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A    MILITARY    DICTIONARY. 


MILITAKY  DICTIONAKY, 


COMPRISING 


TERMS,  SCIENTIFIC  AND  OTHERWISE,  CONNECTED 
WITH  THE  SCIENCE  OF  WAR. 


COMPILED   BY 


MAJOB-GENEEAL  G.  E.  VOYLE, 

RETIRED   ROYAL   (BENGAL)   ARTILLERY,   AUTHOR   OF   THE   'GUNNER'S   AID.' 


ASSISTED   BY 


CAPTAIN   G.   DE   SAINT-CLAIR-STEVENSON,   E.E.G.S. 

ANCIEN   OFFICIER   D'ETAT-MAJOR   AUXILIAIRE. 


'  What  is  obvious  is  not  always  known,  and  what  is  known  is  not 
always  present." — JOHNSON. 


THIRD    EDITION. 

DEDICATED   BY  PERMISSION   TO  H.R.H.  THE   DUKE  OF  CAMBRIDGE. 


LONDON: 
WILLIAM  CLOWES  &  SONS,  13  CHAKING  CEOSS. 

1876. 


LONDON : 

PRINTED   15Y  WILLIAM   CLOWES   AND   SONS, 
STAMFORD   STREET   AND   CHARING   CROSS. 


PEEFACE. 


IN  bringing  out  a  new  edition  of  my  Dictionary,  I  have  kept  in 
view  the  object  I  had  originally  in  its  compilation — the  production 
of  a  general  work  of  reference — and  as  such  I  now  offer  it  to  all 
who  take  an  interest  in  military  affairs. 

The  number  of  expensive  books  to  which  the  military  student 
must  have  recourse,  in  order  to  obtain  the  varied  information  required 
in  the  different  branches  of  the  service,  struck  me  some  years  ago  as 
being  a  source  of  great  inconvenience.  To  avoid  this,  I  considered 
it  advisable  to  bring  out  a  work,  by  condensing  into  one  volume 
all  that  is  indispensable,  as  well  as  much  with  which  it  is  desirable 
an  officer  should  become  acquainted. 

This  Dictionary,  which  passed  through  two  editions,  was  pub- 
lished in  India  some  years  ago.*  But  in  these  days  of  rapid  and 
constant  transition,  not  only  in  the  materiel  of  an  army,  but  also 
in  drill,  organisation,  and  tactics,  when  new  inventions  are  con- 
tinually brought  forward  and  introduced  into  the  service,  it  is 
difficult  without  a  work  of  this  character  to  acquire  the  knowledge 
of  these  changes.  A  new  edition  of  the  Dictionary  was  therefore 
thought  necessary,  and  that  book,  revised,  corrected,  and  greatly 
enlarged,  is  now  offered  to  the  public. 

Matter  foreign  to  the  British  army  has  been  introduced  in  this 
edition,  so  as  to  enable  the  military  student  to  compare  the 
organisation,  arms,  &c.  of  continental  armies  with  those  of  his  own 
service.  The  Dictionary  contains  also  descriptions  of  ancient 
armour,  and  of  arms,  lately  in  the  service,  which  have  become 
obsolete,  as  it  may  be  of  some  interest  to  follow  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  the  mode  and  means  of  fighting  from  the  earliest 
period  down  to  the  present  time. 

The  insertion  of  veterinary  terms  and  of  remedies  for  the  common 

*  '  A  Dictionary  of  Artillery  and  other  Military  and  Scientific  Terms,'  compiled  by  Colonel 
Voyle,  R.A.,  second  edition.  (Calcutta:  Thacker,  Spink,  and  Co.) 

a  2 


PREFACE. 


complaints  of  horses  will,  I  hope,  be  found  useful  under  conditions 
where  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  not  available,  as  is  often  the  case  in 
detached  parties  of  cavalry  in  India  and  elsewhere. 

A  description  of  certain  tools  and  machines  found  commonly  in 
workshops  may  prove  acceptable  to  departmental  officers  on  their 
first  joining  government  manufacturing  establishments. 

The  meaning  of  a  few  Hindustani  words,  not  strictly  military, 
is  given  for  the  use  of  officers  on  first  going  to  India. 

In  conclusion,  I  beg  to  acknowledge  the  valuable  help  obtained 
from  the  works  of  many  authors,  both  military  and  scientific,  and 
the  assistance  I  have  received  from  various  friends,  and  especially 
from  the  officer  whose  name  appears  with  mine  on  the  title-page. 
To  avoid  crowding  up  the  text,  I  have  not  inserted  after  each 
quotation  the  name  of  the  author  from  whom  my  information  has 
been  derived ;  but  a  list  of  all  works  which  I  have  consulted,  and 
from  which  I  have  extracted,  will  be  found  at  the  commencement 
of  the  work. 

It  is  intended,  with  the  view  of  meeting  the  changes  which  are 
likely  to  take  place  in  the  materiel  of  the  army,  to  issue  a  supple- 
ment yearly,  containing  all  alterations  and  additions. 

G.  E.  V. 


Aide-Memoire  to  the  Military  Sciences. 

Aide-Me'moire  de  1'Officier  d'Etat-Major,  par  M.  de  Rouvre,  Lieutenant-Colonel 

d'Etat-Major. 

Ammunition,  Treatise  on,  1874.     Published  by  authority. 
Almanach  de  Gotha,  1876. 
Archives,  German  Military. 
Army  Circulars.     Published  by  the  War  Office. 
Art  of  War,  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Graham. 
Artillerist's  Manual,  llth  edition,  by  Major  Griffiths,  R.A. 
Artillerist's    Handbook  of  Reference,  by   Lieutenants  G.  Well,  R.A.,   and  J.   C. 

Dalton,  R.A. 

Artillery,  Dictionary  of,  by  General  Cotty. 
Artillery   Exercises,  Field,  Changes   in,  in  1873,  by  Major-General   Phillpotts 

R.H.A. 

Artillery  Institution  Papers. 

Artillery,  Lectures  on,  by  Majors  Owen  and  Dames,  R.A. 
Artillery,  Modern,  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Owen,  R.A. 
Artillery,  Treatise  on,  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Boxer,  R.A. 
Astronomical  Atlas,  by  Milner. 
Baker's  Elements  of  Mechanism. 
Balfour's  Encyclopaedia  of  India. 
Blue  Books  (Parliamentary). 
Bourne  on  the  Steam  Engine. 

Brande  and  Cox's  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art,  1875. 
Cape's  Mathematics. 
Cavalry  Manual,  by  Colonel  Ainslie. 
Chambers's  Encyclopaedia. 

Change  of  Materiel.     Published  by  the  War  Office. 

Chemistry  as  applied  to  the  Arts  and  Manufactures,  by  Dr.  S.  Muspratt. 
Chemistry,  Handbook  of,  by  Abel  and  Bloxam. 
Chemistry,  Manual  of,  by  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy. 
Conferences  du  Ministre  de  la  Guerre  (France). 
Conferences  Militaires  Beiges. 
Construction  of  Dwelling-houses. 
Defence  of  Military  Outposts,  by  Captain  Jebb,  R.E. 
Dictionary,  Handy,  of  Military  Terms,  by  Captain  W.  Knollys. 
Dictionary,  Military  and  Naval,  by  Colonel  Burn. 
Dictionary,  Military  and  Naval,  by  James. 


viii      LIST  OF  WORKS  CONSULTED  OR  EXTRACTED  FROM. 

Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  by  E.  Francis,  F.L.S. 

IHctionarv  of  the  English  Language,  by  Johnson. 

Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  by  Webster. 

Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  by  Hyde  Clark,  LL.D. 

Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  by  Smart. 

Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  by  Nuttall. 

Dictionary  of  Military  Science,  by  Lieutenant  E.  S.  W.  Campbell. 

Dictionary,  Philosophical,  by  Button. 

Elementary  Lectures  on  Military  Law.  by  Captain  Tulloch. 

Encyclopaedia  Britanniea  (1875). 

Field  Exercise  and  Evolutions  of  the  Army. 

Field  Fortification,  by  Macaulay. 

Field  Fortification,  a  Manual  of  Military  Sketching  and  Reconnaissance.  Pub- 
lished by  authority. 

Fortification,  by  Arnetti. 

Fortification  and  other  Military  Subjects  as  carried  on  at  the  Royal  Military 
Academy,  Woolwich. 

Gunnery,  by  Hyde. 

Gunpowder',  by  Majors  Badelev,  Anderson,  Goodenough,  and  Captains  Smith  and 
Morgan. 

Holtzapffel's  Turning  and  Mechanical  Manipulation. 

Handbook  for  Field  Service,  by  General  Lefroy,  R.A. 

Handbook  of  the  Mechanical  Arts,  by  R.  Scott  Burns. 

Handbook  for  Military  Artificers,  1875,  by  Sergeant-Major  T.  Armstrong,  R.A. 

Handbook  of  Natural  Philosophy,  by  Lardner. 

Heather  on  Mathematical  Instruments. 

History  of  the  Dress  of  the  British  Soldier,  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  J.  Luard. 

How  we  are  to  govern  Ourselves,  by  Alban  de  Fonblanque. 

In  Han  and  Burinan  Timbers,  by  Conductor  Skinner. 

Instructions  in  the  Duties  of  Cavalry  reconnoitring  an  Enemy,  for  the  use  of 
Auxiliary  Cavalry. 

Instructions  in  Military  Engineering.     Published  by  authority. 

Journals  of  the  Royal  (United  Service  Institution. 

Manual  of  Artillery  Exercises,   1875. 

Manual  of  Instructions  for  Testing  the  Defective  Vision  of  Soldiers,  by  Surgeon- 
General  J.  Longmore,  C.B. 

Manual  of  Military  Law,  by  Colonel  Pipon  and  .1.  Collier,  Esq. 

Manuel  complet  a  1'Usage  des  Candidate  au  Grade  d'Officier  d'Infanterie,  par 
A.  Turlin. 

Maunder's  Treasury  of  Knowledge. 

Mayhew  on  the  Horse. 

Mechanic's  Magazine. 

Military  Carriages,  Treatise  on,  by  Captain  Kemmis.  R.A. 

Military  Law,  by  Clode. 

Mutiny  Act  aud  Articles  of  War. 

Motion  of  Projectiles,  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Owen,  R.A. 

Operations  of  War,  by  Colonel  Hamley,  2nd  and  ord  editions. 

Queen's  Regulations,  1873. 

Regulations  and  Instructions  for  Encampments  fur  1875. 

Kevue  Militaire  de  1'Etranger  (Paris). 

Ruvue  d'Artillerie. 

Rifle  Exercises  and  Musketry  Instructions. 

Royal  Artillery,  History  of,  by  Captain  Duncan,  R.A. 

Sandhurst.  Papers. 

Science,  La,  des  Personnes  de  Cour,  d'Epo'e  et  de  Robe. 

Short  Notes  on  Field  Batteries,  by  Captain  Gale  Browne   R.A.     • 


LIST  OF  WORKS  CONSULTED  OR  EXTRACTED  FROM.      ix 

Simmons  on  Courts-martial. 

Small's  Veterinary  Tablet. 

Soldier's  Pocket-book,  by  Major-General  Sir  G.  Wolseley,  K.C.B. 

Spectateur  Militaire  (Paris). 

Steam  Engine,  by  Robert  S.  Burns. 

Tactics  and  Strategy,  by  General  Twemlow,  P..A. 

Text-book  of  the  Construction  and  Manufacture  of  the  Rifled  Ordnance  in  the 

British  Service,  by  Captain  Stoney  and  Captain  C.  Jones,  R.A. 
Text-book  for  School  of  Musketry  at  Hythe. 
Theory  of  War,  by  Colonel  (now  General)  Macdougall. 
Tomlinson's  Cyclopaedia  of  the  Useful  Arts  and  Manufactures. 
Weale's  Series. 
Knglish  and  foreign  newspapers. 


ABBBEVIATIONS. 


B.L.  .. 
B.L.R.  .. 
C.B.  .. 
C.O.  .. 
D.A.Q.M.G. 

F.G.       . . 

F.S. 

G.C.  .. 
G.C.B.  .. 
G.S.  .. 
G.S.W. 
K.C.B. 
L.G.  .. 
L.L.R.  .. 
L.S.  . . 
M.L.  .. 
M.L.R.  .. 
M.T.  .. 
N.C.  .. 
N.C.O.  .. 
N.P.  .. 
N.W.  .. 
O.P.  .. 
P. 

R.A.  .. 
R.C.D.  .. 
R.E.  .. 
R.F.G.  .. 
R.G.F.  .. 
R.L.  .. 
R.L.G.  .. 
R.M.A. 
S.A. 


. .    Breech-loading. 

. .   Breech-loading  rifled. 

. .    Companion  of  the  Bath. 

..    Commanding  officer. 

..   Deputy  assistant  quartermaster-general. 

(Fine  grain. 
"\Field  gun. 
..   Field  service. 
..    Good  conduct. 
. .  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 
..    General  service. 
..    General  service  wagon. 
. .   Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath. 
..    Large  grain. 
..   Line  of  least  resistance. 
. .    Land  service. 
..    Muzzle-loading. 
..    Muzzle-loading  rifled. 
..   Mountain  train. 
..    Non-commissioned. 
..   Non-commisioned  officer. 
..  New  pattern. 
. .   North-west. 
. .    Old  pattern. 
..   Pebble. 
..    Royal  artillery. 
. .    Royal  carriage  department. 
..    Royal  engineers. 
. .    Rifle  fine  grain. 
..    Royal  gun  factory. 
. .    Royal  laboratory. 
..    Rifle  large  grain. 
..    Royal  Military  Academy. 
. .   Small-arms. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


S.A.A.    ..  ..  ..  Small-arm  ammunition. 

S.B.       ..          ..  ..  Smooth-bore. 

S.C.        ..  ..          ..  Scrap  carriage. 

S.O Staff  officer. 

S.S.        ..          ..          ..  Sea  service. 

V.C        ..  ..          ..  Victoria  Cross. 

0  over  a  figure  denotes  degrees, 
„  „  minutes. 


CORRIGENDA. 


Page   61,  line  18  from  top  of  right  colnmn,/or  "  5  "  read  "  6." 

5ft,    „     3          „  left         „       for  "  former "  read  "  latter." 

59,    „     5          „  „          ».       for  "  latter "  read  "  former." 

77,  lines  3  &  4    „  right      „       for  "  Non-commissioned  officers  of  .'artillery  wear,'' 

&c.,  read  "  All  other  non-commissioned  officers 
wear,"  &c. 
„    186,  line    1  from  bottom  of  right  column,/or  "  7  "  read  "  4."      (Vide  Addenda,   Heavy 

Cavalry.) 

„    305,    „     4  „  „  „       for  "  traversely "  read  "  transversely." 

„    351,    „    22  from  top  of  left  column,  for  "1-prs.  and  i-prs."  read  "1  lb.|and  i  Ib." 
„    415,    „    12          „          right      „      for "  or''  read  "and." 
„    425,    „     1          „          left        „      for  •'  of  war "  read  "  in  warfare." 
„    434,    „    16         „          right      „       erase "  and  the  Whitehead  (fish)." 


NOTE. — Any  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  book  while  it  has  been  passing  through 
the  press,  in  the  matter  of  the  pay  of  the  soldier,  &c.,  will  be  found  corrected  either  in  the 
Addenda  or  Appendix. 

Where  the  word  "  reconnaissance  "  has  been  spelt  "  rcconnoissance,"  the  reader  is  requested 
to  make  the  alteration. 


MILITAEY  DICTIONAEY. 


ABA 


ACC 


A. 

Abandon,  To — In  a  military  sense  to 
retire  suddenly  from  a  place,  fortified  or 
otherwise,  thus  leaving  it  and  the  in- 
habitants to  the  mercy  of  the  enemy. 
Hence  the  saying,  "  to  abandon  a  fortress, 
siege,"  &c. 

Abatis  (French  abattre,  to  fell) — An 
abatis  is  one  of  the  "  obstacles  "  used  in 
the  defence  of  field  works.  It  is  formed 
of  trees,  or  the  limbs  of  trees,  of  a 
considerable  size,  12  or  15  feet  long, 
laid  close  together.  The  stems  are 
firmly  secured  to  the  ground  by  being 
buried  in  the  earth  and  fastened  down  by 
pickets,  or  by  logs  of  wood  laid  across  them. 
To  be  efficient,  the  larger  branches  must 
be  pointed  and  spread  towards  the  enemy, 
the  smaller  being  cut  away.  Abatis  should 
be  so  placed  as  not  to  be  exposed  to  the  fire 
of  artillery.  In  intrenchments,  they  are 
usually  placed  in  an  upright  position 
against  the  counterscarp,  or  at  the  foot 
of  the  glacis,  the  plane  of  which  is  broken 
so  as  to  permit  of  their  being  laid  out  of 
sight  of  the  enemy,  and  at  the  same  time 
not  to  interfere  with  the  musketry  fire 
from  the  parapet  in  their  rear.  An  ex- 
cellent mode  of  blocking  up  a  road  is  to 
place  an  abatis  across  it,  and  when  the 
branches  are  well  and  properly  placed, 
and  interwoven  one  within  the  other,  the 
disentangling  of  them  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult. An  abatis  should  not  be  planted 
out  of  musketry  range ;  for  this,  and  all 
other  obstacles,  are  intended  to  break  up 
the  order  of  the  enemy's  advance ;  to 
impede,  and  to  keep  him  under  musketry 
fire. 

Academy — Takes  its  name  from  a  villa 


situated  about  a  mile  from  the  city  of 
Athens,  where  Plato  and  his  followers 
assembled  for  conversing  on  philosophical 
subjects ;  and  hence  they  acquired  the 
name  of  Academics.  The  term  academy 
is  commonly  applied  to  any  class  of  school 
which  professes  to  communicate  more 
than .  the  mere  elements  of  instruction, 
and  is  frequently  used  now  for  a  regular 
society  or  company  of  learned  men,  asso- 
ciated together  for  the  cultivation  and 
improvement  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  In 
England  and  on  the  continent  there  are 
several  institutions  termed  academies  for 
the  promotion  of  scientific  subjects  and 
literature,  which  are  doubtless  well 
known  to  most  people.  The  Military 
Academy  at  Woolwich,  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  artillery  and  engineers  of  the 
army,  was  instituted  by  George  II.  in 
1741,  that  is  to  say,  the  warrant  found- 
ing the  Academy  was  issued  in  that  year, 
but  the  Cadet  Company  was  not  formed 
until  four  years  later.  For  an  interest- 
ing account  of  the  early  formation  of  the 
Academy,  vide  Captain  Duncan's  '  History 
of  the  Royal  Artillery.' 

The  regulations  for  the  admission  of 
candidates  to  the  Academy  will  be  found 
in  the  Appendix  A. 

Accelerated  Motion  —  When  a  body 
continually  increases  its  motion  over 
successive  portions  of  space,  in  equal 
times,  it  is  called  accelerated  motion.  And 
when  the  spaces  described  continually 
decrease,  it  is  called  retarded  motion. 

Accelerating  Force — Force  considered 
only  with  reference  to  velocity  generated, 
and  not  with  reference  to  the  mass, 
moved.  Accelerating  force,  if  uniform, 
is  measured  by  the  velocity  generated  in 


ACC 


ACI 


a  unit  of  time ;  if  variable,  by  the  velo- 
city which  would  be  generated  in  a  unit 
of  time  if  the  force  were  continued  con- 
stant during  that  unit.  The  best  ex- 
ample of  such  uniform  motion  is  that 
of  a,  falling  body. 

Accessible — -A  position,  fortified  or 
otherwise,  and  capable  of  being  ap- 
proached by  land  or  water — i.e.  it  may 
be  entered  on  those  sides. 

Accountant-General  of  the  Army— 
An  officer  who  has  the  control  of  military 
linance.  He  includes  in  his  office  that  of 
chief  auditor,  an  amalgamation  with  that 
of  accountant-general,  which  took  place 
by  order  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
War  in  1870. 

Accounts,  Public — Form  the  systematic 
record  of  State  Expenditure.  The  ac- 
counts should  exhibit,  methodically,  under 
proper  heads,  all  receipts  and  disburse- 
ments of  public  money,  stores,  &c.  To 
secure  efficiency  in  these  matters,  ac- 
counts should  be  promptly  rendered  in 
the  simplest  and  most  correct  manner. 

The  War  Office  "  forms "  show  the 
method  of  keeping  the  accounts  of  all 
establishments  under  its  orders. 

Accoutrements — The  belts,  which  sup- 
port the  arms,  pouch,  or  pouches,  of  a 
soldier.  The  belts  in  use  in  the  British 
army  are  made,  for  the  most  part,  of 
"buff"  leather.  Articles  of  regimental 
accoutrements  and  appointments  are 
directed  to  be  marked  with  the  number  of 
the  regiment  to  which  they  belong.  The 
marks  are  to  be  carefully  and  legibly 
placed  on  the  inside  of  the  belts,  pouches, 
slings,  &c. 

Acid,  Nitiic  (N05) — Found  in  com- 
bination with  potassa,  soda,  lime  and 
magnesia;  also  in  the  pools  and  springs 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  populous  towns; 
and  in  rain  water  after  thunder  storms  ; 
but  it  has  never  been  found  in  a  separate 
state.  Nitric  acid  is  commonly  prepared 
from  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  and 
nitre,  by  distillation.  There  are  also 
other  processes  pursued  in  preparing 
nitric  acid.  The  impure  nitric  acid  of 
commerce  is  known  by  the  name  of 
'•  aqua  fortis." 

Nitric  acid  is  one  of  the  ingredients 
used  in  browning  arms,  and  also  in  the 
preparation  of  fulminate  of  mercury. 
It  is  also  used,  in  combination  with  sul- 


phuric acid,  in  the  preparation  of  gun- 
cotton,  and  in  solution,  as  a  bath  for 
galvanic  batteries.  It  is  a  powerful 
oxidiser.  and  acts  strongly  on  metals. 
A  few  drops  poured  into  the  vent  of  a 
spiked  gun  will  facilitate  the  operation 
of  extracting  the  spike. 

The  common  mode  of  testing  nitric 
acid  is  to  dilute  half  an  ounce  of  it  in  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  distilled  water, 
then  to  pour  in,  say,  six  or  seven  drops 
of  nitrate  of  barytes  ;  should  it  retain  its 
colour,  it  indicates  that  it  is  free  from 
muriatic  acid.  As  nitric  acid  may  also 
contain  sulphuric  acid,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  detect  it,  to  pour  in  a 
few  drops  of  nitrate  of  silver,  when, 
should  it  remain  colourless,  it  proves  that 
it  is  free  from  the  above-mentioned  acid. 

Acid,  Sulphuric  (S03)— One  of  the 
most  important  acids  known.  Dr. 
O'Shaughnessy,  in  his  '  Manual  of  Che- 
mistry,' thus  describes  its  value: — "It 
would  be  impossible  to  exaggerate  the 
importance  of  this  acid,  whether  we  con- 
sider it  with  reference  to  abstract  science, 
to  the  condition  of  our  manufactures,  or 
the  purposes  of  medicine.  By  the  assist- 
ance of  this  acid  we  prepare  almost  all  the 
others ;  for  instance,  the  nitric,  muriatic, 
tartaric,  citric,  &c.  We  owe  to  it  the 
cheapest  mode  of  obtaining  artificial  soda, 
chlorine,  and  its  bleaching  components. 
It  is  essential  to  the  processes  of  the 
dyer.  In  fact,  from  the  time  that  sul- 
phuric acid  was  first  prepared  at  a  cheap 
price  in  Europe,  may  be  dated  the  com- 
mencement of  her  greatness  in  all  chemi- 
cal manufactures."  In  Southern  India  it 
has  been  prepared  for  many  centuries. 
The  process  pursued  in  the  preparation 
of  sulphuric  acid  will  be  found  in  all 
chemical  works. 

Sulphuric  acid,  in  a  diluted  state,  is 
made  use  of  in  percussion  cap  factories 
for  the  purpose  of  cleansing  the  sheets 
of  copper  of  all  oxide  of  copper  which 
may  collect  on  them.  It  is  also  used  in 
the  preparation  of  gun-cotton  (sp.  gr. 
1  •  845). 

Acids — Form  a  very  numerous  and 
important  class  of  bodies  in  chemistry. 
The  common  idea  of  an  acid  is  a  soluble 
substance  possessing  the  property  of 
sourness.  The  chemist,  however,  disre- 
gards this  property,  and  considers  all 


ACQ 


ADJ 


those  substances  to  be  acids  which  im- 
part a  red  colour  to  blue  litmus  paper, 
and  form  stable,  neutral,  and  crystallis- 
able  compounds  with  bases,  such  as 
alkalies  and  earths,  or  metals  or  their 
oxides. 

Acquittance  Roll — A  document  in 
which  is  shown  the  monthly  settlement 
of  the  accounts  of  a  troop,  battery,  or 
company,  and  to  which  the  signature  of 
the  soldier  is  attached,  countersigned  by 
the  captain  or  officer  in  charge. 

Action — An  engagement  or  battle  be- 
tween opposing  forces  ;  or  some  memor-  j 
able    act  done    by  an  officer,  soldier,  or  j 
detachment.    The  term  is  commonly  used  | 
in    artillery    exercise    when    guns    are 
brought   into  or    change   position,    with  ! 
the  view  of  attacking  an  opposing  object,  i 

Acts  of  Hostility — Proceedings  of  a 
diplomatic,  commercial,  or  military  cha- 
racter, involving  a  state  of  war  between 
two  or  more  nations.  This  was  ex- 
emplified in  1870  in  the  altercation 
between  Count  Benedetti,  the  French 
ambassador,  at  the  Court  of  Berlin,  and 
the  King  of  Prussia  at  the  Kursaal  of 
Ems.  This  is  an  instance  of  the  first- 
named  act  of  hostility.  The  second  is 
shown  in  the  case  of  the  embargo  laid  on  ! 
British  shipping  by  the  first  Napoleon 
after  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1803.  The 
third  consists  in  the  invasion  of  a  friendly 
territory  or  firing  on  armed  vessels  of  a  j 
friendly  nation.  A  further  act  of  hos- 
tility of  a  civil  character  is  the  forcible 
detention  of  the  subjects  of  a  friendly  ' 
nation,  which  was  exemplified  in  the 
seizing  of  non-belligerent  British  sub-  : 
jects  residing  in  France  in  1803. 

Adapter — A  gun  -  metal  bush,  used 
when  shells,  having  the  obsolete  Moor-  j 
som  gauge  fuze-hole,  are  fired  with  fuzes  ; 
which  are  not  adapted  to  this  fuze- 
hole.  The  pattern  adapter  now  in  use 
is  known  as  the  "G.S.  adapter,"  which 
screws  into  the  Moorsom  fuze-hole.  There 
are  two  distinct  adapters,  one  for  sphe-  ' 
rical  shell,  the  other  for  rifled  shell. 
Up  to  the  year  1867  all  shells  for  the 
larger  rifled  ordnance  down  to  the  40-pr. 
L.S.  and  the  20-pr.  S.S.  common  shell 
were  made  with  the  Moorsom  or  naval 
fuze-hole.  Since  then  all  new  shells  have 
been  tapped  with  what  is  termed  the 
G  S.  gauge  fuze-hole,  and  shells  already 


in  the  service  which  have  not  this  sized 
hole  receive  the  G.S.  adapter.  The 
shape  of  the  inside  of  the  adapter  is 
conical,  the  outside  cylindrical. 

Adjutant  (Latin  adjuvare,  to  help) — 
An  officer  appointed  to  each  regiment,  to 
assist  the  commanding  officer  m  the  execu- 
tion of  all  details  of  duty  and  discipline. 
An  adjutant  should  be  an  officer  of 
active  habits,  keen  sight,  a  good  rider, 
and,  above  all,  a  good  "drill."  Much  of 
his  time  should  be  spent  on  the  parade 
ground  in  the  drilling  of  recruits  and 
all  duties  tending  to  the  discipline 
and  setting  up  of  his  regiment.  He 
inspects  all  escorts  and  guards,  issues 
and  receives  orders  from  the  commanding 
officer  for  the  information  of  officers  com- 
manding companies,  and  he  promulgates 
to  the  regiment,  in  general,  all  orders  he 
may  receive.  He  is  accountable  to  the 
commanding  officer  for  the  correctness 
of  the  regimental  books,  and  is  bound  to 
bring  to  his  notice  all  infraction  of  rules 
or  orders.  From  the  foregoing  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  duties  of  an  adjutant 
are  unremitting.  Agreeably  to  the  Queen's 
Regulations,  no  officer  is  eligible  for  the 
appointment  of  adjutant  who  has  not 
obtained  a  first-class  certificate  at  the 
School  of  Musketry,  unless  the  regiment 
is  on  service  abroad,  and  even  then  under 
certain  restrictions. 

An  adjutant,  generally  holding  the  rank 
of  captain,  is  appointed  to  each  brigade  of 
artillery,  to  divisions  of  artillery  of  two 
or  more  batteries  detached  from  their 
head-quarters,  and  as  his  duties  are 
somewhat  different  to  those  of  a  line  or 
cavalry  regiment,  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  detail  them. 

The  duties,  then,  of  an  artillery  bri- 
gade adjutant  are,  to  a  great  extent, 
confined  to  his  office,  as  the  several 
batteries  composing  his  brigade  are  often 
stationed  far  from  their  head-quarters. 
In  his  office  are  kept  the  books  and 
records  of  the  brigade  ;  from  it  he  circu- 
lates to  detached  batteries  all  orders 
received  from  the  commanding  officer 
and  higher  authority.  He  prepares  cor- 
respondence on  questions  relating  to  the 
claims,  services,  enlistments,  discharges, 
&c.,  of  the  men  of  his  brigade  ;  and  when 
acting  as  the  staff,  officer  of  the  R.A.  in 
the  division,  he  has  to  prepare  all  local 
B  2 


ADJ 


ADV 


returns  which  are  submitted  to  the 
general  officer  commanding.  He  has, 
besides,  to  attend  to  the  usual  duties  of 
the  guards,  prisoners,  courts-martial,  &c. 
As  regards  drill,  commanding  officers  of 
batteries  cany  out  or  work  their  own 
drills  independently,  and  recruits  are 
trained  at  Woolwich,  or  at  the  centres  of 
sub-divisions  of  districts.  The  adjutant 
is  responsible  to  the  commanding  officer 
for  the  state  of  exactness  with  which  the 
regimental  books  are  kept,  and  for  the 
correctness  of  the  duty  rosters.  He  is  to 
give  his  attention  to  everything  apper- 
taining to  the  discipline  of  his  brigade, 
bringing  to  the  notice  of  the  commanding 
officer  any  irregularity  or  deviation  from 
the  established  rules  and  regulations.  In 
fact,  nothing  should  escape  his  attention 
and  observation. 

Adjutant-General — One  of  the  chief 
staff  officers  of  the  army,  through  whom 
all  orders  are  promulgated,  and  to  whom 
all  reports  are  sent  for  the  information 
of  the  commander-in-chief.  The  duties 
of  the  adjutant-general  relate  to  the 
discipline,  military  training,  and  general 
efficiency  of  the  army.  In  peace  time,  all 
correspondence  regarding  leave  of  ab- 
sence, discharges,  recruiting,  and  a  variety 
of  other  subjects  (vide  the  '  Soldier's 
Pocket  Book ')  passes  through  his  office. 
On  a  campaign,  in  subordination  to  the 
chief  of  the  staff  (should  there  be  such 
an  officer  with  the  force),  he  regulates 
the  daily  duties  of  the  force,  and  during 
a  siege  details  the  working  parties  on  the 
requisition  of  the  commanding  engineer. 
He  keeps  an  exact  state  of  each  division 
and  brigade,  with  a  roll  of  the  general 
and  field  officers ;  he  distributes  the 
orders  of  the  day  to  the  several  assistant 
adjutants-general  of  divisions,  and  in- 
forms them  of  every  detail  which  may 
concern  the  general  of  the  division  and 
those  under  his  command.  Communica- 
tions are  made  to  him  on  the  field  by 
officers  sent  with  or  for  orders  in  the 
absence  of  a  chief  of  the  staff. 

To  his  department  at  the  Horse  Guai-ds 
are  attached  a  deputy,  assistant,  and  de- 
puty assistant  adjutant-general,  to  assist 
him  in  carrying  out  the  duties  of  his 
office.  The  two  first-named  officers  must 
be  field  officers.  This  rule  in  India,  how- 
ever, is  sometimes  departed  from  in  the 


rank  of  the  officers  appointed  to  some 
of  the  grades  of  the  department.  The 
Queen's  Regulations  lay  down  that  the 
deputy  assistant  adjutant-general  should 
not  be  under  the  rank  of  captain  in  the 
army  without  he  isspecially  recommended. 

Assistant  Adjutant-General — A  field 
officer  and  a  subordinate  member  of 
the  adjutant-general's  department.  An 
officer  of  this  rank  is  attached  to  each 
division  of  the  army.  His  duties  include 
the  submission  of  reports  on  discipline, 
military  duties,  training,  and  efficiency, 
to  the  general  officer  commanding  the 
division.  Through  his  department  the 
bulk  of  the  correspondence  on  arms, 
accoutrements,  ammunition,  &c.,  passes 
before  being  sent  on  to  the  control  de- 
partment. 

Special  reports  on  articles  issued  ex- 
perimentally, suggestions  or  complaints 
as  to  regulation  articles,  and  any  differ- 
ences which  may  arise  between  com- 
manding officers  and  the  control,  all  go 
through  his  office. 

In  time  of  war  the  assistant  adjutant- 
general  of  each  division  carries  out, 
under  instructions  from  the  general  of 
his  division,  the  orders  issued  by  the 
chief  of  the  staff. 

Assistant  Adjutant-General,  Deputy 
— A  subordinate  officer  of  the  adjutant- 
general's  department  who  performs  simi- 
lar duties  to  those  of  an  assistant 
adjutant-general.  In  the  field,  a  deputy 
assistant  adjutant-general  is  attached  to 
each  division. 

Administration,  Military — Relates  to 
the  system  observed  in  all  governments 
for  the  guidance  of  military  affairs  in 
each  country.  The  Secretary  of  War 
directs  the  whole  of  the  military  adminis- 
tration, and  has  under  him  certain  im- 
portant officials  who  are  charged  with 
superintending  the  discipline  of  the  army 
and  the  national  reserves,  supplies,  pay- 
ment of  the  forces,  the  military  manu- 
factures and  armament  of  the  country. 
In  his  office  (War  Office)  there  is  a  section 
representing  each  civil  department  serv- 
ing with  ihe  army,  and  charged  with 
the  duty  of  directing  and  supplying  those 
departments  with  all  things  required  to 
maintain  their  efficiency. 

Advanced  Guard — A  detachment  or 
specially  organised  body  of  troops  com- 


ADV 


ADZ 


posed  oi*  the  three  arms,  which  always 
precedes  the  march  of  the  main  body 
of  an  army  for  the  purpose  of  facili- 
tating the  march  and  guarding  against 
surprise.  Another  object  of  an  advanced 
guard  is  to  procure  information  when  an 
army  is  marching  upon  an  enemy.  This 
latter  circumstance  is  remarked  on  in 
the  Royal  Institution  prize  essay  of 
1874,  by  Lieutenant  S.  C.  Pratt,  R.A.,  in 
the  following  terms :  "  An  advanced 
guard  has  two  opposite  functions  to  per- 
form— one,  to  be  the  eyes  and  feelers  of 
an  army ;  the  other,  to  arrest  and  con- 
tain the  enemy.  In  order  to  perform 
the  first,  the  troops  should  be  of  the 
lightest  description,  and  chiefly  cavalry. 
To  attain  the  second,  the  main  consti- 
tuent should  be  a  powerful  infantry  and 
artillery.  The  endeavour  to  reconcile 
these  conflicting  functions  is,  without 
doubt,  the  reason  of  the  great  differences 
in  the  constitution  of  advanced  guards 
as  laid  down  by  authorities  on  tactics. 

"  The  present  tendency  is  to  restrict 
them,  more  or  less,  to  the  latter  duty ; 
fulfilling  the  former  by  the  employment 
of  independent  bodies  of  cavalry,  one  or 
more  days'  march  ahead  of  the  army." 

The  former  mode  was  the  custom  of  the 
first  Napoleon,  and  the  custom  of  the 
Prussians  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of 
1870,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  the  proper 
method  of  "  feeling  one's  way  "  in  a  hostile 
countrv. 

The  duty  of  the  advanced  guard  should 
be,  while  not  allowing  itself  to  be  en- 
tangled with  a  superior  force,  it  must 
not,  as  Colonel  Hamley  shows  in  his 
'  Operations  of  War,'  "  allow  the  march 
to  be  delayed  by  demonstrations  made 
by  insignificant  bodies.  The  commander, 
therefore,  has  need  of  prudence  and  re- 
solution ;  he  must,  according  to  circum- 
stances, dispute  the  ground,  fall  back 
towards  the  army,  or  promptly  attack." 

The  strength  of  the  advanced  guard, 
or  the  proportion  to  the  main  body,  is 
laid  down  by  some  of  the  chief  conti- 
nental powers  to  be  from  J  to  s  of  the 
main  body.  Sir  G.  Wolseley,  the  author 
of  the  'Soldier's  Pocket  Book,'  approves  of 
from  |  to  ^5  of  the  whole  force.  It  may 
therefore  be  assumed,  as  stated  by  Lieu- 
tenant Pratt,  that  l  will  be  the  propor- 
tion. 


The  order  of  march  of  an  advanced 
guard  Colonel  Hamley  explains  as  fol- 
lows : — "  A  small  party  of  horse  pre- 
cedes the  main  body  of  the  advanced 
guard  to  obtain  and  bring  the  earliest 
intelligence.  Of  the  main  body,  a  por- 
tion of  the  infantry  march  first ;  for 
neither  artillery  nor  cavalry  should 
enter  any  defile  which  has  not  been 
first  explored,  and  its  flanks  secured  by 
infantry. 

"  The  artillery  may,  in  general,  pro- 
perly be  placed  next  the  leading  bat- 
talion, or  part  of  a  battalion,  of  the 
advanced  guard." 

The  cavalry  would  cover  the  flanks  of 
the  column. 

The  maximum  distance  of  an  advanced 
guard  from  the  main  column  of  a  large 
army  should  not  exceed  five  miles,  with- 
out some  overpowering  advantage  is  to 
be  gained,  such  as  seizing  on  some  point 
or  position,  the  possession  of  which  would 
be  worth  the  risk.  In  the  '  Soldier's 
Pocket  Book,'  it  is  laid  down  as  a  rule 
"  that  the  ordinary  distance  of  an  ad- 
vanced guard  from  the  head  of  the  main 
body  should  be  about  equal  to  the  depth 
of  the  column." 

Advanced  Posts — Positions  taken  up 
by  a  force  in  advance  of  the  main  body 
of  an  army,  and  in  such  a  situation  that 
they  shall  be  within  easy  communication 
of  it,  and  of  one  another ;  but  the  distance 
depends  greatly  on  the  nature  of  the 
country.  The  object  of  advanced  posts 
is  to  prevent  a  sudden  rush  of  the  enemy 
upon  the  main  body,  and  to  give  it  time 
to  turn  out :  this  being  afforded,  the 
advanced  posts  fall  back  on  their  sup- 
ports, and  join  the  main  body.  The  term 
advanced  posts  is  also  applied  to  picquets 
and  such  fortified  posts  or  villages  in 
advance  of  the  main  line  of  battle. 

Advanced  Works — In  fortification,  are 
those  constructed  beyond  the  glacis,  but 
within  musketry  fire  of  the  main  works. 

Advancement — In  a  military  sense, 
signifies  honour,  promotion  from  a  lower 
to  a  higher  grade,  or  preferment,  in  an 
army,  regiment,  or  company. 

Adze,  Indian,  or  Bassoolah — A  small 
adze,  which,  in  place  of  being  circular 
like  the  European  adze,  is  formed  at  a 
direct  angle  of  about  45  or  50  degrees ; 
its  handle  is  very  short,  and  it  is  used 


AEE 


AIG 


with  great  precision  by  the  nearly  ex- 
clusive motion  of  the  elbow-joint. 

Aeen — (  Tenninalia  glabra) — A  tree 
which  grows  in  the  Madras  Presidency 
<it  Coimbatore.  It  is  very  hard,  heavy, 
and  durable  under  water.  It  is  said  to 
be  found  in  all  the  teak  forests  of  India 
and  Burmah.  A  cubic  foot  of  unseasoned 
wood  weighs  from  seventy  to  seventy- 
three  pounds.  It  is  used  in  the  Bombay 
Gun-carriage  Agency  for  shafts,  hand- 
spikes, and  yokes. 

Affair — In  a  military  sense,  means  any 
minor  action  or  engagement.  Major 
Knollys,  in  his  '  Handy  Dictionary  of 
Military  Terms,'  describes  an  "  affair  "  as 
"  more  important  than  a  skirmish,  and 
less  so  than  a  battle." 

Affidavit — In  military  law,  implies 
an  oath  in  writing,  sworn  before  a  person 
duly  authorised  to  administer  it. 

Affirmation — A  solemn  declaration 
made  before  a  court  of  justice  or  court- 
martial  by  those  who,  from  different 
views  of  religion,  are  considered  incom- 
petent, or  are  unwilling,  to  give  evidence 
on  oath,  as  ruled  in  our  several  courts. 
Formerly,  no  evidence  could  be  given 
except  upon  oath ;  but  the  privilege  of 
making  a  solemn  affirmation,  instead  of 
swearing  on  the  Bible,  has  been  extended 
to  Quakers,  Moravians,  and  Separatists  in 
all  cases ;  and  to  persons  alleging  con- 
scientious motives  in  civil  proceedings. 

Before  native  courts-martial  in  India, 
evidence  is  given  on  solemn  affirma- 
tion. 

Agent — A  person  employed  to  transact 
business  for  another,  and  in  whose  place 
he  acts.  The  decision  of  the  agent,  on 
matters  appertaining  to  the  business  he 
is  entrusted  with,  is  looked  on  as  binding. 
In  India  the  name  "  agent "  is  given  to 
certain  high  officers  of  the  state,  to 
whom  are  committed  by  the  Viceroy 
political  powers  in  dealing  with  native 
states. 

Agent,  Army— A  kind  of  military 
banker,  authorized  by  the  government 
to  manage  the  monetary  affairs  of  a 
regiment.  When  purchase  was  the  sys- 
tem in  the  army,  the  sale  and  purchase 
of  officers'  commissions  were  transacted 
by  them.  It  is  ordered  in  the  Queen's 
Regulations  that  officers  on  leave  should 
furnish  their  address  to  the  regimental 


agent,  in  order  that  they  may  be  readily 
communicated  with. 

Aide-de-camp  —  An  officer  attached 
to  the  personal  staff  of  a  general  officer 
in  the  field,  or  in  garrison.  He  receives 
and  carries  all  orders  given  to  him  by  the 
general  on  the  field  of  battle.  He  must 
be  particular  in  delivering  them  in  the 
most  distinct  manner,  so  that  there 
should  be  no  miscarriage  in  the  instruc- 
tions entrusted  to  him.  This  is  a  post  of 
great  importance  during  a  campaign,  and 
only  officers  of  intelligence  and  smartness 
should  be  appointed.  It  is  stated  by 
Marshal  de  Puysegur  that  the  loss  of  a 
battle  was  occasioned  by  the  incapacity 
of  an  aide-de-camp.  During  the  Crimean 
War,  by  the  misconception  of  a  message 
sent  by  Lord  Raglan  to  Lord  Lucan,  the 
Earl  of  Cardigan  had  to  carry  out  a 
military  movement  which  resulted  in  a 
very  severe  loss  of  cavalry. 

In  quarters  an  aide-de-camp  assists  the 
general  in  official  correspondence,  in 
introducing  military  officers,  and  in  dis- 
pensing the  courtesies  of  the  general's 
house.  Before  an  officer  can  be  appointed 
an  aide-de-camp  he  must  have  served  two 
years  with  his  regiment,  and  have  passed 
the  prescribed  examination  as  laid  down 
in  the  Queen's  Regulations.  If  in  India, 
he  must  have  passed  the  examination 
directed  in  the  army  regulations  of  that 
country,  which  necessitates  passing  in 
certain  native  languages. 

The  number  of  aides-de-camp  allotted 
to  general  officers  in  the  field  is  as 
follows : — - 

Four,    to    the    officer    commanding- 

in-chief ; 

Two,  to  divisional  generals ; 
One,  to  brigadier. 

Extra  aides  receive  forage,  but  no  pay. 

Aides-de-camp  .are  attached  to  the 
sovereign,  and  to  governors  of  pro- 
vinces ;  in  the  former  case,  the  appoint- 
ment carries  with  it  the  rank  of  colonel 
in  the  army.  The  position  of  Queen's 
aide-de-camp,  besides  conferring  rank, 
carries  pay  with  it  to  a  limited  number. 

Aignillette  (French  aiguille,  a  needle) 
— An  ornament  of  gold  or  silver  cord 
worn  formerly  on  the  right  shoulder 
by  general  officers ;  it  is  now  chiefly 
confined  to  the  dress  of  officers  of 
the  Life  Guards  and  Horse  Guards. 


AIM 


AIR 


Aiguillettes  appear  to  have  been  intro- 
duced in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  were  generally  worn  by 
the  troopers,  as  well  as  the  officers,  at 
that  time.  They  were  subsequently 
superseded  towards  the  end  of  that  cen- 
tury by  epaulettes,  though  worn  up  to  a 
much  later  date  by  general  officers. 

Aim,  To — In  drill  or  action,  to  bring 
the  musket  or  piece  of  ordnance  to  the 
proper  line  of  direction  with  the  object 
intended  to  be  struck.  To  enable  the 
proper  elevation  to  be  given,  sights  are 
attached  to  all  small-arms  and  ordnance. 

Air  Gun — -A  pneumatic  machine  for 
propelling  bullets,  which,  by  its  peculiar 
formation,  admits  of  the  air  being  com- 
pressed or  condensed  within  it,  in  a  strong 
metal  ball,  furnished  with  a  small  hole 
and  a  valve  opening  inwards.  This  ball 
is  screwed  to  a  barrel  containing  a  bullet ; 
upon  turning  a  cock  and  opening  a  com- 
munication between  the  condensed  air 
and  the  bullet,  the  latter  will  be  pro- 
jected forward  with  a  greater  or  less 
velocity,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
condensation  and  the  weight  of  the  bullet. 

Air  Pump — A  machine  constructed 
for  exhausting  the  air  from  a  closed 
vessel,  which  is  called  a  receiver.  It 
consists  of  a  glass-receiver,  and  a  pipe 
connecting  it  with  two  barrels  by  means 
of  two  valves,  which  open  upwards.  In 
these  barrels  are  two  air-tight  pistons, 
also  furnished  with  valves  opening  up- 
wards, which  are  worked  up  and  down 
by  means  of  a  rack  and  wheel.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  air  pump  is  as  follows : — 
The  pistons  work  up  and  down  alter- 
nately, one  ascending  as  the  other 
descends.  The  piston  rising  from  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  causes  a  partial 
vacuum,  and  the  elastic  force  of  the  air 
in  the  receiver  pressing  on  the  valve, 
opens  it  and  fills  the  cylinder.  On  the 
descent  of  the  piston,  the  valve  in  the 
pipe  leading  to  the  receiver  closes  by  the 
pressure  of  air  on  it,  and  the  valve  in 
the  piston  opens  from  the  same  cause, 
until  all  the  air  in  the  cylinder  is  ex- 
pelled. A  succession  of  strokes  in  this 
way  rarifies  the  air  in  the  receiver,  until 
the  elastic  force  of  all  that  remains  is 
insufficient  to  open  the  valres,  when  the 
action  of  the  pump  ceases. 

Air,  Kesistance  of — More    especially 


with  reference  to  projectiles,  is  of  the 
highest  importance  in  the  science  of 
Ballistics.  The  resistance  increases  in  a 
high  ratio  with  the  velocity.  Without 
this  resistance  a  musket  ball  would,  at 
an  angle  of  25°,  be  thrown  seventeen 
times  further  than  with  it.  Hutton's 
experiments  led  him  to  believe  that  the 
resistance  of  the  air  increased  a  little 
more  rapidly  than  the  square  of  the 
velocity.  The  French  experiments  have 
led  to  an  expression  involving  the  square 
and  the  cube  of  the  velocity.  It  is  of  the 
following  form  for  spherical  projectiles : 

p=  0-0005213  irRv2 


1426-4/   534-3 

in  which  p  represents  the  resistance  of 
the  air  in  pounds  weight ;  TT,  the  ratio 
of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter ; 
R,  the  diameter  of  the  projectiles  in  feet; 
v,  the  velocity  in  feet  per  second ;  and 
8,  the  density  of  the  air  at  the  time  of 

observation.  For  ordinary  purposes 

may  be  taken  as  unity. 

For  elongated  projectiles,  the  co-effi- 
cient 0-0005213  =  A  is  replaced  by 
0-0003475 ;  but  in  some  instances  the 
former  co-efficient  has  been  found  to  be 
the  most  correct  even  for  elongated  pro- 
jectiles. 

The  resistance  of  the  air  gives  rise  to 
a  ballistic  co-efficient  C,  peculiar  to  each 
projectile. 

This  is  calculated  from  the  formulas : 

C_1_L_    _  2  R» 

~  2g    ATrR2   ~   ^  gA 

in  which  g,  A,  TT,  R,  are  the  same  as 
before ;  P,  weight  of  projectile  in  pounds ; 
D,  the  density  of  the  projectile,  and  A, 
its  appropriate  value,  according  as  the 
projectile  is  spherical  or  elongated.  The 
co-efficient  C  is  one  of  the  data  required 
in  finding  the  multipliers  B  (a  point),  D, 
&c.,  used  in  the  formulae  for  the  trajectory 
in  the  air. 

Colonel  Majefsky,  of  the  Russian  ar- 
tillery, has  proposed  a  formula  involving 
the  square  and  the  fourth  power  of  the 
velocity,  which  is  said  to  give  results  even 
closer  to  practice  than  the  French  for- 
mulae above  detailed. 


AKE 


ALC 


The  following  short  table,  calculated 
by  the  formulae,  will  give  an  idea  of 
the  amount  of  the  resistance  of  the  air. 


RESISTANCE  IN  Ibs.  AVOIR. 

Projectiles. 

24-Pr. 

Shot. 

12-Pr. 
Shot. 

Musket 
Bullet. 

10-Inch 
C.  Shell. 

1600  feet 

479 

302 

* 

1400     „ 

343 

216 

5 

1200     „ 

234 

147 

3 

1000     „ 

ISO 

95 

2 

462 

800      „ 

88 

56 

1 

271 

600     ., 

45 

28 

0-7 

139 

400     „ 

18 

11            0'3 

56 

On  examining  the  above,  it  appears 
that  the  resistance  decreases  very  rapidly 
with  the  velocity. 

In  effect,  at  a  velocity  of  800  feet,  the 
resistance  is  less  than  one-fifth  of  that 
corresponding  to  the  double  velocity  of 
1600  feet.  Comparatively  to  the  24-pr. 
round  shot,  the  resistance  to  the  12-pr., 
one-half  its  weight,  is  only  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  former  ;  that  to  the  musket 
bullet,  weighing  3^  of  the  same  round 
shot,  is  but  the  68th  part.  The  10-in. 
common  shell,  weighing  nearly  four  times 
as  much,  meets  with  a  resistance  which 
is  only  three  times  that  of  the  '24-pr., 
despite  the  inferiority  of  its  density. 

At  a  velocity  of  1600  feet  per  second, 
the  resistance  opposed  to  the  24-pr.  shot 
is  479  Ibs.,  or  twenty  times  its  own 
weight ;  at  a  much  smaller  velocity  of 
600  feet  per  second,  the  resistance  to 
projectiles  is  still  in  proportion  to  their 
weight ;  thus,  nearly  double  for  the 
24-pr.,  more  than  double  for  the  12-pr., 
nearly  ten  times  for  the  musket  bullet, 
and  nearly  half  as  great  again  for  the 
10-in.  shell. 

Aketon,  or  Hacqueton  —  A  quilted 
leathern  jacket  worn  under  the  armour 
of  knights  in  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries. 

Alarm — The  following  meaning  of 
this  term  is  given  in  '  Chambers.^  Ency- 
clopaedia ' : —  "  In  military  matters  the 
word  alarm  has  a  more  defined  meaning 
than  mere  terror  or  fright.  An  alarm, 
among  soldiers  in  an  army,  is  not  so 
much  a  danger  as  a  warning  against 
danger.  An  alarm,  signified  by  the  firing 
of  a  gun  or  the  beating  of  a  drum,  denotes 


to  an  army  or  camp  that  the  enemy  is 
suspected  of  intending  a  sudden  surprise, 
or  that  the  surprise  has  actually  been 
made.  There  is  an  alarm  post  in  camp 
or  garrison  arrangements,  to  which  the 
troops  are  directed  to  hasten  on  any 
sudden  alarm  being  given." 

Alarm  Gun — Formerly,  three  guns 
were  placed  in  front  of  a  camp,  100  paces 
from  the  artillery  posts,  ready  to  be  fired, 
as  an  alarm  to  the  troops,  in  case  of  a 
sudden  attack  by  the  enemy. 

Alarm  Post—A  place  told  off  on  the 
arrival  of  a  force  into  a  new  qiiarter, 
camp,  or  bivouac,  where  the  men  are  to 
repair  in  case  of  any  sudden  alarm  by 
day  or  night.  The  parade  is  generally 
looked  upon  as  the  alarm  post ;  officers 
and  men  should  proceed  there  ready 
armed,  on  the  alarm  being  sounded,  should 
no  other  place  be  appointed. 

When  an  army  is  in  the  field,  there  are 
two  alarm  signals : 

1.  For  general  concentration,  on  which 
everybody  acts  according  to  instructions. 

2.  Partial,  when  regiments  re-assemble 
at  their  own  rendezvous. 

The  second  alarm  signal  should  be 
frequently  practised,  for  it  is  very  im- 
portant to  know  how  long  it  takes  to 
get  the  men  together  at  any  hour. 

It  is  ordered  in  the  Queen's  Regulations 
that  although  a  regiment  or  a  division 
may  remain  for  only  a  single  night  in  a 
quarter,  yet  an  alarm  post,  or  place  of 
assembly,  is  invariably  to  be  established 
in  each  regiment,  and  the  troops  are  to 
be  made  acquainted  with  its  position, 
and  officers  commanding  regiments,  with 
that  of  the  brigade  to  which  they  belong. 

Alarms,  False— Stratagems  of  war 
frequently  made  use  of  to  harass  an 
enemy  by  keeping  him  perpetually  under 
arms.  A  vigilant  officer  will  occasionally 
make  a  false  alarm  to  try  if  his  guard  is 
on  the  alert.  A  fearful  or  negligent 
sentinel  will  create  alarm  by  false  re- 
ports. 

Alcohol — A  term  of  Arabic  origin, 
implying  the  pure  spirit  obtained  by 
distillation  from  all  liquids  which  have 
suffered  the  vinous  fermentation.  Alcohol 
is  transparent,  colourless,  and  inflam- 
mable. It  unites  easily  with  resins, 
camphor,  antimony,  and  volatile  oils.  It 
is  known  as  "spirits  of  wine."  Its 


ALD 


9 


ALL 


specific  gravity  on  becoming  absolute 
alcohol  is  from  '796  to  '800,  and  it  boils 
at  176°.  It  is  used  in  the  preparation  of 
laboratory  stores,  such  as  fulminate  of 
mercury,  quick-match,  shell-lac  to  form 
varnish  for  percussion  caps,  &c. 

Alder  (£ha/nnus  Frangula) — A  tree, 
the  charcoal  of  which  is  made  use  of  in 
England  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder. 
The  wood  is  of  an  orange  yellow  colour  ; 
it  is  not  very  good  for  fuel,  but  very 
durable  under  water.  This  tree  seldom 
exceeds  40  feet  in  height. 

Aldershot  Camp — A  permanent  mili- 
tary camp,  situated  on  the  borders  of 
Surrey,  Hants,  and  Berks.  When  first 
established,  which  was  in  1855,  only 
wooden  huts  were  erected  for  officers  and 
men,  but  these  to  a  great  extent  have 
been  superseded  by  barracks  which  are 
well  built,  and  which  have  much  to  re- 
commend them  in  the  convenience  they 
afford  to  the  occupants.  The  situation 
of  the  camp  is  conveniently  placed  for 
the  quick  transmission  of  troops  to  any 
part  of  the  southern  coast.  It  is  also 
within  easy  reach  of  many  of  our  Tailway 
stations  on  the  South- Western  and  South- 
Eastern  Railways.  The  camp  is  divided 
by  the  Basingstdke  Canal,  which  runs 
across  the  Heath,  into  the  North  and 
South  Camps.  The  country  round  about 
the  camp  is  well  suited  for  the  assembling 
and  manoeuvring  of  troops,  and  advantage 
has  been  taken  of  its  capabilities  to  render 
it  an  efficient  drill  ground. 

Alert — In  military  phraseology  an  ex- 
pression made  use  of  to  signify  that  an 
outpost  has  been  threatened  or  attacked. 
Thus,  "  We  have  had  an  alert,"  is  a 
military  phrase.  A  bugle-sound  is 
also  so  named,  which  is  given  by  way  of 
warning  to  put  soldiers  on  their  guard, 
and  to  keep  them  vigilant.  This  warn- 
ing is  also  sounded  by  an  outpost  which 
may  be  attacked  in  the  night,  to  give 
notice  to  the  one  that  is  destined  to  sup- 
port it.  The  word,  as  shown  by  Major 
Knollys,  is  frequently  used  by  old  writers 
to  express  a  sudden  alarm  caused  by  a 
merely  harassing  attack  of  the  enemy. 

Algebra — Literal  arithmetic,  or  the 
science  by  which  quantity  and  the  opera- 
tions of  quantity  are  expressed  by  con- 
ventional symbols. 

Alien     (Latin    alienus,   belonging    to 


another)  — '  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia  ' 
states  as  follows  on  the  meaning  of  the 
word  : — "  The  citizen  of  one  state,  wheu 
resident  in  another,  unless  naturalised,  is 
an  alien.  The  condition  of  an  alien  does 
not  necessarily  result  from  foreign  birth, 
for  the  son  of  a  natural-born  or  natura- 
lised Englishman  is  not  an  alien,  wherever 
he  may  be  born.  This  privilege  even  ex- 
tends to  the  second  generation  on  the 
father's  side ;  and  thus  a  man  whose 
paternal  grandfather  was  an  Englishman, 
is  an  Englishman  himself,  unless  either 
his  father  or  grandfather  be  liable  to  the 
penalties  of  felony,  has  been  attainted 
of  treason,  or  be  serving  in  the  army  of 
a  prince  at  war  with  England  at  the 
period  of  his  birth.  Neither  is  this 
privilege  affected  by  the  fact  that  the 
mothers  of  such  persons  were  foreigners. 
The  children  of  aliens  born  in  England, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  hostile  invasion, 
are  natural-born  subjects ;  but  the  chil- 
dren of  English  women  by  aliens  are 
aliens,  unless  born  within  the  British 
dominions.  By  7  and  8  Viet.  c.  66,  s.  16, 
alien  women  married  to  natural-born 
subjects  are  naturalised.  The  allegiance 
due  by  an  alien  or  stranger  to  the  prince 
in  whose  dominions  he  resides  is  usually 
called  local  or  temporary  allegiance.  It 
differs  from  natural  allegiance  chiefly  in 
this,  that  whereas  natural  allegiance  is 
perpetual  and  unaffected  by  change  of 
residence,  local  allegiance  ceases  when 
the  stranger  transfers  himself  to  another 
kingdom." 

Alignment  (French  aligner,  to  place 
in  a  line) — In  military  exercise,  is  the 
imaginary  straight  line  that  lies  between 
any  two  given  points  on  which  a  line 
may  be  formed,  or  the  pivot  flanks  of  a . 
column  dressed. 

Alkali — A  soluble  body,  with  a  hot 
caustic  taste,  which  possesses  the  power 
of  destroying  or  neutralising  acidity.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  article 
al,  and  kali,  the  Arabic  name  of  a  plant, 
from  the  ashes  of  which  one  of  the  most 
important  alkalies  (potash)  is  obtained. 

Allegiance  (Latin  alligo,  to  bind  to, 
or  attach) — As  explained  in  the  '  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,'  ninth  edition,  is 
"  the  duty  which  a  person  possessing 
the  privilege  of  a  citizen  owes  to 
the  state  to  which  he  belongs,  and  is 


ALL 


10 


AMB 


technically  applied  in  law  to  the  duty 
which  a  British  subject  owes  to  the 
sovereign  as  representing  the  state. 
It  has  been  divided  by  the  English 
legal  commentators  into  natural  and 
local ;  the  latter  applying  only  to  the 
deference  which  a  foreigner  must  pay  to 
the  institutions  of  the  country  in  which 
he  happens  to  live ;  but  it  is  in  its  wider 
sense  that  the  word  is  important,  as 
representing  a  condition  attached  to 
mankind  of  which  it  is  very  difficult  in 
theory,  and  still  more  in  practice,  to 
adjust  the  true  character  and  limits. 
Accordingly,  as  the  law  stood  before  1870, 
every  person  born  within  the  British 
dominions,  though  he  should  be  removed 
in  infancy  to  another  country  where  his 
family  resides,  owes  an  allegiance  to  the 
British  crown  which  he  could  never  re- 
sign or  lose  except  by  act  of  parliament, 
or  by  the  recognition  of  the  independence 
or  the  cession  of  the  portion  of  the 
British  territory  in  which  he  resided. 
By  the  Naturalisation  Act  of  1870,  it 
was  made  possible  for  British  subjects  to 
renounce  their  nationality  and  allegiance, 
and  the  ways  in  which  that  nationality 
is  lost  are  defined.  So  British  subjects 
voluntarily  naturalised  in  a  foreign  state 
are  deemed  aliens  from  the  time  of  such 
naturalisation ;  unless,  in  the  case  of 
persons  naturalised  before  the  passing  of 
the  Act,  they  have  declared  their  desire 
to  remain  British  subjects  within  two 
years  from  the  passing  of  the  Act." 

Alloy — The  combination  of  one  metal 
with  another,  except  when  mercury  enters 
into  the  compound,  when  it  is  known  as 
an  amalgam. 

The  following  constitute  a  few  of  the 
alloys  of  various  metals  : — 

Bronze  gun  metal — copper,  90,  and 
tin,  10. 

Bell  metal — copper,  78,  and  tin,  22. 

Brass — copper,  67   to  72 ;  zinc,  33 
to  28. 

Plumber's  solder — tin,  67,  and  lead, 
33. 

Pewter — tin,  92,  and  lead,  8. 
The  following  alloy,  which  expands  in 
coating,  is  useful  for  filling  small  cavi- 
ties in  cast  iron  : — 

9  lead,  2  antimony,  1  bismuth. 
Alum — A  double  salt  of  great  use  in 
the  Arts,  especially  to  dyers,  as  well  as 


to  chemists  and  artists.  A  solution  of 
alum  has  an  acid  reaction,  and  a  sweetish 
astringent  taste.  The  constituents  of 
alum  are  sulphuric  acid,  alumina,  an 
alkali,  and  water.  The  alkali  may  be 
potash,  soda,  or  ammonia.  Hence  there 
are  three  distinct  kinds  of  alum,  depend- 
ing on  the  alkali  employed.  Potash  alum 
is  the  kind  most  in  use. 

Ambulance  (Latin  mnbulare.  to  move 
from  place  to  place) — In  the  present 
acceptation  of  the  word,  is  essentially  a 
medical  equipment  which  accompanies 
every  army  in  the  field.  It  comprises 
more  than  the  actual  transport  of  the 
sick  and  wounded  ;  it  includes  the  medical 
administration  of  all  duties  relating  to 
the  wounded.  On  an  army  taking  the 
field,  the  first  care  should  be  the  admin- 
istering to  the  comfort  of  those  who  are 
liable  from  wounds  to  be  prostrated  and 
put  hors  de  combat,  and  with  this  view 
it  is  necessary  to  organise  an  ambulance 
establishment  so  that,  either  on  the  field 
or  away  from  it,  the  wounded  may  be 
properly  attended  to. 

In  the  continental  armies  the  ambn- 
lance  equipment  is  organised  with  un- 
remitting care  and  attention,  so  that 
there  shall  be  no  failure  in  the  day  ot 
need  in  this  department  of  the  army.  In 
the  British  service  the  ambulance  de- 
partment has  not  received  that  organisa- 
tion and  care  which  could  be  desired,  but 
it  is  under  consideration,  and  doubtless 
will  be  a  model  of  all  that  could  be 
wished  for. 

To  express  the  equipment  of  the  am- 
bulance department  of  an  army,  it  is 
necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  it  is 
guided  by  the  circumstances  which  re- 
quire its  aid.  A  large  army  requires  a 
vast  ambulance  organisation  to  meet  the 
necessities  of  the  numbers  who  may 
be  expected  to  be  wounded.  It  is  usual 
under  the  circumstances  so  to  arrange 
the  ambulance  department  that,  under 
the  head  of  stations,  there  shall  be  four 
positions  in  which  the  wounded  can  be 
attended  to.  1.  On  the  actual  field  of 
battle,  where  the  most  prominent  cases 
can  be  temporarily  attended  to.  2.  When 
removed,  to  some  extent,  from  under  fire, 
they  can  be,  with  less  haste,  administered 
to;  and  this  includes  those  not  so  severely 
wounded.  3.  Where  more  thorough 


11 


ANA 


attention  can  be  given,  and  where  the 
wounded  can  be  fed  and  sent  away. 
4.  The  field  hospital  station,  where 
definitive  treatment  will  be  adopted. 
The  distance  from  the  battle-field  of  the 
several  sections  alluded  to  is  fixed  by 
those  in  authority,  and  circumstances 
guide  their  position. 

The  term  ambulance  includes  also  all 
carts,  carriages,  stretchers,  and  cacolets 
used  for  the  transport  of  the  sick  and 
wounded.  The  personnel  of  an  ambulance 
means  the  medical  and  surgical  officers  of 
an  army  with  their  appliances,  including 
what  is  now  known  in  the  British  army 
as  the  Army  Hospital  Corps. 

Baron  Larrey,  the  chief  surgeon  of  the 
armies  of  the  first  Napoleon,  was  the 
originator  of  ambulances  volantes,  or  fly- 
ing field  hospitals.  By  the  International 
Convention  of  Geneva,  ambulances  aud 
their  officers  are  declared  to  be  neutral. 
(  Vide  Geneva  Convention.) 

Ambulances  are  of  two  kinds,  military 
and  international.  The  former  are 
officered  by  military  doctors ;  the  latter 
by  medical  men,  who  volunteer  their 
services  during  time  of  war,  and  who  are 
aided  by  a  devoted  band  of  assistants 
from  other  nations  anxious  to  alleviate 
the  sufferings  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

Ambulance  Corps — A  body  of  men 
unknown  in  the  English  army  in  peace 
time,  but  formed  on  the  outbreak  of  war 
to  attend  upon  the  sick  and  wounded. 
The  personnel  of  such  a  body  would  be 
taken  from  the  Army  Hospital  Corps ;  and 
the  ambulance  carriages  attached  to  the 
Transport  would  form  the  materiel. 

Ambulance  Wagon— A  wheeled  car- 
riage on  springs  for  the  reception  of 
wounded  or  sick  men,  some  of  whom  can 
only  lie  down,  while  others  are  able  to 
sit  up.  Ambulances  are  fitted  up  with 
all  medical  appliances  as  a  hospital 
wagon.  A  certain  number  are  attached 
to  regiments,  and  placed  at  a  sufficient 
distance  in  rear  of  the  army  to  be  out  of 
danger,  the  wounded  being  brought  on 
stretchers  from  the  battle-field  and 
transferred  to  the  ambulance  wagon.  By 
most  nations  the  movable  field  hospital 
is  called  the  ambulance. 

The  latest  pattern  ambulance  wagon  in 
the  British  army  is  constructed  to  carry 
seven  sick  or  wounded  men — viz.,  two 


inside  on  stretchers,  two  seated  beside 
the  driver,  and  three  seated  in  rear.  One 
ambulance  is  allowed  to  each  regiment, 
and  fifteen  to  each  division. 

Ambuscade  (French  embuscade) — A 
snare  set  for  the  enemy,  either  to  sur- 
prise him  when  marching  without  pre- 
caution, or  by  posting  yourself  advanta- 
geously and  drawing  him  on  by  different 
stratagems,  to  attack  him  with  superior 
force. 

Ambush — Another  name  for  ambus- 
cade. A  detachment  of  troops  placed  in 
concealment  for  the  purpose  of  surprising 
and  attacking  an  enemy. 

Ammunition — This  term  is  applied 
not  only  to  the  charges  of  powder  for 
ordnance  and  small  arms,  but  it  also 
includes  all  kinds  of  projectiles  used  in 
the  service,  and  the  various  appliances 
for  igniting  the  charges,  &c.  The  Wool- 
wich Laboratory  is  the  great  military 
establishment  for  the  manufacture  of 
gun  and  small-arm  ammunition.  Other 
materiel  of  war  may  be  made  elsewhere, 
but  the  ammunition  above  alluded  to  is 
made  at  Woolwich.  In  India,  ammuni- 
tion of  all  natures,  except  small-arm  am- 
munition, is  made  up  in  the  arsenals  of 
the  different  presidencies.  (Appendix  B.) 

During  a  campaign  the  regimental  re- 
serve of  small-arm  ammunition  for  a 
battalion  is  carried  in  three  carts,  each 
containing  9600  rounds,  under  the  charge 
of  the  officer  commanding  the  battalion. 
Other  reserves  of  ammunition,  gun  and 
small-arm,  are  with  the  artillery. 

Amnesty — An  act  of  oblivion,  or  for- 
giveness of  past  offences  committed  against 
the  State.  The  effect  of  the  act  is,  that 
crimes  so  obliterated  cannot  again  be 
brought  up  against  the  guilty  parties. 
Usually  an  act  of  amnesty  is  meant  to 
comprehend  a  number  of  individuals 
guilty  of  offences  of  a  political  nature,  as 
rebellion,  &c. 

Amplitude — In  gunnery,  the  range  of 
the  shot,  or  the  horizontal  right  line 
which  measures  the  distance  it  has 
passed. 

Analysis — In  chemistry,  implies  the 
resolution  of  compound  bodies  into  their 
components,  and  is  distinguished  aa 
proximate  or  ultimate  analysis,  accord- 
ing as  the  substance  under  examination 
is  resolved  into  its  proximate  consti- 


ANC 


12 


ANG 


tuents,  or  into  its  elements.  In  mathe- 
matics, analysis,  or  the  analytic  method, 
assumes  the  truth  of  the  proposition  to 
be  proved,  and  then  reasons  backward 
until  it  arrives  at  some  known  truth. 
Analysis  is  the  reverse  of  synthesis  ;  and, 
therefore,  when  any  truth  has  been 
investigated  by  the  analytic  method,  the 
proposition  may  be  proved  directly  by 
inverting  the  process. 

Anchor — Au  iron  instrument  composed 
of  a  long  shank,  having  a  ring  at  one 
end  to  which  the  cable  is  fastened,  and 
at  the  other  branching  out  into  two  arms 
or  flukes  tending  upwards  with  hooks  or 
edges  on  each  side ;  its  use  in  an  army 
equipment  is  to  moor  transports,  boats, 
pontoons,  and  rafts.  It  is  also  a  good 
hold  for  a  capstan.  The  weights  of 
anchors  vary  according  to  the  particular 
use  they  are  put  to. 

Anemometer— An  instrument  for  mea- 
suring the  force  or  velocity  of  the  wind. 
The  most  common  form  of  anemometer 
is  that  by  Dr.  Whewell  and  N.  S.  Osier. 

Aneroid — A  form  of  barometer  in- 
vented by  M.  Visti,  of  Paris.  Its  action 
depends  on  the  effect  produced  by  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  a  metallic 
box,  which  has  been  exhausted  of  air, 
and  then  hermetically  sealed.  An  index, 
traversing  on  a  dial,  records  the  changes 
in  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the  air  on  a 
given  surface. 

Angle,  Acute — That  which  is  less  than 
a.  right  angle. 

Angle  of  Clearance — In  gunnery,  is 
the  angle  of  elevation  obtained  when  the 
top  of  the  tangent  scale  and  dispart 
sight,  and  the  notch  on  the  muzzle,  are 
in  line. 

Angle,  Dead — In  fortification,  any 
angle  of  a  work  the  ground  before  which 
is  undefended  by  a  flank  fire. 

Angle  of  Defence— In  fortification,  is 
that  formed  by  a  line  of  defence  and  a 
flank.  The  angles  of  defence  should 
never  be  less  than  90°  and  never  more 
than  120°. 

Angle  of  Departure — In  gunnery,  the 
actual  angle  which  the  shot's  path  on 
leaving  the  muzzle  of  a  gun  makes 
with  the  true  horizon.  This,  when  there 
is  windage,  may  differ  sensibly  from  the 
angle  of  inclination,  and  appears  also  to 
do  so  in  the  lighter  rifled  guns,  where 


the  shots  are  observed  to  rise,  from  the 
muzzle  being  slightly  thrown  up.  This 
rise  is  caused  from  the  "jump"  of  the 
gun. 

Angle  of  Depression — In  gunnery,  the 
angle  given  to  a  piece  of  ordnance  when 
laid  under  metal,  or  at  an  angle  below  the 
horizon. 

Angle  of  Descent — In  gunnery,  the 
angle  which  the  tangent  to  the  trajectory 
makes  with  the  horizon  at  the  height  of 
the  crest  of  the  parapet,  or  other  object 
to  be  cleared.  It  is  rather  less  than  the 
terminal  angle. 

Angle  of  Elevation — In  gunnery,  the 
angle  between  the  axis  of  the  gun  and 
the  visual  line  from  the  sight  on  the 
tangent  scale  to  the  object.  It  has  no 
reference  to  the  horizon  or  to  any  natural 
level. 

Angle,  Flanked — In  fortification,  the 
angle  formed  by  the  flank  of  the  bastion 
and  curtain,  or,  in  other  words,  that 
formed  by  two  lines  of  defence. 

Angle  of  Incidence — In  gunnery,  the 
angle  which  the  tangent  to  the  trajectory 
makes  with  the  actual  surface  struck  at 
the  point  of  descent. 

Angle  of  Inclination  —  In  gunnery, 
the  angle  which  the  axis  of  the  gun  forms 
with  the  true  horizon,  or  the  angle  shown 
by  a  correct  spirit-level.  This  is,  conse- 
quently, the  angle  recorded  when  guns 
are  laid  by  the  quadrant. 

Angle,  Obtuse — That  which  is  greater 
than  a  right  angle. 

Angle,  Eight — That  which  is  made  by 
one  line  perpendicular  to  another ;  it  is 
always  90°,  or  the  quadrant  of  a  circle. 

Angle,  Salient — In  fortification,  the 
angle  formed  by  two  lines  of  works  meet- 
ing and  pointing  towards  the  country. 
The  salient  angles  of  works  ought  to  be 
as  large  as  possible,  and  never  less  than 
60°. 

Angle,  Shoulder — In  fortification,  the 
angle  formed  by  the  face  and  flank  of  a 
bastion. 

Angle,  Terminal— In  gunnery,  the 
angle  which  a  tangent  to  the  trajectory 
forms  with  the  horizontal  plane  at  the 
point  of  descent. 

Angle  of  Traction— In  draught,  the 
angle  which  the  plane  of  the  traces  makes 
with  the  road  on  which  the  carriage  is 
moving.  Artillery  carnages,  as  Lieu- 


ANG 


13 


ANT 


tenant-Colonel  Owen  observes,  "  having 
sometimes  to  move  over  the  worst  de- 
scription of  roads,  the  angle  of  traction 
must  be  slightly  inclined  upwards,  as  the 
vertical  component  of  the  pull  will  then 
assist  the  wheels  to  surmount  obstacles  ; 
the  weight  being  transferred  to  the 
shoulders  of  the  horse,  increasing  the 
pressure  of  his  feet  upon  the  ground, 
thus  giving  him  a  firmer  hold,  and  en- 
abling him  to  exert  with  ease  a  stronger 
pull,  while  the  resistance  against  which 
he  contends  is  at  the  same  time  dimin- 
ished." 

Angular  Velocity— The  velocity  of  a 
body  rotating  round  a  fixed  point,  which 
is  measured  by  the  circular  arc  described 
by  any  point  of  the  body  at  some  unit  of 
radial  distance,  usually  one  foot  from  the 
axis  of  rotation.  The  velocity  of  any 
particular  point  of  a  rotatory  body  may 
be  found  by  multiplying  its  angular 
velocity  by  the  radial  distance  of  the 
point  from  the  axis  of  rotation ;  and 
vice  versa,  the  angular  velocity  may  be 
found  by  dividing  the  velocity  of  any 
known  point  by  its  radial  distance. 

Anna — An  Indian  term,  expressing  the 
sixteenth  part  of  a  rupee  ;  generally,  in 
India,  applicable  to  the  sixteenth  part  of 
anything. 

Annals — A  species  of  military  history, 
wherein  events  are  related  in  the  chro- 
nological order  in  which  they  happened. 
They  differ  from  a  perfect  history  in 
being  merely  a  relation  of  what  passes 
every  year,  as  a  journal  is  of  what  passes 
every  day. 

Annamally — The  name  of  a  forest  in 
the  southern  part  of  India,  which  yields 
good  teak  timber ;  the  wood  is  made  use 
of  for  ordnance  purposes  in  the  Madras 
Presidency. 

Annealing — The  process  employed  in 
softening  certain  malleable  metals,  which, 
under  the  action  of  the  hammer  or  of 
the  roller,  have  gradully  increased  in 
hardness,  elasticity,  and  in  density,  from 
the  close  approximation  of  their  particles. 
Articles  of  iron  and  steel  are  sometimes 
annealed  by  piling  them  in  an  open  fire 
and  raising  them  slowly  to  a  red  heat ; 
they  are  then  left  to  cool  gradually.  This 
method  is  injurious,  on  account  of  the 
oxide  which  forms  on  the  surface,  thereby 
depriving  the  steel  of  a  portion  of  its 


carbon.  Articles  of  iron  and  steel  ought 
to  be  annealed  in  close  vessels,  and 
covered  up  with  ashes  or  clean  sand,  and, 
after  arriving  at  a  red  heat,  should  be 
allowed  to  cool  without  letting  in  the 
air.  In  annealing  articles  of  iron  or 
steel,  they  lose  their  brittle  character,  so 
that  they  can  be  bent  without  breaking. 
The  opposite  effect  takes  place  in  anneal- 
ing copper,  which  becomes  brittle  and 
hard.  Annealing  has  the  property  of 
imparting  to  axle-trees,  after  being  much 
in  use,  renewed  durability,  and  also  of 
restoring  iron,  when  crystallised,  to  its 
fibrous  state. 

Anthracite  Coal — A  non-bituminous 
coal  containing  from  80  to  90  per  cent, 
of  carbon.  South  Wales  abounds  in  it. 
This  coal  is  extensively  used  in  smelting 
forges,  and  for  steam  engines,  where 
freedom  from  smoke  is  required.  In  gun- 
powder factories,  on  this  account,  it  is 
commonly  used  either  alone  or  mixed 
with  bituminous  coal. 

Anti- Corrosion— A  paint  formerly 
used  in  coating  ordnance ;  it  has  been 
superseded  by  Pulford's  magnetic  paint. 

Antimony — A  metal  of  a  grey  or 
leaden  colour,  and  very  brittle.  It  is 
found  in  mines  with  galena,  or  the  sul- 
phuret  of  lead,  from  which  it  is  easily 
distinguished,  the  antimony  occurring 
in  fine  streaky  fibrous  crystalline  masses 
of  a  radiated  texture,  whereas  sulphuret 
of  lead  is  of  a  smooth,  shiny,  laminated 
nature.  Antimony  is  found  in  Cornwall, 
France,  Spain,  Borneo,  Nepal,  the  Straits, 
and  Siam,  and  is  commonly  associated 
with  iron,  zinc,  quartz,  silver,  sulphate  of 
baryta,  and  carbonate  of  zinc.  It  fuses 
at  about  800°  Fahr.,  and  volatilises  very 
perceptibly  at  a  somewhat  higher  tem- 
perature. It  is  one  of  the  ingredients 
used  in  the  detonating  composition  of 
friction  tubes,  and  stars  for  signal  rockets. 
When  mixed  with  lead,  it  has  the  property 
of  hardening  bullets.  Sulphide  of  antimony 
enters  into  those  compositions  employed 
to  give  a  strong  light.  It  is  particularly 
well  suited  for  that  purpose,  for  being 
decomposed  at  a  comparatively  low  tem- 
perature, the  metal  is  set  free  and  dis- 
seminated through  the  flame  in  a  state 
of  incandescence,  causing  the  intensity  of 
the  light  to  be  considerable ;  moreover, 
the  heated  particles,  coming  in  contact 


ANY 


ARM 


with  the  atmosphere,  are  thereby  oxidised, 
forming  a  white  smoke  which  is  very 
favourable  to  the  reflection  of  light. 

Anvil — A  block  of  iron,  having  a 
rectangular -shaped  face.  It  is  used 
essentially  by  blacksmiths,  in  the  process 
of  hammering  malleable  metals,  either 
by  hand  or  under  the  steam-hammer. 
Anvils  are  sometimes  made  of  cast  iron, 
but  when  required  to  be  very  hard  or 
bright,  they  are  made  of  wrought  iron  and 
faced  with  steel.  The  parts  of  an  anvil 
are,  the  edge,  face,  pane  or  steel-cap,  foot, 
and  stock.  Anvils  have  usually  a  conical 
end,  which  is  used  for  turning  pieces  of 
iron  into  a  circular  form.  The  smith's 
anvil  is  generally  placed  on  a  loose 
wooden  block,  but  the  more  firmly  the 
anvil  is  connected  with  the  earth,  the 
more  effective  will  be  the  blow  of  the 
hammer. 

Apex — The  top  or  highest  point  of  a 
cone  or  pyramid. 

Appointments,  Officer's — Usually  im- 
ply military  accoutrements,  such  as  belts, 
sashes,  swords,  &c. 

Appointments,  N.  C.  Officer's — In  the 
mounted  branch,  consist  of  accoutre- 
ments, saddle,  &c.,  making,  with  the 
N.  C.  officer,  a  total  weight  for  the  horse 
to  carry  of  about  18  stone. 

Approaches — All  works  are  generally 
so  called  that  are  carried  on  towards  a 
place  which  is  besieged  ;  such  as  the  first, 
second,  and  third  parallels,  the  trenches, 
redoubts,  place*  of  arms,  saps,  galleries, 
and  lodgments.  These  concealed  roads  or 
trenches,  by  which  the  troops  are  able  to 
approach  the  attacking  point,  have  as 
their  object  the  concealment  of  the 
attacking  party,  which  would  otherwise 
be  exposed  to  imminent  danger  while 
hastening  across  the  open  country  to 
enter  the  breach. 

Appui — Vide  Point  d'Appui. 

Aprons,  Gun — Covers  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  vent  and  tangent  blocks  of 
guns  against  rain  and  dirt.  They  are 
usually  made  of  lead,  canvas,  or  tar- 
paulin, according  to  the  nature  of  the 
gun  for  which  they  are  required. 

Arbalest — The  Norman  name  for  cross- 
bow ;  it  was  adopted  as  a  war  weapon  in 
England  during  the  reign  of  Richard  I. 

Archers — Another  name  for  bowmen, 
or  men  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and 


arrow.  In  the  early  history  of  the  world, 
down  to  the  introduction  of  gunpowder, 
and  even  after  that  period,  nations 
equipped  their  armies  with  the  bow  and 
arrow,  as  well  as  with  other  offensive 
weapons.  Looking  back  to  the  early 
periods  of  our  own  country,  we  observe 
how  skilled  the  Normans  were  in  the  use 
of  the  bow,  both  mounted  and  on  foot, 
and  what  an  important  portion  of  his 
army  the  archers  of  the  Conqueror  were, 
and  what  invaluable  service  they  did  him 
at  Hastings,  making  the  bow  for  many 
centuries  the  chief  strength  of  the 
English.  To  resist  the  formidable  power 
of  this  weapon,  and  the  no  less  destruc- 
tive effect  of  the  battle-axe,  every 
means  were  taken  to  protect  the  knight 
or  soldier  in  body  armour.  The  force 
of  the  battle-axe,  we  are  told,  made 
"sad  havoc  with  the  various  species  of 
mail,  breaking  the  links  of  chain,  and 
picking  off  the  scales  and  plates,  leaving 
fatal  openings  for  the  passage  of  the 
sword  and  the  lance." 

A  perusal  of  the  history  of  the  arms 
and  dress  of  the  men-at-arms,  during  the 
early  period  of  the  English  nation,  will 
show  what  constant  changes  were  taking 
place  in  the  armour  of  the  soldier,  all 
i  with  the   view   of  rendering   him   more 
impervious  to  the  piercing  of  the  deadly 
arrow,  and  proof  against  all  the  rapidly 
invented  weapons  for  the  purposes  of  de- 
struction.   Colonel  Luard,  in  his  '  History 
!  of    the    Dress    of    the    British    Army,' 
I  shows  how  "  to  the  arrows  of  the  Nor- 
;  mans  at   the  battle    of  Hastings  is  at- 
j  tributed    the    issue    of  that    contest ;    a 
random   shaft,  it  is  well   known,  struck 
Harold  in  the  eye  and  slew  him."     The 
dress  of  archers  was  generally  a  hauberk 
of  mail. 

