of appre-
ciating, with sufficient delicacy, the circumstances which attend the ex-
ercise of military power, or of accurately discriminating the grounds of
its application. Want of probable cause for the accusation is the only
basis on which an action for a malicious prosecution before a court-
martial can rest ; and when that is shown, malice will be inferred by
the law. An acquittal, however, by the court-martial, of the party who
brings the action, is not conclusive as to the want of probable cause.
At the same time, such an acquittal is an essential preliminary to the
action, for though the accuser may have been actuated by the most clear

,'io^ MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!NJ.

and undisguised malice, yet if ho substantiates his original charge to the.
satisfaction of a court-martial, the U.-.-UM-.! has no locus standi in a ci\ \\
court, even upon the fullest evidence of his prosecutor's mal
impossible to say that there was a want of probable cause, after a
court-martial has adjudged that there was a positive cause. Innocence
and uprightness of intention will therefore, on the one hand, be no de-
fence to an action of this nature, when there appears to have been a
want of probable cause for the prosecution before the court-martial;
while, on the other hand, the most malicious, or even corrupt intention,
will not subject the accuser to a civil action, where he succeeds in estab-
lishing the criminal charge before the military tribunal. A wrongful
imprisonment being, in the language of the law, a tort, savoring of crime,

.Id that if two commit a tort, and the plaintiff reco\
one, he cannot recover against the other for the same tort. This rule
was applied in the above-mentioned case of Warden v. Daily, where an-
other action was brought against the colonel of the Bedford militia for
the same transaction, and the court held that the imprisonment hiiliet.-d
by the defendant, the adjutant, terminated on the plaintiff being brought
up before the colonel on the third day, and being then remanded by
him, so that the adjutant was held not liable for more than the first
three days* imprisonment, and the colonel not liable, except from the
time of the commencement of the remand ordered by himself. It should
be observed, however, that no civil action will lie, in the first instance,
against a commissioned officer for a discretionary exercise of military
authority while in the performance of actual duty in the field in time of
war. Where a discretionary power is clearlv vested by military usage
in the officer whose conduct is impeached, questions as to t !
of such authority are so essentially military, that the civil triKui;
cline to consider them without the previous judgment of n court-mar-
tial. This was settled in the case of Darwis v. Keppel, in which tV-
plaintiff* was a sergeant in the second battalion of tin- i
foot guards. The defendant, Colonel Keppel, was the second major of
that battalion; and in the absent e ,f 1, r officers ho had the

command of it. In 170, the battalion was ordered to (J.-rmany, under
the command of the defendant, to form part .-f the kit;. ' -rxing

nnd.T l'r;nce Ferdinand. In Septemb,--. L76I, tfo prince, being in
hourly exp :' a bat'l-, issued an order that, all des

the enemy should be. immediately sent, to headquarters without a
. The plaintiff had full notice ,f this order; and three*
: n nd, red to him, he detained them six hours
without bringing them to head-quarters < Ig their arrival. For

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 359

this neglect of orders the plaintiff was tried by court-martial, and sen-
tenced to be suspended from his rank of sergeant for a month, and to do
the duty and receive the pay of a private soldier during the same time.
On the sentence being reported to Colonel Keppel, he did not confirm
it, but made an order at the foot of the sentence in the following terms :
" But, as Sergeant Barwis could not be ignorant of the duke's order
concerning deserters, and Colonel Keppel thinking his neglect might
have been attended with the utmost bad consequences, orders that he be
broke, and that Corporal Billow be appointed sergeant in his room."
This order was carried into execution, and the plaintiff served accord-
ingly as a private until his battalion returned to England. Colonel
Keppel was appointed, in 1762, to command an expedition against the
Havannah ; and, on his return to England, Barwis brought an action
against him for maliciously and improperly reducing him (Barwis) to
the ranks. A verdict was found for the plaintiff, with 70 damages,
subject to the opinion of the Court of Common Pleas, upon the question,
whether the action was maintainable. The court held, that as the whole
matter took place abroad, and in the field, in open war, the conduct of
the defendant, Colonel Keppel, could not be tried in a civil court. Per
curiam : " By the Act of Parliament to punish mutiny and desertion,
the king's power to make articles of war is confined to his own domin-
ions. When his army is out of his dominions, he acts by virtue of his
prerogative, and without the Statute or Articles of War, and, therefore,
you cannot argue upon either of them, for they are both to be laid out
of this case ; and, flagrante bello, the common law has never interfered
with the army ; silent leges inter arma. We think (as at present ad-
vised) that we have no jurisdiction at all in this case ; but if the plain-
tiff's counsel think proper to speak more fully to this matter, we are
willing to hear him." The report contains the following memoran-
dum : " But plaintiff, seeing the opinion of the court against him,
acquiesced, and the judgment was for the defendant, ut audivi."

It was intimated, however, by the two Chief-Justices, Lord Mans-
field and Lord Loughborough, on a subsequent occasion, that if the con-
duct of Colonel Keppel had been previously condemned by a court-
martial, an action at law would have been maintainable against him,
although the transaction in question took place in the field, and in open
war.

Again, with respect to the exercise of military power by command-
ing officers in the execution of actual service, and the right of action
against them on such grounds, the following observations fell from the
court in Sutton v . Johnstone : " Commanders, in a day of battle, must

"MO MIUTAKT DICTIONAKY. [!M.

act upon delicate suspicions ; upon the evidence of their own eye ; tin y
mu>t give desperate commands; they must require instantaneous
obedience. In case of a general misbehavior, they may be forced to
suspend several officers, and put others in their places. A military
tribunal id capable of feeling all these circumstances, and understand-
ing that the first, second, and third part of a soldier's duty is obedience.
But what condition will a commander be in, if up. n tin exercising of
his authority ho is liable to be tried by a common-law judicature f . .
Not knowing the law, or the rules of evid.no . KM command-
ing or superior oflicer will dare to act; their inferiors will insult and

threaten them Upon an unsuccessful battle, there are mutual

n criminations, mutual charges, and mutual trials Party pre-
judices mix. If every trial is to be followed by an action, it is easy
to see how endless the confusion,. ho\v infinite the mischief must be.
The person unjustly accused is not without his remedy. He has the
properest among military men. Reparation is done to him by an ac-
quittal ; and he who accused him unjustly is blasted forever, and dis-
missed the service. These considerations induce us to turn against
introducing this action."

It may be gathered, also, from the case of Sutton v. John-
which was an action between naval officers, that, unless a court-martial
shall first expressly decide that it was physically impossible for an
oflicer t" execute, the orders delivered to him in the field or on actual
duty, he has no right of action against his commanding olli n fur bring-
ing him to a court-martial on a charge of disobedience to those orders,
even though the court-martial may have acquitted him of misconduct.

Delay in bringing an oflicer to a court-martial, after he has ! n
put under arrest, is also no ground of action against the officer or-
dering the arrest; this being a point of purely military conduct and
Authority, of which a court-martial alone can prop, rly jud- . !
a court-martial should condemn the commanding olli. . r's conduct on
such an occasion, an action against him would probably lie. Captain
Sutton, of II. M. S. /'*, brought an action against Commodore .lohn-

for maliciously bringing him \o a court-martial on char
disobedience to orders during an engagement with a l-'n -n -h l
1781. It appeared that Captain Sutton, alter his arrest at the < !
the engagement, was carried with the squadron to India, win-re lie was
d in arrest for two years, during a lengthened cruise and various
S before he was eventually sent to England by Ad-
miral Sir Kichanl Hughes, to be tried. His trial was thus d. l.iy. d for
two years and a half; and great stress was laid on these circumstances,

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 361

as an unnecessary aggravation of his arrest. But the court said : " Tho
delay is charged to be contrary to the defendant's duty as commander-
in-chief. There is no rule of the common or statute law applicable to
this case. It is a mere military offence. It is the abuse of a mili-
tary discretionary power ; and the defendant has not been tried for it
by court-martial. A court of common law cannot in such a case assume
an original jurisdiction. It is like the case of Barwis v. Keppel ; this
objection we think fatal."

But, although questions regarding the use or abuse of military dis-
cipline can thus in some instances be discussed in the civil courts, the
learned judges of those tribunals have deprecated the resort to such
proceedings in ordinary circumstances ; and in Warden v. Bailey,
where the court entertained the case, and ordered a new trial, the Chief-
Justice, Sir James Mansfield, said, " I must express the strongest wish
that the cause will not be again tried, for all disputes respecting the
extent of military discipline are greatly to be deprecated, especially
in time of war ; they are of the worst consequence, and such as no
good subject will wish to see discussed in a civil action ; they ought
only to be the subject of arrangement among military men." In the
case which gave rise to the foregoing observations, the learned judges
allowed that a considerable amount of unnecessary violence and indig-
nity had taken place.

A recent case of Walton v. Major Gavin of the 16th Lancers, for
alleged false imprisonment, gave rise to a very important question with
reference to the Article of War which directs that no officer command-
ing a guard, or provost-marshal, shall refuse to receive or keep any
prisoner committed to his charge by any officer or non-commissioned
officer belonging to the queen's forces, which officer or non-commis-
sioned officer shall, at the same time, deliver an account in writing
signed by himself, of the crime with .which the prisoner is charged.
And, after very elaborate argument, it was held by Lord Campbell,
C. J., and Mr. Justice Coleridge and Mr. Justice Wightman, (Erie, J.
dissenting,) that a commanding officer, receiving into his custody a per-
son subject to military law and accused of desertion by a non-commis-
sioned officer who signed the charge, was justified in detaining the prisoner,
notwithstanding any irregularity in the proceedings antecedent to his
own reception of the prisoner, and was not bound to inquire into the
legality of such proceedings. Judgment was therefore given for the
defendant. The principle appears to be the same which is applied to
the governor or keeper of any ordinary prison, who on receiving a
prisoner with a warrant, regular in point of form, for his detention, is

;;,,,! MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!KJ.

justified in receiving him without inquiring whether tho magistrate
who signs tho warrant is duly qualified to act as a justice, or whether
in a poaching case the bird mentioned in the warrant, as the corpus de-
licti, was properly designated a partridge.

Negligence in the use of military arms or weapons is also a good
cause of action. In Weaver r. Ward, the case was, that tho plaint ill'
and defendant were both soldiers of the trained bands of London.
While Ward's band was skirmishing, by way of military e.v
their muskets charged with powder, against another train-band to whieh
Weaver belonged, Ward's musket was discharged in such a manner as
to wound tho plaintiff, who thereupon brought an action of trespass
against Ward. The defence made by Ward was, that ho was in
training by order of the Lords of the Council, and skirmishing in
obedience to military command, and that tho injury happened casually,
by misfortune, and against his will. But this was decided not to be
enough. Per curiam : " No man shall bo excused of a trespass except
it may bo judged utterly without his fault. As if a man by force take
my hand and strike you, or if hero the defendant liad said that the
plaintiff ran across his piece when it was discharging, or had set forth
the case with the circumstances, so as that it had appeared to tho court
that it had been inevitable, and that tho defendant had committed no
negligence to give occasion to the hurt."

As a general rule, all language traducing or defaming .1 man in the
way of his profession or calling is actionable, as it tends to his pecu-
niary damage or loss.

The communication to tho Judge-advocate General, by tho pres-
id.-nt of a court-martial, of their opinion, in the form of a cmsur. -, re-
specting the prosecutor's charges, and his conduct in preferring them,
is not a libel, and cannot be made the subject of an action at law. This
point was decided in 1806, in tho case of Jekyll v. Moore. Captain
Jekyll, of the 43d regiment, had preferred certain charges against Col-
onel Stewart of tho same regiment, who was accordingly tried by a
1 rourt-martial, of which Sir John Moore was president. The
judgment of the court was, that " tho court do most fully and most
honoral.lv ae.piit him:" but to this sentenei. the following remarks
Were subjoined : "The court cannot pass without observation the mali-
md groundless accusations that have been pn.duryd by Captain
Joky 11 agatsmt an officer whose character has, during a long period of
o, been so irreproachable as Colon. -1 Stewart's ; and tho court do
unanimously declare that tho conduct of Captain .Jekyll, in endeavoring
falsely to calumniate the character of his commanding officer, is most

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 3(53

highly injurious to the good of the service." Captain Jekyll contended
that the foregoing passage formed no part of the matter submitted to
the judgment of the court, and was, therefore, a libel on him. He ac-
cordingly brought his action for it in the Court of Common Pleas,
against Sir John Moore, but the whole court was of opinion that no
such action could be maintained. Sir James Mansfield, chief-justice :
" In order to enable the court-martial to decide upon the charges sub-
mitted by the king, they must hear all the evidence, as well on the part
of the prosecution as of the defence ; and after hearing both sides, are
to declare their opinion whether there be any ground for the charges.
If it appear that the charges are absolutely without foundation, is the
president of the court-martial to remain perfectly silent on the conduct
of the prosecutor, or can it be any offence for him to state that the
charge is groundless and malicious 1 It seems to me that the words
complained of in this case form part of the judgment of acquittal, and
consequently no action can be maintained upon it."

It may perhaps be fairly inferred from the foregoing decision, that
if a court-martial pass a censure upon the prosecutor, with reference to
a matter which is not expressly connected with the charge under trial
before such court-martial, or with the proceedings of the court, the case
would stand upon a different footing, and would probably be held ac-
tionable on the principle of Mr. Crawford's case already noticed.

Confidential communications from the members of a military court
of inquiry to the superior military authorities are likewise privileged,
and furnish no ground of action to the officer whose conduct is impli-
cated in the documents.

Neither is the promulgation of a sentence in the gazette by a com-
petent official person to be deemed a libel on the officer named in the
paper. In 1807 Lord Win. Bentinck, governor of Madras, issued the
following public order : " The Honorable the Court of Directors having
resolved to dismiss Colonel Oliver of this establishment from the ser-
vice of the Honorable Company, for gross violation of the trust reposed
in him as Commanding Officer of the Molucca Islands, the Right Hon-
orable the Governor in Council directs that the name of Colonel Oliver
be erased from the Army List of this Presidency, from the 20th June
last." In 1811, Colonel Oliver brought an action at Westminster
against Lord William Bentinck for the publication of this order, on the
ground of its containing libellous matter injurious to the plaintiff. But
the Court of Common Pleas decided it to be no libel. Sir James
Mansfield, chief-justice. : " How should an officer in India know why
he was dismissed, if the reason assigned is not to be made known 1 If

3<U MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!NJ.

the Court of Directors were peremptorily to dismiss him, without
assigning a reason, that would be a greater hardship on the d. -fondant.
. . . One should be very sorry to have any tiling like a judgment in
favor of a plaintiff in such an action as this, than which a more foolish
or a more mischievous one cannot easily be imagined ; it is much better
for the Company, for the country, and for the plaintiff himsi-lf, that the
cause of his dismissal should be stated, than that it should be supposed
that the East India Company did it suo arbitrio"

** On the same principle, (says Mr. Justice Heath, in the same cast*,)
when a delinquent, guilty of some enormity, has been brought to a
omirt-inartial, the commander-in-chicf is not chargeable with libel for
directing the sentence to be read at the head of every regiment/'

It is decided also, that any communications made by private indi-
viduals to superior officers, for the bonajide purpose of obtaining re-
dress of grievances, or otherwise invoking the exercise of authority over
other officers, will be deemed privileged communications, and no libels.

The principle of the law on this subject, was declared by the court,
in Cutler v. Dixon, to be this, that, " if actions should bo permitted in
such cases, those who have just cause of complaint, would not dare to
complain for fear of infinite vexation."

But where the author of a written communication traducing another
person in his professional character has himself no interest in the mat-
ter, the bona fides of the proceeding will be no defence against an action.
In I larwood v. Green, the plaintiff was master of the Jupiter transport ;
and the defendant, a lieutenant in the navy acting as government agent
on board, wrote a letter to the secretary at Lloyd's, imputing to 11 u-
wood misconduct and incapacity in the management of the vessel. In
consequence of this letter, Ilarwood brought an action nL r :iinM Lieuten-
ant Green -for a libel. Lieutenant Green defended himself on the ground
that his letter was a privileged communication. But the Lord Chief-
Justice Best declared his opinion to the jury, that an officer in tin- navy
had not, as such, the right to make any communication to Lloyd's, but
only to the government, by whom, if tho matter were important, it
might be again communicated to Lloyd's ; and the jury i I larwood
a verdict with 50 damages.

