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MILITARY DICTIONARY:

COMPRISING

TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS;

INFORMATION

RAISING AND KEEPING TEOOPS ;
ACTUAL SERVICE,

INCLUDING

MAKESHIFTS A1STD IMPEOYED MAT&RIEL;

LAW, GOVERNMENT, REGULATION, AND ADMINISTRATION
RELATING TO LAND FORCES.

BY •

' »4

COLONEL IT. L. SCOTT,

\ \ m

INSPECTOR-GENERAL, U. S. • A.

NEW YORK :
D. YAET KOSTRAND, 192 BKOADWAY.

LONDON:
TRUBNER & CO.

1864.

KIT* BID, Moordlnf to Act of Congrw*. in the year 1SC1, l y

HENRY L. SCOTT,

In DM Clerk's Offlc« of the DUtrlct Court of tho fi ,:tr,l Ftatoi for the
Bouthero DUtrlct of New York.

PKINTID HT

PKEFACE.

A MILITARY dictionary which, with technical definitions, com-
prises information on actual service ; on law, government, regu-
lation, and administration ; on raising and keeping troops, and^
on makeshifts and improved materiel^ is much needed ; and the
design of the present work is in some measure to occupy that
gap in military literature.

In legal articles, plain decisions from constitutional ex-
ponents of law have been accepted as conclusive ; but wrhen
without such a guide, an endeavor has been made to set forth
the true intent and meaning of laws in dispute, by simple, clear,
and logical annotations. Much interesting law matter has been
abridged from Prendergast's Law relating to officers of the
army ; and in respect to courts-martial, actual service, improved
materiel, &c., &c., the author is indebted to many standard
authorities, sometimes only designated by name in different ar-
ticles ; but, in such cases, referred to fully by the titles of their
works in the list of abbreviations which follows this preface.

It is only deemed necessary to add, that the work was not
prepared in view of existing disturbances, but was begun some
years ago, and that the few additions made since it was put in
the hands of the publisher in January last, refer only to im-
provements in materiel.

TITLES OF WOBKS

REFERRED TO BY ABBREVIATIONS IN THE TEXT, AND EXPLANATIONS
OF OTHER ABBREVIATIONS USED.

Act. — Act of Congress of the United States. Reference embraces date of act.
Aide Memoire — to the military sciences framed from contributions of officers of

different services, and edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers

in Dublin.

Aide Memoire d'Artillerie— a 1'usage des Officiers d'Artillerie. Paris, 1855.
Art. — (Articles of War,) included in an act of Congress for establishing rules and

articles for the government of the armies of the United States, approved April

10, 1806. Reference embraces the number of the article.
BARDIN.— Dictionnaire de l'Arme"e de Terre, ou Recherches Historiques sur 1'Art et les

Usages Militaires des Anciens et des Modernes. Par le General Bardin, &c.

Ouvrage termine" sous la direction du General Oudinot de Reggio. 6,337 pp.

Paris, 1851.

BAUCHER. — Method of Horsemanship. Philadelphia, 1851.
BENTON. — Ordnance and Gunnery. By Capt. J. G. Benton, U. S. Ordnance.
BLACKSTONE. — Commentaries, with Notes. 4 vols. London, 1844.
BOTTVIER. — Law Dictionary adapted to the Constitution and Laws of the United

States. By John Bouvier. Philadelphia, 1839.
BRANDS; — Encyclopedia of Science, Literature, and Art.
BUGEAUD. — Apergus sur quelques Details de la Guerre. Par le Marshal Bugeaud.

Ibid. — Instructions Pratiques. Bugeaud.
BURNS. — Naval and Military English-and-French Technical Dictionary. By Lieut.-

Colonel Burns, Royal Artillery. London, 1852.
CAVALLI. — Memoire sur divers Perfectionnements Militaires. Par J. Cavalli, Colonel

d'Artillerie, &c., &c. Traduit de I'ltalien. Paris, 1856.
COUTURIER. — Dictionnaire Portatif et Raisonne. Par le General Le Couturier. Paris,

1825.
DE HART.— Courts-martial. By Captain W. C. De Hart, 2d U. S. Artillery.

ABBREYIATIONS, AND TITLES OP AUTHORITIES.

D* U IWUqw des Troto Amw : Infcnterie, Caralerie, Artillcric. Par C.
T, UML-GolOMl, *e., Ac.
D»r«U*— N'aral Gonoery. By Om. Sir Howard Douglas.

deTartiqae. Par le General Dufour.
r.-Dige* of Laws of the United Slate*.

Jr.— By oOeen of the Ordnance in Small-Arms. 1 «or,, (official.)
FAT*— Hbloirv eft Tactiqoe dM TroU Arrows et phi* Partk-i/.i; ivm.-i.t <!•• rArtilloric

d» CbnpafM. Par lid. Fare, Capiuinc d'Artillerie.

FoMLAXit •.— The Administration and Organization of the British Army, with es-
pecial inference to Supply and Finance. By Edward Harrington de Fonblanquc,
A«rt. ComlMaryGenermL London, 1858.

CAITWI.— The Art of TrareL By Francia Galton. London, 1860.
OlMOP.— The ArUUcrUf. Manual. By Copt. John Gibbon, 4th U. S. Artil!
0<»iO> TTItMl of Law» of the United States.

OVUIOT.— UfUaUoo et Administration Militairo, ou Programme Detailli des
IUttti«s Eoseignees a 1'Ecolc Impcriale de 1'Eiat Major. Par M. U»on GuU-

!*,*•.

HAltlOT. Btatfatiqoe llilitaire, ct Rrcherches sur 1'Orpranization dcs Armces £tran-
gerM. Par C. T. Hatllot, Chcf-d'Escadron d'Artilleric.

Dmst.— Ororf and Hctzel'a Military Laws of the Uuited States.

BOOOIL— Military Law Authorities. By Lieut-Colonel Hough, Deputy Judge-advo-
cate General, ic.

H TDK.— Elementary Principles of Fortification. By John Hyde, Professor Military

Jm.— Practical Treatise on Attack and Defence. By Colonel Jcbb, Royal

iBftoeera.

Jom jii.— Tableau Analitique.

Kt*o»»t RT — Artillrrr and Infantry. By Captain Kinpsbury, Ordnance Department.
U OtAiw.— DictkNinaire Miliuire Portatif. Par Lc Gmn-l.
MicoMa,— CoorUHnartial By Major-General Ma comb. New York, 1
McCtm AV— Military Commisrion in Europe. Report by Cajxain McClrllan,

V. a Army.

-Field Fortification*. By Professor Mahan, «U. 8. Military Academy.
M*TO and Morttoji.— Army and Nary Pension Laws. Washington, 1852.
J/.^riW— dea (Meiers d'Infanterie et de Caralrrir. Paris, 1846.
MtMSjciL— Digs* of Military Laws. By Major Mordecai, U. S. Army.
K*rotaov — MaxioM of War.

of Federal Courts.
r— The Law relating to Officers in the Armv. Hv H.-m is Prendcrgmst

of Uocol.'. Ion, Esq., Ihrrirtrr-at -U w.

de TOfflcicr d'Etat Major rn rampapno. Pnr M. Do
<TEut Major, Aidc^e^amp dc son Ex. le Marechal

ABBREVIATIONS, AND TITLES OF AUTHORITIES. 7

RUFFIN. — Manuel d'Administration et de Comptabilit6 a 1'usage des Ofliciers des
Compagnies ou Escadron dea Corps dlnfanterie et de Cavalerie. Par M.
Ruffin. »

SCOTT. — Orders and Correspondence of Gen. "Winfield Scott, Congressional Docu-
ments, &c.

SKINNER. — Youatt on the Horse. By Skinner.

VATTEL. — Law of Nations. Philadelphia, 1817.

WHEATON. — Elements of International Law. Philadelphia, 1846.

YOUATT. — Youatt on the Horse. By Skinner.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

ABANDONING A POST, OR MISBEHAVIOR BEFORE AN ENEMY. Pun-
ishable with death, or otherwise, as a court-martial shall direct ; (Art. 52.)

ABATIS (French) — are rows of felled trees deprived of their
smaller branches, the remainder sharpened to a point, and employed
for defence. Abatis should be placed so as not to be exposed to the
fire of artillery. In redoubts or intrenchments, they are usually fixed

FIG. 1.

in an upright position against the counterscarp, or at the foot of the
glacis, the plane of which is broken so as to conceal the abatis from
the view of the enemy, and to guard against obstructing the musketry
fire from the parapet in their rear.

FIG. 2.

Abatis are also an excellent means of blocking up a road, when

MILITARY DICTION A [lM

treeagrow on cither side. If branches arc pn.ju.rly placed, and inter-
twined one within another, their diM-s:-::. MI. lv di:'
An abali* will ttUu.- auxiliary
to thedefeifv • I" houses or Isolated posts, if jndieiously placed within
range of mu*k»t; . When close in front of tin- \\ind..\vs on tho
ground Boor, or used as a cover to the entnmee doo r. it \\ill bo ex-
ttwnely difficult fur the en ; int.. t!..- buil

ABSENCE, WITH LEAVE. -lonel «•'• "tlu-r o!nV,-r C..TH-

UHTC^ting a regiment, troop, or company, and actually iju::!-:. •:•.•.! \\ith

• >ughs to iimi-comm
numU*r»,an(l for so long a time, as ho shall ju.lj. tobemosl

»e pood of the service; and a captain or oth.-r inf»-r'..-r ..ilurr,
commanding a troop or company, or in :

of the United States, (his li r lu-inn ul.s.-nt.) may pvr furlouirlis

to non-commissioned officers or soldiers for a tinu- ;
days in six in->nth«. but not inure than two prrs. , . t<. I.,- ab« i;i at tlu-
Mine Ume, excepting some extraordinary occasion should require it ;

Hie law docs not specify by whom leaves < t may bo gi

to oommi»io?iotl officers, and tho omission has bcrn supprud 1>\ orders
of the Prc*id.

LEAVE, FROM CAMP, P.M: u

Punished, by sentence of a court-martial, according to tho nat
the V« 41, 42, 43, and 4 1.)

ABUSES AND DISORDERS. Every commnndir h dl

ksrpgofMl unli-r, and, to the utmost of his po\\ m all abn^.

disorders v l>e committed by any oflicor or soldier «'t'his r..m-

msnd. If, ii] MID r.. m plaint made to him of officers or soldiers b, •atin«rl
•or otherwise ill-treating, any person, of distnrbinjr fairs <T m.n-kots, or
ofeommittinjz any kinds of riots, t.. the dis.jui. th,- of il,. . f the

i .. i . ommmdi i- shall refoa« or on i t.. »M

Jttstlos done to the offend- r «-r offcn.lrrs and reparation ma V t<> tho
party or parties injn- i' th<- off nd. i •'* pay -hall (liable

him or them, he shall, upon proof th« r. of. be ra-hi. r>-<\. or «-t!
punijihrd. :rt-martial shall dis-

AC HM Military Aoadomy of th

located at West Point, N. ubjeet

to the rule* and art 1 !, , , n-

fWariotlsl ation of the i ..f the

^atri row. E.I- Mtativn

at the Military Am -it besides the number HO appointed, the

Ace.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. H

President of the United States annually appoints ten cadets from at
large. The Academy furnishes about forty graduates a year, who
receive commissions of the lowest grade in some one of the different
corps of the army, provided vacancies exist. If there be no vacancies,
the graduates are attached to different corps as supernumerary officers
of the lowest grade, not exceeding one to each company. The Military
Academy was founded by act of Congress in 1802. Its present high
reputation is mainly due to Colonel Sylvanus Thayer, who did not be-
come Superintendent until 1817.

At the breaking out of the war of 1812, there were about seventy
graduates of the Academy holding commissions, and but little knowledge
of the military art and of the science of war prevailed. At the breaking
out of the Mexican war, the officers of our army were mostly graduates
of the Academy. Every branch of the service was filled with men of
talent and military information ; volunteer corps raised during the
war sought and obtained as their commanders graduates of the Mili-
tary Academy. General officers from political life appointed staff* offi-
cers from the same class. In all positions which the graduates held
during that brilliant war, the honor and glory of the United States were
sustained, and the great usefulness of an institution, which annually costs
little, if any more than the maintenance of one frigate afloat, was satis-
factorily demonstrated to the people of the United States. (See SUPER-
INTENDENT.) Military Academies, modelled upon that at West Point,
have also been established within their respective limits by the States
of Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Alabama,
and perhaps others.

ACCOUNTS. Officers accountable for public money or property
render quarterly accounts to the Treasury Department, if resident in
the United States ; and every six months, if resident in a foreign coun-
try. Additional returns may be required by the Secretary of War,
if the public interest requires it; (Act Jan. 31, 1823.) Every officer
or agent offending against the foregoing provisions may be dismissed
by the President of the United States; (Act Jan. 31, 1823.) The
method of rendering accounts by Administrative Agents of the appli-
cation of all public money and material passing through their hands,
has been prescribed by regulations made pursuant to law. The object
of a system of accountability should be, in respect to the army, to
obtain plain statements of the operations and results of Military Ad-
ministration. The system should be neither complex nor cumbrous,
but should be adapted to a state of war ; and while carefully guarding
against losses to the Government, should, at the same time, by prompt

MILITARY DICTION ART. [Ace.

through government agents, present with armies in the
with accumulations of papers, which manifestly subject
Ire officers to great losses, evm if they were not frequently
yean before obtaining a settK •nu-nt of their accounts.

By the present system of accountability it is prescril« i : 1. That
all accounts whatever in which the United States arc • shall

be settled and adjusted in the Treasury Department ; (.!•

It is made the duty of the second and third auditors of the
Tliiasiiij. to receive and examine all military accounts ; to receive from
the second comptroller the aoo nuts \\hieh shall lu\e l-.-.-n finally ad-
justed; to preserve such accounts; to record all warrants drawn by
the SrcrcUry of War ; and moke siu-h rep< .rts on Hie business o>
to them as the Secretary of War may deem necessary. and remf.
the service of his Department ; ( Jr/Maivh 3, 1817.) 3. It is tho duty
of the second comptroller to examine all accounts settled by tin- -
and third auditors, and certify the balances ariMiiu' theivon to tho Seo-
reUry of War; to countersign all I«-«M! warrants drawn by th-
of War ; to report to &€ Secretary of War the official forms to be issued
w» the different offices for disbursing the public money, and (lie it
and form of k I staling the accounts of the persons employed

therein ; and it shall also bo tho Comptroller's duty to superintend
the preservation of tho public accounts subject to his n \
March 3,1

The great obv 'he simplification and prompt set t lenient of

army accounts interposed by law consist : 1. In tin- requirement that
military accounts shall be adjusted and settled at the Treasury I ). -part-
ment, instead of being settled by the \\ ar D.-partm.-nt. and n ;
to the Treasury ; 2. In making the second and third auditors and -
comptroller officers of the Treasury instead of officers of the War De-
partment ; 3. In authorizing the second romptr-.li. lish forms

for keeping and stating military account juiiin^ him iu

those matters to conform to th.- directions of tho Secretary of War ; and,
4. In withholding from the War Department the ; appointing

•gents to accompany armies in the field for the prompt settlem
account*. With the changes of law here suggested, it would i
the^ar Department, thr iri<>ns rjrad. s i" the leyera] admiiiis-

trative staff departments, to establish a simple syst- -untability

with requisite means of control and supervision, whieh would o]

to the povernment, ami to individual ajrenK. I'nder

••sent systeifk there in. and must b, . d.le similarity in tho

4uU0a of all grades of the staff ad 1 1 irtmeota (CJonsult

Ace.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Cours d' Administration, par VAUCHELLE, Tntendant Militaire ; Cours
d* Etudes sur /' Administration Militaire, par ODIER : Memorial des
Officiers d'lnfanterie et de Cavalerie, 1846.)

ACCOUTREMENTS. Black leather belts, &c., furnished by the
ordnance department.

PARTS.

Infantry.

Artillery.

Cavalry.

$cts.
1 10

$cts.

lets.

$cts.
95

Waist belt private's

Waist belt plate . . .

Sabre belt

1 03

1 35

Sword belt

1 00

Sword belt plate

Sword belt, non-commissioned officer's and musician's. . .
Sword belt plate do do.
Waist belt do. do.
Waist belt plate do. do.
Carbine cartridge box

62
10
37
60

10
37

Pistol do.

Holsters, with soft leather caps .*. *

2 63

Carbine sling

Carbine swivels

Bullet pouch.

Flask and pouch belt

Powder flask

1 20

Waist belt, sapper's, with frog for sword bayonet, $1.

Infantry accoutrements for 100 men, including non-commissioned
officers' shoulder-belts and plates, weigh 330 Ibs. ; rifle accoutrements
for 100 men, including non-commissioned officers' shoulder-belts and
plates, weigh 329 Ibs. ; 100 carbine slings and swivels, 110 Ibs. (See ARMS.)

Mr. Dingee's directions for reblacking Belts. — Brush them with a
hard brush, to clean the surface ; if they are very greasy, use a wire
scratch-brush. Then, with a soft brush or sponge, apply the following
mixture, viz. : one gallon soft water, two pounds extract of logwood,
half a pound of broken nutgalls, boiled until the logwood is dissolved.
When cold, add half a pint of the pyrolignite of iron — made by dis-
solving iron filings in pyroligneous acid, as much as the acid will take
up. The dye thus made should be well stirred, and then left to settle.
When clear, bottle it free fnom sediment, and keep it well corked for
use. Dye the belts in the shade ; then apply a little sperm or olive oil,
and rub well with a hard brush. Should any bad spots appear, scratch

, ! MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ADD.

op the surface with the wire brush, and wet two or three times with a
simple decoction of gmllnuts or sumach, and again apply the dye. Log-
wood is not essential, and a solution of copperas may be used instead
of the acetate of iron.

ADDRESS. An address to a court>marti:d, by cither party, must
be i: nsult J/ouph't Law Aut/torilitt.)

A KM 'T ANT, (Latin adjutor, aid.) An officer selected by the
colonel of the regiment from the subalterns. II.- communicates the
order* of the colonel, and has duties in respect to his regiment
Uated to those of an adjutant-general with an army.

A1UI I M.KAL. The principal organ of tin*, coin-

miffff* of an army in publishing orders. The same organ of the
commander of a division, brigade, geographical division, or department,
Is styled Assistant Adjutant-general. The la\\s ,.f the lUit. .1 B
however, provide for but one Adjutant-general with the rank of col-
onel, (made by regulations chief of a bureau of the War D* -par
and charged with the recruiting service. turns, &c.,) one As-

•btaot Adjutant-general with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and twelve
other assistants \u?h the rank of major ami captain. (Sec ARMY

OaOAXIXATlOX.)

The bureau duties of Adjutants-goneml and assistants are : puMi-hing
orders in writing; making up written instructions, ainl transmitting
them; reception of reports and returns; disposing of them ; forming
tables, showing the state and position of corps ; regulating details of
serrice; corresponding with the administrative departments relative
to the wants of troops; corresponding with the corps, detachments, or
individual officers serving under the orders of the same commander ;
.•• methodical arr.iie.'emcnt and < are of the ivcupls and papers of
htsoffice. Theacti\*e duti. s of Adjutants-Lreneral consist in .^taMisli-
i&g ramps; visiting guards and outposts; mustrrin^ and in-peeting
troops; inspecting guards and d ' i!, i ; forming j i lines

of battle; the conduct and control , ri and j.rl

nr^iiii/iMfrtnrrji ; and in general discharging such other active duties as

\L OF A STATE. (See MILITIA.)

AKH-'I lAL.DEPUTY.A.. An ad makm- further

proirWon for the army, nnd for other purp proved -Inly t»,

ides: Soc. 2, That to any army of the Vnit.-d States. ,,thor
than that in whi<-h tho ndj'/ -.il. inspect. .r-irenoral, fjnarter-

fnsster -general, and paymaster of the army, shall serve, it shall be
lawful for the President to appoint one deputy adjutant-gen, ral,

ADM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 15

one deputy inspector-general, one deputy quartermaster-general, and
one deputy paymaster-general, who shall be taken from the line of
the army, and who shall, each, in addition to his pay and other emol-
uments, be entitled to fifty dollars per month, which shall be in full
compensation for his extra services. And that there shall be, to
each of the foregoing deputies, such number of assistant deputies (not
exceeding three to each department) as the public service may require,
who shall in like manner be taken from the line, and who shall each be
entitled to thirty dollars per month, in addition to his pay and other
emoluments, which shall be in full compensation for his extra ser-
vices, &c.

ADMINISTRATION, ADMINISTRATIVE. These words are derived
from ministrare, administrare, to serve. Administration is a branch of
political economy j it is the action of administrative agents in executing
laws or regulations conformable to law. The aim of a system of ad-
ministration is to secure the performance of public duties, either di-
rectly, ministerially, or through the intervention of sub-agents. It is
exercised over individuals or things, in civil , matters, in courts of law,
in political bodies, in the army and in the navy, and in general in all
financial matters of government. Administration consists in estab-
lishing the ways and means of public receipts and expenditures ; in
watching over such employments ; in the collection, care, and distribu-
tion of material and money ; and in rendering arid auditing accounts
of such employments. Army Administration also embraces in war the
means by which an army is supported in foreign countries by a general
in campaign, when without regular supplies, without resorting to pillage.
The wars of the French revolution brought into use REQUISITIONS, a
moderate kind of marauding, weighing more heavily upon countries
than upon individuals. Requisitions are, however, an uncertain and
unequal means of supply, and only enable an army to live from hand
to mouth, and although practicable in offensive wars, are only justifiable
in rapid movements, where time does not admit the employment of
more certain means of supply. The system is less odious than pillage.

Bonaparte skilfully adopted another method, in harmony with the
spirit of wars of invasion, and also more reliable as a means of sup-
port. He substituted himself in place of the supreme authorities of
the invaded country, and exacted pecuniary contributions, paying, or
promising to pay, for all provisions and other supplies needed for his
army. Some writers think that even this modified system can only
succeed in gigantic operations, where an army upon a new soil succes-
sively gives repose to that previously occupied. Such a system was,

MILITARY DICTIONARY. -Aj>*.]

•ww^-r, -«. ,— ~J by Marshal Suchet in Spain, and a similar sys-
tem was also matured and published In orders by General Scott while
'hi MT**™ A treaty of peace, however, soon afUr was made, whieh
put so end to military operations, and the sy «»nly

partially executed. But with a sufficient army in a fertile country, the
^gMifanOft pf tto world has shown that if the inhabitants are protected
from injuries they will very generally sell to tho best paymastrrs. It
Is therefore the Intenwt of an invading army not to in h the

ordinary avocations of citizens, and such is th.- modern usage.

Bonaparte (according to Las Casas) thought that an entire revolu-
tion in the habits and education of the soldier, and perhaps aU<> in
of the officers, waa essential to the formation of a veritable self-subsist-
ing army. Such an army (he said) cannot exist with pn
nagazinea, administration, wagons, dec., ecc. Such an army will
vbcn. . Romans, the soldier shall n eorn,

shall personally carry his mill and cooking utensils, cook his own
bread, &<x, &cn and when the present frightful paper administration has
with. He addrd that lie had meditated upon all those
a period of profound peace was necessary to put them in
If he had been constrained to keep a large army in pea
would have employed it upon the public works, and given it an ..r-ani-
zation, a dress, and a mode of subsistence altogether special. It* MU h a
scheme be practicable, no approach to it yet exists.

Hie French have made some progress in developing a systei
administration suited to a large army, but hardly a step in the dir
pointed out by Napoleon. The l-'m:ch administrative service is a.
powerful means of moving armies in unforeseen emeriM-neies. Its f,,re-
aight provides resources, and tho adversary soonest ready has the
greatest chance of success. Not a century sine.', the Fro*
ment required six months* preparation before an army c»nld D
DOW, in tho language of Gen. Lamar.jue, "The cannon is l-aded. and
the blow may be given at tho same moment as the manif. st<>. and. if
Dsosssary, the blow may precede it." Ordinary army administration
eonsVrts in the organization and other means by which various adminis-
trative duties are performed, necessary to provide for the wants of
troops, and for all the foreseen demands of a state of war, including
labor ami the supplier for garrisons, sieges, dec. Sueh dutie^ . -mln-ace.
subsistence magazines, daily rations, forage, dress, encampi
racks, hospitals, transportation, A 'lie administrative duties

of engineers, and of the ordnance d .untability,

payments, recruiting, and in general the receipt and proper application

ADM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 17

of money. The Secretary of War, under the orders of the President,
is the head of military administration in the United States. The object
of such administration is to provide, through the resources placed by law
at his disposition, for the constant wants, regular or accidental, of all
who compose the army. Good administration embraces a foreknowledge
of wants, as well as the creation, operation, and watchfulness of the ways
and means necessary to satisfy them ; the payment of expenses, and
the settlement of accounts.

Army administration is divided into several branches determined
by law. These different branches constitute the administrative service
of an army, the operations of which should be so regulated that the
Secretary of War will be always informed of the condition of each, and
be able to exercise, subordinate to law, a complete financial control over
each. These different branches of administration are : 1. The recruiting
service, and the custody of records and returns of personnel ; 2. The ad-
ministrative service of engineers and topographical engineers ; 3. The
ordnance department ; 4. The quartermaster's department ; 5. The sub-
sistence department ; 6. The pay ^department ; 7. The administrative sei-
vice of the medical department ; and, 8. The settlement of army accounts.
Bureaux of the War Department charged with these different matters
have been organized by the President and Secretary of War, under the
joint authority given these functionaries by the act of Congress of 1813
(See REGULATION) to make regulations better defining the powers and
duties of certain staff officers. The adjutant-general of the army and the
heads of administrative corps have each been assigned a bureau in the
War Department, under the direction of the Secretary of War, for the
management of the administrative duties with which they have been
respectively charged. Administration and Command are distinct. Ad-
ministration is controlled by the head of an executive department of
the government, under the orders of the President, by means of legally
appointed administrative agents, with or without rank, while Com-
mand, or the discipline, military control, and direction of military ser-
vice of officers and soldiers, can be legally exercised only by the mili-
tary hierarchy, at the head of which is the constitutional commander-in-
chief of the army, navy, and militia, followed by the commander of the
army, and other military grades created by Congress. (See ACCOUNTS ;
ACCOUNTABILITY ; ADJUTANT-GENERAL ; ALLOWANCES ; AMBULANCES ;
APPROPRIATIONS ; ARREARS OF PAY ; ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES ;
ARMY REGULATIONS ; AUDITORS ; BAGGAGE ; BAKING ; BARRACKS ; BED ;
BOOKS ; BONDS ; BOUNTY ; BRIDGE ; CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; CARPEN-
TRY; CASEMATE; CLERKS; CLOTHING; COMMISSARY; COMMISSION;
2

Ig MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ADM.

COMITROLLER ; COXOMCM; CONSCRIPTION; CONTRACTS; COUNCILS OF
'MIAOE; DECEASED; DEFAULTERS; DELINQUENTS;

l» I >EPOT J DISBURSING OFFICERS; DISCHARGE J

ENT ; EXOIXEER CORPS ; KSOINBERS, (Topoouu UK \i
. « or PRISONERS ; EXECUTION OF L MPTS ;

EXTRA EXPENSE* ; EXTRA ALLOWANCES ; GRATI ITV : 1
no» ; LAWS (MILITARY) AND REFERENCES ; LOSSES ; Loois .
SHALB; MEASURES; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; MILEAGE; MILITIA; MI-
TER; »x OF LAWS; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT; ORD-
VAVCB SERGEANTS ; ORGAN KN ; PASSPORTS ; PAY ; PAY DEPART-
URE ; PATMASTER-GENERAL ; PENSION ; PONTON ; POSSE COMI i
PRESIDENT; PURCHASING; QUARTERS; QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT ;
QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL; RAISE AND REFERENCES; RATION ; RECIM-IT-
ixii ; KKEM IHTINO ; REGULATION ; REMEDY ; RETURNS ; ROADS ; SALE ;

IRT PRECAUTIONS ; SAPPERS ; SAW-MILL ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SER-
. STAFF; STATE TROOPS; STANDARDS; STOREKEEPERS; STOP
or PAT ; SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT ; SUIT ; SUPERINTENDENT ; TELE-
GRAPH ; TEXT ; TOOLS ; TRADE ; TRANSFERS ; TRAVELLING ALLOW-
AXCES; TREATY ; UNIFORM; UTENSILS; VALUE; VETERAN; VKI i K

NTEERS; WAGON; WAU; WEIGHTS; WILLS, (\ MVK);

nt. (Consult BARDIN, Dictionnaire de FArmee de Terre ; L<
lion ft Administration Militairt, par M. LEON GUILLOT ; Afilit'iry
L*wt of tht United StaUt ; Gen. SCOTT'S orders mM

ADMISSIONS. The judge advocate is author!/. .]. wlu-n ho sees
proper, to Rdmit what a prisoner expects to prove by absent witnesses.

ADOBES— are unlmrnt brick made from earth of a loamy char
omuining about two-thirds fine sand mixed intimatdy with om'-thir.I
or UM of cUyey dust or sand. StifT day will not unswor, as tin- rays
of the son would crack it in pieces. The adobe, un.lrr the action of the
eon, becomes a compact HUMS. Upon our Indian frontiers in New M. \
too, in Mexico, and in Central America, adobe houses and adobe dcfc!..-es
tho Indians are common siruetun-s. Four men usually work
making adobe brick. One mixes the mass in a h..le, an.l
the barrow, two carry it on a common han.l-barrow. an.l tJie
moulds the brick. Tho moulder has a double moul.l, or one
which forms two adobe*, each eighteen ii.eh.-s l,,,,-, nine inohee wicte,
and four inchce thick. The partition between the two eomj.:.rtments
I he of one and a half inch stuff, th- .,tl,rr parts of im-h boanl ;
a d«at oo either outer aide, extending the length of the mould, permits
the mould to be easily bandied. It must be well morticed together

ADO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 19

so as not to wabble. The moulder has no bottom, the adobe being depos-
ited on the surface of the ground, made tolerably level, and without
reversing, as in brick making. The mould is raised gradually and
slowly away from the moulded masses. Before placing it on the ground
to mould another couple, the inner sides of the mould are washed with
water, kept at hand ; this is all that is required to preserve the mud
from sticking and thus breaking the adobe. The mould is emptied a
second time on the ground at about three inches from the first couple,
and in refilling, the balance of the mud left over from the first moulding
is cast in the compartments, and the two men with the barrow of mud
throw their load directly upon the mould, and all that is over and above
what is necessary to fill it is scraped off by the moulder's hands toward
where his next couple is to be. The dumping of the mud from the
barrow is facilitated by casting into the barrow a little finely powdered
dry manure or dust.

An adobe eighteen inches long, nine inches wide, and four inches
thick, is the best average size for moulding and for building. They
are sometimes made sixteen inches long and twelve inches wide ; in
such cases they are all laid as headers ; but with the eighteen inch
adobe they afford the means of binding the wall strongly by alternating
headers and stretchers, as in brick-laying. In the hot spring and sum-
mer suns two or three days uninterrupted drying is sufficient at the
first ; the adobes are then carefully turned up on edge, so as to expose
the under or still wet face to the southern and western sunshine. They
should be left in this position from a week to fifteen days to dry thor-
oughly, when, if not wanted for immediate use, they may be stacked
on edge and covered from the weather. Houses in New Mexico are
seldom built over one story high. This enables the builder to place on
the roof-covering at once, if necessary. But in all cases, intervals in the
work must be allowed, or the house will not only be unsafe, but, if
immediately occupied, damp and disagreeable. The inside plastering
with mud is most frequently done before the roof is covered in, so as to
dry with the wall. If the wall must be left unfinished through the fall
rains or the winter, the top of it is covered with a bushy weed called
cachanilla, and this is covered with earth, to exclude water and protect
it till the ensuing year. If door and window frames are at hand, the
Mexicans prefer to put them in as they build ; but oftener they leave
gaps for doors and windows, unfilled with the frames, till the whole is
finished. The adobes are laid with mud mortar made from the earth
at the base of the wall ; the holes thus formed are readily filled again
with the rubbish from the house when completed. When the wall is

MILITARY DICTION ART. [ADY.

ready to receive the roof-covering, heavy joists arc laid, about two feet
apart, on the top of the walla, strong enough to bear near a foot of
earth all over the roof; the joists, as they rest upon the wall, are sup-
upon boards, or plates, as they are called, to distribute the

of the roof, and prevent the joists from crushing into tin- walls.
Across the joists, and over the whole roof, averaging about t\\o inches
In diameter, poles are now placed, the largest on the highest side of the
roof to begin the slope, and on this is placed a close covering of the
codk«»4//a, which is aromatic and keeps out bugs ; it is evergreen, and
a plant of the most suitable length to fill the interstices in the poles.
Small willow brush Is often used in the absence of cachanilla. The
earth-covering of the roof is now put on, extending all round the roof to
the parapet above the joists, which is only one-half the width of tho
wall below ; this brings the dirt roof to cover over one-half the width
or thickness of the wall, by which leaks in the room below are pre-
vented. An adobe house, if well secured, is warmer in winter, and
cooler in summer, than one of wood or brick. The brick is cold and
damp, the adobe is dry and a much worse conductor of heat — no fur-
rowing nor lathing is necessary — and tho rough inside can be white-
waahed or slapped with plaster. The durability of adobe walls is ex-
traordinary. The Pecos Church, not far from Santa Fe, is doubtless
one hundred years old ; its mud walls (adobe) are as firm to this day
as a rock, and they cannot be less than fifty f.-ct hi-jh.

ADVANCED. Any portion of an army which is in front of the
li.-d to tho promotion of officers and soldiers.

ADVANCED COVERED WAY— is a terra plein, on the ex-
•»f the advanced ditch, similar to the first cover.-.] way.

ADVANCED DITCH— is ttton beyond tho glacis of tho

win/?, having its surface on the j-n-loii-jation of that slope, that an
enemy may find no shelter when in the ditch.

ADVANCED GUARD. A detachment of troops which precedes
the march of the main body.

ADVANCED LfM. ITKS— are works resembling bastions of
ravelin*, having (aces and flanks. They are formed upon or 1
U» glad*

ADVANCED WORKS— are such as are constructed bc},,,,,] the
wsy and glacis, but within the range of the musketry of the

v \ NCES of public money may be authorized by the President
•f the United States to persons in the military or naval service employed

1 otherwise; (Act Jan. 31, Is-.

ALL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 21

ADVISING TO DESERT. Punishable with death or otherwise,
as a court-martial may direct ; (Art. 23, Articles of War.)

AFFAIR. Any slight action or engagement. Affair of outpost ;
affair of rear-guard, &c.

AFFIDAVITS, being admissions upon oath, are evidence as such
against the parties who made them, (Rough.) In the trial of cases not
capital, the deposition of witnesses not of the staff or line of the army,
taken before a Justice of the Peace in presence of the prosecutor and
person accused, may be read in evidence ; (Art 10.)

AIDES-DE-CAMP — are ex-offido assistants adjutant-general ; (Act
March 2, 1821.) They are confidential officers selected by gen-
eral officers to assist them in their military duties. A lieutenant-
general appoints not exceeding four in time of war, and two in peace,
with the rank of lieutenant-colonel ; a major-general two, and a briga-
dier-general one. Attached to the person of the general, they receive
orders only from him. Their functions are difficult and delicate. Often
enjoying the full confidence of the general, they are employed in repre-
senting him, in writing orders, in carrying them in person if necessary,
in communicating them verbally upon battle-fields and other fields of
manoeuvre. It is important that Aides-de-Camp should know well the
positions of troops, routes, posts, quarters of generals, composition of
columns, and orders of corps : facility in the use of the pen should be
joined with exactness of expression ; upon fields of battle they watch
the movements of the enemy ; not only grand manoeuvres but special
tactics should be familiar to them. It is necessary that their knowl-
edge should be sufficiently comprehensive to understand the object and
purpose of all orders, and also to judge in the varying circumstances
of a battle-field, whether it is not necessary to modify an order when
carried in person, or if there be time to return for new instructions.

AIM. (See FIRING; TARGET.)

ALARM-POST — is the place appointed for every regiment or
detachment to assemble, in case of a sudden alarm.

ALARMS, FALSE. Any officer who shall occasion false alarms
in camp, garrison, or quarters, shall suffer death or other punishment
as a court-martial may direct ; (Art. 49.)

ALIBI. Elsewhere. An Alibi is the best of all defence if a man
is innocent ; but if it turns out to be untrue, it is conclusive against
those who resort to it; (Hough.}

ALLOWANCES. The receipts of an officer consist of pay and
allowances, sometimes called pay and emoluments. Allowances are
vegular and occasional ; they consist of money for servants, forage,

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AMU.

travelling expense* ; and of fuel and quarters, stationery,
straw for frfm**g, transportation of baggage, and forage in kind under
certain circumstance*. An allowance for servants and forage is only
given where the servants and horses allowed are actually kept in ser-
vice by the officer. Doable rations arc given to the comma:. d.-r < I the
, the commander of an army in the field, a geographical dh

military post and arsenal; and ten dollars per month
is allowed to the actual commander of a company. Armies have ah\ a \ s
been paid by moans of pay and allowances. It is the least e.\j>
mode of supporting an army, and it is at the same time the most just
method of graduating the pay according to circumstances. In the
United States army, however, the allowances made are not sunVi- nt,
•nd not properly graduated. Several of the allowances given in Ku-
artnies, are withheld from our own ; and of those withheld, some
which press v . tlicers in campaign, when

all their energies are need. d for thu service of the country. Of the
allowances given in European armi.-s. but withheld from the United
arn.; lowing arc the most important : Allowance, as

money at the beginning of a campaign, marching all..-..
f..r I..SM-S in tin- fn-ld, prize money, and barrack furniture
allowance, (Sr* INDEMNIFICATION.)

AMBU.AXCKS (Jr«i<rA)— are Hying hospitals so orgui.
that they can follow an army in all its movements, and arc intended
to succor the wounded as soon as possible. Other sick an aU >
in Ambulance, but the Ambulances are emptied as soon as li\. d

V. ft. •EBTICB.

pitals are at hand. In the Frmrh army, an Ambulance of infantry is
n.pneed of fire wagons containing case* of instruments for amput

AMM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 03

and trepanning, bandages for divers fractures, utensils of all kinds,
medicines, and 8,900 dressings. The Ambulance of cavalry is com-
posed of three wagons, containing the articles above enumerated, with
4,900 dressings. The Ambulances are distributed as follows : Each
division of infantry has one Ambulance of infantry, and each division
of cavalry an Ambulance of cavalry. The headquarters of an army
corps is allowed two Ambulances ; the grand park of artillery one Am-
bulance of cavalry ; the reserve of the arrny at general headquarters

FIG. 4.

AMBULANCE CART PROPOSED FOR THE U. 8. SERVICE.

six Ambulances; four of infantry, and two of cavalry. The number of
Ambulance carts and wagons recently ordered for the United States ser-
vice, in case of war, greatly exceeds the foregoing allowance, and would
be doubtless required in operations of small detachments, or wherever,
from any cause, it is impracticable to establish fixed hospitals, or leave
wounded to the care of inhabitants. (See SURGERY ; WAGON.)

AMBUSCADE. A body of men lying in wait to surprise an
enemy.

AMICUS CURIJE. Counsel, or^at least Amici Curise, (friends
of the court,) are allowed to prisoners in all cases, but no person is per-
mitted to address the court, or interfere in any manner with its pro-
ceedings, except the parties themselves. (HougHs Law Authorities.}

AMMUNITION — is a term which comprehends gunpowder, and
all the various projectiles and pyrotechnical compositions and stores
used in the service.

Any commissioned officer convicted at a general court-martial
of having sold without a proper order, embezzled, misapplied
or, through neglect, suffered provisions, forage, army clothing, am-

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AilM.

military stores belonging to the United States to be
spoiled or damaged, shall at his own expense make good the loss or
damage, and shall forfeit his pay and be dismissed from the service ;
(Art, 36.) Any non-commissioned officer or soldier \s ho shall be con-
victed at a regimental court-iuwtial of having sold, or designedly, or
through neglect, wasted ammunition delivered to him, shall be pui
at the discretion of such court; (.!

The quantity of ammunition with troops is usually fixed at two
hundred rounds for eaeh piece of ordnance. These supplies are trans-
ported in caissons, and an army should be followed, in all cases, by a
second supply at least equal to the first. The ammunition which can-
not be carried in the caissons attached to pieces will he kept in boxes
In reserve.

Additional supplies of ordnance stores are placed in convenient
depots, according to circumstances.

Ammunition for Small Arm*. — This supply consists of one hundred
rounds to each man: forty rounds in cartridge box, and sixty in re-
serve. Percussion caps should exceed by one-half tho number of ear-
tridges. Cuts 5 and G represent the bullets of new arms.

Fio. 5.

•CLUCT roB ALTERED MUSKET.

W«%bt of Ull, 7BO grain. ; weight of powder, 70 grain*.

To use tho new cartridge carrying the powder and elongated ball
to each other, tear th- fold and pour out tho powder; then

seise the ball md firmly l*'twmi th«- thumb and forrfm^ r of tin- ri^'ht
hand, and strike the % :ilt Mow- across tho

muzzle of the piece ; this breaks the cartridge and exposes the 1
of the ball ; a slight pressure of the thumb and f .n i i the

ball into the bore clear of all cartridge paper. In striking th, cartridge,
the cylinder should be held square across, or at right anpl.-s to the
muzzle; otherwise, a blow given in an oblique dinc-i-.n would only
bend the cartridge without rupturing it.

AMM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.
FIG. 6.

BULLETS FOE NEW EIFLE-MU8KET AND PISTOL-CARBINE.

Weight of No. 1, 500 grains. Weight of No. 2, 450 grains.

Weight of powder, 60 grains. Weight of powder, 40 grains.

No. 1, section of musket bullet. No. 2, section of pistol-carbine ballet.

Both bullets have the same exterior.

Ammunition for a siege train of one hundred pieces, consisting of
the following :

C 24-pounder about one-third the whole number 32

Guns < 18-pounder, one-tenth the whole number.

( 12-pounder, " " "

Howitzers. — 8-inch siege, one-eighth u "

10-inch siege, one-seventh " "

8-inch siege, one-fourteenth " "

Stone Mortars, one-seventh " "

Mortars

Coehorn Mortars (in addition to the 100 pieces) 6

Wall Pieces, Jor the attack of one front 40

The 18 and 24-pounders should be furnished with one thousand rounds
each, the 12-pounders with twelve hundred rounds, the 8-inch howitzers
and mortars with six hundred rounds. In addition to .the above, fifty
rounds of spherical-case shot should be furnished to each gun. Powder
magazines, containing from fifty to one hundred thousand pounds of
powder, must be accessible.

Cartridges for siege and garrison service are usually one-fourth the
weight of the shot ; but the charge varies according to circumstances
from one-third the weight of the shot (for a breaching battery) to one-
sixthiof that weight for firing double shot, or hot shot, and still less
for ricochet firing. The charges for mortars and howitzers vary ac-
cording to the required range. For columbiads and sea-coast howitzers,
the cartridge should always occupy the whole length of the chamber ;
for this purpose, in firing with reduced charges a cartridge block is placed
in the bag over the powder. For mortars, cartridge bags may be made
in the same manner as for guns, but the charge is usually poured loose
into the chamber. Charges vary for mortar shells from 11 Ibs. to 4

MI LIT ART DICTIONARY. [AMV.

ox. according to the §iie of the mortar, and whether the intention be to
fill the shell, to burst it, or simply to blow out the fuse. For Lot
«Ao/, cartridge bags are made double by putting one bag five fn >m holes
within another, (for full detail* concerning ammunition, including its
preparation, <te., consult ORDHAMCE MANUAL, 1850; consult also Ex-
periments with small amis by Ordnance Officers, 1856. See ARMS ;
Camara; CARTRIDGE; FRICTION TUBES; FUZE; GRAPE SHOT; GUN
POWDER; ORDNANCE AND ORDNANCE STORES; RIFLED ORDNANCE;
SABOT ; SHELLS ; SOLID SHOT ; SPHERICAL-CASE.)

AMNESTY. An act of oblivion, or forgiveness of past offences.

ANGLE OF DEFENCE— is that formed by the meeting of the
flank and lino of defence, or the face of the bastion produced.

ANGLE OF THE POLYGON— is that formed by the meeting
of two of the sides of the polygon; it is likewise called the polygon

•JEffe

APOLOGY— when made and accepted, debars the officer who
accepts from bringing forward the matter as a substantive, accusation,
M.)

APPEAL. Any officer or soldier who may think himself wronged
by his colonel or the commanding officer of his regiment, and after
duo application to him, is refused redress, may appeal to the next higher
commander, who is to examine into said complaint, and take proper
measures for redressing the wrong complained »f, an<l transmit, as soon
as possible, to the Department of War, a true statement of such com-
plaint, with the proceedings had thereon; (Art 34.) If any inferior
officer or soldier shall think himself wronged 1>\ his captain, or othrr
officer, he is to complain thereof t<> the commanding oflirrr of the regi-
ment, who is Inquired to summon a n^imental court-mart ial for doing
justice to the complainant; from which regimental court-martial, eilher
party may. if he thinks hims. If still n^u'ricved, appeal to a pem-ral
martini. Hut if, upon a second hearing, the appeal shall appear
•»us and groundless, th,- person so appealing shall !><> punished
At the discretion of tho said court-martial ; ( I/ /. :;:>.) (See REMKDY.)

The wrongs here alluded to, have reiVnn., chiefly to matters of
accounts betweeO the captain, or commander of the company, and the
•Oldier, Hating to clothing and other supplies, as well us to p:n
the regimental court, in examining into such transactions, may 1
•fdereA more as a court of inquiry than a court-martial; or, it may
be r.ewed as an arbitration board, called on to adjust and settle
diff/rencc* arising in tho settlements of accounts bet \\een the captain
af4 his men. One reason why a power of appeal is declared to be a

APP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 27

matter of absolute right to inferior officers, or soldiers, complaining of
being wronged by their officers, doubtless is, that a regimental or gar-
rison court-martial has not the power of inflicting any punishment on
commissioned officers. It can do no more than express its opinion
that the complaint is just, or the contrary, and where it is practicable and
proper, relieve the sufferer as to any existing grievance ; but, the injury
complained of, however flagrant, must still have remained unredressed,
as far as punishment is concerned, if an appeal to a general court-mar-
tial had not been declared to be a matter of right to the party aggrieved.

APPOINTING- POWER, &c. It has been contended by advo-
cates of executive discretion, that army appointments are embraced in
the power granted to the President in the 2d section* of the Constitu-
tion, to nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, appoint " all other officers of the United States, whose appoint-
ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which may be estab-
lished by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment
of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in
the courts of law, or in the heads of departments." If due regard, how-
ever, be paid to the words, " whose appointments are not herein other-
wise provided for" the pretension set up in favor of Executive power,
will receive no support from the terms of the Constitution. The powers
granted to Congress to raise and support armies, and to make all rules
for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces, are
necessarily so comprehensive in character, as to embrace all means
which Congress, according to circumstances, may deem proper and
necessary in order to raise armies, or to govern them when raised.
Rules of appointment to office, rules of promotion — another form of
appointment — and all rules whatever in relation to the land and naval
forces, save the appointment of the commander-in-chief of those united
forces, who is designated by the Constitution, are hence within the com-
petency of Congress.

It is true that this great power vested in Congress has been exer-
cised by them, in most cases, by giving to the President a large dis-
cretion in appointments and other matters connected with the army.
But the principle itself — that supreme command is vested in Congress —
has been often asserted in our military legislation. Contemporaneously
with the foundation of the government laws have been passed, giving to
general and other officers the right of appointment to certain offices ; in
other cases, the President has been confined in his selection to classes
designated by law ; again, rules have been made by Congress for the
promotion of officers, and in 1846 an army of volunteers was raised

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Arr.

by Congress, the officers of which Congress directed should be ap-
pointed, according to the laws of the States in \vhu -h the
raised, eioepting the general officers, who were to be appointed by the
President ind flrnsUi a clear recognition that the troops thus n'.-ed
were United States troops, and not militia. (See CONGRESS; PRO-

MOT!' NTKERS.)

A1T<>1.\T M 1 : \ T— is Office, Rank, Employment, Equipment.
APPRO AGUES— are the first, second, and third parallels,
trenches, saps, mines, ccc., by which the besiegers approach a fortified

APPROPRIATIONS— for the support o/ armies, are limited by
the Constitution to a term not to exceed two years. The President is
authorized to transfer appropriations for subsistence, forage, the in
and quartermaster's department, from one 'branch of military oxpend-
iture to any other of the above-mentioned branches; (Act May 1,
1820.) (Sw TRANSFERS.)

APRON. A piece of sheet lead used to cover tin- \vnt

APPUI, POINT D'. A term applied to any pven point upon
which a line of troops is formed.

ARDENT SPIRITS. The introduction of ardent spirits into
Indian Territory, under any pretem-e, prohil.ited ; (Act July 9, 1832.)
The President of the United States may take such measures as he may
deem expedient to prevent or restrain tin- vending or distributing of
spirituous liquors among Indians. Goods of traders introducing it
forfeited ; (Act* March 30, 1802, and May 6, 1832.)

ARM. Infantry, artillery, ami cavalry, arc arms of the ser\ let,

ARMISTICE, Armistifiittn, i. e. sistcre ab armis. A temporary
or suspension of hostili:

ARMORER. The person who makes, cleans, or repairs arm,.

ARMORY. A manufactory or place of dcp irma, (See

IAL; OR DK A NCB DEPARTMENT.)

ARMS, SMALL. Casting awny arms and ammunition punishal.lo
with death or otherwise according to the sentence of a general n.urt-
martial ; (Art. 62.) Officers, ; Missioned oiVir.-rs. and soldiers

should be instructed and practised in the nomenelature of the arms, ih,.
manner of dismounting and mounting the,,,, and the precautions and
care required for their prmorvation. Each soldier should have a screw-
driver and a wiper, and each squad of ten a wire and a tuml.hr pun. h,
and a spring vice. No other implements should be used in taking
arms apart or in setting them up. In the inspect

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

should attend to the qualities essential to service, rather than a bright
polish on the exterior of the arms. The arms should be inspected in
the quarters at least once a month, with the barrel and lock separated
from the stock.

PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, ETC., OP SMALL ARMS.

Dimensions.

Rifle muskets.

Rifles.

Pistol
carbine.

1822.

1840.

1855.

1841.

1855.

f Diameter of bore

Inches.
.69
.015

.82
1.25
42.
16.
41.96
57.64
73.64

Inches.
.69
.015
8.85
1.25
42.
18.
41.70
57.80
75.80

Inches.

.58
.0025
.78
1.14
40.
18.
39.60
55.85
73.85

Inches.
.58
.0025
.90
1.15
33.
21.7
33.
48.8
71.3

Inches.
.58
.0025
.90
1.14
33.
21.7
33.
49.3
71.8

Inches.

.58
.0025
.82
1.
12.

Variation allowed, more

Diam'r at breech between flats.
[ Length without breech screw.

12.
17.6

Arm } -yyjt£ bay0net fixed. . .

complete. ^ With butVpiece

28.2
3
4.
.30

.005
.008

Lbs.

1.4
.6

3
6.
.36

.005
.015

Lbs.

4.
*95
.73

3
6.

.36
.005
.015

Lbs.

4.19
.95
64

3
6.
.30
.005
.015

Lbs.
4.28

.81
72

3
6.
.30
.005
.013

Lbs.

4.8
.55
3 05

3
6.
.30
.005
.013

Lbs.

4.8
.81
3.05

Twist .

Width

WEIGHTS.

Barrel without breech screw

Lock with side screws

( Without bayonet

9.06

9.82

9.51
10.15

9.18
9.90

9.68
12.72

9.93
12.98

3.56

Arm Kyith bayonet ...

complete. ] With bu}t.piece ,

5.09

HEIGHTS OF HAUSSE, ETC.

Table of approximate heights for rear sights of new arms, measured from the line of
metal of the barrel. Pieces fired from the shoulder and rest.

New Rifle musket.

Rifle musket (altered).

Distance.

Weight of ball, 500 grains.
Weight of powder, 60 grains.

"Weight of ball, 730 grains.
Weight of powder, 70 grains.

Yards.

Inches.

100

.40

.42

The top of the front

200
300
400

.54

.70
88

.62

.82
1 08

sight is seen "fine"
through the notch

500

1.10

1.34

of the rear sight.

600

1.35

1.65

700

1.63

1.96

800

1.94

2.28

900

2.28

2.61

1000

2.63

2.94

* Mayuard primer.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Ai

PKNBTRA 1

TUfc of sia*'S*Mi w» « toff* «M^« ^ *a«nud vliU

**fUe*<m* oMdakatf i*A* apart.

o*4

thi,-l,

Arm.

V...

P.--, -,>:> ,.

literal rifle...

AlswediMi

\\, .-••. ,r

U1L

GnUM.
ft»K)
730
600
460

600
780
600
460

780
600
600

Onlu.
60
70
60
40

60
70
60
40

70
60
60

Diameter Planks
of bullet, penetrated.

Inch. Number.

.6778

.686

.6776

.6776
.685
.6776
.6776

.686
.6776 "
.6776

DfcftBStft.

TartU.

200
200

500
100
6QO

1000
1000
1000

At 1,000 yards, a bullet from the new ri do- musket passed completely
through the frame of the target, which was made of solid white pine,
three inches thick.

The elongated musket bullets do not cease to ricochet on level gn >nnd,
at the distance of 1,000 yards. A strong wind M.»\\ inn perpendicularly
to the direction of the rifle-musket bullet, will deflect it from its course
12 feet in 1,000 yards, about 3 feet in 500 yards, and about £ foot in
800 yards. The effect of wind on the pistol-carbine bullets is somewhat
greater, for the same distance. \V hen t wo oblong bullets are fired from
the new rifle-musket, or altered rifle, with the ordinary service charge
of CO grains, they separate from eaeh other and from the plane of fire
•bout 4 f.-ot in a distance of 200 yards. If the piece be held firmly
against the shoulder, no serious ineonvnii.-n.-e will l.e frit in firing this
increased charge ; the only precaution necessary to be observed in Aim-
ing, Is to give the barrel greater rl,-vati..n than for the sin pi. • bullet, in
the pr f 0 feet f,,r 200 yards. In cases of emergency, firing

with two bullets might be effectively empl-.y. d against masses of in-
frntry and cavalry, if the distance does not exceed Koo \ ar Is. Mu//U-
loadiog small arms can be discharged two or three times in a minute,
and breech.lom/ling arms about ten times. Rapidity of Kidm- and
discharging firtsarms is however of doubtful advantage in actual •
as soldiers are apt to discharge their pieces without proper aim, and

ARM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY,

of %

MODEL OF 1855.

Fig. 7. Barrel, one-seventh size, a, breech ; b, cone-seat ;
c, rear-sight ; d, front-sight and bayonet stud ; e,
muzzle.

Fio. 8.

£ Fig. 8. Breech-screw, full size, a, plug with threads ;
tenon ; c, tang ; d, tang-screw hole ; e, face.

FIG. 9.

FIG. 9'.

Fig. 9. Cone, full size, a, nipple ; 5, square ; c, shoulder ;

d, screw-thread ; e, vent.
Fig. 9'. Cone-seat screw, full size, a, stem ; 6, head ; c, slit ;

d, thread.

FIG. 10.

Fig. 10. Tang-screw, full size,
fy. 11. Ramrod, one-seventh size, a, stem; 6, swell; c, head; c?, cup; «, screw.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AR*

FM.U

JV !*• totr+yK Ml «». «ide
Tiev, complete. 1, 2, 3, 4, grad-
ual ion-mark* on the ba»e, a.

. 18. Section through
a, 0^ full size.

FIO. 14.

. Section through
6, 6, full size.

FIO. IS.

15. J>a/, full siae. a, frame ; 6, slot ; d, tongue ; e, joint-pin hole ; /, Fight-
notch ; 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, graduation-marks.

FIO. 11

FIO. 17.

/If !•• X««/«pri«V, full nitc. a, blade ; A, screw-hole ; «, thickness.

full nize. a, bead ; 6, stem ; c, c, holes for screw-,], iv, r.

O«

FIO. 10.
a

06
06

/^. It.

M. a, Uek^Uot ; 6, 6, grooTes; e, e, riret-holcs ; rf, d, han-
dle*; «, aifhUxHch; /./, riTcta.
/If. It. flNAyrfcy. foil rite. «, rigbt-ootch ; 6, 6, riret-holes; c, thicknen.

ARM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Fio. 21.

Fig. 21. Front-sight and bayonet-stud, full size, a, sight ; 6, stud.
Figs. 22, 23. Bayonet-clasp, full size, a, body ; b, b, stud ; c, bridge;

d, groove ; e, e, stops ; /, scre^v.
Fig. 24. Bayonet, quarter size, a, blade ; 6, neck ; c, socket ; c?,

bridge ; e, stud mortise ; /, clasp.

FIG. 25.

Fig. 25. Zoefc, outside view, half size, a, hammer; 6, lock-plate;"
c, magazine-cover ; d, tumbler-screw ; e, joint-pin ; /, side-

screw hole.

FIG. 26.

H4-

Fig. 26. Zocfc, inside
view, half size, show-
ing the parts with the
hammer at half cock.
a, hammer; b, tum-
bler; c, bridle ; d, bri-
dle-screw; e, sear, ;/,
sear-screw ; g, sear-
spring ; h, sear-spring
screw ; i, mainspring;
j, swivel; Tc, cover-
catch.

MILITARY DICTIONARY,
IfeK,

[ARM.

*• • L°f*'p***'* fc*tf *iw. showing the position of the holes, &c. o, cone-seat
notch; A, bolster; <•, mainspring notch; <f, hole for mainspring pivot; e, hole
for arbor of tumbler ; /, hole for cover-catch ; g, hole for cover hinge stud ;
A, A, »id«ecrtw bo1e»; i, hole for bridle-*crew ; jt hole for sear-screw; A,
bole for t*ar»«prfag ; /, hole for catch-spring screw ; n>, sear-spring stud-mortise ;
•, fct44bger *Iot ; o, bridle pivot hole ; />, feed-finger-spring-scrcw hole.

r,,,. so.

/Tp. 18. IRyaMfM-eowr, full size, a, body; 6, 6, jaws; r, <r, holes for joint-pin.
/V- *•• CV»t*r-Ain^ «fW, full size, two views, a, head; 6, joint-pin hole; <
/V> ^ &wr-««feA and •ervw, full size, two views, a, head ; 6, notch ; r, r, foot ;
4 screw-bole ; «, catch-screw.

. SI. Zodt-wmw, full die, and »ide-»rrt*>», half site, a, &, sidc-«crewi ; c, sear-
•crew ; J, brid!c-*crcw • «f •ear-tpring screw ; /, tumbler-screw.

In all th< «*<**, the part* are the stem, the head, the slit, the thread.

TJa

Fig. 32. Mainspring-swivel, full size, a, a, body ; 6, axis ; c, tumbler-pin hole ; d,

finger-pivot hole.
Fig, 33. Feed-finger, full size, two views, a, a, eye-pivot ; b, crook ; c, c, finger.

FIG. 34.

*f^rt < ' • -ii «

Fig. 34. Feed-finger spring, full size, a, eye ; 6, long branch ; c, short branch ;

d, screw.

FIG. 85.

FIG. 86.

la--

Fig. 35. Hammer, half size, a, body ; 6, head ; c, comb ; d, countersink, slit, and

knife-edge ; e, tumbler-hole.
Fig. 36. Tumbler, half size, two views, a, body ; b, arbor ; c, squares ; <?, pivot ; e,

swivel-arm and pin-hole ; f, tumbler-screw hole.

FIG. ST.

FIG. 88.

Fig. 37. Bridle, half size, two views, a, body ; b, eye for tumbler-pivot ; c, pivot ;

d, hole for bridle-screw ; e, hole for sear-screw.

Fig. 38. $ear, half size, two views, a, body ; b, nose ; c, arm ; d, screw-hole ;

e, screw.

FIG. 89.

Fig. 39. Sear-spring, half size, two views, a, blade ; b, upper branch : c, lower
branch; d, stud; e, screw-hole.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AJUI.

Pfy. 40. J/ai*tpri*gt half sUe, two views, a, upper branch ; 6,
lower branch ; c, hook ; d, pivot; *, Ung.

Rg. 41. Stock, one-ninth size, a, butt ; 6, handle ; c, head ; d,
bod for lock ; «, shoulder for lower band ; /, bed for band-
•pring 5 y, shoulder for middle band ; A, bed for band-spring ;
t, shoulder for upper band ; ;, bed for band-spring ; *, shoul-
der and tenon for tip.

Fio. 42.

f\g. 42. Butt-plat* and «creiM, quarter size, three views, a, body;
6, toe ; c, heel ; d, d, screw-holes ; «, «, screws.

Kir.. 4."..

fig. 48. 71/>, full ni/.o, two views, a, recess for stock ; 6, groove
for ramrod ; r, rivet-hole ; d, rh

quarter size, a, body ; 6, 6, bolsters ; c,' c, trigger-stud and
; rf, < holes for guard-bow ; «, «, for wood screws ; /, for trigger-screw ;

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY.

FIG. 46.

Fio. 48.

FIG. 48. Fig. 45. Guard-bow, quarter size, two views, a, body ; bt b,
> ^^ stems ; c, c, nuts ; d, d, swivel ; e, rivet.

Vj Fig. 46. Trigger, half size, a, blade ; b, finger-piece ; c, hole

H for screw ; d, screw, full size.

£3 Fig. 48. Guard-screws, half size.

FIG. 49.

FIG. 50.

FIG. 51.

Fig. 49. Upper band, half size.
Fig. 60. Middle band, half size.

Fig. 61. Lower band, half size, a, body; 6, b, creases; U denotes the upper edge
c, swivel-stud (on middle band only) ; d, swivel.

Fm. 52.

FIG. 53.

FIG. 54.

Figs. 52, 63, 54. Upper, middle, and lower band-springs, half size, a, stem ; b, wire ;
c, shoulder ; e, tang.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

FW.M.

[ARM.

Fio. 67.

r, full size, a, countersink ; 6, hole for screw.

IFi/wr, roll dz«. a, body; 6, o, prongs ; c, screw-hole for rod.
/*a//-«rr*«, full sue. a, body ; 6, Ung ; c, screw-hole for rod ; d, screw to
draw the ball

l^. 58. /8cr«tMWwr, half
size, two views, a, cone-
wrench ; 6, 6, 6, blades ;
r, rivet ; d, d, collets for*
rivet.

ta M

Fio. 60.

. 59. Spring-vice, half size, two vio««*.

o, bolster ; 6, slide ; c, .-lido-mortise ; <^

slide screw ; «, thumb-screw.
Fig. 60. Upper side of hli«i<>.

61. Tampion, half size, a, head; 6,

body ; c, rivet ; d, leather washer ; et

slot. '
F\g. 62. COM, (spare,) we fig. 9.

Fio. 62.

ARM.]

Fio. 63.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

3J)

Wiper. Ball-screw. Screw-driver. Spring-vice.

Tompion.

Spare cone.

Tumbler and "Wire Punch.

MATEEIALS OF WHICH THE PAETS ARE MADE.

Steel

Tumbler; Lock-swivel, Feed-finger; Finger-
spring ; Cover-catch ; Sear ; Sear-spring ; Main-*
spring ; Band-springs ; Ramrod ; Rear-sight
(except the screw) ; Screw-driver ; Wiper ;
Ball-screw ; Cone ; Tumbler, and Wire Punch.

Brass.
Tip for Stock ; head of Tompion.

Wood.
Stock ; Tompion.

Iron.

Socket of the Bayonet, and all other parts
not enumerated.

40 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [A*M.

RCLM ro» DttMOCimxo TH« Rirn MUSKIT, MODEL OF 1855.— 1st.
Unfit the bayonet (34). 2d. Put the tompion (60) into the muzzle of
the barrel 8<L Draw the ramrod (11). 4th. Turn out the tang.
•craw (10). 5th. Take off the lock ('Jo) : to do this, first put tho
hammer at half-cock, then unscrew partially the side-screws (31, a, b),
and, with a alight Up on the head of each screw with a wooden instru-
ment, loosen the lock from ita bed in the stock ; then turn out the side-
screws, and remove the lock with the left hand. 6th. Remove the side-
tcrews (31, a, 6), taking care uoC to disturb the washers (55). 7th.
Take off the upper band (40). 6th. Take off the middle band (50).
9th. Take off the lower band (51). (Note.— The letter U, on bands,
idicate the upper side in assembling.) 10th. Take out the barrel
(?) : in doing this, turn the musket horizontally, with tho barrel d< >\vn-
ward, holding the barrel loosely with the left hand below the rear sight
• he right hand grasping the stock by the handle ; and if it docs
not leave the stock, tap the tompion in the muzzle gently against the.
ground or Boor, which will loosen the breech end from tho stock. This
U preferable to lifting the barrel out by tho muzzle, because if the tang
of. the breech-screw (8) should bind in the wood, tho head of the stock
(41 f) would be liable to be split by raising the muzzle first.

The foregoing parts of the rifle musket are all that should usually
be taken off or dismounted. The soldier should never dismount the
band-tprinyt, guard, tide-screw washers, butt-plate, rear-sight, cone, and
cofM*M/ screv, except when on officer considers it necessary. The
breech screw should be taken out only by an armorer, and never in
ordinary cleaning. The lock should not be taken apart, nor the bay-
onsfrdasp taken off, except \vli.-n absolutely necessary in tho opinion
of an officer. If proper and regular care be taken of the arm, this will
U wry ttldom **«Mary. Tho musket being thus taken to pieces. the.
soldier, under ordinary circumstances, will—

To clean the barrel— 1st. Stop tho hole in tho cone (9, c) with a
peg of soft wood ; pour a gill of water (warm, if it can be had) into
the muixlo ; let it stand a short time, to soften the deposit of tho pow-
der; put a plug of soft wood into tho muzzle, and shake tho wat< -r up
and down the barrel I ir thi* out and repeat the washing until

the wat*r runs dear; take out tho peg from tho e,.ne, an.l stand
the barrel, nnuxlo downwards, to drain, for a few moments. 2d.
Screw the wiper (56, c) on to the end of tho ramrod (11, e) an.l put a
piece of dry elotk, or to», round it, sufficient to prevent it from chafing
the grooves of the barrel ; wipe the barrel quite dry, changing '" 'Irv-
ing the doth two or three times, 3d. Put no oil into the vent (0, c\

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 41

as it will clog the passage, and cause the first primer to miss fire ; but,
with a slightly oiled rag on the wiper, rub the bore of the barrel, and
the face of the breech-screw (8, e), and immediately insert the tompion
(61) into the muzzle. 4th. To clean the exterior of the barrel, lay it
flat on a bench, or board, to avoid bending it. The practice of sup-
porting the barrel at each end and rubbing it with a strap or buff-stick,
or with the ramrod, or any other instrument, to burnish it, is perni-
cious, and should be strictly forbidden. 5th. After firing, the barrel
should always be washed as soon as practicable; when the water comes
off clear, wipe the barrel dry, and pass into it a rag moistened with oil.
Fine flour of emery-cloth is the best article to clean the exterior of the
barrel .

To clean the lock. — Wjpe every part with a moist rag, and then a
dry one ; if any part of the interior shows rust, put a drop of oil on
the point or end of a piece of soft wood dipped into flour of emery ;
rub out the rust clean and wipe the surface dry ; then rub every part
with a slightly oiled rag.

To $lean the mountings. — For the mountings, and all iron and
steel parts, use fine flour of emery moistened with oil, or flour of
emery-cloth. For brass, use rotten-stone moistened with vinegar, or
water, and avoid oil or grease. Use a hard brush, or a piece of soft
pine, cedar, or crocus-cloth. Remove dirt from the screw-holes by
screwing a piece of soft wood into them. Wipe clean with a linen
rag, and leave the parts slightly oiled. In cleaning the arms, the
aim should be to preserve the qualities essential to service, rather than
to obtain a bright polish. Burnishing the barrel (or other parts)
should bo strictly avoided, as it tends to crook the barrel, and also to
destroy the uniformity of the exterior finish of the arm.

It is not essential for the musket to be dismounted every time that
it is cleaned ; for, after firing in fine weather, or when dampness could
not get between the barrel and the stock, it can be perfectly cleaned
as follows: Put a piece of rag or soft leather on the top of the cone,
and let the hammer down upon it ; pour a gill of water into the muzzle
carefully, so that it cannot run down the outside ; put a plug of wood
into the muzzle, and shake the gun up and down, changing the water
repeatedly until it runs clear. Then withdraw the leather, and
stand the musket on the muzzle a few moments ; then wipe out the
barrel (as told in the second rule for cleaning), and also wipe the ex-
terior of the lock and the outside of the barrel around the cone and
cone-seat, first with a damp rag, and then with a dry one, and lastly
with a rag that has been slightly oiled. In this way, all dirt from

,-.. MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ann.

firing may be removed without taking out a screw. If, ho

the hammer works stiffly, or grates upon the tumbler, the lock must

immediately be taken off, and the parts cleaned and touched \\ ith oil.

To r+4u»embU At muticet. — The parts of the musket are put to-
gether in the inverse order of taking them apart, viz. : 1st. The barrel.
Drop the barrel into its place in the stock, and squeeze it d..\\n with
the hand ; give the butt of the stock a gentle tap against tin- floor to
settle the breech end of the barrel against the head of the st... .. , 1 1 . , ).
2d. Put on the lower band with the letter U upward, being careful not
to mar the stock, or barrel, in sliding it into its place ; apply the thumb
to the band-spring to see that it plays freely. 3d. Put on tin- midd :
4th. The upper band, in the same manner. 5th. The lock. Half-cock
the hammer ; take the lock in the right hand, with the main spring and
sear toward you, holding the stock with the left hand l.v the swell,
with the butt between the knees. Enter the lock fairly into the lock-
bed, taking care to keep the arm of the sear clear of th press
the plate well down into the wood, and then turn the musk. •
holding the lock and stock together \\ith tin- let! hand. (ith. With the
right hand, turn in the side-screws, after having touched their screw-
threads with oil. Observe that the point of the rear-screw is f«t. and
should not project beyond the plate, to interfere with the hammer.
Th. fp.nt sen w has a round point. 7th. Turn in the tang--
having oiled the screw-thread. Bo careful to sec that each of th.-so
screws are turned firmly home, but not forced. Observe that the lock
plays f iiout friction, ami that no limb is bound by the wood.
Mh. Keturn the ramrod. 9th. Helix the bayonet, after having oiltM
the clasp and socket to prevent chafing. 10th. Replace the tompion.
Oil the flock well with sj.erm or linseed oil; let it stand a lew hours,
and thm rub it with a woollen rag until the wood is perfect I \ flrj . LY-
peat this fr • . time, and it will produce a polish which moisture
will not affect Linseed oil is the best for this purpose, and it should
be used while the arm is dUmmm1

Jin If $ for the mare complete dismount hi ^ nf tic r(t1c-nmskrt.
cbantd by an armorer. — 1st. The parts \\hi.-h should l>e dismounted
by an --d ftrinomr will bo given in their regular Order 1-1-

lowin- 1 Th. Unscrew the cone, keeping the wreneh well

down on the square of the cone, to prevent the corners from being
injured. I •• out the cone-neat screw (<>'). l.'lih. Take out

the upper, middle, and lower bandnprings (52, 53, 54), using a wiro
punch rife 11 | (48). 2$ole. —

The guard, butt-plate, and side-screw heads have concave slits, for

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 43

which the screw-driver is adapted : this lessens the danger of the
stock being marred by accident or carelessness in letting the screw-
driver slip out, while in the act of turning the screw : great care
should be used U> prevent such injuries. 15th. Take out the guard,
and be careful not to injure the wood at each end of the guard-
plate (44). 16th. Take out the side-screw washers (55) with a drift-
punch. 17th. Take out the butt-plate screws (42) with the largest
blade of the screw-driver, and remove the butt-plate (42). 18th. Re-
move the rear sight (12), by turning out the leaf-spring screw (17),
which will release the sight from the barrel. 19th. Turn out the
breech-screw (7), by means of a " breech-screw wrench " suited to the
tenon (b) of the breech- screw (8). No other wrench should ever be
used for this purpose, and the barrel should be held in clamps fitting
neatly the breech (7, a).

In re-assembling the parts, the armorer is to observe the inverse
order of taking them apart, viz. : 1st. Breech-screw to be screwed into
the barrel after being oiled ; 2d. Rear-sight to be affixed ; 3d. Butt-
platfe and screws ; 4th. Side-screw washers ; 5th. Guard ; 6th. Guard-
screws ; 7th. Lower, middle, and upper-band springs ; 8th. Cone-seat
screw ; 9th. Cone. The remaining parts follow as given for the sol-
dier, commencing with the barrel (see page 42).

Order in which the Lock is taken apart. — 1st. Cock the piece, and
put the spring-vice (59) on the mainspring ; give the thumb-screw a
turn sufficient to liberate the spring from the swivel (32) and main-
spring notch (27, c). Remove the spring ; 2d. The sear-spring screw :
Before turning this screw entirely out, strike the elbow of the spring
with the screw-driver, so as to disengage the pivot from its mortise :
then remove the screw and spring ; 3d. The sear-screw and sear ; 4th.
The bridle-screw and bridle ; 5th. The tumbler-screw ; 6th. The tum-
bler. This is driven out with a punch inserted in the screw-hole, which
at the same time liberates the hammer. 7th. Detach the mainspring
swivel from the tumbler with a drift punch. 8th. Take out the feed-
finger and spring. The magazine-cover should never be taken off except
when absolutely necessary ; 9th. The catch-spring and screw. The lock
is re-assembled in the inverse order of taking apart, viz. : 1st. The
catch-spring ; 2d. The feed-finger and spring ; 3d. Mainspring swivel ;
4th. Tumbler and hammer ; 5th. Tumbler-screw ; 6th. Bridle and screw ;
7th. Sear and screw ; 8th. Sear-spring and screw ; 9th. Mainspring.

Before replacing the screws, oil them slightly with good sperm-oil,
putting a drop on the point of the screw ; also on the arbor and pivot
of the tumbler ; between the movable branches of the springs, and the

44 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [AWL

lock-piste ; on the hook and notches of the tumbler. After the lock
i- put together, avoid turning the screws in so hard as to make the
limbs bind: to insure this, try tin* motion of i-aoh limb In-fore and
after its spring is mounted, and see that it moves without friction.
When a lock has, from any cause, become gummed with oil and dirt,
it may be cleaned by being boiled in soapsuds, or in pearl ash or soda
water, to loosen the thick oil ; but heat should never be applied t<» any
part of it in any other way. As rust and dirt are produced by explod-
ing caps or primers, although no charge bo fired, the parts of the bar-
rel and cone exposed should be carefully wiped and oiled after sucji exer-
cise. Besides the precautions in dismounting, remounting, and clean-
ing, which have been pointed out in the foregoing pages, habitual care
in handling arms is necessary to keep them in good and srrv'uval.lc
condition. In ordering arms on parade, let the butt bo brought gently
to the ground, especially on pavements or hard roads. This will save
the mechanism of the lock from shocks, highly injurious to it, from
the loosening of screws and splitting the wood-work.

Rifled arms should not have the ramrod sprung in the bore "with
unnecessary force. It batters the head of the rod and wears injuriously
the grooves. The soldier should let the rod slide down gently, sup-
ported by the thumb and finger ; and the inspecting officer can satisfy
himself of the condition of the bottom of the bore by gently tapping
with the rod. The face of the breech can be polished, aft« r wash!
means of a cork fixed on the wiper or ball-screw ; the polished surface
can be seen if the muzzle is turned to the light.

In slacking arm*, care should be taken not to injure the bayonets

. il.ly straining the edges against each other. The stack can l»e

as well secured without such force being used. No cutting, marking,

or scraping, in any way, the wood or iron should be allowed ; ami no

part of the gun should be touched with a file. Take every pnssil»l«».

care to prevent water from getting in bot\\r, n tho lock, or barrel, ami

stock. If any should get there, dismount the gun as soon as jn.^il.l,-,

.m.l nil tho parts as directed, and see that they are perfectly dry

before re-assembling them.

To plan ad» ><-rt in th« magazine. — Lot down the ham-

mer; Open the map.i Bulling back tin; head of tin- rovr-catch

with the thumb-nail of tho left hand, while the thumb-nail of tho right
hand is pushed under the cover at the bottom. Remove th. oorermg
paper from th«- rimers; separate any parts that may haj-jM-M

:.-th.r; nnwii bj j.la--e th«- coil in the ma-a-

xine, and the free end of it in tin- groove, fiat-side to wan Is the cone,

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 45

and one primer beyond the end of the feed-finger ; close the magazine.
Should an exploded primer fail to ignite the charge, there must be
moisture, or some obstruction, in the vent ; or the gun may be im-
properly loaded. After a night in a damp place, a drop of moisture
sometimes collects in the vent, and, unless removed, prevents the first
primer, or cap, from igniting the charge. If, by accident, a coil of
primers becomes softened by dampness, it can be made good again by
a short exposure to a dry warm atmosphere. Should the cocking of
the hammer fail to feed out properly the primer, open the magazine
and notice, while working the hammer, the cause of the difficulty. It
can generally be readily corrected.

RIFLE-MUSKET (1842). — This arm differs from the original model
in the following particulars : 1st. The bore is grooved. 2d. It has a
rear sight similar to that for the new musket, and a front sight of iron
attached to the upper strap of the upper band. To prevent the band
from moving sideways, a short stud is attached to the under side of the
strap, which fits into a groove in the barrel. 3d. The head of the ram-
rod is reamed out to fit the pointed end of the ball. 4th. The lock is
altered to the Maynard principle, differing from the one described for
the new rifle-musket of 1855, by its size, the absence of the swivel, and
the facts, that the mainspring is fastened by a screw, and the finger
spring by a pin. 5th. To adapt the cone seat to this modified lock, a
portion of the breech of the barrel is cut off, and a new breech piece
with cone seat attached, is screwed on in its place. Breech piece : body,
shoulder, screw thread, chamber (conical), tang, tenon, tang screw hole,
chamfer, notch for side screw, cone seat, vent, vent screw, vent screw
thread, cone thread.

RIFLE-MUSKET (1822). — The bayonet of this arm has no clasp, or
ramrod spring ; in all other respects the nomenclature is the same as
that of the rifle-musket (1842).

PERCUSSION-RIFLE (1841). — The bore of this arm is reamed up and
re-rifled ; it also has a rear sight similar to the rifle-musket of 1855,
and a stud and guide attached for a sword bayonet.

RIFLE (1855). — The exterior size of the barrel is nearly the same
as that of the model of 1841. The barrel has a stud and guide for at-
taching a sword bayonet. The breech and cone seat are finished like
the same parts of the new rifle-musket. Lock : Identical with that of
the new rifle-musket. Hear sight : Similar to that of the new rifle-
musket. Mountings : Similar to those of the new rifle-musket, ,with
the addition of a catch box, smaller than the one on the rifle of 1841.
Ramrod: Similar to the new rifle-musket. Sword bayonet: Blade —

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ Ai v

r, back, edge, bcrel, point, curvature, groove, tang rh
rivet hole, rivet, llilt : Gripe— ridges, back, beak, slot for stiul. sU
for guide, hole for 6nger pie* -r spring screw, hole for riv, t

(tang), mortice for tang : Finger piece — head, notch. Finger piece
spring — blade, screw hole, boss: (fuanl— long and short branch,
knobs, muzzle socket Scabbard: Black leather, with brass band
and tip.

Material*. Steel. — Tumbler, lock swivel, feeding finger, cover a
sear, all the springs, ramrod, blade of sword bayou, t. : v, rear

tight, except screw, cone, screw driver, bull screw an.l wiper. Brags.
--Sword bayonet handle, front sight, and all the mountings. Wood. —
Stock (black walnut), /row.— All tin- remaining parts.

PISTOL-CARBINE (1855). — Barrel: Muzzle, front sight, breech, breech
pin threads, flats, bevels and oval, cone seat, vent, vent screw, bore,
grooves, lands. This barn 1 tapers with a straight line from breeeh to
muzzle. The portion of the flat in rear of the cone seat is parallel to
the axis of the bore. Breech screw: Plug, with threads (16 to the
inch), tenon, shoulders, tang, tang screw hole, bevel sight mortice.
Cone: Same as for musket. Rear sight: Base, ears, joint
screw hole, 1st, 2d, and 3d leaves, 4 sL'ht notches, eye joint, s<-rew
boles. Tang screw : Shoulder. Lock: Same as for rifle-mi;
except in size,which is reduced to conform to a magazine capable of hold-
ing one-half a strip of primers. Mountings : Band, swivel, and .v,
correspond to the middle band, swivel, and spring of the new musket.
Guard plate : Butt nip — screw hole, tang. Butt sf rap — holes for catch
spring and hook, tang, strap, and guard plate screws, shoulders for
breech screw tang, and butt cup tang, r. inton-es for hook, and catch
spring. Cup screw — head, eye. Swivel ring. The remaining mount-
ings are similar to the corresponding parts of the new nlle-nmsk.-t.
Ramrod: Head (riveted on), cup, foot with a female screw, Kamrod
t*irr/; Two side bars, screw, cross bar, riveted into the side bars.
Sloe*: Butt, handle, curve, fecin-s r. inf., re... chase; thoiil.l.r* f,,r Land

p, grooves for barrel and ramrod ; beds for tnng and tenon. ]•>. k,
washer*, guard plate, nuts for guard bow and trigger stud, butt plat.-.
band spring, Up. butt nip an.l strap, butt piece cap, and catch spring,
hook nut; mortices for trigger, hook, and catch sprinir; hole* for PM],
tip rivet, band spring, side screws, tang screw, cup screw, strap screw,

late screws, and cap screws. Buttpirrr : pintr— two wood K<
!!..«. upper and lower tang, screw holes, two woo

Hoi handle, hook, stem, nut; spr screw, head, blade;

finger piece, loop for spring, screw thread, rivet and nut.

ABMY OF U. S.J MILITARY DICTIONARY. 47

Materials. Steel. — Cone, tumbler, lock swivel, finger, sear, lock
springs, band springs, ramrod, except the head, rear sight except screw,
spring catch, screw driver, wiper and ball screw. Brass. — Butt plate,
butt cup, cup, guard plate and bow, band, and tip. Wood. — Stock
and butt piece. Iron. — Head of ramrod, and remaining parts (Con-
sult ORDNANCE MANUAL ; ALLIN'S MANAGEMENT OF RIFLE-MUSKET,
&c. ; SMALL ARMS, 1856.)

ARMY. In its widest signification, Army is the military force of
the state. It is the active and paid portion of the militia. It is an
assemblage of agents and instruments proper and necessary to carry
on war abroad, or suppress insurrection and repel - invasion at home.
The MILITARY ART organizes and combines its elements, and gives
force and activity to armies.

In the United States, Congress raises, supports, governs, and regu-
lates armies. RAISING is the prescribed means of organizing and collect-
ing ; SUPPORTING is the system of administration ; GOVERNMENT consists
in the creation of a hierarchy, with rules for rewarding and punishing ;
and REGULATION embraces the precise determination of methodical rights
and duties, including the systems of tactics to be practised. Different
armies are designated as follows : Standing or Regular Army ; Army
in the field ; Army of Observation ; Army of Invasion ; Army of Oc-
cupation ; Besieging Army ; Covering Army ; Offensive Army ; De-
fensive Army ; Army of the East ; Army of Mexico ; Army of Re-
serve, &c. The military art divides Armies into different ARMS ; upon
the theatre of war, it assembles an army in one or in many camps or
cantonments ; it links the army to a BASE by means of a LINE OF
OPERATIONS ; during the course of its movements, the army rests upon
fortresses or entrenched camps ; marches in combined columns, or
columns in mass ; for battle, it is distributed into Army Corps, Divi-
sions, Brigades, and Battalions, and upon the day of action it is assem-
bled between an advanced and rearguard, and flanking parties. The
advance guard clears away the front, and secures all defiles ; the rear-
guard watches over the safety of communications, and the flanking par-
ties secure the flanks. The military art ranges an army according
to circumstances ; it determines the calibre of the ordnance, and the
manner of using it. Laws and lawful orders are the basis of the daily
duties of troops. Orders of the day direct movements ; breaking up
camps ; maintain discipline ; and provide for, and watch over, the
distribution of supplies.

ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES— (ORGANIZATION OF THE).

I-

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Y or U.

• d

-. '_•

•5 3

M^drocate.
| luepaoior pfimiral
IQinrteniiMtor^.Mr.1.
Aariat. Qpartermnatan fenr ral

| Quartvrmactcra,
Auistant yuartcnnaatcra.

ill}! Illj
llll

•— «•— '

a
14g

1 1 8°8

1 885 .

•l!T* ••'•-'

Ordnance Department.

•' • r - - . •

Two Regttnenta of Cavalry

fegtattt of Mooted Riflemen

F oar tUftmenU of Artillery ,

Ten R«fln»»nU of Infantry

».. ,...11 ... JU. .-,-

l4Ullllii4tt

1188 8680188528

fjSiamJ^Mftr? Af^Ul't*t*1>*r^{~y m
^P^l belaw HM! od«d In Uwlr atrencth. are. to a

ttS3!USSFteStt'#&KS ».«,»< p-c

^wataSftacSS&^^Z'aSsS

•v-olpllt

•

xclndc<l, a»
.-^; and
the

AKMY OF U. S.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

. §

Adjutants.

i
i

c
<p

First Lieutenants.

Second Lieutenants.

Sergeant Majors.

Quartermaster Sergeants.

Principal or Chief Musicians.

"bl

Ordnance Sergeants.

Hospital Stewards.

Corporals.

B*
1

£
2
p

Artificers.

Enlisted men of Ordnance.

Total commissioned.

Total enlisted.

Aggregate. t

2
40
11
175
28
146
39
454

107

" '&'

4 13
6
4 17

4 17

••

12
10
12

11
8
1

8
e
3

...

46
39

100

400

4 20

••

1,000

—

1,230

1,304

4 20

e
4

••

1,000

1,230

765

1,304

2 10

e
1

640

801

8 48

d
4

e
5

••

192192

••

h
2,148

213

2,732

2,945

20100

100

e
4

-•

400

200

4,200

...

844

5,240

5,584

50245

I,?

d
19280

213

7:;

802 802

100

298

9,066

400

1,085

11,838

12,923

(&) By the act of March 3, 1853, section 9, a Lieutenant of Engineers, Topographical Engineers,
and Ordnance, ha'ving served "fourteen years' continuous service as Lieutenant," is entitled to pro-
motion to the rank of Captain ; but such promotion is not to increase the whole number of Officers,
iu either of said corps, beyond the number previously fixed by law.

(c) The Jire Aids-dc-camp, being taken from regiments, in the strength of which they are in-
cluded, are, to avoid counting them twice, excluded, as Staff officers, from the columns, "total com-
missioned,'' and " aggregate "

(d) The Adjutants of Artillery and Infantry (14), and all the Regimental Quartermasters (19),

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[AJUIT or U. &

ComayofUfbtAr
Ommtrny of Artillery

•The

tderstood to consist of OM Light and «/•««» Heavy companies.

. f..r In their p.n-er.il reclment.* n< belonging t
8Ui/ officers, from the columns M total commissioned," and "ag-

>r the 4th section of the act of April », 1818, "making further provision f..r th, <
r**aOM Brvvet Beooad Lieutenant Is allowed to every "«:«.m|,:uiy." Tho number authorize,! is, con-
teaUy. «ww kmmdrtd and *>n,iv.ninf. The number, now attach, .1 t.. th- A: :
\f) Bytaeact of April MM*, section 3d, Mi>t fixation of

••py tf» MMber ^.P*****"*? 8«nr«*nu cannot cxcved "on* for each military ]>oat" The number,

(f ) By Ike MI of A«nrt 1C, 1864. section 2-!. •• {.rovMing for a nrcrwary Increase and better organization
•f UM Mi J oal a»d H«p4Ul Departmeat of tin- \rn.v." th,- numlH-r of ll,»spltal Stewards cannot exceed "<m«
«uf eMfc Military poet * Tb» nanber. actually In service. In *ixty-tight.

.'•»• eowpiMle* la UM let and Sd. and »• ats of artUlery, being

Majafii • Ltekt Artlll*ry. are allowed. In con
per e««m*ay. *ee act -to lacreaee the rai k and ilio of the Am

(O By UM art of Jane 17. 1«0, " to IncreMP the rank and fllo . f tl- Army." AT., section 2,1. tl
deal M aathortftxl. waeejever UM cxIflaadM of the service require it, to increase to ttrtnty-four, t;..-

r of Mlvale* la aay oooipaair, -M-rvInc at the
MrtdtotaAtalaUoM." fiitae table. 1 1,» n.inin

f l>rag» J»k eto^Amr to a company . .

If all tae cwmrank^i belon^lnc to "refflmi-ntV (I&M were serving at distant sta-
-w«*Wbel7AH,a»dtae-afrrr.

mbof of oOorn In the army, l.ut not their rank: tl I

> brevet

Deportment, and

• rrv Four Burgeon* and f t.i have been n<

oM8l«MaO(DoercMU«d, with the rank of M;jor, since .the preparation of

ARM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 51

The most glaring deficiency in the military legislation of the United
States, is the want of a GENERAL LAW, regulating the organization of
all troops that Congress may see fit to raise, so that, upon adding to,
or diminishing, the public force in any emergency, it will be only
necessary to prescribe what number of men are to be added or taken
away. This general law should embrace general officers, staff corps,
and departments, engineers, and regiments of cavalry, artillery, and
infantry ; it should establish rules of promotion and appointment ; it
should regulate the recruiting service ; it should provide for the re-
pression of military crimes and disorders ; it should not fail to stimu-
late the appetite for rewards ; it should make just rules concerning
captures, which would recognize the rights of captors ; it should regu-
late the indemnification for losses; and it should provide for the
organization of a suitable board, which would take advantage of all
improvements in the military art and suggest, from time to time, such
modifications of the general law as might appear just and proper. In
respect to Army Organization, there are two acts of Congress of the
general character here suggested. One, an act to regulate the medical
establishment, approved March 2, 1799 ; and the second, an act for the
better organizing of the troops of the United States, and for other pur-
poses, approved March 3, 1799. Both of these acts were drawn by
Alexander Hamilton, as he explained in a letter to the Secretary of
War, " as permanent rules to attach to all provisions of law for the
increase or diminution of the public force." Subsequent legislation
has, however, without providing any other permanent rule regulating
the organization in respect to general officers, staff corps, and depart-
ments, &c., according to the increase or diminution of force, almost
entirely superseded the provisions of the remarkable acts here referred
to. (See ARTICLES OF WAR.)

ARMY REGULATIONS— a book so called, published in the
name of the President of the United States " for the government of all
concerned." The Constitution provides that " Congress shall have
power to make rules for the government and regulation of the Land and
Naval forces." The only acts of Congress in force, authorizing the
President to make regulations, better defining the powers and duties of
officers, are contained in the 5th section of the act of March 3, 1813,
and the 9th section of the act approved April 26, 1816. The first of
these acts is an act for the better organization of the general staff of
the army, and the second relates (with the exception of the last section,
concerning forage and private servants) to the same subject. By the
5th section of the act of 1813, it is provided, " That it shall be tho

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ARM.

duty of the Secretary of the War Department, and ho is hereby au-
thorised, to prepare general regulations, better defining and prescribing
the respective duties and powers of the several officers in the adjutant-
general, inspector-general, quartermaster-general, and commissa
ordnance departments, of the topographical engineers, of the aides of
generals, and generally of the general and regimental staff; which regu-
lations, when approved by the President of the United States, shall be
respected and obeyed, until altered or revoked by the same authority.

•he said general regulations, thus prepared and approved, shall be
laid before Congress at their next session/'

Remarking here, that the regulations to be prepared and approved
refer only to the powers and duties of the officers of the several staff
departments, enumerated in the act, it follows that no other n •nulations
made by the President can derive any force whatever from this act.
The 9th section of the act of 1816 therefore only continued this then
existing power of the President in providing " That the. several oflicers
of the staff shall r.-pectively nveive the pay and emoluments, and re-
tain all the privileges, secured to the staff of the Army, by the act of
March 3, 1813, and not incompatible with the provisions of this act:
and that the regulations in force before the reduction of the Army be
recognized, as far as the same shall be found applicable to the service ;
subject, however, to such alterations as the Secretary of War may
adopt, with the approbation of the President." It would se. in, thcre-

•!iat whatever may be contained in th«- President's Army regula-
tions of a legislative, character concerning officers of the Army, not
belonging to staff departments, must, if valid, be a legitimate deduc-
tion from some positive law, or depend for its legality upon the «

i'»rity delegated to the constitutional commander-in-chirf or otli.-r
military commander, in the rules made by <

ment of the Army. Congress has delegated to the President, authority
to prescribe the uniform < f the Army ; authority to establish the ra-
tion; and besides the authority given by law to other military com-
mander*, he also has been author ieve, in ses,«n
inefficient military commander from duty with any command ; 1«>
assign sny senior to duty with mixed corps, so that the command may
fill by law on such senior in rank ; to limit the discretion of command-
ing officers in special canes, in regard to what is needful for •
and hence also he has been given authority to carve out sj
tnands from general commands, in particular cases ; (r,2d

» These are all-important functions, but they do not authori/e
ea$€9 to be made general rules, and it is much to be regretted

ARR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 53

that the lines of separation between regulations and the orders of the
commander-in-chief have not been kept distinct. (See COMMAND; CON-
GRESS; OBEDIENCE; ORDERS. Consult opinions of Attorneys-general,
particularly the opinion of Mr. Berrien, July 18, 1839.)

ARREARS OF PAY. The troops shall be paid in such manner
that the arrears shall, at no time, exceed two months, unless the cir-
cumstances of the case shall render it unavoidable ; (Act March 16,
1802 ; Act March 3, 1813.) This provision of law has been strangely
executed by never paying troops oftener than once in two months, and
not unfrequently neglecting to pay them for a much longer time.

ARREST IN ORDER TO TRIAL. Before an officer or sol-
dier, or other person subject to military law, can be brought to trial,
he must be charged with some crime or offence against the rules and
articles of war, and placed in arrest. The articles of war direct that
whenever any officer shall be charged with a crime, he shall be arrested
and confined in his barracks, quarters, or tent, and deprived of his
sword by the commanding officer. And that " non-commissioned offi-
cers and soldiers, charged with crimes, shall be confined until tried
by a court-martial, or released by proper authority ; " (ARTS. 77, 78.)
The arrest of an officer is generally executed through a staff-officer ; by
an adjutant, if ordered by the commanding officer of a regiment ; or
by an officer of the general staff, if ordered by a superior officer ; and
sometimes by the officer with whom the arrest originates. On being
placed in arrest, an officer resigns his sword. If this form be some-
times omitted, the custom is invariably observed, of an officer in arrest
not wearing a sword. By the custom of the army, it is usual, except in
capital cases, to allow an officer in arrest the limits of thft garrison or even
greater limits, at the discretion of the commanding officer, who regu-
lates his conduct by the dictates of propriety and humanity. A non-
commissioned officer or soldier is confined in charge of a guard ; butj
by the custom of the service, the non-commissioned staff and sergeants
may be simply arrested. The articles of war declare, " that no officer
or soldier, who shall be put in arrest or imprisonment, shall continue
in his confinement more than eight days, or until such time as a court-
martial can be conveniently-assembled ; (ART. 79.) The latter part of
this clause evidently allows a latitude, which is capable of being abused ;
but, as in a free country there is no wrong without a remedy, an action
might be brought against the offender in a civil court, (See INJURIES,)
if the mode of redress for all officers and soldiers, who conceive them-
selves injured by their commanding officer, be not sufficient. (ARTS.
34, 35.)

MILITARY DICTIONARY [ARE.

It is declared by the articles of war, that " no officer commanding
a guard, or provost-marshal, shall refuse to receive or keep any prisoner
committed to his charge, by any officer belonging to the forces of the

1 States ; provided, the officer committing shall, at the same time,
deliver an account in writing, signed by himself, of the crime with which
the said prisoner is charged ; " and it is also declared, that "no oilicer
commanding a guard, or provosUmarshal, shall presume to releas
prisoner committed to his charge, without proper authority i
doing, nor shall ho suffer any person to escape, on the penalty of bring
•MX! for it by the sentence of a court-martial. Every officer or
provost-marshal, to whose charge prisoners shall be committed, shall,
within twenty-four hours after such commitment, or as soon as he shall
be relieved from his guard, make report in writing, to the commanding
officer, of their names, their crimes, and the names of the officers who
committed them, on the penalty of being punished f«>r disobedi.
neglect, at the discretion of a court-martial ; (ARTS. 80, 81, 82.)
Thus the liberty of the citizen, under military law, so far as is con-
with the ends of justice, seems to be guarded with precautions little

which secure personal liberty under the civil l.i
tile state. The penalty of an officer's breaking his arrest, or leaving his
confinement before he is set at liberty by his commanding officer. <>r by
a superior officer, is declared to be cashiering by s
court-martial; (ART. 77.) A court-martial has no control over the
nature of the arrest of a prisoner, except as to his personal freed
court; the court cannot, even to facilitate hi* defence, inter'
cause a close arrest to be enlarged. The officer in command is alone
responsible for tin- prisoners under his charge. Individuals pla-
arrest, may be released, without being brought before a court-martial ;
by the authority ordering the arrest, or by superior authority. It is
•M the commander to place an officer in arrest, on ap-
plication to thnt effect from an officer under his command. He will
ttM*dse a sound discretion on the subject. But in all applications for
redress of supposed grievances inflicted by a superior, it will be his

in case he shall not deem it proper to order an investigation, to
give his reasons in writing, for declining to a< t ; thetC if not

Mtis&ctory, the complain may, should he think fit so to do,

forward to the next common superior, together with a copy of 1
plies' dress. An officer has no right to demand a court-

martial, either on hims«-lff or on others; the. gcneral-in-chi, f or ollieer
competent to order a court, being the judge of its necessity or pro-

. Nor has any officer, who may have been placed in arrest, any

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 55

right to demand a trial, or to persist in considering himself under ar-
rest, after he shall have been released by proper authority. An officer
under arrest will not make a visit of etiquette to the commanding
officer, or other superior officer, or call on him, unless sent for ; and in
case of business, he will make known his object in writing. It is con-
sidered indecorous in an officer in arrest to appear at public places.

ARREST BY CIVIL AUTHORITY. By section 21, Act January 11,
1812, no non-commissioned officer, musician, or private, can be arrested
on mesne process, or taken or charged in execution for any debt con-
tracted before enlistment under twenty dollars, nor for any debt what-
ever, contracted after enlistment. (See MESNE PROCESS.)

ARSENAL. A place of deposit for ordnance and ordnance stores.
There are also arsenals of construction and repairs. (See ORDNANCE.)

ARTICLES OF WAR. There can be no doubt that the prerog-
ative to command and regulate the whole military force of the king-
dom, whether consisting of the feudal tenants, or of the militia, or of
paid troops, resided in the Crown of England. Nevertheless the power
of the sovereign was restricted by a provision, that he should exercise
his military jurisdiction only " according to the laws and usages of
the realm." In the reign of Edward VI., however, parliament as-
serted authority over military matters by passing an act for the
government of the army ; various offences, as losing, selling, or fraudu-
lently exchanging horses or armor ; desertion ; detaining the pay of
soldiers ; and taking rewards for granting them discharges, were put
under the jurisdiction of the civil magistrate. It was also provided
that the act should be read once a month by every field officer to the
soldiers under his command, and once a quarter by the governor or
captain of every garrison or fortress. At this period, however, there
was no standing army, the feudal system was still in force, every man
in the realm was more or less a soldier ; military law was accord-
ingly restricted to such persons as were actually serving in the field,
the process of civil judicature being obviously inapplicable to their
case — but directly the soldier ceased to belong to the force in actual
campaign, the civil power stepped in and claimed cognizance of his
offences.

Until the Civil War in the reign of Charles I., it is probable that no
regular permanent code of rules or articles for enforcing military disci-
pline was in existence ; the ruling authority had promulgated its orders
for the government and regulation of the army as occasion required.
Each war, each expedition, had its own edict, which fell into disuse again
upon the disbanding of the army, which inevitably followed the cessa-

MILITARY DICTIONARY. AKT .]

tion of hostilities. Several instances, indeed, of rules and ordinances
for military government l>y the ancient kings are still >ne of

Richard I., for the government of those going by sea to tin Ib.!\ Land.
is to be found in Kym. r's Fosdcra. An elaborate code of "statutes,
ordonnances, and cuM«>ms to be observed in the army," made in tin- I'th
year of Kiehard II., is to be found among tlic Cottonian MS. in tin- Brit-
ish Museum— and those of Henry V., Henry VII., am! 1 1. my VIII.,
have not been lost.

The experience of ages and the precedents of former wars, there-

nahlcd the authorities to frame a sufliei. ntly compn hensive code
Incase of nrrd ; accordingly, soon after the outbreak of the civil \\ar.the
necessities of the case compelled the parliament to enact ordinances
or articles of war. The first complete " Lawes and Ordinances of
Warrt" (as he called them) were i*sn. d by Essex, the commander-in-
chicf of the parliamentary army in h'-IJ. The-.- articles are remark-
able an<l int. -n stint:, as undoubtedly forming the groundwork of
now in use. T\\» \ the publication of Essex's ord'n .

on the marching of the Scott i-h army into England, soon ;:fi,.r the
ratification of the solemn league and covenant, '• Articles ,,f War"

issued for its government. These articles, although very dis-
similar to those of I •-.. 001 dderl L: that both were in fV.ivc in
the same kingdom at the same time, and were applicable to armies
fighting on the same side, nevertheless treat mainly of the same
offences. The C>rm of judicature established, consisted of two courts
died "<'., uneils of War," the one superior, and the other
inferior. The superior court, also called the " Court of War," took
Cognizance of the more serious ofT-nees, and likewise heard appeals from
tbo decision of the lower court, called the " Marshal Court." N.
of the constitution of th, so courts is now to be found except that
judges were sworn to do justice.'' Within a f.-w months of the pro-

•»"n of tl, I . 1644,) tho same parliame!

the author f if the pe< ,| aii ordinance, establishing a

system of martial law. applicable n.it only to soldiers, but to all per-
sons alike. By this ordinanee, t|,,. ]:;irj ()f ]•%., N, .-aptain-ijciieral of the
parliamentary forces, together with fifty-six ..tli.-rs nam.d therein,
were peers, meml>ors : • II..nse of ( 'ominous, gentry,
of tho army.) \\.-re nmstitutp.l ^commissioners," and any

I of th.-iii auth'.ri/ d to hear nnd determine, all sneh causes as
Mbelong to military cognizanc*'," acconlini» to the artiel.-s m.-iitione.-l
in tho ord d to proceed to the trial, condemnation, •„

. "f all offenders against tho said articles, and to inflict upon

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 57

them such punishment, either by death or otherwise, corporally, as
the said commissioners, or the major part of them then present,
should judge to appertain to justice, according to the measure of the
offence. Under cover of this ordinance, which, after one refusal by the
peers, was subsequently renewed, parliament proceeded to issue a vari-
ety of orders for the conduct of the war, and the regulation of the army ;
and many persons were tried by court-martial and executed. After the
expiration of this last ordinance, the absolute executive power, in all mat-
ters of military law, fell into the hands of Cromwell, who claimed it as
his right, in virtue of his office of general-in-chief. " The general," says
Whitlocke, " sent his order to several garrisons, to hold courts-martial,
for the punishment of soldiers offending against the articles of war ; pro-
vided that if any be sentenced to lose life or limb, that then they transmit
to the judge-advocate the/examinations and proceedings of the court-
martial, that the General's pleasure may be known thereon."' On one
occasion, deeming it necessary for the sake of discipline, to make an
immediate example, Cromwell seized several officers with his own
hand, called a court-martial on the field, condemned them to death,
and shot one forthwith at the head of his regiment. It will thus
be seen, that the administration of martial law was almost inva-
riably in the hands of the most considerable power in the state — it
alternated between king and parliament, and -between parliament and
dictator, as each became uppermost in the realm. On the restoration
of Charles II., the army, with the exception of about five thousand men,
consisting of General Monk's regiment called " the Coldstream," the
first regiment of foot, the royal regiment of Horse Guards, called " the
Oxford Blues," and a few other regiments, was disbanded. The force
kept on foot was die first permanent military force, or " standing army,"
known in England ; and from it the present army dates its origin.

A statute passed in the reign of Charles II., intituled, " An act
for ordering the forces in' the several counties of this kingdom,"
recites that, " within all his majesty's realms and dominions, the sole
and supreme power, government, command, and disposition of the
militia, and of all forces by sea and land, and of all forts and places of
strength is, and by the laws of England ever was, the undoubted right
of hie majesty, and his royal predecessors, kings and queens of Eng-
land." With the exception of some slight encroachment on the part
of the Crown, and protests on the part of the parliament, matters re-
mained in very much the same state till the revolution, at which period
military law assumed a permanent and definite form, as it now exists.
The only allusions to the military power of the Crown, in the Bill of

58 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ART.

Rights, are, " that the raising and keeping of a standing army in time
of peace, without constnt of parliament, is contrary to 1 ! that

** subjects, if Protestants, may have arms for their defence, suitable to
their condition, an 1 as allowed by law." In the first year, however,
of the reign of NVilliam ui ;i regiments, jealous of tfce sup-

posed preference shown by William for his Dutch troops, ninth.:
Ipswich. The king suppressed tho mutiny with :i strong hand, at the
same time communicating the event to parliament. Parliament, anxious
to devise means for the convenient application of a code of laws t',.r tho
regulation and management of the army, and at the same time

i to place a check upon tin- exercise of the military power of the
king, passed, on tho 3d April, 1689, for a period of six months only,
the first mutiny act, the preamble, of which is as follows:

•• Whereas, the raising or keeping a standing army within this
kingdom'-, in time of peace, unlesse it be with tho consent of Parlya-
ment, is against law; ami whereas it is ju \. by tlirir

majestyes an 1 this present parlyarncnt that, during this time of warr,
severall of the forces which are now on foote should bo continued ami
others raised, for the safety of tho kingdomo, for the common <!
of the. Protestant religion, and for the reducing of Ireland. And
whereas no man can be prejudged of life or limb, or subjected to any
kinde of punishment by inartiall law, or in any other manner than by
the judgment of his pe.-i-.-». an 1 according to the knowne and established
lawes of this real me ; yet, nevertheless, it beini: requisite for retaining
such forces as are or shall bo raised during this exigence of afia
their duty, that an exact discipline be observed ; and that soldiers \\h<>
shall mutiny or stirr up sedition, or who shall desert their ma;
service, be brought to more exemplary and speedy punishment than
the usual formes of law will all

The act provides for the assembling and constitution of court s mar-
tial, for the oath of m«-mb.-rs f> the punishment of desertion, mutiny,
sedition, false musters, Are.; f,,r the regulation of billets; ami is or-
dered to be read at the head of every regiment, troop, or company, at
every miuter. " that noe soldier may pretend ignorance." No power
is, however, reserved to the sovereign to make articles of w:>.r. This
•ct was renewed soon after its expiration; and with the exception of
•bout throe years only. viz.. from 10th April. 1W8. to 20th February.
has bwi annually ro-onac'ed (with many alterations and amend-
ments) ever since. Tbe firat statutory recognition of articles of war,
occurs in the 1st Anne, statute ., a clause, which saves to hit

majesty the right of making articles of war, for tho regulation of her

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 59

forces " beyond the seas in time of war." It is not until the 3d Geo.
1, c. 2, that we find the sovereign distinctly empowered by the mutiny
act to make articles of war for the government of the troops at home.
A clause in that act, after reciting that no effectual provision has been
made for the government of his majesty's land forces, empowers the
king to make and constitute, under his sign manual, articles for the
better government of his majesty's forces, " as well within the king-
doms of Great Britain and Ireland as beyond the seas." This privilege
has been annually re-enacted, and annually exercised by the Crown to
the present day.

Under the Constitution of the United States, Congress only can
make rules of government and regulation for the land forces, and those
rules, commonly called Articles of War, were originally borrowed
jointly from the English mutiny act annually passed by parliament,
and their articles of war established by the king. The existing
articles for the government of the army of the United States, en-
acted April 10, 1806, are substantially the same as those originally
borrowed July 30, 1775, and enlarged by the old Congress from the
same sources, Sept. 20, 1776. The act consists of but three sections.
The first declares : The following shall be the rules and articles by
which the armies of the United States shall be governed ; " and gives
one hundred and one articles, all noticed in these pages. Each article
is confined, in express terms, to the persons composing the army. The
second SECTION contains the only exception in the cases as follows : " In
time of war, all persons, not citizens of, or owing allegiance to, the
United States of America, who shall be found lurking, as spies, in or
about the fortifications or encampments of the armies of the United
States, or any of them, shall suffer death, according to the law and
usage of nations, by sentence of a general court-martial." The third
section merely repeals the previous act for governing the army.

The Articles of War, therefore, are, and under th< Constitution of
the United States can be, nothing more than a code for the government
and regulation of* the army. On, in other words, within the United
States, these articles are " a system of rule superadded to the common
law, for regulating the citizen in his character of a soldier," and appli-
cable to no other citizens. Beyond the United States another code is
essential ; for, although armies take with them the Rules and Articles of
War, and the custom of war in like cases — in a foreign country, the
soldier must be tried by some tribunal for offences which at home
would be punishable by the ordinary courts of law. It is impossible
to subject him to any foreign dominion, and hence, in the absence of

00 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ART.

rules made by Congress for the government of the army under such
circuiiisuuoes, the wUl of the commander of the troops, ex necessitate
rei, takes the place of law, and the declaration of his will is called
MARTIAL LAW. (See MARTIAL LAW.)

The most casual reader of our Articles of War will be struck by
the fact, thi* whereas the mutiny act of Great Britain is annually sub-
jected to the supervision of parliament, and altered or modified accord-
ing to circumstances, yet the Rules ami Articles of War, passed in 1806,
have remained upon our statute b<><>k from that day to the present
ut any general revision. Another fact equally important is, that
while the king of Great Britain not only commands, but gover
British army, and then-tore mo.lifiea the government of the army at
his pleasure, the President of the United States is simply the
mander of our army, under such rules for raising, supporting, gov-
erning, and regulating it, as Congress may appoint. Tho necessity of
attention to the military establishment on the part of Congr

lanifrst, and it is most earnestly to bo hope.l that, in their
wisdom they will, at some early day, fulfil their constitutional obliga-
tions of raising, governing, and regulating armies : 1. By establishing
• system of recruiting which will bring into the ranks, soldiers who
will make good officers; 2. By providing that all commissioned offi-
cers shall be appointed from enlisted soldiers, or from military acad-
emies, and making rules precisely regulating the manner in win. h
mich appointments shall bo made ; 3. In making rules for a system of
promotion partly by seniority, and partly by merit; 4. In passing
other remunerative laws, such as prize money, field allowances, indem-
nification for losses, ozc. ; 5. In accurately defining the powers, rights
and soldiers; 6. In providing remedies for

wrongs, including appeals to federal civil courts, to determine the true
exposition ,,f military laws in dispute; and 7. In revfabg th
code, and better adapting it to a system of government whieh will pro-
wards for good conduct, and not simply punishments for bod.
Sff ABAXDOSISO A POST; ABSENCE wn , . i I.KAVE; ABSENCE wmi
LEAVE; ABUSES AND DISORDERS; ALARMS; AMMUNITION; APPEAL;
.\K%|f. AWAY;) ARREST; BREACH OF ARREST; BREVET; P.KIHK

t; BOOTY; CASTING AWAY; CERTIFICATES OF Mr
TKS, (FALSE;) CHALLENGES, (DIFFER i. NT KINDS;) CHAPLAIN;
COMMAND ; CONDUCT .so AN OFFICER AND A GENTLEMAN ; CON-

TFM. T ; CORPORAL; CORRESPONDENCE, i

AH ENEMY;) COURTS-MARTIAL, AND REFERENCES UNDER THVI
COURTS OF INQUIRY ; COWARDICE ; CRIMES ; CUSTOM OF WAR ; P>

AKT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 01

DECEASED •, DEPARTMENT ; DEPOSITION OF WITNESSES ; DETACHMENT ;
DESERTION ; DISCHARGE ; DISMISSION ; DISOBEDIENCE ; DISORDERS ;
DISRESPECT ; DRUNKENNESS ; DUELS ; EMBEZZLEMENT ; ENGINEERS ;
ENLISTMENTS ; ENTICING ; EXACTIONS ; FALSE ; FRAUDS ; FRAYS ;
FURLOUGHS ; GENERAL OFFICERS ; GRIEVANCES ; HARBORING AN
ENEMY ; HIRING OF DUTY ; INJURING PRIVATE PROPERTY ; JUDGE-
ADVOCATE ; JURISDICTION; LEAVE; LINE; LYING OUT OF CAMP OR
QUARTER ; MENACING ; MILITIA ; MISBEHAVIOR ; MITIGATION ; MONEY ;
MONTHLY RETURNS ; MUSTERS ; MUTINY ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OF-
FENCES NOT SPECIFIED ; OFFICERS ; ORDERS ; PARDON ; PAROLE : PIL-
LAGE ; POST ; PRESIDENT ; PRISONER ; PROCEEDINGS ; PROMULGATION ;
PROVOST-MARSHAL ; QUARRELS ; RANK ; REDRESSING WRONGS ; RE-
ENLISTING ; REFUSAL TO RECEIVE PRISONERS ; RELEASING PRISONERS ;
RELIEVING AN ENEMY ; REPROACHFUL SPEECHES ; RETAINERS ; RE-
TURNS ; SAFEGUARD ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SELLING ; SENTENCE ; SEN-
TINEL ; SPIES ; STAFF ) STATE TROOPS ; STORES ; STRIPES ; STANDING
ARMY ; SUBSCRIBING ; SUSPENSION ; SUTLERS ; TRIALS ; UPBRAIDING ;
VIOLENCE ; WASTE OR SPOIL ; WATCHWORD ; WITNESS ; WORSHIP ;
WRONGS ; and references under the heading of Law, all military laws
being rules for the government and regulation of the army, although
they may also include other matters. (Consult PIPON'S MANUAL OF
MILITARY LAW.)

ARTIFICER. Military workman ; two allowed to each com-
pany of artillery.

ARTILLERY. The word is more ancient than the use of powder,
and was applied to machines of war, and all projectiles that the masters
of artillery had under their direction. In foreign armies the word Ar-
tillery is still indifferently applied to an arm of the service, the ma-
terial used, and branch of science. By Artillery in the U. S. army is
usually, but not always, meant an arm of the service, designed to use
mountain, field, and heavy ordnance, and the knowledge requisite for such
use. There are four regiments of Artillery in our army, in each of which
the law authorizes two companies to be equipped as harnessed batteries ;
(See ARMY, for their organization.) The remaining companies are, from
supposed necessities of service, usually employed as infantry, but- their
name, and liability at any time to become artillerists, must cause officers
not to neglect such knowledge of their arm as may be derived from
books, and the establishment of the school of practice at Fort Monroe
cannot fail to have the happiest effects in making skilful artillerists.
The instructions for field artillery, and heavy and mountain artillery,
are contained in books published by the War Department, one called

i;-J MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Aw.

a Instruction for Field Artillery, I loree and Foot," aiidai Heavy

Artillery** being " -a complete system of instruction for Si
sou, Sea coast and Mountain Artillery," and a third "Evolutions of
Field Artillery," by Major Kobi-rt AndKMtt.

Competition of a fold battery on the war establishment. — Four 12-
pounders or four six-pounder guns, and two 24-pounders or 12-poumler
howitzers. Six pieces mounted to eaeh battery. Carriages including
caissons, spare gun-carriages, forges, and battery wagons, accompany
each battery, together with implements and equipments specified in
the ordnance manual. Draught horses, six to each battery wagon,
and 12-pounder gun-carriage, four to other carriages, and one twelfth
spare. Harness corresponding to the number of horses to the
carriage.

Tactics. — A battery going into lino with other troops, is usually
formed in column of sections, and deployed into line as the enemy is
approached. Under ordinary circumstances the best formation is the
column doubled on the centre section, as the deploy is then toward both
wings at the same time, and more promptly performed. Unl
extreme cases, the cannoneers should never be mounted on the boxes
when the battery is within range of the enemy, as the explosion of a
caisson might destroy nearly every cannoneer belonging to a piece.
When several batteries are united, they are formed by sections in one
or several parallel columns, or in double columns on the centre, or still
. in two columns joined, and presenlinj: a front, of four pieces
with the same intervals as in line. Sometimes they are formed in close
column with a front of four or six pieces, and the batteries bcinir spaced
a distance apart equal to the interval between two pieees. When de-
ployed, the d'lHt.r en the batteries is double this. "When h»rse-
artill.-ry ami mounted batteries are placed together, the former are
placed on the Nungs, and the distances and intervals of the \\holo con-
M of hor>e-artillery ; as in manoeuvring no regard is paid
to inversion*, it frequently happens that the batteries chain:'' their
>o positions, and it is then necessary that eaeh span- should be
largo enough to contain a horse-artillery battery. A el..-.- eoluimi of
several batteries is deployed in the same manner as a column of eav-
the leading battery moving oil* at an increased put, a'nd the
Others, obliquing to the ri^ht or left, j»nin their inlet-sals and f.i m in
line or battery to the front as usual. The changes of front to fire to
the right and left oro, mn<le on the \\in^s in the same manner as with a
single battery ; but it i-< better to make these changes on the <-. ntns
y. But four of these changes are pra< ti< able, viz., two to fire to

AKT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 63

the right by throwing the left wing to the front or rear, and two to fire
to the left by throwing the right wing to the front or rear. In the
other four changes of front, the pivot pieces would be masked by the
rest of the carriages, and could not commence their fire soon enough.
On this account the pivot carriages, in these changes, should be on the
side towards which the fire is to be delivered. In defensive battles,
the contour of the ground is of the first importance, and if properly
taken advantage of, may be made to double the force and importance
of artillery.

Artillery, held in reserve, arriving in mass or deployed upon the
field of battle, occupies positions determined by circumstances and
localities. Heights and commanding positions should be secured, and
those positions, also, from which an oblique fire may be obtained upon the
enemy. In a defensive position, those points are sought from whence the
enemy may be discovered at the greatest distance. Advantage should be
taken of all local circumstances to render the artillery fire most effective,
and at the same time shelter it from the fire of the enemy. The guns
should be placed, if possible, under cover. This is easily effected upon
heights, by keeping them so far back that the muzzles only are to be seen
over them. Ravines, banks, ditches, &c., also offer facilities for the pur-
pose. The perfection to which the materiel of field artillery has been,
brought, gives it comparatively great mobility of action ; but large quan-
tities of ammunition must be consumed to attain any positive result from
its employment in battle. The transportation of this ammunition with
an army involves serious economical considerations, constituting no small
impediment to armies, from the number of horses, wagons, caissons,
&c., required for each battery. The improvements made in the mate-
riel of artillery will not, therefore, in all probability, cause a more fre-
quent employment of light batteries; but on the contrary, the long
range which has been given to the rifle and musket, and the facility
with which the horses and gunners of field batteries may be picked off
at 1,000 yards, will probably cause even the rifled field gun to become
an arm of RESERVE, which brought up at a decisive moment may influence
the result of a battle, defend entrenchments against attack, and be use-
fully employed against isolated field works.

Smooth-bore field pieces, fired at a distance of five or six hundred
yards, will penetrate from one yard and a half to two yards in para-
pets recently constructed, and will traverse walls of ordinary construc-
tion ; but a 12-pounder is necessary to make a breach in walls of good
masonry four feet in thickness, and in this case the position of the bat-
tery must be favorable, and the operation is even then a slow one.

MILITARY DICTK'NAUY.

Moderate charges are employed in firing upon gates, block-houses, pal-
isades, and in general upon all wooden structures. The heaviest siege
pieces, by their great force of penetration, are best adapted for funning
a breach in the walls of permanent fortifications. Their superior accu-
racy, and the mass of their projectiles, render them also very effective

firing. Balls of smaller calibre have not sufficient moss to
destroy carriages offering such resistance as those employed in the de-
fence of places. The force of pm.-tration of balls in different substances
increases with their calibre ami \vhnity : at one hundred yards, a 24-
pound ball fired with a cartridge of 12 pounds will be one yard in briek
masonry, nearly tw<> f« t in rubble work, one yard and a half in oak
wood, two yards in pine, two yards and a half in well rammed earth,
and nearly live yards in a recent embankment. The ball of an 18-
pounder, fired with a charge of nine pounds under the same circum-
stances, will give penetrations nearly six-sevenths of those indicated
•Bore,

Field guns, in general, may be employed to cannonade with force
and perseverance ; to reinforce the weakest points of positions, whether
\e. or defensive; to secure a retreat by the occupation of points
established as the base of defence of particular ground, or of any im-
portant object, as the defence of a village or defile, or the passage of a
river, and to overthrow such obstacles as palisades, rampart walls,
doors, Ace., interposed by art; to prepare the way for an assault,
and aid, at a decisive moment, to secure the victory by a united
fire. A field cannon ball has suilieieiit force to disable seven or eight
men at a distance of 000 yards. It is stated that a single cannon ball,
at the battle of Zorndor^ disabled 42 men. Rifle projeeliles, having
more momentum, are elli r-tive at <jreatrr distances.

The following tables of Charges and Ranges for United States Field

:t/ers,and Heavy Ordnance, are taken from Robert >' Hand-
book of Artillery.

CHARGES FOR A FLATTENED RICO-
CHET FOB SiEoE-omrs.

CHARGES FOR A FLATTENED Rir<>

FOR SIEGE-HOWITZERS.

POTAWOt.

SUTATtOK.

OBAMB.

DOTAMCB.

KLKVATIOH

CItAltOK.

AIM yard*.
650 "

** 46'
9*

Vn wt. of ball.

• tj .1 ii

050 yards.
440

1° 45'
2°*lfi'

:< li,-.

8' 15'

'/,, «• ••

830 «

2° 16'

l Hi.

nan ••

8* 8ft'

',. "

220 "

2° 46'

1 U.

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY.

CHARGES FOB A CURVATED RICOCHET FOR SIEGE-HOWITZERS.

DISTANCE.

ELEVATION.

CHARGE.

BEMABKB.

550 yards.
440
330 "
220 "

7° 30'

II
II

1 lb. 4 oz.
1 lb. 1 oz.
14 oz.
10 oz.

The height of the object above
the level of the battery being
supposed to be 20 feet.

The charges vary with the elevation ; or, if the elevation be fixed at
any particular angle, they must be determined by the range.

CHARGES FOR FIELD-GUNS AND FIELD-HOWITZERS.

*
KIND.

FOE GUNS.

FOE HOWITZEES.

Mountain.

Ibs.
2.5
1.5

Ibs.
1.25
1.

Ibs.

2.5
2.5
3.25

Ibs.

1.75
2.
2.50

Ibs.

0.75
1.
1.

Ibs.

0.5
0.5
0.5

For spherical case or canister

( small charge ...

For shells, j ™ ^.| ?""".:.....".

CHARGES FOR HEAVY GUNS, COLUMBIADS, AND HOWITZERS.

GUNS.

COLUMBIADS.

HOWITZERS.

10-inch.

Siege 8-in.

SEA-COAST.

10-in.

8-in.

Ibs.
10.5

Ibs.
8.

Ibs.
6.

Ibs.
4.

Ibs.
14.

Ibs.
8.

Ibs.
4.

Ibs.
2. .

Ibs.
12.

Ibs.
8.

GREATEST CHANGES OF SEA-COAST, SIEGE, AND COEHORN MORTARS.

SEA- CO AST.

SIEGE.

COEHOKN.

BTONE MOETAB.

» .
«1

4'~l

§ •

1
1

§§

P.-S

9fS

£i

Ibs.

• Ibs.

Ibs.

lb.

20.

10.

0.5

1.5

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

RAMOKS or FIKLD Guns A»D Howrrzns.

KUD or riaoB.

r -w i ••

Bail

K . Vfr
lion.

Range.

Remark*

6-Pounder Field Gun.

It*.
1.26

Shot,
it

II
U

•1
5

yard*.
818
647
867
1188
1256
1528

P. B. Range.

Time of flijrlu ii'
do. ' 8'
do. 4*

Sph. cue.

2
2 30
3

650
840
1050

la-Pounder Field Gun.

2.5

Shot.

14
41
II
l|
41
11

1
1 30

8
4
5

847
Ml

785

'.Ii in

1269
1465
1668^

P. B. Range.

Time 2 seconds.
,i 8

.. 4

1.5

Sph. cose,
u

1
1 45
2 80

670
950
1250

12-Pounder Field
Howitzer.

Shell

it
it
it

0
1
2
8
4
6

195
639
640
847
975
1072

Time 2 seconds.

II 0 It

u 4 i.

0.75

Sph. case.

2 15
3 15
8 45

485
715
1050

24-1'ouiider i-icJu
Howitzer.

Shell.

it
it
it

tt
it

0
1
2
3
4
6

295
616
7M
976
1278
1822

Time 2 seconds.
«, s

.. 4

" 8 "

1.76
2.

Sph. case.

u
it

3
6 30
3 80

600
800
1050
880

M-Pounder Field
Howitzer.

2.6

Shell,
ii

u
It
II
II

0
1
2
3
4
6

290
631
779

1208
1504

Tin 10 «JJ sivoniK

Sph. cam,.

Mounuia Uowiuer.

0.6

Shell,
ii

u
II

14
II
II

0
1
2
2 80
I
4
5

17"
800
892
BOO

687
786
1005

Timo 2 seconds.
Tinio ?, 6,-.,-,.-

ART.] MILITARY DICTIONARY.

RANGES OF FIELD GUNS AND HOWITZERS — (Continued.) •

KIND OF PIECE.

Powder.

Hull.

Eleva-
tion.

Range.

Remarks.

Mountain Howitzer —

Ibs.
0.5

Sph. case.

yards.
160

Continued.

2 30

450

Time 2 seconds.

500

700

Time 2| seconds.

4 30

800

Time 3 seconds.

0.5

Canister.

4 to 6

25U

RANGES or HEAVY AETILLEET.

KIND OF PIECE.

Powder.

Ball.

Eleva-
tion.

Range.

Remarks.

18-Pdr. Siege and Gar-

Ibs.
4.5

Shot.

yards.
641

rison Gun on Barbette

1 30

800

Point Blank.

Carriage.

950

1256

((

1450

1592

24-Pdr. Siege and Gar-

Shot.

412

rison Gun on Siege

842

Carriage.

«<

1 30

953

Point Blank.

1147

»*

1417

•

1666

1901

883

1170

1454

1639

1834

32-Pdr. Sea-Coast Gun

Shot.

1 45

900

on Barbette Carriage.

713

1 30

800

1 85

900

1100

1433

1684

««

1922

10.67

780

1155

1517

42-Pdr. Sea-Coast Gun

10.5

Shot.

775

on Barbette Carriage.

1 30

860

1010

1300

1600

1955

14.

«'

770

1128

1380

1687

«i

1915

MILITARY DICTION AKY.

RAVOU OF HEAVY ABTILLEBT— (Continued.)

•. • •;. i

Ball

hi, A a

Uon.

Range.

Remark*.

t'.-lli Shell

Tim d

•i.

•jo-iu. r^utMi.

£U A

435

u ]^

618

• i o "

««

u g u

t*s

H .,

««

124]

u u ii

1 80

•J -J.su

24-Pdr. Iron Howitzer

17-lb. Shell

(

296

on a Flank Catenate

616

Carriage.

Sph. cases.

1322
600

Time 2 seconds.

1050

u 4

880

It 0 II

8-inch Sea-Coast How.

45-lb. Shell.

406

itxer on a Barbette

652

Carriage.

875

1110

1300

672

828

««

947

1168

1463

646

909

1190

1532

1800

10-inch Sea-Coast How-

12.

»o-lb. ShelL

680

itzer on Barbette Car-

891

Time 3 seconds.

riage.

1185

u 4 ii

8 80

1300

1426

" .4 "

1660

44 6 "

8-in. Columbiad on Bar-

10.

65-lb. Shot.

982

Axis of guu 16 iect

bette Carriage.

1116

almvi- the wain.

•*

1401

1608

«•

1847

2010

«i

2397

• asod lo ri-

• t on the

BMI

water.

4875

4481

15.

27 80

4812

10.

60-lb. Shell.

919

••

1409

•«

1697

1818

••

L980

2203

ART.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

RANGES OF HEAVY AETILLEET — (Continued.)

KIND OP PIECE.

Powder.

Ball.

Eleva-
tion.

Range.

Remarks.

Ibs.

yards.

8-in. Columbiad on Bar-

10.

50-lb. Shell.

2657

bette Carriage — Con-
tinued.

3556
3716

.<(

25
27

4387
4171

15.

27 30

4468

10-inch Columbiad on

18.

128-lb. Shot.

394

Axis of gun 16 feet

Barbette Carriage.

752

above the water.

1002

1230

1570

1814

2037

Shot ceased to rico-

•

2519

chet on the water.

•

2777

3525

4020

4304

4761

5433

20.

39 15

5654

12.

100-lb Shell.

800

1012

1184

1443

1604

18.

448

747

1100

1239

1611

1865

2209

. 8

2489

2848

3200

3885

4150

4651

4828

Time 35 seconds.

13-in. Sea-Coast Mortar.

20.

200-lb. Shell.

4325

Time 40 seconds.

10-in. Sea-Coast Mortar.

10.

98-lb. Shell.

4250

Time 3fi seconds.

10-inch Siege Mortar.

90-lb. Shell.

300

Time 6.5 seconds.

1.5

700

' 12. "

(«

«(

1000

' 14.

2.5

1300

< 16.

1600

' 18. "

3.5

1800

' 19.

2100

4 21. "

Ibs. oz.

8-inch Siege Mortar.

0 8

45-lb. Shell.

209

Time 6.75 sec'da.

0 12

376

« 9.

1 0

650

•< 11.5

1 4

(«

943

" 14.

1 8

«(

1318

» 16.5

1 12

1522

" 18.5 "

2 0

1837

« 20.5 "

MILITARY I»I'

RANGES or HEAVY ARTILLERY— (Continrtfd.)

11*11

i •..

tion.

i.i „• .

24-Pounder Cochorn
Mortar.

OS.

0.6
1.
1.5
, 1.75
2.
2.75
4.
6.
8.

17-lb. Shell

45
u

•iS

148
165
260
422
900
1200

•

Stone Mortar.

Ib*.
1.5

Stones
120 Ibs.

i 15 6-pdr.
| shells.

60
83

5150
to
250
50
to 150

Fuze 15 seconds.

Nor*.— Flre-balK according t«> their sire, are fired from mortars of corresponding calibre*
With a charge of OWE TWKMTY-rurru iu weight, the ball is thrown 600 to 700 yards.

Howitzers are used to drive the enemy from positions when he
can only be reached by shells ; against covered ground, and particularly
forests and defiles; against strong cavalry attacks ; to prepare the way
for an attack of fortifications and posts, and to burn combustible ob-
jects of great extent. (Consult Aide Afemoire, par GASSENDI ; GIBBON;
ROBERTS ; BBNTON ; KINOSBURY ; ffittoire et Tactique des Trois Armcs,
par ILD.FAVE". <Sfe« AMMUNITION ; RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

ASSAULT. In any -assault, it is necessary that the officer, com-
manding and responsible for the whole operation, should be in immediate
communication with the troops during the assault, and be present with
the reserve or supporting party ; 2. The troops destined for this duty
should be divided into two portions, each equal in strength to tlmr-
foiirths of the garrison attacked : one portion being the attacking party,
and the other half, the reserve or supporting party ; 3. Each column
attacking party will also be subdivided into advance, main body,
and support, whatever may be the number of these columns ; 4. The
disposition of tho attacking party, as it reaches the point of attack, will
be regulated by the engineer officer, under the orders of the officer
commanding — th«-y having made tho necessary reconnoissances ; the
party must be furnished with tools, ladders, and proper implements,
adapted to the circumstances of the moment, and accompanied by a
detachment of sappers; 5. The disposition of the reserve, .-.jiial, as
before observed, to the whole attacking force, should be regulated by
the officer intrusted with tho execution of the assault; and this re-
serve should be accompanied or not, according to circumstances, by
cavalry and field artillery. When these descriptions of force are

Ass.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 7!

present, the former should be placed under cover or out of gun shot
about 1,500 yards distant ; the artillery should be kept in hand until
the attacking party is engaged, when the guns should be spread out on
the flanks, and open a vigorous fire upon the works ; the infantry,
brought immediately in rear of the leading attack, should be placed
under cover, if possible, from fire of grape and musketry, and halted
until the issue of the first assault is seen ; 6. It is impossible to regu-
late an assault by any minute suggestions for the advance, except to
observe that it is usual for each column to attack the salient points of
the works, and least defended portions ; to throw out skirmishers and
firing parties under any cover available, and keep up a rapid and com-
pact fire upon the defenders ; to follow with the sappers and grenadiers
to force alb obstructions ; and then to advance the main body, the sup-
ports of each column being judiciously planted in the rear. Eventually,
as success occurs and the whole move on, points of security should be
taken up, such as the reverse, or the exterior slope of the works ; build-
ings, walls, as well as gorges and flanks, which frequently give cover.
Men should be planted under an officer, with instructions to take no
notice of the pell-mell, but to keep up a heavy firing in front ; employ-
ing the sappers in entrenching the position taken up by the supporting
party, or in collecting wagons, carts, carriages, &c., capable of being
made into a barricade ; 7. Either on the supposition that the success
of the assault is doubtful, or that there is a check, or repulse, the re-
serve, in case of doubtful success, to render the attack doubly sure,
should move forward under the officer commanding the whole assault-
ing»force, and relieve the assailants, who take their places as the reserve
as soon as order can be restored ; the artillery brought into position in
the openings, between the advancing columns, would be directed upon
the retreating or resisting forces ; and if success is finally complete, the
cavalry, in the event cf their being employed, will move forward, either
through the openings cleared, or by a detour, if a fortified town, in
pursuit.

In the second case — that of a check — the reserve, on the reconnois-
sance of the officer commanding, will either march forward in support
of the attack, or to cover the retreat, if further perseverance in the
assault is deemed impracticable — the artillery and cavalry being
warned as to the intention. In the event of the assault being repulsed,
the reserve,, which should be in echelon, having advanced guards in
front, will allow the retreating party to move through the intervals,
and the advanced guard will endeavor to check the pursuit ; if over-
powered, they will fall back on the reserve, and the whole may in that

7;> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ass.

manner retreat until beyond gun shot, endeavoring to make a stand,
repulse the garrison, and if possible convi-rt failure into success, if tho
lit has been badly • and without due caution. As an

important rule in all assaults, except in partial attacks, as an outwork,
or any particular work in which a lodgement is to be made, the com-
position of the forces should be by regiments and corps, and not by de-
tachments ; and each non-commissioned officer should be provided with
the means of spiking a gun, for which purpose even an old nail is suf-
ficient Assaults, if feasible, would seldom fail with th itions,
and there are few posts not open to assault, by taking the proper op-
portunity, an officer intrusted with tin- defence of a place should there-
fore exercise the most unremitting vigilance. (Consult DUFOUR, Toe-
tique dts Trots Armes ; Aide Afemoire by British Officers.) e

ASSEMBLY. Drum beat to order troops to assemble ; assembly
for skirmish. •!••*, a bugle sound.

ASSIGNMENT. If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, differ-
ent corps of the army shall happen to join, or do duty together, the
i rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia,
by commission, there on duty or in quarters, shall command the whole,
and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise spe-
cially directed by the President of the United States, according to the
nature of the case ; (ART. 62, Rules and Articles of War.)

It has been contended that the last clause of this article enables tho

President to make rank in the army vary at his pleasure, by an order of

assignment. But inasmuch.as the authority given to tho President l.y

the last clause of Article 02 is equally applicable to all commissions in

• «.f the army, marine corps, or militia, it would follow, under

e.. nst ruet ion, that the laws creating rank did not fix a range of

'nafii.il ; or. in other words, that Congress, after creating rank,

or a range of subordination, and establishing rules of appointment and

tuiro seniority or gallant and meritorious ser

and the sail -ho Senate for the attainment of si i.h promotion,

hare updone their whole work by giving to the, President the power to
o rank of tho only quality which gives it consideration. Tho
bare statement of this proposition is sufficient to show that su.h could
never have been the me.-min^ ,,f the last clause of Article <»•> of the
Rules I ' W:ir. and an attentive and candid examination of

the article will, it" is 1 M that its purpose was to de-

clare that the of ,ank should command whenever dii;

corps came • M unless otherwise tpcrialfy directed f>>/ the President

of the United States, according to the nature of the case." That

AST.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 73

say, unless the President, in any special case, should deem the highest"
officer inefficient or incompetent ; then he might supersede him, by
withdrawing him from the command. Or, in other cases, the Presi-
dent might desire to carve out of the general command particular
trusts, or limit the discretion of the commanding officer in regard to
what is needful for the service. This plain interpretation of the dis-
puted passage in no case permits the violation of the rights of any
officer, by placing a junior over a senior ; but the Authority which it
gives the President is indispensable to a proper administration of his
great office of commander-in-chief. And it may be here stated that,
during the Mexican war, Mr. Folk's administration after much deliber-
ation emphatically disavowed the possession of any legal authority to
assign a junior major-general to command a senior. (See article RANK,
for a statement of the case of Major-general Benton. See also BREVET ;
DETACHMENT ; LINE ; PRESIDENT.)

ASSIGNMENT OF PAY. No assignment of pay made by a
non-commissioned officer or soldier, is valid ; (Act of May 8, 1792.)

ASTRAGAL — Small convex moulding used in the ornamental
work of ordnance, and usually connected with a fillet or flat moulding.

ASYLUM, (MILITARY.) The persons entitled to the benefits of the
Asylum, or Soldier's Home, as it is now called, located in the District of
Columbia, are : 1. All soldiers, and discharged soldiers of the army of
the United States, who may have served honestly and faithfully for
twenty years. 2. All soldiers, and discharged soldiers of the regular
army, and of the volunteers, who served in the war with Mexico, and
were disabled by disease or wounds contracted in that service and in
the line of their duty, and who are, by their disability, incapable -of
further military service. This class includes the portion of the marine
corps that served with the army in Mexico. 3. Every soldier, and dis-
charged soldier, who may have contributed to the funds of the Soldier's
Home since the passage of the act to found the same, March 3, 1851,
according to the restrictions and provisions thereof, and who may have
been disabled by disease or wounds incurred in the service and in the
line of his duty, rendering him incapable of military service. 4. Every
pensioner on account of wounds or disability incurred in the military
service — though not a contributor to the funds of the Institution — who
shajl transfer his pension to the Soldier's Home during the period he
voluntarily continues to receive its benefits. No provision is made for
the wives and children of those admitted.

No mutineer, deserter, or habitual drunkard, or person convicted
of felony or other disgraceful crime of a civil nature, while in the army

: I MILITARY \KY. [Art.

or after his ffignhap, is admitted into the asylum without satisfactory
evidence being shown to the Commissioners of the Soldier's Home of
subsequent service, good conduct, an. I reformation of character. Tho
Commissioners are : the adjutant-general, the commissary -general of sub-
sistence, and the surgeon-general. The Soldier's Home has its governor,
secretary, and treasurer, appointed from the army ; (Act March 3, 1851.)
ATTACK AND DEFENCE. (See REDOUBT.) A redoubt may be
armed with cannon, or only defended by infantry. In the former
case, it may be necessary to silence cannon by cannon; in the latt. -r,
we may march at once to the attack. Light infantry, principally rifle-
men, envelop the work, and even, at a distance of 1.000 yards.
their fire tipon the interior of the work and crest of the parapet, so as
to prevent the defenders from showing themselves, or at least to cause
th<*n to fire hurriedly. Gradually approaching and converging their
fire, the riflemen groove the parapet, and assert the superiority of their
arm. Arrived at a short distance from the ditch, they run and leap
into it, unless prevented by obstacles such as pali-ad.-s abatis, and
trous-de-loup. In that event, they IM riil <-f the ol.sta* 1, s l>y means of
their axes, or fill the trous-de-loup with fascines, with which they have
previously provided themselves. Tho whole number, however, do not
throw themselves into the ditch, a portion remain upon the counter-
scarp, to fire upon any one daring to show himtMif behind the parapet.
When the troops have taken breath at tho bottom of the ditch, they
owau//, and to do this the soldiers aW each other in uimmtin^ upon
the bfrme. From thenco they mount together upon tho parapet. Lap
into the redoubt, and force-the defenders to ground their arms. If the
redoubt is armed \\ith cannon, and is of greater strength than has been
supposed, it might be necessary at first to cannonade in such a manner
at to break ades, dismount the pieces, and plough up tho par-

apet Favorable positions for the cannon used in the attack \\ill I.e.
sought: these positions shot dd command the work, or be on the pro*
longntion of its faces, so as to give an enfilading fin-. If t he redoubt is
pierced with embrasures, it is necessary to direct one or two pieces
..». h < mliravuretoas to dismount the pieces, and to penetrate into
the interior of the work, in order t.. demoralize tho defenders. Somo
good riflemen will also approach towards the embrasures, shunninu' their
• range, and fire upon the artillerymen, who may attempt to re-
load their piece*.

^ only after the attacking artillery has produced its desired • •
that the light infantry envelop the \\ ->rk, and do what has been already
indicated. When infantry of the line take part in tho attack, it is

ATT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 75

formed in as many columns as there are salients of attack. Each of
these columns is preceded by men armed with axes and carrying lad-
ders. It is a wise precaution to give to front rank men, fascines, which
not only serve as bucklers, but are also useful in filling up part of the
ditch. The light infantry open to allow the passage of the columns,
but redouble their fire to sustain the attack at the moment that the
assailants begin to climb the parapet. The essential thing in this de-
cisive moment for the assailants is unity of effort, and to leap into the work
from all sides at once. It is necessary, then, that the troops stop a
moment upon the berme, and await the concerted signal to clamber up
the exterior slope, in order to mount upon the parapet. If the redoubt
be not aided by other troops, or strengthened by works upon its flanks,
it will be difficult to resist an attack thus directed when valiantly ex-
ecuted. Whatever may be the result, it is the first duty of the com-
mandant of a post to sustain and invigorate the morale of his soldiers,
by his own confident air, his valiant resolutions, and his activity in
putting every thing in the best order. If the attack is not immediate,
the commandant will surround the redoubt with abatis ; he will pro-
vide heWy stones for the defence of the ditches ; he will endeavor to
procure bags of earth, to make embrasures upon the parapet. Want-
ing these he will supply himself with sods, making loopholes, through
which the best marksmen will fire upon the enemy. A beam placed
across these sods may, at the same time, serve as a protection to the
marksmen, and a means of rolling down the assailants. Cannon be-
gins the defence. As soon as the batteries of the enemy are discovered,
the fire is opened. But when once the batteries have taken their po-
sitions, when their pieces are partly covered by the ground, and their
fire begins to produce an effect, the struggle is no longer equal. It is
then necessary to withdraw the cannon of the work into its interior, or
to leave those pieces only which are covered by good traverses, throw-
ing, however, from time to time, some canister among the light in-
fantry, who may press too nearly. The artillery is at first only
aided by a few good marksmen placed in the angles, behind trav-
erses, or wherever the fire of the enemy is least felt. But when the
work is so closely pressed that the artillery of the assailants cannot
continue its fire without danger to their own men, the defenders mount
upon the banquettes, the guns are brought back, and the warmest fire
is directed upon the columns of attack, and upon the squads of light
infantry, who seek to make a passage through the abatis to the coun-
terscarp. This is the moment to explode such small mines as have been
previously prepared under the glacis, or in the interior of the work.

70 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [An

If, notwithstanding such efforts, the enemy reaches the ditch, and
collect* his force for the assault, all is not yet lost. The defenders roll
upon him shells, trunks of trees, and heavy stones, and then mounting
upon the parapet, stand ready to receive him at the point of tho bay-
onet, or to use the butt «.f tho mu>k »ry records the fail
more than one attack from such conduct on the part of the defenders ;
and if we reflect upon the disorder of tho assailants, and the physical
advantage which those standing upon the parapet must possess, it is
necessary, for the success of the attacking force, that they should have
a great moral superiority. This does often exist, but the commander
of A work may infuse his own indomitable spirit into his men.

iporary works may be attacked by SURPRISE or by OPEN FORCE.
In all cases, the first thing to be done is for the commander of tho at-
tack to obtain the fullest possible information that circumstances u ill
admit, of the character of the work, garrison, ground aroun.l it. d. ;
robable aid at hand, dec. If on intrenched village is to be att;.
it should be ascertained by what means tho streets and roads leading
into it have been closed, whether by stockades or breastworks; how
these obstacles are flanked ; what obstructions are placed in froht of
them, csc., &c. If the post is an isolated building, such as a country
house or church, attention should be directed to tho mode in which the
doors have been barricaded, or the windows blocked tip ; how the loop-
holes are arranged ; what sort of flank defence has been provided ; in >w
it can best be approached ; what internal preparations have been made
for prolonging tho defence, &c. Part of this knowledge may be ob-
tained from s^ies, and reconnoissance must do the rest. In tho attack
of military posts, infantry are frequently thrown upon thoir own re-
sources. They have no guns or howitzers for tearing up and d«
ing stockades, abatis, palisading, chevaux-de-frizo, &c. Their r-lianee
must therefore 1..- ti, tivity and fertility of invention. Al.atis

may sometimes be fired by lighted fagots, or else passed by cutting
away a few of the smaller branches. Small ditches may l.e filled up
'•undies of hay ; chevaux-de-frizo may be displaced by
main force with a rope, and a good pull together, or they may 1-e ,-ut
Mown to pieces by a box of powder. Stockade work or palisad-
»y be escaladed with ladders brought up in a lino under the j, ro-
tation of a firing party, and carried by two or four men accord ing to
their length ; or a stockade, barricaded doors, gates, and window
be breached by a bag of powder, <fcc. By such measures, d, •« -isiv.-ly
and boldly used, troops would be a match for nny of the ordinary ob-
struction* which might oppose their advance, whether the attack were

BAG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 77

made by night or day, by surprise or by open force. (Consult Du-
FOUR; Aide Memoire, <kc.)

ATTACK AND DEFENCE OP PERMANENT FORTIFICATIONS. (See
SIEGE.)

ATTENTION — Cautionary command addressed to troops, pre-
paratory to a particular exercise or manoeuvre.

ATTESTATION. A certificate, signed by the magistrate before
whom a recruit is sworn in as a soldier.

AUDITORS. (See ACCOUNTABILITY for their duties.) They may
administer oaths ; (Act March 3, 1817.)

AUTHORITY, (CiviL.) Any commissioned officer or soldier ac-
cused of a capital crime, or of having used violence, or committed any
offence, against the person or property of any citizen of any of the
United States, such as is punishable by the known laws of the land,
must be delivered over upon application of the civil authority ; and all
officers and soldiers are required to use their utmost endeavors to de-
liver over such accused persons, and likewise to be aiding and assisting
the officers of justice in apprehending and securing the persons so ac-
cused in order to bring them to trial. Any commanding officer or
officers, wilfully neglecting or refusing upon application to deliver over
such accused persons, or to be aiding and assisting the officers of justice
in apprehending such persons, shall be cashiered ; ART. 33. (See COM*
MAND ; EXECUTION OF LAWS.)

AUXILIARY. Forces to aid. -

AWARD. The decision or sentence of a court-martial.

BAGGAGE OF AN ARMY — Called by the Romans impedimenta,
and by Bonaparte emlarras. No question is more* important in giving
efficiency to an army, than the regulation of its baggage. Nothing so
seriously impairs the mobility of an army in the field as its baggage-
train, but this baggage is necessary to its existence ; and the important
question therefore arises, How shall the army be sustained with least
baggage 1 Sufficient attention is not paid by Government to this sub-
ject in time of peace, and in war the commander of the troops finds
himself therefore obliged to use the unstudied means which his Govern-
ment hastily furnishes. In respect to artillery and artillery equip-
ments, the minutest details are regulated. It should be the same with
other supplies. In the United States Army, the quartermaster's de-
partment has charge of transports, and some steps have been taken to

78 MI LIT ART DICTIONARY.

regulate the subject ; but legislation is required for tho necessary mil-
Itary organiiation of conductors and drivers of wagons, and perhaps,
also, unless our arsenals may be so used, for the establishment of de-
pota, where a studied examination of field transportation may bo made,
which will recommend rules, regulating the kinds of wagons or carts to
be used in different circumstances ; prescribing tho construction of the
wagon and its various parts in a uniform manner, so that tho correspond-
ing part of one wagon will answer for another, giving the greatest pos-
sible mobility to these wagons consistent \\ ith strength ; prescril>in<: the
harness, equipment, valises of officers, blacksmith forges, tool chests,
ohesU for uniforms, bales of clothing, packing of provisions, and, gen-
erally, the proportion, form, substance, and dimensions of articles of
supply ; what should be tho maximum weight of packages ; the
means to be taken for preventing damage to tho articles ; the grade,
duties and pay of the quartermasters, wagon masters, and drivers
should be properly regulated ; rules for loading should be given ; ami.
finally, a complete system of marks, or modes of recognition should bo

• '.././ i. W.'h Mi'-li mitt, :ti:d tin- adoption of a kitclun c<irf.
(5W WAOON,) together with small cooking utensils for field servi. •••
which may be carried by the men, an army would no longer always bo
tied to a baggage train, and great results might bo accomplished by
the disconnection. (Set CONVOY ; WAGON.)

BAKING. Troops bake their own bread, and the saving of
per cent, thus made in flour is carried to the credit of tho Post Fund.
(&« OVENS.)

BALKS — are joist-shaped spars, which rest between the cleats upon
the saddles of two pontoons, to support the chess or flooring.

BALL. (S*c CHAIN BALL ; NAIL BALL ; SOLID SHOT.)

BALLISTICS — is that branch of gunm ry which treats of tho Mo-
tion of Projectiles. The instruments used to determine the initial
Telocity of projectiles are the gun-pendulum, tho ballistic pen.lulutn,
and the • llistio machine. By the latter machine, the velocity

hi projectile ftt nny point of its trajectory is also determined. The

mined by tho pun pendulum, by suspending the

'piece itself at a pendulum, and measuring the recoil impressed on it l.y

the discharge; the expression for tho velocity is deduced from the fact,

that the quantity • ated to tho pendulum N e,,nal to

that given to the projectile, charge of powder, and the air. The second

apparatus is a pendulum, the bob of whieh is made strong and heavy

to receive the Impact of the projectile; and the expression for the

velocity of the projectile is deduced from the fact, that the quantity of

BAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 79

motion <tf the projectile before impact, is equal to that of the pendulum
and projectile after impact. These machines have been brought to
great perfection in France and in the United States. By the electro-
ballistic machines wires are supported on target frames, placed in the
path of the trajectory, which communicate with a delicate time-keeper.
The successive ruptures of the wires mark on the time-keeper the in-
stant that the projectile passes each wire, and knowing the distances of
the wires apart, the mean velocities, or velocities of the middle points

can be obtained by the relation velocity = s~*^

The electro-ballistic machine of Capt. Navaez of the Belgian service,
has been found too delicate and complicated for general service ; that
devised by Capt. J. G. Benton, Ordnance Department, is used at the
United States Military Academy. (For description, &c., consult BEN-
TON'S Ordnance and Gunnery.}

BAND. Musicians, as Regimental Band, Post Band, &c. They
are enlisted soldiers, and form a band of musicians under the direction
of the adjutant, but are not permanently detached from their com-
panies, and are instructed in all the duties of a soldier.

BANQUETTE— is the step of earth within the parapet, sufficiently
high to enable the defenders, when standing upon it, to fire over the
crest of the parapet with ease.

BARBETTE. Guns are said to be in barbette when they are
elevated, by raising the earth behind the parapet, or by placing them
on a high carriage, so that, instead of firing through embrasures, they
can be fired over the crest of the parapet. In this position, the guns
have a wide range, instead of being limited, as in firing through em-
brasures.

BARRACKS — from the Spanish barraca, are buildings erected
by Government for lodging troops. Where the ground is suffi-
ciently spacious, they are made to enclose a large area, for the pur-
pose of exercising and drilling. Barracks should be very commo-
dious, comprising mess-rooms, cooking-houses, guard-houses, magazines,
&c. United States troops are generally badly quartered, sometimes
in casemates of fortifications, and often in cantonments constructed by
themselves. Officers and soldiers' quarters should be properly fur-
nished by the Government ; but in the United States, officers' quarters
are bare of all conveniences when assigned to them for occupancy.
The quarters of soldiers are provided with bunks, tables, &c. (Con-
sult, for detailed information upon the proper construction of Barracks,

M 1 1 .IT ART DICTIONARY.

[BAR.

and their necessary furniture, &c,, BARDIX'S Dictlonnaire de TArmte de

r J/iVi'MiV*-, ilr. ; Britith Regulation*.)

BARRICADES. Th.- following series of Barricades afford moans
of closing openings in various ways, most of them practicable under all

1. Palisading; movable or fixed. } Lcopholed; the bottom of tin-

Stockade of trees. ( loophole not less than S

8. Stockade of squared baulk. ) above ground outside.
4. Abatis; with or without parapet of earth and ditch In-hind.
(See PALISADES ; STOCKADE ; AND ABATIS.)

Fio. 64.

Fig. 64 represents a barricade in a street, with its means of com.
munha

Fio. 65.

/. 65. Barricade made in haste with tier. , .. l»...\.-s. wagon 1><
Ace., and filled with earth or dung, avoiding j... tones.

'. 00. Barricades made with bales of merchandise, barrels of

BAS.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

sugar, with the approaches also obstructed. Sand-bag parapets may
also be used as barricades. (See REVETMENT.)

BARRIER. Carpentry obstructions in fortifications. The pur-
pose regulates the construction. If the barrier is to be permanently
defensible, it should be musket-proof, and then becomes a Stockade.
If occasionally defensible, palisading will suffice, with a sand-bag or
other temporary parapet when required, behind and near enough to
fire between the palisades. The gates in both the above should, if pos-
sible, be of palisading, as the heavy stockade gate is unwieldy. Barrier
gates should never be left unprotected.

BASE OF OPERATIONS. That secure line of frontier or for
tresses occupied by troops, from which forward movements are made,
supplies furnished, and upon which troops may retreat, if necessary.

BASTION. A work consisting of two faces and two flanks, all the
angles being salient. Two bastions are connected by means of a CUR-
TAIN, which is screened by the angle made by the prolongation of the
corresponding faces of two bastions, and flanked by the line of defence.
Bastions contain, sheltered by their parapets, marksmen, artillery,
platforms, guards. They are protected by galleries of mines, and by
demi-lunes and lunettes outside the ditch, and by palisades, if the ditch
is inundated. Bastions should be large, and contain five or six hundred
infantry, with the necessary artillery. The boyaux of the besiegers are
directed towards the CAPITAL of the Bastion. The FACES of the BAS-
TION are the parts exposed to being enfiladed by ricochet batteries, and
also to being battered in breech. (See FORTIFICATION ; SIEGES.)

Bastion (Demi) — is that which has only one face and one flank, cut
off by the capital — like the extremities of horn and crown works.

Bastion (Empty). When the mass of rampart and parapet follows
6

v j MILITARY DICTIONARY. [»AT.

the windings of the faces and flanks, leaving an interior space in tho

of the bastion, on the level of tho ground, it is called a hollow

or empty bastion. In standing in a bastion, and looking towards the

y, the face and flank on tho right hand are called tho right face

•n the It-ll hand, the left face and Hank.

Bastion (Flat). When the demi-gorges and gorge arc in tho same
line, and the f .rmcr is half of the latter, the work is called a flat
bastion.

Haitian (Farts) — are the most perfect of closed field works, with
reference to flanking defences, as each side or front consists of two
faces, two flanks, and a curtain.

Bastion (/-W). "When the. interior space is filled up to tho level
of th«- tcrrc plcin of the rampart, tho construction is called a full
bastion.

BAT, BAT MEN, BAT HORSE, BAT AND FORAGE ALLOWANCE.
who take chart:*' • -f tho baggage of officers and companies. Allowance
.it tin- beginning of a campaign in tho English army is called I'../
and Forage allowance.

BATARDEAU — is a strong wall of masonry built across a ditch.
to sustain the pressure of tho water, when one part is dry and tin-,
other wet. To prevent this wall being used as a passage across th«-
ditch, it is built up to an angle at top, and armed with iron spikes;
and to render tho attempt to cross still more difficult, a to\\
masonry is built on it. In the batardeau is the sluicegate, by tho
opening or cl'^in^ «.f which the manoeuvres of the water can be

BATTALION. An aggregation of from two t«, t.-n compan';
the United States Service. Their instruction is regulated by Infantry
and I.i.'ht Infantry ta

BATTERY. A battery consists of two or more pieces of artillery
in the field. Tho term Battery also implies the emplacement of Old-
Hint destined to act offensively or defensively. It also refers to the
company charged with a certain number of pieces of ordnance. Ti
nance const it < it* s the iJatt. r\ . Men terre the Batter II- •
and epaulments may fell \ battery may bo with or without

embrasures. In the latter case it is en barbell, , and the h- i-lit of the
genoutllfre varies according to the description of the gun cat
The ordnance constituting the battery p-quires substantial bearings

1 for field-piece*, ,,r of timber, plank, or ma

platforms, for h- aw artillery. I'a'teries are sometimes designated as
follows: Barbette battery, one without embrasures, in which tho guns

BAT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 83

are raised to fire over the parapet; Ambulant battery, heavy guns
mounted on travelling carriages, and moved as occasion may require,
either to positions on a coast, or in besi eged* places ; Covered battery,
intended for a vertical fire, and concealed from the enemy ; Breaching
battery; Joint batteries, uniting their fire against any object ; Counter
battery, one battery opposed against another ; Coast battery • Direct
battery • Cross batteries, forming a cross fire on an object ; Oblique bat-
tery forms an angle of 20° or more, with the object against which it is
directed, contradistinguished from direct battery ; Raised battery, one
whose terre plein is elevated considerably above the ground ; Sunken
battery, where the sole of the embrasures is on a level with the ground,
and the platforms are consequently sunk below it ; Enfilading battery,
when the shot or shell sweeps the whole length of a line of troops or
part of a work ; Horizontal battery, when the terre plein is that of the
natural level of the ground, consequently the parapet alone is raised
and the ditch sunk ; Open battery, without epaulment, or other covering
wholly exposed ; Indented battery, or battery a cremaillere, battery con-
structed with salient and re-entering angles for obtaining an oblique, as
well as a direct fire, and to afford shelter from the enfilade fire of the
enemy ; Reverse battery, that which fires upon the rear of a work or
line of troops ; Ricochet battery, whose projectiles, being fired at low
angles, graze and bound without being buried ; Masked battery, arti-
ficially concealed until required to open upon the enemy.

Field Batteries, in sieges, are usually of two kinds, viz., Elevated
Batteries and Sunken Batteries, and they are placed either in front of the
parallel, in the parallel itself, or in rear of it. In an elevated battery,
the platforms for the guns or mortars to stand upon, are laid on the
natural level of the ground, and the whole of the covering mass, or
parapet, is raised above that level, the earth for forming it being ob-

FTG. 67.

tained from a ditch in front ; (Fra. 67.) In a sunken battery, the whole
interior of the battery is excavated about three feet deep, and the platforms
laid on the bottom, the earth is thrown to the front, and the parapet is

* I MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bii

formed out of it ; (Fio. 68.) An inspection of these figures will show
the difference ; and it will be obvious that the whole of the parapet
in the elevated battery has to be raised, and that in a sunken battery
part of the cover is obtained by taking advantages of the excavation

Fio. 6&

made f«>r forming the mass. This construction is frequently used in
turning the portion of a parallel into a battery, by increasing the width
of the interior excavation of the trench so as to make room for the
platforms of the guns. Great care must bo taken that no rise in the
ground before the battery obscures the view from the soles of the em-
brasures ; for this purpose, the officer laying out the battery should lie
down and look along the ground, in order to be sure that his guns can
range freely from their embrasures, before he fixes his details for con-
struction. When guns are fired with an elevation — when the soil is
sandy or gravelly — when the weather is dry — or the ground elevated,
this construction is approved. The depth of the* excavation for the in-
terior must depend on the height of the carriages upon whirh the
guns are mounted : it should be deeper in rear than in front, that it
may be drained. The interior slopes of these batteries, and the di< . ks
of the embrasures, must be supported by field revetments of gabions,
fascines, sand-bags, casks, or sods. In batteries exposed to a heavy die,
especially of shells, it is necessary to provide as much cover as possible
for the men serving in them; for this purpose, traverses are usually
placed between every two guns ; and as these masses servo to j>n »t e< -t t he
men from the splinters of the bursting shells, they are generally ealle.l
•plinUr-proof traverse. There is nearly twice as nindi work in the elevated
as in the sunk*-?. ( JEHU'S Attack and Defence; see EMDRA

ISATTKUY WAUON. A battery wagon accompanies each fn-M-
batt. FOROK.)

BATTU:. Battles are either v,,rnUd or oblique, and thox
ttrateyir when, in consequence of a plan of campaign, they are fought
upon a given and ol.j M, Mlr0or Austerlitz.

The foil f.,r battle are usually made by great

melon* : All disposable troops are held in hand ; the readiness of

(he troops is ascertained by inspection of arms ; proper nourishment is

given to them before going into battle ; the projects of the day are

BAT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 85

communicated from grade to grade; the points for the ambulances
and caissons are indicated ; the rendezvous for rallying or retreating are
made known ; measures are taken to secure the rear and communica-
tions, in order to retain the mastery of the base of operations ; the
army is ranged ordinarily in two lines, and the position of reserves
given in the order of battle ; the three arms are disposed according to
the nature of the ground ; decisive points are occupied ; open or flank-
ing batteries are established on proper elevations ; the front and flanks
of the army are furnished with artillery, in number, kind, and calibre
according to circumstances. These are preparations for battle; the
action commences ordinarily as follows : Marksmen are thrown for-
ward, sometimes acting in conjunction with artillery. Either the
enemy shows an equal disposition to attack, or else one party insults
the other to bring on a combat. When the advanced guards have felt
each other, the army disposed to make battle begins or increases its
cannonade, to constrain the adversary to deploy his MASSES, show his
different arms, and thus make known the composition, number, im-
portance, and the direction to be given to the adverse forces. The re-
serves remain stationary, while the cavalry, properly sheltered from
fire, watch their opponents, and throw themselves upon weakened or
staggered lines of infantry. When the affair has begun, and the po-
sition and dispositions of the enemy are known, and the proper effect
has been produced by firing, the infantry may march to the charge,
with the arms at a carry or on the right shoulder, leaving to the in-
stinct of the soldier the determination of the proper moment of bring-
ing the musket to the position of charge bayonet.

These details, however, constitute the mechanical parts of a battle.
The art and science of battles consist, according to Professors of
STRATEGY, in the subordination of tactical movements to the rule of
attacking only with such FORCES, as can overthrow those of the enemy,
either by numbers, position, or vigor ; in creating alarm upon many
points to induce your adversary to take false steps ; in surprising him
in the midst of his bold movements, and punishing him in his irresolute
ones ; in penetrating his designs to neutralize their effects, or taking
advantage of his faults ; in occupying commanding positions ; in avoid-
ing masks or curtains, and in acting always, if possible, on the OFFEN-
SIVE. When the action has seriously begun, the important business
of the general is to follow it up to advantage. If he is skilful and
valiant, he will preserve the ALLIGNMENT and intervals of his battalions,
by standing firm, or by marching ; he will strengthen his flanks by en-
terprises against those of the enemy ; by employing his fire so as not

80 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [BAT.

to stop the fire, at the same time, of all arms ; by filling up, at the
expense of the cavalry or second line, the holes made in the first line ;

M forcing or reanimating all corps which give way or falter; by

:• none in unfavorable positions ; by sheltering the reserves from
cannon shot ; by bringing up, at opportune moments, fresh troops ; by
preserving the rear lines from being broken, while opening a free pas-
•age to repulsed troops ; by exposing, when needed, his own person,
securing united efforts in attacks, vigor in charges, and promptitude in
rallying. Such is the theory of battles ; but GENIUS and experience are
necessary to apply the theory, an^ victory will be in vain sought from
the mechanical application of any dogma whatever. Battles upon the
same ground rarely occur, and never with soldiers of the same morale,
the same arms, the same numbers, and the same relative proportions.
It is by study of the campaigns of great commanders, by his own
experience, and his own genius, that battles are properly initiated
and won by a skilful general. (See MANOEUVRES IN COMBAT.)

BAYONET. At the battle of Spires, in 1703, charges of infantry
were first made with fixed bayonet. From that time, however, until the
wars of the French Revolution, the bayonet was more threatening than
murderous. Since then it has changed, throughout, the whole system
of the military art; cavalry has ceased to be the terror of foot ; and
the fir- f battle, even with new arms cnVetive in range at 1,000

yards, does not impair the usefulness of the bayonet; and although Su-

"> maxim that " La balle est folio'' c:mnnt l»e admitted, vet it is
true that " la bayonnette est sage." (Consult Manual of bayonet Exer-

v CAPT. G. B. MCCLELLAN.)

1IKD. Straw and bedsacks are allowed to soldiers for bedding.
The introduction of single iron bedsteads will make it necessary t.. in
crease the allowance of bed furniture. In Prussia and other eoiintries,
hammocks are used in place of bedsteads. Bed has also other appliwi-

us mortar bed; camped; bed of * gtm lock ; bedofftnd
of a rivrr ; to separate the beds of stone in a quarry, &o.

1 I (See ACCOUTREMENTS.)

m.KMK. Narr-.w path round fortificat'.. • . n the parapet

and t! urti) fn m falling in.

SlEOE.)

BILLET. No soldier shall, in time beqVtttmd in any

house without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, l.ut in (lie

\te prescribed 1 •',//,•///* to tic Consti-

) The manner "f, jnart. -riii- time i,f war i* nsu.-dly }.y

Billets, but no manner has been jtretcribed by law in the Untied States.

BLA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 87

The constables and other persons duly authorized in England are re-
quired to billet the officers and soldiers of the army, arid also the horses
belonging to the cavalry, staff, and field-officers, in victualling and
other houses specified in the mutiny act ; and they must be received
by the. occupiers of these houses, and provided with proper accom-
modations. They are to be supplied with diet and small beer, and
with stables, hay, and straw, for the horses ; paying for the same
the several rates prescribed by law. Troops, whether cavalry or in-
fantry, are in no case to be billeted above one mile from the place
mentioned in the route. Where cavalry are billeted, the men and
their horses must be billeted in the same house, except in case of
necessity. One man must always be billeted where there are one
or two horses; and less than twcx men cannot be billeted where
there are four horses ; and so in proportion for a greater num.
ber. No more billets are at any time to be ordered than there are
effective soldiers and horses present ; and all billets are to be delivered
into the hands of the commanding officer. Commanding officers may,
for the benefit of the service, exchange any men or horses billeted in
the same town, provided the number of men and horses so exchanged
does not exceed the number at the time billeted on each house ; and
the constables are obliged to billet those men and horses accordingly.
Any justice may, at the request of the officer or non-commissioned
officer commanding any soldiers requiring billets, extend the routes or
enlarge the district within which billets shall be required, in such man-
ner as may be most convenient to the troops. In Scotland, officers and
soldiers are billeted according to the provisions of the laws in force in
that country at the time of its union with England ; and no officer is
obliged to pay for his lodging, where he shall be regularly billeted,
except in the suburbs of Edinburgh.

BILL HOOK. An instrument for cutting twigs.

BIVOUAC. (See CAMP.)

BLACKING. (For SHOES.) Take three ounces of molasses, three
ounces of ivory black, one ounce muriatic acid, one ounce sulphuric
acid, and a spoonful of olive oil. Mix the ivory black and molasses,
then add the muriatic acid, and subsequently the oil ; when the paste
is well formed, incorporate with it the sulphuric acid.

BLACKING-, LIQUID. (For SHOES, &c.) Three parts of white wax,
seven and a half parts essence of turpentine ; one and a half parts of
ivory black. The wax is cut into small pieces and put into a glazed ves-
sel. Spread the turpentine over it, and leave it for 24 hours. Then
mix it by degrees with ivory, black. To use it, spread it with a Tag in
a thin layer on the leather, and afterwards rub with a soft brush.

MII.ITAKV Dionon

I>LA< KI\«; (! I|VK\KS>.) Yellow wax, four parts in weight,
six parts essence of turpentine, one part of mutton suet, and one part
' ut the wax into small pieces, and leave it to soak tw« ntv-
f»ur h»>nrs in the QMonoe of turpentine ; grind in separately the ivory
black and MI. t until there is a perfect mixture of the whole mass.
When * lost its color, it may be restored by the mud of

ink, or :i;ite of iron in a thick solution, spread upon the edges.

BLACKSMITH AND FARRIER— Allowed to cavalry regiments.
(Sec FORGE; ARMY ORGANIZATION.)

BLINDAGE. A siege work contrived, when defilement is im-
possible, as a shelter against a cross or ricochet fire of artillery. It is
also used to guard against tin- ellects of shells. The powder maga/ines,
the hospitals, the cisterns, certain doors ami windows arc thus blinded
by means of earpentry work, or she-It. -rs l..;nleil with earth. dm
Ulin.lap- of tin- tivmln-s is also necessary, particularly when the be-
siegers begin the crowning of the OOTered \\.-iy l-y m.-aiis of the sap.
Blindages are thus used to guard against stones or hand grenades
n by the besieged. This blindage is entirely exposed to sorties,
and also to the danger of being burned by the besieged.

BLOCK AND TACKLE. The power is equal to the weight di-
\id.-d l.y the number of ropes attached to the lowor block, or by twi.-e
the number of raising pulleys.

BLOCK-HOUSE (Redoubt of wood.) A common defetK* a-ainst

at two diagonal angles of a picket work. ! ,:id 70,

Fio. 69. Fio. 70.

Of •MOWN* 'kOOM

D •

A —

BOM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 89

with dimensions in metres, show the construction used by the French
in Algiers ; or it may be built of logs 18 inches square on the ground
floor, and 12 inches square in the upper story. Height of each story
ten feet ; loopholed ; the upper story projecting all round, beyond the
ground story, as machicoulis. Hatches should be made in the roof for
the escape of smoke, and be grated.

BOARDS. A board composed of ordnance officers, designated by
the Secretary of War, as the Ordnance Board, decides, with the ap-
proval of the secretary, on the models and patterns of all ordnance and
ordnance stores for the land service of the United States.

Boards of Examination — are instituted to determine upon appoint-
ments in regiments, composed of army officers, and for appointments
and promotion in the medical staff.

Boards of Survey — are to examine injured stores, &c., and to take
an inventory of the public property in charge of a deceased officer.

Boards of Inspectors — determine upon the fitness of recruits for service.

BOAT. A boat has been invented by Colonel R. C. Buchanan, of
the army, which has been used in several expeditions in Oregon and in
Washington Territory, and has been highly commended by several ex-
perienced officers, who have had the opportunity of giving its merits a
practical service test. It consists of an exceedingly light framework of
thin and narrow boards, in lengths suitable for packing, connected by
hinges, the different sections folding into so small a compass as to be
conveniently carried upon mules. The frame is covered with a sheet
of stout cotton canvas, or duck, secured to the gunwales with a cord
running diagonally back and forth through eyelet-holes in the upper
edge. When first placed in the water the boat leaks a little, but the
canvas soon swells so as to make it sufficiently tight for all practical
purposes. The great advantage to be derived from the use of this
boat is, that it is so compact and portable as to be admirably adapted
to the requirements of campaigning in a country where the streams are
liable to rise above a fording stage, and where the allowance of trans-
portation is small. It may be put together or taken apart and packed
in a very few minutes, and one mule suffices to transport a boat with
all its appurtenances, capable of sustaining ten men. Should the can-
vas become torn, it is easily repaired by putting on a patch, and it
does not rot or crack like india-rubber or gutta-percha ; moreover, it
is not affected by changes of climate or temperature. — MARCY'S Prairie
Traveller. (See BRIDGE ; PONTON.)

BOMB. The shell thrown by a mortar is called a bomb-shell ; and
the shelters made for magazines, &c., should be bomb-/>roo/.

90 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bo*.

BOMBARDMENT. A shower of shells and other incendiary
projectiles. y employed against fortifications, but not against

open commercial cities.

HOOKS. Regimental books to be kept, are: 1. General order
book ; 2. Regimental order book ; 3. Letter book ; 4. ImK-\ « f Letters ;
5. Siie or descriptive book ; 0. Monthly returns. Company books re-
quired are : 1. Descriptive book ; 2. Clothing book ; and 3. Order book.

The following rules for keeping books at the head-quarters of the
army and in the adjutant-general's office may, with modifications that
will readily occur, be used with armies in the field, at the head-quar-
ters of divisions, departments, regiments, &c. :

1. LETTERS RECEIVED. — (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.)
1. All official communications received will be entered in this !•«»«• k,
excepting only such letters of mere trunsmittal of orders, returns, cer-
tificates of disability, requisitions, &c., as need not be preserved. The
orders, returns, certificates, requisitions, &c., themselves, will be appro-
priately entered in other books specially provided for the purpose.

2. Preliminary to being enter. -d every letter will bo folded ami en-
dorsed. Letter paper will be folded in three equal folds — Cap pa
four. The endorsement will give the place and date of letter, name,
and rank of writer, and a summary of its contents, and if other i
accompany the letter, the number transmits -d will also bo noted <>n the.

.:i ml ink. Each enclosure will be numbered and bear the same
office marks as the letter transmitting it. Figures A, b, c, exemplify
the manner of endorsing.

3. Every letter required to bo preserved will bo entered ntphnli-ti-
cally and numbered — the series of numbers beginning and terminating
with the year, and including all Inters dated (whether received <>r ii"t)
within the year. Only one number will be given to each letter re-
ceived with its enclosures, so that the sum of the numbers under each
alphabetical entry in the book of" Letters Ree. i\,-d,'' during an\

will «*h«»\v the number «f 1« -tiers received in that v

4. An a general ru letter will be entered in the name of its
; but there are cases \\here it is p referable, for coin -eni. M< <• of i •• -f-

erenoe, to enter it in the name of the person wh«> forms the sub]

that of the writer. Applications from eiti/.ns f,,r
the discharge of soldiers, <Scc.. |f€ - f this nature. Usually, a single

losurcs will suffice, but it may som<

be necessary, in addition, to make entries in the names of one or tUOft

If to wh..m it relates. Such entries, however, will not

be numbered, bu ..main the date of receipt, name of individual,

Boo.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Fig. A. Ji'j- b. fig. c.

G. 1

FOBT ADAMS, E. I., )

May 8, 1849. j

Col. ,

3d Artillery, Com'd'g.

Relative to unhealthi-

ness of quarters at the

Post, and enclosing Sur-

^cou *3 rcDort

on the subject, dated

Apr. 30, 1849 ; forwards

also a copy of a report,

dated Aug. 16, 1840, of

a Board of Officers as-
sembled to examine into
the condition of the

G. 1. (Hd. Qrs.)
May 11, 1849.

quarters.

[Two enclosures.]

Rec'd (Hd. Qrs.)

May 11, 1849.

place and date of the letter concerning him, with a reference, in red ink,
to the number of that letter. Fig. E is an illustration of an entry of
this kind.

5. The book of " Letters Received " will contain a side index ex-
tending throughout, and will be divided among the several letters of
the alphabet according to the probable space required for entries under
each letter. The book will be paged, and each page divided into three
columns, headed " When received," " Name," " Date and purport of
letter," respectively, as shown by figure J), which also exhibits the
entry in the book of the letter represented by figure A.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Boo.

ISM,

LETTERS RECEIVED

When reeled,

••M

Date and purport of letter.

May llih.

[Surgeon .]

Fort Adams, R. I., May 8, 1840.

See No. 1, Letter O.

Fig. D.
LETTERS RECEIVED.

IMA

When rewired.

Name.

Date and purport of letter.

May llth.

Col. ,

FOBT ADAMS, R. I.,

3d Artillery, command1 g.