Ann — Signifies  any  particular  descrip- 
tion or  class  of  troops.  The  artillery,  the 
cavalry,  the  infantry,  and  the  engineers, 
are  each  an  arm  of  the  service.  The 
word  used  figuratively  denotes  power. 

Armament — A  force  equipped  for  war, 
naval  or  military.  A  name  also  given 
to  the  guns  of  a  fortress,  coast,  or  ship. 
The  armament  of  a  fortress  depends  upon 
the  size  and  description  of  the  works, 
as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  locality  on 
which  they  are  situated,  whether  on  a 
land  or  sea  front.  In  the  former  case 


ARM 


15 


ARM 


in  addition  to  \ 
the     10    per 
bastion  above 
mentioned. 


the  guns  are  lighter,  while  on  a  sea  front 
they  are  all  of  a  heavier  nature,  and 
capable  of  piercing  armour-clad  vessels ; 
the  7-inch,  of  7  tons  in  weight,  up  to 
the  l~2-  or  12J-inch,  of  35  and  38  tons, 
are  such  guns. 

In  the  work  entitled  '  Instruction  in 
Fortification,  &c.,  at  the  Royal  Military 
Academy,  Woolwich,'  it  is  shown  "(1) 
That  the  ordnance  necessary  for  the  im- 
mediate security  of  the  place  is  calcu- 
lated at  10  per  bastion,  and  some  as  re- 
quired for  detached  works.  This  provides 
for  the  armament  of  the  salients  and 
flank  defences,  and  includes  heavy  mor- 
tars. (2)  The  ordnance  requisite  to 
sustain  a  siege.  This  must  depend  on 
the  extent  of  the  works  generally,  and, 
according  to  the  best  and  latest  authori- 
ties, -fortresses  of  the — 
1st  class,  consisting  of  10 

sides  and  upwards,  will 

require  110  pieces 
2nd  class,  consisting  of  6 

to  9  sides,  70  pieces 
3rd  class,  consisting  of  4 

and  5  sides,  30  pieces  J 
Thus,  supposing  the  fortress  to  be  armed 
has  8  fronts,  the  quantity  of  artillery 
required  will  be  8  x  10  +  70  =  150. 
The  proportion  of  the  several  •  natures 
of  ordnance  is  generally  fa  heavy  guns, 
•^j  shell  guns,  -^  mortars,  ^5  field  guns."* 

Anne  Blanche  (French)  —  Literally, 
white  arm.  Arms  used  in  hand-in- 
hand  conflicts,  such  as  swords,  bayonets, 
foils,  &c. 

Armistice — A  truce,  or  suspension  of 
hostilities,  between  two  armies  or  two 
nations  by  mutual  agreement,  a  stated 
time  being  given  for  the  cessation  of  it, 
when  either  an  agreement  between  the 
contending  parties  is  come  to  or  a  renewal 
of  hostilities  takes  place. 

Armour,  Body  —  A  defensive  habit 
formerly  worn  for  the  defence  or  protec- 
tion of  the  body.  It  succeeded  chain- 
mail,  which,  soon  after  A.D.  1400,  was 
in  disuse,  and  complete  armour  of  plate 
adopted.  Complete  armour  consisted  of 
a  casque  or  helmet,  a  gorget,  cuirass, 
gauntlets,  tasses,  brassets,  cuisher,  and 


*  If  fortresses  be  armed  with  the  powerful 
rifled  guns  of  the  present  day,  a  smaller  propor- 
tion would  suffice. 


covers  for  the  legs,  to  which  the  spurs 
were  fastened.  This  formed  armour 
"  cap-a-pie, "and  was  used  by  the  cavaliers 
and  men-at-arms.  The  infantry  had  only 
part  of  it — viz.,  a  pot  or  head-piece,  a 
cuirass  and  tasses,  but  all  light.  Body 
armour  at  the  present  day  is  confined  to 
a  few  regiments  of  heavy  cavalry,  and 
consists  of  the  cuirass  and  helmet  only. 
In  Oriental  armies,  chain  armour  is 
partially  retained.  Before  the  introduc- 
tion of  gunpowder,  personal  conflicts 
between  opposing  troops  were  frequent, 
and  body  armour,  which  was  also  called 
harness,  was  especially  used,  and  doubt- 
less found  to  be  a  great  protection.  Be- 
sides the  body  armour  alluded  to,  the 
horses  on  which  the  knights  rode  were 
clad  in  armour. 

In  looking  back  to  Holy  Writ,  it  is 
found  that  body  armour  was  known  in 
the  earliest  ages  of  the  world.  The  coat 
of  mail  called  "  habergeon  "  was  in  use 
amongst  the  Jewish  soldiery.  The  helmet 
also  is  of  very  early  date,  and  was  known 
as  a  head-dress  800  years,  or  earlier,  B.C. 
The  habergeon  is  even  older  than  is 
stated. 

In  the  'Text  Book  for  Officers  at  Schools 
of  Musketry '  the  weight  of  the  Saxon 
armour  is  thus  remarked  upon : — " Harold 
II.,  having  observed  that  the  heavy 
armour  of  the  Saxons  prevented  them 
from  pursuing  the  Welsh  into  their 
recesses,  commanded  them  to  use  lighter 
weapons  and  armour  made  of  leather 
only."  Later  on,  however,  after  the 
Norman  Conquest,  chain-mail  and  steel 
armour  were  again  worn. 

Armour  Plating — The  system  intro- 
duced into  the  navy  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  ships  of  war  against  the  fire 
of  artillery.  The  project  of  covering 
wooden  ships  with  iron  plates  was  first 
suggested  by  the  late  General  Paixhans, 
in  the  year  1821,  but  it  led  to  no  at- 
tempt in  France  to  cuirass  ships  of  war, 
and  the  project  was  at  that  time  aban- 
doned. In  1854,  however,  the  idea  was 
reproduced  by  Napoleon  III.,  who  then 
proposed  the  construction  of  floating 
batteries,  or  ships  protected  on  the  ex- 
terior by  thick  plates  of  iron,  which  led 
to  the  building  of  the  French  frigate  L  < 
Gloire.  In  England,  experiments  on  the 
subject  engaged  the  attention  of  the 


ARM 


16 


ARM 


government  as  early  as  the  years  184-9 
and  1851.  Since  then  further  experi- 
ments have  been  carried  on,  as  to  the 
proper  thickness  of  iron  to  be  given  to 
ships  of  war,  and  the  form  of  ship,  with 
reference  to  the  increased  power  of 
artillery.  Turret-ships,  such  as  the 
Devastation  and  Thunderer,  have  a  coat- 
ing of  14  inches  of  iron,  with  a  wooden 
backing  of  18  inches.  Ships  of  the  Her- 
cules and  the  Sultan  class,  both  broadside 
ironclads,  have  the  bulk  of  their  arma- 
ment, 18-ton  guns  (400-prs.),  carried  in 
a  central  battery  on  the  main  deck. 
These  two  powerful  vessels  are  also 
capable  of  acting  as  "  rams." 

Not  only  has  armour-plating  been 
applied  to  ships,  but  to  the  construction 
of  shields,  12  and  14-  inches  in  thickness, 
for  the  protection  of  the  embrasures  of 
casemates,  forts,  £c.  ( T  ide  Shields.) 

Armourer,  Sergeant — A  skilled  me- 
chanic attached  to  regiments  of  infantry 
and  cavalry,  for  the  purpose  of  repairing 
and  keeping  the  arms  in  order. 

Armoury — A  building  specially  pro- 
vided in  arsenals  for  the  deposit  and 
preservation  of  small  arms.  An  armoury 
should  be  very  dry  and  well  ventilated. 
In  a  damp  climate,  a  "  dry  room"  would 
be  a  desirable  adjunct,  for,  with  every 
care  and  attention,  rust  will  make  its 
appearance  if  the  outer  air  is  not  ex- 
cluded. The  repair  of  the  arms  in 
armouries  is  carried  out  by  civilian 
armourers. 

Arms — Instruments  of  different  forms 
and  natures,  for  attack  and  defence.  The 
manufacture  of  arms  is  of  very  ancient 
date,  coeval  with  the  world.  Necessity 
drove  men  to  make  them,  either  in  defence 
of  themselves  against  wild  animals  or 
against  their  enemies.  The  first  arms  of 
offence  appear  to  have  been  made  of 
wood,  such  as  clubs.  Anns  of  stone,  bone, 
and  brass,  succeeded  clubs.  Subse- 
quently, a  variety  of  arms  of  iron  and 
steel  was  introduced  which  comprised  the 
spear,  the  lance,  the  hatchet,  the  battle- 
axe,  the  bow,  and  several  others  ;  and 
though  these  arms  were  in  many  in- 
stances rude  and  unwieldy,  the  treat- 
ment of  iron  seems  to  have  been  well 
known ;  in  the  manufacture  of  steel 
great  skill  was  shown,  as  the  blades  of 
Damascus  testify,  and  which  were  famed 


throughout     the    world.     In   India,   the 
tempering  of  steel  was  well  known  from 
j  a  very  early  date. 

The  arms  of  the    present  day  in  the 
British  service  vary    according    to    the 
branch   of  the  army  in  which  they  are 
;  used.      In  the    infantry,    the    converted 
Enrield  (Snider)  rifle   was  for  some  time 
the  general  arm  of  the  service,  but  has 
been  superseded    by   the   Martini-Henrv 
'  rifle.     In  the  cavalry,  the  sword,  lance, 
carbine,  and  pistol  form  the  arms  of  that 
branch,    the    dragoon   guards,   dragoons, 
and    hussars    being   equipped    with    the 
carbine  and  sword,  the  lancers  with  the 
I  lance    and   pistol.      In   the  artillery,   in 
!  addition  to  the   guns  of  a  battery,  the 
,  following  arms  are  provided:  for  a  battery 
;  of  horse  artillery,  a  sword  to  each  man  of 
all  ranks,  and  twelve  carbines  for  sentry 
duties  ;  for  a  battery  of  field  artillery,  a 
'  sword  to  each  non-commissioned  officer, 
!  artificer,  or  trumpeter,  and  to  all  gunners 
a  sword    bayonet,  with  the    addition  of 
twelve  carbines  for  sentry  duties.    Heavy 
field    batteries    are    similarly  equipped. 
Garrison  batteries,  all  ranks,  except  trum- 
peters,  are    furnished    with   a    complete 
stand  of  arms,  the  trumpeters  (and  arti- 
ficers, if  any)  having  a  sword  bayonet. 

Arms,  Bells  of — Tents  or  masonry 
buildings,  formerly  used  in  India,  and  to 
some  extent  at  the  present  day,  for  the 
deposit  and  care  of  the  arms  of  each  com- 
pany of  a  native  regiment.  The  bells  of 
arms  were  generally  built  in  front  of  the 
lines  of  the  regiment  and  behind  the 
parade  ground. 

Arms,  Side— Such  arms  as  the  soldier 
is  entitled  to  wear  in  undress  according 
to  the  branch  of  the  service  he  is  in; 
which  arm,  be  it  the  bayonet  or  sword, 
is  worn  at  the  side. 

Arms,  Stand  of — The  complete  set  of 
arms  with  which  asingle  soldier  is  equipped, 
whether  horse  or  foot. 

Armstrong  Gun — Is  a  breech-loading 
rifled  gun  built  up  of  wrought-iron  coils. 
Sir  W.  Armstrong  is  the  inventor  of  the 
coil  system.  The  gun  consists  of  four 
parts — the  barrel,  the  breech-piece,  the 
trunnion  ring,  and  the  coils.  The  barrels 
of  the  early  guns  were  made  of  wrought 
iron,  but  the  last  manufactured  were  made 
of  steel.  The  mode  resorted  to  in  build- 
ing up  the  gun  will  be  seen  under  the 


ARM 


17 


ARM 


heails  '•  Coil  of  a  Gun  "  and  "  Gun."  The 
Armstrong  gun  has  been  superseded  by 
a  M.L.R.  gun,  now  the  pattern  gun  of 
the  service,  though  there  are  still  a  few 
B.L.R.  guns  in  use. 

Anns  of  Precision — Rifled  arms  of 
all  natures.  These  arms  have  a  longer 
range  and  a  more  accurate  and  rapid  fire 
than  that  derived  from  the  old  smooth- 
bore weapons.  The  introduction  of  rifled 
small-arms  of  the  present  form,  viz. 


breech-loaders,  only  dates  back  as  far  as 
1864,  when  in  the  unequal  struggle  be- 
tween Prussia  and  the  Danes  the  former 
first  used  the  needle-gun.  This  called 
the  attention  of  the  European  powers  to 
the  value  of  breech-loading  rifles.  The 
further  value  of  such  arms  was  again 
recognised  in  the  war  of  1866  between 

;  Prussia  and  Austria,  when  the  latter 
power  met  the  former  with  only  muzzle- 

i  loaders :  the  result  is  well  known  to  his- 


Ejfect  of  Artillery  Fire  on  Lines  of  Troops  ;  9-Pr.  and  16-Pr.  M.L.R.  Guns  ;  line  of 
targets  45  feet  long  by  9  feet  high. 


RANGE. 


TOTAL  HITS. 


9-Pr. 

16-Pr. 

1500    yards 

••  { 

Common  shell     .  . 
Shrapnel     , 

46 
92 

36 
345 

2000        „ 

"      1 

Common     , 
Shrapnel     , 

26 
75 

30 
276 

2500        „ 

/ 

Common     , 
Shrapnel     , 

24 
106 

36 
131 

3000        „ 

-      ( 

Common     , 
Shrapnel     , 

13 
66 

32 
105 

Front  of  a  company  of  50  files,  34  yards  long  by  5  feet  6  inches  high. 
Front  of  a  double  company  of  1  file,  68  yards  long,  by  5  feet  6  inches  high. 


Effect  of  Infantry  Fire,  with  the  Snider  Rifle,  at  the  Regulation   Targets,  and  the 
Proportional  Effect  on  Bodies  of  Troops  at  different  Formations  at  various  Distances. 


MARK  AIMED  AT. 


200  yds. 

500  yds. 

800  yds. 

)In  line    

96- 

80-5 

59- 

Quarter-column     

99-61 

98-05 

95-86 

Double  company  quarter-column.  . 

99-63 

97-73 

95-07 

,  T>        ..       (  Quarter-company  
*~              >n  \  Double  company  quarter-column.  . 

99-41 
99-23 

97-09 
96-18 

93-85 
91-86 

(  In  line   
:0mpany  j  Company  quarter.coiumn    .  . 

95-89 
98-77 

79-93 
93-99 

57-79 
87-32 

95-77 

79-36 

56-57 

Half-company  column       

99-1 

95-56 

90-59 

Column  of  sections     

98-82 

94-17 

87-57 

Regulation  targets,  200  yds.,  6  ft.  X  4  ft.  ;  500  1 
yds.,  6  ft.  x  6  ft.  ;  800  yds.,  6  ft.  X  8  ft.  J 

90- 

61- 

28- 

RANGES. 


ARM 


18 


ARM 


tory — the    superiority    and    rapidity  of 
the   Prussian    fire   was    marked.      From  ; 
this   period   the  value  of  breech-loaders  j 
may   be   said    to    have  been    recognised. 
France     produced    her    Chassepot,    and  i 
England  the  converted  Enfield,  known  as  , 
the  Snider,  ultimately  the  Martini-Henry; 
and  now  all  the  continental  armies  are 
armed     with     breech-loaders.       Colonel 
Hamley,    in    his    '  Operations    of  War,'  i 
describes    the    change    rifles    and    rifled  ' 
guns  have  brought  about  in  the  tactics 
of  armies.      No    longer  is    the   old  for-  : 
mation  of  battalion-columns  resorted  to 
— deep  columns  offering  too  good  a  mark  ' 
for  the  enemy.      The  Prussians,  there- 
fore, during    the  war    of   1870,   finding 
such  formations  no  longer  safe,  diminished 
the  size  of  their  columns  in  order  that  ! 
the    fire    of    the    enemy    might    prove  j 
less  destructive  both  in  front  and  depth,  ' 
besides    giving    a  better  opportunity  of 
taking   advantage  of  the  natural   cover 
which  average    ground    affords   to  small 
bodies. 

The  tables  at  page  17  show  the  result 
of  practice  made  with  rifled  field  guns 
and   rifled  small-arms ;    thus  giving  the 
reader    an    idea    of    the    precision    and 
disastrous    effects    of   rifled    arms.     The  j 
table  on  the  fire  of  the  Snider  will    be 
interesting  to  all  branches  of  the  service 
still  equipped  with  that  arm.     The  prac-  | 
tice  of  the  Martini-Henry  rifle  is  given 
under  that  head. 

Arms,  Under — Troops  are  said  to  be 
"  under  arms  "  when  they  are  assembled 
on  parade  with  their  arms  in  hand. 

Army — An  organised  and  disciplined 
force  of  armed  men  raised  for  military 
service,  and  employed  for  purposes  o"f 
national  defence;  it  is  commanded  by  a 
chief  or  leader,  with  officers  of  all  ranks 
iu  subordination  to  him.  Modern  Euro- 
pean armies  consist  of  the  following  arms: 
artillery,  caralry,  engineers,  and  infantry.  I 
The  relative  proportion  of  each  arm  varies, 
within  certain  limits,  in  different  armies. 
An  army  permanently  maintained  consti- 
tutes the  standing  army  of  a  country,  and 
is  commanded  by  a  general  officer  whose 
title  is  that  of  commander-in-chief.  . 
In  the  field  it  is  primarily  divided  into 
corps  d'armee,  comprising  all  arms,  each 
under  a  marshal  or  general  officer; 
each  corps  d'armee  is  subdivided  into 


divisions,  which  may  or  may  not  com- 
i  prise  all  arms ;  and  divisions  into  bri- 
gades.  The  strength  of  a  corps  d'armee 
depends  on  the  capability  of  the  nation 
to  furnish  men,  and  the  nature  of  the 
operations.  In  th«  French  and  Prussian 
armies,  the  strength  of  a  corps  d'armee 
is  from  30,000  to  40,000  men,  or  even 
more.  The  strength  of  a  division  varies 
similarly,  according  to  circumstances. 
A  brigade  consists  of  two  or  more  regi- 
ments of  the  same  arm,  and  is  sub- 
ordinate to  a  divisional  command,  and 
commanded  by  a  brigadier-general.  The 
foregoing,  as  explained,  gives  the  divi- 
sions  into  which  an  army  in  the  field  is 
told  oft',  the  aggregate  forming  the  main 
army  assembled  for  the  operations  in 
view.  From  the  main  army  are  detached 
such  portions  of  the  force  as  are  necessary 
for  operations  in  which  the  whole  army 
would  not  be  employed. 

An  army  in  the  field,  to  be  effective, 
requires  to  be  completely  equipped  with 
ordnance,  commissariat,  engineer,  medical 
stores,  and  the  means  of  transport.  The 
supply  of  these  concomitants  of  an 
army  in  the  field  demands  the  services  of 
regularly  organised  departments,  on  the 
efficiency  of  which  the  success  of  the 
operations  undertaken  by  the  army  greatly 
depends.  The  standing  army  of  a  country 
is  supplemented  by  reserves,  and  in 
England  by  the  militia  and  the  volunteer 
forces  as  well. 

A  question  of  great  importance  in  the 
formation  of  an  army,  but  which  has 
1  never  been  universally  agreed  upon  by 
'  European  nations,  is  the  proportion  of 
guns  to  men.  The  continental  powers 
seem  to  have  followed  France  in  laying 
down  the  proportion  of  3  to  every  1000 
men,  but  this  number  has  constantly 
been  changed,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  say 
what  the  proportion  is.  The  number  de- 
pends on  several  circumstances,  such  as 
^the  strength  of  the  army,  the  country  it  has 
to  pass  through,  whether  a  flat  open  coun- 
try or  mountainous.  Each  nation  appears 
to  have  its  own  idea  as  to  what  should  be 
the  proportion.  From  the  works  of  recent 
writers,  as  shown  in  the  'R.A.Proceedings  ' 
(vol.  viii.  No.  1)  of  1872,  it  is  laid  down 
that  if  the  theatre  of  war  be  favourable 
for  the  movement  of  large  bodies  of 
troops,  the  proportion  of  guns  to  men 


ARM 


19 


ARM 


may  be  from  3  to  5  guns  per  1000  for 
an  army  of  30,000,  50,000,  or  80,000  men. 
But  with  the  larger  armies,  which  we  see 
collected  now-a-days  on  the  continent, 
amounting  to  a  million  and  upwards,  a 
diminution  of  guns  may  well  take  place, 
even  below  3  per  1000,  as  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  artillery  is  very  cumbersome, 
and  impedes  the  movement  of  an  army. 
Moreover,  any  excess  of  what  has  usually 
been  laid  down  would  under  most  cir- 
cumstances be  valueless;  the  guns  in  rear 
of  the  column  of  march  being  unable  to 
be  brought  into  action,  at  the  time  the 
head  of  the  column  is  engaged,  without 
the  country  admitted  of  large  deploy- 
ments. A  corps  d'armee  takes  up  on 
the  line  of  march  from  twenty  to  thirty 
miles.  It  will  therefore  be  readily  un- 
derstood that  it  would  be  difficult  to  get 
the  whole  of  the  artillery  into  position  to 
take  advantage  of  an  action  going  on 
ahead.  Further,  the  artillery  of  an  army 
is  the  branch  that  occupies  so  much 
ground  on  the  march  ;  a  battery  of  ar- 
tillery alone  taking  up  473  yards  of 
ground  in  column  of  route,  hence  the 
great  impediment  to  speedy  or  advan- 
tageous movement ;  indeed  an  army  is 
hampered  by  too  large  a  force  of  artillery. 

Large  armies  move  naturally  very 
slowly  ;  if  actually  marching,  the  rate 
may  be  stated  at  from  one  to  two  miles 
an  hour,  and  even  this  rate  is  dependent 
on  the  state  of  the  roads  and  other  circum- 
stances ;  to  be  hampered  therefore  with 
a  large  number  of  guns  would  be  to  im- 
pede the  column  of  march.  As  far  as 
can  be  ascertained,  the  number  of  guns 
to  men  in  the  French  army  during  the 
late  Franco-Prussian  War  was  under  3  to 
every  1000  men,  and  in  the  Confederated 
German  army  under  2  guns  per  1000. 
(  Vide  Appendix  C.) 

Army  Hospital  Corps  —  A  body  of 
men  recruited  from  the  ranks  of  the 
army  for  the  purpose  of  looking  after 
the  sick  and  wounded,  and  for  carrying 
out  such  instructions  as  may  be  given  to 
them  by  the  medical  officers  with  reference 
to  diet  and  treatment,  and  in  administering 
of  medicines  ordered,  and  giving  such 
necessary  attendance  as  the  sick  require. 
The  men  act  as  bakers,  cooks,  and  per- 
form all  duties  which  render  them  useful 
to  the  patients. 


Army  Hygiene — Is  a  branch  of  the 
Medical  Department  having  for  its  object 
the  sanitary  condition  of  the  army, 
whether  in  quarters  or  in  the  field.  Vide 
Medical  Department. 

Army  Reserve — A  force,  under  the 
present  organisation  of  the  British  army, 
composed  of  men  who  have  enlisted  for 
twelve  years,  a  portion  of  which  service, 
viz.,  six,  and  not  less  than  three  years, 
must  be  passed  with  the  colours,  the 
residue  being  spent  in  the  reserve.  This 
condition  of  service  is  known  as  "  short 
service."  Other  soldiers  are  eligible  to 
enter  the  reserve  force,  viz.  those  who 
have  exceeded  the  first  term  of  their 
engagement,  say  men  after  thirteen  or 
fourteen  years'  service,  and  who  do  not 
exceed  thirty-four  years  in  age.  Under 
the  system  which  now  obtains,  a  consider- 
able reserve  force  may  be  expected  to  be 
formed,  and  it  is  estimated  that  with  an 
army  of  180,000  men,  of  whom  three- 
fourths  are  to  serve  only  six  years  with 
the  colours,  there  will  accrue  by  1882  a 
large  reserve  of  trained  men,  all  under 
thirty-two  years  of  age. 

The  Army  Enlistment  Act  of  1867 
formed  a  body  of  men  called  the  enrolled 
pensioners  and  others  into  two  classes : 

1st  class,  not  exceeding  20,000  men, 
liable  for  service  anywhere,  and  consist- 
ing of  men  who  are  serving  or  have 
served  in  the  army,  and  whose  service 
does  not  exceed  first  term  of  enlistment. 

2nd  class,  not  exceeding  30,000,  liable 
for  service  in  the  United  Kingdom  only, 
consisting  of  persons  already  enrolled, 
out-pensioners. 

The  Act  of  1870  has  modified  the 
above,  and  the  result  has  been  that  enrol- 
ment for  2nd  class,  except  for  pensioners, 
has  been  suspended.  (2nd  class  therefore 
consists  entirely  of  enrolled  pensioners, 
who  are  called  out  for  twelve  days  annu- 
ally, under  S.  0.  of  Pensioners,  and 
number  about  15,000.)  Enrolment  in 
the  1st  class  is  encouraged,  and  men  are 
eligible  to  enter  this  class  up  to  the  age 
of  thirty-four ;  the  retaining  fee  amounts 
to  £6  per  annum  (but  no  claim  to  future 
pension),  and  all  men  enlisted  under  short 
service  are  to  be  passed  into  this  class, 
who  will  ultimately  be  the  reserve  of  the 
standing  army.  (  Vide  Appendix  E.) 

Army  Schools  or  Colleges — Establish- 
c  2 


ARM 


20 


ARK 


ments  of  a  military  nature  for  furthering 
the  education  of  officers  and  men  in  the 
acquirement  of  knowledge  adapted  to 
their  profession.  Such  is  the  Royal  Mili- 
tary College  at  Sandhurst,  and  the  Royal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich,  the 
former,  being  now  intended  for  young 
otlicers  on  obtaining  their  commissions  ot 
sub-lieutenant,  and  before  joining  their 
regiments,  and  also  for  officers  qualifying 
for  the  staft:  the  latter,  for  candidates 
for  the  artillery  and  engineers.  Then 
there  is  the  School  of  Instruction  at 
Chatham,  where  officers  of  the  line  or 
cavalry  have  the  opportunity  of  being 
instructed  in  army  signalling,  surveying, 
&c. ;  the  School  of  Artillery  at  Shoebury- 
ness  ;  the  School  of  Musketry  at  Hythe  ; 
and  the  Advanced  Class  of  Artillery 
Officers  at  Woolwich ;  as  well  as  the 
School  of  Instruction  at  Aldershot.  The 
institutions  under  the  name  of  schools 
are  intended  for  the  men  as  well  as  the 
officers. 

For  soldiers  and  their  children  there 
are  garrison  and  regimental  schools, 
which  afford  the  usual  elementary  school 
tuition.  The  Royal  Military  Asylum  is 
also  an  establishment  for  the  instruction 
of  soldiers'  sons. 

Army  Service  Corps — A  branch  of  the 
Control  Department,  officered  from  the 
supply  and  transport  sub-department. 
The  officers  of  this  corps  rank  as  fol- 
lows:— Commissary  =  major;  deputy  com- 
missary =  captain  ;  assistant  commissary 
=  lieutenant.  The  corps  consists  of  clerks, 
tradesmen,  mechanics,  skilled  labourers, 
drivers,  &c.,  who  are  required  for  the 
various  duties  connected  with  the  supply, 
store,  pay,  and  transport  service. 

Army  Signalling — A  system  adopted 
in  the  army  to  enable  out-posts  to  com- 
municate by  signals  with  the  main  body; 
also  to  permit  officers,  &c.,  who  may 
be  patrolling  or  with  reconnoitring  parties 
to  communicate  readily  and  speedily  to 
the  general  what  they  observe  or  is 
brought  to  their  notice  regarding  the 
movements  of  the  enemy.  The  ordinary 
means  used  to  carry  on  communication 
by  day  is  by  coloured  flags,  revolving 
shutters,  and  flags  waved  by  hand ;  by 
night,  coloured  lamps  and  a  combination 
of  long  and  short  flashes.  In  the  English 
army  the  work  is  carried  out  partly  by 


code,  partly  by  the  Morse  alphabet. 
This  mode  of  signalling  is  intended  to 
supplement  the  electric  telegraph,  which 
now  always  accompanies  an  army,  in  case 
the  telegraph  should  be  interrupted. 

According  to  the  Queen's  Regulations, 
a  certain  number  of  officers,  non- 
commissioned officers,  and  men,  from 
each  branch  of  the  service,  has  to  attend 
at  the  School  of  Military  Engineering, 
Chatham,  for  the  purpose  of  being  in- 
structed in  army  signalling.  Officers 
belonging  to  the  Indian  army  are  also 
permitted,  if  vacancies  admit,  to  attend 
the  classes. 

Arquebus  —  An  ancient  hand-gun, 
which  was  cocked  with  a  wheel.  It 
was  the  first  form  of  weapon  which 
could  fairly  be  compared  with  the  modern 
musket.  The  design  was  taken  from 
the  old  cross-bow,  its  name  conveying 
the  meaning  of  "  bow  with  a  mouth." 
In  French,  the  name  is  arc-a-bmiche,  or 
arc-a-bousa,  corrupted  into  arquebus.  On 
the  formation  of  the  English  yeomen  of 
the  guard  in  1485,  one-half  were  armed 
with  the  arquebus,  which  had  gunpowder 
for  its  motive  power. 

Array — Order  of  battle,  as  an  army  in 
battle  array. 

Array,  Commissioners  of,  vide  Com- 
missioners of  Array. 

Arrest  —  In  a  military  sense,  implies 
the  suspension  of  an  officer  or  non-com- 
mission officer,  for  misconduct,  from  all 
military  duty,  until  released  by  superior 
authoritv,  or,  if  brought  before  a  court- 
martial,  until  he  shall  have  proved  him- 
self innocent  of  the  charge.  It  is  directed 
in  the  Queen's  Regulations  that,  before 
bringing  an  officer  to  trial,  it  is  necessary 
that  his  conduct  shall  have  been  previously 
examined  by  superior  authority,  in  order 
to  ascertain  that  the  charges  are  such  as 
should  be  submitted  to  the  cognizance  of 
a  court-martial,  and  that  there  is  suffi- 
cient evidence  to  substantiate  them. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  arrests,  close 
and  open,   the  latter  being  also    termed 
arrest  at  large.    An  officer  in  close  arrest 
!  is  not  allowed  to  leave  his  quarters  or 
j  tent,  and  to  prevent  him  doing  so,  if  not 
!  obedient  to  orders,  a  sentry  is  placed  at 
his  door.     If  he  be  in  arrest  at  large,  he 
is  permitted,  with  the  sanction  of  autho- 
rity,   to    take    exercise    within    defined 


ARS 


ART 


limits.  Open  arrest  is  only  applicable  to 
an  officer. 

Arsenal— A  place  of  receipt  and  issue 
of  guns,  small  arms,  and  all  other  warlike 
stores.  Woolwich  is  the  main  arsenal  of 
England,  and  possesses  within  its  precincts 
several  manufacturing  establishments, 
such  as  the  carnage,  guu,  and  small-arm 
ammunition  factories. 

In  our  great  Indian  dependency  there 
are  several  arsenals  in  each  of  the  pre- 
sidencies in  which  the  sinews  of  war  are 
stored,  but  beyond  having  a  comparatively 
small  workshop  attached  to  each,  the 
Indian  arsenals  are  more  places  of  receipt 
and  issue  of  such  arms,  ammunition,  and 
stores,  which  an  army  requires  in  peace 
or  war,  than  manufacturing  establish- 
ments. The  gun,  carriage,  powder, 
small-arm  ammunition,  and  harness  fac- 
tories, are  all  separate  establishments, 
but  they  are  not  situated  far  from  each 
of  the  presidency  capital  towns. 

Arsenic — A  metal  of  a  crystalline 
appearance,  and  imported  into  India  from 
Burmah,  China,  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 
It  sublimes  at  356°,  emitting  a  strong 
garlic  smell  during  the  sublimation.  If 
thu  process  be  performed  with  free  access 
of  air,  arsenious  acid  is  rapidly  formed. 
The  arsenic  of  commerce  is  of  a  white 
colour  ;  what  is  used  in  the  laboratory  is 
a  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  and  is  of  two 
kinds — the  native  vellowsesqui-sulphuret 
of  arsenic,  called  "  orpiment,"  and  the 
red  proto-sulphuret  or  "  realgar."  Of 
orpiment,  there  are  many  varieties, — one 
in  fine  gold-coloured  scales  ;  another  in 
intense  yellow  stony  lumps ;  a  third  in 
earthy-looking  masses,  called  the  king's 
yellow,  a  familiar  paint.  For  the  use  to 
which  arsenic  is  put  in  the  artillery  ser- 
vice, vide  Orpiment. 

Art,  Military — May  be  divided  into  two 
principal  branches.  The  first  relates  to 
the  order  and  arrangement  which  must 
be  observed  in  the  management  of  an 
army, — when  it  is  to  fight,  to  march,  or 
to  be  encamped.  This  branch  is  generally- 
known  under  the  name  of  tactics,  which 
signifies  order.  The  second  belongs  to 
the  other  branch  of -military  art,  and  in- 
cludes the  composition  and  application  of 
warlike  machines. 

Articles  of  War — Rules  and  regulations 
for  the  better  government  of  her  Ma- 


jesty's forces  at  home  and  abroad,  which 
the  sovereign  is  empowered  by  the 
Mutiny  Act  to  make  and  institute,  under 
her  sign-manual.  This  privilege  has  been 
annually  re-enacted,  and  annually  exercised 
by  the  crown  since  the  reign  of  George 
III.  to  the  present  day.  As  the  Articles 
of  War  are  read  at  the  head  of  every 
corps  in  the  service,  once  in  three  months, 
no  officer  or  soldier  can  plead  ignorance 
of  these  articles  as  an  extenuation  of  mis- 
conduct. Moreover,  commanding  officers 
of  regiments  are  directed  to  see  that 
officers  are  well  acquainted  with  the 
Articles  of  War,  by  frequently  examining 
the  officers  under  their  command,  more 
particularly  the  subalterns. 

The  Mutiny  Act  and  Articles  of  War 
for  the  time  being,  tempered  by  the 
regulations  issued  from  time  to  time  by 
the  sovereign,  form  together  the  code  of 
laws  which  governs  the  British  army. 

Artillery — The  name  given  to  ordnance 
of  all  natures,  and  the  arm  of  the  service 
to  which  it  is  attached.  The  term  artil- 
lery comprises  also  the  art  of  manufac- 
turing every  nature  of  gun-carriage  and 
ammunition,  as  well  as  the  mode  of  pre- 
serving and  making  use  of  them.  Besides 
comprising  the  materiel,  it  includes  also 
the  personnel,  of  that  arm. 

The  origin  of  the  word  artillery  is  of 
very  ancient  date,  and  meant  formerly  a 
very  different  arm  to  what  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  associate  that  name  with  at  the 
present  day.  Arrows  were  anciently  called 
artillery ;  thus  we  read  in  Holy  Writ 
that  Jonathan,  when  he  had  shot  his 
arrows  as  a  signal  to  aim,  gave  "  his 
artillery  unto  his  lad."  Further,  we  ob- 
serve that,  before  the  introduction  of 
gunpowder,  our  ancestors  used,  under 
the  name  of  artillery,  machines  termed 
the  balista,  catapult,  and  battering  ram, 
which  projected  stones  for  battering 
dpwn  the  lofty  walls  and  towers  forming 
the  defence  of  many  of  our  old  towns. 
On  the  introduction  of  gunpowder,  guns 
termed  "  bombards  "  were  manufactured 
— rude  specimens  of  the  art  as  com- 
pared with  later  introductions — they 
were  at  first  principally  hand  arms, 
weighing  from  25  to  30  Ibs.,  but  were 
subsequently  increased  in  size,  and  termed 
"  cannons." 

The   first   guns    were    built   up  with 


ASP 


22 


ATM 


wrought-iron  bars  or  plates,  strengthened 
with  rings  of  the  same  material  ;  they 
projected  stones,  and  were  fired  from  the 
ground,  or  from  rough  wooden  beds,  which 
served  as  carriages.  By  degrees,  and  after 
some  centuries,  the  calibres  of  ordnance 
were  enlarged,  and  brass  guns  intro- 
duced, as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century, 
towards  the  close  of  which  gun-carriages 
with  wheels  were  manufactured  in  France, 
showing  what  great  strides  had  already 
been  made  in  all  matters  pertaining 
to  ordnance.  This  progress  continued 
through  the  following  centuries,  when, 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  a  foundry 
was  established  at  Carron,  in  Scotland, 
where  carronades  were  first  made,  and 
which  gaye  the  name  to  this  nature  of 
ordnance.  At  this  foundry,  as  well  as  at 
Lowmoor,  in  Yorkshire,  most  of  our  cast- 
iron  guns  were  manufactured. 

The  days  of  cast-iron  guns,  at  least  in 
the  British  service,  may  be  said  now  to 
have  passed  away,  these  arms  being  super- 
seded by  rifled  ordnance,  though  there 
are  still  a  few  heavy  guns  of  this  nature 
in  use. 

The  mat&riel  of  the  British  artillery  is 
divided  into  three  classes — siege,  gar- 
rison, and  field ;  comprising  guns  of  all 
calibres,  from  the  38-ton  12^-inch  rifled 
gun  (700-pr.)  to  the  7-pr.  mountain  gun, 
including  heavy  rifled  howitzers  and 
mortars. 

The  personnel  of  the  regiment,  since 
its  amalgamation  with  the  artilleries  of 
India  (which  took  place  in  February 
1861),  comprises  a  body  of  about  35,000 
men  of  all  grades,  consisting  of  31 
brigades,  viz.  6  of  horse  artillery  and 
25  of  garrison  and  field,  with  a  depot 
and  a  coast  brigade. 

The  field  brigades  consist  in  the  aggre- 
gate of  114  batteries  of  6  guns  each; 
these  include  the  total  of  light  artillery, 
horse  and  foot,  in  the  service  at  home 
and  abroad.  The  brigades  of  horse 
artillery  consist  each  of  5  batteries,  and 
the  field  brigades  of  7  batteries  each. 

Asphaltum,  or  Asphalte — Is  described 
as  a  bituminous  substance  somewhat 
allied  to  coal  in  its*  properties,  and  pro- 
bably in  its  origin  and  mode  of  formation. 
It  is  exceedingly  inflammable,  readily 
softened  by  heat,  and  more  or  less  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  and  oils.  It  is  em. 


ployed  in  admixture  with  hard  mineral 
substances,  and  with  pitch  as  a  material 
for  paving  and  covering  roofs  and  floors. 
A  black  enamel  varnish  is  also  made  of 
asphalte. 

Assault — An  attack  of  a  fortified  work, 
either  by  escalade  or  on  the  breach  being 
reported  practicable.  Previous  to  .  as- 
saulting a  place,  all  precautions  must  be 
taken  to  form  "  storming  parties,"  "  sup- 
ports," and  "  firing  parties."  In  an  esca- 
lade, ladders  form  the  means  of  aiding 
the  assaulting  party  in  getting  into  the 
works  attacked.  The  firing  party,  sup- 
ported, if  possible,  by  artillery,  is  spread 
out  in  extended  order,  ready  to  keep 
down  the  fire  of  the  besieged  whenever  a 
soldier  shows  his  head  above  the  parapet ; 
further,  by  its  fire  into  the  embrasures, 
to  disable  the  artillerymen  at  their  guns. 
The  ladders  used  are  26  .and  14  feet,  in 
two  pieces,  though  ladders  of  40  feet  are 
used.  (  Vide  Appendix  D.) 

Assault  of  Arms— Military  exercises, 
comprised  in  the  use  of  the  broadsword, 
small  sword,  bayonet  exercise,  and 
fencing. 

Assembly— The  second  beating  of  the 
drum  before  a  march,  at  which  the  men 
strike  their  tents,  roll  them  up,  and 
stand  to  their  arms. 

Assize  of  Arms — A  law  enacted  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.  which  enjoined 
every  able-bodied  man  in  the  realm  to 
maintain  arms,  suitable  to  his  rank  and 
condition  of  life,  at  his  own  expense. 
Of  this  law  our  militia  is  the  modern 
offspring,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  is  incumbent  on  every  British  subject 
now,  as  it  was  in  earlier  times,  to  give 
his  service  when  required  in  defence  of 
his  sovereign  and  country.  The  enforce- 
ment therefore  of  the  ballot  in  the 
militia  would  be  no  hardship. 

Atlas  Metal — The  metal  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  cases  of  Bale's  rockets 
and  Boxer's  life-saving  rockets.  It  is  a 
mild  steel  produced  by  the  Bessemer  pro- 
cess. 

Atmosphere  —  Is  described  as  the 
general  term  applied  to  the  whole 
gaseous  portion  of ,  the  earth.  Being 
much  lighter  than  either  land  or  water, 
it  floats  or  rests  upon  either,  and  rises 
to  the  height  of  probably  forty  or  fifty 
miles  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 


ATM 


23 


AUS 


consists  essentially  of  two  gases,  oxygen 
and  nitrogen.  One  hundred  parts  by 
weight  contain  77  parts  nitrogen  and  23 
parts  oxygen,  or  by  measure  79'19  nitro- 
gen and  20'81  oxygen. 

The  atmosphere  is  measured  by  a 
column  of  mercury  ,  of  29'922  inches, 
which  has  been  adopted  in  France  as  the 
mean  height  of  the  barometer  at  the 
surface  of  the  sea. 

Atmosphere,  Pressure  of — The  weight 
of  the  atmosphere  with  a  barometric 
pressure  of  30  inches,  which  is  equivalent 
to  14'09  Ibs.  on  the  square  inch. 

Attack — In  a  military  sense,  means  an 
assault  upon  an  enemy,  with  the  view  of 
driving  him  from  his  position.  An  attack 
may  be  made  either  in  the  open  field  or 
against  a  fortress ;  in  the  latter  case,  if 
the  enemy  holds  out,  a  regular  siege  has 
toj.be  carried  on  by  means  of  trenches, 
saps,  galleries,  &c.  In  attacking  a  posi- 
tion, a  false  attack  is  sometimes  made  at 
the  same  moment  with  the  real  attack, 
to  divert  the  attention  of  the  enemy,  and 
to  make  him  divide  his  forces. 

Attention — A  cautionary  word  used  in 
the  British  army,  preparative  to  any 
particular  exercise  or  manoeuvre. 

Auget  —  A  wooden  trough  for  the 
saucisson  of  a  mine. 

Austrian  Army — One  of  the  four  great 
continental  armies  of  Europe. 

In  December  1868,  the  imperial  signa- 
ture was  affixed  to  the  law  introducing 
the  system  of  obligatory  personal  service 
for  every  male  subject  of  the  Austrian 
empire.     At  present,  the  military  force 
of  Austria  is  composed  of — 
The  standing  army,         . 
The  reserve, 
The  Landwehr, 
And  the  Landsturm. 

The  latter  element  means  simply  a 
lev&e  en  masse  of  the  entire  male  popula- 
tion for  the  defence  of  the  country  in 
case  of  invasion. 

The  total  liability  to  military  service 
extends  over  twelve  years,  this  period 
being  thus  apportioned  : — 

3  years  to  the  standing  army, 
7       „        „      reserve, 
2       „        „      Landwehr. 


12 


In  countries  that  have  adopted  th« 
compulsory  service,  exemptions  are  ob- 
tainable under  the  following  social  con- 
ditions:— 

1.  Being  the  only  son  and  support  of  a 
helpless  father  or  widowed  mother; 

2.  After  the  death  of  a  father,  being 
the    only   grandson   and    support    of  an 
infirm   grandfather   or  widowed    grand- 
mother ; 

3.  Being  the  only  support  of  helpless 
relations. 

All  service  of  a  substitute,  or  exemp- 
tion by  purchase,  is  abolished.  As  in 
Prussia  and  France,  volunteers  for  one 
year  are  admitted. 

The  effective  numerical  strength  of  the 
standing  army,  reserve,  and  Landwehr, 
amounts  to  about  1,100,000  men,  of 
which  about  -^  are  contributed  by  the 
first  two  classes,  the  standing  army  and 
reserve,  to  which  Hungary  furnishes  a 
quota  of  nearly  330,000. 

Austria,  inclusive  of  Hungary,  is  di- 
vided into  17  military  districts.  The 
standing  army  is  composed  of  24  di- 
visions, containing  52  brigades  of  infan- 
try and  19  of  cavalry.  The  infantry  of 
the  line  consists  of  80  regiments;  the 
cavalry  of  41  regiments  (14  of  dragoons, 
14  hussars,  and  13  lancers)  giving  abo 
36,000  cavalry  men. 

The  artillery  consists  of  12  regiments 
of  field  and  12  battalions  of  garrison 
artillery,  each  field  artillery  regiment 
consisting  of — 

4  4-pr.  foot  batteries, 
3  4-pr.  horse  batteries, 

5  8-pr.  foot  batteries. 

In  the  Austrian  army,  to  every  1000 
combatant  foot  soldiers,  there  are  103 
cavalry  and  4  field  guns. 

There  are  2  regiments,  of  5  battalions 
each,  of  engineers,  with  4  active  and  8 
reserve  companies,  and  one  depot  bat- 
talion of  5  companies. 

The  transport  service  of  Austria  is 
conducted  by  a  military  transport  corps, 
which  consists  of  36  field  squadrons,  22 
of  which  on  mobilisation  are  assigned  to 
the  infantry  divisions,  5  to  the  cavalry, 
4  to  army  corps  head-quarters,  and  2  to 
general  head-quarters.  There  are,  be- 
sides, the  intendance  and  a  hospital  corps. 

The  emperor  is  the  supreme  head  of 
the  Austrian  army,  which  he  governs 


AUS 


AXL 


through  a  minister  of  war  and  an  in- 
spector-general. The  mode  of  officering 
the  Austrian  army  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  By  passing,  as    a  cadet,  through   a 
military  college  ; 

2.  Rising  from  the  ranks. 

1.  Cadets  are  trained  at  public  cost,  and 
remain  ten  years  in  active  service  from 
the  date  of  their  leaving  the  academy. 
After  the  aspirant  has  practically  learnt 
every  duty  of  the  private  and  non-com- 
missioned  officer,   he  attends  the  school 
which  is  established  at  the  head-quarters 
of  every  division.     He  goes  then  through 
a  course  of  eleven  months,  followed  by  an 
examination.     If  successful,  he  performs 
the  duties  of  an  officer,  though  still  not 
commissioned,  and   receives  his  commis- 
sion when  a  vacancy  occurs. 

2.  The  preparation  for  promotion  is  also 
regimental,  and  in  this  manner  non-com- 
missioned officers  of  good  character  and 
antecedents,  and  of  sufficient  attainments, 
may  obtain  a  commission. 

Promotion  goes  right  through,  arm  by 
arm,  and  rank  by  rank.  It  is  by  seniority 
and  non-seniority.  The  former  depends 
on  the  confidential  reports  giving  testi- 
mony of  the  individual's  efficiency,  and 
the  latter  is  followed  every  sixth  step 
below  field  rank,  and  every  fourth  step 
nbove  it.  There  is  an  examination  twice 
a  year  for  promotion.  (  Vide  Appendix  C.) 

Austrian  Field  Gun — A  muzzle-load- 
ing rifled  gun  made  of  bronze.  There 
are  two  sizes,  the  4-pr.  aud  the  8-pr. ; 
the  former  for  horse  artillery,  the  latter 
for  field  batteries.  The  projectiles  are 
iron-ribbed,  not  studded,  for  taking  the 
rifling.  The  Austrians  are  about  to 
change  their  bronze  guns  for  steel  of 
their  own  design  ;  the  proof  lately  of  one 
of  their  guns  answered  all  that  was  re- 
quired of  it.  The  gun  experimented  on 
was  an  8'7-centimetre  steel  cannon,  and 
is  said  to  be  an  improvement  on  the 
Prussian  field  gun. 

Auxiliary  Forces — The  militia,  yeo- 
manry, and  volunteers  of  Great  Britain 
form  what  are  termed  the  Auxiliary 
Forces.  (  Vide  Appendix  E.) 

Axe,  tide  Battle-axe. 

Axe,  Felling — An  implement  used  for 
felling  trees  and  jungle,  and  attached  to 
field  batteries  for  clearing  any  impe- 
diments in  their  march. 


Axis — In  gunnery,  the  axis  of  a  gun  is 
an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  the  breech 
to  the  muzzle.  It  will  be  better  under- 
stood by  imagining  a  gun  supported  in 
the  lathe  at  its  two  extreme  points,  when 
a  line  drawn  between  these  points  will 
represent  the  axis  of  the  piece. 

Axle-tree  —  A  transverse  beam  sup- 
porting a  carriage,  and  on  the  ends  of 
which  the  wheels  revolve.  Lieut.-Colonel 
Owen,  in  his  '  Modern  Artillery,'  states 
that  ''  axle-trees  are,  like  wheels,  divided 
into  four  classes,  named,  respectively, 
siege,  field,  general  service,  and  natal  ser- 
vice axle-trees  ;  each  class  contains  several 
natures  of  axle-trees,  but  all  those  in  a 
class  have  amis  of  Hie  same  size,  and 
only  dirt'er  in  the  amount  of  metal  be- 
tween the  arms ;  the  similarity  in  the 
arms  allows  of  an  interchange  of  wheels 
when  required." 

Axle-tree  Arm — That  part  of  the  axle- 
tree  which  enters  into  the  nave  of  the 
wheel.  It  tapers  from  the  shoulder  to 
the  end  of  the  arm.  For  information  on 
the  friction  of  axle-tree  arms,  vide  Fric- 
tion. 

Axle-tree  Bed — In  an  artillery  carriage, 
the  wooden  or  iron  bed  into  which  the 
axletree  is  firmly  fitted.  In  the  wooden 
gun  carriage,  the  axle-tree  bed  is  secured 
by  bolts  passing  through  the  block  trail. 
It  is  further  fastened  to  the  brackets  of 
the  carriage  by  the  axle-tree  band,  which 
passes  under  it,  and  also  by  bolts  passing 
through  the  brackets,  two'of  which  have 
eye-pins,  and  fasten  on  the  cap  squares. 
A  wrought  iron  axle-tree  bed  has  been 
substituted  for  the  wooden  bed  iu  the 
9-pr.  and  16-pr.  M.L.R.  carriages,  and  it 
is  likely  to  supersede  the  present  service 
pattern  in 'future  manufacture,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  following  extract  from 
Captain  Kemmis's  paper  on  the  'Con- 
struction of  Field  Artillery  Carriages': — 

'•  The  wooden  axle-tree  bed,  hitherto 
used,  served  as  a  convenient  means  of 
securing  the  axle-tree  to  the  carriage 
body,  more  particularly  in  wooden  gun- 
carriages  ;  it  also  distributed  the  load  in 
travelling,  aud  the  strain  in  firing,  more 
uniformly  over  the  axle-tree,  serving  by 
this  means,  and  by  its  own  additional 
strength,  to  admit  of  the  axle-tree  being 
made  lighter  than  it  otherwise  could  be. 

'•  In  iron  carriages,  however,  it  gives 


AYE 


25 


BAG 


no  additional  facility  of  construction,  and 
though  it  has  the  advantage  of  assisting 
the  axle-tree  to  some  extent,  it  is  a  ques- 
tionable advantage  ;  so  that  in  this  case 
it  would  appear  to  be  a  superfluous  and 
it  may  even  be  said  to  be  a  faulty  form 
of  construction — a  compound  axle-tree 
as  ic  were,  being  made  of  two  substances 
differing  so  much  in  elasticity  as  wood 
and  iron,  and  further,  the  material  having 
the  greatest  elasticity  placed  to  receive 
the  pressure  or  blow  ;  in  fact,  the  iron 
may  be  broken  before  the  full  strength  of 
the  wood  has  been  called  into  play.  For 
this  reason  it  is  probable  that  in  iron 
carriages  of  the  future  it  will  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  the  axle-tree  modified." 
Ayenee  (Artocarpus  hirsuta) — A  tree 
which  grows  in  the  forests  of  Southern 
India,  Godavery,  and  Burmah ;  the  wood 
is  strong,  tolerably  close,  even-grained, 
and  of  a  light  yellowish  colour.  It  is  a 
wood  that  may  be  used  for  gun-carriage 
purposes. 


B. 


Babool  (Acacia  arabica)  —  A  tree 
which  is  found  in  different  parts  of  India. 
The  wood  is  close-grained  and  tough,  of 
a  pale  red  colour,  inclining  to  brown. 
It  is  used  in  the  gun-carriage  agencies  of 
Madras  and  Bombay  for  naves  and  felloes 
of  wheels.  This  tree,  which  grows  in 
abundance  in  the  north-west  of  India, 
forms  the  staple  food  of  the  camel. 

Badge — An  honorary  distinction  worn 
on  the  colours  of  a  regiment.  The 
Queen's  Regulations  direct  that  all  regi- 
mental badges  granted  under  special 
authority  to  different  corps  are  to  be 
strictly  preserved.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  royal  arms  mounted  on 
pieces  of  ordnance.  The  good-conduct 
stripes  worn  on  the  arm  by  men  of  good 
behaviour  are  also  called  badges.  (  Vide 
Good-conduct  Badges.) 

Baggage  —  In  a  military  sense,  in- 
cludes the  clothes,  camp  equipage,  and 
cooking  apparatus  of  a  regiment  or  army. 
The  baggage  of  troops,  if  proceeding  by 
sea,  is  divided  into  "  light"  and  "  heavy  " 
baggage.  This  division  of  terms  is  neces- 
sary to  express  the  nature  of  baggage  to 


be  embarked  and  the  time  of  embarking 
it.  "Light"  baggage  is  anything  that 
can  be  taken  in  the  hand,  such  as  clothing 
and  light  articles,  and  which  can  be  taken 
on  board  on  the  day  of  embarkation ; 
whereas  "heavy"  baggage  is  sent  on 
board  the  day  before  when  feasible.  On 
the  movement  of  troops  on  home  service, 
the  baggage,  if  wagons  are  available,  is 
carried  by  the  army  transport ;  if  not, 
then  the  commanding  officer  has  power 
by  the  Mutiny  Act  to  impress  the  carts 
of  the  country  to  convey  the  baggage  to 
or  from  the  barracks,  to  the  railway  or 
place  of  embarkation. 

In  India,  before  the  introduction  of 
railways,  the  baggage  of  troops  was  con- 
veyed, and  is  even  still,  where  there  are 
no  railways,  by  the  native  carts  of  the 
country,  or  on  elephants  and  camels, 
sometimes  on  bullocks,  according  to  the 
part  of  India  in  which  the  troops  might 
be  moving.  In  the  north-west  of  India, 
elephants  and  camels  (when  off  the  line 
of  railway)  are  almost  exclusively  used  ; 
in  other  portions  of  the  country,  carts ; 
but  along  the  line  of  railroad,  advantage 
is  taken  of  it  for  the  transport  both  of 
troops  and  baggage,  except  for  cavalry  or 
batteries  of  artillery,  which  in  time  of 
peace  invariably  march.  Carts  vary  in 
size  in  different  districts,  and  are  drawn 
by  two,  three,  or  four  bullocks.  A  four- 
bullock  hackery,  which  in  the  north- 
west of  India  is  generally  the  size  used, 
will  carry  1600  Ibs.,  or  400  Ibs.  to 
every  bullock.  An  elephant  can  carry 
about  1200  or  1400  Ibs.  in  a  flat  country, 
and  a  camel  320  Ibs.,  without  being 
distressed. 

Baggage-master — An  officer  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  the  baggage  of  each 
brigade  and  division  of  an  army  in  the 
field.  He  is  selected  from  the  line  if  the 
senior  officer  of  the  Army  Service  Corps  is 
not  suited  for  the  work.  During  the  march 
he  is  the  staff  officer  of  the  field  officer  of 
the  day,  who,  commanding  the  rearguard, 
can  give  him  orders  if  necessary.  The 
Queen's  Regulations  of  1873,  sect.  16, 
par.  24,  state  that  each  regiment  on 
a  march  is  to  furnish  its  own  baggage- 
guard,  under  the  care  of  an  officer  of  the 
regiment. 

Bagpipe— A  wind  instrument,  very- 
popular  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland. 


26 


BAK 


This  instrument,  the  performers  of  which  ; 
are    called    "  pipers,"    is    played   by   the  j 
bandsmen  of  Highland  regiments.     Up  to  ; 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  bagpipe  was  a  i 
very  common  instrument  over  the  greater 
part  of  Europe.     It  is  supposed  to  be  of : 
Grecian  origin,   and   the  Romans  in   all 
probability  took  it  from  the  Greeks.    The 
natives  of  India  have  an  instrument  very 
similar  to  the  bagpipe.     The  bagpipe  has 
long    been  a  favourite    instrument  with 
the    Scots,    inspiring    them    with    great  ! 
enthusiasm    and    valour    in  the    day    of 
battle. 

Bags — In  the  military  service,  are 
used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  ;  but  their 
number  is  so  infinite  that  space  will  not 
permit  of  their  being  all  given  in  detail 
ita  this  work. 

Bags,  Blowing — Bags  filled  with  a 
small  charge  of  gunpowder  and  coal  dust, 
and  placed  inside  a  common  shell,  when 
it  is  not  intended  to  burst  the  shell. 
The  charge  is  ignited  by  means  of  a  fuze. 
Blowing  bags  are  used  at  artillery  prac- 
tice, to  show  where,  if  the  shell  had  been 
a  live  shell,  it  would  have  burst. 

Bags,  Bursting — Bags  for  the  bursting 
charges  of  common  shell.  In  order  to 
prevent  the  liability  to  occasional  pre- 
mature bursts,  when  firing  filled  common 
shells  from  M.L.R.  guns  of  7-inch  calibre 
and  upwards,  it  has  been  found  necessary 
to  inclose  the  bursting  charge  in  a  serge 
bag. 

Bags,  Calico— This  nature  of  bag  is 
used  in  and  attached  to  the  interior  of 
metal-lined  and  brass  pentagon  cases,  for 
the  preservation  of  loose  powder  in  a 
damp  climate  when  it  cannot  be  pre- 
served in  ordinary  barrels. 

Bags,  Cartridge  Waterproof  —  Are 
waterproof  bags  for  holding  small-arm 
cartridges  ^when  despatched  to  foreign 
stations.  They  are  made  of  waterproof 
cloth.  Cannon  cartridges  are  packed  in 
waterproof  paper  when  specially  asked  for. 

Bags,  Gunny — Are  bags  made  of  coarse 
gunny  cloth,  and  used  in  India  with 
siege-trains  for  carrying  charcoal,  for 
the  use  of  the  artificers. 

Bags,  Gunpowder — Are  bags  made  of 
serge  or  other  cloth,  and  used  for  blowing 
open  gates,  stockades,  &c.  The  size  of 
the  bags  differs  according  to  the  charge 
intended  to  be  placed  in  them ;  they  are 


fired  generally  by  means  of  a  Bickford 
fuze.  The  bags  are  either  placed  on  the 
ground  or  fastened  bv  a  hook  to  the 
gate.  In  Burm;ih.  in  1852,  experiments 
were  made  to  test  the  value  of  powder 
bags  in  blowing  down  stockades,  and  the 
result  proved  most  satisfactory ;  bags 
containing  about  50  Ibs.  of  powder 
causing  a  rent  large  enough  to  admit  of 
a  section  of  infantry  entering  within  the 
enclosure.  Experiments  were  also  at  the 
same  time  made  with  8-iiich  howitzers, 
which  failed  to  make  much  impression  on 
this  mode  of  defence.  The  Indian  water- 
carriers'  mussuck,  or  water-bag,  can  be 
used  as  a  powder-bag  on  an  emergency. 

A  late  report  on  gun-cotton  shows  this 
material  to  be  most  effective  in  blowing 
down  stockades,  and  indeed  for  many  of 
the  purposes  for  which  gunpowder  has 
hitherto  been  used. 

Bags,  Sand — Bags  made  of  coarse  can- 
vas, tarred  or  untarred ;  they  are  filled 
with  earth,  and  used  for  revetting  the  in- 
terior slopes  of  field  works,  and  to  give 
cover  to  riflemen  firing  over  a  parapet ; 
they  are  also  used  for  other  general  pur- 
poses. 

Bags,  Serge — Bags  made  of  serge  cloth 
and  used  for  the  bursting  charge  of  rifled 
M.L.  common  shells,  and  for  the  bursting 
charge  of  Falliser  shells  from  7  inches  to 
12  inches. 

Bags,  Soldiers' — Bags  of  two  kinds, 
painted  and  unpaiuted,  and  made  of  can- 
vas or  vitry  cloth.  The  painted  bag  con- 
tains the  soldier's  kit  for  the  march,  and 
is  carried  with  the  baggage.  The  un- 
painted,  or  haversack,  is  slung  over  his 
shoulder,  and  is  used  by  the  soldier  on 
the  march  to  carry  extra  rations,  or  any 
spare  articles  he  may  have  in  his  posses- 
sion. 

Bakeries,  Military — As  the  name  im- 
plies, are  means  adopted  for  baking 
soldiers'  bread.  At  Aldershot,  military 
bakeries  have  been  introduced  for  some 
years  past,  whereby  a  saving  of  expense 
has  resulted.  Not  only  at  Aldershot, 
but  at  the  Curragh,  Dublin,  Chatham, 
and  Shornclift'e,  bakeries  are  established, 
worked  by  soldiers,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Control.  At  other  stations  the 
supply  of  bread  is  carried  out  by  con- 
tractors. The  training  of  bakers  for  the 
army  in  the  field  is  organised  at  the 


BAL 


27 


BAL 


above-named  places.  The  foregoing  re- 
lates to  permanent  ovens  in  a  standing 
camp.  When  troops  are  in  the  field, 
field  ovens  are  used  ;  they  are  of  three 
kinds,  baking  wagons,  sheet-iron  field 
ovens,  and  extemporised  ovens  of  clay, 
stones,  &c.  All  have  been  found  to  work 
admirably,  and  to  afford  large  results,  even 
more  than  is  required  of  them.  Of  baking 
wagons,  the  smaller-sized  one  is  that 
used  with  all  flying  columns,  &c.  ;  it  can 
bake  eight  batches  of  210  Ibs.  a  day.  Of 
iron  field  ovens,  commonly  carried  in  the 
field,  there  "are  different  patterns,  and 
that  termed  the  common  pattern  bakes 
150  Ibs.  at  a  time.  The  Aldershot  pat- 
tern oven  bakes  over  200  Ibs.  in  a  batch. 
During  the  Crimean  War  a  bakery  ship 
was  fitted  out  which  baked  18,000  Ibs. 
daily.  Bread  is  usually  baked  in  1-lb.  or 
o-lb.  loaves  for  field  service. 

The  Prussians  attach  so  much  impor- 
tance to  bakers  being  up  with  the  force 
that  they  are  attached  to  the  advanced 
guard.  The  Austrians,  in  the  war  of 
1866,  were  often  greatly  inconvenienced 
on  account  of  their  bakeries  and  ovens 
not  being  up  with  the  troops. 

Baldric,  vide  Baudrick. 

Ealista — A  machine  used  by  the  an- 
cients before  the  invention  or  introduc- 
tion of  gunpowder.  It  projected  masses 
of  stone  to  a  distance  of  90  yards.  Darts 
and  arrows  were  also  thrown  from  the 
balista. 

Ball — The  collective  name  given  to  all 
kinds  of  shot  and  bullets.  It  is  also  ex- 
plained as  any  round  substance  of  iron  or 
lead  discharged  from  cannon  or  small 
arms.  The  first  balls  for  cannon  were 
generally  made  of  stone.  Cast-iron  was 
subsequently  used,  of  a  spherical  form. 
Since  the  introduction  of  rifled  cannon, 
oblong  shot  are  projected  from  this 
nature  of  ordnance. 

Ball  Cartridge  —  Ammunition  used 
with  the  several  natures  of  small  arms  in 
the  service ;  for  the  Martini-Henry  rifle 
the  cartridge  contains  80  grains  of 
R.F.G.2  powder,  and  the  bullet  weighs 
410  grains.  The  Snider  or  converted 
Enfield  rifle  cartridge  contains  2J  drs.  of 
R.F.G.  powder,  and  the  bullet  weighs  480 
grains. 

Ballistic  Pendulum, — This  was  for- 
merly the  instrument  used  in  testing 


the  strength  of  gunpowder  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  velocity  of  projectiles.  It 
is  unnecessary  to  describe  it,  as  it  has 
been  superseded,  advantageously,  by 
Navez  Leurs's  ballistic  apparatus. 

Ballistics — The  science  of  the  motion 
of  projectiles.  By  this  science  all  pro- 
blems that  can  be  imagined  with  refer- 
ence to  the  flight  of  spherical  and  oblong 
shot  or  shell  are  resolved.  It  is  divided 
into  two  distinct  parts,  according  as  to 
whether  the  projectile  is  supposed  to  fly 
through  empty  space,  or  through  the 
resisting  medium  of  the  air.  The  calcu- 
lations, based  on  the  former  hypothesis, 
are  found  to  tally  with  the  results  of 
practice  with  shells  of  large  calibre  fired 
with  small  initial  velocities,  and  conse- 
quently short  ranges.  The  trajectory  is 
supposed  to  be  a  parabola,  and  the  curve 
of  the  actual  trajectory  of  shells  fired 
under  such  circumstances,  or  of  the  steel 
ball  of  the  eprouvette  mortar,  differs  but 
little  therefrom ;  when  the  velocity  in- 
creases, on  the  other  hand,  the  formula: 
of  the  parabolic  system  have  to  be  altered 
by  certain  co-efficients,  which  have  to  be 
calculated,  in  each  case,  and  this  can  be 
done  with  great  ease,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  published  tables  of  the  French 
artillery  by  General  Didion.  Problems 
worked  out  with  these  altered  formulae 
give  results  approaching  so  closely  to 
those  of  actual  practice  as  to  leave  but 
little  to  be  desired. 

The  following  is  the  method  of  cal- 
culating the  path  of  a  projectile  in 
vacua : — 


(i)   The  Putli. 

Let  A  be   the    initial    position  of  the 
particle  ;    P    its  position  at   time  t ;    <f 


BAL 


28 


BAL 


the  /_  of  projection  ;  and  V  the  initial 
velocity. 

Then,  with  the  above  construction, 

AT  =  V*        and    TP  =  <J~ 
.:  PM  =  \t     and   AM  =  <J-- 


.-.  Eliminating  t      PM2  =  -  —  •  AM 

.•.  the   path   is  a  parabola,  as   in   the 

V2 
figure,  and  AS  =  —  -. 

(ii)   To  fnd  AB  and  BS  ;  i.e.  the  Focus. 

Z.  SAB  =  90-  2TAy  = 

90  -  2(90  -  </>)  =  20  -  90 

.-.  AB  =  SA  cos  (2<J>  -  90)  =  —  sin  2<J> 

V2 

and  BS  =  —  —  cos  2<p  similarly. 

Hence  Whole  Range  =  —  sin  2*. 

9 

(iii)   Time  of  Flijht. 
At  V,  the  vertical  velocity, 

V  sin  $  -  ,jt  =  0     .-.  t  =  Y  Sn  * 


.'.   time  of  fliht  = 


2V  sin 


(iv)  Height  ascended. 
BV  =  BC  -  CV  =_  AC  sin  *  -  2? 


(v)    Velocity  at  any  point  (c  say). 

The  vertical  velocity  being  V  sin  <f>  -  <jt, 
and  the  horizontal  "  .      .      V  cos  <p. 
v-  =  V2  -  2\<jt  sin  Q  +  y-t* 

(V2  fl<2 

-  V'  sin 


( 

=  2^  I 


=  2.7  {  SA  +  TP  -  TX  } 

=  2</(AE-  PX)  if  EF    be   the 

directrix, 
=  2,j  .  FP. 

Hence  the  velocity  is  that  which  would 
be^aequired  in  falling  from  the  directrix. 
The  discussion  of  the  path  in  a  resist- 
ing medium  is  too  complicated  to  admit 
of  much  abridgment,  and  the  reader  is 


therefore  referred  to  Sandemann's  dyna- 
mics of  a  particle  on  this  subject. 

Balloon — A  hollow  silken  vessel  filled 
with  gas  (hydrogen),  which,  being 
lighter  than  air,  causes  the  balloon  to 
ascend.  Balloons  of  a  large  size  are 
used  for  scientific  and  military  purposes. 
Messrs.  Glaisher  and  Coxwell  made 
several  ascents  in  England  in  1862  to  a 
height  of  upwards  of  five  miles,  with  the 
view  of  ascertaining  certain  meteoro- 
logical points.  It  appears,  from  the  de- 
scription given  of  their  voyages,  that  the 
air  at  the  height  of  five  miles  is  so  rare- 
fied as  to  render  human  existence  pre- 
carious. The  barometer  showed  at  this 
height  11  inches,  and  the  thermometer 
2°  below  zero  of  Fahr. 
.  Balloons  are  useful  in  warfare  for  pur- 
poses of  reconnoitring,  and  in  the  case  of 
a  beleaguered  city,  for  keeping  up  com- 
munication with  the  outside  world  (vide 
the  accounts  of  ascents  from  Paris  in 
1870). 

The  Prussians  are  said  to  have  recon- 
noitred the  French  position  before  Metz 
in  the  war  of  1870  by  means  of  a  balloon 
with  telegraph  attached,  and  it  is  further 
said  that  the  survey,  made  with  great 
care,  was  most  successful,  and  conveyed 
instantaneously  to  General  von  Moltke 
the  true  position  of  the  French  army  at 
all  points,  and  its  movements. 

From  an  account  given  of  the  first 
balloons  used  for  war  purposes,  it 
appears  that  the  proposal  for  employing 
what  were  then  termed  captive  balloons 
was  made  by  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety  in  1793.  After  some  preliminary 
experiments  at  Meudon,  a  small  corps  of 
aerostats,  skilled  in  precarious  crafts,  was 
formed  on  the  model  of  an  engineer  com- 
pany, and  despatched  to  Manberg,  then 
besieged  by  the  Dutch  and  Austrian 
troops.  The  balloon  used  was  30  feet  in 
diameter,  and  rose  1800  feet  with  two 
observers  and  130  Ibs.  of  ballast.  It  was 
managed  by  two  ropes  attached  to  the 
net,  and  was  filled  with  hydrogen,  ob- 
tained with  much  difficulty  and  expense 
from  water.  The  immediate  moral  effect 
upon  the  enemy  of  the  use  of  this  balloon 
by  the  besieged  was  extraordinary.  They 
imagined,  which  was  far  from  being  the 
case,  that  their  every  movement  was  at 
once  made  patent  to  the  French,  and  it 


BAM 


29 


BAM 


was  this  that  in  a  great  measure  caused 
the  demoralised  Austrians  to  abandon 
the  siege.  The  balloon,  passing  from  a 
defensive  to  an  offensive  position,  was 
then  transported  while  inflated  to  Char- 
leroi,  which  the  French  were  attacking. 
Its  apparition  at  once  deprived  the  be- 
sieged of  all  confidence  in  their  strength,  i 
and  hastened  the  surrender  of  the  town  | 
while  still  efficient  for  defence.  The  bal- 
loon was  subsequently  used  at  Fleurus, 
where  much  is  attributed  to  it ;  then  at 
Brussels,  Liege,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  on  the 
Khine,  and  on  the  Danube. 

A  corps  of  aerostats  accompanied  the 
French  army  to  Egypt,  but  did  nothing, 
as  the  apparatus  was  damaged  on  the 
way.  In  1800  both  corps  were  sup- 
pressed. The  Prussians  used  balloon- 
ing against  the  French  in  1812,  but  the 
results  were  not  encouraging.  At  Sol- 
ferino,  one  of  the  brothers  Godard 
ascended  in  a  montgolfier ;  but  he  was 
much  too  late,  and  the  ascent  was 
all  but  useless.  In  the  American  war, 
balloons  were  used  from  time  to  time, 
but  were  attended  with  no  advantage. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  experi- 
ments made  at  Woolwich  a  few  years  ago 
in  reference  to  war  or  captive  balloons, 
inflated  at  the  Royal  Arsenal  gasworks. 
They  are  thus  described  in  one  of  the 
public  journals  of  the  day  : — • 

"  It  has  been  found  that  a  height  of 
100  fathoms,  at  a  horizontal  distance  of 
600  fathoms  from  '  the  enemy,  would 
enable  the  observers  to  secure  the  widest 
expanse  of  view.  With  captive  balloons 
it  has  been  found  that  they  attain  sta- 
bility, and  remain  like  a  kite,  at  rest, 
when  the  horizontal  resultant  of  the 
ascensional  force  and  the  tension  of  the 
cord  are  equal  to  the  force  of  the  wind ; 
and  this  enables  a  second  diversion  of 
science  to  come  in  and  lend  its  aid  in  the 
time  of  war.  The  war  balloon  having, 
by  a  mathematical  rule,  taken  a  sta- 
tionary position,  eight  cameras  and  lenses 
spread  round  the  balloon  at  equal  dis- 
tances, enables  a  complete  view  of  the 
surrounding  country  to  be  photographed, 
and  subsequently  examined  at  leisure. 
The  inclination  and  length  of  the  cord  to 
keep  the  balloon  in  the  same  stratum  of 
air  was  found  to  be  easily  calculable, 
subject  to  the  inequality  of  gales  of  wind 


and  their  change  of  direction.  The  Wool- 
wich balloons  were  held  by  two  new 
cords,  fastened  to  the  network,  and  ter- 
minating at  two  different  points  on  the 
ground,  which  gave  greater  stability  to 
the  balloon,  and  provided  against  one 
cord  snapping  or  being  cut  by  the 
enemy's  fire.  Under  the  old  plan,  aero- 
nautic correspondence  was  carried  on  by 
the  explorers  in  the  balloon  car  being 
provided  with  white  pasteboard  tubes, 
formed  like  cartridges  open  at  both  ends, 
to  which  a.bullet  was  securely  fastened. 
Each  piece  of  intelligence  was  written  in 
pencil  in  large  characters  along  the 
major  axis  of  the  paper  tube  or  car- 
tridge, which  was  immediately  despatched 
by  passing  the  end  of  the  small  cord 
through  it,  and  it  was  thus  precipitated 
by  the  gravitation  of  the  bullet  into  the 
hands  of  the  expectant  general.  This 
plan  has  just  been  abrogated  by  a  third 
diversion  of  science  being  brought  to 
bear  in  the  time  of  war.  By  the  new 
system  of  military  telegraphy  'for  field 
service,  and  by  means  of  the  wagons  at 
present  being  placed  in  store  in  the 
Royal  Arsenal,  lines  of  telegraph  can 
be  carried  through  the  air  from  terra 
frma  to  a  balloon  several  miles  distant. 
The  wire  can  be  paid  out  as  fast  as  the 
balloon  travels,  so  that  if  a  captive  balloon 
should  break  or  soar  away,  communica- 
tion could  be  kept  up  with  it  for  six  miles, 
or  two  or  more  balloons  can  be  sent." 

Bamboo  (Sambusa)  —  A  genus  of 
grasses,  of  which  it  is  the  most  gigantic; 
it  is  well  known  for  its  great  economical 
importance.  It  is  found  in  all  tropical 
climates,  and  the  purposes  to  which  it  is 
applied  are  so  numerous  that  it  would  be 
difficult  to  point  out  an  object  where 
strength  and  elasticity  being  requisite, 
and  lightness  no  objection,  to  which  the 
stems  are  not  adapted  in  the  countries 
where  it  grows.  When  ripe  and  hard,  it 
is  converted  into  bows,  arrows,  quivers, 
lance-shafts,  poles  of  palanquins,  poles 
for  tents,  fire  and  escalading  ladders,  and 
used  in  the  flooring  and  supports  of  rustic 
bridges.  In  an  artillery  park  in  India, 
wherever  the  bamboo  can  be  procured,  it 
is  made  use  of  in  carrying  heavy  weights, 
such  as  ammunition  boxes,  shot  or  shell 
when  carried  in  slings,  and  for  a  variety 
of  other  purposes. 


BAN 


30 


BAR 


Band — Anything  bound  round  another. 
A  name  formerly  given  to  a  company 
of  soldiers. 

The  word  is  now  usually  applied  to 
the  body  of  musicians  attached  to  each 
regiment.  As  stated  in  the  Queen's 
Regulations,  a  band  of  music  is  essen- 
tial to  the  credit  and  appearance  of  a 
regiment,  and  every  officer  (married  or 
single)  has  to  pay  for  its  maintenance. 
A  regimental  band  consists  of  one  band- 
master, one  sergeant,  one  corporal,  twenty 
privates  in  the  infantry,  and  fifteen  pri- 
vates in  the  cavalry.  In  the  regiment 
of  artillery,  in  consequence  of  its  greater 
strength,  the  band  has  increased  numbers, 
and  remains  always  at  Woolwich,  the 
head-quarters  of  the  regiment.  Bands- 
men are  liable  to  serve  in  the  ranks  on 
any  emergency. 

Bandoliers — Small  wooden  cases,  co- 
vered with  leather,  twelve  in  number, 
fixed  to  a  belt,  each  containing  a  round 
of  ammunition.  It  used  to  be  worn  by 
musketeers  in  former  days,  over  the  left 
shoulder,  and  had  attached  to  it  a 
bag  for  bullets,  and  means  for  carrying 
loading  and  priming  powder  in  excess 
of  the  number  of  charges.  During  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne  they  were  discarded 
for  the  cartridge  case.  At  the  present  | 
day  sportsmen  wear  waist-belts  with  so  i 
many  detached  charges  hanging  to  the 
belt,  which  may  be  considered  a  kind  of 
bandolier. 

Bandrol,  or  Bannerole — A  small  flag. 
Bandrols  are  used  to  convey  signals  from 
any  particular  spot  to  a  saluting  battery 
or  other  post.  Also  to  mark  the  position 
to  be  taken  up  by  the  flanks  of  a  regiment 
at  a  review  in  deploying,  &c. 

Bandy — An  Indian  name  for  a  Madras 
country  cart. 

Banner — Formerly,  a  flag  or  standard 
under  which  the  vassals  of  the  lord  of 
a  manor  united  for  some  common  pur- 
pose, he  being  the  chief  of  the  troop  or 
company.  A  banner  is  also  a  piece  of 
cloth  attached  to  a  pole,  and  usually 
bearing  some  warlike  or  heraldic  device 
or  national  emblem.  The  flag  is  now 
obsolete  in  the  army,  and  such  flags  as 
banners  are  only  used  for  purposes  of 
ceremony. 

Banneret — A  higher  grade  of  knight- 
hood, and  bestowed  in  former  days  for 


valour.  It  was  so  called  from  the  pennon 
of  the  knight  being  exchanged  for  the 
banner.  The  first  banneret  knight  is 
said  to  have  been  made  by  King  Kdward 
I.,  and  the  last  by  Charles  I.,  after  the 
battle  of  Edgehill. 

'  Banquette — A  step  of  earth  about  4£ 
feet  below  the  crest  of  the  parapet,  to 
enable  the  shortest  men  to  fire  over  it 
with  facility. 

Bar  Bells — Used  for  gymnasia,  and 
are  of  the  following  weights:  20  Ibs., 
35  Ibs.,  and  40  Ibs. 

Bar  Iron — Wrought  iron,  under  one 
of  its  many  forms,  the  other  being 
round,  square,  flat,  &c.  When  received 
from  contract,  in  the  government  esta- 
blishments at  Woolwich,  it  is  tested  as 
to  its  adaptability  for  any  particular 
purpose,  and  these  tests  are  carried  out 
as  shown  in  the  'Treatise  on  Military 
Carriages,'  by  Captain  Kemmis,  R.A. 
One  of  the  tests,  for  example,  is  known 
as  the  "  ram's  horn  "  test,  thus  : — "  A 
specimen  is  heated  to  rather  less  than 
welding  heat,  a  hole  punched  through  it 
near  the  end,  the  bar  split  from  the  hole 
to  the  extremity,  and  the  horns  so  formed, 
hammered  back  until  they  touch  the 
sides,  a  second  hole  is  then  punched  and 
enlarged  until  the  sides  bulge  out ;  if 
the  iron  is  good  the  fibre  will  not  break 
either  in  punching  the  hole  or  hammer- 
ing back  the  horns."  Flat  and  square 
bar  iron  are  tested  somewhat  similarly. 
"  Bar  iron  should  be  able  to  stand  a 
strain  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre  of  22 
tons  per  square  inch." 

Bar  Shot — Double-headed  shot  con- 
sisting of  two  solid  hemispheres  con- 
nected by  a  bar.  This  nature  of  shot 
was  formerly  used  chiefly  in  the  navy ; 
it  is  no  longer  in  the  service. 

Barb — The  reflected  points  of  the  head 
of  an  arrow.  The  armour  for  horses  was 
formerly  so  called. 

Barbed  or  Barded — The  name  given 
to  the  armour  which  nearly  covered  the 
war-horses  ridden  by  men-at-arms  during 
the  middle  ages. 

Barbette — An  earthen  terrace,  raised 
within  a  parapet,  so  high  as  to  enable 
guns  to  fire  over  the  crest  of  the  latter, 
and,  therefore,  with  a  freer  range  than 
when  worked  at  an  embrasure.  When 
the  barbette  is  for  several  guns,  the 


BAR 


31 


BAR 


terreplein  should  be  made  4  feet  wider 
on  the  outsides  and  rear,  to  facilitate 
communication..  For  a  single  field  gun, 
the  terreplein  should  be  15  feet  X  20 
feet;  for  heavier  artillery,  18  feet  X  24 
feet.  In  all  cases  the  terreplein  should 
be  level,  and  for  guns  mounted  on  field 
or  travelling  carriages  should  be  3j  feet 
below  the  crest  of  the  parapet.  (  Vide 
'  Instruction  in  Fortification,  &c.  at  the 
Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich.') 

Barbican — A  watch-tower,  having  a 
considerable  command  of  view,  and  ad- 
mitting thereby  of  the  enemy  being  seen 
at  some  distance.  It  also  implies  an 
ancient  fortification  placed  before  the 
walls  of  a  town,  or  a  defence  at  the 
entrance  of  a  bridge ;  also,  apertures 
made  in  the  walls  of  a  fortress,  to  fire 
through  upon  the  enemy. 

Barometer — This  well-known  instru- 
ment was  invented  by  Torricelli  for 
measuring  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere, 
or  its  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe. 

The  following,  extracted  from  Weale's 
Dictionary,  will  explain  the  principle  on 
which  the  barometer  is  made  : — "  It  is 
well  known  that  it  is  owing  to  the 
atmospheric  pressure  that  water  rises  in 
a  common  pump  after  the  air  has  been 
drawn  from  the  barrel,  but  that  the 
height  to  which  it  can  be  raised  by  this 
means  is  limited,  and  does  not  exceed  30 
feet ;  a  little  more,  therefore,  than  30 
feet  balances  the  atmosphere.  Mercury 
being  twelve  times  heavier  than  water, 
about  30  inches  of  mercury  will  also 
counterpoise  the  atmosphere. 

"  The  principle  of  the  barometer  is 
simple.  If  a  tube,  about  3  feet  long, 
closed  at  one  end,  and  open  at  the  other, 
be  filled  with  mercury,  and  with  the 
open  end  stopped  by  a  finger,  this  tube  be 
reversed,  a'nd  placed  upright  in  a  cup 
partly  filled  with  the  same  liquid,  the 
mercury  in  the  tube  in  ordinary  states  of 
the  weather  will  descend  to  80  inches, 
measured  from  the  surface  of  the  fluid  in 
the  cup,  and  not  much  lower.  The  mer- 
cury is  sustained  in  the  tube  by  the 
pressure  of  the  .atmosphere  on  the  surface 
of  the  fluid  in  the  cup.  Such  a  tube  and 
cup  so  filled  would,  in  fact,  be  a  baro- 
meter ;  and  if  a  movable  index  were 
added  to  it,  this  simple  instrument  would 


indicate  the  changes  which  take  place  in 
the  atmospheric  pressure. 

"  When  observations  are  made  on  land, 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  a  correction  is 
required  for  altitude,  since  the  weight  of 
the  atmosphere  diminishes  as  we  ascend. 
It  is  owing  to  this  that  we  are  enabled  to 
determine  the  height  of  mountains  by 
barometers. 

'  The  cause  of  the  oscillations  of  the 
barometer  in  a  gale  of  wind  was  first  ex- 
plained by  the  late  Mr.  Kedfield,  of  New 
York.  A  quantity  of  fluid  in  a  cup,  put ' 
in  a  rapid  circular  motion,  gives  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  form  of  that  portion  of 
the  atmosphere  which  is  within  the 
limits  of  a  storm.  A  whirlwind  which 
sets  an  extended  portion  of  the  atmosphere 
in  a  state  of  rapid  revolution,  diminishes 
the  pressure  over  a  corresponding  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface,  and  most  of  all  at 
the  centre  of  the  whirl,  where  the  depth 
of  the  compressing  column  of  air  will  be 
least." 

Barracks  (Spanish  barraca,  small  huts 
or  cabins) — In  England  barracks  are  per- 
manent buildings  made  of  brick  or  stone, 
and  erected  by  government  for  the  quar- 
tering of  troops.  Barracks  in  England, 
where  the  ground  is  sufficiently ''spacious, 
are  made  to  enclose  a  large  area,  for  the 
purpose  of  exercise  and  drill.  In  India, 
except  in  a  few  stations,  the  barracks  are 
detached  buildings,  either  built  in  line 
or  in  echelon.  The  latter  is  considered 
the  more  desirable  position,  as  it  admits 
of  the  air  circulating  freely  among  all 
the  buildings.  Of  late  years,  and  since 
the  Crimean  War,  great  attention  has 
been  paid  both  in  England  and  India  to 
the  subject  of  barracks,  both  as  regards 
the  comfort  of  the  soldier  and  the  sani- 
tary measures  to  be  adopted  for  the 
preservation  of  his  health,  the  latter 
requiring  constant  care  and  thoughtful- 
ness.  In  building  barracks  in  England, 
it  is  recommended  by  army  medical  men 
that  each  soldier  should  have  a  room 
space  of  600  cubic  feet,  and  in  India 
from  800  to  1000. 