It may be useful to mention here, as a legal point giving rights of
redress between military men, that a superior officer cannot sail -l\ deal
for his own ad 1 - money matters, with a junior officer under

his command. The influence which a senior officer can exercise over
his junior is such as to destroy, or at least to control, in the purview
of a Court of K.juity, that entire freedom which is essential to the per-

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 365

fection of a bargain or contract ; and if a regimental officer places him-
self in a position where such influence may operate to the prejudice of
the junior, the transactions between them are liable to be set aside for
want of fairness or conscientiousness. This is the rule applied to deal-
ings between a guardian and his ward, a physician and his patient, a
landlord and his steward, a clergyman and a penitent, and all other
cases where the existence of a just and unavoidable influence may lead
to abuse.

II. Wrongs towards Persons not under Military Authority. Injuries
may be occasioned to persons not subject to military authority, by
officers mistaking or exceeding their powers, or exercising them with
malice, negligence, or unskilfulness ; but for acts of this kind a remedy
lies only in the civil courts ; the military tribunals, as already observed,
having no power to grant pecuniary compensation by way of damages,
and non-military persons having no locus standi as prosecutors before
such courts, which are instituted solely for the maintenance of order and
discipline among the armed forces.

In cases of the kind now under consideration, it is quite immaterial
whether the cause of action has arisen within the realm, or beyond the
seas ; though this proposition was not finally established until the year
1774, when the great case of Fabrigas v. Mostyn was determined in the
Court of King's Bench, and put an end to all further question or doubt
upon the subject. The plaintiff was a native of Minorca, of which island
the defendant, General Mostyn, was governor. The general had by his
own absolute authority imprisoned the plaintiff and banished him from
the island without a trial. The defence was, that in the peculiar district
of Minorca, where the offence occurred, no ordinary court or magistrate
had jurisdiction. But the proof of this defence failed, and the jury gave
the plaintiff 3,000 damages. The objection, however, was taken that
the action did not lie, by reason of the foreign locality of the cause of
it, and the point was twice argued at great length ; but judgment was
eventually pronounced against General Mostyn, in accordance with the
verdict of the jury. It should be noticed also that, as General Mostyn
happened to be a governor, his appointment gave him the character of
a viceroy, so that locally and during his government no civil or criminal
action lay against him. On principles of public justice, therefore, it
was necessary that a remedy should be had in England.

The undue assumption or mistaken exercise of authority by officers
towards non-military persons, is a clear ground of action against them
in the civil courts, even though there be no malice accompanying the
transaction.

;;;<; MILITAKY DICTIONARY. [Lu.

Captain Gambler, of the navy, under the orders of Admiral Bos-
cawen, pulled down the houses of some sutlers on the coast of Nova
Scotia, who supplii .1 the seamen of the fleet with spirituous liquors.
The act was done with a good intention on the part of the admiral ; for
the health of the sailors hud been ull'-eted by frequenting these houses.
Captain Gambier, on his return to England, incautiously brought home
in his ship one of the sutlers whose houses had been thus demolished.
The man would never otherwise have got to England ; but on his ar-
rival he was advised to bring an action against Captain Gambier. lie

, and recovered 1,000 damages. But as the captain had acted
by the orders of Admiral Boscawen, the representatives of the admiral
1 the action, and paid the damages and costs. This was a ia\ Ar-
able case, unaccompanied by any malicious feeling ; but the parties con-
cerned did not attempt to disturb the verdict.

Admiral Sir Hugh Palliser was defendant in a similar action for

yinu fishing huts on the Labrador coast. After the treaty of
Paris, the Canadians, early in the season, erected huts for fishing, and
by such means obtained an advantage ov.-r the fishermen who came
from England. It was a nice question upon the rights of the Canadians.
But the admiral, on grounds of public policy, ordered the huts to be

yed. An action was brought against him in England by one of
the injured parties, and the case ended in arbitration. But on the part
of the admiral it was never contended that the action did not lie by
reason of the subject-matter of it having occurred beyond the seas.

" I remember," said Lord Mansfield, "early in my time being coun-
sel in an action brought by a carpenter in the train of artillery against
Governor Sabine, who was governor of Gibraltar, and who had barely
confirmed the sentence of a court-martial, by which the plaintiff had
been tried and sentenced to bo whipped. The governor was very ably

led, but nobody ever thought that the action would not lie ; and it
being proved that the tradesmen who followed the train were not liable
to martial law, the court were of that opinion, and the jury found the
defendant guilty of the trespass, as having had a share in the sentence,
and gave 700 damages."

The following case, involving the same principle, occurred in India,
and was there tried before the Supreme Court of Madras. Mr. II.
Smith was agent, at Sccunderabad, of a mercantile house at Madras,
from whom he received a very handsome salary. He became indebted
to a soldier of II. M.'- .'3d regiment for some work intrusted to him,
and a dispute having arisen between them as to the amount, this led to
a violent altercation between Mr. Smith and the superintendent of the

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 367

bazaar acting under local military regulations. Lieutenant-colonel Gore
thereupon sent a file of men to arrest the plaintiff, who was accordingly
seized about six o'clock in the evening, and marched from his house
through the streets of the cantonment to the main guard at Secundera-
bad, where he was kept till twelve o'clock the next day. In conse-
quence of these proceedings, he brought an action against Colonel Gore
for false imprisonment. Secunderabad was an open cantonment for a
part of the subsidiary force serving in the territories of the Nizam ; the
force consisting partly of British and partly of native troops. It had
barracks, and the men were hutted. It was also upon a field establish-
ment, constantly ready for immediate service. The Article of "War
then in force, being the 22d in the llth section of the Statute 27 Geo.
II., was thus intituled, " Of duties in quarters, in garrison, and in the
field ; " and it enacted, " that all sutlers and retainers to the camp, and
all persons whatsoever serving with forces in the field, though not en-
listed soldiers, are to be subject to orders, according to the rules and
discipline of war." Sir Thomas Strange, C. J. : " The question was,
whether the troops, being cantoned, were in the state to which the cited
Articles of War applied. The court thought they were not. It might
have been a field force, being upon a field establishment, so as to be
ready to move at the shortest notice. There might be great similarity
in the arrangements adopted for an army, whether in the field or can-
toned. A respectable witness, Brigade-major Lyne, intimated as much.
Still, so far as the court could form a judgment upon a question of this
nature, there seemed to be a difference between a camp and a canton-
ment, which appeared material When in the field, not only

the army, but its appendages, must be under the immediate control of
the officer commanding it, according to the rules and discipline of war.
So situated, the sutler, who chose to follow the camp, identified himself
in a manner with the soldier for every purpose almost but that of fight-
ing The plaintiff called upon the court to say, whether the

force in question, under the command of the defendant, was at the time
in the field. It seemed impossible to say that it was, without confound-
ing ideas apparently very distinct The defendant appeared to

have acted under a mistake of his authority, for which he was liable to
answer, as it had been productive of serious injury to the plaintiff."
Judgment was therefore given against Colonel Gore, with fifty pagodas
damages.

In the foregoing case reference was made to an action brought by
Mr. Robert Bailie, an up-country trader in the province of Bengal,
against Major-general Robert Stewart, for an assault and false imprison-

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Inj.

ment Mr. Bailie had resided within the cantonments of Cawnpore for
many years, and dealt in European articles, which ho principally dis-
posed of to the military stationed there. In October, 1797, upon a
complaint made to him by one of the people of his Xeiianah, ho tied up
and very severely flogged one of his chowkydars. For this aet Major-
general Stewart ordered Mr. Bailie to be tried by court-martial ; and
as he acknowledged to have used no less than six switch whips in the
I '!, alleging as his reason, that as they were new whips, he was
of breaking them and spoiling their sale, the court-martial sen-
him to five days' imprisonment, and to make an apology to the
commanding officer. This sentence General Stewart, though he did not
approve of it, confirmed ; and issued orders for Mr. Bailie to depart the
camp as soon after his enlargement as possible. The Supreme Court
of Calcutta held Mr. Bailie to be a sutler within the meaning of the Ar-
ticles of War, so as to render him amenable to military law. But in
the above-mentioned action of Smith v. Lieut.-col. Gore, the chief-justice,
Sir T. Strange, declined to be governed by the decision in (J<

.rt's case, as the note furnished to the court did not clearly show
whether or not the^army was in the field when the transaction occnn v.l.

An unreasonable or malicious exercise of power will, in like manner,
render an officer liable to an action for damages. An instance pf this
occurred in the year 1783, when an action was brought against (J
Murray, governor of Minorca, for improperly suspending the judge of
the Vice-admiralty Court of that island. The general had pro;
himself ready to restore the judge on his making a particular apology ;
and, on reference to the home authorities, the king approved of the sus-
ii, unless the governor's terms were complied with. There was
no doubt as to General Murray's power to suspend the judge for proper
cause; yet, on the proof of his having unreasonably and improperly
-ed the authority, and notwithstanding the king's approbation of
his proceedings, damages to the amount of 5,000 were awarded against
him by a jury ; and, as Mr. Baron Eyre observed, it never occurred to
any lawyer that there was any pretence for questioning the verdict.

Negligence or vnttilf 'nines* in the exercise of an officer's duty may
Also be a cause of action for damages in respect of private injuries thus
occasioned; and in such cases the approval of an officer's conduct l>y
the government, or by the superior military authorities, will neither
him from liability to an action, nor have any influence upon the
decisi" >urN ..f Westminster Hall. Those tribunals investigate

such matters <.n independent evidence, according to their own rules, and
pay no regard to the previous conclusions of official functionaries, how-
ever high th'-ir rank may be.

INS.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 359

It is a rule of English law, in unison with the law of nations, by
which all civilized states are governed, that no officer engaged in mili-
tary operations in his country's cause, by the order or with the sanction
of the constituted authorities, shall incur any individual or private re-
sponsibility for acts done by virtue of his commission or official instruc-
tions. Such transactions being of a public nature, redress or satisfac-
tion for injuries to which they give birth, is to be sought by public
means alone, from the sovereign power of the belligerent or offending
state, according to the principles of international law, and the general
usages of civilization, which never suffer such matters to be litigated
before ordinary tribunals.

If, in time of peace, the citizens of a friendly foreign state sustain a
private injury at the hands of a naval or military officer serving under
the orders of the British government, but unauthorized by his commis-
sion or instructions to do the act complained of, the ordinary tribunals
of England afford the same redress against him as in the case of a Brit-
ish subject similarly aggrieved ; and this rule applies even in those
cases where the violated rights of tho foreigner are such as the law of
England denies or prohibits to its own subjects.

But if the British government have expressly instructed the officer
to convmit the act which constitutes or gives occasion to the grievance,
the matter becomes an affair of state which is not cognizable by the
courts of law, and must be adjusted by diplomatic arrangement be-
tween the two governments concerned. In such cases also it is quits
sufficient, if the officer's proceedings, though not originally directed or
authorized by the terms of his instructions, are afterward sanctioned
and adopted by the government ; for this renders them public acts, over
which courts of law have no jurisdiction. (Consult PREXDERG AST'S
Law relating to Officers of the Army.}

INJURING PRIVATE PROPERTY. (See WASTE or SPOIL.)

INLYING PICKET. A body of infantry or cavalry in cam-
paign, detailed to march, if called upon, and held ready for that purpose
In camp or quarters.

INSPECTORS-GENERAL. There are two inspectors-general of
the army with the rank of colonel. Assistant adjutants-general are ex-
officio assistant inspectors-general. The duties of inspectors-general are
prescribed by Army Regulations. In the French army, a certain num-
ber of general officers are annually designated to make inspections, and
such inspections embrace every thing relative to organization, recruit-
ing, discharges, administration, accountability for money and property
instruction, police, and discipline of the several corps of the army. At
24

370 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ixs.

these inspections all wrongs are redressed, and each inspection is con.
tiuued from eight to ten days. The inspector examines and studios the
condition of the corps under arms, as well as off parade ; ho receives all
applications for disc-barge, and for the retired list. He notes those
who merit promotion, rewards, or reprimands. He assembles the
council of administration, and verifies their accounts ; visits the store-
houses, quarters, hospitals, prisons; inspects the clothing, arms.
&c., and, in fine, scrutinizes every thing which it is desirable should be
known. He gives his orders to the regiment for the ensuing
makes a detailed report of what he has seen and done.

1 NSURRECTION. (See CALLING FORTH MILITIA.) It will bo ob-
served that whenever the President of the United States is auth-
by law to we the military force in cases of insurrection or obstruction
to the laws, ho must first, by proclamation, have commanded the in-
surgents to disperse and retire peaceably to their respective abodes with-
in a limited time ; (Act Feb. 28, 1795. See OBSTRUCTIONS TO THE LAWS.)

INTERIOR FLANKING ANGLE is formed by the line of de-
fence and the curtain.

INTERIOR SIDE -is the line drawn from the centre of ono bas-
tion to that of the next, or the lino of the curtain produced, to tho two
' oblique radii of the front.

INTRENCHED CAMP. A position is so called when occupied
by troops, and fortified for their protection during tho operations of
a campaign.

INTRENCHMENT. A ditch or trench with a parapet; field-
works. In permanent fortification, intrenchments aro mode in va;
parts of tho works to prolong the defence, as a breast-work and ditch at
the porcje of the bastion, &C.

INUNDATION. An inundation or collection of water is produced
by forming across a stream one or more dams.

INVASION. (See CONSTITUTION ; CALLING FORTH MILITIA; NA-
TIONAL I '

INVERSION. In case a column, marching right in front, shall be
undrr tho necessity of forming into lino faced to the NtrerM Hank by
the promptest means the command is given : Halt ! By inversion riirht
into line wheel, battalion guide right. This movement will ^ive an or-
der of battle with tho left company occupying tho right of t lie battalion,
and tne right the left.

Inversion* nre very important in the field, mid they offer such great
advantages, that Bonaparte jtoongly advised their employ incut in many
circumstances. Our tactics admit the employment of inversions in the

IRQ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 371

formations to the right and left in line of battle, and also in the successive
formations, except in that of faced to the rear into line of battle. When
used, the first command always begins, By inversion. (See INFANTRY.)

INVEST. To take the initiatory measures to besiege a town, by se-
curing every road and avenue leading to it, to prevent ingress or egress.

IRON PLATES. In the experiments made against the "Un-
daunted," at Portsmouth, the following results were obtained : Six
wrought-iron 68-lb. shot were fired with a charge of 16 Ibs. at 200
yards, the iron plates being 4 in. thick ; four of these shot broke the
plates, but did not penetrate the timber ; two passed entirely through
both plates and timber. Forty-three cast-iron 68-lb. shot were fired
against other plates of similar thickness. Of these, four passed through
the plates but not the timber. Nine passed through both ; but there
was only one case of a shot taking good effect after striking an uninjured
plate. Thus of the four shots that passed through the plates without
penetrating the timber, only one went through a plate that had not been
previously weakened.

The shot that penetrated entirely through the plates and the timber
had all passed through plates previously weakened. No penetration
was effected by red-hot 68-lb. shot, with a charge of 10 Ibs. The 3 and
2^-in. plates were all penetrated by 68-lb. shot and shells.

The following conclusions have been drawn from experiments :

1st. That thin plates of wrought iron are proof against any shells ;
for, though the shells may pass through the plates, they will be in a
broken state.

2d. That being proof against shells will avail little, unless vessels
are likewise proof against solid shot; for shells would, of course, not be
fired against ships proof against them, whereas the destructive effects
produced by fragments of shot and of plates, and the great damage
done to the scantling of the ship by solid shot, appear more like the
result of a shell than of a shot.

3d. That rifled projectiles produce greater effect than spherical pro-
jectiles of the same weight at long than at short ranges, on account of
the rifled elongated projectiles the resistance to which is a minimum
retaining more of their initial velocity than spherical projectiles at
the same distance.

4th. That the thickness of plates required to resist shot fired from
the heaviest nature of guns, must not be less than 4 in.

5th. That, to secure the resistance of the plates and the impenetrabil-
ity of the sides of a ship, it is indispensable (fcat the plates be strongly
backed by masses of the strongest and most resisting timber, as, in alJ

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Joi.

the cases to which reference has just been made, it appears that the
plates are easily broken when the support is removed from behind
them, by the crushing, fracturing, and damaging effects of the impacts
of the shot; (Sir HOWARD DOUGLAS.)

With the knowledge of these data, an iron-clad ship, " Le Gl<
has been built in France, carrying 38 rifled 50-pounders, and France,
it is said, will soon have 300 rifled guns in such vessels.