May 8, 1849.
Relative to unhealthiness of quar-

ters at the Post, and enclosing

Surgeon 's report on the

subject, dated April 80, 1849 ; for-

wards also copy of a report, dated

Aug. 10, 1840, of a Board of

Officers assembled to examine into

the condition of the quarters.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 93

6. Each entry will be separated from the one preceding it by a red
ink line ; and where two or more letters relate to the same subject they
will be either filed together, or made to refer to each other by their
numbers, and the filing or reference be noted in the book as well as on
the letters themselves.

7. Letters from the Executive and Staff Departments and other
public offices in Washington, will be entered alphabetically in the
names of the departments or offices themselves, but the entry will al-
ways exhibit the writers' names likewise ; — thus, communications from
the War Department would be entered in the letter W, as follows :
" War, Secretary of, (Hon. ,) &c."

8. Communications from the President will be entered in the letter
P — from State Department, in S — Treasury, T — War, W — Navy, and
its bureaux, N — Post Office and its bureaux, P — Interior, / — Attorney-
general, A — Adjutant-general's office, A — Quartermaster-general, Q
— Subsistence, S — Surgeon-general, S — Paymaster-general, P — En-
gineer Department, E — Topographical Engineers, E — Ordnance, 0 —
Recruiting service, Superintendent of, R — Pension Office, P — Comp-
trollers, (1st and 2d,) C— The several Auditors, A — Treasurer U. S., T
— Commissioner Indian Affairs, / — General Land Office, L — Solicitor's
Office, S— and Patent Office, P.

9. Communications from Governors of States will be entered in the
names of the States, the entry showing likewise the Governors' names ;
— thus a letter from the Governor of New York would be entered in
the letter N, as follows : "New York, Governor of, (His Excellency

•,)"&'•

10. Letters from Staff Officers, written by direction of their gen-
erals, will be entered in the names of the Generals themselves ; — thus a

communication from General K 's Staff" Officer would be entered in

the letter K, as follows :

« Bvt. Major Gen'l , comd'g West'n Div'n,"

« (by Assist. Adjt. Gen'l .)"

11. Communications addressed to the War Department or Adju-
tant-general's office, and thence referred, without an accompanying letter,
to head-quarters for report, or to be disposed of, will be entered, in
the ordinary way, in the names of their writers, a note (in red ink)
being simply made in the second column of the book, to show the fact
of reference, thus—" (from A. G. O.)"

12. Where letters are referred from the office for report, &c., a note
of the fact must be made (in red ink) in this book with a citation of the
page, (or number of the letter,) in the " Endorsement " or " Letter

.,1 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo-

Book" where the reference is recorded, thus— Ref'd for report to
Comd'g Offi'r Fort T., May 11— we Book of " Endorsements," p. 3,
— (or, asee Letter No. 7, vol. 1st.") \Vhcn the communication is
returned, a memorandum to this effect will bo made in the book — " Re-
turned with report, May 2.r>th. '

13. Should the portion of this book appropriated to any particular
letter of the alphabet prove insuflifirnt for entries under that letter, they
will be transferred to a few of the last leaves allotted to some other
letter of the alphabet, where there is more space than will probably be
required. The fact of transfer will be noted in large characters, (in
red ink,) at the bottom of the page from which transferred, and at the
top of the page to which carried, as follows :

** TRANSFERRED TO PAGE 250," and " BROUGHT FROM PAGE 60."
II. LETTER BOOK. — (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.} 1.
letter recorded in this book is numbered, (in red ink.) the
numbers commencing and terminating with the year, and each letter is
separated from the one which follows it by a red line.

2. The address of all letters should be at the top, the surname being
written conspicuously in the margin, followed by the official title (if
any) and Christian name, thus :

Bvt. Maj. Gcn'l .

Comd'cr, &c., &c., dec., or
Esq. Samuel II.

3. Each letter should bo signed in the record book by its writer.

4. Wh, -never copies of letters are furnished, the names of the per-
sons to whom they are sent should be noted in red ink in the margin

•he dute, when the last differs from the date of the letter itself. In
like manner, when a letter is addressed to one officer, under cover to his
commander, Ace.. hould also be noted in red ink in the mar-in.

6. The name of every person to whom a letter is addressed is in-
dexed alphabetically, in black ink, ami the names of tin- individuals
whom it principally concerns are indexed in red ink. A red ink line
is drawn in the body of the letter under the names so indexed, to facil-
itate a reference to thorn. In the margin, immediately under the name
of the person to whom a letter is addressed, there are two references,
above and below a short red line, the one above (in red) indicates the
last preceding letter to the same individual, nnd the one below (in
black) the next following. A detached in 1. \ is us, d until the ree.,nl
book is full, uhon the names are arranged under each letter as in City
Directories, and thus classified they are transferred to the permanent
index attached to the record book.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 95

III. GENERAL ORDERS. — (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.)
1. Every order recorded in this book should be signed by the staff
officer whose signature was attached to the originals sent from the
office, and each order should be separated from the one following by a
red line.

complied with ; and where orders are sent to one officer, under cover
to his commander, (which course ought always to be pursued,) or fur-
nished at a date subsequent to that of their issue — these facts should
likewise be added : where the order has been printed, it will be suffi-
cient to write the word "printed" in red ink in the margin, to indicate
that the widest circulation has been given to it.

3. There are two indexes attached to the book — one of names, the
other of subjects — every order will be indexed in the latter immediately
after being copied.

For najpes, a detached index will first be used until the record book
is full, when they will be arranged under each letter as in City Directo-
ries, and thus classified, transferred to the permanent alphabetical index
attached to the record book. Every proper name will be indexed and
a red line drawn in the body of the order under it, to facilitate a refer-
ence to it.

IV. SPECIAL ORDERS. — (7 quires, demy-Russia, with spring back.)
1. Every order recorded in this book should be signed by the staff
officer whose signature was attached to the originals sent from the
office, and each order should be separated from the one following by a
red line.

2. The mode of numbering, distribution, and general form of orders
are prescribed by the Regulations — (see paragraphs 904, 905, and 908,
edition of 1847 ;) but the distribution in each particular case should be*
noted in red ink in the margin, to show that the Regulations have been
complied with ; and where orders are sent to one officer, under cover
to his commander, (which course ought always to be pursued,) or fur-
nished at a date subsequent to that of their issue — these facts should
likewise be added.

3. There are two indexes attached to the book — one of names, the
other of subjects — every order will be indexed in the latter immediately
after being copied.

For names, a detached index will first be used until the record book

• „; MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boo.

is full, when they will be arranged under each letter as in City 1 >
ries, and thus classified, transferred to the permanent alphabetical index
attached to the record book. Every proper name will be indexed and
a red line drawn in the body of the order under it, to facilitate a
ence to it.

V. ENDORSEMENTS AND MEMORANDA. — (5 quires, Cap — Russia, with
spring bark.) 1. Kvory endorsement made on letters or other communi-
cations sent fr«>m the office will be copied in this book, and be signedby
the staff officer whose signature was attached to the endorsement itself. A
brief description of the communication sent out (the name of its writer,
date, subject, and office marks) should precede the record of the en-
dorsement, to render the latter intelligible ; and where such communica-
tion has been entered in tho book of " letters received," the disposition
made of it should also be noted in that book, \\ith a citation «.f tho page
where tho endorsement is recorded. Should the communication l>c
returned to head-quarters, a memorandum will bo made* to that

with the date when received back, in all the books where the fact of the
reference from the office may have been not. .1.

2. In the case of such papers as proceedings of general courts-mar-
tisl, certificates of disability for tho discharge of sol.licrs, requisitions
for ordna-uv, &c., which are not filed at head-quarters, but f -rwarded
thence for deposit in other offices, it will gem-rally suffice to make

f memorandum of tho gcncral-in-chief's action upon tlu-m, in-
stead of copying the endorsements. \V!

H any rule or principle, it oii-ht, of courso, to bo copied in full.

3. The name and address of every oflieer to whom a communication
rred will be written in the margin, and all proper names, no

r in what connection employed, must be. index, ,|.

4. Tb» MUM of the person t«> whom a communication is sent will

•ho names mentioned in the description
d to the endorsement on tho communication, as wvll as in th<»

t itself, will be indcxrd in red ink. To facilitate a
cnce to these last names, n red line will bo drawn under tin -m. In
the margin, immediately under the name of tho person t.. \\hom a
communication is addressed, then- an- t\\o r- fen-invs. above and below
a short red line; the one above (in red) indicates the la*t preceding
reference to the sain* individual, and tho one below (in black) the

foltfv

VI. P. .oK or RKTURNS.

Besides tho foregoing blank books of appropriate size neeordn- t >
circumstances, the following books of arc necessary : Hi

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 97

Military Laws ; Army Regulations ; Ordnance Manual ; Artillery
Manual ; Prescribed Tactics for Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry ; Me-
CLELLAND'S Bayonet Exercise ; Aide Memoire du Genie ; Aide Memoire
d'Etat Major ; WIIEATON'S International Law ; KENT'S or STORY'S Com-
mentaries ; MAHAN'S Field Fortifications ; Military Dictionary.

BOOM — is a chain of masts, or a large cable, or other obstacles
stretched over a river for the protection of a military bridge which has
been thrown across, or under the fire of fortifications to bar access
within a harbor.

BOOTY. (SAXON, bot, bote, lawful profit, gain, advantage, distin-
guished from plunder or pillage.) Despoiling a people or city is barbar-
ous and not tolerated in civilized warfare, but legitimate subjects of booty
are well described in an act of the British Parliament (2 William IV.,
c. 53) : — as arms, ammunition, stores of war, goods, merchandise, and
treasure belonging to the state or any public trading company of the
enemy, and found in any of the fortresses or possessions, and all ships
and vessels in any road, river, haven, or creek belonging to any such for-
tress or possession. It should be the duty of commanding generals to
cause an exact account of such captures to be kept, in order that the
captors may be remunerated by the government for such stores as are
reserved for the public service, and in order that all such prizes of war
may be legally and equitably divided amongst the captors. Such is the
practice in England. There land prizes are divided according to an
established rule of division. In the Piedmontese army the administra-
tion of booty is intrusted to a special staff corps ; the French laws (says
Bardin, Dictionnaire de 1'Armee do Terre) are silent on this subject, or
else those which are in force announce nothing positive ; and in their
silence, there is inhumanity, hypocrisy, and mental reserve. In a
memorial presented by the Duke of Wellington he claimed of his
government for the English army, more than a million sterling which
had been used in the king's service from captures made by the British
army in Spain and France, and the English budget of 1823 shows that
the amount so claimed was given to the army. The 58th article for
the government of the armies of the United States provides, that " All
public stores taken in the enemy's camp, towns, forts, or magazines,
whether of artillery, ammunition, clothing, forage, or provisions, shall
be secured for the service of the United States ; for the neglect of which
the commanding officer is to be answerable." This article of war is
borrowed from a corresponding British article, which directs that the
same stores shall be secured for the king's service. But by proclamation
in Great Britain the money value of all captures is invariably divided
7

MILITARY DICTION ART. [Boo.

amongst the captors. No practice can be more wise ami just, tor al-
though it is necvasary to proscribe marauding or pillage, it is impos-
sible to extirpate the desire of gain tn>m the human heart, and it is
therefore necessary that the law should frankly provide for an equit-
able distribution of captures amongst the army. The absence of a law
•n tends to introduce into an army the greatest evils: sol-
diers disband thi-m-, Ives in search of pillag.-. ,-md their cupidity leads
to the greatest horrors. These great evils are avoided by a legal divi-
sion of booty, when all soldiers, animated by the hope of sharing the
fruits of victory, are careful not to abandon to the greedy, the cowardly,
and the wicked amongst themselves advantages properly belonging
•he gallant victors. In the hope that ( '« ingress may y< i do justice to
our army in respect to captures made in the war with Mexico, the rules
established in Great Britain arc annexed in a series of prize procla-
mations taken from Prcndergast's Law Relating to Officers of the
Army: —

I. — Prize Warrants.

1.— SGINDE BOOTY.

VICTORIA K.

Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the .Faith, To all to whom tin -«• pres-
ents shall come, Greeting: "Whereas the Commissioners of our Treas-
ury have represented unto us, that certain hostilities \\viv carried on in
the year 1848 against tho Ameers of Scinde by our land 1 the

land forces raised and paid by the F.ist India Company, in which a por-
tion of the Indus Flotilla eo-opcratcd : and that during the said hostili-
ties certain b at t lea wt -re fought, and a quantity of booty and plunder
captured or taken possession of. consisting of Lr"ld and silver 1-ars and

•m, of Ornaments, jewels, and ornamented arms, and of guns, cattle,
and other property, of which the following schedule or account has li.-.-n
rendered to our said commissioners, (that is to say,)

i in to the Public Treasury in , ()gg
on account of the articles sold, about )

Realized nt Kurrachie . . . . . . 17,743

Value of Si!, g£64

Isold . 1

Gold remaining in natedat. . . 1 '.' '•'>

Lead, valued at 15,000

to which are to be added the ium due from the Government for articles

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 99

transferred to public departments, the sum due from individuals for
articles sold in Scinde, and the sum which may be produced by the sale
of the jewels, &c., which are at present in deposit at Bombay, but have
been ordered to be sold ;

And whereas it has been further represented unto us that the said
booty and plunder do of right belong to us in virtue of our Royal pre-
rogative, and that the said booty and plunder should be given and
granted in such manner as to us may seem meet and just ;

And whereas our said commissioners, under all the circumstances
of this case, have recommended unto us to give and grant the said cap-
tured booty and plunder, or the produce or value thereof, as before
stated, according to the following scheme, (that is to say :)

Such articles of personal use and ornament to be reserved for the
Ameers as may be selected for that purpose by the Governor-general
of India in council, with the approbation of the Commissioners of our
Treasury ;

The remaining property to be divided into sixths :

One-sixth to be given to all such of the troops stationed at, or be-
tween Shikarpoor, Seikkur, and Kurrachie, and all such of the Indus
Flotilla stationed between Seikkur and Kurrachie on any day between
the 17th of February and 24th of March, 1843, both included, as shall
not be otherwise entitled to share in the booty ;

The Major-general commanding in Scinde, and the officers of the
general staff of the forces serving under his orders in the above-men-
tioned operations, to share in this portion as well as in the other por-
tions hereinafter specified.

The remaining five-sixths (subject to the deductions hereinafter speci-
fied) to be divided in two equal parts, one moiety to be given to the
troops who fought at Meanee, and the other to those who fought at
Hyderabad ; the troops who were in both battles receiving a share of
each moiety ; and from the share or shares accruing to each individual
under the distribution to be made of this portion of the booty there
should be deducted and repaid into the Company's Treasury the amount
of the Donation of Batta, which the individual entitled to the said share
or shares has received under the general order of the Government of In-
dia, dated 28th of February, 1844, as having been present at the battles
of Meanee or Hyderabad;

And our said Commissioners likewise recommend that the troops
under Lieutenant-colonel Outram, who were detached previously to the
battle of Meanee, and directed to fire the Shikargah on upon the right
flank of the army, as well as the detachment which so gallantly defend-

100 MILITAKY DICTION?ARY. [Boa

ed the British Residency on the l.r>th of February, and also such portion
of the Indus Flotilla as was engaged in that .1- . o-operated with

the detachment under Colonel Outram, or was in any other way in im-
mediate connection with the army that achieved the victory of Mcanee*
should share as if they had all been actually present at the battle of
Meanee; and in like manner the garrison of Ihdi -rabad should be
entitled to share in the sum alloted to those engaged in the second*
battle;

Now know ye that Wo, taking tho premises into our Royal consider-
ation, are graciously pleased to approve the said scheme, and do, with
the advice and recommendation of our said Commissioners, by this our
Royal Warrant, under our Royal sign-manual, give and grant the said
captured booty and plunder, or the produce or value thereof as before
stated, unto the Directors of the East India Company, or to such person
or persons as they shall appoint to receive the same, upon tho trust
following, (that is to say,) upon trust, after making the reservations and
deductions above stated, to distribute tho remainder amonu our land
forces, and tho land forces of tho snid Company, and the. office v
crews of the Indus Flotilla, engaged in the aforesaid hostilities in ac-
cordance with the scheme hereinbefore mentioned and set forth, and
with the usage of the army of India ;

And we are graciously pleased to order and direct that, in case
doubt shall arise respecting tho claims to share in the distribution afore-
said, or respecting any demand upon tho said captured booty or plunder,
the same shall bo determined by tho Directors of the East India Com-
pany, or by such person or persons to whom they shall refer the same,
which determination thereupon made shall, with all eonv. nient speed,
•ifii-d in writing to the Commissioners of our T: ind tho

same shall be final and conclusive to all intents and purjM^es. unless,
within three months after tho receipt thereof at the othYe ..f the Com-
missioners of our Treasury, We shall bo graciously pleased oth
to order, hereby reserving to ourselves to make such < -rd. r th.-rein as
to us shall seem meet.

-n at our Court at Win. is r ('a^tl.-. this llth da\
in the Oth year of our reign, ami in the year of our Lord
iler Majesty's Command,

(Signed) 1 II.M.Y

J. MILNES GASKELL,
WILLIAM < 'KIPPS.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 101

2.— TARRAGONA BOOTY.

(Conjunct Expedition of British Land and Sea forces.)
GEORGE R.

Whereas ordnance arms, stores, magazines, and other booty have been
captured from the enemy during the year 1813, at Tarragona, by that
part of the British army under Field-marshal the Duke of Welling-
ton, in Spain, which was under the immediate orders of Lieutenant-
general Lord William Bentinck, and by H.M.S. Malta, Fame, Invin-
cible, Merope, Buzzard and Volcano, forming part of the fleet under Ad-
miral Lord Exmouth, then under the immediate orders of Admiral Sir
Benjamin Hallowell, and appropriated to the public service ; And
whereas an Act passed in the 54th year of the reign of our late Royal
Father, entitled an Act for regulating the payment of Army prize-
money, and to provide for the payment of unclaimed and forfeited
shares to Chelsea Hospital ; And whereas application hath been made
to us by the said F.M. the Duke of Wellington and Admiral Lord Ex-
mouth to grant the sum of £31,531 185. (being the estimated value of
such ordnance and stores) in trust, ty be distributed as booty to the of-
ficers, non-commissioned officers, and privates serving in that part of the
British army under his command in Spain, which was under the immediate
orders of Lieutenant-general Lord William Bentinck, and to the officers,
non-commissioned officers, seamen, and marines, on board H.M.S. Malta,
Fame, Invincible, Merope, Buzzard and Volcano, placed by Admiral
Lord Exmouth under the immediate orders of Admiral Sir Benjamin
Hallowell, at Tarragona ; And whereas the said Field-marshal the Duke
of Wellington, having expressed his wish not to participate in the dis-
tribution of the booty as Commander-in-chief of the British army serv-
ing in Spain ; We, taking the same into our Royal consideration, arc
graciously pleased to give and grant, and do hereby give and grant, to
the said Lieutenant-general Lord William Bentinck and Admiral Lord
Viscount Exmouth the said sum of £31,531 18s. ; and that the said sum
be issued and paid without any fee or other deduction whatsoever, in
trust, for the benefit of the said Lord William Bentinck and the officers,
non-commissioned officers, and privates serving under him, and of Ad-
miral Lord Viscount Exmouth, and the officers, non-commissioned
officers, seamen, and marines actually on board of our before-mentioned
ships employed in that service, as booty and prize, or bounty money
in the nature of prize-money, under the provisions of the said Act
passed in the 54th year of the reign of our late Royal Father, to be
distributed under the provisions of the said Act of Parliament, and

lirj MlUTAK'i VRY. [Boo.

agreeably to our Proclamation for tho distribution of prize, in force at
10 of the said expedition, and this our Royal grant, in manner and
several proportions following, (that is to say,) such sums being
. eight equal parts :

.t.-general Lord Wm. U. -ntinek, Admiral, Lord Viscount
uouth, and such General Officers and Admirals under their «>m-
mand, who were actually present at the capture of tho said booty, so
that the said Lieut.-gcn. Lord Win. 1 lent i nek and Admiral Lord YU-
count Exmouth shall take one moiety, and the other General Officers
and Admirals who wero actually present at the capture of the said
booty, the othor moiety in equal proportions — One-eighth.

Colonels, Lieut-colonels, and Majors in the army, and Captains
and Commanders in tho navy, who were actually present at the
capture of tho said booty, to be equally distributed among them,
and tho persons entitled by tho usage of our army to share with
t hern — Ttro-ei<jh ths.

To tho Captains in tho army and Lieutenants in tho navy, and other
description of persons entitled by tho usage of our army and navy
respectively to share with them — One-eighth.

To the Lieutenants, Cornets, Ensigns, and Quartermasters in tho army,
and Warrant and other Officers in the navy, and otln-r description
of persons entitled by the usage of our army and navy to share with
them — One^ighth.

in tho army and Petty Officers in tin- navy, and other
description of persons entitled by the usage of our army and
respectively to share with them — Onc-ciijhth.

'['• • tli.- Trumpeters and Soldiers Seamen, and Marines, and other descrip-
tion of persons entitled by the usage of our army ami navy respect-
to share with them. — 7Vo-,/y/,///.v

And we are further pleased to direct that all such r< sums

of money shall be distributed as pri/e or bounty money. Of money in

the nature of prize-money, according to tho provisions of the .said Act

-f tho 54th year of tho r Iff Il'-yal Father, and

tho several ftlqg to the distribution of prtefrmQMy in our nary,

i r said 1' r <_r:int, and the rul«-s ;md ens-

•tOOkl heretofore used and observed iii our army and navy resj.ectively

in that behalf, and tho agents intrusted with the distribution ther
Hhe said Lieutei d Lord William U.-jitim-k and Admiral I.ord

Viseoi. Mth shall give all such iioiie,-s. and make sueh ii'.tiliea-

;tion. as are required by tho said Act of Par!;
I'arliamrnt in foree nlatini; to the d'r-ii.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 103

of prize-money in our army, and our said Proclamation, and pay over
all unclaimed shares to Chelsea and Greenwich Hospitals respectively,
to be hereafter paid to the persons entitled thereto, or remain for the
benefit of the said respective Hospitals according to the provisions and
regulations of the said Act of Parliament and the several Bills in force
relating to the distribution of prize-money in our navy ; And We are
further graciously pleased to order and direct that in case any doubt
shall arise respecting the said distribution, or with respect to any other
matter or thing relating thereto, the same shall be determined by the
said commanders of the said land and sea forces, Lieutenant-general
Lord William Bentinck and Admiral Lord Viscount Exmouth, or by
such person or persons to whom the said commanders of the said land
and sea forces shall refer the same ; and such* determination shall be
final and conclusive upon all persons concerned, and as to all matters
and things relating to the said distribution.

Given at our Court, at Carlton House, this 7th day of June, 1820,
in the first year of our reign.

By his Majesty's command,

(Signed) BATHURST.

3.— GENOA BOOTY.

(Conjunct Expedition of British and Allied Forces.)

In the name and on behalf of His Majesty,
GEORGE P. R. *

Whereas it has been represented to us that, at the capture of the Terri-
tory and City of Genoa and its dependencies, on the 18th of April, 1814,
a quantity of ordnance, military and naval stores, ships and vessels, and
other booty, being public property belonging to the enemies of the
Crown of Great Britain, was seized and taken possession of by our sea
and land forces, under the command of Vice-admiral Sir Edward Pel-
lew, Bart, (now Lord Exmouth,) and Lieutenant-general Lord William
Cavendish Bentinck, Knight of the Bath, commanding our naval and
military forces in and upon the coasts of the Mediterranean, assisted by
certain Sicilian and Italian troops, and troops in British pay, and has
been condemned to us as good and lawful prize taken in the said conjunct
expedition ; And whereas no instructions were given by us for the divi-
sion or distribution of the booty to be captured on the said conjunct
expedition ; And whereas application hath been made to us that we
would be graciously pleased to order and direct that the same ordnance,
military and naval stores, ships, vessels and other booty may be dis-
tributed between the officers and crews of our ships, and those of our

104 MILITARY DICIK'N A KV. [Boo.

Ally the King of tho Two Sicilies, ami the officers and men of our land
forces, and those of our Ally the Kin-; of the T\\o Sicilies, according to
any plan of dUtributi«.n \\ e shall bo graciously pleased to apj

premises into .-ur K..\;tl consideration, are graciously
pleased to give and i:r.mt, and do li« -reby give and grant, to tl.
Vice-admiral Sir Edwfcrd Follow (now Lord Exmouth), Commandcr-
: our fleet and vessels employed on the said expedition, and
:i;int-gcncral Ix>rd William Cavendish Hentim-k. Knight ol" the
Hath. Commander-in-chief of our land forces employed on the said ex-
n. the said ordnance, military and naval stores, ships, vessels, and
other booty, so as aforesaid taken and condemned to us, in trust, to
:te the samo amongst tho commanders-in-ehicf, general and flag
officers, and all other officers serving on the said expedition in the fol-
: manner, (that is to say), that the divisi-.n of the booty l>» ••
•ny ami na\ya-id the said Sicilian and Italian ships and troops
.1. 1 expedition, shall be i --ling to the foll«»wing

scheme or schemes: the whole being first divide. 1 into equal parts:

1 To the Commanders-in-chief and to tho Flag and (Jeiieral ( Mh'eers

serving in tho said expedition, one-eighth, to be distributed amongst
them, so that each Commander-in-chief shall take double that share
which eaeh (Iciieral and Flag Officer (not being Commander-in-
chief) shall take; but if the number «-f Flag and CJeneral < >!:

of the two Commanders-in-chief, shall ur, in that

case a moiety of the said one-eighth shall he divided between the
two Commanders-in-chief, and the other moiety amongst the other
Flag and General Officers — Om'-n't/Jtf/i.

2 To the Colonels, LSeuteaantrolonels, and Majors in the army, and

Post Captains and Masters and Commanders in the navy, and /<>
the pertont of like rank belonging to the mi!>/ Firi/;<w tn,>l Jttilinn
»h ipi and troops, to be equally distributed amongst th«-m — (>m--i /;//////.
'•'• T >; ( -lins of Marines ami land forces, and tho eca Lieutenants,
and other de«or5pt ion of persons entitled by our Proclamation for the
distribution of pri/.e of the llth November, 1S07, pf 1-y the usage

ir army, t«» share with them, and tn tic persons in ///'
Ion ,-/ I in linn ah i jts and troops — One-eiyh tli .

«he Lieutenants and Quartermasters . ,f marines, and Lieutenants,
Ensigns, and Quartermasters of land :id the HoaNwains,

GUI sern in the navy, and other description of ]

titled by our said Proclamation or by tho usage of our army, to
share with them, and to tit persons in Ukr r<mk firlonyiny to the said
Sicilian and Italian ships and troops — Ont-ciy/it/i.

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 105

5 To the Midshipmen, Captains' Clerks, Sergeants of marines and land

forces, and the other description of persons entitled by our said
Proclamation or by the usage of our army, to share with them, and
to the persons in like rank belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian
ships and troops — One-eighth.

6 To the Trumpeters, Quarter-gunners, Seamen, Marines, and Soldiers,

and the other description of persons entitled by our said Proclama-
tion, or by the usage of our army, to share with them, and to the
perso?is in like rank belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian ships
and troops — One-eighth.

And that the portion of the said booty, so belonging to our said land
forces employed on the said expedition, and the persons belonging to the
said Sicilian and Italian troops, shall be distributed between the Com-
manders-in-chief, officers, and privates composing the same, according to
the rule heretofore used and observed by the army, under the above
scheme or schedule ;

And that the portion of the said booty so as aforesaid belonging
to our naval forces employed in the said expedition, and the persons
belonging to the said Sicilian and Italian ships, be distributed amongst
the Commander-in-chief, flag and other officers, and men belonging to
our navy employed on the said expedition, and the persons belonging to
the said Sicilian and Italian ships, agreeably to our Proclamation for
the distribution of prize in force at the time of the said expedition.

And we are graciously pleased to order and direct that, in case any
doubt shall arise respecting the said distribution, or respecting any
charge or demand upon the said captured property,. the same shall be
determined by the Commanders- in-chief, and flag and general officers, or
such of them as can conveniently be assembled, or by such person or
persons to whom they, or a majority of them, shall agree to refer the
same ; which determination so thereupon made, shall, with all convenient
speed, be notified in writing to the Clerks of our Council, and the same
shall be final and conclusive to all intents and purposes, unless within
three months after the receipt thereof at our Council Office, we shall be
pleased otherwise to order ; hereby reserving to ourself to make such
orders therein as to us shall seem fit. Given at our Court at Carlton
House, this second day of August, 1815, in the 55th year of our reign.
By command of II.R.H. the Prince Regent, in the name, and on the
behalf of, His Majesty. (Signed) BATHURST.

II. — India Prize-Money.
The following is the present standing scale of distribution of prize-

100 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boa

money in India, to European commissioned and non-commissioned
officers, private^

Souucs.

Commander-in-chief £ of the whole.

.ral Officers 1,500

Colonels 600

Lieut.-colonels, Adjutant-gen, and Quartermaster-
general of Her Majesty's and the Hon. Company's
troops, Commissary -general, Members of the
Medical Board, Inspector of Hospitals of lit r
Majesty's Troops 360

Majors, Deputy Adjutant-general, and Deputy Quar-
t. r master-general of Her Majesty's and the Hon.
Company's Troops, Deputy Commissary-general,
and Superintending Surgeons .... 240

Captains, Surgeons, Assistant Adjt.-general, and As-
sistant Quartermaster-general of HIT Majesty's
and the Hon. Company's Troops, Assistant Com-
-sary -general, Deputy Assistant Adjutant-gen-
eral, Quartermaster-general and Commissary-gen.,
Paymaster, Surgeon to 1 1 is Excellency the Com-
mander-in-chief, Brigade-majors, Aides-de-camp to
His Kxeelleney the Commander-in-chief and Gen-
eral Officers, and Commissaries of Ordnance. . 120

• •iiants, Assistant-surgeons, Cornets, Ensigns,
Adjutants and Quartermasters of Her Majesty's
Dragoons and Infantry, Veterinary Surgeons, Dep-
uty Commissaries, and Deputy Assistant Commis-
saries of Ordnance 60

Conductors, Hiding Masters, Apoth. •<•.:

Sub-assistant and Veterinary Surgeons and Provost
Martial 15

Sub-conductors, Ajafetant-Ajxtthecaries, Assistant-
stewards, Regimental Sergeant-majors, Staff-brigade
and Farrier-sergeants of Horse Art ill. rv, Park s

'. Armorer, ami Sergeants of Artillery . 8

Tru: . 'Saddler

geants, Schoolmaster-sergeants, Hospital-*.

r^eants, Color-sergeants, Armorer-ser-
geants, Drum-majors, Brigade and Staff-sergeants
of Foot A rt i ! .izmc-sergemits, Laboratory-
sergearit-s, and Serg.-ants 2

Boo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 107

SHARES.
Fife-majors, Corporals, Bombardiers, Trumpeters,

Farriers, Rough Eiders, Gunners, Drummers, and

Privates 1

Volunteers 1

The following scale of distribution of prize-money, for the several
classes and ranks of native troops, has been adopted at all the Presi-
dencies of India.

SHARES.

Subedar, Syrarig I 6

Woordee, Major, Russaldar^ j

Jemedar, Tindal I 2

Naib Russaldar j

Havildar, Native Doctor ...... 1

Naik, Drummer .......

Trumpeter, Gun Lascar . . . .

Private, Puckallie . . . . .

Native Farrier, Duffadar ......

Nishan Burder, Nuggurchee .....

Vakell and Hirkarrah

Gun-driver, Bheestie

Nakeeb

For the Royal Army there is no standing scale of distribution,
though, by the foregoing Prize Warrants, it will be seen that a uniform
practice is generally observed.

III. — Prize Proclamation for the Russian War 0/1854.
VICTORIA R.

"Whereas by our Royal Proclamation, bearing date the Twenty-ninth
day of March, One thousand eight hundred and fifty-four, We have
ordered and directed that the net proceeds of all prizes taken during the
present War with Russia, by any of our ships or vessels of war, after
the same shall have been to us finally adjudged lawful prize, shall be
for the entire benelit of the officers and crews of such ships and vessels
of war (save as therein excepted), in which 'Proclamation We have
directed in what proportion the land forces, doing duty as Marines,
shall be entitled to share : And whereas in the said Proclamation We
have reserved to ourselves the division and distribution of all prize and
booty taken on any conjunct expedition of our ships and vessels of war
with our army ; and it is desirable that We should provide for the
division and distribution of all prize and booty taken on such conjunct

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Boo.

expedition, M also by our army alone : We therefore hereby order and
that in such cases the net proceeds of the share which shall ho

assigned by us to our army, under our 1 loyal Sign Manual, shall be
1 and distribute 1 in the following manner and proportions, viz. : —

{One-fourth of One-
t.nth part of the
net proceeds.

General Officers :

1st Class. — General Officers command-
ing Divisions, and other Officers, dec.,
holding equivalent Staff Appoiii
merits

2d Class. — pther General Officers, and
all other Officers, &c., holding equiva-
lent Staff Appointments .

Field Officers :

1st Class. — Colonels, Lieutenant-colonels,
and Brevet -Lieutenant-colonels, and other Of-
ficers holding Staff Appointments equivalent
thereto

2d Class. — Brevet Lieutenant-colonels

not holding an Appointment qualifying th« m to

share in the preceding Class of Field Officers,

and all Majors, Regimental or Brevet, and all

•Ming Appointments equivalent

thcr

Ther> Three

fourths of One-
tenth part of the
net proceeds; the
same to be so (lidd-
ed that a G< '
Officer, Ac., of the
1st Class shall re-
( One-half more
in amount f/
Genera I Officer, &c.,
of tfie 2d Class.

One-ciahth of the re-
mainder of the
net proceeds; tic
same to be so divi<l-
ed that a Field Of-

•'-., of the

1st Class shall rc-

> Oiic-lmlf more

in amount than a

)ktr <r-r.

of the 2d Class.

The remainder <>f the net proceeds shall be distributed in the f«. 1 hav-
ing Claaoes, so that <• .••M-CMiiimissionrd Officer. A:c., sh.ill
norive shares or a share according to his Class, as set forth in tl.
lowing w\ii

1st Class.— Captains, and all other O(V

•led according to the usage of our
army to share in that rank
3d da*.— Subalterns, and all other Of-
ficers entitled according to the usage of
oar army to share in that rank

Thirty-tire Shares

Twenty Shares
each.

BRE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 109

3d Class. — Sergeant majors, Quartermas-
ter Sergeants, and ail other Staff Ser-
geants, and others holding equivalent j Ten Shares each'
rank . . . .

4th Class. — Sergeants, and others holding j

equivalent rank ' [ ^9^ Shares each.

5th Class. — Corporals .... Four Shares each.

6th Class. — Private Soldiers, Trumpeters, \

Drummers, &c } Three Shares each.

And in the event of any difficulty arising with respect to the Class
in which any Officer, &c., shall be entitled to share, our will arid pleasure
is, that the same shall be determined and adjusted by the Commander-
in-chief of our land forces for the time being. .

Given at our Court at Buckingham Palace, this Eleventh day of
August, in the year of our Lord One thousand eight hundred and fifty-
four, and in the eighteenth year of our reign.

GOD SAVE THE QUEEN,

BOUNTY. " Every able-bodied musician or soldier, re-enlisting in
his company or regiment within two months before, or one month after
the expiration of his term of service, shall receive two months' extra
pay, besides the pay and allowances due him on account of the uncx-
pired period of his enlistment ; " (Act March 2, 1833.) Bounty lands
have also been given by Congress for military service. The principal
characteristic of those acts has been to reward alike all grades, and to
make no distinction of service, except by granting forty acres for the
minimum degree of service, and one hundred and sixty acres for the
maximum of service. A very marked and utterly indefensible departure
from the principle upon which such rewards of merit and services were
made by the several States immediately after the Revolutionary War.

BOYAU — is a small trench, or a branch of a trench, leading to a
magazine, or to any particular point. They are generally called boyaus
of communication.

BREACH. Rupture made in a fortification to facilitate the as-
sault. The best mode of doing this is by dividing the wall up into
detached parts by making one horizontal and several vertical cuts, and
battering each part down. The easiest way to make the cut is to direct
the shots upon the same line, and form a series of holes a little greater
than a diameter apart, and then fire at the intervals until the desired
cut is made. The horizontal cut is finished first. The vertical
cuts are then commenced at the horizontal cut, and raised until the

110 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Da*.

wall sinks, overturns, and breaks into pieces. The effective !•:
ing power of rifle cannon has been shown l.y recent successful ,
nicnts in England, against a martello tower 30 feet high and 48 feet
r. the walls being of good solid brick masonry, from 7 to 10
feet thick. Armstrong guns with 40 and 80-poun.hr solid sliot, and
100-pounder percussion shells were used at a distance <>t 1 <
more thnn twenty times the usual breaching distance. The 80-pounder
issed completely through the masonry, (7 feet 3 inches,) and the
40-pounder shot and 100-pounder percussion sliells lodged in the brick-
work, at a depth of fi\e t. . t. Alter firing 170 projectiles, a small por-
tion of which were loaded shells, the entire land side of tin t<>\\
thrown down, and the interior space was filled with the debris of the
vaulted roof, forming a pile which alone saved the opposite side from

. The superior breaching power of rifle projectiles d-
not only on penetration, but on accuracy of flight and consequent con
cent rat ion 'on any desired point; (BENTON.)

BREACH OF ARREST. Any arrested officer who shall leave
his confinement, before he shall be set at liberty by his commanding
. or by a superior officer, shall be cashiered ; (ART. 77. 7»W*\ and
Articles of War.)

BREAK GROUND — is to commence the siege of a place by open-
ing trenches, &c.

BREASTWORK— is a hastily constructed parapet, not high
enough to require a banquette, or at least generally without one ; (See
FIELD WORKS.)

BREECH. The mass of solid metal behind ihe bottom of the. bore
• •fa •_''»»» extending to the rear of the base ring. The base of the breech
is a frustum of a cone or spherical segment in rear of tin !•••

Breech of a musket ; Breech screw ; Br<«-lt j>in. (For l>ne. -h -load-
inuf nnns. See GARDINER ; PISTOL.)

r.KLYLT. i /•>.,..-/,.) I: is derived from Latin. '.hieh

a brief; a pan hrnent containing an annotation or not if,

•ninire tic CAnncedc Tcrrc.) So also, according to Ains-

•/ trriV, Mandatum, n / PHIKVK emittere. This Latin

word breve, brevia, is also still ! in Kurdish law. as signifying

a writ, or mandatory issued by the authority, and in the name

of the sovcreir '•<% a writ, Ilrcvc dt . I rit of

right, Brevia Formula, the register of Miits; (BOUVIER'S /

So also in Scots Law, Breve Testatum (Lat.) an aeknowledgment in writ-

1 practice, was made out ..n the land at the time

i ng possession to the vassal, and signed by the superior ; (OOILVIE.)

BRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. HI

The word brevet in French signifies, when applied to officers in the
army or navy, commission ; (SPIERS and SURENNE.) Brevet was taken by
the English from the French with this meaning. As used in the United
States army, brevet was borrowed with our Articles of War from
England, and in the British service it means a commission in the army
at large, distinctive of a commission in a particular regiment or corps.
But, as both in the British service and our own, payments are made for
the authorized number of officers of the various grades in the several
corps composing an army, ordinary English lexicographers have set down
the meaning of brevet as a commission which gives an officer title and
rank in the army above his pay ; (WEBSTER, WORCESTER, and OGILVIE.)
This would be the true meaning of brevet, if there was no legislation
on the subject of rank by brevet other than that authorizing such rank
to be conferred. But as rank by brevet is given in the army of the
United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for
" gallant actions or meritorious services," the laws have justly provided
that, whenever an officer is on duty, and exercises a command' according
to his brevet, he shall be entitled to the pay of such grade ; (Acts of
1812 and 1818.) Brevets, however, being commissions in the army at
large, it would also follow, if there was no further legislation, that such
commissions would be exercised in the particular regiment in which an
officer was mustered. To avoid this, and also to give efficacy to com-
missions in particular corps where different corps come together, the
61st and 62d Articles of War have regulajted the whole subject. The
61st Article provides that within a regiment or corps officers shall take
rank and do duty according to the commissions by which they are
mustered in their regiments or corps, but brevets or former commis-
sions may take effect in detachments and courts-martial composed of
different regiments or corps. As rank, however, means a range of sub-
ordination in the body in which it is held, it is manifest that rank in any
particular body, as a regiment, corps, or the army at large, would not
of itself give the right to command out of that particular body, without
being enabled by further legislation. Hence the necessity of the 62d
Article of War, \s hich provides that, when different corps come together,
the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or mili-
tia, by commission there on duty or in quarters shall command the
whole, and give orders for what is needful for the service, unless other-
wise specially directed by the President of the United States, according
to the nature of the case; (See COMMAND ; DETACHMENT; LINE;
PRESIDENT ; RANK.)

BRIBE AT MUSTER. Art. 16 of the Rules and Articles of

llv> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bui.

\Yar provides that any officer convicted of taking any bribe on mus-

IN, shall be displaced from his ollice,and

••rly disabled from . holding any ollice or employment

in the service of the 1'nited States.

BUICULE. Men's hamcss for dragging guns, length 18 fi-« -t— us, ,1
for hariu*!iing men to guns \\hen horses cannot be used.

lilllDGE. If you arc at the side of a narrow but deep and rapid

MI the banks of which trees grow long enough to r, -a. h I
one or more should In? felled, confining the trunk to its own bank, and
letting the current force the head round to the opposite side ; but if
" the river be too wide to be spanned by one tivi — and if two or three
men can in any manner be got across — let a largo tree be felled into the

"n each side, and placed close to the banks opposite t<. <M< h other,
with their heads lying up-streamwards. Fasten a rope to the 1
each tr the trunks, shove the heads off to r. oefane the force of

the current, and ease off the ropes, so that the branches m:iy n

i Idle of the river, at an angle pointing upwards. The branches
of the trees will be jammed together by the force of the current, and
so be sufficiently united as to form a tolerable communication,
cially when a few of the upper branches have been cleared away. If in-
sunVi, nt. towards the middle of the river, to bear the weight « -f men cross-
ing, a : I, with forks left near their heads, may be thrust down
through the branches of the trees to support them ; " (Siu II. I > >

\Vhi-n a river, which cannot bo forded, must be crossed by animals
and carriages, a bridge becomes necessary ; and in all cases it is b
if possible, to cross by a bridge than by a ford, unless the 1

u'ly shallow. Military bridges may be of t hive kinds : 1st

ires of timber. . 'n^-brid-jes. .'id. Flying-bridges. Timber

bridges may be either supported on piles or on trestles. Pile-bridges are
the most secure, and when- bridges are required to remain in use fora
considerabl >e which may be constructed on the li

• f an army, with its base of operations, this form of
bridge will generally be ado] ',d. T t a ».„„! j.il. --br

kilYd labor is neeessary, and an ample supply

of materials essential. When the bottom of the channel is linn, and
them* to (1, ,o,ls, a pile-bridje may be construct. -d with-

out dfliculty, and will be very durable. Th- piles mu-t be driven by
•H engine, \\ hieh mny be constnict<-d of an 8-inch or 10-inch shell run
full of 1 by ft rope over a pulley. This may be v

by hand, and wiil drive piles to ft depth sumYient to allow of the
passage of st artillery over the bridge. The pulley of the

BRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 113

pile engine should be supported on a framework, some 16 feet high,
•which may be made to act as a guide to the shell during its fall, and
also for the pile while it is being driven. This -framework should be
erected upon a large flat-bottomed boat. If such a boat is not to be
procured, a raft must be made to answer the purpose. When timber
of a considerable length can be procured for the joists of the bridge, it
will be advisable to make the intervals between the piers or rows of
piles, as great as the length of the joists will allow, so that the current
of the river may be impeded as little as possible, and its action on the
bridge be reduced to a minimum. By this arrangement, too, as much
space as possible is given for the passage of floating bodies, and the
danger of their damaging the bridge is proportionately diminished.
When all the piles have been driven as far as the power of the engine
can accomplish, they must be sawn off to the same level, and the super-
structure of timber be strongly and carefully fitted. With bays of 20
feet, and a roadway 14 feet wide, there must be at least five or six
beams not less than 7 inches by 8. With wider bays, timbers of
larger dimensions will be necessary. The planking should not be less
than 2 inches thick laid transversely. Bridges on piles, for the passage
of infantry over shallow rivers only, may be expeditiously constructed,
as the piles may be slight, 6 inches in difameter would suffice, and they
can be driven by hand by heavy mauls, or by two men using a beetle.
See diagram, Fig. 71.

FIG. 71.

Here the pile is set and kept in its place by means of two spars of
planks resting their extremities upon a stool placed on the bank. A
plank is then laid across, on which one or two men may stand to drive
the pile. The weight of the men may be increased, if necessary,

114

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Bui.

by stones placed on the platform assisting to force the piles into the
ground. When one row of piles is placed, and the floor laid to a cross
beam fixed UIH.II them, another row may be set and driven in the same
manner, fixm- the stool on that part <-f th.- tloor which will thus have
been compl- • i Pttti driven in this way may be safely de|
upon to bear infantry with a front of two or three files in open ranks,
not keeping st

Bridget on Trestles. — When rivers arc shallow, and not liable to
sudden floods, and when their channels are firm and even, very us, -nil
bridges may be constructed on trestles. Trestles for this purpose
should each consist of a stout transom or ridge piece some 8 inehes
square and 10 feet long; to this should be fitted four legs adapted
to the depth of the river slanting outwards from the vertical, and
strengthened by diagonal bracing, (Fig. 72.) For large bridges it N\ ill

be found advantageous to add
an additional pair of legs to
each trestle. These, from the
difficulty of fitting six legs to
the uneven surface of the bot-
t"'n of the river, should not
l»e attached until the trestle is
placed in position; they should
then l»e. driven into the bed
of the river. and their upper
extremities should be firmly
nailed to the ridge piece. When

the different parts of the trestles are all prepared 1>< forehand, they
can be speedily put together and the bridge completed with irn-at
expedition. Fascines may bo used for flooring, win-re plank cannot
be obtained. When the intervals or Lays are t- n f Bt, the dimensions
of the trestle and beams may be as follows : —

Length.

nrrwltli.

ThlckoflM.

SI Head 1

1C.

4 Len.

1 Bn

fidlu

Flanks for flo<

If there b» as . a cable should be stn i--h. <1 BOTOM the

river on each side of th.- bridge, and th- be firmly lashed to

It may, moreover, sometimes be necessary to load the trestles

BBI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. H5

with shot or stones, to keep them in their position until the flooring is
laid upon them.

Floating-Bridges are those generally adopted for the passage of troops
over rivers. They may be very expeditiously constructed, and can be
made strong enough to carry the heaviest artillery. During the last
century boats were generally used for this purpose ; and, although on
navigable rivers, boats are readily found, it was frequently a work of
time and difficulty to collect a sufficient number, particularly if the
enemy had had the opportunity of removing or destroying them pre-
viously. The inconveniences and delays resulting from this cause, al-
ways hazardous and often fatal to the success of an expedition, led to
the introduction of regular bridge equipages or pontoon trains, duly
organized to accompany the march of armies. An efficient pontoon
train renders an army independent of the rivers which may intersect
its route. By its aid rivers of very considerable magnitude may be
bridged in a few hours, and a march of a given distance may thus be
with certainty completed in a given time — a matter often of momentous
importance to the success of military operations.

Bridges of Boats. — Boats of almost any kind will make a serviceable
bridge. For wide rivers the boats should be large. The boats of which
a bridge is constructed should, if possible, be nearly of the same size,
unless they are all very large, and then variations in dimensions will
be of little consequence. Should some be large and some small, the
passage of large bodies of troops, of heavy guns and ammunition
wagons will depress them unequally, causing the flooring of the bridge
to assume an irregular line, straining and injuring, and in some cases
fracturing, the timber and destroying the bridge. When boats, all of
the same size, cannot be obtained, the larger boats should be placed at
wider intervals, so that they may sustain a heavier weight, proportioned
to their greater capacity, during the passage of troops, and be depressed
to an equal distance with the smaller. The superstructure will consist
of balks of timber laid across the gunwales of the boats, and securely
fastened, and the flooring of planks laid transversely over. A certain
rigidity results from this arrangement, by which, if the boats were
subject to much motion, the bridge would be speedily destroyed. In
tidal rivers, where a considerable swell must generally be encountered,
this manner of securing the timbers will not answer. In this case, it
will be found advantageous to erect a trestle or support in the centre
of each boat, over which the timbers may be bolted to each other : thus
each boat will be allowed independent motion, and this will not en-
danger the fracture of the bridge.

116

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Bu.

The boats should be moored head and stern, and should be kept at
their relative distances by timbers fixed at the head and at the stem,

i „.

stretching across the bays, so as to remove unnecessary strain from
the timbers of the bridge. The timbers should be as nearly as possible
square, and of dimensions proportioned to the space of the intervals.
With good timbers, 8 inches by 6, twenty feet may bo allowed from
trestle to trestle. The width of the bridge should also be proportional
to the dimensions of the timbers. With five balks of 7 inches by 8,
the bridge should not exceed 14 fret in width. If too wide there will
be danger of the beams being broken by the overcrowding of troops on
the bridge.

When there is no regular pontoon train, and boats cannot be pro-
cured, rafts may be used in place of boats. These rafts may bo
of casks, which, if properly arranged and securely lash, ,1, will
all the purposes of pontoons. Eight or ten casks, all of the
same size, should be placed side by side on a lev* 1 piece <>f ^r-un.l,
rig each other, bung-holes uppermost. Two stout balks, 4^ inches
square, and about 2 feet longer than the sum of the diam.-t.T* «.f the
casks which are to form the pier, must then be prepared ami laid along
the upper surface of the casks, parallel to each other, a::.! • a. h about
distant from the line of the bung-holes. A piece of .'J-in.-h r«.pe
should then be attached to one end of each of these l.alks, passed under
all the casks, and secured to the other end of the same balk.

These ropes aro then drawn up towards the balks and ti-htly lashed
by small ropes between every pair of casks, and the smaller r
the one side are agaii across to those of the other side

74.) The whole pier thus becomes so compact that it may be rolled

BRI.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

117

and launched and rowed with as little danger of breaking up as though
it were a single pontoon. Piers of casks constructed in this way may
be used exactly like pontoons, and will form a most efficient bridge.

FIG. 74.

Pontoons are vessels of various forms and dimensions, and are made
of various materials. They are generally boat-shaped, of wood, of
copper, or of tin, sometimes with decks, and sometimes without. Each
boat, or pontoon, is carried on a suitable wagon, which also conveys
the portion of superstructure necessary for one "bay or interval.

Flying-Bridges. — A flying-bridge is an arrangement by which a
stream with a good current may be crossed, when, from a want of time
or a deficiency of materials, it may not be possible to form a bridge.
It consists of a large boat or raft firmly attached by a long cable to a
mooring in the centre of the stream, if the channel be straight, or on
the bank if the channel be curved. By hauling the boat or raft into
proper positions, it will be driven across the stream in either direction
as may be desired.

The bridge is made usually of two,
(Fig. 75,) three, and sometimes six boats,
connected together, and very solidly
floored over, the beams being fastened
to the gunwales of the boats with iron
bolts or bands, and the flooring planks
nailed down upon them. The floor is
sometimes surrounded with a guard-rail. The most suitable boats are
long, narrow, and deep, with their sides nearly vertical, in order to offer
greater resistance to the action of the current. At the end of the rope
is fixed an anchor X, which is moored in the channel, if this is in the
middle of the stream. If the channel is not in the middle, the anchor
is placed a little on one side of it toward the most distant shore. By
means of the rudder, the bridge is turned in such a direction that it is
struck obliquely by the current, and the force resulting from the de-
composition of the action of the current makes it describe an arc of a

I is MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ KKI.

circle around the anchor as a centre, and this force acquires its
imum effect sides of the boats make an angle of aboi;

with the direction of the current.

Suppose M N (Fig. 76) to represent the side of the boat, and A B
the resultant of the forces of the current against it. The force A 1
be decomposed int.. two forces; the one, A C, will act in tin- dir
M N as friction, and may be neglected, and the other, A I >, u ill :»

pendicularly to the side of

Fw> -5. boat. "Were th.> boat free to

move, and headed in the same
direction, it would descend the
river, at the same time crossing
it. A D is then decomposed
into two other forces, the one
A E, in the direction of the cur-
rent, causing the boat to drift, the

other A F, perpendicular to this, which pushes the boat across. If tho
boat is now attached to a fixed point by the rope A X, tho force A E
will be neutralized, and all the effort of the current will be reduced to
the force A F, which makes the boat revolve around tin-, point X. Tho
length of rope used should be once and a half or twice the -width of tho
river. With a shorter rope the arc described by tho bridge is too
great, and it performs the ascending brunch with difficulty ; with a
longer one, the rope becomes too heavy, sinks in tho \\
the movement. Generally, the arc described by the bridge should not
be more than 90°. To prevent the rope from dragging over tho deck,
which would interfere with tho load, it is held up by an arrant'
such as is indicated in Fig. 76, and buoyed out of the water nearly to
the anchor by skiffs, empty casks, or other floating bodies. AY hen the
stream to be crossed is not very wide, a flying-bridge may be made
with two ropes, one fastened on each sh<>n -. the r«>|,,-s being used al-
ternately. If the stream, on tho contrary, is very wide, several boats
are fastened together, floored over, and anchored in the. niid.i
communication k«-pt nj> with each shore by a flying-bridge, like the one
already described. In about oM<- hour 'M men ran n.nstruet allying
bridge composed of 6 bridge-boats, and capable of carrying 'J50 in-
fantry, or 2 piece* of artillery and 12 horses. At least one spare
r should always be carried on the bridge, to anrh«»r it in case the
rope should break or become detached ; and oars, a small boat, and a
long rope, should also be pn»v'nlnl. A flying-bridge may, in case of
emergency, be made of any kind of boats with the means of fixing rud-

BRI.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

110

FIG. 77.

ders to them. For want of an anchor, a large stone, mill-stone, or a
bag or box of sand may be made use of. A flying-bridge may be made
of a raft, the best form being lozenge-shaped, with the front angle about
55°. It is attached to a rope stretched across the stream by three
others with pulleys, which slide along the first rope, this being tightly
stretched across and not allowed to hang in the water. Buttresses con-
structed on boats or trestles, according to the means at hand, are
formed on both sides of the river, at the points where the flying-bridge
lands. Wagons impermeable to water may, by means of a rope at-
tached to the wagon body, be used to pass a company with its baggage.

Where large bodies are to be crossed, a common contrivance is the
RAFT of logs, but it is the last expedient to be adopted from its want
of buoyancy and general manage-
ability, and is inapplicable when the
passage of a river is likely to be con-
tested with animation. Its merits
are that, at the expense of time,
it can be constructed with less ex-
perienced workmen ; it saves car-
riage, as it can only be made of ma-
terials near the spot. It is, however,
an indifferent substitute for boats,
pontoons, or casks. An independent
raft will require two rows of trees,
at least, to float as many men as can
stand upon it, and the logs are best
bound together by withes, or ropes,
and stiffened with cross and diagonal
traces.

Timber Bridges. — The rudest form [_
of arch is very strong, easy of con-
struction, and of frequent occurrence; the timbers being roughly
notched into each other as in log-houses, and gradually jutting over

FIG. 78.

120

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Bat

the pier or abutment near each other. A few of tho upper courses
may be trenailed down. Figure 79 shows the manner of const™*, u. >n
with hewn or rough timber.

Fio. 7*.

The wagon bodies now made for the United States army are gal-
vanized or zincked iron ; the lower and upper rails are of oak wood, cov-
ered with sheet iron ; wooden supporters are framed into the lower
rails like the usual wagon body, the tail piece is hung upon hinges. An
important application of those iron wagon bodies, (suggested by Lieuten-
ant-colonel Grossman, United States army,) would be their employment
as boats in bridging rivers. If they are so perfected as to rend. -r them
water-tight, they might be readily converted into a system of pontoons,
each one carrying a portion of the string pieces and planks necessary
to construct a bridge, without materially interferini: with tin- usual
load. Arranged and lashed together in double n>\\s they w.-uld a<l«>nl
a sufficient breadth of roadway for the passage of both cavalry and
artillery with facility.

Large treet may be felled to enable infantry to cross narrow str<
placing them so that their butts may rest upon the K-mks \\iih tho,
top directed obliquely up the stream ; if one is not lonp rnmiirh, others
may be floated down so at to extend across, being guided nn<l secured

• a way may be formed by laying plm

hurdles over them, and their branches should be chopped oil" nearly to
the level of the water and intertwined below ; poles also *nay be
driven into the I river, t«. aid in supporting the trees by at-

taching the boughs to them. Wheel ^carriages used to form I

BRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 121

bridge may be connected by beams ; or a single pair of wheels with
an axle-tree to admit two strong posts may be attached and placed in
the centre of the stream if it is not too wide. Poles reaching from each
bank may be secured to the posts, and the wheels would act as a
trestle. With a flooring over the poles, a slight bridge could be

FIG. 80.

rapidly constructed for an advanced guard. Hide boats are made of
four buffalo hides strongly sewed together with buffalo sinew, and
stretched over a basket work of willow 8 feet long and 5 feet broad,
with a rounded bow, the seams then being covered with ashes and tallow.
Exposed to the sun for some hours, the skins contract and tighten the
whole work. Such a boat with four men in it draws only four inches
of water. Inflated skins have been used since the earliest times for
crossing, and if four or more are secured together by a frame, they
form a very buoyant raft. Canvas (rendered water-proof by a com-
position of pitch 8 Ibs., beeswax 1 lb., and tallow 1 lb., boiled together
and laid on quite hot) will serve as a raft or pontoon, if placed over
framework or wicker work ; (Consult Memorial des Officiers d'Infanterie
et Cavalerie ; Aide Memoire of the Military Sciences ; DOUGLAS'S Prin-
ciples and Construction of Military Bridges ; HYDE'S Fortifications ;
GIBBON'S Manual; HAILLOT, Instruction sur le Passage des Rivieres et
la Construction des Fonts Militaires.)

BRIDGE-HEAD (la tete du pont) — is a work consisting of one
or more redans or bastions, constructed on the bank of a river, to
cover a bridge, to protect a retiring army in crossing the river, and to
check an enemy when pressing upon it. (See REDAN.)

BRIDOON. The snaffle and rein of a military bridle, which acts
independently of the bit, at the pleasure of the rider.

BRIGADE. .Two regiments of infantry or cavalry constitute a
brigade. (Act March 3, 1799.)

BRIGADIER-GENERAL. Rank next below major-general. The
commander of a brigade. Entitled to one aide-de-camp.

BRIGADE-INSPECTOR. (See MILITIA.)

122 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Bui.

IWICAH. ^A.IOB. An officer appointed to assist the general
commanding a brigade in all his duties. (See MILITIA.)

I : I 1 U - 1 N * , (See BKIDOBS ; CARPKNTUY.)

BUILDINGS, DEFBXCI OF. The objects now under consideration
are churches, country-houses, factories, prisons, or other substantial
1'uil. lings ; and as there is but little difference in the mode to be pur-
sued for placing any of them in a state of defence, an explanation of the
details applied to a single house will perhaps be sufficient to convey an
idea on the subject. A building proper for defensive purposes, should
possess some or all of the following requisites : 1. It should COMMAND
all that surrounds it 2. Should be SUBSTANTIAL, and of a nature to
funiiv ill useful for placing it in a state of defence. 3. Should

be of an EXTENT PROPORTIONED TO THE NUMBER OF DEFENDERS, and only
require the TIME AND MEANS which can be devoted to completing it. 4.
Should have walls and projectings that mutually FLANK each other. 5.
Should be DIFFICULT OF ACCESS on the side exposed to attack, and yet
have a SAFE RETREAT for the defenders. 6. And bo in a situation proper
for fulfilling the object for which the detachment is to be posted. A
church will be found usually to unite all these good properties more
than any other building. It may be remarked that though good strong
walls arc an advantage, yet their thickness should be limited to 2 or 3
feet, from the difficulty there would be in piercing loopholes; unless
when they are likely to be battered by artillery, in which case the mus-
rnust be confined to the windows, and the inure solid the, walls
"er. It should also be remembered that brick houses and
walls are preferable, on several accounts, to those built of stone ; for
when exposed to artillery, a round shot merely makes a small hole in
the former, but stone is broken up in large masses, and dangerous
splinters fly from it in all direct ions. It is much easier also to make
loopholes through brickwork than through m;i><>i,ry. \Yoodcn houses,
or those made of plaster, arc to be avoided, from the facility with which
•n enemy can set fire to them, and they arc tYe<|ti.-ntly n..t even musket -
proof. Thatched houses are equally object ionaMc, on account of fire,
unless there is time to unroof them ; and after all it must not be for-
gotten, that earthen works, wlien exposed to artillery, are to be j.re-
ferred to houses, as far as affording s-curity to the <1. tenders i

!. In seeking this ft4M>urit\, bowerer, U should lie home in mind

that they are not so defensible — for troops cannot be run into .1 house ;

but they are not exempt from such an intrusion in an earthen work of

^ ure under discussion. Tho two t ,n 1>« made to form

a more respectable post than either can be made into singly, for the

Bui.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 123

merits of both will be enhanced, and the defects be modified, by the
union. A building is therefore at all times a capital base to go to
work upon. The walls may be partially protected from cannon shot
by throwing up earthen parapets round it, and the house may " recip-
rocate " by acting the part of a keep, and afford the garrison a placo
of refuge, in which they may either defend themselves with advantage,
or if it " suits their book," resume the offensive and drive the assailants
out again.

An officer will be able to make his selection at first sight, with ref-
erence to most of these points, but it requires a little more considera-
tion to determine whether a building and its appliances are convertible
into a post, of a size proportioned to the force under his command.
The average number of men, however, proper for the defence of a
house, may be roughly estimated on some such data as the following :
— That in a lower story it might generally be proper to tell off one
man for every 4 feet that the walls measured round the interior. In
the second story one man for every 6 feet, and in an attic or roof one
man for every 8 feet. For example, if a house of three stories high
were found, on pacing it, to measure 140 feet round the interior walls,
the number of men for its defence on the above data would be deter-
mined thus : —
Feet.

140 Would give 35 ; which would be the number of men for the lower
4 story.

_ Would be about 23 men for the second floor.
6

J-^ Would be 18 men for the attic.
8

making a total of 76 men for the three stories ; to which about one-
sixth of the whole, say 14 men, should be added as a reserve, making
altogether a garrison of 90 men. If there were out-buildings or walls
in addition, the number of men required for their defence, would be
determined in a similar manner, by assuming certain data adapted to
the circumstances as a guide in the calculation. These numbers are not
to be considered definitive, but merely to convey an idea on the subject ;
for if a detachment were much weaker in proportion to the extent, a
vigorous defence might still be made. The force might be concentrated
where most required, as it is not a matter of course that a place will
be attacked on all sides at once ; or if a building were found so large
that the disposable force would be too much disseminated, or if there
were a want of materials and time for putting the whole of it in a stato

1-2 \ MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Boi.

of defence, a part of it only might be occupied. Should there exist any
doubt about having sufficient time to complete all that might be wished,
it would become matter for consideration what were the points which
it would be of the greatest importance to secure first, so as to be in a
condition to repel an immediate attack, because such points would nat-
urally claim attention to the exclusion of all others. In such a cafe, it
might be well to employ as many men as could work without hindering
each other by being too crowded. 1. To collect materials and barri-
cade the doors and windows on the ground floor, to make loopholes in
them, and level any obstruction outside that would give cover to the
enemy, or materially facilitate the attack. 2. To sink ditches oppo-
site the doors on the outside, and arrange loopholes in the windows of
the upper story. 3. To make loopholes through the walls generally,
attending first to the most exposed parts, and to break communications
through all the party-walls and partitions. 4. To place abatis or
any feasible obstructions on the outside, and to improve the defence of
the post by the construction of tambours, &c. 5. To place out-build-
ings and garden walls in a state of defence, and establish communica-
tions between them. To make arrangements in the lower story espe-
cially, for defending one room or portion after another, so that partial
possession only could bo obtained on a sudden rush being made. These
different works to bo undertaken in the order of their relative impor-
tance, according to circumstances; and after securing the immediate ob-
ject for which they were designed, they might remain to be improved
up"ii if opportunity offered. An endeavor will now be mode to explain
the mode of executing these works in the order in which they are men-
tioned.

Collecting Materials. — The materials that will be found most useful
in barricading the passages, doors, and windows, are 1> s, cart

bodies, bricks, stones, cinders, dung, dec., and timber of any sort that.
comet to hand; if they cannot be found elsewhere on tin- premises,
the roof and floors must be stripped to furnish what is required.

Barricading Doors. — In the application of these materials, tho boxes
and casks filled with cinders or dung, and plan d against the doors to a
height of 0 feet, will prevent their being forced open, and loopholes
may be made through the upper portions, whi< h <-an l>c rendered mus-
'>of to protect the men's heads ; short lengths t.f timber piled one
upon another to the same height, leaving a space bet we, n any two of
them in a convenient situation for firing through, and their ends 1,,-ing
secured in the side walls of a passage, or propped with up:
on the inside, will effect the same object; or a door may be loosely

BUT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 125

bricked up, leaving loopholes, &c. If it is probable that artillery will
be brought up for knocking away these barricades, and so forcing an
entrance, a passage may be partially filled with dung or rubbish to the
thickness of 8 or 10 feet, or thick beams of timber may be reared up
on the outside of a door, and the interval filled with the same, or with
earth if more convenient. A hole, about 3 feet square, may be left
through an ordinary barricade for keeping up a communication with
the exterior ; but for effecting a retreat, or making sorties, it will be
necessary to make a door musket-proof, by nailing on several additional
thicknesses of plank, and arrange it so as to open as usual, or contrive
something on the spot which shall equally protect the men when firing
through the loopholes, and yet be removable at pleasure.

Barricading- Windows. — Windows do not require to be barricaded
so strongly as doors, unless from their situation an entrance may. easily
be effected, or an escalade be attempted. The principal object is to
screen and protect the defenders whilst giving their fire ; any thing,
therefore, that will fill up the window to a height of 6 feet from the
floor, and that is musket-proof, will answer the purpose. Thus two or
three rows of filled sand-bags, laid in the sill of a window, Fig. 81, or

FIG. 81.

short lengths of timber would do ; or a carpet, a mattrass, or blankets
rolled up, would be ready expedients. Loopholes would, in all cases,
be arranged whatever materials were used. If time presses, and win-
dows could not be blocked up, one means of obtaining concealment,
which is the next best thing to security, would be to hang a great coat
or blanket across the lower part of them as a screen, and make the
men fire beneath it, kneeling on the floor. The glass should be removed
from windows before an attack commences, as it is liable to injure the
defenders, when broken by musketry.

Levelling Obstructions outside. — Any shrubberies, fences, or out-
buildings, within musket-shot, which would favor an attack by affording

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[BUL

cover to an enemy, and allowing him to approach unperceived, should
be got rid of as soon as possible. The trees should be felled, 1<
the stumps of different heights, so as to encumber the ground, and the
materials of walls, dec,, should be spread about with tin s.nm \i.-\\ ;
but whatever is convertible for barricades should be cini.d to t In-
house. The thatch from roofs, and any combustibles, should also bo
removed or destroyed.

Ditches in Front of the Doors, <Cc. — As a means of preventing a door
being forced, a ditch may be dug in front of it, about 7 t« t wide and 5
feet deep ; such a ditch is also necessary in front of the lower windows,
if tin- loopholes cannot be conveniently made high enough from the out-
side to prevent an enemy reaching them. These partial ditches may
n ft rr wards be converted into a continued ditch all round a house if
opportunity offers, as it would contribute to the defence of the post.
TTie floors may also be taken up on the inside, opposite the doors or
windows open to attack.

Loopholes. — If the walls are not too thick, they may be pierced for
loopholes, at every 3 feet, in the spaces between the windows, dec.
(Fig. 88.)

Fio. 83.

Two tiers of these loopholes may be made if opportunity offers, and
a temporary scaffolding of furniture, benches, casks, or ladders, dec.,
erected for firing from the upper ones : on the lower story a r
loopholes may be made close to the ground. The floor must, in this
case, be partly removed, and a small excavation made brtwrm th«
beams for the OO&Ttttaoi of making use of th«-m. Just nn.Yr tin-
eaves of a roof there is generally a place where loopholes can be mado

BUJ.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

127

with great facility, and a tile or slate knocked out hero and there with
a musket, will give other openings, from which an assailant may be
well plied as he comes up.

Communications. — A clear communication must be made round the
whole interior of the building, by breaking through all partitions that
interfere with it : and for the same purpose, if houses stand in a row
or street, the party walls must be opened, so as to have free access
from one end to the other. Means should likewise be at hand for
closing these openings against an enemy, who may have obtained any
partial possession. Holes may also be made in the upper floors to fire
on the assailants, if they force the lower ones, and arrangements made
for blocking up the staircases, with some such expedient as a tree, pre-
pared in the same manner as for an abatis, or by having a rough pali-
sade gate placed across. Balconies may be covered or filled up in front
with timber or sand-bags and made use of to fire from downwards.
(Fig. 83.)

FIG. 83.

Abatis. — The partial levelling of any object on the outside, that
would give concealment to an enemy, and favor an attack, is supposed
to have been already attended to : but if time admits, after loopholes,
&c. are completed, this system must be extended and perfected, and
the formation of a more regular abatis should be commenced, and any
other obstruction added that opportunity permits. The best distance for
such obstructions, if they are continuous and cannot be turned, is within
20 or 30 yards of a work, or even less, so that every shot may tell

l-J-s

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Bci.

whilst the assailants are detained in forcing a passage through them ;
within such a distance also of defenders securely posted, it would not
be pleasant for a hostile force in confusion, to " Fall in," or " Re-form
Column.11 If hand-grenades are to play their part in the defence of a
post, the obstruction, \\hute\vr it may be, should be placed within their
influence. A man will easily throw them 20 yards, but a trial on the spot
will hest d.-t.Tinine the distance at which they can be used with .

Tambours. — If the building that has been selected has no porches,
wings, or projecting portions from which flank defence can be obtained,
it will be Advisable to construct something of a temporary nature to
afford it. Stockade work offers a ready means of effecting this object ;
it may be disposed in the form of a triangle, projecting 8 or 10 f« • t in
front of a door or window, planted as described in Article STOCKADE,
and with the precautions of having the loopholes high enough. A
small hole should be left in the barricade of the door or window to
communicate with the interior. Three or four loopholes on each fac<
of the projection cut 1>« tween the timbers will be found very useful iit
the defence. These contrivances are usually termed tarrbours, and i!
constructed at the angle of a building, will flank two sides of it. (Fig. 84.)

Fio. 84.

Out-building t and TTa/to.— When the defences of the main building
are in a state of forwardness, any out-buildings or walls \vhich have
been found too solid to be levelled at the moment, or which \\\\\
preserved for the chance of having time to fortify them, and thus to
increase the strength of the post, must be looked to. They may be
placed in a state of defence by the m. uns already described, and sep-
arate communications should be established between them and the

BUN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 129

principal building by a trench, or a lino of stockade work, and by
breaking through the walls when necessary. In this way a post may
be enlarged in any required proportion, by turning all objects that
present themselves, such as out-buildings, sheds, walls, hedges, ponds,
&c., to the best account ; first taking the precaution to secure what is
absolutely necessary for immediate protection, and for placing it ill a
state to be defended on the
shortest notice. An exterior
wall or fence, tolerably close
to a house and parallel to
it, may be retained for the
purposes of defence, with-
out the danger of afford-
ing cover, and thus facili-
tating an attack, by throwing up a slope of earth on the outside of
it, or planting an abatis in the same situation ; (Fig. 85.) An enemy
would thus remain completely exposed, and it would be worse than
useless to him. If a post of the description under consideration were
composed of two or more buildings, and it were to be left to itself, and
were open to attack on all sides, the stockades or trenches, forming the
communications between them, would obviously require to be so ar-
ranged as to afford cover, and the means of resistance on both sides.
This would be effected by merely making them double, as shown in
Fig. 82 ; but for greater security, the exterior of such communications
should be laid under fire from the buildings at their extremities. If
cover cannot from circumstances be obtained, screens should be con-
trived that will conceal the movements that may be necessary. In
arranging the defences of such posts, it is an essential point to make
each portion of them so far independent of the others, that if any one
part, such as a building for instance, be taken, it shall not compromise
the safety of the remainder, nor materially impair the defence they will
make by themselves ; so that whilst free communications are essential
in most cases to a vigorous defence, the means must be at hand for in-
stantly cutting them off by some such expedients as would be afforded
by a loopholed, musket-proof door, or rough gates, or by letting fall a
tree, prepared as for an abatis, and which till wanted might be reared
on its end in the situation required, the means of bringing a close firo
upon it having been previously secured ; (JEBB'S Attack and Defence.)

BULLET. (See AMMUNITION ; ARMS ; PERCUSSION BULLET ; PRO-
JECTILES ; RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

BUNK. A word used in the army, a place for bedding.

130 MILITARY DICTIONARY. (Bc».

BUKKAU— of the War Department. During the absence of the
quartermaster-general, or the chief of any military bureau of the \Viir
Department, his duties in the bureau, prescribed by law or regulations,
devolve on the officer of his department empowered by the President to
perform thmi in his absence; (Act July 4, 1836.)

BURIAL. The funeral honors paid to deceased officers and sol-
diers are prescribed by orders from the President contained in the
Army Regulations. The coffin is furnished by the quartermaster's
depart iiu'iit.

BUSHING A GUN— is drilling a hole into the piece where the
vent is usually placed, about one inch in diameter, nnd screwing therein
a piece of metal which had previously a vent; the metal used in bushing
is pure copper for brass pieces.

CADET. A warrant officer ; students at the West Point Military
Academy are cadets of the Engineer Corps. The number of cadets by
appointments hereafter to be made shall be limited to the number of
representatives and delegates in Congress and one for the District of
Columbia ; and each Congressional District, Territory, and District of
Columbia shall be entitled to have one cadet at said Academy ; nothing
in this section shall prevent the appointment of an additional number
of cadets, not exceeding ten, to be appointed at large, without bring
confined to a selection by Congressional Districts; (Act March 1,
1843, Sec. 2). Pay $30 per month. (See ACADEMY.)

CAISSON. The number of rounds of ammunition carried by each
caisson and its limber are for G-pounder guns 150 rounds ; 1'J p-mmler
guns, 96 rounds; 12-pounder howitzers, 117 rounds; 2-l-p«iun«l«-r
howitzer 69 rounds, nnd 32-pounder howitzers 45 rounds. The num-
ber of caissons with firM-batteries are: with a battery of 12-p-»un«lrrs.
8 caissons for guns, and 4 for howitzers ; and with a battery of 6-
pounders, 4 for guns, and 2 for howitzers.

CALIBRE. The calibre of bullets is determm* •<! by the number

_'h a pound. The calibre of guns is dcsign:it<-.l by the

hot; siege and sea-coast howitzers, eolumhiads, mortars

by the number of inches of tlnir r- .liametrrs. ^ << '..n^ult,

ORDXAXCK MANUAL.)

CALLING FORTH MILITIA. Congress shall
provide for calling forth th« militia to execute tho laws of th. 1'ni.m,
suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; (('lt,,stit,itinn. Art. I
8, Clowe 15.) By Act of Congress, Feb. 28, 1795, the Pn-sid.-nt is

CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 131

authorized to call f rth the militia whenever : 1. — " the United States
shall be invaded or be in his judgment in imminent danger of invasion*
(from any foreign nation or Indian tribe ;) and to issue his orders for that
purpose to such officer or officers of militia as he may think proper.
2. — In case of an insurrection in any State against the government
thereof, on application of the Legislature of such State, or of the Execu-
tive, (when the Legislature cannot be convened.) 3. — Whenever the
laws of the United States shall be opposed, or the execution thereof
obstructed in any State, by combinations too powerful to be suppressed
by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or by the powers vested
in the marshals ; but whenever it may be necessary, in the judgment
of the President, to use the military force hereby directed to be called
forth in case of insurrection or obstruction to the laws, the President
shall forthwith, by proclamation, command such insurgents to disperse,
and retire peaceably to their respective abodes within a limited time ;"
(Act Feb. 28, 1795.) In cases where it is lawful for the President to
call forth the militia, it shall be lawful for him to employ for the same
purposes, such part of the land or naval forces of the United States as
shall be judged necessary, having first observed all the pre-requisites of
the law in that respect ; (Act March 3, 1807.) (See INVASION ; MARSHAL ;
OBSTRUCTION ; EXECUTION OF LAWS ; INSURRECTION.)

CAMEL. The camel is used in the East as a beast of burthen
from 3 to about 16 years of age, and in hot sandy plains, where water
and food are scarce, is invaluable. With an army, however, generally
speaking, it is not so valuable as the mule or horse. The camel under
a burthen is very slow-going, about half the pace of a mule, or from
1^ to 2 miles per hour ; he can, however, travel 22 out of the 24 hours,
and only requires food once a day. His load varies exceedingly in dif-
ferent countries. In Egypt it is as high as 10 cwt. ; and for the short
distance from Cairo to Boulac, even 15 cwt. is, it is said, sometimes
carried. But in Syria it rarely exceeds 500 Ibs., and the heaviest load
in the engineer equipment for the British army of the Indus is stated to
be 4 cwt. 48 Ibs., independent of the pack-saddle. About 400 Ibs. is a
sufficient load on the march. The pack-saddle or pad is secured in its
place by the hump on the back, a hole being made in the pad to let it
come through, also by a breast-plate and breeching ; no dependence is
placed on the girth, which is not kept tight. From the great size of
the camel, averaging about 7 feet to the top of the hump, and 8 feet
from his nose to his tail, when standing in a natural position, he is capable
of carrying light field artillery, and the 12-pounder mountain howitzer,
which, with its side arms, weighs from 330 to 350 Ibs. The bed or car-

I3o MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CA*

riage is carried by a second, and the ammunition by a third camel. In
rocky or slippery ground the camel is apt to slip, and his fore feet then
|iu-ntly spread out right and left : when this is the case, he split*
up inside the arms, and dies, or becomes useless. Though patient and
obedient to his keeper, at whose command he lies down to be loaded, he is
ir. .juontly very savage with strangers, and his bite is very severe. Tho
camels introduced into the service of the United States on our Western
rs, carry from 300 to 600 Ibs. on continuous journeys, depending
on the kind of camel employed. These weights they will carry from
18 to 30 miles a day, according to the character of the country. With
lighter loads they travel a little faster. The saddle dromedary will
travel 50 miles in 8 or 10 hours ; and on an emergency they make 70
or 90 miles a day, but only for a day or two, on a level road. Their use
in the United States is still an experiment.

CAMOUFLET — is a small mine, of about 10 Ibs. of powder, suf-
ficit-nt to compress the earth all around it, without disturbing the sur-
face of the ground. It is sometimes formed in the wall or side of an
enemy's gallery, in order to blow in the earth, and to cut off the retreat
of the miner.

CAMP — is the temporary place of repose for troops, whether for
one night or a longer time, and whether in tents, in bivouac, or with
any such shelter as they may hastily construct, as sheds, bowers, &c.
Troops are cantoned when distributed at any time among villages, or
when placed in huts at the end of campaign. Barracks are permanent
military quarters. Tents (says Napoleon) are not wholesome. It is
better for the soldier to bivouac, because he can sleep with his feet
towards the fire, and he may shelter himself from the wind by means
of sheds, bowers, &c. In woods there is great facility in making warm
eneaippments, even in the most bitter weather. A young tree, wln-n
foiled, yields poles to support branches as shields against weather, and
flooring above the snow or damp. A common arrangement is as fol-
lows : — A cross-bar is support-
ed by two uprights ; airaiii*t
this cross bar a number of
poles are made to lea:.
the back of the poles abun-
dance of fir branches are laid
horizontally; and, lastly, "ii
the back of the fir brain •!.•
another set of lean'mi: ]>'>]PS, in order to make all secure by their weight.
A cloth of any kind is made to give shelter by an arrangement of this

CAJL] MILITARY DICTIOyABY. 133

kind. The corners of the cloth should be secured by a simple hitch in
the rope and not by a knot. The former is sufficient for all purposes
of security, but the latter will jam, and you may have to injure both
cloth and string to get it
loose again. It is convenient
to pin a skewer in the mid-
dle of the sides of the cloth,
round the ropes.

Good water within a con-
venient distance is essential
in the selection of a camp,
as is also the proximity
of woods for firewood, ma-
terial for shelter, &c. Good roads, canals, or navigable streams are
important to furnish the troops with the necessaries of life if troops are
encamped for long periods. The ground should not be near swamps
or stagnant water. This requirement is essential to health. The
ground, to be suitable for defence, must admit the manoeuvres of
troops. The front of the camp of each battalion of infantry or squadron
of cavalry must, therefore, be equal to the front of the battalion or
squadron. And as far as possible camps for cavalry and infantry
should be established on a single line — the cavalry upon the wings, the
infantry in the centre. The shelters or huts are alligned, a* well
as the nature of the ground admits, from one extremity of the camp
to the other, and arranged by companies in streets, perpendicular to the
front. The general thus has the whole extent of his camp in view, and
order can be better preserved. When the army is formed upon two
lines, there are two camps — one in front of the other. The reserve
has also its particular camp. Artillery usually encamps behind the in-
fantry, and thus forms a little separate camp or camps of its own.
In establishing a camp, however, no universal rule can be laid down ;
but it is necessary (says Napoleon) that the genius of the commander
should, according to circumstances, decide whether an army ought
to be confined to one single encampment or to form as many as
it has corps or divisions ; where the vanguard and flanks should be
posted ; where the cavalry, artillery, and wagons should be placed, and
whether the army should occupy one or more lines ; what should be
the distance between the lines ; and whether the cavalry should be in
reserve behind the infantry, or should be placed on the wings.

Baron Larrey suggests the following sanitary considerations in relation
to camps : A camp, especially if permanent, should be selected so as to be

134 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CA*

accessible to the troops by easy marches ; it should occupy a spacious
plain, in a province exempt from both epidemical and endemical diseases;
the soil should be dry, but not too hard, so that it may quickly imbibe
the rain ; because it then becomes fit for military operations a few hours
after the most violent shower. This prompt absorption, moreover, pre-
serves the troops from the baneful influence of dampness without ex-
posing them to the iiu -«»nvi -uiences of want of water, since in such a soil
wells may be easily dug and water found at an ineonsi.K Table depth,
as is the case at Chalons. A good camp should not bo intersected by
streams or ditches, nor enclosed by large forests. The tents should not
be too closely packed, in order to insure good ventilation throughout,
and diminish the probability of epidemics. When a river is too near
a camp, and its banks are somewhat marshy, the breaking out of inter-
. er should bo prevented by deepening the bed of the river,
cleansing it as much as possible of all putrefying vegetable and animal
substances, raising tho banks and giving them at the same time a greater
imTmutioM, making channels for carrying off tho water, and establishing
tents and barracks at a sufficient distance, and as much as possible on
rising ground. When the supply of water to a camp is derived from
a river, tho latter ought to bo divided into threo sections: the first and
upper one to bo exclusively used for drink by the men, the second to
bo reserved f«>r tho horses, and the third and lowermost for washing
tho linen of the troops. These demarcations should be strictly guarded
by sentinels stationed at tho proper places. To drive off dampness,
bivouac-fires ought to be lighted in the evening; each tent, iu« r
should be surrounded with a gutter communicating with a main ditch to
carry off rain-water; the space occupied by certain corps should also bo
sanded over, to facilitate tho absorption of humidity by tho soil. In
I it, hing tents care should be taken to maintain between them a distant .«
of at least two metres ; those of the general officers should bo situated
in the healthiest quarter. Tents made of white stuff are prejudicial to
the eyesight in summer, and should be therefore discarded. A tent
being liable to infection like a room, it ought not to !><• hermetically
doted, as is the custom with s.,l.li,-i-s, but, on the contrary, w, 11 aired ;
and the ground ought not only to be scraped and swept, but should also
be well rammed. Th-- m.n on^ht not .to sleep in the tents with their

heads near th ntn- and their r-.-f towards tho. cirmmfercner, l.ut in

theCWrtrary position, elae they breath" a vitiated instead of a |>nn- air. A
tent, generally calculated for 10 men, ought never fountain in. ire than
12 or 13 it - 10 cavalry. Of the different kinds of tent>

the conical Turkish tent is the best; for ambulances the man.

CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 135

erable. The tente-cTabri, which is made by joining two camp-sacks to-
gether by means of a wooden pole, and keeping them stretched by
small stakes stuck into the ground, is a most precious invention. Four
men can find shelter under it, and the weight it adds to their kit is
trifling, but it can only be used in provisional encampments. The
tents of the cavalry ought to be freed from the encumbrance of saddles
and accoutrements, which vitiate the air, and should be placed under small
sheds in front of the tents, or, better still, in the stable-barracks. The
men should be encouraged to cultivate little patches of ground around
their tents as gardens ; it is both an amusement and a means of purifying
the air, only they must not be allowed to manure the soil. As regards
sleeping, each soldier should fill a camp-sack with straw and lie down
on it as on a mattress, with his blanket to cover him ; or, better still, he
should get into the sack filled with straw — a much better plan than al-
lowing the men to sleep together in couples on two sacks spread out o&
the straw, and with the same blanket to cover them. The ground on
which the men sleep ought to be swept daily and sanded over, for it
easily gets infected ; in which case it becomes necessary to shift the tents
— a measure which is often sufficient to stop an epidemic at its outbreak.
A reserve of planks and trestles ought to be kept in store for extem-
pore bedsteads when the ground has become too damp ; or water-proof
canvas may be spread over to protect the straw from humidity. In
autumn a single blanket is not sufficient, each man should be provided
with two.

The guards of camps are : 1. The Camp-guard, which serves to
keep good order and discipline, prevent desertions and give the alarm ;
2. Detachments of infantry and cavalry, denominated pickets, in front
and on the flanks, which intercept reconnoitring parties of the enemy,
and give timely notice of the approach of an enemy ; and 3. Grand-
guards, or out-posts, which are large detachments posted in surrounding
villages, farm-houses or small field-works, from which they can. watch
the movements of the enemy. They should not be so far from the camp
as to be beyond succor in case of attack, and not so near as to prevent
timely notice being given to the main body of the army on the approach
of an enemy. If the 'camp is to present the same front as the troops in
order of battle, 400 military paces will be necessary per regiment of 500
files front. Immediately after arriving on the ground, the number of
men to be furnished for guards and pickets are detailed ; the posts to
be occupied by them are designated ; the places of distribution of pro-
visions are mentioned, and, in general, all arrangements made con-
cerning the interior and exterior police and service of the camp.

MILITARY PKTIO.VAKV.

[CAM.

The tente-cTabri has been introduced in the French service since
1887, when first used at the camp of Coinpiegne. These tents con-
sist of a tissue of cotton cloth impregnated with caoutchouc, and
thus made water-proof. Kvrry man carries a square of this doth,
\\ith buttons ami button-holes around it, by which it is attached to the
squares carried by his comrades, and an excellent shelter for six
rs is made as follows: — Three tent-sticks are fixed into the
ground, whose tope are notched; a light con! is then passed round
their tops, and fastened into the ground with a peg at each end ;
(Fig. 88.) Two sheets, A and B, are buttoned together and thrown
over the cord, ami then two other sheets, C and D ; and C is buttoned
to A, and D to B. Lastly, another sheet is thrown over each of the,
slanting cords the one buttoned to A and B, and the other to Cund I ) ;
(Fig. 89.) of the tent are of course pegged to the ground.

Fio.

There are many modifications in the way of pitehing tl. . For

want «•• luskets can be used.

!>aralion8 for a Slonn. — Before a storm, dig a ditch as deep as
YOU can. round the outside of the tent, to turn aside the rain-\\at«-r. and
to drain the ground on which tin- tent is standing — even a furrow
scratched with a than nothing at all. Fasten guy-

ropes to the spike of the t<-nt-po], ; and be. ear. fid that the tent is not

ich on tho strain, else the further shrinking of the materials, under

tin1 inllueiH f the rain, will certainly tear up the j 'h, banked

up round the bottom of the tent, will prexent gusts of wind from find-
ing their way beneath. The accompanying sketch shows a tent pitched

CAM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

137

FIG. 90.

for a lengthened habitation. It has a deep drain, a seat and table dug
out, and a fireplace. (Fig. 90.)

Tent Furniture. — A
portable bedstead, with
musquito-curtains, is a
very great luxury, raising
the sleeper above the damp
soil, and the attacks of
most creatures that creep
on it ; where a few lux-
uries can be carried, it is
a very proper article of
baggage. It is essential
where white ants are nu-
merous. Hammocks and
cots have but few advo-
cates, as it is rare to find

places adapted for swinging them ; they are quite out of place in a
small tent.

Chairs and Tables. — It is advisable to take very low strong and
roomy camp-stools, with tables to correspond in height, as a chamber is
much less choked up when the seats are low, or when people sit, as in
the East, on the ground. The seats should not be more than 1 foot
high, though as wide and deep as an ordinary footstool ; but without a
seat, a man can never write, draw, nor calculate as well as if he has
one. The stool represented in Fig. 91 is a good one ; it has a full-
sized seat made of leather or canvas, or else of strips of dressed hide.
For want of a chair, it is convenient to dig a hole or a trench in the
ground, and to sit on one side of it, with the feet resting on its bottom ;
the opposite side of the trench serves as a table, for putting things on,
within easy reach.

FIG. 91. FIG. 92.

&o tie clothes, or any thing, up to a smooth tent-pole, a strap with
hooks in it, to buckle round the pole, is very convenient. The method
shown in Fig. 92 suffices, if the pole is notched, or jointed, or in any

138 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM.

way slightly uneven. Bags, <Scc.,' are hung upon the bit of wood that
is secured to the loose end. The luxuries and elegancies practicable in
tent life are only limited by the means «•: '•• The articles that

make the most show are handsome rugs, and skins, and pillows ; can-
teens of dinner and coffee services, &c. ; and candles, with screens of
glass, or other arrangements to prevent them from flickering. The art
of luxurious tenting is bettor understood in JVrski than in any other
country, even than in India.

Losing things. — Small things are constantly mislaid and trampled
in the sand : to search for them, the ground should be disturbed as
little as possible— it is a usual plan to score its surface in parallel lines
with a thin wand. It would be well worth while to make and use a
small light rake for this purpose.

Jfats. — In making a depot, it is usual to build a house ; often th<>
men have to pass weeks in inactivity, and they may as well spend them
in making their quarters comfortable, as in idleness. Whatever huts
the natives live in are sure, if made with extra care, to bo sullicient l<>r
travellers.

Walls. — The materials whence the walls of huts may be constructed,
are very numerous, and there is hardly any place which does not fur-
nish one or other of them. Those principally in use are as follows :
Skins, canvas, felt, tarpaulinp, bark, reed mats, reed walls, straw walls,
wattle-and-dab, log-huts, fascines or fagots, boards, &c., fastened by
Malay-hitch, brick, sunburnt or baked, turf, stones, gabions, bags or
mats filled with sand or shingle, snow huts, underground huts, tents
over holes in earth.

Roofs. — Many of the above list would be perfectly suitable f.-r
roofs: in addition may be mentioned slating with flat stones, thatch,
sea-weed, and wood shingles.

Floors. — Cowdung and ashes make a hard, dry, and clean floor, such
a* is used for a threshing-floor. Ox-blood and line Hay, kneaded to-
. are excellent ; both these compositions are used in all hot, dry
count;

Tarpaultnya, made in the sailors' way, are much superior to others
in softness and durability. As soon as the canvas is sown together, it
is thoroughly wetted with sea-water; and, while still wet. is dOB
on one side with tar and grease boiled together — about two pan

-reasc. Boinjr hnnij up till dry. it is turned ; and the. other
side, being a second time w, 11 wett<xl, is at oUte painted over with the.
tar and grease just as the first side had be, „ done, before. The sailors
say that " the tar dries in as the water dries out."

CAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 139

Bark. — It is an art to strip it quickly — the Australians understand
it well. Two rings are cut round the tree ; the one as high as can be
reached, the other low down. A vertical slit is then made, and the
whole piece forced off with axes, &c. In spring the bark comes off
readiest from the sunny side of the tree. A large sheet of bark is ex-
ceedingly heavy. It is flattened, as it lies on the ground, by weighting
it with large stones, and allowing it to dry, partially at least, in that
position.

Straw Walls of the following kind are very effective, and they have
the advantage of requiring a minimum of string (or substitute for
string) in their manufacture. The straw, or herbage of almost any
description, is simply nipped between two pair of long sticks, which are
respectively tied together at the two ends, and at a sufficient number
of intermediate places. The whole is neatly squared and trimmed ;
(Fig. 93.) A few of these would help in finishing the roof or walls of a
house. They can be made movable, so as to suit the wind, shade, and
aspect. Even the hut door can be made on this principle.

Log-huts. — In building log-huts, four poles are planted in the ground
to correspond to the four corners : against these, logs are piled one
above another, as in Fig. 94 ; they are so deeply notched where they

FIG. 94.

cross one another, that the adjacent sides are firmly dovetailed together.
When the walls are entirely completed, the doors and windows are
chopped out, and the spaces between the logs must be well caulked
with moss, &c., or the log-cabin will be little better than a log-cage.
It of course requires a great many trees to make a log-hut; for, sup-
posing the walls to be 8 feet high, and the trees to average 8 inches in
diameter, it would require 12 trees to build up one side, or 48 to make
all four walls.

Malay hitch. — I know no better name for the following wonderfully
simple way of attaching together wisps of straw, rods, laths, reeds,
planks, poles, or any thing of the kind, into a secure and flexible mat ;

140

MIUTAKY IHtTlONAKY.

[CAM.

l .... »:,.

the sails used in the far East are made in this \v:iy. and the movable decks
are made of bamboos joined together \\ith a similar but rather more
complicated stitch ; ( 1 i-. 95.) Soldiers might bo trained to a great deal

of hutting practice in a \vry iuexpen-
Auy if they were drilled at put-
ting together huts whose roofs and
walls were made of planks lashed
together by this simple hitch, and
\\ hose supports were short scafl'old-
ini:- poles planted in deep holes dug
without spades or any thing but
tin- hand and a small stick. The
poles, planks, and cords might be
used over and over again for an in-
definite time. Further, bedsteads could bo made in a similar way by
<ross planks lashed toother, and resting on a framework of
horizontal poles lashed to uprights planted in the ground. The sol-
!>odding would not be injured by being used on these bedsteads,
in the way it would be if laid on the bare gound. Many kinds of

19 and experiments in hutting could be practised without i-\
in this simple way.

Snow-houses. — Few travellers have habitually made snow-houses,
except Sir J. Franklin's party, and that of Dr. Rae. Great praises are
bestowed on the comfort of them by all travellers, but skill and prac-
tice are required in building them. The mode of erection of these.
dome-shaped buildings is as follows : — It is to be understood that the
hard, compact, underlying snow is necessary for the bottom of the hut ;
and that the looser textured, upper layer of snow is used to build the
house. Firat, select and mark out the circular plot on which the hut
is to be raised. Then, cut out with knives deep slices of siiow. .six
Inches wide, three feet long, and of a depth equal to that of the la\cr

• •:'. •..•.-:;..••.-..:•!••.) \ . i. These elleei mre curved, so as to

•'ilar ring when placed on their edges, and of a si/e to make
the first row of snow-bricks f»r the house. Other slices are cut for the
Succeeding rOW8 ; and, \\hen the i-,,,.f Ins to 1-.- made, the siio\v-l>ricks
are Ollt \\ifh the necessary double curvature. A conical ping (ills up

the centre. Loose snow is then h.-aped over the house, to (ill up

crevices. Lastly, a doorway is cut out with knives: also a window,

i is glased with a sheet of the ] .it hand. For the inside

accominod.iti»n. there is a pillar or two. to support lamps.

Underground Hutt are used in all quarters of the globe. The ex-

CAM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

141

FIG. 96.

perience of the British troops encamped before Sebastopol tells strongly
in their favor, as habitations during an inclement season. The timely
adoption of them was the salvation of the British army. They are,
essentially, nothing else than holes in the ground, roofed over. The
shape and size of the hole correspond to that of the roof it may be
possible to procure for it ; its depth is no greater than requisite. If
the roof have a pitch of 2 feet in the middle, the depth of the hole need
not exceed 4£ feet. In the Crimea,
the holes were rectangular, and
roofed like huts ; (Fig. 96.)
Where there is a steep hill side,
o, a, an underground hut, b, is
easily contrived ; because branch-
es laid over its top have sufficient
pitch to throw off the rain, with-
out having recourse to any uprights, &c. Of course the earth is re-
moved from d, at the doorway.

Tents pitched over excavations. — A hole may be dug deeply beneath
the tent floor, partly as a store-room, and partly as a living-room when
the weather is very inclement. This, also, was done before Sebastopol
in the manner shown in the engraving.

Thatching. — After the framework of the roof has been made, the
thatcher begins at the bottom, and ties a row of bundles of straw, side
by side, on to the framework. Then he begins a second row, allowing
the ends of the bundles composing it to overlap the heads of those in
the first row.

Wood Shingles are tile-shaped slices of wood, easily cut from fir-
trees, and used for roofing on the same principle as tiles or slates.

Fix hooked sticks, and cow or goat horns, round the walls, as pegs
to hang things on ; and if you went a luxurious bed, make a framework
of wood, with strips of raw hide lashed across it from end to end, and
from side to side ; (Fig. 97.) If you collect bed feathers, recollect that if

FIG. 97.

cleanly plucked they require no dressing of any kind, save drying and
beating. Concrete for floors is made of 80 parts large pebbles, 40
river sand, 10 lime ; lime is made by burning limestone, chalk, shells,

142 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM.

or coral, in a simple furnace, and whitewash is lime and water. Hark
makes a good roof. The substitutes for glass arc — waxed or oiled
paper or cloth, bladder, fish-membranes, talo, and horn. Glass cannot
be cut with any certainty without a diamond ; but it may be shaped
and reduced to any siie by gradually chipping, or rather biting.
at its edges with a key, if the slit between its wards be just
enough to admit the pane of glass easily. A window, or rather a h..lo
wall, may be rudely shuttered by a stick run through loops
made out of wisps of grass. In hot weather tin- windows of the hut
may be loosely filled with grass, which, when well-watered, makes the
hut much cooler. A mosquito curtain may bo taken and suspended
10 bed, or place where you sit. It is very pleasant, in hot, mos-
quito-plagued countries, to take the glass sash entirely out of the win-,
dow frame, and replace it with one of gauze. Broad network, if of
fluffy thread, keeps wasps out. The darker a house is kept, tli
willing are flies, <fcc., to flock in. If sheep and other cattle be near the
house, the nuisance of flies, &c., becomes almost intolerable ; (GALTON'S
Art of Travel.)

Major II. II. Sibley, 2d Dragoons, has invented a tent in which
a firo can be made in its centre, and all soldiers sleep with their feet
to the fire. Major Siblcy's tent is conical, light, easily pitch*

F|0> ^ on a tripod holding a

single polo, and will <•• 'in-
fo rtably accommodate
twclvesoldierswith their
accoutrements. "Where

means of transportation

admit of tents being us- d.
Major Sibley *s will prob-
ably supersede all others.
(Fig. 98.)

A commander offr
usually sends in adv..
to prepare the camp. The
camping party •
meiit may be the regi-
mental quartermaster,
and quartermaster
gennt,and a corporal and
two : The camp of a larger detachment is prepared by

the chief quartermaster or some officer of the general's staff, designated

CAM.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

143

by the commander of the troops assisted by the company camping par-
ties of regiments. W ith camp colors the direction of the front line of the
camp is marked, and the extent of the front of each corps, the intervals
between corps, and the beginning, breadth, and direction of streets desig-
nated. When the encampment is on two lines, let there be 450 paces
between their respective fronts. Behind intrenchments there ought to
be about 300 paces between the entrenchments and the front of the
camp. The posts of the police guard will be designated, and the neces-
sary works to secure communication between the parts of the camp
will also be determined. Fig. 99 gives details for the camp of a regi-
ment of infantry.

FIG. 99.

mm mm mm mm
mm am u -i a ;j

a e B 0 mo am

COMPAHV OFFICERS.

a a a mm •

sTSImV **"• QVM* JJ

Ha EH HI

QVM* JJCoL. COL.

RSS\**«.

Camp of Cavalry. — In the cavalry, each company has one file of tents
— the tents opening on the street facing the left of the camp. The horses
of each company are placed in a single file, facing the opening of the tents,
and are fastened to pickets planted firmly in the ground, from 3 to 6
paces from the tents of the troops. The interval between the file of
tents should be such that, the regiment being broken into columns of
companies, each company should be on the extension of the line on

144 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAM.

whieh the horses arc to be picketed. The streets separating the
squadrons are wi«K r titan those between the companies by the int. rval
separating squadrons in lino ; these intervals are kept free from any
obstruction throughout the camp. The horses of tin- rear rank are
placed on • those of their file-loaders. The horses of the lieu-

tenants are placed on the right of tlu-ir platoons ; those of the captains
on th Each horse occupies a space of about •»

paces. The number of horses in the company fixes the depth of the
camp, and th« distance between the files of tents ; the forage is placed
between the tents. The kitchens are 20 poees in front of each file of
tents. The non-commissioned officers arc in tho tents of the front rank.
Camp-followers. *, &c., are in tho rear rank. Tho police guard

in the rear rank, near the centre of tho regiment. The tents of the
mints are 30 paces in rear of the file of their company ; the tents
of tho captains 30 paces in rear of the lieutenants. The colonel's tent
30 paces in rear of tho captains', near tho centre of the regiment ; the
lieutenant-colonel on his right ; tho adjutant on his left ; tho majors on
the same line, opposite tho 2d company on the right and left ; the sur-
geon on the left of the adjutant. Tho field and staff have their horses
on tho left of their tents, on tho same lino with the company horses ;
sick horses are placed in ono line on the right or left of tho camp. The
men who attend them have a separate file of tents ; the forg
wagons in rear of this file. Tho horses of the train an«l of ramp-follow-
ers are in ono or more files extending to tho rear, behind the rhjit or
left squadron. Tho advanced post of tho police guard is 200 pa-
front, opposite tho centre of tho regiment ; the horses in one or two lih-s.
The sinks for tho men aro 150 paces in front — those for officers 100
in rear of tho camp.

Camp o/Jr/i/Ary. — Tho artillery is encamped near the troops to
it is attached, so as to bo protected from attack, and to contribute.
to the defence of the camp. Sentinels for the park are furnished by
the artillery, and when necessary, by tho other troops. For a battery
of six pieces the tents are in three files — one for each section ; distance
between tho ranks of tents 15 paces ; tents opening to the front. The
hones of each section are picketed in one file, 10 paces to the left of
the file of tents. In the horse artillery, or if the number of hors-s make
it necessary, tho horses or ;,.s ,,n the HLr|lt and left of the file.

itchens are 26 paces in front of the front rank of
The tents of th- oOctfl ar- in the outside files of company tei
paces in rear of the rear rank— the captain on the right, the lieutenants
on the left. The park is opposite the centre of the camp, 40 paces in

CAP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 145

rear of the officers' tents. The carriages in files 4 paces apart ; dis-
tance between ranks of carnages sufficient for the horses when
harnessed to them ; the park guard is 25 paces in rear of the park.
The sinks for the men 150 paces in front ; for the officers 100 paces in
rear. The harness is in the tents of the men. (Consult BARDIN; Me-
morial des Officiers d'Infanterie et de Cavalerie • GALTON'S Art of Travel.}

CAMP AND GARRISON EQUIPAGE. (See CAMP ; CLOTHING ;
TOOLS ; UTENSILS ; QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT.)

CAMPAIGN. The period of a year that an army keeps the field
from the opening of a campaign until the return to quarters or canton-
ments at the end of the campaign. A series of continuous field opera-
tions. An ordinary campaign, in respect to recompense for length of
service, is counted as two years of effective service in the French army.
In all services excepting our own, additional allowances in campaign are
made to troops beyond those given at other periods. (See ALLOWANCES.)

CANISTER — for field service, consists of a tin cylinder attached
to a sabot, and filled with cast-iron shot. For siege and garrison guns
the bottom is of cast iron, and the cover of sheet iron with a handle
made of iron wire. (See SABOT.)

CANNON. (See CALIBRE ; ORDNANCE.)

CANTEEN. A small tin caoutchouc or circular wooden vessel,
used by soldiers on active service to carry liquor, &c. A small trunk or
chest, containing culinary and other utensils for the use of officers. A kind
of suttling house, kept in garrisons, &c., for the convenience of the troops.

CANTONMENTS. Troops are said to be in cantonments when
detached and quartered in the different towns and villages, lying as near
as possible to each other. (See CAMP.)

CAPITAL. The line drawn bisecting the salient angle of a work.

CAPITULATION. Articles of agreement, by which besieged
troops surrender at discretion, or with the honors of war. The
terms granted depend upon circumstances of time, place, &c. Any
surrender in the open field without fighting was stigmatized fey Napoleon
as dishonorable, as was also the surrender of a besieged place without
the advice of a majority of a council of defence, before the enemy had
been forced to resort to successive siege-works, and had been once re-
pulsed from an assault through a practicable breach in the body of the
place, and the besieged were without means to sustain a second assault ;
or else the besieged were without provisions or munitions of war.

CAPONNIERE. Passage from the place to an outwork; it is
either single or double, sometimes bomb-proof and loopholed. (See
FORTIFICATION.)
10

146 MILITARY DICTIONABY. [CAP,

CAPS. Percussion caps fur small arms are formed by a machine
which cuts a star or blank from the sheet of copper, and transfers it
to a die iii which the cap is shaped by means of a punch. The powder
with which eajw are charged consists of fulminate of mercury, n
with half its weight of salt pi tre.

CAPTAIN. Rank in the army between major and 1st lieutenant,
charged with the arms, accoutrements, ammunition, clothing, or other
warlike stores belonging to the troops or company under his command ;
(AM, 40.)

CAPTURE. (See PRIZE ; BOOTY.)

CARBINE. A cavalry weapon intermediate in weight and length
between rifle and j»i*t«-l. and usually breech-loading. ( For PISTOL-CAR-
BIW«, tee ARMS.) Carbines for the United States' service have been
obtained from the following manufactories : — Samuel Colt's, Hartford,
Conn. — Colt's Revolving Pistols, Hide-;, and Carbines ; Sharpe's Anns-
Manufacturing Company, Hartford, Conn., for Sharpe's Carbines and
lea; Charles Jackson, Providence, R. I., for Burnside's Carbines ;
and Maynard's Arms Company, Washington, D. C., for Maynard's
Kifles and Carbines. The breech-loading arms of the foregoing manu-
factories have l»ecn tried more or less in service, and favorably
upon by boards of officers. They are considered good cavalry
but neither have yet been pronounced tl:e, best by the ordnance depart.
ment. (See ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT.)

The distinguishing feature of a breech-loading arm is the method of
-ing the breech. One of the most serious defects ..f these arm-
the escape of pis through the joint. This defect has been removed by
-ing the joint at the moment of discharge by tho action of the gas
itself. This operation, called packing the joint, is accomplished : 1st.
By the use of cartridge cases of sheet bra-s, India rubber, or other
terial ; or, 2d. By the use of a th'n., elastic ring of steel, which ov.
the joint. By the first method tho case is permanently distended, (but
may be safely Used for several fire-.) and M.me arrangement is required
to remove it from tho chamber. In the second method, the ring or gas
check is a part of the arm ; and its elasticity causes it to return to its
original form after tho disch.r

Burntide'i Carbine is an example of the first method ; it has a mov-
able chamber which opens by turning on a hinge. A brass cart
case is used which packs the joint and cuts off the escape of the gas.
The advantages of this arm are: its str.-n»th. «ater-pro,,f cartri

lit. and working machi; disadvantages are

the cost, and difficulty of getting the cartridges.

CAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 147

Sharpens Carbine has a fixed chamber, and the breech is closed by
a slide which moves nearly at right angles to the axis of the barrel.
By boring a recess into the face of the slide, opposite to the chamber,
and inserting a tightly-fitting ring into it, so that the inner rim is
pressed against the end of the barrel at the instant of discharge, the
escape of gas is prevented.

Maynartfs Carbine has a fixed chambered piece, with the joint
closed by a metallic cartridge case. ( Consult BENTON.)

CARCASS. Combustible composition enclosed in globes, formed
with iron hoops, canvas, and cord, generally of an oblong shape, and
thrown from mortars or stone mortars ; it is used in bombardments,
firing shipping, &c.

CARPENTRY. An assemblage of pieces of timber connected by
framing or letting them into each other, as are the pieces of a roof, floor,
centre of a bridge, &c. It is distinguished from joiners' work, by be-
ing put together without using other tools than the axe, adze, saw,
and chisel. Troops frequently are obliged to hut themselves, make
bridges, &c., and some knowledge of rough carpentry is essential in
roofing and centring. The obvious mode of covering a building is to
place two sloping rafters upon two walls, meeting in the apex, where we
will suppose them connected. (Fig. 100.) It is plain that the weight
of this rafter will tend to thrust the walls from its vertical line. This is
prevented by tying together the feet of the rafters, by means of another
beam called a tie beam. Beyond certain lengths or spans, however, it
is apparent that the tie beam will itself have a tendency to bend or sag
in the middle, and accordingly it becomes necessary to resort to another
contrivance called a king post, but more properly a king piece, as it
performs the office of tying up the tie beam to prevent it from bending.
If the rafters be so long as to be liable to bend, two pieces called struts
are introduced, which have their footing against the sides of the king
post, and act as posts
to strut up the rafters
at their weakest point.
This piece of framing
thus contrived is called
a truss. It is obvious
that, by means of the
upper joints of the
struts, we can obtain
more points of sup-
port or rather suspension. It is not, however, necessary to truss

14S MILITARY DICTIONARY. [CAB,

all, but only tin- principal rafters of a building. These principal
rafters must never be more than MI feet apart, and by the inter
vention of a purline they are made to bear the smullor rat ins. the
down on the purlino. These common rafters are
received by or pitch upon a plate called a pole plate, and the pri
rafters which pit.-h up<>n the tic beam, are ultimately borne l.y a wall
\ .-anis in cither roofs or floors are so loni: that they can-

not be procured in one piece, two pieces to form the required len-jth
are tcarftd together, l>y indenting them at tlu-ir joints, and bolting them
together t .g. 101.)

Fio. 10L

The following simple manner of putting up balloon frames, that is,
frames without tenons or mortises, is given in tin; language of a build-
er in our western country : The best size for a small house is 1C by 32
feet, divided into three rooms and only one story high, unless roofing is
very expensive. For such a building six pieces of scantling are n -ijuin •<!,

v 8, or 2i by 10 inches, 1C feet long for sills, and seventeen pieces
for sleepers, with seventeen pieces of same size, 18 feet long, f..r upper
floor joists. The studs must be 2 by 4, or 2$ by 5 inches, and 8, 9 or 10
feet long, as you wish the height of your ceiling. The end studs may
be longer, so as to run up to tho rafters ; but this is not important, since
studs maybe spliced anywhere by simply butting the ends to:
and nailing strips of boards upon each side, or the timbers may lap by-
each other and bo held in place by a few nails till the siding is nailed
on. But to begin at the foundation : Lay down two of th««
timbers flatwise upon blocks or stones, if you can get them, and make

level all around. Nuil on strips where the ends of the sills butt
together, and hal\.- ..n the end sills and nail them together at the c< ••

• rs, with a stout nail tord-in up«m each side to hold
all your .side studs of an exact length ami square at

each end, and net up one- at each corner exactly plumb and fasten them
with stay-laths on the insid-. Now measure off for your doors and
windows «-n th«- sid. s, f the house, and set up studs for them. You are
now ready to p' plates, which are nothing but strips of inch

the width of your studs, spliced in length just as dim-ted f-r
splicing studs. Tho next step is to put up the rest of tho studs, nailing

CAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 140

through the plate into their tops, and toeing nails through the bot-
toms into the sills. Hands may now commence at once to nail the
sheathing-boards upon the sides, while others are putting up the
joists, which should be 18 feet long and either 2 by 8 or 2£ by 10
inches, according to the strength of the timber. Pine and poplar
should always be of the larger dimensions. Cut notches one inch
deep in the lower edge of the joists, so that they will lock on to
the plate, and project over the sides one foot at each end. Nail up
through the plate into the joists with stout nails, having just as many
joists as pairs of rafters, the feet of which are to stand on and be nailed
to the joists, which project the eaves a foot beyond the sides. This,
however, may be dispensed with, if short eaves are preferred, or if tim-
ber cannot be got long enough. The end studs will be nailed both to
the sill and end sleeper and to the end joists, and to the rafter if long
enough to reach up, and if not splice them as before directed. Finish
sheathing the sides and ends before you put on the roof. The siding
may bo afterward put on at your leisure. Boards three-fourths of an
inch thick make good sheathing ; and the best plan is to put them on
without any regard to fitting the edges, and batten all the cracks on
the inside with waste pieces of boards or shingles. When shingles are
inexpensive they make a better siding and cheaper than sawed clap-
boards. You will find it a great saving of labor to lay the upper floor
before you put on the roof. If you wish to make your house one and
a half or two stories high, the following is the way the chamber floor
joists are supported : Take a strip of board one inch thick and five
inches wide, and let it into the face of the studs on the inside and nail
it fast and set your joists on this and nail them to the studs, and also
notch your floor boards in between all the studs and nail fast ; and you
will find, when done, that no old-fashioned frame with its heavy oak
timbers and months of mortising, with all its braces, was ever stifle r
than your " balloon," which two men can frame and raise, and cover and
lay the floors, and get ready to move into in one week's time. There is
no difficulty in making a balloon frame-house of any other size desired,
by putting in the partitions before you put on the upper joists, so as to
rest them upon the caps in the same way as upon the sides. For a house,
say thirty-two feet wide, the upper joists would be the same length as
for a house sixteeen feet, the inner ends resting upon the cap of a centre
partition, where they would be strongly spliced, as we have directed, by
nailing strips upon each side. The rafters of such a wide roof should
be stayed in the middle by strips nailed upon the sides of rafters and
joists, to prevent sagging ; as it is always to be borne in mind that all

150 MIUTAKY DICTIONARY. [CAK.

the timbers of such a building are to be as light as possible ; the strength
being obtained by nailing all fast together.

CARRIAGES. A gun carriage is designed to support it-
when fired, and also to transport cannon from one point t<> a
Field, mountain, and siege artillery have also limbers, which form \\lu n
united with the carriage a four-wheeled vehicle. Sea-coast carriages
are divided into barbette, catemate, and Hank defence carriages, depot id in-
upon the part of the work in which they are mounted. They ai
made of wrought iron and found to possess lightness, great strength, ami
stillness. The sea-coast carriages are made in a similar manner, and one
carriage can be altered to fit another piece by changing the trunnion-
plates and transom straps. The carriage consists of two cheeks of thick
•beet-iron, each one of which is strengthened by three flanged iron-plates
bolted to the cheeks. Along tho bottom of each cheek, an iron shoe is
fixed with tho end bent upwards. In IV. -nt, this bent end is bolted to the
flange of the front strengthening plate. In rear tho bent portion is 1

at top by another bend, which I a point of appli-

cation fora lever on a wheel, when running to and iVoiu battery. The
trunnion-plates fit over the top ends of tho strengthening plates, which
around the bed, and are fastened to the flanges of the latter by
movable bolts and nuts. Tho cheeks are joined together by transoms
made of bar-iron. The front of the carriage is mounted on an axle-tree,
with truck wheels similar to the wooden casemate carriages. Tho ele-
vating screws are of two kinds: one for low angles of elevation, and the
second for coluinbiads where great angles of elevation are required.
The elevating arc is made of brass and attached to the upper edge of
the right cheek, and may be folded down. It is employed to measure
the elevation of the piece. — ROBERTS & BENTON. (See CHASSIS ; Co-

LUMBIAD.)

CARTE BLANCHE. A blank paper sent to a person, to fill
up with such condition** as he may think proper to insert. In the
general acceptation of tho term, it implies an authority to act at dis-

CAKTKL. \i. igreemenf between t\\o h.-stib- p. a mu-

tual exchan- sVe WAR.)

CARTRIDGE. Bullets for small arms are made by
To prepare the had for the pn-^. i; is cast into cylinders or drawn
out into wires somewhat leas in diameter than the bull. •;. ( »n.
ran make 3,000 bullets in nn hour. ay aKo be east in mould*

and afterwards waged in a die to proper siz, and sh

CAR.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

151

Table of dimensions for formers for making cartridges with elongated expanding butteU.
(The dimensions are referred to the plate by means of the letters placed opposite to them.)

Altered musket.

New rifle musket

Pistol carbine.

Inches.

a
d
c

3.5
2.5
5.26

3.5
2.25
4.25

\
> Outer wrapper.

a
e

1.1

2.75

1.
2.

.8
2.

t Cylinder case.

f
I

1.5

2.75
3.75 ,

1.3
2.2
3.

1.1
2.2
3.

>• Cylinder wrapper.

The diameters of the round sticks on which the powder cases are
formed should be .69 inch for the old, and .58 inch for the new calibre.
This will make the exterior diameter of the case somewhat larger than
the bullet, and will prevent the outer wrapping from binding around its
base when the cartridge is broken. The outer wrapper should not be
made of too strong paper : that prescribed in the Ordnance Manual for
blank cartridges, and designated as No. 3, will answer a better pur-
pose for these cartridges than that designated as No. 1. The cylinder
case should be made of stiff rocket paper, No. 4 ; and its wrapper may
be made of paper No. 1, 2, or 3. Before enveloping the bullets in the
cartridges, their cylindrical parts should be covered with a melted com-
position of one part beeswax and three parts tallow. It should be ap-
plied hot, in which case the superfluous part would run off; care should
be taken to remove all of the grease from the bottom of the bullet, lest
by coming in contact with the bottom of the case it penetrate the paper
and injure the powder. The bullets being thus prepared, and the grease
allowed to cool, the cartridges are made up as follows, viz. : place the
rectangular piece of rocket paper, called the cylinder case, on the trape-
zoidal piece, called the cylinder wrapper, as shown by the broken lines
of Fig. 102, and roll them tightly round the former stick, allowing a
portion of the wrapper to project beyond both case and stick. Close
the end of the case by folding in this projecting part of the wrapper.
To prevent the powder from sifting through the bottom, paste the folds,
and press them on to the end of the stick, which is made slightly con-
cave to give the bottom a form of greater strength and stiffness. After
the paste is allowed to dry, the former stick is inserted in the case, and
laid upon the outer wrapper, (the oblique edge from the operative,
the longer vertical edge t%o wards his left hand,) and snugly rolled up.

MILITARY DICTION ARV.

I-;.. HA

The bullet is then inserted in the open end of the cartridge, the base
resting on the cylinder case, the paper neatly choked around the point

of the- bullet, and
fastened by two
half hitches of car-
tridge thread. The
former stick is thru
withdrawn, the
powder is poured
into the case, and
i!i- mouth of
the cartridge is
"pinched "or fold-
ed jn the usual
way. To use this
cartridge, tear the
fold and pour out
the powder ; thru
seize the bullet end
firmly between the
thumb and fore fin-
ger of the right
hand and strike the cylinder a smart blow across tin- mu/./le of the
piece ; this breaks the cartridge and exposes the bottom of tin- bullet ; a
pressure of the thumb and forefingers forces tin- bullet into the
bore clear of all cartridge paper. In striking the cartridge the cylinder
should be held square across, or at right angles to
the muzzle; otherwise, a blow given in an oblique
direction would only bend the cartridge without rup-
turing it. Cartridges constructed on these j»rin«-i-
ples pre SOl a neat and convenient form for earning
the powder and bullet attached to cadi other, and
they obviate, two important defects of the elongated
bullet cartridges in common use, \i/. : the n
position of the bullet in the cartridge, and the use
of tho paper wrapper as a patch. (Fig. 103.)

Cartridge-bags for field-pi' ^-ex should be made of

wild-bore, merino or bofobawtte, composed entirely

of wool, free from any mixture of thread or «
which would be apt to retain fire in thn piece. The
texture and sewing should be close enough t«> prc-

n* MA

CAS.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 153

vent the powder sifting through. Untwilled stuff is to be preferred.
Flannel may be used when other materials cannot be obtained. The
bag is of two rectangular pieces, which forms the cylinder, and a circular
piece for the bottom. As the stuff does not stretch in the direction of
its length, the long side of the rectangle should be taken in that direc-
tion, otherwise the cartridge might become too large for convenient use.

^Blank-cartridge Bags, or those intended for immediate use, may be
made of two rectangular pieces with semicircular ends sewed together.
The pieces are marked out with stamps made of one-inch board with a
handle in the middle of one side, and on the other two projecting rims
of copper or tin, parallel to each other and half an inch apart.

Siege and Garrison Cartridges consist of the charge of powder in a
bag, and the projectile always separate from the cartridge.

The Cartridge-bags are usually made of woollen stuff. They are
made of two pieces, in the form of a rectangle with semicircular end,
which are marked out with stamps and sewed together as described for
making blank-cartridge bags for the field service, and are filled, pre-
served, and packed in the same way.

Paper Bags. — Bags for heavy ordnance may be made entirely of
paper. The bottom is circular, and one end of the cylindrical part is
cut into slips about one inch long, which are pasted over the paper bot-
tom on a cylindrical former. When a paper bag is filled, the open end
is folded down about three-fourths of an inch wide, and this fold is rolled
on itself down to the powder, and the part which projects beyond the
cylinder is turned in on the top of it. The bags are apt to leave
paper burning in the gun, for which reason those made of woollen stuff
are preferable. Bags are sometimes made of both paper and woollen
stuff, by forming the cylindrical part of paper, and sewing to it a bot-
tom of woollen stuff made of two semicircular pieces.

CARTS AND KITCHEN CART. A system of army transporta-
tion proposed by Colonel Cavalli. (See AMBULANCE ; WAGON.)

CASCABLE — is the part of the gun in rear of the base ring ; it is
composed generally of the following parts : the knob, the neck, thej&feit,
and the base of the breech.

CASEMATE. Vaulted chamber with embrasures for guns. It is
necessary that they should be bomb-proof and distributed along the faces
and flanks of the bastion, to serve as quarters and hospital to the gar-
rison in war ; but such subterranean barracks are always unwholesome.

CASE SHOT — are small balls enclosed in a case or envelope,
which, when broken by the shock of the discharge in the piece, or by a
charge of powder within the case, exploding during the flight of the case,

154 M1LITABY DICTIONARY.

acatten the balls. The kinds of case shot in use are GRAPE, CANISTER,
and SPHERICAL CASE.

CASHIERED. When an officer is sentenced by a court-martial,
to be dismissed the service, he is said to be cashiered.

CASTING AWAY — Arms and Ammunition. Punishable with
death or other punishment, according to the nature of the offence, by
the sentence of a general court-martial ; (ART. &J.)

CASTRAMETATION. The art of em -ampment. (See CAMP.)

CA^l' A LTIKS. A word comprehending all mm who die, «1
or are discharged.

CAVALIER — is a term applied to a work of more than ordinary
height. It is sometimes constructed upon the tcrre-plein of the bastion,
with faces and flanks parallel to those of the bust ion which it commands.
Cavaliers are not confined to bastions, but arc placed whercv. .- a
command of fire is required, and are sometimes traced straight, on other
occasions curved.

CAVALRY. There arc two regiments of dragoons, one of mount-
ed riflemen, and two styled cavalry in our army. It has been recom-
mended that these regiments should all bo called regiments of cavalry.
(Ste ARMY for their organization.) Cavalry is usually divided into
heavy and light cavalry. Heavy cavalry acts in heavy masses. Its
essential condition is united ranks. It finds its true type in the mailed
chivalry of the middle ages, but it is believed that the general introduc-
tion into service of rifled muskets \\ill render heavy cavalry ent in ly
useless in war. Formerly cavalry could move against infantry in
columns of squadrons first at a trot, then at a gallop, and finally at full
•peed from a position taken up within 400 yards of infantry. Hut now
that the cavalry comes within range of the rifle at 1,000 yards, the in-
fantry must be greatly demorali/e-l before cavalry ran have the least
chance of success in a charge. Accordingly at the camp of Chalons,
where all arms of the service were supposed to bo repr. scute. 1, heavy
cavalry were not seen. Light cavalry on the e»':t!.n\ is intended
rather to envelop an enemy. Quickness and agility arc its primary
conditions. Indefatigable and can less of repose it ought to occupy an
enemy during entire hours, harass an-1 fatigue him. If h • lays himself
open pierce him with the quickness of lightning, and rut him t-
with th.- sal.r. . Tim cavalry soldier must consider his horse as pan of

If. and the porti-ct management of the horso cannot !••• I
eith.-r in seh.M-U. or in a few weeks of practice. If daily exercises are
dispensed \\ horse and man return to their natural state, and

sueh m. -untod men cease to be efficient. The main body in all campaigns

CAT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 155

against Indians should be infantry. But a small mounted force, kept in
high condition, would add much to the efficiency of such a main body.
The horses should be well fed ; and upon long marches in uninhabited
districts this is impossible. The idea of employing such a force as a
main body, in order to make rapid marches, is also untenable ; for upon
long marches -of many days, infantry* will improve every day, accom-
plish a greater distance in many successive days, and have at the oppor-
tune moment greater vigor than a large cavalry force, necessarily with
• broken-down horses from want of food ; whereas a small cavalry force
might be held in hand and maintained in the highest state of efficiency.
Cavalry is indispensable in time of war. It will always take a leading
part in pursuing a retreating enemy ; it is the proper arm in ordinary
reconnoissances ; it will always serve as eclaireurs, and as escorts, and
should, in the present state of the art of war, carry carbines and be pre-
pared for service on foot. It is weakened and destroyed when in a
country without forage. " Its first cost, its constant maintenance, the
defects of its employment, and the system of providing horses make it
expensive ; but it ought nevertheless to be maintained in a complete
state, for its art can only be exercised by rnen and horses that are
properly instructed.

Cavalry Tactics. — The individual instruction of men and horses
should be regarded as the most important point of the whole system,
and should be as simple as possible ; the man should be taught to man-
age his horse with ease and address over all kinds of ground and at all
gaits, to swim rivers, to go through certain gymnastic exercises — such
as vaulting, cutting heads, to fence, to fire very frequently at a mark, and
to handle his weapon with accuracy and effect at all gaits, and in all situ-
ations. Individual instruction has been recently made a supplementary
instruction in France. Every thing in reference to heavy cavalry, lan-
cers, hussars, &c., should be omitted. Insist upon the sabre being kept
sharp in the field, provide the men with means of doing so, and lay it down
as a rule that the strength of cavalry is in the " spurs and sabre." The in-
struction on foot should be carried no further than its true object requires
— that is, to bring the men under discipline, improve their carriage, and
enable them to comprehend the movements they are to execute mounted.
The formation for review, parade, inspection, &c., to bo : the companies
deployed in one line, with intervals of 12 paces, or else in a line of col-
umns of companies by platoons, according to the ground. It should be
laid down as a fixed rule that no cavalry force should ever charge with-
out leaving a reserve behind it, and that against civilized antagonists the
compact charge in line should be used in preference to that as foragers.

150 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cwt

Columns to be formed with wheeling distance, and closed in mass;
wh.-n closed in ma>s the file-closers close up to 1 pace from the rank, and
th<- distance between the subdivisions to be just enough to permit each
company to wheel by fours. Marching columns to be by file. t\\««s,
fours, or platoons; by fours and platoons in preference when tin- ground
permits. Columns of man<eu\rc to !•«• \>\ f. -u is, platoons, companies,
or in double column ; the latter always a regimental column, and to be
formed on the two central companies, or platoons, without closing the
interval between them. Deployments to be made habitually at a gal-
lop, and the individual oblique to be used as much as possible. The
Instruction in two lines to be provided for. The Russian tactics give a
good basis for the system of skirmishers, and charging as foragers.
For the use of the mounted rifles, and cavalry acting as such, a thor»uurh
•ystcm for dismounting rapidly, and fighting on foot, has alreail ,
submitted by Captain Maury, and adopted. (Consult McCtELLAx.)

CENTRE OF THE BASTION— is the intersection made by the
two dcmi-gorges.

CERTIFICATE. (See MUSTER.)

CHAIN-BALL. It has been proposed to attach a light body by
means of a chain to the rear of an oblong projectile, when tin-own under
high angles with a moderate velocity, so as to cause it to move with its
point foremost.

CHAIN-SHOT— consist of two hemispheres, or two spheres con-
nected together by a chain. The motion <>f rotation of these proje. -tiles
in flight would render them useful in cutting the masts and riggings of
vessels, if their flight was not so inaccurate. When the mode of connec-
tion is a bar of iron instead of a chain, they .iro called P>ar-shot.

CHALLENGE. No officer or soldier shdl send a challenge to
another officer or soldier to fight a duel, or uceej»t a challenge if sent,
upon pain if a commissioned officer of bein-j cashiered ; if a non-eom-
>ned officer or soldier, of suffering corporeal punishment at the
of a court-martial; (Aux. 25.) If any oommiafiofl d OT
non-com missioned officer commanding a iruard shall knowingly or wil-
lingly suffer any penoo frhataoerer to rr,, j;,rth to fi^ht a dn.-l. he shall
l.c punished as a challenger; and all seconds, promoters. and carriers
<»rder to duels, shall l.c demx-d principals, and l»e pun-
'v. And it shall be the duty . officer conmiand-

ing an army, regiment, company, post or detachment, who is knowing to
•T accepted, by any officer, Mn4ommittione4
..r soldi. T nji.ler his command, or has reason to believe th. sani.-
to be the case, immediately to arrest and bring to trial such offenders ;

CHA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 157

(ART. 26.) Any officer or soldier who shall upbraid another for refus-
ing a challenge shall himself be punished as a challenger ; and all officers
and soldiers are hereby discharged from any disgrace, or opinion of dis-
advantage, which might arise from their having refused to accept chal-
lenges, as they will only have acted in obedience to the laws, and done
their duty as good soldiers, who subject themselves to discipline ;
(ART. 28.)

CHALLENGE OF MEMBERS OF COURT-MARTIAL. When a member
shall be challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge,
of which the court shall, after due deliberation, determine the relevancy
or validity, and decide accordingly ; and no challenge to more than one
member at a time shall be received by the court; (ART. 71.) Chal-
lenges of members are made in writing. The member withdraws and
the court is cleared for deliberation. If the challenge is disallowed the
member resumes his seat. Blackstone says : A principal challenge is
where the cause assigned carries prima facie evidence of malice or
favor ; as that a juror is of kin to either party within the 9th degree ;
that he has been arbitrator on either side ; that he has formerly been a
juror in the same cause ; that he is the party's muster, servant, &c..
These grounds of challenge, if true, cannot be overruled. Challenges to
the favor are, where the party hath no principal challenge, but objects
only on probable circumstances of suspicion, as acquaintance and the
like ; the validity of which is left to the triers ; (Houon.)

CHALLENGE OF A SENTINEL. Who goes there 1

CHAMADE — is a signal made for parley bj; beat of drum.

CHAMBER OF A MINE — is a cell of a cubical form, made to re-
ceive the powder.

CHAMBER of howitzers, columbiads, and rnortars, is the smallest
part of the bore, and contains the charge of powder. In the howitzers
and columbiads the chamber is cylindrical, and is united with a large
cylinder of the bore by a conical surface ; the angles of intersection of
this conical surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber, are
rounded (in profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch siege howitzer,
the chamber is united with the cylinder of the bore by a spherical surface,
in order that the shell may, when necessary, be inserted without a sabot.

CHAPLAIN. Punished by a court-martial for undue absence ;
(ART. 4.) One allowed to Military Academy who shall be professor of
geography, history, and ethics — with pay of professor of mathematics.
Chaplains allowed to military posts, not exceeding twenty, are selected
by the council of administration of the post, and are also to be school-
masters, with $70 per month, 4 rations per day, and quarters and fuel ;
(Acts July 5, 1838 ; and Feb. 21, 1857.)

158 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ciu.

CHARACTKH. Whore a witness is introduced by a prison
prove character, the court may ask how long he has known the prisoner,
and whether he has known him from that time to the present without
interruption, and whether he speaks from his own knowledge or from
general report. — Croft-examination by the prosecutor, of \\iti-esses in-
troduced by the prisoner to prove character, is not allowed. (Consult
PHILLIPS' Law of Evidence.)

CHARGE. Cavalry charges hnvo been sometimes made silently.
Those of Frederick the Great always began the HURRAH at fifty paces
from the enemy. If at the moment of the shock tin- infantry is nut
disturbed, but their bayonets and fire have on the contrary saved them
from the impulsive force of the charge, the fall of the front ranks of the
cavalry will have interposed a rampart behind which infantry <
fail t«> bo victorious. But if the cavalry has practised the stratagem
of beginning operations by drawing the fire of infantry upon skirmislu T-,
and the commander of the cavalry ready for the charge has pushed for-
ward curtains of light cavalry in a single rank, who succeed, by means
of clouds of dust, in making an unskilful infantry believe that to be an
. \vlm-h in reality is only a feint, the infantry may fire its balls at
random — the thinness of the curtain of light cavalry will render the in-
fantry's fire of little effect — the infantry will be eager to reload, and this
may be done in agitation and disorder. The proper moment is then at
hand, and the heavy cavalry in mass, concealed by the dust of their
skirmishers, may charge, break, and sabre the infantry. The light
ry finish the. fugitives. The pas-a_r«- "f <1« fil.-s in retreat ought to )>«• se-
cured by a charge of cavalry. Coolne-s, silence, immobility . c.,ntem j>t of
hurrahs, and a reserved fire until within suitable range, arc the principal
means of resisting a charge of cavalry. The file-closers mnM pren nt
n..t ordered ; watch the execution of the fire by ranks; see that
it docs not commence at too great a distance, then enjoin ujvm the
soldiers to aim at the breast; to act only upon signals of the drum, or
at the command of officers on horseback, who occupy the rent re of ihe
square, and who from that height alone ran jn-l.L'e whether the charge
of cavalry is a mere feint or a real attack. This necessary impassi-
bility of infantry in obtained by discipline an 1 experience. and is only
perfected upon battli-fn-hK. Without sang froid, and also promptness
in manoeuvring upon any ground, infantry will not be able to exliil.it
thb whole strength of ite arm against the best cavalry. Charges by in-
fantry are made in order of battle, in column of attack, and in close
columns in mass. Ch.irir. H in order of battle are executed as follows : If
the combat is between infantry and infantry, the troops receiving the

MILITARY DICTIONARY. i;,<)

charge, fire at the moment at which it is almost joined with the enemy.
The troops making the charge, fire at one hundred or one hundred and
twenty paces from the enemy ; without waiting to reload, they march
forward at the quick step ; at two-thirds the distance take charging step,
and if the ground permits they subsequently take a running step, keep-
ing up the touch of the elbow, and throw themselves upon the enemy
with HURRAHS. Frederick the Great says that it is " better for a line
to falter in a charge than to lose the touch of the elbow," so necessary
is it that the charge should be en muraille.

In modern wars the charge in column has been used but not exclu-
sively, and sometimes with fatal results. But whatever may be the
form of the charge, success must not make the victor at once pursue
his enemy. He must, on the contrary, halt, rally his men, form line
if the charge was made in column, reload, fire upon the fugitives, and
continue thus to gain ground, by a regulated fire, until at last the cav-
alry which seconds him comes to his aid. It must be considered that
there may be a second line of the enemy, fresh troops, masked bat-
teries, flank fires, or squadrons of cavalry ready to oppose an unfore-
seen resistance. It may be, that the attacking party has experienced
some disadvantage, not far from the point where the infantry has just
triumphed in the charge. Such circumstances may cause the infantry
to pay dearly for its temporary success, a temporary success sometimes
owing to stratagem on the part of the enemy. These precepts are
given by the best writers on charges of infantry. ( Consult DECKER ;
BARDIN, &c., &c.) *

CHARGER. The horse rode by an officer in the field or in
action.

CHARGES AND SPECIFICATIONS. The form of indict-
ments tried by courts-martial. (See COURT-MARTIAL ; EVIDENCE.) As
to the perspicuity and precision of charges : If the description of the
offence is sufficiently clear to inform the accused of the military offence
for which he is to be tried, and to enable him to prepare his defence, it
is sufficient; (Opinions of Attorney-general, p. 189.)

A copy of charges, as well as a list of witnesses for the prosecution,
should be given to the prisoner in all cases as soon as possible. Ante-
cedent to arraignment, charges may be framed and altered by the party
who brings forward the prosecution, or by the officer ordering the court,
both in regard to substance and in other respects ; but the court, where
the deviation was material, would probably deehi it sufficient cause for
delaying proceedings upon application of the prisoner. As the wit-

ICO MILITARY DICTIONARY. K»u.

of an officer may be at a distance, the sooner a copy is given the
! I "i oil's Law Authorities.)

CHASE. The conical part of a piece of ordnance in front of the
reinforce,

CHASSIS. A traversing carriage. The barbette and cas.
carriages consist of gun carriages and chassis. The \v rough t-iron chassis
now made consists of \\\ •• rals of wrought iron, the cross-section of
each being in form of a T, the flat surface on t..p being for the
tion of the shoe-rail of the gun carriage. The rails are parallel to each
other, and connected by iron transoms and braces. The chassis is sup-
ported on traverse wheels. A prop is placed under the middle transom
of the chassis to provide against sagging. The pintle is the lixed centre
around which the chassis traverses. In the ordinary barbette, the pintle
is placed under the centre of the front transom ; but in the columbiad car-
riage, it is placed under the centre of the middle transom. (See COLUMBIAD.)

CHEMIN DBS RONDES— is a bcrme from four to t \\vl\-
broad, at the foot of the exterior slope of the parapet. It is .sometimes
protected by a quickset hedge, but in more modern works by a low
wall, built on the top of the revetment, over which the defenders can
lire, and throw hand grenades into the diteh.

CHESSES — arc the platforms which form the flooring of military
bridges. They consist of two or more planks, ledged together at the.
edges, by dowels or pegs.

CHEVAUX-DE-FIUSE. The principal uses of chevaux-d,
are to obstruct a passage, stop a breach, or form an impediment to
cavalry. Those of the modern pattern are made of iron, whose barn 1
is six feet, in length, and four inches in diameter, ca«-h carrying twelve
spears, five feet nine inches long, the whole weighing sixty -live pounds.
(Set OBSTACLES.)
r CHoU'.KA. ($Cr SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

CIRCUMVALLATION. Works made by besiegers IT*
besieged place facing outwards, to protect their camp from enterprises

CITADEL. A ei'adel is a small strong fort, constructed cither

Within the jdaee. or on the HIM -.t inaeeevsilile part of its jj'-neral outline,

if ; it N intended as a r.-lVje for the garrison, in which

'lie place has fallen.

CIVIL AUTHORITY. (Set AUTIIOKITV ; CONTRACTS; EXECU-
TION or LAWS; INJURIES; REMEDY.)

CLERKS. ^- r suitable non-commissioned ofliecrs or pri-

vates cannot be procured from the line of the army, pa\ n

CLO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 161

the approbation of the Secretary of War, may employ citizens to per-
form the duties of clerks at $700 per year ; (Acts July 5, 1838 ;
and Aug. 12, 1848.) One ration per day allowed when on duty at
their station; (Act Aug. 31, 1852.)

CLOTHING. The President of the United States is authorized to
prescribe the kind and quality of clothing to be issued annually to the
troops of the United States. The manner of issuing and accounting for
clothing shall be established by general regulations of the War De-
partment. But whenever more than the authorized quantity is re-
quired, the value of the extra articles shall be deducted from the sol-
diers' pay ; and, in like manner, the soldiers shall receive pay according
to the annual estimated value for such authorized articles of uniform as
shall not have been issued to them in each year. And when a soldier
is discharged, it is the duty of the paymaster-general to pay him for
clothing not drawn; (Act April 24, 1816.) The quartermaster's
department distributes to the army the clothing, camp and garrison
equipage required for the use of the troops. Every commander of a
company, detachment, or recruiting station, or other officer receiving
clothing, &c., renders quarterly returns of clothing, according to pre-
scribed forms to the quartermaster-general. All officers charged with
the issue of clothing to majce good any loss or damage, unless they can
show to the satisfaction of the Secretary of War, by one or more depo-
sitions, that the deficiency was occasioned by unavoidable accident, or
was lost in actual service, without any fault on their part ; or, in case of
damage, that it did not result from neglect; (Act May 18, 1826.)
Purchasing clothing from a soldier prohibited under penalty of three
hundred dollars, and imprisonment not exceeding one year ; (Act
March 16, 1802, and Jan. 11, 1812.)

The French system of making up clothing is as follows : Officers com-
manding regiments make their requisitions for the regulated quantities
of cloth and other materials necessary for the clothing of the number
of men under their command. The intendant having checked this de-
mand gives an order for the issue, and the materials are made up by
soldiers in the regimental workshops under the direction of the clothing
captain, an officer holding an appointment in some respects analogous
to that of our quartermasters; a fixed rate being paid for each article.
Organized as the European armies are, those troops have always a large
proportion of skilled workmen undergoing their term of military ser-
vice ; but it is not so with us. Still there are many points in the
European system of clothing the troops which might, with advantage to
the soldier and with economy to the public, be adapted to the wants of

our service.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[CLO.

STATEMENT of tkt fott of dotting, Camp and Oarruon Equtpaa* for 0* Army of
tkt Unit**. State*, funUktd by tkt Quartirmaittr't Department, during <A« year
mtneing July 1, 1869, wUk tk* aUowanc* of clotking to tack »oldi*r during kit tnlut-
IIMM/, and AM proportion for tack ytar rttpectiixly.

may. at thrir option, reccireoiM pair of

af/tw win ..r i. H

NOTE.— Metallic Kaglea, Castles, Shell and flame. Crossed Babres, Trumpets, Crossed Cannon.
Numbers, Tulip*, Plate*. Shoulder Scales, Kings, the Cap cord and tassels, an.l th<
l Artillery, the Beshes, Knapsacks and mrapa/Havreaacks, Canteens, Strap* of nil kin-K an l tho
will not be issued to the soldiers, but will be borne on the Return as company pr«p< rty while fit
will be charged on the Muster Bolls against the person In whose nso they wore when

CLO.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

1G3

CAMP AND GARRISON EQUIPAGE.

Bedsack, single $1 02

double 1 18

Mosquito bars 1 13

Axe 65

" helve 10

" sling 70

Hatchet 29

" helve 03

« sling 40

Spade 63

Pickaxe £>6

" helve. 10

Camp kettle 50

Mess pan 18

Iron pot 1 23

Garrison flag SO 66

"halliard 800

Storm flag 12 85

Recruiting flag 8 77

" halliard 20

Guidon 5 28

Caim> color 1 £2

National color, Artillery 35 48

" " Infantry 85 48

Regimental color, Artillery 42 60

« " Infantry 4T 60

Standard for Mounted Regiments 20 87

Trumpet 3 88

Bugle, with extra mouth-piece 3 12

Cord and tassels for Trumpets and Bugles 75

Fife, B 47

" C 41

Dnim, complete. Artillery or Infantry. 6 90

Drum head batter CO

" snare 19

sling. 45

sticks, pairs 23

" carriage , . . . . 64

cord 20

snares, sets 17

Drum case

AVall u-iit ^ .'$17' 86

* " ty 604

" poles, Mils l ig

" pins, seU 73

Sibley tent $32 80

" poles and tripod 472

" " sets 48

" " stove

Hospital tent $64 13

" fly 28 50

" poles, sets 5 60

" pins, sets 1

$20

24 vt,

87 50
4 OU

Servant's tent

" poles, sets..
" " pins, sets. . .

$G 62
1 10

94 51

Tent pin, large size, hospital

" wall ,

" small size, common

Regimental book, order

" general .order.

letter

" index ,

" descriptive. . .

Post book, morning report

guard

" " order

" " letter...

$2 25

2 25

3 50

1 75

2 25

$-200
2 00
1 15
1 15

Company book, clothing $2 50

descriptive 1 80

" order 1 70

" morning report. . 2 0<)

Record book, for target practi

8 00
05
04
02

12 00

6 30

8 00
60

The tunic of the French infantry soldier lasts three years and a
half, the shell jacket two years, the great coat three years, and the
trowsers one year. In the Sardinian and Belgian armies the great coat
is intended to last eight years. Those governments credit every man
on his enlistment with about eight dollars as outfit money, which is
about the annual cost of the clothing of each soldier, and a daily allow-
ance of 10 centimes is given for repairs. Regimental master-tailors
are required to make all repairs at a fixed annual contribution from the
soldiers' pay. This does not often exceed 80 centimes ; and the surplus,
after the soldier has paid the cost of his clothing, is handed to him at
the end of the year. By this means the soldier is taught economy,
but if at any time an article of dress is found to be unfit for use, cap-
tains of companies may order it to be renewed at the cost of the sol-
dier. The great durability of the clothing of European armies is
attributable to the precautions taken to insure good materials from the
manufacturers by whom the cloth is supplied. Not only is every yard
of cloth, when delivered into store, subjected to several distinct and
minute examinations by boards of officers assisted by experts, who weigh
it, shrink it, and view it inch by inch against a strong light, so that the

164 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

slightest flaw may bo detected ; but they likewise apply chemical tests
to detect the quality of the dye, and the manufactories are at all times
open to inspectors, who watch the fabrication at every stage. When
('..•tiling has once been manufactured, it is hardly possible with any
degree of accuracy to ascertain the quality of the material.

COEHORN MORTAR. Brass 24-pdr. mortar, weighing 164 Ibs.

COLONEL. Rank in the army between brigadier-general and

liellt :.«•!.

COLORS. Each regiment of artillery and infantry has two silken
colors, hut only one is borne or displayed at the same time, and on
actual sen-ice that is usually the regimental one.

COLUMBIAD. An American cannon invented by Colonel Bom-
ford, of very large calibre, used for throwing solid shot or shells, which,
when mounted in barbette, has a vertical field of fire from 5° d
sion to 39° elevation, and a horizontal field «.f fire of 360°. Those of
the old pattern were chambered, but they are now cn-t without, and
otherwise greatly improved. The 10-inch weighs 15,400 Ibs., and is

.ehes long. The 8-inch columbiad is 124 inches long and v.
9,240 Ibs. Rodman's 15-inch columbiad, represented in Fig. 104, \sas
cast at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, by Knapp, Rudd & Co., under the
directions of Captain T. J. Rodman, of the Ordnance Corps, who con-
ceived the design, which ho has Jiappily executed, of casting guns of
large size hollow, and by means of a current of water introduced into
the core, which forms the mould of the bore, cooling it from the in-
terior, and thus making the metal about the bore the hardest and
densest, and giving the whole thickness of metal subjected to internal
strain its maximum strength. The gun has the following dimensions :

Total length 100 inches.

Length of calibre of bore, .... ].•<> "

Mgth of ellipsoidal chamber, 9 "

Total length of b« .... 1' '.."> "

\imiim exterior diameter, . . . 48 "

1 >i stance between rimbases, ... 48 "

Diameter at muzzle, 2."» •'

Thickness of metal behind the chamber, . 2."»

kness at junction of bore with chamber, . 10J "
Thickness at muzzle, .... u

Diameter of shell, 14.0 "

•.jjhtofgmi 40,100 Ibs.

Weight of shell, 320 "

Bursting charge, 17 "

COL.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

105

The gun is mounted upon the new iron centre pintle carriage, (Fig
104,) which with requisite lightness has great strength and stiffness ; and
to facilitate the pointing from
5° depression to 39° elevation,
a slot is cut in the knob of
the cascable, and a ratchet
is formed on the base of the
breech to receive a " pawl " at-
tached to the elevating screw.
If the distance be greater than
the length of a single notch of
the ratchet, the piece is rap-
idly moved by a lever which
passes through an opening in
the pawl. If the distance is
less, then the elevating screw
is used. The piece was fired
and manoeuvred during the
trials at Fort Monroe, with
great facility, being manned
by 1 sergeant and 6 negroes ;
the times of loading were
1' 15" and 1' 3". Time in
traversing 90° 2' 20", and in
turning back 45° 1'. Time
of loading, including depres-
sion and elevation, 4' and
3' 18".

The mean ranges at 6° ele-
vation, of ten shots, was 1,936
yards, and the mean lateral
deviation 2.2 yards ; 35 Ibs. of .6-inch grain powder being the charge
and 7" the time of flight. At 10° elevation and 40 Ibs. of powder,
large grain, the range was 2,700 yards, and time of flight H^.48.
At 28° 35' elevation the range was 5,730 yards ; time of flight 27",
and the lateral deviation, as observed with a telescope attached to one
of the trunnions, very slight. (See ARTILLERY ; GUNPOWDER ; ORD-
NANCE AND ORDNANCE STORES ; RANGES.)

COLUMN — of attack; in route; close column; column of divi-
sions ; column at half distance ; open column. (See MANOEUVRES IN
BATTLE ; TACTICS.)

\M MILITARY DICTION AKY. [Co*.

COMMAND. An officer nmy bo said to command at a separate
post, when ho is out of tho reach of the orders of the commander-in-
chief, or of a superior officer, in command in the neighborhood. Ho
must then issue the necessary orders to the troops under his command,
!_,' impossible to receive them from a superior officer; (PETER'S
Digest of Decision* of Federal Courts, vol. 1. p. 17(.>.)

Officers having brevets or commissions of a prior date to those of
the regiment in which they serve, may take place in courts-martial and
on detachments, when composed of different corps, according t«» tin-
ranks given them in their brevets, or dates of their former commis-
sions ; but in the regiment, troop, or company, to which such officers
:, they shall do duty and take rank, both in courts-martial and
on detachments, which shall be composed only of their own corps, ac-
cording to the commissions by which they are mustered in said corps ;
<il.) If, upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps
of the army shall happen to join and do duty together, the officer high-
est in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by com-
mission there, on duty or in quarters, shall command tho whole, and
s for what is needful to tho service, unless otherwise specially
• • d by the President of tho United States, according to the nature
of the case ; (AnT. 62.) The great principle that rank, when a^i officer
is on duty, and military command, are ideas only to be separated by
positive law, has always been recogni/. <1 in legislation. The 61st
Article of War, for instance, forbids the exercise of brevet rank with-
in tho regiment, troop, or company, to which such officers belong.
The 63d forbids engineers to assume, and declares they are not sub-
ject to be ordered on any duty beyond tho lino of their immediate pro-
fession, except by the special order of the President of the United
States. The acts of Congress giving rank to officers of tho medical
and pay departments of the army, provide that they shall not, in virtue
of such rank, l»e eivjitled to command in the line or other staff" depart-
ments of the army ; and so, if any other legal restrictions on rank
they must be found in some positive statute. This necessity is ma.le
plain by the consideration that military rank means a range of military
subordination. Higher rank therefore, created by law, cannot be made
subordinate to lower rank, except by positive law ; or, in other words,
a junior cannot command a senior, unless tho law shall otherwise de-
cree. The 61st Article of War declares that officers holding commis-
sions of a prior date to the regiment in which they serve, shall never-
theless take rank "both in courts martial and on detachments composed
only of their own corps, according to the commissions by which they

COM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY, 16T

are mustered in said corps." The 98th Article declares that militia
officers, when serving in conjunction with the regular forces, shall take
rank next after all officers of the like grade in said regular forces, rfot-
withstanding the commissions of such militia officers may be older than
the commissions of the officers of the regular forces of the United States..
The 27th Article declares that all officers have power to part and quell
all quarrels, &c., and to order officers into arrest, and whosoever shall
refuse to obey such officer (though of inferior rank) shall be punished,
&c. Here are cases in which Congress has decreed that seniors in com-
mission may be commanded by juniors ; and if any other cases exist,
they likewise must be found in some positive statute. The 62d Article
of War is ambiguous, from the use of the words " line of the army ; "
our legislation having applied those words to contradistinguish regular
troops from militia, and also, in many cases, the same words are cor-
relative and contradistinctive of staff of the army. " But," says Presi-
dent Fillmore, after a careful examination on his part, to determine
'this question, " I find but one act of Congress in which the words 'line
of the army ' have been employed to designate the regular army in con-
tradistinction to the militia, and none in which they have manifestly
been used as contradistinctive of brevet." Whatever ambiguity, there-
fore, may exist under the 62d Article, in respect to the right of com-
mand on the part of officers of staff corps and departments, the article
does not decree any restriction on brevet rank ; and hence ^he great
principle that rank on duty confers military command has its full force
in respect to commissions by brevet, and all other commissions not
restricted by law. T|ie President, as commander-in-chief under the
62d Article of War, may relieve any officer from duty with a particular
command, or he may assign some officer of superior rank to duty with
a command ; but the laws have not authorized him to place a junior in
command of a senior, and that power which creates rank, viz., Congress,
is alone authorized to place restrictions on its meaning. (See ASSIGN-
MENT ; BREVET ; LINE ; RANK.)

The word command, when applied to ground, is synonymous with
overlook ; and any place thus commanded by heights within range of
cannon is difficult to defend, if the enemy have been able to seize the
heights. (See BREVET ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; RANK.)

COMMAND OF FIRE. When a work has a sufficient elevation
over the work before it, to enable the defensive weapons to act in both
works at the same time upon an advancing enemy, even to the* foot of
the glacis, then the inner work is said to have a command of fire over
the other.

168 J1IL1TARY DICTIONARY. [COM.

COMMAND OF OBSERVATION. When the interior w..rk
has only sufficient elevation to look into or even over tin- work before
it, but not sufli. re clear of it, then it is said to have only a

command of observation.

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. The President shall be command r-

f of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia

of the several States, when called into the actual service of th.- I 'niu-.l

States ; (Se* CONSTITUTIONAL RELATION OF CONGRESS AND TUB PRESIDENT

TO THE LAND FORCES.)

COMMANDER OF THE ARMY. That whenever t , 1
dent shall deem it expedient, he is hereby empowered to appoint, by
an. I u ith the advice and consent of the Senate, a commander of the
army which may be raised by virtue of this act, and who, being com-
missioned as lieutenant-general, may be authorized to command the
armies of the United States ; (Sec. 5, Act May 28, 1798.)

COMMISSARY OF SUBSISTENCE. An officer of the sub-
sistence department. (See SUBSISTENCE.)

COMMISSION. The President shall commission all officers of
the United States ; (Sec. 3 Constitution.) Officers of the United States
army may hold their commissions through rules of appointment pro-
scribed by Congress under its authority to raise armies an«l make, rules
for their government and regulation, but their eommissions must be
signed by the President. The words introduced into every officer's
parchment : — " this commission to continue in force during the pleasure
.•lent of the United States for the time being" — have been
inserted without authority of law. There has been no legislation on
the subject of the form of an officer's commission. The form adopted
was borrowed originally from British commissions, and was " probably
the pen work of some clerk, or at the most, the hasty dim-lion of the
Secretary of War, without reflecting that the chief magistrate in a
republic is n-.t the fountain of all honor and power," and that Congress
alone has the power to raise armies, and to make nil. s for their gov-
ernment and regulation.

COMPANY. Companies are commanded by captains having
tinder their orders lieutenants, sergeants, corporals, musicians, and pri-
vates. (See ARMT ORGANIZATION.)

COMPTROLLER. (Sre ACCOUNT ABILITY.)

CONDUCT UNBECOMING AN OFFICER AND A GENTI I M AN— pill

with dismission ..,.rai ,.,,,,rt -martial. What 0

tutes the offence is not defined, but it is ]. -ft to the. moral sense of

nine.
CONFINEMENT. Non-commissioned officers and soldiers charged

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 169

with crimes shall be confined until tried by a court-martial, or released
by proper authority ; (ART. 78.) No officer, or soldier who shall be
put in arrest, shall continue in confinement more than eight days, or
uatil such time as a court-martial can be assembled ; (ART. 79.) (See
ARREST.)

CONGRESS. (See CONSTITUTIONAL RELATION OF CONGRESS.)

CONNIVING AT HIRING OF DUTY. If a non-commissioned
officer, shall be reduced. If a commissioned officer, punishecT by the
judgment of a general court-martial ; (ART. 48.)

CONSCRIPTION. The only means of raising a NATIONAL Army.
The system of voluntary enlistments will always divide an army into
two castes — officers and soldiers, and the latter will hardly ever be
found qualified for promotion. The system of conscription is, too, the
only means of raising large armies. This was made plain during the
last war with England. Even with the largest bounties in land and
money, soldiers could not be procured, and the President and Secretary
of War (Messrs. Madison and Monroe) recommended in strong terms
a system of conscription. The legislature of New York passed an act
at the same time, for raising 12,000 troops by conscription. (See
DEFENCE, NATIONAL ; RAISE.)

CONSTITUTION. The following provisions of the constitution

relate to the land and naval forces : Preamble — We, the people of the

United States, in order to * * provide for the common defence

* * do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States

of America.

ART. I. SEC. 1. All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vest-
ed in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate
and House of Representatives.

ART. I. SEC. 8. The Congress shall have power : —

Clause 1. * * To pay the debts and provide for the common
defence and general welfare of the United States ; * *

Clause 9. * * To define and punish offences against the law of
nations ; * *

Clause 10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal,
and make rules concerning captures on land and water ;

Clause 11. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of
money to that use, shall be for a longer term than two years ;

Clause 12. To provide and maintain a navy ;

Clause 13. To make rules for the government and regulation of the
land and naval forces ;

Clause 14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the
laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ;

170 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cos.

Clause 15. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the
militia, and fur governing such part of them as may be employed in tin
service of the United States, reserving to the States, respo ti\. 1\, the ap-
pointment of tin- officers, and the authority of training the militia ac-
cording to the discipline prescribed by Congress.

Clause 10. To exercise exclusive legislation * * over nil
placet purchased, by consent of the legislature of the Slat- in which tin-
same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards,
and other needful buildings — and

Clause 17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper
for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers
vetted by this constitution in the Government of the United States, or
in any department or officer thereof.

SEC. 9. Clause 2. * * The privilege of the writ of habeas
shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion,
the public safety may require it. * *

SEC. 10. Clause 2. * * No State shall, without the consent of
Congress * * keep troops or ships of war in time of peace * *
or engage in wnr, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger
aa will not admit of delay.

ART. II. SEC. 1. Clause 1. The executive power shall l>e vestal in
a President of the United States of America. * *

SEC. 2. Clause 1. The President shall be commander-in-ehicf of
the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of tho s
States, when called into the actual service of the United States. * *

SEC. 3. Clause 1. * * He shall take care that the laws be
faithfully executed ; and shall commission all officers of tho United

State*

ART. III. SEC. 3. Clause 1. Treason against the Dnlted States

shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to th. ir

enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convict. .1

is«.n, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt

act, or on confession i?i « p« n court.

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment
of treason ; btit no attainder of treason shall work corruption of Mood,
OT for \--rjit during the life of the person attaint, -d.

ART. IV. SEC. 4. Clause 1. The United States shall guarantee to

Stat.- in this I'nion a republican form of government; and shall

protect each of th.rn against invasion, and on tho application of the,

legisla »f tho executive, (when the legislature cannot bo con-

domestic violence.

CoN.J MILITARY DICTIONARY. 171

Amendments to the Constitution : — 1. Congress shall make no law
respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercis*
thereof; abridging the freedom of speech, of the press ; or the right of
the people peaceably to assembly, and to petition the Government for
redress of grievances.

ART. II. A well-regulated militia being accessary to the security of
a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
infringed.

ART. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any
house, without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war, but in a
manner to be prescribed by law.

ART. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment by a grand jury,
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when
in actual service, in time of war, or public danger ; nor shall any per-
son be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life
or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use
without just compensation.

CONSTITUTIONAL RELATION OF CONGRESS AND THE
PRESIDENT TO THE LAND AND NAVAL FORCES OF THE UNITED STATES.
The power of making rules for the government and regulation of
armies, as well as the power of raising armies, having in express
terms been conferred on Congress, it is manifest that the President as
commander-in-chief is limited by the constitution to the simple com-
mand of such armies as Congress may raise, under such rules for their
government and regulation as Congress may appoint : " The authorities,
(says Alexander Hamilton, Federalist, No. 23,) essential to the care of
the common defence are these : To raise armies ; to build and equip
fleets ; to prescribe rules for the government of both ; to direct their
operations ; to provide for their support. These powers ought to exist
without limitation ; because it is impossible to foresee or to define the
extent and variety of national exigencies, and the correspondent extent
and variety of the means which may be necessary to satisfy them."
. . ?« Defective as the present (old) Confederation has been proved
to be, this principle appears to have been fully recognized by the
framers of it ; although they have not made proper or adequate pro-
vision for its exercise. Congress have an unlimited discretion to make
requisitions of men and money ; to govern the army and navy ; to di-
rect their operations." " The government of the military is that branch

i; j MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Con.

of the code, (says BARDIN, Dictionnaire de T Armie de Terre,) wh.
braces the military Hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of i:
authority." From this principle proceeds the localization of t:
their disoipliuo, n-inuiMTati.ii lor important services, the repression of
nil infractions of Uic laws, and every thing in line \\hich the legislature
m av judge necessary cither by rules of appointment or promotion,
penalties or rewards, to maintain an enVient and well-disciplined army.
But, as if to avoid all miseonstnu-ti'-n on this point, the constitution not
onlv declares that Congress ahull make rules for the government, but
also for the reyulation ot the army ; and regulation signifies precise
determination of functions; method, forms and restrictions, not to bo
departed from. It is evident, tin retore, that the design of the iVamers
of the constitution, was not to invest the President with powers over
the army in any degree parallel with powers possessed by the king ot
Great Britain over the British army, whose prerogative embraces the
command and government ot all forces raised and maintained by him
with the consent of parliament, (BLACKSTONE;) but their purpose, on th.»
contrary, was to guard in all possible ways against exeeutive usurpation
by leaving with Congress the control ot the Federal forces which it
possessed under the articles of the Confederation, and at the same time
to strengthen the powers of Congress by giving that body an unre-
stricted right to raise armies, provided appropriations for their support
should not extend beyond two years. The command ot the army and
navy and militia called into service, subject to such rules for their gov-
ernment and regulation as Congress may m ike, was given by t!
Btitution to the President; but the power of making rules of goVern-
uid regulation is in reality that of SUPREME COMMAND, and heii'-e.
the President, to use the language of the Federalist, in his relation to
the army and navy, is nothing more than the "\first General tu
miral of the Confederacy ;" or the first oflicer of the military hierarchy
with functions assigned by Congress. A curious example of th
teroporaneous const ru.-t ion of the constitution is found in a letter iV.-m
Sedgwiek to Hamilton (vol. 0, Hamilton's Works, p. :j<»4.) Congr
raising a j d army in 1798, created the office of command, r

of the army with the title of Lieutenant-general. A year subse-
sion was made by law for changing this title to that of
General. This last provision gave great offence to Mr. Adams, then
President, who considered it as an evidence of the desire of Conpr
make " a general over the President" So strangely wa
with this id. a that h rnmissioned Washington as General, but

the latter died in his office of Zievlenan^cneral ; the President e\i

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 173

dently thinking that the title of General conveyed a significancy which
belonged to the President alone, although the commander of the
army might in his opinion very properly take the title of Lieutenant-
general, and thus have his subordination to the commander-in-chief of
the army and navy and militia clearly indicated. It is plain therefore
no less from the appointment by the constitution of the President as
commander-in-chief, than from all contemporaneous construction, that
his functions in respect to the army are those of First General of the
U. S., and in no degree derived from his powers as first civil magis-
trate of the Union. The advocates of executive discretion over the
army must therefore seek for the President's authority in his military
capacity, restrained as that is by the powers granted to Congress, which
embrace the raising, support, government, and regulation of armies ; or,
to use the language of the federalist, No. 23, " there can be no limita-
tion of that authority, which is to provide for the defence and protection
of the community, in any matter essential to its efficacy ; that is, in any
matter essential to the formation, direction, or support of the NATIONAL
FORCES." After the foregoing investigation of the unrestricted power
of Congress in respect to the army, save only in the appointment of the
head of all the national forces, naval and military, it will be plain that
the 2d Section of the constitution, in giving to the President the nomi-
nation and appointment, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, of all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are
not herein otherwise provided for, excludes officers of the army and navy.
The power of raising armies and making rules for their government and
regulation, necessarily involves the power of making rules of appoint,
ment, promotion, reward, and punishment, and is therefore a provision in
the constitution otherwise providing for the appointment of officers of
the land and naval forces. So true is this that the principle has been
acted on from the foundation of the Government. Laws have been
passed giving to general and other officers the appointment of certain
inferior officers. In other cases the President has been confined by
Congress, in his selection for certain offices in the army, to particular
classes. Again, rules have been made by Congress for the promotion
of officers, another form of appointment ; and in 1846, an army of volun-
teers was raised by Congress, the officers of which the acts of Congress
directed should be appointed according to the laws of the States in
which the troops were raised, excepting the general officers for those
troops, who were to be appointed by the President and Senate (Act
June 26, 1846)— a clear recognition that the troops thus raised by
Congress were United States troops, and not militia. It is certainly

,71 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Con.

(

true that the military legislation of the country has for long years
yetted a large discretion iir the President in respect to appointments
and other matters concerning the army; but it may well !>.•
whether fixed rules of appointments and promotion which would pre-
vent the exercise of favoritism by the executive might not, with the
greatest advantage to the army and the country, be adopted by Con-
gress t "Military prejudices (says Gen. Hamilton) are not only in-
separable from, but they are essential to the military profession. The
government which desires to have a satisfied and useful army mu>i
consult them. They cannot be moulded at its pleasure ; it is vain to
aim at it." These are maxims which should lead Congress to the adop-
tion of rules of appointment and promotion in the army which would
prevent all outrages to the just pride of officers of the army. Tho
organization of every new regiment, where the appointment of tho officers
has been left to executive discretion, shows that, if the desire has been
felt in that quarter to cherish or cultivate pride of profession among the
officers of the army, the feeling has been repressed by other consi. I ra-
tions. All pride of rank has been so far crushed by this system of
executive discretion that it is apparent, if Congress cannot provide a
rule for the government and regulation of tho army, a generous
rivalry in distinguished services must be superseded by political
activity. Rules of appointment and promotion limiting the discre-
tion of the President, and at the same time giving effect to opinions in
the army, might easily bo devised ; or borrowed from existing rules in
the French army, which, without ignoring the important principle of
ify, would at tho same time afford scope an«l verm- for rewards
f >r distinguished services. (See PROMOTION.) No army can l>c 1
war in the highest vigor and efficiency without rewards for distinguished
activity, and tho appointment of Totlebcn at tho siege of Sevastopol
•hows how far almost superhuman efforts may be prompted by in\< st-
ing a commander in the field with the power ..f selecting his immediate
assistants. Colonels of regiments with us now exercise this authority
in selecting regimental adjutants and ijnartrrniastrrs. \Yhy should not
the same trust be reposed in commanding generals of departments,
brigades, divisions, and armies? And why should not all necessary
restrictions (such as those in operation in the l-'rmi -h armic ) I" put
upon the President in making promotions for distinguished MTV'H
also in ori^- intmonts, in order to secure justice to the am

l>y promote tho best interests of the country? (Consult /
Ml; HAMILTON'S Work*; MADISON'S \\'<>rl-x ; Acts of Congress;
Report of Committee of the Senate; April 2.~>, 1822. See i
RAISE ; VirK-PRKSioiirr ; PROMOTION.)

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 175

CONTEMPT. Any officer or soldier who shall use contemptuous
or disrespectful words against the President of the United States, the
Vice-President, against the Congress of the United States, or against
the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States ia. which
he may be quartered, shall be punished as a court-martial shall direct.
Any officer or soldier who shall behave himself with contempt or dis-
respect towards his commanding officer, shall be punished by the judg-
ment of a court-martial; (ARTS. 5 and 6.)

No person whatsoever shall use any menacing words, signs, or ges-
tures, in presence of a court-martial, or shall cause any riot or disorder,
or disturb their proceedings, on the penalty of being punished at the
discretion of the said court-martial ; (ART. 76.) Contempts thus ren-
dered summarily punishable by courts-martial are of public and self-
evident kind, not depending on any interpretation of law admitting
explanation, or requiring further investigation. Courts-martial some-
times act on this power. At other times individuals so offending are
placed in arrest, and charges are preferred for trial. A regimental
court-martial may punish summarily, but are not competent to award
punishment to commissioned officers. A regimental court-martial in
such cases would impose arrest. Citizens, not soldiers, would be re-
moved from court ; ( HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.)

CONTRACTS. Supplies for the army, unless in particular' and
urgent cases the Secretary of War should otherwise direct, shall be
purchased by contract, to be made by the commissary-general on pub-
lic notice, to be delivered on inspection in bulk, and at such places as
shall be stipulated ; which contract shall be made under such regula-
tions as the Secretary of War may direct ; (Act April 14, 1818, Sec.
7.) No contract shall hereafter be made by the Secretary of State, or
of the Treasury, or of the Department of War, or of the Navy, except
under a law authorizing the same, or under an appropriation adequate
to its fulfilment; and excepting also contracts for the subsistence and
clothing of the army and navy, and contracts by the quartermaster's
department which may be made by the secretaries of those depart-
ments ; (Act May 1, 1820.) Members of Congress cannot be interest-
ed in any contract, and a special provision must be inserted in every
contract that no member of Congress is interested in it. Penalty —
forfeiture of three thousand dollars for making contracts with members
of Congress ; (Act April 21, 1808.)

Liability of Contracts. — By analogy to the rule which protects an
officer from the treatment of a trespasser or malefactor, in regard to
acts done by him in the execution of the orders of his own government,

170 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Co*.

a similar immunity is extended to him in respect to contracts which

•ore into for public purposes within the sphere of his authority.

No private means or resources would otherwise be adequate to the

responsibilities which, under any other rule, would effectually deter the
best citizens of a state from rendering their services to the government.
On high grounds, then-fore, of public policy, it has long been established,
that no action will lie against any government officer upon contracts
made by him in his official character for public purposes, and within
the legitimate scope of his duties.

"Great inconveniences (says Mr. Justice Ashurst) would result
from considering a governor or commander as personally responsible
i:; (tab Oases. !'••:• no man \\-uM accept of any dliec of trust under
government upon such conditions. And indeed it has been frequently
determined that no individual is answerable for any engagements which
he enters into on their behalf." "In any case (says Mr. Jus-
tice Buller) where a man acts as agent for the public, and treats in
that capacity, there is no pretence to say that he is personally liable."
This doctrine applies in full force to military officers in the exercise of
their professional duties. One of the earliest cases of this nature was
Macheath v. Hal dim and, in which it appeared that General Ilaldimand,
being commander-in-ehicf and governor of Quebec, had, in those capaci-
ties, appointed Captain Sinclair to the command of a fort upon Lake
Huron, with instructions to employ one Maelienth in furnishing sup-
plies for the service of the Crown. In pursuance of these orders, Mac-
li.ul furnished various articles for the use of the fort ; and Captain
Sinclair, according to his instructions from General Ilaldimand, drew
bills upon him f<»r the amount. Macheath also remitted his accounts
to General Ilaldimand at Quebec, with the following words prefixed:
rnment debtor to George- Macheath for sundries paid by order
i or Sinclair." General Ilaldimand objected to
several of the charges, and refused payment of the amount; but ulti-
mately made a partial payment on account, without prejudice to Mac-
hcath's right to th«- remainder. t<> recover \\hidi lie brought the present
At the trial it appeared so clearly that Macheath had dealt
with General Ilaldimand solely in the character of commander-in-chief,
and as an agent «-f L"-vernment, that Mr. Justice Buller told the jury
they were bound to find for the defendant in point, of law. The jury
pave ii t accordingly ; and upon the express ground of General

Ilaldiman i's fr l-.m f r- -m p* r-onal liability in such a case, the Court

of King's Bench Were unanimous in refu-in«,r a new trial.

In a case which was tried before Lord ,V . < .no Savage brought

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 177

an action against Lord North, as First Lord of the Treasury, for the
expenses which he (Savage) had incurred in raising a regiment for the
service of government ; and Lord Mansfield held that the action did not
lie. So in another case of Lutterlop v. Halsey, an action was brought
against a commissary for the price of forage, supplied to the army by
the plaintiff, at the request of the defendant, in his official character ;
and the commissary was held not to be liable. On another occasion,
a suit was instituted in chancery against General Burgoyne, for a spe-
cific performance of a contract for the supply of artillery carriages in
America. But Lord Chancellor Thurlow said there was no color for
the demand as against General Burgoyne, who acted only as an agent
for government; and his lordship dismissed the suit with costs. In
1818 an action was brought against Hall, the late purser of H. M. S.
La Belle Poule, by the purser's steward of the same ship, to recover
the amount of pay due to the latter for his services on board. It ap-
peared that the purser's steward could not be appointed without the
consent of the commander, and that he was entitled to the pay of an
able seaman, but usually received pay under a private contract with
the purser. The chief justice, Lord Ellenborough, at first felt some
difficulty in the case ; but considering how very extensive the operation
of the principle might be, if such an action could be supported, and if
a person, receiving a specific salary from the Crown in respect of his
situation, could recover remuneration for his services from the officer
under whose immediate authority he acted, and that the purser had no
fund allowed him out of which such services were to be paid, his lord-
ship was of opinion that the plaintiff had no right of action against the
purser.

It is quite immaterial also, whether the officer gives the orders in
person, or through a subordinate agent appointed by himself. The
creditor cannot, in the latter case, charge the officer with a personal
liability. In Myrtle v. Beaver, the plaintiff, a butcher at Brighton,
brought an action against Major Beaver, the captain of a troop in the
Hampshire Fencible Cavalry, for the price of meat supplied to the
troop when quartered at Brighton, in January and February, 1800.
One Bedford, a sergeant in the troop, had been employed by Major
Beaver, according to his duty as captain, to provide for the subsistence
of the men ; and so long as Major Beaver remained with the troop, he
regularly settled the butcher's bill monthly, up to the 24th January,
1800. At that datg Major Beaver was detached with a small party to
command at Arundel, the greater part of the regiment remaining at
Brighton under the command of the colonel ; and the command of
12

178 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Con.