A  visit  to  Aldershot  will  show  those 
interested  in  the  soldier's  welfare  a  good 
specimen  of  the  barracks  provided  -for 
him.  Everything  has  been  done  there 
for  the  comfort  and  amusement  of  the 
soldier,  in  providing  him  with  libraries, 


BAR 


32 


BAE 


games,  and  other  means  of  recreation. 
The  barrack  rooms  are  spacious;  each  room 
accommodates  twenty-four  men,  and 
affords  the  room  space  allowed  to  each  man 
as  recommended  by  the  medical  depart- 
ment. The  Queen's  Regulations  furnish 
considerable  information  on  the  subject 
of  barracks. 

Barrel — As  described  in  Nuttall's 
'  Pronouncing  Dictionary,'  is  "  a  round 
wooden  vessel,  of  more  length  than 
breadth,  bulging  in  the  middle,  and 
closed  up  at  either  end."  Barrels  or 
casks  of  various  kinds  are  largely  used 
for  military  purposes. 

Barrel,  Gun — The  cylinder  of  a  gun  ; 
more  generally  applied  to  small  arms, 
the  manufacture  of  the  barrels  of  which 
frequently  forms  a  distinct  trade  to  other 
parts  of  the  gun,  the  barrel  being  made 
by  different  hands,  and  sometimes  in 
different  establishments.  The  iron  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  musket  barrels 
has  a  portion  of  steel  in  it,  or  undergoes 
a  process  of  steeling.  Old  horse-shoe 
nails  form  capital  material  mixed  with 
steel  for  gun  barrels  on  account  of 
their  toughness  from  usage.  Each  barrel, 
after  manufacture,  has  to  be  tested,  and 
must  receive  the  Tower  mark  of  its 
having  stood  the  necessary  proof. 

Barrel  Piers — Casks  or  barrels  formed 

into  piers,  when    no    pontoons  or    boats 

•  can    be    obtained    for    the    purpose    of 

constructing  a  bridge  for  the  passage  of 

troops  across  a  river. 

Barrels,  Powder — Barrels  in  which 
gunpowder  is  stored.  There  are  three 
sizes,  called  whole,  half,  and  quarter, 
holding  respectively  100  Ibs.,  50  Ibs., 
25  Ibs.,  of  ordinary  powder.  The  whole 
barrel  is  capable  also  of  containing  125  Ibs. 
of  pebble  powder.  There  is  also  a  barrel 
in  the  service  termed  a  bouge  barrel,  which 
is  the  size  of  a  quarter  barrel,  and 
intended  to  be  used,  not  for  storage,  but 
for  holding  loose  powder  for  mortars  or 
cartridges  in  a  standing  battery.  This 
barrel  is  distinguished  from  the  ordinary 
powder  barrel  in  having  a  leather  bag 
attached  to  it,  which  takes  the  place  of 
one  head  of  the  barrel,  and  is  closed  by 
a  leather  thong.  The  word  bouje  or  budge 
is  a  corruption  of  the  French  word  bouijet, 
a  leather  bag. 

Powder  barrels  are  composed  of  heads 


and  staves  bound  round  with  copper  and 
ash  hoops,  and  are  made  by  hand  or  by 
machinery.  The  wood  used  in  English 
barrels  is  usually  American  oak,  whereas 
the  Indian  powder  barrels  are  made  of 
teak,  if  anything  a  stronger  and  closer- 
grained  wood  than  the  oak  alluded  to, 
so  that  it  is  not  found  necessary  to  bind 
them  round  with  ash  hoops,  as  in  the 
English  barrels. 

Barrels,  Small-arm — Barrels  for  the 
conveyance  and  storage  of  small-arm 
cartridges.  They  are  of  three  sizes, 
half,  quarter,  and  eighth.  The  half-size 
is  used  for  blank  cartridges,  and  contains 
2000  rounds ;  the  quarter  for  ball  cart- 
ridges, 700  rounds  of  Snider  or  Martini- 
Henry  ammunition,  and  the  eighth  for 
small  supplies.  The  quarter-barrel  is 
being  superseded  by  boxes. 

Barrels,  Stove — For  use  in  carrying 
powder  in  manufacturing  departments. 

Barricade — The  term  is  derived  from 
barrique,  in  allusion  to  the  defences  of 
the  streets  of  Paris  during  the  disturb- 
ances of  the  League.  The  barricade  of  a 
town  is  formed  from  any  materials, 
stores,  &c.,  available  at  the  moment, 
such  as  palisading,  made  musket  proof  by 
sandbags,  chevaux-de-frise,  carts,  wagons, 
iron  railing,  barrels,  hampers,  or  sacks 
filled  with  earth  to  form  a  parapet. 
Limbers  laid  across  one  another,  forming 
square  or  oblong  cases,  the  interiors  being 
filled  with  stones,  form  a  good  barricade. 
A  line  of  wagons  drawn  across  a  street, 
with  the  wheels  on  one  side  taken  off,  will 
be  a  sufficient  impediment  to  cavalry. 
The  object  of  a  barricade  is  not  only 
protection  to  people  behind  it,  but  to 
close  up  openings,  streets,  &c. 

Barriers — In  fortification,  are  strong 
gates,  so  placed  as  to  defend  the  entrance 
of  a  passage  into  a  fortified  place.  The 
gates  should  be  bullet  proof  and  loop- 
holed.  When  gates  cannot  be  provided, 
movable  palisades,  chevaux-de-frise,  or 
abatis  should  be  used. 

Barrow — A  light  hand  carriage  made 
of  a  frame  of  wood,  and  carried  by  two 
men ;  or,  as  in  a  wheel-barrow,  a  frame 
with  a  box  supported  by  .one  wheel,  and 
rolled  by  a  single  man.  Barrows  are 
largely  used  in  the  army,  there  being  no 
less  than  fourteen  different  kinds  put  to 
various  purposes. 


BAR 


33 


BAS 


Baryta  (BaO) — A  compound  of  oxygen 
and  the  metal  barium  possessing  alkaline 
properties.  (Vide  Chloride  of  Barium.) 

Eascinet — A.  head-piece  of  mail,  over 
which,  in  the  time  of  Edward  I.  and  II., 
the  helmet  was  worn,  but  in  the  latter 
reign  the  bascinet  appears  without  the 
nasal  of  the  helmet,  and  occasionally 
with  a  movable  visor,  which  rendered 
the  helmet  unnecessary.  Another  form 
of  the  bascinet  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  thirteenth  century  was  its  being  open 
behind  and  having  to  be  fastened  or 
laced  behind.  (Luard.) 

Base  Line — In  military  tactics,  signi- 
fies the  line  on  which  all  the  magazines 
and  means  of  supply  of  an  army  are 
established.  It  also  means  the  line  on 
which  troops  in  column  move.  In  sur- 
veying, it  is  the  line  on  which  a  series 
of  triangles  are  constructed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  position  of  objects 
and  places. 

Base  of  Operations — In  military  lan- 
guage, means  the  original  line  on  which 
an  offensive  army  forms,  whether  it  be 
the  frontier  of  a  country,  river,  or  any 
safe  position  from  which  it  takes  the  field 
to  invade  an  enemy's  country.  In  case  of 
retreat,  the  base  of  operations  should  be 
kept  open  to  fall  back  upon.  In  acting 
on  the  defensive,  the  position  must  be 
such  as  to  prevent  the  enemy  from 
breaking  the  line  and  forcing  the  army 
away  from  its  base.  A  base  of  opera- 
tions is  further  necessary  to  enable  the 
general  in  command  to  place  his  spare 
food  and  ammunition  which  he  cannot 
take  with  him ;  also  as  a  safe  place  for 
his  sick  and  wounded.  It  may  be  any 
spot  as  long  as  it  is  out  of  danger,  and 
affords  in  case  of  disaster  a  safe  place  of 
retreat.  Colonel  Macdougall,  in  his 
'  Theory  of  War,'  explains  that  the  "  base 
of  operations  "  is  "  the  point,  line,  or  dis- 
trict from  which  an  army  starts,  and 
from  which  all  its  reinforcements  and 
supplies  proceed,  when  it  is  committed 
in  a  campaign.  It  may  be  a  single 
town ;  it  may  be  a  frontier  line  of  any 
length  ;  or  a  line  of  sea-coast,  if  ihe  army 
possesses  the  command  of  the  sea  ;  or  it 
may  be  a  district  of  a  country  having 
breadth  as  well  as  length.  Whatever 
be  its  nature,  it  must  be  such  that  the 
army  retreating  upon  it,  iu  case  of ! 


disaster,  shall,  on  reaching  it,  find  succour 
and  safety." 

Base  King — In  smooth-bored  ordnance, 
the  ring  which  encircles  the  breech, 
connected  with  the  body  of  the  gun  by  a 
concave  moulding,  termed  the  base-ring 
ogee. 

Bashi-bazouks — Irregular  troops  in 
the  pay  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  A 
body  of  these  men  was  raised  during 
the  Crimean  War  by  the  late  General 
Beatson,  of  the  Indian  Army,  to  assist  iu 
the  operations  of  the  war,  but  the  war 
was  concluded  before  the  men  were  ready 
for  service. 

Basil — Tanned  sheep-skin,  used  by 
saddlers  and  book-binders. 

Basiliske — A  large-bored  gun  of  great 
weight,  used  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Basket — The  name  given  to  the  leather 
guard  round  the  handle  of  fencing  or 
single  sticks.  The  leather  of  condemned 
pouches  is  often  applied  to  this  purpose. 

Basket  Hilt— The  hilt  of  a  sword, 
so  made  as  to  contain  and  guard  the 
whole  hand. 

Bastion — In  fortification,  a  work 
generally  constructed  at  the  salient  an- 
gle of  the  polygon,  consisting  of  two 
faces  and  two  flanks.  The  leading 
principle  in  the  construction  of  a  bastion 
is,  that  every  part  of  it  should  be  de- 
fended by  the  flanking  fire  of  some  other 
part  of  the  works.  It  is  composed  of 
a  large  mass  of  earth  excavated  from  the 
ditch,  and  revetted  towards  the  country 
with  masonry.  Bastions  are  of  two 
kinds,  full  and  empty.  A  full  bastion  is 
when  its  interior  surface  is  on  a  leve-1 
with  the  rampart.  An  empty  bastion, 
when  the  interior  ground  is  lower  than 
the  rampart.  The  Italians  are  stated  to 
be  the  inventors  of  the  bastion  system, 
and  though  this  has  been  disputed,  the 
Italians  seem  to  have  taken  the  lead  in 
the  art  of  fortification,  as  in  every  other. 
San  Micheli,  a  native  of  Verona,  an 
architect  of  great  celebrity,  was  one  of 
the  first  military  architects  who  made 
use  of  the  angular  or  true  bastion,  if  not 
the  actual  inventor  of  it. 

Bastioned  Lines — Consist  of  bastioned 
fronts  joined  to  one  another.  As  shown 
in  the  work,  '  Instruction  in  Fortifica- 
tion, &c.  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy, 
Woohvich,'  this  kind  of  trace  is  con- 

D 


BAS 


34 


BAT 


sidered  inapplicable  oil  irregular  ground, 
as  the  time  and  labour  involved  is  exces- 
sive, and  is  only  recommended  for  con- 
tinued lines  where  the  space  to  be  de- 
fended is  very  restricted,  and  the  site  is 
nearly  level. 

Baston — A  formidable  club  which  was 
used  as  a  war-club  in  the  early  Norman 
battles.  It  was  not  an  unusual  weapon 
at  that  period,  and  seems  to  have  been 
the  precursor  of  the  iron  mace  of  the 
middle  ages. 

Bat — Originally  the  name  of  a  kind  of 
pack-saddle  used  for  carrying  baggage  on 
service  ;  hence,  the  horse  was  called  a  bat- 
horse. 

Bat-horses — Baggage  horses  or  mules 
for  carrying  officers'  baggage  on  service. 
The  ammunition  and  regimental  stores 
are  also  so  carried  when  carts  are  not 
procurable. 

Bat-men — Were  originally  servants 
hired  in  war  time  to  take  care  of  the 
horses  belonging  to  a  train  of  artillery, 
battery,  baggage,  &c.  Men  who  are 
excused  regimental  duty  for  the  specific 
purpose  of  attending  to  the  horses  belong- 
ing to  officers  are  also  called  bat-men  or 
bor-men. 

Batardeau— In  fortification,  a  wall, 
7  or  8  feet  thick,  which  crosses  the  ditch 
at  the  salient  angle  of  the  bastion. 
There  is  a  sluice  in  the  middle  and  a 
turret  upon  the  top,  to  prevent  persons 
crossing.  For  field  works  it  is  composed 
of  piles,  planks,  £c. 

Bath,  Order  of  the — As  explained  in 
Brande  and  Cox's  '  Dictionary  of  Science 
and  Literature/  a  British  order  of  knight- 
hood. On  the  day  of  his  coronation, 
Henry  IV.  conferred  the  dignity  of  knight- 
hood on  forty-six  esquires,  who  had 
watched  during  the  previous  night,  and 
bathed  themselves  in  pursuance  of  a 
very  ancient  custom  derived  from  the 
usages  of  the  Franks.  The  custom  of 
making  knights  under  the  circumstances 
mentioned  was  discontinued  after  the 
coronation  of  Charles  II.,  but  George  II. 
re-instituted  the  order.  It  consists  of 
three  classes,  G.C.B.,  K.C.B.,  and  C.B. 
This  order,  which  is  the  second  order  in 
rank  in  England,  the  first  being  the 
Garter,  is  now  extended  to  civil  as  well  as 
military  men.  The  colour  of  the  ribbon  is 
ix-d  for  the  services,  and  blue  for  civilians. 


Baton — A  truncheon  or  staff  conferred 
upon  field  marshals  as  a  symbol  of 
authority.  The  soldiery  of  Bonaparte, 
filled  with  success  and  with  the  revolu- 
tionary spirit  of  the  age,  looked  on  the 
highest  posts  in  the  republican  armies  as 
prizes  to  be  grasped.  It  has  been  said, 
with  florid  metaphor,  that  the  meanest 
conscript  from  a  Swiss  canton  marched 
with  a  marshal's  baton  in  his  knapsack. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  the  staff  car- 
ried by  the  drum-major  of  an  infantry 
regiment. 

Batta — An  Indian  term,  implying  field 
allowances,  which  were  granted  formerly 
to  troops  in  India  in  addition  to  their 
regimental  pay;  this  was  called  full  batta. 
Half-batta  was  half  this  allowance,  and 
was  paid  to  officers  serving  at  the  presi- 
dency towns,  and  within  200  miles  of 
them — full  batta  being  given  to  officers 
beyond  that  distance.  There  is  no  such 
distinction  in  name  now  as  half-  and  full 
batta  in  the  pay  of  the  officers,  though 
in  reality  officers  of  the  several  staff  corps 
in  India  only  receive  half-batta,  the  dif- 
ference being  made  up  in  their  allowances. 
Officers  of  British  regiments  receive  full 
batta  wherever  they  may  be. 

Battalion — A  body  of  infantry  of  the 
maximum  strength  to  be  efficiently 
handled  and  commanded  in  action  by  one 
officer,  and  considered  the  tactical  unit 
of  infantry.  The  strength  of  a  batta- 
lion is  about  the  same  in  most  armies, 
viz.  a  thousand  men.  In  the  British 
service  it  rarely  exceeds  nine  hundred, 
and  then  only  when  sent  on  foreign  ser- 
vice ;  the  home  complement  is  about  six 
hundred.  A  body  of  men  of  the  above 
strength  is  commanded  by  a  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  familiarly  known  to  the 
British  public  as  a  regiment.  In  some  ot 
the  continental  armies  a  regiment  consists 
of  several  battalions,  and  even  in  the 
British  army  many  of  the  regiments 
have  two  battalions,  one  has  three,  and 
the  rifle  regiments  four ;  but  they  are 
quite  independent  of  each  other,  and  have 
each  a  separate  commanding  officer  and 
a  separate  cadre. 

Batter,  To — In  the  operations  of  a  siege, 
to  fire  continuously  at  a  revetment  with 
the  object  of  breaching  it. 

Batter — In  fortification,  the  backward 
slope  of  a  revetment  or  retaining  wall. 


BAT 


35 


BAT 


Batter-head — The  flesh  of  a  drun 
on  which  the  drummer  applies  his  stick. 

Batteries  of  Position — Consist  of  the 
25-pr.  and  40-pr.  M.L.R.  guns.  These 
guns  are  intended  as  light  siege  guns,  as 
well  as  guns  of  position. 

Battering  Charges — In  the  service  of 
artillery  there  are  two  classes  of  cart- 
ridges, battering  and  full.  The  first 
is  used  with  Palliser  projectiles,  and  only 
under  certain  circumstances  with  com- 
mon shell ;  the  second  is  the  ordinary 
charge  used  with  common,  double,  shrap- 
nel shell,  and  case  shot.  The  powder 
used  would  be  pebble  for  all  battering 
charges,  and  for  full  charges  of  40  Ibs. 
and  upwards. 

The  reason  why  pebble  powder  is  now 
used  with  all  large  guns  instead  of 
ordinary  powder  is  explained  as  follows  : 
"  that  the  pressure  on  the  gun  is  much 
less,  and  the  velocity  greater,  with  the 
former  than  the  latter.  This  increased 
velocity  is  due  to  the  lower  pressure 
of  the  powder,  which  is  kept  up  longer 
in  the  bore  than  with  quicker  burning 
powder,  the  velocity  depending  upon  the 
pressure  and  the  space  over  which  it  is 
exerted." 

Battering-ram — Of  all  the  ancient  offen- 
sive weapons,  none,  it  is  stated,  were  so 
efficacious  as  the  battering-ram.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  long  pole  or  spar,  headed  with 
a  huge  mass  of  iron  or  brass,  usually 
shaped  like  the  head  of  an  animal,  from 
which  its  name  was  derived.  The  spar 
was  sometimes  mounted  on  wheels,  but 
more  frequently  suspended  by  cords  from 
a  triangle  of  stout  beams.  In  either 
case,  the  intention  was  to  impel  it 
violently  forward  against  an  opposing 
wall,  not  with  the  view  of  penetrating 
the  mass,  or  even  of  dislodging  a  portion 
by  its  immediate  shock,  but  to  generate 
a  vibration,  which,  continually  repeated, 
would  shake  the  strongest  walls  to  their 
foundation,  and  eventually  bring  them 
down. 

Battery — Signifies,  first,  generally, 
any  number  of  guns  grouped  and  in 
position  for  action ;  secondly,  specially, 
the  unit  of  an  artillery  command,  as  a 
battalion  is  of  infantry,  or  a  squadron  of 
cavalry  ;  thirdly,  any  work,  permanent  or 
temporary,  considered  merely  as  a  posi- 
tion for  a  group  of  guns. 


Movable  batteries  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  siege  and  field.  The  number  of 
guns  composing  a  siege  battery,  or,  as  it 
is  commonly  called,  a  siege  train,  depends 
on  the  service  it  is  likely  to  be  engaged 
in,  and  all  that  has  been  laid  down  on 
the  subject  has  been  the  minimum  or 
unit  strength  of  which  a  train  should  be 
formed,  which  can  be  multiplied  or  in- 
creased according  to  circumstances.  The 
proportion,  however,  that  the  several 
natures  of  ordnance  should  bear  to  each 
other  in  a  siege  train  has  been  fixed,  and 
will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Siege 
Artillery. 

Batteries  of  field  artillery  are  com- 
posed of  9-pr.  M.L.R.  guns,  of  six  guns 
each,  for  horse  artillery  purposes,  and 
of  16-pr.  M.L.R.  guns  for  field  batteries. 
Mountain  batteries,  composed  chiefly  of 
7-pr.  rifled  guns,  are  also  included  under 
the  head  of  Field  Artillery. 

Under  the  third  head,  viz.  permanent 
or  temporary  batteries,  there  are  five 
descriptions,  viz.  cavalier,  elevated, 
sunken,  half  sunken,  and  screen.  A 
cavalier  battery  has  its  platform  for  the 
gun  carriage  above  the  level  of  the 
ground,  and  is  very  rarely  used.  An 
elevated  battery  has  the  platform  on 
the  level  of  the  ground.  A  sunken 
battery  is  excavated  below  the  ground 
line,  so  that  the  gun  can  range  just 
above  it.  A  half  sunken  battery  has 
both  an  interior  and  exterior  excavation 
to  furnish  earth  for  the  parapet,  A 
screen  battery  is  a  parapet  'of  earth 
running  across  the  front  of  the  batteries 
and  thus  forming  a  screen.  As  in  future 
sieges  a  fire  of  heavy  rifled  artillery  may 
be  expected,  such  screened  parapets  of 
earth  will  be  found  to  be  very  protective 
and  of  the  greatest  use — 1st,  by  con- 
cealing the  battery  while  it  is  being 
constructed  ;  2nd,  by  intercepting  many 
shells  which  would  otherwise  reach  and 
explode  in  the  parapet  of  the  battery ; 
3rd,  by  making  it  more  difficult  for  the 
artillery  to  judge  their  distance ;  and, 
4th,  by  supplying  a  lateral  communi- 
:ation  between  the  batteries. 

To  enable  the  gunners  to  direct  their 
guns  on  the  object  to  be  fired  at,  small 
openings  are  made  in  the  screens  corre- 
sponding with  the  embrasures  of  the 
latteries. 

D  2 


BAT 


36 


BAT 


Battery,  Breaching,  vide  Breaching 
Battery. 

Battery,  Coast,  ride  Coast  Battery. 

Battle — An  action  in  which  the  forces 
of  two  contending;  armies  are  engaged  for 
the  accomplishment  of  some  great  object. 
In  preparing  for  the  attack  certain 
orders  of  battle  have  been  laid  down 
as  most  convenient  for  the  disposition  of 
the  troops  to  be  employed,  but  they 
vary  with  different  nations,  and  are  sub- 
ject to  the  accidents  of  ground,  the  posi- 
tion and  strength  of  the  defenders,  and 
the  object  in  view.  No  invariable  method 
of  attack  can  be  laid  down.  Napoleon's 
general  system  was  to  concentrate  the 
mass  of  his  force,  and  to  attack  at  that 
point  where  most  decisive  success  was 
to  be  obtained.  With  the  present  arms 
of  precision  the  order  of  battle  and 
manner  of  attack  would  be  somewhat 
modified,  as  is  shown  in  Colonel  Hamley's 
'  Operations  of  War  '  they  were,  during 
the  Franco-Prussian  war ;  nevertheless, 
the  main  principles  would  be  the  same  as 
of  old,  viz. — "  that  orders  of  battle  or  the 
most  appropriate  disposition  for  leading 
troops  into  action  should  possess  the  in- 
herent qualities  of  mobility  and  solidity. 
To  attain  these  two  objects,  troops  which 
are  to  remain  on  the  defensive  should  be 
partly  deployed  and  partly  in  column, 
sheltered  as  much  as  possible  by  the 
natural  or  the  artificial  advantages,  such 
as  shelter  trenches  and  the  inequalities  of 
the  ground.  The  corps  destined  to 
attack  a*  decisive  point  should  be  dis- 
posed into  two  battalions  formed  into 
columns,  not  too  deep."  The  attack 
should  commence  with  an  overwhelming 
fire  of  artillery. 

The  orders  of  battle  as  adverted  to  are 
reducible  to  three,  each  subject  to  some 
modifications : — 

"  First. — The  simple  parallel  order,  or 
that  where  the  hostile  forces  face  each 
other  in  parallel  lines,  to  advance  or 
receive  the  attack.  In  these,  accident  or 
some  condition  of  superiority  in  courage, 
artillery,  or  discipline,  decides  the  con- 
test, and  not  the  capacity  of  the  com- 
manding general. 

"  Secondly. — Where  no  other  combina- 
tions are  practicable,  there  is  the  second 
order,  or  that  with  parallel  lines  reinforced 
upon  one  extremity.  To  this  class, 


especially  if  dispositions  with  an  angle  to 
the  front  or  rear  are  included,  most  of 
the  great  victories  of  ancient  and  modern 
times  may  be  ascribed  ;  for  although  it 
is  not  the  most  perfect  in  theory,  it  is 
the  most  constantly  applicable  in  prac- 
tice, under  almost  every  possible  charac- 
ter of  ground  or  counter-disposition  of 
the  enemy. 

"  Thirdly. — The  oblique  order  of  battle 
is  the  third  and  the  best  class  of  tactical 
dispositions ;  but  in  the  application, 
great  simplicity  of  combination  is 
necessary,  and  great  prudence  in  the 
execution.  Against  a  manoeuvring  army 
well  commanded,  it  will  always  be 
difficult  to  apply  it ;  but .  when  pro- 
duced, the  effect  is  instantaneous  and 
decisive ;  it  is  the  triumph  of  dis- 
cipline and  of  grand  manoeuvre." — Aide 
Me'moire. 

The  following  is  taken  from  Colonel 
Macdougall's  '  Theory  of  War,'  on  the  sub- 
ject of  orders  of  battle  : — "  A  line  of  battle 
may  be  straight  or  it  may  be  curved  either 
concavely  or  convexly  towards  the  enemy. 
Of  these  three  orders,  the  convex  towards 
the  enemy  is  best  as  a  general  rule, 
because  the  flanks,  which  are  the  most 
vulnerable  points,  are  the  farthest  re- 
moved from  attack ;  the  enemy,  in 
marching  to  assail  either  flank,  exposes 
his  own  more  than  if  the  defenders  occu- 
pied a  straight  line.  The  general  disad- 
vantage attaching  to  this  order  is  that 
the  fire  of  the  position  is  divergent.  Of 
the  two  remaining  orders  the  concave  is 
the  worst,  because  the  flanks  are  most 
exposed  to  the  attack.  The  general 
advantages  of  this  order  are,  that  an 
enemy  advancing  against  the  centre 
exposes  both  his  flanks  more  than  if 
the  defenders  occupied  a  straight  line, 
and  the  fire  of  the  position  is  con- 
vergent." 

Battle-axe — A  military  weapon,  not 
now  in  use.  It  was  employed  from  the. 
earliest  times  by  the  Saxons.  It  is  stated 
in  the  '  Text-book  for  Musketry  '  that  the 
battle-axe  was  used  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Britain  upwards  of  1100  B.C.;  it  was 
then  made  of  flint.  When  the  Romans 
invaded  Britain  under  Julius  Caesar, 
55  B.C.,  the  battle-axe  was  made  of 
bronze — the  change  to  steel  took  place 
shortly  after  the  invasion,  viz.  in  A.D.  78. 


BAT 


BEA 


It  appears  to  have  done  great  execution 
in  battle  in  breaking  in  pieces  the  coats 
of  mail  and  steel  casques  of  the  Normans. 
The  Lochaber  axe  is  well  known  as 
having  been  a  formidable  weapon  in  the 
hands  of  the  Scottish  Highlander. 

Battlements — The  indentures  in  the 
tops  of  old  castles  and  fortified  walls,  or 
other  buildings,  in  the  form  of  embra- 
sures, for  the  greater  convenience  of 
firing  or  looking  through. 

Baudrick,  or  Baldric — The  name  given 
to  the  sash  worn  by  yeomen  and  by  cross- 
bow men,  as  well  as  archers,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Baulks — In  pontooning,  small  beams, 
the  ends  of  which,  bored  with  bolt-holes, 
rest  upon  the  saddles  between  the  cleats, 
to  which  they  are  secured  with  iron-bolts. 

Baume's  Flux — Consists  of  3  parts  of 
nitre,  1  part  of  sulphur,  and  1  part  of 
sawdust,  as  given  in  Abel  and  Bloxam's 
'  Handbook  of  Chemistry.'  This  flux  is 
capable  of  inducing  the  fusion  of  different 
metals,  partly  on  account  of  the  heat 
evolved  by  deflagration,  and  partly 
because  it  converts  a  portion  of  the 
metal  into  a  more  fusible  sulphide. 

Bayonet — -A  short  sword  or  triangular- 
shaped  dagger,  fitted  on  to  the  muzzle  of  a 
firelock  ;  in  this  position  the  bayonet  gives 
the  soldier  increased  means  of  offence  and 
defence.  The  name  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  town  of  Bayonne,  in  France, 
where,  it  is  stated,  it  was  first  invented. 
The  original  bayonet  was  nothing  more 
than  a  blade  of  steel  fastened  to  a  helve 
of  wood,  which  was  thrust  into  the 
barrel ;  by  this  means  the  musket  could 
neither  be  loaded  nor  fired  conveniently ; 
to  remedy  this  defect,  an  elbow  and  socket 
were  given  to  it,  and  the  result  was  the 
present  mode  of  attaching  the  bayonet. 
This  alteration  took  place  somewhere 
about  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  first  regiment  which  appears  to  have 
had  the  bayonet  attached  to  its  musket 
is  the  Grenadier  Guards,  so  far  back  as 
the  year  1693.  It  is  stated  by  Macaulay 
that  in  consequence  of  the  awkward 
mode  of  attaching  the  bayonet,  the  English 
lost  the  battle  of  Killiecrankie,  as  the 
Highlanders  were  upon  the  troops  before 
they  could  convert  their  firelocks  into 
pikes. 

Beaker — A  precipitating  vessel  made 


of  glass,  having  a  small  beak  or  spout.  It 
is  used  in  chemical  operations. 

Beam — A  horizontal  piece  of  iron  or 
timber,  used  to  resist  a  force  or  weight ; 
as  a  tie-beam,  when  it  acts  as  a  string  or 
chain,  by  its  tension ;  as  a  collar  beam, 
when  it  acts  by  compression ;  as  a  bres- 
summer,  when  it  resists  a  transverse 
insisting  weight. 

Beam — In  steam  engines,  a  large  lever 
turning  upon  a  centre,  and  forming  the 
medium  of  communication  between  the 
piston  rod  and  the  crank  shaft. 

Beam  Carriage — In  artillery,  that  part 
of  a  gun-carriage  included  between  the 
breast  and  trail-point.  In  the  O.P.  field 
carriages,  the  beam  is  formed  of  a  solid 
block  of  wood,  if  timber  of  sufficient 
scantling  can  be  obtained ;  but  if  not 
procurable,  it  is  formed  of  two  pieces 
tabled  one  into  the  other.  In  this  form 
it  is  called  a  block-trail  carriage.  For- 
merly, light  field  carriages  consisted  of 
two  brackets  fastened  together  by  tran- 
soms ;  but  this  form,  though  it  possessed 
strength,  was  found  to  be  awkward  and 
unhandy  for  quick  manoeuvring ;  the 
block-trail,  therefore,  was  substituted  for 
all  light  field  carriages,  and  has  been 
also  adopted  for  certain  siege  carriages. 

Since  the  introduction,  however,  of 
wrought-iron  guns  into  the  service,  the 
bracket  pattern  has  been  re-introduced, 
and  the  carriage,  which  is  made  of 
wrought  iron,  has  the  brackets  and  trail 
in  one. 

The  present  pattern  of  iron  carriages  is 
not  yet  universal  in  the  service,  but  will 
be  so  in  the  future. 

Beam  Scale— A  simple  lever,  the  arms 
of  which  are  equal.  At  the  end  of  each 
arm  a  scale  board  is  suspended  by  chains. 
Scales  of  this  nature  were  and  are  still 
to  some  extent  used  for  weighing  certain 
stores  in  the  different  departments  of  the 
army.  The  mode  of  eliminating  the  error 
in  scales  is  to  place  the  body  in  one  scale 
and  counterpoise  it  by  weights  in  the  op- 
posite scale ;  then  remove  the  body  and 
replace  it  by  known  weights,  until  the 
equilibrium  is  restored.  The  sum  of  th« 
latter  weights  will  be  that  of  the  body 
required. 

Bearers,  Shot — Iron  carriers  used  with 
S.B.  guns  for  bringing  hot  shot  from  the 
furnace  to  the  gun.  They  are  made  of 


BEA 


38 


BEL 


wrought  iron,  and  have  three  handles. 
Implements  used  ibr  lifting  the  heavier 
natures  of  rifled  projectiles  are  also 
termed  "  shot  bearers." 

Bearing — In  carpentry,  the  clear  dis- 
tance between  the  supports  of  a  beam. 

Bearing — In  machinery,  that  part  of  a 
shaft  or  spindle  which  is  in  contact  with 
the  supports. 

Bearing — In  surveying,  the  direction 
of  an  object  with  reference  to  any 
meridian  line,  or  the  angle  formed  at 
the  point  of  observation  between  the 
meridian  line  (generally  the  magnetic) 
and  the  object. 

Bearskin  Caps — A  military  head  dress 
worn  by  the  foot  guards.  Originally  the 
fusilier  regiments  wore  bearskin  caps 
somewhere  about  the  year  1805. 

Beat  of  Drum — As  explained  in  '  Cham- 
bers's  Encyclopaedia,'  is  a  signal  or 
instruction  conveyed  by  a  particular 
mode  of  drum-beating.  It  is  an  audible 
semaphore,  a  telegraph  that  speaks  to  the 
ear  instead  of  the  eye.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  beats  known  by  the  names 
of  the  generate,  the  reveille,  the  assembly, 
the  foot-march,  the  grenadiers'  march, 
the  retreat,  the  taptoo  or  tattoo,  the 
call-to-arms,  the  pioneers'  call,  the  ser- 
geants' call,  the  drummers'  call,  the 
chamade,  the  rogues'  march,  the  long 
roll,  &c.,  but  many  are  now  in  disuse. 
Some  of  the  same  instructions  or  com- 
mands are  also  given  by  the  bugle,  and 
some  by  the  trumpet. 

Beat  a  Retreat,  To — Means  simply  to 
fall  back  or  retreat  before  an  enemy. 
Beating  the  retreat  is  a  beat  of  the  drum 
at  nightfall. 

Beating  Orders — Are  instructions  or 
orders  given  to  recruiting  parties  before 
they  leave  the  head-quarters  of  their  regi- 
ment ;  they  are  obtained,  on  application, 
by  commanding  officers  from  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  War.  When  recruiting 
parties  are  quartered  in  places  where 
a  superintending  officer  is  stationed,  they 
are  to  deposit  their  beating  orders  with 
him. 

Bed — In  artillery,  the  frame  or  rest 
on  which  mortars  are  placed  and  fired 
from.  Mortars  have  travelling  carriages, 
which  are  attached  to  a  limber.  In 
battery  the  carriage  is  unlimbered,  the 
wheels  removed,  and  the  body  laid  flat 


upon  the  ground.  Mortar  beds  for  the 
larger-sized  mortars,  viz.  the  lo-,  10-, 
and  8-inch  land  service,  are  made  of  iron, 
and  the  smaller  of  wood,  viz.  the  5|-  and 
4^-inch.  Mortars  are  elevated  by  means 
of  quoins. 

Beech-tree  —  Only  one  species  (Fagus 
sijlvatica)  is  common  to  Europe.  In 
England,  the  Buckinghamshire  and  Sussex 
beech-trees  are  esteemed  the  best.  The 
colour  of  the  wood  is  whitish  brown,  of 
a  uniform  texture  and  closeness.  It  is 
considered  to  be  almost  chemically  free 
from  foreign  matters.  It  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  fuzes,  and  no  wood  has 
yet  been  found  equal  to  it  for  that  pur- 
pose. It  is  also  valuable  for  wooden 
types  in  printing. 

Beegan — An  Indian  term.  A  measure 
of  land. 

One  beegah  =  20  cottahs. 

One  cottah,  or  16  chuttacks  =  720 
square  feet. 

Beffroi,  or  Belfrey — The  name  of  a 
movable  tower  used  in  the  military 
sieges  of  ancient  and  mediaeval  times. 
When  a  town  was  to  be  besieged,  a  mov- 
able tower  as  high  as  the  walls  was 
brought  near  it ;  and  this  tower  was  the 
beffroi.  It  was  divided  into  several  stages, 
in  each  of  which  were  bowmen,  sling- 
ers,  and  the  beftroi  men ;  the  tower  was 
provided  with  wheels,  which  enabled  it 
to  be  brought  into  a  proper  position.  It 
is  supposed  by  some  ancient  writers  that 
our  word  belfrey,  given  to  a  bell-tower, 
was  derived  from  this  warlike  machine. 
(  Vide  '  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia.') 

Belligerent — Waging  war.  Hence  any 
two  or  more  countries  at  war  with  each 
other  are  termed  belligerents. 

Bellows — An  instrument  or  machine 
for  blowing  a  fire.  There  are  several 
sizes  of  bellows,  which  are  commonly 
used  in  arsenal  workshops.  A  portable 
bellows  is  attached  to  each  artillery  bat- 
tery forge  cart.  The  principle  of  the 
bellows  is  this,  that  it  attracts  or  draws 
in  the  air  by  means  of  a  valve,  com- 
presses it,  and  expels  it  with  great  force 
through  the  nozzle.  The  larger  nature 
of  bellows  is  formed  of  upper,  middle, 
and  lower  boards,  which  are  connected 
by  strong  leather ;  the  smaller  of  only 
two  boards.  The  valve  is  situated  in  the 
under-board  of  each,  and  there  is  also  a 


BEL 


39 


BIL 


valve  in  the  intermediate  boards  of  the 
larger   size,  the   object  of  this  being    to 
give     a     continued    instead     of    an     in- 
termitting   blast,    as    in    small    bellows.  ; 
The   larger-sized    bellows   are  driven   by  \ 
steam. 

Belting — 'Straps  used  in   driving  ma-  ! 
chinery.     They    are    made    generally    of  i 
buffalo   hide,  as  it  is  stronger  and  more  1 
durable  than  any  other  hide,  but  there  is 
belting  made  of  other  kinds  of  material,  j 
Very   good   belting   leather  is  manufac- 
tured at  the  government  tannery,  Cawn- 
pore,  in    the    North-West    Provinces    of 
India,  and  which  is  used  in  the  govern- 
ment factories  in  that  country. 

Ben  or  Yen  Teak  (Lutjcrstrcemia 
microcarpa) — A  tree  which  grows  in  the 
Annamallay  Forest  in  Southern  India. 
It  is  not  so  strong  or  durable  as  teak. 
It  is  used  in  arsenal  workshops  in  th« 
Bombay  Presidency  for  packing  cases, 
treasure  boxes,  and  other  common  pur- 
poses. 

Bendie  (  Thespesia  populnea) — A  wood 
known  on  the  Bombay  side  of  India,  and  i 
used    in    the    gun-carriage    factory    for 
spokes  of  wheels. 

Bengal  Light — A  blue  light,  composed 
of  saltpetre,  sulphuret  of  lead,  and 
sulphur,  in  the  proportions  of  6,  1,  and 
'2  ;  it  is  remarkable  for  its  clearness  and 
brilliancy,  and  can  be  seen  for  many 
miles.  It  is  only  issued  if  specially  re- 
quired. 

Berm — In  fortification,  a  level  narrow 
space  a  few  feet  wide  (depending  on  the 
nature  of  the  soil)  between  the  foot  of 
the  parapet  and  the  scarp  of  th«  ditch, 
to  prevent  the  mass  of  earth,  of  which 
the  parapet  is  made,  from  sliding  into 
the  ditch.  In  firm  soils,  the  berm  may 
be  only  from  18  inches  to  2  feet  wide, 
but  in  marshy  soils  may  require  to  be  as 
wide  as  6  feet. 

Besiege,  To — To  attack  or  invest  a 
place. 

Besieged — Those  attacked  when  shut 
up  within  a  fortress. 

Besieger — The  attacking  party. 

Beton — The  French  name  for  concrete 
which  is  used  under  water. 

Bevel  Gear — In  mechanics,  denotes  a 
species  of  wheel-work  where  the  axis  or 
shaft  of  the  leader,  or  driver,  forms  an 
angle  with  the  axis  or  shaft  of  the  fol- 


lower to  be  driven.  In  practice,  it  is 
requisite  to  have  finite  and  sensible  teeth 
in  bevel  gear.  These  are  made  similarly 
to  those  of  spur  gear,  except  that  in  the 
latter  they  are  parallel,  while  in  bevel 
gear  they  diminish  in  length  and  thick- 
ness in  approaching  the  apex  of  the  cone ; 
the  teeth  are  of  any  breadth,  according 
to  the  strength  required. 

Bevel  Wheel — A  wheel  having  teeth 
formed  so  as  to  work  at  an  angle  either 
greater  or  less  than  half  a  right  angle. 

Bevelled  Handspike — A  handspike 
made  of  wood  the  end  of  which  is  sloped 
oft'  at  an  obtuse  angle. 

Bheestie — An  Indian  term  for  a  water- 
carrier.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Persian  behisht,  heaven,  or  delight,  pro- 
bably with  reference  to  the  satisfying 
qualities  of  water'  to  the  thirsty  man. 
Bheesties  are  attached  to  all  regiments 
in  India,  whether  in  barracks  or  on  the 
march. 

Bibulous  Paper — Blotting  paper,  or 
paper  which  has  the  property  of  drink- 
ing in  or  absorbing  moisture.  Swedish 
bibulous  paper  is  the  best  for  chemical 
filters. 

Bickford's  Fuze,  vide  Fuze. 

Bight — The  double  part  of  a  rope 
when  folded,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
ends. 

Bildars — A  name  given  to  a  certain 
class  of  natives  in  India,  who  are  enter- 
tained as  a  part  of  the  establishment  of 
a  camp  or  of  a  siege  train  on  the  march, 
for  the  purpose  of  clearing  the  camp 
of  filth  and  dirt,  or  cutting  down  brush- 
wood in  and  around  the  camp. 

Bill-hook— An  intrenching  tool  used 
for  cutting  down  and  clearing  jungle, 
branches  of  trees,  stuff  for  gabions, 
fascines,  &c. 

Billed — A  term  exclusively  confined 
to  the  Foot  Guards.  It  means  that  a 
man's  name  is  placed  in  the  list  or  bill 
of  those  who  are  to  undergo  drill  and 
confinement  to  barrack.  Hence  a  "  billed 
man,"  "seven  days'  bill,"  "billed  up." 
(Knollys.) 

Billet  —  A  billet  is  a  document  re- 
quiring a  householder  to  receive  a  soldier 
or  soldiers,  including  officers,  with  their 
horses.  Only  innkeepers  and  licensed 
victuallers  are  liable  to  have  troops 
billeted  on  them.  They  are  bound-  to 


BIL 


40 


BLA 


provide  for  the  accommodation  of  horses, 
and  to  supply  them  with  10  Ibs.  of  oats, 
12  Ibs.  of  hay,  and  8  Ibs.  of  straw,  re- 
ceiving for  each  horse  Is.  9d.  per  day. 
lu  Great  Britain  a  soldier  on  the  inarch, 
snd  during  two  days'  halt  at  any  in- 
termediate place,  and  for  the  day  of 
arrival  at  destination,  is  entitled  to  be 
furnished  with  a  hot  meal,  consisting  of 
1£  Ib.  of  meat  previous  to  being  dressed, 
1  Ib.  of  bread,  1  Ib.  of  vegetables,  2  pints 
of  small  beer,  vinegar,  salt,  and  pepper, 
for  which  lOd.  is  to  be  paid,  and  a  bed, 
for  which  2jd.  is  to  be  paid.  A  soldier 
billeted  in  Ireland,  and  when  billeted  in 
Great  Britain,  except  when  on  the  march, 
is  entitled  to  bed,  candle,  vinegar,  salt, 
the  use  of  fire,  and  the  necessary  utensils 
for  dressing  and  eating  his  food.  For 
such  accommodation  4d.  per  diem  is  paid. 
Billets  are  made  out  by  the  constable  of 
the  parish.  (Knollys.) 

Billeting — The  temporary  quartering 
of  officers  and  soldiers  in  the  houses  of 
the  inhabitants  of  any  town  or  village. 
The  Articles  of  War  detail  the  houses 
upon  which  this  duty  is  imposed. 

Billets — Timber  in  logs,  or  in  the 
rough. 

Bit,  Boring — An  instrument  used  in 
boring  out  the  interior  of  cast  ordnance. 
In  this  bit  the  parallel  shaft  of  the  boring 
bar  slides  accurately  in  a  groove,  exactly 
parallel  with  the  bore  of  the  gun ;  the 
cutting  blade  is  a  small  piece  of  steel 
affixed  to  the  end  of  the  half  round  block, 
which  is  either  entirely  of  iron  or  partly 
of  wood,  and  the  cut  is  advanced  by  a 
rack  and  pinion  movement,  actuated 
either  by  the  descent  of  a  constant 
weight,  or  by  a  self-acting  motion  de- 
rived from  the  prime  mover.  For 
making  the  spherical,  parabolical,  or 
other  termination  to  the  bore,  cutters  of 
corresponding  forms  are  affixed  to  the 
bar. 

Bit,  Bridoon — The  snaffle  and  rein  of 
a  military  bridle,  which  acts  indepen- 
dently of  the  bit,  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
rider.  This  bit  has  been  fitted  with  one 
ring,  two  links,  and  a  spring  hook  on 
each  side,  instead  of  T's  and  links  as 
hitherto. 

Bit,  Curb — Two  kinds  are  used  in  the 
artillery,  one  for  the  mounted  non- 
commissioned officers  and  detachments 


of  artillery,   the  other   for    the    harness 
bridle. 

Bit,  Spiral — A  gun  implement  used 
for  clearing  the  vents  of  ordnance  when 
choked,  after  the  gun  drift  has  failed  to 
do  so. 

Bits,  Bouching — Instruments  used  for 
boring  a  hole  in  the  vent  field  of  guns, 
to  receive  the  copper  plug,  or  bouch, 
through  which  the  vent  is  afterwards 
drilled. 

Bitumen — A  name  for  a  number  of 
inflammable  mineral  substances,  known 
under  the  names  of  naphtha,  mineral  tar, 
ashphalte,  &c. 

Bituminous  Coal — A  coal  which  burns 
with  a  smoky  flame—  such  as  Newcastle 
and  similar  varieties.  In  comparison 
with  anthracite  coal,  it  possesses  a 
smaller  quantity  of  carbon,  and  its  heat- 
ing qualities  are  less. 

Bivouac  —  From  bis,  "  double,"  and  the 
German  Wachc,  "  a  guard."  An  army  is 
said  to  bivouac  when  it  does  not  encamp 
at  night,  but  rests  in  the  open  air  un- 
covered, round  large  fires  in  the  win- 
ter. This  mode  of  resting  is  con- 
sidered by  no  means  unhealthy,  and  is  a 
very  desirable  one  when  concentrated  for 
immediate  action,  and  it  has  this  advan- 
tage over  tents  that  it  does  not  enable 
the  enemy  to  judge  the  strength  of  his 
adversary. 

Black  Hole — A  dark  room  in  which 
prisoners  or  soldiers  condemned  for  cer- 
tain offences  were  confined.  The  term  is 
now  obsolete.  As  a  term  of  imprison- 
ment, the  name  will  be  familiar  to  all 
readers  of  Indian  history,  in  connection 
with  the  Black  Hole  in  Calcutta,  in 
which  so  many  of  our  countrymen  were 
confined  and  died  in  the  last  century. 

Black  Lead — A  name  given,  but 
erroneously  so,  to  graphite.  Black  lead, 
which  is  found  principally  at  Borradaile 
in  Cumberland,  is  used  largely  in  the 
manufacture  of  pencils. 

Black  Watch— The  42nd  Regiment  of 
the  Line,  and  known  as  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  corps  in  the  British  army. 
In  'Chambers's  Encyclopaedia'  is  found  the 
following  : — "  Black  Watch,  the  appella- 
tion given  to  certain  armed  companies 
employed  to  watch  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland.  The  term  black  arose  from  the 
dress  of  this  species  of  militia  being  com- 


BLA 


41 


BLI 


posed  of  tartans  of  dark  colours.  Some 
Highlanders  had  been  armed  by  govern- 
ment as  early  as  1725,  when  General 
Wade  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  in  Scotland  ;  but  it  was  not  till 
about  1729  or  1730  that  the  companies 
assumed  a  regular  form.  The  companies 
were  six  in  number,  three  comprising  100 
men  each,  commanded  by  a  captain ;  and 
three  of  70  men  each,  commanded  by  cap- 
tain-lieutenants. Stationed  in  different 
parts  of  the  Highlands,  and  acting  inde- 
pendently of  each  other,  they  were  styled 
the  Independent  Companies  of  the  Black 
Watch."  "  The  duties  of  the  Black  Watch 
were  to  enforce  the  disarming  act,  to 
overawe  the  disaSected,  to  prevent  poli- 
tical meetings  of  a  seditious  kind,  and 
to  check  depredation  among  the  clans,  or 
on  the  Lowland  frontier.  After  being  of 
considerable  use  for  these  local  purposes, 
the  whole  of  the  companies  were  formed 
into  the  42nd  Regiment,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Earl  of  Crawford,  in  1739." 
This  regiment  greatly  distinguished  itself 
in  the  late  Ashantee  War,  as  it  has  done 
in  many  a  battle  field  in  most  parts  of 
the  world. 

Blackwood  (Dalbergia  latifolid) — This 
tree  grows  in  Southern  India  in  the 
Annamallay  Forest,  and  in  other  parts  of 
India  and  Burmah.  The  wood  is  close- 
grained,  strong,  flexible,  fibrous,  durable, 
and  of  a  deep  purple  colour.  It  is  used 
in  the  Bombay  Gun  Carriage  Agency  for 
beams,  cheeks,  axle-beds,  and  poles  of 
field  carriages. 

Blakeley  Gun— A  gun  invented  by 
the  late  Captain  Blakeley,  of  the  Koyal 
Artillery.  It  is  built  up  of  wrought-iron 
rings  or  hoops,  shrunk  around  a  cast-iron 
core.  The  gun  is  constructed  to  load 
at  the  muzzle,  thereby  securing  greater 
strength,  and  dispensing  with  what  was 
thought  the  questionable  advantages 
claimed  for  breech-loading  cannon.  This 
gun  was  largely  introduced,  at  one  time, 
into  the  Spanish  service.  The  shell  used 
in  connection  with  this  piece  is  of  cast 
iron,  with  six  buttons  of  zinc  arranged 
in  two  rows  around  the  cylindrical  part 
of  the  ball ;  these  enter  the  grooves  in 
the  bore,  and  give  the  rotatory  motion  to 
the  projectile.  This  gun  is  not  in  the 
British  army. 

Blank    Cartridge — A    cartridge    con- 


taining only  powder.  It  is  used  for 
saluting  and  drill  purposes  with  guns 
and  small-arms. 

Blasting — The  rending  of  any  mass 
of  rock  or  masonry  by  means  of  some 
explosive  force,  such  as  gunpowder  or 
gun-cotton.  "  When  gunpowder  is  used, 
a  hole  is  bored  into  the  rock  or  masonry, 
the  diameter  of  which  varies  from  1 
to  6  inches.  This  hole  is  charged  with 
powder  and  well  tamped.  The  shortest 
distance  from  the  charge  to  the  nearest 
surface  of  the  rock  or  masonry  work,  is 
called  'the  line  of  least  resistance,'  and 
the  charge  is  calculated  with  reference 
to  it,  and  to  the  distance  apart  of  the 
blasts.  When  blasts  are  arranged  at  two- 
line  intervals,  that  is,  are  twice  as  far 
apart  as  .the  length  of  the  line  of  the 
'line  of  least  resistance,'  the  charge 
varies  from  about  3  to  J  the  cube  of  the 
'  line  of  least  resistance.'  But  the 
nature  of  the  material  to  be  blasted  has 
of  course  considerable  influence  on  the 
size  of  the  charges,  and  no  absolute  rules 
can  be  laid  down  on  the  subject.  The 
tools  used  in  blasting  are  the  jumper, 
which  is  a  long  iron  crow-bar,  with  a 
swell  in  the  middle,  and  the  borer  and 
hammer.  There  is  also  a  tamping  bar 
and  needle  required — these  are  of  copper. 
When  the  hole  has  been  bored,  and  the 
charge  lodged,  the  tamping  needle  is 
inserted  in  the  hole,  and  the  process  of 
tamping  commenced ;  this  is  effected  by 
ramming  home  clay  and  the  chips  that 
have  been  taken  out  of  the  blast  hole,  by 
means  of  the  tamping  bar.  The  latter 
has  a  groove  in  it,  in  which  the  needle 
fits,  so  as  to  remain  undisturbed  while 
the  tamping  is  going  on.  When  this  is 
finished,  the  needle  is  carefully  extracted 
and  the  vent  thus  left  primed  with  pow- 
der."— Aide  Memoire. 

Blindage — A  temporary  bomb-proof 
or  splinter-proof  roofing,  constructed  of 
timber  and  the  like,  to  give  cover  to 
magazines,  batteries,  hospitals,  &c.  There 
are  several  modes  of  forming  a  blindage. 
There  is  the  single  blindage,  which  consists 
of  a  row  of  beams  leaning  against  a  wall 
or  parapet,  and  is  covered  with  fascines, 
earth,  or  sand  bags.  Then  there  is  the 
dijuble  blindage,  made  of  two  sets  of 
beams,  covered  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  single  blindage,  leaning  against  each 


BLI 


42 


BLO 


other  like  an  inverted  V.  A  blindage 
can  also  be  formed  by  demolishing  the 
upper  floor  of  a  building,  and  covering 
the  next  floor  with  beams  or  any  kind  of 
protection  that  can  be  got  hold  of.  In 
fact  a  blindage  can  be  formed  in  various 
ways,  according  to  the  means  of  construc- 
tion at  hand. 

Blinds — Shutters  of  an  embrasure  ; 
they  are  musket-proof,  and  at  a  siege,  at 
the  discretion  of  the  officer  command- 
ing the  artillery,  are  made  up  by 
the  engineer  department  from  materials 
available  on  the  spot.  In  the  Crimea, 
coils  of  rope  run  round  the  chase  of  the 
gun  were  used  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
blind,  to  protec^  the  gunners  from  the 
fire  of  riflemen  when  laying  the  gun. 
(  Vide  Mantlets.) 

Blind  Shells  —Shells  which  do  not  ex- 
plode on  impact,  or  at  the  time  it  is  in- 
tended they  should.  Several  causes  are 
attributed  to  this  defect,  among  them  the 
imperfect  manufacture  of  the  fuze,  the 
insecure  manner  of  fitting  it  iu  the  shell, 
shrinkage  of  the  composition,  whereby 
the  fuze  is  unable  to  act,  and  con- 
sequently does  not  ignite,  and  various 
other  causes. 

Blistered  Steel— Malleable  iron,  sub- 
jected to  the  process  of  cementation, 
whereby  the  iron  absorbs  carbon.  After 
being  exposed  for  some  days  to  the  fire, 
the  bars  become  covered  with  blisters, 
apparently  from  the  expansion  of  the 
minute  bubbles  of  air  within  the  metal, 
hence  its  name.  In  this  state  it  is  not 
much  used,  except  for  welding  to  iron. 
By  certain  processes,  it  is  made  from  this 
state  either  into  shear  or  cast  steel,  and 
is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  files, 
tools,  and  other  articles  comprehended 
under  the  term  hardware. 

Block — When  two  or  more  pulleys  are 
placed  beside  each  other  in  the  same  sheaf 
and  upon  the  same  axis,  this  combination 
of  pulleys  is  called  a  block.  Two  blocks 
are  commonly  used  at  the  same  time : 
the  one  attached  to  a  fixed  point ;  the 
other  to  the  weight,  and  moving  with 
it;  they  are  used  for  the  purpose  of 
changing  the  direction  of  ropes  and  gain- 
ing power.  For  military  purposes  blocks 
are  usually  made  of  wood.  All  pulleys 
are  encompassed  by  one  common  rope, 
passing  from  one  block  to  another,  one 


of  the  ends  of  the  rope  being  attached 
to  one  of  the  blocks,  whilst  the  other 
is  drawn  by  the  power.  By  means  of 
this  system  or  combination  of  pulleys, 
which  is  called  a  tackle, 

P :  W  : :  1  :  number  of  parts  of  the 
cord  passing  over  the  movable  block. 

There  are  two  descriptions  of  blocks, 
the  Admiralty  and  Hot/may's  blocks. 

Blockade — In  a  military  sense,  implies 
the  surrounding  of  a  place  with  different 
bodies  of  troops,  which  shut  up  the  avenues 
on  every  side,  and  prevent  all  ingress  or 
egress.  Paris,  in  the  war  of  1870,  is 
an  instance  of  this.  The  design  of  the 
blockade  is  either  to  bombard  the  place, 
and  so  cause  the  besieged  to  surrender, 
or  if  bombardment  is  not  resorted  to,  to 
oblige  those  who  are  shut  up  in  the  town 
to  consume  all  their  provisions,  and  by 
that  means  to  compel  them  to  surrender 
for  want  of  subsistence. 

Block-house — A  small  fortified  bar- 
rack, loop-holed,  frequently  used  as  a  keep 
or  place  of  final  defence  in  a  field-work. 
A  properly  constructed  block-house 
should  have  a  ditch,  not  only  to  supply 
earth,  but  to  keep  the  enemy  from  ap- 
proaching near  enough  to  fire  the  timber 
of  the  block-house.  There  must  be 
always  four  feet  of  well-rammed  earth 
on  the  roof  to  resist  the  effect  of 
artillery. 

Block,  Tangent — A  patch  of  metal 
in  rear  of  the  base  ring  of  ordnance, 
into  which  the  tangent  scale  fits  or 
slides. 

Block  Tin — Tin  which  has  undergone 
refining,  either  by  liquation  or  poling, 
when  it  is  run  into  blocks,  each  weigh- 
ing about  3  cwt.  Tin  thus  treated 
is  found  to  form  in  the  melting  basin 
three  strata,  of  which  the  top  stratum  is 
most  pure,  the  bottom  most  impure,  and 
the  middle  of  average  purity.  The  best 
qualities  of  this  metal  are  the  Banca,  the 
Cornish,  and  the  Spanish  tin.  This 
metal  is  mixed  with  copper  to  form 
bronze. 

Block-trail — In  artillery,  that  pattern 
of  gun  carriage  the  trail  of  which  is 
formed  of  one  beam,  or  two  beams  tabled 
one  into  the  other.  It  is  stated  in  Lieut. - 
Colonel  Owen's  '  Modern  Artillery '  that 
this  nature  of  carriage  was  invented  in 
1792  by  Sir  W.  Congreve.  It  has  now 


BLO 


43 


BOI 


been  superseded  in  our  lately  constructed 
wrought-iron  carriages  by  the  bracket- 
trail. 

Bloomfield  Gun — An  ordinary  cast- 
iron  gun,  with  a  charge  of  one-third  the 
weight  of  the  shot.  It  has  from  If  to 
4  cwt.  of  metal  to  every  1  Ib.  of  shot. 
The  32-pr.,  of  56  cwt.,  and  24-pr.,  of 
50  cwt.,  are  still  in  the  service,  as  well 
as  some  other  guns  of  this  pattern.  (  Vide 
Appendix  B.) 

Blowing  Charges — Used  for  different 
natures  of  common  shells  ;  they  are  a 
mixture  of  gunpowder  and  coal  dust. 
The  object  of  using  the  blowing  charge 
is  when  it  is  not  desirable  or  safe  to 
burst  the  shell. 

Blue  Lights — Used  for  signals.  They 
are  to  a  great  extent  superseded  by  the 
service  signal  lights.  The  composition 
of  blue  lights  consists  of  saltpetre,  4  parts; 
sublimed  sulphur,  2  parts  ;  red  orpiment, 
1  part. 

Blueing — The  art  of  imparting  a  blue 
colour  to  finished  iron  work  or  steel,  such 
<is  gun-locks,  barrels,  gun  sights,  &c. 
The  object  in  blueing  articles,  which  is 
simply  coating  them  with  a  thin  film  of 
oxide,  is  to  prevent  further  oxidation 
from  exposure  to  the  atmosphere. 

Blues — One  of  the  three  mounted 
regiments  of  household  troops.  This 
regiment  was  originally  raised  at  Oxford, 
and  was  commonly  called  the  Oxford 
Blues.  It  is  now  known  as  the  regiment 
of  Royal  Horse  Guards. 

Blunderbuss — A  large-bored  fire-arm, 
capable  of  holding  a  number  of  musket 
balls  or  slugs.  As  a  military  weapon  it 
was  in  great  use  in  defending  passages, 
doorways,  staircases,  &c.  The  blunder- 
buss is  a  weapon  of  the  past,  and  scarcely 
ever  seen  now. 

Board  of  Ordnance — Now  an  extinct 
department,  but  which  formerly  had  the 
management  of  all  affairs  relating  to  the 
ordnance  corps  of  the  British  army.  It 
was  comprised  of  the  master-general  of 
the  ordnance,  the  surveyor-general,  the 
clerk  of  the  ordnance,  and  the  principal 
storekeeper.  The  board  was  dissolved 
in  1854  or  soon  after. 

Board,  Kegimental — Consists  of  a 
certain  number  of  officers  assembled  by 
order  of  the  commanding  officer  of  a 
regiment  for  the  purpose  of  investigating 


and  reporting  upon  such  matters  as  may 
legally  be  brought  before  it. 

Boat — A  small  open  vessel.  It  is  used 
in  military  operations  for  crossing  rivers, 
forming  pontoons,  flying  bridges,  &c. 
(  Vide  Pontoons.)  When  the  services  of 
a  bridge  of  boats  is  dispensed  with,  viz. 
no  longer  required  by  the  army,  the 
boats  should  be  broken  up,  to  prevent 
their  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy. 

Boats,  Bridge  of — A  military  bridge 
formed  of  boats,  barges,  &c.  As  there 
are  a  variety  of  shaped  boats,  there  are 
many  rules  for  their  construction,  taking 
into  consideration  the  species  of  rivers  to 
be  bridged,  the  pressure  of  the  water, 
&c.  In  India,  bridges  of  boats  are  gener- 
ally formed  from  the  boats  of  the 
country.  They  are  united  to  each  other 
at  a  distance  of  about  6  feet  by  means  of 
ropes,  and  anchored  ;  they  are  then  con- 
nected by  planks,  and  thus  afford  a  safe 
passage  for  troops. 

Bob— The  ball  of  a  pendulum. 

Body — In  a  military  sense,  is  a  number 
of  troops  united  under  one  commander. 

Body  of  the  Place — In  fortification, 
the  space  enclosed  by  the  enceinte  or 
line  of  bastions  and  curtains. 

Boiler — An  iron  or  copper  vessel  for 
containing  water  to  which  heat  is  applied 
for  the  generation  of  steam.  Boilers 
vary  in  form  and  dimensions  according 
to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
intended.  The  best  boiler  is  that  which, 
with  the  least  cubical  content,  gives  the 
greatest  heating  surface.  There  are 
what  are  termed  boilers  open  vessels  for 
boiling,  mixing,  and  evaporating  labora- 
tory compositions. 

Boiling  Point — Is  described  as  "  that 
point  in  the  temperature  of  water  which 
is  indicated  by  steam  being  generated.  If, 
after  this,  the  steam  is  allowed  freely  to 
escape,  the  temperature  of  the  water  rises 
no  higher,  however  great  the  heat  of  the 
fire.  The  water  is  then  said  to  boil,  and 
the  temperature  at  which  it  remains  per- 
manent is  the  boiling  point.  The  boiling 
point  of  water  is  ordinarily  212°,  but  every 
liquid  has  a  point  of  its  own.  Again, 
the  boiling  point  of  liquids  depends  on 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  In 
complete  vacno,  for  instance,  liquids  boil 
ni  general  at  a  temperature  of  140°  lower 


BOL 


BON 


than    in    the    open    air.     The    following 
gives  the  boiling  point  of  liquids: — 

Sulphuric  ether        ..  at  100  deg. 

Alcohol          ..  ..  „   176  „ 

Water  and  essential  oils      „  212  „ 

Water  saturated  with  salt  „  224  „ 

Kitric  acid    ..          ..  ,.  248  „ 

Phosphorus  ignites  „  100  „ 

Spirits  of  turpentine  „  350  „ 

•    Sulphur  volatilises  „   180  „ 

Sulphuric  acid          ..  „  640  „ 

Mercury        ..  ..  „  655  „ 

Tallow  melts  ..  „     92  „ 

Wax,  white  ..  „  155  „ 

Wax,  yellow  ..  „   149  deg." 

Bollards — Large  posts  driven  into  the 
ground  to  which  hawsers  or  cables  of 
any  sort  can  be  made  fast.  They  are 
recommended  to  be  provided  at  the  tops 
of  ramps,  or  in  narrow  passages,  and  in 
masonry  works. 

Bolster — A  block  of  wood  placed  over 
the  axle-trees  of  gun  carriages,  into  which 
the  tongue  of  the  perch  enters.  Also 
the  lower  part  of  the  cheek  of  a  gun 
carriage.  The  iron  collar  in  which  a  gun 
turns  in  the  boring  bench.  The  quoin 
or  wooden  bolster  by  which  a  mortar  is 
raised  in  its  bed. 

Bomb — A  shell,  or  hollow  cast-iron 
globe,  filled  with  powder ;  it  has  a  fuze 
attached  to  it,  which  ignites  the  charge 
and  explodes  the  shell  on  hitting  the 
object.  General  Cotty,  in  his  '  Dictionarv 
of  Artillery  Terms,'  states  that  bombs 
were  first  used  at  the  siege  of  Rhodes 
in  1522.  The  first  bomb  shells  seen  in 
England  appear  to  have  been  made  in 
Henry  VIII.'s  reign,  in  1543. 

Bomb-proof  Buildings— Military  build- 
ings, generally  within  permanent  forti- 
fications, and  which  are  formed  so  as  to 
withstand  the  shock  of  heavy  shot  or 
shell  falling  on  them.  Magazines  for 
holding  gunpowder  should  be  placed  in  the 
most  sheltered  position  within  a  fortress, 
and  strongly  constructed  to  resist  direct 
and  vertical  fire  from  heavy  ordnance. 
In  the  forts  recently  built  for  coast 
defence  in  this  country,  17  feet  of 
masonry  has  been  considered  necessary 
against  direct  fire,  and  an  arch  3  feet 
thick,  with  3  feet  of  concrete  over  the 
roof  against  vertical  fire. 


Bombard — In  the  early  days  of  fire- 
arms, and  after  the  introduction  of  gun- 
powder, all  guns  were  called  bombards, 
from  which  projectiles  (stone)  were 
propelled  by  gunpowder ;  afterwards 
the  name  was  changed  to  cannon. 
Froissart  mentions  an  extraordinary  gun 
used  at  the  siege  of  Audenarde,  made 
by  the  people  of  Ghent ;  it  was  50  feet 
long,  and  threw  stones  of  a  wonderful 
bigness ;  when  discharged,  it  might  be 
heard  five  leagues  by  day  and  ten  by 
night,  making  so  great  a  noise  "  it 
seemed  as  if  all  the  devils  in  hell  were 
abroad." 

Bombardier — The  name  given  to  the 
lowest  rank  of  non-commissioned  officers 
in  the  artillery.  Bombardiers  rank  as 
corporals  of  cavalry  and  infantry.  For- 
merly, in  the  French  army,  the  duty  of 
the  bombardier  was  to  serve  mortars  and 
howitzers  only,  which  were  bombarding 
arms,  and  hence  has  been  derived  the 
word  bombardier.  A  battalion  in  the 
French  service  formerly  consisted  of  four 
companies  of  bombardiers  and  fourteen  of 
gunners; 

Bombardment — Assault  of  a  place  by 
means  of  shells  and  other  incendiary 
missiles.  Bombardment  is  more  fre- 
quently a  naval  than  a  military  opera- 
tion, though  history  affords  us  many 
instances  of  bombardments  of  large  cities 
and  fortresses,  both  in  Europe  and  India  ; 
of  the  terrible  effects  'caused  by  such, 
Sebastopol  is  an  instance.  Take  also,  in 
the  war  of  1870,  the  bombardment  of 
Strasburg,  Paris,  and  other  fortified  towns 
in  France.  Great  destruction  to  life  and 
property  must  naturally  be  expected  in 
the  bombardment  of  a  fortress,  falling, 
as  it  does,  chiefly  on  the  civilian  portion 
of  the.  inhabitants ;  though  it  is  usual  be- 
fore bombarding  a  town  to  give  women 
and  children  the  opportunity  of  quitting 
the  place. 

Bone  Spavin — A  bony  tumour  in 
horses  where  the  head  of  the  splint  bone 
joins  the  shank.  Inflammation  of  the 
ligaments  of  any  of  the  small  bones  of 
the  hock  proceeding  to  bony  tumour 
classes  as  spavin. 

Boning  Staff— A  T-headed  staff,  used 
in  conjunction  with  a  plummet  and  line 
for  taking  short  levels. 

Bonnet — In  fortification,  a  small  work, 


BOO 


45 


BOR 


with  two  faces,  placed  before  the  salient 
or  rlanked  angle  of  the  ravelin,  between 
the  two  tenaillons.  It  is  intended,  from 
its  traverse-like  capabilities,  to  be  a 
remedy  against  the  defects  of  barbettes, 
which,  as  is  known  to  all  artillerists, 
afford  but  little  shelter  to  guns  or 
gunners.  It  is  necessary  to  add  that 
this  sort  of  traverse,  which  is  built  upon 
the  parapet  between  the  guns,  limits 
the  lateral  range  of  the  guns,  and 
thus  tends  to  defeat  the  object  of  a 
barbette. 

Bonnet,  in  ancient  armour,  meant  a 
man's  head-piece. 

Boom — An  impediment  drawn  across 
the  mouth  of  a  river  or  harbour.  It  is 
formed  generally  of  timber  logs  chained 
together,  and  anchored  or  otherwise 
secured. 

Booming — The  report  of  distant  guns. 

Booming  out — In  pontooning,  the 
technical  word  of  command  to  "  shove 
out  a  pier."  It  is  a  process  resorted 
to  in  making  a  pontoon  bridge,  and  is 
performed  by  a  pontoon  being  carried 
close  to  the  water's  edge,  having  a  saddle 
and  baulk  attached  to  it ;  it  is  then 
pushed  out  or  boomed  out  as  far  as  the 
baulks  permit,  this  process  being  con- 
tinued until  all  the  pontoons  to  form  the 
bridge  are  in  place. 

Boot-and-saddle — A  parade  call,  in  the 
cavalry  and  artillery,  sounded  half  an 
hour  before  the  turn-out. 

Booty — A  military  term  given  to  an 
enemy's  property  which  has  been  cap- 
tured by  the  troops  of  a  conquering 
power.  It  is  also  called  "  prize  pro- 
perty," and  was  originally  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  sovereign,  who  conceded 
it  to  the  captors  as  an  act  of  grace,  to  be 
divided  amongst  the  troops,  according  to 
'a  regulated  scale.  This  booty  is  collected 
by  officers  of  the  force  known  as  "  prize 
agents,"  who  convert  it  into  money  to 
the  best  advantage,  and  pay  the  proceeds 
over  to  the  authorities  for  distribution. 
For  their  trouble  the  prize  agents  receive 
a  certain  percentage. 

Borax — A  salt  of  great  value  as  a  flux, 
and  used  in  arsenal  workshops  for  solder- 
ing purposes,  in  melting  brass,  and  also 
in  casting  brass  when  the  metal  is  in  a 
state  of  fusion.  Native  borax  or  tincal 
is  found  in  India,  Thibet,  Persia,  and 


other  countries.  It  is  also  manufactured 
in  England  from  boracic  acid  with  crys- 
tallised carbonate  of  soda. 

Bore — The  cavity  or  hollow  of  a  gun 
or  other  fire-arm.  The  form  of  the  bore 
sometimes  varies,  as  in  the  Lancaster  and 
Whitworth  guns,  the  former  being  oval, 
and  the  latter  hexagonal,  but  in  most 
cases  it  is  cylindrical.  Technically,  the 
bore  of  a  gun  often  means  simply  the 
diameter  of  the  cavity  at  ,the  mouth 
of  the  gun,  as  when  we  speak  of  a  gun 
of  "  8-inch  bore ;"  and  in  that  case  its 
meaning  is  equivalent  to  "  calibre." 
Howitzers  and  mortars  have  a  chamber 
at  the  bottom  of  the  bore  to  receive  the 
charge ;  this  is  also  included  in  the  length 
of  the  bore.  In  a  piece  of  ordnance,  the 
length  of  the  bore  should  be  such  as  to 
allow  of  the  complete  combustion  of  the 
whole  charge.  If  the  bore  be  not  of  suffi- 
cient length  for  this  purpose,  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  charge  will  be  blown 
out  unconsumed.  The  length  of  the  bore 
will,  however,  be  limited  by  several  prac- 
tical considerations,  such  as  the  weight 
and  length  of  the  piece,  the  space  it  will 
have  to  occupy,  and  whether  the  gun  is 
rifled  or  otherwise,  £c.  In  all  muzzle- 
loading  rifled  guns  the  termination  of  the 
bore  and  of  the  grooves,  respectively,  is 
marked  by  two  lines  turned  round  the 
exterior  of  the  gun. 

Bored-up  Guns,  vide  Ream. 

Borers  for  Fuzes — Instruments  for 
boring  out  fuzes.  There  are  two  kinds, 
termed  hook  and  hand  borers ;  the 
former  consists  of  a  hook  into  which 
the  fuze  is  placed,  and  a  shank  which 
contains  a  female  screw.  The  bit  passes 
through  the  centre  of  the  handle  and 
male  screw,  and  it  is  secured  by  a  small 
screw  which  presses  upon  the  bit.  The 
length  of  the  bit  is  so  regulated  that, 
when  placed  in  the  handle,  it  will  enter 
sufficiently  far  into  the  composition  when 
screwed  down  to  the  shoulder.  The 
hand  borer  is  a  simple  instrument,  some- 
what like  a  hand  gimlet,  but  the  blade  is 
fluted  and  not  spiral,  and  supplied  to 
each  gun. 

A  new  pattern  hand  gimlet  borer  has 
been  introduced  into  the  service,  with 
rifled  M.L.  field  guns  to  be  used  instead 
of  the  hook  borer. 

Boring,  vide  Bit. 


BOR 


46 


BOW 


Boring  Machine — Boring  is  a  branch 
of  turning,  only  in  the  former  the  too} 
is  usually  made  to  revolve  while  the 
work  is  at  rest.  There  are,  however, 
exceptions  to  this.  Jn  boring  S.B.  can- 
non, which  are  cast  solid,  the  gun  is 
made  to  revolve,  while  the  borer  ad- 
vances on  a  fixed  axis  ;  or  in  heavy  ord- 
nance, the  gun  may  be  fixed  while  the 
cutter  revolves. 

Boss — A  stud  or  ornament  raised  above 
the  leather  work  of  a  cavalryman's  horse 
trappings.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
a  protuberance  raised  as  an  ornament  on 
any  work ;  to  the  part  rising  in  the 
centre  of  a  shield. 

Bothway's  Blocks — Two  natures  of 
these  blocks  have  been  introduced  into 
the  service,  the  18-  and  15-inch.  They 
are  each  single,  doulrfe,  and  treble  blocks. 
These  blocks  in  the  land  service  have 
superseded  the  ordinary  common  blocks 
of  18  inches  and  upwards,  but  the  existing 
store  of  iron  gyn  blocks  will  be  used  up. 
Bothway's  blocks  are  made  of  the  best 
English  elm ;  the  swivel,  hooks,  and 
shackles,  of  the  best  manufactured  scrap 
iron,  the  straps  and  pins,  for  sheaves, 
also  connecting  pins,  of  the  best  S.G. 
iron,  and  the  sheaves  of  phosphor-bronze. 

Bottle-necked  Cartridge — The  name 
given  to  the  Martini-Henry  cartridge, 
from  its  bottle-necked  shape.  The  neck 
or  smaller  diameter  of  the  cartridge-case 
is  formed  by  means  of  a  die,  so  arranged 
as  to  form  flutes  or  folds  in  that  part  of 
the  case,  and  consequently  reduce  the 
diameter;  the  paper  covering  is  dispensed 
with,  a  paper  lining  being  substituted. 

Bottles,  Soda-water  —  Are  issued  in 
Inlia  to  European  troops  on  the  march, 
instead  of  wooden  canteens,  for  holding 
drinking  water.  The  bottles  are  covered 
with  leather,  and  have  a  strap  attached, 
by  which  the  soldier  can  sling  the  bottle 
over  his  shoulder.  A  water  bottle  has 
lately  been  introduced  into  the  service 
termed  the  Italian  pattern.  It  is  of 
wood,  cut  from  the  solid,  and  is  furnished 
with  a  metal  stopper.  This  pattern 
Lottie  is  to  be  issued  to  all  men  in 
the  dismounted  services,  and  will  be  con- 
sidered the  universal  pattern  for  general 
service. 

Bottom,  Shot — The  block  of  wood  at- 
tached to  spherical  shot  and  shell  to 


steady  them  in  their  passage  through 
the  bore  of  the  gun,  and  to  keep  the  fuze 
in  the  axis  of  the  bore  when  being  loaded. 
The  bottom  was  fastened  at  one  time  by 
tin  straps  ;  at  another  with  an  adhesive 
composition.  Both  methods  have  been 
superseded  by  General  Boxer's  mode — 
viz.  by  attaching  the  bottom  or  sabot 
to  the  projectile  by  means  of  a  copper 
rivet  driven  through  the  centre  of  the 
wood  into  a  small  undercut  cavity  in 
the  shot ;  the  shape  of  the  hole  and  the 
malleability  of  the  metal  causing  the 
sabot  to  cleave  most  closely  to  the  shot 
or  shell. 

Bouche,  or  Bush — A  cylindrical  piece 
of  hardened  copper,  through  which  the 
vent  of  a  gun  is  drilled.  It  is  inserted 
into  the  vent  field  in  the  form  of  a  screw, 
after  the  piece  has  been  turned.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  copper  bushes,  the 
through  vent  and  the  cone  vent.  If 
necessary,  bushes  can  be  removed  or 
renewed. 

Bonching,  vide  Bushing. 

Bounty — A  sum  of  money,  formerly 
given  by  government  to  men  enlisting 
into  the  army.  This  donation  has  been 
withdrawn,  and  only  a  free  kit  is  given 
to  the  recruit.  Recruits  entering  the 
militia  are  entitled  to  bounty  (annual) 
under  the  regulations  laid  down  for  that 
service. 

Colonel  Burn,  in  his  '  Naval  and  Mili- 
tary Dictionary,'  states  that,  in  the  artil- 
lery, bounty  was  formerly  given  for  each 
day  that  a  gun  or  mortar  remained  in 
battery  during  a  siege. 

Bourgenot,  or  Burgonet — One  amongst 
the  many  kinds  of  ancient  helmets  worn 
in  the  fiftenth  century,  and  so  late  as 
the  reign  of  James  I. 

Bow — One  of  the  earliest  arms  or 
weapons  we  are  acquainted  with ;  of 
equal,  if  not  greater,  antiquity  than  the 
sling.  The  first  account  we  find  of  it 
is  in  the  Book  of  Genesis  (xxi.  20),  when 
the  lawgiver,  speaking  of  Ishmael,  says, 
"  and  God  was  with  the  lad  ;  and  he  grew, 
and  dwelt  in  the  wilderness,  and  became 
an  archer." 

Bow,  Cross — An  ancient  weapon  of 
offence,  in  use  in  the  eleventh  century. 
Philip  II.,  surnamed  the  Conqueror, 
introduced  cross-bows  into  France.  In 
his  reign  Richard  I.  of  England  was 


BOW 


47 


BRE 


killed  by  an  arrow  shot  from  a  cross-bow 
at  the  siege  of  Chaluz. 

Bowline — A  very  useful  knot,  known 
as  the  single,  running,  and  double  bow- 
line knot.  The  single  bowline  serves  to 
throw  over  a  post  to  haul  on,  also  to 
sling  a  barrel  ;  the  running  bowline  for 
securing  paulins  on  ammunition  wagons ; 
and  the  double  bowline  for  slinging  a 
cask. 

Bowsing  Rope — A  rope  used  in  the 
artillery  service  for  moving  a  weight  by 
simply  hauling  upon  it. 

Box,  Nave — The  gun-metal  pipe  or 
box  which  is  introduced  into  the  naves  of 
all  wheels,  and  in  which  the  axle  arm 
works. 

Box,  Sextant— A  surveying  instru- 
ment, which  is  as  portable  as  the  prisma- 
tic compass,  forming,  when  shut  up,  a  box 
about  3  inches  in  diameter,  and  Ij 
inch  deep.  It  measures  the  actual  angle 
between  any  two  objects  to  a  single 
minute. 

Boxes,    Gun    Ammunition — Wooden  ; 
boxes  of  certain  shapes  and  dimensions.  | 
There  are  an  infinite  variety  in  the  ser- 
vice,  every  nature  of  gun  and  carriage, 
siege    or  field,    having,  it   may  be    said, 
its  own  pattern  box.     As  the  name  im- 
plies, these  boxes  are  for  the  storage  and 
transport    of    ammunition,    in    time    of 
peace  or  war. 

Boxes,  Small-arm  Ammunition — 
Wooden  boxes,  generally  made  of  teak, 
for  holding  all  natures  of  ball  cartridge. 
These  boxes  are  ordered  for  the  future  to 
be  lined  with  tin. 

Box-wood  (Buxus  emarginatus) — A 
tree  which  grows  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
also  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  in  the 
Kooloo  district,  and  Kumaon.  It  is  a 
valuable  wood,  of  a  yellowish  colour, 
close-grained,  very  hard,  and  heavy. 
Amongst  its  other  uses  is  that  of  plugs 
for  elongated  bullets. 

Boyaux  (French,  entrails) — Zigzag  of 
trenches  of  approach. 

Brackets — In  artillery,  the  cheeks  or 
sides  of  ordnance  carriages.  Carriages 
termed  "  bracket-trail,"  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  "block-trail"  pattern,  have 
been  introduced  into  the  service ;  all  the 
new  Held  and  some  of  the  siege  carriages 
have  been  made  of  this  pattern. 

Braid — A  kind  of  tape,  of  broad  pro- 


portions,    which    is    used    for    hooping 
cartridges  of  40  Ibs.  and  upwards. 

Brake,  Allen's  —  A  contrivance  for 
checking  violent  recoil.  It  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Captain  Kemmis,  R.A. : — "  It 
consists  of  a  wooden  wedge,  shod  with  iron, 
attached  to  the  bracket  immediately  in 
rear  of  the  truck  by  jointed  bars  of  iron,  the 
upper  of  which  are  bolted  to  the  bracket, 
while  from  the  joint  another  bar  passes 
horizontally  through  the  axle-tree  arm 
forming  the  linch-pin.  The  wedge  rests 
upon  the  ground  in  rear  of  the  truck, 
following  it  as  the  carriage  is  run  up, 
but  on  recoil  the  truck  overtakes  and 
rides  upon  the  wedge.  A  rope  lan- 
yard is  attached  to  the  wedge,  and  an 
iron  cleat  upon  the  side  of  the  carriage, 
so  that,  if  it  is  wished  not  to  use  the 
brake,  the  wedge  can  be  secured  so  as  not 
to  come  into  action  on  recoil." 

Brass — An  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc. 
This  name,  in  connection  with  guns, 
is  commonly  given  to  bronze  ordnance, 
but  erroneously  so,  bronze  ordnance  being 
made  of  copper  and  tin.  Brass,  as  now- 
alluded  to,  is  largely  used  for  house- 
hold furnishings,  certain  parts  of  ma- 
chinery, and  other  ornamental  and  useful 
articles. 

Brassards  —  In  '  Chambers's  Ency- 
clopaedia '  they  are  explained  as  "  the 
name  of  the  pieces  which,  in  plate 
armour,  protected  the  upper  part  of  the 
arms,  and  united  the  shoulder  and  elbow 
pieces.  Brachiale  was  the  ancient  name 
for  brassards.  When  the  front  of  the 
arm  only  was  shielded,  the  pieces  were 
called  demi-brossards." 

Brassards  or  armlets,  made  of  cloth, 
and  worn  on  the  arm,  are  now  used  as  a 
badge  of  recognition  by  the  personnel 
and  all  members  of  the  military  and 
international  ambulances  in  time  of  war. 
The  colour  of  the  cloth  is  white,  with  a 
red  cross  woven  on  it,  which  is  the 
emblem  of  the  Society  for  the  Help  of 
the  Sick  and  Wounded.  The  armlets  are 
issued  on  the  commencement  of  hos- 
tilities by  the  central  committee  of  that 
society,  and  duly  stamped  and  numbered, 
so  as  to  prevent  fraud. 

Breach — An  opening  effected  by  ar- 
tillery or  by  mining  in  the  walls  and 
defences  of  a  fortified  place.  A  breach  is 
considered  practicable  when  a  sufficient 


BEE 


48 


BEE 


quantity  of  material  has  fallen  to  render 
the  ascent  easy  to  the  assailants. 