In England, the iron-clad " Warrior," 420 feet long and over 6,000
tons' burden, has been built. The new principle introduced in England,
of inclining the iron-clad sides inwardly, so as to make an angle w ith
the horizontal of from 35 to 40, will cause the shot to glance off, with
little injury to the sides. In addition to this, it is proposed to suppress
the port-holes, and place the guns in rotating iron cupolas, from which,
by a rotatory of 180, they fire over the bulwarks on either broadside
the gunners being perfectly sheltered under these shot-proofi co\
(BARNARD'S Sea-coast Defence.) The great objection to such an ar-
rangement is its unwieldiness, and the opinion of distinguished officers
that iron plates are only practicable for floating batteries, gunboats,
and other vessels of small draft of water, for special purposes, may
prove the better opinion, notwithstanding the great outlay made by the
' French and English governments.

JOISTS. The timbers of a floor, whereto boards or lathing for
ceiling are nailed. They either rest on the wall or on girders, or some-
times on both. (See CARPENTRY.)

JOURNAL, OR ITINERARY. Directions for keeping the journal of a
march west of the Mississippi. The journal should bo kept in a pocket
note-book ; or, if one cannot bo obtained, in a book made of sheets of
paper folded to half the letter size. The record is to run from the bottom
to the top of each page. The horizontal divisions in the column headed
"Route? represent portions of a day's march. The distance, in miles,
between each of tho horizontal divisions, will bo noted in tho column
headed " Distance," which will bo summed up at the top of each column,
and the sum carried to the bottom of the next column. The notes
within each horizontal division are to show the general directions of
the march, and every object of interest observed in passing over the
distance represented thereby; and all remarkable features, such as
hills, streams with their names, fords, springs, houses, villages, forests,
marshes, &c., and the plaxjp of encampment, will be sketched in their
relative positions. The " Re marks " corresponding to each division

Jou.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

373

will be upon the soil, productions, quantity and quality of timber, grass,
water, fords, nature of the roads, &c., and important incidents. They
should show where provisions, forage, fuel, and water can be obtained ;
whether the streams to be crossed are fordable, miry, have quicksands
or steep banks, and whether they overflow their banks in wet seasons ;
also the quality of the water ; and, in brief, every thing of practical im-
portance. When a detachment leaves the main column, the point on
the " Route " will be noted, and the reason given in the Remarks. The
commander of the detachment will be furnished with a copy of the
journal up .to that point, and will continue it over his new line of march.

JOURNAL of the march of [here insert the names of the regiments or companies composing

the column,] commanded by , from [here insert the point of departure] to \tht

stopping place,] pursuant to [here give the No. and date of order for the march.]

Date.

Hour.

Weather.

Distance.

Eoute.

KEMA11K8.

1860.

Total, 19

Road rocky ; but little

grass ; good water. Plenty

of timber on summit of

hills, extending 3 miles ;

July 8.

5. A. M.

^Bl ^

road to right of hills.

1 P.M.

tl/ig-A timbered Peak
A Camp No. 1.

Good shelter for camp
at foot of peak ; fuel plen-
ty. Springs of sweet wa-
ter, with good grass near.

Springs.

Road to this point rather

more sandy.

10.

Road runs through a

canon i mile long, to right

of a small stream ; marsh

on left of stream ; water

sweet; grass excellent.
Halted to graze two hours.

J5*

No Indian signs.

*"o

6.30.

Mt.P

Companies F, G, and I,
3d , detached at Mt.

-d

,A X^-

P , under command of

, (see par. 3,Gen-
eral Orders, No. ,) to

LilKC rOtlQ tO

A small creek, easily

forded.

1 / *

Road turns short to right
at top of hill after crossing
river; crossing good, but

4/ ^W- ^

a little boggy on right
bank. This bottom shows

\ \ nftv^

signs of recent overflow,

ti\V v\\vi^

when it must have been

*^V

impassable ; banks low ;

** \^

water sweet ; no wood

July 7.

4.30.

near crossing ; road hard
and good up to river.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.
JOURNAL,

[Jot*.

Data,

Hoar.

\\,. ::.,.-.

DisUnce.

Bouto

BKMARKa.

1860.

Total, 47

Fork in Road.

At the point where the
road forks, turn to the
right. The left -hand road
leads to a deep ravine,

July 9.

4.80 A. M.

which cannot be crossed.

4.30P.M.

A Camp No. 2.

After the road strikes
the ravine, it runs one

*s\> l ' l V^'~

mile along its bank before

jfr^{&

coming to the crossing

place. The camping
ground is at springs, half
a mile beyond the ravine.
Old Indian signs at the

springs.

3P.M.

Road less rocky ; last

x Grave.

three miles rather sandy ;

Mt. T

no water. Passed at the
point marked + an In-

dian grave.

Road still rocky ; good
springs, where casks
should be filled. No more
water for twenty miles

SStyrtiy*

after leaving *|>
Occasional hills to i

S 5

road ; no wood or gross.

July 8.

6.30 A. M.

JUDGE-ADVOCATE. There is one judge-advocate selected fr- -m
the captains of the army with the brcvi-t rank and pay of a major
of cavalry. The judge-advocate, or some person deputed by him, or
general, or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garri-
on, shall prosecute in the name of the United States, but shall so far
consider himself as counsel for the prisoner, after the said prisoner shall
have made his plea, as to object to any leading question to any <>f (lie
witnesses, or any question to the prisoner, the ans\\.-r to which might

to criminate himself. The judge-advocate administers th
scribed oaths to the court and witnesses ; (A

JUD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 375

The appropriate functions of the judge-advocate, as an essential officer
in all general courts-martial, are various in their nature ; and as the
Articles of War do not describe them with much precision, it is proper
to resort to the less positive, though equally binding authority, of estab-
lished usage and practice.

The Articles of War are silent on the subject of the judge-advocate's
assisting the court with his counsels and advice as to any matters of
form or law ; it nevertheless is his duty, by custom, to explain any
doubts which may arise in the course of its deliberations, and to pre-
vent any irregularities or deviations from the regular form of proceed-
ings. The duty assigned the judge-advocate by ART. 69, is more espe-
cially incumbent on him in cases where the prisoner has not the aid of
professional counsel to direct him, which generally happens in the trials
of private soldiers, who, having had few advantages of education,
or opportunities for mental improvement, stand greatly in need of
advice under circumstances often sufficient to overwhelm the acutest
intellect, and embarrass or suspend the powers of the most culti-
vated understanding. It is certainly not to be understood that, in
discharging this office, which is prescribed solely by humanity, the
judge-advocate should, in the strictest sense, consider himself as bound
to the duty of counsel, by exerting his ingenuity to defend the prisoner,
at all hazards, against those charges which, in his capacity of prosecutor,
he is, on the other hand, bound to urge, and sustain by proof; for, un-
derstood to this extent, the one duty is utterly inconsistent with the
other. All that is required is, that in the same manner as in civil
courts of criminal jurisdiction, the judges are understood to be counsel
for the person accused, the judge-advocate, in courts-martial, shall do
justice to the cause- of the prisoner, by giving full weight to every cir-
cumstance or argument in his favor ; shall bring the same fairly and
completely into the view of the court; shall suggest the supplying
of all omissions in exculpatory evidence ; shall engross in the written
proceedings all matters which, either directly or by presumption,
tend to the prisoner's defence ; and finally, shall not avail himself
of any advantage which superior knowledge or ability, or his influence
with the court may give him, in enforcing the conviction, rather than
the acquittal, of the person accused.

When a court-martial is summoned by the proper authority, for the
trial of any military offender, the judge-advocate, being required to
attend to his duty, and furnished with articles of charge or accusation,
on which he is to prosecute, must, from the information of the accuser,
instruct himself in all the circumstances of the case, and by what evi-

370 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Jca

dence the whole particulars are to be proved against the prisoner. Of
these, it is proper that he should prepare, in writing, a short analysis,
or plan, for his own regulation in the conduct of tin- trial, ami examin-
ation of the witnesses. He ought then, if it has not been done by some
other functionary, to give information to the prisoner of the time and
place appointed for his trial, and furnish him, at the same time, with a
copy of the charges that are to be exhibited against him, and likewise
a correct detail of the members of the court. The judge-advocate
ought then to hand in to the adjutant -<;i -in -ral, or stall-officer charged
with the details, a list of witnesses for the prosecution, in ml T that
they may be summoned to give their attendance at the time and place
appointed.

It is proper, likewise, that ho should desire the prisoner to make a
similar application, to insure the attendance of the witnesses necessary
for his defence. These measures ought to be taken as early as possible,
that there may be sufficient time for the arrival of witnesses who may
be at a distance. When the court is met for trial, and the members are
regularly sworn, the judge-advocate, after opening the prosecution by a
recital of the eharges, together with such detail of circumstances as he
may deem necessary, proceeds to examine his witnesses in support of the
charges, while at the same time he acts as the recorder or clerk of the
court, in taking down the evidence in writing at full length, and as
nearly as possible in the words of the witnesses. At the close of the
business of each day, and in the interval before the next meeting of the
court, it is the duty of the judge-advocate to make a fair copy of the pro-
ceedings ; which ho continues thus regularly to engross till the conclu-
sion of the trial, when the whole is read over by him to the court,
before the members proceed to deliberate and form their opinions.
The sentence of the court must bo fairly engrossed and subjoined to the
record copy of the proceedings ; and the whole must be authent ic.it (d 1 <y
the signature of the president of the court, and that of the jud-rc-a-n

It is required by the Articles of War, (ART. 90,) that " every judge-
advocate, or person officiating as such, at any general court-martial,
shall transmit, with as much expedition as the opportunity of time and
distance of place can admit, the original proceedings and sentence of
such court-martial, in tin- Secretary of War; which said original pro-
ceedings and SCT/ 11 l.c c.-irefiilly kept and preserved in the office
of the said secretary, to the end that the persons entitled thereto, may
be enabled, upon application to the said office, to obtain copies th
The j '-ate sends the proceedings to the Secretary of
through the adjutant-general.

JUE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 377

The judge-advocate cannot be challenged. He may be relieved at
any time. He. should, in complicated cases, arrange and methodize the
evidence, applying it distinctly to the facts of the charge. Besides ap-
plying the evidence fairly to each side of the question, he should inform
the court as to the legal bearing of the evidence, for there may have
been admitted evidence which ought to be rejected from their minds as
illegal ; ( HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.)

JURISDICTION. All officers, conductors, gunners, matrosses,
drivers, or other persons whatsoever, receiving pay, or hire, in the ser-
vice of the artillery, or corps of engineers of the United States, shall be
governed by the aforesaid rules and articles, and shall be subject to be
tried by courts-martial, in like manner with the officers and soldiers of
the other troops in the service of the United States ; (ART. 96.)

The officers and soldiers of any troops, whether militia or others,
being mustered and in pay of the United States, shall at all times and
in all places, when joined or acting in conjunction with the regular forces
of the United States, be governed by these Rules and Articles of War,
and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial, in like manner with
the officers and soldiers in the regular forces, save only that such courts-
martial shall be composed entirely of militia officers ; (ART. 97.)

No person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general
court-martial for any offence which shall appear to have been com-
mitted more than two years before the issuing of the order for such
trial, unless the person, by reason of having absented himself, or some
other manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice
within that period ; (ART. 88.)

JURISDICTION, (CONCURRENT.) Can courts-martial and civil
courts have concurrent jurisdiction over offences committed by soldiers ?
Or, in other words, if a soldier is guilty of an offence which renders him
amenable for trial before the civil courts of the land, can he also be
tried for that offence (if its specification should establish a violation of
the Rules and Articles of War) by a court-martial ?

By the Constitution of the United States Congess is authorized " to
make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval
forces ; " and Congress, pursuant to this authority, has established rules
and articles for the government of the armies of tbe United States.
These rules are an additional code, to which every citizen who becomes
a soldier subjects himself for the preservation of good order and mil-
itary discipline. The soldier, however, is still a citizen of tho United
States. He has not, by assuming the military character, become, as in
many European countries, a member of a privileged body who may

378 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Jot.

claim trial for all offences by court* martial. He is still amenable to
the ordinary common law courts for any offences against the persons or
property of any citizen of any of the United States, such as is punish-
able by the known laws of the land ; (ART. 33.) An examination of
the Rules and Articles of War will show that the offences therein de-
scribed, and against which punishment is denounced, are purely mili-
tary. They are crimes which impair the efficiency of the military body,
and even in cases, in which they would be recognized as offences by the
ordinary common law courts, they could not be considered the same
offences.

Take, for instance, Article 9, which inflicts the punishment of death
or other punishment, according to the nature of his offence, upon any
officer or soldier who shall strike his superior officer. Here is an
offence punishable under the known laws of the land as an assault and
battery, and, as such, it could be tried by tho common law courts. But
such trial would not prevent a court-martial from afterwards taking
cognizance of it under Article 9 ; for the offence before the common law
court would bo striking an equal, while before the military court it
would have essentially changed its character.

Again, suppose an officer had been guilty of stealing, he might be
prosecuted before the common law court for the felony, and afterwards
charged with conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman, and dis-
missed the service. It can hardly be contended that the offences in
either of the cases cited would be the same before the different courts ;
and if not, Article 87, which forbids a trial a second time for the same
offence, could not bo pleaded in bar of trial. Rccogni/iut:, then, the
principle that the soldier, as citizen, io subject to the common law
courts for offences committed against the well-b in^- .f the State, it
must also be recollected that ho is subject to trial by a court-martial
for any violation of tin- J Jules and Articles of War. ,

In the case of" Eels, plaintiff in error, v. ftie Peopl.- of the State of
Illinois," it was urged that the aet of the State of Illinois under \\hieh
! as \i.id. as it would subject tin- del'm-pient to a double

punishment for the same offence, the crime with which he was chared
being actionable under a law of the United States. The Supremo Court
decided that, admitting the plaintiff in error to be, liable to an
undtT the act of Congress, it did not follow he would be twice punished
for the same offence, and gave the following definition of that term :

u An offence in its legal signification means the transgression of a
law. A man may be compelled to make reparation in damages to the
injured party, and bo liable also to punishment for a breach of the pub

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 379

lie peace in consequence of the same act, and may be said, in common
parlance, to be twice punished for the same offence. Every citizen of
the United States is also a citizen of a State or Territory. He may
be said to owe allegiance to two sovereigns and may be liable to pun-
ishment for an infraction of the laws of either. The same act may be
an offence or transgression of the laws of both. Thus an assault upon
the marshal of the United States and hindering him in the execution of
legal process is a high offence against the United States, for which the
perpetrator is liable to punishment ; and the same act may also be a
gross breach of the peace of the State, a riot, assault, or a murder, and
subject the same person to a punishment under the State laws for a
misdemeanor or felony. That either or both may, if they see fit, pun-
ish such an offender cannot be doubted. Yet it cannot be truly averred
that the offender has been twice punished for the same offence, but only
that by one act he has committed two offences, for each of which he is
justly punishable. He could not plead the punishment by one in bar
to a conviction by the other ; consequently, this court has decided, in
the case of Fox v. the State of Ohio, (5 Howard, 432,) that a State may
punish the offence of altering or passing false coin as a cheat or fraud
practised on its citizens ; and, in the case of the United States v. Mari-
gold, (9 Howard, 560,) that Congress, in the proper exercise of its au-
thority, may punish the same act as an offence against the United
States.

KEEP. To keep troops is to maintain organized forces.

KIT. A cant word among soldiers to express the necessary arti-
cles provided for them, and which they are obliged to keep in order.

KITCHEN. For proposed kitchen-cart for field service see
WAGON.

KNAPSACK. A square frame covered with canvas carried on an
infantry soldier's back, containing his clothing and other necessaries,
but not his rations.

KNOTS. The three elementary knots, which every one should
know, are here represented (Fig. 147) viz., the Timber-hitch, the Bow-
line, and the Clove-hitch. The virtues of the timber-hitch are, that, so
long as the strain upon it is kept up, it will never give ; when the strain
is taken off, it is cast loose immediately. The bowline makes a knot
difficult to undo ; with it the ends of two strings are tied together, or
a loop made at the end of a single piece of string, as in the drawing.
For slip-nooses, use the bowline to make the draw-loop. The clove-
hitch binds with excessive force, and by it, and it alone, can a weight

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[LAO.

be hung to a smooth pole, as to a tent-pole. A kind of double
hitch is generally used, but the simple one suffices, and is more easily
recollected.

Fio. 147.

The following additional remarks deserve attention: A timber-
hitch had better have the loose end twisted more than once ; it is liable
to slip, if not. To tie a bowline, or any other knot for temporary pur-
poses, insert a stick into the knot before pulling tight. The stick \\ill
enable you, at will, to untie the knot to break its back, as the sailors
aay with little difficulty. A bowline is firmer, if doubled ; that is, if
the lower loose end in the figure be made to wrap round a second time.
A double clove-hitch is firmer than a single one; that is, the rope
should make two turns, instead of one turn, round the pole beneath th
lowest loose end in the figure. To make a large knot at the end of a
piece of string, to prevent it from pulling through a hole, turn the end
of the string back upon itself, so as to make it double, and then tie a
common knot. The string may bo quadrupled instead of doubled, if
required. A toyyle and strap is a tourniquet. A single or a double
band is made to inclose the two pieces of wood it is desired to lash to-
gether. Then a stick is pushed into the band and forcibly tv

. The band should be of soft material, such as the strands of a
rope that has boon picked to pieces on purpose. The strands must,
each of them, be untwisted and well rubbed with a stick t> take the
kink out of them, and finally twisted in a direction opposite to their
original one ; (G ALTON'S Art of Travel.)