Major Beaver's troop, with the duties of providing lor its subsistence,
ut» -naiit Hunt, who continued to employ Sergeant Bed-
ford in providing supplies for the men, and gave him money for that
purpose. The plaintiff* furnished meat as before, under Sergeant Bed-
ford's orders, but it did not appear that he had been apprised of the
change of the authority, under \\hieh the sergeant gave those orders.
On the 20th February, and before the usual monthly period of settling
the butcher's bill, Lieutenant Hunt, who was also paymaster of the
regiment, absconded with the regimental moneys, and left the plaintiff's
demand and the regimental accounts unsettled. As Sergeant T><
had, in the first in-'ane. -, been accredited by Major Beaver, as his
for ordering the supplies, the plaintiff Myrtle contended that until ho
had been informed of the discontinuance of that authority, he had a
right to presume Its continuance, and to look to Major Beaver for pay-
ment as before. But the Court of King's Bench held, that although the
sergeant acted by Major Beaver's orders, he was not to be cons
as the agent of a private individual, as it was plain that he acted as
agent for whatever oflieer happened to have the command of the troop.
There wji««, then-f -re. n<> ground for fixing Major Braver with any per-
sonal liability in the mat

An agent of government may, however, render himself personally
liable upon contracts made by himself in the execution <>f liK
On this principle an action was brought against General Burgoyn. . to
recover a sum of money duo to the plaintiff as provost-marshal of the
British army in America; the general having promised that the plain-
tiff should be paid at the same rate as the provost-marshal und< •:•
eral Howe had been. At tho trial, an objection was taken to tho

y i.f the action ; but Lord Mansfield refused to stop tho ca-
the plaintiff thereupon went into his evidenee. It appeared, however^
in the course of the inquiry, that the plaintiff's demand had been satis-
and, therefore, tin- verdict was in favor of General Burijoyne.
But it is < viilent from Lord Mansfield's suffering tho trial to go on, that
his lordship thought a commanding oflleer mi^ht so act as to make him-
self personally liable in such a case ; and the question, \vh.-ther he had
so acted or not, was for tho determination of a jury. In the next case
it was accordingly sought to fix a naval officer with a personal liability
for supplies furnished to his crew, on tho ground of the laniruaiio used
by him »n tho oeeaM<»n of ordering the supplies. Lieutenant T< tuple
was first lieutenant of II. M. S. Boync, and on her arrival at, Ports-
mouth from the West Indies, he inquired for a slop-*« •!!« T t«. supply tin-
crow with new clothes, saying, " lie will run no risk ; I will sco him

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 179

paid." One Keate being accordingly recommended for this purpose,
Lieutenant Temple called upon him and used these words, " I will see
you paid at the pay -table ; are you satisfied ? " Keate answered, " Per-
fectly so." The clothes were delivered on the quarter-deck of the Boyne,
though the case states that slops are usually sold on the main-deck.
Lieutenant Temple produced samples to ascertain whether his direc-
tions were followed. Some of the men said that they were not in want
of any clothes, but were told by the lieutenant that if they did not take
them he would punish them ; and others, who stated that they were
only in want of part of a suit, were obliged to take a whole one, with
anchor buttons to the jacket, suchtas were then worn by petty officers
only. The former clothing of the crew was very light, and adapted tc
the climate of the West Indies, where the Boyne had been last stationed.
Soon after the delivery of the slops, the Boyne was destroyed by fire,
and the crew dispersed into different ships. On that occasion Keate,
the slop-seller, expressed some apprehension for himself, but was thus
answered by Lieutenant Temple : — " Captain Grey (Obtain of the
Boyne) and I will see you paid ; you need not make yourself uneasy."
After this the commissioner came on board the Commerce de Marseilles
to pay the crew of the Boyne, at which time Lieutenant Temple stood
at the pay-table, and took some money out of the hat of the first man
who was paid, and gave it to the slop-seller. The next man, however,
refused to part with his pay, and was immediately put in irons. Lieu-
tenant Temple then asked the commissioner to stop the pay of the crew,
but he answered that it could not be done. It was in evidence that
though the crew were pretty well clothed, yet from the lightness of
their clothing they were not properly equipped for the service in which
they were engaged ; and the compulsory purchases were not improperly
ordered by the officer. Under these circumstances, Keate, the slop-
seller, being unable to obtain the payment to which he was entitled,
brought his action against Lieutenant Temple for the price of the cloth-
ing ; and Mr. Justice Lawrence told the jury that if they were satisfied
that the goods were advanced on the credit of the lieutenant as imme-
diately responsible, Keate was entitled to recover the amount ; but if
they believed that Keate, on supplying the goods, relied merely on the
lieutenant's assistance to get the money from the crew, the verdict
ought to be in favor of the lieutenant. The jury found a verdict against
Lieutenant Temple, but- the Court of Common Pleas set it aside. Eyre,
C. J. : " The sum recovered is 5761. 7s. 8c?., and this against a lieuten-
ant in the navy, a sum so large that it goes a great way towards satis-
fying my mind that it never could have been in contemplation of the

180 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

defendant to make himself liable, or of the slop-teller to furnish the
good* on kit credit. I can hardly think that had the Boync not been
burnt, and the plaintiff been asked whether ho would have tin lieutenant
or the crew for his paymaster, but that ho would have given preference
to the latter. . . . 1 r<>iu the nature of the case it is apparent, tint tin-
men were to pay in the first instance; the defendant's words \\
will see you paid at the pay -table ; are you sati-!i. .1 > ' and the answer
was, ' Perfectly so ; ' the meaning of \vhirh was, that however unwilling
the men might be to pay of themselves, the officer would take care that
they should pay. ... I think this a proper case to be sent to a new
trial." The verdict found against lieutenant Temple was accordingly
set aside. But when- ;m olliet-r, acting in his private capacity an<f for
his own private purposes, enters into any contract with another oilieer
or a private individual, the ordinary rules and principles of law apply
to such cases in the same manner as between civilians. (Consult

DXROAST.)

CONVOYS— have for their object the transportation of munitions
of war, money, subsistence, clothing, arms, sick, &c. If convoys to an
army do not come from the rear, through a country which has been
mastered, and consequently far from the principal forces of the enemy,
they will be undoubtedly attacked and broken up, if not earn
There is no more difficult operation than to defend a largo e
against a serious attack. Ordinarily, convoys are only exposed to the
attacks of partisan corps or light troops which, in eonse<pienre of

licant size, have thrown themselves in rear of the armv. It is to
guard against such attacks, that escorts are usually given to eoi.
These escorts are principally infantry, because infantry fights in all
varieties of ground, and in case of need may be placed in the intervals be-
tween the wagons, or even inside the wagons, when too warmly pressed.
Cavalry is, however, also necessary to spy out an enemy at invat ills-
traces, and give prompt information of his- m-. \.-m--nts. as well as to
participate in the defence of the convoy against cavalry. An enemy's
cavalry being able rapidly to pass from the front to the n-ar «.f the,
train. \v,.iil.l easily find some part of it without oVf, -n, •« -, if the escort
were composed only of infantry. To give an idea of the ta< ility of >n.-h
attacks, it may be stated that a wagon drawn by four horses occupies
ten yards. Two humlrrd wagons marehini; in single, file and closed as
much as possible form a train more than 2,000 yards in extent. In a
long lino of wagons, th.-r- f,,ro. it would be impossible for infantry to
the tiints of cavalry and rrpulse real attacks.

The escort should then be composed of an advance guanl entirely

CON.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 181

of cavalry preceding the train, some two or three miles, searching the
route on the right and on the left ; but as it may happen that the enemy,
eluding the vigilance of the advance guard, have made ambuscades be-
tween the advance and the head of the column, it is necessary to place
another body immediately in front of the train, with a small party in
advance and flankers on the right and left. The longer the train the
greater the danger of surprise, and consequently the greater the pre-
cautions to be used. A convoy is almost as much exposed to attack in
rear as in front ; it is therefore necessary to have, with a rear guard, some
horsemen, who may be despatched to give information of what passes
in rear. When the troops constituting the body of the escort are prin-
cipally composed of infantry, they are divided into three bodies. Work-
men will march with the advanced party, and the wagons loaded with
tools of all kinds, rope, small beams, thick plank and every thing neces-
sary for the repair of bridges and roads, will lead the convoy. The second
detachment will be placed in the middle of the column of wagons, and
the third in rear. Care is taken not to disseminate the troops along
the whole extent of the train. A few men only are detached from the
three bodies mentioned, to march abreast of the wagons, and to force
the drivers to keep in their prescribed order, without opening the dis-
tance between the wagons. If a wagon breaks down on the route its
load is promptly distributed among other wagons. A signal is made
if it is necessary for the column to halt, but for slight repairs the train
is not halted. The wagon leaves the column, is repaired on one side
of the road, and afterwards takes its place in rear. Soldiers should
never be permitted to place their knapsacks in the wagons, for a sol-
dier should never be separated from knapsack or haversack, and the
wagons would also become too much loaded. Whenever the breadth of
the road permits, the wagons should be doubled and march in two files.
The column is thus shortened one half, and if circumstances require it,
the defensive park is more promptly formed. This is done by wheeling
the wagons round to the right and left so as to bring the opposite horses'
heads together and facing each other — turning towards the exterior the
hind wagon wheels. This movement requires ground and time. It
ought not to be ordered then except when absolutely necessary. It is
much better to hold the enemy in check, by manoeuvres of the escort
when that can be done, and let the convoy move on. When the park
has been formed, however, it constitutes an excellent means of defence,
under shelter of which infantry can fight with advantage even when
they have been compelled to take such refuge. A convoy usually halts
for the night near a village, but it should always pass beyond it, because

Isj MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cos.

on commencing its march in the morning it is better to have the defile
I >< hind than before it, in order to avoid ambuscades of the •
Places for parking the wagons are sought where there are hedges or
walls, as those obstructions offer greater security than an y < >th. is. The
troops, with the excvption of the park guard, bivouac at a short distance

the park, in some position which oilers the bost military advan-
tages. An advance guard and a sufficient number of sentinels for tiie
and police of the park and bivouac* are then posted. The park is
ordinarily a hollow square, but locality will dictate its form. It should
furnish an enclosed space for the horses and drivers, and at the same time
be an intrrnchmunt in case of attack. The wagons are ranged either
lengthwise or side by side — the rule being that the poles are turned in
the same direction and towards the place of destination. The wagons
laid lengthwise may be doubled, so that the intervals of ranks may be
closed by pushing forward the wagon of another rank. When the space
for the park is small and the number of wagons great, the wagons arc
placed upon many lines, and streets sufficiently broad to m»i\c the
horses, &c., are mode parallel to each other. , The important principle
in defending convoys on the march is, that the escort should not con-
sider itself tied to wagons, but should repulse the enemy by marching
to meet him. It is only after the escort has been repulsed, that it
should fall back on the wagons and use them as an intrcnchment.
K\ en then a very long resistance may be ill judged if the enemy be
greatly superior. It is better to abandon a part of the convoy to save
the rest, or else try to destroy it, by cutting the traces, breaking the
wheels, overthrowing the wagons, and even setting fire to the most in-
flammable parts. An attack upon a flank is most dangerous because
the convoy-then presents a larger mark. The three detachments in this
case should be united on the side attacked and pushed f< >r\vard sufficiently

:ipel the enemy to describe a great circle, in order to put himself
out of reach when he wishes to attack the front or rear of the convoy.
The best position to take is that of three echelons, the centre in advance.
The convoy, which has doubled its wagons, continues to move forward,
regulating its march by the position of the troops which OOVOT it. If the
at t. 'irk l>e iu front, as soon as the enemy has been announced l»y tin- lir*t
advance guard, which falls back at a gallop for the purpose, the wagons
are closed or formed in two IHe-i if the road permits ; the centre dctach-

join.s the first, either in echelon or according to locality, to pre-
vent a movement upon the flank of the convoy. The third detachment
should be held i: immediately at the li.-ad of the wagons. If

however this position bo too near that taken 1-y the first and sccoiid de-

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 183

tachments united, the reserve must then take some position on the flank
of the convoy. The defence against an attack upon the rear will be
conducted on the same principles. It may be concluded that, the attack
of a convoy is an operation in which little is to be lost and much gained ;
for if the enemy be deficient in numbers or skill, a part of his convoy
is easily destroyed or brought off. If the attack fail, nothing is to be
feared upon retiring. The corps which attacks should be half cavalry
and half infantry. It is clear, that if the attacking party has been con-
cealed behind a wood, a height, a corn field, &c., and has been able to sur
prise the front or rear of the convoy, and enveloped it before aid arrives,
full success will be obtained. But this negligence will not often occur
on the part of the commander of the escort. If his troops then be in
good order and united at the moment of the attack, it is necessary to
divide his attention by directing against him many little columns and
skirmishers, who seek to open a way to the wagons by killing the horses.
and thus encumbering the road. The cavalry making a circuit throw
themselves rapidly upon parts badly protected. If they reach some of
the wagons they content themselves with driving off the conductors and
cutting the traces of the wagons because all the wagons in rear are
thus stopped. If wo are at liberty to choose the time and place of
attack, it is clear that the best time is when the convoy is passing a
defile and we can envelop the front or the rear. Success is then cer-
tain ; the inevitable encumbrance of the defile preventing one part
of the troops from coming to the aid of another part. When the
whole or part of a convoy has been seized, the prize must be brought
to a safe place, before the enemy is in sufficient force to make us
abandon it.. But sooner than do this, the most precious articles should
be placed on horses, the wagons should be destroyed, and the horses
put to their speed. The attacking force should avoid further combat,
for its object has been accomplished. ( Consult DUFOUR ; BARDIN ;
Ordonnance sur le Service des Armees en Campagne).

COOKING. Bread and soup are the great items of a soldier's
diet : to make them well is, therefore, an essential part of his instruc-
tion. Scurvy and diarrhoea more frequently result from bad cooking
than any other cause whatever. Camp ovens may be made in twenty-
fbur hours. One hundred and ninety-six pounds when in dough hold
about 1 1 gallons or 90 pounds of water, 2 gallons yeast, and 3 pounds
salt, making a mass of 305 pounds, which evaporates in kneading, bak-
ing, and cooling about 40 pounds, leaving in bread weighed when stale
about 265 pounds. Bread ought not to be burnt, but baked to an equal
brown color. Tho troops ought not to be allowed to eat soft bread

1 > I MI LITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo.

fresh from the oven without first toasting it. Fresh meat .ui^ht n.-t to
be cooked before it lias luul time t» bleed und to cool ; ami meats will
generally be boiled, with • soup; and sometimes

baked. Meat may be kept in h t weather by half boiling it
posing it for a few minutes to a thick smoke. To make soup, put into
the vessel at the rato of five pints of water to a pound of tV«-li meat;
apply aqui - make it boil promptly; skim oil* tin- loam, und

then moderate tho fire ; put in salt according to palate. A. Id the, vege-
tables of tho season one or two hours, and sliced bread s-.m,- minutes
before the simmering is i n !.. 1. When tho broth is sensibly reduced in
quantity, tliat is, after five or six hours' cooking, tho process will 1 >•
pleto. If a part of the meat In- withdrawn before the soup is fully
made, the. quantity • •!* water must bo proportionally less. Hard or dry
vegetables, as tho bean ration, will be put in the camp kettle much ear-
. >les. The following receipts for army cooking are
taken from Soycr's Culinary Campaign :

SOYER'S HOSPITAL DIETS.

TOE IMPORTANCE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN THE ACCOMPANYING KI

IS FULLY RECOGM/.I.D ; IT IS THEREFORE NECESSARY THAT TKOOPS SIK'I ID
BE SUPPLIED WITH SCALES, AND WITH MEASURES roll I.lgflDB.

No. 1. — SEMI-STEWED MUTTON AND BARLEY. SOUP FOR 100

Put in a convenient-sized caldron 130 pints of cold water, 70 Ibs. of

r ah«»ut that quantity, lv> Ibs. of plain mixed vegetables, (tho

best that can be obtained,) 9 Ibs. C <>z. of barley, 1 Ib. 7 oz. of salt, 1

(lour, 1 Ib. 4 oz. of sugar, 1 oz. of peppor. Put all the in-

• i:ts into the pan at once, oxn-pt tho flour; set it <>n the fire, and

when begimdng tO bofl, diminish the h- 'at, and simmer p-nlly fur t\\.»

.half; take the joints of meat out, ami keep them warm in

'* pun ; add to the, soup ym- Hour, which y<m ha\e mixed

witli ciioii^'li \v -in a light batter; stir well to-jrl her with a

large sj»« •• »n ; b.-.l another half-hour, skim ofHh,- I . tlie soup

and meat scpur.i: . Th.- meat, may 1..- put back into the soup f<-i

tes to warm again prior to s.r\'mi:. Tho sonp should be stirre.l

now and then \\ ^. t.. pr.-v«-nt burning or sticking to tho bot-

'•al.iron. The joints an whole, and aft. r\\ar.U • -i:t.

i leases ; being cooked this way, in a rather thick stock,

the meat becotn

JVbfc.— 'I • a>K)Ut" i to the half and full diet, which

varies >eat ; but $ Ib. of mutton will always make

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 135

a pint of good soup : 3 Ibs. of mixed preserved vegetables must be
used when fresh are not to be obtained, and put in one hour and a half
prior to serving, instead of at first ; they will then show better in the
soup, and still be well done. All the following receipts may be in-
creased to large quantities, but by all means closely follow the weight
and measure.

No. 2. — -BEEF SOUP. Proceed the same as for mutton, only leave
the meat in till serving, as it will take longer than mutton. The pieces
are not to be above 4 or 5 Ibs. weight ; and for a change, half rice may
be introduced ; the addition of 2 Ibs more will make it thicker and
more nutritive ; ^ Ib. of curry powder will make an excellent change
also. To vary the same, half a pint of burnt sugar water may be added — •
it will give the soup a very rich brown color.

No. 3 — BEEF TEA. RECEIPT FOB six PINTS. Cut 3 Ibs. of beef
into pieces the size of walnuts, and chop up the bones, if any ; put it
into a convenient-sized kettle, with £ Ib. of mixed vegetables, such as
onions, leeks, celery, turnips, carrots, (or one or two of these, if all are
not to be obtained,) 1 oz. of salt, a little pepper, 1 teaspoonful of sugar,
2 oz. of butter, half a pint of water. Set it on a sharp fire for ten
minutes or a quarter of an hour, stirring now and then with a spoon,
till it forms a rather thick gravy at bottom, but not brown : then add
7 pints of hot or cold water, but hot is preferable ; when boiling, let it
simmer gently for an hour ; skim off all the fat, strain it through a
sieve, and serve.

No. 3A. — ESSENCE OF BEEF TEA. For camp hospitals.—" Quarter
pound tin case of essence." If in winter set it near the fire to melt;
pour the contents in a stewpan and twelve times the case full of water
over it, hot or cold ; add to it two or three slices of onion, a sprig or
two of parsley, a leaf or two of celery, if handy, two teaspoonfuls of
salt, one of sugar ; pass through a colander and serve. If required
stronger, eight cases of water will suffice, decreasing the seasoning in
proportion. In case you have no vegetables, sugar, or pepper, salt
alone will do, but the broth will not be so succulent.

No. 4. — THICK BEEF TEA. Dissolve a good teaspoonful of arrow-
root in a gill of water, and pour it into the beef tea twenty minutes
before passing through the sieve — it is then ready.

No. 5. — STRENGTHENING BEEF TEA WITH CALVES-FOOT JELLY, OR
ISINGLASS. Add | oz. calves-foot gelatine to the above quantity of beef
tea previous to serving, when cooking.

No. 6. — MUTTON AND VEAL TEA. Mutton and veal will make good
tea by proceeding precisely the same as above. The addition of a little

1S6 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo.

aromatic herbs is always desirable. If no fresh vegetables are at hand,
use 2 oz. of mixed preserved vegetables to any of the above receipts.

No. 7. — CHICKEN BROTH. Put in a stewpan a fowl, 3 pints of
water, 2 teaspoonfuls of rice, 1 teaspoonful of salt, a middle-sized onion,
or 2 oz. of mixed vegetables ; boil the whole gently for three-qi
of an hour: if an old fowl, simmer from one hour and a half t«> two
hours, adding 1 pint more water ; skim off the fat and serve. A small
fowl will do.

Note. — A light mutton broth may be made precisely the satu
using a pound and a half of scrag of mutton instead of fowl. For thick
mutton broth proceed as for thick beef tea, omitting the rice ; a table-
spoonful of burnt sugar water will give a rich color to the broth.

No. 8. — PLAIN BOILED RICE. Put two quarts of water in a stew-
pan, with a teaspoonful of salt ; when boiling, add to it £ Ib. of rice,
well washed ; boil for ten minutes, or till each grain becomes rather
soft ; drain it into a colander, slightly grease the pot with butter, and
put the rice back into it ; let it swell slowly for about twenty minutes
near the fire, or in a slow oven ; each grain will then swell up, and be
well separated ; it is then ready for use.

No. 9. — SWEET RICE. Add to the plain boiled rice 1 oz. of butter,
2 tablespoonfuls of sugar, a little cinnamon, a quarter of ;i j.int • .f milk ;
stir it with a fork, and serve ; a little currant jelly or jam may be added
t" tin- rii-r.

No. 10. — RICE WITH GRAVY. Add to the rice 4 tablespoonfuls of
the essence of beef, a little butter, if fresh, half a teaspoonful of salt ;
stir together with a fork, and serve. A teaspoonful of Soyer's Sultana
Sauce, or relish, will make it very wholesome and palatable, as well as
Invigorating to a fatigued stomach.

No. 11. — PLAIN OATMEAL. Putin a pan \ Ib. of oatmeal, 1£ oz.
of sugar, half a teaspoonful of salt, and 3 pints of water; boil slowly
for twenty minutes, "stirring continually," and serve. A quarter of a
pint of Ix.ilcd milk, an ounce of butter, and a little pounds! cinnamon
or spice added pn-\i..us to serving is a good variation. This ivc.-ij.t
has been found most useful at the commencement of dysentery l>y the
medical authorities.

No. I-' • M.VES-FOOT JELLY. Putin a ] .M 2$

oz. of • itine, 4 oz. of white sugar, 4 whites of eggs and

the pool of a lemon, the juice of three middle-sized lemons, half
a pint of Marsal "-at all well together with the. «-^.|n-a:.

.1 f.-w minutes, then add 4$ pint* of cold water; set it on a slow fire,
and keep whipping it till boiling. Set it on the corner of the stove,

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 187

partly covered with the lid, upon which you place a few pieces of burn-
ing charcoal ; let it simmer gently for ten minutes, and strain it through
a- jelly-bag. It is then ready to put in the ice or some cool place.
Sherry will do if Marsala is not at hand. For orange jelly use only

1 lemon and 2 oranges. Any delicate flavor may be introduced.

JELLY STOCK, made from calves' feet, requires to be made the. day
previous to being used, requiring to be very hard to extract the fat.
Take two calf's feet, cut them up, and boil in three quarts of water ; as
soon as it boils remove it to the corner of the fire, and simmer for five
hours, keeping it skimmed, pass through a hair sieve into a basin, and
let it remain until quite hard, then remove the oil and fat, and wipe the
top dry. Place in a stewpan half a pint of water, one of sherry, half
a pound of lump sugar, the juice of four lemons, the rinds of two, and
the whites and shells of five eggs ; whisk until the sugar is melted, then
add the jelly, place it on the fire, and whisk until boiling, pass it through
a jelly-bag, pouring that back again which comes through first until
quite clear ; it is then ready for use, by putting it in moulds or glasses.
Vary the flavor according to fancy.

No. 13. — SAGO JELLY. Put into a pan 3 oz. of sago, 1£ oz. of
sugar, half a lemon-peel cut very thin, 1 teaspoonful of ground cinna-
mon, or a small stick of the same ; put to it 3 pints of water and a
little salt ; boil ten minutes, or rather longer, stirring continually, until
rather thick, then add a little port, sherry, or Marsala wine ; mix well,
and serve hot or cold.

No. 14. — ARROWROOT MILK. Put into a pan 4 oz. of arrowroot,
3 oz. of sugar, the peel of half a lemon, £ teaspoonful of salt, 2% pints
of milk ; set it on the fire, stir round gently, boil for ten minutes, and
serve. If no lemons at hand, a little essence of any kind will do.
When short of milk, use half water ; half an ounce of fresh butter is
an improvement before serving. If required thicker, put a little milk.

No. 15. — THICK ARROWROOT PANADA. Put in a pan 5 oz. of arrow-
root, 2^ oz. of white sugar, the peel of half a lemon, a quarter of a tea-
spoonful of salt, 4 pints of water ; mix all well, set on the fire, boil for
ten minutes ; it is then ready. The juice of a lemon is an improve-
ment ; a gill of wine may also be introduced, and £ oz. of calves-foot
gelatine previously dissolved in water will be strengthening. Milk,
however, is preferable, if at hand.

No. 16. — ARROWROOT WATER. Put into a pan 3 oz. of arrowroot,

2 oz. of white sugar, the peel of a lemon, £ teaspoonful of salt, 4 pints
of water ; mix well, set on the fire, boil for ten minutes. It is then
ready to serve either hot or cold.

188 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coa

No. 17.— RICE WATER. Put 7 pints of water to boil, add t
ounces of rice washed, 2 ox. of sugar, the peel of two-third! of a lemon;
boil gently lor three-quarters of an hour; it will reduce to 5 pints;
strain through a colander ; it is then ready. The rice maybe left in
the beverage or made into a pudding, or by the addition of a little

••r jam, will be found very good for either children or invalids.
No. 18. — BARLEY \ Put in a saucepan 7 pints of water, 2

or. of barl- v, \\hich stir now and then while boiling ; add 2 oz. of white
sugar, the rind of half a lemon, thinly peeled; let it boil gently for
about two hours, without covering it ; pass it through a sieve or col-
ander; it is then ready. The barley and lemon may be left, in it.

19. — SOTER'S PLAIN LEMONADE. Thinly peel the third part of a

. which juit into a basin with 2 tnblespoonfuls of sugar ; roll the

with your hand upon the table to soften it; out it into two.

lengthwise, squeeze the juice over the peel, <fec., stir round for a minute

with u spoon to. form a sort of syrup ; pour over a pint of water, mix

.•id remove the pips; it is then ready for use. If a very luri_re

lemon, and full of juice, and very fresh, you may make a pint and a

half to a quart, adding sugar and peel in proportion to the increase of

water. The juice only of the lemon and sugar will make lemonade,

but will then be deprived of the, aroma which the rind contains, the said

rind being generally thrown away.

No. 20. — SEMI-CITRIC LEMONADE. RK I 50 PINTS. Put 1

oz. of citric acid to dissolve in a pint of water, perl -JO lemons thinly,

and put the perl in a large v. -si. with .'J Ibs. 2 ox. of whit.-

broken ; n»ll each lemon on the table to soften it, which will facilitate

•n of the juice; cut them into two, and press out the juice

into a colander or sicv. -, <>v. r the pe> 1 and sugar, then pour half a pint

of water through the colander, so as to leave no jui. •«• nmaining;

:te th« sugar, juice, and peel together for a minuf. with a

spoon, so as to form a sort of syrup, and extract the aroma from the

peel tnd the dissolved citric neid; mix all well together. p..nr on .r>0

•ir \\ell together; it is then ready. A little ice in

rammer is a* great addition.

No. 21. — SOTER'S CHEAP CRIMEAN LEMONADE. Put into a basin 2
tablespoonfuN of white or brown sugar, % a tablespoonful of lime juice,
minute, add 1 pint of water, and the bever-
age is ready. A drop of rum will make a good variation, as lime jui, •<•
and n; soldiers.

No. 22. — TARTARIC LEMONADE. Dissolve 1 oz. • li/ed tar-

taric acid in a pint of cold water, which put in a Ian : when

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 189

dissolved, add 1 Ib. 9 oz. of white or brown sugar — the former is pref-
erable ; mix well to form a thick syrup ; add to it 24 pints of cold
water, slowly mixing well ; it is then ready. It may be strained
through either a colander or a jelly-bag; if required very light, add 5
pints more water, and sugar in proportion ; if citric acid be used, put
only 20 pints of water to each ounce.

No. 23. — CHEAP PLAIN RICE PUDDING, FOR CAMPAIGNING, in which
no eggs or milk are required : important in the field. Put on the
fire, in a moderate-sized saucepan, 12 pints of water ; when boiling,
add to it 1 Ib. of rice or 16 tablespoonfuls, 4 oz. of brown sugar
or 4 tablespoonfuls, 1 large teaspoonful of salt, and the rind of a lemon
thinly peeled ; boil gently for half an hour, then strain all the water
from the rice, keeping it as dry as possible. The rice water is then
ready for drinking, either warm or cold. The juice of a lemon may be
introduced, which will make it more palatable and refreshing.

THE PUDDING. Add to the rice 3 oz. of sugar, 4 tablespoonfuls of
flour, half a teaspoonful of pounded cinnamon ; stir it on the fire care-
fully for five or ten minutes ; put it in a tin or pie-dish, and bake.
By boiling the rice a quarter of an hour longer, it will be very good to
eat without baking. Cinnamon may be omitted.

No. 23 A. — BATTER PUDDING. Break two fresh eggs in a^ basin, beat
them well, add one tablespoonful and a half of flour, which beat up with
your eggs with a fork until no lumps remain ; add a gill of milk, a
teaspoonful of salt, butter a teacup or a basin, pour in your mixture,
put some water in a stewpan, enough to immerge half way up the cup
or basin in water ; when boiling, put in your cup or basin and boil
twenty minutes, or till your pudding is well set ; pass a knife to loosen
it, turn out on a plate, pour pounded sugar and a pat of fresh butter
over, and serve. A little lemon, cinnamon, or a drop of any essence
may be introduced. A little light melted butter, sherry, and sugar
may bo poured over. If required more delicate, add a little less flour.
It may be served plain

No. 24. — BREAD AND BUTTER PUDDING. Butter a tart-dish well,
and sprinkle some currants all round it, then lay in a few slices of bread
and butter ; boil one pint of milk, pour it on two eggs well whipped,
and then on the bread and butter ; bake it in a hot oven for half an hour.
Currants may be omitted.

No. 25. — BREAD PUDDING. Boil one pint of milk, with a piece of
cinnamon and lemon-peel ; pour it on two ounces of bread crumbs •
then add two eggs, half an ounce of currants, and a little sugar : steam
it in a buttered mould for one hour.

190 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

No. 26. — CUSTARD PUDDING. Boil one pint of milk, with a small
piece of lemon-peel and half u bay-leaf, for three minutes; then pour
these on to three eggs, mix it with one ounce of sugar well to-
and pour it int.. a buttered mould : steam it twenty-live minutes in a
stowpan with some water, turn out on a plate and serve.

No. 27. — RICH Ric« PUDDING. Put in £ Ib. of rice in a stewpan,

washed, 3 pints of milk, 1 pint of water, 3 oz. of sugar, 1 lemon peel,

1 o*. of fresh butter; boil gently half an hour, or until the rice is ten-

add 4 eggs, well beaten, mix well, and bake quickly for half an

hour, and serve : it may be steamed if preferred.

No. 28. — STEWED MACARONI. Put in a stewpan 2 quarts of water,
half a tablespoonful of salt, 2 oz. of butter ; set on the fir*' ; when boil-
ing, add 1 Ib. of macaroni, broken up rather small ; when boiled very
sod, throw off the water; mix well into the macaroni a taMesjiiumful
of fl'»ur, add enough milk to make it of the consistency of thin melted
butter; boil gently twenty minutes; add in a tablespoonful of either
brown or white sugar, or honey, and serve. A little cinnamon, nut-
meg, lemon-peel, or orange-flower water may be introduced to impart
a flavor; stir quick. A gill ot milk or cream may now be thrown in
minutes before serving. Nothing can be more light and nutri-
tious than macaroni done this way. If no milk, use water.

No. 29. — MACARONI PUDDING. Put 2 pints of water to boil, add
to it 2 oz. of macaroni, broken in small pieces ; boil till tender, chain
off the water and add half a tablespoonful of flour, 2 oz. of white
a quarter of a pint of milk, and boil together for ten minutes ; beat an
egg up, pour it to the other ingredients, a nut of butter ; mix well and
oake, or steam. It can bo served plain, and may bo flavored with either
cinnamon, lemon, or other essences, as orange-flower water, vanilla, dec.

No. 30. — SAGO PUDDING. Put in a pan 4 oz. of sajjo, 2 oz. of
•ugar, half a lemon-peel or a little cinnamon, a small pat of fresh but-
ter, if handy, half a pint of milk; boil for a few minutes or until rath, r
thiek, stirring all the while ; 1 -«rs and mix qniekly with the

same ; i* is then ready for cither baking or steaming, or may be served
pl.iin.

No. 31.— TAPIOCA PUDDING. Put in a pan 2 ot, ..f tapioca, 1$ pint
of milk, 1 oz. of white or brown sugar, a little salt, set on the (,,
gently for fifteen minutes, or until the tapioca is tender, stirring now
and then t it* Hticking to the bottom, or burning; the,, add

two eggs well beaten ; steam or bake, and serve. It will tako about
twenty minutes •team in::, -T a quarter of an hour baking slightly.
Flavor wit '.--mon, cinnamon, or any other essence.

Coo.] % MILITARY DICTIONARY. 191

No. 32. — BOILED RICE SEMI-CURRIED, FOR THE PREMONITORY SYMP-
TOMS OF DIARRHOEA. Put 1 quart of water in a pot or saucepan ; when
boiling, wash ^ a Ib. of rice and throw it into the water ; boil fast for
ten minutes ; drain your rice in a colander, put it back in the saucepan,
which you have slightly greased with butter ; let it swell slowly near
the fire, or in a slow oven till tender ; each grain will then be light and
well separated. Add to the above a small tablespoonful of aromatic
sauce, called " Soyer's Relish or Sultana Sauce," with a quarter of a
teaspoonful of curry powder ; mix together with a fork lightly, and
serve. This quantity will be sufficient for two or three people, accord-
ing to the prescriptions of the attending physician.

No. 33. — FIGS AND APPLE BEVERAGE. Plave 2 quarts of water
boiling, into which throw 6 dry figs previously opened, and 2 apples,
cut into six or eight slices each ; let the whole boil together twenty
minutes; then pour them into a basin- to cool; pass through a sieve;
drain the figs, which will be good to eat with a little sugar or jam.

No. 34. — STEWED FRENCH PLUMS. Put 12 large or 18 small-size
French plums, soak them for half an hour, put in a stewpan with a
spoonful of brown sugar, a gill of water, a little cinnamon, and some
thin rind of lemon ; let them stew gently twenty minutes, then put
them in a basin till cold with a little of the juice. A small glass of
either port, sherry, or claret is a very good addition. The syrup is
excellent.

No. 35. — FRENCH HERB BROTH. This is a very favorite beverage
in France, as well with people in health as with invalids, especially in
spring, when the herbs are young and green. Put a quart of water to
boil, having previously prepared about 40 leaves of sorrel, a cabbage
lettuce, and 10 sprigs of chervil, the whole well washed ; when the
water is boiling, throw in the herbs, with the addition of a teaspoonful
of salt, and £ oz. of fresh butter ; cover the saucepan close,- and let
simmer a few minutes, then strain it through a sieve or colander. This
is to be drunk cold, especially in the spring of the year, after the change
from winter. I generally drink about a quart per day for a week at
that time ; but if for sick people, it must be made less strong of herbs,
and taken a little warm. To prove that it is wholesome, we have only
to refer to the instinct which teaches dogs to eat grass at that season
of the year. I do not pretend to say that it would suit persons in every
malady, because the doctors are to decide upon the food and beverage
of their patients, and study its changes as well as change their medi-
cines ; but I repeat that this is most useful and refreshing for the blood.

No. 36. — BROWNING FOR SOUPS, &c. Put £ Ib. of moist sugar

192 M1LITAKY DICTIONARY. [Coo.

into an iron pan and m. It it over a moderate fire till quite black, stir-
ring it continually, whieh will take about twenty-live minutes : it nn;-i
color by degrees, aa too sudden ;i h< -at will make it bitt.-r ; then add 2
quart^ .and in ton minutes the sugar will be dissolved. Y..II

may thm b«.ttl«- it t'»r use. It will keep good for a month, ami will
always be found very useful.

No. 37. — TOAST-AND-WATER. Cut a piece of crusty bread, about
a | Ih. in weight, place it upon a toasting-fork, and hold it about six
Inches from th.- tin- ; turn it often, and keep moving it gently until of
a light-yellow colorf then place it nearer tho fire, and when of a good
brown chocolate color, put it in a jug and pour over 3 pints of boiling
water ; cover tho jug until cold, then strain it into a clean jug, and it
is ready for use. Never leave the toast in it, for in summer it would
cause fermentation in a short time.

Baked Apple Toast-and- Water. — A piece of apple, slowly toasted
till it gets quite l»la»-k ami added to the above, makes a very nice ami
refreshing drink for invalids.

Apple Rice Water. — Haifa pound of rice, boiled in the above until
in pulp, passed through a colander, and drunk when cold. All kinds of
fruit may be done the same way. Figs and French plums are
lent; also raisins. A little ginger, if approved of, may bo used.

Apple Barley Water. — A quarter of a pound of pearl barley instead

of toast added to the above, and boil for one hour, is also a very nice drink.

Citronade. — Put a gallon of water on to boil, cut up one pound of

I, each one into quarters, two lemons in thin slices, put them in the

. and boil them until they can be pulped, pass the liquor through

a colander, boil it up again with half a pound of brown sugar, skim.

and bottle for use, taking care not to cork tho bottle, and keep it in a

cool place,

/or Sjtriny Drink. — Rhubarb, in the same quantities, and done in
the same way as appk-s, adding more sugar, is very cooling. Also
green gooseberries.

For Summer Jtrink.— One pound of red currants, bruised with
some raspberry, half a pound of sugar added to a gallon «.f <M
well stirred, and allowed to settle. Tho juice of a lemon.

Mulberry.— The same, adding a little l.-mon-peel. A little cream
of tartar or id added to these renders them more cooling in

summer and spring.

/Y/i/H I,nnnnn,lr.— Put in very thin slices three lemons, put them
in a baain, add half a p. -mid of sugar, either white or brown ; bruiso
all together, add a gallon of water, and stir well. It is then ready.

Coo.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

193

FIG. 105.

French Plum Water. — Boil 3 pints of water ; add in 6 or 8 dried
plums previously split, 2 or 3 slices of lempn, a spoonful of honey 01
sugar ; boil half an hour, and serve.

For Fig, Date, and JRaisin Water, proceed as above, adding the
juice of half a lemon to any of the above. Jf for fig water, use 6 figs.
Any quantity of the above fruits may be used with advantage in rice,
barley, or arrowroot water.

EFFERVESCENT BEVERAGES. Raspberry Water. — Put 2 tablespoon-
fuls of vinegar into a large glass, pour in half a pint of water ; mix
well.

Pine-Apple Syrup. — Three tablespoonfuls to a pint.

Currant Syrup. — Proceed the same.

Syrup of Orgeat. — The same.

FIELD AND BARRACK COOKERY FOR THE ARMY, BY THE USE OF SOYER'S
NEW FIELD STOVE, NOW ADOPTED BY THE MILITARY AUTHORITIES. — Each
stove will consume not more than from 12 to 15 Ibs. of fuel, and allow-
ing 20 stoves to a regiment, the
consumption would be 300 Ibs. per
thousand men. Coal will burn with
the same advantage. Salt beef, pork,
Irish stew, stewed beef, tea, coffee,
cocoa, &c., can be prepared in these
stoves, and with the same economy.
They can also be fitted with an ap-
paratus for baking, roasting, and
steaming.

No. 1. — RECEIPT TO COOK SALT
MEAT FOR FIFTY MEN. 1. Put 50
Ibs. of meat in the boiler. 2.
Fill with water, and let soak all
night. 3. Next morning wash the
meat well 4. Fill with fresh wa-
ter, and boil gently three hours,
and serve. Skim off the fat, which,
when cold, is an excellent substi-
tute for butter. For salt pork pro-
ceed as above or boil half beef
and half pork — the pieces of beef
may be smaller than the pork, re-
quiring a little longer time doing.

Dumplings, No. 21, may be added to either pork, or beef in propor-
13

194 MILITARY DICTION ART. [Coa

tlon ; and when pork is properly soaked, the liquor will make n very

good soup. The large yellow peas, as usol by the- navy, may bo intro-

; it is important to have them, as they arc a great improvement.

When proper!^ SO*ked, Fn-n.-h haricot Leans and lentils may also be

used to advantage. By the addition of 5 pounds of split peas, half a

pound of brown sugar, 2 tablespoon fu Is i >i pepper, 10 onions; simmer

till in pulp, remove the fat and serve; broken biscuit may be

introdiK vd. This will make an exeellent mess.

No. IA. HOW TO BOAK AND PLAIN-BOIL THE RATIONS OF SALT BfiEF

AJTD PORK, ON LAND OR AT SKA. To each pound of meat allow about
a pint of water. Do not have the pieces above 3 or 4 11 is. in weight.
Let it soak for 7 or 8 hours, or all night if possible. Wash each piece
well with your hand in order to extract as much salt as possible. It
b then ready for cooking. If less time be allowed, cut the pieces
smaller and proceed the same, or parboil the meat for 20 mini
the above quantity of water, which throw off and add fresh. M> '
maybe soaked in sea water, but by all means boiled in fre>h ulu-n
possible. I should advise, at sea, to have a perforated iron 1><>\ made,
large enough to contain half a ton or more of meat, which box \\i\\
ascend and descend by pulleys ; have also a frame made on whirh the
box might rest when lowered overboard, the meat being placed outside
the ship on a level with the water, the night before using ; the water
beating against the meat through the perforations will extract all the
salt. Meat may be soaked in sea water, but by all means wa>hed.

No 2. — SOYER'S ARMY SOUP FOR FIFTY MKN. 1. Put in the boiler
60 pints, 7£ gallons, or 5^ camp kettles of water. 2. Add to it 50 Ibs.
of mca* >cef or mutton. 3. The rations of preserved or

vegetables. 4. T.-n small tablespoonfuls of salt. f>. Simmer three
hours and serve. When rice is issued, put it in when boiling. Three.
pounds will bo sufficient. About eight pounds of fre^h v«-g« tables. Or
four squares from a cake of preserved vegetables. A tablespoi.nful of
pepper, if handy. Skim off the fat, which, when cold, is an excellent
substitute for butter.

No. £A. — SALT PORK WITH MASHED PEAR, i IIM.KED MEN.

Put in two stove* .r>0 Ibs. of pork each, divide 24 Ibs. in four pudding-
>.1\ ti.-.l; putting to boil at the same time as your
pork, let all boil gently till done, sny about two hours ; take out the pud-
ding and peas, put all the meat, in out < -.iMpm, remove ihc liipior from
'iming back the peas in it, add two teaspoonfuls of pep-
per, a i 'I with the wooden spatula smash the
and serve both. The addition of about half a pound of flour, and two

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 105

quarts of liquor, boiled ten minutes, makes a great improvement. Six
sliced onions, fried and added to it, make it very delicate.

No. 3. — STEWED SALT BEEF AND PORK. For a company of one
hundred men, or a regiment of one thousand men. Put in a boiler, of
well soaked-beef 30 Ibs., cut in pieces of a quarter of a pound each, 20
Ibs. of pork, 1£ Ib. of sugar, 8 Ibs. of onions, sliced, 25 quarts of water,
4 Ibs. of rice. Simmer gently for three hours, skim the fat off the top,
and serve.

Note. — How to soak the meat for the above mess : — Put 50 Ibs. of
meat in each boiler, having filled them with water, and let soak all
night ; and prior to using it, wash it and squeeze with your hands, to
extract the salt. In case the meat is still too salt, boil it for twenty
minutes, throw away the water, and put fresh to your stew. By
closely following the above receipt you will have an excellent dish.

No. 4. — SOYER'S FOOD FOR ONE HUNDRED MEN, USING TWO STOVES.
Cut or chop 50 Ibs. of fresh beef in pieces of about a \ Ib. each ; put in
the boiler, with 10 tablespoonfuls of salt, two tablespoonfuls of pepper,
four tablespoonfuls of sugar, onions 7 Ibs. cut in slices : light the fire
now, and then stir the meat with a spatula, let it stew from 20 to 30
minutes, or till it forms a thick gravy, then add a pound and a half of
flour ; mix well together, put in the boiler 18 quarts of water, stir well
for a minute or two, regulate the stove to a moderate heat, and let
simmer for about two hours. Mutton, pork, or veal can be stewed in
a similar manner, but will take half an hour less cooking.

Note. — A pound of rice may be added with great advantage, ditto
plain dumplings, ditto potatoes, as well as mixed vegetables. For a
regiment of 1,000 men use 20 stoves.

No. 5. — PLAIN IRISH STEW FOR FIFTY MEN. Cut 50 Ibs. of mutton
into pieces of a quarter of a pound each, put them in the pan, add 8
Ibs. of large onions, 12 Ibs. of whole potatoes, 8 tablespoonfuls of salt,
3 tablespoonfuls of pepper ; cover all with water, giving about half a
pint to each pound ; then light the fire ; one hour and a half of gentle
ebullition will make a most excellent stew ; mash some of the potatoes
to thicken the gravy, and serve. Fresh beef, veal, or pork \vill also
make a good stew. Beef takes two hours doing. Dumplings may be
added half an hour before done.

No. 6. — To COOK FOR A REGIMENT OF A THOUSAND MEN. Place
twenty stoves in a row, in the open air or under cover. Put 30 quarts
of water in each boiler, 50 Ibs. of ration meat, 4 squares' from a cake
of dried vegetables — or, if fresh mixed vegetables are issued, 12 Ibs.
weight — 10 small tablespoonfuls of salt, 1 ditto of pepper ; light the fire,

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coo.

simmer gently from two hours to two hours and a half, skim tin- fat
fr.-Ni the top, and serve. It will require only four cooks per regiment,
the provisions and water l.« -'111-4 carried to the kitchen by fatigue parties ;
the kitchen being central, instead of the kitchen going to each company.
eaeh company sends t \\.-men to tin- kitchen with a pole to carry th.

No. 7. — SALT PORK AND PUDDINGS WITH CABBAGE AND POTA-
TOES, Put 25 Ibs. of salt pork in each boiler, with 50 Ibs. from
. you have extracted the largo bones, cut in dice, and made into
puddings ; when on the boil, put five puddings in each, l>«>il rath

o hours. You have peel e.l 1'2 ll.s. of potatoes and put in a net
in each caldron ; put also 2 winter cabbages in nets three-quart
an hour before your pudding is done; divide the pork, pudding, and
cabbage, in proportion, or let fifty of the men have pudding that day
and meat tin- other; remove the fut, and serve. The liquor will make
very good soup by adding peas or rice, as No. 1. For tho pudding.
paste put one-quarter of a pound of dripping, or beef or mutton suet,
to every pound of flour you uso; roll your pnMe i«r each half an inch
thiek, put a pudding-cloth in a basin, flour round, lay in your past
your meat in proportion; season with pepper and a minced onion;
close your pudding in a cloth, and boil. This receipt is more applicable
to Imrrack and public institutions than a camp. Fresh UK at of any
kind may be done tho same, and boiled with either salt pork or beef.

No. 8. — TURKISH PILAFF FOR ONE HUNDRED MEN. Put in tho cal-
dron 2 Ibs. of tat, which you have saved from salt pork, add to it 4 Ibs.
of peeled and sliced onions; let them fry in the fat for about ten min-
utes; add in then 12 Ibs. of rice, cover the rice over with water, the
rice being submerged two inches, add to it 7 tablespoonfuls of salt, and

1 of pepper; let simmer gently for about an hour, stirring it with a
spatula occasionally to prevent it burning, but when eoinmmeing to
boil, a very little fire ougnt to be kept under. Each grain ought to l«e
swollen t«» the full size of rice, and separate. In the other stove put fat
and oni»n« tin- same quantity with the same seasoning; cut the flesh
of the mutton, veal, pork, or beef from tho bone, eut in dice of about

2 02. each, put in the pan with the fat and onions, set it going with a
very slurp lire, having put in 2 quarts of water ; steam p-nth , stirring
Occasionally for about half an hour, till forming rather a rich thiek
gravy. When Loth the rice and moat are done, take half the ri

••at, and then the remainder of the meat and ri<
serve. Save the bones for soup for the following day. Salt pork or

•A-oll soaked, may be used — omitting tho salt. Any kind ot
tables may be frizzled with the onions.

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 197

No. 9. — BAKING AND ROASTING WITH THE FIELD STOVE. By the re-
moval of the caldron, and the application of a false bottom put over the
fire, bread bakes extremely well in the oven, as well as meat, potatoes,
puddings, &c. Bread might be baked in oven at every available op-
portunity at a trifling cost of fuel. The last experiment I made with
one was a piece of beef weighing about 25 Ibs., a large Yorkshire pud-
ding, and about 10 Ibs. of potatoes, the whole doing at considerably
under one pennyworth of fuel, being a mixture of coal and coke ; the
whole was done to perfection, and of a nice brown color. Any kind of
meat would, of course, roast the same.

Baking infixed Oven. — In barracks, or large institutions, where an
oven is handy, I would recommend that a long iron trough be made,
four feet in length, with a two-story movable grating in it, the meat on
the top of the upper one giving a nice elevation to get the heat from
the roof, and the potatoes on the grating under, and a Yorkshire pud-
ding at the bottom. Four or five pieces of meat may be done on one
trough. If no pudding is made, add a quart more water.

No. 10. — FRENCH BEEF SOUP, OR POT-ATJ-FEU, CAMP FASHION. FOR
THE ORDINARY CANTEEN-PAN. Put in the canteen saucepan 6 Ibs. of
beef, cut in two or three pieces, bones included, |- Ib. of plain mixed
vegetables, as onions, carrots, turnips, celery, leeks, or such of these as
can be obtained, or 3 oz. of preserved in cakes, as now given to the
troops ; 3 teaspoonfuls of salt, 1 teaspoonful of pepper, 1 teaspoonful
of sugar, if handy ; 8 pints of water, let it boil gently three hours, re-
move some of the fat, and serve. The addition of 1£ Ib. of bread cut
into slices, or 1 Ib. of broken biscuit, well soaked in the broth, will
make a very nutritious soup ; skimming is not required.

No. 11. — SEMI-FRYING, CAMP FASHION, CHOPS, STEAKS, AND ALL
KINDS OF MEAT. If it is difficult to broil to perfection, it is consider-
ably more so to cook meat of any kind in a frying-pan. Place your
pan on the fire for a minute or so, wipe it very clean ; when the pan
is very hot, add in it either fat or butter, but the fat from salt and
ration meat is preferable ; the fat will immediately get very hot ; then
add the meat you are going to cook, turn it several times to have it
equally done ; season to each pound a small teaspoonful of salt, quarter
that of pepper, and serve. Any sauce or maitre-d'hotel butter may be
added. A few fried onions in the remaining fat, with the addition of
a little flour to the onion, a quarter of a pint of water, two tabjespoon-
fuls of vinegar, a few chopped pickles or picalilly, will be very rel-
ishing.

No. HA. — TEA FOR EIGHTY MEN, which often constitutes a whole

lli> MILITAKY DICTIONARY. [Coo

company. One boiler will, with ease, make tea for eighty mm, allow-
ing a pint each man. Put forty quarts of water to boil, place the ra-
tions of tea in a fine net, very loose, or in a large perforated ball ; pve
one minute to boil, take out the fuv, if too much, shut down the ,
in tm minutes it is ready to si

No. 12. — Com* A LA ZOUAVE FOR A MESS OF TEN SOLDIERS, as made
in the camp, with the canteen saucepan holding 10 pints. Put 9 pints of
into a canteen saucepan on the fire ; when boiling add 7^

•h forms the ration, mix them well together with a spoon or
a piece of wood, leave on the fire for a few minutes longer, or until
••ginning to boil. Take it off and pour in 1 pint of cold \\ater,
let the whole remain for ten minutes or a little longer. The dregs of
the coffee will fall to the bottom, and your coffee will be clear. Pour
it from one vessel to the other, leaving the dregs at the bottom, add
your ration sugar or, 2 teaspoonfuls to the pint ; if any milk is to bo
had, make 2 pints of coffee less ; add that quantity of milk to your
. the former may be boiled previously, and serve. This is a
very good way for making coffee, even in any family, especially a nu-
merous one, using 1 oz. to the quart if required stronger. For a
company of eighty men use the field-stove and four times the quantity
of ingredients.

13. — COFFEE, TURKISH FASHION. "When the water is about

to boil add the coffee and sunar, mix well as above, let it boil, and

. The grounds of coffee will in a f-w stands f-dl t«» the li«itt«»ni

of the cups. The Turks wis. ly leave it there, I would advise every qne

in (amp to do the same.

No 14. — COCOA FOR EICHTV MK\. Break eighty portions of ration
OOCoa in rather small pieces, put them in the boiler, with live or six
pints of water, light the fire, stir the cocoa round till melted, and form-
ing a pulp not too thick, preventing any lumps fnrminji, add to it the
remaining water, hot or cold ; add the ration sugar, and when just boil-
ing, it is ready for serving. If short iu campaigning, put about
1 wh.-n in pulp, add half a pound of (lour or arrowroot.
EAST AND EX- •• AY OF CooMxr, IN K.\uTiiK\ P\N>. Avcry
favorite ami plain dish amongst the conval.-sivnt and orderlies at
lowing: — Cut any part of either beef (die, k of
tail), veal, mutton, or pork, in fart any hard part of the animal, in
4-oz. slices; have ready for each \ < r :> <.t;i..ns and 4 or ~> pounds
of potatoes cut ; put a layer of potatoes at the bottom of
the pan, then a l.iy.-r of meat, season to each pound 1 teaspoonful of

d some onion you have already minced;

Coo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 199

then lay in layers of meat and potatoes alternately till full ; put in 2
pints of water, lay on the lid, close the bar, lock the pot, bake two
hours, and serve. Remove some of the fat from the top, if too much ;
a few dumplings, as No. 21, in it will also be found excellent. By
adding over each layer a little flour it makes a rich thick sauce. Half
fresh meat and salt ditto will also be found excellent.

SERIES OF SMALL RECEIPTS FOR A SQUAD, OUTPOST, OR PICKET OF
MEN, which may be increased in proportion of companies. No. 15.
Camp Soup. — Put half a pound of salt pork in a saucepan, two ounces
of rice, two pints and a half of cold water, and, when boiling, let simmer
another hour, stirring once or twice ; break in six ounces of biscuit, let
soak ten minutes ; it is then ready, adding one teaspoonful of sugar,
and a quarter one of pepper, if handy.

No. 16. Beef Soup. — Proceed as above, boil an hour longer, adding
a pint more water.

Note. — Those who can obtain any of the following vegetables will
find them a great improvement to the above soups : — Add four ounces
of either onions, carrots, celery, turnips, leeks, greens, cabbage, or po-
tatoes, previously well washed or peeled, or any of these mixed to make
up four ounces, putting them in the pot with the meat. I have used
the green tops of leeks and the leaf of celery as well as the stem, and
found that for stewing they are preferable to the white part for flavor.
The meat being generally salted with rock salt, it ought to be well
scraped and washed, or even soaked in water a few hours if convenient ;
but if the last cannot be done, and the meat is therefore too salt, which
would spoil the broth, parboil it for twenty minutes in water, before
using for soup, taking care to throw this water away.

No. 17. — For fresh beef proceed, as far as the cooking goes, as for
salt beef, adding a teaspoonful of salt to the water.

No. 18. Pea Soup. — Put in your pot half a pound of salt pork, half
a pint of peas, three pints of water, one teaspoonful of sugar, half one
of pepper, four ounces of vegetables, cut in slices, if to be had ; boil
gently two hours, or until the peas are tender, as some require boiling
longer than others — and serve.

No 19. Stewed Fresh Beef and Rice. — Put an ounce of fat in a pot,
cut half a pound of meat in large dice, add a teaspoonful of salt, half
one of sugar, an onion sliced ; put on the fire to stew for fifteen min-
utes, stirring occasionally, then'add two ounces of rice, a pint of water ;
stew gently till done, and serve. Any savory herb will improve the
flavor. Fresh pork, veal, or mutton may be done the same way, and
half a pound of potatoes used instead of the rice, and as rations are

200 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

served out fur three days, the whole of the provisions may be cooked
at once.

No. 20. — RECEIPTS FOR THE FRYING-PAN. Those who arc fortunate
i to possess a frying-pan will find the following receipts very
useful:— Cut in small dice half a pound of solid meat, keeping the
bones for soup; put your pan, which should be quite clean, on the
fire; \\lu-n hot through, add nn ounce of fat, melt it and put in the
meat, season witli half a teaspoouful of salt ; fry f»r ten minutes, stir-
•\v and then ; add a tcaspoonful of flour, mix all well, put in half
a pint of water, let simmer for fifteen minutes, pour over a biscuit
nsly soaked, and serve. The addition ol a little pepper and
sugar, it* handy, is an improvement, as is also a pinch of cayenne, curry-
powder or spice; sauces and pickles used in small quantities would be
relishing; these are articles which will keep for any length of
time. As fresh meat is not easily obtained, any of the cold salt meat
may be dressed as above, omitting the salt, and only requires warming ;
or, for ft change, boil the meat plainly, or with greens, or cabbage, or
dumplings, as for beef; then the next day cut what is left in small dice
— say four ounces — put in a pan an ounce of fat ; when very hot pour
i;i the following : — Mix in a basin a tablespoonful of flour, moisten with
to form the consistency of thick melted butt. r. tli. n p.uir it in
the pan, letting it remain for one or two minutes, or until set ; put in
the meat, shake the pan to loosen it, turn it over, let it remain
minutes longer, and serve. To cook bacon, chops, steaks, slices of any
kind of meat, salt or fresh sausages, blaek puddings, &c. : Make the
pan very hot, having wiped it clean, add in fat, drippinir, butt»-r. «»r oil,
about an ounoeof either ; put in the meat, turn three or four tim<
season with salt and p.-j>p.-r. A few minutes will do it. If the m. at.
is salt, it must bo well staked previously.

No. 21. — SUET DUMPLINGS. Take half a pound of flour, half a i« a-

. .1 quarter teaspoouful of pepper, a quarter of a pound

(/chopped fat pork or beef suet, eight tablesjmonfuls ••!' water, mixed

It will form, a thick paste, and when formed, di\
into six or right piece*, which roll in flour, and boil with the m<

. minut.-H to h:.lf an hour. Little chopped onion or aromatic
herbs will give it a flavor.

A ; 'it is not to be obtained. — Put the same quan-

| in a little more water, and make it

vide it in- ; b,,il about ten minuf. round

the m- plain pud-lini; may be made, of the nbov.

rice pudding thus: — One pound of peas well tied in a cloth, or rice

Cou.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 201

ditto with the beef. It will form a good pudding. The following in-
gredients may be added : a little salt, sugar, pepper, chopped onions,
aromatic herbs, and two ounces of chopped fat will make these pud-
dings palatable and delicate.

CORDON — is the coping of the escarp or inner wall of the ditch,
sometimes called the magistral line ; as from it the works in perma-
nent fortification are traced. It is usually rounded in front, and pro-
jects about one foot over the masonry : while it protects the top of the
revetment from being saturated with water, it also offers, from projec-
tion, an* obstacle to an enemy in escalading the wall.

CORPORAL. Grade between private and sergeant.

CORPOREAL PUNISHMENT, BY STRIPES AND LASHES. Pro-
hibited excepting for the crime of desertion ; (Act May 1C, 1812 and
Act March 2, 1833.)

CORPS. The Articles of War use the word corps in the sense of
a portion of the army organized by law with a head and members ;
or any other military body having such organization, as the marine
corps. A regiment is a corps ; an independent company is a corps — a
body of officers with one head is a corps, as the Topographical Engi-
neers. Detachments of parts of regiments, or of whote regiments,
united for a particular object, whether for a campaign or a part of a cam-
paign, are not corps in the sense of the Rules and Articles of War, for such
bodies have neither head nor members commissioned in the particular
body temporarily so united ; but the officers with such detachment hold
commissions either in the corps composing the detachment, in the army
at large, in the marina corps, or militia.

CORRECTING PROOFS. (See PRINTING.)

CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE ENEMY. Whoever shall
be convicted of holding correspondence with or giving intelligence to
the enemy, directly or indirectly, shall suffer death or such other punish-
ment as shall be ordered by sentence of a court-martial ; (ART. 57.)

COSINE. The complement of the sine.

COUNCIL OF ADMINISTRATION. Under the act of Congress
of July 5, 1838, the council of administration may, from time to time,
employ such person as they think proper to officiate as chaplain ; who
shall also perform the duties of schoolmaster at such post. The chaplain
is paid on the certificate of the commanding officer, not exceeding forty
dollars per month, as may be determined by the said council of admin-
istration with the approval of the Secretary of War. Councils of ad-
ministration fix a tariff to the prices of sutler's goods — regulate the
sutler in other matters, and make appropriations for specific objects de-

•joj MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Coc.

termined by regulations from the post and regimental fund*. Tho>r
funds are collected in great part by savings of flour, in making bread
by troops.

COUNCIL OF WAR. An assemblage of the chief officers in the.
army, summoned by the general to concert measures of importance.

COUNSEL. All writers admit it to be the custom to allow a
prisoner t.» h.ivo conns 1.

COUNTER-BATTERY. When a number of guns are placed be-
:i parapet, for the purpose of dismounting or silencing by direct
fire the guns in an enemy's work, it is called a counter-battery.

COUNTERFORTS — are the buttresses by which the revetment
walls are backed and .strengthened interiorly.

COUNTERGUARD — is a work composed of two faces, forming a
salient angle, sometimes placed before a bastion, sometimes before
a ravelin, and sometimes before both, to protect them from being
breached.

COUNTERMINES— are galleries excavated by the defenders of a
fortress, to intercept the mines, and to dcMroy the works of the bo-
siegers.

COUNTERSCARP. The outer boundary of the ditch— revetted
with masonry in permanent fortification to make the ditch as steep as

possible.

COUNTERSIGN. A particular word given out by the highest in
command, intrusted to those employed on duty in camp and garrison,
and exchanged between guards and sentinels.

COUNTERSLOPE. In the case of a revetment, the slope is
within instead of on the outside; and is usually formed in steps. In
the case of a parapet, the slope is upwards instead of downwards.

COUP D'CEIL. The art of distinguishing by a rapid glance the
weak points . if an enemy's position, and of discerning the advantages and
disadvantages offered by any given space of country, 01 s. 1 .ling with
judgment the most advantageous position for a ramp or battle-field.
Experience is a great aid in the acquisition of this necessary military
faculty, but experience and science alone will not give it.

CGI* I1 hi! MAIN'. A sudden and vigorous attack.

COUPURES— arc short retrenchments made across thofaceofany
work, having a terre-plein. Tho ditch of the coupure is carried quite
across the tcrre-plein, and thnmiih the parapet of the work in which it
'. but not through the revetment.

COURT-MARTIAL, Any ^i-m-ral onVer commanding .111 army, or
colonel commanding a separate department, may appoint : - n< ml court-

Cou.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 203

martials whenever necessary ; (ART. 65.) General courts-martial may
consist of any number of commissioned officers, from five to thirteen, but
they shall not consist of less than thirteen, where that number can be
convened without manifest injury to the service ; (ART. 64.) But no
sentence of a court-martial shall be carried into execution until after the
whole proceedings shall have been laid before the officer ordering the
same, or the officer commanding the troops for the time being ; neither
shall any sentence of a general court-martial, in time of peace, extending
to the loss of life, or the dismission of a commissioned officer, or which
shall, either in time of peace or war, respect a general officer, be carried
into execution, until after the whole proceedings shall liave been trans-
mitted to the Secretary of War, to be laid before the President of the
United States for his confirmation or disapproval, and orders in the
case. All other sentences may be confirmed and executed by the
officer ordering the court to assemble, or the commanding officer for
the time being, as the case may be ; (ART. 65.) Whenever a general
officer commanding an army, or a colonel commanding a separate de-
partment, shall be the accuser or prosecutor of any officer of the army
under his command, the general court-martial for the trial of such officer
shall be appointed by the President of the United States, and the pro-
ceedings and sentence of the said court shall be sent directly to the
Secretary of War to be laid by him before the President for his con-
firmation or approval or orders in the case ; (Act May 29, 1880.)
Every officer commanding a regiment or corps may appoint, for his
own regiment or corps, courts-martial to consist of three commissioned
officers, for the trial and punishment of offences not capital, and decide
upon their sentences. For the same purpose, all officers commanding
any of the garrisons, forts, barracks, or other places where troops consist
of different corps, may assemble courts-martial, to consist of three com-
missioned officers, and decide upon their sentences ; (ART. 66.) No
garrison or regimental court-martial shall have the power to try capital
cases, or commissioned officers ; neither shall they inflict a fine exceed-
ing one month's pay, nor imprison, nor put to hard labor, any non-
commissioned officer or soldier, for a longer time than one month ;
(ART. 67.) The judge-advocate, or some person deputed by him, or
by the general, or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garrison,
shall prosecute in the name of the United States, but shall so far con-
sider himself as counsel for the prisoner, after the said prisoner shall
have made his plea, as to object to any leading question to any witness,
or any question to the prisoner, the answer to which might tend to
criminate himself; and administer to each member of the court, before

004 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

they proceed upon any trial, the oath prescribed in the Articles of \\ i
for General, Regimental and Garrison Court* mart iul. The pi.
of the court then administers an oath to the judge-ad vocat. ; (A 1:1.
09.) If a prisoner when arraigned stands mute, the trial goes on as
if he pleaded not guilty ; (ART. 70.) If a member be cliall. -ng. -.1 l.y a
prisoner the court judges of the n l.-vancy of the challenge. Only one
member can be challenged at a time ; (ART. 71.) All members are to
behave with decency and calmness, and in giving their votes to begin
with the youngest; (ART. 72.) All persons who give « vi.lt nco are
examined on oath or affirmation ; (ART. 73.) On trials of cases not
capital before courts-martial, the deposition of witnesses, not in the lino
or staff of the army, may be taken before some justice of the peace and
read in evidence; provided the prosecutor and person accused are j.n-s-
ent at the taking of the same, or are duly notified thereof; (ART. 74.)
No officer shalr be tried but by a general court-martial, nor by officers
of inferior rank, if it can be avoided. Nor shall trials be earned on ex-
cept between 8 in the morning and 3 in the aftcrn ing in cases
requiring immediate example in the opinion of the officer ordering the.
court ; ( ART. 75.) No person to use menacing words, signs, or gest u res
before a court-martial, or cause any disorder or riot, or disturb tin ir
proceeding, on the penalty of being punished at the discretion of the
said court-martial; (AiiT. 76.) (Consult DE HART, KENNEDY, and
SIMMONS; See ADDRESS; ALIBI; AMICUS CURI.E; APPEAL; ARREST;
CHALLENGE OP MEMBERS; CHARACTER; CHARGES; CONTEMPT;
COUNSEL; CRIMES; CUSTOM OF WAR; DEATH; DECISIONS; DEFENCE;
DISMISSION ; EVIDENCE ; FALSEHOOD ; FINDING ; JUDGE-ADVOCATE ;
JURISDICTION; MISNOMER; NEW MATTER; NOTES; OATH; PLEA;
PRESIDENT ; PRISONERS ; PROCEEDINGS ; PROSECUTORS ; QUESTIONS ;
RECOMMENDATION; KK.IOINDKU ; RKPLY ; REVISIO
MIHO UP ; SUSPENDED ; TRIAL ; VERDICT ; VOTES ; WITNESSES ; and
References under the heading ARTICLES OF WAR.)

FORM No. 1.

Foi: • -ral < >r.l<-r appointini: a General ("curt-martial.

ral Orders, 1 Ilea.l-«|inrt«-rs of the Army,

No. J March , 18—.

A General Court-martial, to consist of thirt. . n n . ml., rs will «>n-
vene at Fort Monn-e. in the State of Virginia, on Monday the \».| ,,f
April, 18 — , at 1 1 oYl--.-k, A. M., or as M...H then-after as j.raetieal.le,
for the trial of Captain A. R., of the 1st Regiment of Artillery, and such
other prisoners as may be brought before it.

Coc.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 205

The following Officers are detailed as members of the Court :

1. Colonel A. B. 1st Regiment of

2. Colonel C. D. 3d Regiment of -

3. Lieut.-col. E. F. 1st Regiment of —

4. Lieut.-col. F. G. 2d Regiment of —

5. Major W. T. 3d Regiment of —

6. Major N. M. 1st Regiment of

7. Captain A. N. 3d Regiment of —

8. Captain B. N. 1st Regiment of •

9. Captain C. N. 2d Regiment of

10. Captain D. M. 3d Regiment of

11. Captain E. L. 1st Regiment of

12. Captain F. H. 1st Regiment of

13. Captain G. W. 1st Regiment of

And the following Officers are detailed as supernumeraries :
Captain N. P. 2d Regiment of Infantry.

Captain D. B. 1st Regiment of Infantry.

Captain N. O. 1st Regiment of Artillery.

Captain S. R., of the 4th Regiment of , is hereby appointed

Judge-advocate.

By command of

Lieut.-general .

Adj utant-general.

FORM No. 2.

General Orders, | Head-quarters.

No. j

A General Court-martial is hereby appointed to meet at , on

the day of , or as soon thereafter as practicable, for the

trial of , and such other prisoners as may be brought before it.

Detail for the Court.

1. 5. 9. 13.

2. __ 6. 10.

3. - 7. 11.

4. __ 8. 12.

, Judge-advocate.

No other officers than those named can be assembled without mani-
fest injury to the service.

By order of ,

, Asst. Adjt.-gen.

Jo,; MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cou.

FORM No. 3.
General Orders, I Head-quarters of the Army,

No. f April , 18—.

A General Court-martial, to consist of as many members [within
the prescribed limits] as can be assembled without manifest injury to

the service, will convene at , in the State of , on Tuesday

the 23d of April, 18-—, at 10 o'clock, A. M., or as soon thereafter as
practicable, for the trial of Lieutenant C. D., of the 1st Regiment, and
such other prisoners as may bo brought before it.

The Commanding Officer, at , will cause the members of the

Court to be detailed from the officers of his command. First Lieut. -n-
ant B. M., 2d Regiment of Artillery, is hereby appointed the Judge-
advocate of the Court.

By order of ,

Major-general Commanding in Chief,
R.J.

Adjutant-general.

The above form delegating authority for the detail of members of a
Court-mariial to a distant commander, although not latterly used, is of
the greatest practical importance. It conforms to the custom of war
in other services, was long used in our own without question of its
legality, and might with great benefit to the service be revived.

FORM No. 4.

Mode of recording the proceedings of a General [or other] Court-
martial.

Proceedings of a General Court-martial, held at Fort Monroe, in
the State of Virginia, by virtue of the following Orders, viz. :

[More insert a copy of the Order convening the Court.]
Fort Monroe, Virginia,

Monday, April — , 18 — .
The Court met pursuant to the above Orders.

PRESENT.

1. Colonel A.B. 1st Rcgt. of , Presii

< olonel C. D. :;. Lieut-col. E. F.

J. Lieut-col. F. G. w 5. Maj..r W. T.

M J 7. Copt A. N.

8. Capt B. N. 9. Capt. C. N.

Capt. D. M. 11. Capt. E. L.

12. Capt. R H. l.T Capt. W. G.

Captain S. R., Judge-advocate,

Con,] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 207

The Court then proceeded to the trial of Captain A. B., of the

Regiment of , who, being called into Court, and having

heard the General Order read, was asked if he had any objection to any
of the members named in the General Order, to which he replied in the
negative.

The Court was then duly sworn, in his presence, and Captain A. B.
was arraigned on the following charge and specifications, viz. :

[Here insert the charge and specifications.]

To which the prisoner pleaded as follows :

Not Guilty, to the 1st specification,
Not Guilty, to the 2d specification,
Not Guilty, to the charge.

All persons required to give evidence were directed to withdraw,
and remain in waiting until called for.

Lieut. A. B. of the 2d Regiment'of Infantry, a witness for the prose-
cution, being duly sworn, says : that on the day of ,'&c.

&c. .

Question by the Judge-advocate. ?

Answer. .

Question by the prisoner. ?

Answer. .

Question by the Court. 1

Answer. .

The prosecution was here closed, and the prisoner produced the fol-
lowing evidence :

Capt. C. D. of the Corps of , a witness for the defence, being

duly sworn, says : that on the day of , &c. &c.

Question by the prisoner. 1

Answer. .

Question by the Judge-advocate. • — ?

Answer. .

Question by the Court. 1

Answer. .

The prisoner, having no further testimony to offer, requested to be

indulged with days to prepare for his final defence. The Court

granted his request, and adjourned at o'clock, P. M., to meet

again at o'clock, A. M., on Wednesday, the day of .

Ji.s M1L1TAKV DICTIUNAKY. [Co*

SECOND DAT.

Wednesday, - , 18—.

The Court nut j.ursuant to adjournment : present all the members.
The proceedings having been read over to the Court l>y the Judge-
advocate, the prisoner, Captain A. B., made the following address in
his defence :

[ I h-re insert the defence, or if it be too long, it may bo marked, and
MM!.]

The Court then closed, and proceeded to deliberate on the testimony
adduced, and pronounced the following

SENTENCE.

The Court, having maturely weighed and considered the evi.:
adduced in support of it, is of opinion that &c. - &c. - , and
does therefore - &c. - dec.

A. B. Col. 1st Regt. of -- ,

S. R. Capt. - Kegt. of - , President.

Judge-advocate.

FORM No. 5.

Form of an Order appointing a Garrison or Regimental Court-
martial.

Orders, » lleail-ijunrt«-r<.

No. j Fort Columbus, N. ^ .

April , 18—.

A Garrison, [or Regimental Court-martial,] to consist of Captain C.
D. - , 1st Lieutenant D. F. - , and 2d Lieutenant G. II.
- , will convene at the PiWiilrnt's cjuartcrs to-morrow morning,
at 1 1 o'clock, for the trial of Sergeant D. E. of - Company, -
Regiment of Artillery, an«l such other prisoners as may be brought lu-
ll.

By order of Colonel A. B.,

Commanding,
J.A.,

Adjutant.

N
Form of charges and specifications against a prisoner.

Charges and specifications preferred against Capt. C. D., of tl
Regiment of Infantry.

Cou.J MILITARY DICTIONARY. 209

CHARGE IST.
DISOBEDIENCE OF ORDERS.

Specification 1st. ... In this, that he, the said Captain C. D., of
the 1st Regiment of Infantry, being ordered, on the 30th day of Septem-
ber, 18 — , at the Recruiting Depot, in the town of Newport, Kentucky,
by Colonel A. B., of the 1st Regiment of Infantry, the commanding
officer of said Depot, to take command of and march with a detachment
of recruits, to Jefferson Barracks, in the State of Missouri, did at said
town of Newport, at the time aforesaid, refuse to take command of and
march with said detachment of recruits, thereby disobeying the lawful
commands and orders of his superior and commanding officer, the said
Colonel A. B.

Specification 2d. . . . In this, that he the said Captain C. D., &c. &c.

E. F.
Major 1st Regiment of Infantry.

FORM No. 7.

Form of a General Order approving or disapproving the proceedings
of a General Court-martial.

General Order, | . Head-quarters of the Army,

No. f January — , 18 — .

I. . . At a General Court-martial, which convened at on the

of , 18 — , pursuant to General Orders, No. of Jan-
uary 18 — , and of which Brevet Brigadier-general • is President,

was tried Captain , of the Regiment of Artillery, on the

following chargers and specifications preferred by Major , of the

• Artillery, to wit :

CHARGE.

[Here insert charge. See Form No. 5.]
To which charge and specification the prisoner pleaded as follows :

To the 1st specification — [plea.]

To the 2d specification — [plea.]

And guilty [or not guilty] to the charge.

FINDINGS AND SENTENCE

The Court, after mature deliberation on the testimony adduced, find
the prisoner, Capt. , of Regiment of Artillery, as fol-
lows :

210 MILITARY DICTIUNAKY. [Coc.

Of the 1st specification— [tnuling.]
Of tho2d specification— -[finding.]
And guilty [or not guilty] of the charge.

Ami the Court do therefore sentence him, Captain , of

Regiment of Artillery, to [hero insert sentence.]

II. .. The proceedings, findings, and sentence are approved, [or
disapproved,] &c., &c., &c.

1 1 1 TO tho authority which constituted the Court will add such
remarks as he may think proper.)

III. . . Tho General Court-martial, of which Brevet Brigadier-
general is President, is hereby dissolved.

By Command of

Major-general ,

, Adjutant-general.

COURT OF INQUIRY. In cases where the general or com-
manding officer may order a court of inquiry to examine into the natuiv i.f
any transaction, accusation, or imputation, against any officer or soldier,
the said court shall consist of one or more officers, n<>t exceeding three,
and a judge-advocate, or other suitable person as a recorder, to reduce
the proceedings and evidence to writiiiL', all of whom shall be sworn to
tho faithful performance of duty. This court shall have the same power
to summon witnesses as a court-martial, and to examine them on oath.
But they shall not give their opinion on the merits of the case, <
ing they shall be thereto specially required. Tho parties accused shall
also be permitted to cross-examine and interrogate the \\itm^s«-s so
as toil fully the circumstances in the question; (Am. 1M.)

The p; '•* of a court of inquiry must be authenticated by the

signature of the recorder and the president, and delivered to th
manding officer, and tho said proceedings may be admitted as evidence
by a court-mart ial, in cases not capital, or extending to tho disin
of an officer, provided that tho circumstances are such that oral

cannot be obtained. But courts of inqnirv are prohibited, nidess
•ed by tho President of the United States, or demanded b\ the ac-
cuscd ; (ART. 02.)

Tho court may bo ordered to report the facts of tho case, with or
without an opinion th.-re,,n. Such an order will not bo complied with,
by m< i :-tinuf tho. evidence or testimony; facts being tho result,

-•liiM-'M e fal.Iishcd by weighing all tho testimony, oral/ind docu-
mentary, before the court.

Cou.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 211

When a court of inquiry is directed to be assembled, the order
should state whether the court is to report the facts or not, and also
whether or not it is to give an opinion on the merits. The court should
also be instructed, whether its attention is to be extended to a general
investigation, or to be confined to the examination of particular points
only, as the case may seem to require, in the judgment of the officer
under whose authority it is assembled. Where the subject is multi-
farious, the court should be instructed to state its opinion on each point
separately, that the proper authority may be able to form his judgment.

The court may sit with open or closed doors, according to the nature
of the transaction to be investigated. The coupt generally sits with open
doors ; but there may be delicate matters to be examined into, that
might render it proper to sit with doors closed.

The form of proceeding, in courts of inquiry, is nearly the same as
that in courts-martial : the members being assembled, and the parties
interested called into court, the judge-advocate, or recorder, by direction
of the president, reads the order by which the court is constituted, and
then administers to the members the following oath : " You shall well
and truly examine and inquire, according to your evidence, into the
matter now before you, without partiality, favor, affection, prejudice, or
hope of reward : so help you God ; " (ART. 93.)

The accusation is then read, and the witnesses are examined by the
court ; and the parties accused are also permitted to cross-examine and
interrogate the witnesses, so as to investigate fully the circumstances in
question; (ART. 91.)

The examination of witnesses being finished, the parties before the
court may address the court, should they see fit to do so ; after which
the president orders the court to be cleared. The recorder then reads
over the whole of the proceedings, as well for the purpose of correcting
the record, as for aiding the memory of the members of the court.
After mature deliberation on the evidence adduced, they proceed to find
a state of facts, if so directed by the order constituting the court, and to
declare whether or not the grounds of accusation are sufficient to bring
the matter before a general court-martial ; and also to give their opin-
ion of the merits of the case, if so required.

The court should be careful to examine the order by which it is
constituted, and be particular in conforming to the directions contained
therein, either by giving a general opinion on the whole matter, a state-
ment of facts only, or an opinion on such facts. The proceedings of
courts of inquiry have been returned to be reconsidered, when the court
has been unmindful of these points.

212 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Cor.

It has been settled that a member of a court of inquiry may be ob-
jected to, for cause.

The proceedings must be authenticated by the signatures of the pres-
ident and recorder, and delivered to the commanding officer or author-
it} which ordered the court; and the said proceedings may be admitted
in evidence by a court-martial, in cases not capital, nor extending to the
dismission of an officer, provided oral testimony cannot be obtained;
92.)

Transactions may become the subject of investigation by courts of
inquiry after the lapse of any number of years, on the application of
the party accused, or by order of the President of the United States;
the limitation mentioned in the 88th Article of War, being applicable
only to general courts-martial.

It is not necessary to publish the proceedings or opinion of the court,
although it is usually done in general orders.

The court is dissolved by the authority that ordered it to convene.

COVERED WAY. A space between the counterscarp and the
crest of the glacis in permanent works, and within the palisades, over
which the garrison can run without being seen or subjected to the fire
of the enemy. The crowning of the covered way by the besiegers is a.
difficult operation, and often costs them dearly.

COWARDICE. In all coses where a commissioned i.ffioT is ca-

'1 for cowardice or fraud, it shall be added in the sentence, that

the crime, name, and place of abode and punishment of the delinquent be,

published in the newspapers, after which it shall be deemed scandal- -us

for an officer to associate with him ; (ART. 85.)

CRATER OF A MINE— is the excavation or cavity formed in
the ground, by the explosion of the powder.

CREMAILLERE— is an indented or zigzag outline.

CRENELLATED— loop-holed.

CRIMES, DISORDERS, AND NBGLECTS. All crimes not capital, and
all disorders and neglects which officers and soldiers may be guilty of,
to the prejudice of good order and military discipline, though n«>t m« n-
tioned in the Articles of War, are to be taken cognizance of by a general
or regimental court-martial, according to the nature and degree of the
offence, and be punished at their discretion ; (ART. 99.) (See An H. >K-

CRIMINATE. (^EVIDENCE.)

CROTCHETS— are openings cut into the glacis at the heads of
: HCS, to enable the defenders to circulate round them. These pas-
sages are dosed by a gate when necessary.

DAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 213

CROWNING. A lodgment prepared by besiegers upon the crest
of the glacis to make themselves masters of the covered way. It is
effected usually by means of the SAP — a method apparently slow, but
which, advancing night and day without intermission, accomplishes great
objects. The work is done by sappers rolling before them a very large
gabion stuffed with wool or cotton, or fascines, to shelter themselves
from musketry. They fill thus one gabion after another, and do not
push forward until the portion of the trench already made has been
well consolidated.

CROWN-WORK — is a similar worlf to horn-work, but consisting
of two fronts instead of one. It is connected to the main works in a
similar way, and is used for the same purposes as the horn-work.

CROWS' FEET — are iron-pointed stars, or stout nails, so fixed
as to radiate, that in any position they may have a point uppermost.
They are strewed on the ground over which cavalry may be expected to
pass. (See OBSTACLES.)

CUNETTE — is a narrow ditch in the middle of a dry ditch, to keep
it drained, as well as to form, especially when filled with water, an ob-
stacle to an enemy.

CURTAIN. The curtain is that part of the rampart of the body
of the place, which lies between two bastions, and which joins their
two flanks together. ^

CURTAIN ANGLE— is that formed by the meeting of the flank
and the curtain.

CUSTOM OF WAR. The custom of war in like cases is the
common law of the army recognized by Congress in the 69th Article
of War, as a rule for the government of the army whenever any doubt
shall arise not explained by the rules and articles established by Con-
gress for the government and regulation of the army. To render a cus-
tom valid the following qualities are requisite : — 1. Antiquity ; 2.
Continuance without interruption ; 3. Have been acquiesced in without
dispute ; 4. It must be reasonable ; 5. Certain ; 6. Compulsory, that
is, not left to the option of every man whether he will use it or not ;
7. Customs must be consistent with each other.

DAM. An impediment formed of stones, gravel, and earth, 'by which
a stream of water is made to overflow and inundate the adjacent ground.

DAMAGE. The costs of repairs of damage done to arms, equip-
ments, or implements, in the use of the armies of the United States,

214 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [DtA.

shall be deducted from the pay of any officer or soldier in whose core
or use the said arms, equipments or implements were when the said
damages occurred : Provided, the damage was occasioned by the abuso
or negligence of said officer or soldier. Every officer commanding a
regiment, corps, garrison, or detachment, to make once ivory two
months, or oftener if required, a written report to the colonel of ordnance
stating all damages to arms so belonging to his command, and naming
the officers and soldiers by whose negligence or abuse the damage
occasioned ; (Aft Feb. 8, 1815.)

DEAD ANGLE OB (DEAD GROUND)— is any angle or piece
of ground which cannot be seen, and which therefore cannot be de-
fended from behind the parapet of the fortification.

DEATH. Sentence of death may bo rendered by a general court-
martial f »r the following crimes only : 1. Beginning, exciting, ( .
or joining in, any mutiny or sedition in any troop or company in the
service of the United States, or in any party, post, detachment, or guard ;
(ART. 7.) 2. Being present at any mutiny or sedition and not using the
utmost endeavors to suppress the same, or coming to tho knowledge of
any intended mutiny and not giving without delay information to the
commanding officer ; (ART. 8.) 3. Striking his superior officer, or draw-
ing or lifting up any weapon, or offering any violence against him, he
being in the execution of his office, on any pretence whatsoever ; or dis-
obeying any lawful command of his superior officer ; (ART. 9.) 4. De-
sertion in time of war ; (ART. 20 modified by Act May 28, 1830.)
5. Advising or persuading an officer or soldier to desert tho servi.v ,
(ART. 23.) 6. Any sentinel found sleeping on his post, or leaving it
1). ing regularly relieved; (ART. 4C.) 7. Any officer occasioning
false alarms in camp, garrison, or <juarters, liy discharging fire-arms,
drawing of swords, beating of drums, or by any other means whatso-
ever; (.\RT.49.) 8. Doing violence to any person who brings provi-
sions or other necessaries to tho camp, garrison, or quarters of the forces
of the United States employed in any parts out of the said Stat es ,
51.) 9. Misbehavior before the enemy, running away or .shameful
abandonment of any fort, post, or guard, which he may be commanded
to defend, or speaking words inducing others to do tho like ; or « .
away arms and ammunition, or quitting his post or colors to plunder
and pillage ; (ART. 62.) 10. Making known tho watch-word t<. any per-
son not entitled to receive it, or giving a parole or watch-word different
from that received; (ART. 53.) 11. Forcing a safe-guard in !
parts; •">.) 12. Relieving tho enemy with money, victn

ammunition ; or knowingly harboring or protecting an enemy ;

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 215

56.) 13. Holding correspondence with, or giving intelligence to the
enemy, either directly or indirectly ; (ART. 57.) 14. Compelling their
commanding officer to give up to the enemy or abandon any garrison,
fortress, or post ; (ART. 59.) Every sentence of death in time of
peace (in time of war it may be carried into execution by the officer or-
dering the court, or by the commanding officer) must, before being car-
ried into execution, be laid before the President of the United States
for his confirmation or disapproval and orders in the case ; and no one
can be sentenced to suffer death, except by the concurrence of two-
thirds of the members of the court-martial, nor except in cases ex-
pressly mentioned ; (ARTS. 65 and 87.)

DEBLAI — is the quantity of earth excavated from the ditch to form
the remblai. Under ordinary circumstances the one is equal to the
other, but not always ; as, from the nature of the soil, earth may have
to be brought to supply the remblai.

DEBT. All non-commissioned officers, artificers, privates, and
musicians enlisted in the actual service of the United States are ex-
empted, during their term of service, from all personal arrests for any
debt or contract ; (Act March 3, 1799.) No non-commissioned officer,
musician, or private shall be arrested or subject to arrest, or be taken
in execution for any debt under the sum of twenty dollars, contracted
before enlistment, nor for any debt contracted after enlistment ; (Act
March 16, 1802.)

DECEASED OFFICERS AND SOLDIERS. The major of
the regiment or, in his absence, the second in command, secures the effects
of an officer, and transmits an inventory to the department of war, that
his executor or administrators may receive the same ; (ART. 94.) In
the case of a soldier, the commanding officer of the troop or company,
in presence of two other officers, takes an account of the effects he died
possessed of, and transmits the same to the department of war, which
said effects are to be accounted for and paid to the representatives of
•ich deceased non-commissioned officer or soldier ; (ART. 95.)

DECISIONS. On courts-martial the majority of votes decides all
questions as to the admission or rejection of evidence, and on other points
involving law or custom. If equally divided, the doubt is in favor of
the prisoner ; (HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.)

DEFAULTERS. If any officer employed or who has heretofore
been employed in the civil, military, or naval departments of the Govern-
ment, to disburse the public money appropriated for the service of those
departments respectively, shall fail to render his account or pay over,
in the manner and in the times required by law, or the regulations of

216 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [D«r.

the department to which he is accountable, any sum of m.-.u-y remain-
ing in the hands of such officer, the 1st or 2d comptroller of the treasury,
as the case may be, shall cause to be stated and entity the account
such delinquent officer to the solicitor of the treasury, who shall im-
mediately proceed to issue a warrant of distress against such delinquent
officer an 1 lea, directed to the marshal or marshals of the dist rut

or districts where they reside; and tho marshal shall proceed to 1* \ y
and collect tho sum remaining due by distress and sale of goods ai^ chat-
tels of suchtldinqiient officer; and, if the goods are not sufficient, tho
same may be levied upon the person of such officer, who may be com-
mitted to prison, there to remain until discharged by due course of law.
But the solicitor of tho treasury, with the approbation of the secretary
of th ' . may postpone for a reasonable time such proceedings

where, in his opinion, the public interest will sustain no injury by such
postponement. If any person shall consider himself aggrieved by any
warrant issued as above, he may prefer a bill of complaint to any
district judge of the United States, and thereupon tho judge may, if in
his opinion the case requires it, grant an injunction to stay proceed-
ings. If any person shall consider himself aggrieved by the decision of
such judge either in refusing to issue the injunction, or, if granted, on its
dissolution, such person may lay a copy of the proceedings had before
the district judge, before a judge of the supremo court, who may either
grant the injunction, or permit an ;r.j.«-.il, as the case may !-•, it', in his
opinion, the equity of tho case requires it; (Act May 15, 1820.) Tho
judgment on a warrant of distress under this act, and the proceedings
under tho judgment, are a bar to any subsequent action for the same
erase. U. S. v. Nourso, 9 Peters 8. (See DELIMIT KM.) No men
hereafter appropriated shall be paid to any person for his compensation,
who is in arrears to the U. S., until such person shall have accounted
for and paid into tho treasury, all sums f >r which ho may bo liaM. ;
provided, th.it nothing h.-n in contained shall be construed to extend to
balances arising solely from d. •;.?•« -<-iat ion of treasury notes received If
such person, to be expended m tho public service ; but in all cases
where tho pay or salary of any person is withheld, in pursuance of this
act, it shall b« the duty of tho accounting oll'icers if demanded by tho
party, his agent or attorney, to report, forthwith, to tho agent of the
treasury department the balance due; and it shall !•«• th. duty of tho
•aid agent, within sixty days thereafter, to order suit to I,.- commenced
against such delinquent and his sureties ; (Act January 25, 1828.) (See
REMEDY; STOPPAGE or PAT.)

DEFENCE (CoArr). Possible causes and objects of attack may be

DBF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 217

conquest or the destruction of commercial ports of more or less value ;
the possession of depots ; the destruction of naval docks ; or taking
advantage of the weakness or absence of troops, to levy contributions.
The parapets of all coast and harbor defences should be constructed of
earth, where favorable sites can be found ; but for low sites that can
be approached within grape-shot range, such batteries must give place
to masonry defences, and where masonry-casemated castles with three
tiers of guns in casemates, and with guns and mortars on the roofs are
resorted to, embrasures of wrought iron, like the model embrasures of
Fort Richmond, New York harbor, will be found applicable. With
such batteries well constructed, the direct fire of ships has little effect.
Movable columns of troops in numbers, depending on the probable
object of the enemy, must be held in some central position. If rail-
roads are to convey the troops, a central point within a radius of sixty
miles will be within good supporting distance. If railroads are not
relied on, the distance should not be greater than fifteen miles.' The
columns should be at least seven-tenths infantry, one-tenth cavalry, and
two-tenths field artillery. The latter being useful to oppose the de-
barcation of troops. The French charge both the fleet and the army
with the movable defence of coasts. Steamers and flotillas, armed
with howitzers, are particularly suited to that object. Corps of troops
assembled at some central position are held ready to be thrown upon a
threatened point. Batteries of howitzers give their aid to these corps.
Concerted signals are arranged.

The ordinance of Jan. 3, 1843, directs that in military ports the
naval forces shall be specially charged, under the orders of the com-
manding officer of the land forces, with the armament, service, and
guard of the batteries looking directly upon the harbors, and upon in-
terior roadsteads adjacent to these harbors, as well as upon the passes
conducting to these interior roadsteads. Whenever the works to which
those batteries belong do not form a principal part of the system of
defence on the land side of the place and its dependencies, the per-
sonnel of the permanent batteries intrusted to the land forces is fur-
nished from the artillery, by other troops, by the national guard, by
revenue service men, .or by ancient cannoneers taken from the coast
population, at the rate of five men to a gun, one of whom must be an
experienced gunner. The permanent works for defence are divided
into three classes, according to their importance : 1st Class. Works
for the defence of military harbors, large commercial harbors, and the
principal points of islands. These fortifications are composed of exte-
rior forts, capable, of resisting regular attacks, obstructing bombard-

218 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

ments, &c. 2d Class. Works which protect anchorages and channels
suited to ships of war. They consist of a system of forts or batteries

the place. 3d Class. Works defending small commer-
cial ports, anchorages suited to merchantmen, places of refuge for coast-
ing vessels. These consist of batteries with redoubts.

This classification regulates the supply of the batteries, but does not
determine absolutely their armament. This must be n -^ulatcd by
various circumstances, as must also the relative strength of t
doubts. The armament of batteries is regulated by the strength of the
ships they may have to repel, and the latter depend upon the nature
of the coast, and principally upon the depth of water. 32-pound* -r uuns
and 8-inch howitzers are employed against ships at a distance of 2,600
yards. Guns begin the fire with round shot ; the fire is continued u ith
hollow sh"t. 13-inch mortars, whose range extends to 4,300 yards,
are reserved for the ships at anchor. Experience has proved that a
battery of four pieces of heavy calibre has the advantage of a ship of
120 guns. Projectiles ricochet better uj>«»n the \vatrr than upon the
land, and lose less of their force; they can, after having r inched at
1,300 yards, pass through the sides of a thn e-d. •< -ke»l ship. Hollow
projectiles penetrate the sWes underneath the water line, and open
large water holes by their explosion.

The number of 24 and 32-pound shot that timber ships have re-
i in their sides without being disabled, ought perhaps to have
caused their relincjuishment in the armament of coast batteries in Ku-
rope. With James* projectile (See RIFLED ORDNANCE) such pm^.
whrn rifled, will again play an important part in dH< n« . In the
United States, such guns have been replaced by ;
the 42-p"imd« r, retained of late ye-irs only as a hot-shot gun, may soon
give way to 8 and 10-inch e"liiml>iads capable of being used as shell or
•hot guns; adding also, when necessary, Rodman's 15-inch «>hn
which, with shells of from 305 to 410 Ibs., mi^ht with a single missile
disable, if not entirely destroy the vessel at which it was diivrted with
6° elevation, when 2,000 yards distant. In many trials at that distance

it ions were only from 1 t.. ."> \anU.and the time of
•»J to 7 seconds. With 28° 35' elevation, and a <•!.
lb«., the range of the shell is from 5,435 to .">. is, and tii,

• 27 seconds.

ht to be given the battery above the level of the •
> 16 yards. To fire at point blank: if the aim is a little
lower the ricochet brings it upon the ship. Red-lut shot may l>e
fired from columbiods. If engaged with many ships, direct all the

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 219

pieces of the battery upon that one most in range. Learn exactly the
distances of all the most remarkable points, and post the information
in the store-room and guard-room, in order that the distance of
vessels may be easily determined. Observe the ricochets upon the
water. Fire round shot upon disembarkations. Guard carefully
against surprises. Observe every thing going on at sea and on land.
Be attentive to all signals. Watch over the preservation of material
with care ; air the magazine in dry weather ; move the gun carriages
every day. It is important that a battery should have the elevation
above given. With that elevation it will not be exposed to ricochet
shot from ships, but the ricochets from the battery, losing but little
of their force upon the water, will enable even 24-pounder shots, fired
under four degrees, to pierce the side of a vessel, however strong it may
be, at a distance of 640 yards and more. It is important to direct a
heavy fire on ships before anchoring, especially upon the rigging, as
the loss of a spar and a few ropes may oblige them to anchor where it
is not intended, and thus derange the other ships. In the formation of
batteries, regard should be had to the probable number of men that
may be obtained to serve them. In the defence of coasts, booms are
essential either to bar access to a harbor or river, or to cut off the re-
treat of the enemy if an entrance has been effected by surprise. Booms
should be immediately under the fire of a battery, and are usually made
of heavy chains floated by logs. It is unsafe to trust to a single line
of booms in the main channel. Booms need not extend entirely across
an entrance. Shallow or otherwise inaccessible parts may be omitted,
and in order not to impede navigation unnecessarily, 100 yards of
boom may be withdrawn from the channel, but always kept ready for
replacing ; [Aide Memoire a V Usage d* Artillerie, c£c.)

DEFENCE, BEFORE A COURT-MARTIAL. In point both of law and
reason, a court-martial has as much power over the evidence introduced
by the prisoner as over that of the prosecutor, and can reject the wit-
nesses of the one as well as the other, or any part of such witnesses'
testimony. Courts-martial are particularly guarded in adhering to the
custom which obtains, of resisting every attempt on the part of counsel
to address them ; but cases have occurred, in which professional gentle-
men in attendance have been permitted to read the defence prepared
for the prisoner. A court will prevent a prisoner from adverting to
parties not before the court, or only alluded to in evidence, further than
may be actually necessary. All coarse and insulting language should
be avoided, in any part of the defence ; (HOUGH'S Law Authorities.)

DEFENCE, (NATIONAL.) This subject is much associated, in

220 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [D«r.

the popular mind, with ships, forts, and the preparation and proper
distribution of all munitions of war; but important as they ar.
not here proposed to discuss those^questions. It is not necess
combat an idea which all history controverts, that a largo naval f.-nv

e able, by cruising in front of our extended coast, to j>
a hostile expedition from landing on our shores.* The reluctant ad-
mission of the historian Alison may be accepted, that in the f
greatly superior maritime forces, Ireland was, for sixteen davs. in 1 " .' .
at the mercy of Iloche's expedition of 25,000 men, and neither the
skill of English sailors, nor the valor of English armies, but the fury
of the elements, saved them from the danger. " While these consider-

.'' continues Alieon, " arc fitted to abate confidence in invasion,
they are, at the same time, calculated to weaken an overweening con-
fidence in naval superiority, and to demonstrate that the only base on
which certain reliance can bo placed, even by an insular power, is a well-
disciplined army and the patriotism of its own subject.*.

Nor is it necessary to waste argument on the exploded idea tlu.t
ships can contend witli f.»rts.f The results of such contests in cur
country, at Fort Moultrie, Mobile Point, Stonington, and l-'.-rt
M- Henry, abundantly show that our sea-board defences, if e»mpl<-t,'d

the supervision of our able engineers, and properly garrisoned,
will resist, successfully, any merely naval aggressions, and it has been
well said that in the British and French naval attack en Sebastopol,

17, 1854,) the final experiment of wooden ships against granite
and earthen walls was made, never we believe again to be repeated, un-
til iron clad-ships range up in line of battle; (Sec IRON PLATES.) But
the Crimean war did show with what facility large armies are transported
by water, and it conclusively proves that the great maritime ].. >\v
look to their armies to accomplish in future wars what it would be idle
to expect from a navy alone, and that by the organization of forces

! to bring into action the physical strength of the country with a

•e;it knowledge of their duty and just ideas of discipline and sub-

"l Mi-'h armies must be met. The means here proposed to

accomplish this great unchanged the militia-

laws of the Union, but an 'effort will bo made to show in what manner

• For ft sketch of UM principal maritime expedition* *e Jominl's Art of War, translated by-
Major Winahip and Lieut He-Lain. Bee ako the report of a board of officer, submitted at the
first seeaioD of UM Mtb ConfTMa (Hoe. 46). containing numerous Illustration* from history, show-
ing the Impracticability of eoTcrtnf even a nmall extent of coast by crnNnj: In fn-nt of It.

t The mbject Is ably diaeiuaed la "Halleck'a Military Art and Science," tinder tho head of

Report of Oca. CM* while 8*creUry of War, on National Defence,

DBF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 221

existing institutions may be applied to the great purpose in view, by
a simple enactment granting to the States, in the words of the Consti-
tution, the consent of Congress " to keep troops"

Francis Lord Bacon has wisely said that " the principal point of
greatness in any state is to have a race of military men ; " and else-
where, in his enumeration of the elements of true greatness in a state,
he writes : " that it consisteth also in the value and military disposition
of the people it breedeth, and in this that they make profession of arms.
And it consisteth also in the commandment of the sea." But he
writes : " In the measuring or balancing of greatness, there is commonly
too much ascribed to largeness of territory, to treasure or riches, to
the fruitfulness of the soil or affluence of commodities, and to the
strength and fortification of towns and holds." What was made evi-
dent to Bacon by the lore of ages is equally true now. If we, as a
people, neglect our military resources, do not foster the military spirit
of the people, but on the contrary disregard military merit, and even
neglect to honor and reward great military services rendered to the
state, we cannot breed a race of military men, and are. in danger of
verifying the assertion of de Tocqueville, in his Observations upon De-
mocracy in America, that " the military career "was little honored and
badly followed in time of peace." * * * That " this public disfavor
is a very heavy burden, which bows down all military spirit," and that
if such a people should undertake " a war after a long peace, they would
run a much greater risk than any other people of being beaten."

The existing institutions which may be used as aids in organizing a
system of National Defence are the Military Academy, the army of the
United States, and the militia of the States. The Military Academy is
already in successful operation. The first step, then, towards proper
State organizations should be to give attention to the regular army — to
make it, in fact, an aid or staff for the perfect development of the physi-
cal strength of the country. To do this, a system of recruiting is
needed in harmony with our institutions and the manner in which all
militia force must be collected. It is the several States which furnish
the militia force ; let the regular army, therefore, be recruited by States.
Let every regiment have its depot in a particular district of country,
and, with the present rate of pay given to the non-commissioned officers
and privates, with the reward of promotion from the ranks bestowed
whenever merited, we should soon have an army, in the different
parts of which the various sections of the country would take a lively
interest. In an army thus collected, which offered a career worthy of
being sought, an esprit- de-corps would soon be developed which we may

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dir.

in vain sevk in our present establishment, and such an army, instead

H regarded by their countrymen as strangers in sympathy and

pursuit, might be made the nucleus of science and strength, around

which tho mental and physical force of the country could be con-

•-d in war. To accomplish this great object, other changes are

also necessary, but much lies within tho discretion of the President, an. I

upon his recommendation it is not doubted that Congress will legislate

legislation is required.

If the idea be just that tho skeleton regular establishment is main-
tained in peace, as a nucleus to be expanded in war, to meet the wants
of the country, the President should be careful not so to distribute that
force as to make this great purpose unattainable or difficult when war
may impend. If it be possible so to locate tho troops as Jo give them
all possible instruction, and, at the same time, not neglect our Indian
frontiers, the latter object should not bo suffered to override thalf other
most paramount consideration.

Look at any map of the United States, and attempt for a moment
to realize the .vast extent of our possessions. Bring your mind back
to the period when railroads did not afford those facilities which wo
now have, in a portion of our country, for quickly passing over hun-
dreds of miles, and you may no longer consider that military posts in
Texas, New Mexico, California, Oregon, Ace., and on the routes to those
distant States and Territories, have such means of communication as
would enable us to bring together any respectable force in a short
period. Bear in mind that tho whole army of tho United States con-
sists of but one hundred and ninety-eight companies, and that these
companies are scattered in posts which dot our immense territory.
Realize this, and then answer, is it possible for the small mimic T of
troops thus stationed to prevent marauding parties of Indians from
passing between these posts and committing depredations either in
Mexico or upon our own people ? No candid inquirer will assert the
possibility! What, then, is remedy ? Settlers upon o»ir Indian fron-
tiers must be provided with arms ; and tho United States Government,
besides encouraging Indians to err: 1 < tin r arts «f

peace, must hold tribes responsible W the acts of individuals. Whero
predatory bands of Indians have been known to proceed against M< \
ico or our own people, the tribe must be ma<l<> answerable, and no vain
pursuit be made after the marauding party. We must severely

o them understand that the United States r.-ijuire
head men to govern and control th.-ir young men. That, for tho acts
of any individuals of tho tribe, we will not fail, in any instance, to pun-

DEF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 223

ish the tribe for such predatory acts. An occasional campaign mado
against Indians to punish them for misdeeds, produces lasting effects,
and will always prove far more efficacious in guarding the lives and
property of our citizens, than the present system of small posts, which,
by the impunity they afford, only encourages a spirit of adventure in
Indian tribes. Another advantage in breaking up the present vicious
system of small posts, would be the establishment of schools of instruc-
tion for cavalry, artillery, engineers, and infantry. We now have a
preparatory school for the cultivation of military science, at West
Point ; but, if officers of the army, after graduating there, are left
without means or motives for improvement, and on remote stations
suffer their minds to degenerate from want of exercise and competition,
the Military Academy will have accomplished but very partially the
great object of its institution. If the army is to be made the rallying
point and instructor of our countrymen in war, it should keep pace with
the improvements made in Europe, and this can only be done by as-
sembling the engineers, and the three arms of the service, together, in
schools of practice. Let those schools of practice be properly located :
and, besides, the great results thus to be obtained by embodying the
troops, detachments could at any time be sent to strike and punish
tribes of Indians that failed to keep the peace. With one large detach-
ment on the Atlantic coast ; another at ^Jefferson barracks; a third in
New Mexico, and a fourth on the Pacific, the army might be kept in a
high state of discipline and efficiency, and soon made, by legislation, all
that it should be. With an army so established, it would be apparent
that all officers should be active, intelligent, and progressive. A retired
list should provide for veterans, and proper legislation would enable
commanding officer^ to appoint their own staff officers, in recognition
of the established principle that such officers are the assistants of com-
manders of troops. Such a change would be necessary to insure the
just responsibility of commanding officers, as well as proper instruc-
tion by alternation of duty in the line and staff; and by instituting a
rigid system of inspection, which would inform the general-in-chief and
Secretary of War of the legitimacy of the acts of all commanders, de-
fects of organization, errors of administration, and pernicious customs
of service would be made known and corrected by the Executive and
Congress.

General Orders, No. 17, of 1854, contain very well-considered reg-
ulations for carrying into effect the 5th section of the Act of Congress
of August 4, 1854, relative to the promotion of non-commissioned
officers. Let us now abandon a system of recruiting, which burdens

224 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [DKF.

the army with the scum of cities, and promotion from tho ranks would
follow aa. regularly as from a lower to a higher grade of commissions.
In a republican army caste should not exist, and it will help to break
down that distinction now dividing officers and solders, leaving only
the necessary dUK-rvm v in grades from private to general, if the army
should be r.oruitcd by means of regimental recruiting depots so located,
that different States shall consider different raiments as raised within
their respective limits.

Our army organized and collected, as herein recommended, could
easily, on tho approach of war, by tho addition to each regiment <.f two
battalions, and by increasing the number of privates in a company, be
mndo fifty thousand strong, and this federal f« : as it would

In-, in harmony with State troops, would constantly have k. pt pace
with the advance of professional knowledge in Europe, and bo capable
of diffusing that knowledge throughout the country by means < f the
respective State organizations to be now considered.

If the first French revolution did not inaugurate tho ideas of liberty
and equality, it at least first inculcated by practice tho correlative duty
of every citizen to defend his country. Accustomed as Americans
are to borrow ideas from the English press, it is not remarkable that
the outcry made by that aristocratic community against I-Yeneh ••(in-
scription should have been echoed in our own country. But in tin-
language of General Knox, " It is the wisdom of political establishments
to make the wealth of individuals subservient to tho general good, and
not to suffer it to corrupt or attain undue indulgence. Every State
possesses not only tho right of personal service from its members, l.ut
the right to regulate the service on principles of equality f..r the gen-
eral defence. If people, solicitous to bo exoncrat id from tin 'ir propor-
tion of public duty, exclaim against tho only reliable means of defence,
as an intolerable hardship, it cannot be too strongly impressed nj.nn

•hat while society has its charms, it also has its indispc
obligations. That to attempt such a degree of refinement as t<
erate the members of the community from all j , is to

render them incapable of the exercise and unworthy «.f the characters
of freemen.11

Let us, then, no longer permit the marv.-U of industry in which our
countrymen have been eminently successful, so far to dazzlo us as to
make us forget the lessons of past history. The Italian rej.uM
the Middle Ages had made groat strides in industry and tin arts. The
republic of the United Netherlands was enriched by commerce in the
time of DC \Vitf. But it has been well said, that in bcndin-

DEF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 225

whole energies to the attainment of riches, and neglecting their military
resources, Italy became the prey of foreigners, and Holland only se-
cured national independence by the sacrifice of political liberty.

The history of modern tactics proves " that preparation in peace
gives victory upon fields of battle." The mobility of troops, as now-
organized, armed, and instructed ; the quantity, and still more the kind
of artillery used, render a passive resistance, such as that formerly
made, impossible. The impossibility of resisting attacks by such means
causes the defence to seize the moment in which the attacking party
uncovers himself to resort to the offensive, and hence the issue is now
mo^e quickly decided, and conquest more rapid than it was a hundred
years ago. The ease with which large bodies of men are now trans-
ported, the rapidity of all preparatory manoeuvres, as well as the
greatly increased mobility in action of instructed troops, admits of the
ready concentration of great numbers of such men, without the machine
becoming too heavy or unmanageable, or its component parts losing
the sentiment of order. It therefore follows that the loss of a battle,
in consequence of the numbers engaged, is now much more important
than it formerly was, and that such loss resulting from incapacity to
manoeuvre, or want of discipline, may involve the most disastrous con-
sequences. If the people of the United States suppose that the facilities
which our railroads offer enable us to concentrate larger masses of men
in a short period, the answer must be made that DISCIPLINE is the soul
of an army, and that without the habit of obedience, an assemblage of
men in battle can never be more than a panic-stricken mob. Instances
in our own history are not rare to verify this truth. The fields of
Princeton, Savannah River, Camden, Guilford Court-House, &c., dur-
ing our Revolutionary War, not to speak' of later disasters, amply
sustain the declaration of Washington, that such undisciplined forces
are nothing more than a " destructive, expensive, and disorderly mob."
" When danger is a little removed from them, they will not turn out
at all. When it comes home to them, the well-affected, instead of fly-
ing to arms to defend themselves, are busily employed in removing
their families and effects ; while the disaffected are concerting measures
to make their submission, and spread terror and dismay all around, to
induce others to follow their example. Daily experience and abundant
proofs warrant this information. Short enlistments and a mistaken
dependence upon our militia, have been the origin of all our misfor-
tunes, and the great accumulation of our debt. The militia come in,
you cannot tell how ; go, you cannot tell when ; and act, you cannot
tell where ; consume your provisions, exhaust your stores, and leave
15

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [D«r.

you at last at a critical moment." Such facts, bringing tan-fully h« •un-
to us the contrast between indiscipline and discipline, it is hoped,
may yet cause our countrymen to heed the admonition of tin Father
of his country, that " lu peace we must prepare for war." Lot us not
*B ourselves by supposing that, when danger becomes imminent,
Congress will take the necessary measures to meet it. The steps which
are necessary call for sacrifices from tho people, and unless public
opinion sanctions tho means, Congress, in tho day of trial, will always
be found to represent misdirected popular opinions.

Tho veteran, Mr. Hales, in the National Intelligencer on tho occa-
sion of tho death of Mrs. Madison, gave a picture of the inertness of the
last session of the War Congress of 1814-1"). His recollections <>f tho
past furnish instructive lessons of what we may expect in the future,
if the attention of the people of the Unite* 1 States l>e not fixed on the
necessary sacrifices which love of country demands. So believi:
tracts from his historical sketch arc here quoted in the firm persuasion
that the measures, then recommended, are essential to tho safety of our
cities and towns, if some organization by States, at least, as eflleient as

•;ie recommended by General Knox, with the sanction
of General Washington, be not adopted in time of peace when
tured scheme may be well digested. Mr. Gales writes: "Congress
had assembled on tho 19th of September preceding — not, as might be
supposed from the date, in consequence of tho then recent capture of
y [of Washington] by the enemy, but in pursuance of a requisi-
tion by the President anterior to that event, calling Congress together
(as tho President informed the two Houses, in his message at the
opening of that session) for the purpose of supplying tho inadeqnat y
of the finances to the existing wants of the Treasury, and of making
further and more effectual provisions for prosecuting the war. During
tho recess of Congress, the honor of the arms of tho United States had
been gallantly sustained in every conflict by land and sea; politically
. the capture of Washingon itself, and the destruction of the

"thcr public buildings, so fir fr«mi bein-j a misfortune,
was for the administration a fortunate event, by its effect in exciting
indignant feelings throughout the country, uniting the people in support
common cause, and preparing their minds for the additional bur-
den of ti\ati«>n which it had bee. .me ..b\ious that they must be called

All that was wanting to tho vigorous prosecution of tho
war, was tho prm Moo • f men and money for tho purpose. Tho pro-
gress of recruiting for filling the ranks of tho regular army had nl
proved entirely too slow, if not total failure, as had tho resource of

DBF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 227

loans for the support of the Government, as well as for carrying on the
war. The army, whose organization was, on paper, more than 62,000
men, comprised an actual force of only 32,000, exclusive of officers, of
which force probably not more than one half could be relied on for
effective service ; and the credit of the Government had sunk so low
that plummet could hardly sound the depth of its degradation.

" At the opening of the session, the President, in his communication
to the two Houses of Congress, with eloquent persuasion, endeavored
to impress upon them the necessity of making immediate provision for
filling the ranks of the army, and replenishing the treasury. In this
purpose he was earnestly seconded by Secretary Monroe, of the War
Department, and the new Secretary (Mr. Dallas) of the Treasury De-
partment.

" Towards the first of these objects, a bill was soon matured, and
afterwards received the assent of Congress, extending the age at which
recruits might be enlisted to fifty years, doubling the bounty in land
to each, and removing the interdiction upon recruiting minors and ap-
prentices. This measure was a mere experiment, of no practical value,
as the event showed. The plan for filling the ranks of the army upon
which the Executive relied, and which was placed before the Senate in
a bold and energetic report from the War Secretary, was to form into
classes of 100 each, all the population of the United States fit for militia
duty, out of every class of which four men for the war were to be
furnished within thirty days after the classification, by choice or by
draught, and delivered over to the recruiting officer of each district, to
be marched to such places of general rendezvous as might be directed
by the Secretary of War. This plan, which, as the reader will perceive,
comprised all the essential features of the French conscription, though,
perhaps, the only one which at the time promised effective results,
found from the first no favor, especially in the House of Representa-
tives ; and became more and more obnoxious, the more the adminis-
tration seemed to have it at heart. Hardly any one in Congress had
the courage to allude to it. Mr. Troup did indeed prevail upon the
Military Committee, of which he was chairman, to allow him to report
a bill, conformable to the Executive recommendation, by the pregnant
title of ' An Act making provision for filling the ranks of the regular
army, by classing the free male population of the United States ; ' and
the bill was referred to a Committee of the whole House, and never after
heard of. In the course of the session some acts had passed, looking
to the employment of volunteers and detachments of militia, under the
old plan, for short terms ; and one of more importance, ' to authorize

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [D«r.

the President of the United States to accept the service of State troops
and volunteers.' This last was not only the most effective measure
which had passed towards the supply of men for carrying on the \\
but it was the most so that was likely to pass.

" The truth to say, indeed, notwithstanding tho nature of the emer-
gency, a dogged inertness seemed to paralyze the action of Congress
during the latter part of that session. The recommendation to recruit
the army by drafts from the militia was not only unwelcome, as we
have said, but revolting to the inclination of the popular branch of
Congress ; so much so, that a great proportion of the members of that
body (and among them some of the leading and most conspicuous
members of the republican party) shrunk from it as from the plague ;
and, as though the leprous influence of that proposition contaminated
every other part of the plans of the administration, it was with almost
equal reluctance that the House approached the consideration of ad-
equate measures (such as Mr. Secretary Dallas frankly and fearlessly
recommended) for the support of the public credit, and f >r strength
ing tho sinews of war." *

From the foregoing sketch of the past, it is evident that, unless tho
opinions and prejudices of the people of the United States bo greatly
any attempt to raise large armies in the most critical emer-
gencies, without the agency of States, must prove a failure. In order,
fore, to provide for the "common defence," the aid of State or-
ganizations will be necessary, and several plans, more or less efficient,
have consequently been proposed to better the organization of the
militia. All such attempts have, however, met with no favor from
t!..- people ; and, indeed, it is much to bo doubted whether tho consti-
tutional reservation to tho States "of training the militia according to
the discipline prescribed by Congress," and governing th. rn, except
when called forth "to execute the laws of the Union, sin ur-

"iis and repel invasions," will admit of any "good, ci n-

nniform, and national system of organization." The division of
auth- > by the constitution between tho United States and the

several States, in regard to the, militia, until called forth by tin- Federal
Government, has left with Congress only the right to provide for "or-
ganizing, arming, and disciplining tho militia;" but discipline, in that
restricted sense, without power to regulate the appointment of officers

• la rtriklnf contra* with this Inertness of Congress, the Legislature of New Tork MMmbled
on the Nth of September. 1814, passed by the Mth of October a bill glrlng additional pay to the
militia from the Bute trwwary, an act to encourage prlrateerfng and an act to rniso twelve t
•and State troops by conscription or classification. See Hammond's Political History of New
York, roLL pp. S80-L

DEF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 229

or otherwise to govern, means little more than prescribing a system
of tactics, and such discipline can never make soldiers.

There is, however, another suggestion in the Constitution of the
United States, for providing for the common defence, which is obnox-
ious to none of the objections made against large standing armies, and
which commends itself to favorable consideration, as being in harmony
with the Federal Government, and capable of furnishing any number of
disciplined soldiers which the exigency of our foreign relations may
require, without outrage to the instincts of the people of the States.
The tendency of the multiplication of States in our confederacy is to
restrict the authority of the general Government over the internal
affairs of the people of the States. This has been shown by breaking
down the Bank of the United States, establishing the independent
treasury, refusing appropriations for internal improvements, and, lastly,
leaving to the people of Territories the regulation of their own institu-
tions. The maxim " that the world is governed too much," has been
sturdily preached, and it may become necessary not to shrink from
maintaining our doctrine in the face of foreign powers. To do this we
must arm for defence, and the consistent mode of doing so, is for
Congress to give its consent for the several States to " keep troops;" —
more particularly as the history of our country has shown that public
opinion will not admit any other efficient military organization. States
now have authority to keep troops in time of war, but for such troops
to be useful in war, they must be prepared in peace ; but as the Consti-
tution of the United States forbids States " to keep troops in time of
peace without the consent of Congress," that consent could be given with
conditions attached, and those conditions, besides providing for the
common defence in war, should require the organization and instruction
of State troops to conform with that of the army of the United States,
or rather wfth the cavalry, harnessed batteries of artillery, and infantry
of the army.

To encourage States in such organizations, let Congress provide for

the annual distribution of dollars among the several States

and Territories in proportion to their enrolled militia force, upon satis-
factory evidence being furnished to the Secretary of War, that such
States have organized camps of instruction during two months in the
year, containing a number of troops not less than one-twentieth of the
enrolled militia force of the State. Direct the President to furnish to
the several State governors, upon their requisition, such army officers
as they may desire to aid the commanders of the camps of instruction,
and the information collected and kept up in the army will thus be dif-

•j;;o MILITARY DICTION A KY. [Der.

fused throughout the country. The different States will take pride in
their respective organizations, and would recruit their respective armies
according to the genius of their people. Their military codes would
react upon each other, and upon that of the United States. An •:
in military affairs would take the place of present derision, and more
thffl all, the United States might laugh to scorn the efforts of any invader.
The Prussian Landwehr of the first ban, to which the proposed or-
ganization is assimilated, is considered a reserved army, n maining by
ii resides in times of peace, except during their annual seasons of
manoeuvring, but ready to appear in case of war upon the fust call,
organized, equipped, and armed to serve like the line of the am y,
either at home or abroad. The Prussian territory is divided into as
many districts as there are battalions of the Landwehr of the first ban.
Each district furnishes a battalion of infantry, a squadron of cavalry,
a company of artillery, and some other detachments. The battalions
and squadrons are named from the principal town of their distri

-; of arms, clothing, camp and garrison equipage, and cavalry and
artillery equipments, are there locate. 1. The districts of the Landwehr
are also the recruiting districts of the lino of the army ; and, as troops
the same district serve t.^,tii.r, there naturally exist Let \se.n
those corps ties of consanguinity, which dispel all feelings of superior-
id cause them mutually to sustain each other in time of da:
In each district of the Landwehr, the following small list of ofiieers
are permanently paid. For the infantry : one major commanding, one
adjutant, who is also accountant, four first servants, and four second
sergea: per company,) ei_ht eorpm-als, (two per coin pan \

one armorer. For the cavalry : one captain, or first licutcna

rmastcr-scrgcant, and three corporals. The paid commanders
of battalions are charged with the assistance of their stall* with the
pcrionncl and materiel of the Landwehr, and are accountable f.r the
ordnance and military stores in depot in their districts. Tin- fir
gcants keep the list of names In lin-iM- to their companies, and no man
can absent himself without notifying them.

If all the States of the Union did not deem it Letter under this sys-
• keep up a small permanent force, it is supposed that they would
all find it necessary to maintain a small skeleton or^anixation of officers
and non-commissioned officers, similar to that of the Prussian Land\v«-hr
first ban. And if such officers and n<>n-< •ommissioned officers were
appointed by the States fr | and non-commissioned ofliecrswho

have honorably retin-d from the army, a new link would be established be-
tween the army and State troops which would prove mutually beneficial.

DEF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 231

To resume, then : the system of national defence or military organi-
zation herein suggested, as suitable for the United States is : 1. The
promotion of the most thorough organization and instruction of the
United States army, by concentrating troops at strategic points ; chang-
ing the system of recruiting ; creating a retired list for officers of the
army, and providing for alternation of duty in the line and the staff, so
that the whole army may be made really an aid or staff for the per-
fect development of the physical strength of the whole country. 2.
An act of Congress authorizing the several States to keep troops in
time of peace, provided their respective regimental organizations of cav-
alry and infantry shall conform to the regimental organization of those
arms instituted by Congress. 3. An annual appropriation by Congress
to be distributed among the several States in proportion to the enrolled
militia force of the State, provided satisfactory evidence is brought
before the Secretary of War that such State has had within its limits,
during two months of the year, organized camps of instruction in which
were assembled a number of troops not less than one-twentieth of the
enrolled militia force of the State. 4. Requiring the President to
furnish to State governors, upon their requisitions, such army officers
as may be desired to aid commanders of State camps of instruction, so
that the information collected in the federal army may be extended to all
State organizations. 5. Giving authority to the President to muster
into the service of the United States, State troops, in all cases in which
he is now authorized by law to call forth the militia. (See CALLING
FORTH.)

DEFILADING- — consists in raising the parapets of a fortress or
field-work, or in depressing the terre-pleins so much as to conceal the
interior of the work from the view of an enemy on an elevated position.
It also consists in directing the magistral lines of its parapets toward
points, where local impediments, as rivers, marshes, lakes, &c., would
prevent a besieger from constructing batteries. The former is defilad-
ing by relief, the latter is termed defilading by the trace or plan.
When a field-work has been necessarily constructed in such a situation
that it may be commanded by some height within range of artillery,
the defilading is made by raising the parapet, or constructing traverses
in the interior of the work. The necessary trace for a field-work to
accomplish these objects is more expeditiously effected by the eye and
a few poles and profiles, than by resorting to theoretical and scientific
proceedings, which constitute a part of the art of the engineer, and
which are indispensable considerations in permanent fortification.

DEFILE. Any narrow passage— as a ford, a bridge, a road •

j:;j MILITARY DICTIONARY. [DEL.

through a village, mountain passes, dec., aro defiles. To pass a

. it is necessary first to drive away, as far as possible, the enemy.
Under cover of this engagement, other troops pass the defile as soon as
they reach it. The aim should be to pass the defile as quickly as pos-
sible ; whether advancing or retreating. The passage in double columns
wi^l facilitate the formation in order of battle on the right and on the
left after liaving passed the defile, and this order has the advantage of
occupying both sides of the road. But it cannot be too strongly urged
that quickness in the passage is the great consideration, and tin -«»n tic -al
.-•way to this primary object If the defile is a
ford or bridge, and the passage in retreat, formations on the bank of the
after the passage, ought not to take place. Combats separated
by a river end in nothing, and the worst possible way of defending a
bridge or ford is taking positions too near it. The enemy Mould cer-
tainly unite his artillery upon the opposite bank, and not attempt the
passage until he had greatly worsted the defenders of the ford or bridge
by his projectiles. The defenders would lose many men, ami would
probably have been demoralized before coming to close quarters. It is
necessary then to wait until a portion of the enemy passes the 1. ridge or
f -rd. If the enemy be then vigorously attacked the defenders \\ill, by
a hand-to-hand conflict, render nugatory his artillery on the oppo-
site bank, as well as all of his troops that have not yet crossed. To
accomplish this intended purpose, it will only be necessary to place
troops at some point, at full cannon range from the bridge, or if the.
uts of ground admit of cover, nearer still to the bridge. If a
bridge is passed in advancim:, the troops which pass first are pushed
forward to gain as much ground as possible, and thus favor the passage
of other troops, by relieving them of the dangers of the eomliat. In
this ease the simplest and most rapid method of crossing is the 1»-M.
(Consult Aperyu tur yttelques Details de la Guerre, par MAI
BCOE\

I H-UNMIKNT,' (DISBURSING OFFICERS.) Such officers n...;
dismissed by the President of the United States on failure to n nder
f disbursements quarterly in the United States, and
six months if resident in a foreign country; (Act January 31,
1828.) y:u.)

DBMILUNE — is a work constructed to cover the curtain and
shoulders of the bastion. I? is composed of two faees f..nnini: a salient
angle townr -miry, has two demi-jrnrires formed by the eoiinter-

scarp,and is surrounded by a ditch. The demilune issorm times termed
a ravelin.

DEP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 233

DEPARTMENT. Any general officer commanding an army, or
colonel commanding a separate department, may appoint general court-
martial, whenever necessary ; (ART. 65.)

Besides the territorial divisions, called Departments, in the Rules
and Articles of War, the term is also applied to the following branches
of the service : Adjutant-general's, Inspector-general's, Medical, Pay,
Ordnance, Quartermaster's, and Subsistence Departments.

DEPARTMENT OF WAR. There shall be an Executive Depart-
ment, to be denominated the Department of War ; and there shall be a
principal officer therein, to be called the Secretary for the Department of
War; (Act Aug. 7, 1789.) " He is to perform and execute such duties
as shall, from time to time, be enjoined on, or intrusted to him, by the
President of the United States, agreeably to the constitution, relative to
military commissions, or to the land forces or warlike stores of the United
States, or such other matters respecting military affairs, as the President
of the United States shall assign to said department. And furthermore,
that the said principal officer shall conduct the business of the said de-
partment in such manner as the President of the United States shall,
from time to time, order or instruct. That there shall be in said de-
partment an inferior officer, to be appointed by the said principal offi-
cer, to be employed therein as he shall deem proper, and to be called
the chief clerk in the Department of War, and who, whenever the said
principal officer shall be removed from office by the President of the
United States, or in any other ' case of vacancy, shall, during such va-
cancy, have the charge and custody of all records, books, and papers,
appertaining to said Department. The said principal officer, and every
other person to be appointed or employed in said Department, shall,
before he enters on the execution of his office or employment, take an
oath or affirmation, well and faithfully to execute the trust committed
to him ; " (Act Aug. 7, 1789.) It seems impossible to read this act of
Congress, and contend that officers of the army are a portion of the War
Department. And the statute book will be searched in vain to find
authority given to the Secretary over any officers other than officers of
Staff Departments, or over subjects disconnected with the custody of
public records, the support and supply of troops, the manufacture and
care of warlike stores, the keeping of exact and regular returns of all
the forces of the United States, or other kindred administrative matters ;
such as receiving the proceedings of courts-martial, and laying them
before the President of the United States for his approval or disap-
proval, and orders in the case. There is no act of Congress which
authorizes the Secretary of War to command the troops, and he being

•j:M MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dip

no part of the army, the President, of course, cannot authorize him to
do so. But " the Secretary of War is (Peters' Digest of Decisions of
Federal Courts, vol. 1, p. 170) the regular constitutional organ of the
President for the administration of the military establishment of t lu-
nation ; and rules and orders publicly promulgated through him, mu-t
be received as the acts of the Executive, ami us such are liimling upon
all within the sphere of his legal an«l constitutional authority."

By an act of Congress, approved March 3, 1813, it is provided:
" That it shall be the duty of the Secretary of War, ami he is hereby
authorized, to prepare general regulations, better defining and prescrib-
ing the respective duties and powers of the several officers in the adju-
tant-general, inspector-general, quartermaster-general, ami commissary
of ordnance departments, of the topographical engineers, of the aids of
generals, and generally of the general and regimental staff; which reg-
ulation, when approved by the President of the Init. .1 States, shall
be respected and obeyed, until altered or revoked by the same author-
ity." Here was a partial delegation of legislative power; ami umlcr
this power of legislation so confined to the several stall" department*,
the Secretary of War, with the approval of the President, established
bureaus of the War Department, making the head of caeli staff depart-
ment chief of a bureau, in all fiscal and administrative matters con-
nected with his particular department under the general direction of
the Secretary of War. The War Department thus cent rali/ed all army
administration, and efforts have since "been made to eentrali/e in tin-
same way the command and government and regulation of the army.
But as the 62d article of war declares that when different corpy
come together, the officer highest in rank shall command the whole,
and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise spe-
cially directed by the President of the United States, according to tho
nature of the case," while the 61st article gives tho command to the
senior regimental officer within his regiment, when other troops are not
present, such centralization, if not a violation of law, would be a \ ida-
f all military principles, destructive alike to discipline ami mili-
tary spirit. For (says Odier) : "Commands niv.n immediately by
_'hest authority cause agitation rather than action. The sujH-ri-r
ty becomes weakened in proportion as the «\- !•• ,-,,m,-s accus-
tomed to it. Fear of it ceases, and wh.-n the highest authority habitu-
ates itself to doing every thing, as soon as it ceases to be sulhY
do all, there is mithinp done. All degrees of rank and command have
degree of importance. Authority must regularly ascend and de-
scend. Every inferior grade is the lieutenant of its superior g

DSP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 235

to the oldest soldier, who replaces the corporal. Obedience is recipro-
cal to authority." Rules established by Congress, denning the rights,
powers, and duties of all officers and soldiers, are much needed. (See
SECRETARY OF WAR.)

DEPLOYMENT. All tactical manoeuvres intended to pass from
close column to the order of battle are deployments. Deployments,
however convenient or brilliant, which cause the soldier to turn his back
to the enemy, are not suited to war. (Consult Infantry and Light In-
fantry and Rifle tactics for the prescribed deployments.)

DEPOSITION OF WITNESSES— when not of the line or staff
of the army, may be taken in cases not capital, provided the prosecutor
and accused are present at the taking of the same, or duly notified ;
(ART. 74. See WITNESS.)

DEPOT. The colonel of ordnance, under the direction of the Sec-
retary of War, is authorized to establish depots of arms, ammunition,
and ordnance stores, in such parts of the United States, and in such
numbers, as may be deemed necessary ; (Act Feb. 8, 1815.)

Three recruiting depots have also been established under the direc-
tion of .the Secretary of War, but a system of regimental depots is
much needed. In England and in France, regimental depots have been
found indispensable. In France, upon taking the field, a regiment
leaves in depot the quartermaster and the accounting officer of the
corps, the clothing officer, workmen, and stores ; infirm men, those too
old for war, and uninstructed recruits ; these make the depot ; the
wounded and sick are sent there to be re-established ; new levies are
received there, and detachments of able-bodied and instructed men are
successfully directed from the depot towards the army. The depot, like
the stomach, receives, elaborates, and gives life to its members. It is 4
at the depot that the clothing, and shoes, and all the wants of the regi-
ment are provided ; it is there that the accountability is centralized,
that the papers are kept ; it is at the depot that all regimental adminis-
tration goes on ; and for that purpose the major of the regiment re-
mains there, and likewise commands. In England, the depot company
is one left at home by regiments embarking for India, for the purpose
of recruiting. There are four reserve companies for all foreign stations
except India, which remain at home under the command of the senior
major. A roster is regularly kept of the officers at the depot ; and to
insure that each individual embarks in his proper turn to join the ser-
vice companies, a figure marking his place on the roster, is annexed to
every officer's name in the monthly returns transmitted to the adjutant-
general. Regimental records, with the attestations and service records

j;; ; MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dtr.

of the men doing duty with the regiment abroad, are left at the depot,
and filled up at stated per

DERRICK— consists of a spar which is always kept in an oblique
position ; one end of it on the deck of a ship, the other supported by
guys, and generally used to hoi>t h. M\ y weights. (See Gix.)

l>i:SKi;Ti:i;. Punishable by stripes, by sentence of general
court-martial. Not punishable by death in time of peace. May be

and punished, although the term of enlistment may |.a\v <
previous to apprehension. (ART. 20, and Acts March 16, 1802, May
29, 1880, May 10, 1812, and March 2, 1833.)

Of a deserter from the enemy, we demand his name, his country ;
the motive of his desertion ; the number of his regiment ; the name of
his colonel ; his immediate general; that of the cominaiul r-in « hit f ;
the strength of his particular corps ; that of the whole army ; whether
utiuiis are regular; how many cartridges each man has; how
many guns there are ; whether there arc many sick or wounded in the
camp of the enemy; whether the soldiers have confidciuv in their chief,
and whether he is well treated by them.

DETACHED BASTION— is one which is separated from the en-
ceinte by a ditch.

DETACHED WORKS— are those which are e<»nstni.t,,l beyond
the range of the musketry of the main works; and as a Qonttai
steady communication with them cannot be kept up during a sieu
are frequently left to their own resources; nev.-rth. 1 -s. th.-y ouuht to
exercise a general influence on the defence of tin- pla«-e.

DETACHMENT. (French Origin.} BARDIN, J> 're de

fArmee de Terre thus defines it: A word whii-h has the same origin as
attach. It implies any fraction of a body, or an entire corps < h
particularly with functions which are dependent for their duration upon
circu instances in war or actual service. The Romans ex pr< ••»>••. 1 by tho
word Globut* nearly the meaning of detachment. Tho movable col-
umns of the French army were detachments formed sonn tiim -s of whole
corps, sometimes of fractions of corps. We rail also detachments, tin-
escorts of convoys of prisoners, those for evacuations, en-tain extra du-
tiet, some maritime expeditions. a patrol, &c, Agreeal.ly to the .Mini-
11 the instruetions of the year six, the many

men from a single or from different corps, and the subsequent n union
M men umler a military chief, constitutes a detachment. and it is
so considered, whether upon a voya<r<'. or stationed in a d. -pot of a corps

• A troop; s •q.wdmn, or p*rtj of •oUlien; • knot of men who JolnUy carry on any design.
AurawosTB's Latin Dictionary.

DET.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 037

or in garrison ; whether in cantonment, or whether in reference to the
means of transportation that may be necessary for it. In some cases,
picket and small detachments have the same signification. The follow-
ing illustrations of the meaning of detachment are drawn from various
sources : —

Rules and Articles of War passed Sept. 20, 1776.

ART. XII. Every officer commanding in any of the forts, barracks,
or elsewhere, where the corps under his command consists of detachments
from different regiments, or of independent companies, may assemble
courts-martial, &c. ; [such courts were called detachment courts-martial.]
ART. II. SEC. 17. For the future, all general officers and colonels,
serving by commission from the authority of any particular State, shall,
on all detachments, courts-martial, or other duty, wherein they may be
employed in conjunction with the regular forces of the United States,
take rank, &c. — When regiments or detachments are united, either in
camp, garrison, or quarters, the eldest officer, whether by brevet or
otherwise, is to command the whole ; (Regulations British Army.) The
detachments which are, from time to time, sent from the depots at home
to regiments abroad, &c. — The periods of the year at which detach-
ments are required to embark for foreign stations, &c. ; (Regulations
British Army.) — Whenever recruits are to be sent from a depot or
rendezvous to a regiment or post, a separate muster and description
roll, and a separate account of clothing of each detachment, will be placed
in the hands of the officer assigned to the command of such detachment;
( U. S. Army Regulations.) — Any detachment so far separated from the
main body to which it belongs as to render it impracticable for the com-
mander of the latter to make muster and inspection enjoined by the
general regulations, is considered as a separate command within the
meaning and for the purpose of this regulation. — Where a field-officer
is serving with detached companies of his regiment, the captains thereof
will make their company monthly returns through him, which returns
he will transmit with his own personal report to regimental head-quar-
ters ; (Regulations of the War Department, dated Feb. 10, 1855.)

SEC. * * And the said corps may be formed into as many com-
panies or detachments as the President of the United States may
direct. (Act of Congress.)

" Corps, formed by detachments, are the usual method in which
brevet officers are employed, as they cannot be introduced into regi-
ments without displacing other officers, or violating the right of succes-
sion, both of which are justly deemed injurious in every service. But
the reasoning is new by which the employing such officers in detached

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [D«r.

corps is made an infringement of tho rights of regimental officers;
(Letter of General Washing ton, dated August 11, 1780.)

DETAIL FOR DUTY— is a roster, or table, for the regular per.
formanco of duty cither in camp or garrison. The general detail is
regulated by tho adjt.-general, according to the strength of the s.
corps. Tho adjutant of each regiment superintends tho detail of the
officers and non-commissioned officers for duty, and orderly sergeants
detail the privates.

DEVIATION OF FIRING. (See FIRING.)

DIMINISHED ANGLE— is that formed by the exterior side and
the lino of defence in fortification.

DISBURSING OFFICERS. Exclusively of the paymasters of
the army, and other officers already authorized by law, no other p« THIJI-
ncnt agents shall be appointed, either for the purpose of making con-
tracts, or for tho purchase of supplies, or for the disbursement in any
other manner of moneys for tho use of tho military establishment, but
such as shall bo appointed by the 1 «>f tho United States, with

the advice and consent of the Senate. But tho President may appoint
such necessary agents in the recess of tho Senate to be submitted for
their advice and consent at their next session, provided that the com-
pensation allowed to either shall not exceed one per centum per annum,
nor be more than $2,000 per annum; (Act March 3, 1809.) All
purchases and contracts arc made under the direction of the S.-erctnry
of War; (Act March 3, 1809.) Shall givo bonds to bo regulated by
tho President, and may be dismissed by the President on failure t<> un-
der their account. (See DEFAULTER; DELINQUENT.)

DISCHARGE. After a non-commissioned officer or soldier shall
have been duly enlisted and sworn, he shall not be dismissed tho ser-
vice without a discharge in writing ; and no discharge grant id to him
shall bo suffirient, which is not signed by a field-officer of the regiment
to which he belongs, or commanding officer, \\ IK iv no field-officer of the
regiment is present ; and no discharge shall be jrivm to a non-commis-
sioned officer or soldier, before his term of service has expired, but by
of the President, the Secretary of War, the commanding officer
of a department, or the sentence of a general court-martial ; nor shall a
comm fficcr be discharged tho service but by order of the IV. s

i ! nt <.f the United States, or by sentence of a courtrmartial ; (ART.
11.) I'ndcr this article it has been contended that the Pn-si.l.-nt may
arbitrarily Mtrlnryf any commissioned officer from the service; but as
the Rules and Articles of War provide for the punishment of all military
« rimes, disorders, or neglects, by courts-martial, all arbitrary and ca-

Dis.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 039

pricious action over such matters is thereby necessarily excluded. Be-
sides, dismission and discharge are essentially different. The latter, in
its primitive sense, means relieved of a burden or obligation. Thus, as
every individual who enters the army by enlistment or commission
must remain in it until regularly discharged, under penalty of being
considered a deserter, the article declares that no discharge of a com-
missioned officer is regular but by the order of the President of the
United States, or the sentence of a court-martial. Voluntary separations
from the service, therefore, or resignations, are only legal when accepted
by the President of the United States. No other military authority is
competent to release an officer from the obligations he assumes on enter-
ing the army, even on his own application. Hence the use of the word
discharge in the article, so as to embrace voluntary separations authorized
by the President, and involuntary separations by sentence of court-mar-
tial. But the article gives no power to the President to dismiss sum-
marily. Had such been the intention, the authority would have been
clearly given, as it has been by the act of Jan. 31, 1823, in the case of delin-
quent disbursing officers — a power not needed, if it before existed under
Article 11. This rule of making the acceptance of an officer's resigna-
tion dependent upon the President or highest military authority, is
necessary ; because an officer who was amenable to punishment for in-
fractions of military law, might otherwise, by the resignation of his
commission, escape punishment. The Court of King's Bench in Eng-
land have decided, therefore, that an officer of the East India Company's
service has not the right to resign his commission under any circum-
stances, and whenever he pleased ; (case of Capt. Parker ; Prendergast,
p. 248.) In the case of Capt. Vertue, however, (Prendergast, p. 250,)
while the court held that Capt. Vertue's resignation was invalid, as
having been made in pursuance of an improper combination of a large
number of officers, yet Mr. Justice Yates intimated that there may be
a state of circumstances, under which an officer may have a legal right
to resign, and so to obtain a release of exemption from military law.

Such would undoubtedly be the decision of a civil court in the
United States. The power given to the President of accepting or with-
holding his acceptance of a resignation was intended for the maintenance
of justice, and not the oppression of individuals ; and if that power
should be perverted, a court of justice might, and no doubt would, in-
terpose its writ of habeas corpus.

DISCIPLINE. It ought to result from a perfect uniformity of
rules ; for stability, method, exactness, and even routine, are necessary
to insure its maintenance ; under a perfect discipline, troops in peace

C 10 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dis.

and in war, in garrison or in campaign, would be litt.-d for all the du-
ties of war. To attain this perfection, it is necessary that discipline
should rest entirely upon law ; it ought to have its roots in patriotism ;
to be adapted to tin- character of the people ; to the spirit of the age,
and the nature of the government. It is essential to make rights and
duties inseparable. This absolute necessity, and the importance of
regularity of pay, are truths dwelt upon by French writers. Discipline
may be distinguished as active and passive. The first derives its j». .\\vr
from a military hierarchy or range of subordination, skilfully estab-
lished and regulated; it is secured by calmness, impartiality, prompt-
ness, firmness, and the prestige of character in olliccrs. These qualities
are manifested by preventing wrongs rather than by punishing faults,
and by abstaining from arbitrary corrections when obliged to chastise.
Discipline, intrusted to such authorities enlightened by military cxpe-

. will partake of the character of paternal government, ami will
not be enforced with an unsparing harshness suited only to govern-
ments essentially despotic.

The dogma, that military discipline can only bo sustained by the
aid of severe and unpitying punishment, is far removed from the.
idea here suggested. That unpitying military discipline seems to
have prompted IVter the Great, when -he sacrificed a young.
who triumphantly fought the Swedes without orders. Tims also
thought Frederic the Great, when he executed the unfortunate /
who violated an order by keeping a light a little too long in his
tent. But such harsh principles are no longer inculcated in the best

.-•d armies of Europe. Passive discipline is the fusion of indi-
vidual interest in national interest. The first military virtue is «rrit
de corps, with fidelity to the oath taken upon assuming the military
character. These duties exact obedience to the laws, and to the lawful

< of the President of the United States, and officers set over us
according to law. These laws should command obedience from all

•rs, and distinctly define the extent of all authority. They ou-ht

d the President or eommander-in-ehief as well as the simple sol-
us and DI-TIKS must be reciprocal, and be alike ,

by law, \\hi. h should, to maintain discipline, " precisely determine the
luti«-«, ai ..f all military men — soldiers ollieers,

chiefs of corps, generals." Discipline that hlM attained tin*
supplies the deficiency of niimb.Ts. and gives new solidity to valor;
unded by dangers, the brave man f.-.-N that his
leaders and comrades are not less devoted, less vigorous, or less expe-
rienced than himself.

Dis.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 241

Discipline is sometimes used as meaning " system of instruction,"
but its signification is much broader. Its technical military sense in-
cludes not only the means provided for exercise and instruction, but
subjection to all laws framed for the government and regulation of tho
army. The good or bad discipline of an army depends primarily upon the
laws established for its creation, as well as its government and regulation.

DISEASE. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

DISEMBARKATION. In disembarkations, the first essential
matter is to determine by reconnaissance the proper point for landing —
how near the landing can be approached with vessels of light draught,
to scour the beach and thus cover the operation ; and secondly, the man-
ner in which the men, horses, and some field-artillery are to be disem-
barked. The landing of heavy ordnance and all supplies is a subsequent
matter. Having chosen the point of debarkation, the troops are put
into flat-bottomed boats, previously provided, as expeditiously as pos-
sible, but without hurry or disorder — they are to sit down in the boats,
and positively ordered not to load until formed on the beach. Each man
should carry three days' provisions cooked in his haversack, at least
forty rounds of ammunition, and his canteen filled with water. The
men should also carry their intrenching tools. The covering vessels
must be liberal with round shot, grape, and canister ; and under cover
of their fire, the^rs^ line of boats should pull boldly in, recollecting that
the men are to be landed, and that the sooner it is done the better.
When a boat grounds, the officer jumps out over the bow, and the men
follow also over the bow. If the boat is large, or there are rocks, so as
to render it unsafe for an accoutred man to jump, the gang-boards must
be used. The men follow the officer to the sheltered spot selected by
him for their formation. Without waiting for other boats, the officer
will consider his men part of a line of skirmishers, the supports of
which are behind. As soon as each boat is clear, she must shove off*,
and pull to the shipping for a fresh load.

The second division of boats will land as the first, but these will not
commence firing until the whole of each company has joined, when they
will act as supports, under the command of their proper officers. As
soon as a sufficient number of well-united companies are on shore, the
irregularly formed skirmishers first landed will be relieved, formed by
companies, and sent to their respective battalions. Boats employed
landing troops should have neither guns, masts, nor sails ; their equip-
ments should be gang-boards, oars, grapnels and painters, boat hooks,
bailers, hammers and nails, sheet lead, grease, and canvas ; the latter
articles to enable them to stop a small shot hole, in case of accident.
16

•Jl -J MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dis.

Tho launches of men-of-war are used for disembarking field-artillery.
when opposed by tho enemy. Two planks are laid from the bow to
the item of tho launch, parallel to each other, at the distance of the space
of the wheels ; a bead in nailed to the inside edge, to prevent tho wheels
from slipping off. Two gang-boards, which can be laid out or taken on
board, are fitted to the bow ends of the planks, so as to reach from
t<> tho shore, as a ramp. These launches arc towed by smaller
boats. It is very desirable that this portion of artillery, with their offi-
cers and men, should bo on board men-of-war. Each two-deck
take a couple ; the guns are stowed away on tho upper deck, tho car-
riages and wheels in the chains, so that tho guns can be mounted and
ready to bo lowered into the boats in a very few minutes. The muzzle
of tho gun must point forward in tho launch, and as soon as the boat
touches ground, the gang-boards are put out and tho\ guns run ashore.
The artillery should endeavor to gain tho shore and land with the
troops. It is dragged by tho sailors or troops. A sufficient supply of
ammunition must bo at hand in a boat or two, close to the shore. In
an cmer LT'-ncy the harness may be at once sent ashore, and if tin- \
arc near, horses may be made to leap out and swim ashore. I
other circumstances, boats of proper capacity must be provided for the
disembarkation of horses, heavy ordnance, &c.; or it may be necessary
to establish temporary wharves on trestles, or by means of boats, and
to erect shears, cranes, or derricks.

On a smooth, sandy beach, heavy pieces may bo landed by rolling
them overboard as soon as the boats ground, and hauling them up with
sling carts. (See EMBARKATION. Consult Aide Memoire of the Mili-
tary Sciences; SCOTT'S Orders and Correspondences during the Cam-
paign in Mexico.)

DISINFECTANTS. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

DISMISSION. No sentence of a court-martial in time of peace

• Mimissioned ofl'nvr, or which, in war or peace, af
general officer, shall be carried into execution without the approval <>f
the President of tho Tinted States; (ART. 05.) Disbursing onV.-rs
may be dismissed by the President alone, without the intervention of a
court-martial, on failure to account properly for moneys placed in their
hands; (An. .Ian.. !*•:.",.) A general court-mart i:d in time of
may dismiss, with the approval of tho President, in all cases in which
Mtenoo to "death or such oilier punishment

as may be inflicted by a general court martial." (See DEATH.) Such
court may also - .missioned officer to be cashiered or dis-

missed tho service in the following cases : — 1. Drunkenness on duty ;

Dis.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 243

(ART. 45.) 2. Breach of arrest ; (X\RT. 77.) 3. Conduct unbecoming
an officer and a gentleman ; (ART. 83.) 4. Using contemptuous or
disrespectful words against the President of the United States, against
the Vice-president- thereof, against the Congress of the United States,
or against the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States
in which he may be quartered ; (ART. 5.) 5. Signing a false certificate
relating to the absence of either officer or soldier, or relative to his or
their pay ; (ART. 14.) 6. Making a false muster of man or horse ;
(ART. 15.) 7. Taking money or other thing by way of gratification,
on mustering any regiment, troop, or company, or on signing muster
rolls. 8. Making a false return to the Department of War, or to any
of his superior officers authorized to call for such returns of the state
of the regiment, troop, or company, or garrison under his command ;
or of the army ammunition, clothing, or other stores thereunto belong-
ing ; (ART. 18.) 8. Sending and accepting a challenge to another
officer or soldier to fight a duel ; (ART. 25.) 9. An officer who com-
mands a guard, knowingly and wilfully suffering any person to go forth
to fight a duel, and all seconds, promoters, and carriers of challenges
shall be punished as challengers ; (ART. 26.) 10. Selling, embezzling,
misapplying, or wilfully, or through neglect, suffering provisions, arms,
&c., to be spoiled or damaged; (ART. 36.) .11. Any commanding
officer who exacts exorbitant prices for houses let out to sut-
lers, or connives at like exactions fr<5m others, or who by his own
authority and for his private advantage lays any duty or imposition
upon, or is interested in, the sale of any victuals, liquors, or other
necessaries of life brought for the use of the soldiers, may be discharged
the service; (ART. 31.) 12. Failure, by a commanding officer, to see
justice done to offenders, and reparation made to the party injured, by
officers or soldiers ill-treating any person, or disturbing fairs or markets,
or committing any kinds of riots to the disquieting of citizens of the
United States ; (ART. 32.)

DISMOUNT. To dismount the cavalry, is to use them as infantry.
Guards, when relieved, are said to dismount. They are to be marched
with the utmost regularity to the parade-ground where they were
formed, and from thence to their regimental parades, previously to
being dismissed to their quarters. To dismount a piece of ordnance,
is to take it from the carriage.

DISOBEDIENCE OF ORDERS— punishable by a court-martial
with death or otherwise, according to the nature of the offence ; (ART. 9.)

DISORDERS. (See ABUSES; CRIMES.)

DISPART — is the difference of the semi-diameter of the base-ring

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Dia,

and the swell of the muzzle, or the muzzle-band of a piece of ordnance.
(Set ORDNANCE.)

DISRESPECT TO A COMMANDING OFFICER— punished
by court-martial.

DISRESPECTFUL WORDS— used by any officer or soldier
•gainst the President, Vice-president, the Congress or the governor of
any State where he may be quartered, punishable with cashiering or
rwise, as a court-martial may direct ; ( AKT. 5.)

DISTANCES. Pacing Distances. — " If you count tho strokes of
either of your horse's fore-feet, either walking or trotting, you will find
them to be upon an average about 050 to a mile. In a field-book, as you
note each change of bearing, you have only to note down al>o the num-
ber of paces (which scon becomes a habit) ; and to keep count of these,
it is only necessary to carry about thirty-five or forty small pieces of
wood, like dice (beans or peas will do), in one waistcoat-pocket, and at
the end of every 100 paces remove one to the empty pocket on the op-
posite side. At each change of bearing you count these, adding the odd
numbers to the number of hundreds, ascertained by the dice, to be
counted and returned at each change of bearing to the other p
You should have a higher pocket for your watch, and keep the two
lower waistcoat-pockets for this purpose. Now, to plot such a survey,
you have only to take the half-inch scale of equal parts, (on the six-inc-h
scale, in every case of instruments,) and allowing ten for a hun<liv«l. tin-.
half-inch will represent a thousand paces. You may thus lay down any
broken number of paces to a true scale, and so obtain a tolerably accu-
rate map of each day's journey. The latitude will, after all, determine
finally the scale of paces ; and you can at leisure adjust each day's
journey by its general bearing between different latitudes, and subse-
quently introduce tho details." (Sir THOMAS MITCHELL.)

A traveller, when the last of his watches breaks down, has no need
to be disheartened from going on with his longitude observations, espe-
cially if he observes occultations and eclipses. The object of a watch
is to tell the number of seconds that elapse between the instant of oo-
cultatinn, eclipse, &c., and that, a minute or two later, when the sextant
observation for time is made ; and all that it actually doet, is to beat
seconds, and to record the number of beats. Now, a string ami st<>nc
swung as a pendulum will beat time ; and a native who is taught
to throw a pebble into a bag at each beat will record it ; and, f»r oper-
ations that are not tedious, ho will be as good as a watch. The rate
of the pendulum is, of course, determined by taking two sets of 0
rations, with three or four minutes' interval between them ; and, if tho

Dis.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 245

distance from the point of suspension to the centre of the stone be
thirty-nine inches, and if the string be thin, and the stone very heavy,
it will beat seconds very nearly indeed. The observations upon which
the longitude of the East African lakes now depends (1859) are lunars
timed with a etring and a stone, in default of a watch.

Units of length. — A man should ascertain his height ; height of his
eye above ground; ditto, when kneeling; his fathom; his cubit; the
span, from ball of thumb to tip of one of his fingers ; the length of the
foot, and the width of two, three, or four fingers. In all probability,
some one of these is an even and a useful number of feet or inches,
which he will always be able to recollect, and refer to as a unit of
measurement. A stone's throw is a good standard of reference for
greater distances. Cricketers estimate by the length between wickets.
Pacing should be practised. It is well to dot a scale of inches on a
pocket-knife.

Angles to measure. — A capital substitute for a very rude sextant
is afforded by the outstretched hand and arm. The span between
the middle finger and the thumb subtends an angle of 15°, and that
between the forefinger and the thumb an angle of ll^-0, or one point
of the compass. Just as a person may learn to walk yards accurately,
so may he learn to span out these angular distances accurately ;
and the horizon, however broken it may be, is always before his eyes
to check him. Thus, if he begins from a tree, or even from a book on
his shelves, and spans all round until he comes to the tree or book
again, he should make twenty-four of the larger spans and thirty -two
of the lesser ones. These two angles of 15° and lli° are particularly
important. The sun travels through 15° in each hour ; and therefore,
by " spanning " along its course, as imagined, from the place where it
would stand at noon, (aided in this by the compass,) the hour before
or after noon, and, similarly, after sunrise, or before sunset, can be
instantly reckoned. Again, the angles 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90°, all of
them simple multiples of 15°, are by far the most useful ones in taking
rough measurements of heights and distances, because of the simple
relations between the sides of right-angled triangles, whose other
angles are 30°, 45°, &c. As regards ll£°, or one point of the com-
pass, it is perfectly out of the question to trust to bearings taken by the
unaided eye, or to steer a steady course by simply watching a star or
landmark, when this happens to be much to the right or the left of it.
Now, nothing is easier than to span out the bearing from time to time.

Squaring. — As a triangle whose sides are as 3, 4, and 5, must be a
right-angled one (since 52=33+42), we can always find a right angle

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Dis.

very simply by means of a measuring tape. We take a length of
twelve feet, yards, fathoms, or whatever it may be, and peg tlu- t\\.»
ends of it, close together, to the ground. Next a peg is driven in at
the third division, and then the third peg is held at the seventh division
of the cord, which is stretched out till it becomes taut, and the peg is
driven in. These three pegs will form the corners of a right-angled

Measurements, <tc. — The breadth of a river may bo measured with.
out instruments and without crossing it, by means of tho following
useful problem from the French " Manuel du Genie," which requires
pacing only :

To measure A B (Fig. 106), produce it any distance to D ; from D,
in any direction, take any equal distances, D C, C d, and produce B C
to b, making C b = C B ; join d b and produce it to a, where A C pro-
duced intersects it ; then a b is equal to A B. In practice, tho points
D C, <kc., are marked by bushes planted in tho ground, or by men
standing.

Colonel Everest, the late surveyor-general of India, has pointed out
the following simple way of measuring an angle, and therefore a triangle :
A B is the base, R R the river, C an object on the
. other side ; (Fig. 107.) Ho paces any length A
a1 ; and an equal length A a"; also a' a", which
is tho chord of a' A a". In other words —

Pio. 1M.

in the same way B is found. A B being known,

Fio. 107.

the triangle A B C is known, an.] tli.- l.roadth of the riv, •• no !>«•
fonn.I. Tho problem can 1..- workr.l out, ritl.rr by calculation or l.y
. (GALTON'S Art of Travel. See STADIA ; SURVEYS ; TAR-
GET; VELOCITIES.)

Dii.J MILITARY DICTIONARY. 247

DISTRIBUTION — means, generally, any division or allotment
made for the purposes of war, and minor arrangements made for the
supply of corps.

DISTRICT. One of those portions into which a country is di-
vided, for the convenience of command, and to insure a co-operation
beween distant bodies of troops.

DITCH — sometimes" called the Fosse — is the excavation made
round the works, from which the earth required for the construction of
the rampart, parapet, and banquette is obtained. In besieging a forti-
fication, when the ditch is dry, and a descending gallery has been con-
structed, the passage of the ditch consists of an ordinary sap pushed
from the opening in the counterscarp wall to the slope of the breach,
and, when necessary, it is carried on to crown the summit of the breach.
If the ditch be full of water, and the locality favors its being drained,
every means must be used to break the batardeaux, to cause the water
to flow away entirely or in part. If none of the batteries can see the
batardeaux, the sluices must be sought and destroyed by shells, or
by mining. Should the assailants be unable to breach the batardeaux
or to destroy the sluices, a bridge or causeway must be thrown across.
This is one of the most difficult operations in a siege. The bridge or
causeway, with its epaulement, is constructed with pontoons or casks,
or, if without them, with fascines, hurdles, gabions, and sand-bags,
openings being left in the causeway to allow the free flowing of the
water, if it be a running stream, or can be made so by the defend-
ers. A wet ditch may sometimes be crossed by a raft of sufficient
length, which should be constructed along the counterscarp, and at-
tached by one end to the bottom of the descent. The raft is then al-
lowed to swing round with the current, if there be one, or is rowed or
pulled round, if there is not one, so as to form a connection across the
ditch with the breach.

The following experiment for crossing a wet ditch was successfully
tried at Chatham by Sir Charles Pasley : — Two hundred large casks
were prepared, with their heads taken out ; they were lashed by fours,
end to end, so as to form hollow piers, about 18 feet in length, of un-
equal diameters, in consequence of the unequal size of the casks.
Each pier was launched in succession from a great gallery, represent-
ing that of the counterscarp in a regular siege. These piers had guys
at each end, by which they were hauled round into their intended
position, and there sunk by means of sand-bags. After this, the in-
tervals between the upper tiers of casks were filled in with long fas-
cines, and others were laid over these at right angles, till a general

348 MILITARY PI. TiuNAUY. [Dir.

level was obtained, when strong skids were laid over all, and
pounder, on a travelling carriage, was dragged through the gallery,
and passed along these skids to the other side. In this ma
piece of water, representing a wet ditch, was bridged over with < -a->c
and comparative expedition. This experiment was afterwards
with full success in the Mast Pond of Chatham Dockyard, wl.
ver^ strong current was produced, much stronger than could occur in
the ditches of an I place. It is stated. ih::t there was no per-

ceptible depression in the bridge as the 24-pounder passed over. The
same experiment was tried with common gabions, lashed together, end
to end, in like manner, forming hollow piers or cylinders, which were
similarly sunk 0110 over another until the upper' layer rose above the
water, and wore covered with fascines and ski- Is. These. aU<>, bore a
24-pounder, which caused a depression of more than 6 indies in the part
over which it was passing. The gabions were very weak and old. The
piers of casks were fastened as follows : on being placed end to end,
staples were driven into each cask, about 10 inches from their ends, in
three equi-distant parts of their circumference-; strong spun-yarn,
ting the staples, lashed the four casks together. Six or eight
bushel sand-bags were necessary to sink cadi pier with ease, yet with-
out making it sink too rapidly. To get thcrn into the water, they
w.-iv launched on ways made of planks. In making the gabion bridge,
eaeh pier consisted of four gabions lashed end to end like the casks, by
spun-yarn, at time e«[ui-distant points of the circumference. These
were not loaded to make them sink. It was found, from the Irregu-
larity of their surface, that the second pier merely f..iv.-d the first out
from the bank to make room for itself; the third the second, and so on,
until the tier of gabions connected the two scarps. On rolling other
piers on the top of them, the lower ones sunk to the bottom, and brush-
wood and fascines were laid in the intervals of the gabions to form a
>K'S Fortifications.)

DIVISION. In the ordinary arrangement of the army, two regi-
meats of infantry or cavalry shall constitute a In 1 shall bo

commanded by a brigadier-general ; two brigades, a di\isi<.n. and shall
be commanded by a major-general. Provided always th..t it si
in the discretion of the commanding general t<> vary this ditp
be shall judge proper ; (Act March :'.. 1796 .8.)

DOMIl'IIj;. ry man's domicile, is in the country

where ho has his permanent residence. ..r to which he ordinarily returns

f T the purposo of rcsi-1, nee .-!!• -i .;] ibtHMe-j ;»::,| ill < a -• of his

death, the right of succession to his goods and chattels and personal

Div.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 249

property of all sorts is regulated by the law of the country of his dom-
icile, although he may happen to die beyond its limits. As regards
military men, their employment on duty involving only temporary
absence in intention would not, on common principles, cause a change
of domicile; and as the laws of different States of the Union vary on
the subject of the right of succession to property, the subject is of great
interest to military men. Recently, an officer who was a native of
South Carolina died intestate in the city of New York, and no heirs
being forthcoming, his estate was taken possession of by the public ad-
ministrator, although the Rules and Articles of War enacted by Con-
gress provide that, in such cases, an officer of the army at the station
shall take possession of the effects for purposes of administration.

" Personal property, in point of law, has no locality, and in case
of the decease of the owner, must go wherever in point of fact situate,
according to the law of the country where he had his domicile." (ROB-
ERTSON'S Law of Personal Succession.)

The 14th Lord Somerville entered the army in 1745, and continued
in the service till the peace of 1763, during which period ho accompa-
nied his regiment to England, Scotland, and Germany, both in quarters
and on active duty. At his death in 1796, a question arose, whether,
under the circumstances, his domicile was English or Scotch ; and the
Master of the Rolls, (Sir R. P. Arden,) in giving judgment, said : " I am
clearly of opinion Lord Somerville was a Scotchman upon his birth,
and continued so to the end of his days. He never ceased to be so,
never having abandoned his Scotch domicile, or established another.
The decree, therefore, must be, that the succession to his personal
estate ought to be regulated according to the law of Scotland." His
honor must consequently have been of opinion, that a Scotchman en-
tering the British army does not thereby lose his original Scotch dom-
icile ; and since the union of England and Scotland, the army is cer-
tainly as much that of Scotland as of England.

Sir Charles Douglas, a Scotchman by birth and original domicile,
loft his native country at the age of twelve, to enter the navy. From
tlr.it time to his death, he was in Scotland only four times : 1st, as
captain of a frigate ; 2dly, to introduce his wife to his friends, on
which occasion he staid about a year ; 3dly, upon a visit ; and 4thly,
when, upon his appointment to a command upon the Halifax station, he
went in the mail coach to Scotland, and died there in 1789. He was
not for a day residen^there in any house of his own ; nor was he ever
there except for temporary occasions. He also commanded the Rus-
sian navy for about a year, and was afterwards in the Dutch service.

250 MILITARY DICTION [Div.

lie had no fixed residence in England till 177(>, in which year he took a
house at G?osport, where he lived as his home when on shore. This
was his only residence in the British dominions ; and when la- \
service he Kit his \\ife and family at (losport. At his death it became
necessary to decide whether his domicile was Scotch or English, be-
came ho hud made a will, bequeathing a legacy to his daughter, with
certain conditions, which were void by the law of Scotland, hut vali-1
by the law of Kit-land. The House of Lords decided that his original
domicile was Scotch, and that though he did not lose it in this first in-
stance, by becoming an ofiieer in the British navy, he abandoned it by
entering a foreign service, ami acquired a Russian domicile; that <>:i
returning to England, and resuming his position as a British ofli
acquired an English domicile, but did not recover his Scotch dom'u il« ,
that his subsequent visits to Scotland, not being made aninio tnanendi,
did not revive his Scotch domicile, and that the succession to his prop-
erty, as that of an Englishman, was therefore to be governed by tho
1 1\\ of England, in which country he last acquired a domicile.

In connection with this subject, it may bo proper to notice an opin-
ion expressed by the Master of the Holls, during tho argument •>!' I.or.l
Somerville's case — that an officer entering the. military or naval -
of a foreign power, with consent of the British government, ami taking
a qualified oath of allegiance to tho foreign state, does not thereby
abandon or lose his native domicile.

In Forrest v. Funston, tho defendant was a lieutenant in tho king's
army, and held a situation of master gunner at Blackness Castle in
Scotland, where ho had the charge of considerable military stores, with
an apartment for his residence, lie was a native of Strabane in Ire-
land ; and it was held by the Court of Session, that though it was his
duty to reside at Blackness, he did not by the possession of his ofhVe
acquire a Scotch d'.mi< -Mr. With respect to the East India <
Service, the question of domicile does not turn upon the simple f.ict »,f
the party 1,,-ing under an obligation, by his commission, to serve in
India; but when an officer accepts a commission or cmphiyment, the
duties of which necessarily require residence in India, an. 1 then is no
stipulated period of service, and ho proceeds to India ae.-ordingly,
the law from such circumstances presumes an intention consistent with
his duty, and holds his residence to be animo et facto in India.

In tli.- recent case of CJeneral Forbes, in the Court of Chancery, the
subje( ( \Q in its relation to military mA was extensively dis-

cussed before the Vioe-ohttHSelloT Wood. Nathaniel Forbes, afterwards
General Forbes, was bom in Scotland of Scotch parents; his father

Div.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 251

being possessed of an ancestral estate called Auchernach, on which
there was then no house. In 1786, Nathaniel Forbes, being then a
minor, and a lieutenant on half-pay in the 102d foot, a disbanded regi-
ment, contracted a marriage with a Scotch lady. He shortly after-
wards obtained an appointment in the service of the East India Com-
pany ; and in December, 1787, he sailed for India, where he continued
until 1808. He then obtained a furlough, and returned with his wife
to Scotland. On the death of his father in 1794 he had succeeded to
the family estate in Scotland ; and during 'his furlough he built a house
there, and furnished it, and made some improvements in the grounds.
In 1812 he returned with his wife to India, and remained there for several
years. The wife left India in 1818 : and in 1822 her husband, who had
then attained the rank of a general officer, and was colonel of a regi-
ment, also quitted India, according to the rules of the service, with the
intention of never returning to that country; and he never did return
thither. During the whole of his service under the East India Com-
pany General Forbes retained his commission and rank of a lieutenant
in the king's army. His domicile was without doubt originally Scot-
tish. After his final return from India he had an establishment at a
hired house in Sloane-street, London. He also kept his house at
Auchernach furnished : and had some servants there also. He likewise
became a justice of the peace and a commissioner of taxes in Scotland :
and kept his pedigree and papers (including his will) at Auchernach,
where he was in the habit of residing half the year, and where he had
constructed a mausoleum in which he wished to be buried. But his
health did not permit him to reside constantly at Auchernach, where
his establishment was also not suitable for his wife ; and his house in
Sloane-street was manifestly his chief establishment, and his wife re-
sided there. He died in 1851. His wife thereupon laid claim to a
share of his property according to the Scotch law of succession, and
contended that, in the events which had happened, he must be consid-
ered to have died possessed of his original Scottish domicile. The sub-
stantial question in the case was, whether his domicile was in England
or in Scotland. If he had been a single man his final domicile would
probably have been considered Scottish. But the court held that Sloane-
street, having been his chief establishment, and the abode of his wife,
must be taken to have been the seat of his domicile. In pronouncing
judgment upon the case, the learned Vice-chancellor ruled the following
points : 1. That the Scottish domicile of General Forbes, notwithstand-
ing his having gone to India during his minority, in the service of the
East India Company, continued until he attained the age of twenty-one :

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [DRA.

on the principle that a minor cannot change his domicile by his owu
•:. Tli:it. on attaining twenty-one, he acquired an An^lo-Indian
domicile ; and thereupon his Scottish domicile ceased : on the principle
that a service in India, under a commission in the Indian arm;.
person having no other residence, creates an Indian domicile. 3. That
the circumstance of his being a lieutenant on half-pay in a disbanded
king's regiment, did not affect the question. 4. That the Anglo-Indian
ile of General Forbes continued unchanged until his departure
from India in 1822: the furlough, or limited leave of absence, implying
by its nature that it was his duty to return to India on its expiration.
5. That in 18*22 the Anglo-Indian domicile of General Forbes was
abandoned and lost : the possibility of his being called upon, as colonel
of a regiment, to return at some indefinite time to active- service in
India, being too remote to have any material bearing upon the qn<
0. That he had acquired by choice a new domicile in England on his
return from India.

DRAGOONS. There are two regiments of dragoons in our army.
(See ARMY ; CAVALRY.)

DRAG-ROPE. This is a 4" hemp rope, with a thimble worked
into each end, one of the thimbles carrying a hook. Six handles, made
• •folk or ash, are put in between the strands of the rope, and lashed
with marline. It is used to assist in extricating carriages lr« MM <litKr-
ent positions ; by the men, for dragging pieces, &c. Length 28 i

DRAWING. (See RKCONNOISSANCE.)

DRILL. Thn mano?uvrcs and tactical exercises of troops.

DRUNKENNESS ON DUTY. Any commissioned officer who
shall be found drunk on his guard, post, or other duty, shall bo ca-
1. Any non-commissioned officer or soldier so offending, shall
suffer such corporal punishment as shall be inflicted by a court-mar-
tial ; (ART. 45.)

DUEL. Sending and accepting a challenge, or, if a commanding
officer, permit tint: knowingly a duel, or socmulinir, promoting, "r (i;""'-\-
ing challenges in order in duels, punishable, with cashiering if eommis-
sioned officer*, and with corporal punishment in the case of non-com-
missioned officers and soldiers ; (A K\.) (See ( 11 OJ i NCKS.)

DUTY. In all military duties, the tour of duty is invariably fr.mi
the eldest downward*. P.ripade duties are those perlnniud by one
regiment in common with another. Lv^'mienta! duties are those per-
formed by the officers and companies of a regiment among thems. l\< -s.
:tial, th«- i "('which have been assemble. 1 and sworn,

i- reckoned a duty, although they may have been dismissed without

EMU.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 253

trying any person. If an officer's turn for picket, general court-martial,
or fatigue, happens when he is upon any other duty, he is not obliged
to make good that picket, &c., when he comes off, but his tour passes
him ; however, if an officer is on the inlying picket, he is liable to bo
relieved, and placed on other duties. Officers cannot exchange their
duties without permission of the commanding officer. A guard, de-
tachment, or picket, having once marched off the place of parade, is
reckoned to have performed a duty, though it may have been dismissed
immediately afterwards. Officers, on all duties under arms, are to
have their swords drawn, without waiting for any word of command
for that purpose.

DYSENTERY. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

ECHELON. An arrangement of battalions, so that each has a
line of battle in advance or in rear of its neighboring battalion. (Con-
sult Infantry Tactics, vol. 3. See also MANOEUVRES IN COMBAT.)

ELEVATION. The elevation of a work is the projection of its
face on a vertical plane by horizontal rays. It shows the height or
depth of a work, and also its length, when the plane of projection is
parallel to the face. Applied to a piece of ordnance, the elevation is
the inclination of the axis of the j)iece above the plane on which the car-
riage stands.

EMBARKATION. Field-batteries should always be embarked
by the officers and men belonging to them, who will then know where
each article is stowed. Articles required to be disembarked first,
should be put in last. When there are several vessels laden with ord-
nance and ordnance stores for an expedition, each vessel should have on
each quarter, and on a signal at mast head, a number that can be easily
distinguished at a distance. The same numbers should be entered on
the list of supplies shipped in each vessel. The commander will then
know exactly what resources he has with him. Articles shipped must
be divided among vessels according to circumstances ; but, as a general
rule, place in each vessel every thing required for the service at the
moment of disembarkation, so that there will be no inconvenience,
should other vessels be delayed.

If boats are to be employed in the embarkation, and the boats are
much lower than the top of the wharf, the guns and ammunition boxes
will be lowered into the boat by means of cranes ; but when the gun-
wales are nearly level with the wharf, the ammunition boxes may be
more expeditiously put on board by hand, and if there are no cranes,

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Eun.

the guns may bo parbuckled into tho boats. Men told off to the car-
riages, will prepare them for embarkation. Each carriage, when called
for, is to be run forward to the boat or crane ; the gun nnlimhered and
dismounted; the ammunition boxes, shafts, wheels, &c., &c., to be
taken off; the washers and linen-pins carefully put away. If tin \ iro
left in tho nxlc-tree they are liable to be lost When a battery is mi-
barked in different vessels, every part should be complete, and a pro-
portion of general stores on each. Should two batteries be on the same
Teasel, they should be stowed on different sides of the vessel.

The embarkation of horses is more difficult than that of guns, par-
ticularly if it bo necessary first to take them alongside the vessel in
boats. In bad weather the guns and can 5.; isily hoisted, but

not tho horses. If the embarkation of both cannot go on, therefore, at
the same time, tho horses should bo embarked first. Horse ships are
always provided with slings for hoisting in the horses ; they are mado
of stout canvas, and are about 6^ or 7 feet long, and from 2J to 2^
feet wide. It may bo necessary to embark horses : 1st, when the
transports can come alongside the wharf, and tho horses are taken on
board at one operation ; or, 2d, when the transports cannot come along-
side the wharf, and tho horses. arc embarked first in boats ; or, 3d. when
the horses arc embarked in boats, from an open beaeh.

The first case is the best, easiest, and most expeditious — resembling
in all respects the hoisting a cask in and out of the hold of a vessel.
Horses should generally bo blindfolded for this purpose, as this pre-
•heir being frightened or troublesome. In tho second case there
are two operations : first, lowering the hnrso into the boat, and, after the
passage of the boat to the vessel, hoisting the horse into the transport.
Sheers or derricks are absolutely necessary for this purpose. l>e< -ause
the tackle must bo of such ;i description as to raise tho horse oil' the
ground instantaneously, which a crane cannot d«>. The head of tin d< r-
riek must incline inwards while the horso is rising; but \vhen he is high
enough, the head of tho derrick or sheers must be forced out, to bring
the horse directly over tho boat. Horses may, in this \\.ty, be
embarked in boats from a beach. Sand or straw must bo put into tho
boats to preserve their bottoms, and to prevent tho horses from slip-
ping, s should stand athwart, tho head of one horse being on
the starboard side, and tho head of the next to him on the larboard side.
The conductors must sit on tho gunwale or stand between the horses.
Decked gun-boats or coasting vessel* arc very convenient for this pur-
pose when there arc time and materials for the necessary preparation, as
they not only hold a greater number of horses, but can come alongside

EMB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 255

of a wharf, and the horses, by means of a ramp, may be walked aboard.
The disembarkation of horses is carried on by the same means as their
embarkation. (See DISEMBARKATION. Consult Army Regulations for the
rules governing troops embarked on transports.)

EMBEZZLEMENT — either of public property or money, punish-
able in the case of an officer with cashiering, and making good the loss ;
if a non-commissioned officer, by reduction to the ranks, corporal punish-
ment, and making good the loss ; (ART. 36 and ART. 39.)

By SEC. 16 of Act approved Aug. 6, 1846, using in any manner for
private purposes, loaning or depositing in bank any public money, and
any failure to pay over or to produce public money intrusted to per-
sons charged with its safe keeping, transfer, and disbursement, is made
prima facie evidence of embezzlement, and declared to be felony. The
taking of receipts and vouchers without paying the amount which they
call for, and all persons advising or participating in said act, are also
declared guilty of embezzlement by the same section.

EMBRASURE. An embrasure is an opening cut through the
parapet to enable the artillery to command a certain extent of the sur-
rounding country. The space between every two of these openings,
called the merlon, is from 15 to 18 feet in length. The opening of the
embrasure at the interior is two feet, while that towards the country is
usually made equal to half the thickness of the parapet. The interior
elevation of the parapet, which remains after cutting the embrasure, is
called the genouillere, and covers the lower part of the gun carriage.
The plongee, or slope given to the sole, is generally less than the incli-
nation given to the superior slope of the parapet, in order that the fire
from the embrasure may meet that of the musketry from the parapet
at a point within a few feet from the top of the counterscarp.

Fig. 108 represents the rear elevation of a two-gun portion of an ele-
vated battery revetted with gabions. In this figure the two gabions at the
necks of the embrasures are

made to assume a small de- FlG- loa

gree of slope which may
usually be done, because the
gabions, one with another, oc-
cupy rather less than the
regular average space of 2

feet each, when placed very close together, so that those of the upper tier
will generally admit of being closed at top, and eased at bottom, to favor
this arrangement. If not, the neck of the embrasure may be made of
equal, width throughout, without attempting the kind of slope alluded

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Kxo.

to; but the gabions which form the cheeks of the embrasures should
have a slope gradually increasing from tin- neck t.. \\anls the front, until
the fifth gabion (more than five will seldom be used) has u
least one-third of its height.

. 109 is the plan of a portion of parapet and embrasure, showing
the arrangement of gabions above adverted to.