Breaching  Batteries  —  Batteries  of 
heavy  guns  maile  use  of  in  the  operations 
of  a  siege,  to  form  a  breach  or  opening 
in  the  front  to  be  attacked,  so  as  to  enable 
the  besiegers  to  gain  admittance  into  the 
place  or  fortress.  With  this  view  guns 
are  placed  on  the  crest  of  the  glacis  and 
in  further  advanced  positions,  according 
to  the  progress  made  by  the  besiegers,  to 
breach  first  such  works  as  ravelins,  before 
effecting  a  breach  in  the  bastion.  Pro- 
bably in  future  sieges,  on  account  of  the 
introduction  of  rifled  arms,  there  will  be 
great  changes  in  the  attack  of  fortresses 
as  regards  the  position  and  the  distance 
of  the  breaching  batteries.  Curved  fire, 
which  admits  of  the  besiegers  breaching 
walls  without  seeing  them,  as  occurred 
at  the  siege  of  Strasburg  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  campaign,  will  doubtless 
alter  the  position  of  breaching  batteries, 
and  prevent  their  being  exposed.  The 
distances  at  which  the  opening  of  the 
trenches  will  take  place,  and  the  thickness 
of  the  parapets  of  the  various  works  of  the 
besiegers,  will  also  probably  be  altered. 
For  information  as  to  the  mode  heretofore 
of  carrying  on  a  siege  and  the  changes  ! 
that  are  likely  to  take  place,  consequent  i 
on  the  introduction  of  rifled  artillery  and 
small-arms,  vide  '  Instruction  in  Forti- 
fication, &c.,  at  the  Royal  Military 
Academy,  Woolwich.' 

In  forming  a  breach  regard  should  be 
had  to  the  velocity  with  which  each 
shot  will  strike  the  work  to  be 
breached  ;  it  should  not  exceed  1000  feet 
per  second,  as  low  velocity  causes  greater 
vibration  to  the  mass  intended  to  be 
brought  down.  The  best  method  of  form- 
ing a  breach  is  first  to  cut  the  masonry  or 
revetment  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and 
then  vertically,  at  such  distances  as  the 
strength  of  the  masonry,  &c.,  may  re- 
quire; the  height  of  the  horizontal 
cutting  being  about  one-third  the  total 
height  of  the  escarp  from  the  bottom, 
the  length  generally  from  20  to  30  yards. 
Firing  breaching  guns  in  salvos  is  found 
to  be  very  effective  either  against  masonry 
4>r  even  earth-works.  The  simultaneous 
concussion  of  a  number  of  balls  has  a 
most  destructive  effect  in  bringing  down 
the  mass  to  be  breached. 


Breaking-down — In  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder,  is  the  process  the  mill- 
charges  undergo  on  leaving  the  incor- 
porating mills,  and  again  after  the 
press-cake  leaves  the  press.  The  machine 
to  effect  this  operation  consists  of  two  or 
more  pairs  of  toothed  gun-metal  rollers, 
a  hopper  to  contain  the  mill-cake,  and 
an  endless  band  to  convey  the  cake  to 
the  hopper.  Breaking-down,  after  the 
powder  leaves  the  incorporating  mills,  is 
necessary  in  order  that  the  meal  may 
sit  well  in  the  press  trays,  previous  to 
being  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure. 
The  necessity,  after  it  has  been  pressed, 
of  breaking  it  down,  is  to  admit  of  its 
passing  easily  through  the  granulating 
rollers. 

Breaking  Ground — In  military  opera- 
tions, the  first  excavation  of  the  earth  to 
form  entrenchments,  as  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  siege.  It  is  applied  also 
to  the  striking  of  tents,  and  quitting  the 
ground  on  which  troops  have  been  en- 
camped. 

Breastplate — As  its  name  implies,  is  a 
plate  of  metal  for  covering  the  breast. 
It  was  commonly  worn  in  ancient  armour, 
either  made  of  iron,  steel,  or  other  metal. 
It  covered  the  back  of  the  soldier  as  well 
as  the  front.  (  Vide  Cuirass.) 

Breast-work — A  hastily  constructed 
parapet,  thrown  up  as  high  as  the 
breasts  of  the  troops  defending  it.  (Vide 
Intrenchment.) 

Breech  of  a  Gun— The  mass  of  solid 
metal  coiled  round  the  end  of  the  breech 
of  a  rifled  gun,  or  cast  at  the  end  of  a 
smooth-bored  gun.  The  excess  of  metal 
at  the  breech  is  to  enable  the  gun  to 
withstand  the  shock  occasioned  by  the 
explosion  of  the  gunpowder.  Small-arms 
have  also  an  increase  of  metal  at  the 
breech. 

Breech-loading  Guns — As  the  name 
implies,  are  guns  which  are  loaded  at  the 
breech  instead  of  at  the  muzzle.  They  were 
introduced  into  the  service  some  years 
ago  by  Sir  W.  Armstrong,  but  have  been 
superseded,  to  a  great  extent,  by 
the  present  muzzle-loading  rifled  gun, 
light  and  heavy.  The  principal  conti- 
nental powers  have  however  adopted  the 
breech-loading  system.  Whether  this 
system  possesses  all  the  advantages 
claimed  for  it  remains  yet  to  be 


BRE 


49 


BRI 


proved ;  actual  warfare  and  trial  will 
enable  us  to  judge  as  to  its  safety  and 
the  enduring  qualities  of  the  guns.  The 
great  disadvantage  of  the  system  ap- 
pears to  be  the  want  of  a  good  time- 
fuze  ;  this  will  doubtless  be  remedied  in 
the  future. 

During  the  Franco-Prussian  war  the 
field  artillery  of  the  Prussians  were  chiefly 
breech-loaders.  It  is  said  that  many  of 
these  guns  were  disabled  ;  but  the  manu- 
facture has  since  greatly  improved,  and 
the  system  of  "building  up"  the  gun  with 
steel  hoops  instead  of  forming  the  gun 
out  of  a  block  of  steel  will  alone  doubtless 
add  to  the  life  of  the  gun.  If  the  metal 
can  be  depended  on,  and  a  secure  breech- 
closer  be  made,  the  breech-loader  may 
again  be  introduced  into  the  British  ser- 
vice, though  the  present  experience  of  our 
M.L.R.  guns  is  against  its  reintroduction. 

Sir  J.  Whitworth  has  managed  by 
hydraiilic  pressure  so  to  condense  his 
steel  that  no  air  bubbles  or  flaws  can 
possibly  remain  in  the  metal.  Here 
then  is  a  metal  which  will  make  a 
good  gun,  and  the  P.  powder  now  in  use 
for  large  charges  would  admit  of  the  gun 
being  loaded  at  the  breech  with  great 
safety. 

Breech-loading  is  no  new  invention  ; 
many  of  the  ancient  cannons  appear  to 
have  been  loaded  by  removing  a  breech- 
part  or  chamber,  inserting  the  charge  at 
the  breech,  replacing  the  chamber,  and  se- 
curing it  by  wedging  it  behind.  Breech- 
loading  has  been  universally  applied  to 
small-arms,  and  with  great  success,  as  the 
Snider,  Martini-Henry,  and  other  rifles 
have  shown. 

Breeching — Harness  adapted  to  the 
wheel  horses  of  gun  carriages,  near  and 
off,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the 
stopping  of  a  gun  in  motion.  Breechings, 
near  and  off,  are  strengthened  with  a 
lay  of  leather. 

Brevet  (French  brevet,  commission, 
appointment)  —  A  rank  in  the  army 
higher  than  that  for  which  regimental 
pay  is  received,  and  is  conferred  upon  in- 
dividual officers  for  special  and  long  ser- 
vices. Brevet  rank  being  rank  in  the 
army,  an  officer  takes  his  position  with 
the  officers  of  the  army  according  to  the 
date  of  his  commission. 

Bridges,    Military— Temporary     con- 


structions to  facilitate  the  passage  of 
rivers  by  troops.  There  are  several  de- 
scriptions, viz.  bridges  of  boats,  pontoon 
bridges,  bridges  of  casks,  trestle  bridges, 
raft  bridges,  spar  and  flying  bridges,  a 
description  of  which  will  be  given  under 
their  respective  heads.  The  three  first 
natures  of  bridges  are  most  commonly 
used.  Trestle  bridges  are  chiefly  applicable 
to  rivers  in  hilly  countries,  where  the 
three  first-named  bridges  cannot  be  used. 
The  raft  is  the  last  expedient  that  should 
be  adopted  by  an  army  in  motion,  as  it  has 
the  lowest  degree  of  buoyancy  and  general 
manageability.  Its  merits  are  that,  at 
the  expense  of  time,  it  can  be  constructed 
with  less  experienced  workmen ;  it  saves 
carriage,  as  it  can  be  made  of  any  ma- 
terials on  or  near  the  spot.  Spar  bridges 
are  used  for  crossing  broken  arches, 
rivers  with  steep  banks,  &c.  ;  flying 
bridges,  when  wishing  to  pass  a  river  in 
the  face  of  an  enemy,  either  by  stratagem 
or  force,  as  they  require  but  little  pre- 
paration. A  pontoon  and  cask  bridge  is 
similarly  constructed. 

Bridge  Head,  vide  Tete-de-pont. 

Brigade — A  body  of  troops,  the  unit 
of  a  division.  Generally  it  consists  of 
either  of  the  three  arms,  or  of  the  three 
arms  combined,  commanded  by  a  briga- 
dier-general or  brigadier.  Two  or  more 
battalions  of  infantry,  with  a  regiment  of 
cavalry  and  a  battery  of  artillery,  under 
the  command  of  one  officer,  commonly 
constitute  a  brigade.  The  term  brigade 
is  given  also  to  the  Brigade  of  Guards, 
which  consists  of  the  three  regiments  of 
Foot  Guards  ;  to  the  Household  Cavalry 
Brigade,  which  is  composed  of  the  two 
regiments  of  Life  Guards,  and  the  Royal 
Horse  Guards. 

This  word  appears  to  have  had  some 
connection  with  the  word  "brigands," 
light  armed  soldiers  in  early  Biblical 
days  ;  probably  because  they  were  broken 
off  or  detached  from  the  main  body,  as  a 
brigade  may  be  at  the  present  day  from 
a  division.  The  corslets  of  these  brigands 
were  styled  "  brigandines."  Soldiers  of 
this  kind  often  marauded  on  their  own 
account ;  hence  the  sense  which  brigand 
has  with  us  now. 

Brigade  Depot — The  head-quarters  of 
a  sub-district  of  the  army.  Under  the 
new  localisation  of  the  British  army,  the 
E 


BRI 


50 


BRI 


military  districts  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  are  divided  into  12  districts, 
which  are  sub-divided  into  70  *  infantry 
and  12  artillery  sub-districts,  and  2  cavalry 
districts.  The  infantry  sub-districts,  as  a 
rule,  correspond  with  the  several  counties 
into  which  the  United  Kingdom  is 
divided.  In  connection  therewith  the 
following  arrangements  have  been  made 
(vide  Auxiliary  and  Reserve  Forces 
Circular  for  1873): — To  each  infantry 
sub-district  are  assigned  2  battalions 
of  infantry  of  the  line,  one  of  which 
is  ordinarily  at  home,  and  the  other 
abroad.  The  battalions  are  linked  to- 
gether for  the  purposes  of  enlistment 
and  service  (see  G.  0.  18  of  1873).  In 
each  infantry  sub-district  is  located  a 
brigade  depot  under  the  command  of  a 
lieutenant-colonel,  composed  of  2  com- 
panies from  each  of  the  line  battalions 
assigned  to  the  sub-district.  The  line 
battalions,  militia  battalions,  the  brigade 
depot,  the  rifle  volunteer  corps,  and  the 
infantry  of  the  army  reserve,  constitute 
the  infantrv  sub-district  brigade,  and  the 
whole,  with  the  exception  of  the  line 
battalion,  are  under  the  command  of  the 
officer  commanding  the  brigade  depot. 

A  lieutenant-colonel  is  appointed  to 
each  artillery  sub-district,  and  he  is  in- 
vested with  the  command  of  the  auxili- 
ary and  reserve  forces  of  artillery  of  the 
sub-district. 

The  cavalry  of  the  auxiliary  forces  is 
divided,  as  before  stated,  into  two  dis- 
tricts. A  lieutenant-colonel  is  appointed 
to  each  district,  who  is  invested  with 
the  command  of  the  yeomanry  regiment; 
and  of  the  corps  of  light  horse  and 
mounted  rifle  volunteers  within  his  dis- 
trict. 

The    regiments    of    guards,  the    60th 
Rifles,  and  the  Rifle  Brigade,  are  outsid 
the   sub-district    organisation — i.e.  they 
have    no    special    connection    with    any 
territorial  sub-district.    The  depot  of  tht 
Guards  continues  as   at  present  consti- 
tuted.    The  60th  Rifle  Brigade  have  on 
consolidated  depot  at  Winchester. 


*  There  are  4  brigade  depots  at  Winchestei 
forming  an  united  rifle  depot,  which  belong  to 
n*»  particular  sub-district,  and  are  outside  th 
local  organisation,  only  half  of  which  are  n<m 
formed :  but  they  make  up  with  the  66  districts 
the  70  alluded  to. 


The  above  explains  the  organisation, 
as  laid  down  by  the  warrant,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  sub-districts.  It  is 
further  directed  that  in  exercising  author- 
ty  over  the  auxiliary  and  reserve  forces, 
officers  appointed  to  command  must 
remember  that  these  forces  have  been 
enrolled  under  conditions  very  different 
from  those  of  the  regular  army. 
They  must  therefore  take  great  care  not 
to  exceed  the  powers  conferred  upon 
them  by  law,  and,  in  exercising  the 
powers  which  they  do  possess,  must 
endeavour  to  carry  with  them  as  far  as 
possible  the  opinions  of  the  commanding 
officers  of  the  auxiliary  forces.  In  all 
cases  of  doubt,  the  warrant  says,  they 
will  do  well  to  refer  to  the  Inspector- 
General  of  the  Auxiliary  Forces. 

It  is  ordered  in  the  Queen's  Regu- 
lations that  "a  mess  shall  be  esta- 
blished at  the  head-quarters  of  each 
brigade  depot,  which  will  be  credited 
with  one-fifth  of  the  contributions  of  the 
company  officers  of  each  line  battalion 
belonging  thereto,  assessed  agreeably  to 
paragraphs  32  and  33,  as  well  as  with  the 
annual  subscriptions  of  the  officers  of 
two  companies  thereof.  The  lieutenant- 
colonel,  the  major  and  staff  will  pay 
subscriptions  only.  The  two  companies 
of  the  line-battalions  will  bring,  on  join- 
ing a  brigade  depot,  a  sum  of  50/.,  for  the 
purchase  of  such  articles  of  equipment 
as  may  be  necessary,  or  in  lieu  thereof 
a  sufficient  amount  of  mess  property." 

The  plan  adopted  in  forming  the  bri- 
gade depots  was  to  associate  with  the 
militia  of  each  county  certain  line  bat- 
talions, selecting  as  far  as  possible  such 
regiments  as  had  any  connection  with 
the  county,  besides  such  volunteers  and 
army  reserves  as  may  be  in  each  brigade 
district.  Each  brigade  has  its  depot 
stationed  permantly  in  the  district  it 
belongs  to  ;  the  line  battalions  are  moved 
as  the  service  may  require,  one  being  at 
home  and  the  other  abroad,  the  militia 
are  embodied  periodically  as  heretofore  ; 
but  all  recruits  for  either  branch  of  the 
service  are  intended  to  pass  through 
the  same  hands,  and  to  receive  their 
training  together.  The  cavalry,  artillery, 
engineers,  guards,  and  rifles  are  excep- 
tions to  these  arrangements,  and  remain 
not  localised.  (  Vide  Appendix  E.) 


BE  I 


51 


BRI 


Brigade,  Flying,  vide  Flying  Brigade. 

Brigade  Major — An  officer  appointed 
to  aid  the  brigadier  in  carrying  out  the 
duties  of  his  brigade.  Each  brigade  of  the 
army  has  a  brigade  major  attached  to  it, 
combining  the  duties  of  all  military 
departments  except  the  control.  He  is 
the  channel  of  orders  for  the  brigade, 
keeps  a  register  of  duties,  inspects  all 
guards  and  posts  and  pickets,  and  when 
in  the  field  is  responsible  for  their  being 
withdrawn  when  the  brigade  marches. 
The  office  is  seldom  held  by  any  one 
under  the  rank  of  captain. 

Brigadier — A  military  officer  whose 
rank  is  nest  above  a  colonel.  He  exer- 
cises the  command  of  a  brigade  of  troops, 
with  the  rank,  now-a-days,  of  a  brigadier- 
general. 

British  Army  —  The  army  of  the 
British  Empire.  This  army  is  raised  by 
voluntary  enlistment,  a  system  peculiar 
to  England  ;  the  continental  armies  being 
raised  by  compulsory  service.  In  the 
British  army,  the  time  a  soldier  engages 
to  serve  is  twelve  years ;  six  years,  and 
not  less  than  three  years_  of  which  must 
be  passed  with  the  colours,  the  rest  of 
his  service  in  the  reserve.  This  is  called 
short  service. 

By  a  bill  passed  in  1872,  the  109  regi- 
ments of  the  British  army,  with  the 
Rifle  Brigade,  are  distributed  among  the 
12  military  districts  of  England,  which 
districts  are  sub-divided  into  70  sub- 
districts,  each  sub-district  having  2  bat- 
talions allotted  to  it.  This  forms  the 
basis  of  the  present  military  organisation 
of  this  country.  Each  sub-district  has  a 
depot  brigade,  to  which,  besides  the  2 
battalions,  is  attached  the  militia  and 
volunteers  of  the  sub-district. 

The  artillery  and  cavalry  have  special 
organisations,  there  being  12  sub-districts 
for  the  former,  and  2  districts  for  the 
latter. 

The  British  infantry  is  composed  of 
3  regiments  of  foot  guards,  viz.  Grenadier 
Guards  (3  battalions),  Coldstream  Guards 
(2  battalions),  Scots  Fusilier  Guards  (2 
battalions)  ;  total  7  battalions  of  16  com- 
panies. 

The  109  regiments  of  the  line  include  12 
Highland  regiments,  and  the  first  twenty- 
five  have  2  battalions  each.  The  60th 
Rifles  and  the  Rifle  Brigade  have  each  4 


battalions  ;  these  regiments,  as  well  as 
those  which  have  more  than  one  battalion, 
have  their  own  commanding  officer,  and 
promotion  goes  on  in  independent  cadres. 

Each  battalion  of  a  regiment  has  8 
companies,  of  the  strength,  nominally,  of 
604  men  in  this  country  and  918  in  India, 
and  varies  in  the  other  colonies. 

The  cavalry  is  composed  of  31  regi- 
ments, viz.  3  regiments  of  life  guards, 
7  regiments  of  dragoon  guards  (heavies), 
(the  6th  regiment  is  called  Carabiniers), 
and  21  regiments  of  the  line,  of  which 
3  are  heavy  dragoons,  5  lancers,  and  13 
hussars.  Each  regiment  has  8  troops  of 
535  men  in  England,  and  7  troops  of  544 
(depot  included)  in  India. 

The  artillery  is  composed  of  5  brigades 
of  horse  artillery,  of  5  batteries  of  6  guns 
each.  The  complement  of  men  is  1284 
to  each  brigade  and  904  horses  ;  this  is 
the  number  laid  down  for  home  service. 
The  numbers  differ  both  in  men  and 
horses  for  India.  Besides  the  above  horse 
brigades,  there  are  25  foot  brigades,  10 
of  which  are  field  brigades,  and  the  bat- 
teries horsed.  To  each  field  brigade 
there  are  7  batteries  attached,  of  6  guns 
each,  and  the  number  of  men  and  horses 
to  each  brigade  is  respectively  1610  and 
850.  The  remaining  brigades  are  com- 
posed of  garrison  artillery,  of  7  batteries 
each.  The  strength  of  each  brigade  varies 
from  1150  to  730  men.  There  is  besides 
a  brigade  of  coast  artillery  and  a  depot 
brigade. 

The  engineers  have  40  companies  for 
home  and  foreign  service,  and  4  pontoon 
troops. 

Besides  the  regular  troops  as  shown 
above,  England  has  a  reserve  in  her 
auxiliary  forces,  viz.  the  militia,  volun- 
teers, and  yeomanry,  the  strength  of 
which,  including  the  line,  taken  from  the 
latest  parliamentary  returns,  is  as  fol- 
lows : — Regular  forces,  192,000  ;  militia, 
118,000  (of  whom  only  103,000  will  be 
enrolled)  ;  volunteers,  161,150  ;  enrolled 
pensioners,  21,980  ;  yeomanry,  12,500  ; 
Class  A,  army  reserve,  7928.  In  all, 
513,558.  Besides  the  combatant  force 
above  mentioned,  there  is  a  large  staff  of 
the  military  and  civil  departments.  The 
latter  includes  the  control  and  medical 
branches.  The  militia  is  organised  for  the 
home  defence  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
E  2 


BEI 


52 


BBI 


though,  during  the  Crimean  War.  militia 
regiments  garrisoned  Malta.  The  service 
of  this  force  is  compulsory  for  every 
Englishman,  but  by  a  law  passed  yearly 
he  is  dispensed  of  this  service,  as  long  as 
the  number  of  men  necessary  to  fill  up 
the  ranks  of  that  force  present  themselves 
voluntarily.  The  engagement  is  con- 
tracted for  five  years.  The  volunteers 
form  an  invaluable  force  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  country,  and  in  the  day  of 
need  will  be  found  all  that  is  expected  of 
them.  For  the  constitution  of  this  force, 
vide  Volunteers.  The  yeomanry  of  Great 
Britain  is  a  body  of  cavalry  volunteers, 
and  their  origin  and  organisation  will  be 
found  under  the  head  Yeomanry. 

Previous  to  November  1871,  appoint- 
ments in  the  infantry  and  cavalry  were 
made  under  the  purchase  system.  Pur- 
chase was  abolished  by  the  Warrant 
dated  20th  July,  1871,  and  candidates 
for  commissions  in  the  line  since  then 
have  to  pass  competitive  examinations. 
( Vide  Appendix  A.)  Promotion  in  the 
army  by  purchase  was  abolished  by  the 
same  warrant,  and  the  system  of  pro- 
motion since  will  be  found  also  in  the 
Appendix. 

In  the  artillery  and  engineers,  cadets, 
after  undergoing  an  examination,  previous 
to  entering  the  Academy  at  Woolwich, 
have  to  remain  there  for  three  years, 
when,  if  found  competent,  they  are  finally 
classed,  and  receive  commissions  in  the 
engineers  or  artillery,  according  to  their 
standing  on  the  list.  Those  selected  for 
the  engineers  go  through  a  special  course 
at  Chatham  in  engineering  and  other 
studies  having  reference  to  their  branch 
of  the  service.  Artillery  officers,  if  so 
inclined,  can  improve  themselves  in  the 
higher  branches  of  their  service,  by  at- 
tending the  advanced  class  at  Woolwich. 
Regimental  promotion  is  governed  in 
both  services  by  seniority.  (Vide  Ap- 
pendix A.) 

A  slight  sketch  is  herewith  given  ol 
the  rise  and  subsequent  formation  of  the 
British  army,  a  subject  which  will  be 
interesting  to  every  soldier,  though  it  is 
necessarily  given  in  a  concise  form. 

The  feudal  relation  between  lord  anc 
vassal  led  originally  to  the  existence  o 
armed  and  dependent  bands.  But  this 
soldiery  was  virtually  the  soldiery  of  the 


)arony.  The  armed  force  in  England  at 
;hat  period  was  no  strictly  organised  force. 
The  armed  retainers  of  the  barons  were 
subservient  to  the  will  of  the  sovereign. 
)ut  only  within  the  narrow  term  of 
service  in  the  field.  The  wars  of 
idward  III.  and  of  Henry  V.  were 
fleeted  through  the  royal  purse  and  the 
co-operation  of  the  royal  vassals.  The 
Wars  of  the  Roses  were  the  wars  of  rival 
iamilies.  A  royal  army,  such  as  we  now 
possess,  an  army  alien  to  any  feeling  but 
that  of  loyalty,  was  a  thing  unknown  in 
the  middle  ages  of  English  history.  The 
king  issued  a  commission  to  the  county. 
By  the  sheriff'  a  county  force  was  raised. 
But  that  the  feudal  force  of  the  great 
nobles  should  be  at  the  service  of  the 
king,  in  time  of  danger,  depended  wholly 
on  the  good  faith  of  those  nobles.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  the  power  of  as- 
sembling men  for  the  defence  of  the 
counties  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
lord  lieutenants  and  deputy  lieutenants  of 
counties.  But  the  want  of  an  organised 
force,  at  the  hands  of  the  monarch,  may 
be  seen  from  the  ease  with  which  a  mob 
of  rioters  from  the  northern  shires  or 
the  west  country  marched  to  the  gates  of 
London.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  came 
the  question  whether  the  sovereign  could, 
or  could  not,  maintain  a  military  force 
without  the  pel-mission  of  parliament. 
The  question  was  all  the  more  irately 
discussed  when  Charles  billeted  his  sol- 
diers on  the  people. 

During  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  appear 
the  germs  of  our  present  military  system. 
A  body-guard,  or  household  brigade  of 
5000  men,  was  sanctioned  by  the  parlia- 
ment. But  even  this  insignificant  force 
was  viewed  with  apprehension  at  the  time, 
as  a  step  towards  the  position  assumed 
by  Louis  XIV.  It  appears,  however,  that 
after  the  13th  year  of  Charles's  reign  he 
obtained  a  statute  declaring  that  the  sole 
and  supreme  power,  government,  com- 
mand, and  disposition  of  the  militia,  and 
of  all  forces  by  sea  and  by  land,  and  of 
all  forts  and  places  of  strength,  is  the 
undoubted  right  of  his  majesty ;  and  both 
or  either  of  the  houses  of  parliament  can- 
not nor  ought  to  pretend  to  the  same. 
But  the  profuseness  of  Charles  and  the 
folly  of  James  prevented  them  employing 
this  instrument. 


BEO 


53 


BUG 


In  the  reign  of  William  III.,  the  fear 
of  an  army,  at  the  disposal  of  one  who 
might  prove  to  be  filled  with  arbitrary 
notions  of  government,  was  destroyed. 
The  Declaration  of  Rights  settled,  in  posi- 
tive terms,  that  the  raising  and  keeping 
of  a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace, 
without  the  consent  of  parliament,  is  con- 
trary to  law.  The  first  Mutiny  Act  was 
passed  in  1689.  It  was  to  last  for  six 
months  only ;  but  it  has  been  renewed 
annually  ever  since,  except  in  three  par- 
ticular years.  It  constitutes  the  warrant 
upon  which  the  whole  military  system 
of  England  is  exercised  by  the  sovereign 
with  the  consent  of  parliament. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  sovereign,  without  the 
sanction  of  parliament,  has  no  power  to 
raise  a  military  force,  and  it  has  been  the 
custom,  for  the  last  180  or  190  years,  for 
the  minister  of  the  crown  to  ask  annually 
of  parliament  the  permission  to  raise  a 
military  force,  and  to  ask  for  money  to 
pay  the  same. 

The  head  of  the  army  is  the  Sovereign, 
assisted  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
War,  in  some  matters,  and  by  the  Com- 
inander-in-Chief  in  others. 

Broad  Arrow — The  ancient  mark  of 
crown  property.  It  was  originally  used 
only  on  Admiralty  stores.  The  object 
of  the  mark  was  generally  to  prevent 
embezzlement.  Any  dealer  having  in  his 
possession  stores  with  the  government 
arrow  on  it  is  liable  to  a  fine  and  con- 
fiscation of  the  property.  It  is  applied 
generally  to  ordnance,  as  well  as  to 
other  articles  which  belong  to  the  War 
Department.  The  mark  is  for  iron  and 
wood  what  the  coloured  thread  is  for 
sailcloth. 

Broadsword — A  sword  with  a  broad 
blade.  It  is  only  used  now  by  some 
Highland  regiments.  This  national  sword 
is  better  known  under  the  name  of  clay- 
more. 

Bronze — Bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  tin  in  the  proportion  of  88  to  92  per 
cent,  of  the  former,  and  of  8  to  12  of  the 
latter ;  but  the  amount  of  tin  in  bronze 
varies  in  different  countries.  Bronze  is 
used  in  casting  guns,  which  are  com- 
monly, but  erroneously,  called  "brass 
cannon."  This  alloy,  of  which  all  field 
guns  in  the  past  were  made,  is  now  no 


longer  used,  as  the  guns  on  being  rifled 
were  found  to  score  and  erode  more  than 
they  had  done  in  their  smooth-bore  state, 
and  to  be  greatly  weakened  from  the 
effect  of  the  rifling,  which  laid  bare 
hidden  weaknesses  in  the  metal  from  the 
want  of  homogeneity.  Bronze  has  been 
known  from  the  earliest  ages,  under  the 
name  of  brass,  but  which  was  really 
bronze,  as  the  most  ancient  coins  attest. 
So  well  known  was  this  alloy  that  it  led 
to  a  period  in  antiquarian  history  styled 
"  the  Age  of  Bronze,"  in  which  arms  of 
this  alloy  were  universally  made. 

Bronzing — The  mode  adopted  for  the 
protection  from  the  influence  of  the 
atmosphere  of  the  exposed  gun-metal 
portions  of  all  the  tangents  and  drop 
sights  of  a  gun.  The  preparation  of  the 
fluid  used  in  the  above  process  will  be 
seen  in  the  '  Text-book  of  the  Construc- 
tion and  Manufacture  of  Rifled  Ordnance.' 

Browning  Barrels — Is  the  process 
pursued  in  coating  the  barrels  of  muskets 
to  prevent  them  from  rusting.  The 
following  is  one  of  the  receipts  found  to  be 
successful  in  the  operation  of  browning 
barrels,  especially  in  India,  and  is  known 
as  the  Pimlico  receipt.  The  same  ma- 
terials, but  in  different  proportions,  will 
answer  for  the  browning  of  all  wrought- 
iron  guns. 

Pimlico  Receipt. 

Acid,  Nitric,  by  weight,  Ibs.  0 


Spirits  of  nitre 
„        „    wine 
Tincture  of  steel 
Vitriol,  blue 
Rain  water 


1  14 

4  8 
3     0 

5  4 
0  12 

2  0 


The  foregoing  is  sufficient  for  100  rifle 
barrels. 

Brant — The  troops  which  sustain  the 
principal  shock  of  the  enemy  in  action 
are  said  to  bear  the  "  brunt  of  the 
battle." 

Brushwood — Rough,  low,  close  thickets ; 
underwood,  branches  of  trees  cut  off. 
The  use  it  is  put  to  is  in  making  gabions, 
fascines,  and  pickets.  Brushwood  for 
the  above  purposes  should  not  exceed  1^ 
to  2  inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt  or 
thick  end.  Brushwood  is  cut  and  tied 
up  in  bundles,  weighing  from  40  to 
50  Ibs.  ench. 

Buckler — Is  a  military  term  of  very 


BUG 


54 


BUL 


ancient  date.  It  means  a  small  shield 
with  a  knob  or  boss  in  the  middle  of  it, 
called  in  French  boitcle. 

Buckshot,  vide  Cartridge  Buckshot. 

Buff — The  leather  of  which  soldiers' 
belts  are  made.  The  following  is  the 
process  pursued  in  its  preparation  : — 

Buff  or  "  losh  leather "  is  manufac- 
tured chiefly  from  the  hide  of  the  buffalo. 
The  process  of  softening,  removing  the 
hair,  cleansing,  &c.,  is  precisely  the  same 
as  that  for  common  leather  (vide  Leather), 
until  the  ''pelt"  is  ready  for  tanning, 
when  it  has  to  be  prepared  for  a  process 
of  oiling.  This  is  done  by  carefully  re- 
moving or  forcing  off  the  upper  grain  of 
the  hide,  which  renders  both  sides  of  it  as 
nearly  alike  as  possible.  The  hides  are  then 
subjected  to  the  process  of  "  branning," 
that  is,  being  steeped  in  fermented  bran 
from  four  to  twelve  hours,  according  to  the 
atmosphere.  They  are  then  wrung  out  or 
scraped  over,  and  subjected  to  the  pulling 
mill  or  stocks  for  two  or  three  hours : 
afterwards  they  are  spread  out  and  oiled. 
Cod  oil  is  the  best  for  this  purpose.  The 
oiling  is  repeated  during  the  first  three 
or  four  days  until  each  hide  has  absorbed 
£  of  a  gallon.  For  the  following  three 
weeks,  the  hides  are  subjected  to  alter- 
nate soaking  and  drying,  in  which  great 
care  and  attention  is  required.  They  are 
then  exposed  to  a  heating  process,  in 
hot-houses  prepared  expressly  for  the 
purpose,  for  two  or  three  days,  the  heat 
not  exceeding  130°  Fahrenheit.  Having 
arrived  at  this  stage,  the  oil  has  now  to  be 
extracted,  which  is  effected  by  a  solution 
of  potassa,  in  mills  constructed  for  this 
purpose.  The  buff  is  next  carefully 
cleaned  from  all  alkaline  matter  by  fre- 
quent washings,  and  each  hide  hung  up 
separately  to  dry.  The  facing  or  surface 
is  completed  by  rubbing  both  sides  with 
pumice-stone,  and  the  buff  is  then  in  a 
fit  state  to  be  cut  up  into  accoutrements. 

The  above  description  is  the  mode  pur- 
sued in  India.  The  process  is  somewhat 
similar  in  this  country,  the  hides  used 
being  those  of  the  ox  and  cow,  a  large 
quantity  of  which  are  imported  from 
South  America. 

Buffalo — An  animal  of  the  ox  tribe.  It 
is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies.  This  animal 
is  seldom  used  for  military  purposes. 
The  natives  of  India,  however,  use  the 


buffalo  occasionally  both  as  a  beast  of 
burden  and  for  draught  purposes.  When 
dead,  the  hide  is  used  for  leather. 

Buffer,  Hydraulic^- A  contrivance,  as 
applied  in  the  service  of  artillery,  for 
checking  the  recoil  of  heavy  guns.  '•  The 
hydraulic  buffer  consists  of  a  wrought- 
iron  cylinder,  closed  at  one  end,  the  other 
end  fitted  with  a  cap  and  stuffing-box, 
through  which  a  piston-rod  passes.  The 
piston  fits  well  into  the  cylinder,  and  is 
perforated  with  four  small  holes,  the 
size  of  which  varies  with  the  size  of  the 
gun.  The  cylinder  is  filled  with  Ran- 
goon oil  or  with  water,  enough  air  space 
being  left  to  act  as  an  elastic  buffer, 
which  takes  off  the  violence  of  the  first 
impact  of  the  piston  on  the  oil.  The 
cylinder  is  firmly  attached  to  the  plat- 
form on  which  the  carriage  recoils,  and 
the  end  of  the  piston-rod  to  the  carriage 
itself;  so  that  on  the  discharge  of  the 
gun,  the  carriage  drives  the  piston 
through  the  oil  or  water  with  great 
velocity,  gradually  bringing  the  gun  and 
carriage  to  rest  in  the  required  distance." 

The  orders  laid  down  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  hydraulic  buffers  are  as  follows : 
"  In  all  cases  where  guns  are  mounted  on 
carriages  and  platforms  fitted  for  hy- 
draulic buffers,  the  buffer  will  invari- 
ably be  kept  on  the  platform  filled 
with  the  proper  quantity  of  oil ;  and 
when  not  required  for  immediate  use,  the 
piston  will  be  disconnected  from  the 
carriage  and  pressed  home  into  the 
cylinder." 

Bulletin — Any  official  account  which 
is  given  of  public  transactions. 

Bullets — Leaden  balls,  either  spherical 
or  elongated,  fired  from  small-arms. 
They  are  also  used  in  the  preparation  of 
canister  shot.  The  service  bullet  used 
with  the  Snider  rifle  is  -55  in.  in  dia- 
meter :  weight,  466  to  468  grains  with 
plug.  The  Snider  bullet  is  elongated, 
and  receives  a  small  wooden  or  clay  plug 
at  its  base,  which,  on  the  piece  being 
fired,  expands  the  lead  and  causes  the 
bullet  to  fit  the  base  tightly  and  to  fill  the 
grooves  of  the  rifle.  The  Martini-Henry 
bullet  is  -45  in.  in  diameter,  and  weighs 
410  grains. 

Bullock — This  animal  is  used  in  India 
for  drawing  heavy  guns,  ammunition, 
stores,  &c.  All  carts  are  drawn  by 


BUL 


55 


BYL 


bullocks  in  India,  whether  in  the  ord- 
nance or  commissariat  department.  The 
bullock  for  military  purposes  is  obtained 
from  certain  districts  in  the  country,  and 
is  much  larger  than  the  usual  species  of 
this  animal.  The  pace  of  the  bullock  is 
slow,  rarely  exceeding  2  or  2J  miles  an 
hour,  but  he  has  much  endurance,  and 
in  draught  can  draw  5  cwt.  the  usual 
length  of  march,  without  being  dis- 
tressed. 

Bull's-eye — A  black  rectangular  figure 
on  a  white  ground  which  is  painted  on 
targets,  varying  in  size  according  to  the 
distance  at  which  the  target  is  placed, 
and  according  to  the  class  of  marksmen 
firing  at  it.  Outside  the  bull's-eye  is  a 
white  space  bounded  by  rectangular 
black  lines.  The  space  within  these 
lines  and  between  them  and  the  bull's- 
eye  is  called  the  centre.  Outside  these 
lines  is  the  remainder  of  the  target. 

Buntin,  or  Bunting — A  thin  woollen 
cloth,  of  which  naval  and  military  flags 
are  made. 

Burette — A  graduated  glass  instru- 
ment used  in  the  chemical  laboratory, 
and  elsewhere,  for  the  purpose  of  di- 
viding a  given  portion  of  any  liquid  into 
100  or  1000  equal  parts. 

In  the  use  of  the  burette  much  loss  of 
time  and  risk  of  error  are  avoided ;  and 
in  the  analysis  of  large  quantities  of  salt- 
petre, such  as  is  carried  on  in  gunpowder 
factories,  it  is  invaluable. 

Burns — As  scalds  and  burns  are  not 
nnfrequent  in  the  laboratory,  the 
following  will  be  found  a  useful  lini- 
ment :— 


Sweet  oil 
Hartshorn 


8  parts, 
1  part, 


or  equal  parts  of  linseed  oil  and  lime 
water. 

Burr — Any  roughness  or  unevenness 
observed  in  the  barrels  of  guns 
after  manufacture,  or  on  balls  which 
have  been  cast,  or  on  the  edge  of  tools 
when  ground,  or  in  wood-work  when 
turned,  caused  by  the  inequality  in  the 
fibres  of  the  material. 

Bursting  Charge — A  charge  of  powder 
placed  in  shells  of  all  natures,  in 
order  that  they  may  burst  at  the  distance 
required.  The  charge  is  ignited  by 
means  of  a  fuze,  except  in  the  Palliser 


shell,  which  ignites  itself,  against  iron- 
clad ships.  The  ignition  of  the  powder 
in  these  shells  is  supposed  to  be  caused 
by  the  violent  concussion  of  the  shell 
on  striking.  There  is  a  variety  of 
patterns  of  bursters  in  the  service,  made 
of  paper  and  serge.  For  the  most  part 
shells  are  filled  by  capacity,  not  measure, 
but  there  are  certain  exceptions. 

Busby — The  head-dress  worn  by  the  • 
artillery  and  hussars  in  the  British 
army.  It  consists  of  a  fur  hat,  with  a 
bag  hanging  from  the  top  over  the  right 
shoulder.  The  bag,  which  is  made  of 
the  same  colour  as  the  facings  of  the  regi- 
ment, appears  to  be  of  Hungarian  origin, 
and  intended  to  ward  off  a  sword  cut. 
In  India  the  artillery,  whose  head-dress 
in  Europe  is  a  busby,  do  not  wear  it, 
but  are  provided  with  wicker  helmets 
covered  with  white  cloth. 

The  head-dress  worn  by  the  fusiliers  is 
called  a  "  busby,"  and  is  made  of  black 
racoon  skin  for  the  officers  and  of  seal- 
skin for  the  non-commissioned  officers 
and  men. 

Bushing,  or  Bouching — The  operation 
of  fitting  one  piece  of  metal  into  another, 
which  is  generally  bored  for  that  purpose, 
in  order  to  receive  either  a  fresh  aper- 
ture, such  as  the  vent  of  a  gun,  or,  as  in 
the  case  of  a  shell,  to  receive  a  fuze 
which  does  not  fit  the  original  fuze-hole. 

Bushing  Tents — This  is  resorted  to 
when  the  soil  will  not  hold  well,  or  in 
stormy,  blowing  weather.  It  is  only 
necessary  under  these  circumstances  to 
bush  the  main  outer  ropes  of  the  tent, 
which  is  effected  by  burying,  to  a  suf- 
ficient depth  in  the  ground,  a  strong  bush 
at  each  angle  of  the  tent,  to  which  ropes 
are  attached. 

Buttresses,  or  Counterforts — In  fortifi- 
cation, solid  constructions  of  masonry, 
raised  at  short  and  equal  intervals  on 
the  interior  side  of  the  revetment  of  the 
ditch,  to  strengthen  and  support  it. 

Butts — Mounds  of  earth  raised  behind 
the  targets  on  military  practice  grounds, 
for  the  purpose  of  stopping  the  onward 
course  of  shot,  bullets,  &c. 

Byl — One  of  the  early  Norman  arms 
resembling  a  war-hatchet. 


CAB 


56 


CAR 


C. 


Cable,  vide  Rope. 

Cacolets — Folding-chairs  made  to  be 
slung  on  a  pack-saddle,  one  on  each  side 
of  a  mule.  They  are  used  for  carrying 
the  sick  or  wounded  in  the  day  of  battle. 
They  weigh  56  Ibs.  the  pair.  The  pack 
weighs  the  same.  Add  the  weight  of 
two  men,  say,  150  Ibs.  each,  total  weight 
to  be  carried,  400  Ibs. — rather  an  exces- 
sive weight  for  any  but  a  first-class 
mule.  This  nature  of  chair  is  very  tiring 
for  the  sick  man  to  be  carried  in,  and,  it 
is  difficult  to  place  men  in  them. 

Cadastral— This  term  is  derived  from 
the  French  word  cadastre,  a  register  of 
lands,  or  from  cadrer,  to  square,  and 
signifies  a  survey  on  a  large  scale,  such 
as  has  been  adopted  of  late  years  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  is  now  used  in 
England  in  the  ordnance  maps.  The 
measurement  corresponds  so  nearly  to 
25  inches  to  the  mile  that  it  is  usually 
spoken  of  as  the  25-inch  scale.  It 
has  the  further  advantage  of  bearing, 
within  a  very  small  fraction,  the  propor- 
tion of  one  inch  to  an  acre.  A  cadastral 
as  opposed  to  a  topographical  map  may 
be  defined  to  be  one  on  which  the  sub- 
jects represented  agree,  as  to  their  rela- 
tive positions  and  dimensions,  with  the 
objects  on  the  face  of  the  country ;  while 
a  topographical  map,  drawn  on  a  small 
scale,  exaggerates,  for  the  sake  of  dis- 
tinctness, the  dimeasions  of  houses,  and 
the  breadth  of  roads  and  streams,  and  is, 
owing  to  its  smaller  size,  necessarily  less 
correct  than  a  cadastral  plan. 

Cadet  (French  cadet,  younger,  junior 
in  service) — This  term  is  given  to 
students  who  are  being  educated  at  a 
military  college  for  the  army.  Cadets 
for  the  engineers  and  artillery  are 
brought  up  at  the  Royal  Military 
Academy,  Woolwich,  and  on  passing  their 
final  examination  receive  commissions  in 
one  of  the  above  corps  according  to  their 
qualifications.  Formerly  cadets  for  the 
line  were  educated  at  Sandhurst,  and  on 
being  qualified  received  their  commissions. 
But  this  has  been  altered,  and  candidates 
for  the  infantry  and  cavalry  branch 
of  the  service  have  to  pass  an  exami- 


nation under  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
missioners, when,  if  found  qualified, 
they  receive  their  commission  with  the 
rank  of  sub-lieutenaut,  and  are  sent  to 
Sandhurst  to  learn  their  drill  and  other 
military  duties.  While  at  Sandhurst, 
they  are  placed  on  an  unattached  list  of 
sub-lieutenants,  and  are  not  pasted  to 
regiments  until  they  have  completed  their 
instruction.  Sub-lieutenants,  however, 
intended  for  regiments  in  India,  proceed 
at  once  to  join  them,  and  are  instructed 
under  the  eye  of  the  commanding  officer, 
and  have  to  pass  a  similar  examination 
under  the  garrison  instructor  of  the  dis- 
trict to  that  they  would  have  had  to 
undergo  at  Sandhurst.  The  garrison 
class  lasts  about  eight  months. 

Cadre  (French,  a  frame) — The  skeleton 
or  staff  of  a  regiment ;  list  of  officers. 

Caffin's  Machine — A  machine  formerly 
used  for  filling  cannon  cartridges.  This 
machine,  since  the  introduction  of  heavy 
charges  for  rifled  guns,  requiring  great 
nicety  in  weight,  has  become  obsolete  in 
the  service. 

Caisson  (French  caisse,  box) — For- 
merly the  name  given  to  a  tumbril  or 
ammunition  wagon. 

Cake,  Mill — Gunpowder  after  it  leaves 
the  incorporating  mill ;  its  thickness  in 
this  form  varies  from  £  to  £  inch.  It  is  of 
a  blackish  grey  colour,  and,  when  broken, 
should  exhibit  the  same  uniform  appear- 
ance without  presenting  any  sparkling 
or  yellow  specks ;  should  it  however  do 
so,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  ingredients  have 
not  been  properly  mixed  or  incorporated. 
After  the  mill-cake  leaves  the  incor- 
porating mills,  samples  of  it  are  tested 
"  for  strength  "  in  a  small  eprouvette. 

Cake,  Press — Gunpowder  after  it  has 
been  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure. 
The  different  natures  of  powder  used  in 
the  service  receive  a  pressure  of  so  many 
tons  on  the  square  foot,  with  reference 
to  the  density  required.  Pebble  powder 
receives  a  pressure  which  gives  it  a  den- 
sity in  excess  of  the  usual  powders. 
The  amount  of  pressure  varies  with  the 
season  of  the  year,  less  pressure  being 
required  in  summer  than  in  winter. 

Caked  Gunpowder — Gunpowder  which 
has  become  lumpy  from  having  imbibed 
moisture.  In  this  state  little  permanent 
good  can  be  done  to  it  by  reeling  and  re- 


CAL 


57 


CAM 


drying  it,  unless  it  is  used  at  once,  as 
after  a  time  it  absorbs  more  moisture 
than  it  did  before ;  powder,  therefore,  in 
this  state  should  not  be  re-stoved.  This 
does  not  apply  to  pebble  powder,  the 
grains  of  which  are  too  large  to  cake. 

Calibre — The  diameter  of  the  bore  of 
a  gun  .is  its  calibre.  Guns  are  deno- 
minated according  to  the  weight  of  their 
shot ;  siege  howitzers,  mortars,  and  other 
guns  in  terms  of  their  calibres,  expressed 
in  inches  and  decimals ;  thus  a  24-pr. 
gun,  from  its  shot  weighing  24  Ibs., 
is  termed  a  24-pr. ;  and  an  8-inch 
howitzer,  or  8-inch  mortar,  from  the 
diameter  of  its  bore  being  of  that  size,  is 
denominated  an  8-inch  howitzer  or 
mortar.  The  latter  appears  to  be  the 
more  exact  method  of  classing  ordnance. 
The  calibres  of  all  heavy  rifled  guns, 
from  the  12£-inch  to  the  7-inch,  the 
projectiles  of  which,  like  all  fired  from 
rifled  guns,  are  oblong,  are  expressed  in 
inches,  but  the  smaller  natures  of  rifled 
ordnance  in  pounds.  For  the  calibre  of 
guns,  vide  Appendix. 

Call — In  a  military  sense,  applied  to 
the  assembling  of  troops  by  beat  of  drum, 
.bugle,  or  trumpet.  Thus  : — A  call  to 
arms,  roll  call,  tattoo  call,  are  all  well- 
known  calls. 

Callipers — Gun  implements  of  different 
natures.  They  are  used  for  measuring 
the  bores  of  ordnance,  diameter  of 
shot  and  shell,  and  in  ascertaining  the 
thickness  of  the  metal  of  spherical  pro- 
jectiles, &c. 

Caliver — A  kind  of  musket,  so  called 
because  the  bore  was  of  a  fixed  size, 
in  order  that  the  common  stock  of  bullets 
might  fit  every  piece  in  a  regiment ;  it 
was  of  greater  calibre  than  the  arquebus  ; 
was  lighter  than  the  musket ;  was  fired 
without  a  rest,  and  could  be  discharged 
more  quickly  than  a  musket ;  the  shot 
from  the  latter,  however,  did  the  greatest 
damage. 

Cam — A  contrivance  in  machinery  for 
converting  a  rotatory  into  a  reciprocating 
motion.  On  the  breech  cylinder  of  the 
Armstrong  gun  a  ring  is  fitted  to  which 
cams  are  attached.  This  ring  fits  with 
its  interior  octagonal  figure  with  the  ex- 
terior octagonal  figure  of  the  cylinder. 
The  weighted  lever,  with  a  piece  pro- 
jecting, works  on  the  cylinder  also  ;  and 


on  the  lever  being  worked  round,  the 
piece  projecting  catches  the  cams,  and 
this  screws  home  the  breech  screw. 

Camail — A  neck-guard  of  chain,  added 
to  the  bascinet.  The  word  is  either 
corrupted  from  cap-mail  or  owes  its 
origin  to  the  camail  resembling  the  lower 
part  of  the  capuchon,  commonly  worn  by 
all  classes,  but  which  among  the  higher 
ranks  was  made  of  camel's  hair,  and 
therefore  termed  camelin  by  the  French, 
from  whence  our  word  camlet,  afterwards 
applied  to  an  inferior  stuff  made  in 
imitation  of  it. 

Cambridge  Asylum,  Boyal — An  in- 
stitution founded  by  the  father  of  the 
present  Duke  of  Cambridge  to  form  a 
home  for  one  widow  of  each  British  regi- 
ment. It  is  not  yet  completed,  and  is 
only  capable  of  receiving,  at  present, 
about  50  widows. 

Camel — A  beast  of  burden  used  in 
certain  parts  of  India  to  carry  the  bag- 
gage of  troops.  The  utility  of  camels  for 
this  service  is  confined  to  those  parts  of 
India  where  the  climate  is  very  dry.  In 
a  damp,  marshy  country  they  are  useless. 
A  camel  can  carry  four  maunds,  or  320  Ibs., 
the  usual  length  of  a  march,  without 
being  distressed. 

Cameronian  Eegiment — The  26th  re- 
giment of  the  line  in  the  British  army. 
It  appears  from '  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia' 
that  it  owed  its  origin  to  a  body  of 
brave  and  spirited  hillmen  or  Cameronians 
who  were  induced  by  the  convention, 
which  sat  at  Edinburgh  during  the  revo- 
lution of  1688,  to  give  their  services  in 
assisting  to  complete  the  work  of  the 
revolution,  which,  as  was  still  imagined 
by  some,  was  to  re-establish  things  ac- 
cording to  the  letter  of  the  Covenant. 
To  keep  down  therefore  such  a  move- 
ment, a  regiment  of  Cameronians  was 
organised,  each  soldier  being  induced  to 
join  with  the  understanding  that  the 
special  object  of  the  corps  was  to  establish 
the  work  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland. 
Camouflet — A  small  mine  charged  with 
about  10  Ibs.  of  powder,  sufficient  to  com- 
press the  earth  all  around  it,  without  dis- 
turbing the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is 
sometimes  formed  in  the  wall  or  side  of  an 
enemy's  gallery,  in  order  to  blow  in  the 
earth,  and  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the 
miner. 


CAM 


58 


CAM 


Camp — The  whole  extent  of  ground 
occupied  by  an  army  either  in  huts  or 
under  canvas.  The  breadth  should  not 
exceed  the  length  of  line  occupied  by 
the  troops,  when  drawn  out  in  order 
of  battle.  With  regard  to  the  situa- 
tion of  camps,  it  is  a  general  rule 
that  both  wood  and  water  be  near  at 
hand.  Camps  are  either  permanent  or 
movable ;  in  the  former  case  the  troops 
live  in  huts  made  of  wood,  as  in  the 
camps  at  Aldershot,  Shorncliffe,  and  the 
Curragh.  Artillery,  as  well  as  cavalry, 
in  selecting  a  position  for  a  camp,  should 
get  as  near  water  as  possible,  with 
reference  to  the  supply  required  for  men 
and  cattle  attached  to  batteries,  which 
amounts  in  a  temporary  camp  for  each 
man  to  ten  pints  a  day,  for  each  horse  to 
ten  gallons  a  day.  The  minimum  quan- 
tity to  be  calculated  on  is  six  pints 
and  six  gallons,  but  in  a  stationary 
camp  more  water  will  be  required,  viz. 
five  gallons  per  man  and  fifteen  per 
horse.  Troops  should  avoid  pitching 
their  camp  too  near  a  village,  in 
case  of  fire,  and  pitch  always  to  the 
windward  of  it,  if  possible.  High  and 
dry  ground  should  also  be  selected,  and  it 
is  an  axiom  in  selecting  ground  for  an 
artillery  camp  that  there  should  be  a 
clear  space  to  its  front.  In  standing  or 
flying  camps,  great  attention  should  be 
paid  to  sanitary  arrangements ;  but  it  is 
to  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  an  im- 
portant distinction  between  camps  for  a 
night  and  permanent  ones.  Then,  again, 
in  modern  times,  troops  would  never 
encamp  in  presence  of  an  enemy ;  they 
would  merely  bivouac. 

In  standing  camps,  the  regulated  in- 
tervals must  always  be  kept,  viz.  10 
paces  between  each  tent,  and  between 
regiments  and  brigades  increased  inter- 
vals ;  indeed  large  open  spaces  should  be 
kept,  and,  further,  when  camps  are  not 
near  the  enemy,  they  should  be  spread 
out  as  much  as  possible,  but  in  camps 
pitched  for  one  night  everything  should 
be  compact. 

The  ground  generally  chosen,  and  if 
available,  should  be  commons,  unenclosed 
grass  lands,  heaths,  ground  never  turned 
up.  Low  marshy  flats  should  be  avoided  ; 
gentle  sloping  ground  to  north  and  east  is 
advantageous.  Brushwood,  as  it  gene- 


rally covers  damp  ground,  is  to  be 
avoided.  Woods  are  bad  for  a  camp,  but 
good  for  a  bivouac. 

The  next  thing  to  be  thought  of  is  the 
soil  a  camp  stands  on  : 

Sand  and  gravel  is  good ; 
Chalk  is  fair ; 
Clay  is  bad. 

Sites  of  old  camps  had  15  to  20  acres 
per  1000  men  for  a  passing  camp  ;  twice 
that  space  for  a  permanent.  The  com- 
munications should  be  to  the  main  road, 
and  within  the  camp. 

In  laying  out  a  camp,  say  a  standing 
camp,  it  should  not  exceed  in  length  a 
line  of  battle. 

For  the  room  taken  up  in  standing  or 
marching  camps,  vide  '  Regulations  and 
Instructions  for  Encampments,'  1872. 

It  appears  that  in  the  Prussian  military 
system  encampments  are  always  square 
in  form,  no  matter  what  the  number  of 
troops  on  the  ground.  The  camps  are 
guarded  by  sentinels  scattered  on  the 
fronts  and  wings  from  30  to  40  paces 
from  each  other. 

Camp  Equipage — Are  all  articles  which 
are  required  by  troops  on  the  march,* 
such  as  tents,  utensils  of  all  sorts,  camp 
kettles,  stretchers,  ambulances,  &c.,  in 
fact,  all  such  things  as  an  army  would 
require  in  the  field.  They  are  provided 
by  the  Control  Department. 

Camp  Followers — The  sutlers,  petty 
tradesmen  ;  servants,  and  all  others  who 
accompany  an  army  in  the  field.  In 
India  the  camp  followers  are  very 
numerous,  and  of  a  mixed  nature — their 
numbers  quadrupling  sometimes  those  of 
the  whole  force.  It  is  difficult  to  dimi- 
nish the  numbers  which  follow  a  camp  in 
India,  seeing  that  officers'  servants  alone 
form  a  very  large  number  of  the  camp 
followers.  Then  all  these  have  to  be  fed, 
which  necessitates  a  class  of  men  follow- 
ing the  camp  whose  trade  is  to  provide 
such  articles  of  food  and  clothing  as  the 
numbers  in  camp  require. 

Armies  in  Europe  have  also  camp  fol- 
lowers, but  not,  fortunately,  to  the  extent 
of  an  Indian  army.  All  camp  followers 
are  subject  to  the  Articles  of  War, 
whether  at  home  or  in  India. 

Camp  Kettle — In  camp  equipment,  a 
vessel  of  iron  or  other  metal  in  which 


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the  soldiers'  food  is  cooked  on  the  inarch. 
There  arc  two  patterns  in  the  service — 
Torrcns  and  Flanders  ;  the  former  is  used 
in  standing  camps,  as  it  is  of  larger 
capacity  than  the  latter. 

Campaign — A  period  during  which  an 
army  keeps  the  field  and  carries  on  a 
series  of  operations. 

Camphor  (Laurus  carnphora)  —  AD 
exudation  from  the  Indian  laurel-tree, 
having  a  fragrant  smell.  It  is  chiefly 
found  in  China  and  Japan,  and  is  in  ap- 
pearance white  and  transparent,  of  a 
light  and  highly  inflammable  nature, 
and,  in  consequence  of  its  combustible 
powers,  is  used  in  fireworks.  It  is 
soluble  in  spirits  of  wine.  As  a  pre- 
servative of  cloths  of  every  kind  against 
insects,  it  is  a  valuable  article. 

Canal — An  artificial  channel  for  water, 
formed  for  purposes  of  navigation,  and, 
when  available,  is  taken  advantage  of  for 
transport  of  military  materiel. 

Canister  or  Case  Shot— Ammunition 
which  is  used  with  all  natures  of  ordnance. 
It  consists  generally  of  a  tinned  iron 
cylinder  filled  with  sand,  shot,  or  balls 
made  of  lead  and  antimony  packed  in 
sand  and  clay.  The  balls  vary  in  weight 
and  diameter,  from  4  Ibs.  to  1£  oz.,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  ordnance  for 
which  they  are  intended.  Canister  is 
used  in  lieu  of  grape  shot,  which  was  in 
general  use  some  years  ago,  but  is  now 
obsolete.  It  is  a  question,  in  these  days  of 
long-range  rifles,  whether  case  shot,  which 
may  be  said  to  be  only  eS'ective  at  500 
yards  from  rifled  guns,  will  be  so  valuable 
as  it  has  hitherto  been.  Its  value,  with 
rifled  guns,  would  appear  to  be,  to  be  used 
as  a  last  resource  in  case  of  a  sudden  rush 
by  the  enemy  to  capture  the  guns.  Ex- 
periments with  case  shot  show  that  much 
better  results  are  obtained  by  firing  two 
case  shot  than  one,  at  moderate  ranges, 
viz.  up  to  450  yards. 

Cannon — A  piece  of  artillery  used  to 
throw  balls  and  other  projectiles.  The 
term  cannon,  as  stated  by  some  authors,  is 
derived  from  canna  (a  reed).  The  first  can- 
non were  called  bombarda,  from  the  great 
noise  which  the  firing  of  them  occasioned. 
They  were  nothing  more  than  bars  of 
iron,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that 
their  internal  aspects  should  form  a  tube  : 
the  bars  were  not  welded,  but  merely 


confined  by  hoops.  On  some  occasions* 
expedients  much  less  efficient  than  this 
have  been  had  recourse  to,  cannon  having 
been  made  of  coils  of  rope  arranged  in  a 
tubular  form,  and  even  of  leather  or 
wood. 

The  first  use  of  cannon  is  thus  alluded 
to  in  Lieutenant-Colonel  Luard's  '  History 
of  the  Dress  of  the  British  Soldier,'  in 
detailing  the  weapons  used  during  the 
reign  of  Edward  III. : — "  Fire-arms  were 
introduced  in  this  reign,  and  cannon 
were  used  at  the  siege  of  Puy  Guillaume 
in  1338,  and  in  the  English  expedition 
against  Scotland  in  1337 ;  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  any  were  used  at  Cressy, 
which  battle  was  fought  in  1 346." 

Captain  Duncan,  in  his  'History  of  the 
Royal  Artillery,'  remarks  with  reference 
to  the  introduction  of  cannon  that  "  the 
moral  influence  of  the  guns  was  far  be- 
yond their  deserts.  They  were  served  in 
the  rudest  way,  and  their  movements  in 
the  field  were  most  uncertain,  yet  they 
were  regarded  with  superstitious  awe, 
and  received  special  names,  such  as  '  John 
the  Evangelist,'  'The  Red  Gun,'  'The 
Seven  Sisters,'  '  Mons  Meg.' "  The 
same  author  states  that  "  the  first  men- 
tion of  casting  in  England  of  great  brass 
cannon  and  culverins  is  in  the  year  1521, 
when  one  John  Owen  began  to  make 
them,  the  first  Englishman  that  ever 
made  that  kind  of  artillery  in  England." 
The  first  iron  guns  cast  in  this  country 
were  made  by  three  foreigners  at  Bick- 
stead,  in  Sussex,  in  the  year  1543. 

Canteen — A  regimental  establishment 
for  the  supply  of  wine,  malt-liquor,  gro- 
ceries, and  other  articles,  to  the  soldier 
at  reasonable  prices.  It  is  managed  by  a 
committee  of  officers.  For  the  use  the 
profits  of  a  canteen  should  be  put  to,  and 
the  rules  and  regulations  regarding  such 
an  establishment,  vide  Queen's  Re- 
gulations. This  term  is  also  given  to  a 
soldier's  mess-tin,  carried  on  the  knap- 
sack, and  is  further  given  to  a  box  or  case, 
waterproof  or  otherwise,  in  which  an 
officer  carries  his  table  or  cooking 
utensils. 

Cantonments — When  troops  are  de- 
|  tached  and  quartered  in  different  adjacent 
j  towns  and  villages,  they  are  said  to  be 
j  placed  in  cantonments.  In  India,  the 
!  permanent  military  stations  are  so 


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called,  and  in  that  country  a  cantonment 
contains  barracks  for  European  troops, 
and  native  huts  termed  lines  for  the 
Sepoys.  The  European  officers  live  for 
the  most  part  in  bungalows  or  thatched 
houses.  Regimental  bazaars  also  form 
part  of  the  adjuncts  of  a  cantonment. 

Canvas— A  material  made  from  hemp, 
and  much  used  for  artillery  purposes, 
such  as  the  covering  of  the  seats  of  gun- 
carriages,  caps  for  sponge  heads,  soldiers' 
bags,  aprons  for  the  vents  of  guns, 
and  paulins  for  covering  stores  ;  it  is  also 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  tents.  The 
canvas  in  use  in  arsenals  in  India  is  of 
two  kinds — English  and  that  manu- 
factured in  the  country.  The  canvas 
made  in  India  is  used  for  all  purposes 
where  rough  material  would  be  required, 
such  as  artillery  practice  curtains,  sand- 
bags, bags  for  charcoal,  &c.  The  chief 
places  of  manufacture  of  Indian  canvas 
are  in  Bengal,  and  at  Cuddalore  and  Tra- 
vancore,  in  the  Madras  Presidency. 

Being  "  under  canvas  "  means  being 
in  camp  or  in  the  field. 

Cap-a-pie — This  term  was  applied  in 
the  middle  ages  to  a  knight  or  soldier 
armed  at  all  points,  or  from  head  to 
foot,  as  the  words  imply,  with  armour 
for  defence,  and  with  arms  for  offence. 

Cap  Square — In  artillery,  that  part  of 
the  iron  work  of  a  gun  carriage  which 
folds  or  laps  over  the  exterior  portion  of 
the  trunnions  of  a  piece  of  ordnance, 
when  it  is  laid  in  its  bed  or  carriage. 
The  cap  square  is  secured  by  a  key 
or  some  other  stronger  contrivance.  This 
fastening  prevents  the  gun  from  jump- 
ing out  of  its  trunnion  bed. 

Capital — In  fortification,  is  a  line 
drawn  from  the  angle  of  the  polygon  to 
the  point  of  the  bastion,  or  from  this 
point  to  the  middle  of  the  gorge.  It 
bisects  the  salient  angle  of  a  work. 

Capital  Punishment — In  the  army, 
the  sentence  of  death  passed  by  a  court- 
martial  for  certain  offences  committed 
by  officers  or  men.  (  Vide  Articles  of  War.) 
Capital  punishment  is  inflicted  by  the 
offender  being  either  shot  or  hanged,  the 
latter  being  resorted  to  for  some  scan- 
dalous or  infamous  crimes  only. 

Capitulation — The  surrendering  of  a 
garrison  or  an  army  on  stipulated  con- 
ditions. As  shown  by  Major  Knollys 


in  his  '  Handy  Dictionary  of  Military 
Terms,'  it  is  the  fact  of  terms  being 
granted  which  makes  the  difference  be- 
tween capitulation  and  surrendering. 

Caponier — In  fortification,  is  the  pass- 
age from  the  body  of  a  place  to  an  out- 
work. It  is  of  two  kinds,  single  and 
double,  and  is  either  covered  or  un- 
covered ;  in  the  former  case,  generally 
bomb-proof,  and  the  sides  loop-hooled. 

Caps,  Canvas — Used,  after  being  water- 
proofed, for  covering  the  mouth  of 
mortars,  and  for  covering  sponge  staves. 

Caps,  Percussion — Small  cylinders  of 
copper,  closed  at  one  end,  in  which  a 
small  charge  of  fulminating  powder  is 
placed.  They  are  used  to  ignite  the 
charge  in  small-arms.  The  military  per- 
cussion cap  differs  slightly  from  the 
ordinary  sporting  cap  in  having  a  flange 
round  the  open  portion  or  rim  of  it,  to 
enable  the  soldier  to  take  a  good  hold 
of  the  cap.  This  form  of  cap  was  in  very 
general  use  before  the  introduction  of 
breech-loaders.  The  shape,  however,  has 
been  somewhat  changed,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  copper  chamber  of  the  present 
small-arm  cartridge,  which  contains  a 
copper  cap,  with  the  usual  cap  composition. 
Percussion  caps  are  made  by  machinery 
driven  by  steam.  The  process  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  original  cap  is  as  fol- 
lows : — Sheets  of  16-oz.  copper,  or  copper 
weighing  16  oz.  to  the  square  foot, 
are  cut  up  into  strips,  three  inches  broad, 
and  passed  into  the  machine  for  receiving 
them,  which,  from  that  moment,  converts 
them,  by  a  very  speedy  and  ingenious 
process,  into  caps  ready,  to  receive  the 
fulminating  charge ;  they  have,  however, 
previously  to  be  washed  in  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  to  free  them  of  all  red  oxide 
which  may  remain  on  the  surface  of  the 
copper.  The  caps  are  then  washed  in 
clean  -water,  and  boiled  in  a  solution  of 
pearl  ash  to  remove  the  oil.  The 
machine  that  forms  the  caps  turns  out  at 
every  beat  of  its  progress  three  or  four 
caps  at  a  time,  and  the  speed  with  which 
they  can  be  made  depends  upon  the  regu- 
lation of  the  steam  power.  After  the 
caps  have  been  steeped  in  diluted  siil- 
phuric  acid  for  some  time,  they  are  dried, 
and  placed  on  gun-metal  plates,  holding  a 
regulated  number  of  caps  ready  to  receive 
their  charge ;  this  is  accomplished  in 


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the  loading  room  ;  they  are  then  removed 
from  thence  to  the  compressing  machine, 
after  which  they  are  taken  to  the  var- 
nishing machine  to  fix  the  charge  in  the 
caps.  This  machine  is  so  adapted  that 
each  cap  receives  one  drop  of  varnish 
composed  of  spirits  of  wine  and  shell 
lac.  The  plates  are  then  removed  and 
placed  on  steam  baths,  to  dry  and  fix 
the  varnish.  Glazing,  if  carried  out,  is 
effected  by  the  slight  pressure  of  a 
spindle  upon  the  charge.  The  caps  are 
now  closely  examined  to  see  that  each 
has  received  its  charge,  and  afterwards 
weighed,  and  packed  away  in  tin  boxes. 

Capstan — A  strong  massive  piece  of 
timber,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  pierced 
with  holes  for  the  reception  of  bars  or 
levers  to  which  the  power  required  is 
applied.  Round  the  capstan  a  rope  is 
coiled,  to  the  end  of  which  the  weight  to 
be  lifted  is  attached.  In  default  of  a 
capstan  an  artillery  wheel  can  be  made  to 
take  its  place. 

Captain — In  the  army,  an  officer  who 
commands  a  troop  of  horse,  or  a  company 
of  infantry.  The  title  of  captain  was 
first  used  to  denote  the  chief  or  head  of 
a  company  of  troops  or  body  of  men. 
In  the  artillery  there  is  a  captain  ap- 
pointed to  each  battery,  but  he  has  no 
independent  command.  He  is  now  simply 
second  in  command  of  a  battery.  For- 
merly the  commander  of  a  battery  was  a 
captain,  and  a  second  captain  was  attached 
to  each  battery  to  aid  him  in  his  duties ; 
but  on  the  re-introduction  of  the  rank  of 
major  in  the  artillery,  the  commander  of 
a  battery  became  a  field  officer,  and  the 
name  of  second  captain  was  abolished  for 
that  of  captain. 

In  the  engineers,  the  same  change  has 
occurred.  In  the  militia  and  volunteers 
batteries  of  artillery  are  still  commanded 
by  captains. 

In  the  guards  the  rank  of  captain 
gives  also  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  the  latter  is  therefore  captain  and 
lieutenant-colonel. 

Captain-Lieutenant — A  rank  formerly 
held  in  the  army.  This  position  carried 
the  rank  of  captain  in  the  army,  similar 
to  what  the  rank  of  lieutenant  and  cap- 
tain does  in  the  foot  guards  at  the 
present  day.  A  captain-lieutenant  did 
subaltern's  duty  in  his  company,  and 


could  hold  the  post  of  adjutant.  He 
was  also  the  subaltern  who  commanded 
the  "  colonel's  company  "  in  each  regi- 
ment of  infantry. 

Carabiniers,  or  Carbineers — All  regi- 
ments of  light-armed  horse  were  formerly 
thus  called,  but  since  the  establishment 
of  hussars  they  have  lost  that  appella- 
.tion.  They  are  said  to  have  derived 
their  designation  from  the  Arabs,  amongst 
whom  the  Carabins  or  Karabins  were 
light  horsemen,  stationed  at  out-posts  to 
harass  the  enemy,  defend  narrow  passes, 
&c.  ;  in  action  they  took  the  place  of 
skirmishers.  There  is  only  one  cavalry 
regiment  in  the  service,  the  6th  Dragoon 
Guards,  which  bears  the  name  of 
Carbineers.  The  first  regiments  of 
carbineers  were  raised  in  the  reign  of 
James  II. 

Troops  called  Carabins,  a  sort  of  light 
cavalry  from  Spain,  are  first  mentioned 
in  England  in  1559. 

Carbine — A  small-arm  rifle  of  shorter 
dimensions  and  less  weight  than  a  mus- 
ket, and  used  by  both  cavalry  and 
artillery.  The  carbines  in  the  service 
are  of  two  kinds,  muzzle  and  breech- 
loading.  The  converted  Enfield  rifled 
carbine,  now  the  Snider,  is  the  arm  used 
by  the  artillery  and  cavalry,  except  the 
lancers.  The  royal  engineers  use  Lan- 
caster's converted  breech-loader.  In  Ap- 
pendix F  is  shown  what  troops  use  the 
muzzle-loading  carbine  rifle. 

Carbon — Is  found  in  many  minerals 
and  in  most  vegetable  and  animal  sub- 
stances. Carbon^  or  pure  charcoal,  is 
found  in  its  pure  state  in  the  diamond. 
As  charcoal,  it  burns  quickly  and 
strongly,  and  preserves  its  heat  for  a 
long  time.  Carbon  abounds  in  coal,  but 
mixed  up  with  iron,  sulphur,  and  other 
bituminous  constituents.  It  is  also  one 
of  the  elements  which  forms  carbonic 
acid  with  oxygen. 

Carcasses — Shells  of  greater  thickness 
of  metal  than  common  shells  of  the  same 
diameter,  and  having  three  vents  instead 
of  a  fuze  hole.  These  holes  admit  of  the 
burning  composition,  with  which  the 
shells  are  filled,  acting  with  great  force 
and  vigour  on  whatever  the  shells  may 
fall.  Carcasses  are  chiefly  employed  in 
bombarding  towns,  harbours,  &c.,  and 
may  be  fired  from  mortars,  howitzers, 


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rockets,  or  S.B.  guns,  but,  generally 
speaking,  they  are  fired  from  mortars. 
They  burn  tor  the  space  of  eight  or  ten 
minutes,  and  the  nature  of  the  com- 
position is  such  that  they  will  burn 
under  water.  Carcasses  are  fired  with 
service  charges,  except  the  13-  and  10- 
inch  carcasses,  which  are  fired  with  16 
and  9  Ibs.  respectively. 

Carriage,  Beam,  vide  Beam  Carriage. 

Carriage,  Block-trail,  vide  Block-trail 
Carriage. 

Carriage,  Depression,  vide  Depression 
Carriage. 

Carriage,  Drug,  vide  Drug  Carriage. 

Carriage,  Moncrieff — A  barbette-tra- 
versing carriage,  invented  by  Major 
Moncrieff,  of  the  Edinburgh  Artillery 
Militia,  having  for  its  object  the  power 
of  mounting  guns  with  counter-weights, 
of  using  them  in  gun-pits,  and  of  laying 
them  with  reflecting  sights. 

In  a  lecture  given  at  the  United 
Service  Institution,  a  few  years  ago, 
by  Major  Moncrieff,  he  explained  that 
since  the  introduction  of  rifled  guns 
and  small-arms,  the  protection  afforded 
to  the  artillery  and  the  detachment 
serving  the  guns  in  battery  was  not 
proportionate  to  the  increased  power  of 
the  fire  of  arms  of  precision,  and  that  the 
necessary  protection,  such  as  casemates 
and  turrets  afforded,  could  not  be  made 
available  except  at  great  expense,  and 
even  then  at  the  sacrifice  of  range  of 
fire.  It  was  apparent  to  him,  therefore, 
that  if  extended  range  were  required, 
guns  must  still  be  nfbunted  en  barbette, 
thereby  necessitating  the  exposure, 
whilst  loading,  of  the  gun  detachment. 

The  principle  of  the  Moncrieff  inven- 
tion is  this: — 

"  By  a  simple  application  of  counter- 
weight with  a  moving  fulcrum,  the  car- 
riage lowers  the  gun  out  of  fire.  The 
gun  of  its  own  accord  rises  into  the  firing 
position,  the  energy  of  the  recoil  being 
stored  up  to  make  it  do  so." 

The  advantages,  as  set  forth  by  the 
inventor,  are  as  follows  : — 

'•  It  enables  a  small  gun  detachment, 
behind  a  mound  of  earth,  to  load  and 
point  the  gun  in  this  protected  position 
without  being  seen. 

''To  fire  the  gun  without  the  men 
being  exposed. 


"  It  effects  an  enormous  economy  of 
labour,  material,  and  life. 

"  From  the  fulcrum  between  the  gun 
and  counterweight  being  a  movable  one, 
the  jar  and  shock  caused  by  firing,  and 
transferred  by  friction  to  the  platform, 
are  avoided. 

"  It  is  only  exposed  to  direct  fire 
during  the  short  time  required  to  dis- 
charge the  gun,  which,  on  firing,  de- 
scends of  its  own  accord  out  of  harm's 
way." 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the 
Moncrieff  wrought-iron  garrison  carriage 
for  the  rifled  M.L.  7-inch  gun,  as  ap- 
proved of  by  the  War  Department : — 

"The  apparatus  may  be  described, 
generally,  as  consisting  of  a  carriage  pro- 
per attached  by  a  shaft  to  one  end  of  a 
curved  elevator  which  has  a  counter- 
weight, consisting  of  iron  ballast,  packed 
in  boxes  at  the  other  end.  These  are 
placed  on  a  low  traversing  platform, 
which  is  fitted  with  guide  rails  support- 
ing the  rear  of  the  carriage,  and  with 
friction  traversing  gear. 

"  Upon  the  gun  being  fired,  the  force 
exerted  by  the  recoil  raises  the  counter- 
poise, and  the  gun  descends  until  it  is 
brought  to  rest  below  the  level  of  the 
parapet.  It  is  there  detained  by  self- 
acting  pawls'  contained  in  the  break 
drums ;  the  gun  is  run  up  by  raising 
weighted  levers  and  allowing  the  break 
drums  to  revolve  by  the  reaction  of  the 
counterweight  until  the  gun  reaches  the 
firing  position." 

For  naval  purposes,  Major  Moncrieff 
has  also  invented  a  means  of  raising 
and  lowering  guns  from  the  lower  to 
the  upper  deck,  and  vice  versa,  by  the 
introduction  of  the  hydro-pneumatic 
carriage,  but,  as  he  explained  in  a  recent 
lecture,  this  new  contrivance  is  as 
different  from  the  system  now  adopted 
for  land  service  as  could  be  imagined  ; 
there  is  in  it  neither  a  moving  fulcrum 
nor  a  counterweight,  which  are  the 
grand  characteristics  of  the  land  service 
carriage.  Instead  of  using  the  force  of 
gravity,  pneumatic  agency  is  employed 
as  the  balancing  force,  and  the  recoil  is 
absorbed  by  the  same  agency. 

Carriages,  Artillery — Embrace  all 
carriages  for  the  transport  and  service 
of  guns,  their  ammunition,  and  stores. 


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Those  on  which  land  guns  are  mounted 
are  of  three  natures — field,  garrison,  and 
siege.  Since  the  introduction  of  M.L.R. 
guns,  the  carriages  are  made  of  wrought 
iron,  though  there  are  still  wooden  car- 
riages in  the  service ;  but  these  will  be 
superseded  by  degrees.  For  the  manu- 
facture of  all  natures  of  gun  carriages  in 
England,  Woolwich  possesses  one  of  the 
finest  factories  in  the  world,  in  which 
naval  as  well  as  military  carriages  are 
made  up.  This  factory  or  carriage 
department  of  the  arsenal,  as  it  is 
properly  termed,  was  first  organised  in 
1803,  and  has  gradually  developed  into  a 
first-rate  establishment,  possessing  of  late 
years  every  means,  mechanical  and  other- 
wise, for  manufacturing  carriages  in  the 
most  expeditious  and  approved  manner. 

Carriages,  Field — Carriages  on  which 
the  lighter  natures  of  ordnance  are 
mounted,  and  on  which  they  travel,  and1 
from  which  they  are  fired.  They  consist 
of  the  gun  carriage,  the  limber  and 
ammunition  wagon.  In  the  home  service, 
and  partly  in  the  Indian  service  (until 
within  the  last  few  years),  the  field  bat- 
teries were  composed  of  12-pr.  and  9-pr. 
B.L.  rirled  guns  (Armstrong),  mounted 
on  wooden  carriages,  but  since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  present  M.L.R.  guns, 
wrought-iron  bracket  carriages  have  been 
constructed,  the  axle-trees  and  axle-tree 
beds  of  which  are  combined  in  one.  The 
advantage  of  this  construction  is  its  in- 
creased strength. 

Carriages,  Garrison — Carriages  con- 
structed for  such  guns  and  howitzers 
as  are  not  intended  for  transport,  and 
which  are  generally  placed  on  the 
ramparts  of  a  fortress  or  in  case- 
mates and  other  fortified  buildings. 
The  old-pattern  carriages  are  made  of 
cast  iron.  Since  the  introduction  of 
heavy  rifled  guns,  the  patterns  of  garri- 
son carriages  have  been  modified  to  suit 
the  nature  and  weight  of  the  ordnance, 
as  well  as  the  position  in  which  they  are 
to  be  placed.  They  are  now  made  of 
wrought  iron,  with  sliding  carriages  of 
the  same  metal.  To  check  the  recoil, 
an  hydraulic  buffer  is  attached  to  each  ; 
this  buffer  is  entirely  self-acting,  and 
when  once  filled  with  refined  petroleum 
oil,  known  as  Rangoon  oil,  requires  no 
further  adjustment. 


Carriages,  Mountain — Carriages  on 
which  guns  used  in  hilly  countries  are 
mounted.  The  pattern  carriage  in  use 
is  the  bracket,  made  of  steel,  and  light 
enough,  that  for  the  7-pr.  gun,  of  150 
Ibs.,  to  be  carried  on  a  mule.  The  car- 
riages for  the  heavier  mountain  guns 
are  of  the  same  pattern,  but  with  some 
slight  alteration. 

Carriages,  Muzzle-pivoting — The  ob- 
ject of  this  system  is  to  give  elevation 
and  depression  to  the  gun  without 
movement  of  the  muzzle.  This  is 
especially  an  advantage  where  the  height 
of  the  ports  in  iron  ships  is  limited, 
and  also  where  it  is  desirable  to  give 
greater  cover  to  gun  detachments. 
Three  systems,  it  appears,  have  been 
tried,  but  not  favourably  reported  on. 
The  reason  muzzle-pivoting  has  never 
succeeded  is  stated  by  Major  Morgan, 
R.A.,  in  his  lecture  before  the  United 
Service  Institution  in  1874,  to  be 
"  because  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
whole  mass  of  the  gun  has  to  be  raised. 
The  only  way  in  which  it  can  satisfac- 
torily be  accomplished  is  by  the  Moncrieff 
principle,  or  some  such  modification. 
With  my  gun,  however,  the  trunnions 
have  merely  to  be  fixed  in  the  turret, 
and  the  whole  question  is  solved." 

As  some  of  our  iron  forts  are  con- 
structed with  small  ports,  the  best  of 
the  three  systems  will  probably  be 
adopted,  and  that  of  Colonel  Inglis's 
appears  to  be  the  best.  The  following 
extract  from  Major  Griffith's  'Artillerist's 
Manual '  will  explain  the  mode  of  elevat- 
ing and  depressing  the  gun  : — "Elevation 
and  depression  is  given  in  the  usual 
manner,  but  the  trunnions  are  supported 
on  screw-jacks,  by  means  of  which  the 
gun  can  be  raised  or  lowered.  The  port 
'  is  constructed  to  give  an  amount  of 
elevation  equal  to  from  0°  to  5°.  Let  us 
suppose  for  instance  that,  with  the  gun 
|  in  a  certain  position,  elevation  can  be 
[  given  up  to  5°,  and  that  10°  is  wanted. 
Elevate  first  to  5°  (the  muzzle  will  be 
near  the  top  of  the  port),  and  then  lower 
the  gun,  by  means  of  the  screw-jack, 
till  the  muzzle  nearly  touches  the  sill 
of  the  port.  The  gun  will  still  be  at 
5°  elevation,  and  5°  more  can  be  ob- 
tained by  elevating  in  the  usual  way. 
Captain  Scott's  carriages  for  turret -guns 


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are  constructed  nearly  on  the  same 
principle." 

Carriages,  Siege — Carriages  of  the 
bracket-pattern  on  which  siege  guns  are 
mounted.  Hitherto  they  have  been 
made  of  wood,  but  wrought  iron,  which 
is  fast  superseding  wood  material,  is  to 
be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  all  car- 
riages of  this  nature,  as  has  been  the 
case  in  all  field  carriages  of  a  late  con- 
struction. 

A  hydro-pneumatic  carriage  has  also 
lately  been  proposed  by  Major  Moncrieff 
for  the  use  of  siege  carriages,  somewhat 
on  the  system  of  his  counterweight 
carriage  for  heavy  guns.  The  object 
obtained  is  lightness,  the  facility  of  load- 
ing the  gun  out  of  sight  of  the  enemy, 
and  raising  it  en  barbette  without  any 
difficulty,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of 
cutting  embrasures  in  the  parapet.  The 
following  description  of  the  method  of 
using  the  hydro-pneumatic  system  is 
herewith  given  extracted  from  a  recent 
number  of  the  Times: — 

"  The  carriage  is  designed  for  siege 
purposes,  and  it  seems  not  improbable 
that  the  development  of  its  prin- 
ciple may  altogether  revolutionise  that 
branch  of  military  operations.  Batteries 
of  attacks  have  hitherto  been  protected 
by  embankments  hastily  thrown  up, 
while  the  guns  have  been  fired  through 
embrasures.  But  the  deadly  precision 
of  improved  artillery  sends  shot  after 
shot  into  the  embrasures,  while  its 
penetrating  power  makes  ordinary  earth- 
works but  very  indifferent  protection. 
Major  MoncriefTs  idea  is  to  adapt  to  the 
attack  the  system  he  has  been  elaborat- 
ing for  our  coast  defences.  He  digs  a 
hole  and  buries  his  gun  in  it.  The  soil, 
when  it  is  excavated,  is  carried  to  the 
rear,  and  the  enemy  has  no  mark  to 
guide  his  aim  ;  after  each  discharge  the 
gun  sinks  out  of  sight,  and  the  indication 
of  its  precise  whereabouts  vanishes  with 
the  smoke.  In  the  sieges  in  the  late 
war  the  Germans  found  that  they  must 
withdraw  their  batteries  to  immense 
distances,  whence  the  fire  was  vague  and 
relatively  ineffective.  Major  Moncrieff 
undertakes  to  place  his  guns  within  500 
vards  of  the  enemy's  works.  By  his 
well-known  idea  of  the  counterweight 
he  had  attained  his  object  of  elevating 


the  gun  out  and  returning  it  to  cover, 
and  so  enabling  the  gunners  to  work  in 
comparative  safety  by  storing  the  force  of 
the  recoil.  But  the  objection  to  apply- 
ing the  system  to  siege  operations  was 
the  unwieldy  weight  of  carriages  fitted 
with  the  counterweight,  where  lightness 
and  facility  of  movement  were  primary 
considerations.  The  hydro-pneumatic 
system  dispenses  with  this  ponderous 
counterweight,  replacing  it  ingeniously 
with  a  simple  cylinder  only  containing 
air  and  water,  which  oscillates  between 
the  cheeks  of  the  gun  carriage. 