LADDER BRIDGE may be formed by running a cart or gun
limber into the stream and securing it then-, with the shafts in a verti-
cal position, by ropea from both sides of the river ; one end of a ladder

LAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 381

from each bank resting upon it, and covering the steps or rungs with
planks.

LADDERS. (Set ESCALADE.)

LANCE. The lance is composed of a sharp steel blade, from 8 to
10 inches long, grooved like a common bayonet with a socket at its
base and two iron straps for attaching it to the handle. The handle is
of strong light wood, with a tip of iron at its lower end and a leathern
loop at its centre of gravity to support and guide the lance. It is usually
from 8 to 11 feet long, and weighs about 4 Ibs. This weapon is not
used in the United States service. The Russians have their regular and
irregular Cossacks armed with the lance. The Austrians, also, have
lancers ; but the Polish cavalry use the lance better than any other
people. The lance, when not in use, rests in a leather boot attached to
the stirrup, the right arm being passed through the leather loop of
the lance ; or by putting the lower end in the boot and strapping the
handle to the pommel of the saddle. Lancers are more formidable
than other cavalry because they are able to reach further. Skill in
combating a lancer, consists in keeping to his left, in order to shun his
lance. Pressed too nearly, the lancer must have recourse to his sabre
and let his lance rest upon his arm. The moment in which he attempts
to seize his sabre is dangerous to him. The Mexican cavalry are gen-
erally lancers.

LANDING-. (See DISEMBARKATION and EMBARKATION.)

LASHES. A general court-martial may sentence a soldier to receive
fifty lashes for desertion. No other crime is punishable with lashes.

LAW is a rule of action prescribed by a superior power.

Natural law is the rule of human action prescribed by the Creator,
discoverable by the light of reason.

Divine law is the law of nature revealed by God himself.

The law of nations is that which regulates the conduct and mutual
intepcourse of independent nations with each other, according to reason
and natural justice. (See WAR.)

Municipal or civil law is the rule of civil conduct prescribed by the
supreme power in a State, commanding what is right, and prohibiting
what is wrong.

The parts of a law are : 1. The declaratory ; which defines what is
right and wrong. 2. The directory ; which consists in commending the
observation of right, or prohibiting the commission of wrong. 3. The
remedial ; or method of recovering private rights, and redressing pri-
vate wrongs. 4. The vindicatory sanction of punishments for public
wrongs ; wherein consists the most forcible obligation of human laws.

382 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

To interpret a law, we must inquire after the will of the maker ;
wh'u-h may be collected either from the words, the context, the subject
matter, the effects and consequence, or the spi riband reason of the law.

From the latter method of interpretation arises equity, or the cor-
rection of that whervin the law (by reason of its universality) is defi-
cient; (BLACKSTONE'S Commentaries.)

LAW, (MARTIAL.) By martial law is understood, not laws passed
for raising, supporting, governing, and regulating troops, but " it is in
truth and reality no law, but something indulged, rather than allowed as
la\\ ; " (HALE and BLACESTONE.) The Constitution of the United States
has guarded against the effects of any declaration of martial law within
the United States, by providing : " No person shall be held to answer
for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or
indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval
forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public
danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice
put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal
case, to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or
property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be
taken for public use without just compensation," (ART. 5, Amendments;)
and further, " In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district
shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of
the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the wit-
DOSSM against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses
in his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence ; "
(ART. 6, Amendments.)

"Within the United States, therefore, the effect of a declaration of
martial law would not be to subject citizens to trial by courts-martial,
but it would involve simply a suspension of the writ of habeas corpus,
un.li r tho authority given in the 2d clause of Sec. 9 of the Constitution,
viz. : " Tho privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be susj
unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may re-
practice of all nations has been to givo supremacy to
ilitary commander in all sieges. " Inter arma silent teycs," is
then a maxim universally admitted. The public safety in that MM im-
periously requires that tho orders of the commander of the troops
should be obeyed, and a commander in the United States is then only
yistilied, ex necessitate r<ri, in suspending the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus.

LAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 385

The suspension of this privilege would enable a commander to in-
carcerate all dangerous citizens ; but when brought to trial, the citizen
would necessarily come before the ordinary civil courts of the land.

Beyond the United States, troops take with them the Rules and
Articles of War, but not the municipal law, to which they are also
subject at home. It is necessary, therefore, for a commander, in the
absence of laws made by Congress, to declare his own will, command,
ing what is right, and prohibiting and punishing what is wrong, in the
new relation established between his army and the citizens of the for-
eign country. The following order was the declaration of martial law
by Gen. Scott in Mexico :

HEAD-QUARTERS OF THE ARMY, )
National Palace of Mexico, Sept. 17, 1847. f

GENERAL ORDERS No. 287.

The General-in-Chief republishes, with important additions, his General Orders, No. 20,
of February 19, 1847, (declaring MARTIAL LAW,) to govern all who may be concerned.

1. It is still to be apprehended that many grave offences not pro-
vided for in the act of Congress " establishing rules and articles for the
government of the armies of the United States," approved April 10,
1806, may be again committed by, or upon, individuals of those ar-
mies, in Mexico, pending the existing war between the two republics.
Allusion is here made to offences, any one of which, if committed with-
in the United States or their organized territories, would, of course, be
tried and severely punished by the ordinary or civil courts of the land.

2. Assassination, murder, poisoning, rape, or the attempt to commit
either ; malicious stabbing or maiming ; malicious assault and battery ;
robbery ; theft ; the wanton desecration of churches, cemeteries, or
other religious edifices and fixtures ; the interruption of religious cere-
monies ; and the destruction, except by order of a superior officer, of
public or private property, are such offences.

3. The good of the service, the honor of the United States, and the
interests of humanity, imperiously demand that every crime enumer-
ated above should be severely punished.

4. But the written code, as above, commonly called the Rules and
Articles of War, does not provide for the punishment of one of those
crimes, even when committed by individuals of the army upon the per-
sons or property of other individuals of the same, except in the very
restricted case in the 9th of those articles ; nor for like outrages, com-,
mitted by the same class of individuals, upon the persons or property
of a hostile country, except very partially, in the 51st, 52d, and 55th
Articles ; and the same code is absolutely silent as to all injuries which

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [LAW.

may bo inflicted upon individuals of the army, or their property, against
the laws of war, by individuals of a hostile country.

.">. It is evident that the 99th Article, independent of any restriction
in the 87th, is wholly nugatory in reaching any one of those high
crimes.

0. For all the offences, therefore, enumerated in the second para-
graph above, which may be committed abroad in, by, or upon the
army, a supplemental code is absolutely needed.

7. That unwritten code is Martial Law, as an addition to the written
military code, prescribed by Congress in the Rules and Articles of \Yar,
and which unwritten code all armies, in hostile countries, are forced to
adopt, net only for their own safety, but for the protection of the un-
offending inhabitants and their property, about the theatres of military
operations, against injuries on the part of the army, contrary to the
laws of war.

8. From the same supreme necessity martial law is hereby declared
as a supplemental code, in and about all cities, towns, camps, posts,
hospitals, and other places, which may bo occupied by any part of the
forces of the United States in Mexico, and in and about all columns,
escorts, convoys, guards, and detachments of tho said forces, while en-
gaged in prosecuting tho existing war in and against the said republic,
and while remaining within the same.

0. Accordingly every crime enumerated in paragraph No. 2 above,
whether committed: 1. By any inhabitant of Mexico, sojourn, r or
traveller therein, upon the person or property of any individual of the
forces, retainer, or follower ot tho same ; 2. By any in-
dividual of the said forces, retainer or follower of the same, upon tho
person or property of any inhabitant of Mexico, sojourner or traveller
therein; or 3. By any individual of tho said forces, retainer r fnllower
of tin* same, upon tho person or property of any other individual of the
: >rccs, retainer or follower of the same, shall be duly tried and
!u-d under the said supplemental <

10. For this purpose it is ordered that nil offenders in the matters
aforesaid shall bo promptly seized, confined, and reported f..r trial, be-
fore Military Commissions, to be duly appointed, as follows :

1 1. K\.-ry military commission, under this order, will be appointed,
governed, and limited, as nearly as practicable, as prescribed by tin*
05th, 60th, 07th, and 97th of tho said Rules and Arti.-l, s . f \V.

the proceedings of such commissions will be duly recorded in writing,

wed, revised, disapproved or approved, and the sentences exe.
all, as near as may be, as in the cases of the proceedings and sentences

LAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 385

of courts-martial, provided, that no military commission shall try any
case clearly cognizable by any courts-martial, and provided, also, that
no sentence of a military commission shall be put in execution against
any individual belonging to this army, which may not be, according to
the nature and degree of the offence, as established by evidence, in con-
formity with known punishments, in like cases, in some one of the
States of the United States of America.

12. The sale, waste, or loss of ammunition, horses, arms, clothing,
or accoutrements, by soldiers, is punishable under the 37th and 88th
Articles of War. Any Mexican, or resident, or traveller in Mexico, who
shall purchase of an American soldier either horse, horse-equipments,
arms, ammunition, accoutrements, or clothing, shall be tried and se-
verely punished by a military commission, as above.

13. The administration of justice, both in civil and criminal matters,
through the ordinary courts of the country, shall nowhere, and in no
degree, be interrupted by any officer or soldier of the American forces,
except, 1. In cases to which an officer, soldier, agent, servant, or fol-
lower of the American army may be a party ; and 2. In political cases,
that is, prosecutions against other individuals on the allegations that
they have given friendly information, aid, or assistance, to the Ameri-
can forces.

14. For the ease and safety of both parties in all cities and towns
occupied by the American army, a Mexican police shall be established
and duly harmonized with the military police of the said forces.

15. This splendjd capital its churches and religious worship; its
convents and monasteries ; its inhabitants and property, are, moreover,
placed under the special safeguard of the faith and honor of the Ameri-
can army.

16. In consideration of the foregoing protection, a contribution of
$150,000 is imposed on this capital, to be paid in four weekly instal-
ments of thirty-seven thousand five hundred dollars ($37,500) each, be-
ginning on Monday next, the 20th instant, and terminating on Monday
the llth of October.

17. The Ayuntamiento, or corporate authority of the city, is specially
charged with the collection and payment of the several instalments.

18. Of the whole contribution to be paid over to this army, twenty
thousand dollars shall be appropriated to the purchase of extra comforts
for the wounded and sick in hospital ; ninety thousand dollars ($90,000)
to the purchase of blankets and shoes for gratuitous distribution among
the rank and file of the army, and forty thousand dollars ($40,000) re-
served for other necessary military purposes.

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Uw.

19. This order will be read at the head of every company of the
United States' forces serving in M \ , and translated into Sj.ai.i
the information of Mexicans.

LAW, (MILITARY.) Under tho Constitution of the United States, Con-
gress is intrusted \\ itli tlio creation, government, regulation, and support
of armies ; and) all laws passed by Congress for those purposes aiv mili-
tarv laws. Congress, being also invested with powrr " to make all laws
which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution tho
foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in
tho Government of the United States, or in any department or officer
>f," is supreme in nil military matters. The office of commander-
in-chief, intrusted by the constitution to the President, mi:
functions first defined by Congress. Such military powers only as
Congress confers upon him can be exercised. Excepting tint, li.-in^
the commander-in-chicf under tho constitution, he of cours
all authority that Congress may delegate to any military commander
whatever, by reason of the axiom that the power of the greater includes
that of the less.

Many of the functions, thus devolved by tho constitution on Con-
gress, in most governments belong to tho executive. The king of
Great Britain makes rules and articles for the government of armies
raised by him with the consent of parliament. Congress, \\ith i;
raises and governs armies. An army raised in Great Britain is tho
king's army ; with us it is tho army of the United States, i
essential distinctions should cause Congress to give more of it-
tion to the army. It should be borne in mind tliat our rules f,.r the
government of the army have been borrowed almost entirely fn-in
Great Britain ; that the relation of tho army to tho people is in the two
countries entirely distinct ; therefore, that rules adapted to .n arist-
L'veniment may not be entirely suited to democrat ie f..nn*.
(See ACADEMY, (Military ;) ACCOUNTS; ACCOUNTAHILITV, (Sytttmof;)
ADMINISTRATION, and references; A u.ow A NOES ; APPOINTING POWER;
APPROPRIATIONS; ARDENT SPIRITS; ARREARS OF PAY ; ARMOUH
ARSENALS; ARMY; ARMY, (Regular;) ARMY REGULATIONS ; AR1TOLH
OF WAR, and references under that head ; A \filittiry , )

TORS; Arnioum, (Civil;) BILLET; BOOTY; BONDS; BOUNTY; BRE-
VET; BRIGADE; CADET; CALLING FORTH Mum.v. ( AITM
CLOTHING; COLONEL; COMMISSION; CONGRESS; CON> ; CON-

SCRIPTION; CONTRACTS; CORPOREAL PUNISHMENT; CORPS; Cot >
ADMINISTRATION; COURT-MARTIAL, and - under that head;

COURTS OF INQUIRY ; CUSTOM OF WAR ; DAMAGE ; DEBT ; DEFAULTERS ;

LEV.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 337

DEFENCE, (National;) DEPARTMENT; DEPARTMENT OF WAR ; DEPOT;
DETACHMENT ; DISBURSING OFFICERS ; DISCHARGE ; DISCIPLINE ; DIS-
MISSION ; DIVISION ; DRAGOONS ; EMOLUMENTS ; ENGINEER CORPS ; EN-
GINEERS, (Topographical;) ENLISTMENTS; EVIDENCE; EXECUTION OF
LAWS ; EXEMPTS FROM MILITIA DUTY ; EXTRA EXPENSES ; EXTRA
ALLOWANCES ; FATIGUE DUTY ; FIELD OFFICERS ; FLAG ; FORAGE
MASTER ; GARRISON ; GENERAL ; GENERAL OFFICERS ; GOVERNMENT, and
references under that head ; INDEMNIFICATION ; INDIAN ; INSURRECTION ;
JURISDICTION ; LAW ; LAW, (Martial ;) LINE ; LOSSES ; MARINE CORPS ;
MARSHALS ; MAY ; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; MESS ; MILEAGE ; MILI-
TIA ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OFFICER ; ORDERS ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT ;
ORDNANCE SERGEANT ; PAY ; PAY DEPARTMENT ; PAYMASTER-GENERAL ;
PENSION ; PONTOON ; POST ; POSSE COMITATUS ; PRESIDENT ; PRIZE
MONEY ; PROMOTION ; PURCHASING ; QUARTERS ; QUARTERMASTER'S DE-
PARTMENT ; RAISE, and references under that head ; RANK ; RATION ;
RECRUITING ; REDRESSING WRONGS ; REGIMENT ; REGULATIONS, and
references under that head ; REPRIEVE ; RETAINERS ; RETURNS ; RE-
VISION ; SALE ; SAPPERS ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SERVANTS ; SERVICE,
and references under that head; STAFF; STANDARDS; STORES; STORE-
KEEPERS ; STRIPES ; SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT ; SUIT ; SUPERINTENDENT ;
SUPERNUMERARIES ; SUTLERS ; TRADE ; TRANSFERS ; TRAVELLING AL-
LOWANCES ; UNIFORM ; VICTUALS ; VICE-PRESIDENT ; VOLUNTEERS ;
WAGON-MASTERS ; WAR ; WARRANT ; WASTE OR SPOIL ; WHIPPING ;
WILLS, (Nuncupative;) WITNESS; WIDOWS AND ORPHANS; WOMEN;
WORSHIP ; WOUNDS ; WRONGS.)

LEAD BALLS are now generally made by compression, by
means of machinery, either at arsenals or at private establishments.
LEAVE. (See ABSENCE.) *

LEGION. A variable number of men in the Roman army, from
four to six thousand, but which always retained its distinctive charac-
teristic of combining all the elements of a separate army. (Consult
BARDIN, Dictionnaire de VArmee de Terre, and ARNOLD'S &ome for a full
account of the Roman legion.)