Fig. 110 shows in elevation the arrangement of the gabions and of
the sand-bags above them, as well as the geiiouillere or solid purl of the

Fio. 109. Fio. 110.

•-*--T- ...

embrasure, below the sole of it, in a construction that frequently arises
in sieges, especially in the offensive crowning batteries on the crest of
the glacis, where the depression of the sole of the embrasure is consid-
erable, to allow of the guns being pointed to spots of the wall some
distance below them.

EMOLUMENTS. (See PAY.)

ENCAMPMENT. (See CAMP.)

ENCEINTE— is the body of the place, or the first belt of ran
ami parapets that inclose tin- place.

I N FILADE. To sweep the whole length of the face of any w« >r!v
or line of troops, l.y a Lattery on the prolongation of tl. line.

ENGINEER CORPS. (See ARMY for its organization.) The func-
tions of the engineers being generally confined to the most elevated
branch of military Mtace, they are not to assume, nor are they siil.jeet
to be :.y duty beyond the line of their immc-.

sion, except by the special order of the President of tin- I'nited States ;
but tli .-ry mark - to which their rank in the

army may entitle them respectively, and are liable to bo transferred, at
the discretion of the President, from one corps to anoth> being

paid to rank; (ART. 03.)

The engineers are charged with planning, construct ins, :md repair-
ing all fortifications and other defensive works ; with disbursement « of
money connected with these operations. In time of war, they present

ENT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 257

plans for the attack and defence of military works ; lay out and con-
struct field defences, redoubts, intrenchments, roads, &c. ; form a part
of the vanguard to remove obstructions ; and in retreat, form a part
of the rear guard, to erect obstacles, destroy roads, bridges, &c., so as
to retard an enemy's pursuit. (See SAPPERS AND MINERS.) (Consult
LAISNE, Aide Memoir e d F Usage des Officiers du Genie.)

ENGINEERS, TOPOGRAPHICAL. (See ARMY for their organiza-
tion.) The duties of the corps consist in surveys for the defence of the
frontiers, and of positions for fortifications, in reconnoissances of the
country through which an army has to pass, or in which it has to ope-
rate ; in the examination of all routes of communication by land or by
water, both for supplies and military movements ; in the construction
of military roads and permanent bridges connected with them ; and the
charge of the construction of all civil works, authorized by acts of Con-
gress, not specially assigned by law to some other branch of the ser-
vice. (Consult SALNEUVE, Cours de Topographic a F Usage des Eleves
de VEcole d'Etat Major. R. S. SMITH'S Topographical -Drawing .)

ENLISTMENTS— are voluntary, and made for five years ; (Act
June 17, 1850.) Any non-commissioned officer or soldier who shall
enlist himself in any other regiment, troop, or company, without a reg-
ular discharge from the regiment, troop, or company in which he
last served, to be considered a deserter; (ART. 22.) Whenever enlist-
ments are made at or in the vicinity of military posts on the western
frontier, and at remote and distant stations, a bounty equal in amount
to the cost of transporting and subsisting a soldier from the principal
recruiting depot in the harbor of New York, to the place of such enlist-
ment be, and the samesis hereby allowed to each recruit so enlisted, to
be paid in unequal instalments at the end of each year's service, so that
the several amounts shall annually increase, and the largest be paid at
the expiration of each enlistment ; (Act June 17, 1850.) The amounts
and instalments have been fixed in the regulations for the Pay Depart-
ment. (See RE-ENLISTMENT.)

ENSIGN. Lowest grade of commisssioned officers of infantry.

ENTANGLEMENT. Abattis, so called, when made by cutting
only partly through the trunks, and pulling the upper parts to the
ground, where they are picketed.

ENTICING. Any person whatever who shall procure or entice a
soldier to desert the service of the United States, may be fined not ex-
ceeding $300, or imprisoned any term not exceeding one year, at the
discretion of any court having cognizance of the same; (Act March 16,
1802.)

v>;,s MILITAKY DICTIONARY. [EPA.

EPAULKMKNT. An elevation thrown up to cover troops from
tho firo of an enemy. It is usually composed of gabions filled with
earth, or made of sand-bags, &c.

EPAULETTE. Badge of rank, of bullion, worn by officers on the
shoulders. The Army Regulations prescribe these badges under author-
ity given by law to the President to establish the uniform of the army.

EPROUVETTE, (I'KMU-LUM.) The best method of testing the
projectile force of gunpowder, is to ascertain by experiment it* •
when used in the same quantities in which it is to be employed in
service. This method has been adopted by establishing, at the Wash-
ington Arsenal, a cannon pendulum and a musket pendulum, whirh
are used fur proving samples of powder sent from the manufactories.
The apparatus shows the initial velocity of a ball fired from a cannon
or musket.

In the ordinary cpronvette, gunpowder of small grain and low -
fie gravity gives the highest range, whilst tho ballistic pendulum shows
that the greatest initial velocity in a shot from a heavy cannon i
duced by powder of great specific gravity and coarse grain. (Ordnance
Manual.)

EQUIPAGE, CAMP AND GARRISON — are tents, kitchen ut.
axes, spades, &e. (See CLOTHING.)

EQUIPMENT. Tho complete dress of a soldier, including
accoutrements, dec.

ESCALADE, AND SURPRISE OP A FORTIFIED PLACE. A place is taken
by iurprixc. win-never a sufficient number of men are secretly intro-
duced into it to cause the defenders to abandon or surrender it. It is
taken by escalade, when ladders are used to cross the walls. (Ki.ir. 111.)

Tho surest way of succeeding in a surprise, is to have a ]>
knowledge of the interior of the place, or to be accompanied by reliable.

who know those parts of the place which may l.e p«-n.
with least diflimlty. Such parts are ordinarily dilapidated port!
the body of the place; houses contiguous to the walls, the windows of
whieh i r red, dec., dec. Aqueducts and sewers have aKo soine-

beon used for the introduction of armed men, unknown to tho
garrison. I>nt when a place, is l»adlv guarded, all parts are accessible
with ladders, and it is sometimes best to choose the highest walls for
the escalade, as tho enemy will probably, from a feeling of security. In-
lets vigilant at such parts of tho body of the place. Tins, at tho siege
of Bn«) .daded the highest, walls in tho city,

and penetrated into the interior, while the. attack directed upon breaches
in the lower walls, although vigorously made, was repulsed. \Vh.-n

MILITARY DICTIONARY.
FIG. 111.

250

-,, » MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Esc.

it is considered hpw slow a process it is to bring up ladders to the
counterscarp, in order to descend by them into the ditch, then t«-
the ditch, and to rear the ladders against the escarp, and to mount
it is evident that success will, in a great measure, depend upon the
number of men that can mount at the same moment ; in other words,
upon the number of ladders. A ladder beyond a certain length be-
comes unwii-l.lv, and the rearing of it difficult. The distance from the
foot of the ladders to the wall should be at least equal to mu --fourth <>f
their height. If the distance be greater, the ladder will be easily I
under the weight of the men mounting them; if mueh less, they \\l\\
be so erect that the soldiers, as they ascend, must be continually in
danger of falling headlong down. The scaling ladders introduce! by
Sir Charles Pasley, are in pieces of 12' 8'' and 7' 6" in length, fitting
into each other with strong double iron sockets, and tied by stout
These can be arranged for any length, and quickly adjusted. Ladders
.made of long spars are awkward to carry ; especially if there 1
row sharp turnings in approaching the point of escalade : nor can long
sound spars be always procured. It is desirable that ladd.-rs should be
made of light, tough wood : teak wood is too heavy. If a guy-rope be
attached to each side of the ladder, they greatly assist in adjusting and
fixing it against the wall : the men told off for the guy-ropes should
stand close to the wall, within the slope of the ladder ; these guy-n>prs
should be fixed at 5 or 6 feet below the top of the ladder, to prevent
their being cut by the enemy on the wall. The total lengths of the

n should exceed the height to be escaladed 1 t. in order

that the men may step easily offlh<- ladders on to the parapet or wall.
Many failures have occurred from ladders being too short. It is desirable
to h ivea pair of stout lifting bars, 3 or 4 feet Ion::, with boo!,

TOMB u .-s-ealade is to take place, be sure to practise the men
intended f..r the service thoroughly in carrying, in fixing, in ascendinir,
and descending the ladders ; descendinur, for going down a counter-
scarp; ascending, for getting up an escarp. Always use as many lad-
ders as possible. If there bo a counterscarp to d. ^, , nd. leave half the
ladders there, whilo the other half are used against the osca

: nay be lost Ascend the ladders together, on as large a front as
possible. When an escalade is opposed by an enemy, t that a

good firing party covers the escalade, with especial directions to fire.
upon any work that may flank the ladders. Avoid nijrht attad.

peculiar circumstances : the example of gallant men is lo*t
it, whilst timidity i Make all arrangements

cover of darkness, but assault at day.break.

Esc.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 201

At the moment of the escalade, the ladders should be filled with sol-
diers, and it is necessary, therefore, that they should be underpropped
about the middle. Soldiers exercised in gymnastics are capable of
mounting high walls with arms and accoutrements, by means of a hook,
helved to a pole sufficiently long to reach the top of the wall. This
exercise is practised by some French troops, and the walls of the cita-
del of Montpellier are thus escaladed with the greatest facility.

Precipitous rocks may be escaladed by grasping bushes and roots,
or by planting the bayonet in the crevices of the rocks, in order to
reach the top. Such escalades are very dangerous when an enemy de-
fends the height, as heavy stones may be rolled down upon the assailants ;
but activity and ingenuity accomplish much, as was shown by the
French in the attack upon Fort Scharnitz near Innspruck. They tied
their haversacks round their heads, and, protected by this buckler, they
scrambled up the rocks, despite the stones precipitated upon them.
And still later the difficult ascent at Alma was scaled by French troops,
in the face of Russian artillery and infantry.

The most favorable time for a surprise is that of a winter night,
when there is no moon. A long march may then be made without dis-
covery, and the troops may arrive an hour before day. This is the
propitious moment for the execution of the design. It is then that
men sleep most profoundly ; and it is at that hour the attacking force
may begin in the dark, and end the work by daylight ; such favorable
circumstances are much increased by heavy wind and rain during the
night, as the clanking of arms and other inevitable noises made by the
troops cannot be heard by the garrison, and the latter, besides, are
more disposed to negligence. It is extremely important for the men
to be able to recognize each other in the darkness, and the simplest
means of doing so is to put the shirt outside the dress, or to tie a white
band around the arm.

The party must be furnished with petards, axes, and levers, to force
open doors ; with beams and ladders, to overthrow and scale walls.
Hurdles and fascines are necessary to cross muddy ditches, or broad
planks may be used as a substitute for hurdles. With fascines small
ditches and pools are filled up. All these articles should be carried by
the men from the^ast halting-place. Wagons and animals would lead
to discovery, and are therefore left at a safe distance, while every pre-
caution is taken to maintain silence in the assailing party. The soldiers
should also not light their pipes, as the fire can be seen from a long
distance in the dark. Barking dogs must be quieted without the use
of fire-arms, and every one must be on the alert.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

The dispositions made for the attack will vary with circumstances,
hut in general it is well to divide the force into three parts: tin- first to
penetrate into the city ; the second to remain without and protect, if
necessary, the retreat of the first ; and the third to take such position an
is most likely to prevent aid from reaching the enemy.

When tlu» first division has penetrated the city by escalade or other-
wise, it surrounds at once some of the adjacent quarters, and holds tin-
outlets of the principal streets, whilst detachments quickly opt n tin-
gates to the troops outside, after having taken or killed the guards. As
soon as tho gates are opened, and sufficient numbers are at hand, the
troops spread themselves in the city, at't.T leaving good reserves, upon
which to retreat in case of check. The house of the commandant, bar-
racks, arsenal, and the guards of the interior are at once sought, to pre-
vent, if possible, any re-union of the defenders, and to paralyze all their
efforts by tho seizure of the commanding officer. If time and means of
recovering from his stupor and concentrating his force in the interior
of the city be left to the enemy, great risk will bo run of being driven
out, as the attacking force is necessarily everywhere weak, from thu
great number of points occupied.

Tho famous example of Cremona, where Prince Eugene, after hav-
ing made himself master of a great part of the city, and after having
seized Marshal Villeroi, who commanded there, was nevertheless then
driven out by tho defenders, shows that all is not lost to tho defenders
when the enemy has seized tho exterior posts. Another example may
be cited in the surprise of Bergen-op-Zoom in 1814, by Gen. Graham.
where, although tho surprise was successful, yet tho assailants, in the
end, were obliged by tho garrison to surrender after consideiable loss.

Much may then bo done by defenders even under such cireu in-
stances, but much more may be accomplished by the most urn.
vigilance, and this quality, instead of bring relaxed in stnnuy nights,
should bo then redoubled. (Consult Corns de Taclique, par le 6

DUFO

ESCARP, (or SCARP)— is the side of tho ditch next to tho place,
which, in j>- rmanent fortifications, is usually faced with masonry.

ESCORT. (See CONVOY.) There arc also funeral escorts ; escorts'
of h«.nor ; color escorts ; &c., dec.

ESPLANADE. Empty space for exercising troops in fortified

pbcst,

ESPRIT DE CORPS. Tho brotherhood of a corps; military
and IT-.- . Nothing is so prejudicial to it, as tho failure !••

unite the companies of a regiment. It might also be promoted

Evi.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 2G3

cording the distinguished services of a regiment on its colors. (See
SOLDIER.)

EVACUATE. To withdraw from a town or fortress, in conse-
quence either of a treaty or a capitulation, or of superior orders.

EVIDENCE — is that which makes clear, demonstrates, or ascertains
the truth of the very fact or point in issue ; (3. Bl. Comm., 367.) Evi-
dence may be considered with reference to, 1, the nature of the evidence;
2T, the object of the evidence ; 3, the instruments of evidence ; and, 4, the
effect of evidence.

As to its nature, evidence may be considered with reference to
its being, 1, the primary evidence ; 2, secondary evidence ; 3, positive ;
4, presumptive ; 5, hearsay ; and, 6, admissions.

1. Primary evidence. The law generally requires that the best
evidence the case admits of shall be given ; (1 Stark. Ev., 102, 390.)

2. Secondary evidence is that species of proof which is admissible on
the loss of primary evidence. Before it is admitted, proof must be made
of the loss or impossibijity of obtaining the primary evidence.

3. Positive evidence is that which, if believed, establishes the truth
of a fact in issue, and does not arise from any presumption. Evidence
is positive when the very facts in dispute are communicated by those
who have actual knowledge of them by means of their senses ; (1 Stark.
19.)

4. Presumptive evidence is that which is not direct, but where, on
the contrary, a fact which is not positively known, is presumed from
one or more other facts or circumstances which are known ; (1 Stark.
18.)

5. Hearsay is the evidence of those who relate not what they know
themselves, but what they have heard from others. As a general rule,
hearsay evidence of a fact is not admissible. But evidence given on a
former trial by a person since dead is admissible, as is also the dying
declarations of a person who has received a mortal injury. A few
more exceptions may be found in Phillips' Ev., chap. 7 ; 1 Stark. Ev., 40.

6. Admissions, which are the declarations made by a party for him-
self or those acting under his authority. These admissions are gener-
ally evidence of facts declared, but the admissions themselves must be
proved.

The object of evidence is to ascertain the truth between the parties.
Experience shows that this is best done by the following rules, which
are now binding in law : 1. The evidence must be confined to the point
in issue ; 2. The substance of the issue must be proved, but only the
substance is required to be proved ; 3. The affirmative of the issue

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Eva

must be proved. A witness, on being admitted in court, is first sub-
jected to the examination of the party in whoso behalf he is called.
This is termed the examination in chief. The principal* rule to bo
observed by the party examining is, that leading questions are not to be
•sked. The witness is then cross-examined by the other party. The
object of cross-examination is twofold: to weaken the evidence given
by the witness as to the fact in question, either by eliciting contrad'u -timis
or new explanatory facts; or, secondly, to invalidate the general credit of
the witness. In the latter case it is a general rule, that a witness may
refuse to answer any question, if his answer will expose him to criminal
liability. The general practice of English courts also seems to auth< >rize

: usal to answer any question which will disgrace him. The
of a witness may likewise bo impeached by the general evidence of others
as to his character ; but in this case no evidence can be given of par-
ticular facts which militate against his jreneral credit. "Witnesses are
excluded from giving evidence by: 1. Want of reason or understand-
ing; 2. Want of belief in God and a future state ; 3. Infancy ; and, -1.
Interest Besides witnesses, records and private writings arc also i«-
struments of evidence.

1. Records, in all cases where the issue is mil ticl reord, are to be,
proved by an exemplification duly authenticated ; that is, an attestation
made by a proper officer, by which he certifies that a record is in due
form of law, and that the person who certifies it is the oflieer appointed
by law to do so. In other cases an examined copy, duly proved, will
in general be evidence.

2. Private writings are proved by1 producing the attesting witness,
or, in case of his absence, death, or other legal inability to testify, as if,
after attesting the paper, he becomes int'mmu-.. his handwriting may bo
proved. When there is no witness to the instrument, it, may l.e j

lence of the handwriting of the j tarty, by a person who ha-
him writ.-, or in a course of « ••>! -n -spundeni v has become acquainted with
his hand. Parol evidence is admissible to di-t'.-at a written instrument
on the ground of fraud, mistake, dec. ; or to apply it to its proper subject,
matter, or, in some instances, as ancillary to sn< h application, to explain
the meaning of doubtful terms, or rebut presumptions .M-isini: extrinsic-
ally. But in all cases the parol evidence does not usurp the. place or
Arrogate the authority of the writtm instrument. (Consult .jrrnerally
Trralitci on Evidence by PHILLIPS and STARKIK ; BOUVIXR'S Law Die*
tionary ; BRANDED Encyclopaedia.)
EVOLUTION- , x , M, ...,,,

EXECUTION OF LAWS. On all occasions when the troops are

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 265

employed in restoring or maintaining public order among their fellow-
citizens, the use of arms, and particularly fire-arms, is obviously attend-
ed with loss of life or limb to private individuals ; and for these con-
sequences, a military man may be called to stand at the bar of a criminal
court.' A private soldier also may occasionally be detached on special
duty, with the necessity of exercising discretion as to the use of his
arms ; and in such cases he is responsible, like an officer, for the
right use or exercise of such discretion. One of the earliest reported
cases on this subject occurred in 1735, when Thomas Macadam, a pri-
vate sentinel, and James Long, a corporal, were tried before the Admi-
ralty Court of Scotland, upon a charge of murder under the following
circumstances : They were ordered to attend some custom-house officers,
for their protection in making a legal seizure ; and being in a boat with
the officers in quest of the contraband goods, one Frazer and his com-
panions came up with them, leaped into the boat, and endeavored to
disarm the soldiers. In the scuffle, the prisoners stabbed Frazer with
their bayonets, and threw him into the sea. For this homicide the
prisoners were tried and convicted of murder by a jury ; and the Judge-
admiral sentenced them to death. But the High Court of Justiciary re-
versed this judgment, on the ground that the homicide in question was
necessary for securing the execution of the trust committed to the
prisoners. The report of this case contains the following remarks upon
it by Mr. Forbes, afterwards Lord President of the Court of Session of
Scotland ; and they appear to be of great importance to military men :
" Where a man has by law weapons put into his hands, to be employed
not only in defence of his life when attacked, but in support of the exe-
cution of the laws, and in defence of the property of the Crown, and the
liberty of any subject, he doubtless may use those weapons, not only
when his own life is put so far in danger that he cannot probably es-
cape without making use of them, but also when there is imminent
danger that he may by violence be disabled to execute his trust, with-
out resorting to the use of those weapons ; but when tljp life of the
officer is exposed to no danger, when his duty does not necessarily call
upon him for the execution of his trust, or for the preservation of the
property of the Crown, or the preservation of the property or liberty
of the subject, to make use of mortal weapons, which may destroy His
Majesty's subjects, especially numbers of them who may be innocent, it
it is impossible from the resolution of the Court of Justiciary .to expect
any countenance to, or shelter for, the inhuman act." This quotation,
in the latter part of it, has a direct bearing on the case of the unfortu-
nate Captain Porteus, whose trial took place in the following year, and

260 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ext

whose melanclu tho groundwork of Sir Walter

of Mid Lothian." In tin- ••'». tin- collector of customs on tho

coast of Fife mode a seizure of contraband goods of considerable value,
which were condemned and sold. Two of tho proprietors of these goods
took an opportunity of robbing the collector of just so nnu-h money as
these goods had sold for. They regarded this as merely a fair ivprisal,
and no robbery ; but they were nevertheless taken up, tried, and con-
demned to death for tho fact. With the exception of some smuggling
transactions, in which they had boon concerned, the prisoners were men
of fair character ; and tho mob expressed much dissatisfaction with their
•«v, and the prospect of their execution. On the Sunday preced-
ing the day appointed for the execution, the prisoners wen- taken to a
church near the gaol, attended by only three or four of tho city guards,
to hear divine service. None of tho congregation had assembled, and
the guards being feeble old men, one of tho prisoners made a spring
over tho pew where they sat, while the other, whose name \vas Wilson,
in order to facilitate his companion's escape, caught hold of two of the.
guards with his hands, and seized another with his teeth, and thus en-
abled his companion to join the mob outside, who bore him off to a
place of safety. Wilson then composedly resumed his own seat, with-
out making any attempt to recover his own liberty. This generous
conduct of Wilson created a strong public feeling in his favor ; and the
magistrates of Edinburghfcoon learned that an attempt would be. made
by the mob to rescue him at the place of execution. They therefore
procured some of the regular forces on duty in tho suburbs to be posted
at a convenient distance from the spot, so as to support tho city guard,
in case they should be vigorously attacked. The officer, whose turn it
was to do duty as captain of the city guard, being deemed unfit for tho
critical duties of the day, Captain Porteus, unfortunately for himself,
wat appointed to the command on the occasion. His men wen -
with Lull -cartridge ; and, by order of the magistrates, they loaded their
pieces when* hey went upon duty. The execution took j.la'-«- without
any disturbance until the time arrived for cutting down the body, when
the mob severely pelted the, executioner with stones, which hit tho
guards as they surrounded the scaffold, and provoked them to fire upon
the crowd. Some persons at a distance from the place of
were thus killed. As soon as the body was removed, Captain Porteus
withdrew his men, and marched up tho West Bow, which is a narrow
winding passage. The mob. having recovered from the fri^h:
by tho previous firing, followed tho guard up this passage, and pelted
the rear with stones, which tho guards returned with some

SXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 267

shot, whereby some where killed, and others wounded. On reaching
the guard-house they deposited their arms in the usual form, and Cap-
tain Porteus went with his piece in his hand to the Spread Eagle Tav-
ern, where the magistrates were assembled. On his arrival there, he
was charged with the murder of the persons who had been slain by the
city guards, on the allegation that he had commanded the guards to fire.
The mob was very riotous, and called for justice upon him; and the
magistrates, after adjourning to the council chamber, committed him
to the Tolbooth for trial. The strongest feeling existed against him
on the part of the mob, until the hour of his trial before the High
Court of Justiciary arrived, when, to their great satisfaction, he was
found guilty, and condemned to be hanged. The higher classes of so-
ciety, however, unaffected by the popular prejudice against the unfor-
tunate prisoner, exerted themselves strenuously in his behalf, and suc-
ceeded in obtaining a reprieve. This created the greatest discontent
among the lower orders, who, on the night before the day originally ap-
pointed for the execution, broke open the gaol, dragged the unhappy
Captain Porteus down stairs by the heels, carried him to the common
place of execution, and there, throwing a rope over a dyer's pole, hanged
him with many marks of barbarity. The perpetrators of this outrage
were never discovered, and the subject gave rise to very warm debates
in Parliament, particularly in the House of Lords, with respect to the
conduct of the city magistrates and officers.

It was quite clear, however, with reference to the criminality of
Captain Porteus, that he had ordered his men to fire without sufficient
cause or justification ; and, under such circumstances, he was in point
of law justly found guilty of murder.

Ensign Hugh Maxwell, of the Lanarkshire Militia, was tried in
1807, before the High Court of Justiciary of Scotland, for the murder
of Charles Cottier, a French prisoner of war at Greenlaw, by improperly
ordering John Gow, a private sentinel, to fire into the room where Cot-
tier and other prisoners were confined, and so causing him to be mor-
tally wounded. It appeared that Ensign Maxwell had been appointed
to the military guard over 300 prisoners of war, chiefly taken from
French privateers. The building in which they were confined was of
no great strength, and afforded some possibilities of escape. The pris-
oners were of a very turbulent character, and to prevent their escape
during the long winter nights, an order was given that all lights in the
prison should be put out by nine o'clock, and that if this was not done
at the second call, the guard were to fire upon the prisoners, who were
often warned that this would be the consequence of disobedience with

V.V»s MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Exi.

regard to the lights. On the night in question, there was a tumult in
the prison, but of no great importance ; ami Ensign Maxwell's attention
having been on that account drawn to tin- prisoners, ho observed a light
burning beyond the appointed hour, ami twice ordered it to be put out.
This order not being obeyed he ordered the sentry to fire, but tho mus-
ket merely snapped. Ho repeated the order; the sentinel fired again,
and Cottier received his mortal wound. At this time there was no
symptom of disorder in tho prison, and tho prisoners were all in bed.
The general instructions issued from the adjutant-general's office in
Edinburgh, for the conduct of tho troops guarding tho prison, contained
no such order as that which Ensign Maxwell -had acted upon; and it
appeared that tho order in question was a mere verbal one, which had
from time to time, in tho hearing of the officers, been repeated by tho
corporal to the sentries, on mounting guard, and had never been coun-
tenn.imle.l by those officers, who were also senior to Ensign Maxwell.
The Lord Justice Clerk described tho case to the jury as altogether the
most distressing that any court had ever been called upon to con-

and laid it down most distinctly, that Ensign Maxwell could only
def.-n.l himself by proving specific orders, which ho was bound to obey
without discretion; or by showing that in the general discharge of his
duty he was placed in circumstances, which gave him discretion, and
called upon him to do what ho* did. His lordship was of opinion that
bqth these grounds of defence failed in tho present case; and tho jury
having found Ensign Maxwell guilty of the minor offence of culjmMe

?e, with a recommendation to mercy, tho court sentenced him to
nine months' imprisonment. Ensign Maxwell's conduct certainly ex-
hibit, d none of those gross features which characterize murder; but at
the same time he was guilty of a rash and inconsiderate act, which, if
he had not been engaged at the time in military duty, though ho was
mistaken in tho exercise of it, would probably have been held to amount
to murder. In Maxwell's case, tho soldier who fired the shot was not
prosecuted for tho act, nor was ho liable to such prosecution.

It is laid down in a book of authority, that if a ship's sentinel shoot

, because he persists in approaching the ship when he has been
Ordered not to do SO, it will bo munln-, nnl.-ss such an net was
sary for the ship's safety. And it will be murder, though the sentinel
had orders to prevent the approach of any boats, had ammunition given
to him when he was put on guard, and acted on tho mistaken impres-
sion that it was - . Thomas, the prisoner was sentinel
on board II. M.S. AcJiillr, when sho was paying off. The orders to him
from the preceding sentinel were to keep off all boats, unless they had

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 269

officers in uniform in them, or unless the officer on deck allowed them
to approach : and he received a musket, three blank-cartridges, and
three balls. The boats pressed, upon which he repeatedly called to.
them to keep off; but one of them persisted, and came close under the
ship, and he then fired at a man in the boat and killed him. It was put
to the jury to find whether the sentinel did not fire under the mistaken
impression that it was his duty ; and they found that he did. But the
case being reserved for the opinion of the judges, their lordships were
unanimous that it was murder. They thought it, however, a proper
case for a pardon : and further, they were of opinion that if the act had
been necessary for the preservation of the ship, as if the deceased had
been stirring up a mutiny, the sentinel would have been justified.

The cases already cited turned upon the improper exercise of dis-
cretion by the officers concerned. But in the following case, though
not attended with actual consequences involving a criminal charge, the
discretion in the use of arms was wisely exercised, and indicated great
presence of mind, and correctness of judgment.

Some years ago, the public journals of London recorded the meri-
torious behavior of a private sentry, upon the occasion of a riotous
mob assembled at ths entrance of Downing-street, with the intention
of attacking the government offices in that quarter of the town. This
man standing alone presented his musket, and threatened to fire upon
the crowd, if the slightest attempt were made to approach the particular
office for the defence of which he was placed on duty, and succeeded by
the terror thus created, though at a great risk of consequences to him-
self, in keeping the rioters at bay until a larger force arrived to assist
him.* The soldier's conduct was publicly much approved. It was also
clearly legal according to Macadam's case ; and if after the announce-
ment of his intentions the mob had pressed forward to execute their
purpose, he would have been held justified at law in firing at the rioters
upon his own responsibility. The Duke of Wellington, as Constable
of the Tower, testified his marked approbation of this man's conduct, by
promoting him at once to a Wardership at that fortress.

During the Irish insurrection of 1848, Smith O'Brien was arrested
at the railway station of Thurles, on a charge of high treason. A pub-
lic passenger train was on the point of starting for Dublin, and the
engineeer was mounted on the engine, with the steam up, and every
thing in readiness for the immediate prosecution of the journey. The
scene of the arrest lay in the disturbed distrct, which was in the occu-
pation of the troops employed to suppress the insurrection and prevent
its extension. General Macdonald's aide-de-camp, having been apprised

270 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Exi

of the arrest, proceeded instantly to the station, and there cr.mi

-nut from the engine, and to stop the train ; it lie-
ing of the utmost importance to the public safety and service that the
news of the arrest should not be carried along tlio line of railway, as
th6 country people might assemble in great numbers and destroy the
rails, and rescue the prisoner, or otherwise impede the conveyance of
the prisoner to Dublin. Sueh interference would obviously have occa-
sioned great l<-s of life, besides the danger to the public service at such
a season. The engineer at first refused to obey tho aide-de-camp's or-
hereupon the officer presented his pistol at the engineer, and
threatened him with instant death if he persisted in his refusal. The
man then dismounted ; but it is conceived that tho officer pursued a
correct line of conduct, and exercised upon the occasion a sound dis-
. which would have been a good legal defence to him, if ho had
ultimately proceeded to execute his threat upon the engineer. " Power
iu law (says Sir Edward Coke) means power with force."

The right of officers or soldiers to interfere in quelling a felonious
i.-ther with or without superior military orders, or the direction
of a civil magistrate, is quite clear, and beyond tho possibility of mis-
take. This subject, however, was formerly little understood; and
military men failed in their public duty through . nfion.

George III. and hit Attorney-general (\\Vddcrburn) both deservedly

acquired high credit for their energy in the crisis of the riots of 1780.

\Yhen the king heard that tho troops which had been marched i

all quarters were of no avail in restoring order, on account of a scruple

.oy could not be ordered to fire till an hour after the Riot Act

had been read, he called a cabinet council, at which ho himself presided,

and propounded for their consideration the legality of this opinion.

There was much hesitation among the councillors. a> iln-y r. nx mlieivd

:tcry that h i i !. m made by reason of some dca;hsfr..m the in-

nco of the military in Wilkes's riots, and the cairn-ness with

which grand juries had found indictments tor murder against those \\ho

had acted under the command of their superiors. At last the question

was put to the Attorney-general, who attended as assessor, and h

tr, Unhesitating, and unqualified answer to the Hll-et. that if the
mob v. .nitting .1 felony, as«hy burning do\\n dwelling-houses,

MI dojnir so l»v other nn ans, the military,

according to the l.iw of Kngland, might and ought to be ordered to fire,
upon them: tho reading of th«- Ki-.t Act being wholly unnecessary
and nugatory under sii'-h circum ' • words used by

him on this occasion arc not known ; but they must have 1>, •• \\ nearly

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 271

the same which he employed when he shortly afterwards expounded
from the judgment seat the true doctrine upon the subject. The re-
quisite orders were issued to the troops, the conflagrations were
stopped, and tranquillity was speedily restored.

This eminent lawyer having become Chief Justice of the Court of
Common Pleas, with the title of Lord Loughborough, delivered a
charge to the grand jury on the special commission for the trial of the
rioters of 1780, in the following terms : " I take this public opportunity
of mentioning a fatal mistake into which many persons have fallen. It
has been imagined, because the law allows an hour for the disp^r-
sion of a mob to whom the Riot Act has been read by the magistrate,
the better to support the civil authority, that during that time the civil
power and the magistracy are disarmed, and the king's subjects, whose
duty it is at alt times to suppress riots, are to remain quiet and pas-
sive. No such meaning was within view of the legislature, nor doe j
the operation of the act warrant such effect. The civil magistrates are
left in possession of all those powers which the law had given them
before. If the mob collectively, or a part of it, or any individual within
or before the expiration of that hour, attempts, or begins to perpetrate
an outrage amounting to felony, to pull down a house, or by any other
act to violate the law, it is the duty of all present, of whatever descrip-
tion they may be, to endeavor to stop the mischief, and to apprehend
the offender."

" A riot (says Mr. Justice Gaselee) is not the less a riot, nor an
illegal meeting, because the proclamation of the Riot Act has not been
read ; the effect of that proclamation being to make the parties guilty
of a capital offence if they do not disperse within an hour ; but if that
proclamation be not read, the common law offence remains, and it is a
misdemeanor ; and all magistrates, constables, and even private indi-
viduals are justified in dispersing the offenders ; and if they cannot
otherwise succeed in doing so, they may use %rce."

After the suppression of the great riots of London in 1780, by the
aid of the troops, as already mentioned, the government was acrimo-
niously attacked both in and out of parliament, on the ground that the
employment of a military force, to quell riots by firing on the people,
could only be justified, if at all, by martial law proclaimed under a
special exercise of the royal prerogative ; and it was thence argued that
the nation was living under martial law. But Lord Mansfield, the
Chief Justice of the King's Bench, addressed the House of Lords on this
subject, and placed it in its true light. " I hold (said his lordship) that
His Majesty, in the orders he issued by the advice of his ministers, acted

V.'7-> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Eat.

perfectly and strictly according to the common law of the land, an«l tlie

principles of the Constitution Every individual in his private

capacity may lawfully int. rf< -ro to suppress a riot, much more to pre-
vent acts of felony, treason, and rebellion. Not only is ho authorized
to interfere for such a purpose, but it is his duty to do so : and if called
upon by a magistrate, he is punishable in case of refusal. AN' hat any
single individual may lawfully do for the prevention of < -rime and pres-

•n of the public peace, may be done by any number assembled
to perform their duty as p us. It is the peculiar business of

alfoonstahles to apprehend rioters, t" endeavor to disperse, all unlawful
assemblies, and in case of resistance, to attack, wound, nay kill those
"who continue to resist; — taking care not to commit unnecessary vio-

or to abuse the power legally vested in them. Every one is
justified in doing what is necessary for the faithful diseharLre of the

annexed to his office, although ho is doubly culpable if ho wan-
tonly commits an illegal act under the color or pretext of law. The
persons who assisted in the suppression of those tumults are to be
considered mere private individuals acting as duty required. My
lords, we have not been living under martial law, but under that law
which it has long been my sacred function to administer. For any
violation of that law the offenders are amenable to our ordinary courts
of justice, and may be tried before a jury of their countrymen. Sup-
posing a soldier or any other military person who acted in the course
of the late riots, had exceeded the power with vh'('h he was in\
I have not a single doubt that ho may be punished, not. bv a court-mar-
tial, but upon an indictment to be found by the Grand Inquest of the.
City of London or the County of Middlesex, and disposed of before the
crmined judges sitting in Justice Hall at the Old Bailey. Conse-
quently the idea is false, that we are living under a military p..vern-
r that, since the commencement of the riots, any part of the
laws or of the Constitution has been suspended or dispensed with. I
believe that much mischief has arisen from a misconeeption of t!
Act, which .' after proclamation made persons pn

riotous assembly shall depart to their homes ; those \\h . remain there
above on hour afterwards shall be guilty of fel-.-iy and liable to sutler
'his it has been imagined that, the military cannot act,
M maybe committed in their sight, till an hour

it beon made, or, as it is termed, ' the Iliot. Act is
read.' But the Riot Act only introduces a new offence — reman
hour after the proclamation — without qualifying any pro-exist';!:;: law,

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 373

or abridging the means which before existed for preventing or punish-
ing crimes."

In the case of Plandcock v. Baker, which was an action brought against
the defendants, who were not constables, for forcibly detaining and con-
fining the plaintiff, in order to prevent him from murdering his wife,
Mr. Justice Heath made the following observations : " It is a matter
of the last consequence that it should be known upon what occasions
bystanders may interfere so as to prevent felony. In the riots which
took place in 1780, this matter was much misunderstood, and a gen-
eral persuasion prevailed that no indifferent person could interpose
without the authority of a magistrate ; in consequence of which much
mischief was done which might otherwise have been prevented." And
in the same case Mr. Justice Chambre said : " There is a great differ-
ence between the right of a private person in cases of intended felony
and breach of the peace. It is lawful for a private person to do any
thing for the prevention of a felony." And in so doing it becomes
quite immaterial whether the persons wounded or slain are taking any
active part in the riot. In the caseT>f Clifford v. Brandon, which was
an action by a barrister of great eminence against the box-keeper of
Covent Garden Theatre, who had arrested him in the theatre for wear-
ing in his hat a ticket with O.P. on it — this being a badge of the party
by whom the celebrated O.P. riots relative to the prices of admission
were carried on — and nothing else having been proved against him —
the Lord Chief Justice, Sir James Mansfield, said : " If any person en-
courages, or promotes, or takes part in riots, whether by words, signs,
or gestures, or by wearing the badge or ensign of the rioters, he is him-
self to be considered a rioter, he is liable to be arrested for a breach of
the peace. In this case all are principals."

But notwithstanding the existence of a clear right and duty on the
part of military men voluntarily to aid in the suppression of a riot, it
would be the height of imprudence to intrude with military force, ex-
cept upon the requisition of a magistrate, unless in those cases where
the civil power is obviously overcome, or on the point of being over-
come, by the rioters.

With regard to the requisition of military aid by the civil magis-
trate, the rule seems to be, that when once the magistrate has charged
the military officer with the duty of suppressing a riot, th.e execution
of that duty is wholly confided to the judgment and skill of the military
officer, who thenceforward acts independently of the magistrate until
the service required is fully performed. The magistrate cannot dictate
to the officer the mode of executing the duty ; and an officer would
18

•_>7 t MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ex*.

his duty if he submitted to receive any such orders from th,;

•rate. Neither is it necessary for the magistrate to accompany
the officer in the execution of his duty.

The learning on these points may be gathered from the charge of
Mr. Justice Littledale to the jury, in the trial of the mayor of 1
for broach of duty in not suppressing the riots at that city in iNiJl.
"Another charge (said His Lordship) against the defendant is, that
upon bein^ required to ride with Major Beckwith, he did not do so.
In my opinion IK- was not bound to do so in point of law. I do not
apprehend it to be the duty of a justice of the peace to ride along and
charge with the military. A military officer may act without the au-
thority of the magistrate, if he chooses to take the responsibility ; but
although that is the strict law, there are few military men who will tako
upon themselves so to do, except on the most pressing occasions.
Where it is likely to be attended with a great destruction of life, a,
man, generally speaking, is unwilling to act without a magistrates
authority ; but that authority need not be given by his presence. In
this case the mayor did give his authority to act ; the order has been
read in evidence ; and he was not bound in law to ride with the sol-
diers, more particularly on such an occasion as this, when his presence
elsewhere might be required to give ireneral directions. If he Mas
bound to make one charge, ho was bound to have made as many other
charges as the soldiers made. It is not in evidence that the mayor was
able to ride, or at least in the habit of doing so; and to charge with
soldiers it is not only necessary to ride, but to ride in the same manner
as they do ; otherwise it is probable the person would soon be un-
horsed, and would do more harm than good : besides that, if the mob
were disposed to resist, a man who appeared in plain dotlies leading
the military would bo soon selected and destroyed. I do not appre-
hend that it is any part of the duty of a person who has to give gen-
eral directions, to expose himself to all kinds of personal danger. The,
general commanding an army does not ordinarily do so, and I can set-
no reason why a magistrate should. A case may bo eon< •• i\< -<1 where.
it might be prudent, but here no necessity for it has been shown/'

This rabjed \\as aU> luminously expounded l.y the late L,,rd Chief
Justice Tindal, in his charge to the grand jury on the special commis-
sion hell at r.rist.,1, on the 2d of January, 1832, for the trial of the par-
ties implicated in the formidable riots and devastations committed in

•y during the autumn of the previous year: "It has been well
said that the uso of the law consists, first, in preserving men's persons
from death and violence ; next, in securing to them the free enjoyment

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 275

of their property ; and although every single act of violence, and each
individual breach of the law, tends to counteract and destroy this its
primary use and object, yet do general risings and tumultuous meet-
ings of the people in a more especial and particular manner produce
this effect, not only removing all security, both from the persons and
property of men, but for the time putting down the law itself, and

daring to usurp its place In the first place, by the common

law, every private person may lawfully endeavor, of his own authority,
and without any warrant or sanction of the magistrate, to suppress a
riot by every means in his power. He may disperse, or assist in dis-
persing, those who are assembled ; he may stay those who are engaged
in it from executing their purpose ; he may stop and prevent others
whom he shall see coming up, from joining the rest ; and not only has
he the authority, but it is his bounden duty, as a good subject of the
king, to perform this to the utmost of his ability. If the riot be gen-
eral and dangerous, he may arm himself against the evil-doers to keep
the peace. Such was the opinion of all the judges of England in the
time of Queen Elizabeth, in a case called ' The Case of Arms,' (Pop-
ham's Reports, p. 121,) although the judges add, that ' it would be more
discreet for every one in such a case to attend and be assistant to the
justices, sheriffs, or other ministers of the king in doing this.' It would,
undoubtedly, be more advisable so to do ; for the presence and author-
ity of the magistrate would restrain the proceeding to such extremities,
until the danger was sufficiently immediate, or until some felony was
either committed or could not be prevented without recourse to arms ;
and at all events the assistance given by men who act in subordination
to, and in concert with, the civil magistrate, will be more effectual to
attain the object proposed, than any efforts, however well intended, of
separate and disunited individuals. But if the occasion demands im-
mediate action, and no opportunity is given for procuring the advice or
sanction of the magistrate, it is the duty of every subject to act for him-
self, and upon his own responsibility in suppressing a riotous and tu-
multuous assembly ; and he may be assured that whatever is honestly
done by him in the execution of that object, will be supported and
justified by the common law. And whilst I am stating the obligation
imposed by the law on every subject of the realm, I wish to observe
that the law acknowledges no distinction in this respect between the
soldier and the private individual. The soldier is still a citizen, lying
under the same obligation, and invested with the same authority to
preserve the peace of the king as any other subject. If the one is bound
to attend the call of the civil magistrate, so also is the other ; if the one

276 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ext

may interfere for that purpose when the occasion demands it, without
the requisition of tin* magistrate, so may the other too; if the one
may employ arms for that purpose, when arms are necessary, the sol-
dier may do the same. Undoubtedly the same exercise of discretion
which requires the private subject to act in subordination to, and in aid
of, the magistrate, rather than upon his own authority, In fore recourse
is had to arms, ought to operate in a still stronger degree with a mili-
tary force. But where the danger is pressing and immediate, where
a felony has actually been committed, or cannot otherwise be prevented,
and from the circumstances of the case no opportunity is offered of ob-
taining a requisition from the proper authorities, the military subjects
of the kin::, like his civil subjects,' not only may, but are bound to do
utmost, of their own authority, to prevent the perpetration of out-
rage, to put down riot and tumult, and to preserve the lives and prop-
erty of the people."

It is one result of tho law, as laid down by the foregoing authorities,
that a military officer refusing or failing, on a proper occasion, to bring
into action against a riotous or an insurrectionary mob, the force under
his command, would be guilty of an indictable offence at common law,
and might be prosecuted accordingly for breach of duty, independently
of his liability to military censure.

The most recent case on this subject arose out of the conduct of the
military at Six-mile Bridge, in the. County of Clare, during tho parlia-
mentary election for that county in the year 1852. At tin ensuing
Spring Assizes hold at Ennis in February, 1853, nn indictment for
murder was preferred against the magistrate and the officers and mm
whose conduct was impeached ; but the grand jury throw out tho bill :
and the case is hero noticed only for the sake of the charge deliver.'. 1
to them by Mr. Justice Pcrrin, who thus commented upon the law in
its application to the offence of which the military Wtff a-vused :

" It appears that there was an escort of soldiers, consist in
men, with two sergeants, as a safe-guard for some persons going to the
hustings at Six-mile Bridge, under the command of a captain and a lieu-
tenant, and the conduct of a magistrate — a very difficult and a very
nice sen \\ith respect to the requisition, its terms, grounds,

or sufficiency, the soldiers could have no knowledge. Tin orders of the
general, whi. h they are bound to obey, and not permitted to canvass,
were obligatory on them ; and for its sufficiency they arc not respon-
sible, and you are happily relieved from any inquiry into that matter.
Under that order, and the command of Captain Eager, and the. con-
duct of Mr. Delmege, they assembled. They proceeded to Six-mile

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 077

Bridge, and were there, with their arms in their hands, in obedience to
orders. Those orders will not justify any unlawful conduct or violence
in them, but it accounts for their presence there in arms : for ordinary
persons going on such an occasion as that to the hustings would act
very indiscreetly and very dangerously, if, perhaps, not very illegally,
to arm themselves with deadly weapons, in order to meet obstruction
or opposition, if it were expected. But the soldiers were bound, and
were there under orders ; and that which in other persons might denote
a previous evil or deadly intention, you will see, plainly suggests none
in them, for they must obey their orders as soldiers. There was noth-
ing illegal in their proceeding through the crowd with the freeholders,
possibly like any other body of freeholders and their companions, but
doing or offering no unnecessary violence, nor were they to be subject to
any violence beyond others. They had no right to force ft way through
the crowd by violence, nor to remove any obstruction by arms, still less by
discharging deadly fire-arms. They had no right to repel a trespass on
themselves, or on the escort, by firing or inflicting mortal wounds. You
will observe the distinction I take between removing an obstruction
and repelling a trespass in another part of the case. They had a right
to lay hold of, as every subject of Her Majesty has, and to arrest persons
guilty of any assault or trespass, or other act tending to a riot, either to
restrain or make them amenable. There is no distinction between sol-
diers and others in that respect, Lord Mansfield says, and his attention
was very much called to this subject, touching the military engaged,
not as soldiers, but, he says, as citizens, and I say, as subjects of Her
Majesty. No matter whether their coats be red or brown, they are
employed not to subvert, but to preserve the laws which they ought to
prize so highly, taking care not to commit any unnecessary violence, or
to abuse the power vested in them. Every one is justified in doing
what is necessary for the faithful discharge of his duty, although he is
deeply culpable if he wantonly commits any illegal act under the color
or pretext of law. Those persons who assist in the suppression of tu-
mults are to be considered as mere private individuals, acting as duty
requires. It is a mistake to suppose that having resort to soldiers, is
introducing martial law or military government, Suppose a soldier,
or any other military person, who acted in the course of the late occur-
rence, had exceeded the powers with which he was invested, there is no
doubt that he may be punished, not by a court-martial, but by an in-
dictment, to be found by the Grand Inquest of the County of Clare, and
to be disposed of before the criminal judge, acting with the assistance
of the jury, in the court of the county. If assaulted, or struck with

•J7> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ext.

stones, they had a right to r. p. 1 force by force, but not with deadly or
mortal weapons ; though if provoked by blows, so as to lose the com-
mand of their tempera — though toon f-.rlicarance. perhaps, would l>e
expected from soldiers than from others — if they did, when so provoked,
use the mortal weapons in their hamU, not with any previous premedi-
tation on theii parts so to use them — and I ha\v marked tin- distinction
between soldiers and others under sucli circumstances — in suchrcj.nl.
sion or affray, the law, in consideration of the provocation and the
frailty of human nature, reduces the crime, which would otherwise !>•>
murder, to manslaughter. And if it should still further appear that,
_: been so assailed and attacked, they had been guilty of no aggres-
sion, and repelling force by force, the \iol.-neo proceeded so far that,
without any misconduct on their part, their lives were threatened, and
in actual danger; and if it appears that, in order to save themselves
and their lives, they were obliged to fire, and did fire, in the del.
their lives, and slay, the homicide is excusable and justifiable. /;/// in
order to warrant that finding by the jury , or that proceeding by the sol-
diers, you must be convinced by actual proof that their conduct h«
all through correct, and by actual proof — not the sat/ in;/ n»r (he opinions
of any individual — that their lives were in <?<iit;/rr, <///</ were saved by the
firing, and only by the firing. In order to warrant sueh a finding as
that, you must entertain that conviction founded upon the evidence
given before you. The facts evincing danger imminent to their lives
and which could be prevented only by the firing, must bo established
by clear evidence, demonstrating that such danger existed, and eould be.
only by resorting to that deplorah!- Bering

that mclffcr, you will recollect that there were of the parti/ /'"/•/// soldiers
fully armed, with fixed bayonets, under the command of two officers and
(wo sergeants ; and further, that it is at 1 • aM <loul>tful whether there
was any legal command upon them to fire. NoeOBUnanc!
by their officers— I think that is admitted on all hands. And furthrr,
you must recollect that the firing cannot l,c justified ?//>"/< the <jr<>un<l >nrn ///
that otherwise the freeholders m it/hi cither have escaped or bcrn with-
drawn. ~*That would afford no justifimtinn f«r sliyinn the (muni hints.
I .'.ill also OOOtktar \\here the matter «x-eurred — in thisr.sj
vorable to the accused— a narrow lano. In another point of view, (but
r for inquiry.) it is said to i near the eourt-

house, and near an opm n-.-id. where th.Te was a large body «f police,
-: detachment of soldiers stationed, and where several magis-
. You will also consider the matter I have
taken into consideration, whether the soldiers fired without or-

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 2^0

ders, and whether they showed the steadiness and forbearance that
they ought. I need not again repeat to gentlemen of your intelligence,
that when I state any thing, I merely state what I have been informed ;
and I will not state a word as to that, but you will look to the evidence
before you. If it shall appear to you that shots were fired, and some
persons were killed, at a considerable distance from the lane, and out
of that lane, and by some of the soldiers who had occupied and imme-
diately come from it, and gained the open ground without any continued
resistance — where there was no pretence of danger to their lives, and
the persons were, some at a great distance, and some of them with their
backs turned — if that state of facts appeared, without previous ex-
citement and previous provocation, it would amount to a case of mur-
der ; but it will be for you to say whether such a state of facts as to
some individual soldiers should appear — whether there was any previ-
ous excitement and provocation (which, as I before told you, would re-
duce the killing, though it would not justify it, to manslaughter) con-
tinuing for a sufficient time, and preventing the blood from cooling.
You will consider how far that consideration in your mind operates,
and leads you to the conclusion that they acted, not from a deliberate
intention to take away life, but from the excitement and warmth pro-
duced by previous provocation. That would reduce the crime to man-
slaughter. Therefore, gentlemen, as to those persons who were slain
on what is called the Lodge Road, or near Miss Wilson's, your inquiry
will be : first, as to whether any persons were slain ; next, by whom they
were slain : because, unless it appears that the whole body of soldiers
were forward, and if it should appear there were only a few there, it
will be your duty to inquire with respect to them if it make any distinc-
tion in the finding — to identify and particularize those individuals. If
you should find that the homicide was of the worst description, and that
they had unnecessarily, and without provocation and excitement to ex-
cuse, and also a warmth of blood, for which there is allowance made,
you could not visit their act upon the whole body ; and, therefore, it
will be material for you to ascertain who those individual persons were.
That is as much and as important a part of the bill as any other.
Then, gentlemen, if they be distinguishable, it is your duty to do so.
If you find them guilty of a higher degree of offence than any of the
others, you must be able to distinguish them : for you cannot find a
general verdict against all upon that. With respect to those slain in
the lane, if you are convinced that the soldiers were not the aggressors,
but that when they fired they were unlawfully assailed, so as to be in
real danger of their own lives, and could not otherwise save them — as

^0 MIUTAKY DICTIONARY. [Ext

I befu; it would amount to justifiable homicide, and ought

to be so found. But if you think that, though they were not the aggress-
ors, and that they were assailed and struck, and, being thereby pro-
voked, repelled force by force, with the affray thickening, and they re-
ceiving blows, either from weapons in the hands, or from stones cast
upon them — that they were provoked so, and repelled force by force,
so us to get their blood so heated that they fired and slew them — I
think then you ought to find a bill of manslaughter against all, that is,
against every man who is proved to you to have discha msk* t

on that occasion ; but you must have such proof, < . And

whatever you find in respect to those slain in the lane — manslaughter ur
ide in self-defence — you ought to find a bill of manslaughter, at
the very least, against every soldier who is proved to have fired in the
broad street, or what is called the Lodge Road. These are the obser-
vations that I think it right to suggest for your assistance. I cannot,
of course, in my imperfect view of the facts, give you such advice and
.;--:- •..:.'• a- 1 would p?« a jury upon a case whieh I had heard ; but I
will be ready and happy, if you find any difficulty in applying any thing
said upon the evidence, to give you such further assistance as I
can, and answer any questions which you shall put to mo on the
subject."

It may, perhaps, be useful to subjoin a general order issued to the
commander-in-chicf at Madras, in April, 1825, during the government
of Sir Thomas Munro, shortly after a melancholy affair at Kitt«>or. in
whieh one or two civil servants of the East India Company lost their
lives under circumstances whieh, in the opinion of the public authorities,
indicated, both in the civil and military functionaries, a want of general
knowledge respecting the subject of the order.

"The Honorable, the Governor in Council, deems it necessary to
lay down the following rules relative to the exercise of the authority
with whieh civil magistrates, and other < .(lien's acting in a simi
pacity, arc vested, for calling out military force to pr> peace

of the country :

1 . i first and most important rule is, that no civil oflieer shall
call out troops until he is convinced, by mature consideration of all the
iistances, that such a measure is necessary.

Whm tli-- «-i\ il officer is satisfied of the necessity of the measure.
he should, before carrying it into execution, receive the sanction of
'.unless the delay requisite for that pnrjM.se is lik

d to the public interests. In that case, also, ho should
fully report the circumstances to government.

EXE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 281

" 3. When the civil officer may not deem it safe to wait for the orders
of government, he should address his requisition for troops, not to any
subordinate military officer, but to the officer commanding the division,
to whom he should communicate his object in making it, and all the
information he may possess regarding the stength and designs of those
by whom the public peace is menaced or disturbed. His duty is confined
to these points. He has no authority in directing military operations.

" 4. The officer commanding the troops has alone authority to de-
termine the number and nature of those to be employed ; the time and
manner of making the attack, and every other operation for the reduc-
tion of the enemy.

" 5. Whenever the officer commanding the division may think the
troops at his disposal inadequate to the enterprise, he should call upon
the officer commanding the neighboring division for aid, and report to
government and to the commander-in-chief.

" 6. No assistant or subordinate magistrate is authorized to call out
troops. When any such officer thinks military aid necessary, he must
refer to his superior, the principal magistrate of the district.

" The foregoing rules are to be observed, when it can be done with-
out danger to the public safety. Should any extraordinary case occur,
which admits of no delay, civil and military officers must then act ac-
cording to the emergency and the best of their judgment. Such cases,
however, can rarely occur, unless when an enemy becomes the as-
sailant ; and therefore occasion can hardly ever arise for departing
from the regular course of calling out troops, only by the requisition
of the principal civil magistrates of the province, to the officer com-
manding the division.

" Ordered, that the foregoing resolutions be published in general or-
ders to the army, and be communicated for the information and guid-
ance of such civil officers as they concern." (Consult PRENDERGAST.
See CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; OBSTRUCTION OF LAWS ; INSURRECTION ;
MARSHALS ; POSSE COMITATUS.)

EXEMPTS FROM MILITIA DUTY. The Vice-president of the
United States ; the officers, judicial and executive, of the government
of the United States ; the members of both houses of Congress, and
their respective officers ; all custom-house officers, with their clerks ;
all post-officers and stage-drivers, who are employed in the care and
conveyance of the mail of the post-office of the United States ; all ferry-
men employed at any ferry on the post road ; all inspectors of ex-
ports ; all pilots and mariners actually employed in the service of any
citizen or merchant within the United States ; and all persons who

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Exr.

are or may be exempted by the laws of the different States ; (Ac:
8, 1792.)

EXPEDITION— is an enterprise undertaken either by sea or 1>\
land against an enemy, the fortunate termination of which principally
depends on the rapidity and unexpected nature of its movements. To
be successful, the design and preparations for an expedition should, as
far as may be practicable, be carefully concealed ; the means employed be
proportioned to the object in view ; the plan carefully arranged, and its
execution intrusted to a general whose talents are known t<> fit him f»r
such * command, and who possesses a perfect knowledge of the scene
of action.

EXPENSE MAGAZINES— are small powder magazines contain-
ing ammunition, &c., made up for present use. There is usually one
in each bastion.

EXTERIOR SIDE— is the side of the polygon, upon which a front
of fortification is formed.

i:\TERIOR SLOPE— is a slope given to the outside of the para-
It is found by experience that earth of common quality will
naturally acquire a slope of 45°, even when battered by cannon. This
inclination is therefore given to the slope.

EXTRA ALLOWANCES. Officers shall not receive any a.l.li-
tional pay, extra allowance, or compensation in any form whatev
disbursements of public money, or any other service or duty whatso-
ever, unless the same shall be authorized by law, and the appropriation
•'•r explicitly set forth ; that is, for such additional pay, extra al-
lowance, or compensation ; (Act Aug. 23, 1842.)

KXTRA EXPENSES. Where any commissioned officer shall bo
obliged to incur any extra expense in travelling, and sitting on general
courts-martial, he shall be allowed one dollar and twenty-five cents per
day, if not entitled to forage, and one dollar if so entitled ; (Act Jan.

FACE OF A GUN. The superficies of the metal at the extremity
of the mu//lo.

1 ACES OF A BASTION— are the two sides extending fn,m th-
salient to the angle of tin- shoulder.

FACES OF A SQUAKK. Th- si.les of a battalion when form. ,1

V AGINGS, 'it of soldiers to the right, left, right

about, left aboii i.

FIE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 033

FALSE ALARMS. Punishable. (See ALARM.)
FALSE CERTIFICATES. Punishable with cashiering; (ART.
14.) (See CERTIFICATE.)

FALSEHOOD. The onus probandi in all accusations lies with
the accuser. If A accuses B of having told a falsehood, A must prove
it by legal evidence.

FARRIER AND BLACKSMITH. Allowed to cavalry regi-
ments. (See ARMY ; VETERINARY.)

FASCINES — are long cylindrical fagots of brushwood, and when
designed for supporting the earth of extensive epaulements, are called
saucissons, and are about 18 feet long, and ten inches thick ; those for
the revetment of the parapets of batteries are eight or ten feet long ;
those for covering wet or marshy ground from 6 to 9 feet long. (See
REVETMENT for construction of fascines.)

FATIGUE DUTY. Soldiers on fatigue duty allowed an extra gill
of whiskey ; (Act March 2, 1829.)

That the allowance of soldiers employed at work on fortifications,
in surveys, in cutting roads, and other constant labor, of not less than
ten days, authorized by an act approved March second, eighteen hun-
dred and nineteen, entitled " An act to regulate the pay of the army
when employed on fatigue duty," be increased to twenty-five cents per
day for men employed as laborers and teamsters, and forty cents per
day when employed as mechanics, at all stations east of the Rocky
Mountains, and to thirty-five cents and fifty cents per day, respectively,
when the men are employed at the stations west of those mountains.
— Approved August 4, 1854.

FAUSSE BRAIE — is a second enceinte, exterior to, and parallel
to the main rampart, and considerably below its level.

FEVER. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS ; MEDICINE.)

FIELD. In a military sense, the scene of a campaign or battle.

FIELD DAY. A term used when a regiment is taken out to the field,
for the purpose of being instructed in the field exercise and evolutions.

FIELD MARSHAL. The highest military rank excepting that
of captain-general.

FIELD OFFICERS. Colonels, lieutenant-colonels, and majors,
are called field officers. They should always be mounted, in order to
give ground for movements, circulate orders, and correct pivots.

FIELD WORKS. Their object is to provide a body of troops, or
a town, with a secure protection against a sudden assault of superior
numbers by the interposition of a parapet of some material capable of
resisting the effects of projectiles. This parapet may be made of very

MILITARY DICTION ART.

miscellaneous materials, but is usually of earth, excavated from a ditch.
will itself be an obstacle to attack. The usual figure of a parapet
with its ditch is shown in Fig. 11.'

The exterior slope t /, which is always exposed to the action of the

Fio. 112.

weather, and during an engagement to enemy's shot, must have that in-
clination or slope which the materials composing it would assume when
poured loosely from a height, and at which they would therefore stand
without any additional support. This inclination for earth of ordinary
tenacity, is about 45° ; t. c., the base on which the slope stands is equal
to its height, or it has a depression of 1 in 1. The parapet would aflord
the best cover if its superior slope, d e, were horizontal, or rather
parallel to the plane of site ; but in this case a musket-shot, fired along
its surface, could not reach the ground within a very considerable dis-
tance in front of it; a gentle inclination is therefore given to it, and ex-
perience has fixed this slope at a depression of 1 in 6. The interior

'/ r, of this parapet must be nearly vertical, that soldiers^ may
lean against it and fire easily over it. It must, therefore, be supported
by a wall of some material, called a revetment. The base of this
slope is usually one-fourth the height. It has a depression, tin-ret-
4 in 1. A step, b c, called the banquette, is added, of a height sull'n lent
to enable a man of ordinary stature to fire conveniently <»\cr the
and sloping away gently towards the rear to facilitate the alternate ad-
vance and retirement of each soldier to discharge and load his firelock.
The base of this slope is usually H to 2 times the height The dej.rcs-
1 in H or 2. The thickness of a parapet, that is, of
its superior slope, must be sufficient to withstand the Hl'eets of the pro-

s likely to be discharged against it. To afford security against
Musketry . . .its thickness must be 5 t

6-pounders
0-poundcrs .

• rs
18-pounders .

•j ;

0 "

]•: •
18 "

•1 1 feet.

FtE.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

285

In field-works, which are seldom made to resist heavy artillery, a
thickness of parapet of 11 feet will generally be sufficient.

The height of a parapet will greatly depend upon its position. It
will readily be seen from Fig. 112, that a bullet striking the parapet
near the upper part will have to traverse a small portion only of the
thickness of the parapet in order to pass through.

It becomes necessary, therefore, to give to a parapet a height rather
greater than that to which cover is required. Hence on a plain where
the attacking and defending parties are on the same level, the height
of a parapet, to furnish cover to men 6 feet high, is usually 7£ feet.
Should the parapet be situated upon the brow of a hill, the defenders
could obtain cover to any desired extent by merely retiring from it. In
this case a height sufficient to protect the soldiers while firing is all that
will be necessary ; this will usually be from 4 to 6 feet. (Fig. 113.)

Should these conditions be reversed, that is, should the attacking
party be in possession of the higher ground, a height of parapet up to
10 or 12 feet may be indispensable, and when the slope of the ground is
considerable, even this will afford cover to a small distance only behind
it ; (Fig. 114.) It may be said generally then that the height of para-
pets varies from 4 to 12 feet, and the thickness from 4 to 25 feet.

FIOB. 113, 114.

In the defence of field positions the following considerations require
special notice : —

1st. The period likely to elapse before the position is attacked.

2d. The number of troops by whom the position is to be held.

3d. The number of men available for the construction of the work,
and the nature of the materials at hand.

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fit

On the first of these considerations will depend the height and thick-
ness of the parapet, depth and width of the ditch, and the nature of the
obstacles \\ hi. h may be added, as only a certain amount of work cm
be executed in a given time, and a work of even f< •< -hie profile th<>
ly complete will be capable of a better defence than a stronger
only partially executed. The extent which it may be desirable to give
to the work will be limited by the number of men available for its «!,-
fence. There must, at least, be suHk-it-nt to man the whole of the
parapet, and a reserve, in addition, is almost essential. The length of
crest line measured in yards, must not exceed half the number of n:- :i
allotted for its defence. When either labor or materials arc sc..
may be necessary to reduce the profile, and to contract the extent of the
work below that which would bo desirable under other circumst
but in this case the details should be so arranged as to admit of subse-
quent additions, should circumstances allow it, so as to bring the whole
work to that condition which might have been desirable, though unat-
tainable in the first instance. When time, labor, and materials are
abundant, a good parapet and ditch should always be made to
the defenders. The dimensions and construction of such a parapet have
•already been given. But cover can be obtained f>r a limited number
of men in a more expeditious way. Thus a man will be equally pro-
tected from an enemy's fire, by standing behind a parapet 0 feet hurl),
or in a trench 3 feet deep, with a bank of earth 3 feet high in front of
him. Now to dig a trench 3 feet deep, and throw the earth to the front
so as to form a bank 3 feet high, may be performed by the same num-
ber of men in at most ^ of the time required for the construction of a
complete parapet 6 feet high. A trench and breastwork then will be,
generally used when the time is limited, and when cover and not the
creation of an obstacle is the principal object of the work. Tig. 115

FIG. 11

represent* a Section of the sli^htiM work of this nature which can be of
any service. Here a trench 2$ feet deep is duir, and the earth thrown
to the front forms a rough parapet 2 feet high. The trench can contain
one rank only, and the total cover being 4$ feet high, the men will not

FIE.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

287

be safe except when sitting or stooping. A trench and breastwork of
these dimensions can be completed in about 1} hours. The next sec-
tion (Fig. 11G) is more serviceable; the total height of cover in this

FIG. 116.

case is 6 feet. The men will be safe therefore so long as they remain
in the trench, which provides room for one rank only at a time. The
completion of this work would require about 3 hours.

Fig. 117 is a section of a breastwork and trench of a capacity suffi-

cient for most of the purposes for which works of this nature are usually
required. The trench is wide enough to contain two ranks of men at
the same time, and affords cover 6 feet in height. Such a work can be
executed in about 5 hours.

Fro. 118.

Tig. 118 is a profile adapted to marshy or rocky situations where
shallow trenches only are practicable.

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [KiK.

This work can bo constructed very rapidly when labor is abun
as two working parties, one in front and the other in rear, can 1
ployed at the same time. The work to be performed then will gener-
ally be the excavation of a trench or ditch, and the formation of a para-
pet or breastwork, with the earth thrown out of it. It will in most
cases bo executed by the troops themselves, though sometimes laborers
may bo obtained. In constructing a simple trench and breastwork one
row of workmen only can bo advantageously employed at tho same
time, and it will be found desirable to place them 6 feet apart ; as at
this distance each man can use his arms freely, without interfering with
or injuring his neighlwr. "When the saving of time is of more conse-
quence than economy of labor, the diggers may be placed 4 feet apart,
and the completion of the work will be accelerated, though not in pro-
portion to tho increase in the number of workmen. An ordinary labor-
er or common soldier can excavate one cubic yard,t. e. 27 cubic feet, in
any but the hardest soils per hour ; and can continue working nt this
rate for 8 hours. Should the soil bo loose or sandy, so that the piekaxo
is seldom required, this estimate may bo nearly doubled. The
or breastwork will be completed in the time in which each man will
finish his portion, that is, a portion equal in length t<> the intn\al IK -
tween any two adjacent diggers : therefore the number of hours will l>e
equal to the number of cubic yards in such portion. "Whence the follow-
ing rule is at once obtained :

To find the time required for the construction of a trench or pnrnpet.
in ordinary soil —

Multiply tho area of the section of the trench in square fret l>y tho
interval between the diggers (not less than 0 feet), and divide this prod-
uct by 27, the quotient is- tho number of hours required for the con-
>n of tho work. Conversely, to find the area of tho section « >f the
trench or breastwork which can be executed in a given time —

Multiply the number of hours by 27, and divide the product l.y the
1 (in feet) between the diggers, the result will be tho area, in
square feet, of tho section of tho trench or breastwork.

It \vill frequently happen th.r n lie speedily obtained, and p<-

! defensible in a verv short time, l.y taking advantage of

the hedges, ditches, or walls, which mny be met with, or of the obstacles

which may be presented by the natural features of the Around, (leu-

eral rules for proceeding under all the various circumstances which may

occur cannot bo pivcn. but the following examples will show what may

eases, and indicate the character of the operations

usually required. Fig. 119 represents a common hedge and ditch

FIE.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

289

FIG. 119.

FIG. 120.

turned into a breastwork to be defended from the hedge side. If the
hedge be thick and planted on a bank, as is generally the case, and es-
pecially if the ditch be
tolerably deep and con-
tain water, the breast-
work will be rendered
strong at the expense of
little labor. A shallow
trench should be exca-
vated behind the hedge,
and the earth thrown up
to raise the bank suffi-
ciently to form a rough
breastwork some 18
inches thick at the top.
Should the hedge be
more than 6 feet high,
it should be cut to that
height, and the branches
interwoven with the low-
er part to strengthen it.
A hedge to be defended
from the ditch side (Fig.
120) is a ready-made trench and breastwork, and will become a conve-
nient work by a little scarping of the sides and widening and levelling of
the bottom of the ditch, and by the addition, if necessary, of a banquette.
A good nine-inch brick
wall is musket -shot
proof. Such a wall 4
feet high will require
no alteration, but may
be used as a parapet
by forming loopholes
with sand-bags laid on
the top, Fig.121. Should
there be time, a ditch
should be dug in front,
and the earth thrown up
against the front of the wall to prevent the enemy from using the loop-
holes against the defenders. A wall 15 feet high can be pierced with two
tiers of loopholes, one at 8 feet above the ground, the other at the top of
19

FIG. 121.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

r,,,

in Fig. 123.
must be dug

the wall. In rear a scaffolding must be erected of two stages to servo
as banquettes. Such an arrangement is shown in the diagram, (Fig. 122.)

A wall 8 feet high
may also be pierced with
two tiers of loopholes as
shown
trench

this case, to enable the de%
fenders to make use of
the lower tier of loop-
holes, and a scufloMinn
erected to serve as a ban-
quette for the upper. On
an emergency, mate rials
of almost any conceivable description, as sacks or casks of earth,
of sand, of coal, or even of com %or flour, boles of cotton, of cloth,
packs of wool, mattresses, trusses of hay, fagots, carts or wagons
of stable litter, brick rubbish or paving stones, may be formed into
parapets of defence, while the approach of an enemy may be rendered
exceedingly difficult, by a judicious combination of obstacles \\hidi, un-
der urgent circumstances, may be extemporized of trees, bushes, posts,
wagons, wheels, strong palings, chairs, tables, and miscellaneous articles
of furniture, with iron rails, pitchforks, and agricultural implements,
carefully arranged in the front, and secured by chains or ropes strongly
picketed to the ground. Every soldier should be able to form for him-
self a rifle pit. This can be accomplished by digging a hole in the
ground about 3 feet deep and 3 feet square at the top, with a little step
to enable him to get in or out with ease. The excavated earth should
be thrown up to the front to form a protection. A loophole should bo
made by three sand-bogs ; two placed longitudinally, and one across.

Fio. 124

A rill'- j'it nf this Co
-. 1'Jl.

truction is shown in plan, sort ion. ami el-

to fieM-works should bo rendered difficult

t
FIE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 091

by the formation of obstacles of various kinds, so that troops when
coming to the assault may be detained under heavy fire as long as
possible while they are endeavoring to force or surmount the obstacle.
Contrivances of this nature are very numerous. (See ABATIS, TROUS-
DE-LOUP, CROWS'-FEET, CHEVAUX-DE-FRIZE, INUNDATIONS.) In defensive
warfare it is frequently necessary to intrench towns and villages, to se-
cure them from the incursions of small parties, or to serve as points of
support for the movements of troops. If a town or village be com-
manded on all sides, or even by great elevations on one side, if the
houses be of wood and the roofs thatched, so as to be easily set on fire,
such a position should be avoided. Neither should a detachment of
troops occupy a town or village too extensive for their number, unless
a part of the village can be easily and effectually separated from the
rest. The number of the detachment should at least equal the number
of yards in the exterior line of Avorks by which the village is surround-
ed. To place a village in a state of defence, the first object will be to
complete a continuous line of defensive works, by which it may be en-
tirely surrounded. To this end advantage is taken of all buildings,
fences and walls, near the exterior edge. The buildings, when substan-
tial, may serve as bastions to flank the connecting lines of works, and
when due preparations have been made will become strong positions.
The walls and hedges must be strengthened by banks of earth, and will
form curtains connecting the stronger portions. All openings remain-
ing must be closed by parapets, strengthened by ditches, abatis, pali-
sading, and such obstacles as the locality may present, and the streets
must be barricaded at intervals. Barricades may be constructed of
materials of almost any kind of earth, of timber, of paving stones, of
wagons of stable litter ; (the wheels should be taken off.) In buildings
occupied for defence the doors and windows should be blocked up with
sand-bags, supported by frames of wood, and the glass
must be removed from the windows. Should there be
no projecting wings or porches, it will be necessary to
obtain a flanking fire by the construction of balconies
projecting from the windows, and furnished with loop-
holes in the sides and bottom, so that a flanking fire
can be brought to bear on the ground at the foot of
the wall. This arrangement is shown in the -diagram,
(Fig. 125.) The beams supporting the gallery or
balcony are bolted to the flooring within ; the balcony
is surrounded with good oak boarding of 4" or 5"
thick. That the communications of the defenders may be free,

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fit

all interior hedges and walls which can in any way impede their
movements must be levelled, so that they may be able to bring
support rapidly to any point pressed by an enemy. Those hedges
which it may be desirable to retain must be strengthened in the man-
ner already pointed out. The strength of the position may (when eir-
cdmstances admit) be greatly increased by the formation of an interior
keep, whither the defenders may retire and obtain favorable terms of
capitulation should they be unable to withstand the assaults of tl,
sailants. A substantial building within the town, as a gaol, may be con-
verted into a keep by blocking up unnecessary openings ; by covering
entrances or any unflanked portions of the walls with tambours ; by
loopholing the walls and surrounding them if possible with a ditch,
palisade, and abatis. In the absence of a building of this nature, it \\ ill
be desirable to construct a redoubt, of as strong a character as time
will allow. If the village be of considerable extent, and a position can
be found which cannot be commanded from the neighboring buildings,
the redoubt may be of earth, as in an ordinary field-work. While the
actual defences of the village are thus being prepared, parties will be
occupied on the ground without, in creating obstacles ami entanglements
in the immediate vicinity of the place, and in removing and levelling all
obstructions between such obstacles and the limits of rifle range. The
greatest obstacle which can be presented to an attacking force, will, in
future, be a long level tract, fully commanded by a sweeping fir
is, in fact, difficult to see how an assaulting body could pass over such a
tract of 1,000 or 800 yards in extent, to attack a work in daylight with-
out being annihilated. To remove every object, whether trco or bush,
rising ground, dry ditch, or hedge, which could afford cover or conceal-
ment to a rifleman, will be an object of primary importance in execut-
ing the arrangements for defence. Ditches full of water, or \\hidi .-an
be filled, may generally be left, as they impede, and cannot assist the
assaulting party. Fig. 120 gives an illustration of the Dtet&a, already
described, usually applicable for placing a village in a state of defence.

A very little time devoted to the study of the subject, won 1.1 enable.
an ofli'-rr in command of a picket or charged with the defence of an
outpost to determine the construction of all the. works that are re.jui-
•He for protection and defence. TUB SKLKCTIOW or THE POST is what
will first engage attention, and the following considerations must have
their weight in determining the point :

TV inequalities of the ground, and the objects upon it, such as
buildings or f.-noes, Ace,, should be of sueh a nature, and in that relative
situation to each other, as to be convertible into a fortified post with

FIE.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Fid. 126.

•' in/ nn'a^fLu'n:=^^^.

DEFENCE OF A FORTIFIED TILLAGE.

w, loopholed walls; P, parapets and ditches; c, ditto of casks; cr, abatis; r, stockades; &,
barriers ; 1 1, free communication, road or passage ; H, fortified house ; K, keep.

ATTACK OF THIS FOETIFIED VILLAGE.

D D, flying sap-parallel or trench of cover ; B, open field battery, first opened at about 350
yards' distance ; E, ditto, advanced to breach ; F, one 9-pounder and one 24-pounder howitzer, to
enfilade flanking defences e e' e", breaches ; A, storming party; Z, supporting ditto ; « « P, firing
party and skirmishers ; 8 a, false attacks, to divert the attention of the garrison at the moment of
the real assault.

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fir

THE LEAST POSSIBLE LABOR, AMD IN THE SHORTEST TIME. The position

should not be commanded, especially on the flanks or in the rear,
within the ordinary range of a field-piece. There should be plenty of

.ils on the spot fur the construction of temporary works, ami for
forming obstructions in front of thorn. The soil should be of a nature
that is easily worked, if it is foreseen that any trenches or ditches \\ill

» be executed. It should generally be DIFFICULT OF ACCESS, and
yet offer the MEANS OF RETREATING in security. And should be in a

•ii for fulfilling the object for which the detachment is to be
posted.

In arranging the general plan of defensive works, the following

will require more particular attention : — It must be ascertained
from a minute examination of the posit ion, what figure will give the great-
est quantity of fire over the most accessible points of attack, and the
general contour of the intrenchmcnt .should make available buildings or
fences on the ground. THE OBJECT THE WORK is EXPECTED TO FULFIL

rence to the supporting force ; the distance from that force; or
whetln-r it is to bo left to itself to hold an enemy in check as long as
possible; or whether it is to be defended to the last extremity. ITS

MTTATION WITH RESPECT TO TIIK KNKMY aS tO distance, A.C. ; \\\\, \

is likely to be attacked by overwhelming forces, or only subject to the
brusque attack of cavalry or infantry in smaller bodies; u hither ar-
tillery is likely to bo brought up against it, lor in that ease earthen
works, v. hen merely for the purposes of cover, are in some r«

than buildings or stockades ; the parapets, too, must In- thicker ;
— \\hether it can be surrounded, for in such a case it must be inclosed
oil round, &c, THE NUMBER OF MEN TIIKKE WILL BE FOR ITS DEFENCE,
taking it as an established rule, that it is Letter to have a force <<

i too much distributed, and then fore injudicious to make
Works o fa- rnater ••: xtmt than can l>e well manned and vigorously de-

•!. For instance, in small works there might bo a file of i.
every pace or yard in the length of their breastwork, and in larger
ones the same, with a reserve of from one-fourth to one-sixth of the
whole in addition. On some such general basis, a calculation -1 the
proportionate extent of a work mi-ht be made. All this of course de-
pends very much upon circumstances. THE NUMBER OF MEN, whether
rs or inhabitants, that can be collected together for \\«>rking, and
r there are tools enough for them, so as not to und. rtake more
than can be well done. And, which is a very important
THE TIME THERE is TO DO IT is. Whether nn immediate attack is to be
nded, or otherwise, for this will decide not only the nature of

FIB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 295

the works, but the parts of them that require the first attention; as
will be more apparent when the details of execution are brought under
consideration. THE NATURE OF THE MATERIALS that can be had on the
spot, or procured in the neighborhood. This will have a great influence
on the details of the plan to be pursued, and will afford opportunity for
the display of considerable tact and intelligence, in appropriating and
adapting the means at hand for carrying the general plan into effect,
and securing its objects with the LEAST POSSIBLE LABOR. No one who
is not conversant with work of this description, can have any idea of
the great saving of time and labor that may be effected, by taking ad-
vantage of what might appear at a casual glance to be very unimpor-
tant and local features ; such, for instance, as gentle undulations in the
ground.

Details of Execution. — The following description of tools and stores
would be found more or less necessary, where temporary works were
to be thrown up. They are classed in three divisions, that their sep-
arate uses may be apparent.

Class 1. Field Exercise Tools.

For sinking trenches, forming breastworks,

' \ felling timber, making abatis and obstructions,

Felling-axes, f

Bill-hooks,

Class 2. For Houses, Walls, &c.
Sledge-hammers,

Hand-borers, . .

~ , For forming loopholes, breaking through

Crowbars, I « . -, c ,

~ > walls; preparing timber for barricades, stock-

kade work, &c.
Augers,

Spike-nails,
Class 3. General service and purposes of defence.

Sand-bags, The sand-bags for blocking up windows,

Rockets, I forming loopholes, &c. ; the rockets and

Small shells, [ shells for defence of houses and intrench-
Hand-grenades, I ments.

The proportions of these necessary to be demanded would of course
vary with the description of work which might be anticipated. For
example, in throwing up earthen works in an open country, a pickaxe
and shovel for every man that could be employed on the breastworks
would be wanted. If an abatis could be formed, and there were fences

;>«jtj MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fit.

•

to be cut up and levelled, one-third of the men would be advantageously
employed with felling-axes and bill-hooks. In a case where houses \\
to be placed in a state of defence, walls would have to be bn »km tin
for making loopholes, and windows, doors, and passages to be barri-
caded; here crowbars, hand-borers, sledge-hummers, spike-nails, and
saws would be required in greater proportion than spades ami pick-
axes. Sand-bags are included as being very useful for many purposes,
such as protect i 1:1; "uu \\hen firing ovor a parapet or breastwork,
quickly blocking up the lower parts of windows, &c.

A man will carry one hundred empty sand-bags, weighing about
60 Ibs., each of which will contain a bushel of earth, and whvn/u# they
are musket-proof. Rockets, small shells, and grenades, are mentioned
as being very powerful and attainable auxiliaries in the defence of posts
and houses ; and one great advantage of them is, that any body who
baa common sense may use them, or at least bo instructed in the requi-
site precautions in a few minutes. A CERTAIN DIVISION OF LABOR must
also be attended to, and a man should always have a tool put into his
hand that he has been accustomed to use ; carpenters should therefore
be employed where saws and axes are wanted ; miners and blacksmiths
where walls are to be broken through ; laborers -where the spade
pickaxe come into play. Those who never handled tools of these
scriptions, would be most usefully employed in collecting materials.
It would be well also to select such men for the first tour of duty, as
patrols, and sentries, and to employ the best workmen in overcoming
the greatest difficulties, which arc usually found in the commencement.
A little foresight will not bo misapplied in considering these points.
It is essential to obtain the assistance of the inhabitants in executing
works of this description, and an officer should always have authority
to enforce their attendance, and to pay them in proportion t.» thru
ertions. They should also bo required to bring with them wha'<
tools they can best use, or that are most wanted.

A stick may be cut to measure lines, and stakes will be driven t<>
show the slope and general form of the profile necessary in each par-

dar case. Whatever form is to be given to a work, it is traced
upon the ground by laying off its angles according to the number of
their degrees, and its sides are designated by little furrows dug with
the mattock or spade along cords stretched in the pr..p.r direction.
To profile a work is to figure upon tho ground its elevation by means
nailed together ; (V\». 107.) The officer who directs
the work ou» <• with him f.ur or five soldiers who carry mat-

tocks, 100 pickets, twenty poles ten or l\\ ;;i\ laths,

FIE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 297

some camp colors, and a cord 65 feet in length. There ought also to
be a carpenter, who carries hammer, nails, and a saw.

FIG. 127.

Field-works necessary or desirable in the operations of an army
in the field to strengthen lines of battle, keep open lines of com-
munication, protect bridges from destruction, &c., will generally be
constructed under the supervision of engineers. They may have any
extent, from a simple redan, or a battery, to a line or several lines of
works, some of considerable magnitude, extending over a position of
ten or twenty miles. It will only be possible here to give a brief de-
scription of the works usually adopted for these purposes.
Field-works, then, are usually arranged in three classes : —

First-Class, consisting of works open at the gorge —
Redan Double Redan

Redan with flanks Tenaille Head

Lunette Bastion Head

Second Class, consisting of works inclosed all round —
Redoubt
Bastion Fort

Third Class, consisting of lines both continuous or at intervals —
Lines of Redans Lines of Bastions

Lines of Tenailles Lines at intervals

Indented Lines a la Cremaillere

A redan is a work of the simplest kind. It consists of two faces of
parapet and ditch, forming a salient angle. Redans serve to cover
bridges, causeways, avenues, &c., and being quite open at the gorge,
are only suited for positions in which their extremities rest on rivers
or other obstacles, so that they cannot be turned, or else when protected
by the full sweeping fire of works in their rear. Redans in front of
other works are generally mere covers for an advanced post ; for ex-
ample, if a strong redoubt occupies the commanding summit of a hill,

.x)S MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Fit.

its elevation and position usually prevent the deep hollows and ap-
proaches by the valleys being fully seen from its faces. Redans may
then be advantageously constructed on the lower knolls, or under fea-
tures of the hill, to command all the hollows, which cannot always be
reached by the fire of the main redoubt.

Lines.— Continuous lines of rampart, parapet, and ditch, are some-
times used to connect important redoubts, or to cover tho front of a
position, and they may have, according to circumstances, a variety of
tracings. To cover any considerable extent of country with continuous
lines is generally considered injudicious, but must not be altogether
condemned ; as in particular cases, especially on ground unfavorable for
manoeuvring, it may be an advantageous constructor Continuous lines
require a great expenditure of labor in their construction, and a largo
force is necessary for their defence ; if forced at one point, tho whole is
lost, and they interfere greatly with the offensive movements of the
troops they cover. When circumstances oblige any considerable ex-
tent of country to be defended, lines at intervals are more generally
adopted. Lines at intervals aro a series of detached works arranged in
two or more rows, mutually supporting each other, and each capable
of enduring an independent attack. In lines at intervals tho most ad-
vanced positions are usually occupied by simple works open at tho
gorge as Redans and Lunettes, within range of each other, that i
more than 600 or 700 yards apart. These works, being open at the
gorge, can be fully commanded by the works in rear, which can bring
a fire upon every point within them ; if taken by an enemy, they can-
not, therefore, be held by him until tho latter works are also subdued.
Tho second line of works are generally a series of redoubts, adapted
in shape to the features of tho ground, 400 or 500 yards behind the
salient works, covering their intervals, and protecting their faces and
ditches by a powerful flanking fire. If necessary, a third line of works
on similar principles may be added. Tho works in tho second line,
i. €. the redoubts, must be made us strong in roar as in front, or an
enemy would not fail to attempt to carry them by an attack on the
rear, and tho faces of all tho works should, as far as possible, be di-
rected on ground which the enemy cannot occupy, so as to bo pr«
from his enfilade fire. Tho annexed diagram (Fig. 128) exhibits a
tract of ground defended by lines at intervals, and will convey an idea
of the general arrangement of works of this nature.

In the construct i'.n ,,f these and all other field-works, the following
maxims must l>e strictly observed : 1st. That tho works to bo fl.
are never to be beyond tho range of tho weapons of the works flanking

FlL.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

299

them, that is, never out of the effective range of musketry. 2d. That
the angles of defence should be about right angles. 3d. That the salient

FIG. 128.

angles of works should be as obtu A as circumstances will permit 4th.
That, although ditches cannot always be as fully flanked, as in perma-
nent fortification, yet that partial flanking must be carried as far as
possible. 5th. That in the construction of field-works, reference should
not only be had to the direct and immediate obstacles that the work
itself presents to the enemy, and the positive effects of fire on the ap-
proaches to it ; but likewise the relative value of the work must be
considered, as to the support it can give to, or receive from, other
works. 6th. That the outline of a field-work should be proportioned
to the number of men intended to defend it. 7th. The ground over
which an enemy must pass to the attack should, if possible, be seen
both in front and flank. (Consult HYDE'S Fortifications ; JEBB'S Attack
and Defence ; Traite Theorique et Pratique de Fortification Passagere,
<&c., par M. ERNEST DE NEUCHEZE, Capitaine, &c. ; MAHAN'S Field For-
tifications ; Aid Memoir to the Military Sciences, Edited by a Committee
of the Corps of Royal Engineers.)

FILE — generally means two soldiers, a front and rear rank man.
Each man occupies in line about 21 inches ; 10 files require a space of
7 paces ; 100 files, 70 paces. The French designate men ranged in four
ranks, as follows : the front rank men as chefs de file ; the second rank,
serres demi files ; the third chefs demi file ; and the rear rank serres
files.

800

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Fix.

FINDING. Before a court-martial deliberates upon the judgnn-nt,
the judge-advocate reads over the whole proceedings of the court ; he
then collects the votes of each member, beginning with the youngest.
The best mode of doing so is by slips of paper. The Articles of War
require a majority in all cases, and in case of sentence of death, two-
. It is not necessary to find a general verdict of guilt or acquittal
upon the whole of every charge. The court may find a prisoner guilty
of part of a charge, and acquit him of the remainder, and render sen-
tence according to their finding. This is a special verdict ; (Hooou's
Military Law Authorities.)

FIRE, (VARIETIES OF.) Direct fire is when the battery of guns is
ranged parallel to the face of the work, or the line of troops to be fired
at, so that the shot strike it perpendicularly.

Fio. 129.

A B rpprwvnU a lino of parapet, or of troops.

C U UM position of a battery, or line of infantry for direct fire on A a

D "f..r enfilade.

f..r NfWMh

ENFILADE. — Enfilade fire is when the battery is ranged pcrpendicu-
th.> prolongation of the crest of a parapet, or to a line of troops,
so that the shot flies in the same direction, or parallel to the line or
parapet, sweeping along from one end to the otli

OBLIQUE. — Oblique fire is when the battery of guns is ranged so as
to form an angle with tho front of the object to be struck.

PLUHOIKO. — Plunuinu' fir.- is wh»-n the shot is fired from a position
considerably higher than the object fired at.

Fa.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

301

RICOCHET. — Ricochet fire is firing with a slight elevation, and with
small charges, in a direction enfilading the face of the work, so that the
shot are pitched over the parapet, and bound along the rampart from
end to end, with destructive effect on the guns and gunners.

REVERSE. — Reverse fire is when the shot strikes the interior slope
of the parapet at an angle greater than 30°.

SLANT. — Slant fire is when the shot strikes the interior slope of the
parapet, forming with it a horizontal angle, not greater than 30°.

VERTICAL. — Vertical fire is that in which the shot or shell describes a
lofty curve through the air before it falls ; such is the fire from mortars.

FIRE BALL. Made like a light-ball, except that, being intended
to light the works of an enemy, it is also loaded with a shell.

FIRING-. In the discharge of fire-arms, it is necessary to know
the position and relations existing between the three following lines
(Fig. 130) : 1st, the line of sight, which is the prolongation of the visual

FIG. 130.

ray passing through the highest points of the breech and the muzzle ;
2d, the line of fire, which is the prolonged axis of the piece ; and 3d,
the trajectory described by the projectile.

The point-blank range ,is the second intersection of the trajectory
with the line of sight.

The causes of deviation in firing are :

"Wrong position of the sight.
Calibre not exact.
Barrel imperfect.
Too hard on the trigger.
"Windage,
f The recoil.

j Vibrations of the barrel,
[ (spring of barrel.)
Not exact measure.

Form of grain and variable quality of powder.
Its deterioration from dampness in transportation,

&c.

More or less ramming.
Sticking along the bore, from becoming foul and

damp.
. Getting foul or dirty.

(1.) From the construc-
tion of the arm.

(2.) From the
powder.

charge

Causes which can
be corrected.

"Which cannot be
corrected.

302 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FiR.

(3.) From the ball

(4.) From the atmos-
phere.

Not being of the exact weight and calibre.

More or less deformed in loading, or on leaving the

barrel
Not having the centre of gravity in the centre of

the figure, (spherical ball)

The effect of wind.

The temperature ; moisture in, and density of the

air.

The position of the sun.
I HiiVrence of level between the target and gun.

For the same kind of arm, the dimensions, charges, weights, projectile,
eing constant, the point-blank may bo considered as constant, and
serves as a point of reference in firing at different distunn s.

With a piece having a point-blank, that is, any piece having an nn^lo
in front, made by the line of sight and the line of fire, it is necrssury,
in firing at a point-blank object, to aim directly at the object. If the
be situated within the point-blank range, it will be necessary to
aim below. If the object be situated beyond the point-blank, wo must
aim above the object.

As the end of the gun obstructs the view of the object, in aiming above
the point to be reached, and, moreover, as it is difficult to dcterm:
certain distance the elevation that ought to bo given to tin- line of sight,
a haugse or tangent scale is placed upon the breech of the cannon, which,
by enlarging its diameter, increases the angle of sight and consequent ly
the point-blank range. The tangent scale is now generally used with
guns and howitzers, and the hausse, or rear sight, has also been attached
to small arms of 1855. In addition to the tangent or hausse some sim-
ple instrument may be used for determining distances. (See STADIA.)

Fir. d im-l.T angles of 4° 15', 4° 30', and 4° 50', the new rifle mus-
ket, altered rifle, and altered musket have, respectively, a range of 1,000
yards. (See HAUSSE.) The elongated musket balls do not ceaso to
ricochet <>n l.-v. 1 ground at a distance of 1,000 yards. A strong wind,
blowing prrpendirularly to the direction of the rifle-musk. l ball, will
deflect it from its course 12 feet in 1,000 yards; about :\ i^t in 500
yards, and 1$ feot in 200 yards. The HlV.-t of wind «»n the pistol-car-
l.alls is somewhat greater for the same distai

When two oblong balls are fired from tho new rifle musket or nl-

ifle, with the ordinary service charge of 60 grains, they separate

.u-h other and in -m th«- j.lane of fire about 4 feet in a disfa;

200 yards. If the piece be hold firmly against the shoulder, no serious

ice will be felt ; but for the two balls it is necessary, in aim-

FLA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 303

ing, to give the barrel greater elevation in the proportion of 6 feet for
200 yards. In cases of emergency, two balls might be employed
against masses of infantry or cavalry, at distances not exceeding 300
yards. The angle of maximum range for the mortar is nearly 42°.
The angle of fall is the angle made by the last element of the trajectory
with the ground, and when this angle is small, the projectile rebounds
upon the earth and performs a series of ricochets, increasing in number
as the angle of incidence diminishes, or as the ground is firm and elastic.

The point-blank ranges of siege and garrison guns, with ordinary
charges, are respectively eight hundred yards for the 24-pounder, seven
hundred and seventy-five yards for the 18-pounder, and seven hundred
yards for the 12-pounder. For field-artillery, the point-blank ranges
are seven hundred and fifty yards for the 12-pounder, and six hundred
and seventy -five yards for the 6-pounder.

The point-blank is increased or diminished by the hausse or tangent
scale, and is then called the artificial point-blank. The practical rule
in aiming field-guns by means of the tangent is : give one-twelfth of an
inch on the instrument for each twenty-five yards beyond point-blank.

The direct fire is employed in breaching parapets or walls, against
troops in column, and in most cases where the object of attack is pos-
sessed of considerable depth or thickness.

The enfilade fire, with heavy ordnance, full charges and solid shot, is
especially effective in those circumstances which admit of its adoption ;
a single shot having been known to disable several guns, or to strike
down a whole rank of men.

Enfilade fire a ricochet is generally employed to dismount guns on
parapets, protected by traverses, at ranges varying from 400 to 600
yards.

The ricochet and vertical fires, being intended to act upon a surface,
and not an isolated point, may be executed during the night, as well
as by daylight. (See TARGET. Consult THIROUX ; KINGSBURY'S Ar-
tillery and Infantry ; Reports of Experiments by Ordnance Depart-
ment, U. S. A., 1856 ; HYDE'S Fortification.')

FLAG-. The flag of the United States shall be thirteen horizontal
stripes, alternate red and white. The Union shall be a number of white
stars in a blue field, corresponding with the number of States in the
Union. Upon the admission of a State to the Union, another star is
added to the flag on the 4th of July next succeeding her admission ;
(Act April 4, 1818.)

All flags captured from an enemy to be displayed in such public
place as the President may deem proper ; (Act April 8, 1814.)

;JO i MILITARY DICTIONARY. [FLA.

FLAGS OP TRUCE — ore frequently sent by an enemy with tho
design of gaining information. To prevent this, it is usual for outposts
to halt the flag of truce, and if he is merely tho bearer of a letter, re-
oeipt for it, and order the party to depart, preventing all conversation
with sentries. It may sometimes, however, be necessary to send the
bearer of the flag to head-quarters, in this case, his eyes are bandaged,
and he is forwarded with an escort.

Flags of truce are used when an enemy is in position, on a march
or in action. The flag ought always to be preceded by a trumpeter 25
paces in advance, and when within range of the guns of the sentinels or
videttes, he halts, returns his sword to its scabbard, and at the same
moment raises and flourishes a white flag or handkerchief. If he is not
signalled to retire, he continues to advance step by step until ordered
to halt. If he remarks that it is sought to draw him into a snare, he
- at a gallop with his trumpet as soon as he is certain of tho bad
intention. When consent is given to receive him, he submits to all
measures that may be exacted of him for the fulfilment of his mission.

If it is during an action that a flag proceeds from the ranks of the
enemy, tho ranks that he leaves halt and cease their fire. He proceeds
towards tho chief of the adverse force, and at a suitable distance returns
his sabre to its scabbard, and raises his flag. If he is not signalled to
retire, and if the fire ceases in his front, he continues to advance and
executes his orders. Some serious motive is indispensable for sending
a flag during an action, for tho enemy is apt to believe that it is a strat-
agem, and therefore fires upon the flag, and follows up his aim more
vigorously, while the opposite party have lost time.

FLANK. The right or loft side of a body of men, or place. Flank
presupposes a formation more or less deep. A flank march is upon
the prolongation of the line to which a body faces. Thus, when wo say
the enemy, by a flank march, outflanked our right wing, it is understood
that the enemy, by marching parallel to our line of battle, put himself
in position upon our extreme right.

To disturb the flanks of a column or army is to throw an opposing
force upon either side of the route that it follows. By this manoeuvre
the march of the column is retarded, or it is forced to halt ; its baggage
is sometimes seized, ami terror and disorder fall upon tho masses.

Flank (To) — is to cover and defend tho flanks. W.> flunk a camp
by posts placed on the right and left; a corps d'armeo is flanknl by de-
tachments which take roads parallel to the routes followed by tho larger
body ; smaller columns are flanked by flankers on tho right and left,
who keep in view the columns, warn them of the approach of an enemy,

FOB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 305

discover ambuscades, skirmish with them, and fall back when needed
upon the mass of the troops.

FLANK OF A BASTION— is that si'de which connects the face,
and curtain. It is one of the principal defences of the place, as it pro-
tects the curtain, the face, and flank of the opposite bastion, and the pas-
sage of the ditch.

FLBCHE — is a simple species of field-work. It consists of two
faces forming a salient angle. One simple rule for their construction is
to select a spot for the salient and throw up a breastwork on either
side, forming an angle of not less than 60°, and allowing one yard for
each file.

FOOT — in a military sense, implies infantry soldiers.

FORAGE. The hay, corn, fodder, and oats required for the sub-
sistence of the horses of an army. Generals, field-officers, cavalry-
officers, and staff-officers receive a commutation in lieu of forage for
each horse allowed by law, owned, and kept in service. (See PAY.) The
maximum ration of forage is fourteen pounds of hay or fodder and
twelve pounds of oats, corn, or barley. The established forage ration
is furnished by the quartermaster's department. The food of horses
however, like that of men, must be modified according to circum-
stances, by changing established proportions or by substituting one
article of food for another. A knowledge of the different descriptions of
food capable of maintaining a horse in working condition is essential.
Forage in garrison or established quarters is ordinarily obtained under
contract ; but in the field the resources of the country occupied must be
made immediately available. War deranges the proportions commonly
maintained between demand and supply, and cripples agricultural indus-
try. It is for the military administrator to counteract as far as possible
this tendency, and not alone to seize upon all the resources of supply,
but to render them continuously productive. Under the very best
arrangements, however, few countries when they become the theatre of
contending armies can long support the drain upon them, and afford
sufficient sustenance for the immense number of animals which accom-
pany an army, and a partial supply must under the most favorable
circumstances be drawn from without. While the army is acting in
the immediate vicinity of the sea-board there is little difficulty in main-
taining this supply, but when it advances inland, and the means of water
transport fail, it becomes a matter of extreme difficulty to provide the
requisite transport for so bulky an article as forage. The artillery can
render some assistance in this respect, and should be required to carry-
in their wagons at least three days' supply, but the cavalry soldier
20

M1LITAKY DICTIONARY. [Foa.

cannot always encumber himself with his forage ration, and at best can
only be expected to carry throe days' allowance of oats or barley,
fg ujMtn the supply department for his hay. Althodgb hay has
been packed by hydraulic pressure, tin- necessity of a further reduction
of bulk, both as a question of economy and of convenience, has always
been apparent. This consideration, und representations of the \\a-te in-
curred at the seat of war in the unloading of grain, and its transport to
the front, led Mr. Julynn, asst.-com.-gcn., B.A., to apply his iimntive
mind to the manufacture of what is now known as the •• Amalgamated
Field-forage." This consisted of a preparation of chopped hay, bruised
oats, bran, Arc., in the proportions usually issued to cavalry horses,
thoroughly mixed together, subjected to a chemical process for the < \-
pulsion of fixed air, and compressed by hydraulic power into thick <nk« s
of great solidity. It was cut up into rations of 22 Ibs. each, and four
of such pieces were packed in one canvas cover, which was convertible
into a nose-bag. From these bags the horses were to have been fed, the
forage being restored to its original bulk and condition by moderate
friction and a few minutes' exposure to the air. This preparation thus
combined the advantages of extreme portability, full nutritious proper-
ty, cheapness, and (from its being almost impervious to air and fire, as
well as from its peculiar form) exemption from the accidents, deteri-
oration, and losses to which forage in its ordinary state is subject.

FORAGE MASTER. (See WAGON MASTER.)

FORAGING — is properly the collection of forage or other sup-
plies systematically in towns or villages, or going with an escort to cut
nourishment for horses in the fields. Such operations l're.|Uently lead
to engagements with the enemy. Foraging parties arc furnished with
reaping hooks and cords. The men promptly dismount, make bundles
with which they load their horses, and are prepared for any thin^ that
may follow. The word foraging is sometimes inaccurately used i i
marauding. When foraging is effected in villages, it is best not to toko
the party into the village, but to send for the chief persons and stipu-
late with them that the inhabitants shall brinur the required forage tad
other stores out to the troops. If the inhabitants do not promptly com-
ply with this moderate command, it is necessary to take the tn...j.s
into the village. In this event, all possible means must bo taken to
prevent disorder, as for instni:

1. A certain numWr of houses are assigned to each company, BO
that the commander of the detachment may hold each company respon-
sible for the disorders committed within its limits.

FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 307

2. Guards are posted and patrols sent out, who arrest any foragers
guilty of disorder.

3. If the form of the village permits, a part of the detachment re-
mains at the centre to pack the horses and load the wagons as fast as
the other men bring the forage from the houses.

In places where an attack may be expected, the foraging is conduct-
ed as follows : Either fatigue parties are sent with wagons, or parties
of cavalry with their own horses ; in both cases a special escort is added
for the protection of the foragers. In all cases, the strength of the
escort depends upon the degree of danger, the space over which the
foraging is to extend, and the distance from the enemy. During the
march of foragers to and from the foraging ground, if they consist of a
fatigue party with wagons, an escort is added, which acts in conformity
with the rules for escorting convoys. If the foragers consist only of
cavalry with their own horses, then on the outward march they move
in one body, observing the precautions prescribed for movements near
the enemy ; on the return march, if the horses of the foragers are
packed and led, the detachment acting as escort should not pack more
than 40 pounds on their horses, so that the load may not prevent them
from acting against the enemy. One hundred, and twelve pounds may
be packed on a horse, and the horse must be led ; 56 pounds are packed
in two trusses. Sometimes the escort, or a part of it, may be sent out
early to the foraging ground, to take measures for the security of the
foragers before they arrive. For the safety of the foragers when at
their work, the escort is divided into two or three parts, according to
circumstances; one part places a chain of outposts and sends out
patrols, to guard the whole ground ; another furnishes the supports of
the outposts, and if there are infantry or mounted rifles with it they
occupy the points which cover the approaches ; the third part is placed
in reserve near the centre of the ground, that it may easily reach any
point attacked. If the enemy attacks while the foraging is going on,
the escort should go to meet him or defend itself in position, endeavor-
ing to stop him until the foragers have finished their work, and are
drawn out on the road for their return march ; then the escort com-
mences its retreat, acting as a rear guard, and endeavoring to keep the
enemy as far from the foragers as possible. If it is impossible to hold
the enemy in check long enough to finish the work, they should at least
send forward and protect all the foragers who have packed their horses
or loaded their wagons ; the rest join the escort. If there is a prob-
ability of driving off the enemy by uniting all the foragers to the escort,
it is best to abandon the forage already packed, and^o begin foraging

MILITARY DICTIONARY. . [Fo*.

after i 1 the enemy. It is permitted to abandon the

forage entirely only in extreme urgency, when there is absolui
other \\ay of *a\ ing the foragers. If tho enemy is repulsed, we must
not be induced to pursue him except far enough to prevent a re-
newal of the attack, but must endeavor to complete the foraging.
The foraging must not be extended over any ground not guarded by the
escort. If the escort is too weak to cover the whole space designated
for foraging, the ground is divided into parts, and the forag
in the different portions successively. If the foraging ground is at a

icrable distance from the camp, it will be a proper precaution
to post a special detachment in support half way. Foraging in
places occupied by the enemy is undertaken only upon tho entire
exhaustion of the ground occupied by our own troops. Such for-
aging is covered by offensive operations, so that, having driven in
the enemy's advanced troops or other parties, we may rapidly seize
all the supplies to be found in the vicinity. This is called forced
foraying. The strength and composition of a detachment for forced
foraging must be such that it can overwhelm the enemy's troops, and
remain long enough in position to enable the accompanying detach-
ment of foragers to complete their work and retreat out of d
The main conditions of success in such an enterprise are suddenness,
rapidity, and determination in the attack, promptness in the work of
the foragers, and tenacity in holding the position taken from the enemy as
long as necessary. Success will be greatly facilitated by partial attacks
made upon different points of the enemy's position while the foraging
is going on. Attacks upon foragers should be sudden and rapid, in

. by not giving the escort time to defend tho points attacked, to
produce confusion among the foragers and thus prevent them from
working. The approach of the attacking party should be concealed.
rapid, and compact ; that is, it should not send out parties to an \
distance in front or on tho flanks, and, as a general rule, should not
divide its force prematurely, but only the moment before the attack.
ree of a detachment sent to attack foragers depends chiefly upon
the object of the attack — that is, whether it is designed to capture tho
foragers, or only to prevent them from foraging by alarming th
to prevent them from carrying off forage air. 1 It U in all

oases advantageous to begin with several simultaneous false attacks by
small parties, to perplex the enemy and oblige him to divide the escort;
then to direct tho main party of tho detachment upon the prineij.nl point
of the enemy's arrangements, overthrow his weakened escort, an i
trate to the road of retreat, so as either to cut off and destroy a part of

FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 309

the escort and foragers, or to force them to abandon their work and fly,
by threatening to cut them off. If from the disproportion of force it is
impossible to prevent the foraging entirely, the attacking party confines
itself to delaying the work ; its operations, therefore, should consist in
partial attacks upon several points, in order to alarm and disperse the
foragers by breaking through the outposts at several points. Upon
meeting a considerable force of the enemy these attacking parties should
at once retreat, and renew the attack in a different place. In such
operations a portion of the attacking detachment should be kept together
and held in reserve, as a support and rallying point for the small par-
ties. If they do not succeed in preventing the foraging, they may try
to attack the foragers on the return march ; observing in this case the
rules laid down for attacks upon convoys ; (McCLELLAN's Military Com-
mission to Europe.}

FORCE. Any body of troops.

FORDS. In examining and reporting upon a ford, the main points
to be considered are : the firmness and regularity of the bottom, its
length, width, and direction ; the depth, (and its increase by tides or
floods,) the rapidity of the current, the facilities of access, security from
attack, and the means of rendering it impassable : a ford should always
be tried personally before making a report on its capabilities. The
depth of fords for cavalry should not be more than 4 feet 4 inches, and
for infantry 3 feet 3 inches ; but if the stream is not very rapid, and the
direction of the crossing is down-stream, the latter may pass by holding
on to the horses, even if the depth is four feet. Should the stream be
very rapid, however, depths much less than these could not be con-
sidered fordable, particularly if the bottom is uneven. Carriages with
wheels 5 feet in diameter may cross a ford 4 feet deep ; but if it is
necessary to keep their contents dry, the depth should not be more
than 2, or at most 2£ feet. Fords are generally to be found above or
below a bend, and often lie in lines diagonally across the river ; small
gravel forms the best bottom ; and rock, on the contrary, the most
dangerous, unless perfectly regular and not slippery. They may be
sounded by means of a boat having a pole attached. But cavalry or
good swimmers may effect it with lances or poles, carefully feeling their
way before advancing. Parts which may be too deep, or even the
whole width, if the river is narrow, may be rendered fordable by
throwing in fascines parallel to the direction of the current, and loading
them with stones, which must afterwards be covered with smaller material
to render the surface level. The approaches should also be levelled,€nd
where the soil is soft, rendered firm by covering them with fascines, &cv

310 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Foa.

so that the troops may advance with a brood front, and rapidly mount
the further bank. The extent and direction of the ford should be clearly
marked out by means of poles firmly fixed, and these may bo notched,
so that a dangerous rise in the river may bo observed. If the current
is rapid, a number of these placed along the upper edge of the ford, and
connected by ropes, will also be useful to prevent men on foot being
swept away ; and boats and horsemen should also be in readiness to
rescue them. The force of the current may be broken by the <
Crossing a little above them ; but if the bottom is sandy, tho cavalry
should cross after the infantry and artillery, as the passage of tho former
deepens a ford sometimes very materially. The opening and shutting
of the mill-sluices will sometimes alter the depth of fords, and floods
may even entirely destroy them ; they can be rendered impracticable
by means of large stones, harrows, planks with spikes, sharp stakes
driven in so as to be concealed by the water, abatis, &c., or by cutting
trenches across ; (Aide Memoir e.)

FORGE. One travelling forge and one battery wagon accompany
each field-battery. They are furnished with the tools and materials re-
quired for shoeing horses and for the ordinary repair and preservation
of carriages and harness. The total weight of tho forgo when loaded is
3,383 Ibs., that of the battery wagon loaded is 3,574 Ibs.

FORLORN HOPE. Officers and soldiers who generally volun-
teer for enterprises of great danger, such as leading tho attack whon
storming a fortress.

FORT — is an inclosed work of the higher class of field-works. Tho
word, however, is loosely applied to other military works.

FORTIFICATION. A fortification in its most simple form con-
sists of a mound of earth, termed the rampart, which encloses tho space
fortified; a parapet, surmounting tho rampart and covering the UK n
and guns from tho enemy's projectiles ; a scarp wall, which sustains the.
pressure of the earth of tho rampart and parapet, and presents an ob-
stacle to an assault by storm ; a wide and deep <///»•/», wh'n-h pr
the enemy from approaching near tho body of tho place; a coiintrrsmrp
wall, which sustains tho earth on the exterior of the ditch ; a covered way,
which occupies the space between the counterscarp and a mound of
earth, called a glacis, thrown up a few yards in iV"iit of tin- ditch for
irpose of covering the scarp of the main work. The work by
which the space fortified is immediately rnvdop.-.l is called l)\Qenccintr,
or body of the place. Other works are usually added to the cnceint*
toVrengthcn the weak points of tho fortification, or to lengthen the.
siege by forcing the cncrny to gain possession of them before he con

FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 31 1

breach the body of the place. These are termed outworks, when en-
veloped by the covered way, and advanced works, when placed exterior
to the covered way, but in some manner connected with the main work ;
but if entirely beyond the glacis and not within supporting distance of
the fortress, they are called detached works. In a basticned front the
principal outwork is the demi-lune, which is placed in front of the cur-
tain ; it serves to cover the main entrance to the work, and to place the
adjacent bastions in strong re-enterings. The tenaille is a small low
work placed in the ditch, to cover the scarp wall of the curtain and
flanks from the fire of the besiegers' batteries erected along the crest of
the glacis.

The places of arms are points where troops are assembled in order
to act on the exterior of the work. The re-entering places of arms, are
small redans arranged at the points of juncture of the covered ways of
the bastion and demi-lune. The salient places of arms, are the parts of
the covered way in front of the salients of the bastion and demi-lune.
Small permanent works, termed redoubts, are placed within the demi-
lune and re-entering places • of arms for strengthening those works.
Works of this character constructed within the bastion, are termed in-
terior retrenchments ; when sufficiently elevated to command the ex-
terior ground, they are called cavaliers.

Caponnieres are works constructed to cover the passage of the ditch
from the tenaille to the gorge of the demi-lune, and also from the demi-
lune to the covered way, by which communication may be maintained
between the enceinte and outworks. Posterns are underground com-
munications made through the body of the place or some of the out-
works. Sortie passages are narrow openings made through the crest
of the glacis, which usually rise in the form of a ramp from the covered
way, by means of which communication may be kept up with the ex-
terior. These passages are so arranged that they cannot be swept by
the fire of the enemy. The other communications above ground are
called ramps, stairs, &c. Traverses are small works erected on the
covered way to intercept the fire of the besiegers' batteries. Scarp and
counterscarp galleries are sometimes constructed for the defence of the
ditch. They are arranged with loopholes, through which the troops of
the garrison fire on the besiegers when they have entered the ditch,
without being themselves exposed to the batteries of the enemy.

In seacoast defences, and sometimes in a land front for the defence
of the ditch, embrasures are made in the scarp wall for the fire of ar-
tillery ; the whole being protected from shells by a bomb-proof cov-
ering overhead ; this arrangement is termed a casemate. Sometimes

812 MIUTAKY DICTIONARY. [Fuu.

double ramparts and parapets are formed, so that the interior one shall
fire over the more advanced : tin- latter in t: fuusse

braie. If the inner work be separated from the other, it is calle.l a
retrenchment; and if it has a commanding fire, a caval<
of u bastion is a line bisecting its salient angle. All works compre-
hended between the capitals of two adjacent bastions, are called a
front.

In the Prussian system of fortification, the defence of the ditch i

r by casernated caponnieres, the necessity for breaking up
the outline of the enceinte into a succession of salient and r. -« -ntering
angles, as in the bastion tracings, is altogether removed. The enceinte
may, therefore, lave that outline which in the particular ease is most
advantageous for defence, and best adapted to the natural features of the
position. This will generally bo a polygon, more or less regular, ac-
cording to the regularity or irregularity of the site. The caponnieres
for the defence of the main ditch may either be on the centre of the front,
or at the alternate salient angles ; the latter, as being more si cure from
an enemy's distant fire, appears the better. position. The length of the
exterior side may bo of almost any magnitude, though <»0o
perhaps, as great as under any ordinary cireumstaiu •» s would be re-
quisite. The enceinte is a massive rampart and para pi t. IV< <nud by a
revetment, from 24 to 30 feet in height, which is sometimes wholly or
partially loopholed for musketry. The centre of the ditch is occupied
by the casemated caponnicrc, a massive work of masonry, capable of
containing two stages of five guns each, one on either face; so that the
ditch on either side of the cap«»nnicro. is swept by the fire often guns.

The advocates for the Prussian system claim for it the following ad-
1 '. When the range of musketry is given up as the standard
.length of a line of defence, and that of artillery substituted for it, the
exterior sides of the polygons of fortification may evidently be much
extend. 1. v.M. The Prussian engineers prefer the cons: f case-

mated flanks for the defence of ditches, as 1 icing more M-I urc than the
ordinary flanks of the bastion system ; that. K tl,
from enfilade and vertical fire from a distance, and cannot be counter-
battered by direct fin-, until the assailant crowns the gkcit, 'I

rc« for the defence of the main ditch, and f«»r the dit«h<s of the
ravelin. 8d. The ravelins can be made as salient as the d< t ;J. -h, .1 ravelins
of Chasseloup and Bousmard ; while the caponnicrcs- "r casemated pro-
jectionsby which their ditches an- defended, protect the body of the place.
fa br.ae)i'm<_r batteries of the enemy on the counterscarp, at the s.i-
lient angles of the ravelins. These ravelins are more under the, fire of the

FOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 313

enceinte, than detached ravelins ; they contain a greater interior space ;
there is a saving of masonry at the gorge : and fewer troops secure
the work from assault. 4th. In the attack of these fronts, the ap-
proaches are opposed on the capital of the ravelin, by three mortars in
casemates under the parapet, cutting off the* salient of the ravelin, and
by guns on the terre-plein above. The glacis is protected on each side,
by the fire of 90 yards of the enceinte, and from 80 yards of the faces
of the ravelin, which (being covered by the advanced portions of greater
elevation) is very difficult to enfilade. 5th. The establishment of .bat-
teries on the counterscarp of the salient angle of the ravelin, is rendered
very difficult by countermines, and by a double tier of fire along the
whole width of the ditch, viz., from the caponniere and from the en-
ceinte behind it ; even supposing this caponniere to be silenced, its
massive ruins would prevent a serious breach being made in the en-
ceinte. 6th. The attempts of an enemy to lodge himself on the ad-
vanced part of the ravelin are opposed by countermines, prepared
in the work during its construction, and by the retrenchment behind :
moreover, any endeavor to establish a battery in the narrow part of the
angle, would be opposed by the fire of the whole enceinte behind the
ravelin ; — by that of the casemated keep ; — and by sorties having their
flanks fully protected. 7th. The permanent possession of the ravelin
can only be obtained after the destruction of the keep, (which com-
mands every part of the interior, and is not seen from the exterior ;)
and until this is accomplished the enemy cannot make his approaches
on the glacis, for the purpose of constructing his breaching batteries
against the enceinte ; or he would be taken both in flank and in reverse.
8th. The great caponniere flanking the ditch of the enceinte is indepen-
dent of the keep of the ravelin, (which, after being taken, would be open
to the fire of the enceinte and its detached escarp ;) while its double
tier of guns, sweeping the whole width of the ditch, can only be opposed
by batteries directly in front. The establishment of these batteries, and
of others for breaching the escarp at the salient, would, of course, require
the capture of two ravelins, between which the approaches would be
sheltered from the collateral works ; but the ground would be dimin-
ished in extent on advancing near the place, and consequently expose
the troops (concentrated in larger numbers) to a more destructive fire.
9th. From the great projection of the ravelin, and the obtuseness of the
angles of the polygon, the effects of ricochet on the enceinte are pre-
vented in an octagon, as the prolongations of the sides of the polygon,
or the enceinte, are intercepted by the ravelins ; which ravelins might
(in cases where the ground is favorable) be made to project still further,

314 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Koa.

to as to cover the ditch from enfilade by distant butteries, and thus
secure the great caponnieres from annoyance. 10th. Tin- salient angles
of the enceinte may also be retrenched by a detached loophole
which would bring a great extent of fire on the breach, llth. The.
Prussians consider that, by these arrangements, they obtain much su-
pcri-.rity 0m the ordinary bastion systems, including those of
mard aiul Chasseloup do Laubat. That greater means of resistance are
obtained at a comparatively small expense, which means might bo in-
creased when required, by cavaliers, by interior retrenchments, and by
A Covered way, with redoubts. 12th. Tho armament required would
be comparatively small, as in the flanks or caponniercs, which com-
pletely enfilade the main ditches at a short range, a few pieces only
would be necessary to prevent a coup-de-main, while a full supply to
resist a serious attack might be brought by easy and secure communi-

•*. A few guns placed on the salients of tho ravelins would bo
sufficient to keep oft* an enemy until ho had broken ground ; while the
whole disposable guns of tho place might easily be brought upon tho
enceinte on that side, and tho second part of tho collateral ravelins.
13th. The fatigue attending the usual arrangements w<>nl<l also be
greatly diminished by tho easiness and security of tho communications.
The garrison need-not be numerous, as they are not required to expose
themselves in outworks beyond the main ditch ; they arc protected by

;itcs in the flank defences, which arc sufficiently strong to allow
of their concentrating nearly the whole force on the points of impor-
tance, and which, being concealed from the enemy, do not give known
points to his vertical fire.

Fort Alexander, which crowns a height commanding the, to\\

131,) is a beautiful specimen of the (Jerman system.
The position around Coblentz occupies tin- j'.ur opposite angles, mado
by tho Moselle and the Lahn, which rivers empty themselves into tho

. nearly opposite to each other; for the Lahn runs into the Uliino
•bout above Coblentz. The ir«-ner:il form of tin- ground i

favorable for the offensive or defensive operations of an army in pos-
session • f it. mid its fortresses; and many of the hiizh roads from the.
most important towns in Germany pass in this direction ; whilst the
^o difficult of access, that it is n. -\t to impossible t,,

Cobh-nt/, is situated in tin- | .• d by the. junc-

tion of the MosHlo with the Lhi- lends about three-firths

of a mile in raeh d'.n-etion. The m.-einte of tho town ft secure against
a coup-de-main. Its rampart forms a succession of salient and r
ing angles, which being obtuse are little liable to enfilade. ; while tho

FOR.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

315

ditches are flanked by good casemated batteries, having three guns in
each flank. The gateways are strong casemated barracks, containing

FIG. 181.

batteries to flank the ditches and approaches. These casemates are
separated from the ramparts on each side, and form a kind of citadel :
the profile of the rampart is nearly similar to Carnot's : the wall is
well covered. Should the neighboring works on the heights be reduced,
the town would be commanded and exposed to an enemy's fire. It is,
however, no easy matter for an enemy to get possession of these
commanding sites. The two most important of these are, Ehren-
breitstein on the right bank, and Fort Alexander on the left bank, of
the Rhine.

Ehrenbreitstein occupies a commanding rocky site, 400 feet above
the river, inaccessible on three sides, and on the approachable side from
the north, it i-? defended by strong double works ; having abundant
casemates for its garrison, stores, and artillery. It is the key of the
whole position, commanding all the surrounding works within its range,
and having smaller works detached from it, for looking into hollows,
that cannot be seen from the main works. It has a fine well, 300 feet
deep. The faces of the works defending the only approachable side, can
mount forty-three pieces of ordnance in casemates ; the ditches are well
defended by casemated batteries ; and the escarps are about 35 feet in
height. It is altogether a most formidable work. The piers that sep-

310 MIUTABY DICTIONARY. [Fo«.

arate the casemates and support the arches are made to project ri-jht,
through to the front of the revetment, which is 10 feet thick : and tlu»
courses, instead of being horizontal, are laid in successive arches the
joints forming rays from a centre. Tho whole is built of rough stone,
and grouted in, so as to settle in time into a solid mass.

Fort Alexander with its dependencies, commands all the approaches
to Coblentz between the rivers. The principal front of this work has
its exterior side about 650 yards, and its interior side about 500
yards in length. The ravelins and the counterguanls have their faces
directed so, that their prolongations do not fall upon the plateau in
front, but upon the hollows and ravines, &c., from which they cannot
be enfiladed. The flanking caponniere is very strong, l>e:ni: a case-
mated work for two tiers of guns ; each flank has five guns in the lower
tier f«r flanking the ditch, and five in the upper tier for flank in:: the
terre-pleins of the countcrguards. The casemates in the faces or angu-
lar parts are loopholed for musketry. Each caponniere serves as a
good barrack for 1GO men, besides stores. This work is completely
covered in front by the counterguard or ravelin, which is only two feet
lower than the body of the place. Each flank of the enceinte contains
six casemates for guns to flank the ditches before them. The faces and
ditches of the ravelins are flanked by solid casemated caponnieres, which
cover the body of the place from any batteries that might be established
at the rounding of the counterscarp of the ravelin. The ditches of the
countcrguards are flanked by casemated batteries, placed in the faces
of the ravelins. The body of the work is an oblique parallelogram,
about 5° from a right angle : the side fronts are about 420 yards, and
the rear front 500 yards in length, in order to suit the ground. There
is a strong casemated tower at the gorge connected with a communica-
tion from l-'ort Constantino. There is no covered way ; the romiti-r-
guard.s answer the purpose. Good ramps and other arrangements are
made in tho countersloping glacis and its salients, favorable for s
It is calculated that 5,000 men would be sufficient to man all these
works on both sides of the river ; while it is evident that a vast army
might be securely canMi.-d within the circuit of the works A graft*
number of trees have been planted all around Fort Alexander; tho
roots of which, left in tho ground, would defy the ordinary work of
sappers and miners; and would therefore prove formidal.!
in the process of a regular attack, while the timber would be invaluable
in a siege; (HTDB'H I »m.)

FORTIFICATION (FRONT OF)— consists of all tho works OOH-
structed upon any one side of a regular polygon, whether placed within

Fou.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

317

or without the exterior side ; or, according to St. Paul, all the works
contained between any two of the oblique radii. Some authors give
a more limited sense to the term " front of fortification," by confining
it to two half bastions joined by a curtain. If the polygon be regular,
that is, if all the sides be of equal length, and the fronts of the same
description, it is called a regular work ; but if they differ, it is called an
irregular work.

FORTIFICATION (IRREGULAR)— is that, in which, from the
nature of the ground or other causes, the several works have not their
due proportion according to rule ; irregularity, however, does not neces-
sarily imply weakness.

FORTIFICATION (NATURAL)— consists of such objects formed
by nature, as are capable of impeding the advance of an enemy ; and
a station is said to be naturally fortified, when it is situated on the top
of a steep hill, or surrounded by impassable rivers, marshes, &c.

FORTIFICATION (REGULAR)— is that in which the works are
constructed on a regular polygon, and which has its corresponding parts
equal to each other.

FORTRESS. A fortress is a fortified city or town, or any piece
of ground so strongly fortified as to be capable of resisting an attack
carried on against it, according to rule.

FOUGASS. Charges of gunpowder are frequently placed at the
bottom of a pit or shaft dug in the ground over which an enemy must
pass to the attack. In these cases they take the name of fougasses.
The chief difficulty attending the use of fougasses is to explode them at
the instant when the enemy is passing over, as any variation in the time
of explosion from this instant renders them altogether useless. It is,
therefore, recommended to place
an obstacle over them, as an
abatis or chevaux-de-frize, so
that the fougasses may be ex-
ploded while the enemy is occu-
pied in forcing his way over.
Sometimes a fougass is made
of several loaded shells placed
in a box, with a charge of pow-
der under. The box should be
pitched, to keep the charge dry.
(Fig. 132.)

A stone fougass (Fig. 133)
is made by excavating a shaft 6 feet deep, inclined to the horizon at

FIG. 132.

MILITARY DKTInVAUY.

[Fa*.

Fio. 184.

an angle of about 45°. At the bottom place a charge of 55 Ibs. (a
cubic foot) of powder, then a strong shield of wood at least 6 inches
thick, in front of the charge, and over the shield throw in three or
four cubic yards of pebbles, of not less tlia:i half a pound %
each. A sufficient body of earth must be plae.-d vertically, al». «ve
the charge, and retained over the upper part of the shaft, near the
edge, by a revetment of sods, to insure the effect taking place in (he
right direction. Fougasses arc usually fired by means of an
or casing tube, containing a hose or saucisson, &c., led up the side
of the pit or shaft, and then parallel to the surface of the ground,
at a depth of two or three t',-et ; or they may be fired, at the proper
Mt, by means of a loaded musket with its muzzle in the powder,
and a wire or string fastened to the trigger.

Analogous to fotigasses were the Kussian powder-boxes used at

>topol, Fig. 134.
Each consisted of A
double deal box, of a
ty sufficient to
e« 'iitain '.\~i H)s. of pow-
der,waUr-ti-ht,andef-
f. dually secured from
the penetration of
damp ; into the top
of each box was in-
; a vertical tin
tube, connected with
a hori/ontal tin tube
at the surface of the

ground. Within the latter was a gla^s tube, filled with sulphuric acid,
and coated with a composition of chl- r.ii.- of j-'-ta^a, sugar, sulphur, and
gum water, which inunediat. ly takes fire on coming in contact with the
acid. The space between the interior of the tin tube and the cv
of the glass tube, as well ns the vertical tin tube, is filled with gun-
powder. A little earth spread lightly over the \\ho!e completes the
arrangement. A person walking over the ground, and treading on the
tin tube, crushes it, and the glass tube contained in it, .-ausinu' the. escape
of the su'phuric acid, nnd the explosion of the gunpo\vd«T.

\ISKS — are palisades placed horizontally or obliquely, at the
edge of a ditch on either sid««, or projecting from the exterior slope of
a pnrnp. t. If the slope be very long, there are sometimes two rows
of fraises used.

Fez.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 319

FRAUD. Association of any officer with another officer convicted
by a court-martial of fraud or cowardice shall be deemed scandalous ;
(ART. 85.) (See COWARDICE.)

Fraud consists in unlawfully, designedly, and knowingly appro-
priating the property of another with a criminal intent. It is any trick
or artifice employed by one person to induce another to fall into an
error or detain him in it, so that he make an agreement in contracts
contrary to his interest. The fraud may consist in the misrepresen-
tation or in the concealment of a material fact ; (BOUVIER'S Law Dic-
tionary.)

FRAYS. (See QUARRELS.)

FRICTION PRIMER FOR CANNON— consists of a tube charged
with gunpowder, to the top of which is fastened a cup containing fric-
tion powder, composed of two parts of chlorate of potassa, and one of
sul. of antimony, which is exploded by means of a slider pulled out
with a lanyard. The tube, cup, and slider are made of sheet brass. The
lanyard, for pulling off the primer, is a piece of strong cod line (about
.2 in. thick) 12 feet long ; to one end is attached a small iron hook, with
an eye for the line, and to the other end a wooden toggel, .75 in. diam-
eter, and 4 in. long. If injured by moisture, the primers become ser-
viceable again when dried, and they have the great advantage of
portability and certainty of fire.

FRONTIER. (See DEFENCE, NATIONAL.)

FUMIGATION. To correct and purify an infectious or confined
atmosphere, such as is often found in transports, fumigations are neces-
sary. The materials recommended for the purpose are brimstone with
sawdust ; or nitre with vitriolic acid ; or common salt with the same
acid. One fluid ounce of sulphuric acid mixed with two fluid ounces
of water, and then poured over four ounces of common salt, and one
ounce of oxide of manganese in powder, these latter ingredients being
previously placed in hot sand, are also recommended. Burning char-
coal is also a good disinfectant. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)
. FUNERALS. Army Regulations prescribe the honors to be paid
at funerals.

FURLOUGHS. The term is usually applied to the absence with
leave of non-commissioned officers and soldiers. (See ABSENCE WITH
LEAVE.)

FUZE — is the means used to ignite the bursting charge of shells.
They are classified as Time, Concussion, and Percussion Fuzes. The
time fuze is composed of a case of paper, wood, or metal, inclosing a
burning composition. It is cut or bored to a length proportioned to

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GAB.

the intended range of the shell, so that it shall burn down and explode
the bursting charge, just us tin- slu -II strikes the ground, or earl in- if
desirable. Instead of driving the fuze composition into a wooden tube
as formerly, and requiring a saw to give the fuze its proper length ac-
cording to range, the shell is imw supplied with a plug of hard \\....d
or metal, having a hole reaped out exactly the size of a paper case con-
taining the composition. By 'varying this composition, the same length
suffices for all the ranges or times of burning required. And tin so
having the different compositions in paper cases of as many different
colors, the cannoneer at a field-piece may, in an instant, insert into the
plug the colored fuze required for the desired range. Similar fuzes
have been adopted for the columhiads, the plugs being of bronze instead
of wood. Three kinds of time fuzes are employed in the United States
Service, viz., the Mortar Fuze,, the Borman Fuze, and the sea-coast
fuze. The best and simplest form of the percussion fuze is the ordinary
percussion cap placed on a cone affixed to the point of the projectile.
The arrangement should be protected by a safety cap to prevent the
percussion cap taking fire by the discharge of the j

" Bick ford's fuze" is a small tube of gunpowder, sewed round with
tarred twine, and then pitched over. It is not injured by dan:;
when well made, will burn under water, and is used for firing the
charges of mines, &c. The Gomez Patent Electric Safety train or fuze
is made in the form of a tape, inclosing a chemical compound that, burns
at the rate of one mile in four seconds ; it may be used like the Bick-
ford fuze. (See RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

GABIONNADE. A work constructed with gabions.

GABIONS — arc cylindrical baskets of various dimensions, open at
both ends, used to revet the interior slopes of batteries, the checks of
embrasures, and to form the parapet of trenches. (See REVETMK
the construction of gabions.)

GALLERY. In permanent fortification, a passage or rommuni-
to that part of a mine where the powder is lodged. Tin- princi-
pal gallery, from which other* on/mate, is constructed under th-
quette of the covered way, and follows that portion of the works
throughout its ulx.lc extent. Another gallery is formed in a dir
parallel to the first at 50 or 60 yards' distance, and communicates with

perpendicular to it. (Jailer.

lined with masonry. When finished they aro about six feet high and
four and a half :

GEO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 321

GARRISON — designates the troops employed in a strong place
for its security, and it is also applied to the place itself when occupied
by troops. The President may employ such troops of the United
States as he may judge necessary as garrisons of fortifications ; (Act
March 20, 1794.)

GENERAL. Rank above lieutenant-general. There is no such
grade in the United States army.

GENERAL OFFICERS. All officers above the rank of colonel.
Any sentence of a court-martial affecting a general officer must be ap-
proved by the President. (See COURT-MARTIAL.)

GENOUILLfiRE. From the French genou, knee. It is that part
of the parapet of a battery which remains above the platform and under
the gun, after the opening of the embrasure.

GEOMETRY. The science which teaches the dimensions of lines,
surfaces, and solids. It is a necessary introduction to" fortification and
mechanics. It enables us to ascertain the distances of inaccessible
objects, the dimensions of a given surface, the contents of a given solid ;
to compute the distances and motions of the planets ; to predict celes-
tial phenomena ; and to navigate a ship from any given point to another
on the surface of the globe.

Geometry, besides other divisions, is divided into ancient and mod-
ern : ancient geometry being that form of demonstration and investi-
gation which was employed by the Greeks, and of which Euclid's
Elements form a well-known example ; modern geometry is that in
which algebra, or the differential and integral calculus, is employed.
We also speak of pure geometry, practical geometry, and applied ge-
ometry. Descriptive geometry was first employed by Monge, and sub-
sequently by other French geometers, to express that part of science
which consists in the application of geometrical rules to the representa-
tion of the figures, and the various relations of the forms of bodies, ac-
cording to certain conventional methods. It differs from ordinary per-
spective, inasmuch as the design or representation is made in such a
mariner that the exact distance between the different points of the body
represented can always be found, and consequently all the mathematical
relations resulting from the form and position of the body may be
deduced from the representation.

In descriptive geometry, the situation of points in space is rep-
resented by their projections on two planes, at right angles to each
other, called the planes of projection. It is usual to suppose one of
the planes of projection to be horizontal, in which case the other is ver-
tical ; and the projections are called horizontal or vertical, according as
21

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Gro.

they are on the one or the other of these planes. According to this
system, any point whatever in space is represented by drawing a per-
pendicular from it to each of tin- planes of projection : the point on
which the perpendicular falls is the projection of the proposed point.
As contiguous points in space form a line, so the projections of those
points, which are also contiguous, form a line in the same manner,
which is the projection of the given line. Hence as two projections
only are required f.»r the determination of a point in space, they are
also sufficient for the determination of any curve whatever, whether of
single or double curvature.

The same mode of representation cannot bo employed with regard
to surfaces ; for, as the projections of the contiguous points of a surface
cover a continuous area on both planes of projection, tin-re is nothing
to indicate that any particular point on one of the planes of projection
corresponds to one point more than another on the second plane, and
consequently that it belongs to one point more than another in space.
But if we conceive the surface which is to be represented to be covered
with a system of lines succeeding one another according to a determin-
ate law, then, by projecting these lines on each of the two planes, and
marking the correspondence of the one projection with the other, the
projections of all the different points of the surface, will have an evident
dependence on each other, and the surface will be rigorously and com-
pletely determined.

Some elementary surfaces may, however, be represented in a much
more simple way. The plane, for example, is completely defined by
the straight lines in which it intersects the two planes of projection.
These lines are denominated the traces of the plane. A sphere is also
completely defined by the two projections of its centre, and th
circle which limits the projections of its points. A cylinder is defined
by its inter^K tion (or trace) with one of the planes of projection, and
by the two • s «.f one of its ends. A cone is rep:-

its intersection with one, of the planes of projection and the two pro-
jections of its summit,

The rmwt immediate, application of descriptive poom. try is the
representation of bodies, of which the forms are siiMvptiUc of rigorous
geometrical definition. Sculpture, architecture, paint ini:, and all the
mechanical arts, tho object of which is to pive to matter certain deter-
minate forms, borrow from d«-w.-riptivo. peometry tin ir graphical pro-
cedures, by the aid of which all the parts of an object are faithfully rep-
reaente f l»-f..n- the ol.jeet it^-lf is executed. Hut it was chiefly

in consequence of its application to civil and military engineering, and

Go*.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 323

to fortification, that this branch of geometry received a distinctive ap-
pellation, and is considered of much importance in the Polytechnic
school of France, and our own Military Academy. (Consult DA VIES'
Descriptive Geometry.)

GIN. The derrick, sheers, and gin have one common object, viz. :
to find a fulcrum in space, to which the pulley, in the shape of block
and tackle, is to be applied. In the derrick and sheers this is effected
on one and- two legs, and stability is given by guys. The gin usually
consists of three long legs, two of which are joined together by
cross bars, and the third, called the pry pole, elevates the gin. A
pulley is supported at the top, round which a rope is passed for
elevating the weight. Fig. 135 shows the manner of working
the gin. There are three kinds of gins used in service : the field and
siege, the garrison, and the casemate. The last
two differ from each other only in height ; the
first differs from the others in construction and
size. Either of them may be used as derrick or
sheers. The garrison and casemate gins differ
from the siege gin in having two braces of iron
instead of three wooden cross-bars or braces,
and in having the pry pole inserted between
the legs, which are kept together by the clevis
bolt. The upper pulley (generally treble) is
hooked to the clevis. (For description, setting up, and mechanical
manceuvres with gins, consult Instruction in Heavy Artillery.)

GIRDER. In building, the principal beam of a floor for support-
ing the binding or other joists, to lessen their bearing or length.

GLACIS. The superior slope of the parapet of the covered way,
extended in a gentle declivity to the surrounding country. It is seldom
used in field-works. (See FORTIFICATION.)

GLANDERS. A virulent and dangerous disease among horses,
principally shown in a mucous discharge from the nostrils. To prevent
this infectious disorder from spreading, it is necessary at once to re-
move the horse from his stall, and thoroughly wash with soap and
water the rack, manger, and every part of the stall from which the
horse has been removed. When the parts are thus made clean, they
must also be covered with a quick-lime wash immediately after it is
mixed, and afterwards three coats of oil colors given to it. The same
precautions are taken in FARCY. (See VETERINARY.)

GORGE. The gorge of a fortification or gorge of a work is the
opening on that side of the work corresponding to the body of the place,

;;j t MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Go*

or the side whence comes tho defence. In isolated works, the gorge
is sometimes intrenched. The gorges of works not attached to a for-
tress, but which are its dependencies, are in general open, or without
r that the runny may not cover himself from the fire
of the j'l.uv if he should seize such detached works. If tin- works are
liable to surprise, and their gorges cannot be shut, a row of palisades
are planted there, and mines are prepared so as to overthrow the
if he should seize the work, and attempt to construct a lodge-
ment there. The gorge of a bastion is usually an open space b»

.treniities of tho flanks of the bastion. The larger this gorge is,
the better is the defence ; for when the ruined bastion is about to fall by
siege. into the hands of the enemy, the defenders can construct del.
works or dig small ditches in the gorge of the abandoned bastion. Such
resistance sometimes drives the besiegers to the necessity of battering
in breach the curtain.

GORGE OF MOUNTAINS — is the passage, more or less compressed,
u two mountains which are used as a passage-way into valleys.
Gorges are important military points. If they lead to an intrenched
camp, it is necessary to fortify them, and post there ^rand guards;
these positions are the principal theatres for affairs of posts. A gorge
should never be entered without previous examination.

GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of the United States provides
that Congress shall make rules for the government and rojinl.v
armies. By government is understood not only the body of fundamen-
tal laws of a State, but also the body of persons charged with tho man-
agement of the executive power of a country, direction, power or author-
hieh rules a community, administration, rule, management ;
(WORCESTER'S Dictionary.)

ornment of the military (says BARDIN, Dictionnaire de VArmee
dt Terre) is that branch of the code which embraces the creation and
regulation of tho military hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of infe-
rior authority. The power of m.'iking rules of government is th.it of
SUPREME COMMAND, and from this living principle j»roeerds the loealiza-

"f troops, their organization and distribution; rides for r«
and punishments; and generally all rules of government and rniu'.itnm
whatsoever, which the legislature may judge necessary, to maintain an
efficient and well-disciplined army.

All authority over the land force* of the United States must th. r. -
fore be derived from Congress. For, although the President is the.
commander in < hi. f, yet his functions, as such, must he regulated by
Congress, under the 17th clause of Sec. 8 of the Constitution, as well

GBA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 305

as under the general authority of Congress to make rules for the gov-
ernment and regulation of the land forces. The President cannot bo
divested of power which Congress may assign to any inferior military
commander, because the authority of the greater includes that of the
less. But all authority over the land and naval forces save the appoint-
ment of the commander-in-chief rests with Congress, and no authority
can be exercised not delegated by Congress, except such as may be
fairly deduced from powers given for the effective discharge of the
duties annexed to his office. (See ADMINISTRATION, and references
under that head ; ADJUTANT ; ADJUTANT-GENERAL ; AID-DE-CAMP ; AP-
POINTING POWER ; ARMY ; ARMY, (Regular ;) ARMY REGULATIONS ; AR-
TICLES OF WAR, and references under that head ; ARTILLERY ; ASSIGN-
MENT ; BOOTY ; BOUNTY ; BREVET ; BRIGADE ; BRIGADIER-GENERAL ;
BRIGADE-INSPECTOR ; CADET ; CAPTAIN ; CAVALRY ; COLONEL ; COM-
MAND ; COMMANDER OF THE ARMY ; COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF ; COMMISSARY
OF SUBSISTENCE ; COMMISSION ; CONGRESS ; CONSTITUTION ; CORPORAL ;
CORPS ; COURT-MARTIAL and references under that head ; COURT OF IN-
QUIRY ; DEFENCE, (National;) DEPARTMENT; DETACHMENT; DISCI-
PLINE ; DIVISION ; ENGINEERS CORPS ; ENGINEERS, ( Topographical ;)
ESPRIT DU CORPS ; FIELD OFFICERS ; FLAGS ; FORAGE MASTER ; GARRI-
SON ; GENERAL OFFICERS ; GRATUITY ; GRENADIERS ; HIERARCHY ; IN-
DEMNIFICATION ; INDIAN ; INFANTRY ; JUDGE-ADVOCATE ; LAW, and ref-
erences under that head ; LAW, (Martial ;) LIEUTENANT ; LIEUTENANT-
COLONEL ; LIEUTENANT-GENERAL ; LINE ; LOSSES ; MAJOR ; MAJOR-GEN-
ERAL ; MARINE CORPS ; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; MILITIA ; NON-COM-
MISSIONED OFFICERS ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OFFICERS ; ORDERS ; ORD-
NANCE DEPARTMENT ; ORDNANCE SERGEANTS ; ORGANIZING ; PARDON ;
PAY ; PAY DEPARTMENT ; PAYMASTER-GENERAL ; PENSION ; PLATOON ;
POST ; PRESIDENT ; PROMOTION ; PUNISHMENT ; QUARTERMASTER'S DE-
PARTMENT ; QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL ; RAISE, and its references ;
RANK ; REGIMENT ; REGULATION, and its references ; REMEDY ; RE-
PRIEVE ; RETAINERS ; RIFLEMEN ; SAPPERS ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SE-
NIOR ; SERGEANT ; SERVICE, and its references ; SOLDIER ; STAFF ; STATE
TROOPS ; STANDARDS ; STORE-KEEPERS ; SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT ;
SUPERIOR ; SUPERINTENDENT ; SUPERNUMERARY ; SURGEON ; SURGERY,
(Military ;) SUTLERS ; TRADE ; TRAIN ; TRANSFERS ; TRAVELLING AL-
LOWANCES ; TREATY ; UNIFORM ; VETERAN ; VICE-PRESIDENT ; VOLUN-
TEERS ; WAR ; WARRANT.)

GRAND DIVISION. A division composed of two companies
in battalion manoeuvres.

GRAPE-SHOT. A certain number of cast-iron balls put together

|J-,V> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Gn.

by moans of two cast-iron plates, two rings, and one pin and nut. Canis-
ter lias superseded the use of grape in field-guns. Grape-shot are used
with the B-in. howitzers and the columbiad of that
calibre, by adopting the sabot of the sea-coast
howitzer, which serves for both pieces. The grape
for these 8-in. pieces is made of 6-pd. shot.

GRAPPLING-IRONS-— consist of from four
to six branches bent and pointed, with a ring at
the root. A rope being fastened through this rin^,
any object at which the grappling-irons aro thrown,
may be dragged nearer.

GRATUITY. In the French service whenever
a non-commissioned officer is promoted, ho is
given a gratuity ^ called Gratification de Premiere
Mise cTOfficier, in order to provide his

as officer. In the same manner, at the beginning of a campaign, a sum
of money is given to all officers of the French army, according to grade,
as an equipment fund ; it is called Gratification <T entree en Camjuiynf,
ou Indemnite d 'entree en Campagne.

GRAVITY, GRAVITATION. These terms are used to express
the mutual tendency which all bodies have to approach each oth.-r if
not opposed by other resistance.

Force of Gravity — Motion of falling bodies : Let t bo the time of
descent in seconds, of a body falling freely, in vacuo ; A, the space de-
scribed in the time t ; v, the velocity acquired at the end of that time,
and y the velocity acquired at the end of one second of time ; then :
h = ±gf', v = g t = -y/2 9 A

The velocity g, which is the measure of the force of gravity, varies
with the latitude of the place, and with its altitude above the 1« v. 1 <.f
the tea. The force of gravity at the latitude of 45° = 32.1808 f.-,-t ;
at any other latitude L ; g = 32.1803 feet — 0.0821 cos. 2 L. If y*
represent tin- force of gravity at the height h above the sea, and r the
radius of the earth, the force of gravity at the level of the sea will !>•

In thr latitude of London, at the level of the sea, g — ::-J.l'.'l |

do. Washington, . do. do. g = 32.155 feet.
GRENADE. A shell thrown by hand or in K-iskets from stone
mortars. A hand-grenade is a small sh< 11 about 2$ inches in diameter,
Dg set on fire by means of a short fuze and cast among the

GUN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 327

enemy's troops, causes great damage by its explosion. They may bo
thrown 26 yards. Rampart-grenades are larger, and are used to roll
down ramparts, &c.

GRENADIERS. The right flank company of a regiment.

GRIEVANCES. (See WRONGS.)

GROOVES. Spiral grooves or "rifles" cut into the surface of
the bore of fire-arms, have the effect of communicating a rotary motion
to a projectile around an axis coincident with its flight. This motion
increases the range of the projectile, and also corrects one of the causes
of deviation by distributing it uniformly around the line of flight.
For expanding projectiles, experiment shows that broad and shallow
grooves with a moderate twist give range, endurance, accuracy of fire,
and facility in loading and cleaning the bores. The United States have
therefore adopted for arms three grooves, each in width equal to the
lands, or £ of the circumference of the bore ; and uniformly decreasing
in depth from the breech where it is .015 in., to the muzzle, where it
is .005 inch ; with a uniform twist, one turn in six feet for long barrels
or the musket, and one turn in four feet for short barrels or the car-
bine. The proper twist to be given to the grooves, depends on the
length, diameter and initial velocity of the projectile used ; but the most
suitable twist can only be determined by experiment.

GUARDS — are used for security and police by troops in the field,
in camps, garrisons, and quarters. Guards are designated as advance
or van, and rear guards ; outposts and picket guards ; quarter, camp,
and garrison guards ; and general officers' guards. The tour of service
of guards is usually twenty-four hours. Sometimes a guard is detached
from a single corps, and sometimes from several corps. In either case
during the tour of service, the guard receives orders from the command-
ing officer and officers of the guard. It is for the time detached from
its corps. (The description and duties of guards are given in Army
Regulations.)

GUERILLA. (See PARTISAN.)

GUIDES. Men employed to give intelligence respecting a country
and the various roads intersecting it. All armies employed in an
enemy's country find it to their advantage to use guides.

GUIDES, (TACTICAL.) The duties of guides are given in the
Tactics.

GUIDONS. Each company of cavalry has a silken guidon pre-
scribed in Army Regulations.

GUN-COTTON — is common cotton, steeped in a mixture of sul-
phuric acid and nitric acid, and when properly soaked, is well washed

;ij> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Qro.

ir running water, and then dried. The explosive force of three parts
of gun-cotton equals that of eight parts of gunpowder. Major Mor-
decai's experiments at Washington in the years 1845, 1847, and 1848, to
determine the fitness of gun-eotton as a substitute for gunpowder in the
military service, show : 1. Explosive cotton burns at 380° Fahr., therc-
: o to gunpowder when burnt in u loose state over
it. 2. The pn>jectilo force of explosive cotton, with moderate charges,
in a musket or cannon, is equal to that of about twice its v. -eight of tho
best gunpowder. 3. When compressed by hard ramming, as in filling
a fuze, it burns slowly. 4. By the absorption of moisture its force is
rapidly diminished, but the force is restored by drying. 5. Its burst-
- much greater than that of gunpowder, on whirh account it
is \\vll adapted for mining operations. 6. The principal residua of its
combustion are water and nitrous acid ; therefore the barrel of a gun
would be soon corroded if not cleaned after firing. 7. In consequence
of tho quickness and intensity of its action when ignited, it cannot be
used with safety in the present fire-arms. 8. An accident
such as the insertion of two charges before firing, would cause the
bursting of the barrel; and it is probable that the like etK « t would
take place with the regular service-char- : ;d times repeated.

GUNNERS. For the service of field and heavy ordnanec. tln-ro
is wi'li i-aeh piece one man called a gunner, who gives all the. executive,
commands in action. lie is answerable that the men at the piece per-
form thi-ir duties correctly. (Consult Instruction for Field and Heavy
Artillery.)

GUNNER'S CALIPERS. Made of sheet brass, with ste, 1 i
The graduations show diamet.-rs of guns, shot, &c.

GUNNER'S PERPENDICULAR. This is made of sh-rt 1
the lower part is cut in the form of a cresemt. the points of which arc
made • •• I small spirit lev 1 is listened to one side of the plate,

parallel to the lino joining tho points of the crescent, and a slide is
fastened to the same side of the plat--, perpendicular to tli«- axis of the
level. The instrument is useful in marking tho points of sight on siege
guns and r h.-n the platform is not 1-

GUNNKi: S I'l NCERS. Iron with steel jaws, which have on the
end of v for drawing nails, &c.

GUNNER'S QUADRANT, (wood.) A graduate! .piadrant of
li.-s radius, attnehed to a rule 23.5 inch.-s Ion/, (\'\:j. i:{7.) It
has a plumb-line and bob, which arc carried, when n««t in OM, in a hole
in the end of the nil-- r.,v. l.ra^s plate. The quadrant, is ap-

plied cither by its longer branch to the face of tin- pi« • , or this branch

GUN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 329

is run into the bore parallel with the axis, and the elevating screv;
turned or the quoin adjusted until the required degree FIQ
is indicated.

GUNNERY. Laws regulating the resistance of
the air are complicated and undetermined. The at-
tempts also made to determine the volume and tension
of the gases produced by the combustion of powder
have given variable and unsatisfactory results. It ac-
cordingly follows, and it is now admitted, that it is impossible to solve
the problem of the trajectory described by projectiles by purely theo-
retical means. Multiplied experiments are therefore resorted to, in
order to form tables of fire, and such tables are the true guides in prac-
tical gunnery.

The maximum range of the largest cannon fired under an angle of
45° does not exceed 8,000 yards : siege guns fired under smaller an-
gles give ranges varying from 3,000 to 4,500 yards. The range of field-
pieces in their ordinary fire is from 1,790 to 2,200 yards. Tables of
ranges are given in Ordnance and Artillery Manuals, for the moun-
tain howitzers, field-guns and howitzers, heavy ordnance, and Bale's
war rockets. These tables give ranges at different elevations, the
charges of powder, the weight of the shot, spherical case shot or shell
in each case. They show the time of flight of the shell, and consequently
the length of fuze required ; and also at what angles of elevation, in the
8 or 10-in. columbiads, shot cease to ricochet upon the water. (See,
for such tables, articles : ARTILLERY ; BALLISTICS ; FIRING ; INITIAL VE-
LOCITY ; ORDNANCE ; RIFLED ORDNANCE ; ROCKETS.)

GUNPOWDER. In the United States, the proportion of ingre-
dients for the military service are : 76 or 75 of saltpetre, 14 or 15
charcoal, and 10 of sulphur ; for sporting, 78 or 77 saltpetre, 12 or
13 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. The powder is coarse or fine grained.
In the United States, to every 10 grains troy weight of powder, there
are 150 grains of cannon powder, 1,100 musket powder, 6,000 rifle,
and 73,000 sporting. The size of the grain is tested by sieves. Mus-
ket power is now recommended for all small arms.

A new powder, invented by Capt. Rodman, Ordnance Dept.,
shows great ingenuity, and has given most important results. An
ordinary grain of powder burns from the surface to the centre, and the
largest portion of the gas is evolved in the Tf „• part of a second.
The force of the charge is therefore expended upon the projectile before
it is sensibly moved, and there is a corresponding strain upon the gun.
Capt. Rodman thought, if powder could be made to burn on an increas-

330 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [GcK

1/1^7 instead of a decreasing surface, so that the gas should be evolved
completely but not so rapidly before the projectile left the piece, the
same velocity would be communicated, and the strain would be dis-
tributed uniformly over the whole piece. To accomplish this, ho
formed the " dust " into a coke, and inserted into it numerous small
wires, which, being pulled out, left corresponding avenues for the pas-
sage of flame and ignition of the mass ; thus making tin- interior sur-
face of combustion increasing instead of decreasing. The enormous
pressures from large charges of powder have thus been entirely obvi-
ated by the introduction into service of Rodman's hollow caked powder,
or its substitute, the large-grained powder, each grain being six-tenths
of an inch. This discovery, with the idea of Capt. Rodman of cooling
cast-iron cannon from the interior by means of a current of cold water
flowing through a hollow core, has enabled him to cast a 15-in. colum-
biad which, after three hundred rounds, with a charge of 40 Ibs. of pow-
der, showed no appreciable enlargement of either bore or vent, and
causes Capt. Rodman to believe that the piece will bear 1,000 rounds
without material injury; (BENTON; Experiments on Gunpowder by
MAJ. MORDECAI, Ordnance Dept.)

GUNS — are long cannon without chambers, having their calibres
determined by tho woijjht of their balls. (See CALIBRE; ORDNANCE.)

GUNTER'S CHAIN — is the chain commonly used for measuring
land. It is 66 feet or 4 poles in length, and is divided into 100 links,
each of which is joined to tho adjacent one by three rings; and tin-
length of each link, including the connecting rings, is 7.92 inches. The
advantage of this measure consists in the facility which it affords for
numerical calculations. The English acre contains 4,840 square yards ;
and Gunter's chain being 22 yards in length, tho square of whi« h is
484, it follows that a square chain is exactly the tenth part of an acre.
A square chain, again, contains 10,000 square links, so that 100,000
square links are equal to nn acre; consequently, the contents <•! u fit Id
being cast «p in square links, it is only necessary to divide l>y 100,000,
or to cut off tho last five figures, to obtain the contents expr. ^,-d, in
•ere* ; (BRAXDE'S Encyclopedia.)

GUY. A rope used to swing any weight, or to keep steady any
heavy body, and prevent it from swinging while being hoisted or
lowered.

HAIL. A sentinel hails any one approaching his post, with " Who
there ? n

HAU.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 331

HALT. A rest during a march, and a word of command in tac-
tical manoeuvres.

HAND. A measure four inches in length. The height of a horse
is computed by so many hands and inches.

HANDSPIKES. The trail handspike for fiefc carriages is 53
inches in length ; the manoeuvring handspike for garrison and sea-coast
carriages and for gins is 66 inches ; for siege and other heavy work it
is made 84 inches long and 12 Ibs. weight ; the shod handspike is par-
ticularly useful in the service of mortars and of casemate and barbette
carriages ; the truck handspike for casemate carriages, (wrought iron ;)
the roller handspike, for casemate carriages. It is made of iron, 1 inch
round, the point conical, whole length 34 inches.

HARBORING AN ENEMY. Punishable with death or other-
wise, according to sentence of a court-martial ; (ART. 56.)

HAUSSE OR BREECH SIGHT — is a graduated piece attached to
the barrel near the breech, which has a sliding piece retained in its place
by a thumb screw, or by the spring of the slider itself. This slider
should have an opening through which the gun can be conveniently
aimed ; and is raised to such a height as we think will give the neces-
sary elevation for the distance. The term coarse sight means a large
portion of the front sight, as seen above the bottom of the rear-sight
notch ; and a fine sight is when but a small portion is seen. The effect
of a coarse sight is to increase the range of the projectile.

Graduation of rear-sights. — If the form of the trajectory be known,
the rear-sight of a fire-arm can be graduated by calculation ; the more
accurate and reliable method, however, is by trial. Suppose it be re-
quired to mark the graduation for 100 yards : the slider is placed as
near the position of the required mark as the judgment of the experi-
menter may indicate ; and, with this elevation, the piece is carefully
aimed, and fired, say ten times, at a target placed on level ground at a
distance of 100 yards. If the assumed position of the slider be correct,
the centre of impact of the ten shot-holes will coincide with Jie point
aimed at ; if it be incorrect, or the centre of impact be found below the

FIG. 133.

point aimed at, then the position of the slider is too low on the scale.
Let P be the point aimed at, and P' the centre of impact of the cluster

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Fir, l:\9.

of shot-holes, we have, from close similarity of the triangles, A'F: FP ::
A' A" : PP ; from which we can determine A' A' the quantity that imi>i
be added to A A', to give the correct position of the graduation mark
for 100 yards. If the centre of impact had been above P, the trial
mark would have%een too high. Lay off the distance A A" above A",
on the scale, and we obtain an approximate graduation for 200 yards,
\\ liirh should be corrected in the same way as the pi and so

on. The distance P P1 is found by taking the algebraic sum of the
distances of all the shots from the point P, and dividing it by the num-
ber of shots. It will be readily seen that an approximate form of the
trajectory may be obtained by drawing a series of lines through the
ditr.-rvnt graduation marks of the rear-sight, and the top of the front-
sight, and laying off from the front-sight, on each. line, the correspond-
ing range ; (BENTON.)

HAVERSACK. Bag issued to soldiers for carrying rations.
HAY. The forage ration is fourteen pounds of hay, and twelve
pounds of oats, corn, or barley. Cattle will eat many sorts of herbage
when cut small, but refuse it if uncut. They will eat reeds, sea\v « .1.
leaves, Ace.

To cut Chaff, (Fig. i8fc)
— Tie a sickle against a tree,
with its blade projecting ;
then, standing in front of
the blade, hold a handful of
reeds across it with both
hands, one hand on either
side of the blade; pull it
towards you, and the reeds
will §l)o cut through; drop
the cut end, seize the bundle
-h, nml n-|.c:it the pro-
cess. In this way, after a
little 1'iMrtio-. dial!' is cut
\\ith great rase and quick-
ness. A broken sickle does
as well as a whole one, and
a knife may 1... ned, but the
curve of its edge, is ill adapt. <1
for the work. (See FORAGE.)
HKIGHT. KIrvation,
as to occupy or to crown a height; the height of a soldier, dec. (See
DISTANCES; SURVEYING.)

Hox.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 333

HELMET. Defensive armor or covering for the head used by
heavy cavalry.

HIERARCHY, (MILITARY.) The essential element for the gov-
ernment and service of an army is a military hierarchy, or the creation
of different grades of rank, to which different functions and powers are
assigned, the lower in regular subordination to the next higher in the
ascending scale. It should be founded on the principle that every one
acts in an army under the orders of a superior, who exercises his au-
thority only within limits established by law. This authority of the
superior should be greater or less according to rank and position, and
be proportioned to his responsibilities. Orders should be executed with-
out hesitation ; but responsibilities should be confined to him who gives
orders in virtue of the superior authority with which he is invested ;
to him who takes the initiative in an order ; to him who does not exe-
cute an order that he has received ; and to him who usurps a command
or continues illegally to exercise its functions.

The grades of the military hierarchy are : 1. The President of the
United States ; 2. The Lieut.-general ; 3. Major-generals ; 4. Brig-
adier-generals ; 5. Colonels ; 6. Lieutenant-colonels ; 7. Majors ; 8
Captains; 9. Lieutenants; 10. Cadets; 11. Sergeants; 12. Corpo-
rals; 13. Privates. 'Hie military hierarchy is determined and con-
secrated within its sphere of action by : 1. Grades of rank created
by military laws ; 2. By other laws regulating the exercise of rank ;
3. By military insignia; 4. By military honors; and 5. By the mil-
itary oath. (See PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, AND OTHER GRADES
or THE HIERARCHY ; BREVET ; COMMISSION ; COMMAND ; GOVERNMENT ;
LINE ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OFFICER ; ORDERS ; RANK ; REGULATION.)

HIRING OF DUTY. Punishable at the discretion of a regi-
mental court-martial ; (ART. 47.)

HOLSTERS. Cases attached to the pommel of the saddle, to hold
a horseman's pistols.

HONORS, (MILITARY) — have been prescribed by the orders of
the President, and are paid by troops to the President and other public
functionaries, to military officers according to grade, to the colors of a
regiment and when two regiments meet. (Consult Army Regulations.)

HONORS OF WAR. This expression is used in capitulations ;
and the chief of a post, .when compelled to surrender, always demands
the honors of war in testimony of the vigor of his defence. As these
terms depend on the disposition of the victorious general, their limits
vary ; but in some instances garrisons have been allowed to march out,
with colors flying, drums beating, some field-pieces, caissons loaded,

334 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [IKo.

and baggage. In other cases the garrison marches out to a certain dis.
tance, and piles its arms, anil is cither released as prisoners upon pa-
role, or then becomes prisoners in :

HOOF. (Sw HORSE.)

HORN WORK— is a work composed of two half bastions and a
curtain or a front of fortification, with two long sides called bran, -lies or
wings, directed upon tho faces of the bastions or ravelins, so as to be
defended by them. This work is placed before a bastion or ra \vlln,
and serves to inclose any space of ground or building, which could not
be brought within the enceinte,

HORSE. In selecting a horse choose one from 5 to 7 years old,
(the latter age preferable,) and from 15 to 10 hands high.

The saddle horse should bo free in his movements; have good
sight ; a full, firm chest ; be surefooted ; have a good disposition, with
boldness and courage ; more bottom than spirit, and not be too showy.

Tho draft horse should stand erect on his legs, be strongly built, but
free in his movements ; his shoulders should be large enough to give
support to the collar, but not too heavy ; his body full, but not too
long ; the sides well rounded ; tho limbs solid, with rather strong
shanks, and feet in good condition.

To these qualities he should unite, as much as possible, the qualities
of the saddle horse ; should trot and gallop easily ; have even gaits,
and not be skittish. The most suitable horse for tho pack-saddle is the
one most nearly approaching the mule in his formation. lie should bo
very strong-backed, and from 14 to 15 hands high.

Horses with very long legs, or long pasterns, should bo rejected, as
well as those which arc poor, lank, stubborn, or vicious.

The mule is preferable to tho horse in a very rough country, where
its suref-.ot. 'In.-ss is an important quality. There are two kinJs : the
mule proper, or product of the jarka^ and mare, which is preferable to
the product of the horse and ass. Tho former brays, the latter neighs.

The mule may be usefully employed from its fourth year to beyond
its twenty-fifth. It is usually from Lit to 15 hands high; is hardy,
»«'Mo,i. >h.,it 1 ,ut little; is easy to keep; is very surefooted,

pccially adapted for draught or packing.

!.orsos, their attitudes and lial.ils should ]..
•al'l«-. I, <nvirig the stable, they should be stopped at
the door ! ,m,. their eyes, tho pupils of which should

eontrart u|,.-n s'rurk by the light. Out of tho stable, they should
noith.-r bo allowed to remain quirt, nor to be worried. Care should bo
taken against being deceived by the effects of the whip, cries, &c. Tho

HOR.]; MILITARY DICTIONARY. 335

positions of a horse, his limbs, age, and height, should be examined at
different times. He should be walked about with a long rein, observ-
ing the action of his rear extremities when he moves off, of his fore
ones when approaching, and of both when moving with his flank towards
you. The examination should be repeated at a trot, observing in what
manner the horse gathers himself; whether he interferes, rocks in his
motions, or traverses his shoulders or haunches. Rein him backwards,
make one of the men get on him, and see if he is difficult to mount, and
whether or not he bears too hard on the bit. Make him gallop -a little,
to judge of his wind, and see whether his flanks heave. Have his feet
washed and examined carefully. Strike upon the shoe to determine
whether he is easily shod or not.

AGE. — The age of a horse is determined by the appearance of his
teeth. When he is 5 years old, his mouth is nearly perfect with a full
set (40) of teeth, 20 in each jaw ; six of these are in front, and called
nippers, or cutting teeth ; a tush on each side of these, and on each side
of the back part of the jaws six molars, or grinding teeth.

At the birth of the colt, the 1st and 2d grinders have appeared, and
in the course of seven or eight days after, the two central nippers force
their way through the gums. In the course of the first month, the 3d
grinder appears above and below, and shortly after another of the inci-
sors on each side of the first two.

At the end of two months, the central nippers reach their full
height, and before another month the second pair will overtake them.
They then begin to wear away a little, and the outer edge?>which was
at first somewhat raised and sharp, is brought to a level with the inner
one. So the mouth continues until some time between the 6th and 9th
month, when two other nippers begin to appear, making 12 in all, and
completing the colt's mouth. After this, the only observable difference,
until between the 2d and 3d year, is the wear of these teeth.

These teeth are covered with a polished and very hard enamel, which
spreads over that portion above the gum. From the constant habit of
nipping grass, and gathering up the animal's food, a portion of the
enamel is worn away, while in the centre of the upper surface of the
teeth, it sinks into the body of the tooth, forming a little pit. The in-
side and bottom of this pit, being blackened by the food, constitute the
mark of the teeth, by the gradual disappearance of which, from the
wearing down of the edge, we are enabled, for several years, to judge
of the age of the animal.

The teeth, at first presenting a cutting surface, with the outer edge
rising in a slanting direction above the inner, soon begin to wear down,

;;;;.} MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Uoa.

until both surfaces are level; and the war*, originally Ion? and narrow,

becomes shorter, wider, an.l faint. -r. Fig. 140 represents the appearance

of the animal's mouth at 1:2 months. The four middle teeth an- almost

nd the e..rner ones becoming so. The mark in tin- t\\<> middle

l« and t-iint ; in the two next, dark , and nan

and in the extreme ones it is darkest, longest, and narrowest. '\ '
pearancc of the nippers, t««g«'thor with tho coming of four new grinders,
enables the ago of tho colt to be pretty nearly calculated.

months after, the mark in tho central nippers will l>o much
shorter and fainter; that in the two other pairs will have undergone an
evident change, and all tho nippers will be flat.

At two years old, this change will be still more manifest, and the
lower jaw of the colt will present the appearance represented in Fig.
111. About this period, too, a new grinder appears, making 20 in all,

Fio. 140. Fio. 141.

and a still more important change takes place. This consists in the
formation of tho permanent teeth which gradually come up from bc-
<//Mor/>, and take the place of the temporary, or milk teeth, as
they are called, and finally push the top parts of th out of

thoir places. These permanent teeth are much larger and stronger than
the first ones.

The teeth are replaced in the same order that they originally ap-
peared, and consequently, at the end of the second year, the first grind-
en are replaced by permanent and larger ones; then the central nip-
pen, and so on. At the end of tho third year, tin- colt's mouth \\ill
present the appearance shown in Fig. 142. The central teeth are larger
than the others, with two grooves in the on* nd the

mark is long, narrow, deep, and black. Not having yet attained their
full L'rowth, they are ratlu-r lower than the others. The mark in tho

rs is nearly worn out, and it is wearing away in t
trcme onea.

HOB.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

337

A horse at three years old ought to have the central permanent nip-
pers growing ; the other two pairs wasting ; six grinders in each jaw,
above and below — the first and fifth level with the other, and the sixth
protruding. The sharp edge of the new incisors will be very evident
when compared with the neighboring teeth.

As the permanent nippers wear, and continue to grow, a narrower
portion of the cone-shaped tooth is exposed to attrition, and they look
as if they had been compressed. The mark, of course, gradually disap-
pears as the pit is worn away.

At three years and a half, or between that and four, the next pair
of nippers will be changed. The central nippers will have attained
nearly their full growth. A vacuity will be left where the second
stood, or they will begin to peep above the gum, and the corner ones
will be diminished in breadth, worn down, and the mark becoming
small and faint. At this period, too, the second pair of grinders will
be shed.

At four years, the central nippers will be fully developed ; the

FIG. 142.

FIG. 143

sharp edge somewhat worn off, and the mark shorter, wider, and fainter.
The next pair will be up, but they will be small, with the mark deep,
and extending quite across them. The corner nippers will be larger
than the inside ones, yet smaller than they were, flat, and the mark
nearly effaced. The sixth grinder will have risen to%a level with the
others, and the tushes will begin to appear. See Fig. 143. The small
size of the corner nippers, the want of wear in the others, the little
growth of the tush, the smallness of the second grinder, the low fore-
hand, the legginess of the colt, and the thickness and little depth of the
mouth, will prevent the horse from being passed off as over four years old.
The tushes are much nearer the nippers than the grinders, but this
distance increases witlT the age of the animal. The time of their ap-
22

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Hon.

pearance is uncertain, and it may vary from the fourth year to foul
years and six months.

At four years and a half the last important change takes place in
the mouth. The corner nippers are shed, and the permanent ones be-
gin to appear. The central nippers are considerably worn, and the
next pair are commencing to show signs of usage. The tush has now
protruded, and is generally a full half-inch in height. After the rising
of the corner nippers the animal changes its name — the colt becomes a
horse, and the filly a mare.

At five years the corner nippers are quite up, with the long deep
mark irregular on the inside, and the other nippers bearing evidence of
increased wear. The tush is much grown, the grooves have nearly dis-
appeared, arid the outer surface is regularly convex, though the inner is
still concave, with the ecTge nearly as sharp as it was six months before.
The sixth molar is quite up, and the third wanting, which last cireuin-
stancc will be of great assistance in preventing deception. The three
last grinders and the tushes are never shed. Fig. 144 represents the
mouth of a 5-year old horse.

At six years the mark on the central nippers is worn out, though a
difference of color still remains in the centre of the tooth, and although
a slight depression may exist, the deep hole with the blackened surface
and elevated edge of enamel will have disappeared. In tin- next incisors
the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter; and in the corner teeth the
edges of the enamel are more regular, and the surface is evidently
worn. The tush has attained its full growth of nearly an inch in length ;
convex outwards, concave within, tending to a point, and the extremity
somewhat curved. The third grinder is fairly up, and all the grinders
are level.

At seven years, the mark is worn out in the four central nippers,

Fio. 144. Fio. 145.

HOB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 339

and fast wearing away in the corner ones. The tush is becoming
rounded at the point and edges ; still round outside, and beginning to get
so inside. (Fig. 145.)

At eight years old, the tush is rounded in every way ; the mark is
gone from all the bottom nippers, and nothing remains in them that
can afterwards clearly show the age of the horse.

An operation is sometimes performed on the teeth of horses, to de-
ceive purchasers in regard to age. This, called bishoping, after the in-
ventor, consists in throwing a horse, 8 or 9 years old, and with an en-
graver's tool digging a hole in the almost plane surface of the corner
teeth, of the same shape and depth of those seen in a 7-year old horse.
The holes {ire then burned with a heated iron, leaving a permanent
black stain. The next pair of nippers are also sometimes lightly
touched. An inexperienced person might be deceived by the process ;
but a careful examination will disclose the irregular appearance of the
cavity — the diffusion of the black stain around the tushes, the sharpened
edges and concave inner surface of which can never be given again — and
the marks on the upper nippers. After the horse is 8 years old, horse-
men are accustomed to judge of his age from the nippers in the upper
jaw, where the mark remains longer than in the lower jaw teeth ; so
that at 9 years of age it disappears from the central nippers; at 10
from the next pair, and from all the upper nippers at 11. During
this time, too, the tushes are changing, becoming blunter, shorter, and
rounder ; but the means for determining accurately the age of a horse,
after he has passed 8 years, are very uncertain.

The general indications of old age, independent of the teeth, are
deepening of the hollows over the eyes, and about the muzzle ; thinness
and hanging down of the lips ; sharpness of the withers ; sinking of the
back ; lengthening of the quarters ; and the disappearance of windgalls,
spavins, and tumors of every kind.

The perpendicularity with which a horse habitually stands, deter-
mines his good qualities and endurance. Viewed in profile, his front
legs should be comprised between two verticals : the one, A, (Fig. 146,)
let fall from the point of his shoulder, and terminating at his toe ;
the other, B, from the top of the withers, and passing through the el-
bow. A line, C, passing through the fetlock-joint, should divide the
limb into two equal parts. The hind legs should be comprised between
two verticals, A' falling from the hip, and B' falling from the point of
the buttock ; the foot at very nearly equal distances from these two
lines. A line, C', let fall from the hip-joint, should be equally distant
from these two lines A', B'.

340

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[IlOB.

wed in front, a vertical let fall from the point of the shoulder,
should divide the leg along its contra! line. In rear, a vertical tV< >m
the point of the buttock, should divide the leg equally throughout its
entire length.

FIG. 140.

A B

The height of the horse, measured from the top of the withers to the
ground, should be equal to his length from the point of the shoulder to
the point of the buttock. His chest, looking at him from the front,
should be broad ; and viewed from the rear, he should be broad, with
good muscle, and strongly built.

" The thoroughbred horse enters into every other breed, and adds
or often gives to it its only value. For a superior charger, hunter, or
•addle horse, three parts or one-half should be of pure blood ; but for
the horse of all work, less will answer. The road horse, according to
the work required of him should, like the hunter, possess different de-
grees of blood. The best kind of coach horse is foaled by mares of
some blood, if the sire is a three-fourth or thoroughbred stallion of
sufficient size and substance. Even the dray horse, and every other
class of horse, is improved by a partial mixture of tho thoroughbred.

" The first point of a good hunter is that he should be light in hand.
For this purpose, his head must be small; his neck thin, especially
beneath ; his crest firm and arched, and his jaws wide. Tho head will
then be well set on. It will form a pleasant angle with the neck, which
gives a light and pleasant mouth."

HOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 341

" The road horse or hackney should be a hunter in miniature, with
these exceptions : his height should rarely exceed fifteen hands and an
inch. He will be sufficiently strong arid more pleasant for general
work below that standard. He should be of more compact form than
the hunter, of more bulk according to his height. It is of essential con-
sequence that the bones beneath the knee should be deep and flat, and
the tendon not tied in. The pastern should be short, and less oblique
or slanting than that of the hunter or race-horse. The foot should be
of a size corresponding with the bulk of the animal, neither too hollow
nor too flat, and open at the heels. The forelegs should be perfectly
straight ; for a horse with his knees bent will, from a slight cause and
especially if overweighted, come down. The back should be straight
and short, yet sufficiently long to leave comfortable room for the saddle
between the shoulders and the huck, without pressing on either. Some
persons prefer a hollow-backed horse. It is generally an easy one to
go. It will canter well with a lady ; but it will not carry a heavy
weight, or stand much hard work. The road horse should be high in
the forehead, round in the barrel, and deep in the chest."

A horse travels the distance of 400 yards at a walk, in 4^ minutes ;
at a trot, in 2 minutes ; at a gallop, in 1 minute. He occupies in the
ranks a front of 40 inches, a depth of 10 feet ; in a stall from 3^ to 4£
feet front ; at a picket, 3 feet by 9. Average weight of horses 1,000
Ibs. each. A horse carrying a soldier and his equipments, (say 225
Ibs.,) travels 25 miles in a day, (8 hours.) Kpack horse can carry 250
to 300 Ibs. 20 miles a day. A draught horse can draw 1,600 Ibs. 23
miles a day, weight of carriage included. Artillery horses should not
]jje made to draw more than 700 Ibs. each, the weight of the carriage
included. The ordinary work of a horse for 8 hours a day may be
stated at 22,500 Ibs. raised one foot in a minute. In a horse mill, the
horse moves at the rate of 31 feet in a second. The diameter of the
path should not be less than 25 or 30 feet. Daily allowance of water
for a horse is four gallons. A horse-power in steam engines is esti-
mated at 33,000 Ibs. raised 1 foot in a minute ; but as a horse can exert
that power but 6 hours a day, one steam horse-power is equivalent to
that of four horses.