"  It  is  a  feature  in  the  carriage  that  it 
can  be  secured  on  an  improvised  platform 
without  any  heavy  and  costly  appliances. 
It  was  fastened,  as  it  is  intended  to  be 
fastened  in  actual  service,  by  a  chain 
passed  loosely  round  some  balks  of 
timber  buried  in  the  ground,  and  the 
fastening  acts  as  a  rude  pivot,  on  which 
it  revolves.  The  gun  was  a  rifled 
muzzle-loading  64-pr.  ;  it  was  fired 
with  12  Ibs.  of  powder,  and  the  car- 
riage very  much  resembled  an  ordinary 
siege  one.  When  in  position  for  firing, 
the  gun  is  raised  to  a  height  of  some  7 
feet  upon  a  pair  of  arms  or  elevators 
which  lay  hold  of  the  trunnions,  and 
their  action  is  regulated  by  racks,  which 
are  arranged  to  work  in  connection  with 
a  radial  connecting  rod.  Between  these 
is  the  head  of  the  piston  which  works  in 
the  hydro-pneumatic  cylinder.  With 
the  discharge  of  the  gun  the  head  of  the 
cylinder  sways  backwards,  the  piston  is 
forced  down  by  the  recoil,  and,  as  the 
piston  slowly  goes  down  in  this  cylinder, 
the  gun  descends  with  it  to  the  normal 
position  for  loading.  The  internal  ad- 
justments of  the  cylinder  are,  of  course, 
the  essence  of  the  invention.  The  piston 
descends  in  a  tube  of  water,  communi- 
cating at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  with 
a  couple  of  side  chambers  which  are  filled 
with  air.  As  the  water  is  forced  down 
in  the  central  tube,  it  necessarily  rushes 
into  the  side  ones,  and  the  elasticity  of 
the  air  it  violently  compresses  is  the  mo- 
tive power  that  is  to  be  stored  for  use. 
There  is  just  sufficient  water  to  fill  the 
central  cylinder  and  to  cover  all  the 
valves  and  joints,  and  there  is  nothing 
but  strong  and  solid  metal  in  those  parts 
of  the  side  chambers  in  which  the  com- 


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pressed  air  is  to  be  confined.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder,  between  it  and 
the  air  valve,  and  immediately  in 
rear  of  the  latter,  is  a  '  throttle  valve.' 
The  throttle  valve  consists  of  a  small, 
circular,  perforated  cylinder,  revolving 
within  a  larger  one,  and  its  purpose  is 
to  neutralise,  by  the  application  of  water 
friction,  any  excess  of  energy  in  the 
recoil.  Indeed,  next  to  employing  air 
and  water,  as  light  and  convenient 
materials  of  enormous  power  to  work 
those  heavy  siege  guns,  the  idea  is  to  use 
those  elements  so  as  to  avoid  friction  and 
concussion.  Instead  of  the  violent  recoil 
which  threatened  to  shake  the  strongest 
carriage  to  pieces  when  it  was  arrested 
sharply  by  the  resistance  of  screws  and 
iron,  according  to  this  hydro-pneumatic 
system  the  recoil  is  made  to  exhaust  itself 
upon  air  springs  and  water  cushions.  The 
first  shock  is  broken  upon  the  mass  of 
water  in  the  middle  cylinder,  and  the 
throttle  valve  disposes,  as  it  were,  of  any 
of  the  subsequent  vibrations.  Theoreti- 
cally, therefore,  if  we  may  use  the  ex- 
pression, the  recoil  should  be  all  self- 
contained.  It  was  very  nearly  so  in 
practice ;  the  carriage  moved  slightly 
to  the  first  shot,  as  the  chain  tightened 
that  secured  it  to  the  timber  balks ;  but 
the  shot  that  followed  made  no  per- 
ceptible change  in  its  position.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  under  the  old 
system,  and  before  Major  Moncrieff  had 
invented  his  counterpoise,  or  thought  of 
his  hydro-pneumatic  cylinder,  the  gun 
would  have  wrenched  itself  away  from 
any  such  rough  and  ready  fastening. 
When  the  piece  is  raised  for  firing,  it  is 
managed  by  a  worm-wheel  at  the  side, 
which  regulates  the  angle  of  elevation, 
and  which  turns  easily  to  the  touch  of  a 
lady.  To  sum  up  the  merits  of  the  in- 
vention, if  it  realises  the  advantages 
claimed  for  it — and  as  it  is  confessed  to 
be  a  mechanical  success,  we  scarcely  see 
how  it  can  fail  to  do  so — it  will  enable 
siege  batteries  to  be  established  and 
worked  with  comparative  impunity  at 
an  extraordinary  short  distance  from  the 
formidable  guns  which  are  mounted  on 
modern  fortresses ;  siege  guns  may  be 
secured  in  position  anywhere  with 
materials  that  are  always  ready  to  hand ; 
and  carriages  on  constant  service  will  be 


exposed  to  the  very  minimum  of  strain. 
Moreover,  Major  MoncrierFs  new  appara- 
tus can  be  easily  adapted  to  ordinary 
siege  carriages,  and  a  cart  and  a  couple 
of  horses  will  transport  its  extra  weight. 
If  it  proves  successful  with  the  heavy 
64-pr.  siege  guns,  a  fortiori  it  mu^t 
succeed  with  the  40-pr.  to  be  em- 
ployed for  our  coast  batteries,  as  sug- 
gested in  Major  MoncrierFs  pamphlet  on 
our  national  defences,  published  by  Stan- 
ford. We  may  add  that  the  invention 
has  the  warm  approval  of  such  distin- 
guished military  engineers  as  the 
Austrian  Icholl  and  the  Belgian  Brial- 
mont,  and  those  authorities  on  the  art  of 
war  are  not  men  to  commit  themselves 
to  an  opinion  lightly." 

Carrier-Pigeon — The  name  of  a  species 
of  pigeon  which  is  used  in  war  time  to 
convey  messages  to  any  particular  city, 
post,  or  detached  wing  of  an  army. 
During  the  campaign  of  1870  between 
France  and  Prussia,  carrier  pigeons  were 
constantly  used  by  the  French.  In  a 
French  work  lately  issued,  the  subject  of 
messenger  pigeons  has  been  revived,  show- 
ing that  the  birds  known  as  homing-pigeons 
supply  the  most  simple  and  the  .most 
practical  means  of  transmitting  orders  to 
a  distance  during  military  operations. 
The  work,  which  is  by  M.  du  Pay  de 
Podio,  commandant  au  48e  de  Ligne,  goes 
on  to  show  that  white  is  the  best  colour 
for  a  carrier-pigeon  for  the  reason  men- 
tioned in  his  book.  He  then  goes  on  to 
state  the  treatment  and  management  of 
these  birds,  and  how  they  should  be 
reared.  He  considers  they  are  far  more 
reliable  for  transmitting  messages  than 
balloon-post.  It  is  stated  (1874)  that 
the  French  military  authorities  have 
decided  upon  following  the  example  of 
Russia,  Italy,  Austria,  and  Germany,  in 
organising  a  regular  pigeon  telegraph. 
This  example  might  well  be  followed  by 
England.  Carrier-pigeons  are  said  to  have 
been  used  by  the  old  Roman  navigators 
before  the  days  of  the  Cassars,  and  there  is 
no  reason  why  it  might  not  be  worth  while 
to  revive  their  use  on  board  the  Trans- 
atlantic steamers. 

Carronade— A  piece  of  ordnance  in* 
vented  by  Mr.  Gascoigne,  but  now  obso- 
lete. The  carronade  took  its  name  from 
the  Carron  Foundry  in  Scotland,  being  the 


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first  kind  of  ordnance  cast  there,  and  was 
introduced  into  the  service  in  1779. 
Carronades  are  short  pieces  of  ordnance, 
and  have  less  metal  than  guns  of  the 
same  calibre,  being  intended  not  so  much 
for  long  ranges  as  to  project  shot  of  large 
calibre  with  accuracy  to  such  distances  as 
vessels  of  war  in  those  days  were  sup- 
posed to  engage  at,  viz.  from  400  to  600 
yards.  These  pieces  have  no  trunnions, 
but  are  cast  with  a  loop  underneath,  a 
bolt  passing  through  attaching  them  to 
their  carriages.  They  have  no  swell  at 
the  muzzle,  but  an  enlargement  of  the 
bore  or  cap  to  facilitate  the  putting 
in  of  the  shot,  and  to  save  the  rigging 
and  hammock  nettings  on  board  ship. 
They  have  a  sight  on  the  reinforce  ring, 
and  their  chambers  are  cylindrical ; 
the  charge  is  one-twelfth  the  shot's 
weight. 

Carry,  To — In  a  military  sense,  is  to 
obtain  possession  by  force  ;  hence  "  to 
carry  by  assault." 

The  term  "  carry  arms  "  is  used  in  the 
manual  and  firing  exercises,  and  is  the 
position  a  soldier  brings  his  firelock  to, 
as  a  mark  of  respect,  when  an  officer 
passes  his  post. 

Cart — A  frame-work  of  wood,  with 
sides,  front  and  end  boards,  placed  upon 
two  wheels,  and  drawn  by  one  or  two 
horses.  In  the  artillery,  carts  are  very 
generally  used.  A  new -pattern  cart 
was  introduced  a  few  years  ago  into 
the  service  for  the  carriage  of  small- 
arm  ammunition  in  the  field.  There 
are  about  eighteen  carts  in  the  service 
of  different  patterns  and  for  various 
purposes. 

Cart,  Hand — A  cart  used  for  carrying 
ammunition  and  stores,  especially  in  the 
supply  of  advanced  batteries,  when 
wagons  cannot  conveniently  approach. 
The  hand  cart  will  carry  a  load  of 
15  cwt. 

Carts,  Transport — Carts  used  for  the 
conveyance  of  stores  of  all  natures  both 
of  food  and  ammunition,  and  for  the  car- 
riage of  the  sick.  When  an  army  takes 
the  field,  the  control  department  has  the 
selection  and  provision  of  carts  for  the 
carriage  of  the  stores,  tents,  &c.  In  the 
selection  of  carriages,  that  which  travels 
the  easiest  and  lightest  is  to  be  preferred. 
Two-wheel  carts  form  admirable  trans- 


port,   and    have    the    following    advan- 
tages :— 

Horses    nearer  their    load,  and  there- 
fore easier  draft  ; 

Easier  driven  ; 

One  kind  of  wheel  ; 

Easier  extricated  in  heavy  ground  ; 

Carry  more  in  proportion    than  four- 
wheel  carts  ; 

Go  over  worse  ground. 
The   best   pattern    is    the    Maltese    cart, 
which  stands   high  enough  to  be  drawn 
by  large-sized  mules. 

Cart,  Trench — A  modification  of  the 
hand  cart.  It  is  smaller  than  it,  but 
stronger,  and  can  be  used  for  carrying 
10-inch  or  smaller  mortars  and  their 
beds.  It  is  fitted  with  shafts  for  single 
draught. 

Cartouch,  Gun — A  waterproof  canvas 
case  for  holding  the  cartridges  of  a  field 
battery.  There  is  one  to  each  ammu- 
nition box.  Copper  cartouches  were  for- 
merly in  use  in  the  Indian  batteries  ;  and 
for  damp  climates,  such  as  Assam  and 
Burmah,  they  will  be  found  to  be  more 
serviceable  than  canvas. 

Cartridge — A  case  or  bag  containing 
a  charge  of  gunpowder  or  gun  cotton, 
which  is  used  to  propel  bullets  or  larger 
natures  of  projectiles  from  small-arms 
and  guns. 

Cartridge,  Buck-shot  —  A  cartridge 
used  with  M.L.  and  B.L.  Snider  arms  of 
•577  bore.  The  former  consists  of  two 
paper  cylinders,  one  containing  2J 
drachms  of  R.F.G.  powder,  the  other 
containing  twelve  buck-shot,  weighing 
about  220  to  the  pound.  Buck-shot 
cartridges  for  B.L.  arms  are  similar  to 
the  one  described.  These  cartridges  are 
issued  in  this  country  to  convict  warders. 

Cartridge  Cases  for  Guns — Cases  for 
bringing  cartridges  up  to  the  gun  from 
the  magazine.  They  are  made  of  leather 
for  S.B.,  B.L.R.  and  M.L.R.  guns,  up  to 
the  9-inch ;  but  for  the  7-inch  M.L.R. 
guns  and  upwards,  zinc  cylinders  are 
used. 

Cartridge,  Drill — A  dummy  cartridge 
used  for  drill  purposes  with  ordnance. 
For  B.L.  ordnance  it  is  made  of  leather. 
The  interior  consists  of  a  wooden  cylin- 
der, packed  round  with  felt  and  a  wooden 
dummy  lubricator  of  such  length  and 
diameter  as,  when  covered  with  leather, 


CAR 


67 


to  form  a  cartridge  of  the  same  dimen- 
sions as  the  service  cartridge.  A  copper 
plate  is  fixed  at  the  base  to  prevent 
injury  from  the  explosion  of  the  tube. 
For  M.L.R.  guns,  raw  hide  is  used  to 
cover  the  half  wood  block. 

Cartridge,  Ghin — A  bag  in  which  the 
charge  of  powder  is  placed  before  the 
cartridge  is  inserted  in  the  gun.  The 
size  and  form  of  cartridges  depend  on  the 
nature  of  the  guns  with  which  they  are  to 
be  used,  and  the  purpose  for  which  they 
are  required.  They  are  made  of  serge,  silk 
(a  material  made  entirely  from  refuse 
silk),  and  raw  hide — serge  for  service, 
silk  for  saluting  or  exercising,  and  raw 
hide  for  drill  purposes.  Experience  has 
shown  that  serge  is  hardly  strong  enough 
for  heavy  charges  ;  silk  cloth,  therefore, 
which  is  much  stronger,  is  likely  to  take 
its  place.  Serge  or  flannel  cartridges  are 
hooped  (stitched  round  with  rings  of 
thread  or  broad  braid),  which  tends  to 
keep  them  in  their  proper  shape  when 
filled. 

In  examining  cannon  cartridges  (filled 
or  empty)  care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  flannel  is  perfectly  sound 
throughout,  and  the  sewing  uninjured, 
and  free  from  all  appearance  of  moth. 
If  filled,  the  powder  should  be  free  from 
all  lumps  or  dust.  Dust  in  powder  in 
any  package  or  parcel  of  cartridges  will 
be  shown  by  the  flannel  appearing  black 
and  dusty  on  the  outside. 

To  restore  the  cartridge,  if  the  powder 
has  become  caked  by  pressure,  gentle 
rolling  will  bring  it  to  its  proper  state ; 
but  if  it  has  been  caked  from  wet,  it 
cannot  be  restored  without  injury  to  the 
grain. 

Cartridges  which  are  injured  by  moths, 
or  have  the  flannel  torn  or  damaged,  or 
of  which  the  powder  has  been  wetted  and 
caked,  or  which  is  very  dusty,  are  un- 
serviceable. 

Cartridge,  Martini  -  Henry,  vide 
Bottle-necked  Cartridge. 

Cartridge,  Small-arm — Consists  of  a 
cylindrical  case,  in  which  the  exact  charge 
of  the  musket  or  rifle  is  placed,  including 
the  bullet. 

The  new  service  cartridge  is  that  used 
with  the  Martini-Henry  rifle,  the  small- 
arm  lately  issued  to  the  British  army. 
The  cartridge  is  similar  in  general  con- 


struction to  the  cartridge  for  the  Snider 
arm.  It  is  thus  described  in  the 
'  Changes  in  War  Material '  for  Septem- 
ber 1874,  as  follows  : — 

"  The  bullet  is  made  of  an  alloy  of 
12  parts  lead  and  1  part  tin.  It  has 
two  cannelures,  is  papered,  and  lubricated 
with  beeswax.  The  weight  of  the  bullet 
is  480  grains.* 

The  case  is  made  of  sheet-brass,  0'004 
inch  in  thickness,  partially  covered  on  the 
inner  side  with  tissue  paper  attached  by 
cement.  It  has  also  a  small  band  of 
sheet-brass,  O004  inch,  riveted  on  its 
inner  side  in  such  a  position  that  when 
the  case  is  rolled  up,  it  will  be  between 
the  folds  so  as  to  prevent  '  cutting '  at 
the  top  of  the  base  cup.  There  is  a  small 
hole  pierced  through  the  case  in  order 
that  it  may  be  seen  if  the  band  is  in  its 
proper  position.  After  the  case  is  rolled, 
the  top  end  is  reduced  in  diameter  by 
crimping  from  -577  inch  to  0-45  inch. 

The  charge  of  powder  is  85f  grains ; 
the  manufacturing  limit  being  ±  2 
grains.  On  the  top  of  the  charge  is  a 
glazed  board  disc,  with  a  concave  beeswax 
wad  attached,  on  the  top  of  which  two 
more  glazed  board  discs  are  placed ;  the 
bullet  is  then  inserted  and  secured  by 
choking  the  case  into  the  two  can- 
nelures. 

The  remaining  parts  of  the  cartridge 
are  the  same  as  in  the  cartridge  for  the 
Snider  arm." 

Cascable — In  artillery,  that  portion  of 
a  piece  of  ordnance  in  rear  of  the  base 
ring ;  it  is  composed  generally  of  the 
button,  the  neck,  neck  fillet,  and  the  base 
of  the  breech.  This  description  has  re- 
ference to  S.B.  guns,  rifled  guns  having 
no  such  mouldings,  but  heavy  M.L.R.  guns 
have  a  cascable,  which  is  screwed  in  at 
the  rear  of  the  gun,  and  fits  evenly 
against  the  end  of  the  steel  barrel.  The 
cascable  has  a  button  through  which  a 
hole  (which  is  afterwards  enlarged  into 
the  loop)  is  drilled  through  one  end,  for 
the  purpose  of  screwing  the  cascable  into 
the  gun. 

Cascable  Hitch,  vide  Clove  Hitch. 

Case-hardening — An  operation  of  great 
importance  in  the  treatment  of  iron, 


*  Has  been  reduced  to  410  grains, 
f  Reduced  to  80  grains. 

F   2 


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68 


CAS 


whereby  a  thin  casing  of  steel  is  given  to 
it,  and  "the  conversion  can  be  carried  to 
an  extent  which  leaves  the  central  parts 
of  the  metal  in  their  original  condition  of 
soft  fibrous  iron,  or  of  cast  iron. 

Case  Shot — Another  name  for  canister. 
Thi.s  nature  of  ammunition  is  fired  from 
all  ordnance.  Vide  Canister. 

Casemate— A  chamber  made  within 
the  ramparfs  of  a  fortification,  to  contain 
a  number  of  guns,  embrasures  being  cut 
for  them  through  the  revetment ;  in  some 
systems  its  particular  use  is  to  defend 
the  ditch.  Casemated  batteries  are 
generally  used  on  the  sea  faces  of  works, 
and  in  defending  the  entrance  of  harbours, 
in  which  case  they  consist  of  a  bomb-proof 
arch,  open  to  the  rear.  Iron  plating  and 
shields  of  various  thickness  are  used  in 
the  protection  of  the  embrasures. 

Cashiering — The  dismissal  of  an  officer 
by  a  court-martial  for  dishonourable  or 
disgraceful  conduct,  whereby  he  is  ren- 
dered incapable  of  serving  the  sovereign 
for  the  future  in  any  military  capacity. 

Cask— A  round  wooden  vessel,  of  more 
length  than  breadth,  bulging  out  in  the 
middle,  and  closed  up  at  either  end.  In 
military  operations,  casks  are  used  to  form 
bridges  across  rivers  when  no  pontoons 
can  be  had.  They  should  be  about  4  feet 
3  inches  long,  and  diameter  at  head  and 
bulge,  2  feet  2  inches  and  2  feet  9  inches 
respectively,  which  is  the  size  of  the 
water  butts  of  the  navy ;  but  any 
barrels  available  will  answer.  Casks 
filled  with  earth  may  also  be  used  as 
gabions  on  an  emergency,  and  also  in 
the  erection  of  barricades  when  it  is 
necessary  to  build  a  revetment. 

Casque — The  French  name  for  helmet, 
and  which  in  ancient  armour  was  the 
name  by  which  that  headpiece  was 
known. 

Cast  Iron — The  oxide  of  iron,  which, 
in  the  process  of  fusion,  gives  off  a  certain 
amount  of  oxygen,  and  combines  with  the 
carbon,  the  result  being  cast  iron,  which 
is  fusible,  but  brittle.  It  is  obtained 
from  the  ore  by  smelting,  freed  of  many 
of  its  impurities,  and  run  into  moulds, 
from  which  it  receives  the  name  of  pig- 
iron.  Cast  iron  has  been  largely  used, 
until  very  lately,  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  ordnance.  It  is  observed  to  be  of 
three  kinds,  white,  grey,  and  black. 


White  cast-iron  is  useless  for  the  manu- 
facture of  guns,  from  its  very  brittle 
quality.  Its  white  appearance  is  owing 
to  the  small  quantity  of  carbon  in  pro- 
portion to  the  metal.  Grey  cast  iron  is  a 
less  brittle  metal,  containing  more  carbon 
than  the  white  metal.  This  was  the  kind 
made  use  of  in  casting  guns.  Black  cast 
iron  contains  a  large  quantity  of  carbon, 
which  gives  it  the  colour  named,  and 
renders  it,  by  its  excess  of  this  quality, 
very  fusible,  but  not  tenacious  or  cohesive, 
and  hence  not  fit  for  ordnance  purposes. 
Cast-iron  guns,  having  become  nearly  ob- 
solete in  the  service,  are  no  longer  manu- 
factured. 

Cast  Steel — Blistered  steel,  which  on 
being  fused  and  cast  into  ingots  becomes 
more  uniform  in  texture  and  of  superior 
quality,  from  the  more  equal  distribution 
of  carbon  throughout  the  mass.  The 
best  kinds  of  cutlery  are  formed  of  cast 
steel. 

Casting — In  foundry,  the  running  of 
liquid  metal  into  a  mould  prepared  for 
that  purpose.  Pig-iron  and  gun-metal 
are  so  treated  in  the  manufacture  of 
cannon,  iron-work,  &c.,  also  in  the  casting 
of  shot  and  shell.  The  process  pursued  in 
casting  guns  is  to  pour  the  fused  metal  into 
a  mould  of  the  shape  of  the  gun  required  ; 
and  in  casting  what  is  termed  "  solid," 
the  liquid  metal  enters  in  at  the  bottom  of 
the  mould,  which  is  placed  in  a  pit  at  a 
convenient  distance  from  the  furnace  in 
an  upright  position,  muzzle  upwards. 
With  reference  to  the  interval  that  should 
be  allowed  to  elapse  before  casting,  after 
fusion  takes  place,  opinions  differ.  Mr. 
Mallet,  in  his  valuable  work  on  the  '  Con- 
struction of  Artillery,'  says: — "The  lower 
the  temperature  at  which  the  fluid  cast- 
iron  is  poured  into  the  mould,  and  the 
more  rapidly  the  mass  can  be  cooled  down 
to  solidification,  the  closer  will  be  the 
grain  of  the  metal,  the  smaller  the  crys- 
tals, the  fewer  and  least  injurious  the 
planes  of  weakness,  and  the  greater  the 
specific  gravity  of  casting." 

The  term  "  casting  "  is  also  applied  in 
a  military  sense  to  the  weeding  out  of 
old,  diseased,  or  incapable  horses  in  the 
government  service.  Horses  so  found  are 
sold  by  auction  to  the  highest  bidder  on 
account  of  government. 

Castle — In  a  military  sense,  a  fortified 


CAS 


69 


CAV 


place  or  stronghold  to  defend  a  town  or 
city  from  an  enemy.  The  oldest  castles  in 
England  date  as  far  back  as  the  military 
occupation  of  the  country  by  the  Romans, 
or  even  before  then,  as  traces  of  castles 
are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
chiefly  on  the  tops  of  hills,  which  are 
ascribed  to  its  aboriginal  or  early  in- 
habitants. It  is  probable,  as  shown  in 
'  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia,'  that  the 
Saxons  took  the  Roman  castles  as  a  model 
for  their  own  system  of  defence ;  and 
traces  of  Saxon  and  even  Norman  work- 
manship are  found  in  structures  which 
are  believed  to  have  been  originally 
Roman. 

Castrametation — -The  art  of  regulating 
and  laying  out  the  encampment  of  troops 
of  all  kinds,  whether  the  troops  are  to  be 
hutted,  placed  under  canvas,  or  bi- 
vouacked. For  detailed  information  on 
the  subject  of  encampments,  vide  '  Regu- 
lations and  Instructions  for  Encamp- 
ments,' 1872. 

Catapulta— A  warlike  machine,  used  in 
ancient  times  for  projecting  stones,  long 
darts,  or  javelins.  There  were  different 
kinds  and  sizes  of  catapultse  to  which 
names  were  given.  The  smaller  kinds 
were  in  the  form  of  a  cross-bow ;  the 
larger  were  supported  by  a  frame  which 
sustained  two  arms  moving  horizontally, 
having  for  a  motive  force  two  skeins  of 
catgut.  The  catapulta  was  less  powerful 
than  the  balista,  but  more  uniform  in  its 
range.  Catapultas  have  occasionally  been 
used  in  modern  warfare.  There  was  one 
erected  at  Gibraltar  by  General  Melville, 
for  the  purpose  of  throwing  stones  a 
short  distance  over  the  edge  of  the  rock 
in  a  particular  place  where  the  Spaniards 
used  to  frequent,  and  where  they  could 
not  be  annoyed  by  shot  or  shell. 

Catgut — -A  cord  made  from  the  in- 
testines of  animals.  It  is  used  for  turn- 
ing-lathes and  all  narrow-grooved  wheels 
in  machinery. 

Cat-o'-nine-tails — A  whip  with  nine 
knotted  cords.  It  is  occasionally  used  in 
the  British  service  for  the  punishment  of 
soldiers  convicted  of  heinous  crimes. 

Cat's-paw — The  name  given  to  a  par- 
ticular turn  made  in  the  bight  of  a  rope, 
to  which  a  tackle  is  fastened. 

Cavalier — In  fortification,  is  a  work 
constructed  in  the  interior  of  a  full 


bastion.  Its  terre-plein  is  elevated  from 
8  to  12  feet  above  that  of  the  ram- 
part, having  a  parapet  of  18  feet 
high.  The  object  of  this  work  is  to 
command  ground  within  cannon  shot, 
and  by  its  elevation  to  protect  the  ad- 
jacent curtains  from  being  enfiladed.  It 
is  sometimes  provided  with  a  ditch  and 
revetment,  so  as  to  serve  as  a  retrench- 
ment. 

Cavalli  Gun — This  was  one  of  the  early 
breeching-loading  rifled  guns.  It  was  in- 
vented by  Major  Cavalli,  of  the  Sardinian 
artillery.  The  gun  had  only  two  grooves 
cut  spirally  along  the  bore.  The  breech- 
closing  apparatus  consisted  of  a  wrought- 
iron  case-hardened  quoin  or  wedge,  which 
slipped  into  a  rectangular  perforation  in  a 
horizontal  direction,  behind  the  chamber 
of  the  gun,  and  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
of  the  bore. 

Cavalry — One  of  the  mounted  branches 
of  the  army,  divided  into  heavy  and  light 
cavalry.  The  duties  of  cavalry  are  very 
extensive  on  service,  comprising  the  care 
of  reconnoitring  parties,  outpost  duties, 
feelers  in  advance  of  an  army. 

General  de  Brack,  remarking  particu- 
larly on  the  duties  of  light  cavalry  in  the 
field,  but  of  course  applicable  to  cavalry 
of  every  description,  says  : — 

"  No  situation  requires  so  many  na- 
tural dispositions,  such  an  innate  talent 
for  war,  as  that  of  an  officer  of  light 
troops.  Those  qualities  which  constitute 
the  man  of  superiority,  intelligence, 
ability,  and  personal  strength,  ought  all 
to  unite  in  him.  Continually  left  to 
himself,  exposed  to  perpetual  fighting, 
responsible  not  only  for  troops  he  himself 
commands,  but  also  for  the  safety  of  those 
he  may  be  ordered  to  protect  and  cover, 
the  employment  of  his  faculties,  both 
moral  and  physical,  is  called  for  every 
moment.  The  profession  he  follows  is  a 
rough  one ;  but  his  opportunities  of  dis- 
tinction occur  daily — a  splendid. compen- 
sation, which  repays  him  the  more  richly 
for  his  labours  by  making  him  earlier 
sensible  of  his  value. 

"  To  be  a  good  officer  of  advance  guard, 
it  is  not  enough  merely  to  be  brave  and 
to  command  well  under  fire  :  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  brought  there  the  greatest 
possible  number  of  men  and  in  the  best 
condition  to  act  with  effect.  The  latter 


CAV 


70 


CAV 


part  of  this  indispensable  requirement 
may  not  be  the  most  brilliant,  but  it  is 
perhaps  of  the  greatest  importance  ;  it  is 
not  learnt  in  quarters,  and  demands  a 
host  of  conditions. 

"The  habit  of  judging  of  the  health  of 
men  and  horses ;  a  knowledge  of  prompt 
remedies  applicable  in  particular  cases  ; 
the  daily  and  minute  inspection  of  ap- 
pointments ;  understanding  the  necessary 
and  judicious  modes  of  repairing  the 
same  :  the  providing  of  all  that  can  be 
useful  to  the  soldier  and  his  horse,  without 
overloading  the  latter ;  the  equipment 
well  arranged  ;  regularity  of  pace  on  the 
line  of  march ;  good  situation  for  the 
bivouacs ;  with  constant  attention  to 
everything  which  can  contribute  to  the 
condition  of  the  horse's  ability  even  to  dis- 
pense for  a  time  with  the  farrier  ;  a  notion 
of  the  method  of  using  the  utensils  con- 
tained in  a  soldier's  case  ;  understanding 
the  occasions  favourable  to  refreshment 
and  repose ;  the  moral  acquaintance  with 
men  under  his  command  ;  discipline  pre- 
served when  the  dragoons  have  no  longer 
before  their  eyes  the  dread  of  guard-room 
or  jail ;  that  foresight  which  ever  watches 
to  prevent  useless  distress  to  the  horses  ; 
personal  example  offered  upon  every  occa- 
sion, and  afforded  the  more  readily  in 
proportion  as  those  occasions  may  be 
trying  or  difficult ;  confidence ;  un- 
bounded devotion  ;  the  power  of  exciting 
enthusiasm  among  his  followers  :  these 
are  capabilities  the  theories  of  peace 
cannot  teach  ;  these  are  what,  in  addition 
to  courage,  military  coup  d'ceil,  and  a 
ready  judgment  on  the  field  of  battle, 
form  the  officer  of  real  distinction." 

James,  in  his  '  Military  Dictionary,' 
shows  the  high  estimation  in  which 
cavalry  was  always  held  in 'former  days, 
in  the  following  words : — 

"  The  most  scientific  and  the  most  ex- 
perienced officers  have  always  held  the 
cavalry  in  high  estimation.  The  services 
which  have  been  rendered  by  this  body  of 
men,  their  innumerable  successes,  of 
which  so  many  records  are  preserved  both 
in  ancient  and  modern  history,  together 
with  the  unanimous  approbation  of  those 
authors  who  are  considered  as  masters  in 
the  art  of  war :  all  these  circumstances 
sufficiently  evince  that  cavalry  is  not 
only  useful,  but  indispensably  necessary, 


in  war.  Marshal  Turenne  was  known  to 
say  : — '  Avec  une  bonne  cavalerie,  on 
travaille  1'armee  de  son  ennemi  par 
detail,'  meaning  thereby  that  the  desul- 
tory and  rapid  movements  of  dragoons,  if 
properly  managed,  are  of  a  nature  to 
destroy  the  best  concerted  plans  of  an 
adversary,  by  hanging  upon  his  flanks, 
driving  in  his  outposts,  intercepting  his 
convoys,  and  by  taking  advantage  of  every 
opening  during  the  heat  of  engagement. 
The  Austrians  had  a  memorable  instance 
of  the  latter,  when  the  French  General 
Desaix,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  horse, 
decided  the  fate  of  the  battle  of  Marengo. 
In  pursuits,  the  superiority  of  the  cavalry 
is  unquestionable." 

General  Clausewitz,  in  '  La  Guerre,' 
liv.  v.  p.  25,  says  that,  when  cavalry  is 
deficient,  "  la  riche  moisson  de  la  victoire 
ne  se  coupe  plus  alors  a  la  faux,  mais  a  la 
faucille." 

"  Cavalry,"  says  Colonel  Du  Vernois,  in 
his  'Studies  in  Troop  Leading,'  "must 
keep  up  the  communication  between 
divisions  of  the  same  corps,  and,  conse- 
quently, must  be  at  the  disposal  of  the 
general  commanding  the  divisions.  A 
grave  error  is  made  in  massing  cavalry  in 
brigades  or  in  divisions.  Patrols  of  three 
or  of  four  men  are  sufficient  to  watch  the 
movements  of  a  small  body  of  the 
enemy  in  the  neighbourhood,  and,  from 
their  number,  will  probably  escape 
notice." 

The  introduction  of  arms  of  precision 
is  stated  by  some  authorities  to  have 
considerably  affected  the  value  of  cavalry, 
especially  of  heavy  cavalry.  The 
employment  of  light  cavalry,  however, 
has  since  been  more  frequent.  This  was 
observed  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
of  1870,  the  light  cavalry  of  the  Prus- 
sians having  performed  invaluable  service 
in  all  the  duties  of  that  branch  of  their 
army.  But  notwithstanding  the  opinions 
held  of  the  diminished  value  of  heavy 
cavalry,  it  has  played  a  prominent 
and,  as  at  Marengo,  a  decisive  part  in 
battle.  It  is  now  thought  by  some  to  be 
useless  to  employ  that  branch  of  the  ser- 
vice against  an  artillery  carrying  missiles 
3000  yards,  and  an  infantry  armed  with 
breech-loaders.  But  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  of  1870-71  proved  that  heavy  cavalry 
is  still  of  use.  Towards  the  end  of  the 


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71 


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battle    of    Worth,    Marshal    MacMahon, 
finding  all  his  positions  on  the  point  of 
being   turned,  ordered   a  brigade  of  cui- 
rassiers   to    charge    the  Prussian  centre. 
He   ordered  a  second  brigade  to  charge. 
Both    brigades    were    completely    anni- 
hilated.      But    the    attempt   permitted 
the    fragments  of  the  French  troops  to 
fall  back.     At  Gravelotte,  the  Germans 
wished    to    cross    a    valley,    which    was 
covered  by  the  fire  of  some  French  bat- 
teries ;    a  charge   of  German  cuirassiers  I 
silenced  the  guns ;  and  though  the  loss 
was  frightful,  the  desired  movement  was  j 
effected.     These  incidents  are  but  excep-  ! 
tions  to    the  rule,  that    cavalry   should 
never  be  sent  against  artillery  or  columns  . 
of  infantry  not  broken  by  artillery  fire. 

Cavalry  should  always  be  at  hand  to 
cover  the  retreat  of  a  defeated  army,  by 
frequent  and  successive  charges,  or  for 
pursuit  in  case  of  victory.  General 
D'Aurelle  de  Palladines  was  unable  to  reap 
the  benefits  of  his  victory  over  Von  der 
Tann,  at  Coulmiers,  for  want  of  cavalry. 

In  the  British  army  cavalry  is  classed 
as  heavy,  medium,  and  light  cavalry. 
The  household  cavalry  and  the  regiments 
of  dragoon  guards  are  termed  heavy ; 
the  dragoon  and  lancer  regiments, 
medium ;  and  hussar  regiments,  light. 
The  latter  may  be  placed  in  the  same 
category  as  the  Prussian  Uhlans,  and  on 
active  service  would  perform,  together 
with  lancers,  similar  duties. 

Cavalry  Depot — A  depot  formed,  at 
Canterbury,  to  which  all  the  depot  troops 
of  cavalry  regiments  abroad  are  attached. 
For  the  rules  and  regulations  pertaining 
to  a  cavalry  depot,  vide  Queen's  Regu- 
lations. 

Cavesson — Nose  band  of  iron,  wood,  or 
leather,  used  for  breaking  in  horses. 

Cells,  Military — Places  of  solitary  con- 
finement in  which  soldiers  are  imprisoned 
by  order  of  the  commanding  officer.  The 
limit  of  time  of  confinement  is  168  hours. 

Cementation — The  process  pursued  in 
producing  steel  from  pure  malleable  iron. 
The  operation  is  carried  out  in  placing  the 
iron  in  troughs  with  sulphur,  salt,  char- 
coal, brick-dust,  &c.,  and  exposing  the 
whole  to  the  action  of  fire  in  a  cementing 
furnace. 

Central-fire  Cartridge — This  cartridge, 
which  is  used  with  central-fire  guns,  was 


introduced  into  this  country  under  the 
name  of  the  Pattet  cartridge,  by  Mr.  Daw, 
and  is  known  as  Daw's  central-fire  cart- 
ridge. It  resembles  the  Boxer  patent 
cartridge,  used  with  the  Snider;  the  base 
and  mode  of  ignition  are  the  same,  but 
instead  of  the  pasteboard  tube,  Colonel 
(now  General)  Boxer  substitutes  one  of 
brass,  formed  by  coiling  sheet  metal  in 
double  folds,  and  covering  it  with  water- 
proof paper.  An  improvement  has  been 
made  in  this  cartridge  since  its  first  intro- 
duction, and  a  patent  was  taken  out  by 
General  Boxer  in  1866.  The  case  of  the 
cartridge,  as  it  then  appeared,  has  since 
been  used  for  the  Martini  and  many  other 
systems  of  breech-loading  rifles  with  great 
success.  It  has  further  been  improved 
upon  by  Messrs.  Ely  Brothers,  who  have 
taken  out  a  patent  for  making  it  "  bottle- 
necked." 

Central-fire  Guns  — •  Breech-loading 
guns,  principally  for  sporting  purposes. 
They  were  introduced  some  years  ago  by 
Mr.  Daw,  the  well  known  London  gun- 
maker.  They  are  thus  described  in 
Greener's  '  Modern  Breech-loaders  : — 
"  The  principle  is  snap-action,  with  the 
lines  over  the  trigger-guard  ;  the  ban  els 
are  disengaged  by  depressing  the  lever. 
This  gun  has  the  reputation  of  being 
strong  and  durable ;  it  is  usually  made 
with  back-action  locks. 

"  The  greatest  advantage  gained  by  the 
central-fire  principle  is  the  non-escape  of 
gas  at  the  breech ;  the  next  is  cleanli- 
ness ;  besides,  there  is  no  pin-hole  in  the 
barrels  to  let  in  the  wet.  This  pin-hole 
is  considered  a  great  objection  by  some, 
as  the  pin  must  fit  into  the  notch  in  the 
barrels  before  the  barrels  can  be  closed. 
In  very  rapid  loading,  and  during  ex- 
citement in  battue  shooting,  or  when 
after  dangerous  game  in  wild  countries, 
this  would,  perhaps,  cause  delay  in  fitting 
the  cartridge  properly.  '  Delays  are 
dangerous,'  especially  when  being  charged 
by  a  bear  or  tiger.  The  central-fire 
plan  greatly  simplifies  loading  and  un- 
loading. It  is  often  difficult  to  extract  a 
;  tight-fitting  cartridge  from  a  pin-gun ; 
I  this  is  another  cause  of  delay,  especially 
when  the  gun  is  foul ;  besides,  the 
cartridges  are  not  so  handy  to^carry,  on 
]  account  of  the  projecting  pin,  as  the 
I  central-fire."  These  guns,  as  Mr.  Greener 


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72 


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states,  have  undergone,  like  all  other  in- 
ventions, great  improvements  since  their 
first  introduction,  especially  in  the 
striking  action. 

Centre  of  Gravity,  vide  Gravity. 

Centrifugal  Force — That  force  which 
impels  the  body  to  recede  from  such  a 
centre,  if  it  were  not  prevented  by  the 
centripetal  force  ;  this  force,  according  to 
the  first  law  of  motion,  impels  the  body 
to  move  uniformly  in  a  straight  line. 

Centring  Machine — A  machine  used 
previous  to  boring  and  turning  a  piece  of 
ordnance,  to  find  the  exact  centre  of  the 
mass  of  metal.  This  is  done  by  drilling 
a  conical  hole  at  both  ends  of  the  gun, 
which  are  the  centres  upon  which  the 
gun  is  turned. 

Centring  of  a  Shot — In  gunnery,  ex- 
presses the  accurate  fitting  of  a  pro- 
jectile in  the  bore  of  a  rifled  gun,  so  that 
when  it  leaves  the  gun  it  will  do  so  with 
a  rotation  round  its  longest  axis,  having 
that  axis  coincident  with  the  line  of 
flight. 

B.L.R.  guns  having  leaden-coated  pro- 
jectiles are  best  centred,  as  they  have  no 
windage,  and  cannot  move  in  their 
passage  up  the  bore ;  whereas  M.L.R. 
guns  have  windage,  and  though  the  shot 
may  be  properly  centred  by  means  of 
studs  and  accuracy  of  fit  and  rifling, 
there  is  a  liability  or  greater  chance  from 
the  action  of  the  powder,  of  the  projectile 
not  leaving  the  piece  so  well  centred. 
Want  of  proper  centring  is  very  in- 
strumental in  producing  inaccurate  snoot- 
ing. 

Captain  Morgan,  R.A.,  in  his  paper  on 
''  Rifling  Heavy  Guns,"  '  R.  A.  Institution 
Papers,'  vol.  viii.  No.  7,  remarks  as  fol- 
lows on  the  subject  of  accurate  shooting: — 
"  This  last  can  only  be  obtained  by  proper 
centring ;  for  if  the  projectile  is  not 
properly  centred,  there  is  always  an 
initial  cause  to  interfere  with  the  after 
regularity  of  the  deflection.  There  can 
be  no  doubt,  however,  that  a  rapid  twist 
is  the  best  thing  that  will  compensate  for 
want  of  centring,  because,  in  the  first 
place,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  deflect  the  point 
of  the  shot  as  it  comes  out  of  the  gun 
when  the  twist  is  great ;  and  in  the 
second  place,  any  initial  deflection 
which  may  exist  becomes  more  readily 
absorbed  in  the  larger  and  more  stable 


gyration  which  afterwards  ensues.  It  is 
better,  however,  to  do  with  a  less  rapid 
twist  and  more  perfect  centring,  not  only 
because  it  strains  the  gun  and  projectile 
less,  but  also  because  it  in  reality  gives 
more  accurate  shooting." 

Centring  is  thus  explained  in  the  '  Trea- 
tise on  Ammunition,'  published  in  1874: — 
"The  projectile  in  loading  bears  on  one 
side  of  the  stud,  which  is  called  the 
'  loading  edge  ; '  on  firing,  it  bears  against 
the  other  side,  which  is  called  the 
'  driving  edge  ; '  if  the  sides  of  the  studs 
be  perpendicular  to  the  projectile,  or,  to 
speak  more  correctly,  normal  to  its 
surface,  and  the  groove  be  of  a  corre- 
sponding shape,  the  stud  will  remain  at 
the  bottom  of  the  groove ;  but  if  the  side 
of  the  stud  be  made  an  inclined  plane, 
and  the  side  of  the  groove  corresponding 
in  shape,  the  stud  on  being  pressed 
against  the  groove  will  have  a  tendency 
to  run  up  the  inclined  plane,  and  by  so 
doing  will  centre  the  shot  in  the  bore, 
that  is,  will  bring  the  axis  of  the  shot  to 
correspond  with  the  axis  of  the  gun  ;  the 
windage  will  in  this  case  be  evenly  dis- 
tributed all  round  the  shot,  and  the 
shot  will  not  be  in  contact  with  the  bore. 
Hence,  with  bronze  guns  centring  is 
desirable,  as  even  with  a  groove  of  a 
depth  equal  to  the  height  of  the  stud 
there  would  be  no  contact." 

Centripetal  Force — A  force  which  con- 
tinually tends  to  draw  or  impel  a  body 
towards  a  certain  fixed  point  or  centre. 

Chaco,  or  Shako — The  military  head- 
dress used  in  the  British  and  continental 
armies  when  in  full-dress. 

Chain  Mail,  or  Chain  Armour — A  kind 
of  armour  much  used  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries.  It  was  formed  of 
hammered  iron  links  connected  one  to 
another  into  a  dress  or  form  of  a  garment. 
Its  advantage  was  in  its  lightness  and 
flexibility,  compared  with  the  sheets  of 
steel  or  brass  of  other  metal  armour,  but 
it  was  not  so  good  a  protection  from  the 
spear  or  lance. 

Chain  Shot — Consists  of  two  hollow 
hemispheres,  joined  by  a  chain,  forming 
one  shot  when  united.  When  the  shot 
is  projected,  the  two  parts  separate  to  the 
distance  limited  by  the  length  of  the 
chain,  and  sweep  over  considerable  space. 
Chain  shot  were  chiefly  used  in  destroy- 


CHA 


73 


CHA 


ing  the  rigging  of  ships.  They  are  now 
obsolete. 

Chalk,  or  Carbonate  of  Lime — A  white 
calcareous  substance,  prepared  by  pre- 
cipitating a  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium 
with  carbonate  of  soda  and  washing ;  the 
precipitated  chalk  of  the  pharmacopeia  is 
thus  formed.  Chalk  is  well  known  in 
Europe  as  an  extensive  secondary  forma- 
tion. In  the  arts,  it  is  commonly  known 
as  whiting,  after  separating  the  grosser 
impurities  of  the  chalk.  It  is  used  very 
generally  for  artillery  purposes  in  arsenal 
workshops,  for  marking  the  centre  and 
line  of  metal  on  ordnance,  to  mark  the 
position  of  gun  carriages  and  mortar  beds 
on  their  platforms,  and  in  a  variety  of 
nses. 

Challenge — In  a  military  sense,  "  is 
the  warning  a  sentry  gives  to  any 
person  approaching  his  post  after  dark  in 
these  words  : — Who  comes  there?  At  the 
same  time  he  comes  to  the  charge  to 
prevent  any  sudden  rush  upon  his  post. 
If  the  reply  of  the  approaching  person  is 
satisfactory,  the  sentry  will  allow  him  to 
pass  in  these  words : — Pass,  friend,  all's 
well."  A  similar  challenge  is  made  to  any 
patrol  visiting  the  guards  of  a  garrison 
or  camp  during  the  night,  such  as  the 
grand  or  visiting  rounds.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  custom  formerly  of  calling 
another  to  answer  for  an  oft'ence  by 
combat. 

Challenging — In  a  legal  sense,  and  as 
applied  to  military  matters,  "is  the  right  a 
prisoner  has  of  objecting  to  the  president 
or  any  other  member  of  a  court-martial. 
If  he  objects  to  the  president,  his  objec- 
tion, unless  disallowed  by  two-thirds  at 
least  of  the  other  members,  must  be  re- 
ferred for  decision  to  the  authority  by 
whom  the  president  was  appointed  ;  and 
the  court,  if  necessary,  will  adjourn. 

"  If  the  prisoner  objects  to  any  member 
other  than  the  president,  his  objection 
must  be  decided  by  the  president  and  the 
other  members  of  the  court ;  and  when 
the  place  of  the  president  or  other  offi- 
cer, in  respect  of  whom  any  challenge 
shall  have  been  made,  and  allowed,  shall 
be  supplied  by  some  other  officer  .  .  .  the 
president  and  other  officers  .  .  .  shall  take 
the  .  .  .  oath  before  the  judge-advocate." 

Chamade — A  signal  made  for  parley  by 
beat  of  drum. 


Chamber — In  guns,  is  a  recess  formed 
at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  bore  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis,  and  in  S.B.  and 
M.L.R.  ordnance  of  less  diameter  than 
the  bore,  to  contain  the  charge  of  powder. 
The  chambers  of  the  former  are  gomer 
shape  (a  truncated  cone),  and  adopted  in 
all  S.B.  howitzers  and  mortars,  as  they 
admit  of  the  shot  or  shell  fitting  closely 
into  the  chamber,  thus  allowing  the  full 
force  of  the  charge,  which  is  small  com- 
pared to  the  calibre  of  the  projectile,  to 
act  upon  it,  instead  of  a  portion  going 
past  it,  as  in  the  cylindrical-shaped 
chambers.  The  form  of  the  chamber  of 
M.L.R.  guns  varies  in  different  patterns 
of  heavy  guns,  that  now  used  being 
slightly  conical.  In  B.L.R.  guns  there  are 
two  chambers,  one  for  the  powder,  the 
other  for  the  shot ;  both  these  chambers 
are  larger  than  the  bore.  The  shot 
chamber  is  coned  so  as  to  nip  the  shot 
in  the  proper  position,  and  the  shot  is 
shaped  to  correspond. 

Chamfer — A  small  channel  or  furrow 
cut  in  wood,  stone,  &c.  It  may  be  also 
explained  as  an  edge,  or  arris,  taken  off 
equally  on  the  two  sides  which  form  it, 
leaving  what  is  called  a  chamfer  or  a 
chamfered  edge.  If  the  arris  be  taken  off 
more  on  one  side  than  the  other,  it  is  said 
to  be  splayed  or  bevelled. 

Chamois  Leather — Receives  its  name 
from  the  skin  of  the  chamois  goat,  from 
which  it  was  originally  made,  and  which, 
in  being  prepared,  undergoes  a  process  of 
oiling.  This  kind  of  leather  is  now  made 
commonly  from  the  skins  of  deer,  goats, 
and  sheep.  It  is  also  termed  wash  leather. 

Chape — The  metalline  part  put  on  the 
end  of  a  scabbard,  to  prevent  the  point  of 
the  sword  or  bayonet  from  piercing 
through  it. 

Chapelle  de  Fer  (French,  iron  head- 
dress)— Means  an  iron  hat,  and  formed 
anciently  every  kind  of  covering  for  the 
head.  It  was  the  head-piece  of  soldiery 
in  the  reign  of  William  Rufus,  and  in  sub- 
sequent reigns. 

Chaplain,  Military  —  A  clergyman 
whose  services  are  retained  by  the  govern- 
ment for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the 
soldier.  Military  chaplains  are  divided 
into  four  classes,  which  include  chaplains 
of  other  denominations  than  those  of  the 
Church  of  England.  They  are  appointed 


CHA 


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by  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  are  placed 
under  the  Chaplain-General  at  the  War 
Office. 

The  chaplains  are  not  attached  to  indi- 
vidual regiments,  but  to  the  staff  of  the 
army,  and  their  services  are  available  in 
peace  or  war.  At  home  they  are  attached 
to  military  stations  or  camps,  such  as 
Dublin,  Aldershot,  the  Curragh.  &c.  In 
India  each  military  station  or  cantonment 
has  a  chaplain  attached  to  it. 

Charcoal — A  form  of  carbon  obtained 
by  burning  wood  in  pits,  or  by  distilling 
it  in  iron  cylinders.  As  one  of  the  great 
uses  to  which  charcoal  is  put  to  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder,  the  following 
description  of  the  mode  of  charring  the 
wood  will  not  be  uninteresting.  Charcoal 
for  gunpowder  manufactured  at  the 
government  factory,  Waltham  Abbey, 
and  private  factories  in  this  country,  is 
produced  by  distillation  from  the  follow- 
ing woods — alder,  willow,  and  dogwood  ; 
in  India  from  the  urhur  or  d/tal  stalk 
(Cytisus  Ct'j/iri).  Previous  to  charring 
the  wood,  the  bark  is  stripped  oft',  and 
the  wood  is  cut  up  into  small  lengths, 
and  placed  in  sheet-iron  cylinders 
termed  "  slips,"  which  are  placed  inside 
cast-iron  retorts,  built  in  the  wall  of  the 
charcoal  furnace,  around  which  the  heat 
circulates ;  by  this  means  a  regulated 
heat  is  applied  throughout  the  operation 
of  charring.  Each  retort,  as  well  as  each 
slip,  has  two  holes  in  it,  for  the  escape  of 
the  gases  from  the  wood,  which  are  con- 
ducted by  iron  pipes  into  the  furnace. 
The  method  of  obtaining  charcoal  by  dis- 
tillation renders  it  easy  to  char  the  wood 
uniformly  and  at  a  low  temperature. 
The  time  taken  to  carry  out  the  operation 
of  charring  occupies  about  three  hours 
and  a  half.  The  slip,  which  is  air-tight, 
is  then  removed,  and  remains  unopened 
from  foxir  to  six  hours,  or  until  all  the 
lire  is  extinguished ;  at  the  expiration  of 
this  period  the  charcoal  is  taken  out, 
picked,  and  stored. 

The  good  quality  of  charcoal  is  known 
from  its  jet-black  velvet-like  appearance, 
and  there  are  other  indications,  such  as  its 
being  light  and  sonorous  when  dropped. 
It  should  also  be  so  soft  as  not  to  scratch 
polished  copper,  and  ought  not  to  exhibit 
any  alkali  when  treated  with  pure  dis- 
tilled water.  Twenty-five  per  cent,  of 


ch  ircoal  is  the  general  yield  from  all 
the  woods  mentioned. 

Good  charcoal  for  workshops  in  India 
is  made  from  the  sal  tree  (Shorea 
robustn),  and  charred  in  pits.  Char- 
coal is  also  made  from  the  soondree  tree 
(lleritiera  minor)— which  gives  a  great 
heat,  and  on  that  account  is  not  so  good 
as  that  made  from  sal,  as  in  fusing  metals 
it  causes  the  earthen  crucibles  to  run 
into  a  vitrified  state.  Charcoal  is  used  in 
workshops  by  braziers  for  all  work  in 
their  line,  and  by  armourers  for  blueing 
and  blacking  sundry  parts  of  the  iron 
mountings  of  rifles,  &c. 

The  following  test  for  charcoal  is  given 
in  the  '  Handbook  for  Field  Service,'  3rd 
edition  : — '"  (1)  Heat  fifty  grains  of  the 
powdered  charcoal  in  an  open  porcelain 
crucible ;  it  should  not  emit  any  inflam- 
mable gas  having  the  smell  of  burnt  wood. 
Continue  the  heat  until  the  whole  of  the 
charcoal  is  consumed ;  the  ash  which  re- 
mains should  not  weigh  more  than  one 
grain,  and  should  be  free  from  particles 
of  sand.  (2)  Boil  fifty  grains  of  the 
powdered  charcoal  with  a  measured 
ounce  of  distilled  (or  clear  rain)  water  in 
a  porcelain  dish,  for  five  minutes ;  the 
liquid  should  not  impart  a  brown  tint  to 
a  piece  of  turmeric  paper,  and  should 
scarcely  tinge  with  blue  a  piece  of  red- 
dened litmus  paper." 

Charge — Denotes  the  weight  of  powder 
used  in  each  round  of  ammunition, 
whether  for  ordnance  or  small-arms.  The 
charge  for  the  several  natures  of  smooth- 
bore, cast-iron  ordnance  is  as  follows : — 
For  heavy  and  medium  guns  about  |,  and 
for  light  guns,  \  the  weight  of  the  shot. 
But,  as  Captain  Majendie  observes  in  his 
'  Treatise  on  Ammunition,'  it  is  impossible 
to  give  any  invariable  rule  for  the  weight 
of  the  charge  in  terms  of  the  weight  of 
the  projectile,  because  of  the  vast  number 
of  reduced  and  exceptional  charges,  and 
because,  even  in  the  case  of  "  service  " 
charges,  there  is,  in  the  majority  of 
instances,  more  than  one  of  these  charges 
for  each  nature  of  gun.  according  to  its 
weight  of  metal,  or  whether  it  is  made  of 
iron  or  brass. 

The  service  charges  for  howitzers 
are  : — 

For  iron,  T'5  weight  of  shell. 

For  brass,  }  to  *  weight  of  shell. 


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In  ricochet  firing,  these  charges  are 
greatly  reduced — from  ^  to  ^  the 
weight  of  the  shell,  but  no  fixed  charges 
ran  be  laid  down ;  they  vary  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  Charges  for 
mortars  are  demanded  as  for  the 
maximum  charge  for  the  mortars  to 
be  fired.  B.L.R.  guns  have  a  less 
charge  than  smooth-bored  ordnance,  the 
Armstrong  gun  having  only  J,  and 
this  arises  from  the  gun  having  no  wind- 
age ;  consequently  the  whole  of  the 
elastic  fluid  acts  upon  the  shot,  and 
none  goes  past  it.  There  is  no  general 
fixed  charge  for  M.L.R.  guns,  such  as 
is  laid  down  for  smooth-bored  guns ; 
their  charges  depend  on  the  weight  of 
the  shot  or  shell  used,  and  vary  from  g 
to  ^  the  weight  of  the  shot.  What 
are  termed  battering  and  full  charges 
will  be  found  under  their  respective 
heads.  For  the  charges  of  small-arms, 
vide  Appendix  B. 

Charge — In  military  evolutions,  this 
term  expresses  the  advance  of  a  body  of 
infantry  or  cavalry  to  the  attack  of  an 
opposing  force. 

Charge — In  military  law,  as  described 
in  Colonel  Pipon's  '  Manual,'  is  "  the  spe- 
cification of  any  crime  or  offence  for 
which  a  commissioned  officer  or  soldier  is 
tried  before  a  court-martial.  The  duty 
of  framing  the  charges  against  the 
prisoner  devolves  upon  his  commanding 
officer.  They  must  be  specific,  and  not 
vague  or  indefinite,  and  care  must  be 
taken  that  there  is  sufficient  evidence  to 
sustain  them — for  preferring  accusations 
which  cannot  be  sustained  has  been  de- 
clared to  be  not  only  inconvenient  and 
prejudicial  to  the  service,  but  disgraceful 
to  those  who  bring  them  forward. 

"  All  charges  may  be  amended,  and  ad- 
ditional charges  may  be  brought  at  any 
time  before  the  prisoner  is  arraigned, 
but  not  after  ;  and  any  material  varia- 
tion or  omission  in  the  charges  may  be 
fatal. 

"  The  prisoner  is  to  be  furnished  with 
copy  of  the  charges  a  reasonable  time 
before  trial ;  and  if  he  cannot  read,  they 
are  to  be  read  to  him." 

Charger — A  name  originally  given  to 
a  war  horse  accustomed  to  the  clang  and 
noise  of  battles,  and  considered  conse- 
quently reliable  in  the  hour  of  danger. 


In  the  middle  ages  a  charger  was 
nearly  covered  with  armour,  similar  to 
the  rider  or  man-at-arms,  and  had  an 
iron  spike  projecting  from  the  middle  of 
the  forehead,  to  aid  him  in  charging. 
As  gunpowder  was  not  then  known,  the 
armour  of  the  horse  preserved  him  from 
the  arms  in  use. 

Now-a-days  a  charger  means  an  officer's 
parade  horse.  Each  mounted  officer  has 
to  keep  up  a  certain  number  of  chargers, 
for  which  in  England  he  receives  forage, 
or  money  in  lieu,  and  in  India  a  money 
allowance ;  the  number  of  horses  he  has 
to  provide  himself  with  depends  upon  his 
rank  and  the  branch  of  the  service  to 
which  he  belongs.  The  average  height 
of  chargers  is  15|  hands. 

Charger  Pits — Shelter  pits  to  cover  the 
chargers  of  mounted  officers  when  ex- 
posed to  the  enemy's  fire.  They  may  be 
excavated  parallel  to  and  20  paces  in 
rear  of  lines  of  shelter  trenches. 

Chase — In  artillery,  one  of  the  four 
named  parts  a  S.B.  gun  is  divided  into; 
it  is  comprised  between  the  front  of 
the  second  reinforce  ring  and  the  muzzle 
astragal  and  fillets  ;  or,  perhaps,  to  put  it 
in  more  comprehensive  terms,  the  greater 
portion  of  the  gun  between  the  muzzle 
and  the  trunnion.  The  term  is  applicable 
to  rifled  guns  as  well. 

Chassepot  Rifle  —  A  breech  -  loading 
needle-gun.  In  its  original  form  it  was 
the  small-arm  of  the  French  service, 
and  in  its  modified  form  is  still  so.  This 
rifle  is  the  invention  of  Monsieur  A. 
Chassepot,  the  chief  viewer  of  the  cen- 
tral depot,  Paris. 

A  detailed  description  of  this  weapon 
would  need  illustrations  to  make  the 
mechanism  of  the  lock  and  breech- 
piece  clear  to  the  reader :  it  is  only 
intended,  therefore,  to  give  a  general 
idea  of  the  arm.  "  When  first  adopted 
in  the  French  army,  it  was  not  unlike 
the  original  Prussian  needle-gun,  and 
was  apparently  a  modification  of  it, 
but  was  said  to  be  superior  to  it  in  the 
closing  of  the  breech,  whereas  the 
Prussian  rifle  was  defective  in  this  point. 
The  original  Chassepot  rifle  was  4  feet 
3  inches  in  length,  and  weighed  a  little 
less  than  9  pounds  ;  it  had  four  grooves, 
with  one  turn  in  21  £  inches.  The 
accuracy  of  the  rifle  is  said  to  have  been 


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very  great  at  600  yards,  and  could  fire 
from  6  to  8  shots  per  minute.  The 
objection  originally  stated  against  the 
Chassepot  was  that,  after  much  firing,  it 
became  so  hot  as  to  be  inconvenient  to 
handle. 

"  The  cartridge,  which  is  made  of  silk, 
contains  a  larger  charge  of  powder 
than  the  Prussian  cartridge  of  the 
original  needle-gun,  with  a  smaller 
bullet,  which  is  an  advantage  in  favour 
of  the  French  weapon  as  compared  with 
the  Prussian,  in  the  number  of  rounds  to 
be  carried.  The  total  weight  of  the 
cartridge,  bullet  included,  is  -0716  lb., 
the  bullet  being  '0529  lb.  The  length  of 
the  cartridge  is  2-67  inches." 

From  observations  made  during  the  war 
between  France  and  Prussia,  it  appears 
that  the  "  assumed  superiority  of  the 
Chassepot  over  the  Prussian  needle-gun 
in  actual  warfare  was  greatly  overrated, 
and  what  were  supposed  to  be  the  advan- 
tages of  the  arm  proved,  in  the  day  of 
battle,  a  source  of  anxiety  and  danger  to 
the  soldier.  Its  lightness,  with  its  large 
charge,  had  the  effect  of  causing  great 
recoil  and  of  heating  the  barrel.  The 
superior  range  attributed  to  it  induced 
the  men  to  fire  away  rapidly  on  com- 
mencing an  action,  and  at  such  long 
distances  that,  before  closing  with  the 
enemy,  the  barrel  had  become  so  heated 
that  it  was  no  longer  serviceable.  Further, 
from  the  recoil  and  heating  of  the  barrel, 
the  soldier  was  obliged  to  fire  from  his  hip 
instead  of  his  shoulder,  which  caused 
great  inaccuracy  of  aim ;  worse  still, 
after  much  firing,  the  breech  arrange- 
ment clogged,  and  the  arm  was  use- 
less. The  cartridge,  as  in  the  Prussian 
needle-gun,  does  not  clear  the  barrel  out 
each  time  it  is  fired,  but  leaves  behind  it 
a  thick,  fatty,  black  substance  which 
clogs  the  breech  and  renders  the  piece 
unserviceable." 

Doubtless  the  result  of  all  these  faults 
in  the  arm  of  the  French  service  had  a 
deterring  effect  in  the  war  with  Prussia, 
for  it  is  further  stated  that  the  French 
soldiers  had  found,  after  a  certain  time, 
that  it  was  impossible  to  load  their  pieces, 
and  had  in  numerous  instances  thrown 
away  their  ammunition.  In  the  modified 
Chassepot,  all  that  was  defective  has  now 
been  remedied. 


Chasseurs — French  light  troops,  infan- 
try and  cavalry. 

Chasseurs  a  cheval,  or  Chasseurs  de 
France — Light  cavalry  of  the  French 
army.  They  are  armed  with  the  Chasse- 
pot carbine  and  with  swords.  There  are 
twenty  regiments. 

Chasseurs  a  pied,  or  Chasseurs  de 
Vincennes — -Light  infantry  of  the  French 
army.  In  the  new  organisation  of  the 
French  army,  there  are  thirty  battalions 
of  infantry  chasseurs. 

Chasseurs  d'Afrique— Four  regiments 
of  cavalry,  mounted  on  Arab  horses, 
and  raised  for  the  purpose  of  warfare 
in  Algeria.  They  took  part,  however, 
in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870-71, 
and  also  in  the  Crimea,  where  one  of  the 
regiments,  the  "  Fourth,"  distinguished 
itself  by  supporting  the  charge  of  the 
light  cavalry  at  Balaklava. 

Chaufron  —  Masked  armour  which 
covered  the  face,  the  head,  and  the  ears 
of  military  horses  during  the  middle  ages, 
to  prevent  the  horses  taking  fright  when 
charging  the  enemy. 

Cheeks — -The  sides  of  a  gun  carriage  in 
which  the  trunnions  of  the  gun  sit.  The 
term  "  cheeks  "  is  also  applied  in  fortifi- 
cation to  the  interior  facing  of  an  em- 
brasure. 

Chelsea  College  or  Hospital — An  edi- 
fice built  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames, 
which  was  originally  begun  by  James  I., 
and  intended  as  a  college  for  a  certain 
number  of  learned  divines.  The  un- 
finished buildings  were  afterwards  com- 
pleted, and  finally  converted  by  Charles 
II.  into  an  hospital  for  non-commissioned 
officers  and  privates  who  were  wounded 
or  maimed  in  the  service,  and  has  re- 
mained to  the  present  day  a  refuge  for 
our  worn-out  or  wounded  soldiers,  who 
are  termed  "  In-Pensioners." 

Chemin  de  Rondes — In  fortification, 
a  berm  from  4  to  12  feet  broad,  at 
the  foot  of  the  exterior  slope  of  the 
parapet.  It  is  sometimes  protected  by  a 
quickset  hedge  (in  India  a  cactus  hedge), 
but  in  more  modern  works  by  a  low 
wall,  built  on  the  top  of  the  revet- 
ment, through  which  (the  wall  being 
loop-holed)  and  over  which  the  de- 
fenders can  fire  and  throw  hand-grenades 
into  the  ditch. 

Chesses,  Pontoon — The    planking    or 


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77 


CHL 


flooring  boards  of  a  pontoon  bridge.  In 
cylindrical  pontoons,  the  boards  are 
fastened  to  the  baulks  by  means  of  cleats, 
but  in  the  present  pattern  pontoons 
without  cleats.  Each  chess  consists  of 
three  planks.  Half-chesses,  consisting  of 
a  single  plank,  are  used  for  that  part  of 
the  floor  which  is  immediately  over  the 
saddle  of  the  pontoon. 

Cheval — A  body  of  troops  is  said  to  be 
"  i  cheval  "  on  a  road,  when  it  stretches 
perpendicularly  across  it. 

Chests,  Arm— Are  wooden  boxes  for 
holding  the  rifles  or  carbines  of 
soldiers  on  board  ship,  or  elsewhere. 
Each  Martini-Henry  chest  contains 
twenty  rifles. 

Chevaux  de  frise — -A  kind  of  de- 
fence or  obstacle  used  in  fortification. 
They  are  made  in  lengths  of  from  6  to  10 
feet,  joined  together,  when  necessary,  by 
chains.  Each  length  is  composed  of  a 
barrel  or  stout  beam,  from  6  to  12 
inches  in  diameter  or  square,  with 
strong  sharp  spears  driven  through  it, 
in  two  or  more  different  directions,  up  to 
their  middle,  so  as  to  radiate  from  it 
like  wheel  spokes.  The  present  pattern 
chevaux  de  frise  is  made  of  iron,  barrel, 
cylindrical :  the  whole  consisting  of  tubes, 
the  spears  (twelve  in  number)  being 
plugged  at  the  ends  with  points;  and 
packed  away  inside  the  barrel.  Each 
length  weighs  86  Ibs.  The  iron  pattern 
has  the  advantage  of  greater  portability 
in  reference  to  bulk.  The  position  of  a 
chevaux  de  frise  is  sometimes  at  the  foot 
of  the  counterscarp,  or  upon  the  berm. 
In  the  latter  position  a  glacis  is  neces- 
sary to  cover  them  from  the  view  and  fire 
of  an  enemy. 

Chevron— The  distinguishing  marks 
on  the  sleeves  of  non-commissioned 
officers.  They  are  worn  on  the  right 
arm  by  cavalry  and  infantry,  and  on 
both  arms  by  artillery,  engineers, 
fusiliers,  and  light  infantry  regiments, 
in  the  following  order  : — 


Sergeant-majors 
Sergeants 
Corporals 

Bombardiers         .  ,• 
Second  corporals 
Lance  ditto 
Acting  bombardiers 


4  bars. 
3     , 


1  bar. 


Sergeant-majors  and  quarter-master 
sergeants  wear  their  chevrons  below  the 
elbow,  point  down.  Non-commissioned 
officers  of  artillery  wear  their  chevrons 
above  the  elbow,  point  down. 

Chief  of  the  Staff— An  officer  who 
ranks  next  to  the  general  under  whose 
orders  he  is  serving,  and  is  appointed 
to  relieve  the  commauder-in-chief  of 
an  army  of  an  immense  amount  of 
detail  work,  and  to  harmonise  the 
action  of  the  several  departments.  Such 
an  officer  is  appointed  in  foreign  armies. 
The  question  was  raised,  so  far  back  as 
1812,  in  this  country,  whether  a  chief 
of  the  staff  should  be  added  to  the  staff 
of  the  commander-in-chief.  During  the 
Crimean  War,  and  subsequently  in  India 
during  the  Mutiny,  an  officer  of  this  rank 
was  appointed. 

Chilled  Shot — Shot  formed  by  pouring 
liquid  grey  cast  iron  into  a  cold  metallic 
mould,  so  as  to  cause  the  most  sudden 
cooling  possible.  By  this  process,  which 
was  introduced  by  Major  Palliser,  the 
surface  of  the  shot  is  rendered  ex- 
tremely hard,  and  capable  of  penetrating 
iron-plated  ships.  It  has  been  found 
only  necessary  to  chill  the  head  of  the 
shot,  and  to  let  the  body  be  cast  in  sand. 

Chime,  or  Chimb — The  end  of  a  tub  or 
barrel.  All  powder-barrels  are  ordered 
to  be  rolled  on  the  chime  as  being  the 
safest  mode  of  moving  powder  either  in 
magazines  or  mill-houses. 

Chlorate  of  Potash  (KO.C10,)  — A 
salt  prepared  by  passing  chlorine  slowly 
through  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potassa. 
It  is  a  colourless,  transparent,  anhydrous, 
crystalline  salt.  It  has  great  oxidising 
powers,  and  when  brought  into  con- 
tact with  other  substances,  such  as 
sulphide  of  antimony,  becomes  highly 
explosive.  An  attempt  to  manufacture 
gunpowder  from  it  has  been  made,  but  in 
the  act  of  mixing  it  with  charcoal  and 
sulphur,  it  was  found  to  explode,  and 
the  attempt  had  to  be  abandoned.  It 
is  one  of  the  ingredients  in  the  detonating 
composition  of  friction  tubes  and  gun- 
caps,  and  though  not  used  in  the  ordinary 
burning  compositions,  it  will  be  found  in 
the  ingredients  of  coloured  lights. 

Chloride  of  Barium  (BaClx2Aq) — 
One  of  the  preparations  of  the  metal 
barium.  It  is  prepared  by  adding 


CHL 


78 


CIR 


hydrochloric  acid  to  a  solution  of  the 
sulphuret  of  barium,  when  hydrosul- 
phuric  acid  escapes  and  chloride  of 
barium  remains  behind,  and  on  evapora- 
tion forms  crystals.  It  is  used  chiefly 
as  a  re-agent  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
for  acids,  especially  sulphuric,  with 
which  it  forms  the  insoluble  sulphate  of 
baryta.  In  testing  saltpetre,  this  re- 
agent is  used  in  searching  for  sulphates. 

^Chloride  of  Potassium  (KC1) — This 
salt  occurs  in  sea  water,  and  in  the 
water  of  many  mineral  springs.  It  is 
obtained  as  a  by-product  in  various  pro- 
cesses, particularly  in  the  manufacture 
of  soap  and  glass,  and  in  the  refining 
of  nitre.  In  the  latter  case,  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver  is  used  to  detect 
the  chloride,  the  presence  of  which  is 
observed  first  by  a  milkiness,  and 
on  a  larger  quantity  of  solution  being 
added,  a  curdy  precipitate  of  chloride  of 
silver. 

Chock — A  wedge  or  coin  attached  to 
cast-iron  garrison  carriages  on  which  the 
breech  of  the  gun  rests  and  is  elevated. 
Chocks  are  of  different  natures,  and  are 
used  for  different  purposes,  and  have  dif- 
ferent names. 

Chocks,  Friction — Breaks  attached  to 
the  common  standing  garrison  carriages 
of  S.B.  guns,  so  as  to  raise  the  trucks 
or  wheels  off"  the  platform  when  the 
gun  begins  to  recoil,  to  prevent  its 
running  back  to  any  great  extent. 

Chocking,  ride  Slewing. 

Choker,  Fascine — An  instrument  used 
for  bringing  the  ends  of  a  fascine  to  the 
girth,  nearly  where  it  is  intended  the 
fascine  should  be,  when  the  fascine  is 
then  bound. 

Chord — In  geometry,  signifies  a  line 
which  joins  the  extremities  of  any  arc  of 
a  circle. 

Chronograph,     Bashforth's — An      in-  ' 
strument    adapted    for    measuring    the  ! 
varying   velocity   of  a   body  in   motion  j 
through  the  air,  and  for  other  ballistic  ; 
purposes.     It  has  been  successfully  em-  | 
ployed  in  determining  the  resistance  of  the 
air  to  the  motion  of  spherical  and  elon- 
gated   projectiles,    varying    from    3    to 
9  inches  in  diameter ;  and  a  simple  instru- 
ment has  been  constructed  on  the  same 
principle  for  use  in  those  cases  where  the 
determination  of  the  velocity  of  a  shot  at 


a   given    point   is    all  that    is    required. 
;  (  Vide  Gunnery.) 

Chronoscope — An  instrument  for  de- 
termining the  initial  velocity  of  pro- 
jectiles. Among  the  many  instruments 
of  this  nature,  the  one  invented  by 
Xavez  -  Leurs  is  an  improvement  or 
modification  of  the  well-known  Xavez's 
electro-ballistic  apparatus.  The  chief 
modification  consists  in  the  suppression 
of  the  conjunctor  and  the  large  electro- 
magnet, which  serve  to  clamp  the  needle. 
Another  chronoscope  has  been  invented 
by  Captain  A.  Xoble,  F.R.S.,  late  R.A., 
for  the  determination  of  the  time  a  pro- 
jectile takes  to  traverse  various  intervals 
within  the  bore  of  a  gun.  This  beautiful 
instrument  is  able  to  register,  by  means 
of  electric  currents,  upon  a  recording 
surface,  travelling  at  a  uniform  and  very 
high  speed,  the  precise  instant  at  which 
a  shot  passes  certain  defined  points  in  the 
;  bore. 

Chuck — That  part  of  a  turning  lathe 
which  is  screwed  on  to  the  nose  of  the 
mandrel  in  which  the  work  is  held  or 
supported,  and  caused  to  revolve  with  the 
mandrel.  Its  forms  are  numerous. 

Chuckler — An  Indian  term,  signifying 
a  cobbler,  or  worker  in  leather.  This 
class  of  men  is  employed  in  all  govern- 
ment establishments  in  India  where 
leather  work  is  made  up. 

Chuttack — An  Indian  weight,  the  six- 
teenth part  of  a  seer. 

Circle — A  plane  figure,  contained  by 
one  line  which  is  called  the  circumference, 
and  is  such  that  all  straight  lines  drawn 
from  a  certain  point  within  the  figure  to 
the  circumference  are  equal  to  one 
another.  This  point  is  called  the  centre 
of  the  circle. 

Circumference,  ride  Circle. 
Circumferenta— A  small  hand  wheel, 
which  is  used  to  measure  the  circum- 
ference of  the  outside  of  the  felloes  and 
the  inside  of  the  tire  of  a  wheel.  It  is 
made  of  sheet-iron,  about  8  inches  in 
diameter,  with  the  circumference  serrated 
to  prevent  it  from  slipping.  A  line  is 
scratched  on  the  face  to  serve  as  an 
index. 

Circumvallation  —  In  fortification, 
works  constructed  round  a  besieged  place 
to  cut  off  all  communication  between  the 
besieged  and  the  surrounding  country. 


CIT 


79 


CLO 


Citadel  (Italian  citudillo,  a  little 
city) — A  stronghold  within  a  fortified 
place  which  overlooks  the  country.  It 
answers  a  double  purpose :  first,  it 
enables  the  garrison  to  keep  the  in- 
habitants in  subjection;  secondly,  in 
case  of  a  siege,  it  forms  a  place  of  retreat 
when  the  enemy  has  got  possession  of 
the  main  portion  of  the  works.  It  is 
not  applicable  to  modern  fortifications. 

Civil  Departments — Are  branches  of 
the  British  army  under  the  War  Office. 
They  include  : — 

(1)  Control  Department, 
(_')  Medical  „ 

(3)  Veterinary      „ 

(4)  Chaplain's        ,, 

(5)  Education        „ 

(6)  Administration  of  justice. 

Clamp.  To — To  fix  the  movable  parts 
of  an  instrument  by  pressure  applied 
to  a  screw ;  for  example,  the  vernier, 
or  horizontal  and  vertical  plates  of  a 
theodolite,  are  said,  when  fixed,  to  be 
clamped. 

Claw,  Hammer — Two  prongs  placed  at 
the  end  of  a  hammer  or  crowbar,  for 
drawing  nails  and  spikes  which  require 
force  for  their  extraction. 

Claymore,  or  Cly-more — A  large  double- 
edged  blade,  formerly  in  use  among  the 
Highlanders,  and  now  used  by  officers 
and  non-commissioned  officers  of  High- 
land regiments.  It  appears  that  the 
term  claymore  is  derived  from  the  Gaelic 
for  "  the  great  sword." 

Clearance — A  term  given  to  the  space 
or  interval  between  the  body  of  the  shot 
and  the  bore  of  the  gun.  It  is  thus  ex- 
plained in  the  '  Treatise  on  Ammunition 
for  1874  :' — "  If  the  depth  of  the  groove  is 
less  than  the  projection  of  the  stud 
beyond  the  body  of  the  shot,  there  will 
be  '  clearance,'  that  is,  there  will  be  an 
interval  between  the  body  of  the  shot 
and  the  bore  of  the  gun,  and  consequently 
the  shot  will  rest  entirely  on  the  studs  ; 
the  amount  of  clearance  will  be  the 
difference  between  the  depth  of 
groove  and  the  projection  of  the  stud. 
Thus  in  some  Woolwich  guns  the  depth  of 
groove  is  -18  inch,  the  projection  of  stud  is 
•  195  inch,  therefore  there  is  a  clearance  of 
•015  inch.  This  is  the  mean  clearance,  and 
is  liable  to  be  reduced  by  manufacturing 


limits.  With  iron  guns  it  is  not 
generally  considered  of  much  impor- 
tance to  have  clearance,  but  where 
bronze  is  used,  it  becomes  essential,  as 
the  iron  projectile  would  injure  the  softer 
metal  of  the  gun." 

Cleats — Small  blocks  of  wood  used 
commonly  for  securing  movable  articles 
which  are  likely,  as  at  sea,  to  roll  over 
or  be  displaced.  In  the  artillery  service 
they  are  used  in  different  parts  of  gun 
carriages  for  fixing  tools,  &c. 

Clinometer — An  instrument  to  ascer- 
tain the  exact  distance  of  any  particular 
object ;  it  is  valuable  in  elevated  coast 
batteries.  The  clinometer  invented  by 
Captain  J.  R.  Oliver,  E.A.,  for  laying 
guns  obviates  the  necessity  of  a  reference 
to  range  tables, -length  of  fuze,  &c.,  as  all 
is  detailed  on  the  instrument  for  the 
nature  of  gun. 

Clip — An  instrument  for  lifting  heavy 
shells,  and  is  used  with  M.L.R.  guns  from 
the  7-inch  to  the  12-inch. 

Clipper,  Portfire— The  name  formerly 
given  to  the  cutting  implement  which  was 
fixed  on  the  offside  of  the  beam  trail  of  a 
gun  carriage,  for  cutting  off  the  lighted 
end  of  the  portfire.  Portfires  being  no 
longer  in  use,  except  on  emergency,  and 
having  been  superseded  by  friction  tubes, 
the  sockets  and  cutters  have  been  re- 
moved from  all  artillery  carriages. 

Cloth — Any  kind  of  manufacture  or 
stuff  formed  by  weaving  or  inter- 
texture.  In  arsenals,  this  material  is 
much  used,  and  is  of  various  kinds — viz. 
book  muslin,  buntin,  canvas,  doosootie 
(an  Indian  name),  serge,  vitry,  waxed 
cloth,  and  silk.  The  cloths  enumerated 
are  made  use  of  for  the  following  pur- 
poses:— Book  muslin,  for  the  bottom  of 
sieves,  &c. ;  buntin,  for  colours ;  can- 
vas, as  shown  under  that  head ;  doo- 
sootie, for  capping  carcasses,  and  it  is 
also  occasionally  used  for  package  and 
in  making  blowing  bags ;  serge,  for 
service  cartridge  bags ;  vitry,  which  is 
a  fine  kind  of  canvas,  for  making 
paulins  and  powder  cloths,  occasionally 
for  13-inch  blowing  bags,  sponge  caps, 
and  gun  aprons,  also  for  saddle  wrappers  ; 
waxed  cloth,  for  powder  barrels  (1£ 
yard  being  required  to  pack  a 
powder  barrel  in),  and  for  wrapping 
round  elevating  screws,  fuzes,  &c. ;  silk, 


CLO 


80 


COA 


for  exercising  and  saluting  cartridges, 
though  the  use  of  this  material  is  likely 
to  be  extended  to  service  cartridges. 

Clothing,  Military — -The  dress  worn 
by  the  soldier,  which  is  provided  for  him 
gratis  by  the  state,  and  which  is  made 
up  at  the  Government  Clothing  Esta- 
blishment, Pimlico.  All  routine  corre- 
spondence as  to  size,  rolls,  indents,  &c.,  is 
carried  on  direct  by  regiments  with  Pim- 
lico. but  objections  and  reports  on  fresh 
articles  are  sent  to  the  Adjutant-General. 
Clothing  condemned  by  regimental  boards 
is  reported  to  the  Adjutant-General. 
The  general  officer  in  command  either 
inspects  the  clothing  himself,  or  orders  a 
garrison  board.  The  cost  of  clothing  for 
the  soldier  varies  from  21.  6s.  for  a 
private  in  the  line  to  8/.  15s.  for  a  life- 
guardsman.  All  uniforms  as  stated  are 
now  issued  to  the  soldier  without  charge 
against  him  ;  he  has  only  to  pay  for  the 
renewal  of  necessaries. 

Clove  Hitch — Termed  also  the  cascable 
hitch  ;  is  a  well-known  knot  in  the 
artillery  service :  it  is  used  in  mounting 
and  dismounting  guns,  capping  fuzes, 
tying  cartridges,  &c. 
'  Club,  To — In  military  evolutions,  to 
throw  troops  into  confusion,  to  deform 
through  ignorance  or  inadvertency.  To 
club  a  battalion  implies  a  temporary 
inability  in  the  commanding  officer  to 
restore  any  given  body  of  men  to  their 
natural  front  in  line  or  column. 

Coal — A  mineral  of  vegetable  origin. 
It  is  thus  described  by  Sir  C.  Lyell : — 
"  When  wood  and  vegetable  matter  are 
buried  in  the  earth,  exposed  to  moisture, 
and  partially  or  entirely  excluded  from 
the  air,  they  decompose  slowly,  and 
evolve  carbonic  acid  gas,  thus  parting 
with  a  portion  of  their  original  oxygen. 
By  this  means  they  become  gradually 
converted  into  lignite  or  wood  coal, 
which  contains  a  larger  portion  of 
hydrogen  than  wood  does.  A  continua- 
tion of  decomposition  changes  this  lignite 
into  common  or  bituminous  coal,  chiefly 
by  the  discharge  of  carburetted  hydro- 
gen." The  coal  chiefly  used  on  the  Ben- 
gal side  of  India  for  steam-engines  in  the 
government  arsenals  and  factories,  is  ob- 
tained from  the  Raneegunge  and  Beer- 
bhoom  mines,  about  120  miles  from  Cal- 
cutta. Smithy  coal,  which  is  used  for 


all  cast-ironwork,  is  imported  from  Eng- 
land. Anthracite  coal  is  also  brought 
from  England,  and  is  used  chiefly  in  the 
government  powder  works,  alone,  or 
mixed  with  steam  coal.  It  produces  no 
smoke,  and  therefore  may  be  used  with 
safety  in  a  powder  factory  ;  besides,  it 
contains  a  greater  quantity  of  carbon 
than  any  other  coal. 