LEVER. The effective arm of a lever is the perpendicular distance
from the fulcrum to the line of direction of the power or weight. The
power is to the weight inversely as the effective arms of the lever :

P D = w d

The pressure on the fulcrum is the resultant of the power and weight.
The common balance is a simple lever, the arms of which are equal.
If the balance is not accurate, the true weight of a body may be found

388 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Li*.

by placing the body in one scale and counterpoising it by any weight*
in the opposite scale ; thru n-inove the body and replace it by known
weights until the equilibrium is again restored. The sum of the latter
weights will be the weight of the body ; (Ordnance Manual.)

LIEUT 1 ! \ A \ T. Rank next below captain.

LIE I T I ! N ANT-COLONEL. Rank next below colonel, and above
major.

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL. Rank above major-general. Cre-
ated by Act May 28, 1798. Revived by brevet by Act Feb. 15, 1855.
To expire with present incumbent. Appoints in time of peace i
ceeding two aides and one secretary with rank, pay, and emoluments of
lieutenant-colonel. In war, entitled to four aides nnd two secretaries.

LIFTING JACK. A geared screw-jack, for lifting heavy \v, 5-jhts,
used in mechanical manoeuvres of heavy artillery, (gpnsult Instruction
for Heavy Artillery.)

LIGHT BALL. A projectile of an oval shape formed of sacks
of canvas filled with a combustible composition, which emits a bright
flame. Used to light up our own works.

LIGHT INFANTRY. (See INFANTRY.)

LIMBER. The forepart of a travelling gun carriage to which tho
horses are attached. The same limber is used for all field-carriages. It
has two wheels and carries the same ammunition chest as tho caisson.

LINCHPINS prevent the wheel from sliding off the axle-tree.

LINE. President Fillmoro in general orders, No. 51 of 1851, has
given the following satisfactory exposition of tho use of the word line
in our statute book : The 02d Article of War provides that " If, upon
marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall hap-
pen to join, or do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the lino
of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or
in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders f..r what is need-
ful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President
of the United States, according to tho nature of the case." The inter-
pretation of this act has long been a subject of controversy. The
difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of tho words
"line of the army," which, neither in the English service, (fn.in which
most of our military terms are borrowed,) nor in our own, have a well-
defined and invariable meaning. By sonic they are understood to des-
ignate the regular army as distinguished from the militia: ly others,
as meant to discriminate between officers by ordinary commissions and
those by brevet; nnd, finally, by others, i designate all officers not be-
longing to the staff. The question is certainly not without difficulty,

LIN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 38C

and it is surprising that Congress should not long since have settled, by
some explanatory law, a question which has been so fruitful a source
of controversy and embarrassment in the service. The President has
maturely considered the question, and finds himself compelled to differ
from some for whose opinions he entertains a very high respect. His
opinion is, that, although these words may sometimes be used in a
different sense, (to be determined by the context and subject-matter,) in
the 62d Article of War, they are used to designate those officers of the
army who do not belong to the staff, in contradistinction to those who
do, and that the article intended, in the case contemplated by it, to con-
fer the command exclusively on the former. The reasons which have
brought him to this conclusion are briefly these : 1st. It is a well-
settled rule of interpretation that in the construction of statutes, words
of doubtful or ambiguous meaning are to be understood in their usual
acceptation. Now it must be admitted that, in common parlance, both
in and out of the army, the words " line " and " staff" are generally
used as correlative terms. 2d. Another rule of construction is, that the
same word ought not to be understood, when it can be avoided, in two
different senses in different laws, on the same subject, and, especially,
in different parts of the same law. Now in another article (74) of this
same law, the words " line and staff of the army " are clearly used as
correlative and contradistinctive terms. The same remark applies to
almost every case in which the words " line " and " staff" occur in acts
of Congress. See

Act of 1813, sec. 4, Cross' Military Laws, p. 165 ;

1813, " 9, " 166;

1814, " 19, " 174;
1816, 10, " . 190;
1838, " 7, " 263;
1838, " 8, " 263;
1838, " 15, " 264;
1838, pars. 7 & 9, " 268;
1846, sec. 2, " 283 ;.
1846, " 7, " 286.'

There are many other instances in which the words are so employed,
but I have selected these as the most striking. On the other hand, I
find but one act of Congress in which the words " line of the army "
have been employed to designate the regular army in contradistinction
to the militia, and none in which they have been manifestly used as con-
tradistinctive of brevet. 3d. If Congress had meant by these words to
discriminate between officers of the regular army and those of the mili-

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [L..>

tia, or between officers by brevet and by ordinary commission, it is to be
presumed that they would have employed those terms, respectively,
whkh ore unequivocal, and are usually employed to express those
ideas. 4th. If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no
reasons of expediency which compel us to depart from the plain and
ordinary import of the terms : on the contrary, we may suppose strong
reasons why it may have been deemed proper, in the case referred to
by the article, to exclude officers of the staff from command. In th
first place the command of troops might frequently interfere with their
appropriate duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the
ser v ire. In the next place, the officers of some of the staff corps are not
qualified by their habits and education for the command of troops, and
alhough others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that, (by laws
passed long subsequently to the article in question) tho officers of the
corps to which they belong, are required to be appointed from the line
of the army. Lastly, officers of tho staff corps seldom have troops of
their own corps serving under their command, and if tho words " officers
of the line" are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be
to give them command over the officers and men of all tho other corps,
when not a man of their own was present an anomaly always to bo
avoided where it is possible to do so. 5th. It is worthy of observation
that Article 25, of the first " rules and articles," enacted by Congress for
the government of the army, corresponds with Article 62 of the present
rules and articles, except that the words " of the line of the army " are
not contained in it. It is evident, therefore, that these words were in-
serted intentionally with a view to a change in tho law, and it is prob-
able that some inconvenience had arisen from conferring command in-
discriminately on officers of the line or tho staff, ami had suggested tho
necessity of this change. It is contended, however, that sec. 10, of the
act of 1795, enumerates the major-general and brigadier-general as
among the staff officers, and that this construction of the article would
exclude them from command, which would be an absurdity. No such
consequence would, however, follow. The article in question was ob-
yiously designed to meet the case (of not unfroquont occurrence) where
officers of different corps of the army meet together with no officer
among them who docs not belong exclusively to a corps. In such a
case, there being no common superior, in the absence of some express
provisi> ^conferring tho power, no ollieer, merely of a corps, would have
the right to command any corps but his own : to obviate this difficulty,
the article in eff. ct provides that, in such an event, the officer of the fine,
highest in rank, shall command tho rest. But if there be a major-

LIT.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

391

general or brigadier-general present, the case contemplated by tha
article does not exist. No question can arise as to the right of com-
mand, because the general officer, not belonging to any particular corps,
takes the command by virtue of the general rule which assigns the com-
mand to the officer highest in rank. (See RANK ; COMMAND ; BUEVET.)

LINE OF DEFENCE is the line which extends from the angle
of the polygon or extremity of the exterior side, through the inner end
of the perpendicular, to the flank, of the bastion.

LINE OF LEAST KESISTANCE (THE) is that which is sup-
posed to extend, from the centre of the charge of a mine, to the nearest
surface of the ground.

LINES. A connected series of field-works, whether continuous or
at intervals.

LINES AT INTERVALS are lines composed of separate field-
works, so arranged as to flank and defend one another.

LINES CREMAILLERE are composed of alternate short and
long faces, at right angles to each other.

LINES OF BASTION as the name indicates, are formed of a
succession of bastion-shaped parapets, each consisting of two faces and
two flanks, connected together by a curtain.

LINES OF TENAILLES consist of parapets, forming a series
of salient and re-entering angles.

LINSTOCK. A pointed forked staff used for lighting fort fires;
the lower end pointed and shod with iron.

LITTER. If a man be wounded or sick, and has to be carried along
upon the shoulders of the others, make a litter for him in the Indian
fashion, (Fig. 148 ;) that is to say, cut two stout poles, each 8 feet long,

FIG. 148.

;j-j;> MILITARY DICTIONARY.

to make its two sides, and three other cross-bars of 2$ feet each, to be
lashed to them. Then, supi>orting this ladder-shaped framework over
the sick man as ho lies in his blanket, knot the blanket well up to it ;
and so carry him off. One cross-bar will bo just behind his head,
another in front of his feet; the middle one will cross his stomach, and
keep him from falling out; and there will remftin two short handles for
the carriers to lay hold on. The American Indians carry their wounded
companions by this contrivance after a fight, and in a hurried i
for wonderful dista:

LOAD. Command in infantry and artillery instruction. (Consult
Tactics of those arms.) In loading small arms the powder should
!1 shaken out of the paper, to prevent the formation of gas, which,
forcing the paper against the sides of the bore, prevents it from leaving
with the charge, and endangers the explosion of the next ehargo when
loading, from the lighted paper. There is no danger of heating the piece
by rapid firing so as to cause premature explosions, since long before it
reaches 600, the temperature at which gunpowder inflames, it is entirely
too hot to handle. In loading cannon the vent should always bo kept
carefully closed, while the loading is going on, especially when spong-
ing, to prevent the current of air from passing out and collecting there
pieces of thread, paper, &c., from the cartridge-bag, which would retain
fire in the gun, and cause premature explosion the next time the gun
was loaded. This precaution is the more necessary, when the sponge
fits the bore tight, and acts as a piston. The sponge should bo well
pressed down against the bottom of the bore, and turned, so as to leave
no remnant of the cartridge-bag. In mortars, where a sponge is seldom
used, or when it does not fit tightly, the stopping of tho vent is not
Decenary ; but it should always bo cleared out with the priming w ire
before tho powder is placed in. Mortar-shells should be letdown
gently so as not to bo forced into the chamber, or crush suddenly any
powder they may meet. The use of sabots is avoided when firing ^ <T
the heads of our own men. It may sometimes become necessary to lire
a shell from a mortar too largo for it ; in which case it is wedged in on
different sides with pieces of soft wood, and the space between it and
re filled in with earth.

LOCK < <r? ARMS.)

LODGEMENT. In a sioge lodgement signifies the occupation of a
position and the hasty formation of an entrenchment thereon to main-
tain it ftga : : Thus it is said the besiegers, having carried
thedemi-lu! n, effected a lodgement, or the besieged dcst:
the lodgements of the enemy. (See SIEGE.)

Loo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 393

LOGARITHM. The logarithm of a number is the exponent of
the power to which another given invariable number must be raised in
order to produce the first number. Thus in the common system of
logarithms in which the invariable number is 10, the logarithm of 1,000
is 3, because 10 raised to the third power is 1,000. In general, if
a*=y in which equation a is a given invariable number, then x is the
logarithm of y. All absolute numbers positive or negative, whole or
fractional, may be produced by raising an invariabe number to suitable
powers. This invariable number is called the base of the system of
logarithms : it may be any number whatever greater or less than unity ;
but having been once chosen, it must remain the same for the formation
of all numbers in the same system. Whatever number may be selected
for the base, the logarithm of the base is 1, and the logarithm of 1 is 0. In
fact if, in the equation a x =y, we make #1 we shall have a*=a, whence
by definition log. a=l ; and if we make #=0 we shall have a=l,
whence log. 1 =0. Thechief properties of logarithms are : that the log-
arithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logarithms of its factor ;
the logarithm* of a quotient is equal to the difference between the log-
arithm of the dividend and the logarithm of the divisor ; and the log-
arithm of the power of a number is equal to the product of the log-
arithm of the number by the exponent of the power ; and the logarithm
of any root of a number is equal to the logarithm of the number di-
vided by the index of the root. These properties of logarithms great-
ly facilitate arithmetical operations. For if multiplication is to be
effected, it is only necessary to take from the logarithmic tables the
logarithms of the factors, and then add them into one sum, which gives
the logarithm of the required product ; and on finding in the table the
number corresponding to this new logarithm, the product itself is ob-
tained. Multiplication is thus performed by simple addition. In like
manner division is performed by simple subtraction, and by means of
a table of logarithms numbers may be raised to any power by simple
multiplication, and the roots of numbers extracted by simple division.
(Consult BABBAGE, Logarithms of Numbers ; FARLEY'S Tables of Six-
Jigure Logarithms.}

LOGISTICS. Bardin considers the application of this word by
some writers as more ambitious than accurate. It is derived from Latin
LOGISTA, the administrator or intendant of the Roman armies. It is
properly that branch of the military art embracing all details for mov-
ing and supplying armies. It includes the operations of the ordnance,
quartermaster's, subsistence, medical, and pay departments. It also em-
braces the preparation and regulation of magazines, for opening a cam-

394 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [L<xx

paign, and all orders of march and other orders from the general-in-
chief relative to moving and supplying armies. Some writers l,a\r,
how. ided its signification to embrace STRATEGY.

LOOPHOLED GALLERIES are vaulted passages or case-

mates, usually placed behind the counterscarp revet nu-nt, ami behind
the gorges of detached works, having holes pierced through the walls, to
enable the defenders to bring a musketry fire from unseen positions,
upon the assailants in the ditch. Loopholes, however, are not coiiliin-1
to flralleries. In modern fortifications, the revetments, both scarp and
counterscarp, are very generally pierced for a musketry fire.

LOOPHOLES are apertures formed in a wall or stockade, that
through them a fire of musketry may be directed on the exterior ground.
LOSSES. In the British army there is a regular provision made
for indemnification for losses by fire ; by shipwreck ; iu action with the
enemy ; by capture at sea ; by destruction or capture of a public store-
house ; by the destruction of articles or horses, to prevent their falling
into the hands of the enemy, or to prevent the spreading of an infec-
tious disorder. In the United States it would seem just that C<>i
should establish some general rules regulating such matters. The. prin-
ciple of settling all such claims by special 1
tion cannot but bear hardly <>n a number f indi-
viduals, and also probably in the end imposes
greater burdens upon the treasury.

LUNETTES are redans having flanks paral-
lel to their capitals, as in Fig. 149. The fao
flanks may have any moderate extent, according
to the purpose for which they are intended ; 50
yards for the face, and 23 yards for the fl
would be a convenient size for many positions.
LYING OUT OF CAMP OR QUARTERS. Punishably a,
ing to the nature of the offence, by a court-martial ; (Aui. ;

MACHICOULIS. A projecting wooden pillcrv from the second
tory of a house to enable the assailed to fire down on their opponent*.

KAGAZIti i: CO VER of Rifle Musket, 1855. (See ARMS, Small.)
. XINES. Powder inaijaxincs miu'ht to secure an unob-
structed circulation of air undi-r the flooring as well as above. The
magazine should be opened and aired in dear dry weather ; the veil-
tilatora should be kept free ; and no shrubbery or trees should be al-
lowed to grow so near as to protect the building from the sun.

HAL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 395

All batteries of attack require magazines capable of holding ammu-
nition for daily consumption. Fig. 150 is a section of two strong splin-
ter-proof timbers, say 8 to 9 feet long, and
9 to 12 inches in breadth and thickness,
resting on sleepers, and giving an interior
space of about the dimensions seen in the
figure, covered with one or two tiers of
fascines, and over them 3 or 4 feet of
dung or stiff earth ; this simple construc-
tion would answer in many cases. By some persons it is considered
better to have two small magazines in a battery, made of very stout
mining cases, and constructed in the epaulements. Sir John Jones, in his
work on " Sieges," says : " Splinter-proof timbers for magazines were cut
12 feet in length, and from 8 to 10 inches in breadth and thickness, and
were placed against an epaulement, or parapet, at an angle making the
base equal to half the height. They were then covered with a tarpaulin,
extending well over the top of the epaulement upon which were laid one
or two rows of filled sand-bags, so as to prevent the possibility of the
tarpaulin being cut by splinters of shells. A second tarpaulin was usually
thrown over the exterior in rainy weather. On this construction, the
magazines were found to be perfectly dry, and sufficiently spacious, and
of the strength no doubt can remain, as the sand-bag covering was fre-
quently knocked off by large shells, and in no instance were the splinter-
proofs broken. The best situations for magazines are on the flanks of
the batteries. Nothing can be worse than to place them in rear of the
centre of a battery, as then every cartridge has to be carried along the
most exposed and dangerous part of the battery, and the number of
accidents and casualties which arise therefrom is very great indeed.
The artillery always preferred having two magazines formed, rather
than to have one exceeding 10 or 12 feet in length ; when two were
made, they were placed one on either flank, a situation which was found
to answer extremely well." (Consujt HYDE'S Fortification ; Ordnance
Manual.)

MAGISTRAL LINE in a plan, is that which regulates the form
of the works. It is that which is first laid down, and from which the
other parts of the works are traced. (See CORDON.)

MAJOR. Rank between captain and lieutenant-colonel.

MAJOR-GENERAL. Rank between brigadier-general and lieu-
tenant-general.