The actual mode of taking wild horses is by throwing the lasso,
whilst pursuing them at full speed, and dropping a noose over their
necks ; by which their speed is soon checked, and they are choked
down. Mr. Rarey's sixpenny book tells all that can be told on the
subject of horse-breaking ; but far more lies in the skill and horse-
knowledge of the operator, than in the mere theory. His way of mas-

;;iJ MILITARY DICTION AKY. [Ho*.

toning a vicious horse, is by taking up one fore-foot, and bending his
knee, and slipping a loop <>\ «T tin- km -o until it comes to the postern*
joint, and then fixing it light. Hie loop must be caused to embrace
the part between the hoof and the pastern-joint firmly, by the help of
a strap of some kind, lest it should slip. The horse is now on three
legs, and he feels conquered. If he gets very mad, wait leisurely till
be becomes quiet ; thru caress him, and let the lrur down, and allow him
to rest Then repeat the process. If the horse kicks in harness, drive
him *l»wly on three legs. In breaking-in a stubborn beast, it is con-
t to physic him until he is sick and out of spirits, or to starve
him into submission. Salt keeps horses from straying, if they are ac-
customed to come up to the camp and get it. But it is a bad plan,
as they are apt to hang about, instead of going off to feed. They are
so fond of it, that they have been known to stray back to a place where
they had been licking it, in front of the doors. (Consult GIBBON;
SKIN x ER'S Youatt ; BR ANDE'S Encyclopedia ; Memorial des Officiers (Tin-
fanterie et de Cavalerie. See PAY ; VETERINARY.)

HORSEMANSHIP — consists in perfect mastery of the horse.
The principles laid down by Boucher in his method of horsemanship,
published in Philadelphia in 1851, profess to give any horse in less
than three months :

1. General suppling; 2. Perfect lightness; 3. Graceful position;
4. A steady walk ; 5. Trot, steady, measured, extended ; 6. Backing
as easily and as freely as going forward; 7. Gallop easy with either
foot, and change of foot by the touch ; 8. Easy and regular movement
of the haunches, comprising ordinary and reversed pirouettes ; 0.
ing the ditch and the bar ; 10. Making the horse raise his legs diago-
nally as in a trot, but without advancing or reeedini: ; 1 1. Halt from the
gallop by the aid of, first, tho pressure of the legs, and Oien a li-jht sup-
f the hand. " The education of tho men's horses, being less com-
1 than that of those intended for the officers, would be m.. re rapid.
The principal things will be tho supplinirs and the backing followed by
the Walk, the trot, and t ho frallop. while keeping the horse perfectly in hand."
nship in war consists in address in the exercise of arms
while skilfully using tho proper paces of the horse in dill', n nt ac« id. nt.s
of ground, with ability in the rider to obtain immediate obedience in all

l»o rationally demanded, '!'•• •..• c..mplish this, con-
stant exercise is required of b,,th horse and cavalier, and the individual
iMstru- ' prescribed in ti , army gives this skil fulness, and

habituates hones to s :.i c;ich other, and to instant yielding

to the will of the rider. (Consult CAUCIIER ; Cavalry Tactics ; Travail
Individuel.)

Hon.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

343

HORSE EQUIPMENTS.

STATEMENT OF THE COST OP HOESE EQUIPMENTS, PATTEEN 1859,

FURNISHED BY THE OEDNANCE DEPAETMENT.

The regulations require that requisitions for Horse Equipments shall follow the form pre-
scribed for ordnance requisitions. Stirrups, saddle-bags, girths, and surcingles, to be entered sep-
arately instead of under the head SADDLK in the following list. CUES BBIDLES to embrace the
various kinds of curb bits, scutcheons, curb chains, and leather fittings complete. WATEEINCJ
BEIDLES to include every thing else instead of using separate heads for halters, blankets, &c., &c.

Price
per piece.

Price
per set

Amount.

SADDLE.

Saddle tree covered with raw hide with metal mountings attached.
Saddle flaps with brass screws, each

$ cts.
4 13
1 10
58
50
30
25
70
70
60
72
8 75
1 75
80
1 17

$ cts.
4 13
2 20
1 16
50
80
1 50
1 40
1 40
1 20
72
8 75
1 75
80
1 17

4 20

10
80
85
10
20
8

$21 98

6 33
2 50

1 70
1 10

2 49

Girth strap, lon<»

u " short /. . . .

Cloak straps, each

Stirrups with hoods, each

Carbine socket and strap. . .

Saddle-bags

Crupper

Girth

Total cost

BEIDLB.

*Bit, No 1 $5 ) avera<Te per 100 sets

4 20

80
85
10
20
8

" Nos. 2, 3, and 4, $4 f

Keins

Front

Curb chain with hooks

Curb chain safe

Total cost

HALTEE.

Headstall, complete

2 00

Hitching strap

Total cost

•WATEEING BEIDLE.

Snaffle bit, chains, and toggles

90
80'

Watering rein

Total cost

Spurs

Spur straps. ...

Total cost

Curry comb

20
94
20
1 15

Horse brush, wooden back

Picket pin

Lariat rope

Total cost

Total cost of equipment

36 10

Blanket for cavalry service, dark, with orange border, 3 Ibs., at 70
cents per Ib. .

2 10

2 10
75
20

2 10

2 10
75
20

Blanket for artillery, scarlet, with dark blue border, 8 ib's., 70 cents
per Ib

Nose-bag

Hitching strap

* No. 1 is Spanish ; Nos. 2, 3, and 4, are American.

344 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Uos.

HOSPITALS — are under the immediate direction of their respec-
tive surgeons. The general regulations of the army prescribe the
allowance of attendants ; the issues to hospitals, &c., &e. (Sec AM-
BULANCE ; SURGEON; SURGERY.)

HOT SHOT. The charges for hot shot are from $ to $ the weight
of the shot. With small velocities, the shot splits and splinters the
wood, so as to render it favorable for burning. With great \vl.»rity.
the ball sinks deep into the wood, is deprived of air by the closing of
the hole, and chars instead of burning the surrounding wood. It should
not penetrate deeper than 10 or 12 inches. Red-hot balls do not set
fire to the wood until some time after their penetration. They retain
suftieient heat to ignite wood after having made several ricochets upon
water. The wads are made of clay or hay. Clay wads should consist
of pure clay, or fuller's earth free from sand or gravel well kneaded
with just enough moisture to work well. They are cylindrical and one
calibre in length. I lay wads should remain in the tub to soak, at least
ten or fifteen minutes. Before being used, the water is pressed out of
them. When hay wads are used, vapor may be seen escaping from
the vent on the insertion of the ball ; but as this is only the effect of
the heat of the ball on the water contained in the wad, no danger
be apprehended from it. With proper precautions in loading, the ball
may be permitted to cool in the gun without igniting the charge. The
piece, however, should be fired with as little delay as possible, as the
vapor would diminish the strength of the powder. FURNACES FOR
HEATING SHOT are erected at the forts on the. sea-coast. These furna* •• s
hold sixty or more shot. The shot being placed, and the furnn. ••• r-.l.l,
it n-ijuin-s one hour and fifteen minutes to heat them to a red heat ;
but after the furnace is once heated, a 24-pdr. shot is brought to a red
h« -at in twenty-five minutes; the 32-pdr. and 42-pdr. shut require a few
minutes longer. Three men are required to attend the furnace : one
takes out the hot shot, and places them on the stand to be ser.
another scrapes them and puts them in the ladle ; and the third sup-
plies cold shot an.l fuel ; (GIBBON.)

HOURS OF SITTING. (See COURTS-MARTIAL.)

HOUSINGS. The cloth covering for saddles prescribed as part
of the uniform of the army in regulations.

HO W I I 7. 1 . II. A chambered cannon. (See CALIBRE.)

HURDLES. Pickets three feet high united by pliable twigs, so
as to make a breadth of two feet. They are used to rm.ler l.att. -ri« -s
firm : t«. pail "\ , l>oggy ground or muddy ditches. (See REVETMENT.)

1 1 T'RTER. The hurtcr is a piece of timber, from six to ten inches

IND.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 345

square, placed along the head of a gun platform, at the foot of the in-
terior slope of the parapet, to prevent the latter from being injured by
the wheels of the gun-carriage.

HUSSARS. Light cavalry.

HUTS — are frequently constructed by troops on retiring to winter-
quarters. The quarters occupied by United States troops on our fron-
tiers are generally huts made by the troops. There have recently been
built portable houses, the parts of which correspond, and which are
readily put up. The experiment is not yet a success. (See ADOBE ;
CAMP; CARPENTRY; SAW-MILL.)

ICE. Ice two inches thick will bear infantry ; four inches thick,
cavalry or light guns ; six inches heavy field-guns ; 8 inches 24-pdr.
guns on sledges ; weight not more than 1,000 Ibs. to a square foot.
Water that is slightly frozen is made to bear a heavy wagon by cutting
reeds, strewing them thickly on the ice, and pouring water upon them.
When the whole is frozen into a firm mass, the process must be re-
peated.

IMPRISONMENT. Officers may be sentenced to imprisonment
by a general court-martial in any case where the court may have discre-
tionary authority. General, garrison, and regimental courts-martial
may sentence soldiers to imprisonment, solitary or otherwise, with or
without hard labor for various offences enumerated in the Articles of
War. A garrison or regimental court-martial, in awarding imprison-
ment, is limited to a period not exceeding thirty days. When a
court awards solitary imprisonment as a punishment, it is necessary
that the words "Solitary Confinement" should be expressed in the
sentence.

INDEMNIFICATION. In the French and English armies, there
is an indemnification established for losses in the military service, and
other allowances are also made in the nature of indemnifications ; as for
furniture ; fuel and light ; forage ; expenses of divine worship ; com-
mand money to general and field officers ; quarters ; expenses upon
routes ; provisions ; gratuity at the beginning of a campaign ; field al-
lowances ; mess ; carriage of baggage ; blood money ; permanent pen-
sions; temporary pensions, or gratuities in lieu thereof; rewards for
meritorious conduct ; and pensions to widows and children of officers.

In the United States service, the law provides that if a horse be lost
in battle, an officer may receive not exceeding two hundred dollars for

346 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [I«x

his horse, and allowances are made for quarters, fuel, f

and trans p f baggage, and command money in certain cases.

INDIANS. The red man of America is so called, and as the troops
of the United States have always been the pioneers of civilization, their
contact with the Indians is always more or less immediate. The prob-
lem of the disappearance of the race is fast being solved ; and every
humane mind must contemplate with sorrow the destitution to which
the Indians have been driven. Something, it is believed, may be done
for them by the system of policy proposed in the article on national de-
fence, and that policy would be greatly promoted if the United States
maintained on our frontier a few Indian regiments, officered by details
from the army. The successful adoption of this policy in India by the
English, and in Algiers by the French, proves its praetiealulity, and no
men would make better light cavalry and light infantry than the Indians
on our western frontier.

The President is authorized to cause army rations to bo issued to
Indians ; (Act June 30, 1834.)

All purchases on account of Indians, and all payments to them of
money or goods, shall be made by such person as the President shall
iate for that purpose. And the superintendent, agent, or snl>-
agent, together with such military officer Iw the President may direet,
shall be present, and certify to the delivery of all goods and mom y r« •-
quired to be paid or delivered to said Indians. And the duties required
by any section of this act of military officers, shall lie performed without
any other compensation than their actual travelling expenses; (.!</
Juno 30, 1834.)

Army surgeons may be employed by the Secretary of War to vac-
cinate Indians; (Art May 5, 1832.)

A foreigner going into Indian territory without ;v passport from the
War Department, superintendent, agent, sub-agent, or from the othYer
commanding the nearest military post, or lemainin ;ally there-

in after the expiration of his passport, is subject to forfeit and pay the
•urn of one thousand dollars; (Act Juno 30, 1834.)

It shall be lawful for the military force of tho United States to be
employed, in such manner and under such regulations a- the I'r.-sident
may direct, in the appreh. n>i->n of every person f.minl in the Indian
•ry in violation of any of the provisions r.ftl. OMtt him

to be < -ial to the nearest civil author;- '^military

force may also bo employed in tho examination and sei/nro of stores,
packages, and boats, with spirituous liquor or Mine, and in prevent i?ig
tho introduction of persons and property into th- uniry con-

INF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 347

trary to law. Provided that no person apprehended by the military
force as aforesaid shall be detained longer than five days after arrest,
and before removal for surrender to the civil authority ; (Act June 30,
1834.)

When goods or other property are seized under this act, the process
of prosecutions shall be the same as in the case of goods, &c., brought
into the United States in violation of the revenue laws ; (Act June 30,
1834.)

Persons attempting to settle in Indian territory may be removed
by military force ; (Act 1832. See TREATY.)

INFANTRY. Its depth of formation has progressively diminished
since the centre and wings have been armed alike, and the use of pikes
discontinued. The formation in lines has fitted infantry for action on
all kinds of ground, and the invention of massing, the condensation of
ranks, and formations by size, have given it a perfect ensemble. Its
march has gained in rapidity by the simplification of evolutions, Jhe re-
sort $o guides, and turning upon PIVOTS ; it acts more skilfully in
affairs of plains and outposts, by the rapidity of its changes of direction,
formations in order of battle, and alternate ployments and deployments.
The general adoption of tactical inversions, it is thought, would add still
more to this skilfulness.

The improved rifle-musket, with thorough target practice, gives to
infantry immense advantages over cavalry and artillery. The effective
range of the new musket permitting skirmishers to open fire at 1,000
yards, fields of battle will cover more ground than formerly, and the
use of smaller columns than battalions of eight and ten companies will
probably be resorted to. An organization of battalions of six com-
panies of 100 men each, in two ranks, in lieu of the former, would be
an improvement ; and in the United States service this might be accom-
plished by adding two companies with two battalion-adjutants and ser-
geant-majors to each regiment. The front of each battalion would not
be too great. Columns would be formed by division in mass. There
would be three such divisions, and the square formed would have £
its rifles in the first and fourth fronts, and £ each in the other two fronts.
Such well-instructed men, in firing, would be perhaps able to show, as
in the experiment at Hythe, that a piece of artillery with its men and
horses might, at 810 yards, be completely disabled by 30 riflemen in
three minutes, and also be an overmatch for cavalry.

Infantry has always guarded the frontier in war ; it supports cavalry
in great reconnoissances ; furnishes swimmers when the cork jacket is
resorted to j is employed both in the attack and defence of fortresses ;

:).|s MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!HF.

slings the musket and throws grenades ; mounts heights by escalade ;
escorts and attacks convoys ; supports foraging parties ; defends aba-
is at home in all accidents of ground ; finishes operations begun
by artillery ; crowns heights which horses and pieces of artillery can-
not reach ; decides the fate of battles, sometimes with the aid of caval-
ry, and sometimes alone. Costing little, active, occupying relatively
little ground ; readily lodged, maintained, and renewed, it is easily sub-
sisted, and often finds in its knapsacks, haversacks, and utensils can
by the men, all its wants supplied, when separated from baggage trains.
It has been made a question whether excellent cavalry may not
beat mediocre infantry, and whether excellent infantry would not be
overthrown by mediocre cavalry ?

Tin-re is this great difference between infantry and cavalry : infantry
has always changed its tactics at the same time with its arms, whereas
cavalry cannot change its manner of fighting, although it has more than
once attempted the forms of infantry tactics.

Cavalry cannot operate as a whole, except upon unbroken ground ;
it is unsuited to firing ; the order of battle is its great means of action ;
the sabre or lance is its only reliance ; the invention of powder has not
improved the art it exercises. Squares of cavalry are useless ; the cir-
cular formation which has been conceived is a chimera ; defence is not
its strength; movement is its life, an unbroken field its element, and
the charge its principal means of offence. But within range, of the rifle,
at 1,000 yards, it must bo destroyed before reaching its object.

The elementary tactics of infantry consists in securing its rear and

its flanUs ; in never being entirely disfurnished of its fire ; in attacking

with the bayonet; in defending itself by firing within pro] . and

••^restively, rather than simultaneously ; using the aid of the grenade

and rocket, and in resorting to the bayonet, as prescribed in the 1

exercise. In the offensive movements of a fiel.l of battle, infantry
ought never to be disfurnished of its fire, except when the enemy falls
back, and it is known that his retreat is n<>t a stratagem to draw tli.
of the assailants, in order to push down upon them masked cavalry.

Infantry being suited for close or distant combat, the aim of its tac-
tics is to prescribe the best order for the shock, and the l.est orders for
firing. The chef-d'oeuvre of art consists in the most rapid and success-
ful transformations of these orders; in the mechanism of changes of
front ; and in the ploymcnts and deployments of columns of attack and
the formation of squares against cavalry.

In campaign, infantry prefeniMy occupies broken ground, woods,
&C, A trench, abatis, or chevaux-de-friso is sufficient to secure its

INI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 349

safety. In crossing plains, its head and flanks should be covered by
cavalry ; in retreat, the infantry forms the rear guard, to protect the
column of cavalry. For this purpose it occupies hills or ravines, or,
standing firm in heavy masses, the cavalry denies until it has gained
ground suited to cavalry operations. When the cavalry has reached
such a position, it deploys, faces to the rear to cover in its turn the re-
treat of the infantry.

Didactic authors, as well as historians, recognize the superiority of
infantry. VOLTAIRE calls it the soul of armies ; MACHIAVEL, the sinew ;
it is the principal force and lever of power in time of war ; it can act
alone ; other arms move to second it : thus good infantry is the true
strength of nations ; every one in an. army feels its importance ; its
posts guard the army ; its duties are, of all others, the most constant,
the most simple, the most easily regulated, and the most certain and
most important.

The duties of engineers and artillery require more learning ; those
of cavalry, in war, are sometimes more dashing and brilliant ; but the
services of infantry are always in demand. In attack and defence of all
kinds ; the descent into the ditch ; or the defence of the breach, the
trench, and the rampart ; the insult of palisades, or the fire from the
parapet ; in ambuscades ; or on any field of battle whatever, infantry
must exercise its skilfulness and attest its valor. Valleys, fords, de-
files, water-courses, ravines, abatis, forests, heights, plains, parallels,
camps, outworks, covered ways, advance guards, and rear guards, are all
in turn its theatre of action. All kinds of troops mutually aid each other,
and it is the skilful combination of their efforts which constitutes, in part,
the science of the general-in-chief. To make good infantry, it is essential
that it should pass some months in a camp of instruction. The soldier
must be taught to take care of his arms and accoutrements, to march,
to fire well, to build huts, to handle the axe, spade, and shovel, to make
cartridges, fascines, hurdles, and gabions, suited to field-works, to cook,
and to consider his knapsack, haversack, &c., as part of himself. (See
DISCIPLINE ; ARTICLES OF WAR ; TACTICS ; MANOEUVRES IN COMBAT.
Consult BARDIN.)

INFORMANT. In case a civil person is the complainant, he be-
comes the principal witness before a court-martial, and after giving his
evidence may remain in court, in order that the judge-advocate may re-
fer to him ; (HOUGH.)

INITIAL VELOCITY. The velocity with which a projectile
leaves the piece, that is, the space in feet then passed in a second, is
called its initial velocity ; the space passed over in a second at any sue-

350

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[I.VJ.

oeeding point of the trajectory its remaining velocity, and the terminal
Telocity is the velocity with which it strikes the object. The greatest
initial velocities do not exceed four or five hundred yards, and are
by charges not exceeding one-third the weight of the hall ; the feeblest
are produced by charges of about one-twenty -fourtli the weight of the
ball. The musket pendulum used at Washington Arsenal has sh"\\n
the initial velocity of the elongated ball for the rifle-musket to be 9C3
feet per second, and that of the pistol-carbine 603. For ordinary prac-
iiere the weight of the powder and the projectile alone vary, initial
v» •!'•< ities may be considered din-ctly proportional to the square root of
the weight of powder divided by the square root of the weight of the pro-
jectile.

In the experiments made at Washington by Major MorJecai with
the gun and ballistic pendulums combined for the purpose of as<
ing the initial velocities produced by equal charges of powder in the
same piece of ordnance on balls of different weights, it was found thai,
with a 24-pounder gun and a charge of 4 Ibs. of powder, the windage
being .175 inch, the initial velocity of a shell filled with l«-a<l and weigh-
ing 27.68 Ibs., was 1,325 feet; of a marble ball weighing 9.29 11
2,154 feet; and of a lignum vite ball weighing 4.48 Ibs., was
The two first of these velocities are nearly in the inverse ratio of the
square roots of the weights of the shot ; but the two last are nearly as
the cubo roots of the weights inversely. (Consult BENTON. See BAL-
LISTICS.)

TABLE OP INITIAL VELOCITIES WITH 8EP.VK T. < IIAKOES.

KIM.

or PROJIM

rriL«.

KIXD or CAICWOW.

Chanreof

l',,u,!,r.

•Shot

Sheila.

SpWr-l

. mi

REMARKS.

e-ndr. FloM....

Ibs.
125

tot

1 i •»

feet

feet
1 857

Wlion (ho Inltlnl vo-

1*-|*lr. Ki,-M...,

2.80

I486

I \-n

IX-pdr. Flvkl HowlUer
24-jMlr. BlegvGun.... {

1.00
6.00

rlcnl cane shot
are g)v<

• Howlucr....

8.00
400

1,870

l«TO

"<>:

of the charge •

si ,,!

JW-t-lf. «-.r»-r,,:v>t (inn.. .

- .11

1 r.j'i

15-Inch Columbia*! . . .

i '. •->

I N. JURIES, LIABILITY FOR PRIVATE Ix.n nn.s. In the exercise of
professional duty by military officers, injuries may frnjnently bo oc-
casioned to (tther officers, or to private individuals, \vhns.* l'-ir;il r«-me-
•:-i«l«T. (1. As bet woo 11 i.fliei-rs thenisolv. s. tin- language
Arti.l.s of War in suffi.-iently comprehensive to bring most of
such cases within the cognizance of a court-martial ; but a court-martial

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 351

has no power to award pecuniary damages for injurious conduct. Its
jurisdiction is criminal, and its judgments are penal. It may happen,
too, that the common feeling of the service, to which the offending or
the complaining party belongs, would in many cases render an applica-
tion to such a tribunal utterly fruitless; as the general sentiment of the
members of a particular profession or class of society, respecting a mat-
ter of professional or corporate right or conduct, is often found to be at
variance with the public law of the land. Civil actions are therefore
maintainable against commissioned officers, for exceeding their powers,
or for exercising them in an oppressive, injurious, and improper man-
ner, whether towards military persons or others. Extreme difficulties,
however, lie in the way of plaintiffs in actions of this nature ; for no
such action is maintainable for an injury, unless it be accompanied by
malice or injustice : and the knowledge of this, (says Mr. Baron Eyre,)
while it can never check the conduct of good men, may form a check on
the bad. Where an officer (says the same learned judge) makes a slip
in form, great latitude ought to be allowed ; but for a corrupt abuse
of authority none can be made.

It will be convenient to consider the law upon this subject : 1st,
as it applies to wrongs committed by officers towards persons under
military authority ; and, 2dly, as it applies to persons not subject to
such authority. Some of the decisions that will be quoted were
pronounced in cases where naval officers were concerned ; but the
principle of the decisions applies equally to both services. I. Wrongs
towards Persons under Military Authority. — A notion appears to
have at one time extensively prevailed that an officer could have
no remedy against ill treatment received from his superiors in the
course of professional duty, except by bringing the offending party
to a court-martial, and subjecting him to the penalties of the Arti-
cles of War. This opinion, however, was quite unfounded in point
of law ; and such a state of things might oftx'u be productive of the
worst consequences. The question was distinctly raised in Grant v.
Shand, where an actioa was brought by an officer in the army against
his superior officer for oppressive, insulting, and violent conduct. The
plaintiff was directed to give a military order : and it appeared that he
sent two persons, who failed. The defendant thereupon said to the
plaintiff, " What a stupid person you are," and twice struck him ; and
although the circumstances occurred at Gibraltar, and in the actual
execution of military service, it was held by the learned judge at the
trial that the action was maintainable ; and a verdict was found for the
plaintiff. An application was afterwards made to the Court of King's

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!NJ.

Bench to set aside the verdict ; and Lord Mansfield, the chief-justice,
was very desirous to grant a new trial ; but the court, after argument,
refused to disturb the verdict. So also an action will lie for unjust
treatment under the t'.nn of discipline, as in Swinton v. Molloy, where
the defendant, who was captain of the Trident man-of-war, put tho
purser into confinement, kept him imprison, -d for three days 'without
inquiring into the case, and then released him on hearing his i!<
The purser brought his action against Captain Molloy, for this unlawful
detention in custody ; and, upon the evidence, Lord Mansfield said, th.it
such conduct on the part of the captain did not appear to have been a
pp-per discharge of his duty, and therefore that his justification under
the discipline of the navy had failed him. The jury gave £1,000 dam-
ages. In the foregoing case no want of uprightness was attributed to
Captain Molloy ; and the decision rested wholly on tho circum
of his having committed an injustice, although without a corrupt inten-
tion. Cruelty or unnecessary severity, when wilfully committed in the
exercise of superior authority, are also good causes of action. Thus in
Wall v. Macnamara, the action was brought by the plaintiff, as captain
in the African corps, against the defendant, Lieutenant-governor and
Military Commandant of Senegambiu, for imprisoning the plaintilV for
the space of nine months at Gambia, in Africa. The def< IK . \\as a jus-
tification of the imprisonment under tho Mutiny Act, for the disobedience
of orders. At the trial it appeared that tho imprisonment of Captain
Wall, which was at first legal, namely, for leaving his post without
leave from his superior officer, though in a bad state of health, was ag-
gravated with many circumstances of cruelty, which were adverted to

i (1 Mansfield, in the following extract from his charge to the jury :
" It is admitted that the plaintiff was to blame in leaving his post,
there was no enemy, no mutiny, no danger. His health was de< -liniiu:,
and he trusted to tho benevolence of the defendant to consider tho cir-
cumstances under which ho acted. But supposing it to have been tho

! int's duty to call the plaintiff to a military account for his miscon-
duct, what apology is there for denying him tins, use of the common air
in a sultry climate, and shnttiti!i him up in a gloomy prison, when them
was no possibility of bringing him to a trial 1 months thrro

not being a sufficient number of offic mi a court-martial?

These circumstances independent of the direct evidence of ma!'.
sworn to by one of the witnesses, are sufficient for y< >u to prc-nme a
bad, malignant motive in tho defendant, which would destroy his juMifi-
cation, had it even been within the powers delegated to the defendant
by his commission." The jury thereupon found a verdict, for Captain

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 353

Wall, with £1,000 damages. An undue assumption of authority in
matters not within the range of military discipline, is also a good ground
of -action against a superior officer. This appears from the case of
Warden v. Bailey, where the plaintiff was a permanent sergeant in the
Bedford regiment of local militia, of which the defendant was the adju-
tant. In November, 1809, the lieutenant-colonel issued a regimental
order for establishing an evening school at Bedford. He appointed the
sergeant-major the master, and ordered all sergeants and corporals, in-
cluding the plaintiff, to attend and pay eight-pence a week towards the
expenses of the school. The plaintiff and some other of the scholars
having afterwards omitted to attend, several were tried by court-martial
and punished. The plaintiff, however, was only reprimanded, and he
promised regular attendance in future. Shortly afterwards he was
ordered to attend a drill on parade, when the defendant, who appears
to have been a shopkeeper, shook his fist at the plaintiff, called him a
rascal, and told him he deserved to be shot. The defendant then direct*
ed a sergeant to draw his sword and hold it over the plaintiff's head,
and if he should stir to run him through ; and, by the defendant's direcs
tion, a corporal took off the plaintiff's sash and sword. The plaintiff
was then conducted, by the defendant's order, to Bedford gaol, with
directions that he should be locked up in solitary confinement, and kept
on bread and water. He was thus imprisoned for three days. He was
then brought up before the colonel and the defendant, and other officers
of the regiment, and again remanded to the gaol. The plaintiff's health
having been impaired by the continuance of this treatment for several
weeks, he was afterwards conducted to his own house, and there kept a
close prisoner until January, 1810, when he was escorted by a file of
corporals from Bedford to Stilton, to be tried by court-martial for
mutinous words spoken on parade at the time of his arrest, and for
thereby exciting others to disobedience. He was tried accordingly, but
liberated in March, 1810. Upon this he brought his action against the
adjutant for the wrongful imprisonment, when an objection was taken
that the question of the propriety of the arrest was not within the
jurisdiction of the civil courts The Court of Common Pleas, however)
overruled this objection. Sir James Mansfield, C. J. : " It might be
very convenient that a military officer might be enabled to make the
men under his command learn to read and write, — it might be very
useful, but is not a part of military discipline. Then, further, there is

a tax of 8d. a week for learning to read and write The

subject cannot be taxed, even in the most indirect way, unless it origi-
nates in the Lower House of Parliament." Mr. Justice Lawrence :
23

;;.Vl MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Isj.

a It is no part of military duty to attend a school, and learn to write
and read. If writing is necessary to corporals and sergeants, the supe-
rior officers must select men who can write and read ; and if tli. \ do
not continue to do it well, they may be reduced to the ranks. Nor is
it any part of military duty to pay for keeping a school light and
warm : this very far exceeds the power of any colonel to order.*' In a
subsequent stage of the same case, when it was attempted to justify or
defend the mutinous expressions used by Wan 1m on parade as above
stated, on the ground of the illegality of the order whii-h gave rise to
them, the court held, that although Warden had been unlawfully ar-
rested for disobedience to that order, sueh a circumstance afford* d no
warrant for insubordinate language on Warden's part, and there!
exemption from military arrest and punishment for the same. " Nor
will he (said Lord Ellenborough, C. J.) be less an object of military
punishment, because the order of tho lieut.-colonel, to which this lan-
guage referred, might not be a valid one, and such as he was strictly
competent to make There may be disorderly conduct to tin-
prejudice of good order and military discipline, in the manner and tuns
used and adopted by one soldi r in dissuading another soldier not to
obey an order not strictly legal. If every erroneous order on tho part
of a commanding officer would not only justify the individual disobe-
dience of it by the soldier, but would even justify him in mak;
fiammatory and reproachful public comments upon it to his fellow-sol-
diers, equally the objects of sueh order \\ith himself, is it possible that
military order and discipline could bo maintained 1 " The common de-
fence of officers, against whom actions of this nature are brough
justification of their conduct as agreeable to the discipline of tl
vice, and contributory to the maintenance of that discipline. And there.
can be no doubt, that where the conduct brought into question is not an
oppressive, malicious, or unreasonable exercise of j
amount to an excess or abuse of authority, an action is wholly unsus-
tainable. The principles upon which tho Courts of Law pr..e,-ed in
actions arising out of the abuse of military power, will n «•• ive further
from tho language of Lord Mansfield, in summing up the
the jury in Wall ?•. Maenamara. Hi* lordship thus CX-
promcd himself: «• In trying the legality of acts done by military oilieers
exercise of their duty, particularly beyond the seas, where cases
may occur without tho. possibility of application for prop, r advic, .
latitude ou^ht to be allowed ; and they ought n<>t to suffer for a slip of
form, if their intention appears by the evidence to hav.- hem upright,
•he same as when complaints are brought against infivrior civil

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 355

magistrates, such as justices of the peace, for acts done by them in the
exercise of their civil duty. There the principal, inquiry to be made by
a court of justice is, how the heart stood? and if there appear to be
nothing wrong there, great latitude will be allowed for misapprehension
or mistake. But, on the other hand, if the heart is wrong, — if cruelty,
malice, and oppression appejar to have occasioned or aggravated the
imprisonment, or other injury complained of, they shall not cover them-
selves with the thin veil of legal forms, nor escape under the cover of a
justification the most technically regular, from that punishment, which
it is your province and your duty to inflict on so scandalous an abuse
of public trust." It is no legal objection to an action for the abuse of
military authority, that the defendant has not been tried and convicted
by a court-martial, for that argument holds in no case short of felony.
The infliction of an unjust or illegal sentence, pronounced by a court-
martial, is a good cause of action by the prisoner, against all or any of
the members 0f the court, and all persons concerned in the execution of
the sentence ; such a sentence, if it exceeds the authorized measure of
punishment, being not merely invalid for the excess, but absolutely
void altogether. The most remarkable case on record of this kind is
that of Lieutenant Frye, of the Marines, who, after an unnecessary
previous imprisonment for fourteen months, was brought to trial before
a naval court-martial at Port Royal in the West Indie^, and sentenced to
be imprisoned for fifteen years, for disobedience of orders, in refusing to
assist in the imprisonment of another officer, without an order in writ-
ing from the captain of Her Majesty's ship Oxford, on board of which
Lieutenant Frye was serving. At the trial the written depositions of
several illiterate Blacks were improperly received in evidence against
him, in lieu of their oral testimony, which might have been obtained
and sifted by cross-examination ; and the sentence pronounced was
itself illegal for its excessiveness, the Act 22 George II., which contains
the naval Articles of War, not allowing any imprisonment beyond the
term of two years. On the return to England of Admiral Sir Chaloner
Ogle, the president of the court-martial, Lieutenant Frye brought an
action against him in the Court of Common Pleas for his illegal conduct
at the trial, when the jury, under the direction of the Lord Chief-Justice
Willes, gave a verdict for the plaintiff, with £1,000 damages. The
Chief-Justice at the same time informed Lieutenant Frye that he might
have an action against all or any of the other members of his courts
martial ; and Lieutenant Frye accordingly issued writs against Rear
Admiral Mayne and Captain Renton, upon whom the same were served
as they were coming ashore at the conclusion of the proceedings of the

356 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [I*J.

day at another court-martial, of which they were acting meml><
the trial of Vice-admiral Lestock, for his conduct in a naval riijiaviement
with the French fleet off Toulon, in tin- « arly part of the same yeac
This was deemed a great insult by the members of the sitting court
martial, who accordingly passed some resolutions or remonstrances in
strong language, highly derogatory to tlu« rhirf-justire, which th
warded to the Lords of the Admiralty, by whom the affair was reported
to the king. His Majesty, through the Duke of Newcastle, signified to
the Admiralty *' his great displeasure at the insult offered to the court-
martial, by which the military discipline of the navy is so much affected ;
and the king highly disapproved of the behavior of Lieutenant Kryo on
the occasion." The Lord Chief-Justice, as soon as ho heard of the reso-
lutions of the court-martial, ordered every member of it to be taken
into custody, and was proceeding to uphold the dignity of his court, in a
very decided manner, when the whole affair was terminated in Nov.,
1746, by the members of the court-martial signing and eending to his
lordship a very ample written apology for their conduct. On the re-
ception of this paper in the Court of Common IMra*, it was read aloud,
and ordered to be registered among the records as a " memorial,
the Lord Chief-Justice, "to the present and future ages, that \\li<.» \, r
set themselves up in opposition to the laws, or think themselves alx.vo
the law, will in the end find themselves mistaken." The proc< >
and the apology were also published in the London Gazette oi
Nov., 1746. At a naval court-martial for the trial of Mr. Crawford, a
midshipman of Her Majesty's ship Emerald, for contempt and <lis. ,l««.
dience to the orders of his superior officer, Captain Knell, the court in-
advertently found Mr. Crawford guilty only of having been <//\o/v/rr///
when a prisoner at large, which formed no part of the offence of which
h* was accused ; and he was reprimanded accordingly. Mr. Crawford
thereupon brought an action against the captain for damages ; and the.
learned judge who presided at the trial, having made some
animadversions on the illegality of the proceedings the jury awarded
heavy damages. A similar action was brought against Colonel 1
colonel of the Middlesex militia, for improperly flogging a pri\
the militia, and the jury gave £600 dama^. In Moore v. Bastard also,
an action was brought against the president of a court-martial for im-
.c plaintiff upon an alleged charge of subornation «>f per-
jury gave £300 damages. An action was tried in IV
Ir. Harron IVrp.t, at the spring assizes for the county «.f I >. \,,n,
t the officers of the Devon militia, for inflicting 1,000 lasl
.intiff, in pursuance of their sentence pronounced against him at a

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 357

court-martial, held to try him upon a charge of mutiny ; the only act
proved being that the plaintiff had written a letter to the colonel of the
regiment, which was not communicated to any one else, telling him that
the men of the regiment were discontented. The jury gave £500 dam-
ages ; and the case is quoted with approbation by Mr. Justice Heath,
who also intimated, that if the plaintiff had died under the punishment,
all the members of the court-martial would have been liable to be hanged
for murder. There was also another case of an action against Captain
Touyn, a naval officer, in which the plaintiff recovered damages for the
infliction of several dozen lashes without a court-martial, for a single
offence, thereby exceeding the custom which had prevailed in the navy,
that commanding officers might inflict one dozen lashes (called a start-
ing) without a court-martial. No action, however, will lie for merely
bringing a man to a court-martial, nor for the previous arrest or sus-
pension ; such acts being clearly within the limits of military author-
ity, and exercisable, like all other such powers, in a discretionary man-
ner, under the safeguards and at the risks provided by the Articles of
War. A commanding officer has, of necessity, a discretionary power to
arrest, suspend, and bring to trial by court-martial, any person under
his orders. But though this power is indispensable, and its limits can-
not, like those of the power of punishment, be exceeded in point of
extent, it may, nevertheless, be oppressively, or improperly used ; and
therefore, by the Articles of War, such conduct is of itself a distinct
military offence, triable by a military jurisdiction. This was the opin-
ion of the Judges of the Exchequer Chamber, in the case of Button v.
Johnstone, and it seems also to be a just inference from the judgment in
the same case, that when an officer is expressly charged and found guilty
before a court-martial, of having improperly brought another to trial
before a similar tribunal, an action is sustainable for the special damage
resulting from the offence ; but that, until the officer procuring the first
trial has been found guilty of improper conduct by a court-martial, a
court of law cannot interfere ; no civil tribunal being capable of appre-
ciating, with sufficient delicacy, the circumstances which attend the ex-
ercise of military power, or of accurately discriminating the grounds of
its application. Want of probable cause for the accusation is the only
basis on which an action for a malicious prosecution before a court-
martial can rest ; and when that is shown, malice will be inferred by
the law. An acquittal, however, by the court-martial, of the party who
brings the action, is not conclusive as to the want of probable cause.
At the same time, such an acquittal is an essential preliminary to the
action, for though the accuser may have been actuated by the most clear

,'io^ MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!NJ.

and undisguised malice, yet if ho substantiates his original charge to the.
satisfaction of a court-martial, the U.-.-UM-.! has no locus standi in a ci\ \\
court, even upon the fullest evidence of his prosecutor's mal
impossible to say that there was a want of probable cause, after a
court-martial has adjudged that there was a positive cause. Innocence
and uprightness of intention will therefore, on the one hand, be no de-
fence to an action of this nature, when there appears to have been a
want of probable cause for the prosecution before the court-martial;
while, on the other hand, the most malicious, or even corrupt intention,
will not subject the accuser to a civil action, where he succeeds in estab-
lishing the criminal charge before the military tribunal. A wrongful
imprisonment being, in the language of the law, a tort, savoring of crime,

.••Id that if two commit a tort, and the plaintiff reco\
one, he cannot recover against the other for the same tort. This rule
was applied in the above-mentioned case of Warden v. Daily, where an-
other action was brought against the colonel of the Bedford militia for
the same transaction, and the court held that the imprisonment hiiliet.-d
by the defendant, the adjutant, terminated on the plaintiff being brought
up before the colonel on the third day, and being then remanded by
him, so that the adjutant was held not liable for more than the first
three days* imprisonment, and the colonel not liable, except from the
time of the commencement of the remand ordered by himself. It should
be observed, however, that no civil action will lie, in the first instance,
against a commissioned officer for a discretionary exercise of military
authority while in the performance of actual duty in the field in time of
war. Where a discretionary power is clearlv vested by military usage
in the officer whose conduct is impeached, questions as to t !
of such authority are so essentially military, that the civil triKui;
cline to consider them without the previous judgment of n court-mar-
tial. This was settled in the case of Darwis v. Keppel, in which tV-
plaintiff* was a sergeant in the second battalion of tin- i
foot guards. The defendant, Colonel Keppel, was the second major of
that battalion; and in the absent e «,f 1, r officers ho had the

command of it. In 17«»0, the battalion was ordered to (J.-rmany, under
the command of the defendant, to form part .-f the kit;. ' -rxing

nnd.T l'r;nce Ferdinand. In Septemb,--. L76I, tfo prince, being in
hourly exp :' a bat'l-, issued an order that, all des

the enemy should be. immediately sent, to headquarters without a
. The plaintiff had full notice «,f this order; and three*
: n nd, red to him, he detained them six hours
without bringing them to head-quarters < Ig their arrival. For

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 359

this neglect of orders the plaintiff was tried by court-martial, and sen-
tenced to be suspended from his rank of sergeant for a month, and to do
the duty and receive the pay of a private soldier during the same time.
On the sentence being reported to Colonel Keppel, he did not confirm
it, but made an order at the foot of the sentence in the following terms : —
" But, as Sergeant Barwis could not be ignorant of the duke's order
concerning deserters, and Colonel Keppel thinking his neglect might
have been attended with the utmost bad consequences, orders that he be
broke, and that Corporal Billow be appointed sergeant in his room."
This order was carried into execution, and the plaintiff served accord-
ingly as a private until his battalion returned to England. Colonel
Keppel was appointed, in 1762, to command an expedition against the
Havannah ; and, on his return to England, Barwis brought an action
against him for maliciously and improperly reducing him (Barwis) to
the ranks. A verdict was found for the plaintiff, with £70 damages,
subject to the opinion of the Court of Common Pleas, upon the question,
whether the action was maintainable. The court held, that as the whole
matter took place abroad, and in the field, in open war, the conduct of
the defendant, Colonel Keppel, could not be tried in a civil court. Per
curiam : " By the Act of Parliament to punish mutiny and desertion,
the king's power to make articles of war is confined to his own domin-
ions. When his army is out of his dominions, he acts by virtue of his
prerogative, and without the Statute or Articles of War, and, therefore,
you cannot argue upon either of them, for they are both to be laid out
of this case ; and, flagrante bello, the common law has never interfered
with the army ; silent leges inter arma. We think (as at present ad-
vised) that we have no jurisdiction at all in this case ; but if the plain-
tiff's counsel think proper to speak more fully to this matter, we are
willing to hear him." The report contains the following memoran-
dum : — " But plaintiff, seeing the opinion of the court against him,
acquiesced, and the judgment was for the defendant, ut audivi."

It was intimated, however, by the two Chief-Justices, Lord Mans-
field and Lord Loughborough, on a subsequent occasion, that if the con-
duct of Colonel Keppel had been previously condemned by a court-
martial, an action at law would have been maintainable against him,
although the transaction in question took place in the field, and in open
war.

Again, with respect to the exercise of military power by command-
ing officers in the execution of actual service, and the right of action
against them on such grounds, the following observations fell from the
court in Sutton v . Johnstone : " Commanders, in a day of battle, must

"MO MIUTAKT DICTIONAKY. [!M.

act upon delicate suspicions ; upon the evidence of their own eye ; tin y
mu>t give desperate commands; they must require instantaneous
obedience. In case of a general misbehavior, they may be forced to
suspend several officers, and put others in their places. A military
tribunal id capable of feeling all these circumstances, and understand-
ing that the first, second, and third part of a soldier's duty is obedience.
But what condition will a commander be in, if up. n tin exercising of
his authority ho is liable to be tried by a common-law judicature f . .
Not knowing the law, or the rules of evid.no •. KM command-
ing or superior oflicer will dare to act; their inferiors will insult and

threaten them Upon an unsuccessful battle, there are mutual

n •criminations, mutual charges, and mutual trials Party pre-
judices mix. If every trial is to be followed by an action, it is easy
to see how endless the confusion,. ho\v infinite the mischief must be.
The person unjustly accused is not without his remedy. He has the
properest among military men. Reparation is done to him by an ac-
quittal ; and he who accused him unjustly is blasted forever, and dis-
missed the service. These considerations induce us to turn against
introducing this action."

It may be gathered, also, from the case of Sutton v. John-
which was an action between naval officers, that, unless a court-martial
shall first expressly decide that it was physically impossible for an
oflicer t" execute, the orders delivered to him in the field or on actual
duty, he has no right of action against his commanding olli« n fur bring-
ing him to a court-martial on a charge of disobedience to those orders,
even though the court-martial may have acquitted him of misconduct.

Delay in bringing an oflicer to a court-martial, after he has !•••• n
put under arrest, is also no ground of action against the officer or-
dering the arrest; this being a point of purely military conduct and
Authority, of which a court-martial alone can prop, rly jud- . !
a court-martial should condemn the commanding olli. . r's conduct on
such an occasion, an action against him would probably lie. Captain
Sutton, of II. M. S. /«'*, brought an action against Commodore .lohn-

for maliciously bringing him \o a court-martial on char
disobedience to orders during an engagement with a l-'n -n« -h l
1781. It appeared that Captain Sutton, alter his arrest at the < !
the engagement, was carried with the squadron to India, win-re lie was
• d in arrest for two years, during a lengthened cruise and various
S before he was eventually sent to England by Ad-
miral Sir Kichanl Hughes, to be tried. His trial was thus d. l.iy. d for
two years and a half; and great stress was laid on these circumstances,

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 361

as an unnecessary aggravation of his arrest. But the court said : " Tho
delay is charged to be contrary to the defendant's duty as commander-
in-chief. There is no rule of the common or statute law applicable to
this case. It is a mere military offence. It is the abuse of a mili-
tary discretionary power ; and the defendant has not been tried for it
by court-martial. A court of common law cannot in such a case assume
an original jurisdiction. It is like the case of Barwis v. Keppel ; this
objection we think fatal."

But, although questions regarding the use or abuse of military dis-
cipline can thus in some instances be discussed in the civil courts, the
learned judges of those tribunals have deprecated the resort to such
proceedings in ordinary circumstances ; and in Warden v. Bailey,
where the court entertained the case, and ordered a new trial, the Chief-
Justice, Sir James Mansfield, said, " I must express the strongest wish
that the cause will not be again tried, for all disputes respecting the
extent of military discipline are greatly to be deprecated, especially
in time of war ; they are of the worst consequence, and such as no
good subject will wish to see discussed in a civil action ; they ought
only to be the subject of arrangement among military men." In the
case which gave rise to the foregoing observations, the learned judges
allowed that a considerable amount of unnecessary violence and indig-
nity had taken place.

A recent case of Walton v. Major Gavin of the 16th Lancers, for
alleged false imprisonment, gave rise to a very important question with
reference to the Article of War which directs that no officer command-
ing a guard, or provost-marshal, shall refuse to receive or keep any
prisoner committed to his charge by any officer or non-commissioned
officer belonging to the queen's forces, which officer or non-commis-
sioned officer shall, at the same time, deliver an account in writing
signed by himself, of the crime with .which the prisoner is charged.
And, after very elaborate argument, it was held by Lord Campbell,
C. J., and Mr. Justice Coleridge and Mr. Justice Wightman, (Erie, J.
dissenting,) that a commanding officer, receiving into his custody a per-
son subject to military law and accused of desertion by a non-commis-
sioned officer who signed the charge, was justified in detaining the prisoner,
notwithstanding any irregularity in the proceedings antecedent to his
own reception of the prisoner, and was not bound to inquire into the
legality of such proceedings. Judgment was therefore given for the
defendant. The principle appears to be the same which is applied to
the governor or keeper of any ordinary prison, who on receiving a
prisoner with a warrant, regular in point of form, for his detention, is

;;,,,! MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!KJ.

justified in receiving him without inquiring whether tho magistrate
who signs tho warrant is duly qualified to act as a justice, or whether
in a poaching case the bird mentioned in the warrant, as the corpus de-
licti, was properly designated a partridge.

Negligence in the use of military arms or weapons is also a good
cause of action. In Weaver r. Ward, the case was, that tho plaint ill'
and defendant were both soldiers of the trained bands of London.
While Ward's band was skirmishing, by way of military e.v
their muskets charged with powder, against another train-band to whieh
Weaver belonged, Ward's musket was discharged in such a manner as
to wound tho plaintiff, who thereupon brought an action of trespass
against Ward. The defence made by Ward was, that ho was in
training by order of the Lords of the Council, and skirmishing in
obedience to military command, and that tho injury happened casually,
by misfortune, and against his will. But this was decided not to be
enough. Per curiam : " No man shall bo excused of a trespass except
it may bo judged utterly without his fault. As if a man by force take
my hand and strike you, or if hero the defendant liad said that the
plaintiff ran across his piece when it was discharging, or had set forth
the case with the circumstances, so as that it had appeared to tho court
that it had been inevitable, and that tho defendant had committed no
negligence to give occasion to the hurt."

As a general rule, all language traducing or defaming .1 man in the
way of his profession or calling is actionable, as it tends to his pecu-
niary damage or loss.

The communication to tho Judge-advocate General, by tho pres-
id.-nt of a court-martial, of their opinion, in the form of a cmsur. -, re-
specting the prosecutor's charges, and his conduct in preferring them,
is not a libel, and cannot be made the subject of an action at law. This
point was decided in 1806, in tho case of Jekyll v. Moore. Captain
Jekyll, of the 43d regiment, had preferred certain charges against Col-
onel Stewart of tho same regiment, who was accordingly tried by a
1 rourt-martial, of which Sir John Moore was president. The
judgment of the court was, that " tho court do most fully and most
honoral.lv ae.piit him:" but to this sentenei. the following remarks
Were subjoined : "The court cannot pass without observation the mali-
md groundless accusations that have been pn.duryd by Captain
Joky 11 agatsmt an officer whose character has, during a long period of
o, been so irreproachable as Colon. -1 Stewart's ; and tho court do
unanimously declare that tho conduct of Captain .Jekyll, in endeavoring
falsely to calumniate the character of his commanding officer, is most

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 3(53

highly injurious to the good of the service." Captain Jekyll contended
that the foregoing passage formed no part of the matter submitted to
the judgment of the court, and was, therefore, a libel on him. He ac-
cordingly brought his action for it in the Court of Common Pleas,
against Sir John Moore, but the whole court was of opinion that no
such action could be maintained. Sir James Mansfield, chief-justice :
" In order to enable the court-martial to decide upon the charges sub-
mitted by the king, they must hear all the evidence, as well on the part
of the prosecution as of the defence ; and after hearing both sides, are
to declare their opinion whether there be any ground for the charges.
If it appear that the charges are absolutely without foundation, is the
president of the court-martial to remain perfectly silent on the conduct
of the prosecutor, or can it be any offence for him to state that the
charge is groundless and malicious 1 It seems to me that the words
complained of in this case form part of the judgment of acquittal, and
consequently no action can be maintained upon it."

It may perhaps be fairly inferred from the foregoing decision, that
if a court-martial pass a censure upon the prosecutor, with reference to
a matter which is not expressly connected with the charge under trial
before such court-martial, or with the proceedings of the court, the case
would stand upon a different footing, and would probably be held ac-
tionable on the principle of Mr. Crawford's case already noticed.

Confidential communications from the members of a military court
of inquiry to the superior military authorities are likewise privileged,
and furnish no ground of action to the officer whose conduct is impli-
cated in the documents.

Neither is the promulgation of a sentence in the gazette by a com-
petent official person to be deemed a libel on the officer named in the
paper. In 1807 Lord Win. Bentinck, governor of Madras, issued the
following public order : " The Honorable the Court of Directors having
resolved to dismiss Colonel Oliver of this establishment from the ser-
vice of the Honorable Company, for gross violation of the trust reposed
in him as Commanding Officer of the Molucca Islands, the Right Hon-
orable the Governor in Council directs that the name of Colonel Oliver
be erased from the Army List of this Presidency, from the 20th June
last." In 1811, Colonel Oliver brought an action at Westminster
against Lord William Bentinck for the publication of this order, on the
ground of its containing libellous matter injurious to the plaintiff. But
the Court of Common Pleas decided it to be no libel. Sir James
Mansfield, chief-justice. : " How should an officer in India know why
he was dismissed, if the reason assigned is not to be made known 1 If

3<U MILITARY DICTIONARY. [!NJ.

the Court of Directors were peremptorily to dismiss him, without
assigning a reason, that would be a greater hardship on the d. -fondant.
. . . One should be very sorry to have any tiling like a judgment in
favor of a plaintiff in such an action as this, than which a more foolish
or a more mischievous one cannot easily be imagined ; it is much better
for the Company, for the country, and for the plaintiff himsi-lf, that the
cause of his dismissal should be stated, than that it should be supposed
that the East India Company did it suo arbitrio"

** On the same principle, (says Mr. Justice Heath, in the same cast*,)
when a delinquent, guilty of some enormity, has been brought to a
omirt-inartial, the commander-in-chicf is not chargeable with libel for
directing the sentence to be read at the head of every regiment/'

It is decided also, that any communications made by private indi-
viduals to superior officers, for the bonajide purpose of obtaining re-
dress of grievances, or otherwise invoking the exercise of authority over
other officers, will be deemed privileged communications, and no libels.

The principle of the law on this subject, was declared by the court,
in Cutler v. Dixon, to be this, that, " if actions should bo permitted in
such cases, those who have just cause of complaint, would not dare to
complain for fear of infinite vexation."

But where the author of a written communication traducing another
person in his professional character has himself no interest in the mat-
ter, the bona fides of the proceeding will be no defence against an action.
In I larwood v. Green, the plaintiff was master of the Jupiter transport ;
and the defendant, a lieutenant in the navy acting as government agent
on board, wrote a letter to the secretary at Lloyd's, imputing to 11 u-
wood misconduct and incapacity in the management of the vessel. In
consequence of this letter, Ilarwood brought an action nLr:iinM Lieuten-
ant Green -for a libel. Lieutenant Green defended himself on the ground
that his letter was a privileged communication. But the Lord Chief-
Justice Best declared his opinion to the jury, that an officer in tin- navy
had not, as such, the right to make any communication to Lloyd's, but
only to the government, by whom, if tho matter were important, it
might be again communicated to Lloyd's ; and the jury i I larwood
a verdict with £50 damages.

It may be useful to mention here, as a legal point giving rights of
redress between military men, that a superior officer cannot sail -l\ deal
for his own ad1- money matters, with a junior officer under

his command. The influence which a senior officer can exercise over
his junior is such as to destroy, or at least to control, in the purview
of a Court of K.juity, that entire freedom which is essential to the per-

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 365

fection of a bargain or contract ; and if a regimental officer places him-
self in a position where such influence may operate to the prejudice of
the junior, the transactions between them are liable to be set aside for
want of fairness or conscientiousness. This is the rule applied to deal-
ings between a guardian and his ward, a physician and his patient, a
landlord and his steward, a clergyman and a penitent, and all other
cases where the existence of a just and unavoidable influence may lead
to abuse.

II. Wrongs towards Persons not under Military Authority. — Injuries
may be occasioned to persons not subject to military authority, by
officers mistaking or exceeding their powers, or exercising them with
malice, negligence, or unskilfulness ; but for acts of this kind a remedy
lies only in the civil courts ; the military tribunals, as already observed,
having no power to grant pecuniary compensation by way of damages,
and non-military persons having no locus standi as prosecutors before
such courts, which are instituted solely for the maintenance of order and
discipline among the armed forces.

In cases of the kind now under consideration, it is quite immaterial
whether the cause of action has arisen within the realm, or beyond the
seas ; though this proposition was not finally established until the year
1774, when the great case of Fabrigas v. Mostyn was determined in the
Court of King's Bench, and put an end to all further question or doubt
upon the subject. The plaintiff was a native of Minorca, of which island
the defendant, General Mostyn, was governor. The general had by his
own absolute authority imprisoned the plaintiff and banished him from
the island without a trial. The defence was, that in the peculiar district
of Minorca, where the offence occurred, no ordinary court or magistrate
had jurisdiction. But the proof of this defence failed, and the jury gave
the plaintiff £3,000 damages. The objection, however, was taken that
the action did not lie, by reason of the foreign locality of the cause of
it, and the point was twice argued at great length ; but judgment was
eventually pronounced against General Mostyn, in accordance with the
verdict of the jury. It should be noticed also that, as General Mostyn
happened to be a governor, his appointment gave him the character of
a viceroy, so that locally and during his government no civil or criminal
action lay against him. On principles of public justice, therefore, it
was necessary that a remedy should be had in England.

The undue assumption or mistaken exercise of authority by officers
towards non-military persons, is a clear ground of action against them
in the civil courts, even though there be no malice accompanying the
transaction.

;;«;<; MILITAKY DICTIONARY. [Lu.

Captain Gambler, of the navy, under the orders of Admiral Bos-
cawen, pulled down the houses of some sutlers on the coast of Nova
Scotia, who supplii .1 the seamen of the fleet with spirituous liquors.
The act was done with a good intention on the part of the admiral ; for
the health of the sailors hud been ull'-eted by frequenting these houses.
Captain Gambier, on his return to England, incautiously brought home
in his ship one of the sutlers whose houses had been thus demolished.
The man would never otherwise have got to England ; but on his ar-
rival he was advised to bring an action against Captain Gambier. lie

•, and recovered £1,000 damages. But as the captain had acted
by the orders of Admiral Boscawen, the representatives of the admiral
• 1 the action, and paid the damages and costs. This was a ia\ Ar-
able case, unaccompanied by any malicious feeling ; but the parties con-
cerned did not attempt to disturb the verdict.

Admiral Sir Hugh Palliser was defendant in a similar action for

yinu fishing huts on the Labrador coast. After the treaty of
Paris, the Canadians, early in the season, erected huts for fishing, and
by such means obtained an advantage ov.-r the fishermen who came
from England. It was a nice question upon the rights of the Canadians.
But the admiral, on grounds of public policy, ordered the huts to be

yed. An action was brought against him in England by one of
the injured parties, and the case ended in arbitration. But on the part
of the admiral it was never contended that the action did not lie by
reason of the subject-matter of it having occurred beyond the seas.

" I remember," said Lord Mansfield, "early in my time being coun-
sel in an action brought by a carpenter in the train of artillery against
Governor Sabine, who was governor of Gibraltar, and who had barely
confirmed the sentence of a court-martial, by which the plaintiff had
been tried and sentenced to bo whipped. The governor was very ably

led, but nobody ever thought that the action would not lie ; and it
being proved that the tradesmen who followed the train were not liable
to martial law, the court were of that opinion, and the jury found the
defendant guilty of the trespass, as having had a share in the sentence,
and gave £700 damages."

The following case, involving the same principle, occurred in India,
and was there tried before the Supreme Court of Madras. Mr. II.
Smith was agent, at Sccunderabad, of a mercantile house at Madras,
from whom he received a very handsome salary. He became indebted
to a soldier of II. M.'- .'»3d regiment for some work intrusted to him,
and a dispute having arisen between them as to the amount, this led to
a violent altercation between Mr. Smith and the superintendent of the

INJ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 367

bazaar acting under local military regulations. Lieutenant-colonel Gore
thereupon sent a file of men to arrest the plaintiff, who was accordingly
seized about six o'clock in the evening, and marched from his house
through the streets of the cantonment to the main guard at Secundera-
bad, where he was kept till twelve o'clock the next day. In conse-
quence of these proceedings, he brought an action against Colonel Gore
for false imprisonment. Secunderabad was an open cantonment for a
part of the subsidiary force serving in the territories of the Nizam ; the
force consisting partly of British and partly of native troops. It had
barracks, and the men were hutted. It was also upon a field establish-
ment, constantly ready for immediate service. The Article of "War
then in force, being the 22d in the llth section of the Statute 27 Geo.
II., was thus intituled, " Of duties in quarters, in garrison, and in the
field ; " and it enacted, " that all sutlers and retainers to the camp, and
all persons whatsoever serving with forces in the field, though not en-
listed soldiers, are to be subject to orders, according to the rules and
discipline of war." Sir Thomas Strange, C. J. : " The question was,
whether the troops, being cantoned, were in the state to which the cited
Articles of War applied. The court thought they were not. It might
have been a field force, being upon a field establishment, so as to be
ready to move at the shortest notice. There might be great similarity
in the arrangements adopted for an army, whether in the field or can-
toned. A respectable witness, Brigade-major Lyne, intimated as much.
Still, so far as the court could form a judgment upon a question of this
nature, there seemed to be a difference between a camp and a canton-
ment, which appeared material When in the field, not only

the army, but its appendages, must be under the immediate control of
the officer commanding it, according to the rules and discipline of war.
So situated, the sutler, who chose to follow the camp, identified himself
in a manner with the soldier for every purpose almost but that of fight-
ing The plaintiff called upon the court to say, whether the

force in question, under the command of the defendant, was at the time
in the field. It seemed impossible to say that it was, without confound-
ing ideas apparently very distinct The defendant appeared to

have acted under a mistake of his authority, for which he was liable to
answer, as it had been productive of serious injury to the plaintiff."
Judgment was therefore given against Colonel Gore, with fifty pagodas
damages.

In the foregoing case reference was made to an action brought by
Mr. Robert Bailie, an up-country trader in the province of Bengal,
against Major-general Robert Stewart, for an assault and false imprison-

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Inj.

ment Mr. Bailie had resided within the cantonments of Cawnpore for
many years, and dealt in European articles, which ho principally dis-
posed of to the military stationed there. In October, 1797, upon a
complaint made to him by one of the people of his Xeiianah, ho tied up
and very severely flogged one of his chowkydars. For this aet Major-
general Stewart ordered Mr. Bailie to be tried by court-martial ; and
as he acknowledged to have used no less than six switch whips in the
I '•!«», alleging as his reason, that as they were new whips, he was
of breaking them and spoiling their sale, the court-martial sen-
him to five days' imprisonment, and to make an apology to the
commanding officer. This sentence General Stewart, though he did not
approve of it, confirmed ; and issued orders for Mr. Bailie to depart the
camp as soon after his enlargement as possible. The Supreme Court
of Calcutta held Mr. Bailie to be a sutler within the meaning of the Ar-
ticles of War, so as to render him amenable to military law. But in
the above-mentioned action of Smith v. Lieut.-col. Gore, the chief-justice,
Sir T. Strange, declined to be governed by the decision in (J<

.rt's case, as the note furnished to the court did not clearly show
whether or not the^army was in the field when the transaction occnn v.l.

An unreasonable or malicious exercise of power will, in like manner,
render an officer liable to an action for damages. An instance pf this
occurred in the year 1783, when an action was brought against (J
Murray, governor of Minorca, for improperly suspending the judge of
the Vice-admiralty Court of that island. The general had pro;
himself ready to restore the judge on his making a particular apology ;
and, on reference to the home authorities, the king approved of the sus-
•ii, unless the governor's terms were complied with. There was
no doubt as to General Murray's power to suspend the judge for proper
cause; yet, on the proof of his having unreasonably and improperly
-ed the authority, and notwithstanding the king's approbation of
his proceedings, damages to the amount of £5,000 were awarded against
him by a jury ; and, as Mr. Baron Eyre observed, it never occurred to
any lawyer that there was any pretence for questioning the verdict.

Negligence or vnttilf 'nines* in the exercise of an officer's duty may
Also be a cause of action for damages in respect of private injuries thus
occasioned; and in such cases the approval of an officer's conduct l>y
the government, or by the superior military authorities, will neither
him from liability to an action, nor have any influence upon the
decisi" >urN ..f Westminster Hall. Those tribunals investigate

such matters <.n independent evidence, according to their own rules, and
pay no regard to the previous conclusions of official functionaries, how-
ever high th'-ir rank may be.

INS.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 359

It is a rule of English law, in unison with the law of nations, by
which all civilized states are governed, that no officer engaged in mili-
tary operations in his country's cause, by the order or with the sanction
of the constituted authorities, shall incur any individual or private re-
sponsibility for acts done by virtue of his commission or official instruc-
tions. Such transactions being of a public nature, redress or satisfac-
tion for injuries to which they give birth, is to be sought by public
means alone, from the sovereign power of the belligerent or offending
state, according to the principles of international law, and the general
usages of civilization, which never suffer such matters to be litigated
before ordinary tribunals.

If, in time of peace, the citizens of a friendly foreign state sustain a
private injury at the hands of a naval or military officer serving under
the orders of the British government, but unauthorized by his commis-
sion or instructions to do the act complained of, the ordinary tribunals
of England afford the same redress against him as in the case of a Brit-
ish subject similarly aggrieved ; and this rule applies even in those
cases where the violated rights of tho foreigner are such as the law of
England denies or prohibits to its own subjects.

But if the British government have expressly instructed the officer
to convmit the act which constitutes or gives occasion to the grievance,
the matter becomes an affair of state which is not cognizable by the
courts of law, and must be adjusted by diplomatic arrangement be-
tween the two governments concerned. In such cases also it is quits
sufficient, if the officer's proceedings, though not originally directed or
authorized by the terms of his instructions, are afterward sanctioned
and adopted by the government ; for this renders them public acts, over
which courts of law have no jurisdiction. (Consult PREXDERG AST'S
Law relating to Officers of the Army.}

INJURING PRIVATE PROPERTY. (See WASTE or SPOIL.)

INLYING PICKET. A body of infantry or cavalry in cam-
paign, detailed to march, if called upon, and held ready for that purpose
In camp or quarters.

INSPECTORS-GENERAL. There are two inspectors-general of
the army with the rank of colonel. Assistant adjutants-general are ex-
officio assistant inspectors-general. The duties of inspectors-general are
prescribed by Army Regulations. In the French army, a certain num-
ber of general officers are annually designated to make inspections, and
such inspections embrace every thing relative to organization, recruit-
ing, discharges, administration, accountability for money and property
instruction, police, and discipline of the several corps of the army. At
24

370 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ixs.

these inspections all wrongs are redressed, and each inspection is con.
tiuued from eight to ten days. The inspector examines and studios the
condition of the corps under arms, as well as off parade ; ho receives all
applications for disc-barge, and for the retired list. He notes those
who merit promotion, rewards, or reprimands. He assembles the
council of administration, and verifies their accounts ; visits the store-
houses, quarters, hospitals, prisons; inspects the clothing, arms.
&c., and, in fine, scrutinizes every thing which it is desirable should be
known. He gives his orders to the regiment for the ensuing
makes a detailed report of what he has seen and done.

1 NSURRECTION. (See CALLING FORTH MILITIA.) It will bo ob-
served that whenever the President of the United States is auth-
by law to we the military force in cases of insurrection or obstruction
to the laws, ho must first, by proclamation, have commanded the in-
surgents to disperse and retire peaceably to their respective abodes with-
in a limited time ; (Act Feb. 28, 1795. See OBSTRUCTIONS TO THE LAWS.)

INTERIOR FLANKING ANGLE— is formed by the line of de-
fence and the curtain.

INTERIOR SIDE— -is the line drawn from the centre of ono bas-
tion to that of the next, or the lino of the curtain produced, to tho two
' oblique radii of the front.

INTRENCHED CAMP. A position is so called when occupied
by troops, and fortified for their protection during tho operations of
a campaign.

INTRENCHMENT. A ditch or trench with a parapet; field-
works. In permanent fortification, intrenchments aro mode in va;
parts of tho works to prolong the defence, as a breast-work and ditch at
the porcje of the bastion, &C.

INUNDATION. An inundation or collection of water is produced
by forming across a stream one or more dams.

INVASION. (See CONSTITUTION ; CALLING FORTH MILITIA; NA-
TIONAL I '

INVERSION. In case a column, marching right in front, shall be
undrr tho necessity of forming into lino faced to the NtrerM Hank by
the promptest means the command is given : Halt ! By inversion riirht
into line wheel, battalion guide right. This movement will ^ive an or-
der of battle with tho left company occupying tho right of t lie battalion,
and tne right the left.

Inversion* nre very important in the field, mid they offer such great
advantages, that Bonaparte jtoongly advised their employ incut in many
circumstances. Our tactics admit the employment of inversions in the

IRQ.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 371

formations to the right and left in line of battle, and also in the successive
formations, except in that of faced to the rear into line of battle. When
used, the first command always begins, By inversion. (See INFANTRY.)

INVEST. To take the initiatory measures to besiege a town, by se-
curing every road and avenue leading to it, to prevent ingress or egress.

IRON PLATES. In the experiments made against the "Un-
daunted," at Portsmouth, the following results were obtained : — Six
wrought-iron 68-lb. shot were fired with a charge of 16 Ibs. at 200
yards, the iron plates being 4£ in. thick ; four of these shot broke the
plates, but did not penetrate the timber ; two passed entirely through
both plates and timber. Forty-three cast-iron 68-lb. shot were fired
against other plates of similar thickness. Of these, four passed through
the plates but not the timber. Nine passed through both ; but there
was only one case of a shot taking good effect after striking an uninjured
plate. Thus of the four shots that passed through the plates without
penetrating the timber, only one went through a plate that had not been
previously weakened.

The shot that penetrated entirely through the plates and the timber
had all passed through plates previously weakened. No penetration
was effected by red-hot 68-lb. shot, with a charge of 10 Ibs. The 3 and
2^-in. plates were all penetrated by 68-lb. shot and shells.

The following conclusions have been drawn from experiments : —

1st. That thin plates of wrought iron are proof against any shells ;
for, though the shells may pass through the plates, they will be in a
broken state.

2d. That being proof against shells will avail little, unless vessels
are likewise proof against solid shot; for shells would, of course, not be
fired against ships proof against them, whereas the destructive effects
produced by fragments of shot and of plates, and the great damage
done to the scantling of the ship by solid shot, appear more like the
result of a shell than of a shot.

3d. That rifled projectiles produce greater effect than spherical pro-
jectiles of the same weight at long than at short ranges, on account of
the rifled elongated projectiles — the resistance to which is a minimum
— retaining more of their initial velocity than spherical projectiles at
the same distance.

4th. That the thickness of plates required to resist shot fired from
the heaviest nature of guns, must not be less than 4£ in.

5th. That, to secure the resistance of the plates and the impenetrabil-
ity of the sides of a ship, it is indispensable (fcat the plates be strongly
backed by masses of the strongest and most resisting timber, as, in alJ

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Joi.

the cases to which reference has just been made, it appears that the
plates are easily broken when the support is removed from behind
them, by the crushing, fracturing, and damaging effects of the impacts
of the shot; (Sir HOWARD DOUGLAS.)

With the knowledge of these data, an iron-clad ship, " Le Gl<
has been built in France, carrying 38 rifled 50-pounders, and France,
it is said, will soon have 300 rifled guns in such vessels.

In England, the iron-clad " Warrior," 420 feet long and over 6,000
tons' burden, has been built. The new principle introduced in England,
of inclining the iron-clad sides inwardly, so as to make an angle w ith
the horizontal of from 35° to 40°, will cause the shot to glance off, with
little injury to the sides. In addition to this, it is proposed to suppress
the port-holes, and place the guns in rotating iron cupolas, from which,
by a rotatory of 180°, they fire over the bulwarks on either broadside
— the gunners being perfectly sheltered under these shot-proofi co\
(BARNARD'S Sea-coast Defence.) The great objection to such an ar-
rangement is its unwieldiness, and the opinion of distinguished officers —
that iron plates are only practicable for floating batteries, gunboats,
and other vessels of small draft of water, for special purposes, may
prove the better opinion, notwithstanding the great outlay made by the
' French and English governments.

JOISTS. The timbers of a floor, whereto boards or lathing for
ceiling are nailed. They either rest on the wall or on girders, or some-
times on both. (See CARPENTRY.)

JOURNAL, OR ITINERARY. Directions for keeping the journal of a
march west of the Mississippi. — The journal should bo kept in a pocket
note-book ; or, if one cannot bo obtained, in a book made of sheets of
paper folded to half the letter size. The record is to run from the bottom
to the top of each page. The horizontal divisions in the column headed
"Route? represent portions of a day's march. The distance, in miles,
between each of tho horizontal divisions, will bo noted in tho column
headed " Distance," which will bo summed up at the top of each column,
and the sum carried to the bottom of the next column. The notes
within each horizontal division are to show the general directions of
the march, and every object of interest observed in passing over the
distance represented thereby; and all remarkable features, such as
hills, streams with their names, fords, springs, houses, villages, forests,
marshes, &c., and the plaxjp of encampment, will be sketched in their
relative positions. The " Re marks " corresponding to each division

Jou.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

373

will be upon the soil, productions, quantity and quality of timber, grass,
water, fords, nature of the roads, &c., and important incidents. They
should show where provisions, forage, fuel, and water can be obtained ;
whether the streams to be crossed are fordable, miry, have quicksands
or steep banks, and whether they overflow their banks in wet seasons ;
also the quality of the water ; and, in brief, every thing of practical im-
portance. When a detachment leaves the main column, the point on
the " Route " will be noted, and the reason given in the Remarks. The
commander of the detachment will be furnished with a copy of the
journal up .to that point, and will continue it over his new line of march.

JOURNAL of the march of [here insert the names of the regiments or companies composing

the column,] commanded by , from [here insert the point of departure] to \tht

stopping place,] pursuant to [here give the No. and date of order for the march.]

Date.

Hour.

Weather.

Distance.

Eoute.

KEMA11K8.

1860.

Total, 19

Road rocky ; but little

r •

grass ; good water. Plenty

•

of timber on summit of

hills, extending 3 miles ;

July 8.

5. A. M.

^Bl ^

road to right of hills.

1 P.M.

tl/ig-A timbered Peak
A Camp No. 1.

Good shelter for camp
at foot of peak ; fuel plen-
ty. Springs of sweet wa-
ter, with good grass near.

Springs.

Road to this point rather

more sandy.

10.

Road runs through a

canon i mile long, to right

of a small stream ; marsh

on left of stream ; water

sweet; grass excellent.
Halted to graze two hours.

J5*

No Indian signs.

*"o

6.30.

Mt.P—

Companies F, G, and I,
3d , detached at Mt.

-d

,A X^-

P , under command of

, (see par. 3,Gen-
eral Orders, No. ,) to

•|

LilKC rOtlQ tO •

A small creek, easily

forded.

T3
§

1 / *

Road turns short to right
at top of hill after crossing
river; crossing good, but

4/ ^W- ^

a little boggy on right
bank. This bottom shows

\ \ nftv^

signs of recent overflow,

ti\V v\\vi^

when it must have been

*^V

impassable ; banks low ;

** \^

water sweet ; no wood

July 7.

4.30.

near crossing ; road hard
and good up to river.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.
JOURNAL,

[Jot*.

Data,

Hoar.

\\,. »::.,•.-.

DisUnce.

Bouto

BKMARKa.

1860.

Total, 47

Fork in Road.

At the point where the
road forks, turn to the
right. The left -hand road
leads to a deep ravine,

July 9.

4.80 A. M.

which cannot be crossed.

4.30P.M.

A Camp No. 2.

After the road strikes
the ravine, it runs one

*s\>l'lV^'~

mile along its bank before

£jfr^{&

coming to the crossing

place. The camping
ground is at springs, half
a mile beyond the ravine.
Old Indian signs at the

springs.

3P.M.

Road less rocky ; last

x Grave.

three miles rather sandy ;

Mt. T—

no water. Passed at the
point marked + an In-

dian grave.

Road still rocky ; good
springs, where casks
should be filled. No more
water for twenty miles

SStyrtiy*

after leaving *|>
Occasional hills to i

S 5

road ; no wood or gross.

July 8.

6.30 A. M.

JUDGE-ADVOCATE. There is one judge-advocate selected fr- -m
the captains of the army with the brcvi-t rank and pay of a major
of cavalry. The judge-advocate, or some person deputed by him, or
general, or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garri-
•on, shall prosecute in the name of the United States, but shall so far
consider himself as counsel for the prisoner, after the said prisoner shall
have made his plea, as to object to any leading question to any <>f (lie
witnesses, or any question to the prisoner, the ans\\.-r to which might

to criminate himself. The judge-advocate administers th
scribed oaths to the court and witnesses ; (A

JUD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 375

•

The appropriate functions of the judge-advocate, as an essential officer
in all general courts-martial, are various in their nature ; and as the
Articles of War do not describe them with much precision, it is proper
to resort to the less positive, though equally binding authority, of estab-
lished usage and practice.

The Articles of War are silent on the subject of the judge-advocate's
assisting the court with his counsels and advice as to any matters of
form or law ; it nevertheless is his duty, by custom, to explain any
doubts which may arise in the course of its deliberations, and to pre-
vent any irregularities or deviations from the regular form of proceed-
ings. The duty assigned the judge-advocate by ART. 69, is more espe-
cially incumbent on him in cases where the prisoner has not the aid of
professional counsel to direct him, which generally happens in the trials
of private soldiers, who, having had few advantages of education,
or opportunities for mental improvement, stand greatly in need of
advice under circumstances often sufficient to overwhelm the acutest
intellect, and embarrass or suspend the powers of the most culti-
vated understanding. It is certainly not to be understood that, in
discharging this office, which is prescribed solely by humanity, the
judge-advocate should, in the strictest sense, consider himself as bound
to the duty of counsel, by exerting his ingenuity to defend the prisoner,
at all hazards, against those charges which, in his capacity of prosecutor,
he is, on the other hand, bound to urge, and sustain by proof; for, un-
derstood to this extent, the one duty is utterly inconsistent with the
other. All that is required is, that in the same manner as in civil
courts of criminal jurisdiction, the judges are understood to be counsel
for the person accused, the judge-advocate, in courts-martial, shall do
justice to the cause- of the prisoner, by giving full weight to every cir-
cumstance or argument in his favor ; shall bring the same fairly and
completely into the view of the court; shall suggest the supplying
of all omissions in exculpatory evidence ; shall engross in the written
proceedings all matters which, either directly or by presumption,
tend to the prisoner's defence ; and finally, shall not avail himself
of any advantage which superior knowledge or ability, or his influence
with the court may give him, in enforcing the conviction, rather than
the acquittal, of the person accused.

When a court-martial is summoned by the proper authority, for the
trial of any military offender, the judge-advocate, being required to
attend to his duty, and furnished with articles of charge or accusation,
on which he is to prosecute, must, from the information of the accuser,
instruct himself in all the circumstances of the case, and by what evi-

370 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Jca

dence the whole particulars are to be proved against the prisoner. Of
these, it is proper that he should prepare, in writing, a short analysis,
or plan, for his own regulation in the conduct of tin- trial, ami examin-
ation of the witnesses. He ought then, if it has not been done by some
other functionary, to give information to the prisoner of the time and
place appointed for his trial, and furnish him, at the same time, with a
copy of the charges that are to be exhibited against him, and likewise
a correct detail of the members of the court. The judge-advocate
ought then to hand in to the adjutant -<;i -in -ral, or stall-officer charged
with the details, a list of witnesses for the prosecution, in »ml» T that
they may be summoned to give their attendance at the time and place
appointed.

It is proper, likewise, that ho should desire the prisoner to make a
similar application, to insure the attendance of the witnesses necessary
for his defence. These measures ought to be taken as early as possible,
that there may be sufficient time for the arrival of witnesses who may
be at a distance. When the court is met for trial, and the members are
regularly sworn, the judge-advocate, after opening the prosecution by a
recital of the eharges, together with such detail of circumstances as he
may deem necessary, proceeds to examine his witnesses in support of the
charges, while at the same time he acts as the recorder or clerk of the
court, in taking down the evidence in writing at full length, and as
nearly as possible in the words of the witnesses. At the close of the
business of each day, and in the interval before the next meeting of the
court, it is the duty of the judge-advocate to make a fair copy of the pro-
ceedings ; which ho continues thus regularly to engross till the conclu-
sion of the trial, when the whole is read over by him to the court,
before the members proceed to deliberate and form their opinions.
The sentence of the court must bo fairly engrossed and subjoined to the
record copy of the proceedings ; and the whole must be authent ic.it (d 1 <y
the signature of the president of the court, and that of the jud-rc-a-n

It is required by the Articles of War, (ART. 90,) that " every judge-
advocate, or person officiating as such, at any general court-martial,
shall transmit, with as much expedition as the opportunity of time and
distance of place can admit, the original proceedings and sentence of
such court-martial, in tin- Secretary of War; which said original pro-
ceedings and SCT/ 11 l.c c.-irefiilly kept and preserved in the office
of the said secretary, to the end that the persons entitled thereto, may
be enabled, upon application to the said office, to obtain copies th
The j '-ate sends the proceedings to the Secretary of
through the adjutant-general.

JUE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 377

The judge-advocate cannot be challenged. He may be relieved at
any time. He. should, in complicated cases, arrange and methodize the
evidence, applying it distinctly to the facts of the charge. Besides ap-
plying the evidence fairly to each side of the question, he should inform
the court as to the legal bearing of the evidence, for there may have
been admitted evidence which ought to be rejected from their minds as
illegal ; ( HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.)

JURISDICTION. All officers, conductors, gunners, matrosses,
drivers, or other persons whatsoever, receiving pay, or hire, in the ser-
vice of the artillery, or corps of engineers of the United States, shall be
governed by the aforesaid rules and articles, and shall be subject to be
tried by courts-martial, in like manner with the officers and soldiers of
the other troops in the service of the United States ; (ART. 96.)

The officers and soldiers of any troops, whether militia or others,
being mustered and in pay of the United States, shall at all times and
in all places, when joined or acting in conjunction with the regular forces
of the United States, be governed by these Rules and Articles of War,
and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial, in like manner with
the officers and soldiers in the regular forces, save only that such courts-
martial shall be composed entirely of militia officers ; (ART. 97.)

No person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general
court-martial for any offence which shall appear to have been com-
mitted more than two years before the issuing of the order for such
trial, unless the person, by reason of having absented himself, or some
other manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice
within that period ; (ART. 88.)

JURISDICTION, (CONCURRENT.) Can courts-martial and civil
courts have concurrent jurisdiction over offences committed by soldiers ?
Or, in other words, if a soldier is guilty of an offence which renders him
amenable for trial before the civil courts of the land, can he also be
tried for that offence (if its specification should establish a violation of
the Rules and Articles of War) by a court-martial ?

By the Constitution of the United States Congess is authorized " to
make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval
forces ; " and Congress, pursuant to this authority, has established rules
and articles for the government of the armies of tbe United States.
These rules are an additional code, to which every citizen who becomes
a soldier subjects himself for the preservation of good order and mil-
itary discipline. The soldier, however, is still a citizen of tho United
States. He has not, by assuming the military character, become, as in
many European countries, a member of a privileged body who may

378 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Jot.

claim trial for all offences by court* martial. He is still amenable to
the ordinary common law courts for any offences against the persons or
property of any citizen of any of the United States, such as is punish-
able by the known laws of the land ; (ART. 33.) An examination of
the Rules and Articles of War will show that the offences therein de-
scribed, and against which punishment is denounced, are purely mili-
tary. They are crimes which impair the efficiency of the military body,
and even in cases, in which they would be recognized as offences by the
ordinary common law courts, they could not be considered the same
offences.

Take, for instance, Article 9, which inflicts the punishment of death
or other punishment, according to the nature of his offence, upon any
officer or soldier who shall strike his superior officer. Here is an
offence punishable under the known laws of the land as an assault and
battery, and, as such, it could be tried by tho common law courts. But
such trial would not prevent a court-martial from afterwards taking
cognizance of it under Article 9 ; for the offence before the common law
court would bo striking an equal, while before the military court it
would have essentially changed its character.

Again, suppose an officer had been guilty of stealing, he might be
prosecuted before the common law court for the felony, and afterwards
charged with conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman, and dis-
missed the service. It can hardly be contended that the offences in
either of the cases cited would be the same before the different courts ;
and if not, Article 87, which forbids a trial a second time for the same
offence, could not bo pleaded in bar of trial. Rccogni/iut:, then, the
principle that the soldier, as citizen, io subject to the common law
courts for offences committed against the well-b« in^- «.f the State, it
must also be recollected that ho is subject to trial by a court-martial
for any violation of tin- J Jules and Articles of War. ,

In the case of" Eels, plaintiff in error, v. ftie Peopl.- of the State of
Illinois," it was urged that the aet of the State of Illinois under \\hieh
! as \i.id. as it would subject tin- del'm-pient to a double

punishment for the same offence, the crime with which he was chared
being actionable under a law of the United States. The Supremo Court
decided that, admitting the plaintiff in error to be, liable to an
undtT the act of Congress, it did not follow he would be twice punished
for the same offence, and gave the following definition of that term :

u An offence in its legal signification means the transgression of a
law. A man may be compelled to make reparation in damages to the
injured party, and bo liable also to punishment for a breach of the pub

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 379

lie peace in consequence of the same act, and may be said, in common
parlance, to be twice punished for the same offence. Every citizen of
the United States is also a citizen of a State or Territory. He may
be said to owe allegiance to two sovereigns and may be liable to pun-
ishment for an infraction of the laws of either. The same act may be
an offence or transgression of the laws of both. Thus an assault upon
the marshal of the United States and hindering him in the execution of
legal process is a high offence against the United States, for which the
perpetrator is liable to punishment ; and the same act may also be a
gross breach of the peace of the State, a riot, assault, or a murder, and
subject the same person to a punishment under the State laws for a
misdemeanor or felony. That either or both may, if they see fit, pun-
ish such an offender cannot be doubted. Yet it cannot be truly averred
that the offender has been twice punished for the same offence, but only
that by one act he has committed two offences, for each of which he is
justly punishable. He could not plead the punishment by one in bar
to a conviction by the other ; consequently, this court has decided, in
the case of Fox v. the State of Ohio, (5 Howard, 432,) that a State may
punish the offence of altering or passing false coin as a cheat or fraud
practised on its citizens ; and, in the case of the United States v. Mari-
gold, (9 Howard, 560,) that Congress, in the proper exercise of its au-
thority, may punish the same act as an offence against the United
States.

KEEP. To keep troops is to maintain organized forces.

KIT. A cant word among soldiers to express the necessary arti-
cles provided for them, and which they are obliged to keep in order.

KITCHEN. For proposed kitchen-cart for field service see
WAGON.

KNAPSACK. A square frame covered with canvas carried on an
infantry soldier's back, containing his clothing and other necessaries,
but not his rations.

KNOTS. The three elementary knots, which every one should
know, are here represented (Fig. 147) — viz., the Timber-hitch, the Bow-
line, and the Clove-hitch. The virtues of the timber-hitch are, that, so
long as the strain upon it is kept up, it will never give ; when the strain
is taken off, it is cast loose immediately. The bowline makes a knot
difficult to undo ; with it the ends of two strings are tied together, or
a loop made at the end of a single piece of string, as in the drawing.
For slip-nooses, use the bowline to make the draw-loop. The clove-
hitch binds with excessive force, and by it, and it alone, can a weight

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[LAO.

be hung to a smooth pole, as to a tent-pole. A kind of double
hitch is generally used, but the simple one suffices, and is more easily
recollected.

Fio. 147.

The following additional remarks deserve attention: — A timber-
hitch had better have the loose end twisted more than once ; it is liable
to slip, if not. To tie a bowline, or any other knot for temporary pur-
poses, insert a stick into the knot before pulling tight. The stick \\ill
enable you, at will, to untie the knot — to break its back, as the sailors
aay — with little difficulty. A bowline is firmer, if doubled ; that is, if
the lower loose end in the figure be made to wrap round a second time.
A double clove-hitch is firmer than a single one; that is, the rope
should make two turns, instead of one turn, round the pole beneath th«
lowest loose end in the figure. To make a large knot at the end of a
piece of string, to prevent it from pulling through a hole, turn the end
of the string back upon itself, so as to make it double, and then tie a
common knot. The string may bo quadrupled instead of doubled, if
required. A toyyle and strap is a tourniquet. A single or a double
band is made to inclose the two pieces of wood it is desired to lash to-
gether. Then a stick is pushed into the band and forcibly tv

. The band should be of soft material, such as the strands of a
rope that has boon picked to pieces on purpose. The strands must,
each of them, be untwisted and well rubbed with a stick t«> take the
kink out of them, and finally twisted in a direction opposite to their
original one ; (G ALTON'S Art of Travel.)

LADDER BRIDGE — may be formed by running a cart or gun
limber into the stream and securing it then-, with the shafts in a verti-
cal position, by ropea from both sides of the river ; one end of a ladder

LAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 381

from each bank resting upon it, and covering the steps or rungs with
planks.

LADDERS. (Set ESCALADE.)

LANCE. The lance is composed of a sharp steel blade, from 8 to
10 inches long, grooved like a common bayonet with a socket at its
base and two iron straps for attaching it to the handle. The handle is
of strong light wood, with a tip of iron at its lower end and a leathern
loop at its centre of gravity to support and guide the lance. It is usually
from 8£ to 11 feet long, and weighs about 4£ Ibs. This weapon is not
used in the United States service. The Russians have their regular and
irregular Cossacks armed with the lance. The Austrians, also, have
lancers ; but the Polish cavalry use the lance better than any other
people. The lance, when not in use, rests in a leather boot attached to
the stirrup, the right arm being passed through the leather loop of
the lance ; or by putting the lower end in the boot and strapping the
handle to the pommel of the saddle. Lancers are more formidable
than other cavalry because they are able to reach further. Skill in
combating a lancer, consists in keeping to his left, in order to shun his
lance. Pressed too nearly, the lancer must have recourse to his sabre
and let his lance rest upon his arm. The moment in which he attempts
to seize his sabre is dangerous to him. The Mexican cavalry are gen-
erally lancers.

LANDING-. (See DISEMBARKATION and EMBARKATION.)

LASHES. A general court-martial may sentence a soldier to receive
fifty lashes for desertion. No other crime is punishable with lashes.

LAW — is a rule of action prescribed by a superior power.

Natural law is the rule of human action prescribed by the Creator,
discoverable by the light of reason.

Divine law is the law of nature revealed by God himself.

The law of nations is that which regulates the conduct and mutual
intepcourse of independent nations with each other, according to reason
and natural justice. (See WAR.)

Municipal or civil law is the rule of civil conduct prescribed by the
supreme power in a State, commanding what is right, and prohibiting
what is wrong.

The parts of a law are : 1. The declaratory ; which defines what is
right and wrong. 2. The directory ; which consists in commending the
observation of right, or prohibiting the commission of wrong. 3. The
remedial ; or method of recovering private rights, and redressing pri-
vate wrongs. 4. The vindicatory sanction of punishments for public
wrongs ; wherein consists the most forcible obligation of human laws.

382 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

To interpret a law, we must inquire after the will of the maker ;
wh'u-h may be collected either from the words, the context, the subject
matter, the effects and consequence, or the spi riband reason of the law.

From the latter method of interpretation arises equity, or the cor-
rection of that whervin the law (by reason of its universality) is defi-
cient; (BLACKSTONE'S Commentaries.)

LAW, (MARTIAL.) By martial law is understood, not laws passed
for raising, supporting, governing, and regulating troops, but " it is in
truth and reality no law, but something indulged, rather than allowed as
la\\ ; " (HALE and BLACESTONE.) The Constitution of the United States
has guarded against the effects of any declaration of martial law within
the United States, by providing : " No person shall be held to answer
for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or
indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval
forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public
danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice
put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal
case, to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or
property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be
taken for public use without just compensation," (ART. 5, Amendments;)
and further, " In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district
shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of
the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the wit-
DOSSM against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses
in his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence ; "
(ART. 6, Amendments.)

"Within the United States, therefore, the effect of a declaration of
martial law would not be to subject citizens to trial by courts-martial,
but it would involve simply a suspension of the writ of habeas corpus,
un.li r tho authority given in the 2d clause of Sec. 9 of the Constitution,
viz. : " Tho privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be susj
unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may re-
practice of all nations has been to givo supremacy to
ilitary commander in all sieges. " Inter arma silent teycs," is
then a maxim universally admitted. The public safety in that MM im-
periously requires that tho orders of the commander of the troops
should be obeyed, and a commander in the United States is then only
yistilied, ex necessitate r<ri, in suspending the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus.

LAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 385

The suspension of this privilege would enable a commander to in-
carcerate all dangerous citizens ; but when brought to trial, the citizen
would necessarily come before the ordinary civil courts of the land.

Beyond the United States, troops take with them the Rules and
Articles of War, but not the municipal law, to which they are also
subject at home. It is necessary, therefore, for a commander, in the
absence of laws made by Congress, to declare his own will, command,
ing what is right, and prohibiting and punishing what is wrong, in the
new relation established between his army and the citizens of the for-
eign country. The following order was the declaration of martial law
by Gen. Scott in Mexico : —

HEAD-QUARTERS OF THE ARMY, )
National Palace of Mexico, Sept. 17, 1847. f

GENERAL ORDERS— No. 287.

The General-in-Chief republishes, with important additions, his General Orders, No. 20,
of February 19, 1847, (declaring MARTIAL LAW,) to govern all who may be concerned.

1. It is still to be apprehended that many grave offences not pro-
vided for in the act of Congress " establishing rules and articles for the
government of the armies of the United States," approved April 10,
1806, may be again committed — by, or upon, individuals of those ar-
mies, in Mexico, pending the existing war between the two republics.
Allusion is here made to offences, any one of which, if committed with-
in the United States or their organized territories, would, of course, be
tried and severely punished by the ordinary or civil courts of the land.

2. Assassination, murder, poisoning, rape, or the attempt to commit
either ; malicious stabbing or maiming ; malicious assault and battery ;
robbery ; theft ; the wanton desecration of churches, cemeteries, or
other religious edifices and fixtures ; the interruption of religious cere-
monies ; and the destruction, except by order of a superior officer, of
public or private property, are such offences.

3. The good of the service, the honor of the United States, and the
interests of humanity, imperiously demand that every crime enumer-
ated above should be severely punished.

4. But the written code, as above, commonly called the Rules and
Articles of War, does not provide for the punishment of one of those
crimes, even when committed by individuals of the army upon the per-
sons or property of other individuals of the same, except in the very
restricted case in the 9th of those articles ; nor for like outrages, com-,
mitted by the same class of individuals, upon the persons or property
of a hostile country, except very partially, in the 51st, 52d, and 55th
Articles ; and the same code is absolutely silent as to all injuries which

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [LAW.

may bo inflicted upon individuals of the army, or their property, against
the laws of war, by individuals of a hostile country.

.">. It is evident that the 99th Article, independent of any restriction
in the 87th, is wholly nugatory in reaching any one of those high
crimes.

0. For all the offences, therefore, enumerated in the second para-
graph above, which may be committed abroad — in, by, or upon the
army, a supplemental code is absolutely needed.

7. That unwritten code is Martial Law, as an addition to the written
military code, prescribed by Congress in the Rules and Articles of \Yar,
and which unwritten code all armies, in hostile countries, are forced to
adopt, net only for their own safety, but for the protection of the un-
offending inhabitants and their property, about the theatres of military
operations, against injuries on the part of the army, contrary to the
laws of war.

8. From the same supreme necessity martial law is hereby declared
as a supplemental code, in and about all cities, towns, camps, posts,
hospitals, and other places, which may bo occupied by any part of the
forces of the United States in Mexico, and in and about all columns,
escorts, convoys, guards, and detachments of tho said forces, while en-
gaged in prosecuting tho existing war in and against the said republic,
and while remaining within the same.

0. Accordingly every crime enumerated in paragraph No. 2 above,
whether committed: — 1. By any inhabitant of Mexico, sojourn, r or
traveller therein, upon the person or property of any individual of the
forces, retainer, or follower ot tho same ; 2. By any in-
dividual of the said forces, retainer or follower of the same, upon tho
person or property of any inhabitant of Mexico, sojourner or traveller
therein; or 3. By any individual of tho said forces, retainer «»r fnllower
of tin* same, upon tho person or property of any other individual of the
: >rccs, retainer or follower of the same, shall be duly tried and
•!u-d under the said supplemental <

10. For this purpose it is ordered that nil offenders in the matters
aforesaid shall bo promptly seized, confined, and reported f..r trial, be-
fore Military Commissions, to be duly appointed, as follows :

1 1. K\.-ry military commission, under this order, will be appointed,
governed, and limited, as nearly as practicable, as prescribed by tin*
05th, 60th, 07th, and 97th of tho said Rules and Arti.-l, s . f \V.

the proceedings of such commissions will be duly recorded in writing,

wed, revised, disapproved or approved, and the sentences exe.
all, as near as may be, as in the cases of the proceedings and sentences

LAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 385

of courts-martial, provided, that no military commission shall try any
case clearly cognizable by any courts-martial, and provided, also, that
no sentence of a military commission shall be put in execution against
any individual belonging to this army, which may not be, according to
the nature and degree of the offence, as established by evidence, in con-
formity with known punishments, in like cases, in some one of the
States of the United States of America.

12. The sale, waste, or loss of ammunition, horses, arms, clothing,
or accoutrements, by soldiers, is punishable under the 37th and 88th
Articles of War. Any Mexican, or resident, or traveller in Mexico, who
shall purchase of an American soldier either horse, horse-equipments,
arms, ammunition, accoutrements, or clothing, shall be tried and se-
verely punished by a military commission, as above.

13. The administration of justice, both in civil and criminal matters,
through the ordinary courts of the country, shall nowhere, and in no
degree, be interrupted by any officer or soldier of the American forces,
except, 1. In cases to which an officer, soldier, agent, servant, or fol-
lower of the American army may be a party ; and 2. In political cases,
that is, prosecutions against other individuals on the allegations that
they have given friendly information, aid, or assistance, to the Ameri-
can forces.

14. For the ease and safety of both parties in all cities and towns
occupied by the American army, a Mexican police shall be established
and duly harmonized with the military police of the said forces.

15. This splendjd capital — its churches and religious worship; its
convents and monasteries ; its inhabitants and property, are, moreover,
placed under the special safeguard of the faith and honor of the Ameri-
can army.

16. In consideration of the foregoing protection, a contribution of
$150,000 is imposed on this capital, to be paid in four weekly instal-
ments of thirty-seven thousand five hundred dollars ($37,500) each, be-
ginning on Monday next, the 20th instant, and terminating on Monday
the llth of October.

17. The Ayuntamiento, or corporate authority of the city, is specially
charged with the collection and payment of the several instalments.

18. Of the whole contribution to be paid over to this army, twenty
thousand dollars shall be appropriated to the purchase of extra comforts
for the wounded and sick in hospital ; ninety thousand dollars ($90,000)
to the purchase of blankets and shoes for gratuitous distribution among
the rank and file of the army, and forty thousand dollars ($40,000) re-
served for other necessary military purposes.

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Uw.

19. This order will be read at the head of every company of the
United States' forces serving in M \ , and translated into Sj.ai.i
the information of Mexicans.

LAW, (MILITARY.) Under tho Constitution of the United States, Con-
gress is intrusted \\ itli tlio creation, government, regulation, and support
of armies ; and) all laws passed by Congress for those purposes aiv mili-
tarv laws. Congress, being also invested with powrr " to make all laws
which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution tho
foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in
tho Government of the United States, or in any department or officer
>f," is supreme in nil military matters. The office of commander-
in-chief, intrusted by the constitution to the President, mi:
functions first defined by Congress. Such military powers only as
Congress confers upon him can be exercised. Excepting tint, li.-in^
the commander-in-chicf under tho constitution, he of cours
all authority that Congress may delegate to any military commander
whatever, by reason of the axiom that the power of the greater includes
that of the less.

Many of the functions, thus devolved by tho constitution on Con-
gress, in most governments belong to tho executive. The king of
Great Britain makes rules and articles for the government of armies
raised by him with the consent of parliament. Congress, \\ith i;
raises and governs armies. An army raised in Great Britain is tho
king's army ; with us it is tho army of the United States, i
essential distinctions should cause Congress to give more of it-
tion to the army. It should be borne in mind tliat our rules f,.r the
government of the army have been borrowed almost entirely fn-in
Great Britain ; that the relation of tho army to tho people is in the two
countries entirely distinct ; therefore, that rules adapted to .n arist«-
L'»veniment may not be entirely suited to democrat ie f..nn«*.
(See ACADEMY, (Military ;) ACCOUNTS; ACCOUNTAHILITV, (Sytttmof;)
ADMINISTRATION, and references; A u.ow A NOES ; APPOINTING POWER;
APPROPRIATIONS; ARDENT SPIRITS; ARREARS OF PAY ; ARMOUH
ARSENALS; ARMY; ARMY, (Regular;) ARMY REGULATIONS ; AR1TOLH
OF WAR, and references under that head ; A \filittiry , )

TORS; Arnioum, (Civil;) BILLET; BOOTY; BONDS; BOUNTY; BRE-
VET; BRIGADE; CADET; CALLING FORTH Mum.v. ( AITM
CLOTHING; COLONEL; COMMISSION; CONGRESS; CON> ; CON-

SCRIPTION; CONTRACTS; CORPOREAL PUNISHMENT; CORPS; Cot >
ADMINISTRATION; COURT-MARTIAL, and - under that head;

COURTS OF INQUIRY ; CUSTOM OF WAR ; DAMAGE ; DEBT ; DEFAULTERS ;

LEV.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 337

DEFENCE, (National;) DEPARTMENT; DEPARTMENT OF WAR ; DEPOT;
DETACHMENT ; DISBURSING OFFICERS ; DISCHARGE ; DISCIPLINE ; DIS-
MISSION ; DIVISION ; DRAGOONS ; EMOLUMENTS ; ENGINEER CORPS ; EN-
GINEERS, (Topographical;) ENLISTMENTS; EVIDENCE; EXECUTION OF
LAWS ; EXEMPTS FROM MILITIA DUTY ; EXTRA EXPENSES ; EXTRA
ALLOWANCES ; FATIGUE DUTY ; FIELD OFFICERS ; FLAG ; FORAGE
MASTER ; GARRISON ; GENERAL ; GENERAL OFFICERS ; GOVERNMENT, and
references under that head ; INDEMNIFICATION ; INDIAN ; INSURRECTION ;
JURISDICTION ; LAW ; LAW, (Martial ;) LINE ; LOSSES ; MARINE CORPS ;
MARSHALS ; MAY ; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; MESS ; MILEAGE ; MILI-
TIA ; OATH ; OBEDIENCE ; OFFICER ; ORDERS ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT ;
ORDNANCE SERGEANT ; PAY ; PAY DEPARTMENT ; PAYMASTER-GENERAL ;
PENSION ; PONTOON ; POST ; POSSE COMITATUS ; PRESIDENT ; PRIZE
MONEY ; PROMOTION ; PURCHASING ; QUARTERS ; QUARTERMASTER'S DE-
PARTMENT ; RAISE, and references under that head ; RANK ; RATION ;
RECRUITING ; REDRESSING WRONGS ; REGIMENT ; REGULATIONS, and
references under that head ; REPRIEVE ; RETAINERS ; RETURNS ; RE-
VISION ; SALE ; SAPPERS ; SECRETARY OF WAR ; SERVANTS ; SERVICE,
and references under that head; STAFF; STANDARDS; STORES; STORE-
KEEPERS ; STRIPES ; SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT ; SUIT ; SUPERINTENDENT ;
SUPERNUMERARIES ; SUTLERS ; TRADE ; TRANSFERS ; TRAVELLING AL-
LOWANCES ; UNIFORM ; VICTUALS ; VICE-PRESIDENT ; VOLUNTEERS ;
WAGON-MASTERS ; WAR ; WARRANT ; WASTE OR SPOIL ; WHIPPING ;
WILLS, (Nuncupative;) WITNESS; WIDOWS AND ORPHANS; WOMEN;
WORSHIP ; WOUNDS ; WRONGS.)

LEAD BALLS — are now generally made by compression, by
means of machinery, either at arsenals or at private establishments.
LEAVE. (See ABSENCE.) *

LEGION. A variable number of men in the Roman army, from
four to six thousand, but which always retained its distinctive charac-
teristic of combining all the elements of a separate army. (Consult
BARDIN, Dictionnaire de VArmee de Terre, and ARNOLD'S &ome for a full
account of the Roman legion.)

LEVER. The effective arm of a lever is the perpendicular distance
from the fulcrum to the line of direction of the power or weight. The
power is to the weight inversely as the effective arms of the lever :

P D = w d

The pressure on the fulcrum is the resultant of the power and weight.
The common balance is a simple lever, the arms of which are equal.
If the balance is not accurate, the true weight of a body may be found

388 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Li*.

by placing the body in one scale and counterpoising it by any weight*
in the opposite scale ; thru n-inove the body and replace it by known
weights until the equilibrium is again restored. The sum of the latter
weights will be the weight of the body ; (Ordnance Manual.)

LIEUT 1 ! \ A \ T. Rank next below captain.

LIE I T I ! N ANT-COLONEL. Rank next below colonel, and above
major.

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL. Rank above major-general. Cre-
ated by Act May 28, 1798. Revived by brevet by Act Feb. 15, 1855.
To expire with present incumbent. Appoints in time of peace i
ceeding two aides and one secretary with rank, pay, and emoluments of
lieutenant-colonel. In war, entitled to four aides nnd two secretaries.

LIFTING JACK. A geared screw-jack, for lifting heavy \v, 5-jhts,
used in mechanical manoeuvres of heavy artillery, (gpnsult Instruction
for Heavy Artillery.)

LIGHT BALL. A projectile of an oval shape formed of sacks
of canvas filled with a combustible composition, which emits a bright
flame. Used to light up our own works.

LIGHT INFANTRY. (See INFANTRY.)

LIMBER. The forepart of a travelling gun carriage to which tho
horses are attached. The same limber is used for all field-carriages. It
has two wheels and carries the same ammunition chest as tho caisson.

LINCHPINS — prevent the wheel from sliding off the axle-tree.

LINE. President Fillmoro in general orders, No. 51 of 1851, has
given the following satisfactory exposition of tho use of the word line
in our statute book : The 02d Article of War provides that — " If, upon
marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall hap-
pen to join, or do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the lino
of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or
in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders f..r what is need-
ful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the President
of the United States, according to tho nature of the case." The inter-
pretation of this act has long been a subject of controversy. The
difficulty arises from the vague and uncertain meaning of tho words
"line of the army," which, neither in the English service, (fn.in which
most of our military terms are borrowed,) nor in our own, have a well-
defined and invariable meaning. By sonic they are understood to des-
ignate the regular army as distinguished from the militia: l»y others,
as meant to discriminate between officers by ordinary commissions and
those by brevet; nnd, finally, by others, i«» designate all officers not be-
longing to the staff. The question is certainly not without difficulty,

LIN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 38C

and it is surprising that Congress should not long since have settled, by
some explanatory law, a question which has been so fruitful a source
of controversy and embarrassment in the service. The President has
maturely considered the question, and finds himself compelled to differ
from some for whose opinions he entertains a very high respect. His
opinion is, that, although these words may sometimes be used in a
different sense, (to be determined by the context and subject-matter,) in
the 62d Article of War, they are used to designate those officers of the
army who do not belong to the staff, in contradistinction to those who
do, and that the article intended, in the case contemplated by it, to con-
fer the command exclusively on the former. The reasons which have
brought him to this conclusion are briefly these : 1st. It is a well-
settled rule of interpretation that in the construction of statutes, words
of doubtful or ambiguous meaning are to be understood in their usual
acceptation. Now it must be admitted that, in common parlance, both
in and out of the army, the words " line " and " staff" are generally
used as correlative terms. 2d. Another rule of construction is, that the
same word ought not to be understood, when it can be avoided, in two
different senses in different laws, on the same subject, and, especially,
in different parts of the same law. Now in another article (74) of this
same law, the words " line and staff of the army " are clearly used as
correlative and contradistinctive terms. The same remark applies to
almost every case in which the words " line " and " staff" occur in acts
of Congress. See

Act of 1813, sec. 4, Cross' Military Laws, p. 165 ;

1813, " 9, " 166;

1814, " 19, " 174;
1816, « 10, " . 190;
1838, " 7, " 263;
1838, " 8, " 263;
1838, " 15, " 264;
1838, pars. 7 & 9, " 268;
1846, sec. 2, " 283 ;.
1846, " 7, " 286.'

There are many other instances in which the words are so employed,
but I have selected these as the most striking. On the other hand, I
find but one act of Congress in which the words " line of the army "
have been employed to designate the regular army in contradistinction
to the militia, and none in which they have been manifestly used as con-
tradistinctive of brevet. 3d. If Congress had meant by these words to
discriminate between officers of the regular army and those of the mili-

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [L..>

tia, or between officers by brevet and by ordinary commission, it is to be
presumed that they would have employed those terms, respectively,
whkh ore unequivocal, and are usually employed to express those
ideas. 4th. If we look at the policy of the law, we can discover no
reasons of expediency which compel us to depart from the plain and
ordinary import of the terms : on the contrary, we may suppose strong
reasons why it may have been deemed proper, in the case referred to
by the article, to exclude officers of the staff from command. In th«
first place the command of troops might frequently interfere with their
appropriate duties, and thereby occasion serious embarrassment to the
ser v ire. In the next place, the officers of some of the staff corps are not
qualified by their habits and education for the command of troops, and
alhough others are so qualified, it arises from the fact that, (by laws
passed long subsequently to the article in question) tho officers of the
corps to which they belong, are required to be appointed from the line
of the army. Lastly, officers of tho staff corps seldom have troops of
their own corps serving under their command, and if tho words " officers
of the line" are understood to apply to them, the effect would often be
to give them command over the officers and men of all tho other corps,
when not a man of their own was present — an anomaly always to bo
avoided where it is possible to do so. 5th. It is worthy of observation
that Article 25, of the first " rules and articles," enacted by Congress for
the government of the army, corresponds with Article 62 of the present
rules and articles, except that the words " of the line of the army " are
not contained in it. It is evident, therefore, that these words were in-
serted intentionally with a view to a change in tho law, and it is prob-
able that some inconvenience had arisen from conferring command in-
discriminately on officers of the line or tho staff, ami had suggested tho
necessity of this change. It is contended, however, that sec. 10, of the
act of 1795, enumerates the major-general and brigadier-general as
among the staff officers, and that this construction of the article would
exclude them from command, which would be an absurdity. No such
consequence would, however, follow. The article in question was ob-
yiously designed to meet the case (of not unfroquont occurrence) where
officers of different corps of the army meet together with no officer
among them who docs not belong exclusively to a corps. In such a
case, there being no common superior, in the absence of some express
provisi»> ^conferring tho power, no ollieer, merely of a corps, would have
the right to command any corps but his own : to obviate this difficulty,
the article in eff. ct provides that, in such an event, the officer of the fine,
highest in rank, shall command tho rest. But if there be a major-

LIT.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

391

general or brigadier-general present, the case contemplated by tha
article does not exist. No question can arise as to the right of com-
mand, because the general officer, not belonging to any particular corps,
takes the command by virtue of the general rule which assigns the com-
mand to the officer highest in rank. (See RANK ; COMMAND ; BUEVET.)

LINE OF DEFENCE— is the line which extends from the angle
of the polygon or extremity of the exterior side, through the inner end
of the perpendicular, to the flank, of the bastion.

LINE OF LEAST KESISTANCE (THE)— is that which is sup-
posed to extend, from the centre of the charge of a mine, to the nearest
surface of the ground.

LINES. A connected series of field-works, whether continuous or
at intervals.

LINES AT INTERVALS— are lines composed of separate field-
works, so arranged as to flank and defend one another.

LINES CREMAILLERE — are composed of alternate short and
long faces, at right angles to each other.

LINES OF BASTION— as the name indicates, are formed of a
succession of bastion-shaped parapets, each consisting of two faces and
two flanks, connected together by a curtain.

LINES OF TENAILLES— consist of parapets, forming a series
of salient and re-entering angles.

LINSTOCK. A pointed forked staff used for lighting fort fires;
the lower end pointed and shod with iron.

LITTER. If a man be wounded or sick, and has to be carried along
upon the shoulders of the others, make a litter for him in the Indian
fashion, (Fig. 148 ;) that is to say, cut two stout poles, each 8 feet long,

FIG. 148.

;j-j;> MILITARY DICTIONARY.

to make its two sides, and three other cross-bars of 2$ feet each, to be
lashed to them. Then, supi>orting this ladder-shaped framework over
the sick man as ho lies in his blanket, knot the blanket well up to it ;
and so carry him off. One cross-bar will bo just behind his head,
another in front of his feet; the middle one will cross his stomach, and
keep him from falling out; and there will remftin two short handles for
the carriers to lay hold on. The American Indians carry their wounded
companions by this contrivance after a fight, and in a hurried i
for wonderful dista:

LOAD. Command in infantry and artillery instruction. (Consult
Tactics of those arms.) In loading small arms the powder should
!1 shaken out of the paper, to prevent the formation of gas, which,
forcing the paper against the sides of the bore, prevents it from leaving
with the charge, and endangers the explosion of the next ehargo when
loading, from the lighted paper. There is no danger of heating the piece
by rapid firing so as to cause premature explosions, since long before it
reaches 600°, the temperature at which gunpowder inflames, it is entirely
too hot to handle. In loading cannon the vent should always bo kept
carefully closed, while the loading is going on, especially when spong-
ing, to prevent the current of air from passing out and collecting there
pieces of thread, paper, &c., from the cartridge-bag, which would retain
fire in the gun, and cause premature explosion the next time the gun
was loaded. This precaution is the more necessary, when the sponge
fits the bore tight, and acts as a piston. The sponge should bo well
pressed down against the bottom of the bore, and turned, so as to leave
no remnant of the cartridge-bag. In mortars, where a sponge is seldom
used, or when it does not fit tightly, the stopping of tho vent is not
Decenary ; but it should always bo cleared out with the priming w ire
before tho powder is placed in. Mortar-shells should be letdown
gently so as not to bo forced into the chamber, or crush suddenly any
powder they may meet. The use of sabots is avoided when firing «^ <T
the heads of our own men. It may sometimes become necessary to lire
a shell from a mortar too largo for it ; in which case it is wedged in on
different sides with pieces of soft wood, and the space between it and
•re filled in with earth.

LOCK < <r? ARMS.)

LODGEMENT. In a sioge lodgement signifies the occupation of a
position and the hasty formation of an entrenchment thereon to main-
tain it ftga:: Thus it is said the besiegers, having carried
thedemi-lu! »n, effected a lodgement, or the besieged dcst:
the lodgements of the enemy. (See SIEGE.)

Loo.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 393

LOGARITHM. The logarithm of a number is the exponent of
the power to which another given invariable number must be raised in
order to produce the first number. Thus in the common system of
logarithms in which the invariable number is 10, the logarithm of 1,000
is 3, because 10 raised to the third power is 1,000. In general, if
a*=y in which equation a is a given invariable number, then x is the
logarithm of y. All absolute numbers positive or negative, whole or
fractional, may be produced by raising an invariabe number to suitable
powers. This invariable number is called the base of the system of
logarithms : it may be any number whatever greater or less than unity ;
but having been once chosen, it must remain the same for the formation
of all numbers in the same system. Whatever number may be selected
for the base, the logarithm of the base is 1, and the logarithm of 1 is 0. In
fact if, in the equation ax=y, we make #—1 we shall have a*=a, whence
by definition log. a=l ; and if we make #=0 we shall have a°=l,
whence log. 1 =0. The«chief properties of logarithms are : that the log-
arithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logarithms of its factor ;
the logarithm* of a quotient is equal to the difference between the log-
arithm of the dividend and the logarithm of the divisor ; and the log-
arithm of the power of a number is equal to the product of the log-
arithm of the number by the exponent of the power ; and the logarithm
of any root of a number is equal to the logarithm of the number di-
vided by the index of the root. These properties of logarithms great-
ly facilitate arithmetical operations. For if multiplication is to be
effected, it is only necessary to take from the logarithmic tables the
logarithms of the factors, and then add them into one sum, which gives
the logarithm of the required product ; and on finding in the table the
number corresponding to this new logarithm, the product itself is ob-
tained. Multiplication is thus performed by simple addition. In like
manner division is performed by simple subtraction, and by means of
a table of logarithms numbers may be raised to any power by simple
multiplication, and the roots of numbers extracted by simple division.
(Consult BABBAGE, Logarithms of Numbers ; FARLEY'S Tables of Six-
Jigure Logarithms.}

LOGISTICS. Bardin considers the application of this word by
some writers as more ambitious than accurate. It is derived from Latin
LOGISTA, the administrator or intendant of the Roman armies. It is
properly that branch of the military art embracing all details for mov-
ing and supplying armies. It includes the operations of the ordnance,
quartermaster's, subsistence, medical, and pay departments. It also em-
braces the preparation and regulation of magazines, for opening a cam-

394 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [L<xx

paign, and all orders of march and other orders from the general-in-
chief relative to moving and supplying armies. Some writers l,a\r,
how. ided its signification to embrace STRATEGY.

LOOPHOLED GALLERIES — are vaulted passages or case-

mates, usually placed behind the counterscarp revet nu-nt, ami behind
the gorges of detached works, having holes pierced through the walls, to
enable the defenders to bring a musketry fire from unseen positions,
upon the assailants in the ditch. Loopholes, however, are not coiiliin-1
to flralleries. In modern fortifications, the revetments, both scarp and
counterscarp, are very generally pierced for a musketry fire.

LOOPHOLES — are apertures formed in a wall or stockade, that
through them a fire of musketry may be directed on the exterior ground.
LOSSES. In the British army there is a regular provision made
for indemnification for losses by fire ; by shipwreck ; iu action with the
enemy ; by capture at sea ; by destruction or capture of a public store-
house ; by the destruction of articles or horses, to prevent their falling
into the hands of the enemy, or to prevent the spreading of an infec-
tious disorder. In the United States it would seem just that C<>i
should establish some general rules regulating such matters. The. prin-
ciple of settling all such claims by special 1«
tion cannot but bear hardly <>n a number «»f indi-
viduals, and also probably in the end imposes
greater burdens upon the treasury.

LUNETTES— are redans having flanks paral-
lel to their capitals, as in Fig. 149. The fao
flanks may have any moderate extent, according
to the purpose for which they are intended ; 50
yards for the face, and 23 yards for the fl
would be a convenient size for many positions.
LYING OUT OF CAMP OR QUARTERS. Punishably a,
ing to the nature of the offence, by a court-martial ; (Aui. ;

MACHICOULIS. A projecting wooden pillcrv from the second
•tory of a house to enable the assailed to fire down on their opponent*.

KAGAZIti i: CO VER— of Rifle Musket, 1855. (See ARMS, Small.)
. XINES. Powder inaijaxincs miu'ht to secure an unob-
structed circulation of air undi-r the flooring as well as above. The
magazine should be opened and aired in dear dry weather ; the veil-
tilatora should be kept free ; and no shrubbery or trees should be al-
lowed to grow so near as to protect the building from the sun.

HAL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 395

All batteries of attack require magazines capable of holding ammu-
nition for daily consumption. Fig. 150 is a section of two strong splin-
ter-proof timbers, say 8 to 9 feet long, and
9 to 12 inches in breadth and thickness,
resting on sleepers, and giving an interior
space of about the dimensions seen in the
figure, covered with one or two tiers of
fascines, and over them 3 or 4 feet of
dung or stiff earth ; this simple construc-
tion would answer in many cases. By some persons it is considered
better to have two small magazines in a battery, made of very stout
mining cases, and constructed in the epaulements. Sir John Jones, in his
work on " Sieges," says : " Splinter-proof timbers for magazines were cut
12 feet in length, and from 8 to 10 inches in breadth and thickness, and
were placed against an epaulement, or parapet, at an angle making the
base equal to half the height. They were then covered with a tarpaulin,
extending well over the top of the epaulement upon which were laid one
or two rows of filled sand-bags, so as to prevent the possibility of the
tarpaulin being cut by splinters of shells. A second tarpaulin was usually
thrown over the exterior in rainy weather. On this construction, the
magazines were found to be perfectly dry, and sufficiently spacious, and
of the strength no doubt can remain, as the sand-bag covering was fre-
quently knocked off by large shells, and in no instance were the splinter-
proofs broken. The best situations for magazines are on the flanks of
the batteries. Nothing can be worse than to place them in rear of the
centre of a battery, as then every cartridge has to be carried along the
most exposed and dangerous part of the battery, and the number of
accidents and casualties which arise therefrom is very great indeed.
The artillery always preferred having two magazines formed, rather
than to have one exceeding 10 or 12 feet in length ; when two were
made, they were placed one on either flank, a situation which was found
to answer extremely well." (Consujt HYDE'S Fortification ; Ordnance
Manual.)

MAGISTRAL LINE— in a plan, is that which regulates the form
of the works. It is that which is first laid down, and from which the
other parts of the works are traced. (See CORDON.)

MAJOR. Rank between captain and lieutenant-colonel.

MAJOR-GENERAL. Rank between brigadier-general and lieu-
tenant-general.

MALARIA. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

MALINGERER. A soldier who feigns illness in order to avoid

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAK.

his duty. Any soldier, in the English army, convicted of malingering,
f.-L'n'mg or producing disease or infirmity, or of being detained in hos-
pital in consequence of materially injuring his health by his o\\
or intemperance, and thereby rendering himself unfit for the si :
or of absenting himself from an hospital whilst under medical treat -
ment ; or of being guilty of a gross violation of the rules of the hospi-
tal ; or of intentionally protracting his cure ; or of wilfully aggravating
his disease, is liable to be tried by a court-martial for " disgraceful
conduct," and to suffer the punishments attached to that crime.

MANOEUVRE. ' For prescribed manoeuvres consult Cavalry Tac-
tics ; Infantry Tactics; Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics; Instruction
for Field Artillery, horse and foot ; and Instruction for Heavy Artil-
lery, embracing Mechanical Manoeuvres.

The word manoeuvre signifies also movements of entire corps in
war executed with general views; and by some writers it is confine. I
to that signification, and the word evolution is made to designate tin-
particular means, or the elements of manoeuvres ; (.TAIJKO.) Maim-u-
vrcs, according to Bardin, are operations in war whether really l>< fore
an enemy, or simulated on a field of exercise. Their precision and
aptness depend upon the skill of the general ; the intelligence of his
aides-de-camp ; upon the chiefs of battalions and their adjutants, and
the general guides. Evolutions and manoeuvres are, however, often ap-
plied in the same sense, and indeed it may well bo questioned whether
there beany propriety in retaining in books of instruction evolutions
which are not used as manoeuvres against an enemy.

Manoeuvres of Infantry in battle. — The vicious idea that t .
evolutions are not used in war is by no means uncommon, nnd 1
quently caused the loss of battles. It is true that the number of ma-
noeuvres used in combats is limited, and that those which are needed can
only be judiciously applied by keeping in view moral i%d physieal re-
quirements. The judicious tactician will, then -fore, in war « s< In \\ : de-
pi. >\ nieiiN, which cause the soldier to turn his back towards an enemy ;
countermarches; forming a battalion on the right or left, by file into
;id some other movements suited only to parades. One of the
most hazardous manoeuvres is the formation of columns of great depth
and deploying those columns when too near the enemy. "Without giv-
ing names or places, (says Marshal Bugcaud.) I affirm that I have seen
ire division in column of regiments, which bepm its deployment
within range of the enemy's guns, routed before it finished its ma-
noeuvre.

The column is an order of march and manoeuvre, rarely an order of

MAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 397

battle. — When beyond the range of cannon, and at a distance from the
line of battle to be occupied, if the enemy approach and time permits,
it is necessary to close in mass, in order to hold the troops in hand for
all possible dispositions.

So, in marches near the enemy the columns should march at half
distance, when roads permit, in order that they may be less elon-
gated, and all the troops be ready to act promptly. If surprised in
this order by the necessity of forming immediately forward into line
of battle, or, if without being under this pressing necessity, there is be-
tween us and the enemy ground admitting an easy march in line of
battle, the column ought to execute forward into line, according to the
principles of the tactics. This movement is more prompt and greatly
better than closing column in mass, in order to deploy afterwards. In the
first case troops only pass over one side of the triangle, whilst by mass-
ing the column to deploy afterwards, they must pass over two sides by
a complicated manoeuvre, which is dangerous from the beginning. In
general, it is necessary to shun as much as possible the deployment of
great massed columns, for this movement is badly executed even in
exercises. It can only be performed far from the enemy, and it is even
there inconvenient. It should be renounced in all formations whose
object is to take the enemy in flank or reverse, if he be sufficiently neai
to take measures to prevent success. In that case, the formation of the
close columns in mass upon the right or left into line of battle is a
necessary manoeuvre. This movement, as Marshal Bugeaud suggests,
is most important in war; (Fig. 151.) It would have an influence
upon battles by the simplicity and rapidity of its execution, and
accidents of ground would often be found to conceal the movement
from the enemy. It admits of an attack in echelons of battalions
against an enemy being commenced as soon as one battalion or the
half of a battalion has formed on the right or on the left of the line of
the enemy. It also offers the advantage of giving to the line, with the
greatest facility, every form that may be wished, and protecting the suc-
cessive formations by a mass that may be disposed of at pleasure,
whether at the extremity of the line to form square against cavalry, or
to occupy in advance upon the right or left a commanding position, pro-
tecting the flanks of our line. When circumstances, then, compel a
march in heavy mass, it is better to present to the enemy a flank of
columns, in order to deploy them b/ formations on the right or on the
left into line of battle.

When a line has to pass over a great distance, it is commonly formed
into columns of attack. The formation by company in column, in rear of

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[MAN-.

the grenadiers of each battalion, is preferred by Marshal Rugeaud, because
it is thus easier to make good dispositions against cavalry. TV
adiors of each battalion make a half wheel, and each battalion, after

Fio. 151.

being closed in mass, forms square. But neither the column by com-
j-anii-s or divisions ought to bo used within range of cannon, wli-
there is a possibility of marching in line of battle. It is time that tho
fact should be admitted, that although the moral effect of tho column
may bo considerable, yet this may 1>c j-araly/. <\ by a little nianu-u-
vring on the part of the enemy's line, which would necessarily obtain
great advantage from the superiority of its fire. Small columns, at

•i's of three battalions from C.H li other marching '"i<ii
the line, may render <_\->'nt scr\ i*-r->. Tlu-v would lie ready promptly
to fill th" h-.lcK imide in the lin<> of battle, and the best means of doing
this would bo to take the enemy in flank \sho had pi.-r«-ed them, when-
••ould. It i-; flesirablc. that the«-e ci.luiuns should each not
exceed a half battalion, and bo commanded by < •neriretic of]'.

The depth of the column adds nothing to the stmujtji of ihr first
battalion composing it, and diminishes tint of (fie mass. — It is, thru,
vicious to employ more than one battali in the small number

MAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 39&

of cases where it is necessary to fight in mass, as in carrying a bridge,
a defile, an entrenchment, a breach, &c. The other battalions ought to
follow at such a distance that they may sustain the attacking battalion
without sharing in its disaster or rout, if such should take place. With
an interval the chiefs of battalions have time to prepare their troops,
and make necessary dispositions ; with a single mass the disorder at
the head of the column is communicated to the rear almost as readily
as an electric spark.

Flank marches, in presence of the enemy, ought always to be made
in open column. In this order we are always ready to fight by a sim-
ple wheel of each subdivision of the column. Nothing is deranged in
the order of battle, whatever may be the strength and number of the
lines. Without derangement an excellent disposition may also be
made against cavalry. The column will be halted, and each battalion
will be closed in mass upon its grenadiers, who make a half wheel. The
field-officers, staff, and the officers of grenadiers will be previously warned.
Each battalion will form then Marshal Bugeaud's square. The first
order will be resumed by taking distances by the head of each battal-
ion ; the grenadiers retaking their direction at once.

If deep columns are condemned as an order of attack, those barba-
rous columns employed in some of the last battles of Napoleon, and
particularly at Waterloo, ought to be condemned still more. That
column, which appeared to announce the decline of art, consisted in em-
ploying all the battalions of a division one behind the other, and thus
marching towards the enemy.

Every column has for its object to pass rapidly, and without con-
fusion, into the order of battle, to pass over lightly a given space, and
to make prompt dispositions against cavalry. The column against
which these remarks are made does nothing of that kind, and if it be
attacked upon its flanks, whether by cavalry or infantry, it cannot fail
to be destroyed.

Order of battle, march in line of battle, and changes of front. — The
line of battle is the true order of battle. It is also the best order of
march when in range of cannon, and not exposed to cavalry. It is only
in this order that infantry can make use of its fire. If battalions con-
sist of 800 men they will, ih a formation of two ranks, be too much
extended for most chiefs of battalions. Two companies of each battal-
ion ought then to be formed as columns of reserve. The order in two
ranks is beyond question best suited, in oblique attacks, for that part of
the line not to be engaged ; and with rifle muskets now used the two-
rank formation will be found better for that part of the line which is to

400 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAM.

strike also. Even with old muskets the two-rank formation was used
by the British very successfully at Waterloo in squares against r..
The fire in two-rank formation is made with more order, n.
and is better aimed. The march in lino of battle ought to be employed
whenever the ground permits it, within 1,000 yards of the enemy. \\ V
lose then fewer nun by cannon, and even if it be desirable to approach
the enemy in column, (which is very rare, and should even then be in
columns of single battalions,) the march ought still to be in lino of
battle until within two hundred yards, and then the column of attack
ought to be formed while marching. Troops cannot be too much ex-
ercised in marching in lino of battle. This march is no more difficult
than the march of many heads of columns upon the same line, perhaps
even less so, for it is difficult to maintain between the columns the in-
tervals necessary for deployments.

Changes of front very near the enemy are rarely perpendicular.
The new front nearly always forms with the lino of battle an acuto
angle. In this case, it is necessary to guard against breaking the bat-
talions into column. It is better to use the changes of direction for the
line of battle prescribed by the tacties. The two pivot battalions may
bo thrown upon the new line by companies half faced to the right or
left. The other battalions ought to bo directed upon the now lino by
changes of direction which would least expose tin-in to artillery. If,
however, we have to guard against cavalry during tho execution of the
movement, it will bo better to break into column the battalions of the
leading wing. They will thus form tho stem of the battery, and would
rapidly make good dispositions against cavalry, as they would only bo
obliged to close in mass upon the grenadiers and form sqn.

Changes of front forward arc possible under fire, but changes of front
to the rear arc not so. I l>elievc, (says Marshal Bugeaud,) that tho loss
of one of our battles in Spain may, in great part, bo attributed to a
change of front in rear of tho left wing, which was attempted at
ment when warmly engaged. The movement rapidly degenerated into
a rout; and it could not be otherwise. There are no troops with
s.ill'i. lent sany-froiil and self-possession to make that movement under
the fire of ball and grape. To make the movement, it is necessary first
to stop tho enemy, and the means of doing that vary with circum-
stances, and the resources within our command. Charges of cavalry —
above all if they thn-at.-n the Hanks of the enemy's line, would
the change of front to tho rear. If cavalry bo not at hand, there is no
better i :n to advance the. second line to the position that it is

desired that tho front should occupy after its change of front, and with-

MAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 401

draw the first line at a run, directing it to form the second line, passing
through the intervals of the battalions, now become the first line.

If a line is about coming up with the enemy at the moment of re-
ceiving the order to change front, it would be better to finish the charge,
by putting the first line of the enemy in rout before executing the
movement to the rear. This last principle is applicable to retreats
generally : it is often necessary to overthrow an enemy who is too nigh
before retiring.

Running movements may, in many cases, save us from destruction.
It is necessary, then, to exercise troops in such movements, and make
them run in disorder, and re-form at some given point.

Echelons. — The order in echelons is the manosuvre of oblique at-
tacks. By that means we approximate those troops only who are to
fight. The remainder are at once threatening and defensive. They
hold in check one or many parts of the order of battle of the enemy,
and present the best possible protection to the attacking portion. Some
echelons to the right and left of that which attacks, are greatly better
than any other support. They render, if not impossible, at least very
difficult, an attack upon the flank of the attacking portion, as that cannot
be assailed without the enemy in turn being taken in flank by echelons.
And the latter cannot be turned, except by strong movements, which
must weaken the army executing them, and also afford necessary time
to guard against them.

Instead of placing flank brigades in advance of the front of the col-
umns or lines that they protect, it is better to place them in rear. Be-
sides the physical advantages of this disposition, there are moral advan-
tages, inasmuch as the latter position enables the echelons to assail,
whereas, if they were immediately on the flank of the attack, they might
be assailed.

In theory, echelons are placed at regular distances. In practice,
the distance is determined by circumstances, and, above all, by the
formation of the ground. The regularity of echelons can, therefore,
only exist in broad plains. The greater or less distance between eche-
lons depends upon the number of troops, the distances between those
of the enemy, and the ulterior views of the general-in-chief ; but in gen-
eral they ought to be within mutual succor, and if cavalry is to be re-
pulsed, they ought to cross fire at about 150 paces after having formed
square. The different movements of echelons, the changes of front in
each echelon, with the same angle, are very useful in war ; it is neces-
sary, therefore, that troops should be exercised in such movements.
(See BATTLE ; CHARGE ; CONVOY; DEFILE ; INFANTRY ; SQUARES. Con-
26

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MAX.

suit Apt r fits sur qiielqttts Details de la Guerre, par MARSHAL BUOKAUD ;
Tactile des Trots Armes, par DECKER.)

MANTLET — is a musket-proof shield, which is sometimes used for
the pr of sappers or riflemen during the attack of a fortress.

(Sec PENETRATION.)

MANUAL. Exercise of arms ; books of reference, as Ordnance
Manual, I

M ARAUDING. (See PLUNDER and PILLAGE.)

MARCH. Recruits are taught to march by explaining the princi-
ples of the cadenced step in common, quick, and double-quick time. The
march in lino of battle is the m«>st dim'cult and most important of the
.1 marches. A regiment which can pass over two hundred paces
in lino of battle without losing its allignment, is well instr
Marches may be divided into : marches in time of war ; man lies in
route, in time of peace; and tactical marches. Those in time of war
are either movements to pass over ground? or else mamruvivs t<> ob-
tain an advantageous position. When an army moves forward t
an enemy who is still very distant, it will be sufficient to have ad\
and rear guards, some flankers, and march in parallel columns over the
best routes, each column having its squadrons of cavalry, bai
tillery, and wagon trains. If the enemy is, however, in the neighbor-
hood, if we march along the front of his camp, or his lino of posts,
precaution must be redoubled to gain information of his movements
and guard against surprise.

When the march is only a manoeuvre, it is often made across fields ;
through by-roads ; then it is necessary to reconnoitre in advance, clear
away obstacles, and sometimes even construct little bridges ; guides are
taken, and information gained from them as well as by recofimiissunccs.
Armies are collected together by routes of march, the troops usually
marching about 17 miles a day. In general, the marches an- made by
battalions echeloned at intervals one day's distance from each other.
Cavalry ordinarily marches alone and follows the least direct roads, but
it is difficult to subsist a numerous cavalry without retarding military
kfaos. Artillery follows the cavalry, or if it has a large convoy,
it marches l,y another route alone. The troops begin to e.mcrntr
the base of operations. Still advancing, the echelons con verge, and the,
troops are cantoned together by lines <>iie day's march from each other.
The n< pproach the enemy, the more columns arc used ; if the

eountr;, ..ralli-l d-d., niches, it is always advant:r march

an army < orps on mnny routes, if they are within distance- f..r dej.Ioy-
, but if there is only one means of communication, the dii

MAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 403

arms are kept 200 yards distant from each other, and the cavalry-
marches in rear of the column.

On these marches, when a defile is to be passed, the successive pas-
sage of each echelon is commanded in advance ; and it is a general rule
never to crowd troops, so as to paralyze their action, or even render
movements difficult ; but care must be taken always to keep troops
within easy supporting distance of each other.

Sometimes an army is collected very near the enemy. It is neces-
sary then nicely to calculate distances, &c., in order to combine marches
for a simultaneous convergence of columns on the offensive point.* To
bring troops suddenly together, forced marches are made by some of
the troops ; relays and railways are also used. By forced marches the
ordinary day's march is doubled, but under extraordinary circumstances
62 miles have been made in 26 hours. Relays are the use of wagons,
&c., obtained by requisition. 250 wagons may carry from 2,000 to
2,300 men. Sometimes the march is made entirely in wagons, and each
echelon passes over three days' march in 8 hours. This is done by the
troops taking new wagons twice, the old returning empty for other troops.

It is but seldom that any one arm is exclusively employed when near
the enemy ; it is usual to operate with a combined force of cavalry,
infantry, and artillery, so that it may be always possible to employ one
or the other arm, according to circumstances and locality. If the main
body of the army is composed of the different arms, then the advanced
guard is similarly constituted, that it may be able to act in all localities.

The composition of such an advanced guard depends — '

1st. Upon the object and nature of its intended operations. During
marches in pursuit, it is reinforced by cavalry ; but if it is to make an
obstinate resistance, it is strengthened with much infantry and artillery.
In general, light cavalry are the best for advanced guards, wherever the
nature of the ground permits them to operate, but infantry are neces-
sary to support them. Mounted rifles and mounted engineer troops are
of great service in advanced guards.

* To calculate exactly the time T necessary for the execution of a march :— A column of in-
fantry will generally pass over about five miles in two hours, halts included. A column of cavalry
at a walk and trot alternately makes about six miles per hour. Let D then be the distance to be
accomplished, d the distance that the men comprising the column pass over in an hour, halts in-
cluded; I the length of the column ; o the delay caused by obstacles; then t= - will be the

time that passes until the left arrives at its destination, and the formula T = t + o + D will give
the time sought. One of the elements of o is the lengthening I' of a column in a defile; it is

considered by introducing - into the formula; o is also the delay caused by marching across fields.
These elements may all be estimated and introduced into the formula.

404 MILITARY DICTION A KV.

2d. The composition of tho advanced guard depends also upon the.
localit ground is broken, much infantry is required ; if it is

open, much cavalry ; and, in general, light troops.

Tho order of march of an advanced guard depends principally upon
its compoMtion, tin- order of march of the main body, tin- h'calitv, vVe.
The main rule is, that it should never be too much divided, so that
there may always be a considerable force in hand to seek the ninny
more boldly, and detain him longer. Therefore, even when tin
body moves in several columns, tho principal part of the id*
guard marches on the main road, sending only small parties on the
others to watch the enemy and detach patrols as far as possible in all
directions. In an open, level country, tho cavalry marches at the head ;
in a broken country, there is only a small detachment of cavalry at tho
head, to furnish advanced detachments and patrols. An n<!
tachment of cavalry, which sends out patrols in front and on its flanks,
moves at the distance of a few miles in front of the advanced £uanl.
Small detachments of cavalry move in a lino with it on the other '
also others on the flanks of the main advanced guard, to secure it
against being turned. All the front and flank detachments maintain
constant mutual communication by means of patrols, and thus pianl
tho whole space in front of the main body over a gr«
But if the flank columns of the main body march at a gr.
from tho main road, followed by tho advanced guard, th. n, in addition
to this last, each flank column detaches a small advanced guard for its
own security.

If the advanced guard is composed of different arms, its distance
from tho main body depends not only upon its strength, but also on the
following circumstance's : 1. On its composition. Cavalry ma\ advance
much further than infantry. 2. Upon the locality. The more fully tho
nature of tho country secures tho advanced guard against being turned,
the further may it move from the main body. 3. Upon the obi

Prior to defensive combats in position, it is advantage

have the advanced guard as far from the main body as possible, in or-

socure time for making tho necessary arnu but. if the

main body i concentrated for a decisive attack upon the enemy,

it is sometimes well to be entirely without an advanced guard ; during

a pursuit, tho main body should follow tho advanced guard as closely

as possible. 4. Upon the order of march of tho main body. The

th.- tim.- needed by the main body to form in order «>f battle, on

account of the intervals between tho columns, the nature of tho ground

between them, the length of tho columns, &c., so much further forward

MAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 405

should the advanced guard be pushed. In general, the distance of the
advanced guard from the head of the main body should be a little
greater than the interval between the outside columns of the main
body.

Fig. 152 gives an example of the arrangement of an advanced guard
composed of one brigade of light cavalry, 8 battalions of infantry, one
battalion of sappers, 6 pieces of horse artillery, and 12 pieces of foot
artillery ; the main body following in 3 columns.

Whatever slight changes may be made necessary by the nature of
the country, can easily be made with the aid of a map and the special
information obtained in other ways.

If the country is partially broken and obstructed, it is advantageous
to have four or five companies of infantry just behind the leading de-
tachment of cavalry to examine places that are difficult oridangerous
for the latter.

Upon the plains, the patrols are of cavalry ; in a mountainous re-
gion, of infantry. In the latter case, not only the advanced detachments
and patrols are of infantry, but also the head and rear of every column ;
the cavalry and artillery march in the middle, under the protection of
the infantry.

In passing through a village, the infantry enter it first, if there are
any with the advanced guard ; the cavalry either ride rapidly around
it, or, according to circumstances, halt a little before reaching the vil-
lage, and wait until the infantry have passed through.

The passage of important bridges, ravines, and defiles, should be
effected in the same manner, the infantry examining them. As soon as
the infantry have crossed and formed on the other side, the cavalry
send out patrols to a great distance to examine the ground in front be-
fore the main body of the advanced guard begins to cross.

The advanced guard having crossed rapidly, forms in front of the
passage, to cover the debouche of the main body. The distance of such
a position from the passage should be such that, in the event of being
attacked, the advanced guard may not be too quickly forced back upon
the main body while debouching, and that the latter may have ample
time to form without disorder.

Since attacks should be most expected when passing through defiles,
or when issuing from them, they should be traversed rapidly, and with
the most extended front possible, to prevent the column from stretching
out.

An advanced guard possessing a certain degree of independence,
without neglecting any of the precautions here laid down, should not be

400

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[MA*

Fto. 153.

MARCH OF AX ADYAHCED GUARD COMPOSED OP 1 BRIGADE OP CAVALRY. (» COMPANIES,)

a DIVISIONS OP MFA.XTRY, (8 BATTALIONS.) i BATTALION op SAPPERS. • PIECES
OP HORSE AND u OP POOT ARTILLERY.

MAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 401

too apprehensive, and, in examining the country, ought not to be de-
tained by objects which cannot conceal the enemy in sufficient force to
make him dangerous to the advanced guard.

In very mountainous regions, it is necessary to rely upon the infan-
try alone ; the cavalry and train remaining in rear, and not entering the
defiles until they have been occupied. Here the infantry patrols are
sent out as far as possible, and occupy the heights from which the direc-
tion of the columns may be seen, until relieved by the patrols of the
rear guard, which is also of infantry. In this manner the cavalry, which
the enemy would attack in such places in preference, is protected. Not
a gorge or defile should be left unexamind, for in the mountains an at-
tack may be expected at any moment.

In a wooded country, the commander of the advanced guard takes
nearly the same precautions as in the mountains.

If the forest is deep but not broad, detachments of cavalry ride along
the skirts, which are occupied by infantry skirmishers as supports ; if
the forest is dense, but not deep, the infantry lead. The infantry place
themselves along the skirts of the wood on both sides of the road ; the
cavalry then passes through at a fast trot, forms on the plain beyond,
and there awaits the rest of the column.

When the road passes through a country but little obstructed by
defiles, villages, or other obstacles to the movements of cavalry, and
there is no infantry with the advanced guard, mounted rifles are very
useful ; finally, the enemy, in retreating through such a country, leaves
infantry at these obstacles to arrest the pursuit of the cavalry, and de-
lay until the arrival of the infantry ; in such cases, mounted rifles or
dismounted dragoons will produce sure results by acting against the
enemy's infantry.

The main body. — It remains to be said, in reference to this, that the
nature of the country must determine its order of march, whether cav-
alry or infantry are to lead. If the country is broken, particularly if it
is wooded, there is great danger in placing the cavalry at the head ; for
it may not only be unable to act, but, if forced to retreat, may carry
disorder into the infantry following.

The artillery should march in the midst of the other troops, but a
few pieces may move with the head of the column, to protect it in case
of meeting the enemy suddenly.

Infantry, in traversing extensive forests, in which parties of the
enemy may easily conceal themselves, replace the flank detachments and
patrols of cavalry. (Consult Aide Memoire d'Etat Major ; McCLEL-
LAN'S Military Companion.)

408 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

MARINE CORPS— when serving with the army, to bo supplied

by tli- .iiWrs of the staff of the army ; (Act 1 >. . l.\ 1-1 I.)

The officers of the marine corps may be associated with the oili,-
the land forces for the purpose of holding courts-martial ami trying
l.-rs belonging to either ; and in such cases the orders of the senior
ofliccr of either corps, who may be present and duly authori/ed, shall be
received and ob«-y»-d ; (ART. 68.) The marine i-..rps shall at any time
bo liable to do duty in the forts and garrisons of the I nited States on
the sea-coast, or any other duty on shore, as the President, at his dis-
cretion, shall direct; (Act July 11, 1798.) The officers, non-commis-
sioned officers, privates, and musicians shall take the same oath and shall
bo governed by the same rules and artieK-s as an- prescribed for the
military establishment of the United States and by tin- ruK-s for the
regulation of the navy heretofore, or which shall be established by law,
according to the nature of the service in which they shall be employed,
and shall be entitled to the same allowance in case of wounds or dis-
abilities, according to their respective ranks, as are granted by the art.
to fix the military establishment of the United States ; (Act July 11,
1798.)

MARKER. Soldier who marks the direction of an allignmcnt or
piv-'t points.

MARKSMAN. Good shot; sharp-shooter. (See RIFLEMEN;
TARGET.)

MARSH POISONS. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

MARSHALS. The marshals of the several districts and their dep-
uties shall have the same powers in executing the laws of tin- Tinted
States, as sheriffs and their deputies, in the several States, have by law,
in executing the laws of the respective States; (Act Yob. 28, li '.'."».)
(See OBSTRUCTION OF LAWS ; POSSE COMITATUB.)

MARTELLO TOWERS— are buildings of masonry, -, -nerally
circular,and of various dimensions. They are ch'u-tly placed on the sea-
coast, having a gun on their summit, mounted on a tra\ersinur platform,
by which it can fire in any din •< -tion.

MARTIAL LAW. (See LAW, Martin f.)

MASKED BATTERY— is when tin- Lattery is to <-,,,„•, aled or
.sod, as not to be seen and recognized by the ciymy, until it opens
its !

M.\T»'H. Slow match is made of hemp, flax, or pottOfl rope, with

.ds slightly twisted. Cotton n>p<- well twKtrd forms a

ii without any preparation, and burns 4£ indies an hour.

Quick match is made of cotton yarn such as is used in candle -wiek,

MED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 409

which, after preparation described in the Ordnance Manual, is dredged
with meal powder. One yard burns in the open air 13 seconds. Quick
match inclosed in tubes burns more rapidly than in the open air, and
more so in proportion as the tubes are smaller.

MATTOCK. A pioneer tool, resembling a pick-axe, but having two
broad sharp edges instead of points.

MAY. To be permitted ; to be at liberty ; to have the power.
Whenever a statute directs the doing of a thing for the sake of justice or
the public good, the word may is the same as shall. For example, the
23 II. 6 says, the sheriff may take bail — that is construed he shall, for
he is compellable to do so ; ( Carth., 293. Salic., 609. Skin., 370.) The
words shall and may, in general acts of the legislature or in private con-
stitutions, are to be construed imperatively, (3 Alk.t 166 ;) but the con-
struction of these words in a deed depends on circumstances ; (3 Alk.,
282, sec. 1 ; Vern. 152, Case 142; 9 Porter, R. 390.)

MEASURES. (See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.)

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. (See ARMY for its organization.)
No person can receive the appointment of assistant-surgeon until he
has been examined and approved by an army medical board of not less
than three surgeons or assistant-surgeons ; and no person can receive
the appointment of surgeon unless he shall have served five years as
asst.-surgeon, and also have been examined by an army medical board
constituted as above ; (Act June 30, 1834.) (See AMBULANCE ; LIT-
TER ; SURGERY.)

MEDICINE, RECIPES, &c., &c. An officer, unless he be a pro-
fessed physician, need not take a large assortment of drugs. He
wants a few powders, ready prepared ; which any physician will pre-
scribe for him, such as : — 1. Emetic, mild ; 2. ditto, very powerful for
poison, (sulphate of zinc.) 3. Aperient, mild ; 4. ditto, powerful. 5.
Cordial for diarrhoea. 6. Quinine for ague. 7. Sudorific, (Dover's pow-
der.) It will save trouble if these be so prepared, that one measureful of
each shall be a full average dose for an adult ; and if the measure to
which they are adapted be cylindrical, and of such a size as just to admit
a common lead-pencil, and three-quarters of an inch long, it can at any
time be replaced by twisting up a paper-cartridge. In addition to the
above powders take cold cream ; heart-burn lozenges ; lint ; a small roll
of diachylon ; lunar-caustic, in a proper holder, to touch old sores with,
and for snake bites ; a scalpel and a blunt-pointed bistoury, to open ab-
scesses with, (the blades of these should be waxed, to keep them from rust;)
a good pair of forceps, to pull out thorns ; a couple of needles, to sew up
gashes ; waxed thread. A mild effervescing aperient is very convenient.

410 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [M«a

Seidlitz-powders are perhaps a little too strong for frequent u
tropical climate. The medicines should be kept in zinc pill-boxes, all
of the same dianuUr, with a few letters punched both on tin -ir tops and
bottoms, to indicate what they contain, as Emet., Astr., &c. ; and tho
pill-boxes should slip one above another into a long zinc box lined \vith
flannel, and lie there like sovereigns in a rouleau. The sulphate of zinc
may be invaluable as an eyewash ; for ophthalmia is a scourge in many
countries. Tho taste, which should be strongly astringent, is the best
guide to the strength of its solution.

For emetics, drink a charge of gunpowder in a tumblerful of warm
water or soap-suds, or even tickle the throat.

Vapor-baths are used in many countries, and the Russian plan of
making them is often tho most convenient. They heat stones in the
fire, and put them on the ground in the middle of their cabin or tent ;
on these they pour a little water and clouds of vapor are given off.
Elsewhere, branches are spread on hot wood-embers, and tho patient
placed on these, wrapped in a largo cloth ; water is then sprinkled on
the embers, which soon covers tho patient with a cloud of vapor. Tho
traveller who is chilled or over-worked, and has a quiet day before him,
would do well to practise this simple and pleasant remedy.

Ointment. — Simple .cerate is equal parts of oil and wax ; lard and
wax will do.

Seidlitz-powders are made as follows : —
U oz. Carbonate of Soda )
3 oz. Tartarizod Soda f For tho blue papers.

7 drachms Tartaric Acid For tho white papers.

These quantities make 12 sets.

DISEASES. — Fevers of all kinds, diarrhoea, and rheumatism, aro tho
plagues that most afflict soldiers; ophthalmia often threatens them.
Change of air, from the flat country up into the hills, as soon as pos-i)>l.>
after the first violence of the illness is past, works wonders in hastening
and perfecting a cure. With a bad diarrhoea, take nothing but 1 troth,
and it may be rice, in very small quantities at a meal, until quite re-
vtored. Tho least piece of bread or meat causes an immediate relapse.

REMEDIES. — A great discovery of modern days is the power of qui-
nine to keep off fever while travelling across a fever district. It is a
wid. ly-<-« rroboratcd fart, that a residence on tho banks of the ri
in low land, is often less affected by malaria than tho low hills tha1
look it. There are certain precautions which should l»c borne in mind
in unhealthy seasons — as, never to eneamp to tho leeward of a marsh ;
to sleep close in between largo fires, with a handkerchief gathered round

MED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 41 1

your face, (natural instinct will teach this ;) not to start off too early in
the morning ; to avoid unnecessary hunger, hardship, and exposure.

Drowning. — A half-drowned man must be put to bed in dry, heated
clothes j hot stones, &c., to his feet ; his head must be raised moder-
ately. Human warmth is excellent, such as that of two strapping men
made to lie close up against him, one on each side. All rough treat-
ment is hurtful.

For Snake-bites, tie a string tight above the part, suck the wound,
and apply caustic as soon as you can. Or, for want of caustic,
cut away with a knife, and afterwards burn out with the end of
your iron-ramrod, heated as near a white heat as you can readily get
it. The arteries lie deep, and as much flesh may, without much danger,
be cut or burnt into, as the fingers can pinch up. The next step is to
use the utmost energy, and even cruelty, to prevent the patient's giving
way to that lethargy and drowsiness which is the usual effect of snake-
poison, and too often ends in death.

Broken Bones. — It is extremely improbable that a man should die, in
consequence of a broken leg or arm, if the skin be uninjured ; but, if
the broken end forces its way through the flesh, the injury is a very
serious one. Abscesses form, the parts mortify, and the severest conse-
quences often follow. Hence, when a man breaks a bone, do not con-
vert a simple injury into a severe one, by carrying him carelessly. If
possible, move the encampment to the injured man, and not vice versa.
" "When a man has broken his leg, lay him on the other side, put the
broken limb exactly on the sound one, with a little straw between, and
tie the two legs together with handkerchiefs. Thus, the two legs will
move as one, and the broken bone will not hurt the flesh so much, nor
yet come through the skin ; " (DRUITT.)

Excessive Bleeding. — When the blood does not pour or trickle in a
steady stream from a deep wound, but in pulses, and is of a bright-red
color, all the bandages in the world will not stop it. It is an artery
that is wounded ; and, unless there be some one -accessible who knows
how to take it up and tie it, burn deeply into the part, as you would for
a snake-bite ; or else pour boiling grease into the wound. It is, of
course, a barbarous treatment, and far from being sure of success, as
the cauterized artery may break out afresh ; still, life is in question,
and it is the only hope of saving it. After the cautery, the wounded
man's limb should be kept perfectly still, and well raised, and cool, until
the wound is nearly healed. A tourniquet, which will stop the blood
for a time, is made by tying a strong thong, string, or handkerchief,
firmly above the part, putting a stick through and screwing it tight.

412 MILITABY DICTIONARY. [Mtn.

If you know whereabouts the artery lies which it is the object to com-
press, put a stono over tin- place and under the handkcn -h'u -f. The

arteries follow pretty much the direction of the inner seams of
the coat sleeves and trousers.

To cvre blistered Feet. — •* Rub the feet at going to bed* with spirits

with tallow dropped from a candle into the palm of the hand ;
on the following morning no blister will e.\i>t. The spirits seem to
possess the healing power, the tallow serving only to keep the skin soft
and pliant. This is Captain Cochrane's advice, and the remedy was
used by him in his pedestrian tour ; " (MURRAY'S Handbook of Switzer-
land.) The receipt is excellent; all pedestrians and all teachers of
astics endorse it, and it cannot bo too widely known. To prevent

t from blistering, it is a good plan to soap the inside of the
stocking before setting out, making a good lather all over it ; and a raw
egg broken into a boot, before putting it on, greatly softens the leather.
Artrr some hours' walking, when the feet are beginning to be chafed,
take off the shoes, and change the stockings; putting what was the right
stocking on the left foot, and the left stocking on the ri^ht foot. Or, if
one foot only hurts, take off the boot, and turn the stocking Ihsido out.
Rarefied Air. — On high plateaux or mountains, travellers must
suffer somewhat. The symptoms arc described by many South Ameri-
can travellers, where it is called the puna. The disorder is sometimes
fatal to stout plethoric people ; oddly enough, cats are unable to endure
it. At villages 13,000 feet above the sea, Dr. Tscudi says that they can-
not live. Numerous trials have been made, but the creatures die in fright-
ful convulsions. The symptoms of the puna are giddiness, dimness of
sight and hearing, hcadaelie, fainting-fits, blood fnnn mouth, <-\ «-s, nose,
lips, and a feeling like sea-sickness. Nothing but time cures it. It begins
to be felt at from 12,000 to 13,000 feet above the sea. M. Hermann
Schlagintwcit — whose large mountain experience in the Alps and in the
Himalaya, up to the height of 20,000 feet or more, is only paralleled
by that of his brother — says that ho found the headache, &c., to
come on when there was a breeze, far more than at any other time.

.ole party would awake at the same moment, and begin to com-
plain of the symptoms, immediately on the comment « -m- nt < I a 1
The symptoms of overwork are not wholly unlike those of the puna.

any young travellers who have felt the first, have ascribed them
to the second.

Snow-blindness. — In ci vilized life blue spectacles are, as is well known,
an indispensable accompaniment to snow-mountain expeditions. The
Esquimaux adopt the following equivalent : They cut a piece of soft

MED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 413

wood to the curvature of the face. It is about two inches thick, and ex-
tends horizontally quite across both eyes, and rests on the nose, where a
notch is cut to act in the same way as the bridge of a pair of spectacles.
This is tied behind the ears. Next a long narrow slit, of the thickness
of a thin saw-cut, is made along its middle almost from end to end.
Through this slit the wearer can see very fairly. It is narrower than
the diameter of the pupil of his eye, and, consequently, the light that
reaches his retina is much diminished ifi quantity.

Scurvy. — Any vegetable diet cures it : lime-juice, treacle, raw pota-
toes, and acid fruits are especially efficacious. Dr. Kane insists on the
value of meat, eaten entirely raw, as a certain anti-scorbutic. It is gen-
erally used by the Esquimaux.

Teeth. — Tough diet tries the teeth so severely that a man about to
undergo it had much better pay a visit to a dentist before he leaves.

Suffering from Thirst. — Pour water over the clothes of the man,
and keep them constantly wet ; restrain his drinking, after the first few
minutes, as strictly as you can summon heart to do it. In less severe
cases, drink water with a tea-spoon ; it will satisfy a parched palate as
much as if you gulped it down in tumblerfuls, and will disorder the
digestion much less.

Suffering from Hunger. — Two or three mouthfuls every quarter of
an hour is, to a man in the last extremity, the best thing ; and strong
broth the best food.

Wasp and Scorpion-stings. — The oil scraped out of a tobacco-pipe is
good ; should the scorpion be large, his sting must be treated like a
snake-bite.

Poisoning. — The first thing is to give a powerful emetic, to throw
up whatever poison may still remain unabsorbed in the stomach. Use
soap-suds or gunpowder, if proper emetics are not at hand. If there
be violent pains and griping, or retchings, give plenty of water to make
the vomitings more easy. Nothing now remains to be done but to re-
sist the symptoms that are caused by the poison which was absorbed
before the emetic acted. Thus if the man's feet are cold and numbed,
put hot stones against them and wrap him up warmly. If he be drow-
sy, heavy, and stupid, give brandy, and try to rouse him. There is
nothing more to be done, save to avoid doing mischief.

Fleas.—" Italian flea-powder," sold in the East, is really efficacious.
It is made from the " Pire oti," (or flea-bean,) mentioned in CURZON'S
Armeniti, as growing in that country. It is powdered and sold as a
specific.

Vermin on the Person. — " "We had now been travelling for nearly

414 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

six weeks, and still wore the same clothing we had assumed on our
departure. The incessant pricklings with which we were harassed,
sufficiently iiulicated that our attire was peopled with the filthy vermin
to which the Chinese and Tartars are familiarly accustomed, but wh'u-h,
with Europeans, are objects of horror and disgust. Before quitting
Tchagan-Kounn, we had bought in a chemist's shop a few sapeks'-worth
of mercury. We now made with it a prompt and specific rnm-.ly
against the lice. We had formerly got the receipt from some Chinese ;
and, as it may be useful to others, we think it right to describe it here.
You take half an ounce of mercury, which you mix with old tea-leaves
previously reduced to paste by mastication. To render this softer you
generally add saliva ; water could not have the same effect. You must
afterwards bruise and stir it awhile, so that the mercury may be divMcd
into little balls as fine as dust. (I presume that blue pill is a pretty
exact equivalent to this preparation.) You infuse this composition into
a string of cotton, loosely twisted, which yftu hang round the neck ; the
lice are sure to bite at the bait, and they thereupon as surely swell,
become red, and die forthwith. In China and in Tartary you have to re-
new this salutary necklace once a month ; " (Hue's Travels in Tarta-
ry.)— GALTON'S Art of Travel.

MEMBERS. (See COURT-MARTIAL.)

MEMBERS, (SUPERNUMERARY.) In case supernumerary mem-
bers are detailed for a court-martial, they are sworn, and it is right that
they should sit and be present at all deliberations even when the court
is cleared, in order to be prepared to take the place of any absent mem-
ber. Until then they have no voice ; ( HOUGH.)

M I • NT ACING WORDS. (See CONTEMPT.)

MENSURATION.

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE AND DATA.

Lines.

CIRCLK. Ratio of circumference to diameter, IT = 3.1 1 1 :>!>0r,r>36 =
ff f nearly.

Length of an arc = — — ; r being the radius of the circle, and a
loU

g c» c

the number of degrees in the arc ; or, nearly = 5 ; c being the

chord of the arc, and c' the chord of half the arc, which is =

V i «* + versine1.

Length of 1 degree = 0.0174533 ; radius being 1.
Length of 1 minute = 0.0002909.
Length of 1 tecond = 0.0000048.

MEN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 415

ELLIPSE. Circumference = \%% it *J $ (aa -j- 6a), nearly ; a and b
being the axes.

PARABOLA : Length of an arc, commencing at the vertex,

= -v/ f q _L. ^ i J , nearly ; a "being the abscissa, and b the ordinate.

\ 3 /

/$W7/#<?eS.

Triangle. Half the base X the height ; or half the product of

— ) ; or,

two sides X the sine of the included angle, (£ a b — ^ — ) ; or,

^/ s (s — a) (s — 6) (s — c) ; a, 6, c being the sides, and s =

Parallelogram. The base X the height.

Trapezoid. Half the sum of the parallel sides X the height.

Any Quadrilateral. Half the product of the diagonals X the sine
of their angle.

Any irregular plane figure bounded by curves. Divide the figure
into any even number of parts by parallel equidistant ordinates ; let a
be the sum of the first and last ordinates, b the sum of the even ordi-
nates, c that of the odd ones, except the first and last ; d the common
distance between them; then will the area = -| d (a -f- 46 -f 2c).
five ordinates will generally be found sufficient.

Circle. TT r2 ; or diam.8 x .7854 ; or, circum.9 X .07958.

r a
Circular sector. — ; a being the length of the arc in linear

measure.

Circular segment. The difference between the sector, and the

triangle formed by the cord and the radii ; or — — — — ; or nearly

= .4 v (c -J- £ +J J- ca + ^2) 5 c being the cord and v the versed sine.

Ellipse. .7854 a b ; a and b being the axes.

Parabola. % a b ; a being the abscissa, an(i b the double ordinate.

Right prism or cylinder. Curved surface = height X perimeter of base.

Right pyramid or cone. Half the slant height X perimeter of base.

Frustum of a right prism or cylinder. The perimeter of the base
multiplied by the distance from the centre of gravity of the upper sec-
tion to the base. If the prism or cylinder is oblique, multiply this
product by the sine of the angle of inclination.

Frustum of a right pyramid or cone. The slant height X half the
sum of the perimeters of the two ends.

Sphere. 4 TT ra ; or, diam. X circum. ; or, diam.8 X 3.1416.

410

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Mw.

Spherical zone or segment. 2 IT r h ; or, tl. no or

segment multiplied by tlu> cireuiiil«-reiuv <»f tlu- sphere.

Circular spindle. Z v (r c — a ^ r* — | c*) ; a being the length
of the arc, and c its chord, or tho length of tho spindle.

s - 180°
Spherical triangle^ v r* — r^-0 — ; * being tho sum of the three

angl.-s.

Any surface of revolution. % ir r I ; or, tho length of tho generating
element multiplied by tho circumference described by its centre of
gravity.

TABLE OF REGULAR POLYGONS.

No.of«ld«a

Name.

Area.

Radius of clrcii MI-
Bcriblng circle.

Side of inscribed
polygon.

Triangle.

0.4330127

0.6773503

1.782051

Square.

1. 001)0000

0.7071068

1.414214

Pentagon.

1.7204774

0.8506508

1.175570

Hexagon.

2.5980762

.HUM,,, Ml

1.000000

Heptagon.

3.6339124

.1628824

0.867767

Octagon.

4.8284271

.8065628

0.765367

Nonagon.

6.1818242

.4619022

0.684040

Decagon.

7.6942088

.6180840

0.618034

Undecagon.

9.3656399

1.7747324

0.563465

Dodecagon.

11.1911. i:.ji

1.9318517

0.517638

The column of areas, in the foregoing table, gives the number by
which tho square of the side is to be multiplied, to find the area of the
polygon.

The next column gives the multiplier for the side of a polygon, to
find the radius of the circumscribing cin-le.

The last column gives the multiplier for tho radius of a circle, to
find the side of the inscribed polygon.

Solids.

Prism or cylinder. Area of base multiplied by tho height.
Pyramid or cone. Area of base multiplied by one-third of the
height.

ixtum of a pyramid or cone. \ h (B + b -f ^/ B 6) ; h being
the height ; B and 6 the areas of the two ends. Or, for a conic frustum :

\ h X .7854 X ^~rf-j ; D and d being the diameters of tl.
ends.

Fnutum of a right triangular prism. Tho base X \ ( JI -f //'
+ 11 )

ittum of any right prism. Tho base multiplied by its distnn. ••>
from the centre of grayity of the section.

MEN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 417

Cylindrical segment, contained between the base and an oblique
plane passing through a diameter of the base : two-thirds of the height
multiplied by the great triangular section ; or, 1 r h* ; r being the
radius of the base, and h the area of the height.

4 TT r3

Sphere. • — ; or, .5236 cP; r being the radius and d the di-

ameter.

Spherical segment. i7rA9(3r — h) = -^- ; (36* -{- A2) ; b being
the radius of the base, h the height of the segment, and r the radius of

the sphere : — = 0.5236.
6

Spherical zone. *— (3 B* + 3 6a + A*) ; B, b being the radii of

the bases.

Spherical sector, i r X the surface of the segment or zone ; or, f
7T/-8 h.

Ellipsoid. — - — ; a being the revolving diameter and b the axis

of revolution.

Paraboloid. Half the area of the base multiplied by the height.

Circular spindle. TT Q- c3 — 2 s ^/ r* — £ c2 ) ; s being the area
of the revolving segment and c its chord.

Any solid of revolution. 2 TT r s ; or, the area of the generating
surface multiplied by the circumference described by its centre o.
gravity.

Any irregular solid, bounded by a curved sur? ace. Use the rule for
finding the area of an irregular plane figure, su instituting sections for
ordinates.

Cask gauging. 1. — By the preceding rule :

The content of a 'cask = -|- I (d* + Z>' -f 4 M a ) ; / being the
length, d, D, the head and bung diameters, and My a diameter midway
between them, all measured in the clear, inside ; ^j- — 0.1309.

The same formula may be thus stated : % I (A + £ -\- C) ; I being
the length ; A and JB, the areas of the head and bung sections ; and (7,
that of the section midway between them.

2. Contends of a cask, nearly, = ^- I (2 Z>9 + d9) ; or, I X the area

of a circle whose diameter is ~ —

418 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [HER.

CENTRES OF GRAVITY.

Lines.

Circular are. At a distance from the centre =—7- ; r being the
radius, c tho chord, and / the length of the arc.

Areas.

Triangle. On a line drawn from any angle to the middle of tho op-
posite side, at two-thirds of the distance from tho anglo to the s>i<l.-.
Trapezoid. On a lino a joining the middle points of the two par-

allel'sides, B, b ; distance from B =-£-( -^~
Semicircle. Distance from the centre = -

O IT

c»

Circular segment. Distance from the centre = ; c being the

r. . 1

chord of the segment, and A its a;

2 t* c
Circular sector. Distance from tho centre = -rr-y ; c being the

chord, and I the length of tho arc.

Parabolic segment. Distance from the vertex = three-fifths of tho
abscissa.

Surface of a right cylinder, cone, or frustum of a cone. The centre
of gravity is at tho same distance from the base as that of the parallel-
ogram, triangle or trapezoid, which is a right section of the same.

Surface of a spherical zone or segment. At the middle of the height.

MERLON. The space of the parapet between two embrasures.

MESNE PROCESS. Any writ issued in the course of a suit bfr
tween the original process and execution. By this term is also m
the writ of proceedings in an action to summon or bring the defendant
into court, or compel him to appear or put in bail, and then t<> hear
and answer the plaintiff's claim. (See ARREST BY CIVIL Ai IIIOIUTT.)

M I-'.SS. The law is silent with regard to messes in the army. Ex-
ecutive regulations have been mado on the subject, luit without law it
is impossible to put messes on a proper footing. In England, an allow-
ance is granted by tho king in aid of the • messes;
and every officer on appointment to a corps subscribes one month'-
to the mess fund. All the officers of the corps mess toother. In
France, the several grades mess separately; lieutenants and sub-lii-u-
tonants forming two tables; captains another, and field oftVers of different
grades generally eating separately also. Colonels and gen. ml officers of

MIL.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

419

the French service receive an allowance for table expenses, not sufficient
to keep open house, but enough to enable them to entertain guests.

MIASM, MIASMATA. (See SANITARY PRECAUTIONS.)

MILEAGE. Travelling allowance or transportation of baggage.
(See TRAVELLING.)

MILITARY ACADEMY. (See ACADEMY.)

MILITARY LAWS. (See GOVERNMENT, LAW (MILITARY); REGU-
LATIONS.)

MILITIA.

GENERAL ABSTRACT OP THE MILITIA FORCE OF THE UNITED STATES, ACCORDING TO THE
LATEST RETURNS RECEIVED AT THE OFFICE OF THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL.

STATES AND TERRITORIES.

For what year.

General officers.

General staff officers.

<§

8
5

Company officers.

Total commissioned officers.

Non-commissioned officers,
musicians, artificers, and
privates.

2,6-17
33,538
155,031
23,915
1,151
51,814
833,358
81,984
106,957
9,229
46,864
125,531
79,448
86,072
78.699
12,122
76,662
90,732
86,OS4
71,252
88.979
176,455
97,094
53,913
257,420
49,261

Maine

1854
1854
1856
1843

1854
1856

isr>5

1852
1854
1S27
1838
1854
1845
1856
1850
1845
1851
1856
1838
1840
1852
1845
1854
1S32
1855
1854

10
11
10
12
8
8
97

56
202
46
51
89
10
305

13
119
131
224
24
59
1,460

193
895
521
801
49
182
5,402

272
1,227
708
1,088
115
254
7,264

2,345
32,311
154,323
22,827
1,036
51,560
326,094

New Hampshire.

Massachusetts

Rhode Island .

Connecticut

New York

New Jersey

Pennsylvania . .

..„.

22
32
28
20
39
3
32
16
15
25
43
91
30
31

Delaware

8
63
76
133
135
91
14
142
129
70
79
145
217
823
110

71
544
153
657
535
624
95
775
542
392
859
1,165
462
147
566

364
1,763
614
8,449
1,909
4,296
508
1,883
2,084
848
2,644
3,517
1,281
2,358
2,154

447
2,397
875
4,267
2,599
5,050
620
2,832
2,771
825
3,607
4,870
2,051
2,858
2,861

8,782
44,467
124,656
75,181
33,473
73,649
11,502
73,830
87,961
85,259
67,645
84,109
174,404
94,236
51,052

Maryland.

Virginia

North Carolina

South Carolina

Georgia

Florida

Alabama

Mississippi.

Tennessee

Kentucky

Ohio

Michigan

Indiana

Illinois !.

Wisconsin

125

914

1,142

48,119

Iowa

Missouri

1S53

17
39
45
11
5

248

67
955
940
100

88
1,132
1,248
123

117,959
84,922

18,518
208,522
1,996

118,047
86,054
19,766

208,645
2,003

Arkansas

1851
1S47
1854
1851

10
15
12
2

Texas

California

Minnesota Territory

Oregon Territory

Washington Territory

Nebraska Territory

Kansas Terri tory

Territory of Utah

1S53

235

285

2,536

2,821

Territory of New Mexico. . .

District of Columbia

1S52

~637

185| 226

7,975

8,201

Grand aggregate. . .

,,664

10,198

40,611 54,1092,071,249

2,571,719

4^0 MILITARY DICTION ART. [MIL.

Notwithstanding the fcudnl military service' introduced im<> Eng-
land by William the Conqueror, ancient Anglo-Saxon laws, making
it the duty of c-v.-ry tneman to arm himself and serve for the
defence of his country against invasion, remained in full \iu">r. The
force authorized to be raised under these conditions has from the « ;ir-
liest times been called the militia, and was under the command of the
alderman or earl, who was at that time the governor of the county.
By the 27th Henry II. (1154) this force was regulated and organ
every subject, according to his rank and means, being compelled to
furnish himself with arms for the maintenance of the king's peace! A
century afterwards this act was confirmed, and a fresh " Assize of
arms " ordered by the statute of Wynton, by whieh it was enacted
that every man between the ages of fifteen and sixty should bo asse
and sworn to keep armor according to the value of his lands and goods.
For £15 and upwards in rent, or 40 marks in goods, a hauberk, an iron
breastplate, a sword, a knife, and a horse ; property of loss value en-
tailing the possession of arms of a proportionately less expensive char-
acter. Constables were also appointed to view the armor twice a \
which constables, the act says, " shall present before justices assigned
such defaults as they shall see in the country about armor ; and the jus-
tices assigned shall present at every parliament unto the king such de-
faults as they shall find, and the king shall provide the remedy th<
The system organized by these statutes was evidently, from the con-
text, intended in the first place for the preservation *of internal peace,
by the suppression of tumults, and keeping in check the bands of rob-
bers that infested the public ways ; the sheriff, as the conservator of the
public peace, had always possessed the power of calling out the posse
comitatus, or assembly of liegemen of the county, to assist him on such
occasions; and it is supposed that it was the object of Edwanl III. t<>
confirm and extend this authority, and at the same time to organize a
force readily capable of being made applicable to resist invasion. In tho
I'nited States each and every free, able-bodied, white male citizen of tbo
respective States resident therein, who is of the age of 18 years and under
46 years, (except EXEMPTS, which see,) shall bo enrolled in the militia by
the captain or commanding officer of the company within \vh»>se bounds
such citizen shall reside. Tho militia of tho n-sj.. •< -tiv,- Stoics shall bo
arranged into divisions, brigades, regiments, battalions and companies,
as the legislature of each State shall direct. If tho same be convenient,
each brigade shall consist of four regiments; each r. ••rimcnt of two
battalions; each battalion of five companies, and each company of
sixty-four privates. The said militia shall be officered by the respoc-

MIL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. , 421

tive States as follows : to each division, one major-general and two
aides-de-camp with the rank of major, one division-inspector with the
rank of lieutenant-colonel, and one division-quartermaster, with the rank
of major ; to each brigade, one brigadier-general, one aide-de-camp with
the rank of captain, one quartermaster, with the rank of captain, with
one brigade-inspector, to serve also as brigade-major, with the rank
of major ; to each regiment consisting of two battalions one colonel,
one lieutenant-colonel, and one major ; where there shall be only
one battalion, it shall be commanded by a major ; to each regi-
ment one chaplain ; to each company one captain, one lieutenant, one
ensign, four sergeants, four corporals, one drummer, and one fifer or
bugler. There shall be a regimental staff, to consist of one adjutant
and one quartermaster, to rank as lieutenants ; one paymaster, one
surgeon, and one surgeon's mate ; one sergeant-major, one drum-major,
and one fife-major ; to the militia of each State one quartermaster-gen-
eral ; (Acts May 8, 1792, March 2, 1803, April 18, 1814, April 20,
1816.)

Out of the enrolled militia, there shall be formed for each battalion
one company of grenadiers, light infantry or riflemen ; and to each di-
vision there shall be at least one company of artillery and one troop of
horse ; there shall be to each company of artillery, one captain, two
lieutenants, four sergeants, four corporals, six gunners, six bombardiers,
one drummer, and one fifer. There shall be* to each troop of horse,
one captain, two lieutenants, one cornet, four sergeants, four corporals,
one saddler, one farrier, and one trumpeter. Each troop of horse and
company of artillery to be formed of volunteers of the brigade to which
they belong ; (Act May 8, 1792.)

It shall be the duty of the brigade-inspector to attend the regimental
and battalion meetings of the militia, inspect their arms, ammunition,
&c., superintend their exercise and manoeuvres, and introduce the sys-
tem of military discipline throughout the brigade agreeably to law and
su'bh orders as they shall, from time to time, receive from the com-
mander-in-chief of the State ; to make returns to the adjutant-general
of the State at least once in every year, reporting the actual condition
of the arms, accoutrements, and ammunition of the several corps, and
every other thing which, in his judgment, may relate to their govern-
ment and the general advancement of good order and military disci-
pline ; (Act May 8, 1792.)

Volunteer corps shall retain their accustomed privileges, subject
nevertheless to all other duties required by this act, in like manner with
the other militia ; (Act May 8, 1792.)

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [MIL.