Coast  Batteries — Batteries  '  erected 
along  a  coast  to  protect  the  entrances  of 
harbours  and  ports.  They  are  armed 
with  artillery  of  the  largest  calibre  to 
oppose  the  landing  of  an  enemy. 

The  nature  of  ordnance  for  coast 
defences  was  in  1860  recommended  to  be 
as  follows : — 

The  10-inch  gun  of  86  cwt. 
„     68-pr.      „     of  95     „ 
„       8-inch  „     of  65     „ 
„     32-pr.     „     of  56     „ 
„     13-inch  sea  service  mortar. 

Since  the  introduction  of  rifled  artillery 
and  armour-plated  ships,  the  old  S.B. 
guns,  which,  formerly,  were  used  for  coast 
defence,  have  been  superseded  by  the 
heavier  rifled  ordnance  of  the  present  day. 

Coast  Brigade  of  Artillery  —  This 
brigade  was  formerly  composed  of  the 
garrison  companies  of  artillery  in  the 
fortified  towns  of  England,  under  the 
name  of  garrison  artillery,  but  in  1771. 
as  is  shown  in  Captain  Duncan's  'His- 
tory of  the  Royal  Artillery,'  long  after 
the  formation  of  the  royal  artillery, 
these  companies  were  incorporated  into 
the  invalid  companies  of  the  regiment,  and 
are  now  represented  by  what  is  termed 
the  Coast  Brigade.  Officers  of  this 
brigade  are  relieved  from  all  garrison 
and  regimental  duties,  except  such  as 
relate  solely  to  the  men  of  the  divisions 
under  their  command.  The  coast  brigade, 
as  stated  in  the  Queen's  Regulations, 
should  only  be  paraded  with  other  troops 
in  cases  of  urgent  necessity. 

Coat-of-mail — Armour  made  of  scales 
or  iron  rings,  linked  one  within  another, 
and  worn  in  the  middle  ages. 

Coating — The  covering  of  any  material 
with  paint,  lacquer,  &c. ;  it  is  applied 
to  ordnance  as  well  as  to  shot  and  shell, 
internally  and  externally.  It  has  been 
found  that  coating  the  interior  of  shells 
with  black  lacquer  tends  to  premature 


coo 


•    81 


COK 


explosions  of  the  shell  when  fired.  Eed 
lacquer  is  said  to  make  a  safer  coating. 
For  the  coating  of  ordnance,  vide  '  Artil- 
lerist's Manual,'  or  '  Treatise  on  Ammu- 
nition, 1874.' 

Cockade — A  military  and  naval  badge, 
or  mark  of  distinction.  It  consisted 
of  a  ribbon  worn  in  an  officer's  hat 
to  loop  it  up  with.  In  the  armies  of 
Europe,  this  mark  succeeded  the  scarf 
which  was  worn  by  officers  and  soldiers, 
but  being  found  to  be  attended  with  in- 
convenience, it  was  to  a  great  extent  dis- 
carded. In  the  army  and  navy  of  Great 
Britain,  the  officers  were  distinguished 
by  black  silk  ribbon,  and  the  non-com- 
missioned officers,  privates,  and  marines, 
by  hair  cockades.  This  fashion  has,  for 
some  years  past,  fallen  into  disuse,  and 
the  cockade  is  now  worn  by  a  military  or 
naval  officer's  servant. 

The  following  is  from  Cupan's  '  Hand- 
book of  Heraldry  :' — "  Cockades  affixed  to 
the  hats  of  servants  constitute  an  impor- 
tant part  of  liveries  ;  their  use,  however, 
is    not     in     any    manner    regulated    by 
heraldic    laws.      They    were    originally 
but  the  knots  of  the  ribbon  with  which 
military  men  used   to  cock   their  broad-  j 
brimmed  hats,  and  served  the  purpose  of 
the  button  or  star  which  ostensibly  keeps 
up  the  flap  of  the  modern    cocket  hat.  | 
The    black   cockade    as  now  worn  is  of  | 
German   origin,  and  was  not  introduced 
into      England      before     the     time     of 
George  1." 

Code,  Military — A  collection  of  rules 
and    regulations,  which    are    sanctioned 
by  authority,  for  the  better  government 
of  the    army — such  as    the   Articles    of : 
War. 

Coehorn  Mortars — Light  mortars  of 
5J-inch  and  4jj-inch  calibre,  having  cylin- 
drical chambers.  The  5J-inch  mortars 
of  this  nature  are  obsolete  in  the  British 
service.  They  were  introduced  by  the 
great  Dutch  engineer  of  that  name. 

Cog's — In  machinery,  the  teeth  raised 
on  the  surfaces  of  wheels. 

"  The  term  teeth  is  usually  applied  to 
cogs  on  the  surface  of  the  large  wheel, 
and  leaves  to  those  on  the  surface  of  the 
small  wheel  in  contact  with  it,  usually 
called  a  pinion.  The  number  of  times 
the  pinion  revolves  while  the  wheel 
makes  one  revolution  will  be  evidently 


equal  to  the  number  of  teeth  in  the 
wheel  divided  by  the  number  of  leaves  in 
the  pinion.  Let  T  =  number  of  teeth  in 
the  wheel,  t  =  number  of  leaves  in  the 
pinion,  and  N  =  number  of  revolutions 
made  by  the  pinion  while  the  wheel 
makes  one ;  or  if  R,  r  be  the  respective 
radii  of  the  wheel  and  pinion,  then — 

T        R  „ 

N  =  7  =  -- 
t        r 

Cohesion — The  power  of  transmitting 
heat  or  electricity,  without  change  in  the 
relative  position  of  the  particles  of  the 
conducting  body. 

Cohort — The  tenth  part  of  a  Roman 
legion.  A  legion  generally  consisted  of 
ten  cohorts  of  60  men  each. 

Coil — Applied  to  the  form  rope  is 
wound  in  and  issued  from  the  manufac- 
tory. A  coil  of  rope,  as  received  into 
arsenals,  contains  120  fathoms. 

Coil  of  a  Gun — Made  by  winding  a  hot 
bar  of  iron  round  a  mandrel,  which  is 
afterwards  removed.  The  rough  coil  so 
formed  is  then  welded,  bored  and  turned 
to  the  required  size.  In  building  up  a 
gun  after  Sir  W.  Armstrong's  system,  a 
succession  of  wrought-iron  coils  are 
shrunk  on  to  a  tube  or  barrel  of  steel  ;  to 
him  is  due  the  credit  of  being  the  inven- 
tor of  this  system.  But  since  his  original 
plan  of  thus  building  up  a  gun,  an  im- 
portant modification  of  it  has  been  made 
by  Mr.  Fraser,  attached  to  the  Gun 
Factory,  Woolwich,  who,  by  using  a  few 
long  double  or  triple  coils,  instead  of 
several  short  single  ones  and  a  forged 
breech-piece,  which  is  Sir  W.  Armstrong's 
system,  has  effected  an  immense  saving  in 
time  and  expense. 

Coir — The  fibre  of  the  cocoanut.  Very 
excellent  rope  for  naval  purposes  is  made 
from  it,  and  is  valued,  on  account  of  its 
lightness,  elasticity,  and  strength.  Coir 
cable  is  prepared  in  Ceylon,  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  in  the  Maldive  and 
Laccadive  Islands,  and  in  most  places 
along  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  where  cocoanut  trees 
grow.  Sponges  for  guns  have  been  made 
from  the  fibre,  but  they  are  not  equal  to 
sponges  made  of  wool  for  this  purpose, 
and  are,  moreover,  liable  to  take  fire. 

Coke— Fossil    coal     deprived     of     its 
extraneous  volatile    matter    by  fire.     It 
G 


COL 


82 


COL 


is  sometimes  used  in  combination  with 
coal,  where  a  greater  degree  of  heat  is 
required  than  coal  alone  afibrds.  In 
furnaces  for  melting  pig-iron,  kent- 
ledge, and  other  metals,  it  is  the  fuel 
chiefly  used. 

Colback — A  busby,  or  hussar  cap. 
Colic — A  complaint  with  which  horses 
are  not  unfrequently  attacked,  caused  by 
indigestion,  constipation,  spasm,  stran- 
gury. The  remedy  for  this  complaint  is 
thus  explained.  "The  attack  will  gene- 
rally yield  to  the  first  or  second  dose  of 
the  usual  colic  mixture,  with  injections 
of  warm  soap-and-water,  and  with  a 
little  spirits  of  turpentine  in  it ;  friction 
being  used  to  the  surface  of  the  belly. 
If  there  is  constipation,  give  a  dose 
of  the  prescribed  mixture,  with  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  ginger  in  it ;  if  the  pain 
continues  and  becomes  more  constant, 
bleed,  taking  from  six  to  ten  quarts  of 
blood,  continue  the  injections,  and  give  a 
dram  of  opium  every  hour,  blister  the 
belly,  clipping  the  hair  off  first.  The 
cure  for  colic  is  powdered  opium,  1  dr. ; 
ginger,  powdered,  2  drs. ;  allspice,  pow- 
dered, 3  drs.  ;  caraway  seeds,  powdered, 
4  drs.  :  made  into  a  bolus." 

Coldstream  Guards — This  regiment 
forms  one  of  the  Household  Brigade,  and 
is  the  oldest  regiment  in  the  British 
army,  except  the  1st  Foot.  The  name 
originally  of  this  corps  was  "  Monk's 
Regiment,"  from  General  Monk  baring 
raised  it  in  1660  at  Coldstream,  but 
when  parliament  consented  to  give  a 
brigade  of  guards  to  Charles  II.,  this 
corps,  under  the  name  of  Coldstream 
Guards,  was  included  in  it. 

Collar,  Horse — That  part  of  the  har- 
ness which  encircles  the  horse's  neck, 
and  to  which  the  hames  are  attached, 
and  by  means  of  which  the  draught  is 
applied  to  the  animal. 

Collar  Makers — Artificers  appointed 
for  the  repair  of  draught  harness.  In 
the  artillery,  on  first  appointment,  they 
have  the  rank  and  clothing  of  bombar- 
diers, and  reckon  service,  as  such,  without 
increase  of  pay.  After  five  years'  service, 
if  a  bombardier,  they  have  the  rank  and 
clothing  of  corporals,  and  reckon  service 
for  pension,  as  such,  without  increase  of 
pay.  The  four  senior  collar  makers  of 
each  brigade  are  allowed  the  rank  and 


clothing  of  a  sergeant,  but  without  in- 
crease of  pay. 

College — In  the  common  acceptation 
of  the  term,  is  a  community  of  students 
assembled  together  for  instruction  ;  if  the 
instruction  be  of  a  military  nature,  it  is 
termed  a  military  college.  The  com- 
munity is  bound  together  by  rules  and 
regulations  common  to  all.  Such  is  the 
college  at  Sandhurst,  and  all  other 
colleges. 

Collimator — An  instrument  for  laying 
guns  and  mortars,  and  especially  adapted 
for  laying  them  for  night-firing.  But  the 
same  appliance  as  is  used  by  night  could 
be  made  available  by  day,  with  the  em- 
brasures closed,  thus  protecting  the  gun- 
ners from  the  fire  of  the  enemy.  For  a 
description  and  use  of  the  collimator  now 
in  use  in  the  service,  vide  '  Manual  of 
Artillery  Exercises.'  1873. 

Colonel — The  highest  rank  in  the 
army  below  that  of  general.  After 
serving  five  years  as  a  regimental 
lieutenant-colonel,  an  officer  is  gazetted 
to  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  army, 
provided  he  has  not  received  the  rank 
previously  by  brevet.  Colonels,  as 
shown  in  the  Queen's  Regulations,  con- 
tinue to  perform  the  ordinary  duties 
of  field  officers  for  five  years  from  the 
date  of  their  commission  as  colonel,  after 
which  period  they  are  not  to  be  included 
in  the  field  officer  roster,  but  will  have 
special  duties  assigned  to  them. 

Colonel  of  a  Regiment — A  general 
officer  placed  at  the  head  of  a  regiment, 
as  a  reward  for  long  and  meritorious 
services.  He  does  not  command  the 
regiment  in  person,  the  command  being 
honorary  only,  but  appears  in  the  'Army 
List '  at  the  head  of  his  regiment.  As 
colonel  of  a  regiment,  he  draws  "  colonel's 
allowance." 

Colonel,  Brevet — An  officer  holding  a 
colonel's  commission.  An  officer  of  this 
rank  is  generally  a  regimental  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  has  command  of  his  regi- 
ment, which  he  exercises  for  a  period 
of  five  years  or  upwards,  provided  he 
has  not  attained  the  rank  of  major- 
general. 

In  the  artillery,  regimental  colonels 
command  districts  of  artillery,  and  the 
senior  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  brigade 
;  commands  the  brigade. 


COL 


83 


COL 


Colonel's  Allowance,  vide  Off-reckon- 
ings. 

Colonel-Commandant— The  chief  of  a 
brigade  of  artillery,  engineers,  or  marines. 
This  position  is  analogous  to  that  of  a 
colonel  of  a  regiment,  who  receives  what 
is  termed  the  '•  colonel's  allowance." 
In  the  early  days  of  this  rank  in  the 
artillery.  Captain  Duncan,  in  his  '  His- 
tory of  the  Royal  Artillery,'  states  that 
'•  the  connection  of  the  colonels-com- 
mandant with  their  battalions  remained 
of  the  closest  description.  No  officer 
was  allowed  to  be  promoted,  under  the 
rank  of  field  officer,  without  a  recom- 
mendation from  the  colonel-commandant 
of  the  battalion  in  which  he  might  be 
serving.  Xor  was  any  exchange  allowed 
without  the  consent  of  both  the  colonels- 
commandant  concerned."  Even  now-a- 
days,  before  an  adjutant  is  appointed  to  a 
brigade  of  artillery,  the  colonel-com- 
mandant has  to  be  consulted,  and  nomi- 
nates the  officer  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  commander-in-chief. 

Colonial  Corps — Certain  regiments  for- 
merly raised  or  organised  in  the  several 
British  colonies ;  many  of  them  have  now 
been  disbanded.  They  were  formed  gene- 
rally of  men  (natives)  belonging  to  the 
colony,  paid  out  of  the  imperial  revenues, 
and  included  in  the  regular  army  of  the 
British  Empire.  Such  at  present  are  the 
West  India  regiments,  and  the  Malta 
fencible  artillery. 

Colour  Party — The  two  officers  who 
carry  the  colours  of  a  regiment,  as  a 
rule,  the  two  junior  lieutenants;  four 
sergeants  are  also  told  off  to  assist,  of 
whom  one  stands  between  the  two  officers 
and  three  form  a  rear  rank. 

Colour,  Saluting — An  ordinary  camp 
colour,  distinguished  by  a  transverse  red 
cross ;  or  when  the  facings  are  red,  by  a 
transverse  blue  cross. 

Colour  Sergeant — A  sergeant  appointed 
to  each  company  of  infantry.  He  is 
known  by  the  badge  of  crossed  swords  and 
crossed  flags,  which  he  wears  above  his 
chevrons.  His  duties  are  thus  explained 
in  Major  Knollys's  '  Dictionary  of  Military 
Terms ' : —  "He  is  responsible  to  the  captain 
for  the  interior  economy  of  the  company, 
and  receives  extra  pay  for  the  perform- 
ance of  his  duties.  He  also  at  times 
performs  the  duties  of  a  pay  sergeant. 


He  is  further  one  of  the  sergeants  told  off 
for  the  colour  party  when  the  battalion 
is  about  going  into  action.  In  cases  of 
misconduct  he  is  liable  to  revert  to  the 
rank  and  pay  of  a  sergeant,  at  the  discre- 
tion of  his  commanding  officer." 

Colours,  Camp — For  marking  out  the 
lines  of  a  camp.  They  are  18  inches 
square,  and  of  the  colour  of  the  facing 
of  the  regiment,  with  the  number  of  the 
regiment  upon  them. 

Colours,  Military — Military  ensigns 
carried  by  regiments  of  infantry,  which 
are  looked  upon  as  rallying-points  in 
the  hour  of  danger.  There  are  two 
colours  carried  by  each  regiment,  with 
the  exception  of  rifle  corps :  the  r&yal  or 
first  colour,  and  the  rixjimental  or  second 
colour ;  on  the  former  are  the  badges 
and  number  of  the  regiment ;  on  the 
latter — the  colour  of  which  is  to  be 
that  of  the  facings  of  the  regiment — 
the  devices,  distinctions,  and  mottoes 
which  have  been  conferred  by  royal 
authority,  and  also  the  number  of  the 
regiment ;  the  whole  ensigned  with  the 
imperial  crown.  The  74th  Highlanders 
cany  three  colours.  Crowned  heads, 
princes,  and  marshals  are  alone  entitled 
to  be  saluted  by  lowered  colours.  The 
colours  of  a  regiment  are  always  saluted 
by  guards.  The  banners  of  a  dragoon 
regiment  are  called  guidons,  and  those 
of  other  cavalry  regiments,  standards. 
When  the  colours  of  a  regiment  either 
from  service  or  age  are  worn  out,  it  is 
customary  for  the  colonel's  wife  to  re- 
place them,  the  old  ones  being  deposited 
in  some  church  or  cathedral. 

Column — In  military  evolution,  the 
formation  of  troops,  whether  in  brigades, 
regiments,  battalions,  or  of  companies,  in 
deep  files  and  narrow  front,  so  disposed 
as  to  move  in  regular  succession.  Ac- 
cording to  the  density  of  the  column,  it 
is  called  open  or  close.  When  com- 
panies one  behind  the  other  are  at  such 
distance  as  to  enable  them  to  wheel  into 
line,  the  regiment  or  battalion  is  then 
said  to  be  in  open  column ;  but  when  the 
companies  are  only  a  few  yards  in  rear  of 
each  other,  this  is  termed  a  close  column. 
In  artillery,  the  column  formation  is  in 
sub-divisions,  divisions,  and  half-batteries. 
The  object  of  this  formation  is  to  reduce 
the  line  of  frontage  of  troops,  and  to  give 
o  2 


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facility  in  manoeuvring.  The  general  for- 
mation in  the  Prussian  and  French  armies 
is  that  of  company  column,  superseding 
the  battalion  column.  On  tactical 
grounds,  the  company  column  formation 
appears,  to  favour  the  manoeuvres  of 
troops,  and  will  doubtless  in  the  future 
be  the  formation  which  all  armies  will 
assume.  Sometimes  the  name  column 
is  given  to  a  body  of  troops  which  is  in 
effect  a  small  army. 

Column  of  March. — A  formation  as- 
sumed by  troops  on  the  line  of  march, 
which  is  governed  partly  by  tactical 
considerations,  partly  by  arrangements 
for  supply,  &c.  This  formation  consists 
first  of  an  advanced  guard,  which  is 
purely  tactical.  At  the  head  of  the 
column,  or  with  the  advanced  guard, 
come  the  sappers,  to  clear  the  roads,  to 
repair  bridges,  and  generally  to  facilitate 
the  march  of  the  column. 

Next  comes  the  first  brigade  of 
infantry,  having  its  intrenching  tools, 
for  throwing  up  covering  works,  if  ne- 
cessary. Its  ambulance  wagons  are  kept 
in  the  rear,  or  should  do  so,  and  not  be 
allowed  to  be  under  fire.  All  transport 
of  sick  from  the  field  of  battle  should  be 
carried  out  by  stretchers. 

The  position  of  artillery  with  such  a 
force  should  be  regulated  by  tactical 
considerations.  If  not  required,  it  should 
be  in  rear  of  the  infantry,  but,  if  wanted, 
should  be  in  rear  of  the  first  battalion,  or 
first  brigade,  sometimes  between  brigades. 
Artillery,  if  between  infantry,  must  con- 
form exactly  to  the  pace  of  infantry,  which 
is  very  fatiguing  and  trying  to  the  horses  ; 
if  in  rear,  they  can  make  longer  halts 
and  vary  pace.  Mounted  corps,  when 
practicable,  should  march  at  later  hours 
than  dismounted  men ;  if  the  column  comes 
unexpectedly  on  the  enemy,  it  is  easier 
to  trot  artillery  past  infantry  than  to 
hurry  up  infantry  past  artillery.  The 
same  principles  which  are  applied  to 
artillery  may  be  also  to  cavalry,  and 
.«uch  of  it  as  is  not  with  the  advanced 
guard  is  generally  in  rear  of  all  the 
force. 

It  is  desirable,  if  not  imperative, 
that  artillery  and  cavalry  should  not 
have  to  conform  to  infantry  pace.  It 
is  stated  that  tho  French  cavalry  in 
1859  suffered  severe! v  from  this.  The 


position  of  the  staff  of  a  division  is  at  the 
head  of  its  own  column,  that  of  brigades 
at  the  heads  of  their  brigades,  but  they 
should  from  time  to  time  ride  back  to 
the  rear  to  see  that  their  column  main- 
tains order.  Mounted  police  are  usually 
with  the  train.  The  following  gives  the 
order  of  the  train  : — 

"  1.   Reserve  ammunition  column. 

"  2.  Ambulance  and  field  hospital. 

"  3.  Provision  wagons,  and  cattle  re- 
quired for  the  day's  supply. 

"  4.  Regimental  and  staff  baggage. 

"  5.  Control — provision  columns  and 
baking  trains." 

The  above  may  be  taken  as  the  real 
order  of  march  in  the  vicinity  of  an 
enemy,  and  should  be  adopted  unless 
otherwise  ordered. 

For  larger  bodies  of  men  than  is  here 
contemplated,  other  arrangements  will  be 
made,  as  shown  in  '  The  Soldier's  Pocket 
Book.' 

Combat — A  battle  or  duel.  Anciently 
it  was  not  uncommon  for  contending 
powers  to  settle  their  dispute  by  single 
combat,  when  each  party  chose  for  itself 
a  champion  who  contested  the  point  at 
issue  in  the  presence  of  both  armies. 

Combustion — A  term  familiar  in  the 
laboratory.  It  is  applied  to  the  process 
of  burning,  which  is  caused  by  the  addi- 
tion of  oxygen  of  the  air  to  the  con- 
stituents of  the  combustible  substance,  or 
in  one  of  the  constituents  possessing  such 
an  excess  of  oxygen  to  the  other  ingre- 
dients that  on  fire  being  applied  it  takes 
fire  at  once,  as  in  the  case  of  gun- 
powder. 

Command — In  fortification,  when 
several  works  cover  the  same  ground, 
the  difference  of  level,  when  one  work  is 
higher  than  another,  is  called  the  com- 
mand of  that  work  over  the  other. 
When  this  difference  of  level  is  sufficient 
to  allow  of  both  works  to  fire  at  the 
same  time  upon  an  enemy's  advance,  one 
over  the  other,  it  is  termed  a  command 
of  fire.  But  when  the  difference  of  level 
is  only  sufficient  for  the  inner  work  to 
look  into,  and  act  upon  the  interior  of 
the  outer  one,  it  is  called  a  command  of 
observation. 

Commandant — A  title  given  to  officers 
at  the  head  of  certain  government  esta- 
blishments, which  have  for  their  object 


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the  education  or  training  of  officers  and 
soldiers  for  or  in  the  army.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  the  commander  of  a 
garrison  or  town,  fort  or  fortified  post, 
and  to  the  chiof-in-command  of  a  brigade 
of  artillery,  engineers,  or  marines. 

Command,  Military— The  authority 
in  chief  exercised  by  the  senior  officer  of 
a  regiment  or  of  any  body  of  troops. 
To  this  position  there  is  a  certain  "  com- 
mand pay  "  attached,  in  addition  to  the 
regimental  pay,  varying  according  to  the 
nature  of  command.  In  the  British  army, 
when  quartered  at  home,  the  command 
allowance  is  very  small,  but  in  India 
officers  commanding  regiments  are  very 
well  remunerated. 

Commander — An  officer  having  superior 
authority  over  others. 

Commander-in-Chief — This  title  has 
not  been  assumed  by  the  officer  adminis- 
tering the  command  and  affairs  of  the 
army  since  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington.  The  powers  alluded  to  have 
been  invested  in  an  officer  holding  no 
higher  commission  than  that  of  "  General 
on  the  Staff;"  who  is  called  the  general 
(or  field  marshal,  according  to  the 
army  rank  of  the  holder)  commanding- 
in-chief.  He  acts  in  conjunction  with  the 
Secretary  of  War.  His  office,  technically 
termed  the  "  Horse  Guards,"  supervises 
the  recruiting,  training,  discipline,  dis- 
tribution of  appointments,  and  command 
of  the  army. 

The  officer  commanding  all  the  troops 
in  India  is  styled  Commander-in-Chief, 
and  the  same  title  is  given  to  the  officer 
commanding  the  troops  in  each  of  the 
subordinate  presidencies.  The  Queen, 
being  the  head  of  the  army,  appoints  the 
several  commanders-in-chief  of  the  British 
and  Indian  armies. 

Commander-in-Chief  s  Department — 
A  department  of  the  army  which  consists 
of  the  Adjutant-General  and  Quarter- 
master-General, nominally  amalgamated, 
but  working  apart.  The  following 
branches,  at  the  Horse  Guards,  are 
called  divisions,  and  are  thus  told  off: — 

Military  Secretary. 
Intelligence. 
Auxiliary  forces. 
Military  education. 

Adjutant-General  and  Quartermaster- 


Adjutant-General 


Quartermaster-General 


General  are  ordinary  combatants,  to 
whom  are  entrusted  respectively  the 
departments  of — 

Recruiting. 

Discharges. 

Discipline. 

Inspections. 

Returns. 

Movement  of 
troops. 

Intelligence. 

To  the  Military  Secretary's  Department 
is  entrusted — 

First  appointments. 

Promotion. 

Rewards. 

Staff  appointments. 

Exchanges. 

The  above  is  the  distribution  of  the  staff 
at  the  Horse  Guards,  and  these  divisions 
are  adhered  to  in  the  smaller  fractions  as 
closely  as  possible. 

Commissariat  —  Formerly  a  special 
branch  of  the  army,  now  called  the 
Supply  Branch  of  the  Control  Depart- 
ment ;  upon  it  devolved  the  responsibility 
of  collecting  all  provisions,  forage,  &c., 
necessary  for  troops  in  cantonments,  or 
in  the  field.  (  Vide  Control  Department.) 

In  war  time,  the  feeding  of  the  troops 
is  the  most  difficult  of  all  operations,  and 
necessitates  the  best  exertions  of  the  most 
experienced  officers  in  the  department  to 
insure  an  army  being  fed.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  difficulty  alluded  to,  the 
First  Crusade  never  got  beyond  Hungary. 
A  reference  to  the  reports  of  Wellington 
and  Napier  during  the  Peninsular  cam- 
paign, and,  latterly,  to  those  of  .the 
Abyssinian  Expedition,  will  show  the 
difficulty  on  a  campaign  in  an  enemy's 
country,  in  the  first  place  of  securing 
food,  and  in  the  second  of  carrying  it. 

The  Ashantee  War  is  a  recent  instance 
of  the  difficulty  of  conveying  food,  when 
from  the  cowardice  of  the  Fantees,  and 
the  dread  they  had  of  the  Ashantees, 
they  refused  to  carry  the  food  and 
baggage  of  the  army,  which  had  to  be 
carried  by  the  West  India  regiments. 

Then  again,  when  we  consider  how 
dependent  the  British  soldier  is  on  the 
nature  of  his  food,  more  so  than  the 
soldiers  of  other  nations,  and  that 


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military  operations  are  sometimes  carried 
on  in  countries  offering  no  resources,  the 
duties  of  the  Commissariat  or  Supply 
Department  are  burthensome,  and  stu- 
pendous in  the  extreme,  and  it  should  be 
therefore  treated  by  the  army  with  great 
patience  and  consideration. 

Commissary — This  term  was  used  in 
the  old  French  service  to  express  a  variety 
of  military  occupations,  as  it  is  in  the 
Control  Department  of  the  British  ser- 
vice at  the  present  day. 

Commissary  of  Ordnance — The  depart- 
mental title  given  to  an  officer  of  artillery 
who  has  charge  of  an  arsenal  in  India. 
Each  officer,  on  being  appointed  to  the 
Ordnance  Department,  remains  on  proba- 
tion until  he  has  passed  an  examination 
in  the  various  subjects  appertaining  to 
the  charge  of  an  arsenal,  such  as  accounts, 
the  nomenclature  and  use  of  stores, 
the  working  of  metals,  &c.,  when,  if 
found  qualified,  he  is  posted  to  the  de- 
partment. The  duties  attached  to  the 
office  of  a  commissary  of  ordnance  will 
be  found  in  the  ordnance  codes  of  each 
presidency. 

Commission — In  a  military  sense,  is 
the  warrant  signed  by  or  on  behalf  of  the 
sovereign,  authorising  an  officer  to  exer- 
cise command  in  the  army. 

Commissions,  commencing  with  the 
sub-lieutenants  of  the  army,  are  given  to 
candidates  after  passing  the  prescribed 
examination  before  the  Civil  Service  Ex- 
aminers, when  they  are  sent  to  Sand- 
hurst College,  for  further  instruction, 
chiefly  of  a  military  nature.  They  are 
not  posted  to  regiments  until  they  have 
passed  the  final  examination,  except 
those  who  are  gazetted  to  regiments 
in  India  which  they  proceed  at  once  to 
join.  After  serving  one  year  with 
their  regiments,  they  are  attached  to 
garrison  classes  in  India,  and  undergo  a 
course  of  military  instruction  required 
to  qualify  them  for  promotion  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant. 

Militia  lieutenants  are  eligible  for 
commissions  in  the  regular  army  after 
serving  for  two  trainings  in  a  militia 
regiment ;  on  passing  the  usual  exami- 
nation they  are  further  subjected  to  such 
regulations  as  to  age  or  otherwise  as  may 
be  issued  from  time  to  time  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  War. 


A  commission  of  lieutenant  in  the 
cavalry  or  infantry  of  the  line  can  also 
be  obtained  by  officers  of  the  Royal  Malta 
Fencible  Artillery  on  passing  the  pre- 
scribed examination,  similar  to  that  which 
is  required  of  a  sub-lieutenant  in  the 
army.  According  to  the  orders  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  War,  only  two 
commissions  in  every  three  years  will 
be  granted. 

Cadets  who  are  educated  at  Woolwich 
receive  their  commissions  either  in  the 
artillery  or  engineers  on  their  leaving  the 
academy. 

As  purchase  is  now  abolished  in  the 
army,  promotion  to  the  higher  ranks  is 
given  by  merit  or  selection.  Commis- 
sions, a  few  years  ago,  received  the  Queen's 
sign-manual,  but  an  act  has  been  passed 
dispensing  with  this  necessity.  For 
information  on  the  subject  of  first  and 
subsequent  commissions  in  the  army, 
vide  Queen's  Warrants  (Appendix  A). 

Commissionaires  (French  commission, 
a  message) — A  body  of  old  or  disabled 
soldiers,  who,  on  being  pensioned,  are 
formed  into  a  corps,  and  stationed  in 
London  and  Edinburgh.  They  are  em- 
ployed, for  the  most  part,  as  porters  and 
in  positions  of  trust,  such  as  door-keepers 
over  jewellers'  shops.  They  run  also  as 
messengers.  They  must  be  men  of  un- 
exceptionable character  to  whom  these 
posts  and  duties  are  entrusted. 

Commissioners  of  Array — The  prede- 
cessors of  our  modern  lords-lieutenant, 
whose  duties  consisted,  amongst  others,  of 
seeing  enforced  in  feudal  times  the  ob- 
servance of  regulations  which  had  for  their 
object  the  maintenance  of  able-bodied 
men  in  the  realm  for  the  protection  of 
the  land.  (  Vide  Assize  of  Arms.) 

Committee — Another  name  for  Board. 
(Vide  Board.) 

Common  Shell,  vide  Shell. 

Communications — In  a  military  sense, 
are  the  lines  by  which  an  army  com- 
municates with  its  base  from  any  point 
to  which  it  has  advanced  in  the  theatre 
of  war,  along  which  its  reinforcements 
and  supplies  must  pass  to  reach  the 
army,  and  by  which  it  must  retreat  in 
case  of  disaster ;  and  the  definition 
applies  equally  whether  the  army 
occupies  an  extended  strategical  front 
or  is  united  on  a  field  of  battle  (Mac- 


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dongall).  ( Vide  Lines  of  Communica- 
tion.) 

Company — In  the  army,  means  a  body 
of  men  forming  one  of  the  principal 
divisions,  and  the  first  unit  of  an  in- 
fantry battalion ;  the  number  of  com- 
panies in  a  battalion  is  usually  about 
ten.  The  number  in  a  company  varies 
according  to  circumstances,  but  may 
generally  be  said  to  be  about  100.  A 
company  is  commanded  by  a  captain, 
and  has  two  subalterns  attached  to  it. 
In  the  artillery  service,  the  term  company 
is  exploded,  and  the  word  battery  has 
taken  its  place. 

Compassionate  Allowance — In  the 
British  army,  is  an  allowance  granted  to 
the  widows  and  children  of  officers  either 
killed  in  action  or  who  die  of  wounds 
received  on  active  service.  The  gift 
arose  on  the  occasion  of  the  Crimean  War. 
If  the  allowance,  as  explained  in  '  Cham- 
bers's  Encyclopaedia,'  "  be  in  the  form  of  a 
gratuity,  in  one  sum  of  money,  it  bears  a 
certain  definite  relation  in  amount  to  the 
sums  which  the  officer  had  paid  for  the 
purchase  of  his  commission,  but  the 
recipients  have  the  alternative  of  a  pen- 
sion or  annual  allowance." 

In  the  Indian  army  a  similar  allowance 
is  given  to  the  widows  of  officers  who 
are  killed  in  the  service,  or  who  die  of 
their  wounds ;  it  is  paid  to  them  as 
long  as  they  remain  unmarried. 

Compliment — The  military  mark  of 
respect  shown  to  all  persons  in  authority 
by  a  body  of  troops,  to  a  member  of  the 
royal  family,  to  a  general  officer  in 
command,  to  troops  on  the  march,  and 
to  an  individual  officer  when  met  by  one 
or  more  of  his  subordinates. 

Compressed  Bullets — Bullets  formed 
of  compressed  lead.  The  mode  of  com- 
pressing the  lead  is  as  follows.  The  lead 
is  first  melted,  and  then  raised  from  the 
reservoir  in  a  bucket  by  a  small  crane, 
and  poured  into  the  receiving  chamber  of 
a  hydraulic  press  of  immense  power.  A 
piston  rising  from  below,  and  worked  by  a 
pump,  is  set  in  motion  by  a  steam  engine, 
and  when  the  lead  is  cooled  down  to  the 
proper  temperature,  it  is  forced  through 
a  die,  forming  it,  as  it  escapes,  into  rod 
lead,  which  winds  itself  on  to  a  drum  of 
about  the  diameter  of  the  required  bullet. 
It  is  then  carried  on  to  the  bullet 


machine,  where  it  unwinds  and  divides 
itself  as  the  machinery  revolves,  and  is 
guided  to  a  cutting  apparatus,  which 
nips  oft"  a  cylindrical  piece  of  lead  ;  as  the 
piece  falls  down,  it  is  caught  by  a  punch 
and  die,  fixed  exactly  below,  which  forms 
it  into  a  perfect  bullet  in  one  stroke. 
The  object  of  compressing  the  lead,  in- 
stead of  casting  it.  is  to  give  density  to 
the  bullet  and  to  prevent  air  holes  form- 
ing within  it. 

Compression,  Globe  of — A  surcharged 
mine,  so  called  from  its  compressing  or 
disturbing  effects  beyond  the  sphere  of  its, 
crater. 

Compressor — A  brake  or  check  at- 
tached to  a  gun-carriage  to  ease  the 
recoil.  Its  controlling  power  is  great. 
Garrison  truck  carriages,  known  as  the 
single-plate  and  double-plate  carriages, 
were  originally  fitted  with  the  American 
and  Elswick  compressors,  but  later  in- 
structions direct  them,  when  sent  in  for 
repair,  to  be  replaced  by  the  hydraulic 
buffer. 

Compulsory  Service  —  The  power  a 
government  has  of  compelling  the  people 
of  a  country  to  take  up  arms  in  defence 
of  the  nation.  This  nature  of  enlistment 
is  unknown  in  the  British  army,  except 
in  the  militia,  and  then  only  in  case  of 
a  deficiency  of  recruits ;  but  in  conti- 
nental armies  the  system  is  universal. 

Comrade — A  fellow-soldier  in  the  same 
regiment  or  company,  and  who  acts  as 
the  friend  of  another  soldier. 

Concave — Hollow,  such  as  the  inner 
surface  of  a  sphere,  as  opposed  to  its  outer, 
which  is  termed  convex. 

Concentric — Having  a  common  centre. 
The  internal  hollow  sphere  and  the  ex- 
ternal figure  of  the  outside  of  a  shell  are 
concentric  spheres. 

Concussion — -A  substantive  used  as  an 
adjective  in  connection  with  the  word 
"  fuze."  It  is  best  represented  in  Saxon 
English  by  the  word  "  shock."  The  con- 
cussion fuze,  which  is  now  obsolete,  had 
an  internal  mechanism,  so  nicely  ad- 
justed as  to  withstand  the  first  shock 
which  the  shell  receives — viz.  that  occa- 
sioned by  the  explosion  of  the  charge — 
and  resisting  others  that  may  be  occa- 
sioned by  grazing  short,  while  it  yielded 
to  the  concussion  caused  by  the  impact 
i  of  the  shell  on  the  body  struck.  This 


CON 


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concussion,  by  shaking  the  burning  com- 
position of  the  fuze  into  the  loaded 
cavity  of  the  shell,  instantly  caused  the 
latter  to  explode.  Freeburn's  concus- 
sion fuze  answered  to  the  above  descrip- 
tion. 

Condenser — An  instrument  for  forcing 
a  large  quantity  of  air  into  a  given 
space.  It  consists  of  a  receiver,  a 
cylindrical  barrel  furnished  with  a  valve 
opening  inwards,  and  a  solid  piston, 
which  is  either  air-tight  or  has  a  valve 
also  opening  inwards.  Near  the  top  of 
the  cylinder,  on  one  side,  there  is  a  small 
orifice.  The  principle  of  this  instru- 
ment, which  is  nothing  more  than  a 
force-pump,  is  this,  that  when  the  piston 
is  forced  down  the  cylinder,  the  air  con- 
tained in  it  opens  the  valve  at  the  bottom, 
and  a  barrel  of  common  air  is  forced  into 
the  receiver.  On  raising  the  piston,  the 
bottom  valve  closes,  and  when  the  piston 
rises  above  the  orifice  near  the  top  of  the 
cylinder,  the  air  rushes  in  and  fills  the 
barrel  again.  This  process  is  repeated  as 
long  as  is  necessary. 

Condensing  Engine — Called  also  a 
low-pressure  engine,  "  is  one  in  which  the 
steam  is  condensed  so  as  to  present  nearly 
a  vacuum  on  one  side  of  the  piston, 
while  the  steam  is  acting  on  the  other. 
As  the  pressure  of  the  air  on  a  vacuum 
is  about  151bs.  on  the  square  inch  in  a 
condensing  engine,  the  pressure  pf  the 
steam  in  the  boiler  need  not  be  so  great 
as  it  necessarily  has  to  be  in  a  non-con- 
densing engine,  where  the  pressure  of  the 
air  has  to  be  overcome  before  any  effective 
force  can  be  obtained.  Hence  condensing 
engines  are  called  low-pressure,  while  non- 
condensing  are  called  high-pressure." 

Conductors — Warrant  officers  attached 
either  to  the  Ordnance  or  Army  Com- 
missariat Departments.  The  rank  at- 
tached to  these  well-deserving  officers 
is  more  applicable  to  the  Indian  than  the 
English  army.  Those  in  the  former 
department  in  India  are  chiefly  men  who 
have  risen  from  the  artillery  ranks.  The 
warrant  rank  comprises  the  following 
grades  :  sub-conductor,  conductor,  deputy 
assistant  commissary,  assistant  commis- 
sary, and  deputy  commissary.  The  three 
latter  are  strictly  departmental,  and 
carry  with  them  honorary  rank,  and  are 
held  also  by  commissioned  officers  hold- 


ing unattached  rank.  Advancement  is 
obtained  by  rotation  in  the  Ordnance 
Department,  each  man  entering  first  as  a 
magazine  sergeant,  promotion  afterwards 
being  to  the  warrant  grade  of  sub-con- 
ductor, if  duly  qualified,  which  is  ascer- 
tained by  the  candidate  undergoing  an 
examination  under  the  orders  of  the 
Deputy  Inspector-General  of  Ordnance. 

The  term  "  conductor  "  was  originally 
given  to  warrant  officers,  from  the  fact 
of  their  conducting  stores  by  land  or 
water  to  the  several  arsenals  or  maga- 
zines. 

Conductors,  Lightning — Metallic  rods 
(copper  generally)  erected  or  attached 
to  buildings  to  conduct  lightning  to  the 
earth.  Conductors  are  attached  to  all 
powder  magazines,  to  preserve  them 
from  being  struck  by  the  electric  fluid. 
For  all  particulars  as  to  the  mode  of 
attaching  the  rods,  vide  Appendix  G. 

Cone — A  solid  body  or  figure  having  a 
circle  for  its  base,  and  its  top  terminated 
in  a  point  or  vertex.  The  following 
geometrical  description  of  a  cone  is  taken 
from  Taylor's  'Geometrical  Conies': — 
"  From  the  centre  of  a  circle  draw  a 
straight  line  at  right  angles  to  the  plane 
of  the  circle,  and  in  this  line  take  a  fixed 
point.  Then  the  surface  generated  by 
an  indefinite  straight  line  which  moves 
so  as  always  to  pass  through  the  fixed 
point,  and  through  some  point  in  the 
circumference  of  the  circle,  is  said  to  be 
a  right  circular  cone,  or  simply  a  cone." 

Confidence— This  term,  in  a  military 
sense,  has  reference  to  the  facility  with 
which  some  officers  gain  the  confidence 
of  their  men.  This  most  essential 
quality  in  a  commander  is  of  the  highest 
importance,  and  cannot  be  overrated, — 
without  it,  a  disaster  may  at  any  moment 
occur  in  the  day  of  battle  ;  but  with  it, 
and  the  knowledge  of  military  science 
combined,  success  in  the  operations  of  an 
army  may  be  assured.  History  affords 
examples  of  battles^  having  been  lost  by 
the  most  celebrated  generals,  because  they 
did  not  possess  this  confidence. 

At  the  battle  of  Thymbra,  when 
Cyrus's  horse  fell  under  him,  Xenophon 
takes  notice  of  what  importance  it  is  to 
a  commander  to  be  loved  by  his  soldiers. 
The  danger  of  the  king's  person  became 
the  danger  of  the  army ;  and  his  troops 


CON 


89 


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on    that    occasion  gave  incredible  proofs 
of  their  courage  and  bravery. 

Confidential  Reports — Reports  on  regi- 
ments, as  to  their  efficiency,  conduct,  &c., 
forwarded  yearly  by  general  officers  com- 
manding to  the  Adjutant-General  for 
the  information  of  the  Commander-in- 
Chief.  Reports  on  the  qualifications  of 
officers  for  promotion  are  sent  to  the 
Military  Secretary  at  the  Horse  Guards 
for  submission.  The  Queen's  Regulations 
afford  to  general  officers  commanding,  all 
information  as  to  the  preparation  of  con- 
fidential reports. 

Congreve  Gun — A  24-pr.  gun  of 
conical  form  ;  this  gun  was  proposed  in 
1813  by  Sir  W.  Congreve ;  it  had  a  much 
greater  thickness  of  metal  at  the  breech 
than  those  of  the  old  construction  ;  the 
extra  thickness  was  supposed  to  give  a 
reacting  power  to  the  gun,  which,  how- 
ever, is  an  erroneous  idea,  not  supported 
by  facts.  The  gun  is  now  obsolete  in  the 
service. 

Conjunctor — One  of  the  three  princi- 
pal parts  composing  Navez's  electro- 
ballistic  apparatus.  It  is  thus  described 
by  Captain  Noble,  late  R.A.,  in  the 
'  R.  A.  Institution  Papers,'  vol.  iii.  p. 
117:— 

"  The  current  which  passes  through 
the  second  screen  holds,  by  means  of 
an  electro-magnet,  a  weight  suspended 
over  a  spring,  a  point  from  which  is 
kept  just  over  a  cup  of  mercury.  When 
this  weight  is  permitted  to  fall,  it 
presses  the  point  into  the  cup  of  mercury, 
and  completes  the  circuit,  magnetising 
the  horse-shoe  magnet  which  clamps  the 
vernier  needle.  This  part  of  the  appara- 
tus is  termed  the  conjunctor.  The  action 
of  the  instrument  is  very  simple,  and 
readily  understood.  When  the  projectile 
cuts  the  wires  in  the  first  screen,  the 
magnet  which  holds  the  bob  of  the 
pendulum  in  its  initial  position  is  de- 
magnetised, and  the  pendulum  com- 
mences an  oscillation.  When  the  wires 
in  the  second  screen  are  cut,  the  weight 
of  the  conjunctor  drops,  completes  the 
circuit,  clamping  the  vernier,  and  the 
arc  through  which  the  pendulum  has 
moved  is  a  datum  from  which  may  be 
computed  the  corresponding  time." 

Conoid — A  figure  generated  by  the 
revolution  of  a  conic  section  about  its 


axis.  It  is,  therefore,  three-fold,  answer- 
ing to  three  sections  of  the  cone — viz. 
elliptical-conoid  or  spheroid,  hyperbolic- 
conoid,  and  parabolic-conoid. 

Conscription  —  A  compulsory  enrol- 
ment, by  lot,  of  a  certain  number  of  the 
inhabitants  of  a  country  for  service  in 
the  army.  In  England  this  system  is 
not  resorted  to,  but  is  in  nearly  all  of 
the  continental  armies. 

Conscripts — Men  raised  by  most  of 
the  continental  nations,  and  under  cer- 
tain laws,  to  recruit  their  armies.  The 
militia  of  Great  Britain  comes  likewise 
under  this  appellation  when  raised  by 
ballot  (which  happily  is  not  the  case  at 
present),  but  with  this  difference,  that 
the  men  do  not  march  out  of  their  native 
country  unless  they  volunteer  to  do  so. 

Constipation — In  horses,  is  brought 
on  from  confinement,  too  little  water,  dry 
feeding.  The  symptoms  are,  belly  swollen, 
dung  dry  and  hard.  The  cure  is,  meshes 
or  green  meat,  clysters,  and  exercise. 

Contingent— In  a  military  sense,  im- 
plies the  quota  of  armed  men,  or  pecuni- 
ary subsidy,  which  one  state  gives  an- 
other. 

Contouring — A  term  applied  to  the 
outline  of  any  figure,  and  consequently 
to  that  of  any  section  of  a  solid  body  ; 
but  when  used  professionally  in  connec- 
tion with  the  forms  of  ground  or  of 
works  of  defence,  the  outline  of  a  hori- 
zontal section  of  the  ground  or  works  is 
alone  to  be  understood  by  it. 

Contraband  of  War — All  such  articles 
as  a  neutral  power  is  prohibited  by  the 
law  of  nations  from  carrying  to  countries 
at  war  with  one  another,  such  as  arms, 
ammunition,  coal,  food,  &c.,  or  to  carry 
on  any  trade  with  blockaded  ports  or 
besieged  towns.  All  the  articles  enu- 
merated above  are  liable  to  be  seized, 
and  are  considered  contraband  of  war. 
The  subject  of  what  is  contraband  of  war 
is  so  arbitrary,  and  depends  so  much  on 
the  interpretation  given  to  the  term 
by  powerful  states,  able  by  force  of  arms 
to  dictate  what  is  contraband,  that  it 
renders  the  position  of  neutrals  and 
belligerents  to  each  other  one  of  great 
difficulty.  One  thing,  however,  should 
be  remembered,  that  there  is  a  great 
difference  between  carrying  contraband 
articles  to  the  belligerents,  and  allowing 


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90 


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either  of  them  to  buy  such  articles  in 
a  neutral  territory. 

Some  authorities  support  the  principle 
that  it  is  neither  beneficial  nor  expedient 
for'  England  to  prohibit  the  export  of 
arms  and  munitions  of  war  to  belligerents, 
and  amongst  them  Lord  Penzance,  no 
mean  authority  on  such  a  subject. 

Whatever  the  opinions  on  contraband 
of  war  may  be,  the  Foreign  Enlistment 
Act  renders  it  illegal  in  any  person  to  I 
enlist  in  the  service  of  a  foreign  state,  or 
to  build  any  ship  with  intent  or  know- 
ledge that  the  same  will  be  employed  in 
the  military  or  naval  service  of  any 
foreign  state  at  war  with  any  friendly 
state ;  and  special  powers  are  granted  to 
the  Secretary  of  State  to  take  any  step 
to  prevent  the  commission  of  such  an  act. 
Contraction — -The  state  of  being  drawn 
into  a  narrow  compass,  or  becoming 
smaller.  In  horses'  feet,  it  is  brought 
on  from  bad  shoeing,  hot  stables,  confine- 
ment. The  foot  becomes  oblong,  instead 
of  round.  The  remedy  to  be  applied 
should  be  thin  sole  and  quarters,  and 
the  feet  kept  moist ;  also  tips  or  spring 
shoes,  tar  or  hoof  ointment,  composed  of 
tar  and  tallow,  each  1  lb.,  common  tur- 
pentine, J  lb.,  melted  together. 

Contravallation — The  name  given  to  a 
belt  of  field  works  thrown  up  around 
and  facing  the  place  invested,  to  render 
the  besiegers  secure  against  surprise. 

Control  Department — -One  of  the  civil 
departments  of  the  British  army,  having 
for  its  object  an  efficient  and  economical 
control  over  the  departments  it  super- 
vises. 

It  may  be  said  without  exaggeration 
to  be  one  of  the  most  important  depart- 
ments, for  on  it  depends  the  custody  and 
supply  of  all  stores,  whether  of  food  or 
ammunition,  the  provision  of  transport, 
&c.  It  takes  the  place  of  what  was 
formerly  the  commissariat  department,  in 
addition  to  other  duties,  such  as  were 
formerly  in  the  hands  of  the  Quarter- 
master-General. Without  the  thorough 
efficiency  of  this  department,  no  army 
can  exist  in  the  field ;  failure  would 
probably  entail  defeat  and  all  the  dis- 
asters attending  such  a  calamity.  We 
have  an  instance  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  of  the  disasters  likely  to  occur  to 
an  army  whose  commissariat  is  unequal 


to  the  demands  upon  it.  Take  the  case 
of  the  French  army  at  Sedan,  which,  it 
is  said,  from  want  of  proper  commissariat 
arrangements,  was  one  of  the  causes 
that  prevented  it  from  effecting  the 
relief  of  Metz,  and  was  consequently 
overwhelmed  by  the  Prussian  army.  The 
Control,  as  at  present  organised,  is  com- 
paratively a  new  department.  The  his- 
tory of  its  formation  is  to  be  found  in 
the  various  Blue  Books  on  the  subject, 
dating  back  to  1859;  but  it  was  in  the 
year  1870  that  the  department  was  con- 
solidated, and  divided  into  three  admin- 
istrative ranks,  viz. : — 

Controller's,  ranking  with  a  major- 
general  ; 

Deputy  Controller's,  ranking  with  a 
colonel ; 

Assistant  Controller's,  ranking  with  a 
lieutenant-colonel ; 

and  two  executive  sub-departments  : — 

1.  Supply   and    TransportT  which   in- 
clude the  issue  and  account  of  stores  and 
provisions,    superintend    and    direct    all 
transport,  officer  and  command  the  Army 
Service  Corps. 

2.  Pay. 

For  the  management  of  the  supply 
and  transport,  three  commissaries  are 
attached  who  command  the  Army  Service 
Corps,  and  who  rank  as  follows: — 

Commissary,  with  major. 
Deputy      „      ..     captain. 
Assistant    „      „     lieutenant. 

For  the  duties  of  the  pay  department 
there  are  three  grades  of  officers,  viz.  pay- 
master, deputy  paymaster,  and  assistant 
paymaster,  ranking  in  the  same  position 
as  laid  down  for  commissaries.  First 
appointments  in  the  executive  branches 
of  the  Control  Department  are  conferred 
on  civilians  selected  by  competitive 
examination,  or  on  subalterns  of  the 
army  and  well-deserving  non-commis- 
sioned officers.  The  limit  of  age  is  17 
to  20  for  civilians,  22  for  subalterns 
of  the  army  and  militia.  In  the 
regulations  of  1870  for  the  Control,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  first  ten  para- 
graphs relate  to  general  duties  of  the 
department,  and  11  to  18  lay  down 
the  duties  of  control  officers  towards 


91 


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the  general  officer  commanding.  These 
instructions  show  that  the  control  officer 
is  independent  of  the  general  in  com- 
mand, in  being  able  to  communicate 
direct  with  the  Secretary  of  War — which 
means  that  the  Control  Department  is 
under  the  War  Office,  instead  of  the 
Commander-in-Chief,  which  appears  to  be 
a  mistake.  On  this  point  most  military 
men  are  in  accord,  and  there  is  in 
BlachicoodCs  Magazine  for  October 
1874  a  very  good  article  on  the  subject 
of  the  Control  Department,  showing  its 
unsuitableness,  as  at  present  constituted, 
either  for  war  or  peace.  The  article  is 
written  by  a  general  officer  of  great 
experience,  General  Lysons ;  it  is  full  of 
good  sense  and  military  knowledge,  and 
may  be  taken  as  the  view  entertained 
by  most  military  men  who  have  passed 
their  lives  in  the  field.  A  return  to 
the  old  organisation  of  the  commissariat 
department  seems  to  be  demanded,  and 
will  doubtless  be  reverted  to  before  long: 
it  was  sound  and  good  ;  it  stood  the  test 
of  years  of  practical  experience ;  it  grew 
under  the  hard  hand  of  necessity ;  it 
carried  our  army  through  all  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  Peninsular  War,  and  led 
our  troops  to  victories  the  most  brilliant 
in  the  annals  of  our  history.  The  com- 
piler of  this  work  can  speak  with  autho- 
rity as  to  the  efficient  working  of  the 
commissariat  in  India,  which  has  never 
been  known  to  come  short  of  its  require- 
ments. It  is  unadvisable  to  mix  up,  in 
one  department,  supply,  store,  passage 
transport,  and  half  a  dozen  other  things, 
each  of  which  should  be  a  department 
of  itself.  To  crowd  department  upon  de- 
partment under  one  head,  and  to  expect 
efficiency,  is  simply  courting  failure. 

On  the  formation  of  the  Control,  the 
following  separate  branches  of  the  army 
were  amalgamated  with  it,  viz. : — 

Commissariat, 
Barracks, 
Military  stores, 
Purveyor's, 
Army  transport, 

then  known  as  the  military  train,  to 
which  a  large  number  of  civil  and 
military  employe's  were  also  attached,  dis- 
persed in  a  variety  of  sub-departments, 
having  no  connection  with  each  other. 


The  Control  Department  is  presided 
over  by  a  Surveyor-General  of  Ordnance 
at  the  War  Office,  who  has  under  him 
a  Director  of  Transport  and  Supplies,  and 
a  Director  of  Military  Stores.  The 
administrative  branch  consists  as  is  shown 
above. 

Controller — The  chief  or  highest  grade 
in  the  Control  Department.  He  ranks 
with  a  major-general. 

Contusion — The  effect  of  a  ball  or  of  any 
other  hard  substance  striking  the  human 
frame,  or  even  the  passage  of  a  ball  close 
to  the  limb,  without  breaking  or  tearing 
the  skin.  The  effect  of  this  latter  kind 
of  contusion,  which  is  caused  by  the  con- 
cussion of  the  air,  is  often  to  disable  the 
soldier,  and  is  in  fact  a  wound. 

Convalescent — -A  soldier  discharged 
from  hospital,  but  who  is  not  strong 
enough  to  do  his  duty. 

Convalescent  Hospital  Depots — En- 
campments of  huts  or  tents  for  the 
reception  of  men  discharged  from  the 
general  hospital,  and  who  require  no 
longer  medical  attendance,  but  at  the 
same  time  are  not  fit  to  join  the  ranks, 
from  want  of  strength.  Such  depots 
relieve  the  general  hospital,  and  are 
better  places  for  the  convalescent  than 
a  crowded  sick  room,  as  they  are  re- 
moved from  a  bad  atmosphere,  and 
have  consequently  a  better  chance  of 
gaining  strength.  As  regards  hospitals, 
the  Medical  Department  is  responsible  for 
the  use  of  all  stores,  and  for  timely  re- 
quisitions, but  the  Control  Department  is 
responsible  for  such  stores  being  supplied. 

Convention  —  An  agreement  entered 
into  by  troops  which  are  opposed  to  one 
another,  either  for  the  suspension  of 
hostilities  or  the  exchange  of  prisoners. 

Conversion — A  term  used  in  ordnance 
nomenclature  when  condemned  stores  are 
converted  or  turned  into  use  for  other 
purposes.  The  term  is  made  use  of  when 
smooth-bore  guns  are  converted  into 
rifled  guns. 

Converted  Gun — A  smooth-bore  gun 
converted  or  turned  into  a  rifled  gun. 
In  England  this  process  has  been  carried 
out  by  Major  Palliser,  who  has  success- 
fully lined  many  of  the  cast-iron  guns 
with  a  wrought-iron  tube,  and  has  rifled 
the  same,  thus  turning  or  converting  the 
smooth-bore  into  rifled  guns. 


CON 


92 


COR 


Of  converted  guns  there  is  the  Dutch, 
which  resembles  that  of  Major  Palliser, 
with  the  substitution,  however,  of  bronze 
for  the  coiled  wrought-iron  tube.  This 
is  not  considered  a  good  conversion. 

Many  of  the  American  smooth-bore 
guns  have  been  converted  on  the  Parsons 
system.  The  main  construction  is  the 
same  as  the  Vavasseur  gun,  being  a  steel 
tube,  reinforced  with  a  long  jacket  of 
steel ;  but  Mr.  Parsons  dispenses  with 
the  exterior  hoops  of  steel,  and  inserts 
his  reinforced  tube  into  an  outer  casing 
of  cast  iron.  Captain  Simpson,  of  the 
United  States,  who  inspected  all  the 
European  systems  of  conversions,  recom- 
mends the  adoption  of  the  Parsons  system, 
combining  with  it  the  arrangement  of 
Krupp,  and  taking  the  Broadwell  ring 
for  a  gas-check  ;  but  the  Americans  are 
now  rifling  their  smooth-bore  guns  on 
the  Palliser  system,  and,  it  is  stated,  with 
great  success. 

Convoy — A  guard  of  troops  composed 
of  all  arms,  and  employed  to  escort  any 
supply  of  money,  ammunition,  stores, 
provisions,  &c.,  in  time  of  war  to  an 
army  or  fortress. 

Copal — A  resin  next  in  durability  to 
amber,  almost  colourless,  and  softer  than 
amber,  though  too  hard  to  be  scratched 
by  the  nail.  Copal  forms  an  excellent 
material  for  varnish.  Pure  alcohol  has 
little  effect  on  copal ;  with  the  addition 
of  camphor  it  dissolves,  but  the  camphor 
impairs  the  durability  of  the  varnish. 
Copal  may  be  perfectly  dissolved  by  ether, 
but  it  evaporates  too  rapidly  to  allow 
of  the  varnish  being  uniformly  applied. 
Copal  is,  therefore,  usually  dissolved  by 
fusing,  and  adding  linseed  oil  heated 
nearly  to  the  boiling-point. 

Copper — A  metal  of  great  value,  and 
known  from  the  earliest  ages.  It  is 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and 
in  combination  with  other  substances,  as 
an  ore.  The  great  supply  to  the  English 
market  comes  from  the  mines  in  Corn- 
wall, Devon,  Australia,  and  from  South 
America.  To  bring  copper  to  a  state  of 
purity,  it  has  to  go  through  successive 
repetitions  of  roasting,  calcining,  melting, 
and  refining,  and  this  in  Great  Britain 
is  chiefly  carried  out  at  Swansea,  in 
South  Wales,  where  there  are  large 
smelting  furnaces.  It  is  used  as  an  alloy 


with  many  other  metals,  amongst  them 
with  tin  in  the  manufacture  of  bronze 
guns.  Copper  alone  is  a  very  malleable 
metal,  but  on  being  mixed  with  tin 
becomes  tough  and  well  suited  for  all 
articles  of  bronze.  Copper  melts  at  a 
temperature  of  about  2000°  Fahrenheit. 
It  is  a  good  conductor  of  electricity,  and 
is,  therefore,  made  use  of  for  lightning 
conductors. 

Copper  Rod — Copper  in  the  form  of  a 
rod ;  it  is  used  for  lightning  conductors 
of  magazines.  The  rods  so  used  are 
either  solid  or  tubular,  varying  from 

1  inch,  if  solid — J  inch  is  preferable — to 

2  inches  in  diameter,  if  hollow,  and  about 
I  inch   thick ;    3    inches   in    length,   and 
screwed    to    one    another.      Conductors, 
when  placed  in  an  upright  position,  are 
supposed  to  protect  a  circular  space  the 
radius   of  which  is  double  the  height  of 
the    rod.     Iron    conductors    can    also  be 
used,  but  under  these  circumstances  the 
top  must  be  of  copper,  tipped  with  pla- 
tinum or  gold.    (  Vide  Lightning  Conduc- 
tors.)    In    the   Appendix  will   be  found 
considerable   information  on  the  subject 
of  lightning  conductors. 

Copper  Scissel — The  clippings  of  cop- 
per left  after  the  formation  of  percussion 
caps,  friction  tubes,  coinage,  &c. 

Copper,  Sheet — Is  copper  rolled  out 
into  broad  plates.  There  are  two  kinds, 
thick  and  thin.  The  former  comprises 
all  copper  of  and  above  50  oz.  to  the 
square  foot ;  the  latter,  all  under  this 
weight.  Thick  sheet  copper  is  used  for 
the  hoops  of  powder  barrels,  and  for 
drying  pans ;  the  thin  for  percussion 
caps,  friction  tubes,  &c.,  and  the  lining 
of  magazine  doors.  Muntz's  patent 
metal  is  a  cheap  substitute  for  copper 
sheeting. 

Cordage — The  term  is  applied  to  every 
description  of  rope  used  in  the  artillery 
service.  (  Vide  Rope.) 

Cordon — This  term  was  formerly  given 
in  a  fortification  to  a  round  projection 
of  stone,  also  called  the  copinij-stone, 
about  1  foot  in  diameter,  placed  at  the 
top  of  the  revetment  of  the  escarp  to 
prevent  the  rain  from  damaging  the 
masonry,  and  to  form  an  obstacle  to  the 
besiegers  when  applying  the  ladders  for 
the  purpose  of  an  escalade.  A  cordon  in 
the  field  is  a  chain,  of  outposts  or  sentries 


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or  flying  vedettes,  to  blockade  a  position  ] 
and  intercept    all    communications   with 
the  outside. 

Core — A  bar  of  iron  coated  with  clay, 
which  is  inserted  into  a  finished  gun 
mould,  when  the  gun  is  to  be  cast  hol- 
low, termed  ''casting  on  a  core."  .Cast- 
ing guns  is  no  longer  resorted  to  in  the 
British  service,  as  the  pattern  gun  is  of 
wrought  iron  coiled  round  a  steel  tube. 
In  the  United  States  service,  it  has  until 
very  lately  again  been  reverted  to,  the 
practical  difficulties  that  hitherto  inter- 
fered with  this  mode  of  casting  having 
been  surmounted  by  Captain  Hodman's 
(of  the  United  States  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment) system  of  casting  ;  but  it  is  stated 
that  the  Rodman  guns  are  being  con- 
verted and  made  into  rifled  guns  after 
Captain  PaUiser's  system.  A  core  is  also 
used  in  casting  shells  or  anything  hollow. 

Cornet — Formerly  the  junior  commis- 
sioned rank  in  the  cavalry  branch  of  the 
service.  The  rank  has  now  been  abolished 
in  the  regular  army,  and  sub-lieutenant 
substituted  for  it.  The  name  is  still 
kept  up  in  the  junior  grade  of  commis- 
sioned officers  in  the  yeomanry.  The 
cornet's  duty  was  formerly  to  carry  the 
standard — but  it  is  now  carried  by  a 
troop  sergeant-major. 

Corning,  or  Granulating — That  process 
in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  which 
takes  place  after  the  cake  is  removed 
from  the  hydraulic  press — having  been 
previously  broken  down — to  the  granu- 
lating house,  when  it  is  passed  through 
rollers  and  sieves,  until  the  different- 
sized  grains  are  formed.  Corning  is 
another  term  for  granulating. 

Coronet — That  part  of  a  horse's  foot 
termed  the  little  pastern,  just  above  the 
coffin  bone. 

Corporal — The  rank  below  that  of  ser- 
geant, the  lowest  of  the  non-commissioned 
officers.  Corporals  of  artillery  take  pre- 
cedence of  corporals  of  cavalry  and 
infantry,  according  to  the  date  of  their 
appointment  as  bombardiers. 

Corporal  Punishment — The  infliction 
on  the  bare  back,  by  means  of  a  cat-o'- 
nine-tails,  of  a  certain  number  of  lashes 
for  crimes  committed  by  soldiers.  Except 
for  very  grave  offences,  such  punishment 
is  seldom  resorted  to  in  the  army,  and 
then  only  during  war  time  or  on  board 


ship.  The  number  of  lashes  is  limited 
to  f>0. 

Corps — Any  body  of  forces  destined  to 
act  together  under  one  commander.  The 
term  is  commonly  made  use  of  by  military 
writers  in  speaking  or  writing  of  an 
army  corps. 

Corps  d'armee — Army  corps.  One  of 
the  sub-divisions,  and  the  first  unit  of 
a  large  army.  (  Vide  Army.) 

Correspondence,  Military — The  mode 
adopted  for  carrying  on  communication 
between  the  several  branches  and  officers 
of  the  army  relating  to  duty.  It  is 
carried  on  as  follows  : — 

1.  By  letters. 

2.  Memoranda. 

3.  Minutes,  papers,  or  dockets. 

The  first  method  is  formal,  generally 
lengthy,  and  is  for  the  most  part  sup- 
planted by  memoranda. 

The  work  of  the  Adjutant-General  at 
the  Horse  Guards  is  carried  on  by  letter. 

Any  new  or  important  report  in  the 
form  of  a  letter  is  safest  from  an  inferior 
communicating  with  a  superior,  and 
should  be  written  on  foolscap,  half  or 
quarter  margin.  The  letter  should  refer 
to  one  subject  only,  but  contain  the  fullest 
particulars  on  that  subject.  If  lengthy, 
and  in  paragraphs,  number  each.  If  any 
enclosures,  they  should  be  noted  in  the 
margin.  Memoranda  are  abbreviated  let- 
ters, leaving  out  all  formalities  and 
readings. 

Answers  to  letters,  remarks  made  by 
superior  officers  in  transmitting  them, 
correspondence  between  departments  in 
a  division,  should  be  carried  on  by 
memoranda. 

Turning  down  corners  to  be  avoided. 

Communications  to  a  superior  must  be 
signed  by  the  commanding  officer  writing 
it,  and  addressed  to  the  staff  officer  of  a 
superior.  Every  communication  from  a 
superior  is  addressed  to  the  person  him- 
self, and  signed  by  the  staff  officer  of  the 
superior.  There  are  a  few  cases  where 
an  inferior  signs. 

Application  for  routes  are  generally- 
signed  by  the  Quartermaster-General. 
Letters  signed  by  a  staff  officer  are  always 
signed  "  By  order."  In  the  absence  of 
the  general,  and  when  the  matter  is  press- 
ing, the  staff  officer  signs  "  For  general 


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94 


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commanding  "  when  communicating  with 
the  Horse  Guards. 

In  indirect  correspondence  between 
equals,  letters  must  be  signed  "  general  " 
or  "  head  of  department,"  if  addressed 
to  a  general  or  head  of  department,  but 
two  generals  can  carry  on  a  correspond- 
ence through  their  staff. 

Staff  officers  communicating  with  each 
other  sign  their  own  name  without  ''  By 
order." 

The  date  of  receipt  of  a  letter,  how 
disposed  of— transmitted,  granted,  re- 
fused— should  always  be  recorded. 

In  the  War  Office  there  is  a  special 
department  for  opening  and  registering 
letters. 

In  ordinary  divisions,  letters  are 
opened  by  persons  to  whom  they  are 
addressed.  All  letters  written  by  the 
general  should  be  initialed  in  the  register. 

All  letters  remain  permanently  with 
the  person  to  whom  they  are  addressed, 


unless  they  have  to  be  forwarded  to 
higher  authority.  Any  Horse  Guards 
letter  with  the  Adjutant-General's  or 
Quartermaster-General's  stamp  on  it  are 
to  be  returned  after  perusal  and  being 
acted  upon. 

All  papers  transmitted  for  information 
should  be  signed  or  initialed,  and  dated 
before  being  returned.  Superior  officers 
should  dispose  of  all  letters  they  can,  and 
only  forward  to  higher  authority  such  as 
require  to  be  taken  notice  of  by  such 
authority.  In  cases  of  absolute  necessity 
they  should  forward  their  own  opinion, 
and  all  other  opinions  and  correspondence 
that  bear  on  the  subject. 

In  every  office  there  should  be  the  fol- 
lowing books  : — 

Register  or  diary, 
Letter  books ; 

also  a  table  showing  returns  which 
have  to  be  received  and  made. 


FORM  OF  REGISTER. 


No.* 

Date. 

Who  from. 

Subject. 

How  disposed  of. 

Sent  to. 

Date. 

Remarks. 

No.  for  further  reference. 


Corrosive  Sublimate — Is  described  as 
"  the  bichloride  of  mercury.  It  is  formed 
by  introducing  hot  mercury  into  chlorine 
gas ;  the  mercury  inflames,  and  the  bi- 
chloride is  formed.  There  are  other 
ways  of  preparing  it.  What  is  termed 
kyanising  is  applying  this  substance  to 
the  preservation  of  timber,  cordage,  sail, 
tent  cloths,  and  other  fabrics  from  decay 
by  mould,  or  the  ravages  of  insects. 
This  mode  of  preserving  the  articles 
mentioned  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Kyan." 


Corrugate,  To — A  mode  of  rendering 
sheet  iron  very  tenacious  and  durable. 
The  sheet  iron  is  coated  with  zinc,  and 
compressed  by  means  of  dies  into  plates. 
This  kind  of  iron  is  extensively  used  for 
roofing,  for  military  wagons,  boats,  &c. 

Corslet — A  suit  of  armour,  chiefly 
worn  by  pikemen.  The  word,  strictly 
speaking,  meant  only  that  part  covering 
the  body,  but  was  generally  used  to 
express  the  whole  suit,  including  head- 
piece and  gorget;  the  back  and  breast, 


COS 


95 


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with  shirts  of  iron  called  tapes  or  tapets, 
covering  the  thighs. 

Cossacks— A  people  inhabiting  those 
parts  of  the  Russian  empire  which  border 
on  the  northern  dominions  of  Turkey, 
Poland,  and  the  southern  confines  of 
Siberia.  Both  the  name  and  origin  of 
this  people  are  involved  in  great  un- 
certainty. They  seem  to  have  none  of 
the  national  characteristics  of  the  Rus- 
sians, and  are  probably  a  mixed  Cau- 
casian and  Tartar  race.  They  form  a 
sort  of  independent  republic,  paying 
no  taxes  to  Russia,  but  cheerfully  con- 
tributing their  numerous  and  valuable 
contingent  of  men,  which  are  well 
known  as  the  most  harassing  light  troops 
that  ever  exercised  a  predatory  warfare 
in  the  train  of  any  army. 

Cottah — A  Madras  weight,  equal  to 
1C  chuttacks. 

Cotton  Waste — The  refuse  cotton  col- 
lected in  cotton  mills.  It  is  used  for 
wiping  machinery,  and  should  be  put 
away  with  care  in  some  out  of  the  way 
place,  when  the  work  of  the  day  is  over, 
or  saturated  in  water  with  a  solution  of 
soda  and  boiled,  when  the  oil  will  be 
extracted.  In  its  oily  state  with  par- 
ticular oils,  such  as  vegetable  oils,  it 
is  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion,  and 
should  not  therefore  be  left  about.  It 
is  very  dangerous,  as  will  be  realised,  to 
leave  it  in  houses  where  gunpowder  is 
manufactured.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely 
that  the  explosion  in  many  gunpowder 
houses,  the  reason  of  which  has  been 
unknown,  has  been  caused  from  cotton 
waste  containing  oil  having  been  left  in 
the  houses  at  night,  and  thus  ignited 
the  building  or  buildings.  In  some  cot- 
ton waste  itself  there  are  the  elements  of 
fire. 

Coullart — A  military  instrument  of 
war  used  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  It  was  used  for  the  purpose 
of  casting  great  stones. 

Council  of  War — In  the  field  or  else- 
where, an  assembly  of  the  senior  officers 
of  the  army,  called  together  by  the 
officer  in  command,  to  concert  measures 
for  the  future  conduct  of  affairs. 

Counterforts,  vide  Buttresses. 

Counterguard — In  fortification,  is  a 
reveted  work  consisting  of  a  narrow 
rampart  and  parapet,  parallel,  or  nearly 


so,  to  the  face  of  the  bastion  which  it 
covers,  and  which  must  be  destroyed 
before  the  bastion  can  be  breached  ;  for, 
from  want  of  sufficient  breadth  in  the 
terreplein,  the  batteries  of  the  attacking 
party  cannot  effect  a  lodgement.  Counter- 
guards  are  sometimes  constructed  before 
the  salients  of  the  ravelins. 

Countermarch — A  change  by  wings, 
companies,  and  sub-divisions,  whereby 
those  who  were  on  the  right  take  up  the 
ground  originally  occupied  by  the  left, 
and  vice  versa. 

Countermines — Mines  or  galleries  ex- 
cavated by  the  defenders  of  a  fortress,  to 
intercept  the  mines  and  destroy  the 
works  of  the  besiegers. 

Counterscarp  - —  In  fortification,  the 
revetment  of  the  ditch  forming  the 
support  of  the  covered  way,  opposite  the 
escarp. 

Counterscarp  Galleries — In  fortifica- 
tions, are  galleries  formed  in  the  counter- 
scarp,to  provide  flank  defences  for  a  ditch. 
They  are  formed  of  stockade  work,  loop- 
holed  and  roofed  over  similar  to  a  capo- 
nier. The  entrance  to  the  gallery  should 
be  closed  by  a  strong-door.  Counterscarp 
galleries  should  be  placed  at  the  salient 
angles.  They  have  the  advantage  of  being 
quite  safe  from  the  enemy's  artillery 
fire,  but  are  difficult  to  communicate 
with,  and  much  isolated  from  the  rest  ol 
the  work. 

Countersign — -A  watchword  or  num- 
ber given  daily  in  time  of  war  by  the 
commander  of  an  army  to  the  force 
under  his  command,  in  order  that  friends 
may  be  distinguished  from  foes ;  it  is 
exchanged  between  guards,  and  entrusted 
to  those  employed  on  duty  in  guarding 
the  camp  or  garrison.  Before  the  enemy, 
the  countersign  must  be  given  by  every 
one  who  approaches  a  sentry's  post, 
otherwise  he  will  not  be  permitted  to 
pass. 

Countervallation,  ride  Contravallation. 

Coup-de-main — Sudden  and  successful 
attack  on  any  position. 

Coup-d'ffiil  (French) — A  glance,  a  pro- 
spect ;  its  military  signification  is  the  art 
of  distinguishing  at  first  sight  the  weak 
points  of  an  enemy's  position,  and  of  dis- 
cerning the  advantages  of  which  any 
given  space  of  country  is  susceptible. 

Court  of  Inquiry — A  boar  J  of  officers 


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96 


CRA 


(who  are  not  sworn)  assembled  by  any 
officer  in  command,  to  assist  him  in 
arriving  at  a  correct  conclusion  on  any 
subject  on  which  it  may  be  expedient 
for  him  to  be  thoroughly  informed.  Such 
a  court  has  no  power  to  administer  an 
oath,  except  when  convened  to  record  the 
illegal  absence  of  soldiers.  This  nature 
of  court  is  not  to  be  considered  in  any 
light  as  a  judicial  body. 

Court-martial — A  military  tribunal 
appointed  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Mutiny  Act,  for  the  investigation  and 
punishment  of  all  offences  committed  by 
otKcers  and  soldiers.  There  are  several 
natures  of  courts-martial,  viz.  a  general, 
detached  general,  district  or  garrison, 
and  regimental ;  the  assembly  of  either 
of  which  depends  on  the  enormity  of  the 
offence  to  be  tried,  together  with  other 
attendant  circumstances.  On  a  march,  a 
detachment  court-martial  may  be  con- 
vened by  the  senior  officer  in  command. 
Formerly  there  was  such  a  court  as  a 
company's  court-martial,  composed  of 
soldiers  themselves  for  the  trial  of  offences 
committed  against  each  other,  but  they 
are  no  longer  permitted. 

Couvre-face,  vile  Counterguard. 

Cover — Expresses  security  or  protec- 
tion ;  thus,  to  land  under  cover  of  the 
guns,  is  to  advance  offensively  against 
an  enemy  who  dares  not  approach  on 
account  of  the  fire  from  ships,  boats,  or 
batteries.  It  likewise  signifies  whatever 
renders  any  movement  imperceptible,  as 
under  cover  of  the  night,  under  cover  of 
a  wood.  &c.  This  term  is  also  given  to 
any  shelter,  such  as  "  shelter  trenches," 
which  troops  make  for  themselves  against 
the  fire  of  the  enemy.  Soldiers  standing 
one  behind  the  other  in  the  ranks  are 
said  to  cover  each  other. 

Covered  Way — In  fortification,  is  a 
space  about  30  feet  broad  from  the 
counterscarp  to  the  crest  of  the  glacis, 
and  completely  surrounding  the  body  of 
the  place  with  its  outworks,  thus  forming 
a  secure  road  of  communication  all  round 
the  fortress,  outside  the  ditch. 

Crab  Capstan— Consists  of  a  barrel  (in 
shape  the  frustrum  of  a  cone)  and  frame- 
work of  wood  and  iron,  by  which  the 
barrel  is  supported  in  a  vertical  position 
with  its  base  next  to  the  ground.  It  is 
furnished  with  two  levers,  called  capstan 


bars,  which  are  passed  through  mortises 
the  head,  and  by  means  of  which 
the  barrel  may  be  turned  about  on  its 
axis.  By  means  of  the  crab  capstan,  a 
few  men  acting  at  the  bars  can  move 
weights  which  would  be  far  beyond  their 
strength  if  applied  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner. If  a  crab  capstan  cannot  be  pro- 
cured, the  windlass  of  a  gyn  may  be  used 
as  a  substitute,  the  cheeks  being  laid  on 
the  ground  and  secured  with  pickets ;  or 
a  temporary  capstan  may  be  rigged  up 
by  lashing  four  handspikes  to  the  spokes 
and  felloes  of  a  limber  wheel,  which 
is  turned  upon  the  pintail  of  the  dis- 
mounted limber. 

Cradle,  Gun — A  frame-work  of  wood 
placed  on  the  back  of  an  elephant  or 
mule  for  carrying  field  and  mountain 
artillery  in  hill  countries.  An  elephant 
can  carry  1400  Ibs.,  but  in  a  hilly 
country  his  load  should  not  exceed  1000 
Ibs.  The  cradle  sent  with  the  7-pr. 
guns  of  150  Ibs.  weight  to  Abyssinia  was 
of  wood ;  it  was  formed  by  the  tree  of 
the  R.C.D.  pattern  saddle,  and  was  suit- 
able either  for  carrying  the  gun  or  its 
carriage  and  wheels.  Two  iron  cradles 
have  been  introduced  for  the  7-pr.,  224 
Ibs. — one  to  carry  the  gun,  and  the  other 
the  carriage,  while  the  wheels  are  carried 
upon  wheel  arms  on  a  third  mule. 
Each  cradle  is  fixed  to  the  saddle-tree, 
and  consists  of  a  simple  framework  of 
iron.  The  gun  cradle,  with  saddle-trees 
to  which  it  is  attached,  weighs  16J  Ibs.,  and 
the  carriage  cradle  with  saddle-trees, 
16  Ibs.  ('Treatise  on  Military  Carriages,' 
1874.) 

Crane — A  piece  of  mechanism  usually 
consisting  of  combinations  of  toothed 
wheels  and  pulleys,  by  means  of  which 
stores,  materials,  &c.,  are  lifted  from 
vessels  to  the  yard  or  wharves.  Cranes 
are  of  two  kinds,  fixed  and  movable.  In 
the  former,  they  are  much  more  efficient, 
as  greater  power,  by  the  interposition  of 
wheels,  axle  and  pulley,  can  be  applied. 
Fixed  cranes  at  wharves  are  generally 
made  to  revolve  on  a  centre,  so  that  the 
goods  raised  can  be  brought  over  the 
wagon  or  place  of  reception  into  which 
they  are  to  be  deposited.  Small  cranes 
are  from  3  to  5  tons ;  large  from  5  to 
40  tons  and  upwards,  that  is,  capable 
of  raising  these  weights. 


CRA 


97 


Crank — lu  machinery,  is  a  bend  in  an 
axle  by  which  a  reciprocating  motion  in 
a  rod  is  made  to  produce  a  revolving 
motion  of  an  axle  and  of  a  wheel,  which 
may  be  connected  with  it. 

Crater  of  a  Mine — The  cavity  formed 
in  the  ground  by  the  explosion  of  a 
charge  of  gunpowder,  gun-cotton,  or 
other  explosive  substance. 

Cremailleres — Indented  or  zigzag  out- 
lines, composed  of  faces  and  flanks  nearly 
perpendicular  to  one  another.  The  ad- 
vantage of  this  trace  is  that  it  is  easily 
applied  to  irregular  ground. 

Crenellated — Loop-holed. 

Criniere,  or  Manifere — Small  plates  of 
armour  used  in  the  middle  ages  to  defend 
the  necks  of  war-horses. 

Cross — The  ensign  or  grand  standard 
borne  by  the  crusaders  in  the  Holy  Land. 
This  gave  rise  to  the  word  "  cross " 
being  given  to  the  superior  mark  of  dis- 
tinction termed  the  grand  cross  belong- 
ing to  certain  orders,  such  as  the  Bath, 
Star  of  India,  St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 

Cross-bow — A  hand  weapon  used  in 
the  early  days  of  English  history,  between 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 
During  the  reign  of  Henry  V. — so  it  is 
stated  in  Lieut.-Colonel  Luard's  'History 
of  the  Dress  of  the  British  Soldier ' — "  the 
cross-bow  was  a  complicated  and  ex- 
pensive weapon,  and  consequently  often 
carried  by  the  sons  of  knights,  who  were 
attended  by  one  of  their  fathers'  retainers, 
who  carried  the  pavise.  During  the 
reign  of  King  James  I.  a  cross-bow  man 
was  regarded  as  on  a  level  with  a  knight, 
a  .distinction  in  those  days  of  great  im- 
portance." "  We  enact  that  no  knight's 
son  who  is  not  a  knight  himself,  or  a 
cross-bow  man.  shall  sit  at  table  with 
knights  or  their  ladies." 

"In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  the  cross- 
bow consisted  of  two  kinds :  the  latch, 
with  its  wide  and  thick  bender  for 
quarrels,  and  the  prodd  for  bullets.  To- 
wards the  close  of  his  reign,  Henry  VII. 
forbade  the  use  of  the  cross-bow ;  his 
object  being  to  induce  more  frequent 
practice  in  archery." 

The  cross-bow  appears  to  have  been 
of  earlier  origin  than  is  stated,  the 
Sicilians  and  Cretans  having  been  the 
originators.  It  is  also  said  that  it  had 
been  previously  introduced  into  England 


by  the  Saxons  at  the  time  of  Hengist  and 
Horsa,  about  A.D.  457. 

Cross-lifting — A  term  used  in  artillery 
in  moving  a  gun  in  a  direction  nearly  at 
right  angles  to  its  axis. 

Croupieres— Armour  placed  on  the 
buttocks  and  haunches  of  war-horses  in 
the  middle  ages,  to  protect  them  against 
the  arms  of  the  adversary. 

Crow-bar — An  iron  bar,  used  as  a 
lever  to  move  heavy  weights. 

Crowning  the  Covered  Way — In  the 
attack  of  fortresses,  the  operation  of 
forming  lodgments  on  the  crest  of  the 
glacis.  This  is  sometimes  done  by  assault, 
or  by  systematic  approach.  Any  work  on 
fortification  will  explain  the  means  re- 
sorted to  in  carrying  out  either  attack. 

The  term  crowning  is  also  used  when 
troops  surmount  a  hill  or  any  obstacle, 
when  they  are  said  to  have  crowned  the 
hill  or  position. 

Crown-work,  vide  Horn-work. 

Crow's  Feet — Iron  balls  with  four 
spikes,  so  arranged  that  when  thrown  on 
the  ground,  one  spike  always  remains 
upright.  They  are  used  to  impede  the 
advance  of  troops,  more  particularly  of 
cavalry.  The  spikes  are  sometimes  cast 
without  a  ball,  and  sometime  they  are 
simply  triangular  pieces  of  iron  with  the 
points  sharpened. 

Crucible — A  melting  pot  used  in  the 
chemical  laboratory.  Small  crucibles, 
if  made  of  earthenware,  should  be  made 
to  stand  great  heat,  as  when  residuum  has 
to  be  burnt,  the  crucible  is  put  into  the 
fire  or  over  the  lamp.  Large  crucibles 
are  used  in  furnaces  for  melting  metals. 