MALARIA. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

MALINGERER. A soldier who feigns illness in order to avoid

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAK.

his duty. Any soldier, in the English army, convicted of malingering,
f.-L'n'mg or producing disease or infirmity, or of being detained in hos-
pital in consequence of materially injuring his health by his o\\
or intemperance, and thereby rendering himself unfit for the si :
or of absenting himself from an hospital whilst under medical treat -
ment ; or of being guilty of a gross violation of the rules of the hospi-
tal ; or of intentionally protracting his cure ; or of wilfully aggravating
his disease, is liable to be tried by a court-martial for " disgraceful
conduct," and to suffer the punishments attached to that crime.

MANOEUVRE. ' For prescribed manoeuvres consult Cavalry Tac-
tics ; Infantry Tactics; Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics; Instruction
for Field Artillery, horse and foot ; and Instruction for Heavy Artil-
lery, embracing Mechanical Manoeuvres.

The word manoeuvre signifies also movements of entire corps in
war executed with general views; and by some writers it is confine. I
to that signification, and the word evolution is made to designate tin-
particular means, or the elements of manoeuvres ; (.TAIJKO.) Maim-u-
vrcs, according to Bardin, are operations in war whether really l>< fore
an enemy, or simulated on a field of exercise. Their precision and
aptness depend upon the skill of the general ; the intelligence of his
aides-de-camp ; upon the chiefs of battalions and their adjutants, and
the general guides. Evolutions and manoeuvres are, however, often ap-
plied in the same sense, and indeed it may well bo questioned whether
there beany propriety in retaining in books of instruction evolutions
which are not used as manoeuvres against an enemy.

Manoeuvres of Infantry in battle. The vicious idea that t .
evolutions are not used in war is by no means uncommon, nnd 1
quently caused the loss of battles. It is true that the number of ma-
noeuvres used in combats is limited, and that those which are needed can
only be judiciously applied by keeping in view moral i%d physieal re-
quirements. The judicious tactician will, then -fore, in war s< In \\ : de-
pi. >\ nieiiN, which cause the soldier to turn his back towards an enemy ;
countermarches; forming a battalion on the right or left, by file into
;id some other movements suited only to parades. One of the
most hazardous manoeuvres is the formation of columns of great depth
and deploying those columns when too near the enemy. "Without giv-
ing names or places, (says Marshal Bugcaud.) I affirm that I have seen
ire division in column of regiments, which bepm its deployment
within range of the enemy's guns, routed before it finished its ma-
noeuvre.

The column is an order of march and manoeuvre, rarely an order of

MAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 397

battle. When beyond the range of cannon, and at a distance from the
line of battle to be occupied, if the enemy approach and time permits,
it is necessary to close in mass, in order to hold the troops in hand for
all possible dispositions.

So, in marches near the enemy the columns should march at half
distance, when roads permit, in order that they may be less elon-
gated, and all the troops be ready to act promptly. If surprised in
this order by the necessity of forming immediately forward into line
of battle, or, if without being under this pressing necessity, there is be-
tween us and the enemy ground admitting an easy march in line of
battle, the column ought to execute forward into line, according to the
principles of the tactics. This movement is more prompt and greatly
better than closing column in mass, in order to deploy afterwards. In the
first case troops only pass over one side of the triangle, whilst by mass-
ing the column to deploy afterwards, they must pass over two sides by
a complicated manoeuvre, which is dangerous from the beginning. In
general, it is necessary to shun as much as possible the deployment of
great massed columns, for this movement is badly executed even in
exercises. It can only be performed far from the enemy, and it is even
there inconvenient. It should be renounced in all formations whose
object is to take the enemy in flank or reverse, if he be sufficiently neai
to take measures to prevent success. In that case, the formation of the
close columns in mass upon the right or left into line of battle is a
necessary manoeuvre. This movement, as Marshal Bugeaud suggests,
is most important in war; (Fig. 151.) It would have an influence
upon battles by the simplicity and rapidity of its execution, and
accidents of ground would often be found to conceal the movement
from the enemy. It admits of an attack in echelons of battalions
against an enemy being commenced as soon as one battalion or the
half of a battalion has formed on the right or on the left of the line of
the enemy. It also offers the advantage of giving to the line, with the
greatest facility, every form that may be wished, and protecting the suc-
cessive formations by a mass that may be disposed of at pleasure,
whether at the extremity of the line to form square against cavalry, or
to occupy in advance upon the right or left a commanding position, pro-
tecting the flanks of our line. When circumstances, then, compel a
march in heavy mass, it is better to present to the enemy a flank of
columns, in order to deploy them b/ formations on the right or on the
left into line of battle.

When a line has to pass over a great distance, it is commonly formed
into columns of attack. The formation by company in column, in rear of

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[MAN-.

the grenadiers of each battalion, is preferred by Marshal Rugeaud, because
it is thus easier to make good dispositions against cavalry. TV
adiors of each battalion make a half wheel, and each battalion, after

Fio. 151.

being closed in mass, forms square. But neither the column by com-
j-anii-s or divisions ought to bo used within range of cannon, wli-
there is a possibility of marching in line of battle. It is time that tho
fact should be admitted, that although the moral effect of tho column
may bo considerable, yet this may 1>c j-araly/. <\ by a little nianu-u-
vring on the part of the enemy's line, which would necessarily obtain
great advantage from the superiority of its fire. Small columns, at

i's of three battalions from C.H li other marching '"i<ii
the line, may render <_\->'nt scr\ i*-r->. Tlu-v would lie ready promptly
to fill th" h-.lcK imide in the lin<> of battle, and the best means of doing
this would bo to take the enemy in flank \sho had pi.-r-ed them, when-
ould. It i-; flesirablc. that the-e ci.luiuns should each not
exceed a half battalion, and bo commanded by < neriretic of]'.

The depth of the column adds nothing to the stmujtji of ihr first
battalion composing it, and diminishes tint of (fie mass. It is, thru,
vicious to employ more than one battali in the small number

MAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 39&

of cases where it is necessary to fight in mass, as in carrying a bridge,
a defile, an entrenchment, a breach, &c. The other battalions ought to
follow at such a distance that they may sustain the attacking battalion
without sharing in its disaster or rout, if such should take place. With
an interval the chiefs of battalions have time to prepare their troops,
and make necessary dispositions ; with a single mass the disorder at
the head of the column is communicated to the rear almost as readily
as an electric spark.

Flank marches, in presence of the enemy, ought always to be made
in open column. In this order we are always ready to fight by a sim-
ple wheel of each subdivision of the column. Nothing is deranged in
the order of battle, whatever may be the strength and number of the
lines. Without derangement an excellent disposition may also be
made against cavalry. The column will be halted, and each battalion
will be closed in mass upon its grenadiers, who make a half wheel. The
field-officers, staff, and the officers of grenadiers will be previously warned.
Each battalion will form then Marshal Bugeaud's square. The first
order will be resumed by taking distances by the head of each battal-
ion ; the grenadiers retaking their direction at once.

If deep columns are condemned as an order of attack, those barba-
rous columns employed in some of the last battles of Napoleon, and
particularly at Waterloo, ought to be condemned still more. That
column, which appeared to announce the decline of art, consisted in em-
ploying all the battalions of a division one behind the other, and thus
marching towards the enemy.

Every column has for its object to pass rapidly, and without con-
fusion, into the order of battle, to pass over lightly a given space, and
to make prompt dispositions against cavalry. The column against
which these remarks are made does nothing of that kind, and if it be
attacked upon its flanks, whether by cavalry or infantry, it cannot fail
to be destroyed.

Order of battle, march in line of battle, and changes of front. The
line of battle is the true order of battle. It is also the best order of
march when in range of cannon, and not exposed to cavalry. It is only
in this order that infantry can make use of its fire. If battalions con-
sist of 800 men they will, ih a formation of two ranks, be too much
extended for most chiefs of battalions. Two companies of each battal-
ion ought then to be formed as columns of reserve. The order in two
ranks is beyond question best suited, in oblique attacks, for that part of
the line not to be engaged ; and with rifle muskets now used the two-
rank formation will be found better for that part of the line which is to

400 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAM.

strike also. Even with old muskets the two-rank formation was used
by the British very successfully at Waterloo in squares against r..
The fire in two-rank formation is made with more order, n.
and is better aimed. The march in lino of battle ought to be employed
whenever the ground permits it, within 1,000 yards of the enemy. \\ V
lose then fewer nun by cannon, and even if it be desirable to approach
the enemy in column, (which is very rare, and should even then be in
columns of single battalions,) the march ought still to be in lino of
battle until within two hundred yards, and then the column of attack
ought to be formed while marching. Troops cannot be too much ex-
ercised in marching in lino of battle. This march is no more difficult
than the march of many heads of columns upon the same line, perhaps
even less so, for it is difficult to maintain between the columns the in-
tervals necessary for deployments.

Changes of front very near the enemy are rarely perpendicular.
The new front nearly always forms with the lino of battle an acuto
angle. In this case, it is necessary to guard against breaking the bat-
talions into column. It is better to use the changes of direction for the
line of battle prescribed by the tacties. The two pivot battalions may
bo thrown upon the new line by companies half faced to the right or
left. The other battalions ought to bo directed upon the now lino by
changes of direction which would least expose tin-in to artillery. If,
however, we have to guard against cavalry during tho execution of the
movement, it will bo better to break into column the battalions of the
leading wing. They will thus form tho stem of the battery, and would
rapidly make good dispositions against cavalry, as they would only bo
obliged to close in mass upon the grenadiers and form sqn.

Changes of front forward arc possible under fire, but changes of front
to the rear arc not so. I l>elievc, (says Marshal Bugeaud,) that tho loss
of one of our battles in Spain may, in great part, bo attributed to a
change of front in rear of tho left wing, which was attempted at
ment when warmly engaged. The movement rapidly degenerated into
a rout; and it could not be otherwise. There are no troops with
s.ill'i. lent sany-froiil and self-possession to make that movement under
the fire of ball and grape. To make the movement, it is necessary first
to stop tho enemy, and the means of doing that vary with circum-
stances, and the resources within our command. Charges of cavalry
above all if they thn-at.-n the Hanks of the enemy's line, would
the change of front to tho rear. If cavalry bo not at hand, there is no
better i :n to advance the. second line to the position that it is

desired that tho front should occupy after its change of front, and with-

MAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 401

draw the first line at a run, directing it to form the second line, passing
through the intervals of the battalions, now become the first line.

If a line is about coming up with the enemy at the moment of re-
ceiving the order to change front, it would be better to finish the charge,
by putting the first line of the enemy in rout before executing the
movement to the rear. This last principle is applicable to retreats
generally : it is often necessary to overthrow an enemy who is too nigh
before retiring.

Running movements may, in many cases, save us from destruction.
It is necessary, then, to exercise troops in such movements, and make
them run in disorder, and re-form at some given point.

Echelons. The order in echelons is the manosuvre of oblique at-
tacks. By that means we approximate those troops only who are to
fight. The remainder are at once threatening and defensive. They
hold in check one or many parts of the order of battle of the enemy,
and present the best possible protection to the attacking portion. Some
echelons to the right and left of that which attacks, are greatly better
than any other support. They render, if not impossible, at least very
difficult, an attack upon the flank of the attacking portion, as that cannot
be assailed without the enemy in turn being taken in flank by echelons.
And the latter cannot be turned, except by strong movements, which
must weaken the army executing them, and also afford necessary time
to guard against them.

Instead of placing flank brigades in advance of the front of the col-
umns or lines that they protect, it is better to place them in rear. Be-
sides the physical advantages of this disposition, there are moral advan-
tages, inasmuch as the latter position enables the echelons to assail,
whereas, if they were immediately on the flank of the attack, they might
be assailed.

In theory, echelons are placed at regular distances. In practice,
the distance is determined by circumstances, and, above all, by the
formation of the ground. The regularity of echelons can, therefore,
only exist in broad plains. The greater or less distance between eche-
lons depends upon the number of troops, the distances between those
of the enemy, and the ulterior views of the general-in-chief ; but in gen-
eral they ought to be within mutual succor, and if cavalry is to be re-
pulsed, they ought to cross fire at about 150 paces after having formed
square. The different movements of echelons, the changes of front in
each echelon, with the same angle, are very useful in war ; it is neces-
sary, therefore, that troops should be exercised in such movements.
(See BATTLE ; CHARGE ; CONVOY; DEFILE ; INFANTRY ; SQUARES. Con-
26

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAX.

suit Apt r fits sur qiielqttts Details de la Guerre, par MARSHAL BUOKAUD ;
Tactile des Trots Armes, par DECKER.)

MANTLET is a musket-proof shield, which is sometimes used for
the pr of sappers or riflemen during the attack of a fortress.

(Sec PENETRATION.)

MANUAL. Exercise of arms ; books of reference, as Ordnance
Manual, I

M ARAUDING. (See PLUNDER and PILLAGE.)

MARCH. Recruits are taught to march by explaining the princi-
ples of the cadenced step in common, quick, and double-quick time. The
march in lino of battle is the m>st dim'cult and most important of the
.1 marches. A regiment which can pass over two hundred paces
in lino of battle without losing its allignment, is well instr
Marches may be divided into : marches in time of war ; man lies in
route, in time of peace; and tactical marches. Those in time of war
are either movements to pass over ground? or else mamruvivs t<> ob-
tain an advantageous position. When an army moves forward t
an enemy who is still very distant, it will be sufficient to have ad\
and rear guards, some flankers, and march in parallel columns over the
best routes, each column having its squadrons of cavalry, bai
tillery, and wagon trains. If the enemy is, however, in the neighbor-
hood, if we march along the front of his camp, or his lino of posts,
precaution must be redoubled to gain information of his movements
and guard against surprise.

When the march is only a manoeuvre, it is often made across fields ;
through by-roads ; then it is necessary to reconnoitre in advance, clear
away obstacles, and sometimes even construct little bridges ; guides are
taken, and information gained from them as well as by recofimiissunccs.
Armies are collected together by routes of march, the troops usually
marching about 17 miles a day. In general, the marches an- made by
battalions echeloned at intervals one day's distance from each other.
Cavalry ordinarily marches alone and follows the least direct roads, but
it is difficult to subsist a numerous cavalry without retarding military
kfaos. Artillery follows the cavalry, or if it has a large convoy,
it marches l,y another route alone. The troops begin to e.mcrntr
the base of operations. Still advancing, the echelons con verge, and the,
troops are cantoned together by lines <>iie day's march from each other.
The n< pproach the enemy, the more columns arc used ; if the

eountr;, ..ralli-l d-d., niches, it is always advant:r march

an army < orps on mnny routes, if they are within distance- f..r dej.Ioy-
, but if there is only one means of communication, the dii

MAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 403

arms are kept 200 yards distant from each other, and the cavalry-
marches in rear of the column.

On these marches, when a defile is to be passed, the successive pas-
sage of each echelon is commanded in advance ; and it is a general rule
never to crowd troops, so as to paralyze their action, or even render
movements difficult ; but care must be taken always to keep troops
within easy supporting distance of each other.

Sometimes an army is collected very near the enemy. It is neces-
sary then nicely to calculate distances, &c., in order to combine marches
for a simultaneous convergence of columns on the offensive point.* To
bring troops suddenly together, forced marches are made by some of
the troops ; relays and railways are also used. By forced marches the
ordinary day's march is doubled, but under extraordinary circumstances
62 miles have been made in 26 hours. Relays are the use of wagons,
&c., obtained by requisition. 250 wagons may carry from 2,000 to
2,300 men. Sometimes the march is made entirely in wagons, and each
echelon passes over three days' march in 8 hours. This is done by the
troops taking new wagons twice, the old returning empty for other troops.

It is but seldom that any one arm is exclusively employed when near
the enemy ; it is usual to operate with a combined force of cavalry,
infantry, and artillery, so that it may be always possible to employ one
or the other arm, according to circumstances and locality. If the main
body of the army is composed of the different arms, then the advanced
guard is similarly constituted, that it may be able to act in all localities.

The composition of such an advanced guard depends '

1st. Upon the object and nature of its intended operations. During
marches in pursuit, it is reinforced by cavalry ; but if it is to make an
obstinate resistance, it is strengthened with much infantry and artillery.
In general, light cavalry are the best for advanced guards, wherever the
nature of the ground permits them to operate, but infantry are neces-
sary to support them. Mounted rifles and mounted engineer troops are
of great service in advanced guards.