There shall be an adjutant-general appointed in each State, whose
duty it shall be to distribute all orders of the commander-in-chief of the
State to the several corps ; to attend all public reviews when the com-
mander-in-chief shall review the militia ; to obey all orders from him,
relative to carrying into execution and perfecting the system of military
discipline established by this act ; to furnish blank forms of dillercht
returns that may be required, and to explain the principles on \\hieh
they should be made ; to receive from the several officers of the diiler-
ent corps throughout the State, returns of the militia under their e.-m-
mand, reporting the actual condition of their arms, and every thing
which relates to the advancement of good order and discipline ; all
which the several officers of the divisions, brigades, regiments, and bat-
talions are required to make, so that the adjutant-general may be duly
furnished therewith ; from all of which returns ho shall make abstracts
and lay the same annually before the commander-in-chief of the State;
and he shall also make an annual return of the militia of the Stat
their arms and accoutrements, &c., to the President of the United
States; and the Secretary of War shall, from time to time, give direc-
tions to the adjutant-generals of States to produce uniformity in such
returns; (Acts May 8, HJKi ; March 2, 1803, and May 12, 1820.)

Whenever militia shall be called into actual service, of the Vi
States, their pay shall commence from the day of their appeara:
the places of battalion, regimental, or brigroe rendezvous ; allowing to
each non-commissioned officer and soldier a day's pay and rations for
every fifteen miles from his home to sueh place of rendezvous, and the
same allowances for travelling homo from the place of discharge ; (Act
Jan. 2, 1795.)

The militia or other State troops, being mustered and in pay of the
United States, shall bo subject to the same Rules ami Articles ol
as the troops of the United States, save only that courts-martial for the
f militia or other State troops shall be composed entirely of mili-
ers ; (Aiir. 97.) All officers, serving by commission from tho
authority of any particular States, shall, on all drta.-hm.-ms, courts-mar-
tial, or other duty wherein they may bo employed in conjunction with
the regular forces of the United States, take rank next after all officers
of like grade in said regular forces, notwithstanding tho commissi
such militia or State officers may bo older than the commissions of tho
officers of 1 United States ; ( \ i US.)

he act lor calling forth tho militia, approved Feb. 2S, 1795, mi-
litia not to servo more than three, months after arrival at the p!
/vous. Every officer, n-*n commissioned officer, or pri\

MIL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 423

litia that shall fail to obey tne orders of the President of the United
States, shall forfeit a sum not exceeding one year's pay, and not less
than one month's pay, to be determined and adjudged by a court-mar-
tial ; and such officer shall, moreover, be liable to be cashiered by sen-
tence of a court-martial and be incapacitated from holding a commission
in the militia for a term not exceeding twelve months, at the discretion
of the said court ; and such non-commissioned officers and privates shall
be liable to be imprisoned by a like sentence, on failure ofxhe payment
of fines adjudged against them, for one calendar month for every five
dollars of such fine.

Courts-martial for the trial of militia, shall be composed of militia
officers only.

That all fines to be assessed, as aforesaid, shall bo certified by the
presiding officer of the court-martial before whom the same shall be as-
sessed, to the marshal of the district in which the delinquent shall re-
side, or to one of his deputies, and also to the supervisor of the revenue
of the same district, who shall record the said certificate in a book to
be kept for that purpose. The said marshal, or his deputy, shall forth-
with proceed to levy the said fines, with costs, by distress and sale of
the goods and chattels of the delinquent ; which costs, and the manner
of proceeding with respect to the sale of the goods distrained, shall bo
agreeable to the laws of the State in which the same shall be, in other
cases of distress. And where any non-commissioned officer or private
shall be adjudged to suffer imprisonment, there being no goods or chat-
tels to be found whereof to levy the said fines, the marshal of the dis-
trict, or his deputy, may commit such delinquent to gaol, during the
term for which he shall be so adjudged to imprisonment, or until the
fine shall be paid, in the same manner as other persons condemned to
fine and imprisonment at the suit of the United States may be com-
mitted.

That the marshals and their deputies shall pay all such fines by
them levied, to the supervisor of the revenue in the district in which
they are collected, within two months after they shall have received the
same, deducting therefrom five per centum as a compensation for their
trouble ; arid in case of failure, the same shall be recoverable by action
of debt or information in any court of the United States of the district
in which such fines shall be levied, having cognizance thereof, to be sued
for, prosecuted, and recovered, in the name of the supervisor of the dis-
trict, with interest and costs.

That the marshals of the several districts, and their deputies, shall
have the same powers, in executing the laws of the United States, as

434 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Mm.

sheriffs, and their deputies in the several States, have by law in .
ing the laws of the respective States.

And by a supplementary act approved in Feb. 1813, That, in •
case in which a < ..art-martial shall have adjudged and d» 'tcrmined a fine
against any officer, non- commissioned oiliccr, musician, or priva
the militia, for any of the causes specified in the act to which this act is
a supplement, or in the fourth section of an act, cntitK-.l " An act to
authorize a detachment from the militia of the United States," all such
fines, so assessed, shall bo certified to the comptroller of tin- treasury
of the United States, in the same manner as the act to which this act is
a supplement directed the same to bo certified to the supervisor of the
revenue.

That the marshals shall pay all fines which have been levied and
collected by them, or their respective deputies, under tin- authority of
the acts herein referred to, into the treasury of the United States, within
two months after they shall have received tho same, deducting five per
centum for their own trouble ; and, in case of failure, it shall be the
duty of the comptroller of the treasury to give notice to the district at-
torney of tho United States, who shall proceed against the said marshal
in the district court, by attachment, for the recovery of tho same. (See
CALLING FORTH MILITIA; DEFENCE, National.)

MINE. Powder placed in subterranean cavities, by exploding
•which every thing above it is overthrown. Mines are o/en&ive when
they are prepared by besiegers, and defensive when used by t i
The place where the powder is lodged is called tho chamber of the mine,
and it is generally made of a cubical form large enough to contain the
wooden box which holds the powder necessary for the charge. The fire
is communicated to tho mine by means of a pipe or hose made of coarse
cloth filled with powder, laid in a wooden case about an inch s<|ii;.
tending from the centre of the chamber to the extremity of the gallery,
a match is fixed so that the miner who applies the lire to it, may
time to retire before the flame reaches the chamber. (See Fou-
OASSE; GALLERY.)

MINORS. The Secretary of War, on demand, is required to prant
^charge from the army of any minor enlisted without tho consent
of parent or guardian.

MINUTE GUNS. Guns, fired at intervals of a minute, are signals
of distress.

MIS1SKIIAVIOR BEFORE THE ENEMY. F'.uiisl.al.l.- with

Hc,according to the sentence of a court-martial: ( \
M I .-' N ( > M I : K. If a prisoner plead a misnomer, the court may ask

MOK.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

425

the prisoner what is his real name, and call upon him to plead to the
amended charge ; (HouoH.)

MITIGATION. (See PARDON.)

MONI^Y. The embezzlement or misapplication of public money
intrusted to an officer for the payment of men under his command, or
for enlisting men into the service, or for other purposes, punishable with
cashiering and being compelled to refund the money. In case of a non-
cojnmissioned officer, reduction to the ranks and being put under stop-
pages until the money is refunded, and such corporeal punishment as a
court-martial shall direct ; (ART. 39.)

MONTHLY RETURNS. (See RETURNS.)

MORTAR. The following mortars are used in the United States
service : The heavy 13-inch mortar, weighing 11,500 Ibs., whole length
53 inches, length of chamber 13 inches, and superior diameter of cham-

FIG. 153.

SIEGE MOKTAK.

1. Cheeks.

2. Manoeuvring bolt.
8. Deck plank.

4. Sleeper.

9. Eye bolts.

5. Cap square.

6. Cap straps,
1. Bolster.

8. Quoin.

ber 9.5 inches ; the heavy 10-inch mortar, weighing 5,775 Ibs., whole
length 46 inches, length of chamber 10 inches ; the light 10-inch mor-
tar, weighing 1,852 Ibs., whole length of mortar 28 inches, length of
chamber 5 inches ; the light 8-inch mortar, weighing 930 Ibs., whole
length of mortar 22.5 inches, length of chamber 4 inches ; brass stone
mortar, weighing 1,500 Ibs., diameter of bore 16 inches, whole length
of mortar 31.55 inches, length of chamber 6.75 inches ; brass coehorn
24-pounder, diameter of the bore 5.82 inches, weight 164 Ibs., whole
length 16.32 inches, length of chamber 4.25 inches ; iron eprouvette,
diameter of the bore 5.655 inches, weight 220 Ibs., length of bore ex-
clusive of chamber, 11.5 inches, length of chamber 1.35 inch. Mortars

MILITA11Y DICTIONARY.

[Hoc.

are mounted ou beds, and when used, siege mortars are placed on a
platform of wood made of 6 sleepers ; 18 deck planks ; and 72 dowels ;
fastened with 12 iron eye-bolts. (Consult Ordnance Manual ami Instruc-

in Heavy Artillery for Mechanical Manoeuvres. See Aimi
ORDNANCE.)

MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY. The mountain howiizor, weight
220 11 length 87.21 inches, diameter of bore 4.6^ ineh.-s ; length

of chamber 2.75 inches, diameter of chamber 3.34 ; natural angle* of

sight, 0° 37' ; RANGE 500 yards, at an
elevation of 2° 30', with a charge of \
Ib. powder and shell ; timo of flight, 2
seconds ; with same charge and eleva-
tion, the range of spherical-case is 450
yards. At an elevation of from 4° to
5° the range with canister is 250 yards.
According to elevation the range varies
fnun 150 to 1,000 yards; at the same ele-
vation the range with shell being gi
than s{>herieal-case. A battery of six
mountain howitzers requires 33 pack-
v\\ \ saddles and harness, and 33 horses or
VX \ mules. A mountain howitzer ainnni-
Vv\* \ nition chest will carry about 700 musket
ball-cartridges, besides eight rounds for
the howitzer.

MOUNTED RIFLEMEN. There
is one regiment of mounted riflemen in
the United States army. (See AIIMY
for their organization.) The .skinni*h
drill f«>r mounted troops prepared by
Capt. D. II. Mjiury. 1'. S. A., and Dfltd
by mounted rillriuen, dirt'rrs fr«»m the
system of cavalry exercise :

1st. In prescribing the formation in
one rank instead of in two ranks. — Be-
sides extending the line of front, this
change develops individual instruction,
and enables the officer to brim: his men
from column into line, and the reverse,
almost as quickly as in infantry. Hy it
a mounted company may be brought

Mus.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 427

from the full gallop into fighting order on foot, the true order for rifle-
men, within six seconds after the command has been given.

2d. In giving no heed to inversions. — The effect of this change is to
bring men from marching into fighting order in the simplest and most
rapid manner.

3d. The grouping together of men in sets of fours. — This, besides
being convenient for the purposes of police and guards in garrison and
camp, teaches the men, when in action, to rely upon each other as near
comrades. (See CAVALRY.)

MOUNTING. The parade of marching on guard is called guard-
mounting.

MUSKET. (See ARMS.)

MUSTER. At every muster, the commanding officer of each regi-
ment, troop, or company there present, shall give certificates, signed by
himself, signifying how long officers who do not appear at muster have
been absent, and the reason of their absence. In like manner, the com-
manding officer of every troop or company shall give certificates, signi-
fying the reasons of the absence of the non-commissioned officers and
private soldiers, which reasons and time of absence shall be inserted in
the muster-rolls, opposite the names of the respective absent officers
and soldiers. The certificates shall, together with the muster-rolls, be
remitted by the commissary of musters or other officer mustering, to
the Department of War, as speedily as the distance of the place will
admit ; (ART. 13.) Every officer, who shall be convicted of having
signed a false certificate, relating to the absence of either officer or sol-
dier, or relative to his or their pay, shall be cashiered ; (ART. 14.)
Every officer, who shall knowingly make a false muster of man or horse,
and every officer or commissary of musters, who shall willingly sign,
direct, or allow, the signing of muster-rolls wherein such false muster
is contained, shall, upon proof made thereof by two witnesses before a
general court-martial, be cashiered, and shall be thereby utterly disabled
to have or hold any office or employment in the service of the United
States ; (ART. 15.) Any commissary of muster or other officer, who
shall be convicted of having taken money or other things by way of
gratification, on mustering any regiment, troop, or company, or on
signing muster-rolls, shall be displaced from office and shall be thereby
utterly disabled to have or hold any office or employment in the service
of the United States ; (ART. 16.) Any officer, who shall presume to
muster a person as a soldier who is not a soldier, shall be deemed
guilty of having made a false muster, and shall suffer accordingly ;
(ART. 17.) Troops are mustered every two months. (See ARREARS
OF PAY ; CERTIFICATE ; FALSE ; PAY.)

428 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Mcr.

MUTINY. Any officer or soldier, who shall begin
or join in any mutiny or sedition in any troop or company in the ser-
vice of the United States , or in any party, post, detachment, or guard,
shall suffer death, or such other puunishment as by a court-martial shall
be inflicted ; (ART. 7.) Any officer, non-commissioned officer, or sol-
dier who, being present at any mutiny or sedition, does not use his ut-
most endeavor to suppress the same, or coming to the knowledge of
any intended mutiny, does not, without delay, give information thereof
to his commanding officer, shall be punished by the sentence of a court-
martial with death, or otherwise, according to the nature of his offence ;
(ART. 8.) " Mutiny is a combined or simultaneous resistance, active
or passive, to lawful military authority." The best authorities admit
that a single person, without previous combination or concert with
others, cannot commit mutiny. An overt act by one person, in pursu-
ance of a combined plan or conspiracy, is, however, mutiny ; and con-
spiracy or intended mutiny is, under the 8th article, punishable in the
same degree as an overt act. Where an overt act, therefore, has not
been committed, it is proper to base the charge on the 8th article. But
all who have conspired in intended mutiny are alike guilty of mutiny,
consisting in overt acts on the part of one or more of the conspirators.

NAIL BALL — is a round projectile with an iron pin projecting
from it, to prevent its turning in the bore of the piece.

NATIONAL ANNIVERSARY. The 4th of July. Regulations
; 11x5 the honors to be paid by troops to the National Anniversary.

NATIONAL DEFENCE. (See DEFENCE, ^Va/iona/.)

NEW MATTER. It is not proper that the prosecutor should bo
allowed to introduce new matter, neither should it be admitted on the.
defence. There is a great difference between new matter of accusation
and facts proved by evidence to mitigate the sentence. The latt
not new matter in its strict sense ; (HOUGH'S Military Law A »///*«"•

NITRE. Saltpetre, or nitrate of potassa ; 54 nitric acid, 48 potassa.
It is spontaneously generated in the soil, and is a necessary ingredient
of powder. It has occasionally been produced artificially in nitre beds,
formed of a mixture of calcareous soil, with animal matter; in th.-se.
nitrate of lime is slowly formed, which in extracted by lixiviation, and
carbonate of potash added to the solution, which to the for-

mation of nitrate- of potassa and carbonate of lime ; the ; ••••cijii-

th<« former remains in solution and is obtained in crystals 1>\
evaporation. Its great use is in the manufacture of gunpowder, and in

QBE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 429

the production of nitric acid. It is also employed in the curing or
preservation of meat.

NOMENCLATURE. Technical designation. (See ARMS ; ORD-
NANCE.)

NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER. Grades between private
and warrant officer, as corporal, sergeant, ordnance-sergeant, sergeant-
major, and quartermaster-sergeant.

NOTES. Members of courts-martial sometimes take notes. They
are frequently necessary to enable a member to bring the whole body
of evidence into a connected view, where the case is complex.

OATH. " Every officer, non-commissioned officer, musician, and
private, shall take and subscribe the following oath or affirmation, to
wit : I, A. B, do solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be) that I
will bear true faith and allegiance to the United States of America,
and that I will serve them honestly and faithfully against their enemies
or opposers whomsoever ; and that I will observe and obey the orders
of the President of the United States, and the orders of the officers ap-
pointed over me, according to the Rules and Articles of War ; (Act
March 16, 1802.)

OATH, (COURT OF INQUIRY.) The form of the oath to be taken
upon courts of inquiry by members and judge-advocate or recorder, is
prescribed in ART. 93. Witnesses before courts of inquiry take the
same oath as before courts-martial.

OATH, (PROFANE.) Any non-commissioned officer or soldier, who
shall use any profane oath or execration, incurs the same penalties as
for irreverence at divine worship. (See WORSHIP.) A commissioned
officer shall forfeit and pay for each and every such offence one dollar,
to be applied as forfeitures for irreverence at worship.

OATH OF WITNESSES. (See WITNESS.)

OATHS OF MEMBERS OF COURTS-MARTIAL The 69th
Article of War prescribes the oath or affirmation to be taken upon
courts-martial, by members, and the judge-advocate. (See TRIAL.)

OATS. (See FORAGE ; WEIGHTS.)

OBEDIENCE — to "any lawful command of his superior officer "
is exacted from all officers and soldiers under penalty of death, or such
other punishment as may be inflicted by a court-martial ; (ART. 9.)

Two questions, therefore, arise under this article : Who is to judge
of the legality of the command ? and, What constitutes a superior officer
in the sense of the article ?

430 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Out

It is evident that if all officers and soldiers arc to judge when an or-
lawful and when not, the captious and the mutinous would never
be at a loss for a plea to justify their insubordination. It is, tin -rcfore,
an established principle, that, unless an order is so manifestly against
law that the question does not admit of dispute, the order must first be
obeyed by the inferior, and he must subsequently seek such redress
against his superior as the laws allow. If the inferior disputes the le-
gality before obedience, error of judgment is never admitted in mitiga-
tion of the offence. The redress now afforded by the laws to inferiors
is not, however, sufficient ; for doubtful questions of the construction of
statutes, instead of being referred to the Federal courts of law for their
true exposition, have received variable expositions from the executive,
and letl the army in an unfortunate state of uncertainty as to the true
meaning of certain laws, and this uncertainty has been most unfavorable
to discipline.

Again, while the punishment of death is meted to officers and sol-
diers for disobedience of lawful commands, the law does not protect offi-
cers and soldiers for obeying unlawful commands. Instances have oc-
curred in our country, where officers and soldiers have been subjected
to vexatious prosecutions, simply for obeying orders, according to their
oath of office. Would it not be just if the law, instead of requiring offi-
cers and soldiers thus nicely to steer between Scylla and Charybdis,
should hold the superior who gives an illegal order, alone responsible
for its execution ?

By superior officer in Article 9, and every other Article of War, is
meant an officer who has the right to command his inferiors in the mil-
itary hierarchy. Tho word superior, therefore, embraces, within tin -ir
appropriate circle of command, commanding generals, superior regi-
mental and company officers, superior officers of corps or departments,
and the commanding officer on guards, marches, or in quarters of what-
e\, r corps of the line of the army, marine corps <.r militia authorized to
command the whole by the 62d Article of \Var. %\h« n. v.r different
corps come together. This construction of th< \\ords "officers ap-
pointed over me, according to the Rules and Articles of WTar," is mani-
fest by an attentive examination of those articles : —

See, for example, ART. 27, which gives authority to "all officers of
what condition soever to part and quell all (|uarre!s frays, and disor-
ders, though the persons concerned should belong to another raj-
troop, or company" Here it is seen that the ordinary subordination,
by grades, is found only in the same " regiment, troop, or company" The
power to part and quell quarrels, is, however,*made an exceptional

OBS.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 431

case, in favor not only of officers of different regiments, but the power
is even extended to those of an " inferior rank." In a company, regi-
ment, or corps, subordination by grades is established by the terms <of
the commission held in such regiment or corps. So also, where officers
hold commissions in the army at large, their right to command when
on duty is co-extensive with their commissions, except that the 61st
Article of War makes such higher commissions inoperative within the
regiment in which an officer is mustered. Within regiments and corps
the muster-roll, then, at once determines the question of superiority of
officers on duty. But when mixed corps come together, as commissions
below the rank of general, excepting commissions for gallant or merito-
rious services, are only given in regiments and corps, and as such regi-
mental commissions would not otherwise entitle their holders to com-
mand beyond their particular regiments, or the holders of commissions
in the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, beyond the body in
which they hold commissions, the 62d Article of War has prpvided that
the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or mi-
litia, shall command the whole, and he likewise is thus consecrated the
superior officer for the time being. (See BREVET ; LINE ; RANK.)

OBLIQUE. In tactics, oblique indicates a direction which is neither
parallel nor perpendicular to the front, but more or less diagonal. It is
a command of warning in the tactics. It is used to indicate oblique
alignments, attacks, orders of battle, squares against cavalry, changes of
front, fires, &c.

OBSERVATION. Army of observation ; detached party of ob-
servation, &c.

OBSTACLES. The obstacles used in field-fortification are of sev-
eral kinds. Their object is to render access to works more difficult.

Common harrows, picketed to the ground, with
the spikes uppermost, form excellent temporary
obstacles. Crows'-feet, (Fig. 155,) consisting of four
iron spikes arranged at equal angles with each
other, so that" in any position one spike must be
pointing vertically upwards, may be scattered about
in front of salients or other weak points, and will render approach
difficult, and for cavalry impracticable.

Roads or breaches, and sometimes even the restricted front of a po-
sition, my be barred by chevaux-de-frize, two forms of which are exhib-
ited in the annexed diagrams, (Figs. 156 and 157.) Chevaux-de-frize
may be formed of stout square or hexagonal beams, with iron spikes or
sword blades, or even stout pointed stakes let into and standing perpen-

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[OH,

dicularly from the faces ; or, like Fig. 157, of stout palisades, pointed,

and furnisiu-d Nvith legs to support them, with tho points towards tho
enemy.

Fw.

FIO. isa

XIXCXIXIXI

XIXIXIX

When used to close a space of any extent — indeed, where more
than one length is necessary, they should be secured to each other by
chains, to prevent their removal by an enemy.

Trous-de-loup, or trap-holes, (Fig. 158,)
are rows of pits in the form of inverted
cones or pyramids, with a strong palisade
or stake in the centre of each. They
should be either too deep or too shallow
to be used by riflemen, and they are, there-
fore, generally 8 or 2£ feet deep.

Trap-holes, whether round or square,
should always be arranged checkcnviso,
to prevent an enemy passing them easHy.
The earth from them should be formed
into a glacis in front, rather than heaped
up between them; as, in the latter case,
they might be easily filled up again. Trous-
de-loup of even two or three fe.-t <l.-.-|>

may be usefully employed in rendering impassable shallow, wet ditehes,
inundations, and fords; and, like abatis, they maybe advantageously
placed on the salients of works, on the weak points of lines, or in
th.-ir intervals. They may thus compel the enemy to attaelv the strong-
est parts. The ardor of infantry may be much che, -k.-d l.y unexpected
obstacles within point-blank musket shot of tho place attacked. (See
ABATI- \n«s.)

OBSTRUCTION OF LAWS. In ordinary cases of ol, struct ion to
the laws of the United States, the powers vest, d in marshals arc to be
ised to secure their due execution. It is only \vh.-n sueh « .list ruc-
tions are too formidable to be suppressed by tho ordinary course of
judicial procedure or by the powers vested in the marshals, that the
President of tho United States is authorized to use military force. And

IXIXIXIXN

ORD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 433

whenever such force is employed by him, he must first, by proclama-
tion, command insurgents to disperse, and retire peaceably to their
respective abodes within a limited time ; (Acts of Feb. 28, 1795, and
Act March 3, 1807. See CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; MARSHAL ; POSSE
COMITATUS.)

OCCUPY. To take or hold possession of a post or district.

OFFENCES. (See CRIMES ; DISORDERS ; NEGLECTS ; ARTICLES OF
WAR ; JURISDICTION.)

OFFICERS. Whenever the word officer is used .in the Articles
of War, commissioned officer is understood.

OPERATIONS. Field operations ; offensive and defensive opera-
tions ; under-ground operations ; siege operations, &c.

ORDER. This term, considered in its relation to the army, em-
braces divers subjects. It gives an idea of harmony in the accomplishment
of DUTIES ; a classification of corps or men ; injunctions emanating from
AUTHORITY ; measures which regulate service, and many tactical details.

In tactics, the natural order is when troops coming upon ordinary
ground are ranged in line of battle by the prescribed tactical means,
and when they are formed in column right in front.

The oblique order is contradistinguished from the parallel, and in
general means every tactical combination the aim of which is to pro-
duce an effect upon two points of an enemy's line by bringing a supe-
rior force to bear down on those two points. Such combinations con-
stitute the oblique order, whatever manoeuvres may be used to accom-
plish the object.

The parallel order operates on the contrary against the whole front
of the enemy. Turenne and Conde fought habitually in parallel order,
although they sometimes made a skilful use of oblique attacks. Giu-
bert well says that a contiguous and regular parallel order can be of
no use in war.

ORDERLIES. Non-commissioned officers and soldiers appointed
to wait upon generals and other officers, to communicate orders, and
carry messages.

ORDERLY SERGEANTS. The first sergeant of a company is
so called. On hearing the drum beat for orders, orderly sergeants
repair to the adjutant's office, arid, having taken down the orders in
writing, they are immediately to show them to the officers of their
company, and to warn the men for duty.

ORDERLY BOOK. A book for the sergeants to insert the gen-
eral and regimental orders, which are issued from time to time, is some-
times called an orderly book.
28

434 MII.IT\I:V

ORDERS. The principle upon which orders an- to bo issued is
established by the 03d Article of War, \\hich gives to the immediate
commander of tho troops " by commission there on duty, or in quar-
ters," unlit orders for what is needful to the service, unless

otherwise sp ..-. ially directed l>y the IV. sident ot' the I'nited States, ac-
cording to the nature of tho case."

The :t of the United States and commanding officers are,

however, limited to issuing such orders as may i ;;ng to the

Rules and Articles of War ; " (Art March H1,, IMC,!.) The determina-
tion of what orders are, and what are not, contrary to the Rules and
Articles of War established by Congress, is a very nice cjue-ti"ii.
is much t.> be regretted that Coi :-j?-.-s h u i-.t long since accurately de-
fined the functions, rights, and duties of all offie.-rs and soldiers, and also
given them some means of obtaining redress airamst unsound .
tions of law made by tho executive and military authorities. (See AR-
iir; REMEDY.)

In article INJURIES it has been shown how officers bee. .me answerable
at law for their own acts or defaults occurring in tho course of \
sional duty ; but commanding officers are not legally liable for the acts
of subordinates in the execution of the services confided to them.

By the general law, masters and employers of every kind are an-
swerable for the acts or neglects of their servants or subordinate ;;
but the principle of this rule is, that private individuals have the power
of appointing and selecting such aueiits or servants as they may think
proper, and are consequently bound to employ only those who

'•nt skill, diligence, and ability. But this principle has no appli-
cation as between superior ami subordinate officers in the army, for the
obvious reason that the former do not choose tho latter. The rule as to
military officers therefore is, that the wnmg-do< r alone is personally
liable for the damages or injury resulting from his conduct, and tho
wrong-doer is he \\iio \^-.\\t-,] tin- order, or otherwise gave direct occasion
to the act or omission which led to the mischief.

"When an oflic. r, therefore, is em j. loved upon a particiil.
the execution of which is left to his own skill ami mi.-ontroll.-d judg-
>r officer from whom he receives his orders incurs no
legal responsibility for injuries oc.-a-ione.l to th<

by the conduct of the junior in executing the di;1

fided to him. For the Senior officer has no power of appointing his

en; h»- is n-.t even himsi If to be deemed a \..lunte«T

in that particular statin IH<T. !\ by having voluntarily entered the

army, and has no choice whether or not he will serve with the junior

ORD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 435

officers placed under his orders, but is bound to take such as he finds
there, and make the best of them. He is a servant of the State, doing
duty with others appointed and stationed in like mariner, and by the
same authority.

But the case is altered when the senior officer not only orders an-
other to perform a particular service, but likewise prescribes the speci-
fic mode of execution. For the subordinate officer is then deprived of
all exercise of his own judgment and discretion ; his acts are the direct
acts of his senior officer ; and the latter becomes as thoroughly respon-
sible, in a legal point of view, as if he had been personally present and
assisting in the performance of the duty in question. ^

It frequently happens in suits at law respecting private wrongs, that
the officer against whom the action is brought is the only person ac-
quainted with some of the material facts which it may be necessary to
prove against him : and though, in cases of mere debt or contract, a de-
fendant is compellable to make a disclosure, on oath, of such facts as lie
within his own knowledge, that rule does not apply to actions respect-
ing private wrongs or injuries. An attempt, however, was made in
Sir William Houston's case, by means of proceedings in the Court of
Chancery, to compel that officer to produce certain military and other
orders, reports, books, letters, and documents, from which the truth of
the charge against him would appear. But the Master of the Rolls re-
fused to make any order for the production ; (PRENDERGAST.)

ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT. The Ordnance Department con-
sists of one colonel, one lieut.-colonel, four majors, twelve captains,
twelve first lieutenants, and six second lieutenants ; master carriage-
makers, master blacksmiths, master armorers, <Szc., &c., limited only by
the judgment of the colonel of Ordnance and Secretary of War.

It shall be the duty of the colonel of the Ordnance Department to
direct the inspection and proving of all pieces of ordnance, cannon-balls,
shot, shells, small-arms, and side-arms and equipments, procured for
the use of the armies of the United States ; and to direct the construc-
tion of all cannon and carriages, and every implement and apparatus
for ordnance, and all ammunition-wagons, travelling-forges, and artifi-
cers' wagons ; the inspection and proving of powder, and the prepara-
tion of all kinds of ammunition and ordnance stores. And it shall also
be the duty of the colonel or senior officer of the Ordnance Department
to furnish estimates, and, under the direction of the Secretary for the
Department of War, to make contracts and purchases for procuring the
necessary supplies of arms, equipments, ordnance, and ordnance stores ;
(Act Feb. 8, 1815.)

l.'X, MILITARY DICTIONARY. [0»o.

The colonel of the Ordnance Department shall organize and attach
to regiments, corps, or garrisons, such number of artificers, \\ith proper
tools, carriages, and apparatus, under such regulations and restrictions
relative to their government and number as, in his judgment, with
the approbation of the Secretary for the Department of \\ ar. may be
considered necessary ;. (Act Feb. 8, 1815.)

The colonel of the Ordnance Department, or the senior officer of
that department of any district, shall execute all orders of the Secretary
for the Department of War, ami. in time of war, tho orders of any
general, or field-officer, commanding any army, garrison, or detach-
ment, for the supply of all arms, ordnance, ammunition, carriages,
forges and Apparatus, for garrison, field, or siege service; (Act 1V1>.
8, 1815.)

The costs of repairs and damages done to arms, equipments, or im-
plements in the use of the armies of tho United States, shall be deducted
from the pay of any officer or soldier in whose care or use the said arms,
equipments, or implements were, when the said damages occurred ;
provided, the said damages were occasioned by the abuse or negligence
of the said officer or soldier. And it is hereby made the d>r
officer commanding the regiments, corps, garrisons, or detachments, to
make, once every two months, or oflener if so directed, a written report
to the colonel of the Ordnance Department, stating all damage^ to arn.s.
equipments, and implements belonging to his command, noting those,
occasioned by negligence or abuse, and naming tho officer or soldier l>y
whose negligence or abuse the said damages were occasioned; (Act
Feb. 8, 1815.)

The colonel of the Ordnance Department, under the direction of the
iry of War, is hereby authorized to draw up a system of regula-
tions for tho government of the Ordnance Department ; forms of
returns and reports; and for the uniformity of manufacture of" all
arms, ordnance, ordnance stores, implements, and apparatus, and for
th. repairing and better preservation of the same ; (Act Feb.
8, 1815.)

dations for the £overnmcnt of the Ordnance Department, <kc,,
have been drawn up in conformity with the authority conferred l.y the
»ct of 1815. (Consult Ordnance Regulvt 1, 186&) Officers and en-
listed men of the Ordnance Department subject to tho Rules and Arti-
cles of War ; (Act April 5, Is:

ORDNANCE AND ORDNANCE STORES— comprehend all
cann • rs, mortars, cannon-balls, shot, and shells, for Ian

all gun-carriages, mortar beds, caissons, and travelling forges,

ORD.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

437

with their equipments ; and all other apparatus and machines required
for the service and manoeuvres of artillery, in garrisons, at sieges, or in
the field ; together with the materials for their construction, preserva-
tion, and repair. Also, all small-arms, side-arms, and accoutrements,
for the artillery, cavalry, infantry, and riflemen ; all ammunition for
ordnance and small-arms ; and all stores of expenditure for the service
of the various arms ; materials for the construction and repair of ord-
nance buildings ; utensils and stores for laboratories, including standard
weights, gauges, and measures ; and all other tools and utensils required
for the performance of ordnance duty. The ordinary articles of camp
equipage and pioneers' tools, such as axes, spades, shovels, mattocks,
&c., are not embraced as ordnance supplies. Wagons, &c., for the
transport service of the army, and horse equipments, are also furnished
by the Ordnance Department when practicable. Ordnance supplies are
provided by open purchase, fabrication, or by contract.

The following are the kinds and calibres of cannon used in the land
service of the United States :

KIND OF ORDNANCE.

CALIBRE.

MATERIAL.

WEIGHT.

f Field... |

INS | Siege and garrison

6-pounder...
12-pounder...

12-pounder...
18-pounder...
24-pounder

{• Bronze
Y Iron

Ibs.
884
1,757

3,690
4,913
5 790

32-pounder...

7,200

42-pouuder...
12-pounder...

8,465

220

Field |
HOWITZERS...."

12-pounder...
24-pounder...
32-pounder...

8-inch

v Bronze

788
1,318
1,920

2 614

Siege and garrison

24-pounder

1 476

Sea-coast

8-inch .......

5,740

CoLUMBIADS . . \

10-inch
8-inch

9,500
9,240

iLi^ht . ... -S

10-inch
8-inch

15,400
930

Heavy -j

10-inch
10-inch

1,852
5,775

13-inch
1 6-inch

) ^

11,500
1,500

1 Coehorn

>• Bronze

164

1 Eprouvette

220

M1L1TA11Y DICTION ABY.

[Ow>.

A 12-inch columbiad, of cast iron, has also been made for trial ; and
recently Captain Koduian's 15-inch gun, n«»w ut Fort Monroe, was cast
at I'iKsburg, I'a. It weighs 4U,100 Ibs. (See COLUMBIAD.) For sev-
eral pieces of ordnance see articles COLUMBIAD; MOKTAK; Moi
ARTILLERY ; RIFHD ORDNANCE. The Caisson, Travelling Forge, Sea-
coast Carriage, and 24-pdr. Siege Carriage, are shown in Figs. 1,V,»,
160, 161, and 1

Cannon made of bronze are commonly called brass cannon.

The cascable is the part of the gun in rear of the base-ring ; it is
composed generally of the following parts : the knob, the neck, the
jSUet, and the bate of the breech.

Fio. 159.

The Caisson is composed of a body and a Umber.

1. Two side rails of body. & Axle-tree of Umber.

8. Block nf body. 9. A pole.

8. Axle-tree. 10. The prop.

4, ft. Two Ammunition chests. 1 1. A fork.

«. Spare* I v_». I'intl.-hook.

T. Spare pole. 13. Ammunition cheat

The base of the breech is a frustum of a cone, or a spherical segment,
in rear of the breech.

The base-ring is a projecting band of metal adjoining the base of the
breech, and connected with the body of the gun by a concave moulding.

Fio. 180.

TKAYCLU1TO FOBOB.

The body Is competed of—

1. TworaiU;

2. A stock ;

4. Tho bcllown-room :

A. The In nor r<xim of bo'lows-hotute;

«. The con!

IMM;

R. Alr-plpo;
9. The vice ;
10. The prop.

The breech is the mass of solid metal behind the bottom of the bore,
extending to the rear of the base-ring. *

Oiux]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

439

The reinforce is the thickest part of the body of the gun, in front of
the base-ring; if there is more than one reinforce, that which is next to
the base-ring is called the first reinforce ; the other, the second rein-
force. In some howitzers, instead of a reinforce, there is a recess in the
metal around the chamber next to the base-ring.

The reinforce band is at the junction of the first and second reinforces
in the heavy howitzers and columbiads.

The chase is the conical part of the gun in front of the reinforce.

FIG. 161.

SEA-COAST CARRIAGE.

1. Gun-carriage, composed of two iron cheeks.

2. Chassis.

3. Iron transom straps.

4. Manoeuvring wheels.

I. Pintle or fixed centre.

5. Elevating screw.

6, 6. Traverse wheels,

7, 7. Ilurters.

8. Elevating arc.

The astragal and fillets in field-guns, and the chase-ring in other
pieces, are the mouldings at the front end of the chase.

The neck is the smallest part of the piece in front of the astragal or
the chase-ring.

The swell of the muzzle is the largest part of the gun in front of the
neck. It is terminated by the muzzle mouldings, which in field and siege
guns consist of the Up and the fillet. In the sea-coast guns and heavy
howitzers and columbiads there is no fillet. In field and siege howitzers
and in mortars a muzzle band takes the place of the swell of the muzzle.

The face of the piece is the terminating plane perpendicular to the
axis of the bore.

The trunnions are cylinders, the axes of which are in a line perpen-
dicular to the axis of the bore, and in the same plane with that axis.

The rimbases are short cylinders, uniting the trunnions with the
body of the gun. The ends of the rimbases, or the shoulders of the
trunnions, are planes perpendicular to the axis of the trunnions.

The bore of the piece includes all the part bored out, viz. : the cylin-
der, the chamber, (if there is one,) and the conical or spherical surface
connecting them.

The chamber, in howitzers, columbiads, and mortars, is the smaller

440

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[OiD.

part of the bore, which contains the charge of powder. In h«>v
and col u in binds the chamber is cylindrical ; it is united with tho largo
cylinder of the bore by a conical surface ; tho angles of intersection of
this conical surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber are
rounded (in profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch siege how it/, r, the.

chamber is united with tho cyl-
inder of the bore by a spher-
ical surface, in order that the
shell may, when necessary, b.«
inserted without a sabot. A
conical chamber which is join-
ed to the cylinder of the bore
by a portion of a spherical sur-
(as in tho 8-inch and 10-
inch light mortars,) is called a
Gomer chamber.

The bottom of the bore is a
plane perpendicular t<> th
united with the sides (in pn "file)
by an arc of a circle, the radius
of which is one-fourth of the
diameter of the bore nt the
bottom. In the columbiada,
the heavy sea-coast mortars,
the stone mortar, and tho
cprouvette, the bottom of tho
bore is hemispherical.

Tho muzzle, or mouth of
the bore, is chamfered to a
depth of 0.1.") inch t«« 0.:> inch,
(varying with the si/.e of the
b..re.) in order to piv\. nt abra-
sion, and to facilitate loading.
Tho true windage is tho
difference between the true di-
ameters of tho boro and of
the ball.

The axis of the vent is in a
plane passing through tho axis of tho b«>n , perpendicular to tho axis
of the trunnions. In guns, and in howitzers having cylindrical cham-
bers, the vent is placed at an angle of 80° \\ilh the axis of the li.,rc, and

ORD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 441

it enters the bore at a distance from the bottom equal to one-fourth the
diameter of the bore. The diameter of the vent is two-tenths of an
inch, in all pieces except the eprouvette, in which it is one-tenth. The
vents of brass guns are bored in vent pieces, of wrought copper, which
are screwed into the gun.

The lock piece is a block of metal at the outer opening of the vent,
in some pieces of ordnance, to facilitate attaching a lock to the cannon.

The natural line of sight is a line drawn in a vertical plane through
the axis of the piece, from the highest point of the base-ring to the high-
est point in the swell of the muzzle, or to the top of the sight, if there
is one.

The natural angle of sight is the angle which the natural line of sight
makes with the axis of the piece.

The dispart is the difference of the semi-diameters of the base-ring
and the swell of the muzzle, or the muzzle band. It is therefore the
tangent of the natural angle of sight, to a radius equal to the distance
from the rear of the base-ring to the highest point of the swell of the
muzzle, the sight, or the front of the muzzle band, as the case may be.

The preponderance of the breech of the gun is the excess of weight
of the part in rear of the trunnions over that in front : it is measured
by the weight which it is necessary to apply in the plane of the muzzle
to balance the gun when suspended freely on the axis of the trunnions.

The handles of the gun are placed with their centres over the centre
of gravity of the piece. The 6-pounder gun and the 12-pounder howit-
zer have no handles. The handle of a heavy mortar consists of a clevis,
which is attached by a bolt to the ear of the mortar.

The eprouvette mortar is cast with a sole, which fits into a cast-iron
bed-plate, bolted to the platform.

To designate a piece of ordnance. — State the kind, the calibre, (in
inches if it be foreign ordnance,) the material, the weight, the inspector's
initials, the number, the country in which it was made, the date, the
place of fabrication, the founder's name, the name inscribed on it, its
condition for service, the kind of chamber, if any ; whether it has a
vent piece, a lock piece, handles ; the ornaments, and any particular
marks which may serve to identify it.

There are two national armories : the Springfield Armory, Spring-
field, Mass., and the Harper's Ferry Armory, Harper's Ferry, Va.
Their principal business is the manufacture of the rifle musket and rifle ;
making components, and altering other arms. The armory of James J.
Ames, Chickopee, Mass., furnishes swords, sabres, and field-artillery ;
that of Samuel Colt, Hartford, Conn., Colt's revolving pistols, rifles, and

442 MILITAKY DICTloNAKY. [Om>.

carbines; Sharp's Manufacturing Company, Hartford, Conn.. S
carbines and rifles ; Charles Jackson, Pro\ id.-ne,-, II. 1 .
bines; and Maynard's Arms Company, Washington, D. C., MaynarJ's
rifles and carbines. The arms of the foreg< 'imr manufactories have been
tried more or less in sen ire ami by boards, and are considered good
cavalry arms. The best arms for infantry, however, arc the United
States rifle musket and rifle. The foundries for cannon are the South
Boston, C. Alger Ac Co., Boston, Mass. ; the West P. .int. K. P. P.
Cold Spring, N. Y. ; the Trcdegar, J. R. Anderson & ('..., llidnn. n.l,
Va.; the Bellona, J. L. Archer, Black Heath, Va., and the Pennsylvania,
Knap, Rudd & Co., Pittsburg, Pa. The following arc the arsenals for
construction of carriages, &c., or repair: Kennebcc Arsenal, Augusta,
Maine; Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass. ; Champlain Ars« nal,
Vcrgcn: • . \ '. : Watervliet Arsenal, West Troy, N. Y. ; New ^
Arsenal, New York; Alleghany Arsenal, Pittsburg, Pa.; I'rankfonl
1 1, Bridcsburg, Pa. ; Pikcsvillo Arsenal, Pikesville, Md. ;
Washington Arsenal. Washington, D. C. ; Fort Monroe Arsenal, Old
Point Comfort, Va. ; N. C. Arsenal, Fayetteville, N. C. ; Chai
Arsenal, Charleston, S. C. ; Augusta Arsenal, Augusta, Ga. ; Mount
Vernon Arsenal, Mount Vernoii, Ala. ; Appalac -hicola Arsenal, Chatta-
hooche, Florida ; Baton Rouge Arsenal, Baton Rouge, La. ; Littl

al, Little Roek, Ark. ; St. Louis Arsenal, St. Louis, Mo. ; De-
troit Arsenal, DearbornvilK', Mich.; Benieia Arsenal, llen'n ia, Cul. ;
Texas Arsenal, San Antonio, Texas.

The principal articles furnished by the Ordnance Depart m< :
fabrication at armories an<l arsenals and by pun-hase iVom foundries.
and manufacturing establi>hnuiiils. are in inventor'n-s ela ;i.»\\s :

PART I.

ARTILLERY, SMALL-ARMS, AMMUNITION, AND OTHER ORDNANCE STORES.

CLASS 1. Cannon. — The m.-an wei-ht «-f ea.'li kiml «-f ordnance, as
well as the number of pieces, should be entered in the inventory.

CLASS 2. Artillery Ctirritiycs include mortar beds, dilK T. -i,t Lrun-
carriages, battery wagons, forges, die. "The li» Id-carriage complete" in-
I the limber and ammunition chest, but no implements. The "case-
mate, or In mge complefr'' includes the upper or gun-carriage,
and the chassis, with al! tin- wheels, but no implements. It is better,

r the gun carriages and the chassis separate!;

CLASS 3. Artillery Implements and Equipments include all im-
by artillerists. A set «>f harne^ ("..[• two

horses in< \ thing n-(juired for l\m-,. and nose-

baps, which fed separately.

OKD.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 443

CLASS 4. Artillery Projectiles and their Appendages unprepared for
Service.

CLASS 5. Artillery Projectiles with their Appendages prepared for
Service.

A round of fixed ammunition is used to indicate the projectile with
its cartridge prepared for use, although in some cases they are not
actually connected together. A shot strapped, or a canister, stand of
grape, d*c., indicate the projectile prepared for making fixed ammuni-
tion, or for service.

CLASS 6. Small-arms include muskets, rifles, carbines, pistols,
swords, sabres.

CLASS 7. Accoutrements, Implements, and Equipments for Small-
arms, and Horse Equipments for Cavalry.

CLASS 8. Powder, Ammunition for Small-arms and Materials.

CLASS 9. Parts or Incomplete Sets of any of the Articles inserted
in the preceding classes.

CLASS 10. Miscellaneous includes gins, sling-carts, hand-carts,
trucks, handspikes, rollers, &c., for mechanical manoeuvres, eprouvettes
and beds, gauges, callipers, &c.

PART II.

TOOLS AND MATERIALS, CLOTHS, ROPES, THREAD, ETC., FORAGE, IRON-
MONGERY, LABORATORY STORES.

Lumber includes gun-carriage timber, and building materials. The
number of pieces of timber for each part of a gun-carriage to be stated
separately.. Other plank, &c., to be stated in board measure.

LEATHER AND MATERIALS FOR HARNESS- WORK, PAINTS, OILS, GLASS, ETC.,
STATIONERY, TOOLS, MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.

To prevent the rapid decay of the wooden material of which sea-
coast and garrison carriages are mainly composed, experiments have
been successfully made by the Ordnance Department to ascertain
whether suitable iron-carriages might not be substituted. Such car-
riages have been devised and fabricated even more convenient for ser-
vice than those of wood, and, at the same time, fully as cheap in first
cost, and of far greater durability ; and more easily moved and stored.
With the aid of the practical experience of officers of the different
mounted corps, a new uniform model for horse equipments has also
been adopted. The attention of the Ordnance Department has been
given to the subject of "rifle cannon" and projectiles for the same.
Many varieties of such cannon and projectiles have been devised and
brought to the notice of the department for examination. Actual

41 I MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ow>.

experiment is necessary for a comparison of the relative merits of the
different devices, and the selection of the best. Such experiments have
been commenced under the direction and supervision of a board of
artillery and ordnance officers, who have reported their opinion " that
the era of smooth-bore field artillery has passed away, and that the
period of the adoption of rifle cannon for siege and garrison service is
not remote. The superiority of elongated projectiles, whether solid or
hollow, with the rifle rotation, as regards economy of. ammuniti
tent of range, and uniformity and accuracy of effect, over the present
system is decided and unquestionable." Attention has been given
also to experiments and tests of gunpowder with a view to ascertain the.
composition and manufacture of a powder which will impart a given
velocity and range to a projectile, with the least strain or injury to the
gun. (Set GUNPOWDER.) Varieties of the breech-loading carbines are
now on actual trial in service, either of which is probably an effective
arm for cavalry. Uniformity of armament for the same kind of.-
is, however, essential both for tactical instruction ami f«ir adaptation to
ammunition in depot, and the one arm to be adopted must be not only
an effective, but the most effective of the kind. Further tri.i
more extended experience, will bo requisite for the selection which
may yet fall on an arm not now invented. (See ARMS ; ARTILLERY ;
CARBINES ; FIRING ; RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

ORDNANCE SERGEANTS. The Secretary of War may select
from the sergeants of the line of the army, who shall have faithfully
served eight years in the service, four years of which in th^erade of
non-commissioned officer, as many ordnance sergeants as the scrviee
may require, not to exceed one for each military post; -whose duty it
shall be to receive and preserve the ordnance, arms, ammunition and
other military stores, at the post, under the direction of the command-
ing officer of the same, and under such reirulations as shall be prescribed
by the Secretary of War, and who shall receive for tlu-ir scrvi. •<
dollars per month,in addition to their pay in the line; (Arf A|

ORGANIZING. " Congress shall have power to provide for or-
.' rning and disciplining the militia." (See CONSTITUTION.)

ORILLON — is a projecting tower at the shoulder angle of a bast i< .n.
covering the flank from <-\trri«»r v'u-w. frequently found in old fortreMM.

ORPHANS— of officers who may die by reason of wound
in se^ half pay for five years. (See PENSION.)

OUT I, INK OR TRACING— is the succession of lines that show
the figure of the works, and indicate the direction in which the defensive
nnntoi are laid out, in order to obtain a proper dcfcn

OPT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. . 445

OUTPOSTS — should not only secure an army against surprise, but
also be so arranged as to enable the outposts to avoid an engagement and
not be enveloped by an enemy. Marshal Bugeaud has elaborated a sys-
tem for outposts well worth attention. Its principal feature is the occu-
pation at night of all avenues of approach (front, flank, and rear) to the
position occupied by the detached corps, by squads of men instructed in
concerted signals. These little squads do not form a continuous chain,
and are each independent. It is not necessary that they should be large,
for their duty is to warn. The service exacted from them is explained
with clearness and precision — the signals by which the commanding
officer corresponds with the posts and the posts with him, are given.
These signals should be made by petards of one or two pounds of
powder. About a dozen petards in all will be necessary. The posts
will be made to understand what the different reports of the petard indi-
cate, and these signals must be few in number. The little posts should
be on the circumference of a circle having the village occupied by the
detached corps as its centre, and at such a distance as would prevent
an enemy, without warning from the night posts, from enveloping the
village.

A corps detached at one or more leagues from the main body ought
not only to be able to avoid a surprise, but also to prevent an enemy
from cutting off its retreat. Marshal Bugeaud accordingly recommends
that the chief of a detachment that is to establish itself for many days,
should, on arriving in position, lose no time ; but, without waiting to
rest, occupy himself in reconnoitring the ground in his neighborhood,
within a radius of one or two leagues. Pie should take with him the
officers intrusted with the care of the camp for the night, some horse-
men, and a few intelligent inhabitants j scan the course of the roads
and pathways crossed in making his rounds, and take notes. This
reconnoissance finished, he will be able to judge what will be the circle
that an enemy would probably make around his post, in order to en-
velop it without their expectation of meeting any men in observation.
This circle Marshal Bugeaud calls the supposed circle, and beyond this
line he advises little posts during the night only, drawn from the posts
occupied during the day. These little posts must be without fire or
animals, and sometimes on the right and sometimes on the left of the
pathways, and their position should be constantly varied. In the plan,
(Fig. 163,) the village X is occupied by two battalions detached three
leagues distant from the army. Upon arriving at the post, the chief of
the detachment establishes the usual chain marked by the inner circle.
This circle is about 800 metres in diameter, or 2,400 in circumference.

446

MILITARY DICTIOXAKY.

[Our.

OUT.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

447

After rcconnoissance, little posts for the night are sent to the points
H I L M N O P Q R G. The enemy is signalled at II IG. Immediately
the chief of the two battalions announces, by reports of the petard, that

FIG. 164.

the different posts must occupy the place of assembly in rear of O.
The order is given to rally, and the route followed is designated on the
plan thus Having re-united his men, the chief of the detach-
ment may, according to circumstances, await daylight or continue his
retreat.

Ordinary arrangement of Outposts composed of both Infantry and

448

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Cavalry. — The best lino of observation in this example, (I"j. 1 »'•!.')
is from the lake N and tho height O, on the right flank on the road L.
The advanced guard A, consisting of a brigade of cavalry and a «;: .
of infantry, is placed behind the village B, and outposts are to bo posted
to guard against an attack by tho enemy arriving from tho dii

Fio.

of thf village C; 4 companies of cavalry, 2 regiments of infantry, and 2
pieces of foot artillery are detailed to furnish the outposts and reserve.
D is tho reserve, consisting of 1$ companies of cavalry, 11 com-
panies of infantry, and 2 pieces of foot artillery.

8 eornpanies of infantry, which furnishes tho
two pi< k * 1 '. each of which posts 5 pairs of sentinels.

OVE.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

449

E' is an infantry main guard of 3 companies, which supports the
two cavalry pickets H, each of which consists of a platoon, and posts 3
pair of videttes. E" is an infantry main guard of two companies, to sup-
port the cavalry picket H', which posts 4 videttes, and H", which posts
1 vidette. E'" is an infantry main guard of 2 companies, which holds
>the cemetery and supports the cavalry picket H"', posting 3 videttes.
Ordinary arrangement of Outposts composed of Cavalry alone. — In
this example, (Fig. 165,) the most advantageous line of observation is
that proceeding from the village L, through the villages M and N,
thence following the ridge O to the lake P. The extent of this line is a
little more than 5 miles. The advanced guard A, composed of a bri-
gade of cavalry and a division of infantry, is in the village A, and it
is necessary to post outposts to guard it against the enemy, expected
by the roads B ; 10 companies of cavalry and 2 pieces of horse artillery
are detailed for the outposts and reserve. C is the reserve, consisting
of 4 companies and 2 guns. D, D', and Dfl are the main guards, con-
sisting of one company each. E, E, E', E', E", E'", are the pickets,
of a platoon each. H is an independent picket of one platoon, observ-
ing the road K. (Consult BUGEAUD and MCCLELLAN.)

OUTWORKS — are such works as are constructed between the
enceinte and the glacis, of whatever kiml.

OVEN. Ovens are always
provided in garrisons, so that
the troops may bake their own
bread. A large saving of flour
is thus made, which is the most
considerable element of the
post fund. A brick oven, 3m.
33 in breadth, 4m. 50 in depth,
and Om. 75 in height, contains
500 rations. It may be con-
structed in less than 24 hours.
The cylindrical form is greatly
to be preferred, as it is more
easily made and requires less
material than the ordinary
form. The want of brick for
the arch and fireplace of ovens
may be supplied in the field
by two gabions of semi-cir-
cular or semi-elliptical form
29

FIG. 166.

BRICK OVEN, DIMENSIONS IN METRES.
FIG. 167.

OVEN OF GABIONS, DIMENSIONS IN METRES.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Ov«.

1m. 44 in diameter; the basket work is not so close as the ordinary
gabion, and is 1m. t*J2 in height. The two gabions, resting one over
the oth.-r upon the flat side, make a cradle 2m. «'.l !<>ng, 1m. 44
broad, and Om. 7v! high. The interior mid exterior is then plastered
with clay, which must penetrate the interstices of the basket work.
The front and back part is shut in the same manner, or with sods.
The cradle is then covered with earth to retain the heat, and in order
that the superincumbent weight may not cause it to give way. Withes
are attached to the top of the basket work, and passed vertically
through the embankment, and then fastened to the longitudinal beam of
a wooden horse straddled against the exterior curve. Eight of these
furnaces may be made in 24 hours. Ovens may also be made of wood or
of earth.

The wooden oven (Fig. 1C8) is made by digging an excavation of
3m. 20 in length by 2m. 40 in breadth, and Om. 50 in depth, making the
fireplace slightly descending towards the mouth. This trench is cov-
ered with pieces of wood of Om. 15 to Om. 25 square, pL. vd close to-

Fio. 188.

Fio. 1C9.

..\ ! -.- N (room

ovi N or run ii

gether ; the wood is covered with earth carefully packed, the chimney -
place is sodded. The fireplace is dried by heating for 7 or 8 limns,
and subsequent heatings require two hours. Such ovens resist very
well five or six bakings. They require only two hours for const ruction
with prepand \\I»M,I, and if the wood should burn, the fire may be ex-
tinguished by closing the chimney and mouth, and in half an hour tho
wood may be replaced, if consumed. To construct rapidly an earthen
oven dig a slope with a step, and on its prolongation, dig tho length of
the oven ir; sopnrated from the step by a mass of earth t«> be.

pierced mouth of the oven. The : trench, \\hen finished, to

beOm. 80 in depth. Om. 40 in breadth, and 2m. 40 in length. Then
dig laterally portions of an elliptical arch in such a manner as to make

?AL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 451

the arch 1m. 70 in breadth. This work finished, pierce the mouth and
cover the trench with from three to five sods as arch stones, leaving a
chimney-place to the bottom. Ovens for from 100 to 250 rations may
be thus made. Dough is kneaded with 6 parts of wheat, 4 of water,
and a little salt, a half part to the hundred parts. (Consult Memorial
des Officiers d> Infanterie et de Cavalerie.)

OVER. Authority ; command ; above. (See OATH OF OFFICE.)

PACES. The length of each pace of the infantry soldier is 28
inches from heel to heel ; which he must be trained to take in proper
cadence and in perfect steadiness.

PALISADES — are strong palings six or seven inches broad on
each side, having about one foot of their summits sharpened in a py-
ramidal form. They are frequently placed at the foot of slopes, as an
obstacle to the enemy. A large beam or lintel, sunk about 2 or 3 feet,
is often used to unite them more firmly. Their tops should be a foot
above the crest of the parapet behind which they stand, and in field-for-
tifications they form a very good obstruction, if protected from artil-
lery. An expeditious mode of planting them, is to sink a small ditch,
about 2 feet 6 inches deep, and the same breadth, and to nail the ends
of the palisades to a piece of timber, or the trunk of a tree, laid on the
bottom of it, and then fill in the earth, and ram it well. (Fig. 170.)

The palisades should be 9 or 10 feet loiig, so that when finished, the
ends shall beat least 7 feet above the ground. They may be made
out of the stems of young trees of 6 or 8 inches diameter ; but stout
rails, gates with the ends knocked off, planks split in half, cart shafts,
ladders, and a variety of such things, will come into play, where more
regular palisades are not to be had. If the materials are weak, a cross-
piece must be nailed to them near the top, to prevent their being broken
down, and they must not be placed so close together as to cover an
enemy. (Fig. 171.)

FIG. 170.

452 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [PAE.

PARADE. An assemblage of troops in a regular and prescribed

manner, for guard-mount in*;, lidd-cxm -ises, or dress parade.

PARADOS — is a traverse, covering the interior of a work from
reverse fire.

PARALLELS — in the attack of a place, are wide trenches, which
afford the besieged troops a free covered communication between their
various batteries and approaches, and a secure position for the -
of the trenches. (Sft SIKOK.)

PARAPET. (See FORTIFICATION.) In field works, while the
height is fixed at about seven feet, the thickness of the parapet varies
according to the kind of fire it is intended to resist. Should the ground
in front be inaccessible to artillery at 800 yards, the parapet is con-
structed of dimensions sufficient only to resist musketry, or from two
to two and a half feet thick. To resist field-artillery, a thickness of
from six to ten feet is required.

PARBUCKLES— are 4-inch ropes, 12 feet long, with a hook at one
end and a loop at the other. To parbuckle a gun, is to roll it in either
direction from the spot in which it rests. To do this, place the gun on
skids, and if it is to be moved up or down a slope, two 44-inch r«>pes
are made fast to some place on the upper part of the slope, tin- ends are
carried under the chase and breech of the gun ivspictiv.lv round it, and
up the slope. If the running ends of these ropes are hauled upon, the
gun ascends ; if eased off, it descends. If the ground is horizontal,
handspikes only are necessary to move the gun.

PARDON. Every officer authorized to order a general nmrt -mar-
tial, shall have power to pardon or mitigate any punishment ordered
by such court, except the sentence of death ; or of cashiering an otlieer,
whieh, in cases where ho has no authority (by ART. 65) to carry them

\ocution, ho may suspend, until the pleasure of the Presi.;
the United States can be known, which suspension, together with e<.pie$
of the proceedings of the court-martial, the said oflieer shall immediately
transmit to the President for his determination. And the colonel or
commanding officer of the regiment or garrison \vhero any regimental
or garrison court-martial shall be held, may pardon or mitigate any
punishment ordered by such court to be inflicted ; (ART. 89.)

PARK — is literally an inclosed space. In military language it
means the apace occupied by tho animals, wagons, pontoons, and mate-
rial of all kinds, whether of powder, ordnanee stores, hospital stores.
and provisions when parked. Tho meaning is also extended to embrace
not only the space occupied, but also the whole of tho objects occupy ing

PAY.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 453

the space. We say park of wagons, park of artillery ; reserve park ;
division park, &c. ; camp park ; engineer park.

PAROLE. Word distinguished from the countersign. The latter
is given to all sentinels ; the former only to officers of the guard, and
those authorized to inspect guards or give orders to guards. Giving a
different parole from that received punishable with death, or according
to the discretion of a court-martial ; (ART. 53.)

Parole is also a pledge of honor required of prisoners when they are
liberated on parole.

PARTISAN. The name given to small corps detached from the
main body of an army, and acting independently against the enemy.
In partisan warfare, much liberty is allowed to partisans. Continually
annoying the flanks and rear of columns, they intercept convoys, cut off
communications, attack detachments, and endeavor to spread terror every-
where. This kind of warfare is advantageously pursued only in moun-
tainous or thickly-wooded districts. In an open country, cavalry very
readily destroys partisans. The Spanish race make active partisans.
The party is called a guerilla, the partisan a guerillero.

PASS. A straight, difficult, and narrow passage, which, well de-
fended, shuts up the entrance to a country. A short permission to be
absent given to a soldier.

PASSAGE OF RIVERS. f The passage is effected by surprise or
by main force, and detachments are thrown by one means or the other
upon the enemy's bank of the river before proceeding to the construc-
tion of bridges. The passage by force ought always to be favored by
diversions upon other points. Infantry cross bridges without keeping
step. Cavalry dismount in crossing, leading their horses. Wagons,
heavily loaded, pass at a gallop. (^BRIDGE; DEFILE; DISTANCES; FORDS.)

PASSAGES — are openings cut in the parapet of the covered way,
close to the traverses, in order to continue the communication through
all parts of the covered way. (See TRAVERSE.)

PASSPORTS. Foreigners goinsj into the Indian territory without
passports subject to a penalty of $1,000. (See INDIAN ; WAR.)

PATROL. A small party detached from a guard to gain infor-
mation from a neighboring post, to scour a village or wood, or to sup-
ply the place of an insufficiency of sentinels by making constant
rounds.

PAWL. The click or detent which falls into the teeth of a ratchet-
wheel to prevent its motion backward.

PAY.

454

MILITARY Dl«

ADJITANT-OEJIERAL • OCPABTIfKIfT.

(ERAL a DEPARTMENT.

IfcBJIIlii |in«ral-Colonel .

Q«art«rma«ttr-c«ocr«)— Brigadier-general

At*l»iant gumrtermaner-general— Colonel

Deputy Uuartermaiter-Eeneral— Lleut.-colonel

Deputy yuarterraa»ter-f«
Quamrma*«cr— Major

Auuuut vnanern

CfommlMary of Subtlitence. In addition to t

pay, *o, of Llent J

PAT DEPARTMENT.
Paymajter-feneral, $2,740 per annum. . ,
Deputy Paymaiter-Keneral

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT.

$2.7 W per annum

of ten year*' wrvlce

of law than ten year*' »err Ice

Burfeon* of ten yean' w-rrlce

8ur|«otu of fire yean' Mrrloe

Jftlrtin Surreou of IBM than Ore years' Mrtlce

OmcRRi or THE CORPS or ENGINEERS. CORP* or
TOPOO. KNO, AND ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT.

Ool«Ml

OrncERd or Motrmo DaAOoom, CATALBT,
KiruMEH. AMD UOMT ARTILLERY.

A Jjouoi aiM Be^iiMiiial miaM.rinai.tir.' In 'addition 'j
OmCBRi Of ARTILLERT AND INPANTRT.

TO
70

;,.t r.:i

.'..i -.1

r, i 1 1

:,.i :..i

M -.1
.', 1 | !

68 88

1000

41 00

«1 >M

6J :-.
41 M
41 OO

41 <••
.11 »

41 00
41 00

•2

41 00
41 00
41 00

-.11 .Vi

41 m

41 00

8969

."' VI

•/.. v,

'"•

£8

S14 SO

HI ••>
• •«)
l«i oo
154 50

iXS

| , (M

m "i

111 00

•jg ,»
i-i ,.)

n: -s
JIT -a

:-;•:;

I. . v»

I • -1

I 1 -1

12418

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 455

DATES OF THE ACTS OF CONGRESS ESTABLISHING THE PRESENT RATES OT PAY, ETC.

Act of May 28, 1793, Sec. 5— Feb. 15, 1855— Feb. 21, 1857— March 3, 1859.

« Jan. 11, 1812, Sec. 6-Mar. 30, 1814, Sec. 9— April 24, 1816, Sec. 9 ft 12— Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

« Sept. 26, 1850, Sec. 2-Marcb 3, 1845, Sec. 1-Keb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

" Jan. 11, 1812, S -c. 6— April 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1S57, Sec. 1.

«' April 12,1808, Sec. 4— Mar. 30, 1814, Sec. 9— Apr. 24, 1816, Sec. 9& 12— Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

" " " " 6— April 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12— March. 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

Act of March 3, 1813, Sec. 3— March 30, 1814, Sec. 9— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.
" " 1847, Sec. 2— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

" 1813, Sec. 3-April 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.
" July 5, 1838, Sec. 7— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.
" Mar. 2, 1849, Sec. 4— Mar. 3, 1813, Sec. 3— Apr. 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12— Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

Act of April 14, 1818, Sec. 5— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

Act of Mar. 28, 1812, Sec. 2— Mar. 30, 1841, Sec. 9— Apr. 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12— Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21. 1857, Sec. 1.
" July 5, 1838, Sec. 9— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

" March 2, 1851, Sec. 7- « " " " « «

» July 5, 1838, Sec. 9— « " " " «

Act of April 14, 1818, Sec. 6— July 5, 1838, Sec. 13- March 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857. Sec. 1.
" July 5, 1838, Sec. 11— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.
" March 2, 1829, Sec. 2— " " " " " "

« July 5, 1838, Sec. 11— »
« March 2, 1821, Sec. 8— " " " " « «

Act of April 24, 1816, Sec. 3— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

" March 3, 1847, Sec. 13— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

" April 24, 1816, Sec. 3— July 5, 1838, Sec. 24— March 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Seo. 1.

Act of April 14, 1818, Sec. 2— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

" June 30, 1834, Sec. 2 & 3-July 5, 1838, Sec. 24— March 3, 1345, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

|| 2&3- II

Act of July 5, 1838, Sec. 2, 5 & 13-March 3, 1845, Sec. 1-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

April 29, 1812, Sec. 4-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

Act of April 12, 1808, Sec. 4— March 30, 1814, Sec. 9-March 3, 1845, Sec. 1-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.
" A pr. 24, 1816, Sec. 9 & 12— "

March 2, 1827, Sec. 1— March .% 1845, Sec. 1-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.J
Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

" April 29, 1812, Pec. 4— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.
< " April 12. 1808, Sec. 4.
} " May 30, 1796, Sec. 12-Feb. 11, 1847, Sec. 4— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

Actof Mar. 16, 1802, Sec. 4, 5— Mar. 30, 1S14, Sec. 9— Apr. 24, 1816, Sec. 9, 12— Mar. 3, 1845, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.
|| April 24, 1816, Sec. 9, 12-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

March 2, 1827, Sec. 1-Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

April 29, 1812, Sec. 4— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

March 16, 1802, Sec. 4— April 24, 1816, Sec. 9, 12— March 3, 1845. S

May 30, 1796, Sec. 12— Feb. 11, 1847, Sec. 4— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

Act of August 23, 1842, Sec. 2— March 3, 1849, Sec. 2— March 3, 1853, Sec. 1— Feb. 21, 1857, Seo. 1.
Act of August 23, 1842, Sec. 2— Feb. 21, 1857, Sec. 1.

456 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [PAT.

1. The officer in command of a company is allowed $10 per
month for the responsibility of clothing, arms, and accoutrements;
(Act March 2, 1827 ; Sec. 2.)

2. Subaltern officers, employed on the General Sta/, and receiving
increased pay therefor, are not entitled to the additional or fourth ra-
tion provided by the Act of March 2, 1827 ; Sec. 2.

3. Additional rations allowed to officers while commanding separate
armies, divisions, departments, posts, armories, and arsenals ; (Act
March 3, 1797, Sec. 4 ; Act March 16, 1802, Sec. 5 ; Act August 23,
1842, Sec. 6 ; Act March 3, 1849, Sec. 1.)

4. Every commissioned officer of the line or staff, exclusive of
general officers, receives an additional ration per diem for every five
years' service ; (Acts July 5, 1838 ; July 7, 1838.)

5. The allowances for forage and servants are contingent.

6. The following is the monthly pay of non-commissioned officers and
soldiers : Each ordnance-sergeant, twenty-two dollars, and each serp 'ant-
major, quarter-master sergeant, and chief musician, twenty -one dollars ;
to each first sergeant of a company, twenty dollars ; to all other sergeants,
seventeen dollars ; to .each artificer, fifteen dollars ; to each corporal, thir-
teen dollars ; to each musician and private of artillery or infantry, eleven
dollars — one dollar per month of each private's pay being retained to
the expiration of his term of service; (Acts July 7 and 8, 1838, and
Act Aug. 4, 1854.)

SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That every soldier, who, having
been honorably discharged from the service of the United States, shaH,
within one month thereafter, re-enlist, shall be entitled to two dollars
per month in addition to the ordinary pay of his grade, for the first pe
riod of five years after the expiration of his previous enlistment, and a
further sum of one dollar per month for each successive period of five
years, so long as he shall remain continuously in the army ; and that
soldiers now in the army, who have served one or more enlistments,
and been honorably discharged, shall be entitled to the bem fits herein
provided for a second enlistment.

SEC. 3. And be it further enacted, That soldiers who served in the
war with Mexico, and received a certificate of merit for distinguished
services, as well those now in the army as those that may here alter en-
list, shall receive the two dollars per month t«» which that certificate
would have entitled them, had they remained continuously in the service.

SEC. 4. And be it further enacted, That non-com mmissioned officers,
who, under the authority of the s.-vr-ntccntb section of the act approved
March third, eighteen hundred and forty-seven, were recommended for

PAT.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 457

promotion "by brevet to the lowest grade of commissioned officer, but did
not receive the benefit of that provision, shall be entitled, under the condi-
tion recited in the foregoing section, to the additional pay authorized to be
given to such privates as received certificates of merit ; (Act Aug. 4, 1854.)

Non-commissioned officers, musicians, and privates are also allowed
one ration per day, and an allowance of clothing, both to be prescribed
by the President of the United States ; (Act April 24, 1816, and Act
April 14, 1818.)

Troops shall be paid in such manner that the arrears shall, at no
time, exceed two months, unless the circumstances of the case shall ren-
der it unavoidable ; (Act March 16, 1802, and March 3, 1815.)

No assignment of pay made by a non-commissioned officer or pri-
vate shall be valid ; (Act May 8, 1792.)

Brevet officers shall be entitled to, and receive, pay and emoluments
according to their brevet rank " when on duty, and having a command ac-
cording to their brevet rank, and at no other time ; " (Act April 16, 1818.)

No money shall be paid to any person for his compensation, who
is in arrears to the United States, until such person shall have accounted
for, and paid into the treasury, all sums for which he may be liable.
Provided, however, that the officers of the treasury shall, upon demand
of the party, forthwith report the balance due, and it shall be the duty
of the solicitor of the treasury within sixty days thereafter to order
suit to be commenced against such delinquent; (Acts Jan. 15, 1828,
and May 29, 1830.)

PAY DEPARTMENT. (See ARMY for its organization.) It is
the duty of paymasters to pay all the regular and other troops in
the service of the United States ; and, to insure punctuality and
responsibility, correct reports shall be made to the paymaster-general
once in two months, showing the disposition of the funds previously
transmitted, with accurate estimates for the next payment of such regi-
ment, garrison, or department, as may be assigned to each ; and when-
ever any paymaster shall fail to transmit such estimate, or neglect to
render his vouchers to the paymaster-general for settlement of his ac-
counts, more than six months after receiving funds, he shall be recalled
and another appointed in his place ; (Acts April 24, 1816, and July
14, 1832.) (See ACCOUNTABILITY ; DISBURSING OFFICERS.)

When volunteers or militia are called into service, so that the pay-
masters authorized by law shall not be deemed sufficient to enable them
to pay the troops with proper punctuality, the President may assign
to any officer of the army the duty of paymaster, who shall perform
the same duty, give the same bond, and receive the same pay and

4;>s MILITARY DICTIONARY. [PAT.

emoluments as are provided for the paymasters of the army ; but the
number of officers so assigned shall not exceed one f. >r > regi-

ments of militia or volunteers ; (Act July 4, 1836.)

PAYMASTER-GENERAL. Under the direction of the Secre-
tary of War, the paymaster-general assigns paymasters to dis:
(Act April 24, 1810.) Ho receives " from the treasurer nil the moneys
which shall be intrusted to him for the purpose of pay inn the pay, the
arrears of pay, subsistence, or forage due to the troops of the United
States; he shall receive the pay abstracts of the paymasters of the
several regiments or corps, and compare the same with the ivturns .-r
muster-rolls, which shall accompany the said pay abstracts. 1 1
certify accurately to the commanding officer the sums due to the respec-
tive corps, which shall have been examined as aforesaid, who shall
thereupon issue his warrant on the said deputy paymaster for the pay-
ment accordingly ; (Act May 8, 1792.)

The paymaster-general may, in his discretion, allow to any pay-
master's clerk, in lieu of the pay now allowed by law, an annual salary
of $700. The paymaster-general shall have the rank of colonel ; the
deputy paymaster-general the rank of lieut. -nant-colonel, and in addi-
tion to paying troops, shall superintend the payment of armies in
the field. Paymasters have the rank of major ; but it is provided that
paymasters, in virtue of such rank, shall not be entitled to command in
the line or other staff departments of the army ; (Act March 3, 1847.)

PENDULUM. The times of vibration of pendulums are propor-
tional to the square roots of their lengths.

r-Wl

Therefore, if I be the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds, and /'
the length of any other simple pendulum, or the distance from the point
of suspension to the centre of oscillation of a compound pendulum, vi-
brating in the time t at the same place, then : I' = / f

The length of a pendulum vibrating seconds is in a constant ratio
to the force of gravity :

-j- = 0.869G044.
Length r>f a pendulum vibrating tecondt at the level of the tea, in varitnu latitude*.

At • ttor :'•'.'. 01. vj Inches,

W.i :}*-> r>.°>' 23" . . . 39.0058 "

N«- 40° 42' 40" . . . 39.1017 "

London, 51° 31' . . . LSM "

I 45° ...... 30.1270 "

Lat. L. - 30.1270 in.— (>."""

PEN.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

45!)

PENDULUM HAUSSE— is a tangent-scale, the graduations of
which are the tangents of each quarter of a degree of elevation, to a
radius equal to the distance between the muzzle-sight of the piece, and
the axis of vibration of the hausse, which is one inch in rear of the base-
ring. At the lower end of the scale is a brass bulb filled with lead.
The slider which marks the divisions on the scale is of thin brass, and
is clamped at any desired division on the scale by means of a screw.
The scale passes through a slit in a piece of steel, with which it is con-
nected by a screw, forming a pivot on which the scale can vibrate lat-
erally. This piece of steel terminates in pivots, by means of which the
pendulum is supported on the seat attached to the gun, and is at liberty
to vibrate in the direction of the axis of the piece. The seat is of
metal, and is fastened to the base of the breech by screws, so that the
centres of the steel pivots of vibration shall be at a distance from the
axis of the piece equal to the radius of the base-ring.

A MUZZLE-SIGHT of iron is screwed into the swell of the muzzle of
guns, or into the middle of the muzzle-ring of howitzers. The height
of this sight is equal to the dispart of the piece, so that a line joining
the muzzle-sight and the pivot of the tangent-scale is parallel to the
axis of the piece.

PENETRATION. The penetration of a solid shot, other circum-
stances being the same, varies with its diameter, and with the distance
and material of the substance penetrated.

In the subjoined table are given the penetrations of a 24-pounder
shot, whence a tolerably accurate estimate may be formed of the pen-
etrations of shot of other calibres.

KANGE.

Substance penetrated.

l5o yards.

400 yards.

1,200 yards.

Good Masonry

2 ft

lift

*ft

Oak

4 "

3 "

]i "

Firm Earth

64- "

5 "

94 «

f 41

12 "

9 "

44 "

c 5

Sand, sandy earth mixed with gravel, small stones, chalk and tufa
resist shot better than the productive earths. Shells may be consid-
ered as round shot of a lower specific gravity, and their penetrations
are therefore proportionately less. A bank of earth, to afford a secure
cover from heavy guns, will require a thickness from 18 to 24 feet.
In guns below 18-pounders, if the number of the feet in thickness of the
bank be made equal to the number of Ibs. in the weight of the shot by

460 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Pnc.

which it is to be assailed, the requisite protection will be ol.
Eartti possesses advantages over every other material. It is easily
obtained, regains its posit :on after displacement, and the injury dono
to an earthen battery by day can be readily repaired at nLMit. Where
masonry is liable to be breached, it should be covered with

^ht-iron plates 4J inches in thickness will withstand the
of 32-pound shots, and of all inferior calibres at short ranges as 400
yards. Plates of this thickness, however, are soon destroyed by 68-
pound shots, and afford little protection from the elongated shots of the
new rifled ordnance. (See IRON PLATES.)

To resist successfully the fall of heavy shells, buildings must be
covered with arches of good masonry, not less than 3 feet thick, having
bearings not greater than 25 feet, and these must be again protected by
a covering of several feet of earth. Iron plates half an inch thick, oak
planks 4 inches thick, or a nine-inch brick wall, are proof against mus-
ketry or canister at a range of 100 yards. Iron plates 1 in< h thick,
oak from 8 to 10 inches thick, a good wall a foot thick, or a firm hank
of earth 4 feet thick, will afford secure cover from grape shot, from any
but the largest guns at short ranges. The common musket will drive
its bullet about a foot and a half into well-rammed earth, or it will
penetrate from 6 to 10 half-inch elm boards placed at intervals of an
inch. The penetration of the rifled musket is about twice that of the
common musket. A rope matting or mantlet 3£ inches thick is found
to resist small-arm projectiles at all distances ; it may therefore be
employed as a screen against riflemen.

Experiments were made in 1848 at Portsmouth against the '• Le>
viathan," to ascertain whether a round shot fired at a depression into the
water close to a ship would continue its course, and passing throifgh
the water, can maintain force sufficient t«» --penetrate into the ship con-
siderably below the water-line ; for this a 32-pounder gun of 56 cwt.,
with a charge of 10 Ins., was fired at a depression of 7 degrees from a
dockyard " lump," 16 yards distant from the " Leviathan." The shot
struck the water 4 feet from the ship's side, rose immediately, passed
through the orlop, and was found on the lower deck. Another shot,

:.d.r the same circumstances, only indented the wood 18 inches
below the water lino. But elongated rifle-shot fired into the water have
the (acuity of entering and passing through the fluid in the direction of
their axes, a:. I, after passing through many feet of water, retain
force sufficient t •• any ship's side below the water-line. This

was proved by firing Whitworth's hexagonal shot under circum^1
nearly similar to the preceding experiments against the " Leviathan,"

PEN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 461

when a flat-headed hexagonal shot fired from a 24-pounder passed through
33 feet of water, and then penetrated into the ship through 12 or 14
inches of oak and planking ; (Sir HOWARD DOUGLAS ; HYDE and BEN
TON.) (See RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

PENSION. No person in the army, navy, or marine corps, shall
be allowed to draw both a pension as an invalid and the pay of his rank
or station in the service, unless the alleged disability for which the
pension was granted, be such as to have occasioned his employment
in a lower grade, or in some civil branch of the service ; (Act April
30, 1844.) Any officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier of the
army, including militia rangers, sea-fencibles and volunteers, disabled
by wounds or otherwise, while in the line of his duty in public ser-
vice, shall be placed on the list of invalids of the United States, at
the following rates of pay : No officer shall receive more than the half
pay of a lieutenant-colonel ; half the monthly pay of inferior grades ;
or, for a first lieutenant, seventeen dollars ; a second lieutenant, fifteen
dollars, a third lieutenant fourteen dollars, an ensign thirteen dollars ;
and a non-commissioned officer, musician, or private, eight dollars per
month for the highest disability, and for less disabilities a sum propor-
tionably less ; (Act March 16, 1802, and April 24, 1816.)

The widow of an officer dying of wounds received in military ser-
vice, or if the officer have no widow, any child or children left by the
officer, is entitled to his half pay for five years ; provided that the pension
to the widow shall cease upon her death or intermarriage, and shall also
cease upon the death of such child or children ; (Act March 16, 1802.)

In an elaborate opinion given by Mr. Attorney-general Gushing,
published by the War Department in General Orders, No. 11 of 1855,
he draws the conclusion that " the phrase ' line of duty ' is an apt one,
to denote that an act of duty performed must have relation of causation,
mediate or immediate, to the wound, the casualty, the injury, or the
disease producing disability or death." "Every person" (says Mr.
Gushing) who enters the military service of the country — officer, sol-
dier, sailor, or marine — takes upon himself certain moral and legal en-
gagements of duty, which constitute his official or professional obliga-
tions. While in the performance of those things which the law requires
of him as military duty, he is \p. the line of his duty But at the same
time, though a soldier or sailor, he is not the less a man and a citizen,
with private rights to exercise and duties to perform ; and while at-
tending to these things he is not in the line of his public duty. In
addition to this, a soldier or sailor, like any other man, has the physical
faculty of doing many things which are in violation of duties either

MILITARY DICTIONARY. |P«.

general or special ; and in doing these things he is not acting in tho
line of his duty. Around all those acts of the soldier or sailor
are official in their nature the pension laws draw a legislative 11
then they say to the soldier or sailor: If, while performing a< ts which
a:-.- within that lino, yon thereby incur disability or death, you or
\\ido\v or children, as the case may ho, shall receive pension or allow-
but not if the disability or death arise from acts performed out-
side of that lino; that is, absolutely disconnected from, and wholly in-
dependent of. the performance of duty. Was tin- ranso of disability or
a cause within the line of duty or outside of it ? Was that cause
appertaining to, dependent upon, <>r otherwise necessarily and essentially
connected with, duty within the line; or was it unapportinent. in lo-
pendcnt, and not of necessary and essential connection ? That, in my
judgment, is the true test-criterion of the class of pension cases under
consideration."

PERCUSSION. Twelve percussion caps are issued to ten car-
(See ARMS and ACCOUTREMENTS.)

I'KRCUSSION BULLETS— are made oy placing a small quan-
tity of percussion powder, inclosed in a copper envelope, in tin- point
(.fan ordinary rifle musket bullet. The impact of the bu 11
substance no harder than wood is found to ignite tho percussion charm'.
and produce an effective explosion. These projectiles can be used to
blow up caissons and boxes containing ammunition at very long dis-
<>N.)

1 ' KTARD. An engine made of gun-metal, fixed upon a board, and
containing about nine pounds of powder. Sometimes attached i

• burst them open. In an attack upon a fortification, leathern
bags containing fifty pounds of powder have been found more useful.

PICKER. A small pointed brass wire, which is supplied to every
infantry soldier for the purpose of cleaning tin- vent of his imisk< t.

PICKET. Sharp stakes used for securing the fascines of a Kit-
To picket horses in camp. STOCKADES, \\1 1 . also some-
time railed picket Works.

Also a detachment composed of cavalry or infantry, whose
principal duty is to guard an army from surprise, and oppose such
small parties a.s the enemy may push forward for the purpose of r. -
ILJ. (See OUTPOSTS.)

l'I K< 'K — designates any gun, largo or small.

PIERRIER — was a term originally applied to an engine for cast-
ing st' n to a small kind of cannon ; now to a mortar I

Charging stones, Ace.

PLA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 4(53

PIERS. The columns upon which a bridge is erected.

PIKE. A military weapon formerly used as a bayonet. The pike
had a shaft from ten to fourteen feet long, with a flat pointed steel
head called the spear.

PILE. A beam of wood driven into the ground to form a solid
foundation for building. Also a heap, as a pile of balls. To pile
arms, is to stack arms in the prescribed manner, that they may remain
steady on the ground. Balls are piled according to kind and calibre,
under cover if practicable, in a place where there is a free circulation
of air, to facilitate which the piles should be made narrow if the locality
permits ; the width of the bottom tier may be from 12 to 14 balls, ac-
cording to the calibre. Prepare the ground for the base of the pile
by raising it above the surrounding ground so as to throw off the
water ; level it, ram it well, and cover it with a layer of screened sand.
Make the bottom of the pile with a tier of unserviceable balls buried
about two-thirds of their diameter in the sand ; this base may be made
permanent : clean the base well and form the pile, putting the fuze
holes of shells downwards, in the intervals, and not resting on the shells
below. Each pile is marked with the number of serviceable balls it con-
tains. The base may be made of bricks, concrete, stone, or with bor-
ders and braces of iron. Grape and canister shot should be oiled or
lackered, put in piles, or in strong boxes, on the ground floor, or in dry
cellars ; each parcel marked with its kind, calibre, and number.

PILLAGE. (See PLUNDER.)

PIONEERS. Soldiers sometimes detailed from the different com-
panies of a regiment and formed under a non-commissioned officer,
furnished with saws, failing axes, spades, mattocks, pickaxes, and bill-
hooks. Their services are very importa/it, and no regiment is well
fitted for service without pioneers completely equipped.

PISTOL. Horsemen have one or two pistols furnished them.
General, field and staff officers also -carry pistols in their holsters.
Colt's pistol is a> revolver composed of a cylinder containing six charges,
a rifled barrel, and a handle or stock. The length of bore (navy) 9 in. ;
weight 2.40 Ibs. ; weight of projectile 125 grs. ; weight of powder
14 grs. ; initial velocity 760 feet. (See ARMS for Pistol-Carbine.)

PIVOT. That officer or soldier upon whom the company wheels.
The pivot flank in a column is that which, when wheeled up, preserves
the proper front of divisions of the line in their natural order. The
opposite flank of the column is called the reverse flank.

PLACE. Town or city is but little used in military parlance. A
strong place is a fortified city.

404 MILITARY DICT1"NAKY. [P,.A.

PLACES OF ARMS — arc enlargements in the covered-way, at tho
re^ntering and salient angles of the countei >cai p ; henee the terms re
entering places of arms, and salient phu.s of arms; tlu latter space
is formed simply by rounding the counterscarp; and tho former by
setting off demi-gorges ot'tliirty yards, (more or less,) and inak :
faces form angles of 100° with tho adjoining branches of the covered- wa\.

PLAN. A plan of campaign (says Napoleon) should anticipate all
that an enemy may do, and combine within itsrlf tho moans necessary
to baffle him. Plans of campaign are modified by cireumstane» s tin-
gem us of tho chief, the nature of tho troops, and topography.
are good and bad plans of campaign, but sometimes the good fail from
misfortune or mismanagement, while the bad succeed by caprices of
fortune.

PLAN OF A WORK. A plan shows the traeini:; aK«, the hor-
izontal lengths and breadths of the works; the thickness of tho ram-
parts and parapets; the width of the ditches, &x\ : it exhil .
extent, division, and distribution of the works; but the depth of tho
ditches and the height of tho works are not represented in a plan.

PLANE OF COMPARISON— is a plan of a fortress, ai:.l of tho
surrounding country, on which are expressed the distances of tho prin-
cipal points from a horizontal piano, imagined to pass through tho high-
est or lowest points of ground, in the survey This imaginary plain- is
called a plane of comparison.

PLANE OF DEFILADE— is a plane supposed to pass through
the summit or crost of a work, and parallel to the piano of site.

PLANE OF SITE. Tho general level of the ground, or ground
lino, upon which the works aro constructed, is "called the plane of site,
whother that piano be horizontal or oblique to the horizon.

PLATFORM. There arc six sleepers, 18 deck planks, :
and 12 iron eye-bolts, used for tho platform of liege mortars. Tho
weight of tho platform made of y« -llnw pine is s:)7 ll»s.

PLATOON. The half of a company.

PLONGf*]E. The dip • r declension of the superior slope of the
parapet, is called tho plong6e. The amount of it is regulated 1,\ the
distance of the nearest spot, to which tho fire of musketry is to bo
directed; that is, generally, the exterior ed^o of the ditch in front

PL! MMI!T. A l.-aden or iron weight suspended l>v a string, u -d
by artificers to sound the depth of water, or to regulate tin- j>. rp« n-
dicular dir-cti-.n of any building. IVjidnlnms, called also plummets,
which vibrate the required times of march in a minute, arc of great

POL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 465

utility ; they must be in the possession of, and be constantly referred
to by, each instructor of a squad. (See PENDULUM.)

PLUNDER. Every officer or soldier, who shall quit his post or
colors to plunder and pillage, shall suffer death or such other punish-
ment as may be ordered by a general court-martial ; (ART. 52.)

POINT-BLANK. The point-blank is the second point at which
the line of sight intersects the trajectory of the projectile. The natural
point-blank is when the natural line of sight is horizontal. The point-
blank made by the use of the hausse, is called an artificial point-blank.

In the British service, the point-blank distance is the distance at
which the projectile strikes the level ground on which the carriage
stands, the axis of the piece being horizontal. This definition conveys
a better idea of the power of the piece than the French and American
definition. For the same piece, the point-blank distance increases with
the charge of powder ; for the same initial velocity, a large projectile
has a greater point-blank distance than a small one ; a solid shot than
a hollow one ; and an oblong projectile than a round one. (See FIRING.)

POINTING. To point a gun is to give it such direction, and ele-
vation or depression, that the shot may strike the object. The general
rule is, first give the direction, and then the elevation or depression.
In pointing mortars, the elevation is first given and then the direction.
The direction of a gun or howitzer is given by directing the line of
metal upon the object. The elevation or depression depends upon the
charge, the distance and the position of the object above or below the
battery, and it is ascertained by reference to tables of fire, or by ex-
periment ; and the proper angle is given by means of instruments — the
gunner's quadrant or tangent-scales. In the absence of tangent-scales
or quadrant, the gunner may point his gun by placing one or more
fingers of the left hand upon the base-ring perpendicularly to the axis,
and using them as a breech-sight.

In pointing a mortar, the elevation is given by applying the quad-
rant to the face of the piece, and adjusting the quoin until the required
number of degrees is indicated. The direction is given by determining
practically two fixed points which shall be in a line with the piece and
object, and sufficiently near to be readily distinguished by the eye.
These points being covered by the plummet, determine a vertical plane
which, when including the line of metal, becomes the plane of fire.
Various methods are given for the accomplishment of this object in
Koberts's Handbook of Artillery. (Consult Instructions for field and
Heavy Artillery, published by the War Department.)

POLYGON OF FORTIFICATION. Every piece of ground to
30

MILITARY DICTION A II V. [PoM.

be fortified, is surrounded by a polygon, either square, pentagonal,
hexagonal, &c., according to the number of its sides, which are called
k« ; upon these the fronts of fortifications are constructed.

PONTONIERS. (See SAPPERS.)

PONTOON. Vulcanized India rubber pontoons, consisting of throe
cvlinders connected together, have been made in the United States. Tho
three cylinders weigh 260 Ibs., and with their flooring of throe chesses
can be packed in a box 5 feet X 3£ feet X 1 foot. The India rubber
pontoons are made of India rubber cloth, and consist i-aeh of three
tangent cylinders, peaked at both extremities like the ends of a canoe ;
the ends arc firmly united together by two strong India rubber liga-
ments which extend along their lines of contact and widen
necting web towards the ends in proportion as these diminish, the three
thus forming a single boat 20 feet long.by 3 feet bn > • yancy

and stability, and from its form and lightness JUT-, nting but trifling
resistance to the water. Each cylinder, including its peaked extremi-
ties, is 20 inches in diameter, and is divided into three distinct air-tight
compartments, each of which has its own inflating nozzle. The middle
compartment occupies the whole width of the roadway of the bridge.
The inflating nozzles are made of brass, with stopple and tubo, the
former screwing into the latter to open or close the nozzle. The
lies on the top of the pontoon to which it is lashed, and servos as a
means of attaching the baulks to the pontoon and preventing their
chafing it: the baulks arc of white pine or spruce 19 feet long; the
chesses are also of white pine or spruce 13 feet 9 inches long. Tho
equipment and management of these pontoons are nearly similar to the
means employed for bridges of a different kind, Tho floating portion
constitutes the essential difference, nnd this, being light and compact
when folded up, may be easily transported. (Consult Papers published
by United Stales Engineer sin 1840.)

The chief , with the. approbation of the Secretary of V

regulates and determines the number, quality, forms, d us, ccc,,

of the necessary vehicles, pontoons, tools, implem : other sup-

plies for the use of the company of sappers, miners, and pontonicrs ;
(Act May 15, 1846.)

PORT-FIRE. A composition of nitre, sulphur, and m<
der driven int<> a case of strong p.-iper used to fire guns previous to

pr'.m.T.

POSSE COMITATUS. A sheriff or marshal, for tha purp-
keepin - MM and pursuing f.-l..ns i,,;ry command all tin- p.-«.pl.« of

his county above 15 years old to attend him, which is called the jM>««0
com! ta tut, or power of the county ; (BLACKST-

PKK.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 467

Can United States troops stationed in any county be employed as
a, posse comitatus? Their service does not give them residence where
they arc employed, and moreover the Acts of Congress of 1795, and
March 3, 1807, restrict the employment of the United States military
forces in civil commotions to clearly defined cases, and then authorize
the President of the United States alone to use such force after he shall
have by proclamation commanded the insurgents to disperse and retire
peaceably to their homes within a reasonable time. (See CALLING
FORTH MILITIA ; OBSTRUCTION OF LAW.)

These enactments of Congress would seem to make inapplicable to
United States troops the doctrine of English judges, that the soldier, being
still a citizen, acts only in preservation of the public peace as another
citizen is bound to do. See EXECUTION OF LAWS, for the learning on
the subject of using troops in civil commotions where the common law-
is not changed by legislation.

POST. It is synonymous with position. Thus a post is said to be
good or not tenable. Post is also the walk or position of a sentinel.
Any officer or soldier, who shall shamefully abandon any fort, post, or
guard which he may be commanded to defend, or speak words inducing
others to do the like, shall suffer death or such other punishment as a
court-martial may direct ; (ART. 52.)

Any sentinel, who shall be found sleeping upon his post, or shall leave
it before he shall be regularly relieved, shall suffer death or such other
punishment as shall be inflicted by a court-martial ; (ART. 66.) (See PAY.)

POSTERN OR SALLY-PORT— is a passage usually vaulted,
and constructed under the rampart, to afford a communication from the
interior into the ditch. The passages from the covered way into the
country, are likewise called sally-ports ; as they afford free egress and
ingress to troops, engaged in making a sally or sortie.

POWDER. (See GUNPOWDER.)

PRESIDENT. The President of the United States is commander-
in-chief of the army, navy, and militia, called into service. His func-
tions as such are assigned by Congress, but embrace of course whatever
authority may be assigned to any military commander, on the principle
that the authority of the greater includes that of the less. For the com-
mand, government, and regulation of the army, however, Congress has
created a military hierarchy or range of subordination in the army with
rights and duties regulated by Congress, and the commander-iii-chief
cannot make use of any other agents in exercising his command ; and all
orders issued by him must be according to the rules and articles made
by Congress for the government of the army. In his capacity of chief-
magistrate of the Union, Congress has also invested the President with

40> MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Pat.

many administrative functions relating to military affairs ; and for the
performance of the latter duties the S. • f the Department of

War has been made his minister, upon matters connected with »/<•••
accounts, returns, the support of troops, and the raising of troops. (See
ARMY REGULATIONS ; CONGRESS ; DEPARTMENT OF WAR ; ORDERS ;
REGULATIONS ; SECRETARY or WAR.)

PRESIDENT, (COURT-MARTIAL.) The President of a court-martini
is the senior member. He preserves order in court; administers the
oath taken by the judge-advocate, and the proceedings of the court are
authenticated by his signature and that of the judge-advocate.

PRINTING. The following explanation of the marks which are
in general use by printers for correcting proofs, with the annexed speci-
men, will enable an officer, who has to superintend a \\..rk through the
press, to correct the proof sheets in a way that will bo clearly under-
stood by the printer, and thus promote its accuracy.

If it is desired to change any word to capitals, small capitals, Roman tcit, (the ordinary
1ft t«-r, ) or italics, draw a line beneath it, and write in the margin, ( 'aj>.*., >'. cnp*^ /torn.,
or Jlal., as the case may be. See corrections 1, li, II. mid ,\ mi the proof-!

When it is necessary to expunge a letter or word, draw a lino through it, an i
in the margin a character resembling a d of current hand, which stands for it
word dele (erase) ; as in No. 3.

When a wrong letter or word occurs in the proof-sheet, draw a line through it, nn«l
place what must be substituted for it in the margin, with a vertical line at the right ;
as in the corrections marked 4.

Attention is drawn to an inverted letter by underscoring it, and writing opposite the
character used in No. 5.

An omitted word, letter, comma, semicolon, colon, exclamation-point, or interroga-
tion-point, as well as brackets and parentheses, are written in the margin with a verti-
cal line at the right; as in the various corrections marked r. : a caret shows where to
introduce what is thus marked in. When there is so much omitted that there is not
room for it in the margin, it is written at the top or bottom of the page, and a line is
used to show where it is to be introduced ; as at the bottom of the pro..

A period is marked in by placing it in the margin inside of a circle, as in No. 9.

Apostrophes and quotation-points are introduced in a chara.-t. r resembling a V,
and a caret is placed in the text to show where they are to be inserted. This is illus-
trated in No. 11.

22 shows how'the dash and hyphen are intn>d>;.

i a letter or word, should be transposed, a line is drawn around it and carried
to the place where it should stand, and the letters tr. nre placed opposite, as in No. 7.

No. 10 shows how to mark out a quadrat or spat-o which improperly appears.

If a broken or imperfect letter is used, draw a line through or beneath it, and
make an inclined cross in the margin, as in No. 12.

Sometimes a letter of the wrong size will be used by mistake ; in jnch a case, under-
line it and place the letters IP./, (wrong font) in the margin as in

If the letter* of a word stand apart* from each other, draw a curved line beneath the
space which separates there, and two curves in t! • in 15. If the prop. -r

•pace to wanting between two contiguous words, place a caret where the space should
be, and opposite to them make a character like a music sharp, as shown in No. 16.

Two parallel horizontal lines, as in No. 17, are used when th<- 1< tiers of awordnrr not
all in the same level, and a horizontal line is also drawn und> r such as arc out <>i

When a new paragraph has been improperlv be -.run. a line is drawn from it-
mencement to the end of the previous paragraph, 'and the words no brrak are written
in the margin; »ee No. 18. Whfcn it is desired to commence a new paragraph, the
paragraph mark (T) i* introduced at the place, and also in the margin.

PRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 4G9

When letters at the commencement of a line are out of the proper level, a horizon-
tal line should be drawn beneath them, and a similar one placed in the margin ; as in
No. 21. When any portion of a paragraph projects laterally beyond the rest, a vertical
line should be drawn beside it, and a similar one must stand opposite to it in the mar-
gin ; see No. 23.

When a lead has been improperly omitted, the word Lead is written at the side of
the page, and a horizontal line shows where it is to be introduced, as in No. 25. If a
lead too many has been introduced, the error is corrected, as in 24.

When uneven spgffcs are left between words, a line is drawn beneath, and space
better is written opposite ; see 26.

If it is desired to retain a word which has been marked out, dots are placed beneath
it, and the word stet (let it stand) is written in the margin ; as in 27.

MAKKS USED IN CORRECTING PROOF-SHEET.
WILLIAM FALCONER.

William Falconer was the son of a i barber in &
4 a,/ Edinburgh, ^nd was born in 1730. He had vary few 0)5

^ ^ / avantages of education, and (went to sea (in early life) ti.

A A

in the merchant service. He afterwards became mate

Cu)o*/ of a vessel that wrecked in the Levant and was saved oSto£.8 ,/ 6

q ' A A /

0 with only two of his crew : Xhis catastrophe formed £T/ 4 I 1<J

25 OP) \ J* ' —

* the subject of his poem entitled " The Shipwreck, on yll

12 >/ which his reputation as a writer chiefly rests. Early
18w>£. in 1769, his "Marine Dictionary" appeared, which <!5&om.14 C15

16 # hasbeen highly spoken of by those capable of esti- :=17
A — •

mating its merits. I QJ^Q. (UeaH18

4cwwrvc/ Hn this seafia-year, he embarked ou the AURORA but t. c.19 ;/

• A

the vessel was never heard of after she passed the

4 :y Capej^ the poet of__the Shipwreck is therefore sup- $}iace Bettei86

4 c/ posed to have perished by the same disaster he had
27 Cj^ yimoolf so graphically described. Tf The subject of ^[ 20
21 the "Shipwreck" and its authors fate demand our \J/U

21 interest and sympathy. If we pay respect to the / — /23

ingenious scholar who can produce agreeable verses \j 4
in leisure and retirement, how much more interest
must we take in the " shipboy on the high and giddy / -/ 22
mast' cherishingAthe hour which he may casually

snatch from

danger and fatigue. ! / (

iefuveO DiMoai> ot ["^vcu at/

470

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Pm.

PRISONER OF WAR. Agreements arc made between govern-

nunts at war; or, \\hen governments do not make such agre« :
opposite commanding generals, during a campaign, regulate mutual ex-
changes of prisoners, and also determine the allowances to he i:
prisoners while they are held in captivity.

PRISONERS. Whenever any officer shall be charged with a
crime, he shall be arrested and deprived of his sword by tho command-
ing officer ; (ART. 77.) Non-commissioned officers and soldiers charged
with crimes shall be confined until tried by a court-martial, or released
by j Toper authority; (ART. 78.) (See PROVOST-MARSHAL; REFUSAL.)
When brought into court, a prisoner should be without irons or any
manner of shackles or bands ; unless there is danger of an escape, and
then tie may be secured with irons; (BLACKSTONE.) (See ARREST;
COUNSEL; JUDGE-ADVOCATE.)

PRIVATE. The term applied to tho rank of a common soldier.

PRIZE-MONEY. (See BOOTY.)

PROCEEDINGS. The proceedings of courts-martial of tho pre-
vious day are usually read over each day by the judge-advocate. Much
time is lost by adopting this measure, and there is no rule directing tho
court to read them ; (HOUGH'S Military Law Authorities.) (See PRES-
IDENT.)

PROJECTILES. Tho projectiles for unrifled ordnance are solid
shot and shells. (See CANISTER ; CARCASSES ; GRAPE ; GRENADES ;
LIGHT and FIREBALLS; SHELLS; SPHERICAL CASE ; STONES.)

PROJECTILES, (CYLINDRO-CONOIDAL.) Sir Isaac Newton has
given, in the " Principle," (lib. ii., schol. to prop. 34,) an indication of the
form of a solid body which, in passing through a fluid, would experience
less resistance than a body of equal magnitude and of any other form.
He imagined that this might be of use in ship-building, and it is evident
that the principle is equally applicable in tho theory of projectiles.
Investigations of the differential equations of tho curve may be s,
the writings of mathematicians. Tho body is a solid of revolution,
and the differential equation is —

FW.ITI dy'dx

in which C is a constant. Tho form of
a section through the axis of tho s-lid
is given in the, annexed diagram.
I"-.) A B is tho axis, and in the direc-
tion of {hat line the solid is to mo>
is any ordinatc, as D C ; and dx, dy, dz,

PRO.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

471

are elementary portions, E F, E D, D F, respectively. The end B,
as well as A, of the solid is a plane surface ; for the numerator of the
fraction in the above equation will evidently be always greater than
the denominator, and therefore y, the ordinate to the curve, can never be
zero. It is plain, however, that the minimum of resistance would not be
obtained with a shot of an elongated form, when discharged from a musket
or piece of ordnance, unless the axis A B can be kept in the direction of
the trajectory. This may be accomplished if the shot be caused to have a
rotatory motion on that axis by being discharged from a rifled bore ; and
without such rotation, not only will the axis perpetually deviate from
the direction of the path, but the projectile will oven turn over. The
advantages of this form of shot are, that when rotating on their longi-
tudinal axes, and moving with their smaller extremities in front, they
experience less resistance from the air than spherical projectiles of the
same diameter. To this form alone are to be referred the long range
with the great momentum and penetrating power of the projectiles for
rifle-muskets and other rifled ordnance now used ; (Sir HOWARD
DOUGLAS.) The elongated bullet was first experimented upon by M.
Tamisier. It had a groove around the bottom or cylindrical part
designed to attach the cartridge. A change having been made in the
manner of attaching the cartridge to the projectile this groove was
omitted as useless. The accuracy of the fire was there-
upon diminished. The groove being replaced, it was
found that the slightest change in its shape or position
had much influence on the accuracy of fire. M. Tamisier
made experiments with a ball, the point of which, instead
of being curved, was a cone and the rest a cylinder;
he varied the length of each part, and determined that
these variations always produced variations in the ac-
curacy of fire. These researches brought him to results
of the greatest importance, and led, with the idea of
M. Minie of causing the ball to expand by the explo-
sion of the charge, to the adoption of the Minie projec-
tiles now used, which however are not identical in different countries.
(See RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

PROLONGE — is a stout hempen rope, sometimes used to connect
the lunette of a field-carriage with the limber when the piece is fired ;
it has a hook at one end and a toggle at the other, with two intermediate
rings, into which the hook and toggle are fastened to shorten the dis-
tance between the limber and carriage.

PROMOTION. " Congress may fix the rules for promotions and

FIG. 1T3.

472 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Pao.

appointments; and, in the reduction of the army and i;
mine from whom such promotions and appointments shall l.o made.
Every promotion is a new appointment, to be confirmed by the Sen-
ate ;" (Report of Committee of Senate, April 25, 1 -.",'.) (See CONSTI-
TUTIONAL.)

" Promotions may be made through the whole army in its several
lines of light artillery, light dragoons, artillery, infantry, and riflemen,
respectively ; " (Act March 30, 1814) ** Promotions by brevet mas-
be conferred for gallant actions or meritorious conduct ; " (Act July 0,
1812.) "All promotions in the staff departments or corps shall be
made as in other corps of the army ; " (Act March 3, 1851.)

The French army has the most democratic organization of any
army in the world. The following rules regulate, promotions in that
army ; (Law of April 14, 1832; and Law of March 16, 1838.)

ART. 1. No person can be corporal, until he has served at least six
months as a private soldier in some one of tho corps of the army.

2. No one can be sergeant until he has served at least six months
as corporal. All vacancies of corporal or sergeant on campaign, in any
battalion, belong exclusively to those present in tho field where the
vacancies occur.

3. No one can bo sows-lieutenant, unless ho is at least 18 years of
age, and has either served at least two years as a non-rmnmi
officer in one of the corps of the army ; or has been two years a pupil
of a military school, and has passed a satisfactory examination upon
leaving the school. The first vacancy occurring on campaign, is

to some sergeant present. The 2d and 3d from those eligible, according
to a fixed rule adopted at the beginning of the year. Hut when a non-
commissioned officer has merited, for distinguished conduct mentioned
in the orders of tho army, a nomination for the* grade of sous-lieutenant ,
an<l no vacancy exists in his regiment for the promotion of u non-
commissioned officer, he is named for promotion, cither in his own
or in other regiments of his arm, to a vacancy belonging to the 2d and
3d classes.

4. All soldiers of tho army, until the apo of 25, may be r« . , i\. ,1 i,(

'inflation for the poly technique school.

6. No one can be lieutenant, unless he has served two years as
i,mt.

6. No one can bo captain, unless ho has served two yean in tho
grade of lieutenant.

7. N M be chief of battalion, chief of squadron, or major until
he has served four years as captain. •

PRO.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 473

8. No one can be lieutenant-colonel, until he has served three years
the grades of chief of battalion, chief of squadron, or major.

9. No one can be colonel, until he has served two years in the grade
of lieut.-colonel.

10. No one can be promoted to a grade superior to that of colonel,
until he has served three years in the grade immediately inferior.

11. One4hird of the vacancies in the grade of sows-lieutenant of the
different corps of troops of the army, shall be given to the non-com-
missioned officers of the respective corps in which the vacancies occur.
(See ART. 3.)

12. Two-thirds of the grades of lieutenant and captain shall be given
by seniority, to wit : in the infantry and cavalry, to the officers of the
respective regiments ; in the staff corps, to the officers of the corps ; in
the artillery and engineers, to the officers among themselves who stand
in competition. Promotions to the grades of lieutenant and captain are
made as follows : Half of the vacancies in the battalions, squadrons, or
detachments which form an active army, and two-thirds of those occurring
elsewhere, are given to sows-lieutenants, and lieutenants by seniority in
their respective corps. All officers, whether with that portion of their
corps in campaign or not, may be selected to fill vacancies in their corps
belonging to the class of selections. But when, from distinguished con-
duct duly mentioned in army orders, a sous-lieutenant or lieutenant
merits promotion to the next superior grade, and there is no vacancy
among the class of selections in his own regiment, he may be promoted
to a vacancy in some other regiment of his arm. When so many
vacancies in the grades of lieutenant and captain of a regiment occur in
war, that there is not a sufficient number of the inferior grade with the
exacted qualifications to fill them, they will be filled from other regi-
ments of the same arm.

13. Half of the grades of chef-de-bataillon and chief .'of squadron
will be given by seniority of grade, as follows : In the infantry and
cavalry and staff corps, to the captains of each arm ; in the artillery and
engineers to the captains among themselves, who stand in competition.
The employment of major (a regimental administrative officer) will be
given by selection from those eligible.

14. All the grades superior to that of chief of battalion, chief of
squadron, or major, will be by selection from those eligible.

15. Seniority of grade will be determined by date of commissioner
in cases of similar date by the date of the commission of the inferior
grade.

16. When an officer is no longer borne on the list of some one of

474 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Pno.

the active corps of the army, the time that he thus passes out of service
shall be deducted from his .seniority, except in cases of mission, disband-
ment, or suppression of employment. There shall also bo deducted
from his seniority the time passed in a foreign service; but n
time passed upon detached service in the national guard, in the IK.
upon a diplomatic mission. Officers who cease to be borne on the list
of corps of the army, in consequence of suppression of employment or
disbandmcnt of regiments, will nevertheless bo entitled to promotion
in the regiments of the same arm to which they belong, and which may
be retained or subsequently created.

17. Officers, prisoners of war, will retain their rights of seniority f. .r
promotion ; but they can only be promoted to tho grade immediately
superior to that which they had when made priso:

18. Tho term of service exacted for passing from one grade to
another, may bo reduced one half by service in war or in colonies.

10. The conditions exacted by the preceding articles for passing from
one grade to another, can be departed from only in the following cases :
1st. For distinguished conduct duly set forth and published in t!,
eral orders of the day to the army ; and 2d, when it is not oth«
possible to fill tho vacancies of corps in tho presence of tho enemy.

20. In time of war, and in corps in presence of tho enemy, there
shall be given by seniority half the grades of lieutenant and captain.
All the grades of chief of battalion and chief of squadron shall bo made
by selection from those eligible.

21. In no case shall any one bo appointed to a grade without com-
mand, nor be granted an honorary grade, nor shall a rank bo given
superior to that of aetual command.

22. All promotions of officers shall be immediately made public,
with an indication of the vacancy filled, and tho cause of promotion,
whether by seniority, by selection, or distinguished action.

2.1. No officer admitted to tho retired list can resume his position
upon the active list.

Command is distinct from grade. No officer can be deprived
of his grade, except in tho cases and under the forms determined by
law.

25. All tho provisions of tho present law are applicable to marines.
All provisions repugnant to the present law are abrog

Selection* by the law of March 16, 1838, are made as follows :—
Recommendations for appointment of non-commissioned officers are
to be made to the colonel of the regiment by captains, accompanied by re-
marks of the chiefs of battalions, squadrons' and lieutenant-colonel. Thn

PUL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 475

colonel appoints from this list those who are to fill vacancies. He may
also, besides this list, select from those distinguished by an action of
ecjfit. For promotion to the grades of sows-lieutenant, lieutenant and
captain, the chief of the corps recommends, after taking the advice of the
chiefs of battalions or squadrons, and also of the lieutenant-colonel, when
he is present. For promotion to the grade of chief of battalion or
squadron, the general of brigade recommends, after taking the advice of
the chiefs of corps of his brigade. For promotion to the grade of lieu-
tenant-colonel, the general of division recommends, after taking the advice
of the chiefs of corps and that of the generals of brigade. For promotion
to the grades of colonel or general of brigade, the general in chief recom-
mends, after taking the advice of the generals of brigade and division for
the promotion of a colonel, and that of generals of division for the pro-
motion of a general of brigade. These propositions for the different
grades of officers are addressed through the regular channels of com-
munication, and transmitted with his opinion to the Minister of War.
The chiefs of corps and the general officers to whom this right of nomi-
nation is given, designate for each vacancy three candidates taken from
among the non-commissioned or commissioned officers under their
orders, who have been presented^for promotion in the form indicated.
The number of candidates for the grades of lieut.-colonel,' colonel, and
general of brigade may be reduced.

PROMULGATION. (See COURT-MARTIAL.)

PROOFS. (See PRINTING.)

PROSECUTOR. The judge-advocate is the prosecutor, usually ;
but if an officer prefers a charge, he sometimes appears to sustain the"
prosecution. No person can appear as prosecutor not subject to the
Articles of War, except the judge-advocate ; ( HOUGH.)

PROVOST-MARSHAL. An officer appointed in every army in
the field to secure prisoners confined on charges of a general nature.
In the British army he is intrusted with authority to inflict summary
punishment on any soldier, follower, or retainer of the camp, whom he
sees commit the act for which summary punishment may be inflicted.
(See CONFINEMENT ; PRISONER ; REFUSAL TO RECEIVE PRISONER.)

PULLEY. FIXED PULLEY. The power is equal to the weight.
The pressure Q on the axis is to the power or weight as the chord c
of the arc enveloped by the rope is to the radius r of the pulley.

/>=. = «-'.

MOVABLE PULLEY. — The power is to the weight, as the radius of the

476 MILITAR? DICTION A KV. [1'is.

pulley is to tho chord of the arc enveloped by the rope. The pressure
on the fixed end of the rope is equal to the power : P= Q= — .

In a system of n movable pulleys, the power is to tho weigh*, as
the product of the radii of the pulley s is to the product of the chorda

r rf rn . . n
of the arcs enveloped by the rope : P = to — j—jj~ — •

If the ropes are parallel, c = 2 r, and P = — .

PUNISHMENT. It is often necessary to punish to maintain dis-
cipline, and the Rules and Articles of War provide ample means of
punishment, but not sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judg-
In the French army degrading punishments are illegal, but sol-
diers may bo confined to quarters or deprived of the liberty of leaving
the garrison ; confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dungeon ;
required to walk or to perform hard labor ; and ofiicers may bo sub-
jected to simple or rigorous arrests. Every officer who inflicts a punish-
ment, must account for it to his superior, who approves or disapproves,
confirms, augments, or diminishes it. If an interior is confined to the
guard-room, he cannot be liberated except upon application to a sii]
An officer who has been subjected to punishment, must, when relieved,
make a visit to him who ordered it. Tho French code has, in a word,
been careful to provide for both the security of its citizens, and tho
stivn^th of authority. Tho punishments established by law or custom
for U. S. soldiers by sentence of court-martial, according to tho ofleiuv,
and the jurisdiction of tho court, are : death ; stripes for desertion only ;
confinement; hard labor; ball and chain ; forfeiture of pay and allow-
ances; and dishonorable discharge from service, with or without mark-
ing. It is regarded as inhuman to punish by solitary confinement, or
confinement on bread and water exceeding 14 days at a time, or for
more than 84 days in a year at intervals of 14 days.

PURCHASING — from any soldier his arms, uniform, clothing, or
•ny part thereof, may be punished by any civil court havinn oognil

same by fine in any sum not exceeding thn •<• hundred dollars, or
by impri-onmmt not exceeding one year ; (Act March 16, 1802.)

PURVEYOR. A person employed to make purchases, or to pro-
vide food, . and necessaries for the sick.

I* VRAMID. A pyramid is a solid whoso base is any right-lined
plane figure, and its sides are triangles having all their vertie.-s or tops
meeti- r in one point, called the vertex of the pyramid.

I ' Y II <)T 1 •:< UN V. Artificial fire-works and fire-arms, including not
only those usetf in war, such as cannon, shells, grenades, gunpowder,

QUA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 477

wildfire, &c. ; but also those intended for amusement, as rockets, St.
Catherine's wheels, dec.

* Q

QUARRELS. All officers of what condition soever have power
to part and quell all quarrels, frays, and disorders, though the persons
concerned should belong to another regiment, troop, or company, and
either to order officers in arrest, or non-commissioned officers or sol-
diers into confinement, until their proper superior officers shall be ac-
quainted therewith ; and whosoever shall refuse to obey such officer,
(though of an inferior rank, and of a different regiment, troop, or com-
pany,) or shall draw his sword upon him, shall be punished at the dis-
cretion of a general court-martial ; (ART. 27.) ,

QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT. (See ARMY for its
organization.) This department provides the quarters and transporta-
tion of the army, except that, when practicable, wagons and their equip-
ment are provided by the Ordnance Department ; storage and trans-
portation for all army supplies ; army clothing ; camp and garrison
equipage ; cavalry and artillery horses ; fuel ; forage ; straw and sta-
tionery. The incidental expenses of the army (also paid through the
quartermaster's department) include per diem to extra duty men :
postage on public service ; the expenses of courts-martial ; of the pur-
suit and apprehension of deserters ; of the burials of officers and soldiers ;
of hired escorts, of expresses, interpreters, spies, and guides ; of veter-
inary surgeons and medicines for horses ; and of supplying posts with
water ; and, generally, the proper and authorized expenses for the
movements and operations of an army not expressly assigned to any
other department. (Consult Regulations of the War Department
for the Quartermaster's Department.)

These regulations derive their validity from the following acts of
Congress : " It shall be lawful for the Secretary of War to cause to be
provided, in each and every year, all clothing, camp utensils and equi-
page, medicines and hospital stores, necessary for the troops and armies
of the United States for the succeeding year, and for this purpose to
make purchases, and enter or cause to be entered into all necessary
contracts or obligations for effecting the same ; (Act March 3, 1799.)
The Secretary of War shall be authorized and directed to define and
prescribe the species, as well as the amount of supplies to be 'respec-
tively purchased by the commissary-general's and quartermaster-gen-
eral's departments, and the respective duties and powers of the said
departments respecting such purchases. And the sectary aforesaid

478 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [QcA.

is also authorized to fix and make reasonable allowances fur the
store rent, storage, and salary of storekeepers necessary for the safe
keeping of all military stores and supplies ^(Acl March 3, 1813.) Tin-
acts of March 3, 1813, and April 24, 1810, make it also the duty of the
iry of the War Department to prepare general regulations better
clt •lining and prescribing the duties and powers of the several officers of
the quartermaster's department, and other staff officers ; which regula-
tions, when approved by the President of the United States, shall be
respected and obeyed until altered or revoked by the same authority.

An essential element, in all services of supply, is the means of trans-
portation ; and its formation, maintenance, ami management call for the
-o of unremitting intelligence and activity on the part of the quar-
termaster. The most important want is the carriage of provisions, to
which a very large portion of all military transport must be devoted. The
next in importance is the hospital transport service. (See AMBULANCE.)
The carriage of ordnance and engineer stores requires a large number
of wagons ; and the conveyance of camp equipage, regimental and staff
baggage, as also of reserve small-arm ammunition, is also indispensable.
In most foreign armies the nucleus of a trained transport corps is main-
tained in times of peace, organized with especial view to
tension for the purposes of war, so that when a force takes the field it
carries with it the means of conveying its most essential supplies ;
while whatever transport can be drawn from the country under occu-
pation, whether by hire or purchase, by requisition or by sei/ure,
can at once be united to the trained and organized corps, and brought
under the influence of military order and discipline. In our
army we have in this, as in other n-pects, too much neglected to pre-
pare in peace for the exigencies of war. Relying upon our fmaneial
resources, and believing that while money abounds the mnii-riel of war
will not be wanting, we have overlooked the necessity which < \
every branch of the military service for preliminary practice and train-
ing, in order |p turn our means to good account. Transport, to be
effective, must be organized and trained to a systematic performance
of duty, and this cannot bo the work of a day. \\hatcv. r the naturo
or organization of the transport, ho\\ ever, a quartermaster should de-
vote his best exertions to maintaining it in a state of efficiency. The
men, whether soldiers or natives of the I p. rations, should l»o

as much as possible enc*»urau"-d to attach themselves to the |

y necessarily are, to so many : .nd har-d>hips in

all weathers, tli.-v should be suitably clothed. and well fed, ai: 1 !••• ren-
dered as comfdfrtablo when off duty as circumstances may allow. In

QUA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 479

the case of native drivers, their peculiar habits should be consulted as
far as may be practicable ; and while a strict discipline shoud be main-
tained, and misconduct immediately and severely punished, good be-
havior, steadiness, and attention to duty should be noticed and rewarded.
Esprit du corps is to masses of men what self-respect is to individuals,
and should be fostered by all possible means, since it tends to impress
men in every position with a sense of their duty. A quartermaster,
who fully understands the importance of his functions, will not find it
unworthy of his attention to study the character and disposition of the
most humble individual under his orders, with the view of developing
his good qualities and abilities to the greatest advantage of the public
service. In dealing with people of different nations this becomes pe-
culiarly necessary, and as a large portion of the personnel belonging to
the transport of armies is generally drawn from the local population,
care should be taken not to offend unnecessarily feelings or even preju-
dices which, if properly directed, may be used to our advantage.

Another error to be avoided is unnecessary interference in the
attempt to improve indiscriminately upon local practices and habits.
Both men and animals will work best in the way they have been ac-
customed to, and even the most obvious improvements should be
effected gradually and cautiously, lest in endeavoring to teach a new
method before the old has been unlearnt, only the worst features of
each should be the result. As a rule the practice in force, however
opposed to our notions, is founded upon some sufficiently valid reasons.
In this respect we have generally more to learn than to teach, and a
little careful observation will probably serve to convince us that prac-
tices which at first sight we are disposed to deride or condemn are,
under the peculiar circumstances of the case, preferable to any thing we
could substitute.

But while unnecessary interference is to be deprecated, the impor-
tance of attending to the conditions of transport animals cannot be too
strongly insisted upon. A quartermaster in charge should satisfy
himself by frequent personal inspection that the animals are properly
stabled, fed, cleaned, and shod ; the state of saddlery and harness should
be carefully attended to, and on the march no halt should be made
without the wagons being examined, and, if necessary, repaired. The
break-down of a single wagon may, on a narrow road, seriously ob-
struct the whole line of march, besides causing the loss of its load.
Every cart or wagon should be required to carry the necessary tools
for effecting repairs, as also the means of greasing the wheels, by which
the draught is greatly diminished, and much wear and tear saved.

480 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [QUA

These are trivial details, but nothing is unimportant that tends to main-
tain the efficiency of army transport.

In loading, the greatest eare should bo taken to adapt the weight to
the capability of the animal or vehicle, and full allowance must IK- made
for the chances of heavy roads or forced inarches. Mules, which for
mountainous roads are by far tho best pack animals, ran carry con-
tinuously 2 cwt. for long marches ; they are moreover more hardy and
less dainty in their food than horses, and, with common care, can with-
stand any weather. Mules also work well in draught when no great
iiiired ; but whenever supplies aro expected to keep up with
cavalry or artillery, light wagons with two horses aro pn-feral.le to any
othrr kind of transport A good horse should, over even roads, be able
to draw 10 cwt., vehicle included; but over mountainous or heavy
roads 12 cwt. (including the carriage) is more than a full load for a pair
of horses. For the baggage and supplies required to accompany armies
en masse on their ordinary marches, common country wagons drawn
by oxen do excellent service ; they arc slow, but c !.iri;e loads,

and the beasts get through a great deal of work upon small quantities
of food. A well-organized train of pack animals, though a L
number is requisite than would suffice, for draught, is the most man-
ageable transport that can be devised, and for rapid marches far prefer-
able to any other.

The transport required for carriage of the ordinary material of'
War, and for hospital purposes, can always be computed with tolerable
accuracy, since its extent is little affected by L.cal cir.-um.staiic.-s. But
it is different as regards consumable stores. In a country rich in re-
sources, and with a friendly population, a small train snnV.-s even f r
continuous marches ; but if the scene of operations yield little or noth-
ing, if the progress of the army be through a wilderness or a dc-
ruined fields and burning villages, it would IM« DMetaarj to provide
transport for the carriage of provisions and forage, and j>< rl:aps even
wood and water, for the full number of days that the m.-in-h is calcu-
lated to last. Tho quartermaster must in these ca ise his own
judgment, in concert with the officer commanding the exj>« d it ion.

It must be borne in mind that every additional trail-port animal
calls for a corresponding addition of supplies. It was computed, during
the organization of the British Land Transport in the Crimea, that it
would require about 9,000 men and 12,500 animals to carry the rations,
ammunition, and hospital establishments for 58,000 men arid 30,000
horses for three days. At this rate, additional provision would require
to be made for one-third as much forage and one-fifth as many rations

QUA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 481

as may be requisite for the actual combatant force in order to subsist
the transport establishment. In other words, every three horses would
have to be calculated as four, and every five soldiers as six, to cover
the additional demands of the transport attached to the force. (See
TRANSPORTATION.)

In most foreign armies, ships of war are as much as possible used
for the transport of troops ; and although the presence of soldiers may,
to a certain extent, interfere with the economy and discipline of a vessel —
this objection, particularly in time of peace, is not so powerful as to
justify the employment, at a large cost, of private ships, while numbers
of our own are making objectless cruises over all the oceans of the
globe or lying idle in harbor. A naval officer very naturally dislikes
to be encumbered with some hundreds of soldiers with their wives and
children, or to have a number of idle officers lounging about his quarter-
deck ; but there are interests to be consulted beyond even the most
praiseworthy professional amour propre, and it ought to be considered
whether economy and good policy do not require that a more frequent
use should be made of ships of war as transports, and also whether
general regulations might not be adopted for the transportation of tho
articles of supply from the places of purchase to the several armies,
garrisons, posts, and recruiting places, and for the safe keeping of such
articles, and for the distribution of an adequate and timely supply of
the same to the regimental quartermasters, and such other officers as
may, by virtue of such regulations, be intrusted with the same. (See
ADMINISTRATION ; ARMY REGULATIONS ; CAMP ; CLOTHING ; SUPPLIES ;
TRAIN ; WAGON. Consult FONBLANQUE.)

QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL— has the rank, pay, and emol-
uments of brigadier-general. lie is not liable for any money or property
that may come into the hands of subordinate agents of the department ;
(Act May 22, 1812.) He accounts as often as required, and at least
once in three months, with the Department of War, in such manner as
shall be prescribed, for all property which may pass through his hands,
or the hands of the subordinate officers in his department, or that may
be in his or their possession, and for all moneys which he or they may
expend in discharging their respective duties ; he shall be responsible
for the regularity and correctness of all returns in his department, and
he, his deputies, and assistant deputies, before they enter on the execu-
tion of their respective offices, shall severally take an oath faithfully
to perform the duties thereof; (Act March 28, 1812.) The quarter-
master-general is authorized to frank and receive letters and packets by
post, free of postage ; (Act March 2, 1827.)
31

4NJ MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Qc*.

Each quartermaster-general attached to any separate army, com-
mand, or district shall be authorized, with the approbation and under
the direction of the Secretary of War, to employ as many artificers,
mechanics, and laborers as the public service may require ; (Act March
3, 1813.)

QUARTERS. " No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered
in any house, without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war,
but in a manner to be prescribed by law ; " (Constitution, 3d Amend-
ment.) The law not having made any provision for quartering sol-
diers in time of war, troops of the United States at home would bo
subjected to exorbitant demands for the hire of quarters. (See BAR-
RACKS; BILLETS.)

QUESTIONS. (See EVIDENCE ; TRIAL.)

QUICK-MATCH. It is made of threads of cotton or cotton wick,
steeped in gummed brandy or whiskey, then soaked in a paste of mealed
powder and gummed spirits, and afterwards strewn over with mealed
powder. It is used to fire stone and heavy mortars, in priming all
kinds of fireworks, such as fire-balls, light-balls, carcasses, priming
tubes, <fec. A yard burns in the open air in 13 seconds.

QUOINS. In gunnery, a quoin is a wedge used to lay under the
breech of a gun to elevate or depress it.

RACK-STICK AND LASHING — consist of a piece of two-inch
rope, about 6 feet long, fastened to a picket about 15 inches long, hav-
ing a hole in its head to receive the rope. Rack -lashings are used for
securing the planks of a gun or mortar platform, between the ribbons
and the sleepers.

RAFT. (See BRIDGE.)

RAFTERS. (See CARPENTRY.)

RAISE. To raise a siege is to abandon a siege. Armies are
raited in two ways: either by voluntary engagements, or by lot or
conscription. The Greek and Roman levies were the result of a rigid
system of conscription. The Visigoths practised a general c •• inscription ;
poverty, old age, and sickness were the only reasons admitted for ex-
emption. " Subsequently, (says Hallam,) the feudal military tenures
had superseded that earlier system of public defence, which called upon
every man, and especially upon every landholder, to protect his country.
The relations of a vassal came in place of those of a subject and a citi-
zen. This was the revolution of the 9th century. In the 12th and l^th
another innovation rather more gradually prevailed, and marks the

RAM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 453

third period in the military history of Europe. Mercenary troops
were substituted for the feudal militia. These military adventurers
played a more remarkable part in Italy than in France, though not a
little troublesome to the latter country." A necessary effect of the
formation of mercenaries was the centralization of authority. Money
became the sinews of war. The invention of fire-arms caused it to be
acknowledged that skill was no less essential for warlike operations
than strength and valor. Towards the end of the middle ages, the
power of princes was calculated by the number and quality of paid
troops they could support. France first set the example of keeping
troops in time of peace. Charles VII., foreseeing the danger of invasion,
authorized the assemblage of armed mercenaries called compagnies
(Tordonnance. Louis XI. dismissed these troops, but enrolled new
troops composed of French, Swiss, and Scotch. Under Charles VIII.,
Germans were admitted in the French army, and the highest and most
illustrious nobles of France regarded it as an honor to serve in the
gens d'armes.

Moral qualifications not being exacted for admission to the ranks,
the restraints of a barbarous discipline became necessary, and this dis-
cipline divided widely the soldier from the people. The French rev-
olution overturned this system. " Now (says Decker) mercenary
troops have completely disappeared from continental Europe. England
only now raises armies by the system of recruiters. The last wars
of Europe have been wars of the people, and have been fought by
nationalities. After peace armies remain national, for their elements
are taken from the people, and are returned to the people by legal lib-
erations. The institution of conscription is evidently the most impor-
tant of modern times. Among other advantages, it has bridged the
otherwise impassable gulf between the citizen and soldier, who, children
of the same family, are now united in defence of their country. Per-
manent armies have ceased to be the personal guard of kings, but their
sympathies are always with the people, and their just title is that of
skilful warriors maintained as a nucleus for the instruction of their
countrymen in the highest school of art. (See CONSCRIPTION ; DEPOT ;
DEFENCE, National ; ENLISTMENT ; MILITIA ; RECRUITING ; RE-ENLIST-
ING ; VOLUNTEERS.)

RALLY. To re-form disordered or dispersed troops.

RAMP. A ramp is a road cut obliquely into or added to the in-
terior slope of the rampart, as a communication from the town to the
terre-plein.

RAMPART. A broad embankment or mass of earth which sur-

484 MILITAKY DICTIONARY. [RAM.

rounds a fortified place, and forms the enceinte or body of the place.
On its exterior edge the j placed, while towards th<- pl.t

terminated by the interior slope of the rampart, »n which ramps are
made for the easy ascent of the troops and material.

RAMROD. The rod of iron used in loading a piece to drive home
the charge.

RANGES. The extreme ranges of smooth-bored guns firing solid
shot may be considered to vary, according to their size, from 2,000 to
4,000 yards. These great ranges are only attained l>y firing at great
elevations, and the practice at such distances is consequently uncertain.
Ranges of 1,000 to 1,200 yards for field-guns and of 1,500 to 2,000
yartls for heavy guns are as great as can be secured with any thing like
accuracy. It seems, however, more than probable, that smooth-bored
guns will, before long, be altogether superseded by rifled ordnai;.
reasoning from what has been already accomplished, we may at 1. a^t
expect to double the present ranges, and greatly to increase the accu-
racy of fire. The ranges of grape-shot arc equal only to the ranges
of the individual balls of which the grape-shot is composed; they arc,
therefore, subject to considerable variation, according to the dimensions
of the gun from which the grape is disehuri;«-il. The most dVcciive
ranges for grape-shot may be considered to lie between 300 and 600
yards. The range of canister-shot is very limited. From the small
size of the bullets they rapidly lose their initial velocity. At i
beloW 300 yards canister-shot against bodies of troops is very destruc-
tive. Spherical-case shot is effective at much greater ranges than canis-
ter or grape shot. It may be employed with good effect at any distance
between 600 and 1,500 or even 1,800 yards. The ranges of shell
according to their size from 1,000 to 4,000 yards. They are fired either
fnun mortars or guns. With the method of firing them from mor-
tars at an elevation of 45°, with a charge of pow«l< T proportioned to the
range desired, any great accuracy of practice is not to bo exj
(See ARTILLERY ; COLUMBIAD ; FIRING ; RIFLED ORDNANCE ; SPHERICAL
CASE.)

BANK. A range of subordination ; a degree of dignity. flank
also means a line of soldiers, side by side. Ranks in the jtlnrnf, the
order of common soldiers. Questions as to the positive or relative
rank of officers may often be of the greatest importance at law, in con-
sequence of the rule, that every person who justifies his own acts on
the ground of obedience to superior authority must establish, by clear
evidence, the sufficiency of the authority on which he so relies. There
may also be many occasions on which 'the pr-.pri.-ty of an officer's

RAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 4S5

assumption of command, or his exercise of particular functions, or his
right to share with a particular class of officers in prize-money, bounties,
grants, and other allowances, may depend on the correctness of the view
taken by himself or others of his right to a specific rank or command ;
and an error in this respect may expose him to personal^loss and dam-
age in suits before the civil tribunals.

The regulation of military rank is vested absolutely in Congress,
which confers or varies it at pleasure. The will of Congress in this re-
spect is signified by the creation of different grades of rank ; by making
rules of appointment and promotion ; by other rules of government
and regulation ; or is by fair deduction to be inferred from the nature
of the functions assigned to each officer ; for every man who is in-
trusted with an employment, is presumed to be invested with all the
powers necessary for the effective discharge of the duties annexed to
his office.

Rank and Grade are synonymous, and in their military acceptation
indicate rights, powers, and duties determined by laws creating the
different degrees of rank, and specifying fixed forms for passing from
grade to grade ; and when rank in one body shall give command in
another body ; and also when rank in the army at large shall not be
exercised. Rank is a right of which an officer cannot be deprived, ex-
cept through forms prescribed by law. When an officer is on DUTY,
his rank itself indicates his relative position to other officers of the
body in which it is created. It is not, however, a perpetual right to
exercise command, because the President may, under the 62d Article
of War, at any time relieve an officer from duty ; or an officer may be
so relieved by arrest duly made according to law ; or by inability to
perform duty from sickness, or by being placed by competent authority
on some other duty. But whenever an officer is on duty his rank indi-
cates his command.

During the Mexican war, an attempt was made to procure the pas-
sage of a law creating the rank of lieutenant-general, in order that Mr.
Senator Benton might be placed in command of the army with that
rank. Congress, however, refused to create the rank. The President
then sought to obtain the passage of a law authorizing him to put a
junior major-general in command of a senior. Congress likewise re-
fused him that power. On the 9th of March, Mr. President Polk, in
a letter to Mr. Senator Benton, thus writes :

" Immediately after your nomination as major-general had been unan-
imously confirmed by the Senate, I carefully examined the question,
whether I possessed the power to designate you, a junior major-general,

4-«; MILITARY DICTIONARY.

to the chief command of tho army in tho field. Tho result of the
examination is, I am constrained to say, a settled conviction in mv
mind, that such power has not been conferred on me by existing laws."

Struggle as commentators may, -who desire to subject rank to
executive caprice, rather than liavo its powers and duties defined by
law, as the constitution requires in giving to CONGRESS tho power to
make rules for tho government and regulation of the army, the rights
of rank cannot, without usurpation, be varied at the will of the Presi-
The law has created rank. Rank moans a range of subordination
in the particular body in which it is created. It is, therefore, efl'eetive
in that body, without further legislation, and its effect, when the officer
is present for duty, is extended beyond that particular portion of the
army in which the officer holds rank, or its exercise is restricted within
a corps only by legislation. Executive authority cannot make rank
vary at will, but whatever authority the executive has over rank must
be determined by law. A reference to tho 62d Article of War will
show that the President is given the authority to limit the discretion
of commanding officers, in special cases, in respect to what is needful
for the service, and also to relievo tho senior officer from any command,
so that the command may fall upon the next officer in the lino of the
army, marine corps, or militia, " by commission there on duty or in
quarters," or assign some senior to duty with troops, in order that such
officer may become entitled to command under the G2d Article of \Yar.
Any power of assignment claimed for the President beyond this is not
and ought not to be sanctioned by law. Tho 62d Article extends the
validity of commissions in any part of tho line of the army, marine
corps, or militia, and thus enables the senior officer of the line <>f the
army present for duty to command tho whole when different e.-rjs
come together — while the 61st Article provides that in the regiment,
troop, or company, to which officers belong, although they may also
hol.l higher commissions in tho army at largo, they shall nevertheless
do duty and take rank both in courts-martial and on detachments, which
shall he composed only of their own corps, according to the commis-
sions by which they are mustered in said corps.

The legislation on the subject of rank is thus complete. Oil

>crving only with their own regiment, servo according to their
regimental rank ; but when with other corps, tho senior by comm
in the line, whether by brevet or otherwise, is entitled to command.
(See ASSIGNMENT.)

R AS ANTE — is a French term, applied to a style of fortification,
in which tho command of tho works over each other, and over the

RAV.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

48-5

country, is kept very low, in order that the shot may more effectually
sweep or graze the ground before them.

RATCHET-WHEEL. A wheel with pointed and angular teeth,
against which a ratchet abuts, used either for converting a reciprocating
into a rotatory motion on the shaft to which it is fixed, or for admitting
of its motion in one direction only.

RATION. The President may make such alterations in the com-
ponent parts of the ration as a due regard to the health and comfort
of the army and economy may require ; (Act April 24, 1818.) The
allowance of sugar and coffee to the non-commissioned "officers, musi-
cians, and privates, in lieu of the spirit or whiskey component part of
the ration, shall be fixed at six pounds of coffee and twelve pounds of
sugar to every one hundred rations, to be issued weekly, when it can
be done with convenience to the public service, and when not so issued,
to be paid for in money ; (Act July 5, 1838.)

Women not exceeding four to a company, and such matrons and
nurses as rnay be necessarily employed in the hospital, one ration each ;
(Act March 16, 1802.) The President may authorize rations to be
issued to Indians visiting military posts ; (Act May 13, 1800.) (See
PAY; WAGON.)

TABLE, SHOWING THE WEIGHT AND BULK OF 1,000 AEMY RATIONS.

One thousand
rations of

Nett weight
in pounds.

Gross weight
in pounds.

Bulk in
barrels.

100 rations consist of

Pork

750

1 218 75

3.75

75 Ibs or )

750

903 19

4 90

75 Ibs

Flour

1 125

1 234 06

574

119 5 fog or ^

Pilot Bread

750
1,000
155

921.69
1,228.91

177 32

9.03
12.05
071

75 Ibs!^ or V
100 Ibs. In the field. )
8 quarts or )

Rice

100

114 50

0 46

10 Ibs. J

Coffee

70.90

0.35

6 Ibs.

120

135 62

0 50

12 Ibs

Vinegar .. .

92 5

107 50

0 33

4 quarts

Candles

17 50

0 09

1-J- Ibs

Soap i.

46.89

0.19

4 Ibs.

Salt

33.75

38.63

0 16

2 quarts.

FORAGE.

14 Ibs. hay or fodder, "j f When pressed 1 1 Ibs. to cubic foot.

12 qts. oats, or I Per horse J 40 Ibs. to bush., 33.14 Ibs. cub. foot.

8 qts. corn j Per da^ ) 55 Ibs. to bush., 45.65 Ibs. cub. foot.

Average mule pack, New Mexico, 175 Ibs.

Average load to mule team across the prairies, 2,000 Ibs.

RAVELIN — is the work constructed beyond the main ditch, op-

488 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RAT.

posite the curtain, composed of two faces, forming a salient angle, and
two demi-gorges, formed by the counterscarp. It is separated fn.m the
covered way l.y a diu-h which runs into the main diti-h.

RAVELIN, (RKDOCDT OF THE) — is a work constructed within
the ravelin, but separated from it by a ditch.

RAZED. Works or fortifications are said to be razed, when tin -y
are totally demolished.

READINESS. A state of alertness or preparation ; thus, to hold
a corps in readiness, is to have it prepared in consequence of some
previous order to march at a moment's notice.

REAR, REAR RANK. The hinder rank.

REAR GUARD. A detachment of troops tn the rear of an army.

RECEIPT. A voucher or acknowledgment, which should always
be given when official papers are received. When flags of truce are
the bearers of a parcel or a letter, the officer commanding at an outpost
should give a receipt for it, and require the party to depart forthwith.

RECOIL. The motion which a cannon takes backward when fired.

RECOMMENDATIONS. All members of a court who concur
unmendations to mercy sign. The recommendation is introduced
after the finding and sentence are closed and authenticated. The re-
commendation should distinctly set forth the reasons which prompt it ;
(Ilouon.)

RECOMPENSE. (See ALLOWANCE ; GRATIFICATION ; INDEMNITY ;
PAT.)

RECONNOISSANCE, RECONNOITRE, RECONNOITRING,
— may bo distinguished into reconnoissance of the enemy, and topo-
graphical reconnoissanccs.

Reconnoissances are warlike operations for the purpose of procur-
ing information of the positions and strength of corps of the enemy.
"Without such knowledge, no well-concerted measures of attack or
defence can be made. First of all, notes of information are gained
from spies, deserters, and travellers, and the position of the diil'eivnt
corps of the enemy is marked out upon a good map. But when the
opposing armies are more nearly approximated.

to MOertain, every day, what changes and movements have taken place,
whether for purposes of concentration or withdrawal to other points.
Reconnoissanccs by force result from this necessity, an 1 lead sometimes
to bloody actions.

The custom is almost universal to cover an army by outposts, and
to detach clouds of light troops to mask the*campand prevent an cm -my
from seeing what dispositions are made for attack or defence. To gain

EEC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 439

information, it is therefore necessary to push a reconnoissance through
the curtains of light troops, by which the enemy has enveloped himself,
and drive back or cut off outposts, so as to enable the officer charged with
the reconnoissance clearly to see the army of the enemy, notfe the advan-
tages and disadvantages of his positions, count his battalions, and judge
of his means of resistance : whether he is intrenched, what artillery he
has ; whether the ground is or is not favorable for cavalry ; where the
cavalry is encamped, &c. These different objects ought to be seen
rapidly and by a practised eye, for the reconnoissance will have called
to arms a greatly superior force, and it is necessary as soon as possible
to fall back. But the aim will have been attained, for the enemy having
been compelled to unmask and deploy his forces, the reconnoitring
officer will know all that he desires, and consequently hastens his return
to camp, in order that his party rnay not be exposed to have its retreat
cut off.

Similar reconnoissances ordinarily precede battles. By their means
a general is assured of the true state of the enemy, before giving his
last orders. On a march, the advance guard reconnoitres the enemy.
Sometimes a reconnoissance has for its object to discover if a point is
solidly occupied ; if a bridge over which an army is to pass has been
broken ; whether a defile is fortified ; whether the enemy has guns in
any particular position ; whether he is in a certain city, or whether he
has followed such and such routes after losing a battle, &c., &c. Such
reconnoissances are often made by small parties of cavalry alone to
ensure rapidity ; but if resistance is anticipated or foreseen, the party
must consist of all arms, or be constituted according to circumstances,
and the command be given to an experienced officer.

The commander of a reconnoissance ordinarily receives written
instructions. He should well understand the object before him, and
demand such explanations as he may require. He is furnished with a
good map, a telescope, writing materials, and means of making field-
sketches of the positions of the enemy. He secures twro or three in-
habitants of the country to serve as guides, and to answer his inquiries
relative to the names and populations of villages, the nature of the
roads, the extent of woods, the condition of water-courses, ground, &c.
He ought to be accompanied by an officer who knows the language of
the country, and he should, before commencing his march, inspect the
troops intrusted to him to satisfy himself of the good condition of their
arms, ammunition, and provisions.

The detachment charged with pushing a reconnoissance marches
with its advance guard and flankers ; stops all persons who would

4«»0 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [R«c.

precede it, and might give information of its march ; questions inhabi-
tants of villages, and, if necessary, takes hostage- .re true in-
formation, lie attention of the commander is particularly direct. 1 t<>
the ground over which he passes, to determine, in advance, points
where a stout resistance may be made in the event of his being oblim «1
to fight when making his retreat. He frequently consults his map to
ascertain its fidelity to the country over which he passes, and notes its
variations. The detachment pushes forward, using all necessary pre-
cautions, without fear of compromising itself, attacking boldly such
antagonists as present themselves, until the information has been gained
for which it was despatched.

There are other reconnoissances made by small detachments, which
employ stratagem rather than force, and which consequently ought to
shun any engagement that can be avoided. In strong reconnoissances
or reconnoissances by force, on the contrary, the aim is to penetrate
to the positions of the enemy, and the design must not be permitted to
fail by an accidental meeting with troops ; but, profiting by such good
fortune, the opposing troops must be overthrown, prisoners made who
will give useful information, and the fugitives rapidly followed to the
outposts, which will probably be in confusion at the repulse of the
detachment. The line of the enemy is then soon pierced, and his corps
will be soon seen deployed to repulse the attack. The commandant of
the reconnoissance ought now to seek some elevated point from which
he can gain a good knowledge of the force and positions of tho enemy,
and make, or have made by officers who acccompany him, a rapid
sketch of tho ground and the positions of the enemy. When once this
object has been gained, a retreat must be sounded even in the middle
of the combat. And it is under such circumstances that skill and pru-
dence guide courage ; and sang-froid is absolutely indispensable. Tho
object of the reconnoissance is to gain information. Boldness must be
employed to attain that end ; but, if in the hope of surprising a post,
carrying off a convoy, or destroying troops, tho commander f<>;
his route and loses time, it is a violation of duty ; ho is blaniaM-
if success attends his enterprise.

Secret reconnoissances are conducted on different principles. They
are ordinarily composed of a single kind of troops ; of cavalry in il.it,
open districts, and of infantry in mountainous or intersected countries.
The detachment marches with caution. If tho eclaireurs announce the
approach of an enemy, it endeavors to avoid observation t>y the shelter
furnished by woods or any accident of ground at hand ; or else escaping
by a prompt retreat if necessary ; or, if near its own outposts, and tho

REC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 491

enemy is in strength, sending back information, and retarding the
column of the enemy as much as possible, by simulating strength.

When the commandant of such a reconnoitring party has reached
his destination without hindrance, he holds his men concealed behind
some curtain, such as a clump of trees, an old wall or ditch, and fol-
lowed only by a few men in echelons, he takes some elevated position
with his guide and two or three soldiers, whence he can observe the
enemy. He notes what he sees, with the explanations of his guide. If
the positions of the enemy are well seen, he makes sketches, which are
always valuable even when very rough. He must not be imposed on
by first appearances, but examining with sang-froid, he endeavors to
seize exact ideas, and exposes himself when necessary to attain his aim.
Inexact knowledge or lies are worse than total ignorance. Montluc
well says that discretion must be exercised in selections for such expe-
ditions, for an inexperienced man may soon take alarm, and even
imagine " bushes to be battalions of the enemy." Send always some
fearless and skilful officer, and if you would do better go yourself.

When the reconnoissance is finished, the commanding officer makes
a written report to the general, when his verbal account is not sufficient.
This report ought to be clear, simple, and as brief as possible. The
officer will state only facts of which he is perfectly sure. His conjec-
tures will be presented with great reserve, and always as conjectures.
He will guard against flights of imagination, but confine himself to
realities, and will avoid speaking much of himself; but, knowing the
satisfactory result of his mission must do him honor, he will bestow
just praise upon his troops. (See SURVEY, Military.)

There are many signs which, if reported to a general and his staff,
enable them to judge of what they wish to know, as clearly as if a
detailed picture of the enemy were spread before them. It is neces-
sary, therefore, that every officer and soldier should know how to mark
and collect these signs. They consist, when a camp, bivouac, or can-
tonment is observed, in the color of coats and pantaloons ; other dis-
tinctive marks, the numbers of vidcttes, sentinels, fires, and tents of the
enemy ; the frequency and direction of rounds, patrols, and reconnois-
sances ; the nature and time of signals by trumpet or drum ; the placing
of signal posts ; measures of straw ; boughs broken off; the arrival
of reinforcements ; new uniforms; collections of fascines, beams, joists,
ladders, boats. When a corps is watched on the mar"ch, the signs to
observe are the depth and front of columns ; the number of subdivi-
sions ; the sort of troops, infantry, cavalry, artillery, trains ; the quick-
ness and direction of the march ; the height of the dust ; the reflection

4-..-J MILITARY DICTIONARY. [R«c.

of arms ; the number of the flankers and the eclaireurs. When an army
rra.lv for battle is observed, we should particularly note the number of
its lines, their extent, the composition of the troops in column or in lino
of battle; the calibre of pieces ; their position relative to cavalry and
infantry; the number of skirmishers; their manoeuvres ; the corn-out ra-
tion of forces or artillery on such a point ; flank marches of one or many
corps. If troops are followed on their march, we note the tracks of men
and horses, those made by wheels, cattle, and beasts of burden ; the rela-
tive positions of these tracks : whether they are regular and preserve an
invariable order ; whether the places where they stop have little or much
space between* them ; whether the route passed over is covered with re-
mains of animals ; whether the skeletons of the horses arc lean and
sore; whether the ground is bloody ; if graves have been freshly made,
whether some indications may not show them to be for superior offi-
cers ; whether the country has been devastated ; whether the entrails
of beef, mutton, or horses are seen; whether the fires are recut;
whether they arc numerous, and show much or little ashes ; whether
bridges are broken, and in what parts ; whether the inhabitants of the
country are anxious, sad, humble, animated, or satisfied.

Topographical reconnoissances are not less important than rccon-
noissances of the enemy. It is necessary to know the distances of
places to combine the march of different columns, and without a knowl-
edge of the difficulties of a route, necessary measures to oven-nine them
cannot be prescribed. It is by special reconnoissances that such knowl-
edge is gained, for maps are never sufficient. They do not give the
nature of the soil, the quality of the roads, the condition of rivers or
bridges, the thickness of forests, or the slope of mountains, &c., &c.,
but it is necessary to know all tin-so things before undertaking any
important enterprise. If this detailed information has not been col-
lected in time of peace through special corps, officers of '

nee of the enemy, and protected by troops, commonly make
•ketches, representing more or ]• •--< < \.ictly the most essential lot alili« s.
Those officers, also, on the march of an army, make out itineraries,
survey positions, fields of battle, and not unfrequently preat extents of
country.

Officers of all arms, however, are liable to be placed in situations
which require them to explore localities and give correct descriptions.
The following means may be employed for that purpose without be-
coming an expert in the art of drawing. The system of showing upon
plans the levels of the ground by means of contour lines is one of some
utility, but it is the most difficult representation in a topographical

REC.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

493

map. The art is only acquired by study and practice, and even with
skill there is not always time for its display in the field. Instead of
attempting lines to represent slopes, the contour of hills may be marked
by two curves, one for the top and one for the foot of the slope, and
these contour lines naturally present themselves to the eye, and are at
once put upon paper, to indicate the general form of the hill. The
space between these two lines is sufficient to write a few words indi-
cating the slope, &c. Whether, for instance, the slope is gentle or
steep, accessible or not to cavalry, its approximative height. In order
that the lines of circumscription representing heights may not be con-
founded with other conventional signs, they must be long dots. Ci-
phers in parenthesis give the heights of points of the superior curve
above corresponding points of the inferior curve.

Other objects, as water-courses, ponds, marshes, woods, vines,
towns, villages, large farms, and other isolated constructions which may
play an important part in battle, embankments, ferries, fords, stone and
wooden bridges, all may be represented as in Fig. 174.

Water-courses. — Two lines, one heavier than the other, are sufficient
to represent them. It is usual to add other lines between the two first.

FIG. 174.

494 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Ric.

Sometimes a blue shade advantageously takes the place of the inter-
mediate threads. An arrow indicates the direction of the current A
mill is seen in the lower part of the river. Smaller streams empty into
the river.

Means of crossing. — A ferry boat. A stone bridge, distinguished
from a wooden l>ri«l<ie by being wider and having wings on the opposite
banks. A ford, marked by dotted lines across the river.

Ponds or lakes are designated by lines of contour, and by threads
or a blue tint.

Marshes. — By a line of contour, and horizontal lines in the interior,
•with some points representing grass in the interior. Practicable or
impracticable, &c., is written.

Woods and vines. — These objects are designated by tracing the
contour. If colors are used India ink will designate woods, and violet
vims. Write, in the interior, the nature and characteristic circum-
stances of the wood ; whether it is undergrowth or forest, thickset or
open, &c.

Rocks. — Endeavor to imitate them, but if they present themselves
in prolonged walls, the crest and foot may be designated as in the
sketch. Or a few written words may give a better idea.

Habitations. — A village is represented by a circle filled with par-
allel lines. A town in the same manner, except that a square is sub-
stituted for the circle. A red tint may replace the parallel lines in
habitations. Isolated houses are designated merely by their form,
without regard to the scale.

Communications. — A great route is represented by two parallel
lines. A wagon road in the same manner, except that the lines are
nearer together. Roads practicable only for light carriages by the same
means, except that one of the lines is dotted. Distances being essential
in a plan of this kind, they must be written along the routes between
the objects.

Levees and Embankments are represented by t\vo parallel lines,
with cross lines in the interior. See embankment near stone bridge.

The sketch is completed by a meridian line.

I ! >\vever rapidly such a sketch as Fig. 174 may be made, there
are circumstances in which it is not possible to give that time, and a
reconnoissance must be made at a gallop. In the latter case, the
nf.it ring officer confines himself to taking rapid notes, and afterwards
making his sketch from recollection. This is a most useful talent, and
officers should be exercised in noting the prominent features of locali-
ties, and tracing their recollections upon paper. Reconnoissances are

REC.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

495

FIG. 175.

&C.

Distance from A to D 4h. 60m.
The route is good between
these points, except next the
river; there are deep ruts
which must be filled.

TOWN, (f

; TAVERN.
D

to.

Many scattered honses in the
neighborhood.

Surrounded by old walls: ac-
commodates 3,000 men.

liver is fordable. The bridge
admits 10 abreast.

HIGHEST
POINT. :

[t is necessary to double the
wagons.

VILLAGE|

Marshy stream.

Good position for defence.
The front is covered by a
marshy river. The flanks rest
on woods, leaving an interval
of 4,000 steps.

PLAIN.

4-0'

; CROSS

v
1

Road to T in 4* hours. Prac-
ticable for wagons.

Not capable of defence. Can
lodge 10,000 men.

CITY. 1

1 A

General Observations.

Conventional Signs.

Particular Observations.

ITINERARY FROM A TO X.

496 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rtc.

much simplified when confined to noting circumstances along a route,
and arc then called 1 tint- nines. All particularities of the route are noted,
whatever is remarkable on the right or left, the breadth of defile
itary positions, the steepness of slopes, what is necessary to improve a
road, the distances between points in time; covers, that is, houses of
all kinds are given according to their capacity of containing soldiers,
In itineraries, conventional signs as well as written notes are
used. Itineraries are made of leaves of paper five or six in-
breadth. Leaves are subsequently united, and represent entire routes.
Notes begin at the foot of the leaf, and are continued above, as in
Fig. 175. (See also article JOURNAL.)

Details concerning the resources of a country must be embodied in
statistical tables. The itinerary would be too much complicate! by
embracing them. Such information is most important, however, in
supplying an army; but statistical tables, prepared with that view,
should be confined to necessary objects. They should embrace details
of the population of towns, inhabited houses, workmen, mills,
grain, wagons, boats, horses, mules, beef cattle, with general ol
tions which would aid the departments of supply in the performance
of their duties. (Consult DUFOUR ; BUOEAUD ; Aide Afemoire cCEtat
Major. See SURVEYS, Afilitary or Expeditions.)

RECRUITING. The system of recruiting armies practiced in
England and the United States by voluntary enlistments, is vicious.
In continental Europe, the obligation is acknowledged that every subject
or citizen of a certain age owes military service to his country, either
personally or by substitute. The government consequently annually
calls for as many men as are needed for the military service. In an.
swer to this coll, lots are drawn by the whole class liable to service,
and those upon whom the lot falls become soldiers for a fixed period,
varying in different countries from three to eight y< ars. The military
have but little to do with such a system of recruiting. There is in
France simply a council for recruiting, in each department, instituted
to pronounce upon the fitness for service of those men derigated by
lot. It is composed of a prefect, a commanding general, a field-* .Hi. •« T
designated by the minister of war, a councillor of the prefect, and an
officer of the gtndarmerit. Those upon \vlmm the l«»t has fallen, who
think that they have good reasons for being exempted, pr<
case* before this committee, who examine such applications, and pro-
"hall be made, and in what coses substitutes

shall be admitted. With such a system of recruiting, the ranks of an
army are composed of all classes of the community. Promotion from

RED.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

497

the ranks is of ordinary occurrence. The soldier has a career before
him. He is proud of his profession. The army is a national army, or
an army of the people. Its sympathies are all with the people, and it
is ever, as in France, a true representative of the popular sentiment.

In England, where it is the policy of the government to keep the
army under the control of the aristocracy, they are logical in rejecting
a system of conscription, and adhering to a system of recruiting which
divides an army into two castes : the officer and the soldier. What
possible reason can be given for adopting that system in the United
States, is unknown. (See DEPOT ; RAISE.) ,

REDAN. £mall work with two faces terminating in a salient angle,
used to cover a camp, the front of a battle-field, advanced posts, ave-
nues of a village, bridge, &c. Fig. 176 exhibits a bridge-head, composed

FIG. 176.

of a redan with flanks, flanked by two redoubts on the opposite bank
of the river. These works are supposed to be in the neighborhood of
hills, from which it is necessary that they should be defiladed. This is
effected by traverses to cover the bridge, and by a traverse across the
centre of each redoubt. (See FIELD-WORKS.)

REDOUBTS— are works inclosed on all sides of a square, poly-
gonal, or circular figure. The latter form is rarely used, being unsuit-
able to ground in general, and from the impossibility of giving any
flanking defence to the ditch. Redoubts on level ground are generally
square or pentagonal. On a hill or rising ground their outline will, in
32

4'.'S

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Bra.

most cases, follow the contour of the summit of the hill. Their dimen-
sions should be proportioned to the number of men they are to contain.
One file, that is, two mm, are required for the defence of every lim-al
yard of parapet ; the number of yards in the crest line of any redoubt
should nut, therefore, exceed half the number of men to be contain. »1 in
it. Again, as every man in an inclosed work requires 10 square feet
of th.- interior space, that space clear of the ban.ju.tto must not contain
leas than ten times as many square feet as the number of men to be con-
tained in it From these considerations it follows : 1st. To find the least
number of men sufficient to man the parapet of an inclosed work, multiply
the number of yards in the crest line by two. 2d. To find the greatest
number of men that an inclosed work can contain, find the area, clear
of the banquette, in ^quare feet, and divide this number by 10.

When the redoubt contains guns, 324 square feet must bo allowed
for each gun, and this quantity, multiplied by the number of guns,

Fio. 177.
Side < f the Square along the Crest, 40 yards.

So* of TM& for Ft* 177.

RED.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 499

must be subtracted from the whole interior space. The remaining
number of square feet, divided by 10, will give the number of men which
the redoubt can hold. The side of a square redoubt should, under no
circumstances, be less than 50 feet.

The great objections to small inclosed works are : 1st, the liability
of their faces to be enfiladed from without ; 2d, the difficulty of pro-
viding an effective flanking defence for their ditches ; 3d, the weakness
of their salient angles, the ground in front of them being undefended
by a direct fire. In the preceding diagram (Fig. 177) is shown a square
redoubt, having a side of 40 yards, and capable of holding four pieces
of artillery, and one hundred and twenty men.

In tracing redoubts and all inclosed field works, care must be taken
to direct as much as possible their faces upon inaccessible ground, so
as to reduce to a minimum the effects of an enemy's enfilade, while
approach on the salients must be rendered difficult by abatis, trous-
de-loup, and obstacles of all available descriptions. It will hencefor-
ward be very difficult to guard the interior of inclosed works from the
effects of distant musketry. Well-trained troops from a distance of
900 yards could throw with certainty every shot into the interior of
even a small redoubt ; while the angle at which they fall, some 15° to
20°, would enable them to sweep the whole interior and make every
part of the redoubt too hot. It seems to be a question whether such a
work can be protected by traverses from such a plunging fire ; (HYDE'S
Fortification.} (See ATTACK AND DEFENCE of field-works.)

REDRESSING- WRONGS. If any officer shall think himself
wronged by his colonel, or the commanding officer of the regiment, and
shall, upon due application being made to him, be refused redress, he
may complain to the general, commanding in the State or territory
where such regiment shall be stationed, in order to obtain justice ; who
is hereby required to examine into the said complaint, and take proper
measures for redressing the wrong complained of, and transmit, as soon
as possible, to the Dppartment of War, a true state of such complaint,
with the proceedings had thereon ; (ART. 34.) If any inferior officer or
soldier shall think himself wronged by his captain or other officer, he
is to complain thereof to the commanding officer of the regiment, who
is hereby required to summon a regimental court-martial for the doing
of justice to the complainant ; from which regimental court-martial,
either party may, if he thinks himself still aggrieved, appeal to a gen-
eral court-martial. But if, upon a second hearing, the appeal shall
appear vexatious and groundless, the person, so appealing, shall be
punished at the discretion of the said court-martial ; (ART. 35.) (See

500 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rwx

IXJTRIES, for liability for private injuries, personal injuries, and criminal
liabilities ; REMEDY.)

REDUCE. To reduce a place , is to oblige the garrison to surren-
der. To reduce to the ranks, is when a sergeant or a eorporal, for any
misconduct, has his rank taken from him, and is obliged to return to
the duty of a private soldier. Non-commissioned officers cannot be re-
duced to the ranks except by the sentence of a court-martial, or by the
order of the colonel of the regiment.

RE-ENLISTING. Every able-bodied non-commissioned officer,
musician, or private soldier, who may re-enlist into his company or
regiment, within two months before or one month after the expiration
of his term of service, shall receive three months' extra pay ; (Act July
5, 1838.) (See ENLISTMENT.)

RE-ENTERING ANGLE — is an angle pointing inwards, or
towards the work.

RE-ENTERING ANGLE OF THE COUNTERSCARP— is
that formed by the intersection of the two lines of the counterscarp,
opposite the curtain.

REFUSAL TO RECEIVE PRISONERS. No officer com-
manding a guard, or provost-marshal, shall refuse to receive or
any prisoner committed to his charge by an officer belonging to tlio
force of the United States ; provided the officer committing shall, at the.
same time, deliver an account in writing, signed by himself, of the crime
with which the prisoner is charged; (ART. 80.) No officer command-
ing a guard, or provost-mapshal, shall release any prisoner committed
to his charge without proper authority for so doing, nor shall he suffer
any person to escape on penalty of being punished at the discretion of
a court-martial ; (ART. 81.) Every officer or provost-marshal to wh«>*o
charge prisoners are committed, shall, within twenty-four hours after
such commitment or as soon as he shall be relieved from guard, report
in writing to the commanding officer their names, < -rimes, and the names
of the officers who committed them, on penalty of being punished for
disobedience or neglect, at the discretion of a court-martial ; (Ant. 82.)
(See CONFINEMENT; PROVOST-MARSHAL.)

I; 1 !' . I M 1 '. N T. (Lat. rego, I rule.) A body of tr
by law, subject to the same administration, discipline, and dutie>. hav-
ing a legal head and members, and composed according to arm of
compm ilions, squadrons, or batteries. (See ARMY for the or-

ganization of the several re-inn -nts of infantry, cavalry, and artillery.)

BBOIMENTAL COURT-MARTIAL. (See COURT-MARTIAL.)

REGIMENTAL NECESSARIES. (^NECESSARIES.)

REG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 501

REGIMENTALS. The uniform clothing of regiments, such as
coats, trousers, caps, &c.

REGULATIONS. Under the Constitution of the United States,
rules for the government and regulation of the army must be made by
Congress. Regulation implies regularity. It signifies fixed forms ;
a certain order ; method ; precise determination of functions, rights, and
duties. (See AKMY REGULATIONS.) Rules of Regulation also embrace,
besides rules for the administrative service, systems of tactics, and the
regulation of service in campaign, garrison, and quarters. In the case
of the staff departments, legislative authority has been delegated
jointly to the President and Secretary of War. But in relation to
the powers, rights, and duties of officers and soldiers in campaign,
garrison, and quarters, Congress has not delegated its authority to
the President, nor have such matters been precisely determined by
military laws. Even rights of rank, command, and pay, concerning
which Congress has legislated, are subjects of dispute, and variable
expositions of laws regulating those essentials of good government
have been given by different executives, with an increasing tendency
to invalidate rank created by Congress. There can be no remedy for
these encroachments, unless Congress should pass a law to enable cases
to be brought before the Federal civil courts, in order that the true ex-
position of military statutes and authorities in dispute may be deter-
mined. With such a remedy, laws, however defective they may be,
would at least be known, and rights powers, and duties established by
law would be well determined.

But it may be said in relation to such rules of regulation, how
can a body like Congress determine upon systems of tactics, &c. 1
Their constitutional duty might easily be performed as follows : — 1.
By clearly declaring, in a manner not to be misunderstoo'd, that the
general-in-chief is charged with the discipline and military control of
the army under the rules made by Congress and the orders of the
President. 2. The Secretary of War is charged with the administra-
tive service of the army under the rules made by Congress and the
orders of the President. 3. By directing the general-in-chief, with the
advice of properly constituted military boards, to report to the Presi-
dent rules for the government and regulation of the army in campaign,
garrison, or quarters, including systems of tactics for the different arms
of the service. 4. By directing the Secretary of War, with the advice
of properly constituted boards, to report to the President rules for
raising and supporting armies ; including regulations for the adminis-
trative service. 5. By directing the President to submit the rules

5Q2 MIL1TABY D1CTIOXABY. [Bw

made in accordance with provisions 3 and 4, to another board organized
by the President, with Jireeti»ns to harmonize the details of the several
reports ; which last report shall be submitted to Congress for confirma-
tion or orders in the case. 6. By directing that each year, previous
to the meeting of Congress, the following boards be assembled under
the orders of the general-in-chief, viz. : a board of general staff officers ;
a board of artillery officers ; a board of cavalry officers ; and a board
of infantry officers. The Secretary of War to assemble the following
boards, viz. : a board of engineer officers ; a board of ordnance officers ;
a board of medical officers ; and a board of quartermasters, commis-
saries, and paymasters. Each of the boards so assembled to report to
the general-in-chief or Secretary of War, such suggestions of improve-
ments in their respective services as it may be desirable to adopt. 7.
The repeal of all laws delegating legislative authority to the President
and Secretary of War. (See ADMINISTRATION, and references ; ARTICLES
or WAR ; COMMAND ; CONGRESS ; GOVERNMENT, and its references ;
LAWS, (Military ;) OBEDIENCE ; ORDERS ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT ;
SECRETARY OF WAR ; SERVICE, and references ; STAFF, and references.)

REJOINDER. The weight of authority is against permitting a
rejoinder on the part of the prisoner, unless evidence has been adduced
in the reply of the prosecutor. But such evidence should not be per-
mitted in reply, and there should be no rejoinder; (Ilouau's Military
Law Authorities.}

RELEASE OF PRISONERS. (See REFUSE.)

RELIEF. A guard is usually divided into three reliefs. Relief
is also the height to which works are raised. If the works are high
and commanding, they are said to have a bold relief; but if the reverse,
they are said to have a low relief. The relief should provide the requi-
site elevations for the musketry and artillery, to insure a good del

RELIEVING THE ENEMY. Whosoever shall relieve tho
enemy with money, victuals, or ammunition, or shall knowingly harbor
or protect an enemy, shall suffer death, or such other punUlm.
shall be ordered by the sentence of a court-martial ; (Aur. 50.)

REMBLAI — is the quantity of earth e«.ntuineil in tin; mass of ram-
part, ; nd banquette.

REMEDY. Tho rules and articles for tho government of the army
are defective in not providing sufficient remedies for wrongs. Tho
army of th.- United States is governed by law. Tho law should there-
fore provide a sufficient remedy for cases in which tho rights of officers
arc wrested from them by illegal regulations, purporting to int
tho true meaning of acts of Congress, in cases arising in the lai

BET.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 503

naval forces of the United States, where the true construction of any act
of Congress is in dispute, legislation is wanted to enable an officer, who
thinks himself wronged by an illegal executive decision, to bring the
matter before the federal civil courts to determine the true exposition
of the statute or authority in dispute. (See REDRESSING WRONGS ; SUIT.)

REPAIRS OF ARMS. (See DAMAGE.)

REPLY. It is the duty of a court to prevent new matter from
being introduced into the prosecution or defence, but a prisoner may
urge in his defence mitigating circumstances, or examine witnesses as
to character or services, and produce testimonials of such facts, without
its being considered new matter. If any point of law be raised, or any
matter requiring explanation, the judge-advocate may explain. No
other reply to be admitted ; (HOUGH.)

REPORTING PRISONERS. (See REFUSE.)

REPRIEVE. The President of the United States has power to
grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States,
except in cases of impeachment ; (Constitution.)

REPRIMAND. It is earnestly recommended to all officers and
soldiers diligently to attend divine service ; and all officers, who shall
behave indecently or irreverently at any place of divine worship, shall,
if commissioned officers, be brought before a general court-martial,
there to be publicly reprimanded by the President ; (ART. 2.)

REPRISALS. Acts of war to obtain satisfaction for losses or acts
of retal iation. ( See W AR.)

REPROACHFUL or provoking speeches or gestures, used by one
officer to another, are punished by the arrest of the officer ; in the case
of a soldier, he is to be confined and ask pardon of the party offended,
in the presence of the commanding officer ; (ART. 24.)

REQUISITIONS. Forms prescribed for the demand of certain
allowances, as forage, rations, &c. (See ADMINISTRATION.)

RESERVE. A select body of troops kept back to give support
when needed, or to rally upon.

RESIGN ; RESIGNATION. The voluntary act of giving up
rank or an appointment. (See DISCHARGE.)

RETAINERS. All sutlers and retainers to the camp, and all
persons whatsoever, serving with the armies of the United States in the
field, though not enlisted soldiers, are to be subject to orders according
to the rules and discipline of war ; (ART. 60.)

RETREAT. Retrograde movement before an enemy ; by retreat
is also understood the drum-beat at sunset.

RETRENCHMENT— -is an inner defensible line, either constructed
in the original design, or executed on the spur of the occasion, to cut

T.U 1 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rtr.

off a breach, or other weak point ; so that the capture of the latter bhall
not involve that of the retrenched post.

RETIKNS. Kv,ry officer who shall knowingly make a false
return to the Department of War, or to any of his superior officers,
authorized to call for such returns, of the state of the regiment, troop,
company, or garrison, under his command ; or of the arms, ammu-
nition, clothing, or other stores, thereunto belonging, shall on conviction
thereof before a court-martial bo cashiered; ( ART. 18.) The command-
ing officer of every regiment, troop, independent company, or garri-
son of the I'nited States, shall, in the beginning of every month, remit,
through the proper channels, to the Department of War, an
return of the regiment, troop, independent company, or garrison
under his command, specifying the names of the officers then absent
from their posts, with the reasons for, and the time of, their absence.
And any officer who shall be convicted of having, through neglect or
design, omitted sending such returns, shall be punished according to
the nature of his crime, by the judgment of a general court-martial ;
(ART. 19.) Disbursing agents shall make monthly returns, in such
forms as may be prescribed by the treasury department, of the moneys
n-. rived and expended during the preceding month, and of the unex-
pended balance in their hands ; (Act March 3, 1800. See ACCOUNT-
ABILITY ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT.)

REVEILLE. Drum-beat and roll-call at daybreak.

REVERSE. The reverse flank in a column is the flank at the
other extremity of the pivot of a division.

REVETMENTS. The interior slopes of thcparapc ts of p.-rmanent
and field-works, as well as in some cases the sides of the ditches of the
latter, require revetments to enable them to stand at that sl"j>e \\hidi
is necessary, and to endure the action of the weather. The materials
made use of in the construction of field-revetments are : fascines, ga-
bions, hurdles, sod, sand-bags, and timber. In siege opciations, and in
fact in all operations in active warfare, vast quantities of ih.se materials
are required, and are daily consumed, in the construction of 1
works, parapets, batteries, magazines, and a variety of mise.-llaneous
purposes. Large quantities, then, must be prepared or manufactured by
the ordinary troops of the line, superintended l»y their own ofiieers, who
should be acquainted with all the details in -cessary for their production.

Fascines are strong, close, regular fi : illy and rompactly

made, generally of green brushwood. They should be straight, cylin-
drical, and pliant; bound round with £ood thick, unbroken ^ads or
•withes, of pliant wood, at equal distances, the knots well tied, and all
in one line; no variation in girth exceeding 1 inch to be allowed.

REV.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 505

Fascines are of several kinds and various dimensions, according to
the purposes for which they are intended. The most common are the
long fascines or saucissons, 18 feet long, 9 inches in diameter, about
140 Ibs. in weight ; such a fascine can be made by five men in one
hour, including the cutting of the wood when at hand. Water fascines,
18 inches in diameter, 6 to 9 feet long. Trench fascines, 4 or 5 feet
long, 6 inches in diameter. Sap fagots, 3 feet long, 9 inches in diam-
eter, having a sharp-pointed stake, passed' longitudinally through the
centre, and projecting a foot or so beyond the extremity of the fascine.
To make good fascines requires considerable practice and much care and
attention, (Fig. 178.) The process is this : Stakes are driven into the

FIG. ITS.

ground, obliquely, in pairs, so that the stakes in each pair cross at the
same height above the ground about 3 feet, where they are firmly bound
together, forming a row of trestles each in shape like the letter X.
These trestles should be placed about 4 feet apart when the brushwood
is good ; closer together when it is bad. Thus 5 trestles at least will
be requisite to prepare 18-feet fascines.

A choker must now be prepared. This is made by fastening, by an
iron ring, each extremity of a chain about 4 feet long, to an ash stake.
Each stake is 4 feet long, and the point where the chain is fastened is
about 18 inches from the thicker end. Two small rings are attached
to the chain 28k inches apart, (equal to the circumference of the fascine,)
and equidistant from its middle point. In choking the fascine, the
middle of the chain is placed under it, and the ends brought over and
crossed as in Fig. 179. Two men, one on each side, then bearing on
the longer arms >f the levers tighten the chain, and compress the fas-
cine to the proper dimensions, that is, until the rings on the chain meet.
A third man now binds the fascine as close as possible to the choker,
with a strong gad, or with stout spun yarn, when the choker may be
removed and the operation repeated at the proper intervals, generally
18 inches. For withes or gads to bind fascines, very straight rods must
be selected ; they should be 5 feet long, not thicker at the thickest part
than the thumb, nor thinner at the thinnest than the little finger. To
prepare them for use, place the thick end under the foot, and twist the

506

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[HIT.

rod from the top downwards, by which the rod will become tl

and capable of being securely knotted without fracture. The knot to

FiO. 178.

be formed in fastening the gad round the fascine is shown in Fig. 180.
To make the fascine, the brushwood is laid in the trestles, the longest
and straightest rods being kept round the outside, the inferior m
in the middle. The proper quantity of brushwood having been thus
carefully arranged*, the choker is applied near the extremity of the fas-
cine, and subsequently at intervals of 18 inches as already mentioned.
The ends and exterior are now neatly trimmed by the hand saw and
billhook, and the fascine is complete. When good gads or withes can-
not be procured, stout, well-tarred spun-yarn may bo substituted for
them. With fascines are prepared bundles of stakes, called fascine
pickets, in the proportion of six to ea<-h fas. in. > ; they should be 4 feet
long, i inch in diameter, and be cut to triangular points.