Crusher  Gauge — An  apparatus  used 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  pres- 
sure of  all  natures  of  powder  in  the 
barrel  of  a  gun.  For  a  description  of 
the  apparatus  and  its  use,  vide  '  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Royal  Artillery  Institution ' 
for  November  1870. 

Crust — In  a  horse  the  internal  part  of 
his  foot  which  covers  the  more  sensitive 
parts,  and  to  which  the  shoe  is  imme- 
diately attached. 

Crystallisation — The  spontaneous  ar- 
rangement of  the  particles  of  solid  bodies 
in  regular  geometric  forms.  A  tendency 
to  such  an  arrangement  is  generally  ob- 
served in  solids  which  are  gradually 
deposited  from  a  state  of  solution,  but 


CUI 


98 


CUE 


sometimes  in  those  which  have  condensed 
into  the  solid  from  the  gaseous  form,  or 
in  masses  solidified  after  fusion. 

Cuirass  (French  cuir,  leather) — The 
cuirass  was  originally  a  leather  gar- 
ment, capable  of  resisting  a  bullet.  In 
the  French  language,  cuirasse  means  a 
breast-plate,  and  is  known  as  a  piece  of 
defensive  armour  covering  the  body  from 
the  neck  to  the  waist.  The  household 
troops  (cavalry)  wear  the  cuirass  at  the 
present  day.  For  a  time,  after  the  cam-  j 
paign  in  the  Netherlands,  the  cuirass  was 
set  aside  as  cumbersome  and  inconvenient,  • 
but  was  resumed  on  the  coronation  of 
George  IV. 

It  has  been  urged  that  in  consequence 
of  modern  inventions  the  cuirass  is  solely 
fit  to  adorn  a  museum  of  antiquities. 
The  contrary  has  been  proved  on  the 
field  of  battle.  At  the  battle  of  Worth 
during  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  the 
French  cuirassiers  derived  great  security 
from  the  cuirass.  A  French  officer  thus 
describes  the  value  : — "  Like  the  noise  of 
hail  on  window  panes,  was  heard  the 
sound  of  the  bullets  on  the  defensive 
armour,  but  no  cuirass  was  pierced,  and 
cuirassiers  were  seen  in  large  numbers 
dismounted,  but  unwounded." 

Cuirassiers — Heavy  cavalry,  still  kept 
up  in  some  of  the  continental  armies. 
There  has  been  no  such  regiment  in  the 
British  army  since  the  Revolution  in 
France,  though  the  Life  Guards  and 
Blues  may  be  so  called,  as  they  wear  the 
cuirass. 

Cuissards,  or  Cuisses — Strips  of  iron 
rivetted  together,  in  the  days  of  body 
armour,  for  the  protection  of  the  thighs. 

Cul-de-sac — A  place  where  troops  are 
enclosed,  and  at  the  mercy  of  the  enemy. 

Culmination. — In  astronomy,  is  the 
act  of  coming  to  the  meridian  in  the 
case  of  any  star  or  planet,  when  it  at- 
tains on  any  given  day  its  greatest  alti- 
tude in  the  heavens. 

Culverin — Ancient  name  of  a  gun ;  it 
was  at  first  the  lightest  and  shortest,  but 
afterwards  the  longest  and  heaviest,  gun. 

Cunette — A  narrow  dry  or  wet  ditch 
in  the  middle  of  the  dry  ditch  of  a  fort. 
It  acts  as  a  drain,  and,  when  filled  with 
water,  as  an  obstacle  to  an  attacking 
force.  It  is  generally  about  16  feet  wide 
and  6  feet  deep. 


Cupola — A  revolving  shot-proof  turret, 
formed  of  strong  timbers,  and  cased  with 
massive  iron  plates  of  12  and  14  inches 
thick.  In  some  systems  of  cupolas  the 
tower  is  erected  on  a  base  which  is  made 
to  turn  on  its  centre  by  means  of  steam 
power.  Within  the  turret,  heavy  ord- 
nance is  placed,  and  fired  through  open- 
ings made  in  the  sides. 

The  term  cupola  is  also  applied  to  a 
blast-furnace  in  which  iron  is  melted. 
It  consists  of  a  cast-iron  cylinder,  lined 
with  sand  or  fire  bricks,  with  openings 
at  yarious  heights  in  the  side,  for  ad- 
mitting the  blast  pipe  where  it  is  wanted. 
Near  the  bottom  is  an  opening  for  letting 
out  the  liquid  metal.  The  furnace  is 
first  filled  with  ignited  coke,  and  as  this 
begins  to  sink,  alternate  charges  of  coke 
and  pig-iron  are  thrown  in  every  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes. 

Cnps,  Tin — Used  with  heavy  breech- 
loading  guns,  and  serve,  in  conjunction 
with  the  vent  piece,  to  seal  more  effectu- 
ally the  powder  chamber,  and  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  gas,  which  is  very  de- 
structive to  the  angular  face  of  the  vent 
piece.  The  cup  is  placed  between  the 
end  of  the  cartridge  and  vent  piece.  A 
small  hole  in  it  serves  both  for  the 
passage  of  the  vent  fire,  and  also  for  the 
cup  being  easily  placed  in  position.  There 
are  two  sizes  of  tin  cups,  the  low-  and 
high-gauge.  Low-gauge  cups  are  only 
required  for  guns  with  iron  breech  bushes. 
The  cup  should  be  drawn  out  to  the  rear 
by  means  of  a  hook. 

Curb,  Gunpowder — A  funnel-shaped 
iron  border  standing  out  from  the  incor- 
porating bed  of  a  gunpowder  mill  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees,  and  2  feet  high, 
serving  to  keep  the  charge  in  the  bed, 
and  all  extraneous  matter  out  of  it. 

The  word  curb  is  understood  in  con- 
junction with  a  horse's  bridle.  The  name 
is  also  given  to  an  enlargement  on  the 
back  of  a  horse. 

Curry  Comb — An  iron  instrument  or 
comb  used  in  cleaning  a  horse.  This 
instrument  should  never  be  applied  below 
the  knee,  as  it  is  calculated  to  injure  the 
back  sinew. 

Curtain — In  fortification,  the  line  of 
rampart  that  joins  the  flanks  of  two 
bastions  together. 

Curtain     Angle  —  In     fortification, 


CUR 


99 


CUT 


the  angle  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the 
flank  and  the  curtain. 

Curtains,  Gun — Targets  used  by  artil- 
lery at  practice,  and  usually  made  of 
coarse  canvas. 

Curve — In  gunnery,  the  line  described 
by  a  projectile  in  its  course,  termed  the 
trajectory,  which,  being  acted  upon  by 
gravity,  does  not  move  on  in  a  horizontal 
or  straight  line,  but  inclines  or  bends 
towards  the  earth. 

Curve  Line — A  line  which  is  neither 
straight  nor  composed  of  straight  lines. 
Of  special  curves,  that  described  by  a 
projectile  is  the  only  one  that  need  be 
considered  here  in  connection  with  gun- 
nery. It  is  called  the  trajectory,  and 
approximates  closely  to  a  parabola. 

Curved  Fire — When  a  projectile  is 
fired  so  as  just  to  clear  an  interposing 
cover,  and  then  descend  upon  the  object, 
the  line  of  fire  being  perpendicular,  or 
nearly  so,  to  the  front  of  troops  or 
works  to  be'  destroyed, — such  practice 
is  termed  curved  fire,  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  ricochet.  This  kind 
of  fire  has  been  long  employed  to  dis- 
lodge troops  posted  behind  cover,  by 
firing  common  shells  from  guns  or  how- 
itzers. Smaller  .  charges  and  higher 
angles  would,  as  in  ricochet,  be  required 
than  for  ordinary  direct  fire.  In  the 
'  Royal  Artillery  Institution  Papers,'  vol. 
viii.  of  1873,  it  is  shown  in  a  paper  by 
Captain  Clarke,  R.A.,  that  the  employ- 
ment of  curved  fire  at  the  siege  of 
Strasburg  by  the  Prussians,  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  war,  was  very  successful, 
a  hidden  escarp,  at  a  range  of  910  yards, 
having  been  breached  with  a  6-inch 
B.L.R.  gun,  with  a  charge  of  powder  ^ 
the  weight  of  the  projectile  fired,  which 
was  60  Ibs. 

At  Shoeburyness,  the  same  nature  of 
fire  has  been  carried  on  with  a  64-pr. 
B.L.R.  gun,  the  calibre  of  which  was  6 '4 
inches,  with  a  charge  of  ,'B  the  shell's 
weight,  at  which  a  range  of  900  yards 
was  obtained  with  an  elevation  of  15°, 
while  the  Prussian  elevation  was  only, 
so  it  is  stated,  7£°. 

The  64-pr.  B.L.R.  gun  is  no  longer  a 
siege  train  gun.  An  8-inch  rifled  how- 
itzer, throwing  a  shell  of  180  Ibs.,  has 
been  introduced  into  the  service,  and  in 
its  practice  has  fulfilled  the  conditions 


under  which  the  breaches  were  made  at 
Strasburg. 

In  the  breaching  of  a  hidden  revet- 
ment, Lieutenant  E.  Clayton,  R.A.,  in  his 
prize  essay  of  1873,  on  the  "  Principles 
which  Regulate  the  Efficiency  of  Artillery 
Projectiles,"  writes  as  follows  : — "We  will 
now  consider  the  conditions  under  which 
a  hidden  revetment  may  be  successfully 
breached  by  curved  fire. 

"  The  object  to  be  gained  is  that  the 
projectile  should  graze  the  crest  of  the 
covering  work,  and  strike  the  scarp  wall 
at  the  desired  point  with  the  maximum 
of  energy.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is 
to  decide  upon  the  gun  and  projectile  to 
be  employed. 

"  It  is  required  that  a  projectile  should 
strike  the  revetment  at  a  considerable 
angle  of  descent,  with  sufficient  energy 
to  destroy  the  masonry.  Now,  in  order 
that  a  considerable  angle  of  descent  may 
be  obtained  at  a  moderate  range  ('from 
1000  to  1500  yards),  it  is  necessary  that 
the  remaining  velocity  should  be  low ; 
and  this  may  be  obtained  in  two  ways — 
by  a  projectile  that  has  been  fired  origin- 
ally with  a  comparatively  high  velocity, 
and  has  lost  it  rapidly ;  or  by  a  projectile 
that  has  been  fired  originally  with  a 
lower  velocity  and  a  higher  elevation, 
but  has  not  lost  its  velocity  so  quickly. 

"  If  the  projectile  has  the  same  weight 
in  both  cases,  the  first  result  would  be 
obtained  by  a  short  shell  of  large  calibre, 
the  second  by  a  long  shell  of  smaller 
calibre,  the  resistance  of  the  air  having  a 
greater  effect  on  the  former  than  the 
latter.  The  question  is,  Which  of  the 
two  systems  would  be  preferable  ?  " 

The  whole  subject  is  very  well  dis- 
cussed in  the  essay,  and  Lieutenant 
Clayton  seems  to  think  "  that  the  gun 
and  projectile  chosen  for  breaching 
batteries  should,  for  a  certain  weight  of 
projectile,  have  the  smallest  calibre  con- 
sistent with  accuracy  of  flight  of  the 
projectile,  with  the  charge  necessary  to 
obtain  the  required  angle  of  descent  at 
the  average  range  of  breaching  batteries, 
and  consistent  with  a  sufficient  capacity 
for  bursting  charge." 

Curvilinear  —  Consisting  of  curved 
lines. 

Cutlass    (French    contel  or    coutelas, 
whence  cutlass) — A  broad  curved  sword, 
H  2 


CUT 


100 


DAR 


about  3  feet  long,  used  by  sailors.  It 
was  originally  a  military  knit'e  intro- 
duced in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  A.D. 
1272-1307. 

Cutters — Implements  used  in  work- 
shops, also  in  t'oundries  in  boring  ord- 
nance. They  are  classed  under  several 
heads  according  to  the  work  they  are 
required  to  perform. 

Cylinder — A  solid  figure  generated 
by  the  revolution  of  a  rectangle  about 
one  of  its  sides,  which  remains  fixed. 

Cylinder  Gauge — An  instrument  used 
for  gauging  the  dimensions  of  the  barrel 
of  a  smooth-bore  gun.  The  gauge 
must  pass  to  the  bottom  of  the  cylin- 
drical part  of  the  bore ;  if  it  does  not  go 
freely  to  the  bottom,  the  bore  is  too 
small ;  but  if  it  goes  down,  the  bore  may 
still  be  too  large  and  irregular  in  its 
dimensions.  To  ascertain  this,  the  "  star 
gauge "  is  used.  A  cylinder  gauge  is 
turned  to  the  exact  minimum  or  true 
diameter  of  the  bore  for  each  calibre. 
This  cylinder  is  hollow,  of  wrought  or 
cast  iron,  and  its  length  is  equal  to  its 
diameter.  It  has  cross-heads  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  one  with  a  smooth 
hole  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  cylinder 
staff,  the  other  tapped  for  the  screw  of 
the  staff  socket. 

Cylinders,  Iron — Cylinders  specially 
used  for  the  conveyance  of  ammunition  by 
rail.  They  hold  either  half-  or  quarter- 
barrels  of  powder  or  ammunition. 

Cylinders,  Zinc — Cylinders  constructed 
for  holding  the  cartridges  of  the  Wool- 
wich guns.  Each  cylinder  holds  one  car- 
tridge. They  not  only  act  as  cases  in  the 
magazine,  but  also  serve  to  bring  the 
cartridge  up  to  the  gun.  Each  heavy 
gun  has  two  cylinders,  one  for  the  bat- 
tering and  one  for  the  full  charge,  which 
will  contain  either  P.  or  R.L.G.  cartridges. 


D. 


Dagger — A  short  sword  or  long  knife. 
This  weapon  is  of  very  ancient  date.  It 
was  in  common  use  amongst  the  early 
Britons,  during  the  ancient  British  period, 
55  years  B.C.,  and  it  appears  to  have 
been  in  universal  use  through  succeeding 
centuries,  when  in  the  reign  of  Charles 


II.  a  double  use  was  made  of  the  dagger, 
in  the  infantry  soldier  sticking  it  in  the 
muzzle  of  his  firelock  to  serve  as  a  pike. 
This  was  doubtless  the  origin  of  the 
bayonet. 

Dahlgren.  Gun — A  gun  invented  by 
the  late  Admiral  Dahlgren,  of  the  U.  S. 
navy.  In  appearance,  the  gun  is  not 
unlike  the  shape  of  a  soda-water  bottle. 
In  this  gun  every  projection  that  can  be 
dispensed  with  is  suppressed,  and  the 
exterior  form  is  produced  by  a  continu- 
ously curved  line,  no  angular  points 
being  formed  by  suddenly  changing  the 
diameter  at  the  different  points  along 
the  piece.  The  U.  S.  navy  guns  of  this 
pattern  are  the  9-inch,  10-inch,  and  11- 
inch  shell  guns.  With  reference  to  this 
nature  of  gun,  it  is  stated  that  the  expe- 
rience gained  during  the  "  rebellion  "  in 
the  United  States  was  sufficient  to  show 
that  smooth-bore  guns  were  no  match 
for  armour.  The  Dahlgren  11-inch  was 
once  a  formidable  gun  on  the  seas,  but 
is  now  "  robbed  of  its  power." 

Dam  —  An  impediment  formed  of 
stones,  gravel,  and  earth,  thrown  across 
a  stream  of  water,  by  which,  when  re- 
quired, it  is  made  to  overflow  its  banks,  in 
order  to  inundate  the  adjacent  country. 

Damages,  Barrack  —  Is  the  injury 
done  to  government  property  in  the 
barracks  lately  occupied  by  a  regiment. 
Fair  wear  and  tear  is  permitted,  but  any 
undue  breakage  comes  under  the  head  of 
injury  committed  by  the  regiment  which 
has  just  been  relieved.  These  damages 
have  to  be  made  good,  if  good  cause  is 
not  shown  why  they  should  not  be,  by 
the  individual  company  or  .  regiment 
which  commits  them.  (  Vide  Queen's  Re- 
gulations for  the  steps  to  be  taken  to 
recover  the  loss  caused.) 

Dammer — A  resinous  substance  found 
in  many  parts  of  India ;  it  exudes  from 
different  kinds  of  trees.  That  used  in 
Bengal  is  yielded  by  the  Shorea  ro- 
busta,  or  the  sal  tree.  There  are  three 
kinds,  the  white,  black,  and  coarse  dam- 
mer,  which  appear  to  resemble  the  resin 
obtained  from  the  pine.  It  is  in  very 
general  use  throughout  Eastern  and 
Southern  Asia.  In  arsenals  it  is  used  to 
protect  packages,  &c.,  which  are  likely  to 
be  exposed  to  damp  or  wet  in  transit. 

Dart — A  lance  thrown  by  the  hand 


DAY 


DEF 


This  weapon  is  only  known  in  ancient 
military  history. 

Day,  Apparent  Solar — As  described  in 
Milner's  '  Astronomical  Atlas,'  "  is  the 
time  included  between  the  centre  of  the 
sun  leaving  the  meridian  of  any  place  to 
its  return  to  the  same  meridian  again. 
It  varies  continually  in  length,  owing  to 
the  unequal  motion  of  the  earth  in  its 
orbit,  and  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic, 
being  sometimes  more  and  sometimes 
less  than  24  hours."  Artificial,  day  is 
"  the  time  between  sunrise  and  sunset, 
which  varies  with  the  latitude  of  places." 
Astronomical  day  is  "the  time  reckoned 
from  noon  to  noon,  and  consisting  of  the 
same  length  of  24  hours  in  all  latitudes, 
called  a  natural  day."  Mean  solar 
da>/  is  "  the  time  which  would  elapse 
between  consecutive  returns  of  the  sun 
to  the  meridian  of  any  place,  if  moving 
in  the  plane  of  the  equator  with  an 
equable  motion.  It  is  the  mean  of  the 
true  solar  days  throughout  the  year,  and 
consists  of  24  hours  as  measured  by  a 
time-piece,  which,  on  some  days  of  the 
year,  is  as  much  faster  than  the  sun-dial 
as  on  other  days  the  sun-dial  is  faster 
than  the  time-piece."  Sidereal  day 
is  "  the  time  which  elapses  between  con- 
secutive returns  of  any  fixed  stars  to  the 
same  meridian,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
period  which  the  earth  takes  to  accom- 
plish one  rotation  on  its  axis.  This 
period  is  unvarying  and  immutable — 23 
hours  56  minutes  4  seconds,  which  would 
always  be  the  length  of  the  solar  day  if 
the  earth  stood  still  in  space,  and  only 
turned  upon  its  axis." 

Day-book  —  In  keeping  accounts, 
whether  of  a  private,  commercial,  or 
military  nature,  such  a  book  is  indis- 
pensable. As  its  name  indicates,  it  is  a 
book  in  which  daily  transactions  are 
inserted,  to  be  subsequently  entered  in 
a  ledger.  It  is  a  book  recommended,  in 
the  accounts  of  a  company,  to  be  kept  by 
the  pay-sergeant.  In  all  manufacturing 
and  other  establishments,  stores  issued  and 
received  are  entered  in  the  day-book. 

Dead-head — In  foundry,  the  mass  of 
metal  in  excess  of  the  gun's  length, 
or  any  other  casting.  It  serves  to  re- 
place the  diminution  or  contraction  of 
bulk  which  takes  place  in  the  cooling 
of  the  metal,  also  to  add  solidity  and 


compactness  to  the  piece.  In  the  cast- 
ing of  guns,  the  longer  the  dead-head  the 
better.  Before  the  piece  is  bored  out, 
the  dead-head  is  cut  off,  and  remelted 
with  subsequent  castings. 

Deblai  —  In  fortification,  earth  ex- 
cavated from  the  ditch  to  form  the 
•emblai. 

Debouch,  To  — To  march  out  of  a 
defile,  or  narrow  pass,  or  from  a  wood, 
village,  &c. 

Debris — Ruins  of  a  building  or  town 
which  has  been  sacked ;  broken  remains 
of  an  army  after  defeat. 

Decamp,  To — To  quit  any  place  or  posi- 
tion in  an  unexpected  manner. 

Decimate,  To — This  term  is  explained 
by  Major  Knollys,  in  his  'Handy  Dic- 
tionary of  Military  Terms,'  as  follows : — 
"  To  punish  troops  who  have  shown 
cowardice,  by  executing  every  tenth 
man,  the  sufferers  being  fixed  upon  by 
lot.  This  is  an  old  and  obsolete  punish- 
ment." 

Defaulter — A  soldier  sentenced  to  con- 
finement to  barracks  for  some  military 
offence. 

Defaulter  Book  —  A  book  in  which 
the  record  of  crimes  committed  by  sol- 
diers is  entered.  There  are  two  de- 
faulter books  in  a  regiment,  the  com- 
pany and  the  regimented.  In  the  former 
all  offences  of  whatever  description  com- 
mitted by  non-commissioned  officers  and 
soldiers,  whether  punishment  may  have 
been  awarded  or  not,  and  every  act  of 
drunkenness  committed  by  a  soldier,  are 
inserted.  Cases  of  absence,  which  may 
be  considered  equivalent  to  drunkenness, 
are  not  to  be  so  numbered,  but  in  lieu 
thereof  the  letter  D  is  to  be  inserted 
in  red  ink  opposite  every  such  case,  by 
the  officer  commanding  the  company. 
All  offences  are  to  be  inserted  in  the 
officer's  own  handwriting.  In  the  latter, 
or  regimental  defaulter  book,  all  punish- 
ments awarded  by  the  commanding  officer 
of  the  regiment,  or  by  courts-martial, 
are  inserted.  In  this  book  also  all 
offences  are  to  be  entered  for  which  a 
punishment  exceeding  7  days'  confine- 
ment to  barracks  has  been  awarded. 

Defeat — The  rout  or  destruction  of  an 
army  by  an  enemy. 

Defence — The  means  resorted  to  of 
defending  oneself  against  the  attack  of 


DEF 


102 


DEM 


an  enemy.     In  fortification  it  is  the  art 

of  protecting  or  strengthening  all  works 
liable  to  attack,  whether  in  permanent 
or  field  works.  In  the  former,  which 
relates  to  fortresses,  such  means  are  used, 
when  the  siege  of  the  place  is  antici- 
pated, to  strengthen  all  fronts  which  are 
likely  to  be  attacked,  and  in  seeing  that 
the  armament  of  the  fortress  is  to  the 
extent  require!  for  successfully  resisting 
the  besiegers.  In  field  works,  the  de- 
fensive arrangements  made  for  their  pro- 
tection will  depend  on  the  nature  of 
works  or  positions  to  be  defended.  Much 
must  be  left  to  the  ingenuity  of  the 
commander  of  the  post.  Everything 
that  hand  can  be  put  on  comes  in  for 
the  defence  of  buildings,  hedges,  and 
walls.  Any  work  on  fortification  will 
explain  the  general  mode  of  defence  used 
under  such  circumstances,  and  it  is  very 
necessary  that  all  officers  should  be  so 
instructed  as  to  be  able,  when  in  command 
of  an  outpost,  to  put  it  into  a  state  of 
defence. 

In  the  work  entitled  '  Instruction  in 
Fortification,  &c.,  at  the  Royal  Mili- 
tary Academy,  Woolwich,'  the  following 
is  stated  to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  all 
works  of  defence  : — 

"  1st.  They  should  afford  cover  to  the 
defenders  from  the  projectiles  of 
the  enemy. 

"  2ndly.  They  should  permit  the  de- 
fenders to  use  their  own  weapons 
with  the  greatest  effect  upon  the 
enemy,  from  the  moment  that 
he  comes  within  range  until  his 
arrival  at  the  crest  of  the  de- 
fenders' works. 

"  Srdly.  They  should  present  obstacles 
to  the  advance  of  the  enemy,  so  as 
to  check  him  under  the  fire  from 
the  work  or  works,  and  prevent 
him  closing  with  the  defenders." 

Defence,  Flank,  vide  Flank. 

Defilading  —  In  fortification,  is  the 
proper  arrangement  of  works  and  the 
determination  of  the  height  of  the  para- 
pets, in  order  to  give  proper  cover  to  the 
defenders  and  to  parry  the  effects  of 
commanding  ground.  Works  were  for- 
merly defiladed  against  musketry,  within 
400  yards ;  and  against  artillery,  within 
1200  yards  or  upwards.  This  was  the 


distance  with  smooth-bore  arms,  but  in 
the  future  it  will  doubtless  be  modified 
in  consequence  of  the  increased  range  of 
rifled  arms. 

Dsfile — A  narrow  passage  or  road,  in 
marching  through  which  the  troops  can 
present  only  a  small  front.  If  artillery, 
on  its  march,  is  unaccompanied  with  any 
other  troops,  and  is  opposed  by  such  an 
obstacle  as  a  defile,  or  a  steep  ascent  in 
mountain  passes,  &c.,  the  head  of  the 
column  must  endeavour  to  pass  it  rapid- 
ly, and  the  drivers  of  the  succeeding 
carriages  should  be  warned  of  it,  that 
they  may  be  attentive  to  keep  their 
distances  and  ranks.  In  time  of  war, 
neither  artillery  nor  cavalry  would  be 
permitted  to  enter  a  defile  until  it  had 
been  first  explored  and  its  flanks  secured 
by  infantry. 

Deflagration — -A  chemical  term  :  it  is 
understood  to  mean  every  process  of 
decomposition  attended  with  noise  or 
detonation. 

Deflection  of  a  Projectile — Is  the  dis- 
tance of  the  trajectory  to  the  right  or 
left  of  the  line  of  fire  measured  perpen- 
dicularly. (  Vide  Deviation.) 

Degre'e— The  360th  part  of  the  cir 
cumference  of  a  circle  ;  60  geographical 
miles. 

Deliquescence — The  power  that  cer- 
tain salts  have  of  attracting  moisture 
and  dissolving  into  water.  Saltpetre  has 
generally  many  deliquescent  and  impure 
salts  in  it,  which  in  the  process  of  refin- 
ing it  is  freed  from  before  being  used 
for  gunpowder  purposes. 

Demi-bastion — In  fortification,  a  work 
which  has  one  face  and  one  flank  cut  off 
by  the  capital. 

Demi-lone— In  fortification,  a  work 
having  two  faces  forming  a  salient  angle 
towards  the  country,  and  covering  the 
curtain  connecting  the  shoulders  of  the 
adjoining  bastions.  A  ravelin  is  a  demi- 
lune. 

Demolition  of  Artillery — The  destruc- 
tion of  ordnance  by  artificial  or  other 
means.  This  is  performed,  if  the  gun  be 
an  iron  one,  by  half  filling  the  piece  with 
powder,  and  jamming  in  one  or  two  shot 
with  stones,  bits  of  iron,  &c. ;  over  this 
a  complete  tamping  with  stones  and 
earth  till  the  bore  is  filled.  To  break  off 
the  trunnions  is  not  always  an  infallible 


DEM 


103 


DEN 


mode  of  destroying  ordnance,  as  they  can 
still  -be  fire,!  from  the  ground.  When 
time  admits  of  only  partially  crippling 
guns,  by  removing  one  of  the  trunnions, 
it  is  best  done  by  laying  the  end  of 
the  trunnion  on  a  block  of  wood,  the 
blow  being  given  by  a  sledge  hammer, 
or  (if  that  be  not  at  hand)  by  heavy 
shot.  A  gun  may  be  destroyed  by 
firing  a  shot  at  it  behind  one  of  the 
trunnions,  which,  if  it  should  not 
break  it,  would  render  it  unsafe.  The 
first  method,  however,  particularly  if 
the  muzzle  is  partly  buried  in  the 
ground,  will  be  found  certain  to  burst 
the  gun.  To  render  bronze  guns  un- 
serviceable, tire  a  shot  into  them  from 
some  other  piece,  behind  the  trunnions, 
which  will  prevent  the  possibility  of 
their  being  used  again. 

Demolition  of  Works — The  destruc- 
tion or  razing  to  the  ground  of  a  fortified 
or  other  work.  When  there  is  time,  this 
operation  is  performed  by  mining  or  blast- 
ing, in  which  gunpowder,  gun-cotton,  dy- 
namite, or  any  other  explosive  compound, 
may  be  used.  "In  demolishing  a  revet- 
ment wall,  shafts  should  be  sunk  along 
the  back  at  certain  intervals  (usually  two 
or  three  lines  of  least  resistance),  the 
charge  being  placed  within  two  or  three 
feet  of  the  bottom.  These  charges  are 
all  fired  simultaneously  by  a  proper  ar- 
rangement of  the  hoses,  or  by  an  electric 
battery.  If  a  house,  such  as  a  magazine, 
block-house,  &c.,  has  to  be  demolished,  it 
would  be  done  by  blasting.  In  this  case, 
blast-holes,  having  an  inclination  down- 
wards, are  bored  in  the  walls  at  two-  or 
three-line  intervals  as  before.  When  the 
charges  are  required  to  be  large,  it  is 
customary  to  bore  the  holes  crossing  each 
other  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  V  or  X 
When  there  is  very  little  time,  and  the 
work  has  to  be  done  hastily,  the  demo- 
lition is  performed  by  firing  large  charges 
of  powder,  placed  in  the  most  efiectiv 
manner.  In  a  bridge,  for  instance,  a  larg 
charge  placed  over  the  crown  of  an  arch 
the  roadway  having  been  previous!) 
picked  up,  would  cause  certain  demoli 
tion  ;  or  in  a  building,  two  or  three  larg 
charges  placed  against  the  walls  in  th 
rooms,  the  doors  and  windows  being  shut 
would  destroy  the  house."  ( Vide  Ap 
pendix  H.) 


Demonstration — A  term  used  in  rnili- 
ary  operations  signifying  a  feint  on  the 
art  of  the  enemy  or  the  opposing  army, 
vhen  some  manoeuvre  or  attack  is  to  be 
undertaken  in  an  opposite  direction  to 
hat  intended,  whereby  the  attention  of 
he  enemy  is  drawn  off  from  the  real 
,ttack.  Such  often  occurs  in  warfare. 

Densimeter — An  instrument  for  deter- 
nining  in  mercury  the  specific  gravity  of 
he  grains  of  gunpowder.  The  one  in 
general  use  in  gunpowder  factories  was 
nvented  some  years  ago  by  Colonels 
lalet  and  Barthelemy  Bianchi,  of  the 
''rench  artillery.  Before  the  introduc- 
ion  of  this  instrument,  the  density  of  t 
>owder  was  arrived  at  by  the  immersion 
f  the  grain  into  liquids,  such  as  turpen- 
tine, alcohol,  &c.,  but  no  method  has 
)roved  so  accurate  or  satisfactory  as 
,aking  the  density  in  mercury. 

The  mode  of  taking  the  density  is  as 
'ollows.  First  exhaust  the  air  within 
the  globe  or  receiver ;  fill  it  with  mer- 
cury, weigh  it,  and  empty  the  globe. 
Then  take  100  grammes  of  powder,  which 
s  the  usual  quantity  employed,  and  intro- 
duce it  into  the  globe.  Exhaust  the  air 
again,  and  admit  as  much  mercury  as 
the  globe  will  now  contain ;  weigh  this, 
and  note  down  each  weighing,  viz.  the 
globe  filled  with  mercury  and  the  globe 
filled  with  mercury  and  powder.  Having 
accomplished  this,  proceed  by  the  follow- 
ing formula  to  find  the  actual  density 
of  the  powder : 

D  X  100 
-  (P'  -  P)  +  100 

Where  D  =  specific  gravity  of  mercury, 
which  is  found  from  a  table  of  specific 
gravities  of  mercury  at  different  tem- 
peratures ; 

P  =  weight  of  globe  filled  with   mer- 
cury and  powder  ; 

P'= weight  of  globe  rilled  with  mer- 
cury alone ; 
100  =  weight  of  powder  used. 

The  following  is  an  example : 

Grammes. 

Globe  and  mercury  only    ...  4190 

Globe  with  powder  and  mercury    3495 

Temperature  at  the  time  of  weighing 
the  mercury  60°  Fahr.,  consequent  spe- 
cific gravity  13'59. 


DEN 


104 


DES 


Then 


13-59x100          _1359 
4190-3495  +  100""  795 


=  1-709 


density  required. 

Density — The  density  of  a  body  indi- 
cates the  quantity  of  matter  in  it  under 
a  given  bulk,  and  is  synonymous  with 
the  term  "  specific  gravity." 

In  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  it  is 
very  necessary  to  attend  to  the  density, 
as  so  much  depends  upon  this  all-import- 
ant point  in  regulating  the  uniformity, 
time  of  burning,  and  strength  of  the 
powder.  Experience  has  shown  the  den- 
sity, most  likely,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, to  produce  a  good  result  in  the 
different  natures  of  powder  manufac- 
tured, both  as  regards  their  action  upon 
the  velocity  of  the  shot  and  the  pressure 
upon  the  gun.  A  large-grained  dense 
powder  burns  slower  than  a  small- 
grained  powder  of  low  density,  and  tends 
to  preserve  the  gun  better,  as  it  does 
not  throw  such  a  strain  upon  it;  hence 
the  reason  that  P.  powder,  which  is  a 
large-grained  and,  dense  powder,  is  used 
with  all  large  ordnance. 

Departments,  Civil,  vide  Civil  Depart- 
ments. 

Deploy,  To — Literally  to  open,  to  ex- 
tend. The  term  is  used  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  body  of  troops  from  column 
into  line,  or  when  it  is  required  to 
extend  the  front  of  an  army  or  body  of 
troops. 

Depot — A  place  of  receipt  and  issue  of 
commissariat  and  ordnance  stores  when 
the  main  magazines  and  arsenals  are  at 
too  great  a  distance  to  be  drawn  directly 
upon  by  an  army.  In  small  garrisons  in 
India,  depots  are  usually  in  charge  of 
warrant  officers  of  the  above  depart- 
ments. (Vide  Magazines.) 

The  name  is  also  given  to  a  company 
left  in  England  on  a  regiment  proceeding 
on  foreign  service.  The  depot  is  attached 
in  the  case  of  second  battalions  of  regi- 
ments to  the  battalion  at  home,  or  if 
both  battalions  are  on  foreign  service, 
to  a  brigade  depot  of  the  sub-district  to 
which  the  regiments  are  linked.  Re- 
cruits and  men  unable  to  proceed  abroad 
are  attached  to  the  depot,  and  subse- 
quently drafted  off  to  their  regiments. 

Depot,  Army  Clothing — A  government 
establishment  at  Pimlico  which  furnishes 


the  army  with  its  regimental  clothing. 
It  also  instructs  certain  soldiers  in  the 
art  of  tailoring. 

Depot,  Brigade,  vide  Brigade  Depot. 

Depot,  Cavalry,  vide  Cavalry  Depot. 

Depression  Carriage — A  garrison  car- 
riage which  admits  of  a  depression  of 
30°.  Such  carriages  are  required  for  ser- 
vice at  Gibraltar,  where  a  great  amount 
of  depression  has  to  be  given  to  many  of 
the  guns  in  the  batteries. 

Depth — In  military  evolutions,  applied 
to  the  space  taken  up  by  troops  in  co- 
lumn. Also  the  actual  number  of  yards 
in  depth  taken  up  by  regiments,  brigades, 
&c.,  marching  along  a  road  in  perfect 
order.  (Vide  'The  Soldier's  Pocket  Book.') 

Derivation — In  gunnery,  a  term  used 
by  the  French  to  express-  the  deviation, 
to  the  right  or  left  of  their  path,  of 
elongated  projectiles  fired  from  rifled 
guns.  (Vide  Deflection.) 

Derrick — A  sort  of  crane,  principally 
used  on  board  ship  in  hoisting  heavy 
weights,  such  as  taking  out  or  putting 
in  a  mast.  If  used  on  land,  it  consists  of 
a  beam  of  wood,  one  end  resting  on  or 
sunk  several  feet  in  the  ground,  the  other 
supported  at  any  convenient  angle  by 
guys. 

Deserter — An  officer  or  soldier  on  duty 
with  his  regiment  leaving  it  without 
permission,  with  the  intention  of  not  re- 
turning to  it  again.  The  Articles  of  War 
!  punish  desertion  with  death,  but  the 
power  is  only  exercised  before  the  enemy. 
A  reward,  under  certain  circumstances, 
is  given  for  'the  apprehension  of  a  de- 
serter. The  maximum  sum  is  40s.,  but 
this  will  depend  upon  the  exertion  and 
skill  shown  by  the  apprehender.  In  no 
case  will  a  reward  be  granted  if  the  de- 
serter voluntarily  surrenders,  or  if  it  can 
be  shown  that  there  was  any  collusion 
between  the  deserter  and  the  person  ap- 
;  prehending  him.  Nor  will  a  reward  be 
allowed  unless  the  deserter  shall  hare 
been  committed  to  confinement  by  a  ma- 
I  gistrate  as  provided  for  by  the  Mutiny 
Act. 

Any  soldier  absent  without  leave  for 
more  than  twenty-one  days  must  be  tried 
for  desertion  by  a  court-martial. 

Desiccation — The  expulsion  of  mois- 
ture from  solid  substances.  This  is  ef- 
fected at  various  temperatures,  according 


DES 


105 


DHA 


to  the  nature  of  the  substance,  and  by 
different  means,  such  as  the  water  oven, 
air  bath,  &c.  The  wood  of  fuzes  is  thus 
treated. 

Despatch.  —  An  official  document  or 
letter  penned  by  the  commander  of  an 
army  in  the  field  to  the  home  authorities. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  letters  re- 
ceived from  governors  of  colonies  to  the 
above-named  authorities.  All  correspond- 
ence also  from  military  commanders  to 
superior  authority  in  the  field,  detailing 
their  acts  before  the  enemy,  come  under 
the  head  of  despatches. 

Detached  Works — Works  so  far  in  ad- 
vance of  the  main  works  or  fortress  that 
they  receive  no  support  from  the  fire  of 
cither. 

Detachment — A  body  of  troops,  vary- 
ing in  number  and  composition,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  duty  required.  It 
remains  with  the  general  of  a  force  to 
form  the  detachment  of  whatever  troops 
he  may  see  fit,  and  to  use  it  as  he  may 
think  necessary. 

Detachment,  Gun — Consists  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  men  told  off  for  the  ser- 
vice of  each  piece  of  ordnance.  In  the 
exercise  of  the  various  descriptions  of  ord- 
nance, the  same  numbers,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, always  perform  the  same  duties,  the 
detachments  being  told  off  upon  the  same 
principle,  viz.  beginning  with  the  lowest 
numbers  and  proceeding  to  the  highest, 
No.  1  always  commanding.  Not  less  than 
six  men  should  be  posted  to  any  descrip- 
tion of  ordnance,  and  this  number  is  only 
sufficient  for  light  field-pieces.  Heavy 
ordnance  detachments  vary  in  number 
according  to  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
piece,  the  heaviest  requiring  18  men  and 
upwards,  inclusive  of  the  non-commis- 
sioned officer. 

Detonating  Composition — A  term  ap- 
plied to  certain  highly  combustible  com- 
pounds, which,  when  suddenly  struck, 
ignite  or  detonate.  Such  is  the  compo- 
sition used,  but  in  varying  proportions, 
in  the  manufacture  of  percussion  caps, 
Boxer's  B.L.  time-fuzes,  copper  and  quill 
friction  tubes,  and  Pettman's  percussion 
fuzes.  A  detonating  fuze  is  now  used 
in  firing  damp  compressed  gun-cotton, 
and  its  application  in  this  manner  is  a 
comparatively  recent  and  very  valuable 
invention.  Still  more  recent  is  the  in- 


troduction of  electric  detonators  for  sub- 
marine and  other  purposes  attending  the 
firing  of  explosive  compounds. 

Detrain,  vide  Disembarkation. 

Deviation — In  gunnery,  the  path  or 
course  a  projectile  takes  oblique  to  the 
line  of  direction,  caused  for  the  most 
part  from  windage,  and  the  non-homoge- 
neity of  th'e  shot  or  shell,  as  well  as  from 
the  friction  and  shocks  which  the  pro- 
jectile experiences  during  its  passage  in 
the  bore,  and  which  form  the  principal 
causes  of  irregularity  in  fire  from  smooth- 
bore guns.  B.L.R.  guns  have  a  right- 
handed  rotation,  that  is,  the  projectile 
has  a  small  constant  deviation  to  the 
right  on  leaving  the  gun,  which  increases 
with  the  length  of  the  range.  This,  as 
is  shown  in  the  'Artillerist's  Manual,' 
necessitates  the  tangent  sights  being 
placed  at  a  certain  inclination.  "  B.L.R, 
guns  are  sighted  on  both  sides,  the  tan- 
gent sights  being  inclined  to  the  left,  at 
an  angle  of  2°  16',  to  allow  for  the  per- 
manent deflection  due  to  the  rifling.  The 
deflection  scale,  therefore,  is  only  used  to 
allow  for  wind  or  other  causes  of  inaccu- 
racy." M.L.R.  guns  have  similar  arrange- 
ments for  meeting  the  deviation  due  to 
rifling,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  per- 
manent angle  of  deflection  and  that  due 
to  wind  or  other  causes,  such  as  one  wheel 
being  higher  than  another.  "  This  deflec- 
tion or  derivation  in  rifled  guns  arises 
most  probably  from  two  causes :  First,  a 
shot  rotating  rapidly,  and  at  the  same 
time  falling  in  the  air,  will  experience  a 
greater  pressure  underneath  than  above, 
and  will,  therefore,  roll,  as  it  were,  on 
the  denser  air  below ;  and  if  on  leaving 
the  piece  it  had  a  right-handed  rotation, 
would  roll  to  the  right.  •  Second,  the  re- 
sistance of  the  air  on  the  point  of  an 
elongated  shot  fired  with  a  right-handed 
rotation  will  act  obliquely  on  the  shot 
and  cause  deflection  to  the  right." 

Dhall  Bush  (Cytisus  cajari)  —  The 
wood  used  in  India  in  the  preparation 
of  charcoal  for  gunpowder.  It  grows 
in  most  parts  of  India,  and  has  been 
found  to  make  the  best  charcoal  of 
the  several  woods  at  present  known 
in  that  country.  Colonel  Anderson,  in 
his  work  on  the  'Manufacture  of  Gun- 
powder,' mentions  it  thus  : — "  Dhall  bush 
has  a  growth  of  a  few  months :  the 


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seed  is  planted  in  April,  and  the  grain 
ripens  about  the   1st   January  the  next 
year,  when    the    bushes    are    cut    down. 
The  stalks  are  brought  in  and  stacked  for 
use  at  the  powder  works.     The  wood  is 
white  and   soft,  and  contains   much  sac- 
charine matter.     Hence,  insects  breed  in- 
ternally, while  externally  it  is  attacked 
by  varions   moths,   which    deposit  their 
larva?.     The  charcoal  is  good,  its  fibrous 
texture  distinct,  and  it  rings  with  a  clear, 
metallic  sound,  being  at  the  same  time  j 
soft   and   friable.      A   beegah    of  urhur,  ! 
another  word  for  the  dhall  wood,  is  cal-  ; 
culated   to    give    about    200    maunds  of 
wood  in  its  yearly  crop,  or  the  charcoal 
for    160    barrels;    hence    10,000  barrels 
would    require    a  yearly    cultivation    of  j 
60  beegahs." 

As  a  general  rule,  the  wood  should  be  , 
stripped  of  its  bark  previous  to  charring ; 
this  practice  was  not  uniformly  pursued 
in  the  Indian  powder   manufactories  in  | 
former  years,  owing,   it   is  supposed,  to 
the  expense,  and,  perhaps,  the  importance 
of  peeling   the    wood    not    having    been 
realised.     The    peeling    process    is   now 
strictly  carried  out. 

Dhao — A  Burman  tool  or  weapon  (half 
chopper,  half  sword)  used  in  clearing 
jungle  and  in  cutting  down  trees  of  all 
kinds.  The  Burmese  make  great  use  of 
this  cutting  instrument. 

Dhurree — An  Indian  term,  for  a  coarse 
kind  of  cotton  carpet,  called  also  a  sa- 
tringee ;  it  is  used  for  the  flooring  of 
tents,  and  very  generally  for  carpets  in 
most  houses  in  the  North-West  Provinces 
oflndia.  This  kind  of  cloth  is  made  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  and  very 
often  by  prisoners  in  gaols.  A  small 
satringee  is  issued  by  the  commissariat 
department  to  every  European  soldier, 
which  is  placed  on  his  sleeping  cot  in 
barracks,  and  in  which  his  bedding  is 
folded  up  on  the  march. 

Diabetes — This  complaint  in  horses,  as 
explained  in  Small's  '  Veterinary  Tablet,' 
is  brought  on  from  "  too  strong  diuretics, 
or  bad  hay.  The  symptoms  are  —  in- 
creased flow  of  urine,  great  debility.  The 
cure  is  rest  and  warm  clothing,  with  a 
physic  ball  composed  of  Cape  aloes,  from 
6  to  10  drams ;  Castile  soap,  1  dram ; 
spirits  of  wine,  1  dram ;  syrup  to  form 
the  ball.  Also  an  anodyne  ball  may  be 


given,  composed  of  opium,  1  dram  ;  cam- 
phor, 2  drams  ;  ginger  powder,  l^dram; 
treacle  to  form  a  ball." 

Diagonal — A  straight  line  which  joins 
the  vertices  of  two  angles  which  are  not 
adjacent  to  each  other. 

Dial,  Sun — -A  plate  of  metal  or  stone 
on  which  the  hours  of  the  day  are  in- 
scribed, in  such  a  manner  that  the  shadow 
cast  from  the  gnomon  erected  upon  it, 
which  falls  in  a  direction  always  opposite 
to  that  of  the  sun,  shall  indicate  the 
apparent  time.  The  gnomon  represents 
the  axis  of  the  earth ;  hence  its  angle 
with  the  horizon  is  the  latitude  of  the 
place,  and  it  lies  in  the  plane  of  the 
meridian.  The  hour  lines  are  the  pro- 
jections of  the  horary  meridians,  given 
by  the  intersections  of  their  planes  with 
that  of  the  horizon  or  dial.  Dials  may 
be  placed  either  vertically  or  horizontally. 
The  better  class  of  dials  bave  the  equation 
of  time  for  all  the  different  periods  of  the 
year  marked  on  the  face. 

Diameter — A  line  passing  through  the 
centre  of  a  circle,  bounded  at  each  end  by 
the  circumference.  When  great  accuracy 
is  not  required,  the  proportion  of  the 
diameter  of  a  circle  to  the  circumference 
may  be  taken  as  1  to  3-1416.  To  find 
the  diameter  of  a  spherical  shot,  its 
weight  being  given,  multiply  the  cube 
root  of  the  shot's  weight  by  l-923  for  the 
diameter.  In  taking  the  diameter  or 
calibre  of  the  bore  of  a  rifled  gun,  it  is 
measured  across  the  lands. 

Diaphragm  Shell — A  shrapnel  shell. 
It  is  used  with  smooth-bore  ordnance, 
and  is  an  improvement  on  the  original 
shrapnel  shell ;  it  is  the  invention  of 
Colonel  (now  General)  Boxer,  R.A.  It 
has  a  wrought-iron  partition  or  dia- 
phragm which  separates  the  bursting 
charge  from  the  bullets.  The  channel  of 
communication,  termed  the  loading  hole, 
from  the  exterior  of  the  shell  to  the 
powder  chamber,  into  which  the  bursting 
charge  is  poured,  is  closed  and  opened  by 
a  small  screw.  The  bursting  charge  in 
this  shell  is  considerably  reduced,  and 
the  interior  of  the  shell  is  coated  with 
marine  glue,  in  order  to  ensure  complete 
separation  between  the  powder  of  the 
bursting  charge  and  the  coal-dust  thrown 
between  the  bullets.  The  bursting  of 
the  shell  is  facilitated  by  four  grooves 


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107 


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formed  in  its  interior  surface  which  act 
as  so  many  lines  of  "  least  resistance." 

Dickson's  Guns — These  guns  were 
designed  by  the  late  Sir  A.  Dickson,  R.A. ; 
they  comprise  some  light  32-prs.,  24- 
prs.,  and  18-prs.  for  naval  service. 
They  are  now  nearly  all  obsolete. 

Dies — Are  described  as  "  tools  used  in 
cutting  metal  screws  or  bolts ;  they  are 
the  converse  of  the  tap,  as  they  must  have 
internal  instead  of  external  threads,  but 
the  radial  notches  are  essentially  alike  in 
each.  For  small  works,  the  internal 
threads  are  made  of  fixed  sizes,  and  in  thin 
plates  of  steel ;  such  are  called  '  screw 
plates.'  For  larger  works,  the  internal 
cut  upon  the  edges  of  two  or  three 
threads  are  detached  pieces  of  steel,  called 
'  dies.'  These  are  fitted  into  grooves  within 
'die  stocks,'  and  various  other  contrivances 
which  admit  of  the  approach  of  the 
screwed  dies,  so  that  they  may  be  applied 
to  the  decreasing  diameter  of  the  screw, 
from  its  commencement  to  the  com- 
pletion." 

Dip — In  gun  carriages  the  inclination 
or  set  of  the  arms  of  the  axle-trees. 

Dip  of  the  Needle — In  magnetism,  as 
explained  in  Xuttall's  '  Pronouncing  Dic- 
tionary,' "  is  the  inclination  of  the  needle 
downward  from  a  horizontal  line."  "  The 
needle,  which  is  magnetic,  is  supported 
and  balanced  on  a  horizontal  axis,  and 
playing  therefore  in  a  vertical  plane.  The 
angles  through  which  it  turns  are  indi- 
cated by  a  graduated  circle,  the  centre 
of  which  coincides  with  the  axis  of  the 
needle,  and  the  frame  which  supports  it 
has  an  azimuthal  motion  round  a  vertical 
axis,  which  is  indicated  and  measured  by 
the  graduated  horizontal  circle." 

Direction — In  gunnery,  is  the  path  or 
course  a  projectile  takes  when  fired  from 
a  gun.  The  path  pursued  may  be  either 
a  good  or  bad  direction,  with  reference  to 
the  points  aimed  at. 

Director  of  Artillery  and  Stores — An 
officer  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War  to  assist  the  Controller-in- 
Chief.  His  duties  are  confined  to  all 
questions  relating  to  the  manufacture, 
provision,  supply,  and  maintenance  of 
munitions  of  war. 

Director  of  Supplies  and  Transport — 
An  officer  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War  to  assist  the  Controller-in- 


Chief.  This  officer  has  to  deal  with  all 
questions  relating  to  the  provision  and 
supply  of  food,  forage,  fuel  and  light, 
lodging  and  transport. 

Dirk,  Highlander's — A  kind  of  dagger 
or  poniard  worn  by  Highland  regiments. 
It  is  worn  by  officers  rather  for  orna- 
ment than  for  use,  though  in  former  days 
it  was  a  valuable  weapon. 

Disarm,  To — The  act  of  depriving  a 
body  of  troops  of  arms  for  some  gross 
misconduct  or  crime  which  renders  dis- 
missal from  the  service  necessary.  The 
India'n  mutiny  in  1857-58  affords  in- 
stances of  whole  regiments  being  dis- 
armed and  disbanded.  Other  regiments, 
at  the  same  time,  apparently  loyal,  were 
simply  disarmed,  to  prevent  the  chance 
of  the  men  falling  upon  their  officers. 

Disband,  To — In  a  military  sense,  is 
applied  to  the  dismissal  of  a  regiment,  or 
any  large  body  of  men,  from  the  con- 
ditions of  their  military  service,  for  dis- 
affection or  treasonable  conduct. 

Discharge,  To — Literally  to  shoot. 
The  act  of  firing  off  a  charge  from  a 
piece  of  ordnance  or  small-arm.  Guns 
were  formerly  discharged  by  priming 
powder  poured  into  the  vent,  or  by  quick 
match,  which  was  ignited  by  means  of 
slow  match  or  portfire.  Friction  tubes 
have  for  some  years  past  been  introduced 
into  the  service,  and  have  been  found  to 
be  vastly  superior  in  power  and  certainty 
of  ignition  to  either  of  the  above  modes, 
and  are  now  universally  used.  B.L.  small- 
arms  are  discharged  by  means  of  a  needle 
or  piston  coming  in  contact  with  deto- 
nating composition  at  the  base  of  the 
cartridge. 

Discharge — In  the  army,  a  release 
from  military  service  either  under  compul- 
sion or  authority.  There  are  several 
classes  of  discharge.  First,  on  a  soldier 
having  completed  the  term  of  service  for 
which  he  engaged,  and  not  wishing  to 
renew  his  services.  This  is  either  com- 
pletion of  limited  engagement,  or  service 
for  pension.  Second,  when  permitted  to 
purchase  his  discharge.  Third,  when  dis- 
abled from  wounds  or  sickness  to  serve 
any  longer.  Fourth,  when  discharged  by 
sentence  of  court-martial  to  penal  ser- 
vitude. Fifth,  when  discharged  with 
ignominy  for  some  offence  that  brings 
dishonour  on  the  corps.  Sixth,  when 


DIS 


108 


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summarily  discharged  as  a  worthless  and 
incorrigible  character. 

Each  soldier  on  discharge  receives  a 
certificate  stating  under  what  circum- 
stances he  has  left  the  army. 

Discipline — As  understood  in  military 
life,  is  the  obedience  to  and  exercise  of 
all  orders  and  regulations  which  have  for 
their  object  the  good  government  and 
management  of  a  regiment  or  army.  In 
fact,  discipline  may  be  defined  as  the 
perfection  of  order  and  regulation  in  an 
army.  To  it  may  be  attributed  in  the 
day  of  battle  much  of  the  success  which 
has  attended  the  arms  of  a  nation.  With- 
out it,  an  army  becomes  a  rabble  ;  and 
though  bravery  will  do  much  towards 
achieving  success,  it  is  by  discipline 
mainly  that  the  object  of  a  war  can  be 
ultimately  attained. 

Colonel  Hamley,  in  his  '  Operations  of 
War,'  gives  the  following  explanation 
of  the  term  "  discipline  :  " — "  It  means  co- 
hesion of  the  units  and  suppleness  of  the 
mass ;  it  means  increased  firmness  and 
increased  flexibility ;  it  means  the  most 
efficient  combination  of  many  and  various 
parts  for  a  common  end."  "  A  hundred 
thousand  soldiers,''  says  Macaulay,  "  well 
disciplined  and  commanded,  will  keep 
down  ten  millions  of  ploughmen  and 
artisans.  A  few  regiments  of  household 
troops  are  sufficient  to  overawe  all  the 
discontented  spirits  of  a  large  capital." 

There  is  no  greater  instance  of  dis- 
cipline than  that  recorded  in  Captain 
Duncan's  '  History  of  the  Royal  Artillery,' 
when  speaking  of  the  deeds  of  the  in- 
fantry at  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  "  As  for 
the  infantry,  words  cannot  paint  too 
highly  their  endurance  on  that  long  day. 
One  regiment  had  400  men  killed  or 
wounded  before  they  were  allowed  to  draw 
a  trigger  ;  and  all  suffered  heavily.  Yet 
there  was  not  a  word  of  distrust  as  re- 
garded their  great  commander.  They 
pined  with  all  their  hearts  for  permission 
to  attack,  instead  of  lying  where  they 
often  were — being  shot  by  scores ;  but 
discipline  was  stronger  than  desire. 
Given  at  the  worst  times,  a  word  from 
the  duke,  or  a  report  that  he  was  coming, 
sufficed  to  produce  a  silence  and  a  steadi- 
ness as  perfect  as  if  on  parade  in  a 
barrack  square.  For  those  who  were 
present,  Waterloo  was  thus  a  double 


victory    over    their    enemies    and    over 
hemselvcs.     True    discipline    is    a    suc- 
cession of  such  victories." 

The  Mutiny  Act  and  Articles  of  War 
brm  a  code  whereby  the  discipline  of  a 
regiment  or  army  is  kept  up. 

Discretion — As  explained  in  James' 
Dictionary,'  includes  "prudence, wisdom, 
;he  liberty  of  acting  at  pleasure,  uncon- 
trolled and  unconditional  power ;  all 
ivhich  qualities,  if  wisely  directed,  will 
contribute  much,  in  military  affairs,  to 
the  successful  termination  of  all  under- 
takings." 

The  military  phrase,  to  surrender  at 
discretion,  implies  surrendering  without 
stipulation,  throwing  one's  self  on  the 
mercy  of  a  victorious  enemy. 

Disembarkation  —  The  removal  of 
troops  from  a  ship  or  railway  train,*  on 
their  arrival  at  the  place  of  disembarka- 
tion. It  is  the  reverse  of  embarkation, 
and  in  the  case  of  disembarking  from  a 
ship  is  performed  with  the  aid  of  boats, 
flats,  and  rafts.  The  rate  of  disembarka- 
tion depends  upon  the  size  of  the  boats, 
and  the  number  of  men  they  will  carry. 
In  the  boats  attached  to  government 
transport  vessels,  such  as  the  Simoom, 
450  men  can  be  landed  at  once,  but  such 
is  not  to  be  expected  of  the  boats  attached 
to  hired  transports. 

Flats  are  valuable  for  disembarkation, 
as  they  are  of  little  draft,  have  consider- 
able buoyancy,  great  carrying  power,  are 
easy  to  steer,  easy  to  stow  away,  and 
difficult  to  swamp. 

For  the  disembarkation  of  artillery  and 
cavalry,  rafts  are  required,  though  there 
are  certain  difficulties  attending  their  use, 
as  they  are  difficult  to  stow  away,  and,  if 
in  pieces,  time  is  lost  in  putting  them 
together ;  further,  they  are  difficult  to 
steer  (especially  cask  rafts)  and  awkward 
in  bad  weather.  They  are  generally  con- 
nected by  coupling  boats.  Pontoons  form 
the  best  rafts. 

Boats  for  safety  sake  should  not  carry 
more  than  fifty  men,  and  should  be  clear 
of  all  masts,  spare  oars,  &c.  The  crew 
should  consist  of  only  six  men,  and  the 


*  The  term  "  embarkation  "  or  "  disembarka- 
tion" for  troops  by  railway  is  recommended  by 
Colonel  Hamley,  in  his  '  Staff  College  Exercises,' 
I  to  be  called  entrain  and  detrain. 


DIS 


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boats  should  be  towed.  In  disembarking 
horses  and  guns,  rafts  should  be  used  if 
the  weather  admits  of  it.  In  using  rafts 
they  should  be  connected  by  coupling 
boats.  In  the  Crimea,  Turkish  store 
boats,  which  were  flat-bottomed,  were 
very  good  in  still  water.  Their  capacity 
was  such  as  enabled  them  to  carry  two 
guns,  two  limbers,  twelve  horses  and 
men.  The  French  had  special  boats 
which  they  brought  with  them  secured  to 
the  sides  of  their  men-of-war. 

Besides  boats,  ships  should  have  accom- 
modation ladders,  one  on  each  side,  in 
addition  to  what  are  termed  sailors' 
ladders ;  if  possible,  passages  for  dis- 
embarking troops  and  cattle  should  be 
made  from  the  main  deck.  In  organ- 
ising disembarkation,  the  same  rules  hold 
good  as  for  embarkation. 

If  the  expedition  is  a  distant  one,  it  is 
essential  to  have  a  rendezvous  one  or 
two  days'  sail  from  the  actual  disembark- 
ing point. 

Before  disembarking,  a  good  spot  should 
be  selected,  and  this  can  be  carried  out 
under  the  reconnaissance  of  certain  naval 
and  military  officers  combined.  What 
has  to  be  looked  for  is 

Good  anchorage ; 
Deep  water ; 
Beach  for  landing. 

If  combined  with  shelter  from  wind,  so 
much  the  better.  Opposition  in  landing 
will  now-a-days  depend  on  ships  of  war 
coming  within  range  or  not.  If  there 
are  no  ships  of  war  present,  the  landing 
can  be  opposed  by  a  very  small  force. 

In  making  a  reconnaissance  before 
landing  there  are  many  other  points  to 
be  attended  to,  which  will  occur  to  the 
naval  authorities.  But  in  a  military 
point  of  view  the  following  will  have  to 
be  attended  to,  viz.  that  independent  of  a 
good  landing  it  will  be  necessary  to  point 
out  whether  the  place  of  disembarkation 
has  a  good  supply  of  water ;  whether  the 
roads  lead  inland  ;  what  are  the  names 
of  the  principal  towns  ;  whether  there 
are  facilities  for  forage,  supply,  or  trans- 
port ;  and  whether  there  is  a  suitable 
place  for  a  depot  at  or  near  the  landing. 

The  order  of  landing  will  depend  upon 
the  general,  and  the  facilities  afforded  by 
the  naval  authorities  for  carrying  it  out ; 


but  not  less  than  one  division  should  be 
landed  at  a  time. 

In  the  Crimea  6400  men  and  twelve 
guns  landed  at  one  time. 

If  a  fleet  is  properly  equipped,  one-third 
of  a  force  should  be  put  on  shore  at  one  time, 
not  including  cavalry,  but  including  guns. 
Lastly  should  come  the  camp  equipment 
and  a  small  proportion  of  entrenching 
tools,  the  bulk  of  the  stores  being  left  on 
board  under  regimental  escort. 

Disembody,  To — A  term  used  in  mili- 
tary parlance  to  signify  the  disarming  of 
any  body  of  men,  or  in  dispensing  with 
their  military  services  for  any  stated 
period.  The  disembodying  of  the  militia 
is  an  instance  in  point  in  the  latter  case, 
after  they  have  been  dismissed  to  their 
homes  from  permanent  employment  or 
embodiment  in  defence  of  the  country. 

Disengage,  To — In  machinery  which  is 
in  motion,  to  lift  a  wheel  out  of  gear. 

Disgraceful  Conduct — In  the  army 
implies  conduct  unbecoming  an  officer  or 
soldier,  and  includes  the  following 
crimes  : — 

Fraudulently  misapplying  public 
money  or  stores ; 

Malingering  and  feigning  disease ; 

Wilfully  maiming  or  mutilating  ; 

Maiming  or  injuring  another  soldier  ; 

Tampering  with  eyes  ; 

Stealing  or  feloniously  receiving  ; 

Offence  of  a  felonious  or  fraudulent 
nature  upon  a  civilian  ; 

Indecent  assault ; 

Producing  false  or  fraudulent  ac- 
counts or  returns  ; 

For  each  of  which  crimes  an  officer  or 
soldier  can  be  tried  by  a  general  court- 
martial. 

Dish  of  a  Wheel — The  inclination  or 
angle  with  the  nave  given  to  the  spokes 
of  a  gun  wheel,  which  in  the  N.  P.  field 
wheel  is  2  inches. 

The  object  of  giving  this  "  dish  "  is 
thus  described  by  Captain  Kemmis,  R.A., 
in  his  paper  on  "  The  Principles  of  Con- 
struction of  Wheels  and  Axletrees  :" — 
"The  most  severe  stress  to  which  spokes 
are  subject  is  from  the  lateral  thrust 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  nave  when  one 
wheel  becomes  lower  than  the  other  by 
slipping  into  a  rut,  &c.  In  order,  there- 
fore, to  place  them  in  a  better  position  to 


DIS 


110 


DIS 


resist  this  thrust,  the  wheel  is  '  dished  ' 
or  forme  1  into  a  kind  of  dome  ;  and  just 
as  the  dome  or  arch  is  strong,  from  its 
form,  to  resist  pressure  upon  the  crown 
tending  to  crush  it  in,  so  is  the  wheel 
made  strong  by  the  dish  to  resist  the 
lateral  thrust  tending  to  force  the  nave 
outwards.  In  fact,  not  only  do  the 
spokes,  sustained  by  the  tire,  yield 
mutual  support  to  each  other,  but  the 
lateral  thrust  upon  each  becomes  partly 
converted  into  a  compressing  strain, 
which  the  wood  has  better  power  to  resist. 
The  greater  the  dish,  the  stronger  the 
wheel  will  be  to  resist  the  lateral  strain  ; 
but,  for  other  reasons  to  be  mentioned 
further  on,  no  more  dish  should  be  given 
than  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the 
spokes."  ( Vide  '  Royal  Artillery  Insti- 
tution Papers,'  vol.  viii.  No.  7,  April 
1874.) 

Disjunctor — One  of  the  three  principal 
parts  composing  Navez'  electro-ballistic 
apparatus.  It  is  described  as  follows  by 
Captain  Noble,  in  the  '  Royal  Artillery 
Institution  Papers,'  vol.  iii.  page  117  : — 

'•An  important  part  of  the  apparatus 
(the  disjunctor)  remains  yet  to  be  men- 
tioned. It  will  be  obvious  that  the  arc 
we  have  just  supposed  to  be  measured 
corresponds  to  the  time  which  the  pro- 
jectile takes  to  pass  over  the  distance 
between  the  screens,  plus  the  time  which 
the  weight  of  the  conjunctor  takes  to  fall 
from  its  initial  position  to  the  cup  of 
mercury.  Xow,  to  obtain  the  former,  the 
latter  of  these  times  has  to  be  subtracted 
from  the  reading  of  the  instrument,  and 
the  disjunctor  enables  us  to  do  this  by 
permitting  us  to  break  both  currents 
(those  through  the  first  and  the  second 
screens)  simultaneously.  The  mode  of 
procedure  is  then  as  follows :  The  instru- 
ment being  arranged,  the  two  currents 
are  simultaneously  broken  by  means  of 
the  disjunctor,  and  the  reading  of  the 
needle  is  recorded.  The  instrument  is 
again  adjusted,  and  the  projectile  fired, 
the  velocity  of  which  it  is  desired  to 
determine,  and  the  reading  of  the  needle 
again  noted  ;  the  former  arc  is  subtracted 
from  the  latter,  and  the  corresponding 
time  computed.  It  will  be  observed  that, 
by  the  use  of  the  conjunctor,  any  constant 
source  of  error  (such,  for  example,  as  the 
error  due  to  the  time  required  to  clamp 


the  vernier  needle)  is  eliminated,  as  the 
same  error  will  occur  both  in  the  dis- 
junctor and  the  projectile  reading,  and 
by  subtraction  will  disappear.  The  dis- 
junctor also  enables  us  to  ascertain  the 
degree  of  regularity  with  which  the  in- 
strument is  working,  as  the  accidental 
variations  of  the  reading  corresponding  to 
the  time  are  of  course  the  same  as  the 
variations  which  would  occur  in  the 
reading  corresponding  to  any  other 
time." 

Major  Navez  lays  down,  as  a  rule,  that 
observations  should  not  be  proceeded 
with  when  in  a  series  of  ten  or  twelve 
disjunctor  readings  there  is  between  two 
successive  readings  a  difference  greater 
than  0°  25'. 

Dislodge,  To — In  a  military  sense,  to 
drive  an  enemy  from  the  position  he  has 
taken  up. 

Dismantle,  To — To  render  fortifica- 
tions incapable  of  defence  by  razing  them 
to  the  ground. 

Dismissal — Is  the  sentence  passed  upon 
an  officer  by  a  court-martial,  for  conduct 
which  renders  him  unfit  to  remain  in  the 
army.  From  the  date  of  publishing  the 
order,  the  dismissed  officer's  connection 
with  the  army  ceases.  It  is  in  the  power 
of  her  Majesty  to  dismiss  any  officer 
from  the  service  without  bringing  him  to 
trial. 

Dismount,  To — In  artillery,  to  take  a 
piece  of  ordnance  off  its  carriage.  With 
light  guns,  it  is  performed  by  the  gun's 
crew  with  the  aid  of  drag  ropes.  With 
heavy  guns,  gyns  and  jacks  have  to  be 
resorted  to ;  but  guns  of  moderate  weight 
can  be  dismounted  by  means  of  tackles, 
rollers,  and  handspikes. 

Dismount  is  also  a  word  of  command 
given  to  all  mounted  men  when  ordered 
to  alight  from  their  horses. 

Dispart — In  gunnery,  the  dispart  is 
generally  defined  as  a  patch  of  metal 
placed  on  the  highest  point  of  the  muzzle 
of  a  gun  or  howitzer,  and  which  is  half 
the  difference  between  the  diameter  of 
the  base  ring  and  that  of  the  swell  of  the 
muzzle.  This  definition,  as  Major  Owen 
remarks  in  his  '  Lectures  on  Artillery,' 
will  only  strictly  apply  to  cast-iron  and 
bronze  ordnance.  He  further  explains 
that  most  of  the  dispart  sights  or  patches 
are  not  placed  near  the  muzzle,  but  on 


DIS 


111 


DIT 


the  top  of  the  gun,  a  little  in  advance  of 
the  trunnions ;  or,  as  with  rifled  guns, 
just  above  the  trunnions.  A  better  defi- 
nition for  dispart  would  then  be,  half  the 
difference  between  the  diameter  of  those 
parts  of  the  gun  upon  which  the  sights 
are  placed.  The  term  is  derived  from  the 
mode  of  ascertaining  the  dispart,  as  shown 
above,  and  disparting  (dividing  in  two) 
the;  dilference  between  the  two  diameters, 
which  half  difference  shows  the  tapering 
or  coning  of  the  metal  between  the  base 
ring  and  swell  of  the  muzzle.  This  patch 
of  metal  is  intended,  in  laying  the  piece, 
to  avoid  the  inconvenience  arising  from 
the  line  of  sights  or  metal  not  being 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  gun.  Disparts 
are  either  fixed  or  movable. 

Disperse,  To — In  a  military  sense,  is  the 
power  which  an  armed  body,  either  better 
handled  or  in  larger  numbers,  has  of 
scattering  a  hostile  force  drawn  up  to 
oppose  it.  Cavalry,  under  these  circum- 
stances, forms  a  prominent  part  in  pur- 
suing or  dispersing  the  enemy. 

Disposition — In  military  language,  as 
applied  to  the  strategic  position  of  troops, 
is  of  infinite  consideration  both  in  war 
and  in  time  of  peace.  In  the  former  case, 
a  knowledge  of  the  country  in  which  the 
campaign  is  to  be  fought,  and  the  various 
combinations  which  should  be  carried 
out,  formed  on  the  disposition  of  the 
troops,  is  very  necessary  on  the  part  of 
the  general  in  command,  to  bring  matters 
to  a  successful  termination,  or  to  prevent 
the  enemy  from  taking  advantage  of  a 
bad  disposition  of  his  opponent's  forces  to 
harass  or  break  them  up.  The  following 
maxims  from  the  memoirs  of  General 
Montecuculi  are  worth  remembering : — 

"  Deliberate  leisurely,  execute  promptly. 

"  Let  the  safety  of  your  army  be  ever 
first. 

"  Leave  nothing  to  chance. 

"  Take  advantage  of  circumstances. 

"  Use  all  the  means  in  your  power  to 
secure  a  good  reputation." 

Distance — The  space  between  the  ob- 
server and  any  object.  In  gunnery,  to 
judge  distance  accurately  is  a  high  quali- 
fication in  artillerymen,  as  well  as  in 
soldiers  of  the  line,  and  is  only  to  be 
attained  by  a  clear  sight,  constant  ob- 
servation, and  practice  in  the  drill  laid 
down  on  this  subject,  termed  "judging 


distance  drill,"  the  introduction  of  which 
into  the  army  has  been  attended  with 
such  excellent  results.  Under  the  most 
favourable  circumstances,  however,  judg- 
ing distances  by  the  eye  is  not  to  be 
depended  upon,  and  this  is  so  much  felt 
in  the  artillery  service  that  to  each  gun  a 
range-finder  will  doubtless  be  attached, 
giving  the  distance  of  objects  very  accu- 
rately, and  rendering  it  unnecessary  to 
depend  on  the  eye.  Captain  Nolan's  range- 
finder  for  this  purpose  has  been  tried 
with  good  results. 

In  drill,  distance  is  the  relative  space 
left  between  men  in  the  ranks  after  a 
formation  or  movement ;  or  the  space 
between  ranks  closed  or  open. 

Distillation — Is  described  as  the  se- 
paration of  a  body  from  extraneous  sub- 
stances by  its  conversion  into  vapour,  its 
removal  in  that  state,  and  its  subsequent 
condensation.  The  operation  is  termed 
distillation  if  the  vapour  assumes  the 
form  of  liquid  upon  condensation,  even 
if  that  liquid  should  solidify  upon  fur- 
ther cooling.  The  vessels  used  for  dis- 
tilling are  few  and  simple ;  those  for 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  water  are 
generally  of  metal,  and  termed  stills. 
A  still  consists  of  a  boiler  to  contain 
the  liquid,  to  which  is  adapted  a  head 
terminating  in  a  beak,  which  fits  into 
the  condensing  apparatus.  There  are 
several  forms  of  condensers  in  general 
use — among  them  the  Worm  and  Liebig's 
condensers. 

Districts,  Military  —  Represent  the 
divisions  of  a  country  into  separate  mili- 
tary commands,  which  are  so  disposed 
that  the  troops  shall  be  within  easy 
hail  of  each  other,  and  susceptible  of 
being  readily  combined.  Such  is  now  the 
case  in  Great  Britain,  which  is  divided 
into  twelve  districts,  and  sub-divided 
into  seventy  sub-districts. 

Ditch — The  excavation  or  trench  made 
round  the  works  of  a  fortification,  from 
which  the  earth  necessary  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  rampart  and  parapet  is 
raised;  the  depth  varies  from  6  to  12 
feet,  in  temporary  works,  but  in  a  perma- 
nent fortification  the  depth  will  depend  a 
good  deal  on  the  excavation  which  is  re- 
quired in  building  up  the  rampart. 
Ditches  are  either  dry  or  wet.  The 
former  are  preferred,  as  admitting  of  a 


DIV 


112 


DON 


better  means  of  defence,  but  the  latter 
are  considered  more  secure  against  a  sur- 
prise. 

In  the  attack  of  a  fortress  the  passage 
of  the  ditch  is  an  operation  which  re- 
quires skill  and  management.  The  mode 
of  effecting  it  is  thus  explained  in  the 
work  entitled  '  Instruction  on  Fortifica- 
tion, &c.  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy, 
Woolwich  : ' — "  When  the  ditch  is  dry, 
a  passage  across  it  is  effected  simply  by 
means  of  a  trench  made  by  sap,  extending 
from  the  opening  of  the  gallery  to  the 
foot  of  the  breach,  the  flank  defences 
being  subdued  by  the  battery  on  the 
crest  of  the  salient  place  of  arms,  as- 
sisted by  musketry  and  vertical  fire. 
After  the  breach  has  been  made  prac- 
ticable, the  fire  of  the  breaching  may 
be  employed  to  drive  the  garrison  from 
the  summit  of  the  breach,  or  to  des- 
troy a  parapet,  wall,  or  escarp  gallery, 
should  such  exist  on  either  side  of  the 
breach  from  whence  the  garrison  might 
oppose  the  passage  with  musketry." 

The  mode  of  passing  a  wet  ditch  will 
depend  on  circumstances.  When  the 
water  is  stagnant,  the  difficulty  will  not 
be  great.  It  is  recommended  in  the  above 
quoted  work  that  a  causeway  made  of 
fascines  loaded  with  stones  should  be 
constructed.  But  if  the  water  in  the 
ditch  be  a  running  and  swift  stream,  the 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  are  almost 
insurmountable.  The  plan  then  is  to 
find  the  head  or  source  of  the  stream, 
and  to  divert  it.  An  instance  is  given 
of  this  at  the  siege  of  Freiburg  in  1713, 
where  the  waters  of  the  Thersein,  which 
flowed  through  the  town,  gave  the  be- 
sieged great  command  of  water,  and  ob- 
structed the  passage  of  the  ditch  for 
some  time  with  great  loss,  until  the 
waters  were  diverted  into  another  chan- 
nel by  the  besiegers,  when  they  crossed. 

Diving-bell  —  A  vessel  inverted  in 
water  and  let  down  to  any  depth  by 
means  of  a  rope,  air  occupying  the  upper 
part  of  the  vessel.  By  means  of  the 
diving-bell,  men  are  able  to  descend  to 
great  depths,  and  to  carry  on  such  sub- 
marine operations  as  may  be  necessary  in 
masonry,  laying  stones,  and  the  like,  and 
of  keeping  under  water  for  some  hours  by 
the  aid  of  fresh  air  supplied  by  pipes  or 
barrels  attached  to  the  bell. 


Division  of  an  Army — First  unit  of  a 
corps  d'armee,  and  commanded  by  a 
general  officer.  It  consists  of  two  or 
more  brigades,  composed  of  the  three 
arms  of  the  service.  In  the  Crimea,  each 
of  the  divisions  of  the  British  army  was 
formed  of  two  brigades,  and  each  of  the 
brigades  consisted  of  three  or  four  bat- 
talions. 

Division  of  Artillery — A  division  of 
artillery,  as  now  formed,  consists  of  two 
or  more  brigades  ;  a  brigade,  of  two  or 
more  batteries.  The  system  of  divisions 
was  introduced  in  1809,  and  artillery 
massed  in  batteries,  instead  of  being  dis- 
persed in  battalions. 

A  division  of  a  battery  consists  of  two 
guns  with  their  wagons. 

Dog  Tire — An  instrument  formerly 
used  to  draw  the  hot  tire  on  a  wheel.  It 
consists  of  a  bar  of  wood,  about  2 
inches  square  and  3  feet  long.  There  is 
an  iron  catch  with  a  turned-up  end, 
about  9  inches  long,  which  works  either 
on  a  pin  or  an  eye-bolt,  let  into  the 
wooden  stick.  To  use  it,  the  end  of  the 
stick  is  placed  under  the  felloes,  and  the 
iron  catch  over  the  tire,  and  the  handle 
pressed  downwards. 

Dog- wood  (Cornus  sanguined) — Wood 
from  which  charcoal  is  made  in  the  royal 
gunpowder  factory,  Waltham  Abbey,  for 
K.F.G.  and  for  K.F.G.2  powder.  It  is 
not  grown  in  any  great  abundance  in 
England,  and  is  therefore  imported  into 
the  country  from  the  continent.  In  pri- 
vate factories,  the  charcoals  commonly 
used  for  all  natures  of  powder  are  made 
from  the  alder  (llhamn<is  frangula)  and 
willow. 

Dolphins — Two  handles  or  rings  in  the 
form  of  an  extended  horse-shoe  formerly 
cast  on  the  surface  of  ordnance,  midway 
between  the  breech  and  muzzle.  They 
were  chiefly  cast  on  bronze  guns,  and 
were  found  useful  for  lifting  the  gun  out 
of  its  carriage. 

Donjon,  or  Dungeon  (Celtic  dun, 
a  height) — The  highest  and  strongest 
tower  of  an  ancient  castle.  It  was 
sometimes  the  resort  of  the  garrison 
when  nearly  worsted,  in  order  to  offer 
terms  of  capitulation  ;  it  was  also  used 
for  the  reception  of  prisoners. 

Donkey  Engine — A  small  steam  engine, 
which  is  in  very  general  use  when  stores 


DOO 


113 


DBA 


have  to  be  lifted.  On  board  ship  it 
is  invaluable  for  filling  or  clearing  the 
hold. 

Doolie — An  Indian  term :  a  stretcher 
for  carrying  the  sick  and  wounded  in 
India.  It  is  composed  of  a  frame-work 
of  wood,  and  the  seat  or  flooring  of  cane 
or  nawar  (a  coarse  cotton  tape).  At 
each  end  of  the  doolie  a  triangular 
piece  of  wood  is  fastened  to  the  frame, 
on  the  top  of  which  there  is  an  iron  ring 
attached  through  which  the  bamboo  for 
lifting  the  doolie  is  placed.  The  top  of 
the  doolie  has  a  light  framework  of  wood, 
over  which  a  coarse  red  cloth  curtain  is 
hung  to  screen  the  sun  and  wind  from 
the  patient. 

Double  Lever  Bridge,  vide  Spar 
Bridge. 

Double  Sap — In  the  attack  of  fortresses, 
is  used  for  advancing  directly  to  the 
front  when  the  approaches  cannot  be  ad- 
vantageously made  by  zig-zags.  ( Vide 
Sap.)  The  double  sap  may  be  calculated 
to  advance  at  the  rate  of  40  yards  in 
24  hours. 

Double  Shell — This  nature  of  projectile 
has  been  introduced  into  the  service  for 
the  use  of  certain  R.M.L.  guns,  such  as 
the  7-inch  and  7-pr.  M.T.  gun,  but  for 
no  other,  though  very  good  practice  has 
been  made  with  these  shells  from  the 
16-pr.  field  battery  gun.  The  7-inch 
double  shell  is  nearly  four  calibres  long, 
strengthened  by  three  ribs  internally, 
otherwise  resembling  the  common  shell. 
A  bag  is  used  to  contain  the  bursting 
charge  as  given  for  common  shell. 

Double-shotting — As  its  name  implies, 
is  a  doubling  of  the  shot  in  the  gun, 
whereby  increased  effect  is  expected. 
This  was  formerly  a  practice  more  often 
adopted  in  the  navy  than  in  land 
artillery.  In  the  latter,  double-shotting 
was  only  resorted  to  when  the  enemy 
being  close  on  the  guns,  a  double  charge 
of  case  shot  was  likely  to  render  good 
service.  The  introduction  of  rifled  guns 
has  done  away  with  this  mode  of  fire. 
What  is  now  known  as  a  "  double  shell  "  is 
nothing  more  than  a  shell  of  increased 
length  and  capacity. 

Dovetailing — In  carpentry,  a  method 
of  fastening  or  joining  two  boards 
together  by  letting  one  piece  into  another 
in  the  form  of  the  tail  of  a  dove,  project- 


ing bits  in  one  board  being  cut  to  fit  into 
corresponding  hollows  in  the  other. 

Dowelling — In  carpentry,  forms  part 
of  a  joiner's  work,  and  is  the  mode  pur- 
sued by  the  joiner  in  joining  planks  or 
boards  together ;  it  is  performed  by  in- 
serting short  pieces  of  hard  wood,  let  in 
for  half  their  length  into  a  mortise  cut 
in  the  edges  of  the  boards  that  are  to 
fit  together,  the  mortises  being,  of  course, 
made  opposite  each  other,  the  dowels  pre- 
venting the  boards  from  rising  up  or 
starting  from  their  places  when  the  work 
is  finished.  Instead  of  short  dowels,  a 
strip,  the  whole  length  of  the  boards,  is  let 
into  each  joint,  half  the  strip  lying  in  a 
ploughed  groove  made  in  the  middle  of 
the  corresponding  edges  of  the  two  boards  ; 
but  beside  these  precautions,  the  joints 
are  well  glued  up.  In  making  or  repair- 
ing wheels,  dowelling  is  resorted  to  by 
inserting  or  letting  into  the  ends  of  each 
pair  of  felloes  a  round  piece  or  pin  of 
tough  wood  termed  a  "  dowel,"  serving  to 
prevent  their  deviation  from  the  circle, 
when  by  pressure  of  the  tire  or  any  other 
force  all  the  ends  are  compelled  to  meet. 
Dowelling  is  also  applied  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  heads  of  barrels  or  casks. 

Dowlas — A  coarse  kind  of  linen ;  it 
is  used  in  a  saltpetre  refinery  for  filtering 
the  saltpetre  liquid  as  it  is  drawn  off 
from  the  boilers. 

Drag  Rope — A  rope  having  a  small 
chain  and  hook  attached  to  one  end  of  it ; 
it  is  used  in  the  artillery  service  for 
pulling  or  drawing.  Drag  ropes  are  at- 
tached to  all  ordnance  carriages,  to  assist 
in  extricating  them  when  in  difficulty,  in 
sandy  soil,  steep  ascents,  or  in  descents 
when  there  is  no  shoe  attached  to  the 
carriage,  or  locking  chain  for  holding 
upon  the  carriage.  They  are  of  two 
sizes,  heavy  and  light;  the  former  are 
issued  to  the  20-pr.,  40-pr.  B.L.R.  and 
16-pr.  M.L.R.  "batteries ;  the  latter  to 
the  9-pr.,  12-pr.  B.L.R.  and  9-pr.  M.L.R. 
batteries.  The  chain  end  is  intended  to 
prevent  the  rope  being  cut  by  the  tire 
of  the  wheel 

Drag  Eope  Knot,  or  Lever  Hitch— 
A  knot  the  same  as  the   men's  harness 
hitch  ;  it  is  used  for  fixing  handspikes  to 
the  ropes  attached    to    heavy  carriages, 
which  are  to  be  moved  by  men ;   three 
men  are  attached  to  each  handspike. 
I 


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Dragon— A  small  kind  of  blunderbuss 
invented  during  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  It  is  thus  described : — "  A 
short  hand  gun,  of  great  bore,  to  carry 
several  pistol  or  carabine  balls,  or  small 
slugs  ;  and  so  called  from  the  fact  of  its 
having  a  dragon's  head  at  the  muzzle." 

This  was  the  weapon  with  which  the 
first  regiments  of  cavalry  were  armed, 
and  which  gave  to  them  the  name  of 
dragoons. 

Dragon's  Blood — A  deep  red  resinous 
substance  found  in  the  East  Indies,  Cochin- 
China,  and  the  Eastern  islands.  It  occurs 
in  masses  of  various  degrees  of  purity, 
and  in  sticks,  enveloped  in  palm  leaves. 
Dragon's  blood  is  employed  as  a  colouring 
matter,  and  as  an  ingredient  in  varnishes. 
Formerly  it  was  used  in  the  browning 
liquid  for  gun  barrels,  but  has  been  dis- 
continued for  some  years  past. 