* To calculate exactly the time T necessary for the execution of a march : A column of in-
fantry will generally pass over about five miles in two hours, halts included. A column of cavalry
at a walk and trot alternately makes about six miles per hour. Let D then be the distance to be
accomplished, d the distance that the men comprising the column pass over in an hour, halts in-
cluded; I the length of the column ; o the delay caused by obstacles; then t= - will be the

time that passes until the left arrives at its destination, and the formula T = t + o + D will give
the time sought. One of the elements of o is the lengthening I' of a column in a defile; it is

considered by introducing - into the formula; o is also the delay caused by marching across fields.
These elements may all be estimated and introduced into the formula.

404 MILITARY DICTION A KV.

2d. The composition of tho advanced guard depends also upon the.
localit ground is broken, much infantry is required ; if it is

open, much cavalry ; and, in general, light troops.

Tho order of march of an advanced guard depends principally upon
its compoMtion, tin- order of march of the main body, tin- h'calitv, vVe.
The main rule is, that it should never be too much divided, so that
there may always be a considerable force in hand to seek the ninny
more boldly, and detain him longer. Therefore, even when tin
body moves in several columns, tho principal part of the id*
guard marches on the main road, sending only small parties on the
others to watch the enemy and detach patrols as far as possible in all
directions. In an open, level country, tho cavalry marches at the head ;
in a broken country, there is only a small detachment of cavalry at tho
head, to furnish advanced detachments and patrols. An n<!
tachment of cavalry, which sends out patrols in front and on its flanks,
moves at the distance of a few miles in front of the advanced uanl.
Small detachments of cavalry move in a lino with it on the other '
also others on the flanks of the main advanced guard, to secure it
against being turned. All the front and flank detachments maintain
constant mutual communication by means of patrols, and thus pianl
tho whole space in front of the main body over a gr
But if the flank columns of the main body march at a gr.
from tho main road, followed by tho advanced guard, th. n, in addition
to this last, each flank column detaches a small advanced guard for its
own security.

If the advanced guard is composed of different arms, its distance
from tho main body depends not only upon its strength, but also on the
following circumstance's : 1. On its composition. Cavalry ma\ advance
much further than infantry. 2. Upon the locality. The more fully tho
nature of tho country secures tho advanced guard against being turned,
the further may it move from the main body. 3. Upon the obi

Prior to defensive combats in position, it is advantage

have the advanced guard as far from the main body as possible, in or-

socure time for making tho necessary arnu but. if the

main body i concentrated for a decisive attack upon the enemy,

it is sometimes well to be entirely without an advanced guard ; during

a pursuit, tho main body should follow tho advanced guard as closely

as possible. 4. Upon the order of march of tho main body. The

th.- tim.- needed by the main body to form in order >f battle, on

account of the intervals between tho columns, the nature of tho ground

between them, the length of tho columns, &c., so much further forward

MAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 405

should the advanced guard be pushed. In general, the distance of the
advanced guard from the head of the main body should be a little
greater than the interval between the outside columns of the main
body.

Fig. 152 gives an example of the arrangement of an advanced guard
composed of one brigade of light cavalry, 8 battalions of infantry, one
battalion of sappers, 6 pieces of horse artillery, and 12 pieces of foot
artillery ; the main body following in 3 columns.

Whatever slight changes may be made necessary by the nature of
the country, can easily be made with the aid of a map and the special
information obtained in other ways.

If the country is partially broken and obstructed, it is advantageous
to have four or five companies of infantry just behind the leading de-
tachment of cavalry to examine places that are difficult oridangerous
for the latter.

Upon the plains, the patrols are of cavalry ; in a mountainous re-
gion, of infantry. In the latter case, not only the advanced detachments
and patrols are of infantry, but also the head and rear of every column ;
the cavalry and artillery march in the middle, under the protection of
the infantry.

In passing through a village, the infantry enter it first, if there are
any with the advanced guard ; the cavalry either ride rapidly around
it, or, according to circumstances, halt a little before reaching the vil-
lage, and wait until the infantry have passed through.

The passage of important bridges, ravines, and defiles, should be
effected in the same manner, the infantry examining them. As soon as
the infantry have crossed and formed on the other side, the cavalry
send out patrols to a great distance to examine the ground in front be-
fore the main body of the advanced guard begins to cross.

The advanced guard having crossed rapidly, forms in front of the
passage, to cover the debouche of the main body. The distance of such
a position from the passage should be such that, in the event of being
attacked, the advanced guard may not be too quickly forced back upon
the main body while debouching, and that the latter may have ample
time to form without disorder.

Since attacks should be most expected when passing through defiles,
or when issuing from them, they should be traversed rapidly, and with
the most extended front possible, to prevent the column from stretching
out.

An advanced guard possessing a certain degree of independence,
without neglecting any of the precautions here laid down, should not be

400

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[MA*

Fto. 153.

MARCH OF AX ADYAHCED GUARD COMPOSED OP 1 BRIGADE OP CAVALRY. ( COMPANIES,)

a DIVISIONS OP MFA.XTRY, (8 BATTALIONS.) i BATTALION op SAPPERS. PIECES
OP HORSE AND u OP POOT ARTILLERY.

MAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 401

too apprehensive, and, in examining the country, ought not to be de-
tained by objects which cannot conceal the enemy in sufficient force to
make him dangerous to the advanced guard.

In very mountainous regions, it is necessary to rely upon the infan-
try alone ; the cavalry and train remaining in rear, and not entering the
defiles until they have been occupied. Here the infantry patrols are
sent out as far as possible, and occupy the heights from which the direc-
tion of the columns may be seen, until relieved by the patrols of the
rear guard, which is also of infantry. In this manner the cavalry, which
the enemy would attack in such places in preference, is protected. Not
a gorge or defile should be left unexamind, for in the mountains an at-
tack may be expected at any moment.

In a wooded country, the commander of the advanced guard takes
nearly the same precautions as in the mountains.

If the forest is deep but not broad, detachments of cavalry ride along
the skirts, which are occupied by infantry skirmishers as supports ; if
the forest is dense, but not deep, the infantry lead. The infantry place
themselves along the skirts of the wood on both sides of the road ; the
cavalry then passes through at a fast trot, forms on the plain beyond,
and there awaits the rest of the column.

When the road passes through a country but little obstructed by
defiles, villages, or other obstacles to the movements of cavalry, and
there is no infantry with the advanced guard, mounted rifles are very
useful ; finally, the enemy, in retreating through such a country, leaves
infantry at these obstacles to arrest the pursuit of the cavalry, and de-
lay until the arrival of the infantry ; in such cases, mounted rifles or
dismounted dragoons will produce sure results by acting against the
enemy's infantry.

The main body. It remains to be said, in reference to this, that the
nature of the country must determine its order of march, whether cav-
alry or infantry are to lead. If the country is broken, particularly if it
is wooded, there is great danger in placing the cavalry at the head ; for
it may not only be unable to act, but, if forced to retreat, may carry
disorder into the infantry following.

The artillery should march in the midst of the other troops, but a
few pieces may move with the head of the column, to protect it in case
of meeting the enemy suddenly.

Infantry, in traversing extensive forests, in which parties of the
enemy may easily conceal themselves, replace the flank detachments and
patrols of cavalry. (Consult Aide Memoire d'Etat Major ; McCLEL-
LAN'S Military Companion.)

408 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

MARINE CORPS when serving with the army, to bo supplied

by tli- .iiWrs of the staff of the army ; (Act 1 >. . l.\ 1-1 I.)

The officers of the marine corps may be associated with the oili,-
the land forces for the purpose of holding courts-martial ami trying
l.-rs belonging to either ; and in such cases the orders of the senior
ofliccr of either corps, who may be present and duly authori/ed, shall be
received and ob-y-d ; (ART. 68.) The marine i-.. r ps shall at any time
bo liable to do duty in the forts and garrisons of the I nited States on
the sea-coast, or any other duty on shore, as the President, at his dis-
cretion, shall direct; (Act July 11, 1798.) The officers, non-commis-
sioned officers, privates, and musicians shall take the same oath and shall
bo governed by the same rules and artieK-s as an- prescribed for the
military establishment of the United States and by tin- ruK-s for the
regulation of the navy heretofore, or which shall be established by law,
according to the nature of the service in which they shall be employed,
and shall be entitled to the same allowance in case of wounds or dis-
abilities, according to their respective ranks, as are granted by the art.
to fix the military establishment of the United States ; (Act July 11,
1798.)

MARKER. Soldier who marks the direction of an allignmcnt or
piv-'t points.

MARKSMAN. Good shot; sharp-shooter. (See RIFLEMEN;
TARGET.)

MARSH POISONS. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

MARSHALS. The marshals of the several districts and their dep-
uties shall have the same powers in executing the laws of tin- Tinted
States, as sheriffs and their deputies, in the several States, have by law,
in executing the laws of the respective States; (Act Yob. 28, li '.'.".)
(See OBSTRUCTION OF LAWS ; POSSE COMITATUB.)

MARTELLO TOWERS are buildings of masonry, -, -nerally
circular,and of various dimensions. They are ch'u-tly placed on the sea-
coast, having a gun on their summit, mounted on a tra\ersinu r platform,
by which it can fire in any din < -tion.

MARTIAL LAW. (See LAW, Martin f.)

MASKED BATTERY is when tin- Lattery is to <-,,,, aled or
.sod, as not to be seen and recognized by the ciymy, until it opens
its !

M.\T'H. Slow match is made of hemp, flax, or pottOfl rope, with

.ds slightly twisted. Cotton n>p<- well twKtrd forms a

ii without any preparation, and burns 4 indies an hour.

Quick match is made of cotton yarn such as is used in candle -wiek,

MED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 409

which, after preparation described in the Ordnance Manual, is dredged
with meal powder. One yard burns in the open air 13 seconds. Quick
match inclosed in tubes burns more rapidly than in the open air, and
more so in proportion as the tubes are smaller.

MATTOCK. A pioneer tool, resembling a pick-axe, but having two
broad sharp edges instead of points.

MAY. To be permitted ; to be at liberty ; to have the power.
Whenever a statute directs the doing of a thing for the sake of justice or
the public good, the word may is the same as shall. For example, the
23 II. 6 says, the sheriff may take bail that is construed he shall, for
he is compellable to do so ; ( Carth., 293. Salic., 609. Skin., 370.) The
words shall and may, in general acts of the legislature or in private con-
stitutions, are to be construed imperatively, (3 Alk. t 166 ;) but the con-
struction of these words in a deed depends on circumstances ; (3 Alk.,
282, sec. 1 ; Vern. 152, Case 142; 9 Porter, R. 390.)

MEASURES. (See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.)

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. (See ARMY for its organization.)
No person can receive the appointment of assistant-surgeon until he
has been examined and approved by an army medical board of not less
than three surgeons or assistant-surgeons ; and no person can receive
the appointment of surgeon unless he shall have served five years as
asst.-surgeon, and also have been examined by an army medical board
constituted as above ; (Act June 30, 1834.) (See AMBULANCE ; LIT-
TER ; SURGERY.)

MEDICINE, RECIPES, &c., &c. An officer, unless he be a pro-
fessed physician, need not take a large assortment of drugs. He
wants a few powders, ready prepared ; which any physician will pre-
scribe for him, such as : 1. Emetic, mild ; 2. ditto, very powerful for
poison, (sulphate of zinc.) 3. Aperient, mild ; 4. ditto, powerful. 5.
Cordial for diarrhoea. 6. Quinine for ague. 7. Sudorific, (Dover's pow-
der.) It will save trouble if these be so prepared, that one measureful of
each shall be a full average dose for an adult ; and if the measure to
which they are adapted be cylindrical, and of such a size as just to admit
a common lead-pencil, and three-quarters of an inch long, it can at any
time be replaced by twisting up a paper-cartridge. In addition to the
above powders take cold cream ; heart-burn lozenges ; lint ; a small roll
of diachylon ; lunar-caustic, in a proper holder, to touch old sores with,
and for snake bites ; a scalpel and a blunt-pointed bistoury, to open ab-
scesses with, (the blades of these should be waxed, to keep them from rust;)
a good pair of forceps, to pull out thorns ; a couple of needles, to sew up
gashes ; waxed thread. A mild effervescing aperient is very convenient.

410 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ma

Seidlitz-powders are perhaps a little too strong for frequent u
tropical climate. The medicines should be kept in zinc pill-boxes, all
of the same dianuUr, with a few letters punched both on tin -ir tops and
bottoms, to indicate what they contain, as Emet., Astr., &c. ; and tho
pill-boxes should slip one above another into a long zinc box lined \vith
flannel, and lie there like sovereigns in a rouleau. The sulphate of zinc
may be invaluable as an eyewash ; for ophthalmia is a scourge in many
countries. Tho taste, which should be strongly astringent, is the best
guide to the strength of its solution.

For emetics, drink a charge of gunpowder in a tumblerful of warm
water or soap-suds, or even tickle the throat.

Vapor-baths are used in many countries, and the Russian plan of
making them is often tho most convenient. They heat stones in the
fire, and put them on the ground in the middle of their cabin or tent ;
on these they pour a little water and clouds of vapor are given off.
Elsewhere, branches are spread on hot wood-embers, and tho patient
placed on these, wrapped in a largo cloth ; water is then sprinkled on
the embers, which soon covers tho patient with a cloud of vapor. Tho
traveller who is chilled or over-worked, and has a quiet day before him,
would do well to practise this simple and pleasant remedy.

Ointment. Simple .cerate is equal parts of oil and wax ; lard and
wax will do.

Seidlitz-powders are made as follows :
U oz. Carbonate of Soda )
3 oz. Tartarizod Soda f For tho blue papers.

7 drachms Tartaric Acid For tho white papers.

These quantities make 12 sets.

DISEASES. Fevers of all kinds, diarrhoea, and rheumatism, aro tho
plagues that most afflict soldiers; ophthalmia often threatens them.
Change of air, from the flat country up into the hills, as soon as pos-i)>l.>
after the first violence of the illness is past, works wonders in hastening
and perfecting a cure. With a bad diarrhoea, take nothing but 1 troth,
and it may be rice, in very small quantities at a meal, until quite re-
vtored. Tho least piece of bread or meat causes an immediate relapse.

REMEDIES. A great discovery of modern days is the power of qui-
nine to keep off fever while travelling across a fever district. It is a
wid. ly-<- rroboratcd fart, that a residence on tho banks of the ri
in low land, is often less affected by malaria than tho low hills tha 1
look it. There are certain precautions which should lc borne in mind
in unhealthy seasons as, never to eneamp to tho leeward of a marsh ;
to sleep close in between largo fires, with a handkerchief gathered round

MED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 41 1

your face, (natural instinct will teach this ;) not to start off too early in
the morning ; to avoid unnecessary hunger, hardship, and exposure.

Drowning. A half-drowned man must be put to bed in dry, heated
clothes j hot stones, &c., to his feet ; his head must be raised moder-
ately. Human warmth is excellent, such as that of two strapping men
made to lie close up against him, one on each side. All rough treat-
ment is hurtful.

For Snake-bites, tie a string tight above the part, suck the wound,
and apply caustic as soon as you can. Or, for want of caustic,
cut away with a knife, and afterwards burn out with the end of
your iron-ramrod, heated as near a white heat as you can readily get
it. The arteries lie deep, and as much flesh may, without much danger,
be cut or burnt into, as the fingers can pinch up. The next step is to
use the utmost energy, and even cruelty, to prevent the patient's giving
way to that lethargy and drowsiness which is the usual effect of snake-
poison, and too often ends in death.

Broken Bones. It is extremely improbable that a man should die, in
consequence of a broken leg or arm, if the skin be uninjured ; but, if
the broken end forces its way through the flesh, the injury is a very
serious one. Abscesses form, the parts mortify, and the severest conse-
quences often follow. Hence, when a man breaks a bone, do not con-
vert a simple injury into a severe one, by carrying him carelessly. If
possible, move the encampment to the injured man, and not vice versa.
" "When a man has broken his leg, lay him on the other side, put the
broken limb exactly on the sound one, with a little straw between, and
tie the two legs together with handkerchiefs. Thus, the two legs will
move as one, and the broken bone will not hurt the flesh so much, nor
yet come through the skin ; " (DRUITT.)

Excessive Bleeding. When the blood does not pour or trickle in a
steady stream from a deep wound, but in pulses, and is of a bright-red
color, all the bandages in the world will not stop it. It is an artery
that is wounded ; and, unless there be some one -accessible who knows
how to take it up and tie it, burn deeply into the part, as you would for
a snake-bite ; or else pour boiling grease into the wound. It is, of
course, a barbarous treatment, and far from being sure of success, as
the cauterized artery may break out afresh ; still, life is in question,
and it is the only hope of saving it. After the cautery, the wounded
man's limb should be kept perfectly still, and well raised, and cool, until
the wound is nearly healed. A tourniquet, which will stop the blood
for a time, is made by tying a strong thong, string, or handkerchief,
firmly above the part, putting a stick through and screwing it tight.