Slopes, to In- revet tnl
with fascines, have usually
eijual to one-fourih
their height. The fascines
arc j'laeed horizontally
one civ. r another, as the
•work is built, until tho
M h< >le slop ,-.1 l.y

one layer- Ti. k-

aro driven through

FIO. 180.

FIO. 181.

fV..-iMp.to secure it to the \v«.,k. atul these are sometimes fastened to
other pickets, buried vcrtifclly in the mass of parapet, as shown in Fig.

REV.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

507

181. To find the number of fascines required to revet any slope,
divide the length of the slope by the length of the fascine, and the
height of the slope by the diameter of the fascine : these two quotients
multiplied together will be the requisite number.

Gabions are stout, rough, cylindrical baskets, open at top and bot-
tom ; they are made of various dimensions according to their intended
use. Those for revetting the interior slopes of parapets are usually 3
feet high and 2 feet in diameter ; strongly and somewhat coarsely made.
Those used in sapping (called sap gabions) have about the same dimen-
sions, but are carefully finished. To construct a gabion, a circle of 22
inches diameter must be traced on a clean, hard, level pfece of ground,
each quarter of this circle is then divided into four or five equal parts,
and small holes made at the points of division, to receive straight up-
rights of 3£ feet in length, around which the withes are interwoven.
Gabions may be made with one, two, or three rods woven together
about the uprights ; when two rods are woven together, the work is
called pairing ; when three, waling. The last gives the strongest gabions.
The method of working will be best understood by reference to Fig.

FIG. 182.

FIG. 183.

182. Each rod passes outside two, and inside one, upright, and the
three are twisted together like a rope.

In revetting with gabions, a base is first made for them at right angles
to the slope, so that when standing upon this, their
surfaces will be coincident with the slope, (Fig. 183).
When one row of gabions has been thus placed, and
the parapet has risen as high as their upper surfaces,
a row of fascines is laid horizontally upon the tops
of the row of gabions. Above these again another
row of gabions is placed at the same inclination with
the former, and finally another row of fascines com-
pletes the whole. Two rows of gabions and two of
fascines are required for the revetment of an interior
slope, of the usual height, without a banquette, and one row of gabions

5*6

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Rir.

and two of fascines with a banquette ; therefore, in the former case, the
number of gabions required, will be equal to the number of feet of
crest to bo : and in the latter case to half that number. The

number of I-IM -in, -s. in ritlu-r case, will be equal to twice the length of
the slope divided by the K-ngth of a fascine.

Hurdles (Kig. 184) are the common coarse wicker hurdles made for
farming, and other purposes, usually 3 or 4 l',-et high and C to 9 feet long.
They are useful in temporary works, to retain earth at a steep sl<
a short time. When thus used, they should bo secured by anchoring
piekets. Hurdles aro moreover useful, to form a dry footing in
trenches, during wet weather ; in the passage of wet ditches, and for
many similar purposes. Sods or turfs are used for the formation of
the interior slopes of parapets, and the cheeks of embrasures. Sods
should be cut from fine close turf, with thickly matted roots, previously
mown, and if possible, watered, to make the earth adhere more closely
to the roots of the grass. The sods are laid, with the grass downwards,
alternately headers and stretchers, like bricks in a wall. Their under
or upper surfaces should be perpendicular to the slope of the parapet,
and not horizontal, except in a vertical revetment, and each sod sin mid
be fastened to those beneath, by two or three wood* n peg*. Sod work
can be made with great perfection, and is very durable. The arrange-
ment of the sods is shown in plan and in roar elevation in Fig. 185, and
in side elevation in Fig. 186. In meadows, the
dimensions of sods may be from 12 to 18 inches
long, 12 inches wide, and 4 to 6 inches thick.

Fio. 185.

Fio. 184

In li.-ath, having large roots, they may be 2 feet long, 12 or 18 inches

'!ii«k. To find the number of sods re^uir. d to

revet any L ,'th of slope, the revetment being one sod thick:

REV.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

509

FIG. 187.

Divide the height of slope by thickness of sods, for the number of rows.
Divide twice the length of the slope by the sum of the length and
breadth of a sod for the number in one row. Multiply these two quo-
tients together, for the whole.

Sand-bags are coarse canvas bags, of a capacity sufficient to hold
about a bushel of earth ; when empty they occupy only a small
space, and are frequently of great use. A good field-revetment can be
built with filled sand-bags, laid as sods ; such a revetment, however, is
only fit for temporary purposes, as the sand-bags soon rot ; they are
unfit for lining the cheeks of embrasures, as the flash of the guns speed-
ily destroys them. In rocky positions, it is sometimes necessary to
construct entire batteries and parallels with filled sand-bags. In Figs.
187 and 188, are shown a section of a para-
pet revetted with sand-bags, and an enlarged
plan of the same. Many of the British
trenches and batteries before Sebastopol,
owing to the rocky nature of the ground,
were formed of sand-bags, baskets, casks,
&c., filled with earth brought from a dis-
tance. Sand-bags are used in great num-
bers, laid on the superior slopes of para-
pets, to form loop-holes for riflemen.

Timber is used for revetments, in par-
ticular cases only, as where it may be con-
sidered advisable, in important field-works, !
to retain the escarp of the ditch at a steep

Slope. In this Case, a revetment is neces- BAND-BAGS SHOULD BE TARRED" AND

1.1 r A. J f -I HOLD ONE CUBIC FOOT OF EAKTH.

sary, which may be constructed of beams or

the trunks of small trees, planted 3 or 4 feet deep, vertically in the
ground and touching each other, or by lining the surface of the slope
with planks secured by stout posts, 3 or 4 feet apart, planted several
feet in the ground, and there fastened to heavy horizontal beams.
The strength of the revetment may be still further increased, by con-
necting the upper extremities of the posts to others buried under the
mass of the rampart ; (HYDE'S Fortification.)

REVIEW. Prescribed form of passing troops before a general
officer, an inspector, or other reviewing personage.

REVISION. Where an officer, who orders a court-martial, does
not approve their proceedings, he may, by the custom of war, return
them to the court for revision, and no additional evidence can be taken
on such revision ; (Houan.)

FIG. 188.

510 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Riw.

REWARD. Thirty dollars arc paid for the apprehension of de-
sert.

RICOCIIET. Guns fired with a small charge and a low

• .n, project ricochet shot, which merely clear a parapet, and
thence bound along a rampart, destroying gun-carriages, &c. (See
FIRING.)

RIFLED ORDNANCE. Rifle-muskets are wholly indebted to
the elongated projectile for their efficiency ami celebrity. Elongated
shot possess, when their axes are coincident with the path they describe,
the pr< f being less resisted by the air, having longer ranges

and greater penetrating power than spherical projectiles of the same
diameter. To obviate the difficulty and loss of time in loading ordi-
nary rifles, by forcing the ball into the barrel by repeated M
the ramrod or a mallet, on account of which that arm had been little
used, M. Delvigne proposed that the bullet should have sufficient wind-
age to enter freely into the barrel, in order that, when stopped by the
contraction of the chamber with which this arm was furnished, it might
be forced to expand and enter into the grooves, on receiving a few
smart blows ; thus the piece being fired, the bullet would come out a
fin-cod, or rifle ball, without having been forced in. But this ingenious
contrivance was not found to answer. The edge of the chamber on
which the ball lodged, not being opposite to the direction of the
blow, did not form a sufficient support upon which to flatten the ball
when struck by the ramrod, and thus cause the bullet to expand ;
whilst portions of the charge of powder previously poured in, hav-
ing lodged on the contraction, cushioned and still further impeded
the expansion of the shot ; and as, obviously, no patch could be
used, the grooves were liable to get foul, and to become Laded, to
an extent which could not be effi-etually obviated. To remedy this
Colonel Thouvenin proposed in 1828 to suppress the chamber.
and substitute a cylindrical tige or pillar of steel, screwed into the
••:itro of the barrel, so that the bullet, when stopped by,
and resting upon the flat end of the pillar, directly <>j»p -it. to the side
struck, might more easily be flatten. .1 and fo,n-d to enter the grooves.
But here another d.-f.-rt appeared. The pillar occupying a large portion
of the centre of the barrel, and thn charge bcinp placed in the annular
space which surrounds it, tho main force of the powder, instead of
taking effect in the axis of the piece, and on the centre of the projectile,

•nly on the spherical portion of the bullet which lies over this
annular chamber, and thus the ball, rorrmng oblicjiu-ly the impulse
of the charge, was propelled with diminished force. The next 1m-

RlF.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

511

provement, which was proposed by M. Delvigne, was to make the
bottom of the projectile a flat surface ; the body cylindrical, and to
terminate it in front with a conical point, thus diminishing the resist-
unce of the air comparatively with that experienced by a solid of the
Bame diameter having a hemispherical end. The form of the projectile
was, therefore, an approximation to that of Newton's solid of least re-
sistance. (See PROJECTILE.) In 1841 a patent was obtained by Captain
Tamisier for his method of giving steadiness to the flight of cylindro-
conical shot, by cutting three sharp circular grooves each .28 inches
deep, on the cylindrical part of the shot, by which the resistance of the
air behind the centre of gravity of the projectile being increased, the
axis of rotation was kept more steadily in the direction of the trajectory ;
the grooves being to this projectile what the feathers are to the arrow,
and the stick to the rocket.

But the tige musket having been found inconvenient in cleaning, the
pillar liable to be broken, and, after firing some rounds, the operation
of ramming down so fatiguing to the men as to make them unsteady
in taking aim, M. Minie, previously distinguished as a zealous and able
advocate for restoring the rifle to the service in an improved form, pro-
posed to suppress the tige, and substitute for it an iron cup, b (Fig.
189,) put into the wider end of a conical hollow, a,
made in the shot : this cup being forced further in by
the explosion of the charge, causes the hollow cylindrical
portion of the shot to expand and fix itself in the
grooves, so that the shot becomes forced at the moment
of discharge. A slip of cartridge-paper is wound twice
round the cylindrical part of the projectile, so that, as
the latter does not become forced or rifled till the
charge is fired, it fits so tightly to the barrel as to be
free from any motion which would be caused by the
carriage of the rifle on a inarch, or by its being
handled before the shot is fired. But unless the cup b
(Fig. 189) be driven, by the first action of the explosion of the charge,
so far into the conical space in which it is placed, as to cause the lead to
enter into the grooves of the rifle before the shot moves, there will be no
rotation — the paper wrapped round the shot not sufficing for this purpose.
In the experiments of 1850 it was found that the hollow part of the
Minie cylindro-conical shot was very frequently separated entirely
from the conical part by the force with which the cup was driven into
the hollow part of the shot, and sometimes remained so firmly fixed in
the barrel that it could not be extracted ; but in the more recent trials

FIG. 189.

512 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rir.

with shot mode by compression and with better lead, no such failure
occurred.

While efforts were being made in France to augment the power and
accuracy of small-arms, loaded at the muzzle, as already d»
Dreyse, of Sommerda, in Thuringia, was led to test \\hether the incon-
venience of ramming down and flattening the shot might not be L
of by loading the barrel at the brcecli — an old project ; and he suggested
a plan for this purpose, which has been adopted to a groat extent in tho
Prussian army. The Prussian rifled musket for firing c\ Tmdro-eonical
shot is loaded at the breech, and is designated " xtmd&adeigewehr," from
the ignition of the charge being produced by passing a needle through the
cartridge to strike the percussion-powder placed in the wooden bottom,
or spiegel. The escape of gas at the junction of the chamber and barrel
is considered by all as a great objection to the needle-prime musket :
it is stated that the point of the igniting needle soon becomes furred, so
that it is difficult, and, after a time, impossible, to draw it back by the
thumb. The Prussians, however, appear to bo quite confident of the
superiority of tho latter over other rifle-muskets; their government is
said to have caused 60,000 stand of these arms to be execute- 1, ami at
least half as many more* are ordered. Their fusiliers, who are armed
with the needle-prime musket, have also a short sword, with a cross
hilt : this they plant in the ground ; and, lying down, they use the. hilt
as a rest for the purpose of taking a steady aim.

It is, no doubt, in some respects, an important advantage in the
Prussian rifles, that they may bo loaded more quickly than tho ordinary
mu-ket or rifle; but rifle actions arc generally decided, not by mere
rapidity of fire, but by each soldier taking time to use his arm in tho
most efficient manner possible. Although the use of the rifle was sus-
pended iu the French armies throughout tho whole of the general Mar
(1794-1815,) yet tho French infantry, armed with the common musket.
were well trained to act en tirailleur, and showed great aptitude for that

:' service. Good patterns having been obtained of the Delvigne
carabine a tige, tho French and the Belgian Mini6 rifles, experiments
were made at Woolwich in 1851 with these three arms and with Lan-
caster's pillar-breeeh rifle, in order to test their relative merits in firing
at a target 0 feet square, at 400 yards* distance. The, result of tin-so
s fully established tho pceuliar advantages of M. M

d of quick loading, and foreing tho shot into tho rifled state, and a
large supply of what has bom called tho regulation Minio musket was

d. The form of its projectile, which is simply conoidal, is given
in Fig. 100 annexed.

RIF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 513

Mr. Lancaster, who invented the ordnance with an elliptical bore,
spirally formed, and the pillar-breech rifle, proposed also a description
of musket having a bore FlQ 190

of a similar kind. No ^ — S" *

grooves are cut in the
interior surface of the
barrel ; but in a trans-
verse section, the bore
has the form of an el-
lipse of small eccen-
tricity, being freed at
the breech: the projec-
tile is cylindro-conoidal, with a circular base, and, when heated by
the fired gunpowder, it expands so far as to take a form correspond-
ing to the elliptical section of the bore. The bore, being a continuous
spiral, fulfills the object of grooves, and causes the shot, in passing
along it, to acquire a rotatory motion on its axis. The spiral is not
uniform in its whole length, but has what is called by Americans a
gaining twist or an increasing spiral. The advantages of this rifle are
supposed to be — greater accuracy of practice, less recoil than other
muskets have, and no tendency to cause the rifle to turn over
sideways.

In December, 1853, a trial was made at Hythe of Mr. Lancaster's
elliptically-bored muskets freed at the breech, in order to compare their
shooting with that of a rifle-musket of .577 bore, having three grooves
regularly spiral of one turn in 6 ft. 6 in., which was manufactured at
Enfield in the same year ; the report of this trial was in favor of the
Enfield rifle, Lancaster's muskets evincing a strong tendency to strip,
and at the longer ranges this defect was very marked.

In 1858, Mr. Whitworth of Manchester produced a musket having
a hexagonal bore of a spiral figure, making one turn in 20 in., by which
the projectiles — either of hexagonal or cylindro-conoidal form — in
passing along the barrel acquire a swift and steady rotation on their
axes. This species of rifle has been found considerably superior in
accuracy of shooting to the Enfield rifle, which has been adopted in
England.

In order to test the relative merits of these two kinds of weapons, a
series of trials were made at Hythe, under the direction of Colonel Hay,
the able superintendent of the school of musketry at that place, and the
results are stated in the following table. The rifles were fired from
rests, and ten or twenty rounds were fired from each at the several
33

514

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Rir.

distances. The numbers in the fourth column express, in feet and deci-
mals, the means and the distances of the ten or t \\vnty points of impact
on the target, from a nearly central point of the group in each trial.

TABLE SHOWING TUB RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH THE " WIIITWOKTII "

IKLD RIFLES.

Description of P.lflc.

Dbtanoeln
yard*.

Ancl« of
elevation.

Mean radial
deviation.

Remark*.

Enfield

600

1 82

l-\,-s.

Whitworth

1 15

.87

Enfield

800

4.20

Whitworth

1 00

Enfield

1,100

4 12

8.04

3 8

Enfield

1,400

j Shooting so wild, no

5 0

4 02

"( diagram token.

Enfield

1,880

Not tried.

6 40

1 1 i'. '

The superiority of the Whitworth rifle in accuracy of fire is hence
manifest ; and it may be added that, from its form, the bore is less
liable to be worn than that of any grooved rifle. As the projectile may
bo mado harder, it will, consequently, have greater penetrating p
and, in fact, the Whitworth projectile went through 35 half-inch planks
of elm wood, and remuinei in a bulk of solid oak beyond, while the
Enfield projectile went through only 12 such planks.

Till within the last twenty years, no sight was considered necessary
for a common musket — the stud at the muzzle being sufficient for the
purpose of taking aim. Wlu-n percussion-arms were first introduced,
a fixed block-sight for 120 yards was adopted ; and subsequently a
block-sight for 200 yards and a leaf for 300 yards were affixed to the two-
grooved rifle. At present every English rifled musket is furnished with
a complicated and delicate sight. The rifles used by the Russians at the
battle of the Alma were of good construction ; they have two grooves,
and carry conoidal shot, each weighing 7G7 grains, equivalent in weight
to a spherical bullet of 0 to th(5 pound. They are flat at the bas
have projections at the sides corresponding with the grooves of the
musket. The great weight of these projectiles is very objerti«>nal>le;
the soldiers who carry them must be very mu.-h distressed by the loads
in their pouches, or these must contain a smaller number of shot than
ially carried. The Russian mi-^ile is more pointed than the Kiiiilish
Mini6 shot, and no part being cylindrical, it must be liable to irr
tnovements in the barrel, and, consequently, to unsteadiness in its flight.

RIF.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 515

It has the designation of a Minie shot, a term now generally but im-
properly applied to all elongated shot for musketry, since they differ
from one another both in form and weight.

The rifle used in the French service up to the commencement of the
late Italian war consisted only of the carabine a tige, and these were given
only to special corps of riflemen. However eminent the authority of
Colonel Minie on the subject of rifles, his method of rifling was never
introduced into the French service. Throughout the Crimean war, the
French infantry of the line were armed with the smooth-bored regula-
tion musket. Some time previous to the Italian campaign the whole
of the French infantry had their old muskets rifled, and conical shot
introduced — the rifling principle being a triangular hollow cut in the
bottom of the shot, without any cup, as in the Minie system. The
efficient range did not exceed 600 yards, and was very inaccurate be-
yond 400 yards. This imperfect measure, as admitted by the French
authorities, hardly kept pace with the general improvement in small-
arms ; but they were restricted by considerations of economy, which
did not admit of any general alteration of the muskets in store. Thus
all the French infantry during the Italian campaign used these defective
rifled muskets, with the exception of the chasseurs, who retained the
carabine a tige, the range of which was far superior to other French
musket rifles.

In 1846, iron rifled cannon, loaded at the breech, were invented by
Major Cavalli and Baron WahrendorfF, for the purpose'of firing cylin-
dro-conical and cylindro-conoidal shot. In these guns the mechanical
contrivances for securing the breech, are very superior to the rude pro-
cesses of earlier times ; yet it appears doubtful whether or not, even
now, they are sufficiently strong to insure safety when high charges are
used in long continued firing. The length of the Cavalli gun is 8 feet
10.3 inches ; it weighs 66 cwt., and its calibre is 6£ inches. Two
grooves are cut spirally along the bore, each of them making about
half a turn in the length, which is 6 feet 9 inches. The chamber, which
is cylindrical, is 11.8 inches long and 7.008 inches diameter.

In the summers of 1853 and 1854, trials were made at a spot
between Leiny and Cirie, in Piedmont, of a rifled Cavalli gun, loaded
at the breech, and with various improvements in the apparatus
for loading and pointing. The gun carried cylindro-ogivale shells,
each weighing 30 kilogrammes, (66 Ibs. 3 oz. English,) and provided
with a metal fuze. The shells were fired with charges equal to one-
tenth of the weight of the projectile, at elevations varying from 5 to
25 degrees. The firing was directed against a target about 10 feet

516 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rir.

square, and placed at the distance of 3,050 yards from tho gun. In ton
trials, at an elevation of 10 degrees, the mean of tho ranges obtained
was 3,058 yards ; tho means of the deviations were to tho right 3.4
yards, and to the left 3.39 yards. After one rebound the shot went
to the distance of 4,006 yards from tho gun, with a deviation to the
right equal to 126 yards. The mean time of flight was 11 seconds.
In fifteen trials, at an elevation of 15 degrees, the mean of tho ranges
was 4,128 yards; tho mean deviations were, to the right 11 yards, and
to the left 1 foot 11 inches. Tho time of flight was 1G seconds. In
fifteen trials, at an elevation of 20 degrees, the mean of the ranges was
4,917 yards ; while the mean deviations were, to the right 6 yards 2
feet, and to the left 10 yards. The time of flight was 19 seeon.K
Lastly, in ten trials, at an elevation of 25 degrees, tho mean of the
ranges was 5,563 yards, while the deviations were, to tho right 3 yards,
and to the left 4 yards. These trials were consider* -d highly satisfactory ;
and no less so were some experiments also made with metal fuzes, and
with a charge equal to one-thirtieth of the weight <>f tin- projectile ; the
first shell so fired struck against one of the beams of tho target, and
tore away splinters of tho wood varying in length from 1 ft. 9 in. to
1 ft. 11 in. The bursting-charge appeared to bo fired a little before the
moment of the shell falling.

Baron Wahrendorf invented a 24-pounder gun, which is also to be
loaded at the breech. It is mounted on a cast-iron traversing carriage ;
and, taking little room, it appears to bo very fit for casemates. The
upper part of the carriage has, on each side, tho form of an inclined
plane, which rises towards tho breech, and terminates near either ex-
tremity in a curve whose concavity is upwards. Previously to the gun
being fired the trunnions rest near tho lower extremity ; and on the
discharge taking place, the gun recoils on tho trunnions, along the
ascending plane, when its motion is presently stopped. Alter the
recoil, the gun descends on the plane to its former position, w!.
rests after a few short vibrations. Tho axis of tho gun constantly re-
tains a parallel position, so that tho pointing does n««t re.piirc readjust-
ment after each round. Tho gun was workrd easily by eight mm,
apparently without any strain on the carriage. With a charge of 8
Ibs., and with solid shot, the recoil was about 3 feet, and tho trunnions
did not reach the upper extremity of tho inclined plane, though the
surface was greased.

TUB ARMSTRONG otm. — In tho latter part of the year 1854. Mr.
William George Armstrong (now £ir William George Armstrong)
submitted to tho Duke of Newcastle, then Minister at War, a proposal

RlF.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

517

for a rifled field-piece on a new principle, and undertook, with his
grace's authority, to construct a gun upon the plan he had suggested.
This gun was completed early in the following year, (1855,) and became
the subject of a long course of
experiments, which ultimately
led to the general introduction
of the weapon into the British
service. Fig. 191 shows the
exterior of a 12-pounder Arm-
strong gun, such as is. now used
for field artillery, and also an
end view of the same, showing
the hole through the breech-
screw for loading and sponging
the gun. These guns can be
fired with careful aim twice in
a minute, and fully three times
per minute without aim.

The following description of
the Armstrong gun, as now
manufactured, was given by Sir
William in the discussion which
recently took place at the Civil
Engineers' Institute.

" The gun is composed wholly
of wrought iron, and the promi-
nent feature in its manufacture
is the application of the material
in the form of long bars, which
are coiled into spiral tubes, and
then welded by forging. For
the convenience of manufacture,
these tubes are made in lengths
of from 2 to 3 feet, which are
united together, when necessary,
by welded joints. From the
muzzle to the trunnions the gun
is made in one thickness, and is
therefore, so far as that portion
is concerned, strictly analogous
to the barrel of a fowling-piece.

518

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Kir.

Behind the trunnions two additional layers of material are applied. The
external layer consists, like the inner tube, of spiral coils ; but the inter-
mediate layer is composed of iron slabs bent into a (ylindrical form and
welded at the edges. The reason for this distinction is, that th
mediate layer has chiefly to sustain the thrust on the breech, and it is
therefore desirable that tho fibre of the iron should bo in tho direction of
the length, while elsewhere in tho gun it is more advantageously a

P^ ^ in tho transverse direction. The back end of

the gun receives the breech-screw, which presses
against a movable plug, or stopper for closing
the bore. This screw is hollow, and when the
stopper is removed, the passage through the
screw may bo regarded as a prolongation of
the bore. Tho screw is turned by means of a
handle, which is free to move through half a
circle before it begins to turn tho screw. It
has thus a certain amount of run, which enables
it to act as a hammer, both in tightening and
slackening tho screw. The bore is 3 inches in
diameter, and is rilled with thirty-four small
grooves, having the driving side rectangular
and radial, and the opposite side rounded.
The bore is widened at the breech end one-
righth of an inch, so that tho shot may enter
freely and choko at tho commencement of tho
grooves.

"Tho projectile (Fig. 11K2) consists of a
very thin cast-iron shell, the interior of which
is composed of forty-two segmcnt-sha
of cast iron, built up in layers around a cylin-
drical cavity in the centre, \\hich contains tho
bursting-charge, and tho concussion arrange-
ment. The exterior of the shell is thinly coated
with lead, which is applied l»y placing tho shell
in a mould, ami pou ring melted lead around it.

A A. TheeM^roneJlT^n. Th° lcad is aU° :ill"Wr(1 to I" r<>' !

CC TblSdwirt*1111*7*™' l^0 ^P11611*8* 80 M to fl11 "P tl)0 intrl

D. Tk« etatrml emrltr for the central cavitv l»ein^ kept open l>v tho

bamtlmr-tntM, *ad eon- . ' ,

niMion-fliio. insertion of a steel core. In this state tho

E. Scr» w for tlnx flin •

projectile is so compact that it may bo fired

through six feet of hard t:ml>cr without injury ; while its resist-

ElF.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

519

Fio. 193.

ance to a bursting force is so small, that less than one ounce of powder
is sufficient to break it in pieces. When this projectile is to be used
as a shot, it requires no preparation, but the expediency of using it in
any case otherwise than as a shell, is much to be doubted. To make
it available as a shell, the bursting-tube, the concussion arrangement,
and the time-fuze, are all to be inserted; the bursting-tube entering
first and the time-fuze being screwed
in at the apex. If then the time-fuze
be correctly adjusted, the shell will
burst when it reaches within a few
yards of the object ; or, failing that,
it will burst by the concussion ar-
rangement, when it strikes the object,
or grazes the ground near it. Again,
if it be required to act as " canister,"
upon an enemy close to the gun, the
regulator of the time-fuze must be
turned to zero on the scale, and the
shell will then burst at the instant
of quitting the gun. In every case
the shell on bursting spreads into a
cloud of pieces, each having a for-
ward Velocity equal to that of the
shell at the instant of fracture. The
explosion of one of these shells in
a closed chamber, where the pieces
could be collected, resulted in the
following fragments : — 106 pieces
of cast iron, 99 pieces of lead, and
12 pieces of fuze, &c. ; making in
all 217 pieces. The construction of
the time-fuze and the concussion ar-
rangement are described as fol-
lows : — The body of the time-fuze
(Fig. 193) is made of a mixture of
lead and tin, cast to the required
form, in a mould. The fuze-compo-
sition is stamped into a channel form-
ing nearly an entire circle round the
body of the fuze, and is afterwards papered and varnished on the external
surfaces. As the shell fits accurately into the gun, there is no passage

TIME-FUZE.

A A. The body of the fuze.

B B. Groove containing fuze-composition.

C. The detonator.

D. The striker.

E E. The holding pin.

F F. The flame passage.

G G. Revolving cover, or regulator.

H. Igniting aperture.

I. Chamber for priming-powder.
K K. Tightening cap.

520

MILITAKY DICTIONARY'.

[Rir.

of flame by which the fuze could be ignited. That effect is th
produced in the following manner: A small quantity of detonating
compositi" ; .ted at the bottom of the cylindrical cavity in the

centre of the fuze, and abo\e this is placed a small weight, or striker
Mating in a sharp point presented downwards. This striker is
secured in its place by a pin, which, when the gun is fired, is broken
by reason of the vis incrtiie of the striker. The detonator is then in-
stantly pierced by the point, and thus fired. The flame thus produced
pmitrin into an annular space, formed within the revolving cover, uhieh
rests on the upper surface of the fuze-composition, and from this annular
space, it is directed outwards, through an opening, so as to impinge on
and to ignite the fuze-composition, at any required part of the circle.
The fuze, thus ignited, burns in both directions, but only t
at one extremity, where it communicates with a small magazine of
powder in the centre. The fuze is surrounded by a scale-]'
uatcd to accord with the elevation of the gun, so that when the range
of a distant object is found by trial, it is only necessary to turn tho
igniting aperture of the cover to the point on the fuze-scale correspond-
ing with tho degrees and minutes of elevation on the tangent-scale.
This fuze has the advantage of being capable of adjustment and re-
adjustment any number of times, before entering tho gun, and tho
officer in command has the opportunity of
seeing that it is correctly set, at the moment
of being used.

"The concussion-fuze (Fig. 194) is on nearly
the same principle. A striker with a point,
presented upwards, is secured in a tube by a
wire fastening, which is broken on the firing
of the gun ; the striker, being then liberated,
recedes through a small space, and r
the bottom of the tube, but as soon as the.
shell meets with any check in its motion, the.
striker runs forward and pierces the detonator
in front, by which means the burs
is ignited. The process of loading
by placing the projectile, \\ith the cartridge
and a greased wad. in the hollow of tho br
. and thrusting them cither scparat'
collectively, by a rammer, into tho bore oppo-
(Fig. 196.) The stopper is then dropped
into its place, and secured by half a turn of tho
The gun is fired by the ordinary friction-tube, tho vent

Fio. 194

ooxoTTMioft-rxrn

A. Tho »tr -

The holding wire.

C. The dotnnat-.r.

D. T ho dumber Jbrprlming-

powdcr.
K !•'.. PMM ;• • MfM

RlF.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

521

contained in the stopper. The whole operation ffl
is simple, and can be very rapidly performed. |

" In the early guns it was necessary that
the portion of the Lore which was occupied
by the shot should be perfectly clean, other-
wise the shot would not always enter its
place. A wet sponge had therefore to be
used; but in the new guns, now issued for
service, a slight alteration in the bore has
enabled a greased wad to be employed with
perfect effect, in substitution of the wet sponge.
The gun can now be fired with great rapidity,
and apparently for any length of time, with- jr
out being sponged at all. The reason for &
making the vent in the stopper is, that, since g
the chief wear of the gun always takes place 5-
at the vent, it is better to make it in a part g
which can be easily replaced, than in the gr
body of the gun itself. The breech-screw &
being internal is never exposed to injury, j?
nor can drifting sand, or dust, ever reach the §•
oiled surfaces, so as to impede the action of 0|
the screw by adhering to the lubrication. The £
screw is of small diameter, and the few inches £.
of extra length in the gun, required for its B
reception, cannot be of any importance, con- "g;
sidering that any further reduction of weight <q
is prohibited by recoil. The stopper is se- f
cured from falling by a chain, but in practice 3
it is preferred to leave it .loose. The man •£*
who fires the gun lifts the stopper after each
round, and in so doing only occupies time
that would otherwise be vacant. A duplicate |
stopper accompanies each gun. The form of <§*
carriage which was originally used, is repre- 3
sented in the following diagram, (Fig. 196.)
It was fitted with a recoil slide, which was ^
afterwards abandoned for field guns ; but it g.
has been decided that the principle should be |
retained in ship guns, (Fig. 197.) It is a point
of great importance, that a breech-loading gun should be self-acting,
recovering its position after recoil, so as to obviate the employment

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

so many men to run out the gun. A traversing movement was originally
applied to the field-carriages, as shown in the diagram, and \\ as found
to afford great facility in laying the gun. A very neat modification of
this traversing movement has recently been contrived in the Royal
Carriage Department, and adopted for the field carriages."

The greatest range whieh has yet been attained with the Armstrong
gun is 9,175 yards, or nearly 5£ miles. The conditions \vhirh are
ehi. fly conducive to an extended range are, a small bore and ;i
lengthened projectile ; but the more a projectile assumes the character
of a bolt, the less suitable it becomes for a shell. Sir William Arm-
strong, therefore, deprecates any further increase of range at expense
of efficiency in the shell ; and, indeed, it may well be doubted whether
an extension of range beyond a distance of five miles would prove of any
practical utility. The following is an example of praetiee with the
Armstrong 12^>ounder field-gun of 8 cwt., at au angle of 5° and \\ i h
a charge of 1 Ib. 8 oz.

No.

Rut*

Deflection.

Left.

•**

ICC

1920

i ft

1910 ..jfc.

1 ft ....

I Ml

In
1 ft

line.

!<(••:{

1945

I It

1 923

:i fi

ly<>6

a it
3 ft.
...'... 2 ft

4 ft

i "' ;

I'Klf}

I'.iUl

. 1918

li ft
6 ft. ......

1924 ..*..

RlF.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

524 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rir.

The above practice was made with the ordinary shell adapted for
this gun, and the minimum charge. By increasing the charge, and
using a longer projectile, the same range is attained with 1.-.
but the recoil becomes too severe upon the carriage for long continued
firing. The projectiles, as now used fur these guns, are in all cases
made of cast iron, thinly coated with lead, and, being of somewhat
larger diameter than the bore, the lead is crushed into the grooves ; by
means of which the neeessary rotation is given, while all shake and wind-
age are prevented. The projectile f« r field-service admits of being used
indifferently as solid shot, shrapnel 1 shells, or canister shot. It is com-
posed of separate pieces, so compactly bound together that it has been
fired through a mass of oak timber 9 feet in thickness without sustaining
fracture. When used as a shell it divides into the number of pieces of iron,
lead, and fuze, stated in p. 519. It combines the principle of the shrapnell
and of the percussion shell : that is, it may be made to explode either
as it approaches the object or as it strikes it. The shock which the
projectile receives in the gun puts the percussion arrangement as it were
from half-cock to full-cock, and it then becomes so delicate that it will
burst by striking even a bundle of shavings. It may also be made to
explode at the instant of leaving the gun, in which case the pieces pro-
duce the usual effect of grape or canister. For breaching purposes or
for bursting in the side of a ship, a different construction of shell is
adopted. The object in that case being to introduce the largest possible
charge of powder, the projectile used is simply a hollow shot, and from
its length and form is capable of containing a much larger bursting
charge than is compatible with a spherical form of the same diameter.
The largest gun which has yet been completed upon Sir William Arm-
strong's principle is one of 65 cwt., which, although only designed to
throw a projectile of 80 Ibs., has been frequently tried with a shot
weighing upwards of 100 Ibs.

Early in the course of his experiments, Sir William Armstrong's
attention was directed to the improvement of the sights, as the means
of aiming guns previously employed were obviously not sufficiently
delicate for a gun having 57 times their accuracy. The sights which
he has introduced present many peculiarities. The eye-piece of the
tangent-scale is in the form of a cross slit, and has a traversing move-
tor correcting the effect of side wind. The vertical and lateral
movements of the sight are each regulated by means of a vernier which
enables the scale to be read off to one minute of a degree both for
elevation and deflection. With regard U the strength of the Armst rung
guns to resist explosion, the 12-pounders have ' en proved by filling

RIP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 535

the chamber with powder (about 2£ Ibs.), and using a shot of double
the service-weight. In the case of the 40-pounders, it is intended to
apply double charges and single shot. To provide for a large charge of
powder, it is only necessary to reduce the lead on the shot, so as to allow
it to enter further into the bore. Sir W. Armstrong believes the
strength of his guns to be enormously in excess of these charges, the
object of the proof being rather to detect defects in the surface of the
bore than the resistance to bursting, which he considers to be almost
uniform in all guns constructed on his principle.

THE WHITWORTH GUN. — Mr. Whitworth, of Manchester, has suc-
ceeded in constructing several rifled breech-loading cannon of various
calibres : his 3-pounder gun, 208 Ibs. in weight, with a calibre of 1£
inches, a charge of 8 oz. of powder, and an elevation of 35°, projects its
shot to a distance of more than 5£ miles, and this with remarkable ac-
curacy. He applies the same principles to his guns which have been so
successful in his small-arms — using a very long projectile, 3£ diameters
in length, that the resistance of the air may be as small as possible,
(Fig. 198.) To overcome the tendency of so long a projectile to
turn over in its flight, a rapid spin or rotation is impressed upon

FIG. 198.

it, by a more than usually rapid twist in the grooves of the rifle.
The bore of the barrel is described by its hexagonal section moving
parallel to itself from breech to muzzle, and at the same time rotating
uniformly about its centre with such a velocity, that it completes one
•whole rotation while its centre is moving over a space of 20 inches in
the small-arms and 3 feet 8 inches in the 3-pounder gun. So that the
barrel may be considered as a rifle with six grooves, making one turn in
20 inches in the one case, and in 3 feet 8 inches in the other. The
bullets are made of a hard metal, an alloy of 9 parts lead with 1 part tin,
and they are shaped to fit accurately the interior of the bore. Experi-
ments made to test the penetrating powers of Whitworth's hexagonal
80-pounder shot, have established its superiority to any other gun or
projectile yet produced in penetrating power. The hexagonal bore is
also the best for communicating a rapid rifle motion to the projectile,
but experiments in the United States have not shown it to be safe for
ordinary cast-iron cannon.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Rir.

—R<inne» obtained at Sovthport, February 16/A ana llth, I860, of a
S-pounder Whitwortk {Tim, length 6 /I., weight 208 /*«., dtamster of bore \\ in.,
charge 1^ at,, at the undermentioned angle* of elevation.

SSSm

Yards

Ka:,,,.

Deviation from
Line of Fire.

Angle* of
Elevation.

to*

Deviation from
Line.:

«•

ifi

t2.ii.tt.**

20*

6,784

Mio

12 yards U> the left
Ml

1 *'"!)

Line.

S a

i/'::
1.578

1 yard to the right

j :

1 f

'.M'-.l

22 yards to the right
10 yards to the 1 ft
> to the ght

1 1 »', - *%

84 "

i.V.J

M4B

i •

6 yards to the ft

9,611

4,179

M4I

67 u

i. •-'.•»

6 u

•

4,129

2 u

1', !'>->

68 **

6,760

6 w

TABLE H.— Ranges of a S-povndtr Whitworth Gun, at 20° Elevation. Charge

oz. of Powder.

Yards

Deviation from
Line of Fire.

Yards
Eange.

Deviation from

6,818
™

6^11

26 yards to the left
27 "
64 ""
85 « u

84 u

6,fi61

M16

20 yards^to the left

11
18 a u

TABLE KL—Ra*gts of a \1-poun<l ,- WJdtworth Gun; length 7 ft. 9 «'n.,

cirt., diameter of bore 3^ tn., with a charge of If Ibs. of poicder, at elevations of
2°, 6°, and 10 .

Anjjlrs of
Elevation.

V.ir.ls

i:.u,^.

Deviation from
Line of Fire.

Anel.-i* of
KU-vati.in.

Bttf*.

.;i«.n from
i Fire.

1,280

1.-JTO
1,257

i yard to the right
iyard to tho Irfi.

1J yards to tho right

6J»
10°

MM
MM
MM

2 vardu to tJ.

16 yards to the right
18 ** "

1 * * *

4,011

2,821

4 yards to the left
«>ii tlmllne.

ii
it

ijan

1(5 u •»
9 " "

-'. •]

1 yard to the right

TABLK IV.— Ranges of an 80-pourufcr TTA*Vi«>r/A (7»m; «*•!>/./ 4 *>n.t, inVA o rAar^
o/ 10 tb». of powder, and a solid shot of 90 Ibs. weight, at elevations of 5°, 7",
*

and 10

t:.^

Yards

In*

Deviation from
Line of Fire,

Antrim of
Elevation.

Yards

!:,„_-,.

Deviation from
Line.

1M4
MM

6 yard, to tho right

• r

•4

8.4*7

«4 yards to the right

M ';

10"

f • •

| • •

RlF.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

527

All serviceable cannon, whether of bronze or iron, may be rifled for
the use of General James's projectile. It is, therefore, an invention of
the greatest practical utility, and the author is much indebted to Major
W. A. Thornton, U. S. Ordnance Department, for the following descrip-
tion and experiments made by a board of officers of the U. S. Army :

GENERAL JAMES'S PROJECTILE — is a cylindro-conoidal missile of
cast-iron, having a compound envelop of canvas — sheet tin, and lead,
called packing, encircling nearly the entire length of the body of the
cylinder. The canvas, being the external portion of the packing, is
well saturated with a tallow lubric, which renders the loading easy,
and cleans the gun at each discharge. The head of the projectile may
be solid, or, if it has a prepared cavity, the missile then becomes a shell.
The average weight of the projectile for a 42-pounder gun is, if a
solid, 811 Ibs., if a shell, 64£ Ibs., of which in either case 6£ Ibs. is the
weight of the packing. Its length is 13 inches, of which 6£ inches is the
measurement of the conical head, and 6f inches is the length of its
cylindrical body. The diameter of the cylinder is 6f inches, or £ of an
inch less than the bore of a 42-pounder gun. It retains its full diameter
for f of an inch of its length at each end : — then for the intermediate
space, the diameter is shortened half an inch, thereby forming a recess
round the body of the cylinder, between the ends; (Fig. 199.) The
shortening of the diameter, and consequent loss of iron to the circum-
ference of the body of the cylinder, is replaced by the before-named

FIG. 199. FIG. 200.

JAMES'S SHELL, BEFORE THE APPLICATION OF

THE PACKING.

a. Band f- inch wide at ends of cylinder.
6, c, d, f. Recess rftnnd body of cylinder.

m. Kectangular openings through to

recess.
n. Orifice in base, leading to the recess.

JAMES'S SHELL, AFTER THE APPLICATION OF THB

PACKING, AND EEADY FOR USE.
a, &, c, d. Belt of canvas, tin, and lead, called

packing.
e. Orifice in base, leading to recess.

packing, when the projectile is prepared for use, (Fig. 200.) The
solidity of the conical head is continued into, and forms the solid end of
the cylinder. The base, or opposite end of the projectile, has a central

528 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Kir.

orifice, of 3^ inches in diameter, which extends 2J inches into the cylin-
.ud from which ten rectangular openings diverge, (like the mor-
tises for spokes in the hub of a wheel,) through the body, to the
periphery of the cylinder, in the recess of its circumtVrm.v. The pack-
ing is formed by u plate of sheet tin, of the length of the great, st rinle
of the cylinder ; and in width, e«}iial to the length of the recess caused
by the shortening of the diameter. This plate of tin is laid on a
of strong canvas, which is two inches wider, but of the same length of
the plate ; and the canvas is folded over the side edges of the plato and
firmly secured by cross sew ing. The tin plate, when so prepared, or
half covered, is folded round the body of the missile in the recess, and
retained in position by an iron collar damp; (Figs. 199 and 200.)
The space between the inner surface of the envelop and the body of
the cylinder is filled with melted lead, which, adhering to the tin and
iron, forms a compact mass round the body of the projectile. When
the charge is fired, the power or gas generated by the burning of the
powder, in its effort to expel the projectile and to escape from the gun,
is forced into the orifice in the base of the missile, and through the ten
openings against the packing, which is thereby pressed into the gr
in the gun's bore, and by its firm hold in them the rifle motion is im-
parted to the projectile. The packing has not been known to strip
from the projectile while in the gun ; and the certainty that it coinp.-ls
obedience on the part of the missile to the rifling, is demonstrated in
direct hits, by the perfect circular orifice cut by the shot in entering
targets; and when the projectiles are obtained after firing, their head
and body are frequently found cut in furrows, conforming to the rifling.
of the gun, by stones, against which the missile impinged in entering
the ground. All serviceable guns, either of bronze or iron, ran l»e.
made available by rifling, for the use of the sai«l pn jcetiles. The rifling
should be of the gain twist nature. It should be shallow ; say, for
field-guns <j*y, and for siege-guns T*j, and -^ <>f an inch in depth. The
lands and grooving should be of the same width, and about is • :
for the bore of a 42-pounder gun. The ordinary grained cannon
powder does not appear to act too violently in projecting tli.x,- \\.-.\\\
missiles from field-guns ; but there can be no doubt that the coarse-
grained -ft inch powder is far the best for service, in firing James's pro-

os from long-bored guns.

"When ' lie is a shell, (Fig. 201,) its fuze-orifice is in its

head and axis. TV length of the orifice for a 42-poundcr shell is 2$-
inches. For two inches of its length, its diameter is 1 inch, and for the
remainder of the length, the diameter is reduced to £ of an inch ; so

Rir.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

529

Fio. 201.

JAMES'S SHELL.
Section through the axis,
a. Brass fuze-orifice screw-
cap.
Z>. Fuze slide-plug.

c. Cone to fuze-plug — mus-

ket size.

d. Lead portion of packing.
6. Canvas and tin portion of

packing.

m. Rectangular openings to
periphery in recess.

forming a shoulder in the fuze-orifice, to prevent the fuze-plug from

being driven into the cavity of the shell, when,

by firing, the missile is expelled from the gun.

The threads of a female screw are cut in the

head of the fuze-orifice for the reception of the

body of the fuze-orifice cap. This cap is of

brass. Its diameter is an inch, its length half

an inch ; its head is convexed, and has a slot cut

in it for the reception of a screw-driver ; the

base end is deeply cupped, to admit the nipple

of a musket cone, and to give more play to the

fuze-plug.

The fuze-plug is of wrought iron, surmounted
by a musket cone ; and its action in the fuze-
orifice is like the ordinary working of a piston.
Its length is 1£ inches, of which the quarter is
the length of its shoulder. The diameter of its
shoulder and body, is very nearly the same as the
two diameters of the fuze-orifice. Its vent is in its
axis, and in size- to receive the male screw of the
musket cone. The threads of a female screw are cut in the head end of
the vent, of sufficient length to receive the screw end of the said cone.

When the shell is loaded, care should be taken not to overfill its
cavity, and thereby prevent the working of the fuze-plug. The powder
should be cleaned from the fuze-orifice ; the plug should be oiled to
ensure its free and sure action. Its cone should be capped, but before
the application the percussion cap should be carefully examined to see
that it is perfect, and of the best quality. The fuze-plug, when so pre-
pared, is then inserted into the fuze-orifice, and it should enter freely
but not by its own weight, until the shoulders of the fuze-plug and
orifice are in contact. The cap for the fuze-orifice should be then firmly
screwed in, which completes the charging of the shells. If after the
shell is loaded the fuze-plug should be disturbed by handling ; that is,
if the plug has slidden forward, it will be forced back to its proper
position by the impulse given to the missile, by the firing of the gun
charge ; and it will so remain during the flight, until the shell impinges
against any hard substance ; as ground, wood, &c., which, by obstruct-
ing the progress of the missile, causes the fuze-plug to slide forward
with violence, and by the collision of the cone's point against the bottom
of the fuze-orifice cap-plug, the percussion cap on the cone will be ex-
ploded, and the bursting charge of the shell fired.
34

530

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[KlK

GENERAL C. T. JAMES'S PROJECTILE. SUMMARY OF TARGET-FIRING, WATCH

81 £

HILL. R. I., i860.
42-pdr. Service Gun, RiJML
Ibs. averaged weight of projectile, of which

2 " of powder, the loading charge of shell,

8 " averaged weight of charge of powder,

2° i" elevation,

3J;/ time of flight to target,

45 projectiles fired,

31 hits direct,

8 hits ricochet,

68.8 proportional direct hits per 100 shots
17.7 " ricochet " u

5° 2' elevation,

6 f " time of flight to target,
r>f> projectiles fired,

15 hits direct,

7 hits ricochet,

23 proportional direct hits per 100 shots
10.7 " ricochet " "

Ibs. packing,

target
20 by 40 feet

distance
1,000 yards.

target
20 by 40 feet.

distance
2,000 yards.

Fio. 202.

Remarks. — The averaged weight of the projectile at rest in the gun was
81 1 Ibs. ; averaged weight of packing thrown off
was 6$ Ibs. ; weight of projectile when it impinged,
74f Ibs. Penetration, through 45 inches of the best
well-seasoned oak, at 2,000 yards; weight of oak
target 17 tons, well bedded and firmly braced by
back timbers ; forced back 10 inches by impact
of shot; range, at 15° elevation 4,346 yards, or
nearly 2£ miles ; ricochet on water, in prolongation
of line of fire, but the projectile does not bound as
often as round balls. When the missile is a shell
loaded, it bursts by percussion, in penetrating earth,
or other denser material.

The Reed projectile is also an American inven-
tion. Its peculiarity, whether shot or shell, con-
sists in its having a base or cup of wrought iron
connected by casting in, or in any other mode of
attachment, to the cast-iron projectile, (Fig. 202.)
The object is to obtain a material pliable enough to
be forced by the expansive netion of tin- p« >\\<].T into
the grooves of the gun, and strong enough to give tho

RIP.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

531

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532 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rtr.

necessary rotative movement to tho projectile resulting from tho t
those grooves. The action is in fact similar to that of the common «•!• >n-
gated bullet for the rifle musket* or the application of the
to cannon. The projectile is 2.9 inches. R. P. Parrott, Esq..
Point Foundry, has produced a field-gun for firing this elongated bullet
reinforced by wrought iron, the idea of which is not novel, but whieh ho
claims to have arranged in proper proportions, and otherwise to have
brought into practical shape so as to make a safe, cheap, and good rinV.l
cannon. The gun has, in reference to the projeetile, three grooves and
t of one turn in 10 feet. It has not yet been before a board, but
has been successfully tried before officers of the army. (Consult Sir
HOWARD DOUGLAS ; HYDE; "WiLCox. See AMMUNITION ; ARMS; BUL-
LET; CARBINE; FIRING; PERCUSSION; PROJECTILE.)

RIFLE PITS — are holes or short trenches, about four feet long
and three feet deep, forming, with the earth thrown out in front of
them, cover for two men. There is generally a loophole on tho vop
of tho breastwork, made, by placing two sand-bags across the parapet,
and a third resting on these, in the direction of it, to cover tho head and
shoulders of the riflemen. A rifle pit of this construction is shown in
plan, section, and elevation in Fig. 203.

Fro. 203.

RIOT. (See EXECUTION OF LAWS.)

ROADS. When it is proposed to construct a line of road, e\
ing between two places, the officer upon whom such duty devolves, first,
makes himself well acquaint.,! with tin- snrfa«v of tho country lying
between the two places ; he is then to select what ho thinks, all <-5 mi in-
stances being taken into consideration, tho best general route for the
j»r..pMNr.l road, P.'.t previous!) to laying it "Ut \\ith juviiraey, it is
necessary to make an instrumental survey of the country, along tho
route thus selected ; taking the levels from point to point throughout
the whole distance, and making borings in all places where excavations
are required, to determine the strata through which such cuttings

ROA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 533

be carried, and the requisite inclinations of the slopes or slanting sides
as well of the cuttings as of the embankments to be formed by the
material thus obtained. It is also requisite, in the selection of the route
for the proposed road, to have regard to the supply of materials, not
only for first constructing it, but for maintaining it in repair. The re-
sults of such an investigation should be reduced to plan and section ; the
plan of the road being on a scale not less than 66 yards to an inch, and
the section not less than 30 feet, to an inch. The loss of tractive power
and consequent danger produced by steep acclivities, render it necessary
that a proper limitation should be imposed on the acclivities or inclina-
tions on every line of road. As, however, this reduction of hills in a
country where much inequality of surface exists, is attended with great
labor and expense, greater rates of inclination must be allowed to hills
or roads where the traffic is not sufficient to repay the expense of exca-
vations. A dead level, even where it can be obtained, is not the best
course for a road ; a certain inclination of the surface facilitates the
drainage, and keeps the road in a dry state. There is a certain inclina-
tion or acclivity, which causes, at a uniform speed, the traces to slacken,
and the carriages press on the horses, unless a drag or break is used ;
the limiting inclination within which this effect does not take place is
called the angle of repose. On all acclivities less steep than the angle
of repose, a certain amount of tractive force is necessary in the descent,
as well .as in the ascent ; and the means of the two drawing forces,
ascending and descending, is equal to the force along a level road. The
exact course of the road, and the degree of its acclivities being deter-
mined, the next thing to be considered is the formation of its surface.
The qualities which ought to be imparted to it, are twofold : first, it
should be smooth ; secondly, it should be hard ; and the goodness
of the road will be exactly in proportion as these qualities can be
imparted to it, and permanently maintained upon it. The means re-
sorted to accomplish these objects are : 1. Gravel Roads. A coating of
four inches of gravel should be spread over the road bed, and ve-
hicles allowed to pass over it, till it becomes tolerably firm — men
being required to rake in the ruts as fast as they appear ; a second
coating of 3 or 4 inches of gravel should be then added and treated
like the first, and finally a third coating. 2. Broken Stone Roads, or
McAdam roads. French engineers value uniformity in size of the
broken stone less than McAdam. They use all sizes from 1£ inches
to dust. McAdam considers from 7 to 10 inches of depth of stone on
the road sufficient for any purpose. He earnestly advocates the prin-
ciple, that the whole science of road-making consists in making a solid

534 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [RoA.

dry path on the natural soil, and then keeping it dry by a durable water-
proof coating. 3. Broken stone roads with a paved bottom or foun-
dation, or Tilford Roads', a road thus confirm -ted will, in
cost less than one entirely of broken stone. 4. Roads of Wood. Tho
abundance, and consequent cheapness of wood, renders i > employ -
mcnt in road-making of great value. It has been used in the form of
logs, of charcoal, of planks, and of blocks. When a road passes over
soft swampy ground it is often made passable by felling straight j
trees, and laying them side by side across the road at right angles to
its length. This is the primitive corduroy road. A very good road
has been lately made through a swampy forest, by felling and burning
the timber, and covering the surface with charcoal thus prepared. Tim-
ber from 6 to 18 inches through is cut 24 feet long, and piled up length-
wise in the centre of the road about five feet high, and then c»
with straw and earth in the manner of coal pits. The earth required
leaves two good ditches, and the timber, though not split, is easily
charred ; and when charred the earth is removed to the side of the
ditches, and the coal raked down to a width of 15 feet, leaving it two
feet thick at the centre and one at the sides. 5. Plank Road*. Two
parallel rows of small sticks of timber (called sleepers) are imbedded
in the road three or four feet apart. Planks, 8 feet long and 3 «r -1
inches thick, are laid on these sleepers across them. A side track of
earth to turn out upon is carefully graded. Deep ditches are dug on
each side to ensure perfect drainage ; and thus wo have the plank road.
6. Roads of Earth. These roads are deficient in the important requi-
sites of smoothness and hardness, but they are the only roads usually
made in the field to carry on military operations. Its shape, \\ hen well
made, is properly formed with a slope of 1 in 20 eaeh way from tho
centre. Its drainage should be made thorough by deep and capacious
ditches, sloping not less than 1 in 125. Trees should be removed fr..m
the borders of the road, so as not to intercept the sun and \\ ind. The
labor expended upon it, will, however, depend upon eireimu;
Every hole or rut in the road should, however, bo at once filled up with
good materials, for the wheels fall into them like hammers, deepening
them at each stroke and thus increasing the destructive rflf. •< -t of tho next
wh.-el. (( '..nsult GILLKBPIB, Roads and Road-making.) Tho cross-sec-
tion of a road embraces: 1. The width of the road — from 16£ to 30
feet, according to its importance, and the amount of travel upon it.
2. The shape of the road-bed. The best shape of the transverse profile
for a road on level ground is two inclined planes meeting in tin
of road, and having their angle slightly rounded. On a steep hill, tho

Roc.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 535

transverse profile should be a single slope inclining inwards to the face
of the hill. 3. Footpaths, <&c. 4. Ditches. The ditches should, if pos-
sible, lead to the natural water-courses of the country. 5. The side
slopes of the cuttings and fillings. These vary with the nature of the soil.
ROCKET, (WAR.) A projectile set in motion by a force within
itself. It is composed of a strong case of paper or wrought iron, in-
closing a composition of nitre, charcoal, and sulphur ; so proportioned as
to burn slower than gunpowder. The head is either a solid shot, shell,
or spherical-case shot. The base is perforated by one or more vents, and
in the case of the Congreve rocket, with a screw hole to which a guide-
stick is fastened. The rockets used in the United States service are
Hale's, in which steadiness is given to the flight of the rocket by rota-
tion, as in the case of the rifle ball, around the long axis of the rocket.
This rotation is produced by three small vents placed at the base of
the head of the rocket. Fig. 204 shows Hale's rocket now used in the
United States. Mr. Hale's last improvement (Fig. 205) consists in

FIG. 204.

a. Bore and vent c. Tangential vent, (three.)

Z>. Kecess in the base of the head. d. Head solid.

FIG. 205.

placing three tangential vents in a plane passing through the centre of
gravity of the rocket, and at right angles to the axis. This is accom-
plished by dividing the case into two distinct parts, or rockets, by a
perforated partition. The composition in the front part furnishes the
gas for rotation, and that in the rear the gas for propulsion. The two
sizes of Hale's rockets in use, are the

2£ inch, (diameter of case,) weighing 6 Ibs. j and
3± inch " « « 16 Ibs.

Under an angle of from 4° to 5° the range of these rockets is from 500
to 600 yards, and under an angle of 47° the range of the former is 1 ,760
yds., and the latter 2,200 yards. War rockets are usually fired from
tubes or troughs, mounted on portable stands, or on light carriages.
t

536 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Rot.

The following rules concerning the length of rocket-fuzes, the ranges
and elevations, for Congreve's rockets, may bo useful, though th»-\
not been confirmed by an extensive course of practice : —

For 24-pounder rockets ; if the whole length of the fuze is loft in
the shell of the 4-pounder rocket, it may be expected to burst at about
3,700 yards, elevation 47 degr

If the whole of the fuze-composition be bored out, and the rocket-
composition left, entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about
2,000 yards, elevation 27 degrees.

If the rocket-composition be bored into, to within 1.5 inch of tho
top of the cone, tho shell may be expected to burst at about 700 yards,
elevation 17 degrees.

For 12-pounder rockets ; if the whole length of fuze bo left in tho
shell of the 12-pounder rocket, it may be expected to burst at about
3,000 yards, elevation 40 degrees.

If the whole of the fuze-composition be bored out, and tho rocket-
composition left entire, tho shell may be expected to burst at about
1,500 yards, elevation 20 degree.8.

If the rocket-composition be bored into, to within ono inch of tho top
of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 420 yards, ele-
vation 10 degrees.

For 6-poundcr rockets ; if the whole length of fuzo be left in tho
shell of the 6-pounder rocket, it may be expected to burst at about
2,300 yards, elevation 37 degrees.

If the whole- of the fuze-composition be bored out, and the rocket-
composition be left entire, tho shell may be expected to burst at about
1,100 yards, elevation 15 degrees.

If the rocket-composition bo bored into within one inch of tho top
of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 20 yanK
tion 10 degrees.

For 3-pounder rockets ; if tho whole length of the fuze be left in tho
shell of the 3-pounder rocket, it may be expected to burst at about
1,800 yards, elevation 25 degrees.

If the whole of tho fuze-composition be bored out, and tho rocket-
composition be left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about
850 yards, elevation lv> degrees.

If the rocket composition be bored into within ono inch of tho top
of th.> OOB6, the. shell may be expected to burst at about 4iiO yards, ele-
vation 8 degrees; (Sir HOWARD DOUGLAS.)

ROLL. A uniform beat of tho drum, without variation for a cer-
tain length of time.

SAB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 537

Long-roll. — A beat of the drum, as a signal for the assembling of
troops at any parade.

Muster-roll. — A return, forwarded every two months from every
company in the service to the adj. -general and paymaster. It contains
a list of the officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates, specifying
their pay, and the casualties arising from deaths, promotions, &c.

ROSTER OR ROLLSTER. Lists of officers for duty. The prin-
ciple which governs details for duty is from the eldest down ; longest
off duty first on. If an officer's tour of duty for armed service, court-
martial, or fatigue happen when he is upon either duty, he is credited
with both duties. A regiment, or detachment, detailed for any duty,
receives credit for the duty when it marches off parade to perform the
duty, but not if it is dismissed on parade. Officers on inlying pickets
are subject to all details.

ROUNDS. Visiting rounds ; grand rounds; visiting small posts,
guards, and sentinels by commanders or staff officers. He who makes
the round is alone, or accompanied according to grade and circum-
stances.

ROUT. To put to rout is to defeat and throw into confusion. It
is not a retreat in good order, but also implies dispersion.

ROUTE. An open road ; the course of march of troops. Instruc-
tions for the march of detachments, specifying daily marches, means of
supply, are given from the head-quarters of an army in the field, and
are called marching routes.

RUFFLE. A low, vibrating sound beat upon a drum not so loud
as a roll.

RULES AND ARTICLES OP WAR. (See ARTICLES OF WAR.)

RUN ; RUNNING-. (See MANOEUVRES OF INFANTRY IN COMBATS.)
, RUNNING- FIRE. Rapid and successive fire by troops.

SABOT. Infield-guns, when firing solid shot, the charge is usually
about j the weight of the shot. For spherical case and canister, the
charge is less. These projectiles are always fixed to a block of wood,
called a sabot, (Fig. 206,) to which the cartridge is also attached ;
forming what is called a round of fixed ammunition ; (Fig. 207.) In
the 12-pdr. field-howitzer, also, the ammunition used is fixed, A, (Fig.
206 ;) but with the other howitzers the projectile and charge are sep-
arate ; the latter being attached to a block of wood called a cartridge-
block, (Fig. 208,) the object of which is to give a finish to the cartridge

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[to

and fill the chamber, the dimensions of the block being so calculated for
each different charge as to reach to the mouth of the chamber. Tho
sabots used with these heavy howitzers are conical
in shape to fit the connecting surface between the
chamber and bore. Care should be taken in loading
to put the seam of the cartridge to the sides, so that
it will not come under the vent. In loading the 32
and 24-pdr. howitzer, the cartridge is first pushed
carefully into the chamber without ramming, and
the shell is then sent homo, also without ramming.

Fio. 207.

Fio. 20a
Cartridge Block.

Cufctor flx«L

When sabots cannot be obtained, place upon the
powder a layer of tow, about 0.2 in. thick, forming
a bed for the shot ; tie the bag over the shot and
around the tow ; the bag requires to be one inch
longer than for strapped shot; (GIBBON.)

SABRE. Tho cavalry sabre blade has shoulder,
back, edge, bevel point, curvature, largo groove,
small groove, tang rev» -ting. Tim IIII.T has a brass
surmounting (gilt for officers) guard, and steel' scab-
bard. The blade of the mounted artillery sabre lias
but one groove; tho guard but one branch, (cavalry
sabre guard has three ;) steel scabbard. Officers of
mounted artillery, and mounted officers of artillery atxl infantry use
tho sabre fur mounted artillery with gilt mounting. (See SWORD.)

SABRETASCHE. From the German, Sabel, a sabre, and Tatchc,
a pocket. The sabretascho is part of the accoutrements of a cavalry
or staff of!) of a leathern case or pocket, suspended at

HowltMr Cartridge.

SAL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 539

the left side from the sword belt by three slings, corresponding with
the belt.

SACK. An expression used when a town has been taken by storm,
arid given up to pillage.

SADDLER. All acts of Congress previous to the Act of March
2, 1833, allowed one saddler to each company of dragoons. The omis-
sion to provide for saddlers in the present cavalry organization would
seem tO| be accidental.

SAFEGUARD. Whosoever, belonging to the armies of the
United States, employed in foreign parts, shall force a safeguard, shall
suffer death ; (ART. 55.) The men left with a safeguard may require
of the persons for whose benefit they are so left, reasonable subsistence
and lodging ; and the neighboring inhabitants will be held responsible
by the army for any violence done them.

The bearers of a safeguard left by one corps, may be replaced by the
corps that follows ; and if the country be evacuated, they will be re-
called ; or they may be instructed to wait for the arrival of the enemy,
and demand of him a safe conduct to the outposts of the army. The
following form will be used : —

SAFEGUARD.

By authority of Major-gen. , (or Brig'r-gen. .)

The person, the property, and the family of , (or such a col-
lege, and the persons and things belonging to it ; such a mill, &c.,) are
placed under the safeguard of the United States. To offer any violence
or injury to them is expressly forbidden ; on the contrary, it is ordered
that safety and protection be given to him, or them, in case of need.

Done at the head-quarters of , this day of = , 18 — .

Forms of safeguards ought to be printed in blank, headed by the
article of war relative thereto, and held ready to be filled up, as occa-
sions may offer. A duplicate, &c., in each case, might be affixed to the
houses, or edifices, to which they relate.

SALE. Tho President is authorized to cause to be sold unservice-
able ordnance or stores of any kind, but the inspection or survey of un-
serviceable stores shall be made by an inspector-general, or such other
officer or officers as the Secretary of War may appoint for that pur-
pose ; and the sales shall be made under such rules and regulations as
may be prescribed by the Secretary of War ; (Act March 3, 1825.)
In all cases where lands have been, or shall hereafter be, conveyed to
or for the United States, for forts, arsenals, dock-yards, light-houses,
or any like purpose, or in payment of debts due the United States,

540 MILITARY DICTIONARY.

which shall not be used, or necessary for the purposes for which th.-v
weiv purchased, or other authorized purpose, it shall be lawful for the
President of the United States to cause the same to be sold, for the best
price to be obtained, and to convey the same to the purchaser by grant
or otherwise ; (Act April 28, 1828.)

SALIENT. The salient angle of a fortification is an angle project-
ing towards the country.

SALLY. A sally or sortie is a movement made by strong de-
tachments from a besieged place to attack the besiegers or destroy their
works.

SALLY-PORTS. Openings to afford free egress to troops for a
sortie. They are cut in the faces of the re-entering places of arms, and
in the middle of the branches of the covered-ways. When sally-ports
are not in use, they are closed by strongly constructed gates of timber
supported by bars of iron.

SALTPETRE. (See GUNPOWDER ; NITRE.)

SALUTE. A discharge of artillery in compliment to some in-
dividual ; beating of drums and dropping of colors for the same pur-
pose ; or by carrying or presenting arms according to the rank and
positiorr of an officer.

SAND-BAGS. Bags filled with earth, usually from 12 to 14
inches wide, and about 30 inches long. They are employed sometimes
in constructing batteries, and in repairing breaches and embrasures
when damaged by the enemy's fire. (See REVETMENT.)

SANITARY PRECAUTIONS. Send troops where we may, they
are destroyed by fevers. Is there any safeguard ? None, but in the
good keeping, good condition, physical and moral, of the troops. After
a fever has been established, physic does little, but the battle is fought
by the nurse ; let that attendant be sagacious and vigilant, and the
patient is saved ; the contrary, and he dies. The most successful
ment (the necessary evacuations always being premised) is cold
or, in other words, the regulation of the temperature. Fever, \\lim
once it has gained entry, is the most tenacious of all pn •-<>« •uj.ants.
Rhythm, the rule of number counting by day, as if it played nj»..n the.
is chords, paroxyem, remission and crisis, proclaim its sway.
Let the practitioner obviate evil ti-u«l«-nnrs \\hene\er he can, but if
he turn to his medicarbooks he will find in the medical records of two
thousand years always the same results, viz. : the futility of interfering
with m.dicines of specific power, and the deaths of a given imm!>« T,
almost always the same, when tho air is pure, and tho patient has had
any thing like fair play. Quinine is a specific in int. fever,

SAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 541

but it is as futile as all other specifics in continued fevers. The prac-
titioner must content himself with taking for his guides depletion at the
outset, refrigeration during all the middle stages, and stimulation with
support at the close of the disease. This course may be taken with
very little aid from medicine, and the event will be more successful
than if the patient had been drugged with all the stuff of an apothe-
cary's shop.

Disinfectants. — The best disinfectants are caloric, light, ventilation,
and the operation of water, and a bountiful Providence has placed them
all at our disposal. It is a matter of experiment that even the concen-
trated matter of small-pox, cow-pox, and the fomites of scarlatina are
deprived of all infecting power on being subjected to a heat of 140° of
Fahrenheit's thermometer. It may then be fairly inferred that if these
could be so neutralized, gaseous factitious infectants, such as that of
typhus fever, would be dissipated under a much inferior degree of heat,
and it is accordingly found that typhus will not readily cross the tropic
of cancer, and the plague of the Levant goes out at the same boundary.
Boiling water, then, must be all-sufficient for the purification of what-
ever it can be made to touch ; and a portable iron stove, filled with
ignited charcoal, will infallibly disinfect any building or apartment.
The infection constantly given out from a living body cannot, while it
continues diseased, be so disposed of; but all that it has inhabited is
easily rendered harmless.

Light is another sure disinfectant ; the strongest poisons, as prussio
acid, when exposed to its influence lose their power.

Ventilation comprehends all that the atmosphere can bring to the
process of disinfection ; and water is only a more concentrated applica-
tion of the same principle. Chlorine fumigation is utterly useless, " but
the burning of a few handfuls of charcoal, with the aid of clean linen,
will certainly disinfect the most saturated lazar that ever came out of
a pest-house ; but until that ceremony, or an equivalent to it, such as
a hot bath, be performed, no one can answer for his being otherwise
than dangerous."

Dysentery is truly an army disease. In some services the soldiery
in the field may escape fever, but never dysentery if they lie on the
ground. Atmospherical vicissitudes, cold of the night, chill of the
morning, after heat of preceding day, will cause it to spread. Heat is,
however, uniformly the remote cause. The disease is purely inflamma-
tory in the beginning ; yet, because the acid and sub-acid fruits some-
times occasion griping when in health, these and vegetables of every
kind are sometimes strictly prohibited. They are, however, amongst

:>!•: MILITARY DICTIONARY. {&ur.

the best remedies. For the peculiar inflammation which dysentery
sets up in the mucous linings of the intestines, there has been no remedy
yet discovered at all comparable to mercury, (calomel.) The specific
inflammations, such us the iritic, the hepatic, the pneumonic, the syphi-
litic, &c., all fall before its peculiar superseding stimulus. The habitual
use of mercury is not fitted to all constitutions, and it has often been
abused ; but the discovery of its power to supersede inflammation is
one of the happiest of the uncertain art of medicine.

Miasmata or marsh poisons, it has been supposed, are exhalations
produced by the agency of vegetable or aqueous putrefaction. More
general knowledge has, however, established the fact, that one condition
only is necessary to the production of miasma on all surfaces capable
of absorption, and that is, the paucity of water where it has previously
and recently abounded. The greatest danger may exist, where there is
no evidence of putrefaction, as every one can testify who has seen pesti-
lence steam forth, to the paralyzation of armies, from the barren sands
of the Alentyo in Portugal, the arid burnt plains of Estrcmadura in
Spain, and the recently flooded table-lands of Barbadoos, which have
seldom more than a foot of soil to cover the coral rock, and arc t hero-
fore, under the drying process of a tropical sun, brought almost im-
mediately after the rains into a state to give out pestilential miasmata.
It is not known whether miasma is lighter or heavier than air, but it is
established that the inhabitants of ground floors are affected by it in a
greater proportion than those of upper stories ; and that this is caused
by its attraction by the earth's surface is proved by its creeping alon^
the ground, and concentrating and collecting on the sides of adjacent
hills, instead of floating directly upwards in the atmosphere. Miasma
is certainly lost and absorbed by passing over a small surface of water.
The rarefying heat of the sun, too, certainly dispels it, and it is only
during the cooler temperature of the night that it acquires body, <
t rat ion, and power. All regular currents of wind have also the same
effect. The leeward shore of Guadaloupe, for a course of nearly thirty
, under the shelter of a very high steep ridge of volcanic moun-
tains, never felt the sea breeze, nor any breeze but the night land wind
from the mountains ; and though the soil is a remarkably open, dry, and
pure one, being mostly sand and gravel, altogether and positively with-
out marsh in the most dangerous places, it is inconceivably pestiferous
throughout the whole tract, and in no spot more so than the bare sandy
beach near the high water mark. The colored people alone ever venture
to inhabit it, and when they see strangers tarrying on the shore after
nightfall, t! fail to warn them of their danger.

SAN.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 543

The chief predisposing causes of every epidemic, and especially of
cholera, are : damp, moisture, filth, animal and vegetable matters in a state
of decomposition, and in general, whatever produces atmospherical im-
purity ; \vhich always have the effect of lowering the health and vigor of
the system, and of increasing the susceptibility to disease. Attacks of
cholera are uniformly found to be most frequent and virulent in low-
lying districts, on the banks of rivers, in the neighborhood of sewer
mouths, and wherever there are large collections of refuse, particularly
amidst human dwellings. The practical precautions given in Russia
are " to keep the person and dwelling-place clean, to allow of no sinks
close to the house, to admit of no poultry or animals within the house,
to keep every apartment as airy as possible by ventilation, and to pre-
vent crowding wherever there are sick." Next to perfect cleansing of
the premises, dry ness ought to be carefully promoted, by keeping up in
damp and unhealthy districts sufficient fires, and this agent will promote
ventilation as well as warmth and dryness. If, notwithstanding these
precautions, cholera break out, the premonitory symptom of looseness
of the bowels almost universally precedes the setting in of the more
dangerous state of the disease. This looseness of the bowels may be
accompanied with some degree of pain, but in many cases pain is
wholly absent, and for some hours or even days the bowel complaint
may appear so slight, without previous knowledge of the importance
of its warning, as to escape notice altogether. But when the Asiatic
cholera is epidemic, never neglect the slightest degree of looseness of the
bowels. If neglected only a few hours, it may suddenly assume the
most fatal form. The most simple remedies will suffice, if given on the
first manifestation of the premonitory symptom, and the following, which
are within the reach and management of every one, may be regarded
as among the most useful, namely : twenty grains of opiate confection,
mixed with two tablespoonfuls of peppermint water, or with a little
weak brandy and water, and repeated every three or four hours, or
oftener, if the attack is severe, until the looseness is stopped ; or an
ounce of the compound chal^ mixture, with ten or fifteen grains of the
aromatic confection, and from five to ten drops of laudanum repeated
in the same manner. From half a drachm to a drachm of tincture of
catechu may be added to the last, if the attack is severe. Half these
quantities should be given to young persons under 15, and still smaller
doses to infants. It is recommended to repeat these remedies night
and morning for some days after the looseness of the bowels has been
stopped, and in all cases to have recourse to medical advice as soon as
possible. Next in importance to the immediate employment of such

544 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [SAP.

remedies, is attention to proper diet and clothing. The most wholesome
articK-s of vegetable diet are well-baked but not new bread, rice, oatmeal,
and good potatoes. The diet should be solid rather than fluid, and with
the means of choosing, it is better to live principally upon animal food,
as affording the most c 1 and invigorating diet — avoiding

salted and smoked meats, pork, salted and shell-fish, cider, perry, ginger
beer, lemonade, acid, liquors of all description, and ardent spirits. If,
notwithstanding these precautionary measures, a person is seized sud-
denly with cold, giddiness, nausea, vomiting, and cramps, under circum-
stances in which instant medical assistance cannot be procured, the con-
cur rmt testimony of the most experienced medical authority shows
that the proper course is to get as soon as possible into a warm bed ;
to apply warmth by means of heated flannel, or bottles filled with hot
water, or bags of heated camomile flowers, sand, bran, or salt, to tho
feet and along the spine ; to have the extremities diligently rubbed ;
to apply a large poultice of mustard and vinegar over tho region of tho
stomach, keeping it on fifteen or twenty minutes ; and to take
half hour a teaspoonful of sal volatile in a littlo hot water, or a dessert-
spoonful of brandy in a little hot water, or a wine glass of hot wine
whey, made by pouring a wine glass of sherry into a tumbler of hot
milk ; in a word, to do every thing practicable to procure a warn
eral perspiration, until the arrival of the physician whose immediate
care under such circumstances is indispensable.

(This, article is an abstract from an article in tho British Aide Me-
moire to the Military Sciences, under tho head of Sanitary Precaution*,
and that article is taken entirely from the works of Dr. W. Fergus- >n,
Inspector-general of Military Hospitals, and Reports of tho General
Board of Health, London, 1849.)

SAP. The sap is an apparently slow means of constructing trenches,
but being continued by night as by day without cessation, its progress
is soon felt. The work is executed by sappers rolling }>•
a large gabion, which shelters the workmen from musketry. In this
manner one gabion after another is filled with earth and rolled in ad-
vance of its predecessor after that part of the trench already made has
been well consolidated. A trench thus formed is called a sap. Wlim
the fire of the enemy is slack, so that many gabions may 1>< placed and
it the same time, it is called a flying sap. If two paraprts, ono
on each side of the trench, bo formed,*it is then called a double

!' FAGOTS — are fascines three feet long, pla<vd vertically
11 two gabions, for the protection of the sappers before the para-
pet is thrown <>••

SAW.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 545

SAPPERS. There is attached to the corps of engineers a company
of sappers, miners, and pontoniers, called engineer soldiers The com-
pany is composed of ten sergeants or master workmen, ten corporals
or overseers, two musicians, thirty-nine privates of the first class or
artificers, and thirty-nine privates of the second class or laborers. The
said engineer company shall be subject to the Rules and Articles of
War, be recruited in the same manner and with the same limitation,
and are entitled to the same provisions, allowances, and benefits, as are
allowed to other troops constituting the present military peace establish-
merit. The said company shall be officered by officers of the corps of
engineers, shall perform all the duties of sappers, miners, and ponto-
niers, and shall aid in giving practical instructions in those branches at
the Military Academy ; and shall, under the orders of the chief engineer,
be liable to serve by detachments in overseeing and aiding laborers
upon fortifications or other works under the engineer department, and
in supervising finished fortifications as fort-keepers, preventing injury
and applying repairs ; (Act May 15, 1846.) In marches near an ene-
my, every column should have with its advance guard a detachment of
sapppers, furnished with tools to open the way or repair the road. It
would be well if these sappers, as suggested by General Dembinski,
were mounted, in order rapidly to regain the advance guard, after
having finished their work.

SAP-ROLLER — consists of two large concentric gabions, six feet
in length, the outer one having a diameter of four feet, the inner one a
diameter of two feet eight inches, the space between them being stuffed
with pickets or small billets of hard wood, to make them musket-shot-
proof. Its use is to protect the squad of sappers, in their approach,
from the fire of the place.

SASH. A mark of distinction, worn by officers round the waist,
and composed of silk.

SAW-MILL, (PATENT, UPRIGHT, PORTABLE.) It is composed of
eight pieces of timber, from five to eight feet long ; four pieces of plank,
from four to six feet long ; arid about fifteen hundred pounds of iron ;
besides two long bed-pieces, a carriage, some small wooden fixtures,
pulleys, etc. The common up-and-down saw, six and one-half or seven
feet long, is used without sash-gate or muley, and will saw timber of
the largest or smallest size. It is so very simple in its construction
that it has but few bearings, and consequently but little friction, and will
therefore require much less power to drive it than the more complicated
mills now in general use. As much of the cumbrous machinery of other
mills, such as large, heavy frames, sash-gates, etc., is dispensed with in
35

540 MILITARY I>UT1«»NAUY. [SCA.

this, it is much less liable to get out of order ; while its simplicity en-
ables any one of ..ruinary mcch.iMeal ability to repair or build it. The
amount of repairs required with fair usage is of insignificant import.
The great advantage of such a mill for military purposes is its portability.
The engines and boilers furnished with those mills an- eorata
specially for it. The first size is a boiler 10 fed long, 'Jl tubes 2^
inches in diameter, ami 7 A f«-« t loiiLr, sh»-ll over the lire-box 4-1 inelu s in
diameter, shell over the tubes 34 inches in diameter, and engine of 7-
ineh e\ Tinder and l.Vinch stroke., This is a large cight-h< •!•><• •.
and is suflieient to drive the mill with any rapidity in the hardest and
-t timber. It is sold "with the mill — the whole establishment
weighing about 6,500 pounds — for $1,250. The second size is a boiler
11£ i\ J."> tubes 2 1 inches in diameter, and 7$ feet long, shell

over the fire-box 44 inches in diameter, shell over the tubes 34 inches
in diameter, engine same as that described above, (7-ineh cylinder and
15-inch stroke,) excepting that it has extra connections. It may bo
rated as good ten-horse, and is capable of driving the mill, t«
with some other machinery at the same time, such as circular-saw for
sawing slabs, lath, and other light work. This power is recommended.
It is sold with the mill — the -whole weighing about 7,500 Ibs. — for
$1,400. In these prices smoke pipes, connections, and every thing
necessary for running are included. The mill may be put up and at
work in two or three days after its receipt at any ijivi-n place. It is
said to saw three thousand feet a day, and has been made to saw nine,
hundred feet per hour. With an exhaust pipe on the smoke stack the
sawdust may be used for fuel.

SCALING LADDERS. (Set ESCALADE.)

SCARFED. (See CAKPEXTKY.)

SCARP. (See ESCARP.)

SCARP (To.) To cut down a slope, so as to render it inacces-
sible.

SCHOOL. (See ACADEMY, Military.)

SCOUTS. Horsemen sent in advance, or on the flanks t.. <:'-.
account of the force, and movements of the enemy.

SCREWS. In screws the parts are — the stem, the head, the slit,
and the. thread. The bottom of the slit of the larger screws of small-
arms is concave; the b:i^ f tin- rear sight has t\\o hobs in the.
head instead of a slot, in order that it may not bo removed by the
ordm.v 1 river. The Screw is also a meehanical power. Tho

app'.ii ••! p-Tpendicular to the axis, is to the weight, as ih
of tho screw *, or the distance between the two threads, is to the eir-

SEC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 547

cumference described by the point to which the power is applied.
Thus, if the power is applied by means of a lever ly

SECANT. (&?e TRIGONOMETRY.)

SECRETARY OF WAR. The principal officer of the Execu-
tive Department of War. (See DEPARTMENT OF WAR.) Mr. Attorney-
general Wirt, in an opinion, dated Jan. 25, 1821, says, the Secretary of
War " does not compose a part of the army, and has no duties to per-
form in the field." The duties assigned by law for the Secretary of
War are the following : 1. The act creating the new department (Act
Aug. 7, 1789) gives to the Secretary, besides the custody of records,
books, and papers of the old department, the record of military com-
missions, the care of warlike stores and other duties clearly minis-
terial. 2. Section 5, Act March 3, 1813, continued in force by the 9th
section of the Act of April 24, 1816, delegates jointly to the President
and Secretary of War the power to make regulations better defining and
describing the respective powers and duties of staff officers. 3. Articles
of War, 13, 18, and 19, intrust the Secretary of War with muster-
rolls and returns, and give him authority over the forms of such papers,
and to require stated returns. 4. The llth Article of War authorizes
him to grant discharges to non-commissioned officers and soldiers ; and
the 65th of the same articles makes him the medium in passing pro-
ceedings of certain courts-martial, and the organ of the President's
orders thereon ; 5. Another Article of War (the 95th) charges the
Secretary with receiving accounts of the effects of deceased officers and
soldiers. 6. Act May 18, 1826, section 1, respecting clothing, &c.,
charges certain duties upon the Quartermaster-general " under the
direction of the Secretary of War." 7. Several acts, authorize the
Secretary to purchase sites for arsenals. 8. The Ordnance Depart-
ment and its materiel are made subject to the Secretary by the Act
February 8, 1815. 9. Under the Act 'March 2, 1803, Section 1, the
Secretary of War is authorized to give direction to the State Adjutants-
general, in order " to produce uniformity " in returns, and to lay ab-
stracts of the same, &c. lO.^The Secretary shall lay before Congress
on the 1st of February in each year a statement of the appropriations
of the preceding year showing the amount appropriated, and the
balance remaining unexpended on the 31st of December preceding. He
shall estimate the probable demands which may remain on each appro-
priation, and the balance shall be deducted from the estimates of his
department for the service of the current' year; (Act May 1, 1820.)

548 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Sic.

11. ITo shall render annually accounts exhibithig the sums expended out
of such estimai r with such information coniuvted tlu-iv\\ itli

as may be deemed proper ; (Act May 1, 1820.) 12. The Secretary of
War shall cause to be collected and transinitu-<l to him at the seat of
Government all flags, standards, and colors, as may be taken l»v the
army of the United States from their enemies ; (Act April 18, 1814.)
13. The Secretary may employ for the office of the \Yar iK-pa:
one chief clerk, and such other clerks as may be authorized by law ;
(Acts April 20, 1818, and May 26, 1824.) 14. The Secretary of \Y u
may furnish to persons who design to emigrate to Oregon, California,
or New Mexico, such arms and ammunition as may be needed to arm
them for the expedition at the actual cost of such arms and ammunition ;
(Resolution March, 2, 1849.) 15. All purchases and contracts for sup-
plies or services for the military service of the United States, shall bo
made by or under the Secretary of War ; (Act July 16, 1798.) 1<>. I Ie
shall annually lay before Congress a statement of all contracts, with full
details ; (Act April 21, 1808.)

Not one of the numerous acts of Congress relative to the
partment gives him authority to command troops. His lawful duties
are all purely administrative, and as " he does not compose a part of

:uy," the President, in the exercise of his office of commander-in-
chief, can of course only use the military hierarchy created by Coi
The English, from whom our system is borrowed, opposed to central iza-
tion of authority as adverse to freedom, have judiciously recognized the
fact, in practice as well as theory, that the War Department is not of such
a nature that it can be directed as other departments of the cabinet, < > r
be made to work by the simple play of constitutional changes in the min-
istry. They have consequently separated the action of the public force
from the direction of financial matters. But as the safety of the state

Is upon the stability of its .military institutions, the steadfast-
ness of the means at work, and the skilful direction of all details, the
Minister of War, who is changed by every triumph of opposite opin-
ion, is not a military officer, and not charged with military authority.
The permanent military institutions of the country do not depend upon
him. The army docs not look to him fcr nominations to office, disci-

<>r military control. He is simply the great provider, the super-

i.-mt of accounts, the financier, the interpreter of the plans of tho
rior and politico-military operations. lie is aided l>y
under-M'erefari. s, who do not go out of office with the ral>in< t. and who
are charged with the administration and payments for material.

The commander-in-chief, on the contrary, is the conservator of

SER.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 549*

discipline, the centre of nominations, the life-spring which animates and
directs the army, the source of orders, the regulator of tactics. lie
occupies himself with improvements of all kinds, and with the destina-
tion of materiel. It is to him that the Minister of State for War has
recourse when he communicates to parliament or the cabinet the con-
dition of the army, details of organization and other military information.
Military finance and the support of armies are thus left with the Secre-
tary of War, while command, discipline, and improvements are regu-
lated by the commander-in-chief. The Minister of War thus follows the
fortunes of a cabinet without the military institutions of the country
being in any manner affected by party changes. Practice in the United
States has widely diverged from this theory. (Consult BARDIN, Dic-
tionnaire de VArmee de Terre j Milice Anglaise / Debates in Par-
liament.}

SECTION, PROFILE, GROUND-PLAN. If a plane pass
through work in any direction, the cut made by it is a section ; if the
cut be vertical and perpendicular to the face of the work, it is a ground-
plan : thus, when the foundation of a house appears just above the
ground, it shows the ground-plan of the building.

SELLING. (See AMMUNITION.)

SENIOR. Superior rank.

SENTENCE. (See COURT-MARTIAL.)

SENTRY OR SENTINEL. Any sentinel sleeping on post or
leaving it before being regularly relieved, shall suffer death, or such
other punishment as may be inflicted by sentence of a court-martial.

SERGEANT. Non-commissioned officer above corporal. There
are various grades of sergeants : 1st. Sergeant-major, the first non-
commissioned officer of a regiment, whose principal office is to assist
the adjutant ; 2d. Quartermaster-sergeant, assistant to the regimental
quartermaster ; 3d. Principal musicians of a regiment ; 4th. Ordnance
sergeant ; 5th. First sergeant, or orderly sergeant of a company, and
6th. Sergeants, without prefix.

SERVANTS. (See PAY, for the number allowed to officers.)
Company officers only can take soldiers from the line as servants ;
(Act April 24, 1816.)

SERVICE. The military art is the art of serving the state in war.
All studies, acts, and efforts of the profession of arms have this end in
view. To belong to the army and to belong to the land service, are the
same thing. In a more restricted sense, service is the performance of
military duty. In its general sense, service embraces all details of the
military art. But in its restricted sense, actual service is the exercise

550 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [S*x

of military functions. We say the Military Service ; Cavalry, Artil-
lery, or Infantry Service; Active Service; Regiment:. ; I V-
tached Service ; Service on the Staff ; Garrison Service ; Camp s
Campaign Service ; Service in peace ; Service in war; Dai
Service abroad ; Service at home ; Frontier S rv'uv as captain,
&c. ; Armed Service ; Actual Service. To see service implies a«-tual com-
bat with an enemy. Service in campaign, is service in the fiel.l ; ami in
the French army, service in war or in colonies counts double, in estimat-
ing length of service, for promotions, pensions, retreat, ami «»ther re-
munerations. (See ABATIS ; ADJUTANT-GENERAL ; AIDE-DE-CAMP ; ARMS,
(Small ;) ARTILLERY ; ASSAULT ; ATTACK AND DEFENCE ; BARRICADES ;
BARRIER ; BATTERIES ; BATTLE ; BAYONET ; BLACKING ; BLINDAGE ;
BLOCK-HOUSE ; BOMBARDMENT ; BRIDGES ; CAMP ; CAMPAIGN ; CAPITU-
LATION ; CARPENTRY ; CAVALRY ; CHARGE ; CONVOYS ; COOKING ; COUP
D'OHL; DEFENCE, (Coast;) DEFILE; DEFILEMENT; DISEMBARKATION ;
DRAGOONS ; EMBARKATION ; ENGINEERS ; ESCALADE ; FASCINES ; FIELD-
WORKS ; FIRING ; FLAGS OF TRUCE ; FLANK ; FORAGING ; GABIONS ;
GUNNERY; INFANTRY; LANCE; LAW,' (Martial ;) LODGMENT; M •.
VRES IN BATTLE ; MARCH ; MlNE J OBSTACLES J OVEN J OUTPOSTS J
PARTISAN ; RECONNOISSANCE ; RIFLEMEN ; ROADS ; SANITARY PRECAU-
TIONS; SAW-MILL; SIEGES; SQUARES; STADIA; STRATEGY; St ;
(Military;) TACTICS; TARGET; TELEGRAPH; TOOLS; VETERINARY;
WAGON; WAR; and Alphabetical list generally.

SEXTANT. An instrument for measuring the angular distances of
objects by reflection. It is a segment of a circle of 60°. The quadrant
and reflecting circle are instruments which depend on the same prin-
ciple of optics, viz. : if an object be seen by reflection from two mirrors
which are perpendicular to the same plane, the angular distance of the
object from its image is double the inclination of the mirrors. The
purpose, then, of the sextant, quadrant, and reflecting circle, is the
adaptation of a convenient method for measuring the angle b<
two mirrors perpendicular to the same plane, ami thus ascertaining the
angle between two objects. This is aecomplishc.l by a eontrivanco
which enables the mirrors to be so arranged that nn <»l.ject seen
directly is brought to coincide with the image of another object seen l»y

< t'mn, and the angle is shown by an index.

> 1 1 A IT — in mining, is a perpendicular excavation.

B 1 1 1 •: I : US. (See DERRICK ; GIN.) By removing the pry polo of
the gin, it may be used as sheers. When thus used, a block of wood
of the same dimensions as the head of the pry polo with a hole in it large
enough to receive the clevis blot, must be inserted in place of the pry pole.

SHE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 551

SHELLS. A shell is a hollow shot with a hole to receive the fuze.
They are usually fired from mortars and howitzers, and are charged
with a sufficient quantity of powder to burst them, when they reach the
end of their range. When fired at troops, the shells should be pro
pared to burst over their heads ; or if the ground be favorable, to rico-
chet in front and plunge into the column. When fired at works or
buildings, the shells should burst after penetration. (See AMMUNITION ;
FUZE ; RIFLED ORDNANCE ; SABOT ; SPHERICAL CASE.)

SHOT, (SOLID OR ROUND.) Made of cast iron and used as pro-
jectiles when great accuracy, range, and penetration are required. (See
BREACH ; SABOT.)

SIEGES. An army, to undertake the siege of a fortress, must
have superiority in the field, so that while some of the corps are oc-
cupied in besieging the place, others are employed in covering this
operation, or in repulsing the enemy whenever he endeavors to succor
the place. The army covering the siege is called an Army of Obser-
vation, and that which endeavors to give aid to the place is called the
Succoring Army. The Besieging Army is that which, protected by the
army of observation, throws up all the works necessary to take the
place, such as trenches, batteries, &c. It begins its operations by in-
vesting the fortress ; that is, it will advance with the greatest secrecy
and rapidity, and occupy positions on every side, to cut off all com-
munication with the adjacent country, and confine the garrison entirely
to their own resources. The positions thus occupied are strengthened
by field-works, and a sure communication is kept up between them.

It is absolutely necessary to invest the fortress attacked, so as to
prevent the garrison holding any intercourse with the neighboring
country ; for if this precaution be not taken, the defenders will be able
to draw fresh supplies of men, provisions, and ammunition from the
country, increasing greatly the duration of the siege, and reducing the
chances of ultimate success. At the late siege of Sebastopol, the
ground being intersected by the inlet of the harbor of Sebastopol, the
allied army was unable to complete the investment. Thus the fortress
on the northern aide was left open to receive all the reinforcements of
men and materiel which could be furnished by the resources of Russia.
Fresh officers, fresh troops, fresh provisions were continually poured
in ; the defences were enlarged and multiplied ; and the besiegers,
attacked in their own lines, held at one period a very critical position.
The siege was thus prolonged beyond that of any other of modern
times, and success was ultimately attained by a loss of men and ma-
teriel altogether unprecedented. Ground was broken on the 10th

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [S«.

October, 1854, and on the 10th September, 1855, the Russians, having
sunk their ships, retreated from the southern to the northern side of
the harbor, leaving the works on the southern side in the hands of the
allies, exactly eleven months after the commencement of th.

A place may sometimes be reduced by investment or bio
alone, and where it is possible suddenly to blockade a place ill pro-
ed and filled with a numero; M and population, it may

be the most realy and bloodless mode of proceed in::. Indeed, many
other circumstances may render it desirable to endeavor to i
a place by blockade. \Vhcn the defenders have been driven within
their works, and the place invested, the ground before the fronts to be
attacked is carefully examined, and the most suitable situations s<
for the park of artillery, and the engineer's park : the former to r
all the ordnance stores and ammunition ; the latter all the eni:
stores and materials to be u-.d in the construction of the tr
Latteries, &c. These parks should bo placed in secure localities, be-
hind the slopes of hills or in ravines, beyond the general range of the
guns of the fortress, but with a ready access to the treiu-hes and batteries
of attack, for the use of which they are formed.

The artillery and engineer parks having been duly established, and
an adequate supply of ordnance, ammunition, and materials coi.
in them, for a week's or ten days' consumption, the actual work of the
siege begins. The objects of the besiegers are three : 1st. By a su-
perior fire of artillery to dismount the guns and subdue tho artillery
fire of the place. 2d. To construct a secure and covered road by whieh
his columns may march to assault the defensive works, so soon as they
are sufficiently destroyed to justify the attempt. 3d. To breach or
batter down the escarp revetments of the fortress in certain spots,
causing the fall of the rampart and parapet supported by them, and
thus exposing' the interior of the place to tin- assaulting columns.

Now, before any means can be taken to attain any one ..f

^,& strong force must be placed under cover, C!OM- at hand to
the spots on which th«» necessary operations arc to be comii.-
whose duty it is to repel any sortie of the enemy, and drive back any
parties whieh is^n- from tho place to destroyer interrupt the \\orks
of the attack. The cover provided for this pianl of the trenches is
usually a trench an«l parapet called the first parallel, formed around
liote of the froir 1 : its distance from the advanced works

has usually been b.twc, n GOO and 700 yards. In the late siege «
bastopol. the first parallel was opened at a distance of 1,200 yards ; and
doubtless, in future sieges, owing to the increased ran irms.

SIE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 553

the first parallel will seldom be less, and may probably be considerably
more distant. This parallel is formed by approaching the place secretly
in the night with a body of men ; part carrying intrenching tools, and
the remainder armed. The former dig a trench in the ground parallel
to the fortifications to be attacked, and with the earth excavated from
the trench raise a bank on the side next the enemy, while the latter
remain under arms, usually in a recumbent posture, in readiness to
protect the working party, should the garrison sally out. During the
night, this trench and bank are made of sufficient depth and extent to
cover from the missiles of the place the number of men requisite to cope
with the garrison, and the besiegers remain in the trench throughout
the following day, in despite of the fire or of the sorties of the besieged.
This trench is afterwards progressively widened and deepened, and the
bank of earth raised till it forms a covered road, called a parallel, em-
bracing all the fortifications to be attacked ; and along this road, guns,
wagons, and men securely and conveniently move, equally sheltered
from the view and the missiles of the garrison. So soon as the first
parallel is established, the engineers select positions for the batteries to
silence the defensive artillery. In the positions of these batteries lies
one of the principal advantages of the besiegers.

Batteries of guns and mortars are now constructed a little in ad-
vance of this parallel, in positions, such that their guns enfilade all the
faces of the works attached. The crest lines of these batteries are
therefore made perpendicular to the prolongations of the faces of the
ravelins and bastions of the fronts attacked, and so great is the advan-
tage to the besieger arising from such positions of his batteries, that
with an equal or sometimes smaller number of guns he is able speedily
to subdue the artillery fire of the defence. These enfilading batteries
on the first parallel should be completed and ready to open fire on the
third morning after breaking ground.

After the fire of the defensive artillery has been sufficiently sub-
dued, the approaches are commenced. These, like the first parallel,
are trenches dug in the ground and protected by a parapet formed of
the excavated earth, thrown up on the side of the enemy's works. The
approaches are made on the capitals of the ravelins and bastions at-
tacked, but not in a straight line directly towards the salients, as in
that case they could be enfiladed from end to end, but in a zigzag direc-
tion, alternately to the right and to the left of the capitals, in such a
manner that their prolongations fall clear of the fortress, and the pos-
sibility of enfilading them is entirely removed.

The heads of these approaches are pushed forward by small parties

55 i MIL1TABY DICTIONAKY. [Si£.

of men, who, from their great numerical inferiority, are quite unable to

ci mtcnd with sorties i>Miing from the place. To prevent ti.
destruction of the approaches, and the continual loss of the working
parties engaged in tin -ir obstruction, a guard of sufficient strength must
always be stationed within a distance from these works not exceeding
the distance of these works from the covered-way of the place : i
a sortie issuing from the place for the purpose of destroying the ap-
proaches may be met and repulsed by tho guard of the trenches before
they can have time to carry their ol.jeet into effect ; and as tho ap-
proaches themselves, from their limited dimensions, afford no accom-
modation for a guard of the trenches, a parallel must always be
established at least as near to the head of tho approaches as the heads of
approaches to the covered-way of the place. ^

It may then be considered a general principle of the attack that a
new parallel or place of arms becomes necessary when the approaches
have advanced half way between the last formed parallel ami the
covered-way of the fortress. So soon, then fore, as the approaches
have advanced half the distance between the first parallel and Covered-
way of the fortress, a second parallel must be established to accom-
modate a guard of tho trenches, or the working parties at tho heads of
the approaches will be liable to be swept off by parties of cavalry
issuing from the covered-way, before aid can reach them from the first
parallel. The approaches are then pushed forward, parallels being
made according to the principles just laid down, when \er required,
until they reach nearly the crest of the covered way. Here a tivneh
of greater magnitude is formed, and in it batteries of heavy guns arc
constructed to silence the remaining artillery of the d< fence, and to
breach in certain selected spots the escarp revetment wall, thus de-
stroying tho formidable obstacle to assault presented by tho high per-
pendicular sides of the ditches of the fort-

The order for the assault is given when tho breach has been ren-
dered practicable by the overthrow of tho parapet upon the ruins of its
walls; and after a gallery has been opened for descending into tho
ditch, across which a good epaulcment has been made joining the i
to tho gallery. The troops for the assault nre held in the ditch, in

>wning of the covered-way, and in tho third parallel. The
t.iehni' nts are to sustain each other and to do it with strong arms. At
the concerted signal, the first detachment mounts the breach, driving
back the d. md seeking to establish thcim. Ives firmly upon

ight by constructing with ?a)>ions a lodgement in the anplo of tho
bastion. This is a little ii.tn nehmcnt, called by tho French nid de pie,

SIE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 555

which crowns the breach, and under shelter of which the soldiers fire
upon all who present themselves. The sappers are charged with its
construction, and in sufficient numbers for this purpose, accompany the
assaulting party, each carrying a shovel, a pick-axe, and a gabion.
The second detachment aids the first in surmounting the breach, and
relieves it if the struggle is obstinate The third detachment lines the
trenches upon the glacis, and sweeps with its fire the parapets and top
of the breach, and wherever else there is resistance, but care must also
be taken, before coming to close quarters, to facilitate the assault by
directing upon the work attacked, as many pieces of artillery as possible.
When the close combat begins, the artillery ceases, as it would other-
wise fire upon friend and foe.

Frequently the taking of the first works brings about the sur-
render of the place, but again it often happens that their resistance is
but a foretaste of the obstinate defence to be made, and it is necessary
to grasp, step by step, the fortifications of the besieged. Sometimes,
again, the possession of the ramparts does not put an end to the fight-
ing, but courageous citizens, willing to sacrifice their property to the
honor and independence of their country, dispute inch by inch the
possession of the streets and houses. The defence of Saragossa in 1808
is a heroic instance of such devotedness. The Spaniards, after losing
their fortifications, sustained during twenty-three days attacks in streets
and from houses. They capitulated for want of powder, and only
after the enormous loss of fifty-four thousand persons of all ages and
sexes.

A commanding officer, defending the approaches of a fortress threat-
ened by armed enemies, declares it in a state of siege, and from that
moment martial law prevails ; or, in other words, the military author-
ity alone 'governs. Every thing is brought into the place necessary for
defence, in the shape of wood, fascines, gabions, animals, grain, and
eatables of all kinds. All useless mouths are sent out of the place,
and those inhabitants who remain are required to provide themselves
with wheat, dried vegetables, oil, salt meats, &c., for many months, in
order that the garrison may not be obliged to share their provisions
with them. The place is put in a state of defence by arming and re-
pairing the fortifications, planting palisades, clearing away the incum-
brances in the communications, &c., &c.

"When the garrison is sufficiently numerous, and that is the case
here supposed, it guards against being entirely shut up in the place, by
disputing all approaches. Pos'tions are taken in advance of the sub-
urbs, and far from destroying the suburbs as a smaller garrison must

556 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Sit.

do, they should be covered by intrenchments, in the double aim of
preserving them, and sparing the rear as long as possible.

Besides the preceding iutn-m-hments, advantageous points are se-
lected for solid redoubts and small posts. The most exposed passages
are closed by abatis or deep cuts. Walls are pierced with embrasures,
the different stories of houses made defensible, and all means \\ 1.
resorted to that can prolong the defence.

Upon a field of battle thus prepared, a long resistance may be ex-
i, and the attacking force will experience, great losses beli.iv they
can open their trenches and begin the ordinary labors of the siege.
Perhaps even during this exterior struggle, political events ,.r other
warlike operations may extricate the garrison from the impending
siege, and its glorious struggle will then have freed the place com-
mitted to it from many horrors.

If the moment at last comes when it is necessary for the garrison
to shut itself up, then follows that series of operations properly called
a siege. The defence has a thousand means of prolonging its duration,
because his exterior defence has given time to prepare them. Knowing
the point of attack indicated by the first operations, the defeiu
have redoubled his intrenchmcnts. The garrison will :
made warlike by frequent combats. It occupies, it is true, a post hard
pressed, but its force is the more concentrated from that cause, and is
still imposing notwithstanding the losses that it has experienced.

It is by sorties that we retard the operations of the bcs'n
Large sorties are executed by numerous corps, and are generally made
by day to avoid confusion. Small sorties are made at night, and con-
sist of but few men. The first are designed to overthrow tin- trenches,
fire the batteries, and spike the pieces, and they are consequently al-
ways followed by a sufficient number of workmen, pnui.le.l with tlio
necessary instruments. The smaller sorties are only directed against
the workers of the sap; they present themselves un< -\pecte.lly and
frequently drive away the workmen, and break up the gabions. The
sap thus interrupted progresses but slowly.

Defensive mines are also a powerful means of prolonging the de-
fence, as they force the besieger to make works that require much time
in their preparation. As soon as the point of attack is known the be-
sieged prepare under the glacis chambers of mines, which threaten the
batteries of the besieger and constrain him to dig under the ground.
The defence has in this subterranean war a great advantage, as he ex-
pects the attack in galleries previously prepared. The attack has no
other resource than to prepare his chambers at a great distance in order

SIE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 557

to destroy those of the defenders, and for this purpose globes of com-
pression are employed. These overcharged chambers, however, re-
quire a great deal of powder, and also much time for their preparation.

The besieged has also an advantage in the defence of breaches, be-
cause the attacking force may be surrounded, and can only reach their
object by a narrow and difficult ascent. In defending a breach, there-
fore, all the energies of the defence should be brought into action.
Preparations should be made in advance for this period of the siege,
and some pieces of artillery should be carefully preserved, to arm at
the moment of the assault these works which take in flank and reverse
the columns of attack. At the top of the breach loaded shells are kept
ready to roll down upon the assailants ; a large fire should be lighted
at the foot of the breach, and kept up by fagots. Or, if the enemy
has only partially beaten down the wall, the foothold may be cleared
away during the night in such a manner as to make the breach imprac-
ticable. Mines may be dug under the ruins by which the assailants
may be overthrown. Long arms, as pikes, may be given to the sol-
diers who defend the breach, and those in the front ranks may be pro*
tected by cuirasses. If the work attacked has much capacity, reserves
may be held in the interior to charge the enemy when he shows him-
self, and cavalry may also be brought up at this decisive moment.

Such are, in general, the steps to be taken to defend a work ; but
success will at last depend upon the character, firmness, and skill of
the governor, and upon the intrepidity of his soldiers.

The army of observation ought not to be too far from that engaged
in the siege, because it may be necessary to call for reinforcements
from the latter, and they should be able to return to their camps after
the action. Such aid furnished at the opportune moment is precious,
and may contribute powerfully to defeat or repulse an enemy. When
Napoleon covered the siege of Mantua he did not confine himself to
drawing battalions from the besieging army, in order to fight the nu-
merous troops striving to surround him, but%he marched the whole
besieging army, and uniting it with the army of observation, he gained
the celebrated battle of Castiglione.

Besides, if the army of observation be too far ofF, there is nothing
to prevent the enemy from unexpectedly attacking the besieging army,
which, occupying a long line of investment, is rarely in a condition to
repulse such an attack, and may therefore, without aid, be compelled
to raise the siege, with the loss of ordnance and otner materiel. General
rules cannot be laid down for the position to be taken by an army of
observation. It must possess mobility of action, and seek concentra-

558 % MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Sit

tion as much as circumstances admit It must not consider itself tied
to the besieging army, and yet be always ready t raooof the latti-r
as well as rejK»l a succoring artny : conditions which demand much
consideration, and which will be fulfilled only by varying dispositions
according to circumstances.

In 1C40, Prince Thomas of Savoy and the Spaniards held the
of Turin, whose citadel was defended by a Freiu 1. u. At the

beginning of May, the Count d'llarcourt, celebrated fur his courage
and his military talents, set himself duwn before the place, but it was
I before the Marquis do Lenages arrive 1 with heavy
forces to blockade him in his lines. Turin, invested in this manner,
presented the singular spectacle of a citadi 1 besieged by the city, of tho
citv besieged by a French army, and the latter surrounded bv a
Spanish army. In this position tho Prince of Savoy corresponded with
Lenages by means of shells without fuzes, in which letters wen- « n-
closed. Tho same means were used to introduce into the city a little
salt and medicine, of which they were much in want. Count d'llar-
court, obliged to defend himself from continual serties made by Prince
Tli- -mas, as well as from n-iteratcd attacks of tho Spanish ar:
himself by double lines as a protection against both. At length after
a siege of four months and a half, after having endured in his camp
every privation, ho forced the city to capitulate. Th • Prince of E
marched out with the honors of war, and the Spanish army retire.l ;
(Memoirs of the House of Savoy, par le Marquis DK COSTA.)

Marshal Soult, at tho siege of Badajoz, being occupied with an
army larger than his own. nevertheless found an occasion by whieh he
ably profited to establish an equilibrium of forces. Ten thousand
Spaniards, to avoid being an encumbrance, went out from Iladajoz to
encamp upon tho heights separated from the. French army by the
Gaudiana, and covered by tho Gcbora. Howitzers of long range were
fir«"l by the French army npmi the. Spanish camp, in ordi-r to drive it
as possible from^the works of Badajo/, from which it was sep-
! by a valley of 600 toiscs in breadth. An hour before .lay, the
(Ian-liana was crossed in boats, the torrent of Gcbora forded, and while
Marshal Morticr directed a front attack upon the 1 :;•! sent his

cavalry to turn the right, two or three thousand infantry plared them-
.iley between tho fortress and the camp, and facing both
ways cut off all communication. Complete success crown e.l tlnse b«-auti-
Eight thousand Spaniards grounded their arms, five or
six hundr d wcr-' killed, and tho remaind. r escaped. Sn.-h was the bril-
liant combat of Gcbora fought Feb. 19, 1811 ; (Victoires et conqueles.)

Sio.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

559

FIG. 209.

These dissimilar instances, with hundreds that might be cited, show
that no rules can determine the conduct of an army in the field, but
genius in war may derive instruction from the memoirs of able com-
manders. (Consult DUFOUR ; HYDE. See BATTARDEAU; BATTERY;
!DiTCH ; FIELD-WORKS ; FORTIFICATIONS.)

SIGHT. A small piece of brass or iron, fixed on a gun at its
muzzle, to serve as a point of direction, and also to hold fast the bayonet
on the firelock. (See HAUSSE.)

SIGNAL. To attract the notice of a division of your party, five
or even ten miles off, glitter a
bit of looking-glass in the sun
towards where you expect them
to be, (Fig. 209.) It is quite
astonishing at how great a dis-
tance its flashes will catch the
sharp eyes of a bushman who
has learnt to know what it is.
It is now a common signal in
American prairies. The sparks
from a well-struck flint and steel
can be seen at an equal distance.

If, instead of flashing with
the mirror, the glare be stead-
ily directed to where the party
are, it will be seen at a far
greater distance, and appear as
a brilliant star ; but it requires
some practice to do this well.
The rays from the mirror, what-
ever its size may be, form a cone
whose vertical angle is no greater than that subtended by the diameter
of the sun, and it is therefore necessary* that the signaller should be
satisfied that he throws his flash within that degree of accuracy. More-
over, a rapidly parsing flash has far less brilliancy than one that dwells
steadily for a fraction of a second.

An instrument, called a " hand heliostat," has been contrived by
Galton for ascertaining the direction of the flash. Mr. Galtori says :
The instrument is perfectly easy to manage, and letters can be signalled
by a combination of flashes, which I need not here describe. Its power
is perfectly marvellous. On a day so hazy that colors, on the largest
scale — such as green fields and white houses — are barely distinguishable

r.r.t) MILITARY DICTION A KY. [Sio.

at seven miles' distance, a looking-glass no larger than the finger-nail,
transmits signals clearly visible to the naked

The result of several experiments in England showed that the small-
est mirror visible (under atmospheric conditions such that the signaller's
station was discernible, but dim) subtended an angle of one-tenth of a
second. It is very important that the mirror should be of truly parallel
glass, such as instrument-makers procure. There is loss of j
more than one way from a slight irregularity. A plane mirror only
three inches across, reflects as much of the sun as a globe of 120 feet
diameter, and looks like a dazzling star at 10 miles' distance.

There are makeshift ways of directing the flash of the mirror ; as,
by observing its play on an object somo^aces off, nearly in a line with
the station it is wished to communicate with. In doing this, be careful
to bring the eye to the very edge of the mirror ; there should be as
little " dispart "' as possible, as artillerymen would say. The aim must
be a very true one, or the flash will never be seen. An object, in
reality of a white color but apparently dark, owing to its being shaded,
shows the play of a mirror's flash better than any other. The play of a
flash, sent through an open window, on the walls of a room, can be seen
at upwards of 100 yards. It is a good object by which to adjust the
above-mentioned instrument. Two bits of paper and a couple of
arranged as in Fig. 210, serve pretty well to direct a flash. Sight the.

distant object through the holes in the,
two bits of paper, A and B, at the ends
of the horizontal stick; and, when you
are satisfied that the stick is properly
adjusted and quite steady, take your
mirror and throw the shadow of A upon
B, and further endeavor to throw the
white speck in the shadow of A, corre-
sponding to its pin-hole in it, through
* the centre of the hole in B. K\<

and then lay the mirror n- 1 . and bend down to see that A B con-
tinues to bo properly adjusted.

In short reconnoitring expeditions with a small detachment of a
party, the cattle or dogs are often wild, and certain to run home to
th.ir eomr.i'V, on the first opportunity ; and, in the event of not being
able to wateh them, owing to accident or other cause, advantage may
be token of their restlessness, by tying a note to one of their necks, and
letting them po and serve instead of postmen or carrier-pigeons.

Fire-beacons, hanging up a lantern, setting fire to an old nest high

SlG.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

561

up in a tree — make night-signals ; but they are never to be depended
on without previous concert, as bushes and undulations of the ground
may often hide them entirely. The smoke of fires by day is seen very
far, and green wood and rotten wood make the most smoke. It is best
to make two fires 100 yards apart. In the old-fashioned semaphores,
or telegraphs, with arms to them, it is a common rule to allow, for the
length of the arms, one foot for every mile it is intended to be seen
from, and the eye is supposed to be aided by a telescope.

A line of men can be turned into a line of semaphores, by making
them each hold a cap or something black and large in their hands, and
mimic the movements of one another. Only a few simple signals could
be transmitted in this way with' any certainty. There are four elemen-
tary signals, which deserve general adoption. I fear the use of more
would perplex. Men should be practised at these four, (Fig. 211.)

FIG. 211.

No. 1.

No. 8.

No. 4.

VO. SIGNAL.

1. Attend to me ; or, oome to me Wave.

2. All right ; or, yes. Affirmation signal Both arms raised.

8. All wrong ; or, no. Negation signal Both arms lowered.

4. Stop Both arms spread.

Energetic movements, of course, intensify the meaning. To use
the signals, wave until you are answered ; then make your signal while
you count five, and wait five. Continue this till your friend does the
same, then make a rapid " all right ; " he does the same, and all is
concluded. In order that you may be seen, try and stand in a position
where your friend would sae you against the sky ; (GALTON'S Art of
Travel)

A kite has been suggested as a day-signal ; and also a kite with
some kind of squib let off by a slow-light and attached to its tail, as
one by night ; (Col. JACKSON.)

A common signal for a distant scout is, that he should ride or walk
round and round in a circle from right to left, or else in one from left
to right. " At other times they will lie concealed near a road, with
scouts in every direction on the look-out ; yet no one venturing to

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Sia

speak, but only making known by signs wnat ho may have to com-
mimieate to his companions or leader. Thus ho will point to his ear
or foot on hearing footsteps, to his eyes on seeing persons approach,
or to his tongue it' voices bo audible; and will also indicate on his
fingers the number of those coming, describing also many particulars
as to how many porters, beasts of burden or for r'ulinu, there may be
with the party ; (PARKYNS.) Balloons, rockets, flags, &c., may bo used
to signal. (S. • \i-ii; KECONNOISSANCE.)

SIGNAL OFFICER. By Act approved June, 1860, there was
added to the staff of the army " one signal officer with the rank, pay, and
allowances of a major of cavalry, who shall have charge, under the direc-
tion of the Secretary of War, of all signal duty, and of all books and
papers, and apparatus, connected therewith." (See SIGNALS; TELE-
GRAPH.)

SINE. In trigonometry the sine of any arc of a circle is the
straight line drawn from one extremity of the arc perpendicular to the
radius passing through the other extremity. The sine of an arc is half
of the chord of the double arc. It is positive in the first and second
quadrants and negative in the third and fourth. (See TRIGONOMETRY;
TABLES.)

SKETCHING. (See RECONNOISSANCE and SURVEYING.)

SKIRMISH. A loose, desultory engagement. Light infantry aro
the troops usually employed for such service; (Infantry Tactics.)

SLEEPERS. Small joists of timber, which form the. foundation
for the platform of a battery, and upon which the boards for the ll"»r-
ing are laid.

SLINGt-CARTS. A wooden sling-cart is composed of two wheels,
8 feet in diameter, an axle-tree, a tongue, and the hoisting apparatus, and
is used to transport cannon and their carriages. The hoisting apparatus
is a screw, which passes through the axle-tree, and is worked by a nut
with long handles. The lower part of this screw is terminated with
two hooks, to which are fastened the chains and trunnion rings ; the
;i of the piece being supported by the cascablc chain. Or, if a
chain be passed around the piece to bo raised, it may 1
to the hooks. The iron sling-cart is smaller than the wooden, and is
used to transport tannon in the siege trench

SLUICE — is a strong vertical sliding door to regulate the flow of
water.

SOLDIER. "Whoever belonging to the military service of tho
State receives pay is a soldier. The term is derived from soldc. It is
an appellation, however, which a soldier proudly claims ; and it is on

SPH.J

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

563

the contrary an outrage to a brave man to say to him, " you are no
soldier." " Every means (says Napoleon) should be taken to attach a
soldier to his colors. This is best accomplished by showing considera-
tion and respect to the old soldier. His pay likewise should increase
with his length of service. It is the height of injustice not to pay a
veteran more than a recruit." " There are five things a soldier should
never be without — his musket, his ammunition, his knapsack, his pro-
visions, (for at least four days,) and his intrenching tool."
SOLID SHOT. (See SHOT.)

SORTIE. An attack by a besieged garrison. (See SIEGE.)
SPHERICAL-CASE SHOT. A spherical-case shot consists of a
thin shell of cast iron, containing a number of musket balls, and a
charge of powder sufficient to burst it ; a fuze is fixed to it as in an ordi-
nary shell, by which the charge is ignited and the shell burst at any
particular instant. A spherical case-shot, when loaded ready for use,
has about the same specific gravity as a solid shot, and therefore, when
fired with the service charge of powder, its range, and its velocity at
any point in its range, is about equal to that of a solid shot of the same
calibre. The spherical case mostly used for field-service is the 12-pdr.,
and contains, when loaded, 90 bullets. Its bursting charge is 1 oz. of
powder, and it weighs 11.75 Ibs. Its rupture may be made to take
place at any point in its flight, and it is therefore superior to grape or
canister. The attrition of the balls with which it is loaded, formerly
endangered the firing of the bursting charge. This is now obviated,
in making one mass of the balls, by pouring in melted sulphur. It
is also prevented by Captain Boxer's improved spherical-case shot,
two forms of which are shown in Fig. 212.

FIG. 212.

In either case, it is evident that the bursting charge of powder is kept
separate from the balls. In one fig., it is contained in a cylindrical tin

504 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Sri.

box, attached to a brass socket which receives the fuze, and which is
screwed into the shell. In the other, the part of the shell containini: tho
bursting charge is separated from that containing the bullets, by a
diaphragm of sheet iron, E, cast into the shell ; (i. <•., tin- shell is cast on
to the diaphragm which is inserted into the core.) The bullets are in.
troduced into the shell by a second orifice F, and are kept in their
places by a composition afterwards poured in. The present 12-pounder
spherical-case shot, fired with a charge of 2$ Ibs. of powder, is effective
at 1,500 yards. The proper position of the point of rupture varies from
50 to 130 yards in front of, and from 15 to 20 feet above, the object.
The mean number of destructive pieces from a 12-pdr. spherical-case
shot, which may strike a target 9 feet high and 5-1 fe« t l«»n^, at a dis-
tance of 800 yards, is 30. The spherical-case shot from rifle cannon is
said to be effective at over 2,000 yards. Spherical case should not be
used at a less distance than 500 yards.

SPIES. In time of war all persons not citizens of, or owing alle-
giance to the United States, who shall be found lurking, as spies, about
the fortifications or encampments of tho armies of the United v
shall suffer death by sentence of a general court-martial ; (Act April 10,
1806, SEC. 2.)

SPIKE. To spike guns, is to drive large nails, or a piece of small
rod, into the vent, so as to render guns unserviceable. To do this
effectually drive into the vent a jagged and hardened steel spike >\ ith a
soft point, or a nail without a head; break it off flush with the « -nter
surface, and clinch the point inside by means of the rammer. Wedge a
shot in the bottom of the bore by wrapping it with felt or by means of
iron wedges, using the rammer to drive them in ; a wooden wedge
would be easily burnt by means of a charcoal fire lighted with a bellows.
Cause shells to burst in tho bore of brass guns, or fire broken shot from
them with high charges. Fill a piece with sand over the eh..
burst it. Fire a piece against another, muzzle to muzzle. Lii:lit a fire
under the chase of brass guns and strike on it to bend it. I>n ak off tho
trunnions of iron guns, or burst them by firing with heavy chari:
full <>f shot, at preat elevations.

To vntpike a piece. — If the spike is not screwed in or clinched, and
the bore is not impeded, put in a charge of i the weight of the shot, and
ram junk wads over it with a hard spike, laying on the bottom of the,
bore a strip of wood with a groove on tho under side containing a strand
of quick-match by which fire is communicated to the charge; in a brass
gun take out some of the metal at the upper orifice of the vent, and p<>nr
sulphuric acid into the groove for some hours before firing. If this

SQU.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 565

method, several times repeated, is not successful, unscrew the vent
piece, if it be a brass gun, and if an iron one, drill out the spike or
drill a new vent.

To drive out a Shot wedged in the Bore. — Unscrew the vent piece if
there be one, and drive in wedges so as to start the shot forward, then
ram it back again in order to seize the wedge with a hook ; or pour in
powder and fire it, after replacing the vent piece. In the last resort,
bore a hole in the bottom of the breech, drive out the shot, and stop
the hole with a screw; (Ordnance Manual.)

SPLINTER-PROOF. Strong enough to resist the splinters of
bursting shells.

SPRING. (See ARMS for the springs in the musket lock.)

SQUAD. A small party of men. A company should be divided
into squads, each under a responsible officer or non-commissioned officer ;
the whole under the superintendence of the captain or company com-
mander.

SQUADRON. Two companies or troops of cavalry.

SQUARES. My opinion (says Marshal Bugeaud) is that a large
square has not proportionally a greater fire than a small one, and that
it is no stronger. In a charge of cavalry, that portion only which at-
tacks the face of a square is to be feared. In extending the face of a
square, therefore, if its fire is augmented, the number of cavalry that
can bear down against it is augmented in the same proportion. A
square of three thousand men is not then any stronger than a square of
one thousand. It would therefore be absurd to form three thousand
men in one square, because they can be more readily formed into three
or four squares, which will mutually protect each other, and form, as it
were, a system of redoubts. And if one of these combined squares is
broken by cavalry, the cavalry becomes disordered in the act, and the
remaining squares are left intact. Besides, in presenting a small front
to the attack of cavalry, horses, fearing to charge against the shower of
balls which welcome them, are apt to oblique to the right or to the
left. If the face of the square is extended they cannot do so, and the
shock must fall on ^ome part of the face, but the smaller the faces of
combined squares the greater will be the intervals, and the more certain
the success of the defence.

From these considerations, it is apparent that large squares ought
not to be used, but that squares of a single battalion are worthy of all
commendation. The formation of troops in two ranks, is the prescribed
order of the United States infantry tactics. Marshal Marmont says :
" Nothing can be said in favor of a third rank. Persons of experience

:>o»J MILITARY DICTIONARY. [SiA.

know that if one can, at a review, fire a volley in three ranks, it is im-
possible in war. It is better, therefore, to adopt the two-deep forma-
tion, and to render it permanent." The tactics direct that the divi-
sions, as a general rule, shall always be formed before forming square.
Marshal Bugeaud is of opinion that the square formed from the column
by company, which would give a depth of four or six men to the dirtiT-
ent faces of the square, is greatly to be preferred. Apart from the fact
that such squares are more expeditiously formed, the face of the square
is reduced one-half, and the square is strengthened by the reduction.

STABLES AND STABLE DUTIES. The following arrangement
of stables is recommended :

As far as possible, the horses of the same squadron should be placed
in the same building, divided by partition walls or staircases into
stables of equal capacity. When windows can- be arranged in both
long walls, place the horses head to head, separating the two rows of
stalls by a longitudinal partition, which should not be more than 1'
higher than the top of the hay rack, between the pillars which support
the roof. The interior width of a stable, for 1 row of stalls, is 20' ; for
2 rows, it is 40', when they are head to head; 34' 8", when th
tail to tail; height of ceiling, 16' 8". Doors should bo pierced in the
gable ends, and in the transverse partition walls, to secure a longitudinal
ventilation during the absence of the horses. The doors for ordinary
use should be pierced in the long walls; width, G' 8" ; height, at least
8' 8".

There should be a window, with an area of about 16 square feet, for
every 3 stalls ; the sill 10' above the floor ; the sash revolving around
a horizontal axis at the bottom, and opening by the simplest nuvhun-
ism ; wooden shutters to be provided, if necessary. The recesses for
th«> windows should extend to the floor, and be provided with hooks
and racks for suspending the horse equipments; in these recesses open-
ings 3' 4" X 2' 4" should be made through the wall, for thn>\\ ing out
the litter. If necessary, ventilators may be cut through the n»«.f in the
middle of the passage ways behind the stalls ; \ « nt hit >rs near the floor
should be employed only in cases of absolute necessity.

The floor ought to be of hard ston< •*, laid on a firm foundation, and
the joints filled with hydraulic mortar, cement, or asphalt ; slope <>!
of stall from two to throe-tenths of an inch in ten inches. Man-
wood, stone, or cast iron, placed on a mass of masonry, the front sur-
face of which, as well as that of the manger, has a reversed slope of f.
ooden mangers are divided by partitions; those of stono or iron
are hollowed out to the length of 2' for each horse, being solid between

STA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 567

the hollows; depth 8", width at top 1', at bottom 9" .G; top of
manger 3' 8' ' above the floor. The hay racks of wood and continuous,
3/ 411 high, and placed 5' 4" above the floor. The bars round and
capable of turning in their sockets, each bar 1" .2 in diameter, and
placed 4" apart; racks of iron may be authorized. The system of se-
curing the horse consists of: 1st, a bar of round iron bent at both ends,
placed up and down, parallel to the face of the manger, the upper end
secured to the manger, the lower built into the masonry ; 2d, a ring
sliding on this bar, and having a dpin 2' long, with a T at the free
end, attached to it ; this T toggles to the halter ring. Fig. 213 shows
this arrangement.

Each horse is allowed a width of 4' 10",
never less than 4' 8", so that he may have
the allowance of 70 cubic feet, and the space
necessary for stable guards, utensils, &c., may
be preserved. Stables which are less than
29' wide and 12' high can be used for two
rows of horses only as a temporary arrange-
ment.

The French have stables of all dates and
varieties ; one recently completed at Saumur,
and the new ones at Lyons are justly regarded
as models of excellence. Their dimensions and general arrangements
are in conformity with the regulations given above ; there are, how-
ever, some details worthy of notice ; that at Saumur being the most
perfect will be described in preference. The stalls are 4' 10" wide in
the clear, and 10' long to the heel posts ; they are separated by suspend-
ed swinging planks.

The floors are of cubical blocks of stone, laid in cement. A shallow
gutter in the rear of each row of stalls allows the stale to drain off.
The longitudinal partition is of masonry, and about 10' high. The in-
terior of the stable is plastered ; the woodwork painted oak color. In
the window recesses there are racks, on which to hang the horse equip-
ments when saddling and unsaddling. The equipments are kept in
rooms in the loft, where the saddles are placed on horizontal wooden
pins, the bridles hung on hooks. The racks are continuous, and of wood ;
the string-pieces, and each bar, are bound with narrow strips of sheet
iron. The lower string-piece rests upon iron hooks, let into the wall,
the upper one is held firm by iron bars, also let into the wall. The
manger is a continuous mass of stone, with an excavation for each ani-
mal; these excavations are 22" long, 12" deep, and 12" wide at top.

568 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [STA.

The building is divided into apartments, for about 20 horses each, by
transverse partitions and stairway halls ; there are large doors in these
partitions. In a central hall there are water tanks.

The openings mentioned in the regulations for removing the litter
do not exist. The halter bars are arranged as described in. the regula-
tions ; but there is another ring and chain, above the manger, for use in
the day time. Forage for 3 or 4 days is kept in the loft, where there
are also rooms for a few non-commissioned officers. In the floor of the
loft there are trap doors, so tl^f hay and straw may bo thrown down
into the halls below. The oats run down from the bin, through a wooden
pipe, into a large box on wheels. On the outside of the walls there
are rings for attaching the horses while being groomed. At Lyons,
some of the stables had quarters in the 'second story ; this is stated by
many officers to bo an admirable arrangement, and attended with no
inconvenience whatever ; there are a few who object to it The hospital
stables arc always separate from the others, and have box stalls.

Stable Duty. — In each squadron, the stable guard generally consists
of a corporal and 1 man for every 20 horses. It is their duty t
the horses, watch over their safety during the night, and atten.l to the
general police of the stables, being assisted by an additional detail at
the hours of stable call.

About one-half the litter is usually kept down during tin
The oats are given in two feeds : one-half at morning stable call, tl,
in the evening. The hay is divided into three equal portions — at morn-
ing, noon, and night ; in the forage magazine it is put up in trusses of 1
ration each, and thus received in the stable loft; at each feed the stable
guard receive these trusses, and divide each one among three horses. If
straw is fed, it is given either just before or just after the buy, always
in the same order. The horse is watered twice a day, either just before
or after his grain. The horse is cleaned ]>rinei]>ally with a bouchon of
straw and with the brush ; the comb is used only to clean the- brush.

In the Crimea, the cavalry usually encamped in line, with two rows
of picket ropes and a line of shelter tents in front <>f and behind the
pirkrt ropes; the arms and equipments between the shelters and the
picket ropes.

The pirkrt rope is stretched on the ground, and the horses secured
to it by a hobble on the right fore-foot ; the hobble is of leather, and
about 3' long ; it buckles around the pastern joint ; sometimes the
hobble is attached to a picket pin, instead of a j>iek« t rope. Fig.
this arraiiL'«-ni.-iit; it is spoken of by the Fr.-neh c.ffie.-r.s
as being the best manner of securing the horses. Officer's horses

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

569

are on the flanks of the squadron picket ropes ; those of the field and
staff are near the tents of their owners. For the latter, rude stables
are usually formed, by excavating to the depth of a couple of feet, bank-
ing up the earth around three sides, and then forming a roof and walls
of brush.

FIG. 214

When time and circumstances permitted, the same was done for the
horses of the men, especially in the winter. It was stated that a very
slight protection of this kind produced very marked beneficial results.
In this connection, it may be said, that companies of cavalry ought
always to be provided with a sufficient number of tools to enable them
to improvise some such shelter in any camp at all permanent ; any thing
which partially protects the horses from the cold winds is of great
service. The French horses were blanketed in camp. (Consult Mc-
CLELLAN.)

STADIA. A very simple aid in estimating distances, consists of a
small stick, held vertically in the hand at arm's length, and bringing
the top of a man's head in line with the top of the stick, noting where a
line from the eye of the observer to the feet of the man cuts the stick,
or stadia, as it is called.

To graduate the stadia, a man of the ordinary height of a foot-sol-
dier, say 5 ft. 8 in., is placed at a known distance, say 50 yards ; and
the distance on the stick covered by him when it is held at arm's length
is marked and divided into 8 equal parts. If the distance is now in-
creased, until the man covers only one of these divisions, we know he
is at a distance equal to 50 yds. X 8 — 400 yards. This instrument is
not very accurate, except for short distances.

A much more accurate stadia is constructed by making use of a

570 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Srx

metal plate, having a slit in it in the form of an isosceles triangle, tho
base of which, held at a certain distance from the edge, subtends a man,
(5 ft. 8 in.) say at the distance of 100 yards. A slider, a&, (Fig. 'J 1 :• )
moves along the triangle, being always parallel to the base, AB, and

tho length of it comprised between the two
sides of tho triangle, represents the height
of men at different distances, which are
marked in yards on the side of the tri-
angle, above or below, according as the
object looked at is a foot soldier or horse-
man. In order to keep the stadia always
at the same distance from the eye, a string is attached to the slider, tlm
opposite end having a knot tied in it, which is held between th
while using the instrument, which is held in the right hand, the slider
being moved with the left-hand finger. The string should always bo
kept stretched when the instrument is used, and tho line AB in a verti-
cal position.

. It must bo graduated experimentally, by noting tho positions in
which the slider a b represents tho height of tho object. Tho instrument
used is not, however, reliable. Its uncertainty increases in an e.jual
ratio with the distance of the object observed. At tho extreme r
it is quite useless. At the school for firing at Vincennes, therefore,
they rely entirely on the eye alone for tho judgment of distane-
great pains by careful practice and instruction is taken to perfect that
judgment. A simple instrument by which distances can be determined
is, therefore, still a great desideratum. The prismatic teliometer of
M. Porro, of tho Sardinian army, is however the best measurer of dis-
tances that has been yet invented. It is described in WILCOX'S Rifle
Practice.

STAFF. The staff of an army may bo properly distinguished
under three heads: —

1. Tho General Staff, consisting of adjutants-general and assistant-
adjutants-gcncral ; aides-de-camp; inspectors-general and asM>tant-in-
spectors-general. The functions of these officers consist not merely in
distributing the orders of commanding generals, but also in regulating
camps, directing the march of columns, and furnMim^ to tho command-
ing general all necessary details for the, exercise of his authority. Their
duties embrace the whole range of the service of the tr< -•.],*, and they

ly styled general staff-"!!'

2. Staff Corp*, or staff departments. These are special corps or de-
partments, whose duties are confined to distinct branches uf the se.rviee.

STA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 571

The engineer corps and topographical engineers are such staff corps.
The ordnance, quartermasters', subsistence, medical and pay depart-
ments are such staff departments.

3. The Regimental Staff embraces regimental officers and non-
commissioned officers charged with functions, within their respective
regiments, assimilated to the duties of adjutant-generals, quarter-
masters and commissaries. Each regiment has a regimental adjutant,
and a regimental quartermaster, appointed by the colonel from the
officers of the regiment. Ideas concerning the utility, organization, and
duties of the staff may be found in many writers. Until the end of
the reign of Louis XIV., feudal manners and arbitrary notions accom-
modated themselves badly to written rules ; but about this period more
wholesome ideas began to prevail ; mathematics made some progress;
its application spread ; the military art felt its effects ; it was admitted
that a single head was not sufficient for all the details necessary to con-
duct an army. It was agreed that the general-in-chief should have
assistants to perform various duties. Hence certain military grades
and financial employments were created. Those thus invested with
authority were associated under the same designation. But this STAFF
was far from being a special permanent corps. It was only a tempo-
rary assemblage of officers, and later took the name of staff, to indicate
that they were AIDES of the general in regulating and supplying troops.
Frederick the Great and Bonaparte undertook and gloriously terminated
more than one war with the aid of staff-officers, but without a staff
corps. At the beginning of the last century there existed in regard to
the staff a few traditions, or customs, which differed in different armies.
Neither laws, regulations, nor instructions had yet been established de-
fining the rights, powers, and duties of the staff. Staff-officers were
principally employed in reconnoissances ; and on duties connected with
lodging troops as aides of the quartermaster-general ; in the prepara-
tion and distribution of the orders of the day, &c. ; and as bureau
officers. The war of the Trench Revolution was finished by the French
army without a staff corps. The French army had stafP-officers under
the names of adjutants-general, commandants, adjunct-captains, and
orderly officers ; but such officers were rather a momentary aggrega-
tion of officers of divers corps, than a special and permanent corps.
Officers of cavalry, artillery, engineers, and infantry, if they had not
the title, often exercised the functions of general staff-officers, and made
reconnoissances. But in 1818, upon the return of the Bourbons, in imi-
tation of the Austrians, Prussians, and Russians, a staff corps was formed
in France. The corps was recruited from pupils leaving the school of

572 MILITARY DICTIONARY, [.-v.

St Cyr ; after study they were admitted to the school of the staff;
they subsequently served in regiments of infantry and cavalry. After
having been advanced a grade, they were definitely admitted as lieuten-
ants of the staff, and became entitled to cavalry pay, \\ith ttic title of
aide-major.

It is necessary that a general staff-officer should have a knowledge
of horsemanship — that ho should not be ignorant of the sword exercise;
ho should have some knowledge of topography ; he should be familiar
with foreign languages, should have studied military administration and
castrametation ; but above all, he should possess a complete knowledge
of tactics, and be able to judge skilfully of military positions. An
officer grown old in the silence of a bureau would hardly in the tumult
of battle, or under critical circumstances, second his general by aiding
him intelligently concerning warlike operations. Can he interrogate
spies, watch over the observance of order in military trains; draw up
orders and instructions, mark out military positions ; improvise a forti-
fication ; organize and conduct foraging parties, direct markers for grand
manoeuvres? Open the march of armies? Vault at the head of the.
light cavalry ? Stimulate and enlighten the troops by his interpretation
of the orders ho carries, by his intuitive knowledge of their tactical
position, by his coup d'oeil, by the propriety of his counsels, and by the
vigor of his impulsions? None, but officers whoso experience has I.e.-n
gained by service with troops, can do these things with promptitude and
effect ; but these are the important duties of the general staff, and service,
with troops therefore is the true criterion of merit in such staff-officers.
In organizing a permanent general staff corps, it consequently becomes
necessary either to employ in peace that large body of officers necessary
in war for staff duties, upon duties entirely foreign to their functions in
war, or else leave them in idleness. Either -course must unfit them for
the services required of them on campaign, and it therefore follow
a permanent general staff involves a useless number of officers in time • f
peace, and a deficiency of experience, instruction, and aptitude for their
duti'-s in time of war. It is impossible to avoid this vicious cirele with a
incut general staff. The only true system of staff organization, then,
is that which admits of supernumerary gnu-nil and regimental officers,
selected temporarily for staff duties by commanders of troops, as pro-
vided by the Act of Congress of 1799, drawn by Alcxand. r Hamilton.
"The leading qualifications which should distinguish an officer selected
for the head of the staff (says Napoleon) arc: to know the country
thoroughly ; to be able to conduct a reconnaissance with skill ; to super-
intend the transmission of orders promptly ; to lay down the most com-

Sro.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

573

plicated movements intelligibly, but in few words, and with simplicity."
(See ADJUTANT-GENERAL; AIDES-DE-CAMP; ENGINEERS; INSPECTOR-GEN-
ERAL ; LINE ; MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ; ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT • PAY
DEPARTMENT ; QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT ; SECRETARY OF WAR •
SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT.)

STANDARDS. Flags, standards, and colors, taken by the army
and navy of the United States from their enemies, to be delivered with
all convenient despatch to the President of the United States, for the
purpose of being, under his direction, preserved and displayed in such
public place as he shall deem proper ; (Act April 18, 1814.)

STATE TROOPS. (See MILITIA.)

STOCKADE. A work which may be substituted with advantage
for earthen works of very small profile, if it can be covered from the
fire of artillery ; (Fig. 216.) The stockades or picket works usually

FIG. 216.

employed against Indians are composed of rough trunks of young trees
cut into lengths of 12 or 14 feet, and averaging 10 or 12 inches in
diameter. They should be firmly planted close together. A banquette
or step will generally be required, and the loopholes so arranged that
they cannot be used from the outside. If necessary, such a work can
be strengthened by ditch and abatis, and flanked by block-houses. The
figures show the manner of planting the pickets.

STOPPAGE OF PAY. Where pay is stopped on account of
arrears to the United States, the party whose pay is stopped may de-
mand a suit, and the agent of the treasury is required to institute a
suit within sixty days thereafter ; (Act Jan. 25, 1828.) (See DE-
FAULTER ; SUIT.)

574 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Sro.

STORE-KEEPERS. (See ARMT ORGANIZATION f,.r the number.)
Military store-keepers and paymasters re< civ. twelve hundred dollars
per annum ; other military store-keepers receive eight hundred dollars
per annum ; (Act Aug. 2, 18 I

STORES. All public stores taken in the enemy's camp, towns,
forts, or magazines, whether of artillery, ammunition, clothing, i
or provisions, shall be secured for the service of the United Stat.

of which the commanding officer is to bo answerable. (See
BOOTY ; EMBEZZLEMENT ; SALE.)

STORM. To storm is to make a vigorous assault on any fortified
place, or on its outworks. The storming party is a select body of men,
who first enter the breach, and are, of course, imminently exposed to
the fire of the enemy.

STRAGGLERS. Individuals who wander from the line of march.
It is part of the rear guard's duty to pick up all strainers.

STRATAGEM — is a scheme or plan devised to cover .!<
during a campaign, or to deceive and surprise the enemy.

STRATEGY — is the art of concerting a plan of campaign, com-
bining a system of military operations determined by the end to be
attained, the character of the enemy, the nature and resources of the
country, and the means of attack and defence. The theatre of opera-
tions selected, embraces the territory we se.-k to invade or that to bo
defended. It comprehends a base of operations ; the objective point of
the campaign; the front of operations^ that is, the extent of the lino
occupied by the army in advance of its base ; lines of operations, the
routes followed to reach the objective point or end proposed ; /
communication which unite the different lines of operation together ;
obstacles, natural or artificial, and places of refuge.

STREET-FIGHTING. In an enemy's country the case is much
simplified : a town so occupied is all inimical, nnd under the most des-
perate state of opposition ; consequently in the attack tin-re is no re-
spect to person or property. If the houses are combustible, a ready
mMM of subduing the place is within reach ; nnd if not. it U f..n-«'d in
different directions by siege operations, as practised by the French at

HmgoiM,

On occasions of internal dissensions and insurrectionary movements,
IN is dinVr.-nt ; the efforts of the troops and of the wdl-d-
i'ly impeded by the difficulty of dist'mu'iii-hSni: 1"

friend and !<>,•. ..r of the premises or property with which it may be
justifiable to interfere. This, and the very natural and i»r«'j»er anxiety
to avoid bloodshed and^ injury to one's own country nun, frequently

SIR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 575

lead to j, habit of temporizing with the circumstances, and by this in-
dication of timidity and weakness give such confidence to the rebels as
to enable them, and perhaps with comparatively insignificant numbers,
to gaiu in moral effect as the others lose ; by degrees the wavering at\d
the timid are led to join them ; the troops themselves imagine that
there is a declared power manifested that is not to be opposed, and
thus the former obtain a complete ascendency, which the exertion of
more firmness and system at first would effectually have prevented.

The best institutions of any country become endangered by such a
state of things ; but a remedy may be found in a more systematic
manner of proceeding. The troops should never be brought into the
presence of the insurrectionists until fully authorized to act — the con-
sequence would be that the very appearance of the soldiers would be a
warning to every one of the immediate consequences of prolonged op-
position, which would prevent further conflict, or make it very short.
In order to promote the power of vigorous action by the military, and
to prevent the innocent from suffering, the most solemn warning should
be issued, in case of tumult, against the presence in the streets of women,
children, and persons who do not join in the troubles, intimating that
the consequences of any bad result from their being thus incautiously
exposed must rest on themselves. These are necessary preliminaries
to the consideration of the means of attacking an insurrectionary force.
When disturbances are to be quelled in a town, cavalry, artillery, and
infantry can act with full effect, and with every advantage of organiza-
tion, so long as their opponents occupy the open streets. If barricades
are constructed across them, the cavalry become unserviceable ; the
infantry, however, have still full force ; for one side of an ordinary bar-
ricade is as good as the other, and the infantry can cross any of them
without difficulty. t

But when it is found that the insurgents have had recourse to the
most determined means of resistance, by occupying the interior of
houses in support of barricades, the mode of attack must be adapted to
the circumstances. The operation should be conducted under due de-
liberation, nor would any triumph be conceded by care being taken
that the use of cover shall not give the impression of defeat. It will
be readily ascertained what part or parts of the town are so occupied
as to render the movement of the troops through the open streets un-
advisable. An endeavor should be made to isolate those portions by
detachments of troops posted at all the approaches to them. This of
itself would throw the rioters into a most uncomfortable and false po-
sition : they would find themselves shut up without any internal organ-

576 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [StR.

ization to enable them to act to any useful purpose, or to make any
combined forcible effort for their release ; or, indeed, if they could do
so, it would have all the effect of an escape instead of a victory.

• Nor would it be necessary, under such circumstances, that
detachments should be at all large, numbers of them being supported
by some general reserve. Active measures, however, might at the same
time be carried on against any portions of the houses that it may be
considered advisable to force, for the purpose of confining th<
within narrower limits, or for subduing it at once altogether. Although
in towns the attack of a mass of houses is formidable, and almost im-
practicable to troops unprepared for such an operation, it will not pre-
sent much difficulty to a systematic proceeding. One great defect for
defence in a house or street is its want of a flanking fire, although
part may obtain a support from the opposite houses in the snme street.
If, therefore, only one side of the street is occupied, individuals or par-
ties moving close along that side are in security, except from the chance
missiles that may be blindly thrown down from the windows. Nothing
of that kind could prevent two or three soldiers, under cover of a par-
tial fire on the windows, from passing up and breaking open the doors ;
by which means, the troops being admitted, possession of tho entire
building would soon be obtained.

When, however, from any peculiarity of the building, or of others
contiguous, or from the circumstance of both sides of the street being
occupied in force, such a mode of proceeding would be too h:i/ardous,
the soldiers might make an entrance into the nearest available house in
the same block of buildings, and, supported by detachments of troops
work their way, through the partition walls, from one house to another ;
or by the roofs or the back premises, where the defenders will be quite
unprepared to oppose them, or, if they make tho attempt, would not
have the same advantages as in front : small parti.
ing up a fire on tho windows from tho walls of the back yards, or frnm
the opposite houses, would effectually cover thcso advances of tin-
troops. To carry on such approaches, the men should In-
with an assortment of crowbars, sledge-hammers, short ladders, and,
above all, some bags of powder not less than f> or <*> Ibs. weight.

In these desultory operations in tho defiles of stiv.ts and li-
the troops should not bo in heavy columns, but in small detachments
well supported ; and by acting thus in order, and on system, the i (T. ,t
will be the more certain, ns a popular movement is, necessarily, with-
out subordination or unity of action, and peculiarly subject t«» panics at any
proceeding differing from what had been anticipated ; (Aide JA /
•

SUB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 577

STRIPES AND LASHES— infliction of, allowed only in case of
desertion ; (Act May 16, 1812, and March 2, 1833.)

SUBALTERN. Commissioned officer below captain.

SUBSCRIBING-. Every officer must subscribe the Articles of
War; (ART. 1.)

SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT. (See ARMY for its organiza-
tion.) Provides subsistence stores for the army, either by contract
or purchase. Assistant commissaries subject to do duty as assistant-
quartermasters. The President, under authority of law, has fixed the
ration at f Ib. of pork or bacon, or 1± Ibs. of fresh or salt beef, 18 oz. of
bread or flour, or 12 oz. of hard bread, or ly Ibs. of corn meal ; and at the
rate to 100 rations of 8 qts. of peas or beans, or 10 Ibs. of rice ; 6 Ibs.
of coffee, 12 Ibs. sugar, 4 qts. of vinegar, 1£ Ibs. of tallow, l£ Ibs. adaman-
tine or 1 Ib. of sperm candles, 4 Ibs. of soap and 2 qts. of salt. In different
climates and on different kinds of service, soldiers require different ar-
ticles of diet ; some latitude should therefore be given to commanders
of armies and military departments in making variations from the pre-
scribed ration.

A conscientious administrator should acquaint himself with the
peculiar properties of different kinds of food, their relative nutriment,
and the differences of food best suited to promote health under the
various circumstances incident to field-service. The following extract
from some observations made by an eminent Scotch chemist, is worthy
of every attention on the part of the student of military administration :

" In consequence of the advances made in physiology and chemis-
try the nutritive value of any dietary, deduced from practical experience,
may be tested with care and certainty by reference to its chemical
composition. As this fact is little known to practical men, it may be
well to explain the principles on which the method is founded.

" 1. All articles of food used by man consist of one or more, and
generally several nutritive principles ; and most of them contain water
and an indigestible cellular tissue. The two latter must, of course, be
deducted in estimating nutritive value.

" 2. The nutritive principles consist of two sets, one of which main-
tains respiration, and the other repairs the waste constantly incurred
by the animal textures in the exercise of their functions. As the re-
spiratory principles commonly abound in carbon, they are sometimes
called carboniferous, while the reparative principles, because they all
contain nitrogen, are termed nitrogenous.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.
ARD TABLE OP NUTRIMENT.

[Sen.

WAME OF AKTICLBft.

Percentage of Nutriment

Carboniferous.

N ; t r> »::«Liiro;; v

Total

71-25
61-5
65-75
67-0
65-5
24-5
8-5
5-7
6-7

o-o
100-0

15-0
62-5
0-4

o-o

8-0
5*5
1-0

o-o
o-o

1625
10-5
16-25

24-5
2-5
1-5
0-3
0-3
27-0

o-o

20-25
8-36
64 •«
21-0
4-5
4-5
6-0
1-44
0-7 2

87-5
62-0
82-0

MH)

c-o

7-0
27-0

85-25

70-86
65-0
21-0
12-5
lo-O
7-0
1-44
0-72

Uread

Barlov (ncurl)

Cabbage....

White fij'i

New milk

Reef tea (strong)

Beef tea, and meat decoction of broth

" 3. Experience has shown that the most successful dietaries for
bodies of men, deduced from practical observation, contain carbonifer-
ous and nitrogenous food in the proportion of about throe of the former
to one of the latter, by weight. During two-and-twenty years that my
attention has been turned to the present subject, not a single exception
has occurred to me.

"4. Hence it is obvious that the least weight of food in the rough
state will be required, first, when there is least moisture atnl e« llular
tissue in it ; and secondly, when the carboniferous and nitrogeneous prin-
ciples are nearest the proportion of three to one.

"5. Of the various nutritive principles brlon»ing to each set, some
may replace one another; some are better th.r no arc

probably essential. This branch of the science of the subject is unfor-
tunately still imperfect.

rtain, that nitrogenous T.

carboniferous foo.l, f. ,r supporting respiration, though at a great loss;
but that carboniferous food (without nitrogen) cannot replace nitroge-
ncous food, for repairing tcxtural waste.

"7. The daily amount of nutritive principles of both sets must

c and exposure, otherwise the. body <juickly loses

weight, and cro long becomes diseased. If the above proportion be-

SUB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 579

tween the two sets be maintained, the weight of real nutriment per day
varies, for adults at an active age, between seventeen and thirty-six
ounces ; the former being enough for prisoners confined for short
terms, the latter being required for keeping up the athletic constitution,
or that which is capable of great continuous muscular efforts, as in prize-
running and other similar feats.

" 8. Dietaries ought never to be estimated by the rough weight of
their constituents, without distinct reference to the real nutriment in
these, as determined by physiological and chemical inquiry.

" Keeping these principles in view, and with the help of a simple
table, it is not difficult to fix the dietary advisable for any body of
men, according to their occupation. It is, also, in general, easy to de-
tect the source of error in unsuccessful dietaries. For example, any
scientific person conversant with the present subject could have fore-
told, as a certain consequence, sooner or later, of their dietary, that the
British troops would fall into the calamitous state of health which befell
them last winter in the Crimea.

" Soldiers in the field will be the more efficient the nearer they are
brought to the athletic constitution. But as the demand for protracted,
unusual exertion occurs only at intervals, the highly nutritive athletic
dietary is not absolutely necessary. On the whole, from experience in
the case of other bodies of men somewhat similarly circumstanced, 28
ounces of real nutriment, of which 7 are nitrogeneous or reparative, will
probably prove the most suitable. Any material reduction below 28
ounces will certainly not answer ; and under unusual exertion kept up
for days continuously, as in forced marches, or forced siege labor, the
quantity should for the time be greater, if possible."

Biscuit, particularly when salted meat is the principal article of diet,
is very apt to produce dysentery and scrofulous complaints ; it becomes,
moreover, unpalatable when continuously used ; and so eager were Eng-
lish soldiers in the Crimea for soft bread that they used to exchange 5
Ibs. of biscuit for 1 Ib. of bread with the French soldiers, whose first work,
after pitching their camps, was generally to construct field-bakeries, and
whose supply of soft bread seldom failed. Sallust tells us (De bello
Jugurth. 44) that the Roman soldiers used to sell their ration of grain
for a trifle in order to purchase bread, which at that time they had not
the means of manufacturing. Mills and ovens exist in some form or
other in all countries, and they should be made available whenever an
army halts for a sufficiently long period to admit of their being worked ;
but as the enemy frequently destroys these means of contributing to
the soldier's comfort, the use of hand mills and field-ovens must under

;,M) MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ScD.

such circumstances be resorted to ; and to construct these in the most
rapid and at the sam< lectual manner, should al \\a\s

be done where circumstances permit. The description of camp
must necessarily depend upon the permanency of the encampment. If
the army bo likely to r- main in position for any length of time, they
should be constructed of durable materials, such as bricks; 1.
hurried operations a mere excavation of the earth snlliees in the •
of a very shorftimo to produce an oven capable, with a little <
baking bread. The impromptu ovens used by the AmeridB back-
woodsmen, as described by Sir Randolph Routh, are usually
upon a platform about 3 feet high, and 5 or G feet long, by 4 feet broad,
and on this they construct the circular form of the oven by means of
forest twigs and boughs of sufficient strength to receive and support
the cement, which is made of common clay soil and water, mixed to a
proper consistence, and put on in successive layers until it u«ju
necessary thickness. An opening is left to introduce the bread, and a
common piece of wood with a handle supplies the place of a door until
it is baked. (See also article OVEN for the ovens made by 1
soldiers; and TRAVELLING KITCHEN, for a suggested impr..
field-service.) It is very important that soldiers should be in-t: -m-ted
in making field-ovens.

Nothing is more important in the field than to keep up the supply
of fresh meat. It is the only article of the soldier's ration that pro-
vides its own transport, and though a supply of salted provi.-/.
indispensable as a reserve in case of an-idi-nts, and to provision fort i lied
places in the event of a siege or blockade, it should be economi.
much as possible, and issued only in eases ,,f necessity, not only I
ing more expensive and absorbing u of transport, but 1

the frequent use of salted provisions is invariably detrimental to the
health of the troops.

The importance of providing the soldier with vegetabl.
universally admitted. When salted pro\isi..ns are much used, it is
essentially desirable to counteract t !. plaints

induced by sm-h diet by means of vegr table |. btab) fn ill

tables in tl, . | matter • rable <liflicull\ .

liability to spoil and their bulk arc obvious ol to their i,

an army in m» . but the j f compressing vegetables,

which : b«vn brought to perfection, enables a - riat to

ply at tho tod of but little transport, and i:i the most
convenient form for imn.- article of

hunts.

SUB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 531

It contains more nutriment than wheat flour, is easily conveyed and
cooked, and is not liable to suffer from exposure. There would, prob-
ably, be no difficulty in making a preparation of rice which would greatly
reduce its bulk and still further facilitate its cooking. Corn meal and
pease are likewise excellent articles of food ; but the latter should, if
possible, be issued in a ground state, as it otherwise requires more
soaking to render it fit for use than there* is time for on the march.
The supply of coffee or tea should never be allowed to fail. Dr. Chris-
tison says : — " It is difficult to over-value the proposed addition of tea
and coffee to the men's rations. They possess a renovating power, in
circumstances of unusual fatigue, which is constantly experienced in
civil life, and which I have often heard officers, who served in the Span-
ish campaigns, as well as in the late Burmese war, describe in the
strongest terms. This, however, is not all, for it has been recently
shown by a very curious physiological inquiry, that both of them, and
especially coffee, possess the singular property of diminishing mate-
rially the wear and tear of the soft textures of the body in the exercise
of its functions in an active occupation."

The object of accounts is to insure the application of public re-
sources to their prescribed ends, and within regulated limits. This is
perfectly feasible under ordinary circumstances ; but on active service
it is not always possible to procure vouchers and receipts according
to the established forms, and it is far better to establish, by means of
a well-organized department of control, a strict and efficient local su-
pervision over the conduct of supply duties in the field than to exact
accounts, which, however correct in their outward form, can but rarely
represent the actual transactions as conducted during the hurried and
ever-changing events of active warfare. A judicious system of musters
and inspections would do more to check waste or malversation in the
field than the most ingenious accountability that could be devised ; and
if a commissariat officer were simply required to furnish the head of
his department with a periodical " state of supplies," showing where and
how obtained and issued ; and officers commanding corps a return of
the number of men feu", noting any deficiency of supply ; both reports
being subject to verification by means of personal inspections and mus-
ters, the object in view would be attained with far greater certainty
than under the present complicated system of returns, abstracts, and
vouchers, the preparation of which occupies much of the time of a com-
missariat officer that might be more profitably employed for the
benefit of the troops, while their subsequent examination, probably
after a lapse of one or two ysars, answers no possible purpose except

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Sol.

to find employment for a largo number of clerks. (Consult

BLANX

SUIT. In all cases where the pay or salary of any
withheld, in consequence of arrears to the United Stairs, (and salary can
be legally withheld from no other cause except by sentence of c»urt-
martial,) it shall be the duty of the accounting officers, if d- manded by
the party, his agent, or attorney, to report forthwith to the a^ent of tho
ry Department, the balance due; and it shall be the duty of tho
said agent, within sixty days then-after, to order suit to be commenced
against such delinquent and his sureties ; (Act January 25, 1828.)

SUMMING UP. (See JUDOK-ADVOCATE.)

SUPERINTENDENT. The chief of the corps of engineers p:
at the Military Academy is the superintendent; (Act March 16, 1802.)
The selection of the commander of the corps of engineers shall not be
confined to said corps ; (Act April 29, 1812.) Officers of engineers
may be transferred at the discretion of the President from one corps to
another, regard being paid to rank ; (ART. 63.) The superintendent,
" while serving as such by appointment from the. President, shall have
the local rank, pay, and allowances of colonel of engineers; and the
commandant of cadets, while serving as such by appointment from
the President, shall have the local rank, pay, and allowances of lieu-
tenant-colonel of engineers ; " (Act Juno 12, 1858.)

SUPERIOR. (See OBEDIENCE.)

SUPERNUMERARY. Graduates of Military Academy, M hen-
there are no vacancies among the commissioned officers of the army,
may be attached as supernumeraries by brevet of the lowest grade of
commissioned officer, not exceeding one to each company ; (Act April
29, 1812.)

By Act March 3, 1847, the President was authorized to attach in

the same manner as supernumerary officers of the lowest grade in any

corps in the army, any non-commissioned officer who should distinguish

If in service, and be recommended by tho commanding officer uf

his regiment.

SUPPLIES. The departments of supply to tho army are 1. Tho
Ordnance Department, which provides ordnance and ordnance |4
2. Tin- Quartermaster's Department, which furnishes quarters, f.rai:<\
transport at i««n, clothing, camp and garrisofi equipage; 3. The Subsist-
ence Department, which furnishes subsistence; and 4. Tho Medical
'rnent, which provides medicines and hospital stores. Tho
Ordnance and M-dictl Departments, requiring special knowledge for
their peculiar duties, could not be relieved of any part of tho duties be-

MILITARY DICTIONARY. 583

longing to them respectively ; but the want of connection between the
Quartermaster's and Subsistence Departments may in war be attended
with serious inconvenience, and no good reasons whatever, it is believed,
exist for not uniting the two departments in one. Under the orders of
one chief in the field, acting, of course, in subordination to the com-
mander of the army, such a department might originate and direct such
measures for the supply of the army as had not been provided for ; con-
trol expenditures ; insure a prompt and correct accountability for all
disbursements and distributions, and do away with all antagonism of in-
terest caused by the requirement that one department shall furnish sub-
sistence stores, and the other transports. These with clothing and
other supplies furnished by the Quartermaster, Ordnance, and Medical
Departments, are the great wants of the soldier in active service. A
well-armed and well-equipped soldier cannot dispense with food, trans-
portation, and clothing, and the means of providing such necessities in
war demand earnest thought, and are happily suggested in the follow-
ing passages from the work of M. VAUCHELLE, Cours d? Administration
Militaire :

"We have seen military administration in times of peace con-
ducted upon complete principles and regulations; services regularly
organized, and efficiently supported by the natural resources of a
fertile and industrious country ; sufficient funds always available ; the
immediate supervision and protection of the war ministry ; inde-
pendence assured to the control of military expenditure and consump-
tion by well-defined laws ; nothing wanting, in short, to satisfy all the
wants of the army, and to provide them with regularity, order, and
economy.

" It is not so, it cannot be so, in a state of war. In the field the
frequency of movements, the rapidity of marches, the uncertainty of
events, the ever-varying chances, the imperfection of means, the insuf-
ficiency of resources — the time ever too short for all that has to be
provided and done — embarrass, retard, and paralyze administrative
action. Every emergency exacts its immediately appropriate measure,
and the least foreseen accident may in a moment frustrate the most
wise arrangement, and upset the surest calculations. The duties of
administration now assume an entirely new character ; they become im-
mense in their extent, limited only, indeed, by the intelligence of the
administrator himself, who is charged with their execution.

"The first of all rules, that which the greatest captains, and the
most enlightened administrators have never failed to enforce in their
writings, and of which experience has everywhere proclaimed the value,

5S4 MILITARY Li. il«\ARY. [Sur.

is the formation of depots beforehand, and to such an extent that tho
army may not only bo su .i.rii.g tho opening of th.

but as long after as tho ii military operations may n <j

as distance may permit. A certain mistrust of tho country about to
become the seat indeed prudent, for it is gt -norally a country

unknown to administration, or perhaps little or ill k: \\hioh

cannot fail to be opposed to its operations, since th«-\ aro s<> apt to
wound it in its intorcsts or in its toolings. Tho subjects of \\liic-h a
knowledge appears the most important are: 1. The divisions of tlu*
territory into governments, provinces, counties, or depart monts, into
districts, cantons, &c. 2. The organ ixat ion of its territorial, military,
civil, and financial administration. 3. Its natural products. 4. The
perio.; time and harvest of every description of grain, and the

proportion between (local) produce and consumption. 5. The localities
of large markets and fairs, the periods of these commercial gatherings,
and the more important objects of their traflic. G. The si which

might most conveniently be substituted in lieu of those established by our
regulations, and the relative proportion to be established in such substi-
tution. 7. The different branches of commerce and industry. 8. Tho
means of re-mount, both as regards cavalry and general transport.
9. Tho manufacture of cloth, leather, and other material, suitable f. r
the preparation of clothing, equipments, harness, ewe. 10. The articles
of consumption drawn from other countries, the designation <>f tho,c
countries, and the objects of exchange in importations ami expectations.
11. The weights, measures, and coinage, with relative value to our
own. 12. The current prices of articles of consumption. 13. liar-
racks, quarters, hospitals, magazines, and other establishments of ad-
ministration, and their capacities, throughout the various towns and
fortresses. 14. The most convenient spots for forming temporary
establishments. 15. Tho principal points of communication by land
and sea, with tho distances between them, distinguishing tho different
routes, and indicating, as regards the roads, the spots at which th. -y
cease to be passable for carriages ; and as regards rivers and canals, the
places where they cease to be navigable. 10. In tho largo towns or
fortresses tho nature and quantities of the provisions stored tin-rein, the
means of grinding corn and baking, the principal mercantile fin.

ads of large manufactories or workshops with whom it would bo
safe to deal for military supplies.

" One may easily conceive how useful such admirable statistics
would be. On the outbreak of war the minister would feel no uneer-
tainty either as to tho nature or tho extent of the arrangements ho

SUP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 535

should have to make for himself, or as to the instructions to be given
to his commissary-general. How many false moves would thus be
avoided ; how many useless and heavy expenses saved ; how many
unknown and lost resources would thus be discovered and employed
for the benefit of the army and the relief of the country which has to
support it. A commissariat should regulate its arrangements on the
double chances of presumed success or failure, according to the peculiar
nature of the war to be undertaken. In the case of success, then in
proportion to the advance into the enemy's country, it should form its
depots in the rear of the army, and establish by stages, on the line of
operations, bakeries, magazines, hospitals, convalescent stations, regu-
lar convoys, &c., always taking care to select localities with reference
to the most favorable means of communication and of defence. In the
case of a reverse, the army falling back upon itself will thus find its
administrative services secured by means of the supplies which prudence
shall thus have collected. The rights of war, which are but the rights
of the most powerful, tempered only by the interests of him who
wields them, render an army, whatever it may be, absolute master of
the provisions and other useful resources which exist, whether they have
been provided as depots by the enemy, or destined for other purposes.
Administration requires *a numerous personnel, active, intelligent, and
faithful, always ready to avail themselves of supplies for future use, for
transmission elsewhere, or for immediate distribution to the troops,
wherever they may be stationed. A commissariat requires an ex-
tensive and perfectly organized transport ; this is the sine qua non to
enable an army to subsist in the field. Transport is indispensable, and
must be obtained at any price ; it must, moreover, be well adapted to
the locality, in order to be able to follow or rejoin bodies of troops in
all directions. Thus it is to be understood that the country occupied
must be expected to furnish a large proportion of the requisite trans-
port. Although acting in the midst of a state of things essentially inim-
ical to fixed regulations and established forms, the commissariat should
prescribe for itself a strict and scrupulous system. In the face of so
many pressing and urgent wants, which, if not supplied with regularity,
may disturb the discipline and compromise even the honor of the army,
it is not enough for the administrator to prove himself intelligent and
economical in the dispensation of resources obtained with difficulty and
labor ; he should further, courageously attacking all abuses and repress-
ing with severity all wastefulness and fraud, secure to" himself the means
of justifying his expenditure and distribution by authentic accounts, a
duty but too rarely accomplished, but which should never be permitted
to be neglected.

580 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Sup.

" War, it is said, should feed war ; the axiom may bo true, if not
just, but in no case should it bo pushed to extremes ; circumstances
may occur, indeed, to render its application impolitic and dangerous.
I'nder no circumstances, however, can the enemy's country under occu-
pation be altogether relieved from the charges of war ; it must
tably bear a largo share, oven though its contributions may occasionally
be considered as advances only. But whatever their nature, these ex-
actions from an enemy's country should be imposed with discernment
and moderation, with reference to tho population and the nature of the
produce, the geographical position and tho wealth of the country and,
when possible, with consideration for tho feelings of the vanquished.
Pillage a country and you reduce tho inhabitants to misery, to de.-pair,
to flight, and thus not only deprive yourself of assistance, but in the
day of reverse find implacable and cruel adversaries."

All that can be done when a country yields nothing is to form
depots wherever bodies of troops are likely to bo stationed ; to liave
the largest possible reserves at head-quarters ; and to bo prepared with
a sufficient land transport establishment to carry all requisite supplies
in the event of an advanco or a chango of position. But this is an ex-
ceptional state of things ; in general tho country can be placed under
contribution, either voluntary or coercive, for the supply of provisions
and forage, and tho commissariat officer then enters upon his legitimate
functions. Several measures are open to his adoption ; ho may avail
himself of the enterprise of local contractors ; he may make his purchases
directly from the owners at the market price ; ho may fix an arbitrary
rate for the different articles of supply ; and lastly, ho may levy con-
tributions on tho people and compel them to furnish according to their
means the provisions required for the army. His own judgment must
guide him in the choice of these measures. Tho employment of con-
tractors, in time of peace undoubtedly advantageous, is attended \\ ith
certain objections during a period of war. Sir Randolph Kouth says
truly, "tho best and surest contractor is the country occupied by tho
troops and its natural resources carefully and duly economized ; " and
he proceeds to cite instances within his < -XJM n< -m •«• «>f tho inconvenience
arising from too great a confidence in contractors " who swarm about
an army \\h.-n it is prosperous to prey upon its wants, but are tho first
to fly in the event of a reverse."

The commissariat has to consult at once tho wants of tho army, the
economy of the staU», and the resources and feelings of the country in
which he is acting. To seize supplies, unless from an enemy in arms,
is to be deprecated; to pay for them more than their value, is equally

SUP.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 587

objectionable ; unnecessary force creates an ill feeling which may defeat
the objects of administration ; to submit to imposition enhances the
difficulty of the service; but conciliation and fair dealing, backed by
decision, will never fail to prove a good policy and enable the army to
procure supplies without unnecessary expense to the public or uselessly
exasperating the population. If the territory be that of a friendly or a
neutral power, every effort should be made by the commissariat to
arrive at a just estimate of its resources in grain, cattle, fuel, and other
articles of supply, to ascertain their current market value, and having
obtained all possible information on these points, the people should be
invited, either through the local authorities,' or the agency of private
individuals, to furnish whatever is required, with the understanding that
the usual price will be paid for the supplies brought in, and that the
head-quarters of the army will prove a profitable market to them.

When confidence in the good faith of the purchaser has been once
established, the population of a country occupied by a military force
will be willing enough to sell, and should a disposition to hold back
supplies in the hope of enhancing their value be shown, the interposition
of the local authorities should be sought in preference to the adoption
of arbitrary measures. Conciliation and firmness, temper and justice
combined, will seldom fail to induce the inhabitants, even when their
sympathies tend in another direction, to contribute to the extent of their
means to the maintenance of the army quartered upon them.

Amid a hostile population a conquering army should exercise its
power with every possible regard to justice. Fair treatment may
reconcile a people to the presence of a conqueror, and induce it to sub-
mit to superior strength. No effort should be left untried to produce
such a, result, since a resort to force, although it may provide for im-
mediate want, inevitably destroys the sources of supply. The best
course to be adopted in levying supplies in an enemy's country is, hav-
ing first ascertained the resources of the district, to demand, through the
local authorities, the head men of villages, or other channels, that cer-
tain quantities of provisions should be brought at a given time to the
head-quarters Oi' the army, care being taken that the demand be not be-
yond the means of the district, and a fair price should be paid whenever
a disposition is shown to comply promptly with these requisitions.
Such a measure will rarely fail of effect, and when the inhabitants feel
certain that there is no alternative between selling their produce and
having it seized, they will submit to the necessities of war in its least
aggravated form, and yield to a compulsion which, though it do violence
to their national feelings, consults their individual interests. Nor is it

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ScR.

only in the supply of provisions that the theatre of war should IK- laid
under contribution ; labor and transport may likewise be attained by
means of judicious administrative arrangement. The stern rules •
justify the exaction of all the resources within its influence; it is f,,r
administration to render these exactions as little oppressive as j...
when dealing with a elass of people which, as a rule, is the most inno-
cent of the causes of war, the most exposed to its ravages, and the
least benefited by its results. In proportion as tact and moderation
are displayed by the agents employed in levying supplies upon the
population, so will the resources of the country become available and
productive. Violence and wrong will convert the peaceable peasant
into a desperate and implacable foe ; conciliation and fair dealing may
make him, if not an ally, at least a profitable neutral. Interests far
beyond the hour may bo involved in the action of military administra-
tion under such circumstances, and the seeds of rancor or good-\\ ill.
to day on the scene of contending armies, may bring forth fruit to in-
I the destinies of nations long after the combatants themselves
have ceased to struggle.

If it be necessary at established stations that a prompt settlement
should be effected for all services rendered to the army, and that
engagement entered into by the commissariat should bo most scrupu-
lously complied with, how much more so is this the case in the field.
The love of gain — that mainspring of human action under all circum-

>, and in all places — is seldom appealed to in vain ; but tl.
ing must be supported by confidence ; for one man who will run
for a remote prospect of reward, a hundred will toil for a certain re-
muneration, and it should be one of the first aims of administration to
inspire all classes among which it is called upon to act, with a full and
entire confidence in its good faith. A breach of faith involves more
than immediate consequences : it permanently destroys credit; (Fox-

BLANQUK.)

SURGEON. A staff-officer of the medical department. He has
the rank of major, but "shall not in virtue of such rank be entitled to
command in the line or other staff departments of the army;1* (Act
1 1, 1847. See ARMY for the organization of the Medical De-
partment.)

SURGEON-GENERAL. The chief of the Medical Department,
with the rank of colonel, but subject to the same restriction of com-
mand as other officers of the Medical Department.

SURGERY, (Military.) Restricted to its rigorous signification,
military surgery is the surgical practice in armies ; but in its broad and

SUE.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 589

ordinary acceptation embraces many other branches of art, compre-
hending the practice of medicine, sanitary precautions, hospital admin-
istration, ambulances, &c. The military surgeon must not only be a
skilful physician and surgeon, but he must have a constitution suffi-
ciently strong to resist the fatigues of war, and all inclemencies of
weather; a solid judgment and a generous activity in giving prompt
assistance to the wounded without distinction of rank or grade, and
without even excluding enemies. He must have the courage to face
dangers without the power, in all cases, of combating them ; he must
have great coolness in order to act and operate in the most difficult po-
sitions, whether amidst the movement of troops, the shock of arms, the
cries of the wounded when crowded together, in a charge, in a retreat, in
intrenchments, under the ramparts of a besieged place, or at a breach.
He must have inventive ingenuity which will supply the wants of the
I wounded in extreme cases, and a compassionate heart, with strength of
will which will inspire confidence in those with whom he is brought so
closely in contact. The military surgeon, with his flying ambulance,
throws himself into the field of battle, through the melee, under the
fire of the enemy, runs the risk of being taken prisoner, being wounded,
or being killed, and is worthy of all the honors that should be bestowed
on bravery and skill in the performance of his high functions. Addi-
tional grades, as hospital-surgeons, surgeons of divisions, surgeons-in-
chief, and inspector-generals of hospitals, dsc., are required for every
army in the field.

SURVEYS, {Military or Expeditious.} In military surveys the
first thing done is to determine by triangulation, the principal points,
to which surveys of details are subsequently referred.

Triangulation. — A base is chosen from the extremities of which a
large extent of the ground to be surveyed may be seen. The length
of the base ought to be in proportion to the extent of the triangle to
be constructed ; the equilateral form being preferable. This base is
sometimes furnished by the regular charts from the topographical
. bureau. If not, it is measured by chain or by paces. From the base,
pass by the fewest possible stations to two points occupying central
positions in the survey, and suitable for stations; from these two
points let lines radiate, cutting those that are known, and their intersec-
tions serve as points of data in details; multiply in this way the
number of triangles, always diminishing the length of their sides; in-
termediate details may be determined by paces. Such is the process.

Plane Table. — For these operations a plane table and the ALIDADE
are sufficient. The plane table used is of small dimensions. Com-

r.i»o

MILITARY vliY.

[Sot.

mondcr Salneuvc advises a piano table made of several rulers equal in
length and breadth, united by parchment and strong cloth, upon whieh
they are folded. \Vhen the plane table is used, the rulers are K
the same plane by means of two other rulers which take a rectan-
gular position towards the others by being revolved on one « f their
extremities and are then kept in place by means of a little hook at the
other extremity of each. (See Fig. 217.)

"When the work is ended or suspended, these two rulers are un-
hooked and turned so as to cover the last two of the parallel rulers, and
the whole may then be folded and put in a pistol-holster. This plane
table lias besides an upright stick with an iron ferrule whieh supports the
table horizontally on being stuck in the ground. If such a plane table
has not been provided, however, it is easy to procure a small flat board,
which will answer the same purpose.

Alidade. — For an alidade, a triangular rule of a double decimetre may
be used, upon which are fastened two nails or pins which serve as sights.
The problems resolved by means of the plane table and alidade are the
following : 1. To determine the projection of an accessible point by
means of two other points R and P given and also accessible. 2. To
determine the same thing by means of two other points, only one of
which, R, is accessible. 3. To determine the same thing by means of
two others, R and P, which are inaccessible, but upon whose direction we
can find stations. 4. To determine the same thing by means of two
others not only inaccessible, but upgn whose direction it :.l>le to

find a station. 5. The same determination by means of three points,
11, P, Z, inaccessible.

Fio. 218.

Fio. 217.

Adjusting. — The first thing to be done at cadi Mati»n is to adjust
the p . Let R P be the base, (Fig. 218.) Assume r I, arbi-

trarily as its projection on a sheet of paper corresponding to the scale

SOR.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

591

of Sa7 20^00- At ^e station R place the instrument horizontally by
means of a plumb-line, and let one of the sides of the alidade (using
the same side for all operations) rest upon the projection, turning it
until the side covers r h. Turn then the plane table until P is seen in
the prolongation of the sights. The plane table is then adjusted, and it
must be maintained in that position while at the station.