412 MILITABY DICTIONARY. [Mtn.

If you know whereabouts the artery lies which it is the object to com-
press, put a stono over tin- place and under the handkcn -h'u -f. The

arteries follow pretty much the direction of the inner seams of
the coat sleeves and trousers.

To cvre blistered Feet. * Rub the feet at going to bed* with spirits

with tallow dropped from a candle into the palm of the hand ;
on the following morning no blister will e.\i>t. The spirits seem to
possess the healing power, the tallow serving only to keep the skin soft
and pliant. This is Captain Cochrane's advice, and the remedy was
used by him in his pedestrian tour ; " (MURRAY'S Handbook of Switzer-
land.) The receipt is excellent; all pedestrians and all teachers of
astics endorse it, and it cannot bo too widely known. To prevent

t from blistering, it is a good plan to soap the inside of the
stocking before setting out, making a good lather all over it ; and a raw
egg broken into a boot, before putting it on, greatly softens the leather.
Artrr some hours' walking, when the feet are beginning to be chafed,
take off the shoes, and change the stockings; putting what was the right
stocking on the left foot, and the left stocking on the ri^ht foot. Or, if
one foot only hurts, take off the boot, and turn the stocking Ihsido out.
Rarefied Air. On high plateaux or mountains, travellers must
suffer somewhat. The symptoms arc described by many South Ameri-
can travellers, where it is called the puna. The disorder is sometimes
fatal to stout plethoric people ; oddly enough, cats are unable to endure
it. At villages 13,000 feet above the sea, Dr. Tscudi says that they can-
not live. Numerous trials have been made, but the creatures die in fright-
ful convulsions. The symptoms of the puna are giddiness, dimness of
sight and hearing, hcadaelie, fainting-fits, blood f n nn mouth, <-\ -s, nose,
lips, and a feeling like sea-sickness. Nothing but time cures it. It begins
to be felt at from 12,000 to 13,000 feet above the sea. M. Hermann
Schlagintwcit whose large mountain experience in the Alps and in the
Himalaya, up to the height of 20,000 feet or more, is only paralleled
by that of his brother says that ho found the headache, &c., to
come on when there was a breeze, far more than at any other time.

.ole party would awake at the same moment, and begin to com-
plain of the symptoms, immediately on the comment -m- nt < I a 1
The symptoms of overwork are not wholly unlike those of the puna.

any young travellers who have felt the first, have ascribed them
to the second.

Snow-blindness. In ci vilized life blue spectacles are, as is well known,
an indispensable accompaniment to snow-mountain expeditions. The
Esquimaux adopt the following equivalent : They cut a piece of soft

MED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 413

wood to the curvature of the face. It is about two inches thick, and ex-
tends horizontally quite across both eyes, and rests on the nose, where a
notch is cut to act in the same way as the bridge of a pair of spectacles.
This is tied behind the ears. Next a long narrow slit, of the thickness
of a thin saw-cut, is made along its middle almost from end to end.
Through this slit the wearer can see very fairly. It is narrower than
the diameter of the pupil of his eye, and, consequently, the light that
reaches his retina is much diminished ifi quantity.

Scurvy. Any vegetable diet cures it : lime-juice, treacle, raw pota-
toes, and acid fruits are especially efficacious. Dr. Kane insists on the
value of meat, eaten entirely raw, as a certain anti-scorbutic. It is gen-
erally used by the Esquimaux.

Teeth. Tough diet tries the teeth so severely that a man about to
undergo it had much better pay a visit to a dentist before he leaves.

Suffering from Thirst. Pour water over the clothes of the man,
and keep them constantly wet ; restrain his drinking, after the first few
minutes, as strictly as you can summon heart to do it. In less severe
cases, drink water with a tea-spoon ; it will satisfy a parched palate as
much as if you gulped it down in tumblerfuls, and will disorder the
digestion much less.

Suffering from Hunger. Two or three mouthfuls every quarter of
an hour is, to a man in the last extremity, the best thing ; and strong
broth the best food.

Wasp and Scorpion-stings. The oil scraped out of a tobacco-pipe is
good ; should the scorpion be large, his sting must be treated like a
snake-bite.

Poisoning. The first thing is to give a powerful emetic, to throw
up whatever poison may still remain unabsorbed in the stomach. Use
soap-suds or gunpowder, if proper emetics are not at hand. If there
be violent pains and griping, or retchings, give plenty of water to make
the vomitings more easy. Nothing now remains to be done but to re-
sist the symptoms that are caused by the poison which was absorbed
before the emetic acted. Thus if the man's feet are cold and numbed,
put hot stones against them and wrap him up warmly. If he be drow-
sy, heavy, and stupid, give brandy, and try to rouse him. There is
nothing more to be done, save to avoid doing mischief.

Fleas." Italian flea-powder," sold in the East, is really efficacious.
It is made from the " Pire oti," (or flea-bean,) mentioned in CURZON'S
Armeniti, as growing in that country. It is powdered and sold as a
specific.

Vermin on the Person. " "We had now been travelling for nearly

414 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

six weeks, and still wore the same clothing we had assumed on our
departure. The incessant pricklings with which we were harassed,
sufficiently iiulicated that our attire was peopled with the filthy vermin
to which the Chinese and Tartars are familiarly accustomed, but wh'u-h,
with Europeans, are objects of horror and disgust. Before quitting
Tchagan-Kounn, we had bought in a chemist's shop a few sapeks'-worth
of mercury. We now made with it a prompt and specific rnm-.ly
against the lice. We had formerly got the receipt from some Chinese ;
and, as it may be useful to others, we think it right to describe it here.
You take half an ounce of mercury, which you mix with old tea-leaves
previously reduced to paste by mastication. To render this softer you
generally add saliva ; water could not have the same effect. You must
afterwards bruise and stir it awhile, so that the mercury may be divMcd
into little balls as fine as dust. (I presume that blue pill is a pretty
exact equivalent to this preparation.) You infuse this composition into
a string of cotton, loosely twisted, which yftu hang round the neck ; the
lice are sure to bite at the bait, and they thereupon as surely swell,
become red, and die forthwith. In China and in Tartary you have to re-
new this salutary necklace once a month ; " (Hue's Travels in Tarta-
ry.) GALTON'S Art of Travel.

MEMBERS. (See COURT-MARTIAL.)

MEMBERS, (SUPERNUMERARY.) In case supernumerary mem-
bers are detailed for a court-martial, they are sworn, and it is right that
they should sit and be present at all deliberations even when the court
is cleared, in order to be prepared to take the place of any absent mem-
ber. Until then they have no voice ; ( HOUGH.)

M I N T ACING WORDS. (See CONTEMPT.)

MENSURATION.

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE AND DATA.

Lines.

CIRCLK. Ratio of circumference to diameter, IT = 3.1 1 1 :>!>0r,r>36 =
ff f nearly.

Length of an arc = ; r being the radius of the circle, and a
loU

g c c

the number of degrees in the arc ; or, nearly = 5 ; c being the

chord of the arc, and c' the chord of half the arc, which is =

V i * + versine 1 .

Length of 1 degree = 0.0174533 ; radius being 1.
Length of 1 minute = 0.0002909.
Length of 1 tecond = 0.0000048.

MEN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 415

ELLIPSE. Circumference = \%% it *J $ (a a -j- 6 a ), nearly ; a and b
being the axes.

PARABOLA : Length of an arc, commencing at the vertex,

= -v/ f q _L. ^ i J , nearly ; a "being the abscissa, and b the ordinate.

\ 3 /

/$W7/#<?eS.

Triangle. Half the base X the height ; or half the product of

) ; or,

two sides X the sine of the included angle, ( a b ^ ) ; or,

^/ s (s a) (s 6) (s c) ; a, 6, c being the sides, and s =

Parallelogram. The base X the height.

Trapezoid. Half the sum of the parallel sides X the height.

Any Quadrilateral. Half the product of the diagonals X the sine
of their angle.

Any irregular plane figure bounded by curves. Divide the figure
into any even number of parts by parallel equidistant ordinates ; let a
be the sum of the first and last ordinates, b the sum of the even ordi-
nates, c that of the odd ones, except the first and last ; d the common
distance between them; then will the area = -| d (a -f- 46 -f 2c).
five ordinates will generally be found sufficient.

Circle. TT r 2 ; or diam. 8 x .7854 ; or, circum. 9 X .07958.

r a
Circular sector. ; a being the length of the arc in linear

measure.

Circular segment. The difference between the sector, and the

triangle formed by the cord and the radii ; or ; or nearly

= .4 v (c -J- +J J- c a + ^ 2 ) 5 c being the cord and v the versed sine.

Ellipse. .7854 a b ; a and b being the axes.

Parabola. % a b ; a being the abscissa, an(i b the double ordinate.

Right prism or cylinder. Curved surface = height X perimeter of base.

Right pyramid or cone. Half the slant height X perimeter of base.

Frustum of a right prism or cylinder. The perimeter of the base
multiplied by the distance from the centre of gravity of the upper sec-
tion to the base. If the prism or cylinder is oblique, multiply this
product by the sine of the angle of inclination.

Frustum of a right pyramid or cone. The slant height X half the
sum of the perimeters of the two ends.

Sphere. 4 TT r a ; or, diam. X circum. ; or, diam. 8 X 3.1416.

410

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Mw.

Spherical zone or segment. 2 IT r h ; or, tl. no or

segment multiplied by tlu> cireuiiil-reiuv <f tlu- sphere.

Circular spindle. Z v (r c a ^ r* | c*) ; a being the length
of the arc, and c its chord, or tho length of tho spindle.

s - 180
Spherical triangle^ v r* r^- ; * being tho sum of the three

angl.-s.

Any surface of revolution. % ir r I ; or, tho length of tho generating
element multiplied by tho circumference described by its centre of
gravity.

TABLE OF REGULAR POLYGONS.

No.oflda

Name.

Area.

Radius of clrcii MI-
Bcriblng circle.

Side of inscribed
polygon.

Triangle.

0.4330127

0.6773503

1.782051

Square.

1. 001)0000

0.7071068

1.414214

Pentagon.

1.7204774

0.8506508

1.175570

Hexagon.

2.5980762

.HUM,,, Ml

1.000000

Heptagon.

3.6339124

.1628824

0.867767

Octagon.

4.8284271

.8065628

0.765367

Nonagon.

6.1818242

.4619022

0.684040

Decagon.

7.6942088

.6180840

0.618034

Undecagon.

9.3656399

1.7747324

0.563465

Dodecagon.

11.191 1 . i:.ji

1.9318517

0.517638

The column of areas, in the foregoing table, gives the number by
which tho square of the side is to be multiplied, to find the area of the
polygon.

The next column gives the multiplier for the side of a polygon, to
find the radius of the circumscribing cin-le.

The last column gives the multiplier for tho radius of a circle, to
find the side of the inscribed polygon.

Solids.

Prism or cylinder. Area of base multiplied by tho height.
Pyramid or cone. Area of base multiplied by one-third of the
height.

ixtum of a pyramid or cone. \ h (B + b -f ^/ B 6) ; h being
the height ; B and 6 the areas of the two ends. Or, for a conic frustum :

\ h X .7854 X ^~ rf -j ; D and d being the diameters of tl.
ends.

Fnutum of a right triangular prism. Tho base X \ ( JI -f //'
+ 11 )

ittum of any right prism. Tho base multiplied by its distnn. >
from the centre of grayity of the section.

MEN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 417

Cylindrical segment, contained between the base and an oblique
plane passing through a diameter of the base : two-thirds of the height
multiplied by the great triangular section ; or, 1 r h* ; r being the
radius of the base, and h the area of the height.

4 TT r 3

Sphere. ; or, .5236 cP; r being the radius and d the di-

ameter.

Spherical segment. i7rA 9 (3r h) = -^- ; (36* -{- A 2 ) ; b being
the radius of the base, h the height of the segment, and r the radius of

the sphere : = 0.5236.
6

Spherical zone. * (3 B* + 3 6 a + A*) ; B, b being the radii of

the bases.

Spherical sector, i r X the surface of the segment or zone ; or, f
7T/- 8 h.

Ellipsoid. - ; a being the revolving diameter and b the axis

of revolution.

Paraboloid. Half the area of the base multiplied by the height.

Circular spindle. TT Q- c 3 2 s ^/ r* c 2 ) ; s being the area
of the revolving segment and c its chord.

Any solid of revolution. 2 TT r s ; or, the area of the generating
surface multiplied by the circumference described by its centre o.
gravity.

Any irregular solid, bounded by a curved sur? ace. Use the rule for
finding the area of an irregular plane figure, su instituting sections for
ordinates.

Cask gauging. 1. By the preceding rule :

The content of a 'cask = -|- I (d* + Z>' -f 4 M a ) ; / being the
length, d, D, the head and bung diameters, and M y a diameter midway
between them, all measured in the clear, inside ; ^j- 0.1309.

The same formula may be thus stated : % I (A + -\- C) ; I being
the length ; A and JB, the areas of the head and bung sections ; and (7,
that of the section midway between them.

2. Contends of a cask, nearly, = ^- I (2 Z> 9 + d 9 ) ; or, I X the area

of a circle whose diameter is ~

418 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [HER.

CENTRES OF GRAVITY.

Lines.

Circular are. At a distance from the centre =7- ; r being the
radius, c tho chord, and / the length of the arc.

Areas.

Triangle. On a line drawn from any angle to the middle of tho op-
posite side, at two-thirds of the distance from tho anglo to the s>i<l.-.
Trapezoid. On a lino a joining the middle points of the two par-

allel'sides, B, b ; distance from B =--( -^~
Semicircle. Distance from the centre = -

O IT

Circular segment. Distance from the centre = ; c being the

r. . 1

chord of the segment, and A its a;

2 t* c
Circular sector. Distance from tho centre = -rr-y ; c being the

chord, and I the length of tho arc.

Parabolic segment. Distance from the vertex = three-fifths of tho
abscissa.

Surface of a right cylinder, cone, or frustum of a cone. The centre
of gravity is at tho same distance from the base as that of the parallel-
ogram, triangle or trapezoid, which is a right section of the same.

Surface of a spherical zone or segment. At the middle of the height.

MERLON. The space of the parapet between two embrasures.

MESNE PROCESS. Any writ issued in the course of a suit bfr
tween the original process and execution. By this term is also m
the writ of proceedings in an action to summon or bring the defendant
into court, or compel him to appear or put in bail, and then t<> hear
and answer the plaintiff's claim. (See ARREST BY CIVIL Ai IIIOIUTT.)

M I-'.SS. The law is silent with regard to messes in the army. Ex-
ecutive regulations have been mado on the subject, luit without law it
is impossible to put messes on a proper footing. In England, an allow-
ance is granted by tho king in aid of the messes;
and every officer on appointment to a corps subscribes one month'-
to the mess fund. All the officers of the corps mess toother. In
France, the several grades mess separately; lieutenants and sub-lii-u-
tonants forming two tables; captains another, and field oftVers of different
grades generally eating separately also. Colonels and gen. ml officers of

MIL.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

419

the French service receive an allowance for table expenses, not sufficient
to keep open house, but enough to enable them to entertain guests.

MIASM, MIASMATA. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

MILEAGE. Travelling allowance or transportation of baggage.
(See TRAVELLING.)

MILITARY ACADEMY. (See ACADEMY.)

MILITARY LAWS. (See GOVERNMENT, LAW (MILITARY); REGU-
LATIONS.)

MILITIA.

GENERAL ABSTRACT OP THE MILITIA FORCE OF THE UNITED STATES, ACCORDING TO THE
LATEST RETURNS RECEIVED AT THE OFFICE OF THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL.

STATES AND TERRITORIES.

For what year.

General officers.

General staff officers.

8
5

Company officers.

Total commissioned officers.

Non-commissioned officers,
musicians, artificers, and
privates.

2,6-17
33,538
155,031
23,915
1,151
51,814
833,358
81,984
106,957
9,229
46,864
125,531
79,448
86,072
78.699
12,122
76,662
90,732
86,OS4
71,252
88.979
176,455
97,094
53,913
257,420
49,261

Maine

1854
1854
1856
1843

1854
1856

isr>5

1852
1854
1S27
1838
1854
1845
1856
1850
1845
1851
1856
1838
1840
1852
1845
1854
1S32
1855
1854

10
11
10
12
8
8
97

56
202
46
51
89
10
305

13
119
131
224
24
59
1,460

193
895
521
801
49
182
5,402

272
1,227
708
1,088
115
254
7,264

2,345
32,311
154,323
22,827
1,036
51,560
326,094

New Hampshire.