To adjust with reference to the meridian — trace this line upon the
leaf and afterwards turn the side of the frame until it has the same
direction ; the problem is resolved % means of corresponding heights
of the sun. Let R P be a side

upon the ground, and r p its pro- Fio- 219.

visional projection ; (Fig. 219.)
Erect upon the horizontal plane
a vertical stile terminated by a
plate of blackened iron, pierced
with a little hole at its centre m,

and disposed in such manner as
to receive nearly perpendicular-
ly the rays of the sun at noon.
Project the centre m in m' upon
the plan by a plumb-line, and
from m' as centre describe sev-
eral circumferences n o' n' p o"

p'. Observe the march of the sun a little before and a little after
noon. Divide in two equal parts the circumferences intercepted by the
solar spectrum : the middle points belong to the meridian, whose pro-
jection we thus have. Measure then the angle o made with the side of
the frame A B ; lay off by the line r p' an equal angle ; then turning
the plane table until this line r p' corresponds in direction with the
line that it represents : the side of the frame indicates the meridian of
the place. The questions may then be thus resolved :

First Question, (Fig. 218.) — Take a station at R ; adjust upon P ;

look at x, the point sought, by turning the alidade around the point r, the

projection of R, and trace r x the projection of R x. Go to P ; operate

in the same manner, and the intersection of the two right lines r x and h x

"gives the projection of the point sought. This is the method of intersection.

Second Question. — Take a station at R ; adjust upon P : radiate on

X ; go to X ; adjust upon R, following the indefinite projection already

traced ; turn the alidade around p until P is seen : the intersection of

the right line thus traced with the first gives X. This is a method of

offset. (Fig. 220.)

MILITARY PI<

1 1" - ' jfi&ircf Question. — As-

sume upon r A a point a',

•JllS ;) .suppose.

jcction of A any
whatever ; look at X ;
draw the assumed lino
through a' : this lino of
direction will servo for
adjusting when ::t X ; for,

although not tho truo projection of A X, it is necessarily parallel
to it ; go to X, adjust upon A ; it is only necessary to draw t\\
passing through R and P, turning the alidade on A and r : tho point of
intersection of these lines is the projection sought.

Fourth Question.— Take a fourth point Y, (Fig. 221,) at which tho

FTO. 521.

observer may place himself, and from which tho other three may be
seen ; construct afterwards upon the leaf a quadrilateral similar to that
made upon the ground, and then construct an equal quadrilateral upon
r p: for this purpose, go to X, of which wo have tho arbitrary \

-'; look at R, P, and Y, tracing these directions upon paper; go
to Y, of which we have also tho projection y' upon the lino leaving X
and drawn through r' ; adjust upon x' yf and look at R and P; the
points of intersection determine two angles r1 and ;/ of a quadrilateral,
of which the two others are x' and y1, similar to that mado upon the
ground by U, P, X, and Y, and similar also to tho projection sought;
nothii :•» necessary than to ostaMish the relation on r p.

<'th Question.— Measure at x (Fig. 222) the angles r r />.
and make at r and z two angles arp,bzp, which shall bo respectively

SUB.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

593

equal ; through the middle of the lines r p and z p erect perpendicu-
lars ; at z and r raise also perpendiculars to a r and b z • the points of

FIG. 222.

meeting o and of are the centres of two circumferences which will inter-
sect in x the projection sought : this is the method by capable segments.
Or (Fig. 223) let r, p, z be the projections on the plan of three points

FIG. 223.

of ground R, P, Z. To determine X without change of station, adjust
partially the plane table with reference to X. Afterwards, through
R P Z or their projections, draw three right lines which will cut each
other and form a triangle a be. If the plan had been perfectly adjusted,

MILITARY DKTIONAKY. [Sea.

the three linos would have cut each other at the same point j-, the pro-

"f X. It is necessary, then, to turn the piano table to t!
three lines by their int. will form another trim,

smaller than the first, Continue thus until the triangle is reduced to ft
point. The f the three curves a a' «", b b' //", ami (

gives the projection sought These are the ditlerent means employed t
determine the points of stations. When each is obtaim •«!, nil d« \

lit and letl of a direction may be filled up l>y sight and by paces;
one of the sides of the triangle beim: taken for the d: i angle

made with it maybe traced by means of the alidad' Dbeenred i:i

number and degree with an instrument, and subsequently drawn with a
protractor.

Observations of Angles. — A pocket sextant may bo employed
in the survey of details, the operation may be accelerated by a compass.
This instrument may be even used in the first triaiujulation, if th
sides of the triangle are not too great. Time is gained, and the re-
sults are sufficiently s-tM'aetory for an expeditions survey. The com-
pass is nothing more than a magnetic needle in a rectangular box, at
the bottom of which a limb turns in such a manner that the north and
south line is exactly parallel t«> the larger side of the b" instru-

ment* when adapted to the plane table, greatly abridges the operations
by the facility it gives for adjusting the survey. Thus the m.
needle or magnetic meridian makes with the astronomical meridian an
angle called the declination. If O be the declination, put the compass
on the plane talile in such a manner that the needle coincides \\ith tin-
north and south line. Turn it afterwards until the needle pasv,
the number of degrees equal to the declination < >. Then the l«i
of the box is parallel to the meridian, and if it is wished that one of the

of the survey should have this meridian direction, i!
made to de.-cril.e, \,\ turning the piano, talde, an aiiL'le e<|iial to that
made by tl;«- >i !«• of the triangle with the side of the com]

When without instruments, the adjustment of a sm\ o de-

termined by setting up vertically upon the plane table a pin or i
and tracing by means of a \\at.h the shadow of this j in at d ill; rent
boon of the da J. The solar spectrum thus lorn on suUe-

days to adjust the plane table in the same manner. It is sufli-
• l..ok at your wateh and turn the table until the shade

of the j the same indication of the boor, <>r. th.

of hill is surveys are obtained as in regular mrve;

calenl..- 'he 1,-m,. and the angle of fall.

To level and measure angles without any i>< . y ob-

SUB.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

595

tain the principal angles graphically as follows : plant a staff vertically
in the ground by means of a plumb-line ; trace upon a leaf of the
sketch book a vertical line representing the height of the staff; rest
upon the paper a rule, directing it upon the object whose relative height
is to be determined ; trace this line with a pencil, and the angle of de-
pression or ascension is concluded from that made by the two lines, and
the right angle formed by the vertical and horizontal. The difference of
level between two points may also be determined by means of two
staves of different heights : let the shorter be placed at the station
and the other upon the direction of the point whose elevation is
sought in such a position that the point of sight and the tops of the
two staves may be on the same line. The difference of level is deter-
mined by the similitude of the two triangles. The angle of depression
is found by placing the longer staff at the station. With the angle
of elevation or depression, the height is always found approximately
by means of a table of tangents : let h be the height, b the base, c the
angle ; then h = b tan. c in right-angled triangles.

Or, when the angle of ascension or depression is known, differences
of level may be determined graphi-
cally as follows : let A B (Fig. 224)
represent a length of 1,000m. by
the scale — lay off the line A C,
making an angle of 25° with A B ;
draw the perpendicular B C : B C,
multiplied by the denominator of
the scale, will give a height corre-
sponding to a base of 1,000m. at an angle of ascension of 25°. If lines
then radiate from A, making angles of 5° with their adjacent radii, and
the base is divided into parts of 50m., and perpendiculars are erected at
the points of division, a figure is obtained by which all differences of
level will be approximately determined.

Fio. 224.

FIG. 225.

n, a I

" T

.soo

\ -

\ is

C100

so o MO 200 son 4

Scale. — All plans are accompanied by a graphic scale which makes

MILITARY DIi .

known the length of lines on the ground by means of their represent*-
upon the plan and fedpTOCall, • This figure repre-

sents a scale of yy|y?, that is to su\ } which 1 metre on

is equivalent t-> 20,000 metres on the ground.

deduction of Plans. — It may be necessary to copy a plan and re-
duce the scale. This bdone by tracing an outline in which the <;
relation is preserved. The different parts arc tin n rcduee.l by means
of an angle of reduction. This angle is constructed by tracing a line
a b ; (Fig. 226.) From b as a centre describe an arc of a circle \\ iih

the radius b c so chosen that — = — , being the relation between the

two scales ; draw then the tangent a c. It results from this that if a </,
i line to bo reduced, in describing from the point d an
arc of a circle tangent to a c, e being the point of tangency, d e will be
the desired reduction.

Fin. 227.

Fro. 2-jr,

To trace a meridian at night. — The means of establishing the merid-
ian by the solar spectrum havr been indicated. Tin- int-ridian may l«e
determined at night by passing a plane through a plumb-line ami the
n-.rtli star. The trace of this plane on a hori/ontal plane will b" the
idian sought; the north star bein-r only H J from
the true p..lr. It is easy to reeogrii/.' tin- north star ; it is the s.

iittle bear, and is found pn,.,M>ly in the prolongation of the
two first stars of the Great Bear, (Grandf O»r.w.) a eon-t. lotion di

r as in FiLr. 2^7; (.!/•/, M'wnrr J'h'f'if Major.)
SUSPENSION. In e.-isrs win-re a e« >i \v\ -ma ft ial may think pro|..-r
to sentence a commissioned officer to be suspend, d IP-HI . -ommand. they

TAB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 597

shall have power to suspend his pay and emoluments for tho same time,
according to the nature and heinousness of the offence ; (ART. 84.) Rank'
and command are distinct.

SUTLERS. All sutlers and retainers to the camp, and all persons
whatsoever, serving with the armies in the field though not enlisted
soldiers, are to be subjected to orders, according to the rules and disci-
pline of war ; (ART. 60.) All officers commanding in the field, forts,
barracks, or garrisons of the United States, are hereby required to see
that the persons permitted % sutle shall supply the soldiers with good
and wholesome provisions or other articles at a reasonable price ; (ART.
30.) Sutlers not to sell or keep their shops open after nine at night,
or on Sundays during divine service or sermon ; (ART. 29.) Exorbi-
tant prices not to be exacted from sutlers by commanding officers for
the hire of stalls or houses let out.

SWORD. The foot artillery sword resembles the Roman sword.
The BLADE is 19 in. long, straight, two-edged ; Body (or blade proper) —
shoulder rounding, ridges, point bevels, edges ; Tang, its riveting and
rounding, three holes for the gripe rivets ; HILT, (brass, in one piece,)
cross, knob, and pommel of the cross ; SCABBARD (harness leather jacked)
blackened and varnished with mountings and ferrule.

The Infantry Sword. — BLADE, (straight, cut, and thrust,) back, edge,
groove, bevel point; HILT (surmounting brass) — covering of gripe brass
with grooves and ridges ; GUARD in one piece ; SCABBARD, (leather.) This
sword is for the non-commissioned officers of foot troops ; a similar one,
without the guard plate, and with a blade 26 inches long, for musicians.
The swor.d for officers not mounted is also of the same pattern, with
ornamented gilt mountings, and a silver gripe ; the inner half of the
guard plate is made with a hinge. [See SABRE.)

SWORD-BAYONET. Short arms, as carbines, are sometimes fur-
nished with a bayonet made in the form of a sword. The back of the
handle has a groove, which fits upon a stud upon the barrel, and the
cross-piece has a hole which fits the barrel. The bayonet is prevented
from slipping off by a spring-catch ; the sword-bayonet is ordinarily
carried as a side arm, for which purpose it is well adapted, having a
curved cutting edge as well as sharp point.

TABLES. (See Articles ARTILLERY ; FIRING ; RIFLED ORDNANCE ;
RATION ; WEIGHTS.) (Consult A Collection of Tables and Formula
useful in Surveying, Geodesy, and Practical Astronomy, including Ele-
ments for the Projection of 'Maps, by Capt. T. J. LEE, Top. Engineer;
r.lso Ordnance Manual for numerous useful tables.)

M I LIT A II V 1'ICTIOXARY.
TABLE OP NATtTKAL 8INE8 AND TANGENTS.

Dtf.

Mln.

Tm^nt

I**

Mln.

Bine

TMfWt

0029089

•089

2419219

2498280

0048688

0043634

2461533

2639676

0067266

0087269

2603800

2586176

0130896

0180907

"019

2682780

0174. '..'I

0174551

2588190

2679492

0218149

021 ^

2630812

8t>

0261769

0261859

:.385

0306528

•271 :

-995

0849208

16*

2756374

2867454

0892598

0892901

2798290

2911

0436194

0436609

2840163

2962185

0470781

0480334

28819.68

8009658

0528360

0524078

2928717

0566928

0567841

2966416

3106088

0610485

0611626

8007068

8152988

0654031

06*64*6

8048643

0697565

069U268

8090170

• 197

0741085

0743128

8131638

82<J7

0784591

0787017

8178047

8346958

0828082

0830936

3214895

0871557

0874887

8*6*6*1

0915016

0918871

8296906

8492156

0958458

0962890

8338069

3541186

1001881

loom1)

8879167

8890881

1045285

1061042

•'201

8689702

1088669

1096178

84G1171

3689195

1132032

1139856

8502074

8788847

1175374

1183578

Mil

8788661

1218693

1227846

8688679

3838640

1261990

1272161

3888787

1305262

1316525

8605012

8939106

1348509

>'J40

8705574

8989595

1391731

1405408

4" I »>262

1484926

1449931

8784481

L109

1478094

1494510

8826834

•1 1 1

1521 -J:U

1539147

8867110

A \ -.13848

1564315

1583844

8907 Ml

4-21 :

1607426

1628608

89 1 ,

1888889

1650476

1673426

3124

1698496

1718814

4027467

1736482

1763270

1779435

1808295

•11' .

!<V72

1822855

1868890

•iMf,982

46ftV

1866240

1898659

4186697

4 r, 10068

1908090

1943803

4226188

4668077

1950908

1989124

111

476'.',

1998679

2084628

,326

2036418

2080008

4461978

4986816

2079117

2126566

00'

4539905

6096264

2121777

'2171218

4.'. 17486

2164896

2216947

4694716

7094

Wftf74

2262769

1588

6429557

2249611

2308682

4848096

2292004

2854687

492!

5667

2884464

2400788

<i<H)0

JJffMM

2446984

6076384

Mj9M88

TAB.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 5«j<j

TABLE OF NATURAL SINES AND TANGENTS-(Co?rnKTm>.)

Deg.

Min.

Sine.

Tangent

Deg.

Min. Sine.

Taugent.

5150381

6008606

7986356

13270448

5224986

6128008

8038569

13514224

5299193

6248694

8090170

13763819

5372996

6370703

8141155

14019483

6446390

6494076

8191520

14281480

5519370

6618856 •

8241262

14550090

5591929

6745085

8290376

14825610

6664062

6872810

8338858

15108352

5735764

7002075

8386706

15398650

5807030

7132931

8433914

15696856

6877853

7265425

8480481

16003345

5948228

7399611

8526402

16318517

6018150

7535541

8571673

16642795

6087614

7673270

. 8616292

16976631

00'

6156615

7812856

8660254

17320508

6225146

7954359

8746197

18040478

6293204

8097840

8829476

18807265

6360782

8243364

»63

8910065

19626105

6427876

8390996

8987940

20503038

6494480

8540807

9063078

21445069

6560590

8692867

9135455

22460368

6626200

8847253

9205049

23558524

669130G

9004040

9271839

24750869

6755902

9163312

9335804

26050891

6819984

9325151

9396926

27474774

6883546

9489646

&•

9455186

29042109

6946584

9656888

9510565

30776835

7009093

9826973

9563048

32708526

7071068

10000000

9612617

34874144

7132504

10176074

9659258

37320608

7193398

10355303

9702957

40107809

7253744

10537801

9743701

43314759

7313537

10723687

9781476

47046301

7372773

10913085

9816272

51445540

7431448

11106125

9848078

66712818

7489557

11302944

9876883

63137515

7547096

11503684

9902681

71153697

7604060

11708496

9925462

81443464

7660444

11917536

9945219

95143645

7716246

12130970

9961947

114300520

7771460

12348972

9975641

143006660

7826082

12571723

9986295

190811370

7880108

12799416

9993908

286362530

7933533

13032254

9998477

672899620

10000000

Infinite.

Frigorific Mixtures.

Nitrate of ammonia 1, water 1 ; thermometer falls from 50° to 4

Sulph. soda 8, muriatic acid 5 . . . . 50 to 0

Phosphate of soda 9, nitrate of ammonia 6, diluted nitric

acid, 4 50 to —21

Common salt 1, snow or ice 2 • 32 to — 4

Cryst. chloride of lime 3, snow 2 . . . 32 to —50

OUU

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Elastic Force of Steam at Different Temperature*.

[From experiment* of Committee of Fraaklln Institute.}

The unit is the atmospheric pressure, or 1 atmosphere = 80 in. of mercury.

Temp.

tnm

Temp,

Pma II Temp.

1 ' r

Temp.

Pma,

Temp.

Pr«*

212

275

8 804 i

826

845

235

284

831

349

250

4 815i

«36

852J

M i

2»8i

840*

Olive oil .

r .

Milk.

:ar .
Spirits of turpentine

Freezing Points of Liquids.

. 36° Fahr. Strong wines
32 Sulphuric acid

. 30 Brandy .

28 Mercury

1C Nitric acid

BoiUny Points of Liquids. (Bar. 30 in.)

Sulphuric ether . . 98C

Ammonia . . . 140

Alcohol .... 174

Water, and essential oils 212

Water, saturated with salt . 224

Nitric acid 2- is

Phosphorus
Spirits of turpentine
Sulphur .
Sulphuric acid
Linseed oil
Mercury

20° 1'ahr.

— 7
—39
—55

. I
660

. 570
.

. GOO
C60

Liquids boil at a much lower temperature in vacuo, or under
ished pressure of the atmosphere. At the altitude of about n.fino t> »-t.
above the sea, wlu-ro the barometer stan. Is at lf>..'i.Vm.. w.:t,-r U-Hxat 180°.

BELATIVE STEENGTH OF THE ENGLISH, FEENCH, AND BUSSIAN NAVIES.
ENGLISH NAVT.

MMA

laflb*

Total of

Class of Ship.

A:l..:it.

Budding or
Converting.

ToUL

Afloat

Sli-ain and

lailfc*

Frigate*

Hlork S!ii|.<

Iron -caned Ships

4
21

4
24

Small Yov«rl*

Vessel* and Gun Boat«...
Floating Battcrio-

171
8
15

192
8 '
15

192
8
15

Mortar Vetseli

...

••

412

485

617

TAC.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.
FRENCH NAVY.

C01

Steam.

Sailing.

Total of

Afloat

Building.

Total.

Afloat.

Steam and
Sailing.

*7K

Iron-cased Ships

Avisos &c.«

ITS

Total

247

305

401

KUSSIAN NAVY.

Steam.

Sailing.

Total of

Class of Ship.

Afloat.

Building.

Total.

Afloat

Steam and
Sailing.

9 3

Frigates

Corvettes

• 22

Small Vessels

Gun Boats

112

137

Transports

Total

192

240

256

TACTICS — as distinguished from strategy, is the art of handling
troops. Sect. 7 Act May 8, 1792, prescribes the tactics established
by Congress in 1779, as the rules for the exercise and training of the
militia.

Act of March 3, 1813, requests the President to cause to be pre-
pared and laid before Congress a military system of discipline for the
infantry of the army and militia of the United States.

Act of May 12, 1820, prescribes that the system of discipline and
field-exercise, that is or may be ordered for the infantry, artillery, and
riflemen of the regular army shall be the same for the respective corps
of the militia.

Act of May 18, 1826, authorizes the Secretary of War to have pre-
pared a complete system of cavalry tactics, and also a system of exer-
cise and instruction of field-artillery, including manoeuvres for light or
horse artillery, for the use of the militia of the United States, to bo
reported for consideration or adoption by Congress at its next session.

00-2 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TAO.

Act of March 2, 1820, provides for the distribution of 60,000 copies

of tin- abstract of infantry and light infantry and rule tactics, and also
5,000 copies of the system of instruction for licld-artillery prepared
pursuant to Act of 1826.

Tactics of Gustavus Adolphus and Ins contemporaries. — Gus;
Adolphus, the greatest captain of his time, originated new j.rin. ;
the art of war, which in their essence still subsist. II is advent marks a

\\ epoch in the history of tactics. There an- lot.:

originated by him, which overthrew the tactics of his predecessors.
1. He gave in combats a greater, but not an absolute influence to tlio
musket; and united in order of battle heavy and small arms. 2. He
increased the mobility of his troops by breaking up heavy masses, and
thus also diminished the destructive effects of an enemy's firo. .'>. H.«
1 the different arms according to their intention, and thus estab-
lished facility in manoeuvring as well as their mutual capacity to aid
each other. 4. He restored individual activity, which had all but
ceased to exist, particularly in cavalry, since the invention of powder.

Gustavus Adolphus conceived and executed all his projects him-
self, lie was at the same time an infantry, cavalry, and artillery
soldier. He was a lov* r of mathematics and natural philosophy, and
did not disdain to hold a pencil and compass. The order of battle of
the Swedes consisted, according to circumstances, in a formation of two
or three lines ranged parallel to each other or in echelons upon the
wings, the cavalry behind the infantry or upon its wings. The cavalry
was proportionably very numerous. It fought in four ranks. The
infantry was ranged in six ranks. The batteries of artillery WON
massed and masked. In assaulting Germany, Gust avns had two hun-
dred ]>:

Tactics before and during the war of the Spanish Succession. — At
this epoeh then- were great men, but no one like Gustavus took a

taetirs. The art was at a stand during more than a hundred
years notwithstanding the rapid succession of wars, and t lie reiterated
occasions such wars otli-red to genius. In this world it is not .
which produce ehannes, but superior minds which control «

illy, however, the musket became the only arm of infantry, and

.0 was entirely discontinued. Thus the possibility of infant n . d.--

llry Minified, and in order t<> restore the.

equilibrium, th« - half-pike was introduced. Kaeh inlantry man

carried MM 'inning of the 17th centur\. This order **fl

eral. It sue., . d. d igftihst the Turks, but cruelly impeded the mobility
of infantry.

TAC.] MILITARY DICTIONARY.

003

The bayonet appeared for the first time in the Netherlands in
1647, and essentially contributed to the discontinuance of the pike. At
first this arm was very unhandy, as it was necessary to take it from the
musket, before firing. Under Charles XII. this was remedied, and in
the Prussian army in 1732, the front rank was armed with a bayonet
during the fire. In 1740 at the battle of Molwitz the three ranks were
thus provided.

To appreciate the spirit of the tactics of this time, it is necessary to
study the campaigns of Turenne and Luxembourg, and those of Prince
Eugene and Marlborough. The principal characteristic of the tactics
of this epoch consisted in the attack of the whole line at the same time,
and consequently of the general opening of a battle upon all points at
once. A part of a line was rarely maintained in position during the
attack of other portions. The importance of echelons was not appre-
ciated, or it was not known how to use them in the oblique order.
Manoeuvres, however, improved, but very slowly. Hence open fields
of battle were generally preferred. If accidents of ground were sought,
it was for the purpose of establishing lines of defence. Marches were
executed, ordinarily, by many columns, each consisting of a single arm.
There was therefore little reciprocity of action, and even in camps the
same marked separation was preserved.

Tactics of Frederick the Great and his contemporaries. — Frederick
found the art of war in a singular state. A great man — a born captain
was indispensable to raise this art from the dust under which it had been
trampled and all but stifled by a miserable formalism. The active
genius, the living courage, the free will which had signalized the com-
bats of ancient times had disappeared ; the musket had become a power-
ful arm, but pedantry had seized upon the order of battle ; all merit
consisted in forms, and cavalry rendered useless in action had become
only the furniture of parades.

The great merit of Frederick consisted in recognizing the spirit of
his age, and giving it a new bent. When Frederick appeared in camp,
he found the musket in general use. He occupied himself in perfecting
it. He fixed the depth of infantry at three ranks, and thus wore seen
deployed those long and thin lines which later took with the art of
moving them the denomination of tactics of lines.

Frederick required of his cavalry but two things : 1, Promptitude
in surprising an enemy ; and 2, United and violent attacks to overthrow
and annihilate him. For these reasons he exacted the exclusive use of
the sabre in cavalry, which soon disdained the gun as useless and un-
worthy of a true cavalier. All movements were executed regularly but

C,oi MIUTARF DICTIONARY. [TAC.

rapidly. Frederick also occupied himself with perfecting artillery. He

diminished the weight of field-pieces, and drew a marked line of separa-
tion 1' 46 pieces.

The American Revolutionary War fixed attention specially upon the
manner of fighting in dispersed order. This order of battle, in conse-
quence of the difficulties of a wooded country, played here tin- prineLml
part, and it may be aflirmcd that skill as marksmen — an important part
of the true system of light infantry or rille tactics — dates from that
period.

Tactics during the French Revolution, and its immediate effects. — This
epoch of tactics is distinguished by perfecting individual action, ami re-
_' the force of infantry in the shock of battle, by dispensing with long
thin liru-s which were in part replaced by the order in mass. From the
French Revolution was born the principle that all citizens are equal, and
•all owe service to their country. As the first consequence of this prin-
ciple arose the general and h-iral obligation of devoting one's self t«i the.
military service. This obligation put in movement an aggregate of
moral forces which could not otherwise have been collected in a
But in spite of the enthusiasm of the people, (at least at first,) the a
of military instruction and discipline was everywhere seen. It was
necessary that generals should endeavor to create a new tactics.

Tactics then, for the first time, adapted itself to the national charac-
ter of the soldier, and bent its forms to that character. It was impos-
sible to harmonize the heavy tactics of lines with republican ardor.
Instead^thcrefore, of losing their time in making soldiers machines, the
wise generals preferred the maehin.-s already made. It \\as indUpen-
sable to create a more easy mechanism of sub-divisions, ami they natu-
rally determined upon formations in small masses, whilst the order in
lines was gradually abandoned. Kaeh republican, fee I'm .n himself railed
to defend his country, considered national interests as his own ;
interest. It was not sufficient for him to occupy simply a place in the
ranks, he wished to fight individually and with his own proper hands.
TTie stamp of the tirailleur was thus impressed on every French-
man by that ardent will, which was carefully maintained in giving
full liberty to the highly pitched em-riry and courage of the M.ldier.
Hut when; it was necessary to break strength by strength, all \\.
nnit.d in masses, and disputed the honor of dying in the foremost rank
for the rej.ub lie. These two systems (although they later took tin-
name of systems) brought about the simple mechanism of the new

•he essence of which is concent rate. 1 in the ijtjfc
skirmishers and the system of masses.

TAG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 605

A general tactics for all arms is a chimera. An army is com-
posed of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineer soldiers. The three
•first are separate arms. Each of these arms must have its particular
tactics. But the tactics of those arms, when united, is simply the
proper use of each arm by the general-in-chief according to ever-
varying circumstances. Each arm ought to think itself invincible.
This moral element, or, what is the same thing, a courage developed
by discipline, is the most essential quality of a soldier. No one will
deny that this moral element is increased in offensive movements.
The more infantry attacks with the bayonet, the more cavalry is
employed in the charge, the more artillery is brought within range
of grape, the greater will be the valor of the soldiers of all arms.
Infantry is the great body or nucleus of all armies. An army which
possesses good infantry may repair all its losses in war. Light infantry
requires a more developed instruction, more corporal dexterity, more
circumspection and intelligence than infantry of the line. To march in
masses is the duty of the latter. To act in isolated positions under all
circumstances of personal danger, is required of the former. All good
infantry, whether light or heavy, is at home in close or distant combats.
The distinctive characteristic of infantry of the line is a regular, bold,
and decided march upon an enemy, in closed ranks, en muraille, with
a heavy fire when commanded, and sang-froid under all circumstances.
The distinctive characteristic of light infantry should be skilfulness as
marksmen, circumspection, capacity to act independently, indefatigability
in occupying an enemy for hours, and even days, incommoding him at
long distances, destroying him at short, shunning pressure and attacking
anew when pressure ceases, knowing no difficulties of ground, advancing
boldly, but when too adventurous uniting smartly for safety, again to
resume the independent movements of skirmishers as soon as the danger
has disappeared.

In attack as in defence, infantry has three ways of fighting : 1, as
skirmishers ; 2, by the fire in masses ; 3, by the bayonet. All three
modes in their reciprocal action experience a great number of modifica-
tions, which must depend upon the skill of the tactician. He must
thoroughly understand the advantages and disadvantages of the open
and close order. He must be able to apply either the one or the other,
according to circumstances, and always keep in view the practicability
of passing from one to the other. Soldiers ranged in line elbow to
elbow are, as it were, tied together, and the will of the whole is con-
trolled by the commander. This is the order in line of battle. If the
line be broken into companies or divisions, and ranged one behind the

Got1, MILITARY DICTIONARY.

other, we have the order in column, and this order is important in
manoeuvring. (See MAXCEUVRBS IN COMDAT.)

The combat as skirmishers is in op.-n CT dispersed onl r. Almost
all combats of infantry are begun by skirmishers. It is important,
therefore, that infantry of the lino us well as light infantry should be
instructed as skirmishers. Nothing is so useful in conceal
enemy our force and intentions than throwing forward skirmisher-. If
the skirmishers are skilful they may for a long time occupy an .
and meanwhile the great body of the army concealed 1.. hind the curtain
thus for ii ic» I muy present themselves unexpectedly at a dedsfrt point.
(Consult prescribed Tactics for Manoeuvres of Infantry of lh>
and Light Infantry; Cavalry Tactics; Artillery Tactics; and De la
/He des Trois Armes, Infanterie, Cavalerie, ArtilUric, j.ar ('.
DECKER.)

TAKE. In a military sense, to take is to make prisoner.
capture. It has also a meaning in field movements. vi/., to adopt an
partieular formation, as to " take open order."

To take ground to the right or left, is to extend a line, or t<> \
troops in either of those directions.

To take down, is to commit to paper that which is spoken by
another.

To take the field, is to encamp, to commence the operations of a
campaign.

To take up the gauntlet, is to accept a challenge.

TAMBOUR — is a stockade or timber wall, loopholod. made with
two faces, forming a salient angle at the gorge of a work, to servo as a
retrenchment or to cover the staircase, with a ditch in front, and
times with a half roof sloping to the rear, to protect the defenders from
hand-grenades and splinters of shells. (See BUILDINGS, Defence of.)

TAMP. To pack the excavation of a mine, after the charge has

M'lON on TOMPION. Plug, stopper— ir-n and

vering shot holes; mu/./lc . -mall

r bit of hard wood, sheet iron, or stiff paper f r covering the
claying of a r» 1; t ; (!>I%NS.)

T \ \ i , \T— in trigonometry, is tho straight live v^ich ton,

r arc at one of its extremities, and is termi: the pr-duc-

tion of the radius passing through tlie other extremity. The

ii have always a certain relation to cadi other, a 1 wh.-n <>ne is
given in parts of the radius the other can always be competed by means

TAR.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

COT

of an infinite series. Let <£ denote an arc, and tan. <£ the tangent of the
arc <f> ; we have the following series :

0 = tan. </> — £ tan. '</> -f 1 tan. 5</> — 4 tan. T<£ + , &c.,

tan A = A +

3 3.5 32. 5.7 32. 5. 7. 9 '

For the manner of using sines, cosines, and tangents, see LOGARITHMS ;
SURVEYING ; TABLE ; TRIGONOMETRY.

TANG, The tang of the breech of a musket is the projecting part
by which the barrel is secured to the stock.

TANGENT-SCALE— (sheet brass,) flanch 0.5 inch wide, cut to
fit the base-ring of the piece ; upper edge cut into notches for each £
degree of elevation.

TABLE OF TANGEXT-SCALES FOE FIELD-GUXS AND IIOWITZEES.

ELEVATION.

GUNS.

HOWITZERS.

6-pdr.

12-pdr.

• 12-pdr.

24-pdr.

82-pdr.

1° 15'

2°
3°
4°

in.
0.256
1.025
2.051
3.077

in.
0.333
1.334
2.670
4.006 -

in.
0.252
0.945
1.870
2.791

in.
0.28
1.138
2.271
3.400

in.
0.331
1.310
2.618
3.920

TAR, &c. Charcoal is made in the simplest way by digging a
hole in the earth, or choosing some old well or gigantic burrow, and
filling it with piles of wood, arranging them so as to leave a kind of
chimney down the centre. The top of the well is now covered over,
excepting the chimney, down which a brand is dropped to set fire to the
wood. The burning should proceed very gradually, and be governed
by opening or shutting the chimney-top with a flat stone ; for the wood
should smoulder, and never attain to a bright red : it will take from
two days to a week to make charcoal. The tarry products of the wood
drain to the bottom of the well.

Tar is made by burning larch, fir, or pine, as though charcoal had
to be made j dead or withered trees, and especially their roots, yield
tar most copiously. A vast deal is easily obtained. It collects at the
bottom of the pit, and a hole should be cleanly dug there into which it
may drain. Pitch is tar boiled down. Turpentine is the juice that the
living pine, fir, or larch tree secretes, in blisters under the bark ; they
are tapped to obtain it. Resin is turpentine boiled down. Tar is ab-
solutely essential in a hot country to mix with the grease that is used
for the wagon-wheels. Grease, alone, melts and runs away like water :
the office of the tar is to give consistence. A very small proportion of
tar suffices, but, without any at all, a wagon is soon brought to a stand-

C,0» MILITARY DICTIONARY. [IAI,

still. It is, therefore, most essential to explorers to have a su:
quantity in reserve. Tar is also of ver\ •• in hut dry countries

nibing over the wheels, and tho woodwork generally, of u
During tho extreme heat, win -n the wood is ready t k!l tho

j)aint should be scraped off it, and tho tar applied plentifully. I
soak in deeply, and preserve tho wood in excellent condition, both
during the drought and tin- ensuing wet season. It is not necessary to
take tho wheels off, in order to grease the axles. It is sufficient to bore
an auger-holo right through the substance of tho nave,
of t\\o of the spokes, and to keep a plug in the hole. Then, in order
to tar a wheel, turn it till tho hole is uppermost; take the plug out,
and pour the tar in ; (GALTON'S Art of Travel.)

TARGET. Practice at target-firing is essential to make a soldier.
To obtain from the new small-arms tho great results which they prom-
ise it is necessary : 1. That the soldier should know the different parts
of the arm, or its nomenclature, how to take it apart and put it to-
gether, and tho best method of keeping it in good order. This inst ruc-
tion should be given by sergeants and corporals under direct ion of the
officers of tho company ; (see ARMS.) 2. Tho soldier must U- taught
the prescribed method of loading his arm. 3. Tho rules for firing
must be known to him, that is to say, ho must be taught tho use of the
hausse, or to regulate his arm according t<> the distance of the < i
(see HAUSSE.) 4. lie must be taught to estimate distances in order
to apply tho rules for firing; (see tho method practised at Yinecnnes
given p. 609.) 5. IIo must know how to aim. G. Ho must hold tho
musket in tho position his instructor prescribes, and aim with ease;
preserve the body steady, but not constrained ; resist the recoil ; and not
incline tho rear sight to tho right or to the left. If the rear sight, when
raised and held uprigkt, give tho proper elevation for say 900 yards,
and it then be inclined to the right although the aim is in such p«
t.iken with tho 900 yards' sight, yet tho elevation is actually lowered,
and tho bullet would, therefore, not only fly to tho right of the object,
but fall short from want of sufficient elevation. The more the sight is
inclined, the greater will bo the loss of elevation. Another cause of
inaccuracy in aiming arises from aiming with ;, nt si-lit. Such

an aim causes the lino of sight to pass to tho right or hit of the front
sight, and the ball consequently to go to the oppo-
fi-'-m the side .,f the coarse si-lit by which we aimed. The ele\ati<
•iges being marked for a fine sight, then fore when it is '
sary to use the coarse sight for a greater distance than tl,>
used, tho proper allowance must be made in aiming. 7. In pulling tho

TAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 009

trigger, in no manner to derange the musket. The soldier must acquire
the habit of pulling the trigger when, in raising the piece, the sights
cover the bull's-eye. Most of these details, it is obvious, will be better
taught without wasting cartridges. When the soldier has been, how-
ever, sufficiently instructed in the simulated fire, to accustom him to
the noise of the actual fire, it is necessary to begin with the explosion of
caps, observing that he preserves his arm immovable as previously
taught. To accustom him to the effect of the recoil, it is necessary to
fire some blank cartridges.

Such are the gradual steps to be followed in practical firing, and by
taking them better marksmen will be made than by passing men with-
out previous preparation from the school of the soldier to target prac-
tice. After the soldier has been practised at firing at the target within
the efficacious range of his arm, and has acquired the habit of estimating
distances, without great errors ; when he has been taught to fire at a
mark changed at every fire, the distance of which he must estimate, he
may be sent as a skirmisher against an enemy. He will know the
range and use of his arm. He will appreciate its great power. The in-
struction of the soldier would not, however, be complete if he had been
exercised only in firing singly. He must be accustomed to the gene
that he experiences in the ranks, to movements of his comrades, to the
smoke which covers the front of the troops, to obeying the commands
of the officer who directs the fire. The execution of the fire by platoon,
by rank and by two ranks, upon squares, which indicate the effect of
the fire, is a necessary instruction above all to officers, who learn in these
exercises to direct and command firing, to estimate the relative value
of different fires, and to judge of the importance of a simultaneous fire
at proper moments. The whole instruction in firing may be given to
the sergeants, corporals, and soldiers of a battalion without injury to
other necessary instruction, and without hindrance of any duties in the
course of a year.

The means of instruction adopted at Vincennes claim attention, in
consequence of the manifest advantages of practising at ranges judged
"by the soldier himself. After attaining some proficiency as a marks-
inan at specified distances, the soldier is taught to estimate distances as
if before an enemy. From a squad of 16 men under a non-commis-
sioned officer, four out of the 16 men are taken and posted at distances
of 50, 100, 150, and 200 metres, facing the remainder of the men, who
observe such details of each man's dress as can be distinguished at the
several distances respectively. Having carefully noticed the differences
which exist, the instructor practises the men at distances that are un-
39

CIO

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[TAX

known to them, in order that they may apply the knowledge that they
have gained by observation of dress at known distances. After the
soldiers have been sufficiently practised in this way, their correctness in
judging distances is subjected to another test. A man runs forward,
and places a target at some distance unknown to the men ; each man is
then called upon in turn to name the distance, and the answers are
recorded in a book. This kind of practice takes place at all distances,
particularly between 500 and 1,000 paces, and is continued till all are
moderately skilful. Firing then begins at distances unknown to the
men, and those who are most successful are rewarded with promotion,
and become the instructors of others. In order that the knowledge im-
parted at Vincennes may be extended to the whole army, at least one
sous-officier is brought there from each regiment.

The new rifle musket and new rifle have an equal range, and greater
precision than field-artillery, and a company of marksmen can produce
an equal effect in the field at less cost than a battery of artillery. At
650 yards, for instance, almost every shot will take effect on horses and
men attached to a battery. It will follow that the artillery must be
more carefully covered in battle. (Consult Instruction provisoire sur
le tir d T usage des bataillons de Chasseurs d pied. See ARMS ; FIRING j
HAUSSE ; STADIA.)

TATTOO OR TAPTOO. Drum-beat and roll-call at night.
TEAMSTERS. That to each regiment of dragoons, artillery, and
mounted riflemen iif the regular army there shall be added one principal
teamster with the rank and compensation of quartermaster-sergeant, and
to each company of the same, two teamsters, with the compensation of
artificers ; (Act March 3, 1847.)

TELEGRAPH, (Universal.) It consists of an upright post of

moderate height, of two
movable arms fixed-on the
same pivot near the top
of it, and of a mark called
an indicator on one side of
it, merely to distinguish
the low numbers 1, 2, 3,
from th«' liiizh numbers,
7,6,5. Fig. 228, A repre-
sents the telegraph exhib-
iting the sign 17, the < >t IKT

positions of which the arms are capable being dotted. Fig. 228, B ivp re-
sents the telegraph fitted up to make nocturnal signals. One lantern,

FIG. 228.

:Hks

TEL.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Gil

called tne central light, is fixed to the same pivot upon -which the armi>
move. Two other lanterns are attached to the extremities of the arms.
A fourth lantern, used as an indicator, is fixed on the same horizontal

FIG. 229.
TABLE OF THE SIGNS OR COMBINATIONS.

Positions.

Appearance.

Positions.

Appearance.

By Day. By Night.

o o

°0

o
o o o

o o o
o

0 0 O 0

0 0

000
0

o o

0°
0 o

o
o o

0 0
0 0

-T

0 00

o o

0°

0
0 0

o o o

°0

o o

o
o 0

o •

O O o

o
o o

0 0

0 O

0
0 00

o oo

0
0 0

0 O
0 . 0

0 00

}

o o o

STOP

-1

0 0
0

o
o o o

FINISH:

612 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Tiu

level with the central light at a distance from it equal to twi
length of the arm, and in the same plunc nearly in which the arms re-
volve. Hence the whole apparatus consists of two fixed and of two
movable lights — four in all. The number of telegraphic signs, com-
binations, or changes which this telegraph is capable < !' * -xli'iLiting is
shown in Fig. 229, and one of those, No. 4, in the day telegraph is liable
to be confounded with the post and should not, therefore, be used. The
number is, however, amply sufficient for telegraphic commun
whether by alphabet or by reference to a telegraphic dictionary of
words and sentence*. The indicator, both by day and night, is merely >i
mark and nothing more, and the central light by night ami tin- post by
day are also merely guides to the eye. The signs of tl .ph are

in reality, therefore, only composed of combinations of two mo\ubl.-
bodies by day and two lights by night. It has been ascertained i
periment that the arms for day signals should be about 1 foot in
per mile in order to be distinguished by a common portable 1. 1
By the above rule, a telegraphic arm of six f •< -t in length may suffice
for stations six miles apart, but it is better to add a little to tl,
mensions. The width of the arm nc< -d not ex.
The indicator should be of the same width, but only | of the arm in
length. The height of the post should be sueh that movable objects
near it should not obscure the indicator or arms win -n tin- telegraph is
erected in the field. The telegraphs hitherto constructed on this prin-
ciple are of two sizes: one having arms of 5£ feet in length, with the
lantern pivots placed G£ feet from the centre of motion ; the other hav-
ing arms 2£ feet in length only, with the. lantern pivots 3 feet 2 inches
from the centre of motion. The latter are perfectly as the

whole apparatus does not weigh more than 34 Ibs. In char weather
these small telegraphs make signals distinctly vi.sil >le at a (list..
three miles.

In cases of emergency, where the portable telegraph is not with nn
army, it has been ascertained by experiment that the most expeditions
and satisfactory arrangement will always be to «-..j.y the regular con-
struction as closely as circum stances will permit. A h two
planks for the arms fixed externally on each side of th.
worked merely by a couple, of strings without pulleys, will constitute a
d»y telegraph, and the addition of lanterns will convert the same simple,
apparatus into a ni^'lit frl.-graph. In both eases the firms must l»c eouii-

>od or iron, and also by weights in some rude n
which must not impair the clearness of the telegraphic signs. (<
Aide Afemoirc to the Military Sciences by Xritiih Officer*. See SIGNALS.)

TIM.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 613

TENAILLE — is a low work, constructed in the main ditch, upon
the lines of defence, between the bastions, before the curtain, composed
of two faces, and sometimes of two flanks and a small curtain.

TENAILLONS — are works sometimes found constructed in an old
fortress, on each side of the ravelin — the short faces being traced, on
the prolongations of the faces of the ravelin, from the counterscarp of
its ditch ; the long faces being directed for flanking defence, to about
the middle of the faces of the bastions.

TENAILLONS (Demi) — are very similar to tenaillons, excepting
that their short faces are directed, perpendicular to the faces of the
ravelin, about one-third or one-half down from the flanked angle.

TENT. (See CAMP.)

TERRE-PLEIN — is a name given to any space which is level, or
nearly so ; thus, the area on the rampart, between the banquette and the
interior slope of the rampart, is called the terre-plein of the rampart.

TETE-DU-PONT. A field-intrenchment covering a bridge. (See
REDAN.)

THEODOLITE. A surveying instrument for measuring the angu-
lar distances between objects projected on the plane of the horizon. In
accurate surveying, when the instrument used for observing angles is a
sextant or reflecting circle, or such that its plane must be brought into
the plane of the three objects which form the angular points of the tri-
angle to be measured, the altitudes of the two distant objects above the
horizon of the observer must be determined, and a calculation is then
necessary to reduce the observed angles to the plane of the horizon.
With the theodolite this work is unnecessary. (Consult SIMMS' Treatise
on Mathematical Instruments ; DAVIES' Surveying.)

TIER SHOT. Grape shot sometimes so called.

TIGE ARMS. Sometimes called pillar breech arms. Arms with
a stem of steel, screwed into the middle of the breech pin, around which
the charge of powder is placed. The ball enters free and rests upon the
top of the pin which is tempered, and a few blows with a heavy ramrod
forces the ball to fill the grooves of the rifled arm. This invention was
an improvement by Capt. Thouvenin on Delvignes' plan of having a
chamber for the powder smaller than the bore. Capt. Minie's invention
superseded the tige arms, by means of a bullet which is forced to fill
the grooves by the action of the charge itself at the instant of explosion.
(See ARMS ; RIFLED ORDNANCE.)

TIMBER. Sawed or hewn timber is measured by the cubic foot,
or more commonly by board measure, the unit of which is a superficial
foot 1 inch thick. Usual rule for measuring round timber : multiply

614 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Tot

the length by the square of one-fourth the mean girth, for the solid con-

L C*
tents, or -yrr- ; L being the length of the log, and C half the sum of the

circumferences of the two ends. (Consult Ordnance Manual.)

TOISE— is 2.132 yards. Reduction of old French toises to im
1 metre = 39.37079 English inches.

Toisra. MITRES. Exo. YARDS.

1 = 1.049 = 9J

5 = 9.745 = 10.660

8 = 15.592 17.056

10 = 19.490 -J 1.320

100 1'.' 1.900 213.200

500 91 1.500 = 1,066.000

1,000 = 1,949.000 = 2,132.000

TOOLS. The French ordinance of 1831 prescribes the following
camp tools: reaping-hook, scythe, axe, shovel, mattock, and bill-hook.
Each tool has a leather case and a shoulder belt, in order that it may be
carried by the men. (See UTENSILS.)

TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERS. (See ENGINEERS, Topo-
graphical.)

TOPOGRAPHY— is the art of representing and <1 in all

its details the physical constitution, natural or artificial. of any .1, t. r-
mined portion of country; in making maps and giving a inscriptive
memoir. Military topography differs from geography in seeking to
imitate sinuosities of ground; it represents graphically and deseril.rs
technically commanding heights, water-courses, preferable sites for cam ps,
different kinds of roads, the position of fords, extent of \v..<,,ls. It enu-
merates the resources that a country offers to troops and the difficulties
which are interposed. By means of colored maps and oth. r < .,n\, n-
tional signs, military topography presents before the eyes of a ^
imii'h that is necessary to guide his operations. (Consult BARDIN. See
RKCOSNOISSANCE; SURVEYS, Military.)

TOWER BASTION— is one which is constructed of masonry, at
the angles of the interior polygon of s«. me works ; ami has usually vaults
or casemates under its terrc-plein, to contain artillery, Itoret, dec.

Ti; \CI\G. (SeeOw

THAN!. UOCOMI tO tv.i-l.- with Indians shall not 1.,- granted to

any but citizens of the United States, unless by express din •< -fnm of the

'. 1816.) The superintendent <>f Indian affairs

in the Territories, and Indian agents under the direction of the President

TRA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 615

of the United States, may grant licenses, not exceeding seven years, to
trade with Indians ; which licenses shall be granted to citizens of tho
United States and none others, taking from them bonds with securities,
in the penal sum not exceeding five thousand dollars according to capital
employed, and conditioned upon the due observance of the laws regulat-
ing trade and intercourse with Indian tribes. The superintendents and
agents shall return to the Secretary of War, within each year, an ab-
stract of the licenses granted, to be laid before Congress at the next
session thereof; (Act May 6, 1822.)

Unlicensed trade punishable by forfeiture of merchandise, a fine not
exceeding one hundred dollars, and imprisonment not exceeding thirty
days; (Act March 30, 1802.) Receiving, or purchasing from any
Indian, in the way of trade or barter a gun, any instrument of husbandry,
or article of clothing, except skins or furs, punishable by forfeiture not
exceeding fifty dollars and thirty days' imprisonment ; (Act March 30,
1802.) The purchase of horses from Indians without license from the
superintendent or other person authorized by the President to grant
licenses, punishable with forfeiture not exceeding one hundred dollars
for every horse purchased ; (Act March 30, 1802.) No agent, superin-
tendent, or other person authorized to grant licenses to trade or purchase
horses shall have any interest or concern with any trade with Indians,
excepting for and on account of the United States, under penalty of for-
feiture not exceeding one thousand dollars and imprisonment not exceed-
ing twelve months ; (Act March 30, 1802. See WAR.)

TRAIL-HANDSPIKE— for field-carriages, 53 inches in length.
(Hickory, or young oak.)

TRAIN. At the beginning of the French Revolution, artillery, en-
gineer, and other supplies, and hospital trains were conducted by hired
drivers. These men had neither military pride nor honor. They were
cowardly and insubordinate, deserted in combats, cut the traces of their
horses, and sought personal safety by abandoning equipages. On march
and in camp or cantonments they were not unfrequently drunk and
neglected their horses. These evils were corrected by enrolling them
under the name cf soldiers of the artillery train and equipages. They
were given officers, a uniform and arms, and have since rivalled other
corps of the army in zeal, courage, and devotedness. The artillery
train now forms a part of the artillery, and is commanded by artillery
officers. The train of provisions and ambulances is composed of
squadrons and companies. The squadrons are commanded by a cap-
tain, and the companies by a lieutenant. Each soldier conducts two
harnessed horses. He is armed with a pistol and a small sword.

616 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TEA.

In 1850 the corps of military equipages in France consisted of a
central bureau for wagon parks at Yemen ; of two arsenals of con-
struction at Yernon ainl at < hateauroux ; of thv< e ar^'iials tor r«-j>air in
ra : and three companies < f workmen. The soldiers properly be-
longing to the train made four squadrons. (Consult BARDIN and I.K
COUTRIER.) The quartermaster's department in our army is charged
with wagon trains, but neither enlisted soldiers as workmen or drivers
have yet been added to the department. (See CONVOY ; QUARTERMAS-
TER'S DEPARTMENT ; WAGON.)

TRANSFERS. Officers of engineers an- liable to bo transferred, at
the discretion of the President, from one corps to another, regard bring
paid to rank ; (ART. 63.) During the recess of Congress, the President
may, on the application of the Secretary of the proper department and
not otherwise, direct, if in his opinion necessary for the public servuv,
that a portion of the moneys appropriated for any one of the following
branches of expenditure in the military department, viz. : For the sub-
sistence of the army ; for forage; for the medical and hospital depart-
ment ; for the quartermaster's department — be applied to any other . f
the above-mentioned branches of expenditure in the same [military]
department; (Act March 3, 1809.) No appropriation fur the I
of one year shall be transferred to another branch of expenditure of a
different year ; (Act May 1, 1820.)

Nothing in the act of March 3, 1809, shall authorize the President
to direct any sum appropriated for fortification, arsenals, armories, cus-
tom-houses, docks, navy-yards or buildings of any sort, or to munitions
of war, or to the pay of the army or navy, to be applied to any other
object of public expenditure ; (Act March 3, 1817.) But the President,
under the restrictions of the act of May 1, 1820, may transfer from one
head of appropriations for fortifications to that of another for like ob-
jects; (Act.Ju]yZ, 1836.)

TRANSPORTATION. (^QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT;
PLIES; TRAIN; WAGON.)

By Sea. — For transportation by sea, make an inventory of the
number of articles, the weight of each, and the total weight of ea« -h kind,
leaving room for remarks. In estimating the weight, increase the total
by one half the weight of the small articles, such as accoutrements,
tools, &o., whi.-h occupy considerable space in proportion to their weight,
and apply for vessel* sufficient for the transportation of the wholo
weight. In "f artiel.-s on oaeh vessel should be made in dupli-

cate, one copy being kept by the master of the vessel, the other by the
person having the stores in charge. (See EMBARKATION.)

TEA.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

617

Horses. — The following arrangements on the English horse-transport
steamer Himalaya, Capt. McClellan, gives as a model : Two rows of
stalls, with the rear ends 2r at least from the vessel's side, are arranged
on each deck. These stalls (Fig. 230) are each furnished with movable
side-boards, a movable breast-board, and a fixed tail-board, all padded ;
the side-boards on both sides, the tail-board next to the horse and nearly
to the bottom of the stall, and the breast-board on top and on the side
next the horse. The padding used consists of felt, or raw hide, (the

FIG. 230.

latter objectionable on account of the odor,) stuffed with cow's hair
wherever the animal can gnaw it, with straw in other parts. It is from
2lf to 3" thick. The feed-troughs are of wood, bound on the edges with
sheet-iron or zinc, and attached to the breast-boards with two hooks.
The breast and side-boards ship in grooves. Fig. 230 represents the
horizontal projection of one stall. In front of each head-post a halter-
ring A is placed, and over this near the top of the post is a hook, to
which the sea-halter is hung when not in use. The feed-troughs, head-
boards, and stalls are whitewashed and numbered.

Fia. 231.

618

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[T,

Fig. 231 represents a section of one of these stalls through the axis.
The flooring is raised above the deck on battens, and is divided into
separate platforms for every two stalls, so that it can easily be raised
to clean the deck beneath ; 4 strong battens are nailed across to give
the animals a foot-hold.

Fig. 232 is a section through the side-boards of a stall, and shows the
dimensions of the timbers and height of side-boards, as well as the
manner of inserting them in their grooves. B is the hook for hanging

Fio. 281

up the sea-halter. This halter is made of double canvas, 2' wide, and
has two ropes, which, being fastened one to each post, keep the animal's
head still, and prevent him from interfering with his neighbor. Cand
j£are battens for securing the ropes of the slings, shown in Fig. 233.
2>, bolts, for the same purpose, when the sling is of the form ivpr,
in Fig. 234. On the spar deck, the stalls are under sheds, every 8 stalls
forming a separate set, so that they can readily be moved about when
the decks are to be cleaned. Water-proof curtains .-in- provided for the
front and rear; a passage way of at least 2' is left between tin sheds
and the bulwarks. When pr;u tical.I.-, a staging i> < n < trd alongside,
that the horses may be walked on and otf tin- vessel ; \\\\>\\ this eannot
be done, they arc hoisted on board in the sling, a small donkey engine
being used for the purpose. In this way, horses may be shipped or un-
loaded at the rate of one per minute. The slings are ,,f MQTtt, of the
shape and dimensions represented jn V\^. 'J.'J.'i and 234. For hoisting
in and out the horses, the sling is provided with a breast strap and
breeching. On the main and orlop decks the sling ropes .,
to the bolts ; on the spar deck to battens. It was intended to adopt the

TEA.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

619

Fio. 233.

FIG. 234

sling represented in Fig. 234, as diminishing vibration.. At sea, the
sling is used only when the animals show signs of weakness in bad
weather, in which case about 1"
play is given to the sling, as it is
only intended to prevent the horses
from fulling. To place the horses
in the stalls, all the side-boards are
removed except the one at the end
of the row ; a horse is then walked
along to the last stall, and the other
side-board put in, and so on with
all the rest. They should be placed
in the same order that they are ac-
customed to stand in the stable or
at the picket rope. If it becomes necessary to remove a horse from his
stall during the voyage, the breast-board is taken away, and he is walked
out. All wooden parts are washed with some disinfecting compound,
or simply whitewashed. Chloride of zinc is freely used. The decks
are washed every day, and the stalls cleaned after every feed, especially
at 7 P.M. From the spar and main decks, the stale passes off through
the scuppers ; from the orlop deck it passes to the hold, and is pumped
out by the engine. On the Himalaya not the slightest disagreeable
odor could be detected. The feed-troughs and horses' nostrils are
washed every morning and evening with vinegar. A scraper, brush,
and shovel are allowed to every eight stalls. A guard always remains
over the horses," and in case of necessity a farrier or non-commissioned
officer is sent for. Great attention is paid to ventilation. The orlop
deck, although hotter than the others, appears to be the most favorable
one for the horses.

So long as cleanliness is preserved, the commander of the vessel
does not interfere as to the hours for feeding, which are usually at 6 and
11 A.M. and 5£ P.M. If any horse refuses his food, the fact is at once
reported. A supply of forage is always carried on board the ship. The
horses drink condensed steam. The ration at sea was established at 10
Ibs. of hay, 6 Ibs. of oats, half peck of bran, and 6 galls, of water, as a
maximum ; but it is generally considered this is too great, and that f-
the allowance except the water, would be ample, as it is found there is
great danger from over-feeding at sea. No grain is given the day the
horses come on board, but simply a mash of bran, which is considered
the best habitual food at sea. For the men, bunks and hammocks are
generally used. Standing bunks are found to be very objectionable, on

ti-JO MILITAKY DICTIONARY. [!RA.

account of the difficulty of keeping them clean. Hammocks are regard-
ed as preferable for men in good health, while many officers consider it
best to provide neither haimm-eks nor bunks, but to allow the men to
lie down on the foro-decks, with tlu-ir blankets and overcoats. When
the transports are numerous, each one should have on the starboard and
larboard, and on a broad pendant at the top of the mainmast, an easily
distinguished number. By means of these numbers, which are marked
on the bills of lading, the disposable resources of the expedition arc
known at any time. Vessels carrying some particular flag should be
specially appropriated for the transportation of powder, fire-works, and
ammunition, which may be separated from the pieces.

Disembarkation. — If it becomes necessary to transship, or lea\
articles upon the vessels, the fact should be carefully noted on the mani-
fests.* The ships' crews load and unload, using for these purposes the
yard-arms and tackle. It is ordinarily sufficient to furnish them with
rollers and skids, in order to place the articles convenient to the tackle.
Under some circumstances, it becomes neees-ary to establish bridge
abutments, sheers, gins, &c. For the want of the ordinary means, a
temporary crane may be established. To do this a long mortise is cut
in a beam about £ of the distance from its end, and upon the ground is
fixed a framework, furnished with a strong vertieal pin. The beam is
laid on this frame with the pin in the mortise, like an ordinary pintle,
but in such a way that the ends of the beam can be raised and l<-v.
The shortest part of the beam is then turned towards the load, and the.
different weights being slung to it, are raised by lowering the opposite
end, previously raised to make the lashing shorter. The beam- is then
turned around on its pintle until the weight is in the proper position,
wh'-n it is lowered gently and unlashed. If a tree or beam fit for the
purpose cannot be obtained, several small pieces may be lashed and
pinned together.

Railroad Transportation. — In railroad transportation, when several
trains are required, they should be in proportion to the power of the
engine employed, and full loads should bo placed on them. The men
rovided, before starting, with provisions to last during the trip,
which should be cooked and earned in the haversack. The canteens are
filled with water; the French, in warm weather, mix 1. randy with it.
As the horses can cat in the wagons, even whilst the train is in motion,
hay (pressed if possible) should bo distributed at the rate of about 8, 14,
or 24 Ibs. per horse, according as the trip is to last less than 12, bo-
P.> and *Jl. --I- more than 2 \ hours. A feed of oats (half a ration,
f> Ibs.) is carried in bags, and placed in the baggage wagons. It should

TRA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 621

not be given to the horses on the road, but after they have arrived at
the terminus. The horses are carried in cattle-cars, or, if possible, in
box-cars, which are covered. They are provided with bars at the doors
to prevent the horses from backing out when the doors are opened. By
taking care to keep the horses quiet, however, these bars may be dis-
pensed with. The saddles, &c., the valises of the driver, and the bags
of oats, are placed in the baggage cars, which should be provided with
brakes. The " materiel " is carried on trucks or common platform cars.
The troops should be at the station at least two hours before starting.
The horses should have finished feeding about two hours previous to
their arrival at the station, as they are then more docile. The baggage
should arrive half an hour before the troops, under charge of an officer,
and be loaded under the direction of the employes of the road.

The cars for artillery should be arranged as near as possible in the
following order : 1st, a baggage wagon ; 2d, a truck carrying the beams,
platforms, &c. ; 3d, the horse-cars ; 4th, the cars for the men, one at
least of which should be provided with a brake ; 5th, trucks loaded
with materiel ; 6th, baggage cars (with brakes) loaded with saddles, &c.
Cars with brakes should always be placed at the head and tail of the
train. Guards should be detailed and so stationed on the train as to
preserve order both when in motion and during stoppages. The com-
manding officer should pay especial regard to the wishes of those hav-
ing the train in charge, and enforce an observance of the road regulations
in his command. On arriving at the station, the commander at once
divides his command and materiel into the portions to occupy the
different cars.

Horses. — An officer is detailed to superintend the embarkation of
the horses. He furnishes each car with two bundles of litter, and places
forage along the long side of the car opposite to the door. A non-
commissioned officer is charged with loading the saddles, &c. The men
are, under an officer, formed into detachments proportional to the im-
portance of the materiel to be embarked.

As soon as a truck has received its load, the wheels of the different
trains are locked together with cord from .5 to .6 inch in diameter,
chocks are placed under the wheels and nailed to the floor, and the
stability of the whole secured by tying the carriages to the rings of the
truck. Straw ropes, or other means, are made use of to prevent friction
between the parts.

The men, with their knapsacks and arms, are divided, under the
superintendence of an officer, into portions corresponding to the capacity
of the cars. Each division is conducted promptly to the car it is to

MILITARY &CTIOXARY. [Tn.

occupy, the men entering first going to the end farthest from tho door,
and so on. They seat themselves, In tiding their arms between their
le^gs, the stock or scabbard resting on tho floor. Fire-arms should
U lai 1 on the seats or stood in corners, except when leaving the cars at
the principal stopping places and stations.

Inspecting. — Immediately before starting, the commanding officer
and conductor of the train inspect the cars to ascertain that every tiling is
in order. They should see that the couplings of tho car containing tho
" materiel" are short enough to insure the contact of the buffers. Tho
officers then enter the car assigned to thorn.

Regulations. — The men are strictly prohibited putting their heads
or arms out of the car while it is in motion ; passing from one car to
another ; uttering loud cries of any kind ; and from leaving the cars at
the station before the signal for doing so is given. Tho men with tho
horses, keep them from putting their heads outside tho car. Th»
them with hay from the hand, until they get used to the motion, hold
them by the bridle or halter, and quiet their fears whilst the loeomotive.
is whistling. In case of any accident, they make a signal outside tho
car, by waving a handkerchief. If at any station tho commander •
it necessary for the men to leave tho cars, after the. time indieated by
the conductor, he informs the officers of tho length of the halt. The
officers remain in the vicinity of the cars containing their men, in order
to direct and govern their movements. The guard posts sentinels
wherever it is necessary, especially at tho doors, to prevent the men
from gathering near or opening them. At a given signal on the bugle,
the men leave the cars in order, and without side-arms. Tho men in
the horse-cars get out over the side. If it becomes necessary to open
the doors of these cars, tho door-bars are first placed in ]>< isition. About
the middle of the trip, as near as possible, tho police-guard and m« n
with the horses, arc relieved. At each halt of more than ten minutes,
the commander, or some other officer, and tho conductor inspect the cars
and especially those which carry the ammunition wa<^>ns. Five min-
utes before starting a bugle-eall fjives the. signal for entering tho cars.
At the station immediately preceding the terminus, the horses are
bridled, and the forage is collected and formed into one bundle f«>:
car. During feeding time thero should be at least one man t<>
two horse-cars. In gem-nil, oats should be distributed only after tho
hones leave the cars. Hay is fed by hand by the drivers whilst the
is in motion. In ordinary weather, the horses are watered only
when tho trip exceeds twrlv.- hours ; and even in this ease they need
b-.it little, and a single ordinary-size pailful suffices for two horses.

TRA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY.

Unloading. — To prevent accidents, it is well to provide one or sev-
eral movable bridges for discharging the horses, which are carriol on
the train. They are about sixteen feet long, a little wider than the car
door, and are provided with hand- rails or ropes, movable at will. Tho
bridge is supported at its upper extremity by a movable trestle of a
height corresponding to the sill of the door, and the cars are unloaded
by passing them in succession in front of this bridge ; or, by fixing to
the forepart of the bridge two strong flanges of iron which rest upon
the floor of the car, the bridge may be applied in succession to each of
the cars to be unloaded.

The non-commissioned officers in charge of the freight cars, imme-
diately on arriving at the station, unload it as originally divided in the
cars by the inverse means used to load it. As soon as the horse-cars reach
the proper position, the men fix the movable bridges, open the doors, and
bring the horses out in the inverse order in which they entered. If the
horses have to be taken out of the same door they entered, the first two are
backed out, and the rest follow after making a half turn. As soon as
a rear team is disengaged it is taken to the place where the harness is
deposited, and harnessed to a carriage which is conducted to the park,
where the harnessing is completed. (Consult GIBBON ; McCLELLAN.)

TRAVELLING ALLOWANCE. Where any commissioned
officer is obliged to incur any extra expense in travelling, and sitting
on general courts-martial, he shall be allowed a reasonable compensa-
tion for such extra expense actually incurred, not exceeding one dollar
and twenty-five cents per day to officers who are not entitled to forage,
and not exceeding one dollar per day to such as shall be entitled to
forage ; (Act March 16, 1802.) (See ORDNANCE ; TRAVELLING FORGE.)

An officer, who travels not less than ten miles from his station,
without troops, escort of military stores, and under special orders in
the case from a superior, or summons to attend a military court, shall
receive ten cents a mile ; or if he prefer if, the actual cost of his trans-
portation, and of his field-allowance of baggage for the whole journey,
provided he has travelled in the customary reasonable manner ; (Reg-
ulations for the Quartermasters Department.}

Whenever any officer or soldier shall be discharged from the ser-
vice, except by way of punishment for any offence, he shall be allowed
his pay and rations, or an equivalent in money, for such term of time
as shall be sufficient for him to travel from the place of his discharge
to the place of his residence, computing at the rate of twenty miles to
»day ; ( Act March 16, 1802.)

TRAVELLING-FORGE. (See ORDNANCE.)

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[Tl

TRAVELLING-KITCHEN. Marshal Saxe, it is believed, first
the idea of cooking while marching, so as to economize tho
strength of soldiers ; have th.-ir food well cooked in all weather, and
::!•• numerous diseases caused by bad cooking, and want of rest.
Colonel Cavulli, of the Sardinian artillery, has with tho same laudable
I embraced a kiu-lu-n-rart in the improvrmrnts suggested by him
to replace the wagons now in use, (see WAGON ;) and an attempt is
here made to elaborate the same idea of a travelling-kitchen, d«-

.ikinjj, making soup, and other cookiiu.% while on a man -h.
Fig. 235 represents a cart, 12 J feet long, mounted on two 0

Fir.. 2r.1.

1 1

TIIA.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 0^5

wheels, and covered with a very light canvas roof with leather-cloth
curtains. A large range or stove forms the body of the vehicle ; its
grate is below the floor, its doors opening on a level with it. A Pa-
pin's digester is inclosed above the grate, in a flue whence the heat may
pass around the double-oven in the rear, or straight up chimney, as
regulated by dampers. At the side of the digester, over the grate, i.s
a range, suited to various cooking vessels. The top of the oven forms
a table nearly 5 feet square, at which three cooks may work, standing
upon the rear platform. A foot-board passes from this platform to
the front platform, where the driver and a cook may stand. Stores
may be placed in the lockers at the side of the range, and under the
rear foot board. The chimney may be turned down, above the roof,
to pass under trees, &c., and may be of any height to secure a good
' draft. By bending the axle like that of an omnibus, the vehicle may bo
hung without danger of top-heaviness. Cooking vessels, more bulky
than heavy, may be suspended from the roof, over the range, when not
in use. The digester may have a capacity of 100 gallons, and an oven,
of 60 to 75' cubic feet, would bo quite adequate to the cooking for 250
men ; or the dimensions of the cart may be smaller, and each company
of 100 men might have its own travelling-kitchen, which would also
furnish oven and cooking utensils for camp.

TKAVERSES — are portions of parapets, which cross the breadth
of the covered- way, at the salient and re-entering places of arms. Other
traverses are also placed between these, where necessary, to afford proper
protection. Traverses are thrown up, to bar enfilade fin-, along any
line of work or passage which is liable to it.

TRAVERSE TABLE — is the tabulated form in which the north-
ing, southing, easting, and westing are made on each individual course
and distance in a traverse, for the purpose of finding readily, by in-
spection of the table, the difference of latitude and departure of any
particular course and distance. Traverse tables afford a simple means
of land-surveying, with compass and chain. If the sum of each adjacent
pair of distances perpendicular to a meridian (departures) without sur-
vey, be multiplied by the northing or southing between them, in suc-
cession round the figure in the same order, the difference between the
sum of the north products and the sum of the south products will be
double the area of the tract. The meridian distance of a course is tho
distance of the middle part of that course from an assumed meridian.
Hence, the double meridian distance of the first course is equal to its
departure. And the double meridian distance of any course is equal
to the double meridian distance of the preceding course, plus its de.
40

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

parture, plus tl; ro of the course itself, having regard to tho

algebraic sign of each.

'i to fnul the, area : 1. Multiply the double meridian distance of
each course by its northing or southing. 2. Place all the plus products
in one column, and all the minus products in anotln i . :i. Add up each
column separately and take their difference. This d. ^ ill bo

double the area of the land. In balancing the work, tli r each

particular course is founjl by the proportion: as the sum of the
courses is to tho error of latitude, (or departure,) so is each particular
course to its correction. When a bearing is duo cast or \\est, the
error of latitude is nothing, and the course must be subtracted from
the sum of the courses before balancing the columns of latitude. And
so with tho departures. Let it be required to find the contents of a
piece of land, of which the following are the field-notes :

TA.

COURSE.

Drs.

STA.

COURSE.

Dis.

N. 46i° W.

20 chains.

S. 56° E.

27.60 chains.

N. M£E.

13.80 "

S. 33£ W.

18.80 "

East

21.23 "

ii° W.

30.9.')

OALOULATIOff.

Courses.

Plat
Chains.

Diff. Lat

Departures. Bala;

D. M. D.

Area.

Are*.

•f

*' Lat

Dep.

N. 46f W.

x. MI i:.

East.

s :*: \:.

B, :t:j \V.
N. 74* W.

20.00
18.80

IT.tt
[6M
MJO

18.77
8.54

&27

1.V44
13.72

10.84

14.51 + 18.8*

— + K6I

1529
10.81 — 1&68

t- 8.43

-14.56

. m-i

— 10.86
— '29.94

1456

in M
A-> -.'

<>:> MI
:,:• n.i

._,,,_, ,„,_,„
N4M1

497.6229

1 827.78M

i.v,2.avj..

VU1

18-140
ror in nc
Acres,

BUM

rthin?.

81.16
.65
16 Pen

54.97

:he«.

5465
Error In wasting.

T.'J.T-'.^ -?..-!-.--

IM.TW
IPMIOM
IMUMI

En
Amwn-104

(Consult Tables and Formula by Capt. T. J. LEE, Top. I

TIIKATY. No pur<-hase, grant, li.- I ther r..nvryanco of

Or of any title or claim thereto from nny Indian nation. «.r tribe
ins within tho bounds of the United States, shall be of any
validity in law or equity, unless tho same be made by

•••red into pursuant to the constitution. IYn:i!'
exceeding i "f $1,000 and 12 months' imprisonment f.r vio-

lation I'd, nevertheless, that any agent or I

of any State, \vho may be present at any treaty m
authority, in the presence and with the approbation of the United

TRL] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 627

States commissioners, may propose to, and adjust with, the Indians the
compensation to bo made to them for land claims within such States,
extinguished by the treaty ; (Act of Congress.)

TRENCH. The communications, boyaux or zigzags, as well as
the parallels or places of arms opened by besiegers against a fortifica-
tion are trenches. They are from 6 to 10 feet wide and about 3 feet
deep. To open the trenches, is to break ground for the purpose of
carrying on approaches towards a besieged place.

TRESTLE OR TRESSEL. The form of a trestle is the same as
a carpenter's horse, that is, a horizontal beam supported by four legs.
(See BRIDGE.) The horizontal beam, termed the cap or ridge beam in
trestles used for field-bridges, is usually of eight-inch scantling, and
from twelve to sixteen feet long. The legs are of four and a half inch
scantling ; they have a spread towards the bottom, the distance be-
tween them across being equal to half the height, and lengthwise of the
cap, their inclination is one-twelfth of the height. They are fastened to
the cap, about 18 inches from the ends, by nails ; the side of the cap
and the top of the leg being properly prepared for a strong, accurate
fit. The legs are connected either in pairs, or else all four by hori-
zontal pieces of three-inch scantling ; sometimes diagonal pieces, going
from the top of one leg to the bottom of the opposite one, are used.

Bridges or trestles are principally useful in crossing small streams
not more than six feet deep. The trestles should not be placed farther
apart than sixteen feet between the ridge beams ; the balks should jut
at least one foot beyond the ridge beams. The action of the current
is counteracted by attaching each trestle to two cables stretched across
the stream above and below the bridge. Another plan consists in
making a network of tough twigs or cords around the legs near the
bottom, and filling it in with broken stone. (Consult MAHAN.)

TRIALS — shall be carried on only between the hours of eight in
the morning and three in the afternoon, except in cases which, in the
opinion of the officer ordering the court, require immediate example ;
(ART. 75.) No officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier shall be tried
a second time for the same offence ; (ART. 87.) And no person shall
be liable to be tried and punished by a general court-martial for any
offence which shall appear to have been committed more than two years
before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person, by
reason of having absented himself, or some other manifest impediment,
shall not have been amenable to justice within that period ; (ART. 88.)

All trials before courts-martial, like those in civil courts, are con-
ducted publicly ; and in order that this publicity may in no case be

MIUTARY DICTIONARY. [Tu.

attended with tumult or indecorum of any kind, tho court is authorized,

by the Tail s and Artieles of W«T, to punish at its discretion, all riotous
and disorderly \ : m or menacing words, signs, or gestures, used

in it- ',(').)

The day and place of meeting of a general court-martial having IT. n
published in or«i rticers appointed as members, tho parties and

witnesses, must attend accordingly. The judge-a*! the open-

ing, calls over the names of tho members, who arrange thcmseh
the right or left of the president, according to rank ; (Aux. 61.)

The members of the court having taken their seats and disposed of
any preliminary matter, tho prisoner, prosecutor, and \\ i
called into court. The prisoner is attended by a guard, or by an
officer, as his rank or tho nature of the charge may dictate ; but during
the trial, should be unfettered and free from any bonds or shackles,
unless there bo danger of escape or rescue. Accommodation is usually
affon led, at detached tables, for the prosecutor and prison
any friend or legal adviser of the prisoner or prosecutor, whose
anco has been desired during the trial ; but the prisoner only can ad-
dress the court, it being an admitted maxim, that conns. 1 arc not to
interfere in tho proceedings or to offer tho slightest remark, much 1. ss
to plead or argue. The judge-advocate, by direction of the
first reads, in an audible voice, the order for holding tho court. 1 It-
then calls over tho names of the members, commencing with the presi-
dent, who is always the highest in rank. He then demands of the
prisoner, whether he has any exception or cause of challenge against
any of the members present, and if he have, he is required to state his
cause of challenge, confining his challenge to one member at a time;
(AiiT. 71.) Alter hearing tho prisoner's objections, the president must
order tho court to be cleared, when the members will deliberate on and
determine the relevancy or validity of the objection; tho member
challenged retiring during the discussion.

Sufficient causes for challenge are: — the expression of an opinion

relative to the subject to be inv.^fig.-it.-d ; having been a member of i\

court of inquiry which gave an opinion; or of another general eourt-

J, in which the circumstances were directly investigated ; or of

r genera! cnurt-martial in which the circumstances were ;•

incidentally and an opinion formed thereon; prejudice, malice,

or the like. Tl • of challenge is not confined to the pri

for there may lie sources of prejudice in favor of the prisoner a- w. 11

as against him, ami urgent motives that may sway to acquit, as well

as condemn. When the prisoner and prosecutor decline to challenge

Tin.]. MILITARY DICTIONARY. <;oy

any of the members, or where the causes of challenge have been dis-
allowed, the judge-advocate proceeds to administer to the members
of the court, the oath prescribed by the 69th Article of War, which
is in the following words : " You, A. B., do swear, that you will well
and truly try and determine, according to evidence, the matter now
before you, between the United States of America and the prisoner to
be tried ; and that you will duly administer justice according to the
provisions of ' an act establishing rules and articles for the government
of the armies of the United States,' without partiality, favor or affec-
tion : and if any doubt shall arise, not explained by said articles, ac-
cording to your understanding and the custom of war in like cases :
and you do further swear, that you will not divulge the sentence of the
court, until it shall be published by the proper authority : neither will
you disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member
of the court-martial, unless required to give evidence thereof, as a wit-
ness, by a court of justice in due course of law. So help you God."
The oath is taken by each member holding up his right hand and re-
peating the words after the judge-advocate. After the oath has been
administered to all the members, the president administers to the
judge-advocate, the particular oath of secrecy to be observed by him,
and which, as prescribed by Article 69, is as follows : " You, A. B.,
do swear that you will not disclose or discover the vote or opinion of
any particular member of the court-martial, unless required to give
evidence thereof as a witness, by a court of justice in due course of law,
nor divulge the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority
until it shall be duly disclosed by the same. So help you God."

The oath taken by the president and members contains. a twofold
obligation to secrecy : 1st, That they will not divulge the sentence of
the court, until it shall be published by proper authority ; and, 2d, That
they shall not disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any partic-
ular member of the court-martial, unless required to give evidence
thereof by a court of justice, in a due course of law. Both these ob-
ligations have their foundation in reason and good policy.

No sentence of a general court-martial is complete or final, until it
has been duly approved. Until that period it is, strictly speaking, no
more than an opinion, which is subject to alteration or revisal. In this
interval, the communication of that opinion could answer no ends of
justice, but might, in many cases, tend to frustrate them. The obli-
gation to perpetual secrecy, with regard to the votes or opinions of the
particular members of the court, is likewise founded on the wisest
policy. The officers who compose a military tribunal are, in a great

M1UTAKY DICTIONARY. [TRL

degree, dependent for their preferment on the President. They are
<Men, in some measure, under the influence of their commander-i
— considerations \\hich might impair justice. This danger i-
best obviatv «1 l>y the confidence and security which every member pos-
sceeoa, that his particular opinion is never to be divulged. Another
reason is, that the individual members of the court may not 1
posed to the resentment of parties and their connections, \\hich ran
fail to be excited by those sentences, which courts-martial are
d to award.. It may be necessary rs, in the course of

thi ir duty, daily, to associate and frequently to be sent on the same
command or service, with a person against whom they have given an
unfavorable vote or opinion on a court-martial. The publicity of these
votes or opinions would create the most dangerous animosities, equally
fatal to the peace and security of individuals, and prejudicial to tin-
public service.

The oath which is taken by the judge-advocate, contains the same
obligation to secrecy, except so far as it relates to the person who has
the approving or disapproving of the sentence of the court. It is not
inconsistent with his oath or duty, f«»r the judge-advocate to commu-
nicate to the proper authority, his views of the proceedings of the
court.

The judge-advocate is, however, bound by oath, as well as the
members of the court, to maintain the strictest secrecy with regard to
the votes or opinions of individuals for the reasons above stated. The
oath taken by the members of the court commences with these words :
" You, A. B., do swear that you will well and truly try and determine,

!ing to evidence, the matter now before you, between the I
States of America and the prisoner to be tried ; " (Am. 69.) rJ !

• n, "prisoner," in the singular number, seems to imply that the
H\vearin_', and consequently the trial, should in each case be scj
That course should therefore be pursued.

Application to delay the assembling of the court, from the absence
or indisposition of the witnesses, the illness of the parties, or other cause,
should }„• made, when practicable, to the authority roimmug the court;
but application to put off or suspend the trial may be ur^ed \\ith a
court-martial, subsequent to the swearing of the members. It may be
supported by affidavit, and the court, in allowing it t-. prevail, must be
satisfied, if the cause be absence of a witness, that the testimony pro-
posed to be offered is material, and that the applicant cannot have sub-
stantial justice without it. TV -h -reforo, which caeh wifi
intended to prove, must be set forth in the application, and it must also

TBI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. GG1

be shown that the absence of the witness is not attributable to any
neglect of the applicant.

A precise period of delay must be applied for, and it must be made
to appear that there is reasonable expectation of procuring the attend-
ance of the witness by the stated time ; or, if the absence of a witness
be attributed to his illness, a surgeon, by oral testimony, or by affidavit,
must state the inability of the witness to the court, the nature of his
disease, and the time which will probably elapse before the witness
may be able to give his testimony. The court must obviously be ad-
journed at any period of its proceedings, prior to the final close of the
prosecution and defence, on satisfactory proof, by a medical officer, that
the prisoner is in such a state, that actual danger to his health would
arise from his attendance in court ; and where the prisoner is so ill as
to render it probable that his inability to attend the court will be of
such continuance as to operate to the inconvenience of the service,
either by the detention of the members of the court from their regi-
ments, or from other cause, the court may be dissolved by the authority
which convened it. Though the prisoner may have been arraigned, and
the trial proceeded with, the prisoner, on recovery, would be amenable
to trial by another court. The illness of the prosecutor would, in few
cases, justify the suspension of the trial, excepting, perhaps, for a very
limited period ; all prosecutions before courts-martial being considered
at the suit of the United States, or an individual State, as the case
may be. The court being regularly constituted, and every preliminary
form gone through, the judge-advocate, as prosecutor for the United
States, desires the prisoner to listen to the charge or charges brought
against him, which he reads with an audible voice, and then the prisoner
is asked, whether he is guilty or not guilty of the matter of accusation.

The charge being sufficient, or not objected to, the prisoner must
plead either : 1st, Guilty ; or 2d, Specially to the jurisdiction, or in bar ;
or 3d, The general plea of not guilty, which is the usual course where
the prisoner makes a defence.

If from obstinacy and design the prisoner stand mute, or answer
foreign to the purpose, the court may proceed to trial and judgment,
as if the prisoner had regularly pleaded not guilty, (ART. 70;) but if
the prisoner plead guilty, the court will proceed to determine what
punishment shall be awarded, and to pronounce sentence thereon.
Preparatory to this, in all cases where the punishment of the oflfenco
charged is discretionary, and especially where the discretion includes
a wide range and great variety of punishment, and the specifications do
not show all the circumstances attending the offence, the court should

t;.",v> illUTAUY DICTIONARY. [Tw.

•• e ami report, in its proceedings, any evidence the judgc-advoosJi

may offer, for tho purpose of illustrating the actual character of the

ofleoee, notwithstanding the party accused may have pleaded guilty ;

\ idenoe being necessary to an enlightened exercise of tho discro-

f tho court, in measuring the punishment, as well as for tho ap-

•4 authority. If there be any exception to this rule, it is whore

tho sp< :i is so full aii'l precise as to disclose all the cirenm

<-f mitigati'-n or >u which accompany the offence. \Yhon that

is theca-t , "i- \\hen tho punishment is fixed, and no discretion is allowed,

explanatory testimony cannot bo needed.

Special pleas are either to the jurisdiction of the court, or in bar of
the charge. If an officer or soldier be arraigned l»y a court not '.
constituted, cither as to tho authority by which it is assembled, or as
to the number and rank of its members, or other similar ea
prisoner may except to the jurisdiction of the court-martial. Special
picas in bar go to the merits of the case, and set forth a reason why,
evi-n admitting the charge to bo true, it should be dismissed, and the
prisoner discharged. A former acquittal or conviction of tho. same
offence would obviously be a valid bar, except in case of appe;..
a regimental to a general court-martial. Though the facts in
should be charged to have happened more than two years prior to tho.
date of the order for the assembling of the court-martial, yet it
the province of the court, unless objection be made, to inquire into the
of the impediment in the outset. It would be to presume the
illegality of the court, whereas tho court should assume that manifest

liniont to earlier trial did exist, and leave the facts to 1..
by wi: i the ordinary course. A pardon may be pleaded in

bar. If full, it at once destroys the end and purpose of charge, by re-
mitting that punishment which tho prosecution M-eks to indict ;
if conditional, the performance of the condition must be known ; thus,
a soldi M-d for desertion, must plead a general pardon, uiid

prove that he surrendered himself within the stipulated p. rind.

No officer or soldier, being acquitted or convicted of an offence, is
liable to be tried a second time for the same. p.ut this provision ap-
plies solely to trials for the same incidental act and crime, and to such
persons as have, in the first instance, beta 1- -ally tried. If any irreg-
ularity take place <.n th trial rendering it illegal and void, the prisomr
must bo discharged, and be regarded as standing in the same situation
as before the co 'legal proceed i:

charge may 1 against the prisoner who can-

not plead the previous illegal trial in bar.

TRI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 633

A prisoner cannot plead in bar that he has not been furnished with
a copy of the charges, or that the copy furnished him differed from that
on which he has been arraigned. It is customary and proper to furnish
him with a correct copy ; but the omission shall not make void, though
it may postpone the trial. If the special plea in bar be such that, if
true, the charge should be dismissed and the prisoner discharged, the
judge-advocate should be called on to answer it. If he does not admit
it to be true, the prisoner must produce evidence to the points alleged
therein ; and if, on deliberation, the plea be found true, the facts being
recorded, the court will adjourn and the president submit the proceed-
ings to the officer by whose order the court was convened, with a view
to the immediate discharge of the prisoner. The ordinary plea is not
guilty, in which case the trial proceeds. The judge advocate cautions
all witnesses on the trial to withdraw, and to return to court, only on
being called. He then proceeds to the examination of witnesses, and
to the reading and proof of any written evidence he may have to bring
forward. After a prisoner has been arraigned on specific charges, it is
irregular for a court-martial to admit any additional charge against
him, even though he may not have entered on his defence. The Jrial
on the charges first preferred, must be regularly concluded, when, if
necessary, the prisoner may be tried on any further accusation brought
against him. On the trial of cases not capital, before courts-martial,
the deposition of witnesses not in the line or staff of the army, may be
taken before some justice of the peace, and read in evidence, provided,
the prosecutor and person accused are present at the same, or are duly
notified thereof. The examination of witnesses is invariably in the
presence of the court ; because, the countenance, looks, and gestures of
a witness add to, or take away from, the weight of his testimony. It
is usually by interrogation, sometimes by narration ; in either case, the
judge-advocate records the evidence, as nearly as possible, in the ex-
press words of the witness. All evidence, whatever, should be recorded
on the proceedings, in the order in which it is received by the court.
A question to a witness is registered before enunciation ; when once
entered, it cannot be expunged, except by the consent of the parties
before the court ; if not permitted to be put to. the witness, it still ap-
pears on the proceedings accompanied by the decision of the court.
The examination in chief of each particular witness being ended, the
cross-examination usually follows, though it is optional with the pris-
oner to defer it to the final close of the examination in chief. The re-
examination by the prosecutor, on such new points as the prisoner may

634 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [TEI.

have made, succeeds the cross-examination, and finally, the court puts
such questions as in its judgment may tend to elk-it tlu> truth.

It is customary, \\hen d«med necessary by the court, or desir-
a witn • him, immediately before- In- leaves the court,

the record of his evidence, which he is desired to correct i:
and, with this view, any remark or explanation 1 upon the

proceedings. No erasure or obliteration is. h<> \\ever, admitted,
essentially necessary that the authority which has to review ti.
tence, should have the most ample means of judging, not only of any
\ in the. statements of a witness, but of any incident which
may be made the subject of remark, by cither party in addressing the
court.

Although a list of witnesses, summoned by the judge-advoea
furnished to the court on assembling, it is not held imperative on the
prosecutor to examine such witness; if he should not do so, li-
the prisoner has a right to cull any of them. Should the pi ;
having closed his cross-examination, think proper subsequently to recall
a prosecutor's witness in his defence, the examination is held to !>.• in
chief, and the witness is subject to cross-examination by tin
Although either party may have concluded his case, or the regular
examination of a witness, \ et should a material question have U en
omitted, it is usually submitted by the party to the president, for the
consideration of the court, which generally permits it to be put. The
prisoner being placed on his defence, may proceed at once to t:
amination of witnesses ; firstly, to meet the charge, and secondly, to
a.s to character, reserving his address to the court, until the con-
clusion of such examination. The prisoner, having finished the exam-
ination in chief of each witness, the proftOOUttai cross-examines; the
prisoner re-examines, to the extent allowed to the pn ,'iut is,

on such new points as the cross-examinfition may have touched on, and
the court puts any questions deemed necessary. The prisoner, having
finally closed his examination of witnesses, and selecting this p» :
address the court, offers such statement or argument as he ma\
conducive to weaken the force of the pp.se, -ution, by placing his con-
duet in the most favorable light, account palliating facts, con-
futing or removing any imputation ns to motives; answering the argu-
ments of the prosecutor, contrasting, comparing, and comment!;
any contradictory evidence; summing up tin- evidence on both sides,
wf»T'' the - nises to favor the defence, and, finally, presenting
his deductions therefrom.

The utmost liberty consistent with .the interest of parties not before

TBI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 035

the court and with the respect due to the court itself, should, at all
times, be allowed a prisoner. As he has an undoubted right to im-
peach, by evidence, the character of the witnesses brought against him,
so he is justified in contrasting and remarking on their testimony, and
on the motives by which they, or the prosecutor, may have been influ-
enced. All coarse and insulting language is, however, to be avoided,
nor ought invective to be indulged in, as the most pointed defence may
be couched in the most decorous language. The court will prevent the
prisoner from adverting to parties not before the court, or only alluded
to in evidence, further than may bo actually necessary to his own ex-
culpation. It may sometimes happen, that the party accused may find
it absolutely necessary, in defence of himself, to throw blame and even
criminality on others, who are no parties to the trial ; nor can a pris-
oner be refused that liberty, which is essential to his own justification.
It is sufficient for the party aggrieved, that the law can furnish ample
redress against all calumnious or unjust accusations. The court is bound
to hear whatever address, in his defence, the accused may think fit to
offer, not being in itself contemptuous or disrespectful.

It is competent to a court, if it think proper, to caution the prisoner,
as he proceeds, that, in its opinion, such a line of defence as he may be
pursuing would probably not weigh with the court, nor operate in his
favor ; but, to decide against hearing him state arguments, which, not-
withstanding such caution, he might persist in putting forward, as
grounds of justification, or extenuation, (such arguments not being ille-
gal in themselves,) is going beyond what any court would be warranted
in doing. It occasionally happens, that, on presenting to the court a
written address, the prisoner is unequal to the task of reading it, from
indisposition or nervous excitement ; on such occasions, the judge-advo-
cate is sometimes requested by the president to read it ; but, as the
impression which might be anticipated to be made by it, may, in the
judgment of the prisoner, be affected more or less by the manner of its
delivery, courts-martial generally feel disposed to concede to the accused
the indulgence of permitting it to be read by any friend named by him,
particularly if that friend be a military man, or if the judge-advocate be
the actual prosecutor. Courts-martial are particularly guarded in ad-
hering to the custom of resisting every attempt on the part of counsel
to address them. A lawyer is not recognized by a court-martial, though
his presence is tolerated, as a friend of the prisoner, to assist him by
advice in preparing questions for witnesses, in taking notes, and shaping
his defence.

The prisoner having closed his defence, the prosecutor is entitled to

636 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Tni.

rq>ly, when \\itnesses have been examined on the defence, or \\luro
in -w tacts are opened in the address. Thus, though no evidence n.
brought forward by the pr t should he advert to anv ea-

by drawing a parallel, attempt to draw his justification from it, the
prosecutor will be permitted to observe on the case so cited. \Yhrn
the court allows the prosecutor to reply, it general! him a

reasonable time to prepare it ; and, upon his reading it, the trial ceases.

Should the prisoner have examined witnesses to points not ten,
on in the prosecution, or should he have entered on an examination im-
peaching the credibility of the prosecutor's evidence, the prosecutor is
allowed to examine witnesses to the new matter; the court beii.j
ful to confine him within the limits of this rule, which extends to the
re-establishing the character of his witnesses, to impeaching those of the
defence, and to rebutting the new matter brought forward by the pris-
oner, supported by evidence. lie cannot be allowed to examine on any
points, which, in their nature, he might have forese.-n previously to the
defence of the prisoner. The prosecutor will not be permitted to bring
forward evidence to rebut or counteract the effect of matter elicited by
his own cross-examination ; but is strictly confined to new matter intro-
duced by the prisoner, and supported by his examination in chief. A
defence, resting on motives, or qualifying the imputation attaching to
facts, generally lets in evidence in reply ; as, in such cases, the prisoner
usually adverts, by evidence, to matter which it would have bet n impos-
sible for the prosecutor to anticipate. The admissibility of evidence, in
reply, may generally be determined by the answer to the qu-
Could the prosecutor have foreseen this ? Is it evidently new matter ?
Is the object of the further inquiry to re-establish the character of the
M-itncsses impeached by evidence (not by declamation) in the. course
of the defence, or is it to impeach the character of the prisoiie
nesses? Cross-examination of such new witnesses, to an extent limited
by the examination in chief, that is, confined to such points or m./
the prosecutor shall have examined on, is allowed on the part of the
prisoner. (See CHALLENGE ; COURT-MARTIAL; JURISDICTION. Consult
MACOMD.)

TRIGGER. It has blade, tang or fin md hole for sort*

(See ARMS.)

TBIGONOMBTBY, Ordinary trigonometrical tal M the

•hm «>f the ; nes, cosines, tangents, and cot.v I ffttrjf t.n

seconds; but if the values of any one of the four be computed f"i- the

different angles between 0 and 90°, the values of all the others will be

obtained at the same time. 'Urns, since cos. A = sin. (00° — A), a tablo

TBI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 637

of the values of the sine Ls also a table of the values of the cosine ; and
since tan. A = sin. A •*• cos. A, the logarithm of the tangent of any
angle is obtained by subtracting the logarithm of the cosine from the
logarithm of the sine, and the logarithm of the cotangent by subtracting
the logarithm of the sine from that of the cosine. It is usual to desig-
nate the semi-circumference of a circle whose radius is 1 by IT =
3.14159265.

The solution of triangles is the proper object of trigonometry, and
if tables contain the logarithms of the sines, cosines, tangents, and co-
tangents to every minute or smaller division of the quadrant, the means
will be easy of applying such tables to each particular case ; as, of the
six parts of which a triangle consists, it is known from geometry that
when any three except the three angles are known, all the rest are
determined.

Plane Trigonometry.

A, B, 0, the three angles ; a, 6, c, the three sides respectively opposite to
them ; _Z?, the tabular radius ; S, the area of the triangle j p = $ (a + 5 + c).

Right-angled Triangles : A being the right angle.

,— tang. B sin. B

Oblique-angled Triangles :

sin. A sin. B sin. 0
Tang. i(A-B) = tang, i (A + B) x £~

c= V

„ 2«&cos. C\
J -- jg - 1

-a) (p-b) (p - e)

General Formula :

R. sin. (a ± 5) = sin. a cos. J ± sin. 5 cos. a.
R. cos. (-1 ± &) = cos. a cos. & ± sin. a sin. 5.
K (sin. a ± sin. 5) = 2 sin. i (a ± ft) cos. £ (a ± 5).
JR. (cos. a + cos. 5) = 2 cos. | (a + 6) cos. 1 (a - 5).
-ft. (cos. a - cos. 5) = 2 sin. $ (a + &) sin. i (a - 5).
sin. a + sin. & tang. -^ (V? + &)cot. $(a— fr).
sin. a - sin. 5 ^23

- R cos. <z

Chord of u4 = 2 sin.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[TROI

TROOP. A company of cavalry. A particular beat of tho drum.

TROPHY. Flags, colors, &c., captured fr..m u . and

shown or treasured as a t«k. M « >f \i.-t.-r\. Among the ancients, a
trophy consisted of a pile or heap of arms taken from tin- van.;
troops, and raised by the conquerors on an eminence on tin- ii« 1<1 of
battle. As these were usually d< diea;

Fio. SML ... . .

/r, ^ some of the gods, it was consi.:

Vjj '"\1| - a to demolish a trophy.

TROUS-DE-LOUP— or trapholes; are
rows of pits in the form of inverted cones.
They should bo either 2£ or 8 foot deep, so
as not to be serviceable to tin- MM
riflemen. They should he traced in a cheek
ered form, and a strong pointed stake should
bo driven in the middle of each, ( i
(See OBSTACLES.)

TRUCK. Th- Ita truck v

• COO Ibs., and is designed for trans]..
guns in casemate galleries. The xturc (ruck

XIXIXIXIXI

— '!/

XIXIXIXI

ffeighs 80 Ibs ; it is a common hand truck used for moving boxes.

TRUNNION. Short cylinder projecting from a piece of ordnance
by which it rests upon its carriage. (See ORDNANCE.)

TRUSS. (See CARPENTRY.)

TUMBLER. (See ARMS ; LOCK ; MAYNARD'S Primer.)

UNDER. The correlative of over. (See COMMAND ; OBEDIENCB ;
OVER ; SUPERIOR.)

UNDRESS. Authorized habitual dress, not full uniform. The
French designate the full dress as, grande tcniie ; the undress, as petite
tenue.

UNIFORM. Prescribed dress. The Tr. sid. nt shall h.i
to preMTil..- the uniform of tho army ; (ART. 100.)

UNMILITARY. Contrary to rules of di unworthy of a

-PIKE. (&«SPIKIKO.)

UPBRAID. Any officer or soldier, who shall upbraid another for re-
.ill hirnsrlf bi- punished as achallu T. 28.)

UTENSILS — for camp and garrison are styled eamp at :
equipage, and are furnislt.'l by the ouartcnnastcr's department. Tho
regulations all-' • -ral oflie.-r. tlire,- tents in the iH'ld. « i

no hatchet ; a field or staff officer above the rank of captain, two

VKL.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

C39

tents in the field, one axe and one hatchet ; other staff officers or cap-
tains, one tent in the field, one axe and one hatchet; suUdu-nis of a
company, to every two, one tent in the field, one axe and one hatchet ;
to every 15 foot and 13 mounted men, one tent in the field, two spades,
two axes, two pickaxes, two hatchets, two camp kettles, and five mess
pans. Bed sacks are provided for troops in garrison, and iron pots
may be furnished to them instead of camp kettles. Requisitions will
be sent to the quartermaster-general for the authorized flags, colors,
standards, guidons, drums, fifes, bugles and trumpets. The prescribed
cooking utensils are evidently not adapted to field-service. The soldier
is made too dependent on a baggage train. Some tools deemed necessary
for service in the French army are also omitted in the enumeration of
camp equipage furnished to the United States troops. (See TOOLS.)

YALUE. (See WEIGHTS.)

VANGUARD. Advanced guard.

VEDETTES OR VIDETTES. Sentries upon outposts, so placed
that they can best observe the movements of an enemy, and communi-
cate by signal to their respective posts and with each other.

VELOCITIES. (See INITIAL.) Measurement of distances by sound.
The velocity of sound, in one second of time at 32° Fahrenheit in dry
air, is about 1,090 English feet. For any higher temperature, add 1
foot for every degree of the. thermometer above 32°. The measure-
ment of distances by sound should always be made, if possible, in calm,
dry weather. In cases of wind, the velocity per second must be cor-
rected by the quantity, / cos. d ; f being the force of the wind in feet
per second, and d the angle which its direction makes with that of the
sound. Or, in general, in dry air,

v = 1,090 feet + (t ° — 32°) ± / cos. d.

TELOCITY AND FORCE OF WINDS.

Velocity in miles
per hour.

A wind, when it does not exceed the velocity oppo-
site to i,t, may be denominated

Velocity per
ju-cond.

Force on a
square foot

6 8

feet.
10

Ibs.
0.129

13 6

0.915

19 5

2.059

34 1

5.718

47 7

11.207

54 5

14.638

68 2

100

22.872

81 8

120

32.926

102.3

a violent hurricane, that tears up trees, etc.

150

51.426

040 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [ v , N.

V T.N'T. The opening or passage in fire-arms, by means
the charge is ignited. The diameter of the vent is two-tenths of an
inch in ordnance, except the epnmvette, which is one-tenth. '1 lie vonts
of brass guns are bored in \ I of \\r<>ught copper, which are

1 into the gun.

VERDICT. (See 1

VETERAN. An old soldier. T\v, i ^erv ice in the army

entitles an enlisted soldier to the privileges of the army asylum. (See
ASYLUM.)

VK'IT UlNARY. Veterinary surgeons are alone competent t<>

1 grave cases of wounds and diseases in h«>rs.-s. Officer-, l.-w, -ver,
may prevent accidents by watchfulness, recognize the existence of ail-
ments, ajid by prompt care frequently relieve the horse entirely.

Limping. — The particular lameness is distinguished at a walk by
observing that if a fore foot is lame, the horse raises the corresponding
fore quarter before putting his foot to the ground. If a hind foot, ho
raises the hind quarter. At a trot, the contrary takes place. The
horse should be watched in pacing • \er ground of different degrees of
hardness. For alt lameness not connected with the shoe, prescribe
• •oM bathing, poultices. "When there is pain in th< - ith

swelling of the tissues, rub with spirits.

Lameness from shoeing may proceed : 1st, from pricking. If the
nail be at once withdrawn, and the pricking is not deep, the lameness is
not immediate. It is necessary, however,"to enlarge the opening. intro-X
duce the essence of turpentine, and dress with pledget, or lint coated
with the same substance ; act in the same way if the wound is old, after
having taken out the nail, and cleared away to the bottom of the
opening.

2. Blcyme, or inflammation in the foot of the horse between the
sole and the bone. It is recognized by a red spot. Clear away the

to the bottom, and dress as al»«ve. T«> prevent a return of the,
disease, it is perhaps necessary to clear away to the bottom of the
eral successive shocings..

3. Solbature is caused by the iron resting on the solo, or by a hard
body introduced between the iron and the sole: clear the wound, d

. apply a pledget coated with turpentine and retained in its placu by
a splint. K. adjust the shoe.

4. Burnt sole is caused by nn iron being applied when too hot and
held too long. Act as in case of solhaturr.

m shoeing nre all shown by limping. The ;
cise scat of the accident is ascertained l.y pinching with the farrier's

VET.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 041

pincers. If the horse is to march, attach tho shoe with but few nails,
simply to hold it in its place.

Founder. — There is great heat in the foot without apparent cause.
The horse walks with difficulty, resting on the heel ; he shows discom-
fort, want of appetite, fever. It is necessary to unshoe him ; cut t!:e
horn of the hoof to the quick towards the toe ; even make it bleed ;
bathe with cold salt water ; envelop the whole foot with linen soaked
in vinegar to the crown ; later, rub hard from the ham to the knees
with essence of turpentine and camphorated spirits : diet, bran with
water. The horse must not march.

Chaps, serosity of limbs. — These exact cleanliness, washing with
warm water and a little spirit of wine, and towards the termination of
the ailment, with sub-acetate of lead.

Injuries. — At the least appearance of tumor stop the development
of inflammation by washing with fresh water, vinegared or salted.
Strengthen the tissues by friction with, brandy, united with soap or
camphor. Take off the load. Put on the saddle in such a way as to
leave a space between it and the tumor. If the ailment increases, not-
withstanding these precautions, it is necessary to relieve the horse from
all weight, continuing the washings and rubbings. If the tumor still
increases, open it. When opened wash the wound once a day only ;
do not remove the pus entirely ; prevent its contact with the air by
means of oakum or lint. When the wound begins to heal, its cicatriza-
tion may be hastened by washing with sub-acetate of lead. When, from
their appearance tumors of the withers and loins seem to be soft and
inclose red water, cut tho hair smooth and apply a blister ointment,
which it is rarely necessary to renew. When a horse is wounded under
the tail, clean the wound and put in it the unguentum populi. For
slight contusions from kicking, use twice a day the unguentum populi,
and then rub the upper part with camphorated spirits. If the pain is
severe, bleed and foment with warm mallows water.

Internal affections. — The ordinary symptoms are : dry and frequent
cough, uneasiness and sadness, disgust of food, falling off; alteration of
flank ; hair not smooth ; fever. Separate the horse from others ; put
him to diet on bran, attending to the prescriptions of the veterinary
surgeon. Examine the eyes, gently reversing the eylids, pass the hand
into the mouth of the horse ; if the eye is red and the mouth very hot,
bleed the horse, drawing from him 8 Ibs. of blood ; leave him two
hours without eating ; rub him down well, cover him and give him
some injections ; replace fris allowance of oats with warm barbotage
of barley-flour as much as possible. Tor want of appetite it is sufficient
41

642 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Vic.

sometimes to sprinkle tho forage with salt rse, in

rising or lying down, looks at his flanks with an unquiet air he kas
colic. In this case it is often mfficiflBt in order to cure him to rub hard
withrtimpled linen upon the. belly, and apply injections of decoctions of
mallov> If an hour <>r two after tho first trouble the colic

is n«>t over, rail I n ; death may take plaee in |

time. If a horse tries often to urinate, and shows pain, it :
of urine. Recourse must bo had to emollient injections, and to i
drinks. In certain diseases of the breast prompt succor is
In grave cases, in the absence of tho veterinary, put Misters or
upon tho breast, and bleed.

The necessary tools, &c., are : syringes, bistouries, tape ni
to setons, dry oakum, camphorated spirits, soap, i;i: • of turpen-

tine, liquid, sub-acetate of lead, foot ointment, and ui«inenium ]><>j,nli.
(See GLANDERS; HORSE. Consult Memorial des Ojficicrs (Tliifanterie
eide Cavalerie ; SKINNER'S Yviiutt.)

VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, TVmg contemptuous
or disrespectful words against, punishable l>y eashierini: «>r othei ••.-.
tho discretion of a court-martial ; (Am. 5.)

VICTUALS. Whosoever shall relieve the enemy with n
victuals, or ammunition, or shall knowingly harbor or protect an enemy
shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the
sentence of a court-martial ; (ART. f><'>.)

VILLAGES. Cavalry, the better to preserve their horses, should

occupy villages whenever the distance of tho enemy, and the tim.

sary to repair to its post in battle, will permit. Their quarters should

be preferably farmhouses or taverns having large stables. Posts are

established by the colonel or commanding officer, and the squadrons

conducted to their quarters by their respective captains. Win-re in an

'.onal case regular distributions arc not made, the which

the household assigned as quarters presents nre equallv d'uided.

About two hours after their arrival the squadrons in \\ater

I and then give for and infai.t lionld,

Mlien thus cantoned near an enemy, occupy, \\ln-n-ver it can l>e done,

houses which will hold an entire company or some constitiu nt fraction

of ac< IK] at break of day stand to their arms. When in tho

'iimen*, cavalry should \va'. h ov, r th-- saf. ty of the < anton-

inent liy d AM infantry l.y ni-jht; and in the of an

should 1x5 protected by an advance guard aid natural or

r.rtificial •

YIN KI JAR. On board ship vinegar is essential to the comfort of

VOL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 643

horses, and should be freely used by sponging their mouths and noses
repeatedly, and also their mangers. A small portion of vinegar drank
with water supplies the waste of perspiration of men in the field. It is
better than rum or whiskey ; it allays thirst, and men who use it avoid
the danger of drinking cold water when heated, and are not fevered as
they are too apt to be by the use of spirituous liquors ; (Dr. RUSH.)

VIOLENCE. Any officer or soldier who shall offer any violence
against his superior officer, being in the execution of his office, on any
pretence whatsoever, punished by death or otherwise, according to the
nature of his offence ; (ART. 9.) Violence to any person who brings
provisions to the camp, garrisons, or quarters to the forces of the United
States employed in any part out of the said States, punishable in like
manner ; (ART. 51.)

VOLUNTEERS. Whereas sundry corps of artillery, cavalry,
and infantry now exist in several of the States, which by the laws, cus-
toms, or usages thereof, have not been incorporated with, or subject to,
the general regulations of the militia; such corps shall retain their
accustomed privileges, subject, nevertheless, to all other duties required
by this act in like manner with the other militia; (Act, May 8, 1792.)
(See CALLING FORTH MILITIA ; and MILITIA.)

This class of uniformed militia exists in every State of the Union.
It is a regular, unpaid force, composed generally of men eng^%ed in such
private business operations, as must always prevent their being em-
ployed except in their immediate vicinage. But in cases of riot, or the
defence of their own firesides, town or city, experience has shown it to be
a most reliable organization. There is, however, another class of troops,
also called volunteers, which have from time to time been raised by
Congress for temporary purposes. Such troops are properly United
States and not State troops. The manner in which their officers are to
be appointed is therefore always designated by Congress. The act of
May 28, 1798, authorized the President to appoint the company officers
of such volunteers ; the act of June 22, 1798, directed that the field-
officers of such volunteers should be appointed by the President and
Senate ; the act of May 23, 1836, directed that the officers of volunteers
then raised, should be appointed in the manner prescribed by law in
the several States and Territories to which such companies, battalions,
squadrons, regiments, brigades, or divisions shall respectively belong ;
the act of March 3, 1839, applies the same provision to the volunteers
then authorized; the act of May 13, 1846, contains the same provision
as to appointment of officers ; and the act of June 26, 1846, authorizes
the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to

044 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [You

appoint such number of major-generals and brigadier- . :i3 tho

organization of such volunteer forces (raised by the act of Muy 1 :>. 1 Mil)
into brigades and divisions, may render necessary ; and in ca>e the
brigades <T divisions of volunteers at any time in the service shall be
reduced in number, the brigadit r-^eiierals and major-generals i
provided for shall be discharged in proportion to tho reduction in tho
number of brigades and divi.-.

There should, then, be no question that these volunteers are Tinted
I troops raised by ('.UILM.-S under its constitutional authority to
raise and support armies; but, strangely enough, the ollicers have been
usually commissioned by their respective .States. It becomes, therefore,
an important question to ascertain, if possible, by experience, \\ h« -tin T
the advantages which attend raising armies in this particular v
not greatly counterbalanced by its disadvantages; whether t!
cieney of such an irregular force is in any decree coinriu nsura;
its cost; and whether deaths, diseases, discharges, and other casualties
do not in such a force accumulate in such numbers as to deprive: the
Government of the moral right thus uselessly to sacrifice the citizens
of the country.

The statistics of the Mexican war, published by Congress, (Do<
House of Representatives, 31st. Congress, 1st Session,) furnish the fol-
lowing startling facts : —

REGULAR ARMY. AGGREGATE FORCE. LENGTH OF SERVICE.

Old establishment, 15,736 ninths.

Additional force, 11,180 15

The old establishment of tho regular army, with an ng^
15,736 men during 26 months' service, lost by discharges for disability
1,782 men ; by ordinary deaths, 2,623 men ; and by deaths from
wounds in battle, 792 men.

The additional regular force, with nn n«i£rerr.itc of 11.1S6 men
during 15 months' service, lost by discharges lor disability 707 men;
by ordinary deaths, 2,091 men ; and by deaths from wounds in battle,

.-!,.

The volunteer force, with an aggrega -uen dur'n

average of 10 months' service. l«.-t by discharges for disability
men ; by ordinary deaths, 6,256 men; and by deaths from wounds in

•'.I:; men.

Th" mi: md ed in battle were : In tho old establishment,

men; in the additional regular force. *J7'3 men ; and in the vohm-
',. Tho number of deser' in the whole regular

force, 2,849 men ; and in the volunteer force, 3,K7<> men.

VOL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 645

These statistics require no commentary to show the waste of life
and money in employing volunteers. But without explanation tln-y <!<>
not show the numbers of each description offeree engaged in the <l.i!'. T.
ent battl.es of Mexico, or how, with such a large aggregate of forces
employed in Mexico, Taylor's battles were fought with never more than
6,000 men, and Scott had at his disposition only about 11,000 men for
the march from Puebla and the capture of the city of Mexico. An
analysis of the aggregates of forces engaged in those battles is therefore
necessary, to ascertain by whom they were won, and this will lead to
a subsequent inquiry, which will show why such ostentatious aggregates
furnished so small a body of men for the great operations of the war.

Regular Army. — Ex-Doc. 24, House of Representatives, 31st Con-
gress, 1st Session, shows that the old regular force on the frontier of
Texas, May, 1846, at the commencement of the war was 3,554 men
present and absent. This force alone under Taylor fought the battles
on the Rio Grande, with an aggregate loss of killed in battle and died
of wounds, of 72 men. There were wounded in the same affairs 147
men. *

May 24, volunteers began to arrive on the Rio Grande. August 1,
General Taylor reports that the volunteer forces ordered to report to
him are much greater than he can employ, and regrets that one divi-
sion of volunteers should not have been encamped at Pass Christian,
where it could have been instructed ; (Doc. 119, House of Representa-
tives, 29th Congress, 2d Session.)

For the march from Camargo upon Monterey, General Taylor or-
ganized a force of volunteers of about 3,000 men, and about the same
number of regulars. The volunteers lost 74 men killed and died of
wounds in the battle of Monterey, Sept. 21, 22, and 23, 1846, and had
218 men wounded. The regulars lost in the same battle 68 men, and
had 150 men wounded.

At the battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 22 and 23, there were engaged
517 regulars and about 4,400 volunteers. The loss of the regulars 8
killed and died of wounds, and 36 wounded ; the loss of the volunteers
269 killed and di?M of wounds, and 372 wounded.

At the siege of Vera Cruz, March, 1847, there were 6,808 regulars
and 6,662 volunteers. The loss of the regulars 10 killed and died of
wounds, and 26 wounded ; the volunteers lost 2 killed and 25 wounded.

At Cerro Gordo, April, 1847, there were 6,000 regulars and 2,500
volunteers. The loss of the regulars was 61 killed and died of wounds,
and 201 wounded ; the loss of the volunteers 38 killed and died of
wounds, and 152 wounded.

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [VOL.

At Contreras, Churubusco, San Antonio, and San Augustine, A
19 and 20, 1847, th. regato of '.».''• M f .•!•! and i;<

ulars an J marines, ai. i-«st in ki!.

died of wounds l.*>7 inon, UN mded ; tin- volunteers lost 52

nun killed and died of wounds, and Xll'2 woun.l. -d.

At Molmo del II. -y, September 8, 1847, there 1 :ulars

engau r.'.~> men killed and died of woui. .sounded.

At ( 'hapultepec, uinl the capture of tin- cit\ . i' M, \ :nber

12, I-'!, ;ind 1 I. 1847, the whole army for duty was 8,:j<»l
ulars 7,035 men; volunteers 1,290 men. The regulars 1 >t 1 1 1 killed
and died of wounds, and 434 wounded ; the volunteers -M killed and
di d of wounds, and 239 wounded.

In all other ineidental affairs and skirmishes, mostly with guerilla
s of the enemy during the whole war, the aggregate losses of th-i
regulars were 65 killed and died of wounds, and !<'»•'> \\oun.led; the
loss of volunteers 02 killed and died of wounds, und 1.30 wouudi-d.

Having thus analyzed the losses in battle of the regulars and volun-
teers, and given the numbers of eaeh engaged in the important battles
of the war, the inquiry recurs : why, with an aggregate of "
unteers and 26,922 regulars reported as being employed during the
war, so small a body should have been at the dispoMtioii uf command-
ers for inarching against the enemy.

The first reason was undoubtedly the defective plan of campaign
upon which the war was 1>. LTUH. Immediately after the \
Palo Alto and Resaca dc la Palma, the, public mind was inflamed. The
volunt :n caused great numbers to flock to the standard of the

country. The ] ipon the Administration \\as great for their

reception. General Taylor was flooded with volunteers f..r whom ho
could find no employment. A plan of campaign was tin ivf"re ft
in Washington, f..r marching on New .Mexico, marching on Chihuahua,
marching on Monterey, and marching on California, with dilli-rent de-
tachments, thus hastily collected together without taking the neceMtiy
measures to organize and instruct the troops, and without first providing
the materiel indispensable, for such long marches. The plan was there-
all those hut still more defective in its pre-
dominant i iking at remote frontiers of the mmj inst

ilkfl pricking the lingers of man instead
of pon (1f some vital part.

I paramount reason why with such largo ng-jrogatei
of forces i: so f,.\v wen- employed in battles, is the

failure of the l.iw to provide for a well-digest. ; of natioi,

VOL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 047

fence prepared in peace, which would enable Congress and the Executive
to meet any crisis in foreign affairs. This want caused the reception
into service of 12,601 volunteers for 3 months at the beginning of the
war with Mexico. These lost 16 men killed in battle and died of
wounds ; 129 by ordinary deaths, 922 by discharge, and*546 by deser-
tion. Those killed in battle belonged to the Texas horse and foot, and
they alone were engaged with an enemy.

Upon the declaration that war existed by the act of Mexico, Con-
gress, however, authorized the President to accept volunteers for twelve
months or for the war. He accordingly received 27,063 men of this
class for twelve months. They lost during their service, killed in action
or died of wounds, 439 men ; by ordinary deaths 1,859 men ; by dis-
charges 4,636 men ; and by desertion 600 men. Some of this class of
volunteers rendered most effective service at Monterey, Buena Vista,
Vera Cruz, and Cerro Gordo. The great mistake committed in regard
to them was in receiving them for the short period of twelve months.
Generally mustered into service in June, 1846, they were entitled to
discharge in June, 1847, at a moment when their services were much
needed, in order to strike a decisive blow at the capital of Mexico.
Every effort was made to re-engage them, but without success; and
General Scott, who had been employed to conduct military operations
on the line from Vera Cruz to the capital, reluctantly put over 3,000
of these men in march from Jalapa to the United States in May, 1847,
when he had ascertained that his column was not likely soon to be re-
inforced by more than 960 army recruits, and the services of those
volunteers for the short remainder of their time could therefore no
longer be usefully employed. Meanwhile the Administration, having
late in 1846 awakened from its dream of conquering a peace, by direct-
ing blows against remote extremities of Mexico, had at last adopted
the plan of striking at the vitals of their enemy. General Scott was
put in command. Some volunteers were at once mustered into servico
for the war, but in insufficient numbers. Out of the whole force raised
for the war, General Scott only received in time for his operations a
regiment from N cw York, two from Pennsylvania, and one from South
Carolina, and one company under Captain Wheat, who alone re-engaged
themselves from the whole number of twelve-months volunteers ; and
these were the only regiments of volunteers, which took part in the
battles in the valley of Mexico, and the capture of the city, September
14, 1847, which secured the conquest of peace. The whole volunteer
force raised for service during the war with Mexico, (but with the excep-
tions stated, too late for important military operations,) were 33,596

648 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [VOL.

men. They lost 152 men killed and died of worn.

4,420 ; discharges 3,890 men ; and desertions x!.;:,<) mm. Of t;

who were killed in battle or died of wounds, 134 belonged t

mentioned as being with General Scott. It \vas not until Dec.,
1847, months after the occupation of the capital, that other voh.
I'.-r the war reached Gen. Scott's head-qua rtrrs in the city of Mexico.
The same want of administrative ability \\as shown l>y tlie War
!:unt in despatching regulars to the suit of \\ar. !»..<. vM. 11.
of 1 11.. 31st Congress, 1st Session, exhibits an aggregate of If).^) nun
of the old regular regiments, and 11,186 men of the now regular regi-
— in all 26,922 regulars— employed during the war, and yet the
largest regular force employed at any one time against the enemy was
less than 10,000 men. Let us endeavor to ascertain how this haj-'

It has been seen that the whole regular force on the frontiers of Texas
at the beginning of the war was 3,554 men, and that this f..rer f. night
the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma and Fort Brown in May,
1846. In September, this force had not been largely increased ; for, at
the battle of Monterey, Taylor had only about 3,000 regulars.

In February and March, 1847, the regular force t n ; :h at

Buena Vista and at Vera Cruz had been increased to 7. l'jr> men. And
in April, 18^7, at Cerro Gordo, and on the line to Vera Cruz and at
Tampico, the whole regular force did not exceed 8,000 men. These all
belonged to the old regular regiments. Meantime, February 11, 1847,
Congress passed an act for raising one regiment of dragoons, and nine
regiments of infantry. But none of these troops readied <•< -n.
head-quarters at Pucblii, until July and August, 1847. The last
rnent came up August 6, and Gen. Scott marched on the city of Mexico,
August 7, 1847, with only 2,564 new regulars. The facet which took
part in the battles in the valley of Mexico were then :

Old regular regiments .... O.-l H> men.
Now regular regiments .... 2,3<'>.>

Marines 2H "

Volunteers 1 .V.'.) "

10,G.r)l men.

The greater pnrt of the additional force of regular- r the

war, as well as the very largo numbers of volunteers raised for the same
not, it thus appears, put at the disposition of military
• "Munanders, until final success in battles had already been accom-
plished. The following tables, giving losses by regiments, Ate., are
from the report of the adjutant-general of Dec. 3, 1849 :

VOL.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

649

."2

i ^
il

Oi <w

s ^i

S -fc

« 8

NDED
ATTLE.

<N O

S 'o

3*2

•nmn

PUB s.it»ogjo — sq^Bap
jo jaqoinu o^raoaAj

Killed i
battle.

of of

jo laqumu

IIB IJAIO pan 'japao A"g

JOT jo

•aou

,a lf

•JB.tt aqi £u[aup aoiA
aas jo q?3ua[ aihuaAy

•aara pnB sjaotgo

* £ 3

tfi

650

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

[VOL.

BKCAPITCLATION OF LOSS IN BATTLE OF THE BEGULAB AE3TT, BY REGI-
MENTS AND (JUKI'S, IN THE CAMPAIGN OF 1846.

»n.i,F

I> IX B

LTTLJt

•OCMDE

„-

or wo

PXDft.

XMDOJm JUTD COBM.

General staff

Engineers

Topographical engineers

•j

1st regiment dragoon*

•

M " "

.19

lit regiment artillery

]

4th

0
5

5
5

26
16

28
17

88
S3

l»t reci lent of i fantrr

•»;;

4tb
5tb

6
2

15
15
9

IT
9

86
80
86

89
83

69
49
49

1
1

1
4
8

6
8

7th

8th
Corps not specified

1
8

13
8

71
8

io'

Total in campaign of 1S46.

10T

125

279

810

485

BECAPITULATION OF LOSS OF BEOULAB ARMY, IN THE CAMPAIGN OF 184T.

K I I.I.I

D IX B

MTLE.

1 '

OCKDI

|1|

1 ' I K 1

WOf

M»H.

BEGIUE.NTS AND OOBPft.

{

Engineers.

Topographical engineers.

Ordnance 7.

lit regiment dragoons. . . .

id "

Regiment mounted riflemen
1st regi rtent artillery

8
4

144
108

166
118

181
142

17
9

160

163

186

100

4th

-1

106

1st regiment inftuitry

120

129

157

180

4th

lii

6th

170

178

219

6th

128

1C7

Tth " . .

8th u

168

171

$05

tth

i"ih

llth "

.",!

18th

Uih

15th

108

116

160

169

Marino mrp*

I'nilrd ^t»t4'< navy

Aggregate in the campaign

Au.-n-r;it..inth,.r.i.,li,all:n..flM.-,

Agfr^nte of rtcnUr artny klllo.1
MTwoudiTla 18M *Ad 184T.

i .7

606

481
136

148

JL
m

1.9M
•279

2,096
810

1408

2,962

1M
181

172
85

WAD.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

651

EECAPITULATION OF LOSS IN BATTLE OF THE VOLUNTEER FORCES IN THE
CAMPAIGN OF 1847, AND AGGREGATE OF THEIR LOSSES IN 1848.

BEGIJIENT8 AND COKPS.

KILLED IN BATTLE.

WOUNDED.

ij'Z H

<*p

i-ii.i)
or WOUNDS.

Officers

Officers!

Indiana brigade, staff

1
56
25
74
16
44
2
86
56
88
10
57
82
49
118
216
12
89
8
156
2
48
4
6
5
4
4
14
2
1
5
1

1
96
54
121
17
48
16
68
65
60
18
101
49
66
120
243
18
54
10
188
2
50
4
11
5
11
5
25
3
1
5
1

7
1

Mississippi rifles
1st regiment, Illinois

2
3
10

38
26
87
1
3
12
29
8
26
3
41
15
17
7
22
1
13
2
25

40
29
47
1
4
14
82
9
27
3
44
17
17
7
27
1
15
2
27

5
2
6
1
5
1
8
4
4
1
8
1
2
6
21
8
1

"iij"
i

51
23
68
15
89
1
28
52
29
9
54
81
47
107
195
4
88
8
137
1
88
4
5
4
3
4
14
1
1
4

8
1
2

2d " " :

3d " "

4th " "
Texas company

1
2
3

1
1

2d regiment, Indiana
3d " "

Regiment Kentucky cavalry
1st regiment, Kentucky.. .

::::

'2'
2
2

'io'

26
1
3

"2"
2
2

'io'

26
1
8

2d " "

Regiment Arkansas cavalry
Isf regiment, Pennsylvania

Regiment, South Carolina

2d " "
Regiment, Georgia

2d Regiment New York

California volunteers

Missouri volunteers

.... 4

Santa Fe volunteers

Louisiana volunteers ]

1
1
1

Spy company

Maryland volunteers
Virginia volunteers

6
1

7
1

7
1
11
1

....

Incidental loss

Texas rangers

1
1

1st regiment, New York

Sailors, marines, and California

2
1

3
1

New York and California volun-

Aggregate in campaign of 1817 .
Aggregate in campaign of 1S46*.

Aggregate of volunteers killed
and wounded in 1S46 and 1647.

44
5

1,019
207

1,180
227

1,357

1.529
302

1,831

88
9

355
70

899
75

111
20

'v
i

88
10

425

474

131

1,226

* The losses in 1846 were: April 28. 10 men of Capt. Walker's Texas rangers. September 21,
22, and 23, at Monterey, among the Maryland and District of Columbia battalion volunteers; 1st
regiment, Tennessee ; 1st regiment, Ohio; Louisiana volunteers; 1st regiment, Kentucky; Missis-
sippi rifles and Texas volunteers. Dec. 6. California volunteers, under General Kearney. Dec. 26,
Missouri volunteers, under Colonel Doniphan.

VOTES. (See FINDING.)

WAD— WADDING. Ring wads (or grommets, as they are called
in the naval service) increase the accuracy of fire, and are preferred
where the object is to keep the ball in its place. They consist of a ring
of rope yarn, with two pieces of strong twine tied across it at right
angles with each other. The ring is the full diameter of the bore.
These wads may be attached with twine -to the straps, or to the balls ; or
inserted like other wads after the ball. Wads, for firing hot shot, may

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [W^o.

be made of hay, wrapped with rope yarn, and are made in the same
manner as junk wads for proxing camion. (Consult Ordnun

WAGON-MASTER. The ijuartermasi. -r-u'eneral is author!/
employ from time to time as many forage-masters and wagon-n
as he may deem necessary for the service, not exceeding twenty in the
whole, who shall be entitled to receive forty dollars per month, and
three rations a day, and forage for one horse ; and neither of whom
shall be in: P concerned directly or indirectly in any wiu:

other means of transport, employed by the United States, nor in the
purchase or sale of any property procured for or belonging to tho
United States, except as an agent of the United States ; (Act July 5
1838, Sec. 10.)

"WAGONS — are used by armies for the transportation of sub-
sistence, other military stores, baggage, ammunition, sick ai
The different purposes for which they arc used require ditVcrei
details which demand thought and study. In an al>le memoir, Stir
Divers Perfectionnements Militaires, par J. CAVALLI, Col. d'Artillerie,
(Paris, 1856,) it is proposed that all the different carriap-s for army
transportation should be on two large wheels, and that there should lie.
only two different models for the height of tho wheels. The number
of models for carriages is thus minced to seven at most, which might
be substituted for the wagons on four wheels now in use. The di tie rent
vehicles used by the French in campaign, according to the recent work
of M. LEON GUILLOT, Sur Legislation et Administration Mililairc, are:
the four-wheeled military wagon, made and lined with sheet-iron, spe-
cially intended for the transportation of bread and other important
necessaries, but also adapted for ambulance purposes, as its interior
admits the placing of four boards for the accommodation of the sick ;
the ammunition wagon and campaign forge for the artillery ; and tho
ambulance wagon used in service by the French army in the I
1854. The latter is suspended on six springs and has f.mr uherK; it
carries five persons, three upon the front scat, which is uncovered and
rests on the wagon, while in the interior there are two places for reclin-
ing, each on a movable bed.

According to M. Vauchellc, tho vehicles for administration purposes
on four wheels should be tho ordinary wagon and a liizht wauon, both
d with Waterproof doth; the first would serve for 1 1n- transporta-
tion of bread, and also for medical and hospital st<> 'lie second,
suspended upon springs, should bo specially devoted t«. hospital pur-
poses. He would have, besides, ammunition wagons and fiVld-f
all on four wheels drawn by four horses, and conducted each by two

WAG.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. C53

soldiers. The maximum capacity of the wagon, according to Guillot,
should be for 1,200 rations, weighing about 1,900 Ibs. This burden is
the mean between that for 1,000 rations weighing about 1,700 Ibs.
prescribed by Vauchelle, and that for 1,600 rations weighing about
2,650 Ibs. adopted, notwithstanding the opposition of M. Vauchelle, by
the French minister of war. If, for all these vehicles on four wheels
drawn by four horses, there be substituted carts or two-wheeled vehicles,
according to the models prepared by Cavalli, the four-wheeled vehicles
carrying only 2,200 Ibs., will give place to the carts carrying each
3,300 Ibs. ; that being only one-half of the burden of carts loaded in
the same way now used in European commerce drawn by two horses.
Under the proposed system, then, for an army of 100,000 men the
number of vehicles, &c., would experience the following reductions :

860 wagons would be reduced to . . 573 carts.
3,268 conductors " " . 1,092

3,820 horses " " . 1,277

If meat and forage are also to be transported for the army, and these
articles are omitted in the foregoing calculations, then, supposing an
army of 100,000 men has 30,000 horses, the proposed system would
reduce f

2,567 wagons to. . 1,711 two large wheeled carts.
9,804 conductors to 3,276 conductors.
11,460 horses to . . 3,831 horses.

The carts proposed by Col. Cavalli are the following : 1. A dray
for the transportation of heavy loads for the artillery and engineer
trains, intended as a substitute for the platform -or block carriage, and
also for the siege truck. This dray weighs about 1,540 Ibs. ; it will
carry a piece of ordnance weighing 7,500 Ibs. suspended under it in
place of its corbeille, and has been drawn by two horses at a trot from
the glacis to the citadel, and by three horses over the ramps of the ditch
of the citadel from ivhich it had been lowered. The corbeille of this
dray will carry 80 shells, and its flooring 60, weighing in all 8,000 Ibs.
The usual weight to each horse in the field, however, should not exceed
2,200 Ibs. This dray is suitable for all heavy and embarrassing weights,
and the division between the load below and that upon the superior
bed is so arranged as to maintain the bars in a stable equilibrium with-
out liability to be overturned, and without exerting any pressure upgn
the horse. 2. The ammunition cart, covered or uncovered, with two
large wheels and having a movable water-proof cover, is designed to
replace the present ammunition and battery wagons. It will hold 24

054 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [WAL

cases of powder, 120 Ibs. each, of which about 18 would bo filled up.
The interior void <>f this cart is about 35 cubic feet. 3. The sp
cart is of the same form as the ammunition cart, and differs from it
only in being on springs. It is intended principally for the transporta-
tiun of provisions and articles easily spoiled, as ammunition ; an*l in cases
of need as an ambulance. 4 and 5. Two models of carts for ambu-
lances and other purposes drawn, one by two horses and the smaller 1-v
one horse ; these two vehicles have also only two large wheels, and are
not liable to upset They are intended as substitutes for the ambulance
wagon and other wagons. Two persons maybe placed in front, and
six behind, four of whom may recline on beds suitably arranged at the
sides. The smaller cart will answer for two or three persons at most,
only two of whom can recline. The smaller carts may also be issued
to commanding officers and staff* officers entitled to wagons. 6 and 7.
The kitchen-cart — one to a battalion for 1,000 soups, or a smaller one for
250 soups. The two differ from each other only in length. They
should be provided with boilers a la 7'»//*/// with an interior flre-j !
These constitute the body of the cart, the superior part < f \\hirh is
furnished with plank to be used as a tal.le. At the extremity of the
cart there are two foot boards upon which the cooks may rest while
working during the march. Papin's digester is essential to cook well
and rapidly. The interior arrangement of the fire-place which is suited
to baking is very economical in fuel. The kitchen-cart is otherwise like
the preceding. (See TRAVELLING-KITCHEN.)

Model No. 2, or even Nos. 4 and 5. will answer for the sutler. A
field-forgo may be readily placed in the rear of model No* 2, by means
of a movable fire-place and bollows. It is proposed to harness to ea- h
vehicle intended as a transport two horses, in file ; each cart has one
conductor not mounted. The importance of the travelling-kitchen will be
manifest to all soldiers. The cooking is done on the march. Th< soup
is ready at the moment of halting. The strength of the soldier N « eon-
omizcd ; his food is well cooked in any weather ; and numerous diseases,

ed by bad food and want of rest, which too often decimate am
will be avoided by its introduction into service. (See AMBULANCE;
BAOOAOE; CONVOY.)

WAITKRS. (See SERVANTS.)

WAK. Tip- rL'ht of making war, as well as of authori/ing reprisals,
or Other acts of vindictive retaliation, belong in every rmli/cd nation
to the supreme power of the state. T of this ri^dif is retted

by the Constitution of the 1'nit. d States in C'onirress. A contest by
force between independent sovereign states is called a public war. A

WAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. C55

perfect war is where one whole nation is at war with another nation,
and all the members of both nations are authorized to commit hostilities
against the other, within the restrictions prescribed by the general laws
of war. An imperfect war is limited as to places, persons, and things —
such were the limited hostilities authorized by the United States against
France in 1798. Grotius calls a civil war, a mixed war ; but the gen-
eral usage of nations regards such a war as entitling both the contend-
ing parties to all the rights of war as against each other, and even as
respects neutral nations. A formal declaration of war to the enemy
was once considered necessary to legalize hostilities between nations.
The usage now is to publish a manifesto, within the territory of the
state declaring war, announcing the existence of hostilities, and the
motives for commencing them.

During the second war between the United States and Great Britain,
it was determined by the Supreme Court that enemy's property, found
within the territory of the United States on the declaration of war, could
not be seized and condemned as prize of war, without some legislative
act expressly authorizing its confiscation. The court held that the law
of Congress declaring war was not such an act. It is stated by Sir W.
Scott to be the constant practice of Great Britain, on the breaking out
of war, to condemn property seized before the war, if the enemy con-
demns, and to restore if the enemy restores.

One of the immediate consequences of the commencement of hostili-
ties, is the interdiction of all commercial intercourse between the sub-
jects of the states at war, without the express license of their respective
governments. It follows, as a corollary from this principle, that every
species of private contract made with an enemy's subjects during the
war is unlawful, and this rule is applied to insurance on enemy's prop-
erty and trade ; to the drawing and negotiating of bills of exchange
between the subjects of the powers at war ; to the remission of funds in
money or bills to the enemy's country ; to commercial partnerships,
which, if existing before the war, are dissolved by the mere force and
act of the war itself, although as to other contracts it only suspends the
remedy. But it is the modern usage not to confiscate in war the ene-
my's actions and credits, and the 10th article of the treaty between the
United States and Great Britain, in 1794, stipulates, " that neither the
debts due from individuals of the one nation to individuals of the other,
nor shares, nor moneys which they may have in the public funds, or in
the public or private banks, shall ever, in any event of war or national
differences, be sequestered or confiscated ; it being unjust and impolitic
that debts and engagements contracted and made by individuals, hav-

G;»U MILITARY DICTIONARY. [WAR.

ing confidence in each other and in their resin-dive governments, should
Uo destroyed or impaired by i;.iti« n;d authority on account of
national differences and discontents.

A person who removes to a COM i;_:n country, settles himself t
and engages in the trade of the country, furnishes by thc.se a. is such
evidences of an intention permanently to reside tin-re, as to stamp
him with the national character of the state where he reside-. In
questions of domicile the chief point to be considered is the animus
iiuinendi ; and if it sufficiently appears that the intention of removing
to make a permanent settlement, or for an indefinite time, the
right of domicile is acquired by residence even of a few days.
In general, the national character of a person, as neutral or enemy,
is determined by that of his domicile ; but the property of a person
may acquire a hostile character, independently of his national character,
derived from personal residence. Thus if a person enters into a house
of trade in the enemy's country, or continues that connection during
war, he cannot protect himself by mere residence in a neutral country ;
so also, the produce of an enemy's colony or other territory is to bo
considered as hostile property so long as it belongs to the owner of the
soil whatever may be his residence.

In the modern law of nations, the right of postliminy is that by
virtue of which persons and things taken by an enemy in war, are
restoced to their former state, when coming again under the pov.
the nation to which they belonged. The sovereign of a country is
bound to protect the person and property of his subjects ; and a si,
who has suffered the loss of his property by the violence of \\..
being restored to his country can claim to bo re-established in all his
rights, and to recover his property. P.ut this right docs not extend i:i
all cases to personal effects or movables, on account of difficult
identification.

The rights of war in ivspeet to an enemy are in p«-neral to be
measured by the object of the war. No use, of force is lawful <
so far as it is necessary. Those who are actually in arms and continue
to resist maybe killed; but the inhabitants of the enemy's country
who arc not in arms, or who, being in arms, submit and sun ••

may not be slain, because their destruction , ssary

f»r obtaining the ju^t ends of the war. Those ends may be obtained 1 y
making prisoners of those taken in arms, or compelling them t
security that they will not bear arms against the victor for a limited
; or during the war. The killing of prisoners can only bj justi-
fied in those extreme cases where resistance on their part, or on.ti.

WAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 657

of others, who come to their rescue, renders it impossible to keep them.
Cartels for the mutual exchange of prisoners of war are regu luted by
special convention between the belligerent states, according to their
respective interests and views of policy. Sometimes prisoners of war
are permitted, by capitulation, to return to their own country upon
condition not to serve again during the war, or until duly exchanged ;
and officers are frequently released upon their parole, subject to the same
condition. By the modern usage of nations, commissaries are permitted
to reside in the respective belligerent countries, to negotiate and carry
into effect the arrangements necessary for the purpose.

All members of the enemy's state may lawfully be treated as ene-
mies in a public war ; but they are not all treated alike. The custom
of civilized nations, founded on the general rule derived from natural
law, that no use of force is lawful unless it is necessary to accomplish
the purposes of war, has therefore exempted the persons of the sovereign
and his family, the members of the civil government, women, children,
cultivators of the earth, artisans, laborers, merchants, men of science
and letters, and generally all public or private individuals engaged in
the ordinary civil pursuits of life, from the direct effect of military
operations, unless actually taken in arms, or- guilty of some misconduct
in violation of the usages of war. The application of the same principle
has also limited and restrained the operations of war against the terri-
tory and other property of the enemy. By the modern usage of na-
tions, which has now acquired the force of law, temples of religion,
public edifices devoted to civil purposes only, monuments of art, and
repositories of science are exempted from the general operations of war.
Private property on land is also exempt from confiscation, excepting
such as may become booty in special cases, as when taken from enemies
in the field or in besieged towns, and military contributions levied upon
the inhabitants of the hostile country. This exemption extends even to
the case of an absolute and unqualified conquest of the enemy's country.
The exceptions to these general mitigations of the extreme rights
of war, considered as a contest of force, all grow out of the same gen-
eral principle of natural law, which authorizes us to use such a degree
of violence and such only as may be necessary to secure the object of
hostilities. Thus, if the progress of an enemy cannot be stopped, a
frontier secured, or the approaches to a town cannot be made without
laying waste the intermediate territory, the extreme case may justify a
resort to measures not warranted by the ordinary purposes of war. But
the whole international code is founded on reciprocity. Where, then,
the established usages of war are violated by an enemy, and there are
42

MILITARY DICTIOXAKY. [WA*.

no other means of restraining his excesses, retaliation may be justly
resorted to in order to compel the enemy to ivturn to th.
of the law \\hich he has violated. The effect of a state of war is to
place all the subjects of each belligerent power in a state of mutual
hostility. The law of nations has modified this maxim, by lepili/ing
such acts of hostility only as are committed by those who are autli
by the express or implied command of the state. Such an th
larly c< -ned naval and military forces of the state, and all others

called out in its defence, or spontaneously defending thems. -Ives in caso

vnt necessity, without any express authority for that p
The horrors of war would be greatly aggravated if every individual of
the belligerent states were allowed to plunder and slay tl

*s without being in any manner accountable for his conduct.
Hence it is that in laud wars, irregular bands of marauders are liable to
be treated as lawless banditti, not entitled to the protection of the
mitigated uses of war as practised by civilized nations.

The title to property lawfully taken in war may, upon peneral prin-
ciples, be considered as immediately dh BB the original
and transferred to the captor. As to personal property or movables on
land, the title is lost to tho former proprietor, as soon as th. ninny has
acquired a firm possession ; which, as a general rule, is mnsid.
taking place after the lapse of 24 hours, or after the booty has been
carried into a place of safety, infra prcesidia of the captor. In i
to ships and goods taken at sea, the sentence of a Qtt >urt is
necessary; while, in respect to real property or immovables, the title,
acquired in war must be confirmed by a treaty of peace before it can be
considered as completely valid. But it may bo important to determine
how far the possession of immovables, and the property arising out of
sueh possession, extend. Grotius simply says that every kind « :
session is not sufficient, but that it must bo a firm possession, which he
explains thus : "as if a country is so provided with permanent f..rtifiea-
tions, that the advance party cannot enter it openly without first mak-
ing himself master of them by 1 i .' llynk.rsho,

is to every thing that is occupied, and what, is occupi, .
within r by the law of nature ; but even that, is consid.

•1, which is not touched on all sides with our hai ,>U •
• * * Hence it is n,,» dihVult tod'tM-ern what IIKIN

jM-Hy occupied i:, a-i occupied country. * * If, from th-
pition of a strong pla- ; o\er the whole country,

y t the virtor i- n- ' d in possession of those cities, v

and fortresses, which the sovereign still retains."

WAR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. G59

There are various modes also in which the extreme rigor of the
rights of war may be relaxed at the pleasure of the respective belliger-
ents. 1. A general truce or armistice. This amounts to a temporary
peace, and it requires either the previous special authority of the
supreme power of the state, or a subsequent ratification by such power.

2. A partial truce or limited suspension of hostilities may be concluded
between the military and naval officers of the respective belligerent
states without any special authority for that purpose, where, from the
nature and extent of their commands, such an authority is necessarily
implied as essential to the fulfilment of their duties. The terms of the
armistice should be free from all ambiguity. 3. Capitulations for the
surrender of troops, fortresses, and particular districts of country fall
naturally within the scope of the general powers intrusted to military
commanders. 4. Passports, safe conducts, and licenses are documents
granted in war to protect persons and property from the general opera-
tion of hostilities. A license is an act proceeding from the sovereign
authority of the state, which alone is competent to decide on all the con-
siderations of political and commercial expediency by which such an ex-
ception from the ordinary consequences of war must be controlled.
5. By rules laid down for the government of an army in an enemy's
country in the new relation existing between the invading army and
the citizens or subjects of the foreign country.

The martial law order of General Scott in Mexico, given in the ar-
ticle LAW, (-Martial,) played so prominent a part in mitigating the hor-
rors of war, as well as in aiding in the, conquest of peace, that a concise
history of that remarkable order will here find a fitting place. As
early as May, 1846, General Scott presented for the consideration of
the Secretary of War a project for a Liw, giving expressly to courts-
martial in an enemy's country authority to punish offences, which in
the United States are punishable by the ordinary criminal courts of the
land. Congress did not, however, act upon the recommendation, and
General Scott on the 8th of October, 1846, submitted to Mr. Secretary
Marcy the draft of a letter which he recommends should be despatched
to each commander of an army now operating against Mexico. " I am
aware (he continues) that it presents grave topics for consideration,
which is invited. It will be seen that I have endeavored to place all
necessary restrictions on martial law. 1. By restricting it to a foreign
hostile country ; 2. To offences enumerated with some accuracy ;

3. By assimilating councils of war to courts-martial ; 4. By restricting
punishments to the known laws of some one of the States of the Union ; "
(Doc. 59, House of Representatives, 30/A Congress, 1st Session.) This

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [WAB.

project appears to have met with no favor from the Executive. In let-
ters from General Taylor, dated October 6, and October 11, 18-H». h.>
reports the "most shameful atrocities " as having 1>. en committed with-
out punishment, and be asks the Secretary of War " for instruct
to the proper disposition of the culprit" in a case of cold-bl.-oded
murder at Mont, -n -y. Mr. Marcy replied Nov. 25, 1846: "The com-
petency of a military tribunal to take c«><ini/ancc of such a case as you
have presented in your communication of the llth ult.. viz., the murder
of a Mexican soldier, and other offences not em!. raced in the ,
provisions of the Articles of War, was deemed so questionable, that ap-
plication was made to Congress, at the last session, to bring them express-
ly within the jurisdiction of such a* tribunal, but it was not acted upon.
I am not prepared to say that, under the peculiar circumstances of the
case, and particularly, by the non-existence of any civil authority to
which the offender could be turned over, a military ouirt could not
rightfully act thereon ; yet very serious doubts are entertained upon
that point, and the Government does not ad vise that course. It seriously
regrets that such flagrant offender cannot be dealt with in the manner
he deserves. I see no other course for you to pursue than to n 1« asc
him from confinement and send him away from the army ; and this is
recommended."

The foregoing letter of the cautious War Secretary was written a
few days after General Scott had been ordered to the theatre of war, to
assume the direction of military operations; but in the opinion of the
latter, "the good of the service, the honor of the Tinted States, and the
interests of humanity " demanded that the numerous grave often.'
embraced in the Rules and Articles of War should not go unpin:'
and accordingly, upon assuming command of the army in Mexico, he
did not shrink from the responsibility which his station imposed. lie
issued his martial law order. Rigid justice was administered to
ican and Mexican under that order, and it, beyond all doubt. « ffceted as
important consequences as any act performed during his brilliant cam-
paign ending with the conquest of peace. (Consult Win
menl* of International Law ; DUPONCEAU'S B ynker shock ; (M
SCOTT'S Orilwt in Mexico.)

WAI! II ANT. A writ of authority. Warrant officers arc su< h as
are ir y below commissioned officers, exercising their author-

ity by warrant only. Cadets are warrant officers. They may be tri. d
by garrison courts-martial; but by the custom of war a court-martial
cannot sentence a warrant officer to corporal punishment or reduction
to the ranks.

WEI.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

661

WASHING. To each woman who may be allowed to a corps, not
exceeding four to a company, one ration is given ; (Act March 16,
1802.) They are washerwomen.

WASTE. Waste or spoil committed by troops, cither in walks
of trees, parks, warrens, fish-ponds, houses or gardens, corn-fields, in-
closures of meadows, or maliciously destroying any property whatso-
ever belonging to the inhabitants of the United States, unless by the
order of the then commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States,
shall (besides such penalties as they are liable to by law) be punished,
according to the nature and degree of the offence, by the judgment of a
regimental or general court-martial ; (ART. 54.) (See AMMUNITION.)

WATCH. The non-commissioned officers and men on board trans-
ports are usually divided into three watches, one of which must bo
constantly on deck.

WATCHWORD. (See PAROLE.)

WATER. Daily allowance for a man one gallon for all purposes.
For a horse four gallons.

WEDGE — is one of the five simple mechanical powers. It is used
sometimes for raising bodies, but more frequently for dividing or
splitting them. The power is to the resistance acting perpendicularly
on each side of the wedge, as the thickness of the back of the wedge is
to the length of the side.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Inches.

Feet.

Yards.

Rods or
Poles.

Furlongs.

Mile.

198

1**

7,920

660

220

63,360

5,280

1,760

320

The inch was formerly divided into three parts, called barley-corns,
and also into 12 parts called lines, neither of which denominations is
now in common use. Scales and measuring rules are generally divided
into inches, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths ; or into inches and decimal
parts ; the latter of these divisions is used in the Ordnance Depart-
ment.

For sury eying land: 7.92 Inches = 1 link. Gunter's chain.)

100 Links = 4 poles, or 22 yards, or 66 feet.)

MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Wn.

For map-making : Chains are often made of 50 links, each 1 foot in length.
For measuring ropes and soundings : I Fathom = 6 feet.

1 Cable's length = 120 fathoms.
For measuring doth : 1 Nail = 2i inches = l-10th of a yard.

1 Quarter = 4 nails.

1 Yurd = 4 quarters.

1 Ell English = 6 quarters.
For measuring horses : 1 Hand = 4 inches.

Geographical measure : 1 Degree of a great circle of the earth = C9.77

miles.
1 Geographical or nautical mile = 1-GOth of a

degree of the earth = 2,025 yards.
1 Nautical league = 8 miles.

A standard measure has been adopted for the United States, copies
of which are distributed to various parts of the country, for the purpose
of establishing a uniform system. This standard is measured on a
brass bar and copied from the British standard yard. For the pro-
portion which it bears to the French metre, see below.

FOREIGN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

GREAT BRITAIN. — The Imperial standard yard of Great Britain,
adopted in 1825, is referred to a natural standard, which is tin- distance
between the axis of suspension and the centre of oscillation of a j., n-
dulum which shall vibrate seconds in vacuo, in London, at the level of
the sea ; that distance measured on a brass rod, at the temperature of
62° Fahr., is declared to be 39.1393 imperial inches.

FBANOE. — Old system :

1 Point = 0.0074 Eng. Inches.

1 Line = 12 points = 0.08884 "

1 Inch = 12 lines = 1.06577

1 Foot = 12 ii.. = 12.7892

1E11 =43 in. 10 lines = 46.71 6 " = 1.298 yd.

1 Toise = 6 feet = 76.735 " =2.1

1 Perch (Paris) = 18 feet.

1 Perch (royal) = 22 "

1 League, (common,) 25 to a degree = 2,280 toises = 4,861 yds.,

« 2.76 miles.

1 league, (post,) = 2,000 toises = 4,264 yds., = 2.42 miles.
1 Fathom (Drone) = 5 feet French = 63. Hi', im-lu-, or GJ feet

Eng., nearly.
1 Cable length = 100 toises = 120 fathoms Fr., = 106} fathoms

Enjrli-h.
1 Pace (pas) » | metre = 26.5 in. nearly.

WEI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY.

TABLE FOR REDUCING OLD FRENCH MEASURES TO ENGLISH.

CG3

French
feet

English
inches.

French
feet or
inches.

English feet or
inches.

French
lines.

English
inches.

French
potato.

English

12.7892

1.0658

0.0888

0.0074

25.5784

2.1315

0.1776

0.0148

38.3676

3.1973

0.2664

0.0222

51.1568

4.2631

0.3553

0.0296

63.9460

5.3288 1

0.4441

0.0370

76.7352

6.3946 !

0.5329

0.0444

89.5244

7.4604 !

0.6217

0.0618

102.3136

8.5261

0.7105

0.0592

115.1028

9.5919

0.7993

0.0666

127.8920

10.6577

0.8881

0.0740

140.6812

11.7234

0.9770

0.0814

NEW FRENCH SYSTEM. — The basis of the new French system of
measures is the measure of a meridian of the earth, a quadrant of which
is 10,000,000 metres, measured at the temperature of 32° Fahr. The
multiples and divisions of it are decimal, viz. : 1 metre = 10 deci-
metres — 100 centimetres = 1,000 millimetres = 39.3707971 English
inches, or 3.2809 feet.

Road Measure. — Myriametre = 10,000 metres. Kilometre =
1,000 metres. Decametre = 10 metres. Metre = 0.51317 toise.

TABLE FOR REDUCING METRES TO INCHES.

According to Capt. KATEK'S comparison, 1 metre = 39.37079 English inches.

Metres.

Inches.

Metres.

Inches.

Metres.

Inches.

Metres

Inches.

0.001

0.039371

0.026

1.023641

0.051

2.007910

0.076

2.992180

0.078742

.063011

2.047281

3.031551

0.118112

.102382

2.086652

3.070922

0.157483

.141753

2.126023

3.110292

0.196854

0.030

.181124

2.165393

0.080

3.149663

0.236225

.220494

2.204764

3.189034

0.275596

.259865

2.244135

3.228405

0.314966

.299236

2.283506

3.267776

0.354337

.338607

2.322877

3.307146

0.010

0.393708

.377978

0.060

2.362247

3.346517

0.433078

.417348

2.401618

3.385888

0.472449

.456719

2.440989

3.425259

0.511820

.496090

2.480358

3.464630

0.551191

.535461

2.519731

3.604000

0.590562

0.040

.574832

2.559101

0.090

3.543371

0.629933

.614202

2.598472

3.582742

0.669303

.653573

2.637843

8.62211.",

0.708674

.692944

2.677214

3.661483

0.748045

.732315

2.716585

3.700854

0.020

0.787416

.771686

0.070

2.755955

3.740225

0.826787

.811056

2.795326

8.779596

0.866157

.850427

2.834697

3.818967

0.905528

.889798

2.874068

3.858337

0.944899

.929169

2.913438

8.897708

0.984270

0.050

.968540

2.952809

0.100

3.937079

66* MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Wu.

JhfHA

AUSTRIA.— 1 F.)ot = 12.446 English inches = 1.0371 feet

1 Mile = 4,000 toises = 5 miles, nearly.

PRUSSIA.— 1 Khincland foot = 12.3557 English inches. = 1.0296 feet.

1 Mile = 8,552 yards, Engli>h = 5 miles, nearly.

RUSSIA.— 1 Foot =21.1874 English inches = 1.7656 feet.

For the artillery, the En|.rli>h foot and inch are used.

1 Voret = 2,000 Un»ian : = 1,177 yards.

SPAIN.— 1 Foot = 11.1284 English inches.

1 Yura = 8 feet = 0.9274 English yard.

1 League Royal = 25,000 Spanish feet = 4fc miles, nearly.

1 Common league = 19,800 do. = 8|

Uudicial league =15,000 do. = 2J
MEXICO.— 1 Common league = 15,000 do. = 2J "
SWEDEN.— 1 Foot = 11.6865 English inches.

MEASURES OF SURFACE.

Square measure. — 144 Square inches = 1 square foot.

9 Square feet = 1 square yard.

Land measure. — 30± Square yards = 1 square perch or polo.
40 Perches = 1 rood.

160 Perches = 4 roods = 1 acre «= 10 square chain*
(Gunter's) = 4,840 square yards = 70 yards square,
nearly.
640 Acres = 1 square mile.

French Superficial Measure.

Oldsyttem. — 1 Square inch = 1.13587 English square inrln ••*.

1 Arpent (Paris) = 100 square pirclu-s i I'arUi or 000 square

toises = 4,088 square yards, or 5-6ths of an acre, u-
1 Arpent (woodland) = 100 square perches (royal) = 6,108

square yards, or 1 acre, 1 rood, 1 perch.
, or Decimal *yttem.— 1 Are = 100 square metres = 119.603 square

yards.
1 Decare = 10 ares. 1 Hecatare = 100

MEASURES OF SOLIDITY.

Cubic or Solid measure. — 1 Cubic foot = 1,728 cubic inches.

1 Cubic yard = 46,656 " " = 27 cubic foot.

Measuring stone. — In different parts of the United States the perch of
stone denotes a different quantity, but it is usually 24$ cubic

Measuring wood.— I Cord is a prism 4 feet square and 8 feet long = 128
cubic feet.

WEI.]

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

G05

French Solid Measures.
1 Cubic inch = 1.2106 cubic inches, English.
1 Cubic foot = 2091.85 cubic inches, English.
1 Cubic decimetre = 61.0271 " "

1 Stere = 1 cubic metre = 61,027.1 cubic in. = 85.3166 cubic feet
cubic yards.

MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
LIQUID MEASURE.

1.308

Gills.

Pints.

Quarts.

Gallons.

The standard gallon of the United States is the old wine gallon,
which measures 231 cubic inches, and contains (as determined by Mr.
Hassler) 58,373 Troy grains, or 8.3388822 avoirdupois pounds, of dis-
tilled water at the maximum density, (39° .83 Fahr. ;) the barometer
being at 30 inches.

A cubic foot contains 7.48 gallons.

A box 6 x 6 x 6.42 inches contains 1 gallon.

A box 4 x 4 x 3.61 inches contains 1 quart.

DRY MEASURE.

Pints.

Quarts.

Gallons.

Pecks.

Bushels.

* 1

The standard bushel of the United States is the Winchester bushel,
which measures 2,150.4 cubic inches, and contains 543,391.89 Troy
grains, or 77.627413 Ibs. avoirdupois, of distilled water, under the
circumstances above stated.

A cubic yard contains 21.69 bushels.

A cylinder 14 in. diam. x 14 in. deep ) ^^ 1 ^^^

Or a box 16 x 16.8 x 8 inches J

A box 12 x 11.2 x 8 inches contains % bushel.

A box 8 x 8.4 x 8 inches contains 1 peck.

N.B. — It will be observed that the pint, quart, and gallon of dry
measure are not the same as for liquid measure.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

FOREIGN MEASURES OP CAPACITY.

GREAT BRITAIN. — The British imperial gallon measures 277.274
cubic inches, containing ten pounds avoirdupois of distilled water
weighed in air, at the t.-mp. -rature of G2°, the barometer being at 30 in.
The same measure is used for liquids as for dry goods whidi K
measured by heaped measure ; for the latter, the bushel is to be I
in the form of a cono not less than 6 indies hi^h, the base being 19$
. The old distinctions of wine measure, ale and Leer measure,
and dry measure are discontinued.

For grain. — 8 bushels = 1 quarter = 10.269 cubic f

5 quarters = 1 load = 51.347 cubic feet.
For coal or heaped measure. — 1 sack = 3 bushels = 4.89 cubic feet, nearly.

1 chaldron = 12 sacks = 30 bushels = 58.68 cubic fvi t.
For timber. — 1 load = 40 cubic feet.
Former wine gallon = 231 cubic inches.
Former ale gallon = 282 cubic inches.
Imperial gallon, = 277.274 cubic inches, (as above.)
FRANCE. — 1 Litre = 1 cubic decimetre = 61.0271 cubic inches = 1.057

U. S. quart = 1.761 imperial pint of Great Britain.
1 Boisaeau = 13 litres = 793.364 cubic in. = 3.4844 U. 8. gals.
1 Pinte = 0.931 litre = 56.816 cub. in. = 0.98388 U. 8. quart.
SPAIN. — 1 Wine arroba = 4.2455 U. 8. gallons.

1 Fanega (corn measure) = 1.593 U. S. bushels.

MEASURES OF WEIGHT.
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.

Dr-ns.

Ounces.

Pounds.

Quarters.

Cwt

Ton.

256

7,168

448

28,672

1,792

673,440

80,840

1,140

The standard avoirdupois pound of the I'nit. , U d.t.i mined

by Mr. Ilassler, is the \\.-i-ht <.f ',27.7015 eul.ie indn-s of distilled \vat.-r
weighed in air, at the triiiperntniv of the maximum density, (.W.83 ;)
the barometer being at 30 inches.

TEOY WEI r, I IT.

Onto*.

Dwt.

Ounces.

.n,|.

480

5,760

WEI.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 607

The pound, ounce, and grain are the same in Apothecaries' and Troy
weight ; in the former, the ounce is divided into 8 drachms, the drachm
into 3 scruples, and the scruple into 20 grains.

7,000 Troy grains = 1 lb. avoirdupois.
175 Troy pounds = 144 Ibs. "
175 Troy ounces =192 oz. "

43 7i Troy grains = 1 oz. "

Foreign Weights.

GREAT BRITAIN. — The imperial avoirdupois pound is the weight of
27.7274 cubic inches of distilled water weighed in air, with brass
weights, at the temperature of 62° Fahr. ; barometer 30 inches. There-
fore,

1 cubic inch of distilled water at 62° weighs 252.458 grains.
0.003961 cubic inch weighs 1 grain.
22.815689 cubic inches weigh 1 Troy pound.
Horseman's weight : 1 stone = 14 pounds.

FEANCE. — Old system: 1 Livre = 16 onces = 1.0780 lb. avoirdupois.
1 Once = 8 gros = 1.0780 oz. "
1 Gros = 72 grains = 58.9548 grains Troy.

1 Grain = 0.8188 " "

New system. — The basis of the system of weights is the weight, in
vacuo, of a litre, or a cubic decimetre, of distilled water, at the temper-
ature of 39°. 2 Fahr. ; T oV^h part of this weight is a gramme, the mul-
tiples of which are : 1 Decagramme = 10 grammes : 1 Hectogramme
— 100 grammes : 1 Kilogramme = 1,000 grammes. The divisions are :
1 Decigramme = T^th gramme : 1 Centigramme = T^th gramme :
1 Milligramme — ToVo^h gramme.

1 Quintal = 100 kilogrammes.

1 Millier = 1,000 kilogrammes = 1 ton sea weight, (French.)
1 Kilogramme = 2.204737 pounds avoirdupois.
1 Gramme = 15.433159 grains Troy = 0.03528 oz. avoirdupois.
1 Pound avoirdupois = 0.4535685 kilogramme.
1 Pound Troy = 0.3732223 kilogramme.
SPAIN. — 1 Pound = 1.0152 pounds avoirdupois.
SWEDEN.— 1 Pound = 0.9376 " "

AUSTRIA.— 1 Pound = 1.2351 " "

PRUSSIA.— 1 Pound = 1.0333 " "

MEASURES OF VALUE.

All calculations of value in the military service of the United States
are expressed in Dollars and Cents, although the denominations of shil-
lings and pence are still in common use as a nominal currency in many
of the States.

COS MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Wm.

The standard of gold and silver is 900 parts of pure metal and 100
of alloy, in 1,000 parts otVoin. The alloy of gold coin is 25 sil\.
15 copper; the alloy of silver is ri.j.ji,-r.

Weight of Dollar .............. = 412.5 grains Troy > Other ^ fa

Relative Mint Value of United States and Foreign Coins.

GREAT BRITAIN. .1 Guinea = 21 shillings ............... = 5.059 dollars.

1 Sovereign, or 1 pound = 20 shillings . = 4.845 "

1 Crown = 5 shillings ................ r= 1.08 "

1 Shilling = 12 pence ................ = 0.217

1 Penny ........................... = 0.018 "

FRANCE ......... 5 Francs ........................... = 0.932 "

1 Franc = 20 sous ................... = 0.185 "

1 Sous ............................. = 0.0093 "

SPAIN .......... 1 Doubloon, or 1 ounce ............... = 15.67

AUSTRIA. ........ 1 Ducat ............................ = 2.275 "

1 Crown, or rix dollar ............... - 0,

20Kreutzers ......................... = 0.16

PRUSSIA ........ 1 Double Frederick .................. = 8.00

1 Thaler ............................ = 0.693 "

RUSSIA ......... 1 Half- Imperial = 5 roubles ........... = 8.967 "

1 Rouble ........................... = 0.75

SWEDEN ........ 1 Ducat ............................ = 2.2G7

1 Specie daler ...................... = 1.042 "

TUBKEY ........ 20 Piasters .......................... = 0.82

Dimensions of Drawing Paper.
Demy ............ 1ft. 7* in. x 1 ft. 3 fr inches.

Medium .......... 1 " 10 " x 1 " 6 "

Royal ............ 2 " 0 " x 1 " 7 "

Super royal ....... 2 " 3 " x 1 » 7 "

Imperial .......... 2 " 5 " x 1 « 0* «

Elephant ......... 2 " 3} " x 1 " 10* «

Columbier ........ 2 " 9J " x 1 " 1 1

Atlas ............ 2 " 9 " x 2 " 2 "

Double elephant... 8 " 4 " x 2 " 2 "

Anti-iuarinn _______ 4 " 4 " x 2 " 7 "

(Ordnance Manual.)

WHEEL. In the simple vln-«-l ami a\l««, tli<- p-.wrr 'm to tho
weight as the radius r of the axle is to the radius U of tlu- wheel.

Or,P=-

MILITARY DICTIONARY^. 669

In a system of wheels and pinions, the power is to the weight as
the product of the radii (or number of teeth) r r' r", &c., of the
pinions is to the product of the radii (or number of teeth) R R' R",
&c., of the wheels :

R 11' Li"-

WHTPPINQ. Abolished, except for desertion.

WHITING. To make whiting for accoutrements, it is necessary
to boil many handfuls of bran enveloped in linen. Dissolve afterwards
pipe-clay in this water. Whiten with it when cold. When the buff
leather is greasy and does not receive the whiting, scrape it, and apply
to it a solution of pipe-clay and Spanish whiting.

Another receipt, calculated for one hundred men, is the following :
Pipe-clay, 3£ Ibs. ; Spanish whiting, 8 ounces ; white lead, 4 ounces ;
glue, 1£ ounces ; starch, 6 oz. ; white soap, 5 oz. Put the pipe-clay and
Spanish whiting in about five gallons of water ; ,wash them and leave
them to soak for six hours ; 2d, throw out the first water, and replace
it by 5£ gallons of pure water ; add the white lead, glue, and white
soap. Cook them together, taking care to stir constantly the composi-
tion. At the moment that the foam shows itself on the surface, with,
draw the vessel from the fire without suffering the composition to boil ;
put then the starch in the whiting, and mix all well together.

WIDOWS AND ORPHANS. (See PENSION.)

WILLS, (NUNCUPATIVE.) A nuncupative will, so termed from
naming an executor by word of mouth, is a verbal testamentary
declaration or disposition. By the common law, it was as valid in
respect to personal estate as a written testament. A will could not
only be made by word of mouth, but the most solemn instrument in
writing might be revoked, orally. In a rude and uncultivated age, to
have required a written will would have been a great hardship, but with
the growth and progress of letters, the reason for permitting a verbal
testament diminished in force, until finally an effort to establish such a
will by means of gross fraud and perjury gave rise to the provisions of
the statute of 29 Charles II., passed in 1676, termed the Statute of
Frauds.

The only nuncupative wills now allowed are those made by soldiers
and sailors. It appears from the preface to- the Life of Sir Leoline Jen-
kins, that he claimed the merit, at the time of the preparation of the
Statute of Frauds, of having obtained for the soldiers of the English
army the full benefit of the testamentary privileges of the Roman army.
The Roman soldier was indulged with very peculiar rights and immu-

070 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Wiu

nities, in the way of exemption from the usual rules in respect to wills
— Inter arma silent leges. In tin- camp and on the battle-lie -Id th<
menturv law was silent. Amid the excitement ;md the perils of
fare the forms prescribed by law for the execution of a will were dis-
pensed with, so that the soldier might declare his last wish, s I ,
of m<»uth ; or if wounded, he wrote with his blood on his shield. <>r with
his sword in the dust; the disposition was held firm ami >a- -r. .1. Julius
Ctesar authorized the making of the military testament in any mode, and
without prescribed ceremonials. The example thus set was subse-
quently followed by Titus, Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan, until the
usage became thoroughly established. It was extended also t«> the
naval service, and officers, rowers, and sailors wen- in ti

icd as soldiers. This was the foundation of those privileges of
soldiers in regard to nuncupative wills, which were allowed wl,
the civil law prevailed, and have been very generally adopted among
civilized nations. In France, the ordnance De la „!/«//•///• of 1»M. lir>!
-pecial privileges to wills made at sea, and the ordnance of !":;.">
regulated the celebration of the military testament. The Co.!e civil
has also adopted definite rules in regard to wills made at sea, in time
of pestilence, or by soldiers in service. In Holland, when OOHU
began to be extended to distant voyages, the question arose \\hether
wills made at sea were entitled to any peculiar immunity, and some
jurists affirmed that they should be taken as military testaments. The
matter was finally resolved in favor of their exemption in case • •:'
sons sailing to or returning from the Indies, by the ordinance! <f the
West India Company in 1672 and 1G75. In England, by the Statute
of Frauds, passed about the same time, the full benefit of the JM
was given, without restriction, to all soldiers and sailors in actual
service, and this liberal rule has continued to. the present day.

Nuncupative wills, not bein^ regulated by statute as to their -

•ration or execution, the single question for the jud^i,. -nt of the
court is. \\hether the nuncupation was made by a |< tied to that

privil. ictionsof the Statute^* Frauds were not applied to

made by " any soldier being in actual military r any

m.irinr or seaman being at sea." By the iv\is,d ttatol

; that nuncupative wills should not be valid. " unless
made by a soldi. T while in actual military
while at sea." The b ,\\ in the statute 1 Viet.

my soldier belli'.: in actual military s< mariner or

•i being at sea." The phrase. .l,,«ry is slightly different in these
statutes ; but the rule is substantially the same in all — that the nuncu-

WIL.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. G71

pation is only valid when made by a soldier in actual military service,
or a mariner at sea, at the time of the testamentary act. It is not
enough to be a soldier or a sailor, but there must be actual service.
The military testament was first conceded by Julius Caesar to all sol-
diers, but it was subsequently limited by Justinian to those engaged in
an expedition — solis qui in expeditionibus occupati sunt. The exception
was borrowed with the rule from the civil law, and the courts have in-
variably adhered to the principle that there cannot be actual warfare
and the soldier not be engaged in expedilione. So also the nuncupation
of a mariner to be valid must be made at sea. It is sometimes difficult
to determine when the mariner is to be considered at sea. For example,
Lord Hugh Seymour, the admiral of the station at Jamaica, made a codicil
by nuncupation while staying at the house on shore appropriated to the
admiral of the station. The codicil was rejected on the ground that
he only visited his ship occasionally, while his family establishment
and place of abode were on land at the official residence. But when a
mariner belonging to a vessel lying in the harbor of Buenos Ayres,met
with an accident when on shore by leave, made a nuncupative will, and
died there, probate was granted for the reason that he was only casually
absent from his ship. The will of a shipmaster made off Otaheite has
also been allowed. The principle upon which the privilege of nuncupa-
tion is conceded applies to all persons engaged in the marine service,
whatever may be their special duty or occupation on the vessel. As in
the army the term " soldier " embraces every grade, from the private
to the highest officer, and includes the gunner, the surgeon, or the gen-
eral ; so in the marine, the term " mariner " applies to every person
in the naval or mercantile service, from the common seaman to the
captain or admiral. It is not limited or restricted to any special occu-
pation on shipboard, but a purser, or any other person whose particular
vocation does not relate to the sailing of the vessel, possesses the same
right as the sailor. A cook is certainly as much a necessary part of
the effective service of a vessel as the purser or the sailor ; and there
wrould seem to be no reason why he should be excluded from the ad-
vantage of a rulo designed for the benefit of men engaged in the marine,
without reference to the particular branch of duty performed in the
vessel. As well because the wills of soldiers and mariners were ex-
cepted from the operations of the provisions of the Statute of Frauds, as
for the reason and ground of the exception, and the peculiar character
of the military testament, it was never held requisite that their nuncu-
pations should be made during the last sickness. Nor has any particu-
lar mode been prescribed in respect to the manner of making the testa-

672 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Win.

ment. The very essence of the privilege consists in the absence of all
c.Tcmonies as legal requisites — or, as Merlin states the prop«
'• their form was properly to have no form." It is true tin- li..niati law
prescribes two witnesses ; but this, however, did n6t relate to the essence
of the act, but only to the proof. In respect to evidence, we do not fol-
low the civil or the canon law ; no particular number of witnesses is
required to verify an act judicially, and all the court demands is to be
satisfied by sufficient evidence as to the substance of the last t. stamen-
tary request or declaration of the deceased. This ascertained, the law
holds it sacred, and carries it into effect with as much favor nnd i
as would be paid to the most formal instrument executed witl,
legal solemnity ; (Decision of the Surrogate of New York City.) And
so, according to numerous decisions, made in Great Britain, quoted by
Prendi r_M-t, u \\ li, -never a military officer on full pay makes an informal
will its validity can only be supported by showing the testator t<> have
been on actual military service at the time the \\i!l \\ . And

the result of the decisions appears to be, that an oflieer ith his

regiment, or in command of troops in garrison or quarters, either in the
United Kingdom or the colonies, is not deemed on actual milita-
vice. To satisfy the meaning of the act of parliament in that i •
he must be on an expedition, or on some duty associated with positive
danger."

WINDAGE. The truo windage is the difference between the true
diameters of the bore and tho ball. The loss of velocity caused by a
given windage is directly as the windage and inversely as the diam« t. r
of the bore, very nearly.

WINDLASS. A machine used for many common purposes. It is
a particular modification of the wheel and axle, the power being applied
by means of a rectangular lever <>r irinch.

WINGS. The right and left divisions of an army or battalion.

WIT N KSS. All persons who give evidence before a court-martial,

are to be examined on oath or affirmation, as follows: You swear, or

affirm (as tin* case may be) th«- cvid^nc" you shall irive in the cause now

-hall l«e th" truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.

i <;..,] ; (Ar.T. 73.)

On the trial of cases not capital before eourts-mnrtial, tlie deposition
of witnesses not in the lino or staff of the army. ma\ in evi-

: Provided, th NT and the person accused nre pr<

.ki-iiT of the same, or are duly notified thereof; (/\RT. 71.) The
list of witnesses for the prosecution is sometimes given to th

WOR.] MILITARY DICTIONARY. 073

not as a right, but as a matter of convenience, when no evil result is
apprehended from it ; (IIouGH.)

The law has not given to courts-martial any power to compel the
attendance of witnesses not of the line or staff of the army, even in
capital cases. The want of such power might often defeat the ends of
justice. A citizen witness is, however, paid his actual transportation
or stage-fare and three dollars a day while attending the court and travel-
ling to and from it, counting the travel at fifty miles a day. (See EVI-
DENCE ; TRIAL.)

WOMEN. (See WASHING.)

WOOD. The most useful timbers in the United States are : the
hickory, which is very tough and inflexible ; white oak, tough and
pliable ; white ash, tough and elastic ; black walnut, hard and fine-
grained ; white poplar, soft, light fine-grained wood ; white pine and
other pines, for building ; cypress, soft, light, straight-grained, and grows*
to a large size ; dogwood, hard and fine-grained. The timber growing
in the centre of a forest is best.

WORK. (See FATIGUE DUTY.)

WORKING POWER. Working power of men : A foot soldier
travels in one minute, in common time, 90 steps = 70 yards. In quick
time, 100 steps = 86 yards. In double quick, 140 steps — 109 yards.
He occupies in the ranks a front of 20 inches and a depth of 13 inches,
without the knapfack ; the interval between the ranks is 13 in. ; 5 men
can stand in a space of 1 square yard. Average weight of men, 150
Ibs. each. A man travels, without a load, on level ground, during 8£
hours a day, at the rate of 3.7 miles an hour, or 31 £ miles a day. He
can carry 111 Ibs. 1 1 miles a day. A porter, going short distances and
returning unloaded, carries 135 Ibs. 7 miles a day. He can carry in a
wheel-barrow 150 Ibs. 10 miles a day. The maximum power of a
strong man, exerted for 2£ minutes, may be stated at 18,000 Ibs. raised
1 foot in a minute.

A man of ordinary strength exerts a force of 30 Ibs. for 10 hours a
day with a velocity of 2£ feet in a second = 4,500 Ibs. raised 1 foot in
a minute = one-fifth the work of a horse. Daily allowance of water
for a man 1 gallon, for all purposes. (See HORSE ; MEASURE ; &c.)

WORSHIP, (DIVINE.) It is earnestly recommended to all officers
and soldiers diligently to attend divine service, and all officers who shall
behave indecently or irreverently at any place of divine worship shall,
if commissioned officers, be brought before a general court-martial there
to be publicly and severely reprimanded by the president ; if non-com-
missioned officers or soldiers, every person so offending shall, for his
43

674 MILITARY DICTIONARY. [Wou.

first offence, forfeit one-sixth of a dollar, to be deducted out of his next
pay ; for the second offence, he shall not only forfeit a like sum, but be
0'iifmed 24 hours ; and for every like offence, shall suffer and pay in
like manner ; whk-h money, so forfeited, shall be applied by the captain
or senior officer of the troop or company to the use of the sick soldiers
of the company or troop to which the offender belongs ; (ART. 2.)

WOUNDS. (&« PENSIONS.)

WRONGS. (See INJURIES ; REDRESSING WRONGS ; REMEDY.)

YARD. (See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.)

ZIGZAG- OR BOYAUS — are defiladed trenches, run out from th-
parallels of attack, so as to form a covered road, by which the assail-
ants can approach the fortress. (See SIEGE.)

Scott, Henry Lee

Military diet nonary

1864.

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

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Full text of "Military dictionary: comprising technical definitions; information on raising and keeping troops; actual service, including makeshifts and improved matériel; and law, government, regulation, and administration relating to land forces"

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