Dragoons — -Soldiers  trained  originally 
to  serve  indifferently  on  foot  or  horse, 
and  thereby  enabled  on  an  emergency  to 
act  as  cavalry  or  infantry.  Marshal 
Brissac,  in  1600,  appears  to  have  raised 
this  kind  of  horsemen.  They  were  armed 
at  first  (in  1632)  with  a  pike  and  musket ; 
in  1645,  with  a  dragon  of  musket  bore, 
and  in  1C49  with  a  caliver.  Subsequently 
the  sword  was  substituted,  and  gradually 
dragoons  ceased  to  act  on  foot. 

The  origin  of  the  word  dragoon  is 
thus  explained  in  '  Chambers's  Encyclo- 
paedia : — "  From  the  old  fable  that  the 
dragon  spouts  fire,  the  head  of  the 
monster  was  worked  upon  the  muzzle  of 
a  peculiar  kind  of  short  muskets  which 
were  first  carried  by  the  horsemen  raised 
by  Marshal  Brissac  in  1600.  This  cir- 
cumstance led  to  their  being  called 
dragoons ;  and  from  the  general  adoption 
of  the  same  weapon,  though  without  the 
emblem  in  question,  the  term  gradually 
extended  itself  till  it  became  almost 
synonymous  with  horse-soldier." 

The  first  regiment  of  British  dragoons 
was  raised  in  1681,  and  called  the  Royal 
Regiment  of  Dragoons  of  Great  Britain — 
now  the  Scots  Gre'/s  or  2nd  Dragoons. 

In  the  British  service  there  are  three 
regiments  of  dragoons  and  seven  regiments 
of  dragoon  guards ;  the  latter  are  termed 
heavy  cavalry. 

Draught — In  a  military  sense,  any 
given  number  of  soldiers  taken  from  the 


different  branches  of  the  army,  or  from 
the  different  component  parts  of  a  regi- 
ment or  brigade  for  any  particular 
service. 

Draught — The  act  of  drawing  or 
pulling  carts  or  carriages  by  cattle,  or 
men. 

This  subject  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance in  the  artillery  branch  of  the 
service,  in  which  the  whole  transport  of 
artillery  materiel  \s  dependent  on  draught 
cattle.  Horses  for  this  purpose  form 
the  chief  draught,  and  none  should  be 
passed  into  the  service  under  fifteen 
hands  high,  certainly  not  the  wheel 
horses,  for  height  tends  very  much  to 
the  capabilities  of  a  draught  horse, 
as  explained  in  Hyde's  '  Gunnery  '  on  the 
subject  of  draught,  in  the  following 
words : — "  In  four-footed  animals,  the 
hinder  feet  are  the  fulcrum  of  the  lever 
by  which  their  weight  acts  against 
the  load ;  and  when  the  animal  pulls 
hard,  it  depresses  its  chest,  and  thus 
increases  the  lever ;  hence  we  see  the 
benefit  that  may  be  derived  from  large 
horses,  for  their  lever  necessarily  in- 
creases with  their  size.  Large  horses 
will  draw  more  than  small  ones,  even 
though  they  have  less  muscular  force, 
and  are  unable  to  carry  such  a  heavy 
burden.  The  force  of  the  muscles  tends 
only  to  make  the  horse  carry  forward 
continually  his  centre  of  gravity,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  weight  of  the  animal 
produces  the  draught,  and  the  play  and 
forces  of  the  muscles  serve  to  continue 
it." 

In  India,  though  horses  form  the 
draught  of  field  artillery,  heavy  artillery, 
with  the  rest  of  the  materiel  of  the 
army,  is  drawn  or  carried  by  elephants 
and  bullocks. 

Draw  the  Charge — To  "draw  the 
charge  "  is  to  remove  the  cartridge  from 
the  piece  after  it  has  been  loaded  or 
technically  termed  "  sent  home."  In 
a  gun  this  is  generally  effected  by 
means  of  the  "worm"  attached  to  the 
rammer-head  of  sponge  staves  of  light 
field  guns.  Heavy  guns  have  each  a  wad- 
hook  which  consists  of  a  wrought-iron 
socket,  with  a  worm-head  rivetted  to  a 
stave. 

Draw-bridge — A  bridge  which  can  be 
drawn  up  so  as  to  enable  communication 


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with  the  outside  of  the  place  to  be  cut  off. 
In  a  fortified  place,  the  communication 
with  the  country  and  between  the  various 
works  is  kept  up  by  means  of  gateways, 
bridges,  posterns,  &c.  Where  bridges  are 
used,  they  are  always  broken  by  draw- 
bridges, which  can  be  raised  in  a  moment 
of  emergency,  and  are  usually  drawn  up 
every  night  by  order  of  the  governor  ot 
the  place. 

Drawing,  Military — The  representa- 
tion or  delineation  on  paper,  by  vertical 
or  horizontal  lines,  of  any  portion  of  a 
country,  the  features  and  extent  of 
which  it  is  necessary  a  general  in  com- 
mand of  troops,  serving  in  an  enemy's 
country,  should  be  made  acquainted  with. 
The  best  instruments  for  military  sketch- 
ing are  the  prismatic  compass  and  pocket 
sextant. 

The  information  which  such  a  sketch 
would  afford  should  be  supplied  by 
the  Quartermaster-General's  department, 
every  officer  of  which  ought  to  be  able, 
with  or  without  the  aid  of  mathematical 
instruments,  to  delineate  with  facility 
and  correctness  a  rough  sketch  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  country. 

Drawing  Paper — For  the  different  sizes, 
vide  Paper. 

Draw-knot — A  knot  in  common  use  in 
the  artillery  service.  It  is  used  for  the 
same  purpose  as  the  reef  knot,  viz.  for 
joining  two  ropes  together. 

Dress,  To — In  drill  or  military  ma- 
noeuvres, is  to  keep  a  company,  or  bat- 
talion, in  such  a  position  or  order  as  to 
enable  it  to  make  an  exact  continuity 
of  any  line  or  direction  on  which  it  may 
be  formed.  In  dressing,  the  men  turn 
their  eyes  to  the  point  d'appui,  where 
the  officer  is  posted,  and  by  his  correct- 
ing the  alignment  on  certain  fixed  points, 
the  most  perfect  line  may  be  obtained. 
In  artillery,  when  a  column  is  wheeled 
up  into  line,  the  dressing  is  made  on 
the  heads  of  the  marker's  horses,  and  6 
inches  from  them.  In  action,  the  dress- 
ing is  on  the  axle-tree  of  the  gun  on 
which  the  formation  is  made.  The  same 
rule  is  to  be  observed  in  all  formations 
of  line,  as  well  as  in  the  correcting  of  a 
line,  when  it  is  necessary  to  throw  out 
markers  for  that  purpose. 

In  casting  ordnance,  to  dress  implies 
the  removal  of  the  clay  from  the  gun 


when  withdrawn  from  the  pit,  prepara- 
tory to  turning. 

Dress,  Military — The  clothing  issued 
to  soldiers,  termed  regimentals.  The 
dress  of  the  soldier  should  be  light  and 
easy,  not  encumbering  his  arms  or  legs 
in  any  way,  but  leaving  him  free  to  shoot 
and  walk.  The  dress,  moreover,  should 
be  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  country 
in  which  the  soldier  serves.  The  earliest 
record  of  the  government  undertaking, 
for  the  first  time,  the  clothing  of  English 
troops  appears  to  have  been  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  III. 

Drift — A  gun  implement  made  of 
steel ;  'it  is  used  for  clearing  the  vent,  when 
choked.  In  using  it,  a  hammer  must  be 
applied  to  the  head  of  the  drift  to  drive 
it  through  the  vent.  There  are  also 
wood  drifts,  which  are  used  in  inserting 
the  papier-mache'  wad  in  common  shell 
for  rifled  guns. 

Drift — In  gunnery,  the  deviation  of 
projectiles  from  their  true  course.  (  Vide 
Deviation.) 

Drifts,  Rocket — Instruments  used  for 
driving  the  composition  of  signal  rockets. 
They  are  made  of  wood  pointed  with  brass 
ferrules ;  four  are  used  in  driving,  three 
hollow  and  one  solid  ;  a  fifth  drift,  with 
a  rounded  end,  is  also  used  to  protect 
the  choke,  and  to  set  the  case  in  the 
mould. 

Drill — The  instruction  given  to  all 
officers  and  soldiers  of  the  army  to  fit 
them  for  their  respective  duties.  It 
comprises  the  setting-up  of  the  soldier, 
as  well  as  the  march  and  manoeuvring 
of  bodies  of  troops,  equitation,  the  art  of 
driving,  and  the  working  of  guns,  &c. 
Agreeably  to  the  Queen's  Regulations,  "  it 
is  expected  that  every  officer  who  has 
been  two  years  in  the  service  shall  be 
capable  of  commanding  and  exercising  a 
troop,  battery,  or  company  in  every 
situation,  and  shall  be  perfectly  ac- 
quainted with  its  interior  management, 
iconomy,  and  discipline;  and  that  everv 
officer,  who  shall  have  been  two  years 
n  command  of  a  troop,  battery,  or  com- 
pany, shall  be  competent  in  every  respect 
to  undertake  the  duties  of  a  field  officer." 

No  officer  is  to  be  dismissed  from  drill 
until  he  has  gone  through  a  course  of 
rifle  instruction  under  the  regimental 
instructor ;  and,  in  the  cavalry,  a  course 
I  2 


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of  single-stick,  fencing,  and  army-signal- 
ling instruction. 

Colonel  Macdougall,  in  his  '  Theory  of  | 
War,'  says  that  "  The  basis  of  all  excel-  | 
lence  in  bringing  an  army  into  action  is 
drill.     No  man  can  be  a  general  without 
being    perfectly    master    of    the    art    of 
handling  his  troops  of  all  arms." 

Drill  Cartridge,  vide  Cartridge. 

Drill  Sergeant — A  name  given  to  a 
non-commissioned  officer,  whose  duty  it 
is,  under  the  orders  of  the  adjutant,  to 
attend  to  the  drill  instruction  of  young 
officers  and  soldiers. 

Drilling  Machine — A  contrivance  for 
giving  rotatory  motion  to  a  drill,  and,  by 
means  of  spur  gear  connected  with  the 
arm,  for  moving  the  tool  to  and  fro,  or 
up  and  down.  This  machine  is  used  for 
drilling  holes  in  metal  where  accuracy 
is  required,  the  rougher  work  being  done 
by  the  punching  machine. 

Drivers,  Artillery — Men  attached  to 
a  battery  of  artillery  to  drive  the  horses. 
They  do  not  work  the  guns,  but,  when 
they  can  be  spared,  are  taught  the  gun 
drill.  The  men  enlisted  as  drivers  are  of 
shorter  stature  than  gunners,  as  height 
and  weight  are  not  required. 

When  men  are  enlisted  as  gunners,  if 
they  do  not  fulfil  the  conditions  as  to 
age  and  standard,  they  may  be  enter- 
tained as  drivers,  if  likely  to  become  good 
drivers,  but  special  application  must  be 
made  to  the  Adjutant-General. 

In  the  early  days  of  artillery  both  in 
the  English  and  continental  armies, 
regularly  enlisted  drivers  were  unknown. 
The  horses  attached  to  guns  were  driven 
by  civilian  drivers,  who,  we  are  told  by 
Captain  Hime,  R.A.,  in  his  paper,  "  The 
Mobility  of  Field  Artillery,  Past  and 
Present,"  were  in  the  habit  of  running 
away  on  the  first  available  opportunity, 
and  in  doing  so  at  the  battle  of  Falkirk 
lost  our  guns.  But  notwithstanding 
this  catastrophe,  it  took  half  a  century 
and  upwards  before  matters  in  any  way 
righted  themselves,  and  even  then, 
though  a  vast  improvement  had  taken 
place  upon  the  old  system  of  dismounted 
civilians,  great  confusion  in  the  organisa- 
tion existed. 

As  further  shown  by  Captain  Hime, 
the  drivers  were  enlisted  in  a  corps 
totally  distinct  from  the  regiment,  and 


commanded  by  their  own  officers ;  the 
drivers  were  thus  separated  by  a  wide 
gulf  from  the  gunners ;  this  want  of 
connection  between  the  field  artillery  and 
its  means  of  draught  led  to  discord,  con- 
fusion, and  waste  of  time.  In  1817,  the 
drivers  were  first  placed  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  artillery  officers,  and  in 
1 822  men  were  enlisted  into  the  regi- 
ment as  gunners  and  drivers. 

Driving — In  its  usual  sense,  means 
the  act  of  impelling  or  directing  draught 
cattle ;  it  is  seen  in  the  act  of  a  driver 
urging  or  impelling  his  horses  on.  The 
term  is  also  commonly  used  in  the 
management  of  an  engine  attached  to  a 
railway  train.  In  the  laboratory,  the 
word  is  applied  to  the  mode  formerly, 
and  to  some  extent  at  the  present  day, 
of  filling  fuzes,  port-fires,  and  rockets, 
with  composition.  The  term  is  also  used 
in  mining,  in  constructing  a  gallery. 
And,  lastly,  the  word  is  used  to  express 
the  driving  side  of  the  grooves  of  a  rifled 
gun,  in  contradistinction  to  the  loading 
side. 

Driving  Wheel— In  machinery,  the 
wheel  which  communicates  the  motion 
to  the  pinion,  or  to  the  second  wheel 
deriving  its  motion  from  the  first,  which 
may  either  be  a  multiplying  or  diminish- 
ing wheel  according  to  the  necessities  of 
the  case. 

Drooping — In  artillery,  a  term  applied 
to  the  wearing  away  of  the  muzzle  of 
S.B.  guns,  especially  bronze  guns,  after 
long  firing.  Drooping  occurs  from  the 
gun  having  much  windage,  and  not  alone 
from  the  cause  hitherto  given,  viz.  quick 
firing  and  consequent  heating  of  the 
piece.  This  defect  is  not  likely  to  happen 
to  B.L.  and  M.L.  rifled  guns,  as  the  former 
have  no  windage,  the  latter  but  very 
little ;  moreover,  the  barrel  of  rifled 
guns,  being  of  steel,  is  not  so  liable  to 
wear  away  as  gun-metal.  There  is  a 
method  now  of  condensing  the  bores  of 
bronze  ordnance. 

Drug  Carriage — A  truck  carriage  used 
for  moving  heavy  guns  in  positions 
where  the  size  of  the  platform  would  be 
inconvenient.  There  are  several  sizes  of 
drugs.  The  largest  is  constructed  to 
carry  heavy  guns  of  the  present  day,  and 
is  fitted  with  two  pairs  of  frame  shafts 
and  outriggers  for  swingle-trees  for  four 


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horses  abreast.     The  small   and  medium 
drugs  are  fitted  for  man  draught. 

Drum — In  machinery,  the  cylinder 
attached  to  the  shaft  over  which  the 
belting  is  placed,  to  communicate  motion 
to  the  several  wheels  of  the  machine  in 
connection  with  it.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  all  cylindrical  articles  of 
various  manufacture  having  for  their 
object  the  feeding  of  machines  in  particu- 
lar positions. 

The  name  is  also  given  to  a  musical  in- 
strument, which  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
framework  of  wood,  covered  at  the  ends 
with  parchment,  and  braced  underneath 
with  cords  and  snares.  Drums  are 
used  by  all  infantry  regiments,  except 
rifle  corps,  to  perform  the  beats  at  morn- 
ing and  evening  in  camp  or  garrison. 
They  are  not  to  be  beaten  after  tattoo. 
In  camp,  in  the  performance  of  divine 
service,  a  drum  (or  drums)  is  often  used 
as  a  reading  desk. 

Drum,  Beat  of,  vide  Beat  of  Drum. 

Drum-head  Court-martial  —  Though 
not  mentioned  by  name  in  the  Mutiny 
Act,  or  Articles  of  War,  can  be  held  on 
emergency  in  cases  of  mutinous  conduct  on 
the  march  necessitating  instant  punish- 
ment. Its  powers  are  equal  to  those  of 
a  regimental  court-martial,  and  its  pro- 
ceedings must  be  committed  to  paper. 

Drum-major  —  A  non-commissioned 
officer,  whose  duty  consists  in  controlling 
the  boys  attached  to  a  regiment,  and  in 
instructing  them  in  the  several  "  beats  " 
of  the  drum.  He  marches  past,  baton 
in  hand,  at  the  head  of  his  regiment  in 
order  to  give  the  time  to  the  band. 

Drummed-out — A  punishment  formerly 
included  in  the  award  for  dismisal  from  the 
service  with  ignominy.  It  consisted  in  the 
soldier  being  trumpeted  or  drummed  out 
of  the  barracks  or  quarters  of  the  corps 
to  which  he  belonged. 

Drummer — As  his  name  implies,  a 
beater  of  a  drum,  one  whose  duty  is  to 
beat  the  drum  in  military  exercises.  In 
regiments  of  the  line,  drummers,  who 
are  generally  the  sons  of  soldiers,  and 
chiefly  young  boys,  form  a  component 
part  of  the  regiment,  and  are  instructed 
in  their  duties  by  the  drum-major. 

Drying  Gunpowder — In  the  concluding 
stage  of  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder, 
drying  is  an  essential  process.  It  takes 


place  after  the  powder  has  been  glazed. 
Ordinary  powder  does  not  require  the 
length  of  time  or  extent  of  heat  to  dry 
t  as  P.  powder.  This  can  be  well  under- 
stood from  the  size  of  the  pebbles,  and 
the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  latter 
when  taken  off  the-incorporating  mills. 

Drying-room — A  room  specially  made 
in  gunpowder  factories  for  drying  the 
powder.  It  is  heated  by  steam  pipes, 
and  fitted  with  open  frame-work  shelves, 
on  which  small  wooden  trays,  about 
3  feet  long,  1  foot  6  inches  in  breadth, 
and  2|  inches  deep,  are  placed  ;  the  bot- 
toms of  the  trays  are  covered  with  can- 
vas or  copper,  and  each  tray  holds  about 
12  Ibs.  of  ordinary  powder.  The  size  of 
the  room  is  in  proportion  to  the  out- 
turn of  the  factory  per  diem,  say,  capa- 
ble of  holding  from  20  to  40  or  more 
barrels.  Ordinary  powder  remains  in 
the  drying-room  for  24  hours,  P.  powder 
longer,  and  is  subjected  to  a  greater 
heat ;  the  heat  is  communicated  by 
steam  passing  through  pipes  arranged 
horizontally  on  the  floor  of  the  room. 
(Some  modification  of  this  mode  of  apply- 
ing the  heat  to  P.  powder  has  been 
made  at  the  R.  G.  F.  Waltham  Abbey.) 
The  temperature  is  raised  and  lowered 
gradually,  otherwise  the  too  sudden 
change  would  be  likely  to  destroy  the 
texture  of  the  grain.  The  ceiling  and 
roof  are  fitted  with  ventilators,  through 
which  all  the  moisture  escapes ;  at  the 
same  time  a  constant  current  of  hot  air 
circulates  through  the  room.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  vapour 
should  be  carried  off,  for  if'  this  be  not 
effectually  done,  on  the  decrease  of  the 
temperature  it  would  condense,  and  form 
again  on  the  powder. 

Dubber — An  Indian  term  ;  a  vessel  for 
holding  oil.  It  is  made  of  untanned 
ox  or  sheep  skin,  and  is  peculiar  to 
Asiatic  countries.  It  is  also  termed  a 
koopnh. 

Dubbing — A  mixture  of  certain  oils 
and  tallow  which  is  applied  in  the  treat- 
ment of  leather,  after  it  has  been  in  use 
for  some  months,  or  after  it  has  lain  in 
store. 

Duffadar — In  the  native  Indian 
cavalry  is  a  non-commissioned  officer 
corresponding  with  the  rank  of  a 
sergeant. 


DUF 


118 


Duffadar-major — A  rank  in  the  Indian 
cavalry  corresponding  with  the  sergeant- 
major  of  a  European  regiment  of  cavalry. 

Dumb-bells — Weights  swung  in  the 
hands  for  exercise,  and  generally  placed 
in  the  hands  of  military  recruits  while 
at  drill,  for  the  purpose  of  exercising  the 
muscles.  They  weigh  respectively  10  Ibs., 
16  Ibs.,  and  20  Ibs. 

Dummy  Friction  Tube  —  A  non-ig- 
nitible  tube,  which  is  used  for  drill 
prpposes.  It  consists  of  a  steel  prong, 
fork,  and  lanyard  ;  the  prong  is  entered 
in  the  fork,  which  is  inserted  in  the  vent 
and  pulled  through  by  the  same  motion 
which  fires  the  service  friction  tube. 
Since  the  original  pattern  was  approved 
of,  it  has  been  found  that  the  prongs  are 
liable  to  fracture  the  "  eye."  In  the 
present  pattern  the  prong  is  made 
stronger,  and  the  split  of  the  spring  is 
carried  through  its  neck,  instead  of  the 
latter  being  solid. 

Dundas's  Guns — S.B.  guns  of  some- 
what similar  form  to  those  of  Mr.  Monk's, 
and  introduced  into  the  service,  some 
years  ago,  by  Colonel  Dundas,  R.A.  They 
are  not  so  conical,  having  a  greater 
thickness  of  metal  in  the  first  and  second 
reinforces.  His  68-pr.  (95  cwt.)  is  used 
both  as  a  land  and  sea-service  gun,  and 
his  32-pr.  of  58  cwt.  has  been  largely 
used  in  the  navy.  There  are  other  guns 
still  in  the  service  bearing  his  name, 
which  are  used  for  land  or  sea  purposes. 

Dungeon,  vide  Donjon. 

Dust,  Powder — All  gunpowder,  in  the 
process  of  reeling,  gives  off  a  certain 
amount  of  dust.  It  is  a  great  object  to 
remove  the  dust  from  the  powder,  as  it 
quickly  absorbs  moisture  from  the  atmo- 
sphere, and,  consequently,  impairs  its 
preserving  qualities.  This  dust  is  not 
lost  to  the  factory,  but  is  worked  over 
again,  receiving  first  the  process  of  in- 
corporation for  a  short  time,  and  then 
going  through  the  rest  of  the  mills  until 
it  becomes  perfect  gunpowder.  The 
operation  of  dusting  is  effected  by  cylin- 
drical reels  covered  with  canvas,  which 
revolve  at. a  given  rate. 

Duty — In  a  military  sense,  the  observa- 
ation  and  execution  of  all  orders  which 
pertain  to  a  soldier.  In  carrying  out 
the  several  duties  which  military  service 
imposes,  whether  in  a  regiment  or  garri-  ] 


son,  a  roster  is  kept  regulating  the  suc- 
cession of  duties.  What  is  termed  the 
tour  of  duty  is  invariably  from  the 
senior  downwards.  An  officer  on  one 
duty  cannot  be  ordered  for  any  other, 
until  he  has  completed  the  duty  on 
which  he  is  engaged. 

Garrison  and  brigade  duties  are  those 
performed  by  one  regiment  in  common 
with  another;  regimental  duties  by  the 
officers  of  a  regiment  or  brigade  of 
artillery  among  themselves.  (Vide 
Queen's  Regulations.) 

With  reference  to  a  steam  engine, 
duty  is  the  amount  of  work  done  in 
relation  to  the  quantity  of  fuel  con- 
sumed. 

Dwarf  Platform  —  A  wrought-iron 
frame,  from  which  heavy  guns  are  fired 
when  in  open  batteries.  The  original  pat- 
tern is  similar  in  general  construction  to 
the  "  common  traversing  "  platform,  and 
guns  mounted  upon  this  nature  of  plat- 
form can  fire  through  ordinary  embra- 
sures. By  lengthening  the  legs  of  a 
platform  of  this  kind,  the  gun  could  be 
fired  over  a  parapet,  if  required.  The 
ordinary  garrison  carriage  is  used  with 
it,  but  has  blocks  instead  of  axle-trees 
upon  which  it  rests,  the  part  of  the  block 
between  the  cheeks  being  deeper,  and 
passing  between  them,  so  as  to  keep  the 
carriage  in  its  place.  In  front  of  each 
bracket  there  is  a  pair  of  cheek  plates, 
in  which  a  gun-metal  truck  works, 
which  comes  into  play  when  the  rear  of 
the  carriage  is  hoisted  up  by  the  truck 
levers.  The  carriage  is  run  up  by  means 
of  tackles.  Dwarf  platforms  were  made 
to  traverse  on  a  pivot,  but  "  raised 
racers  "  have  been  substituted,  the  plat- 
form resting  on  hollow  solid  trucks  which 
run  upon  the  racer.  Since  the  introduc- 
tion of  heavy  rifled  artillery,  a  change  of 
pattern  has  taken  place,  not  only  in  this 
nature  of  platform,  but  in  the  carriage 
adapted  to  it,  which  is  of  the  ordinary 
single  or  double  plate  pattern,  both  of 
which  are  made  of  wrought  iron.  Case- 
mate carriages  and  platforms  are 
similarly  constructed,  aud  the  platforms 
of  each  only  differ  in  the  height  they  are 
raised  from  the  ground ;  the  casemate 
platform  being  low  for  use  in  casemates, 
and  the  dwarf  platform  high  for  open 
batteries. 


DYN 


119 


ECH 


The  present  dwarf  platform,  as  is 
shown  in  the  '  Treatise  on  Military  Car- 
riages,' received  its  name  of  "  dwarf," 
because,  when  introduced,  the  then  ser- 
vice platform,  now  obsolete,  was  much 
higher. 

Dynamics — That  branch  of  mathema- 
tics which  relates  to  the  action  of  force 
producing  .motion. 

Dynamite — An  explosive  substance, 
formed  by  mixing  nitre-glycerine  with  a 
porous,  infusorial  earth,  known  in  Ger- 
man as  Kieselguhr.  Its  discovery  is  due 
to  Mr.  Nobel,  a  German  engineer.  The 
£Urth  absorbs  the  oil,  and  the  result  is 
a  plastic,  putty-like  substance  of  a  brick- 
dust  colour,  containing  about  75  per  cent, 
of  nitro-glycerine  and  25  per  cent,  of 
absorbent  earth.  Dynamite  is  manufac- 
tured in  England  by  the  British  Dyna- 
mite Company,  who  have  erected  ex- 
tensive works  at  Ardeer,  near  Glasgow. 
There  are  two  descriptions,  No.  1  and  No. 
2 ;  the  former  is  of  a  stronger  character 
than  the  latter.  In  the  demolition  of 
the  fortifications  of  Marsal,  in  German 
Lorraine,  both  gunpowder  and  dynamite 
were  used,  and  it  is  stated  that  the 
former  was  considered  the  most  effective. 


E. 


Ear — The  name  given  to  the  lug  or 
loop  formerly  cast  on  mortar  shells. 
The  term  was  also  usually  applied  to 
the  "  dolphins "  on  light  guns.  The 
object  originally  of  casting  mortar  shells 
with  ears  was,  to  assist  in  placing  the 
shell  in  the  mortar,  but  lewis  holes  are 
now  adopted  for  that  purpose. 

Earth,  Moulding — Used  in  casting. 
It  consists  of  a  mixture  of  clay,  sand,  and 
horse  dung. 

Earthworks — In  fortification,  all  works 
thrown  up  for  attack  or  defence  in  which 
earth  enters  chiefly  into  the  construction. 

In  the  defence  of  a  place  it  is  still  an 
open  question  whether  it  would  not  be 
better  to  trust  to  earth  than  to  masonry. 
The  former  is  more  ready  at  hand,  easier 
repaired  when  penetrated  by  shot  and 


hell,  and  the  defenders  are  not  so  liable 
;o  be  injured  by  splinters  as  by  masonry. 
[t  is  well  known  to  readers  of  the  Crimean 
War,  and  to  the  actors  in  it,  what  a 
difficult  task  the  capture  of  the  Mamelon 
was,  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which 
he  repairs  were  effected  of  a  night. 

Ebony  (Diospyros  cardifolia) — A  tree 
:ommon  in  the  jungles  of  Southern  India. 
It  has  a  strong,  hard,  close-  and  even- 
Drained  wood,  of  a  dark  brown  colour. 
A  cubic  foot  of  unseasoned  wood 
weighs  from  85  to  90  Ibs.  It  is  used  in 
the  Arsenal  and  Gun  Carriage  Agency 
at  Bombay  for  drawer  handles,  press 
screws,  &c. 

Eccentric — Not  in  the  centre.  In  gun- 
nery, and  when  shell  guns  were  in  use, 
the  term  was  chiefly  applied  to  hollow 
projectiles  the  centre  of  gravity  and 
centre  of  figure  of  which  did  not  coincide. 

Echelon — A  step  or  round  of  a  ladder. 
It  is  a  formation  laid  down  in  the  field 
exercise  of  the  army,  in  which  the  divi- 
sions of  a  regiment  are  placed  in  a  situ- 
tion  resembling,  when  viewed  from  a 
height,  some  analogy  to  the  successive 
steps  of  a  ladder,  a  circumstance  which 
has  caused  the  formation  to  be  thus 
designated.  The  divisions  are  placed 
successively  parallel  to  each  other,  but 
no  two  on  the  same  alignment,  each  divi- 
sion having  its  front  clear  of  that  in  ad- 
vance, so  that,  by  marching  directly 
forward,  it  can  form  line  with  it.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  e'chelou,  the  direct  and 
oblique.  The  former  is  applicable  to  the 
attack  and  retreat ;  the  latter  for 
changing  position,  or  for  getting  on  the 
enemy's  flank.  The  e'chelon  formation 
is  also  applicable  in  many  situations  of 
batteries  of  artillery,  and  is  particularly 
adapted  to  resist  attacks  in  front  or  in 
flank.  The  direct  e'chelon  of  artillery  is 
formed  by  the  successive  march  of  sub- 
divisions, divisions,  or  half-batteries  to 
front  or  rear.  The  oblique  e'chelon  is 
formed  by  the  wheel,  less  than  the 
quarter  circle  of  a  battery,  or  any  part 
of  it,  so  as  to  be  oblique  to  the  former 
front,  and  parallel  to  each  other.  It  is 
used  to  gain  ground  to  a  flank  while 
moving  to  the  front. 

The  e'chelon  formation  is  found  also  to 
be  very  useful  in  the  attack  of  cavalry 
against  cavalry;  it  may  be  either  in 


ECL 


120 


ELE 


echelon  from  the  right  or  left  or  Echelon 
from  the  centre. 

Eclaireurs — Literally,  the  feelers  of 
an  army.  They  are  bodies,  generally  of 
light  cavalry,  sent  to  the  front  or  the 
flank  of  an  army  to  obtain  intelligence 
as  to  the  movements  of  the  enemy. 
They  are  not  used  as  exceptional  or  dis- 
tinct bodies,  but  all  the  light  cavalry  is 
called  upon  to  perform  that  duty.  When 
the  first  Napoleon  was  Chief  Consul  of 
France,  he  raised  a  regiment  of  e'claireurs 
for  the  protection  of  Paris.  In  the  con- 
tinental war  of  1870,  eclaireurs  were 
employed  both  by  the  Germans  and 
French. 

Ecoutes  (French  &outer,  to  listen) 
— Listening  galleries.  Such  are  known 
to  engineers  and  others  in  connection 
with  siege  works.  These  galleries  are 
run  out  under  and  beyond  the  glacis  at 
regular  distances  in  the  direction  of  the 
besiegers'  works,  and  enable  the  besieged 
to  hear  and  estimate  how  near  the  be- 
siegers have  carried  their  mining  opera- 
tions. 

Education,  Military — A  civil  branch 
of  the  army,  presided  over  by  a  director- 
general  of  military  education,  under 
whose  orders  are  the  military  inspectors 
of  schools.  All  officers  who  are  candi- 
dates for  the  Staff  College  are  examined 
under  the  orders  of  the  director-general. 
The  studies  carried  on  at  the  college 
are  regulated  by  him  in  concert  with 
the  commandant  of  that  institution. 
The  final  examination  of  officers,  who 
have  passed  the  prescribed  time  at  the 
college,  takes  place  under  his  cognisance, 
and  a  report  is  submitted  by  him  to  the 
Horse  Guards  of  the  qualifications  of  the 
officers  examined.  His  department  super- 
vises all  regimental  schools,  garrison 
libraries,  &c.  In  fact,  on  all  subjects  of 
education  in.  the  army  he  is  the  director 
and  referee. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  govern- 
ment educational  and  scientific  establish- 
ments in  this  country : — 

The  Department  of  Artillery  Studies  ; 

The  School  of  Engineering  at  Chatham  ; 

The  School  of  Gunnery  at  Shoebury- 
ness ; 

The    School    of  Instruction    at  Alder- 
shot ; 

The  School  of  Musketry  at  Hythe ; 


The  Army  Medical  School,  Netley ; 

The    Military    School    for    Music    at 

Hounslow  ; 
.  The  Royal  Military  Asylum  at  Chelsea  ; 

The  Royal  Hibernian  Military  School, 
Dublin.    (1  'ide  Schools.) 

Effective — Used,  in  a  military  sense, 
to  denote  the  number  of  men  actually 
borne  and  doing  duty  on  the  strength  of 
a  company  or  regiment,  in  the  field  or  on 
parade. 

Effects — The  property  of  a  deceased 
officer  or  soldier.  On  the  death  of  either, 
a  committee  of  adjustment  is  formed  to 
take  charge  of  the  property,  and  to  ad- 
just the  affairs  of  the  deceased,  as  directed 
by  the  Mutiny  Act. 

Efficient  —  This  term  expresses  a 
thoroughly  trained  soldier,  and  is  also 
applicable  to  a  well-trained  volunteer. 
(  Vide  Volunteer.) 

Efflorescence — The  formation  of  small 
crystals  on  the  surfaces  of  bodies,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  abstraction  of  water 
from  them  by  the  atmosphere.  Saltpetre 
shows  itself  in  this  form  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground. 

Elastic — Any  body  which,  being  com- 
pressed, returns  to  its  original  shape  on 
being  released.  The  air,  for  instance,  is 
an  example  of  elasticity. 

Electric  Fuze — The  invention  of  Mr. 
Abel,  -chemical  examiner  to  the  War 
Office.  It  is  used  for  mining  purposes, 
and  is  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
electric  tube,  also  invented  by  him.  The 
electric  tube  can  be  fired  by  means  of  a 
magneto-electric  apparatus  or  "  magnetic 
exploder."  (  Vide  Electric  Tube.) 

Electric  Light — In  'Chambers's  En- 
cyclopaedia '  is  found  the  following 
abridged  description  of  this  light : — 
"  When  the  ends  of  two  wires  which  form 
the  poles  of  a  powerful  galvanic  battery 
are  made  to  touch,  and  then  are  separated 
for  a  short  distance,  the  current,  which 
passes  when  the  contact  is  made,  does  not 
cease  with  the  separation,  but  forces  its 
way  through  the  intervening  air,  accom- 
panied with  an  intense  evolution  of  light 
and  heat.  So  great  is  the  heat  evolved 
that  the  most  refractory  metals  are 
melted  by  it,  and  therefore  some  sub- 
stance rivalling  the  metals  in  conducting 
power,  but  much  more  infusible,  must  be 
found  to  act  as  the  poles,  to  allow  of  the 


ELE 


121 


ELE 


continuation  of  the  current  in  such  cir- 
cumstances. The  various  forms  of  carbon 
are  well  suited  to  this  purpose;  the  more 
compact  forms  of  charcoal  answer  very 
well ;  baked  carbon  answers  better,  but 
the  cake  that  is  sublimed  inside  the 
retorts  in  the  distillation  of  gas,  both  for 
durability  and  conducting  power,  makes 
by  far  the  best  poles.  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy  first  discovered  and  described  the 
electric  light." 

As  this  work  does  not  admit  of  dia- 
grams, a  continuance  of  the  explanation 
is  herewith  given.  "  The  carbon  points 
which  are  fixed  into  hollow  brass  rods 
opposite  to  each  other,  supported  on  glass 
pillars,  are  connected  with  the  battery 
by  wires  entering  at  what  are  called  the 
binding  screws.  The  rods  slide  in  the 
heads  of  the  glass  pillars,  fixed  to  a  stand, 
so  as  to  admit  of  the  points  being  placed 
at  different  distances.  The  wires  from 
the  battery  poles  being  properly  connected, 
the  points  are  made  to  touch,  and  are 
then  withdrawn  a  line  or  two,  when  the 
most  dazzling  light  ensues,  somewhat 
approaching  the  light  of  the  sun  in  purity 
and  splendour." 

Electric  Telegraph — As  described  in 
Francis'  'Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,' 
is  a  means  of  rapid  communication  by 
the  science  of  electro-magnetism.  It  is 
known  that  when  a  current  of  electricity 
passes  around  a  magnet,  it  occasions  that 
magnet  to  diverge  from  its  former  posi- 
tion in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the 
current.  In  the  electric  telegraph,  a 
current  is  sent  along  a  wire  enclosed  in 
a  waxen  or  resinous  material,  to  keep  it 
dry  and  insulated  from  one  station  to 
another,  where  it  acts  upon  several 
magnets,  in  accordance  to  a  similar  set 
of  magnets  at  the  first  station.  Accord- 
ing to  the  manner  in  which  it  acts  upon 
these,  driving  them  to  the  right  or  left, 
more  or  less,  it  is  instantly  known  what 
it  is  intended  to  communicate. 

Electric  Tube — The  invention  of  Mr. 
Abel,  chemical  examiner  to  the  War 
Office.  This  tube  is  used  for  firing  guns 
at  proof,  and  has  superseded  the  gal- 
vanic tube  for  this  purpose.  It  can  be 
used  for  firing  a  large  number  of  guns 
simultaneously  ;  also  for  firing  the 
time  guns  at  large  stations  by  means  of 
an  ordinary  telegraph  wire  from  what- 


ever observatory  the  electric  battery 
may  be  placed  in.  This  tube  can  be  fired 
by  means  of  any  electric  agency,  but  is 
especially  intended  to  be  fired  by  means 
of  an  electro-magnetic  apparatus,  or 
"  magnetic  exploder."  A  fuze  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  tube  is  used  with 
torpedoes,  though  a  different  composition 
is  employed. 

Electricity  —  Is  described  as  "  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  laws  of  the 
electric  fluid ;  a  power  which  causes 
attraction  and  repulsion  between  light 
bodies.  The  following  is  the  relative 
conducting  power  of  metals:  — 

"Copper            ..          ..  10000 

Gold 9360 

Silver 7360 

Zinc 2850 

Platinum        ..          ..  1880 

Iron 1580 

Tin 1550 

Lead 830 

Mercury          . .          . .  345 

Potassium       . .          . .  133 

"  The  conducting  power  of  rods  of  the 
same  metal  of  equal  diameter  is  inversely 
as  their  lengths  ;  of  rods  of  equal  lengths, 
it  is  proportional  to  the  mass,  and  not  to 
the  surface.  The  conducting  power  is 
increased  by  lowering  the  temperature, 
and  diminished,  and  finally  destroyed, 
by  raising  the  temperature.  Metals  are 
infinitely  better  conductors  than  any 
other  substances.  Charcoal,  which  has 
been  exposed  to  a  strong  heat,  is  one 
of  the  best  conductors,  but  greatly 
inferior  in  this  respect  to  iron  or 
platinum." 

Electro-ballistic  Apparatus — An  appa- 
ratus invented  by  Major  Navez,  of  the 
Belgian  artillery.  It  is  thus  described  in 
the  '  Royal  Artillery  Institution  Papers  ': 
— "This  instrument  exhibits  accurately 
the  time  occupied  by  a  projectile  in 
passing  over  different  parts  of  the  tra- 
jectory ;  also  for  measuring  the  force 
of  gunpowder  as  it  is  actually  used  in 
every  gun  in  the  service.  The  electro- 
ballistic  apparatus  consists  of  a  frame, 
across  which  thin  copper  wires  are 
stretched  horizontally  in  parallel  lines, 
and  of  a  pendulum,  of  which  the  vibra- 
tion is  measured.  The  frame  is  placed  a 
few  paces  in  front  of  the  gun  or  the 


ELE 


122 


EMB 


target,  according  as  the  initial  or  im- 
pact velocity  is  required.  The  wires, 
which  are  so  close  together  that  the  pro- 
jentile  cannot  pass  between  them,  are  con- 
nected with  and  act  upon  the  pendulum, 
by  means  of  an  electrical  current  passing 
through  them.  Any  one  of  these  wires 
being  broken  by  the  passage  of  the  shot, 
the  pendulum  indicates  the  force  of  its 
vibration,  and  by  working  out  a  mathe- 
matical formula,  the  velocity  of  the  pro- 
jectile is  ascertained  to  the  1000th  part 
of  a  foot  per  second." 

Elephant — The  most  gigantic  of  exist- 
ing quadrupeds.  This  animal  is  used  as 
a  beast  of  burden  and  draught  in  India, 
for  carrying  the  camp  equipage  of  troops, 
and  for  dragging  heavy  artillery.  The 
elephant  is  of  an  average  height  of  8  or 
9  feet,  some  grow  to  11  feet ;  they  carry 
from  1200  to  1400  Ibs.  and  drag  from  40  to 
60  cwt.  Elephants  are  found  at  the  foot  of 
the  Kumaon  Hills  in  the  N.-W.  Provinces 
of  India,  in  Assam,  in  Upper  Burmah,  and 
in  Ceylon.  The  elephant  is  also  found  in 
Africa,  but  does  not  appear  to  be  such  a 
high-class  animal  as  the  Indian  elephant. 
Elephants  are  fed  on  wheaten  cakes, 
coarse  grass,  and  leaves.  They  breed  in 
confinement,  the  period  of  gestation  being 
about  twenty  months,  and  bring  forth 
one  young  at  a  birth. 

Elevating  Eye — To  facilitate  the  ele- 
vation and  depression  of  the  Armstrong 
land  service  guns,  an  elevating  eye  is 
screwed  into  the  under  side  of  the  breech, 
at  a  suitable  distance  from  the  trunnions, 
for  the  adjustment  of  the  gun,  by  means 
of  an  elevating  screw ;  the  40-pr.,  how- 
ever, has  a  somewhat  different  arrange- 
ment, having  an  elevating  screw  and 
quoin. 

Elevating  Screw — In  a  gun-carriage, 
the  screw  which  elevates  or  depresses  the 
gun.  It  is  attached  to  light  guns  with 
wooden  carriages  by  means  of  an  eye  and 
bolt,  and  the  screw  is  known  as  the  "  ball 
and  socket "  pattern.  The  elevating  screw 
attached  to  the  new  iron  carriages  is 
known  as  the  Whitworth  pattern.  Heavy 
gun-carriages,  such  as  the  wrought-iron 
standing  or  rear  chock  carriages,  have 
the  "  ratchet  head  and  lever,"  with  a 
modification  in  the  chock  carriages,  which 
have  an  oscillating  instead  of  a  fixed 
nut. 


Elevating  Sight — The  back  sight  of  a 
gun  or  rifle  which  is  raised,  when  it  is 
found  necessary,  to  elevate  the  piece. 

Elevation — In  gunnery,  the  raising  of 
the  axis  of  the  piece  sufficiently  high  to 
enable  the  shot  to  range  the  required 
distance.  In  firing  at  a  given  object, 
the  axis  of  the  gun  must  necessarily  be 
directed  upon  a  point  at  a  sufficiently 
vertical  distance  above  the  object  to 
allow  for  the  action  of  gravity,  which 
causes  the  ball  continually  to  descend 
after  leaving  the  bore  of  the  piece.  The 
elevation  of  the  axis  of  a  gun  is  generally 
regulated  by  means  of  a  tangent  scale, 
which  is  graduated  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  divisions  on  it  correspond  with 
the  various  ranges  required  from  the 
gun. 

In  geometrical  drawing,  elevation  is 
the  projection  of  the  face  of  a  work  on  a 
vertical  plane  by  horizontal  rays.  It 
shows  the  height  or  depth  of  a  work,  and 
also  its  length,  when  the  plane  of  pro- 
jection is  parallel  to  its  face. 

Ellipse — In  geometry,  an  oval  figure 
formed  of  the  section  of  a  cone  bv  a 
plane  cutting  both  its  sides,  which  plane, 
not  being  parallel  to  the  base,  meets  the 
base  of  the  cone  when  produced. 

Elongated  Shot — The  name  given  to 
cylindrical  or  oblong  shot,  which  arc 
used  with  rifled  ordnance.  The  shape  of 
the  head  of  elongated  shot  varies.  The 
most  appropriate  pattern  appears  to  be 
the  ogival-headed  shot,  which  is  con- 
sidered by  artillerists  the  most  pene- 
trating. 

Embarkation — The  act  of  embarking 
a  body  of  troops  on  board  a  "  transport," 
when  no  troop-ship  is  available.  This 
duty  devolves  on  the  Quartermaster- 
General's  department.  In  taking  up 
transports  for  the  embarkation  of  troops, 
the  following  rules  and  regulations  should 
be  observed  before  calling  for  tenders. 
Calculate  the  tonnage  required  for  each 
man  and  horse :  for  the  former,  from 
2  to  3  tons ;  for  the  latter,  from  6  to  10 
tons.  This,  however,  varies  with  length 
of  journey.  Having  settled  this,  tenders 
should  be  called  for.  The  inspection  of 
the  ships  is  next  proceeded  with  by  a 
board,  consisting  of  an  officer  of  the 
Quartermaster-General's  department,  a 
naval  and  a  medical  officer. 


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In  choosing  transports,  steamers  are 
preferable.  For  horses,  paddle-steamers 
— screw-steamers  being  considered  dan- 
gerous. Nothing  under  30  feet  beam  for 
cavalry.  Height  between  decks  should 
not  be  less  than 

6  feet  for  men, 

7  „    for  horses. 

Tonnage  (sufficient  superficial  space) 
having  been  provided  for  the  men,  after 
deducting  officers'  cabins,  hospitals,  &c., 
space  is  then  awarded  for  swinging  the 
hammocks.  The  space  required  is  known 
from  the  measurement  of  hammocks, 
each  being 

9  feet  long, 

6    ,,     for  bed, 

3    „     for  clew, 
18  inches  wide. 

The  women  and  children  require  stand- 
ing beds  6  feet  by  3  feet. 

Hospital  for  3  per  cent,  of  force. 

After  this  preliminary  inspection,  the 
charter  is  drawn  up.  The  fittings  are 
the  next  things  to  be  attended  to,  which 
are  done  in  a  government  dockyard,  or 
by  contract  under  government,  sometimes 
by  the  owners  of  the  ship.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  staff  officer  to  see  after  these  fit- 
tings. The  meaning  of  the  word  fittings 
as  applied  to  ships  is  given  under  that 
head. 

Before  the  troops  embark,  a  second  in- 
spection will  take  place  under  the  Assist- 
ant Quartermaster-General,  a  military 
and  a  naval  officer.  A  surgeon  will  at- 
tend. The  embarkation  of  the  troops 
will  take  place  under  the  superintendence 
of  a  staff'  officer  of  the  Quartermaster- 
General's  department.  Baggage  should 
be  on  board  the  night  before,  and  an 
officer  or  non-commissioned  officer  should 
arrange  the  messing. 

When  the  troops  are  on  board,  they 
will  be  inspected  by  the  general  at  the 
port. 

Before  sailing,  a  third  inspection  will 
take  place  by  an  officer  not  under  the 
captain  of  the  ship. 

The  above  regulations  apply  to  small 
forces  in  time  of  peace. 

In  large  expeditions  every  transport 
should  be  numbered.  Generally,  the 
number  of  the  regiment  is  marked  on 
the  bows  or  sides  of  the  ship. 


Transports  are  grouped  in  divisions 
corresponding  to  army  divisions. 

If  the  place  of  embarkation  should  be 
an  open  beach,  it  should  be  marked  with 
posts,  named  and  numbered,  and  the  more 
numerous  the  better,  not  less  than  200 
yards  apart. 

On  an  open  beach,  stages  should  be 
run  out ;  in  still  water,  floating  piers. 

Regiments  should  be  detailed  by  the 
Quartermaster-General.  Orders  cannot 
be  too  minute.  A  staff  officer  should  be 
named,  and  the  hour  stated  at  which 
regiments  are  to  be  drawn  up,  as  well  as 
the  hour  for  the  reception  of  the  horses, 
baggage,  and  men. 

Each  regiment  should  be  complete  in 
each  ship,  taking  its  amount  of  ammu- 
nition and  camp  equipage. 

Infantry  transport  animals  cannot  al- 
ways accompany  regiments. 

Drill  should  be  practised  for  embark- 
ing in  boats,  the  boats  being  end  on. 

The  slings  of  rifles  should  be  loose,  and 
the  rifle  of  each  soldier  in  his  left  hand,  the 
knapsack  being  on  the  left  shoulder.  The 
march  on  board  the  boat  shoujd  be  in 
single  file.  In  getting  out  of  the  boat, 
the  rifle  should  be  slung  over  the  left 
shoulder,  and  the  knapsack  over  the  right. 

The  following  regulations  for  the  main- 
tenance of  order  and  discipline  on  board 
her  Majesty's  ships  in  which  land  forces 
are  embarked  as  passengers,  cancelling 
those  approved  by  her  Majesty  on  the 
22nd  of  February  1870,  have  been  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Queen,  in  accordance  with 
sect.  88  of  an  act  of  parliament,  entitled 
"  An  Act  to  make  Provisions  for  the  Dis- 
cipline of  the  Navy,"  passed  in  the  29th 
year  of  her  Majesty's  reign  : — 

"  1.  Whenever  any  of  her  Majesty's 
land  forces,  or  any  royal  marines  formed 
into  a  separate  corps  or  battalion,  shall 
be  embarked  as  passengers  in  any  of  her 
Majesty's  ships,  the  officers  and  soldiers 
shall  from  the  time  of  embarkation 
strictly  observe  the  laws  and  regulations 
established  for  the  government  and  dis- 
cipline of  her  Majesty's  navy,  and  shall 
for  these  purposes  be  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  senior  officer  of  the  ship, 
as  well  as  of  the  superior  officer  of  the 
squadron,  if  any,  to  which  such  ship 
may  belong. 

'  2.  If  anv  officer  or  soldier  shall  com- 


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mit  any  act  against  the  good  order  and 
discipline  of  the  ship  in  which  he  is  em- 
barked, the  commanding  officer  of  the 
ship  may,  by  his  own  authority  and 
without  reference  to  any  other  person, 
cause  him  to  be  put  under  arrest  or 
to  be  confined  as  a  close  prisoner,  and 
shall  thereupon,  if  he  thinks  the  case 
requires  it,  transmit  a  report  in  writing 
of  the  charges  against  such  officer  or 
soldier  to  his  superior  officer,  or  if  there 
be  no  senior  officer  present,  to  the  com- 
manding-in-chief  of  land  forces,  in  order 
that  the  offender  may  be  brought  before 
a  military  court-martial. 

"  3.  If  any  officer  or  soldier  commits 
any  act  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  com- 
manding officer  of  the  troops,  requires  a 
trial  by  court-martial,  such  commanding 
officer  shall,  with  the  concurrence  of  the 
captain  of  the  ship,  cause  him  to  be  dis- 
embarked on  the  first  opportunity,  or 
to  be  removed  to  a  transport  ship,  and 
be  there  proceeded  against  according  to 
military  law.  No  military  court-martial 
shall  be  held  on  board  any  of  her  Ma- 
jesty's ships  in  commission. 

"  4.  If  any  private  soldier  shall  com- 
mit any  act  against  the  good  order  and 
discipline  of  the  ship,  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  ship,  if  he  thinks  the  case 
requires  the  infliction  of  any  summary 
punishment  for  which,  by  the  regulations 
of  her  Majesty's  navy,  a  warrant  is  ne- 
cessary, shall  apply  for  the  concurrence, 
in  writing,  of  the  commanding  officer  of 
troops,  as  to  the  nature  and  amount  of 
such  punishment,  if  any,  to  be  inflicted, 
and  upon  obtaining  such  concurrence  in 
writing  shall,  by  warrant  under  his  hand, 
sentence  the  offender  to  suffer  such  punish- 
ment accordingly.  The  sentence  shall  in 
all  respects  conform  to  the  provisions 
contained  in  the  Naval  Discipline  Act, 
1866,  relating  to  summary  punishments 
awarded  by  commanding  officers.  If  the 
commanding  officer  of  the  troops  shall 
decline  to  give  his  concurrence  as  afore- 
said, he  shall  state  his  reasons  in  writing 
and  deliver  the  same  to  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  ship. 

"  5.  The  commanding  officer  of  the 
troops,  upon  receiving  a  notification  in 
writing  to  that  effect  from  the  command- 
ing officer  of  the  ship,  may,  in  respect  of 
minor  offences  committed  by  any  of  the 


troops  on  board,  award  such  summary 
punishments  as  are  permitted  by  the 
regulations  of  her  Majesty's  navy  to  be 
awarded  without  a  warrant." 

These  regulations  have*  met  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  Field  Marshal  Com- 
manding-in-Chief  and  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War. 

Embarking  Artillery — The  following 
directions,  taken  from  the  '  Artillery  In- 
structions,' will  be  found  applicable  to 
nearly  all  the  cases  likely  to  occur,  such 
as  embarking  or  disembarking  from  a 
beach,  from  a  wharf,  with  or  without 
boats ,  in  presence  of  an  enemy,  &c.  &c. 
"  On  the  arrival  of  a  battery  at  the 
place  of  embarkation,  it  is  to  draw  up  in 
as  compact  order  as  is  consistent  with 
the  performance  of  the  operations  re- 
quired. The  horses  are  to  be  taken  out, 
the  harness  taken  off  and  packed  in  vats, 
and  the  stores  in  cases.  When  there  are 
no  vats  and  cases,  the  stores  must  be 
secured  to  the  carriages  or  tied  together ; 
the  intrenching  tools  may  remain  with 
the  carriages.  The  non  -  commissioned 
officers  in  charge  of  sub-divisions  will 
attach  to  their  harness  and  stores  pieces 
of  basil,  having  the  number  of  their  sub- 
divisions written  upon  them.  The  har- 
ness for  each  carriage  should  be  em- 
barked with  it.  The  gun  detachments 
will  prepare  the  carriages  for  embarka- 
tion. They  will  take  off  the  side  arms 
and  secure  them  together,  take  out  the 
elevating  screws,  unkey  the  cap  squares, 
unlash  the  ammunition  boxes,  and  coil 
up  the  lashing  ropes.  Each  carriage, 
when  called  for,  is  to  be  run  forward 
to  the  boat  or  crane ;  the  gun  is  to  be 
unlimbered  and  dismounted  ;  the  ammu- 
nition boxes,  shafts,  wheels,  &c.  to  be 
taken  off;  the  washers  and  linch-pins 
must  be  carefully  put  away  in  the  slow- 
match  box,  and  in  the  small  box  be- 
tween the  limber  boxes.  Every  article 
must  be  stowed  away  with  the  greatest 
care,  and  arranged  so  as  to  be  got  at 
without  delay.  Those  articles  which  will 
be  the  last  required  when  disembarking 
are  the  first  to  be  embarked.  The  divi- 
sions, and  everything  belonging  to  them, 
should  be  kept  together  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. The  first  to  be  embarked  are  the 
spare  carriages  and  forge,  which  are  to 
be  stowed  forward  ;  the  left  division  next 


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to  them,  and  before  the  main  hatchway ; 
the  centre  abaft  the  hatchway  ;  the  right 
under  the  hatchway.  The  whole  of  the 
guns  are  put  together,  generally  in  the 
bottom  of  the  hold,  vents  turned  down- 
wards, and  a  fid  in  them,  to  prevent 
their  being  choked.  When  a  battery  is 
embarked  in  different  vessels,  every  part 
should  be  complete,  and  a  proportion  of 
general  stores  be  on  board  of  each.  If 
the  voyage  is  likely  to  last  some  days, 
cartouches  with  the  ammunition  must 
be  taken  out  of  the  boxes  and  stowed  in 
the  magazine.  The  ammunition  must  be 
so  placed  that  whatever  part  belongs  to 
any  particular  carriage  may  be  got  at 
without  difficulty.  When  the  cartouches 
are  not  taken  out,  the  boxes  must  be 
stowed  well  aft  in  the  hold,  or  between 
decks,  and  they  should  be  carefully  co- 
vered with  wadmill  tilts  or  haircloths. 
In  embarking  from  a  beach,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  erect  small  sheers  made  of 
a  couple  of  topgallant  masts,  previously 
prepared  for  the  purpose.  In  embarking 
from  a  wharf,  if  there  are  cranes,  they 
should  be  made  use  of.  If  boats  are  em- 
ployed, the  loads  must  be  regulated  by 
the  state  of  the  weather  and  distance  of 
the  vessels. 

"  Embarking  the  Horses. — When  the 
vessels  can  come  alongside  a  wharf,  the 
horses  are  hoisted  in  by  means  of  tackle. 
The  slings,  made  of  canvas,  should  be 
minutely  inspected,  to  see  that  they 
are  secure.  There  must  be  a  double  guy 
made  fast  to  the  horse's  head,  one  end  on 
shore,  the  other  on  board  to  keep  his 
head  steady.  A  shoeing-smith  should  be 
in  each  ship  to  receive  the  horses.  A 
horse  requires  at  least  four  men  besides 
the  driver  to  sling  him,  one  on  each  side, 
one  at  his  breast,  and  one  behind.  One 
end  of  the  sling  is  passed  under  his  belly, 
and  both  ends  made  to  meet  over  his 
back  ;  one  man  passes  his  loop  through 
the  other ;  it  is  received  by  the  man  on 
the  other  side  who  hauls  it  through, 
hooking  the  tackle  through  it,  both  men 
holding  up  the  ends  of  the  sling.  The 
men  at  the  breast  and  behind  bring  their 
ropes  round,  and  make  them  fast  to  the 
grummets.  The  driver  holds  the  horse's 
head  and  makes  fast  the  guys  to  it.  The 
horse  being  previously  blindfolded,  the 
word  "  Hoist  away  "  is  given,  and  he  is 


hoisted  on  board.  The  slings  are  then 
taken  off,  and  he  is  led  to  his  place,  the 
first  horse  being  always  placed  forward 
or  aft,  as  the  ship  fills,  the  stalls  nearest 
the  hatchway  being  reserved  for  the 
horses  which  are  to  be  first  landed.  The 
horses  are  to  be  embarked  in  the  same 
order  as  the  carriages,  care  being  taken 
that  the  officers'  and  non-commissioned 
officers'  horses  are  on  board  with  the 
divisions  to  which  they  belong.  The 
farriers  and  shoeing  smiths  should  be  dis- 
tributed in  different  ships.  When  horses 
are  embarked  in  boats,  sheers,  or  a  der- 
rick, are  necessary.  The  head  of  the 
derrick  must  incline  inwards  when  the 
horse  is  rising,  but  when  he  is  high 
enough,  the  head  of  the  derrick  or  sheers 
most  be  forced  out,  to  bring  the  horse 
over  the  boat.  This  applies  to  beach  or 
wharf.  Sand  or  straw  should  be  laid  in 
the  boats  to  prevent  the  horses  slipping. 
They  should  stand  athwart,  the  head  of 
one  horse  being  on  the  starboard,  and  the 
head  of  the  next  on  the  port  side.  The 
drivers  sit  on  the  gunwale,  or  stand  be- 
tween the  horses.  When  horses  are  em- 
barked from  an  open  beach,  without  any 
appliances,  they  are  to  be  led  to  the 
boat,  and  the  halter  given  to  one  of 
the  men  in  it.  The  horse  must  then 
be  made  to  walk  or  leap  into  it,  the 
gunwale  of  the  boat  being  inclined  to- 
wards the  shore.  A  quiet  horse  should 
first  be  embarked,  and  the  others  will 
more  readily  follow.  In  embarking  in 
presence  of  an  enemy,  the  horses  and 
carriages  should  first  be  embarked,  the 
guns  being  retained  to  the  last,  to  repel 
any  attack.  If  the  position  be  a  mile  or 
two  from  the  place  of  embarkation,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  retain  a  portion  of 
the  horses." 

"  Disembarl.ing . — The  disembarkation  is 
the  reverse  of  what  has  been  detailed. 
The  harness  is  the  first  thing  sent  on 
shore.  If  the  water  is  smooth,  with 
little  surf,  the  disembarkation  may  be 
easily  carried  on  upon  the  beach,  and 
the  horses  made  to  leap  out  of  the  boats. 
In  disembarking  in  presence  of  an  enemy, 
the  guns  should  be  put  into  boats, 
mounted ;  launches  of  men-of-war  being 
best  adapted  for  this  purpose.  The 
muzzle  of  the  gun  must  point  forward  in 
the  boat ;  and  as  soon  as  the  boat  takes 


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126 


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the  ground,  the  gangboards  are  put  out, 
and  the  gun  run  ashore.  The  limber 
should  accompany  the  gun." 

Embrasure  —  An  opening  cut  in  the 
parapet  in  order  to  enable  the  artillery 
to  fire  through,  and  to  command  a  cer- 
tain extent  of  the  surrounding  country. 
The  space  between  every  two  of  these 
openings,  called  the  merlon,  is  from  15  to 
18  feet  in  length.  The  form  of  an 
embrasure  is  that  of  a  prism,  its  base 
being  a  trapezium.  The  opening  of  the 
embrasure  is  termed  the  neck,  and  is  2 
feet  wide ;  that  towards  the  country,  the 
mouth,  which  is  usually  made  equal  to 
half  the  thickness  of  the  parapet;  the 
other  parts  are  termed  the  sides,  the 
cheeks,  the  base,  and  the  sole;  the  slope 
is  generally  less  than  the  inclination 
given  to  the  superior  slope  of  the  para- 
pet, in  order  that  the  fire  from  the  em- 
brasure may  meet  that  of  the  musketry 
from  the  parapet,  at  a  point  within  a 
few  feet  from  the  top  of  the  counter- 
scarp. In  casemates,  iron  shields  (7.  c.) 
are  provided  for  the  openings  of  embra- 
sures. 

The  value  of  embrasures  is  very 
questionable,  and  with  the  opinion  now 
prevailing  as  to  their  use,  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  they  will  be,  if  not  altogether, 
to  a  great  extent,  done  away  with  in 
future  fortifications.  The  feeling  of  the 
gunner  is  strongly  against  them,  because 
he  cannot  always  see  through  them  in 
the  right  direction,  because  they  make  a 
mark  for  the  enemy's  fire,  and  because 
they  admit  some  of  the  adversary's  pro- 
jectiles. 

Then,  again,  embrasures  weaken  a 
work  and  draw  a  stronger  fire  upon  them 
than  other  portions  of  a  parapet,  the  re- 
sult of  which  is  constant  dilapidation  and 
constant  repair,  thereby  subjecting  the 
men  in  the  batter.y  to  great  exposure.  It 
has  been  remarked  that,  "  if  we  look  back 
to  the  Crimea,  and  think  over  the  numbers 
of  gallant  fellows  we  saw  slain  in  and 
around  the  embrasures  of  our  batteries, 
it  induces  us  to  ponder  much,  to  wonder 
how  it  happens  that  this  curse  of  the 
siege  is  even  to  this  day  permitted  to 
intrude  itself  in  our  batteries."  The 
.  remedy  has  been  shown,  and  which  lies 
in  the  use  of  an  elevating  or  elevated 
carriage  for  the  gun ;  such,  in  the 


former  case,  as  the  Moncrietf  carriage,  or 
in  the  latter  after  the  manner  of  the 
Prussians  at  Paris  in  1870—71,  who 
mounted  their  guns  for  bombarding  pur- 
poses on  high  carriages,  and,  firing  just 
clear  of  the  crests  of  their  batteries, 
dispensed  entirely  with  the  use  of  em- 
brasures. 

Emery — An  opaque  variety  of  the 
mineral  alumina,  containing  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  iron.  It  is  ground 
into  different  degrees  of  fineness,  and 
used  in  arsenal  workshops  for  polishing 
and  scraping  off'  the  outer  coating  of  gun 
barrels  before  being  re-browned,  also  for 
removing  rust  from  the  interior  of  gun 
barrels,  but  this  is  prohibited  in  cleaning 
the  barrels  of  rifled  small-arms. 

Eminence — A  high  or  rising  ground 
overlooking  and  commanding  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

Emissary — A  spy,  a  scout.  In  a  mili- 
tary sense,  one  who  during  war  time 
personates  the  dress,  language,  and  cha- 
racter of  the  power  or  nation  he  is  sent 
amongst  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
information,  or  for  the  purpose  of 
creating  disaffection  in  the  ranks  of  the 
enemy. 

Encampment — The  ground  taken  up 
by  any  force  on  the  conclusion  of  its 
march.  The  nature  of  the  camp  formed, 
whether  of  huts,  tents,  or  bivouacs,  must 
depend  on  circumstances,  such  as  the 
proximity  or  otherwise  of  the  enemy, 
the  facility  of  procuring  carriage,  &c. 
In  the  former  case,  bivouacs  form  the 
simplest  mode  of  resting,  and  are  accom- 
panied with  least  trouble.  Huts  would  be 
only  erected  for  a  standing  camp,  when  an 
army  occupies  a  defensive  position  for  a 
long  time,  or  during  a  siege ;  they  are 
rarely  made  during  a  campaign.  In  the 
formation  of  an  encampment,  care  should 
be  taken,  in  selecting  the  ground, 
that  it  is  not  commanded,  cannot  be 
turned,  and  that,  as  far  as  possible,  as 
shown  in  the  regulations  and  instruc- 
tions on  the  subject,  it  commands  and  sur- 
rounds the  neighbouring  positions.  It  is 
to  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  not  neces- 
sary for  each  division  to  encamp  on  its  line 
of  march ;  it  may  with  great  advantage 
be  placed  at  a  short  distance  on  either 
side  of  that  line.  By  bearing  this  in 
mind,  a  larger  number  of  sites  to  choose 


ENO 


127 


ENF 


from  may  be  obtained.  Then  again  it 
is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  the  site  for 
a  standing  camp  is  selected  chiefly  be- 
cause it  presents  certain  strategical  ad- 
vantages, and  that  for  a  flying  camp 
on  account  of  some  tactical  advantages 
the  ground  offers. 

Xot  only  has  the  site  of  an  encamp- 
ment to  be  viewed  from  one  point,  viz. 
in  its  military  aspect,  but  also  from  a 
sanitary  point ;  and  this  must  be  ob- 
served with  every  encampment,  whether 
of  a  division,  of  a  picket,  or  of  an  out- 
post. The  movements  or  position  of  the 
enemy  must  of  course  decide  whether 
military  or  sanitary  reasons  shall  weigh 
most.  There  are  many  other  points  to  be 
attended  to  besides  those  which  have  been 
enumerated,  viz.  the  facilities  which  the 
site  selected  offers  for  obtaining  water, 
wood,  forage,  and  straw.  The  site  should 
also  be,  if  possible,  on  a  sandy  or  gra- 
velly soil,  and  very  dry.  The  ground, 
as  a  rule,  should  slope  to  the  south  or 
east. 

Enceinte — In  fortification,  the  body  of 
the  place,  which  is  enclosed  by  bastions 
and  curtains. 

Encounter — Literally,  a  combat  or 
fight  between  two  persons.  It  is  not  un- 
frequently  used  to  describe  a  battle  or 
attack  by  large  or  small  bodies  of  troops. 

Endless — In  machinery,  is  described  as 
"  the  cord  or  band  by  which  wheels  and 
axles  are  made  to  act  on  each  other.  Some- 
times the  cord  is  placed  in  a  groove  in 
the  circumference  of  the  axle,  and 
carried  round  a  similar  groove  in  the 
circumference  of  the  wheel ;  this  is 
termed  an  endless  cord  or  band,  by 
which  wheels  are  driven  either  in  the 
same  or  in  an  opposite  direction.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  an  endless  or  perpetual 
screw.  This  method  of  transmitting  the 
motion  from  wheel  to  wheel  is  presented 
in  every  department  of  the  arts  and 
manufactures.  One  of  the  chief  advan- 
tages of  this  method  of  transmitting 
motion  by  wheels  and  axles  is,  that  the 
bands  by  which  the  motion  is  conveyed 
may  be  placed  at  any  distance  from  each 
other,  and  even  in  any  position  with 
respect  to  each  other,  and  may,  by  a 
slight  adjustment,  receive  the  motion  in 
either  one  direction  or  the  other." 

Enemy — In    a    military    or    national 


sense,  signifies  any  nation  or  power 
with  whom  another  is  at  war;  it  in- 
cludes also  the  allies  of  that  power  or 
nation. 

Energy — A  term  in  artillery  to  ex- 
press the  amount  of  "  stored-up  work  " 
in  a  projectile  when  it  strikes  an  object. 
It  is  calculated  thus : — 

"  w  v2  __    f    energy  in 

2  g    ~~    \  foot-pounds  ; 
where  w  =  weight  of  shot  in  pounds  ; 
v  =  remaining  velocity  in  feet  per 

second, 
g  =  accelerating  force  of  gravity. 

Suppose,  for  example,  a  shot  from  a 
35-ton  gun  of  700  Ibs.  weight  to  be 
travelling  at  the  rate  of  1000  feet 
per  second,  what  would  be  the  energy  ? 
Here  we  should  have  700  multiplied  by 
the  square  of  1000,  or  1,000,000,  and 
divided  by  twice  32-2,  or  64-4.  The 
answer  to  this  is  10,869,563  pounds. 

"  As  the  result  given  thus  in  pounds 
is  inconvenient,  owing  to  the  number  of 
figures  it  contains,  it  is  usual  to  repre- 
sent it  in  tons,  and  as  there  are  2240  Ibs. 
in  a  ton,  we  must  divide  the  above  num- 
ber by  these  figures.  Thus,  10,869,563 
divided  by  2240  equals  in  round  num- 
bers 4853  tons  or  '  foot-tons.'  This 
signifies  that  a  700-lb.  shot  striking  with 
a  velocity  of  1000  feet  would,  before  it 
was  brought  to  rest,  or  had  its  '  life ' 
destroyed,  expend  '  work '  sufficient  to 
raise  4853  tons  1  foot  from  the  ground." 

It  is  found  that  the  power  of  piercing 
unbacked  armour-plates  decreases  as  the 
diameter  increases,  and  therefore  energy 
is  generally  expressed  in  foot-tons  per 
inch  of  circumference  of  the  projectile,  &c. 
(  Vide  Appendix  B.) 

Enfield  Rifle — This  arm  was  at  one  time 
in  use  in  the  British  army.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  small-arm  factory  at 
Knfield,  a  government  establishment  for 
the  manufacture  and  supply  of  small- 
arms  of  every  description  to  the  army. 
It  was  originally  a  muzzle-loading  arm, 
but  was  subsequently  converted  into  a 
breech-loader  ;  it  is  now  known  as  the 
Snider-Enfield :  there  are  two  patterns, 
that  of  1853,  having  3  grooves,  and  that 
of  1860,  5  grooves. 

The  length  of  the  barrel  of  the  pat- 
tern musket  of  1853  is  54  inches  with- 


ENF 


128 


ENL 


out  the  bayonet ;  having  one  spiral  turn 
in  78  inches.  Weight  with  bayonet, 
9  Ibs.  12  oz. 

The  short  rifle  musket  pattern  (1860) 
is  48f  inches  in  length  without  the 
bayonet,  having  one  spiral  turn  in  78 
inches.  Weight  with  bayonet,  10  Ibs. 
4£  oz. 

Some  of  the  native  regiments  in  India 
are  armed  with  the  Enfield  rifle,  and 
some  with  the  Snider-Enfield. 

Enfilade  Fire  —  Sweeping  the  whole 
length  of  any  work  or  line  of  troops  by  a 
fire  from  musketry,  or  a  battery  placed 
perpendicularly  to  the  prolongation  of 
the  crest  of  a  parapet,  or  to  a  line  of 
troops,  the  guns  being  fired  with  full 
service  charges. 

Engagement — In  a  military  sense, 
signifies  a  conflict,  action,  or  battle  be- 
tween two  contending  armies. 

Engine — Denotes,  generally,  a  kind  of 
machine  in  which  two  or  more  of  the 
simple  mechanical  powers  are  combined 
together. 

Engine,  Condensing,  vide  Condensing 
Engine. 

Engine,  Fuze  —  A  name  formerly 
given  to  an  instrument  for  extracting  a 
wood  fuze  when  fixed  in  a  spherical  shell. 
As  it  was  found  faulty  in  construction, 
it  has  been  replaced  by  the  present  fuze 
extractor,  which  is  applicable  to  extract- 
ing wood  fuzes  from  rifled  shells. 

Engine,  Steam,  vide  Steam  Engine. 

Engine,  Water — A  machine  for  throw- 
ing water  to  heights  and  distances,  by 
means  of  a  force-pump,  and  pressure  from 
air  condensed  in  a  chamber.  It  is  used 
in  standing  camps  and  barracks  for  ex- 
tinguishing fires.  (  Vide  Fire  Engine.) 

Engineers — One  of  the  branches  of  the 
army,  to  which  is  entrusted,  in  times  of 
peace,  the  erection  of  all  military  build- 
ings, and  during  the  operations  of  an 
army  in  the  field  the  construction  of 
every  description  of  fortified  works,  also 
the  planning  and  direction  of  the  attack 
and  defence  of  a  fortification.  Indeed,  the 
duties  of  this  branch  are  so  multifarious 
that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  define  them. 
On  active  service,  an  engineer  officer  is 
sometimes  a  sapper  officer ;  at  another 
time  he  is  found  engaged  in  the  con- 
struction of  works  and  bridges ;  or  he 
may  be  employed  in  the  reconnoissance 


of  a  country,  or  attached  to  a  general 
officer  as  engineer  of  the  division  of  an 
army.  The  duties  of  the  engineers, 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  are  detailed 
in  the  '  Aide-Me'moire  to  the  Military 
Sciences.' 

Before  the  peace  of  1763,  the  duties  of 
engineers  were  performed  by  officers  of 
the  army  generally ;  very  shortly  after- 
wards they  were  made  into  a  permanent 
corps,  and  in  1783  were  raised  to  be  a 
royal  corps.  In  1812,  the  sappers  and 
miners  were  organised.  Until  1859,  the 
non-commissioned  officers  and  men  were 
called  Sappers  and  Miners,  but  this  de- 
signation was  then  abolished,  and  they 
became  Royal  Engineers.  In  1861  the  In- 
dian engineers  were  amalgamated  with 
the  royal  engineers,  and  became  one  regi- 
ment, the  promotion  being  carried  on  in 
their  several  cadres.  The  personnel  of 
the  regiment  consists  of  17  battalions — 
8  for  imperial  service  and  9  for  Indian. 
In  each  of  the  imperial  grades,  there  are 
the  following  numbers  of  officers : — Ge- 
neral officers,  19 ;  colonels,  22 ;  lieu- 
tenant-colonels, 53  ;  majors,  79  ;  captains, 
121  ;  lieutenants,  179.  The  old  cadres 
of  the  late  Indian  engineers  are  gradu- 
ally dying  out. 

The  mode  of  officering  this  corps  is 
through  the  Military  Academy  at  Wool- 
wich. For  the  rules  of  admission  to  the 
academy,  vide  Appendix  A. 

Besides  military  engineers,  civil  engi- 
neers have  been  of  late  years  enter- 
tained by  her  Majesty's  Indian  govern- 
ment, to  supplement  the  establishment  of 
the  royal  engineers  in  India.  A  college 
is  now  established  at  Cooper's  Hill  by  the 
government  of  India  for  the  education  of 
civil  engineers  for  its  own  service. 

Enl'air  (French) — Literally,  in  the  air, 
unsupported.  It  is  said  that  a  division 
is  en  I'air  when  it  is  unsupported  or 
too  far  from  the  army  either  to  render 
assistance  or  to  receive  support.  For 
instance,  at  the  beginning  of  the  war 
of  1870-71,  Genera]  Douai  was  at  Belfort, 
MacMahon  in  the  east  of  the  Vosges, 
De  Failly,  en  I'air,  between  Frossard  and 
the  Duke  of  Magenta. 

Enlargement  of  the  Vent — Caused  by 
rapid  and  constant  firing  and  erosion. 
When  it  becomes  considerable,  the  vent 
is  rebouched.  In  old  iron  ordnance, 


ENL 


129 


EPR 


which  had  not  copper  vents,  the  gun 
was  condemned  if  the  hole  was  enlarged 
to  2  inches.  (  Vide  Erosion.) 

Enlist,  To — Literally,  to  enter  a  name 
on  a  list.  To  engage  in  military  service 
by  subscribing  articles,  or  enrolling  one's 
name,  before  a  magistrate,  as  a  soldier. 
To  receive  any  current  coin  of  the  realm 
as  enlisting  money,  knowing  it  to  be  such, 
from  any  person  employed  on  the  recruit- 
ing service ;  hence  the  term  "  to  take  the 
shilling."  The  mode  of  enlisting  formerly 
pursued,  in  which  the  recruit  received  a 
bounty,  has  been  abolished,  and  he  no 
longer  receives  a  bounty,  but  agrees 
verbally  with  the  recruiting  sergeant  to 
serve  as  a  soldier.  Subsequently  his  agree- 
ment is  reduced  to  writing  before  a  ma- 
gistrate, who  attests  or  swears  the  soldier 
to  perform  military  service.  ( Vide  Ap- 
pendix I.) 

Enlistment  in  the  British  army  (unlike 
what  it  is  in  continental  armies  where 
the  conscription  or  compulsory  service  is 
in  force)  is  a  voluntary  engagement  to 
serve  her  Majesty  at  home  or  abroad. 
There  are  many  arguments  for  and 
against  both  systems  of  enlistment.  Ge- 
nerally, military  opinions  are  for  com- 
pulsory service ;  civil  and  economic, 
for  voluntary.  The  army  gains  by  the 
compulsory  system,  having  reference, 
among  other  arguments,  to  the  certain 
and  ready  mode  of  enlisting;  but  the 
country  suffers,  in  consequence  of  loss  of 
valuable  labour  to  the  country.  England, 
therefore,  will  not  adopt  this  system  un- 
less it  can  be  proved  that  a  sufficient 
army  cannot  be  raised  without  it.  This 
is  the  true  point  on  which  the  question 
turns  in  this  country.  With  reference  to 
enlistment  in  continental  armies,  see  the 
articles  on  the  several  foreign  armies. 

Ensign — Formerly,  the  name  and  rank 
given  in  the  British  army  to  the  junior 
grade  of  commissioned  officer  in  a  regi- 
ment of  infantry.  This  name  has  been 
abolished  in  the  regiments  of  the  line, 
and  in  the  militia,  since  1871,  and  sub- 
lieutenant substituted  for  it.  The  name 
"  ensign "  is  derived  from  the  circum- 
stance of  an  officer  of  that  rank  being 
told  off  to  carry  the  colours. 

The  name  is  also  applied  to  a  standard, 
banner,  or  flag.  The  ensign  of  the  British 
navy  is  the  St.  George's,  a  white  ensign, 


with  a  red  cross,  and  the  union  jack  in 
the  left  hand  upper  quarter.  The  Eng- 
lish ensign  is  a  red,  white,  or  blue  flag, 
having  the  union  jack  in  the  upper  corner 
next  the  mast. 

Entanglement  —  A  kind  of  abatis 
formed  of  trees,  with  the  trunks  cut  half 
through.  It  forms  a  very  serious  ob- 
stacle to  the  advance  of  an  assailant.  A 
good  entanglement  cau  be  made  with 
stakes  and  wire.  The  mode  will  suggest 
itself  without  any  further  explanation. 

Entrepot — An  intermediate  depot  for 
the  reception  of  stores  and  arms  in  a 
garrison  town  where  there  is  no  arsenal 
or  magazine. 

Environ,  To — To  enclose  in  a  hostile 
manner ;  to  hem  in ;  to  besiege. 

Epaulettes — Shoulder  ornaments  worn 
by  military  and  naval  men  to  distinguish 
their  rank.  They  were  done  away  with 
in  the  British  army  in  1855,  but  are  worn 
in  the  navy,  in  the  corps  of  gentlemen-at- 
arms,  and  by  deputy  lieutenants.  Epau- 
lettes are  still  worn  in  several  continental 
armies. 

Epaulettes  appear  to  have  come  into 
fafhion  in  1784,  being  worn  first  of  all  by 
dragoon  regiments.  Subsequently,  the  in- 
fantry wore  them :  a  field  officer,  two  epau- 
lettes ;  a  captain,  one  on  the  right  shoulder ; 
and  a  subaltern,  one  on  the  left  shoulder. 
Later  on,  officers  of  all  ranks  wore  epau- 
lettes, generally  on  both  shoulders. 

Epaulment  (French,  e'paule) — A  para- 
pet on  the  flank  of  a  battery,  serving 
to  protect  the  guns  and  gunners  from 
the  fire  of  the  enemy.  Any  accident  of 
ground  from  behind  wherewith  troops 
can  protect  themselves  is  an  epaulment. 
Epaulments  are  generally  made  of  filled 
gabions  or  fascines.  It  is  stated  that 
epaulments,  two  lines,  were  considerably 
used  by  the  French  at  Gravelotte. 

Eprouvette,  Vertical  —  An  apparatus 
for  testing  the  strength  of  gunpowder 
after  it  has  been  incorporated.  It  con- 
sists of  a  small  mortar  in  which  a  ball, 
attached  to  a  rod,  is  placed.  The  mortar 
rests  in  a  vertical  position,  and  is  fixed  in 
a  wooden  bed.  The  rod,  with  the  ball, 
weighs  28J  Ibs.,  and  the  rod  is  graduated 
to  feet  and  inches.  On  the  charge  (which 
consists  of  only  half  a  drachm)  being 
fired,  the  ball,  with  rod  attached,  is  pro- 
jected upwards  as  far  as  the  force  of 


EQU 


130 


EEO 


the  powder  will  carry  it ;  it  is  prevented 
from  descending  by  a  small  pawl  which 
catches  in  a  rack  on  the  surface  of  the 
rod.  The  height  to  which  the  rod  ascends 
shows  the  strength  of  the  powder. 

Equation  —  In  mathematics,  is  the 
name  given  to  the  symbolical  expression 
of  the  equality  of  two  quantities,  and 
generally  containing  at  least  one  unknown 
quantity.  Thus,  x—  3  =  4  is  an  equation 
which  states  the  equality  between  x  —  3 
and  4,  in  which  x  is  the  unkown  quantity. 
A  quantity  is  known  when  its  value  in 
numbers  is  given,  and  when  this  value  is 
not  given,  it  is  called  an  unknown  quan- 
tity. 

Equation  of  Time — Is  thus  described 
by  Milner : — "  It  has  been  observed  that 
the  intervals  between  two  successive  ar- 
rivals of  the  sun  on  the  meridian  are  not 
the  same  at  all  times  of  the  year,  but 
sometimes  greater  and  sometimes  less 
than  24  hours,  as  shown  by  a  we\}- 
regulated  clock.  Hence  the  distinction 
between  apparent  or  solar  time  shown 
by  the  sun-dial,  and  true,  or  mean, 
or  equinoctial  time  given  by  a  clock, 
adjusted  by  an  imaginary  sun  supposed 
to  move  in  the  plane  of  the  equator, 
with  an  equable  mean  motion.  The 
difference  between  them,  which  sometimes 
amounts  to  16J  minutes,  is  called  the 
equation  of  time." 

Equerry  —  At  the  British  court,  a 
subordinate  officer  under  the  master  of 
the  horse,  usually  a  military  man. 
There  is  a  chief  equerry,  also  four 
equerries  in  ordinary,  and  an  equerry  of 
the  crown  stables.  Each  member  of  the 
royal  family  has  one  or  more  equerries. 

Equipage — Implies  everything  needful 
for  a  regiment  or  army  to  be  supplied 
with  on  the  march  or  operations  in  the 
field. 

Equipage,  Camp,  vide  Camp  Equipage. 

Equipment — Signifies  the  arms  and 
accoutrements  and  all  such  articles  as 
are  worn  or  carried  by  the  soldier  ;  they 
are  supplied  by  certain  departments 
charged  with  their  administration.  In 
the  artillery  service,  the  term  equipment 
includes  the  ordnance  and  carriages,  the 
supply  of  ammunition  and  stores.  In  the 
cavalry,  all  articles  of  saddlery,  and  such 
as  the  horse  carries,  are  included  under 
this  head. 


Equitation — The  art  of  riding.  Mili- 
tary equitation,  the  principles  of  which 
are  the  same  for  all  classes  of  cavalry — a 
uniform  system  existing  throughout  the 
country — is  described  as  consisting  "  in 
the  skilful  and  ready  application  of  the 
aids  with  which  the  rider  guides  and  con- 
trols his  horse  in  all  his  paces,  and  in  a 
settled  balance  of  the  body,  which  enables 
him  to  preserve  a  firm  seat  in  every 
variety  of  movement.  The  aids  in  horse- 
manship are  the  motions  and  proper 
application  of  the  bridle-hand  and  legs, 
to  direct  and  determine  the  turnings  and 
paces  of  the  horse.  Military  equitation 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts : — 

"  1st. — The  complete  instruction  of  the 
recruit  upon  a  trained  horse,  from  the 
earliest  to  the  last  lessons. 

"  2nd. — The  training  of  the  horse  by 
skilful  and  experienced  men. 

"  3rd. — The  practice  of  the  recruit  and 
remount  horse  at  close  files  in  the  ele- 
mentary parts  of  field  exercise,  to  pre- 
pare them  for  instruction  in  the  troop  or 
squadron.  This  science  is  indispensably 
requisite  for  the  military  horseman,  in 
order  that,  being  able  to  govern  his 
horse  by  the  aid  of  his  legs  and  bridle- 
hand,  he  may  have  the  right  hand  at  full 
liberty  for  the -use  of  his  weapon,  and  be 
capable  on  all  occasions,  whether  acting 
singly  or  in  squadron,  of  performing  his 
various  duties  with  care.  With  this  view, 
both  men  and  horses  should  be  constantly 
practised  in  the  exercise  of  such  lessons 
as  will  enable  them  either  to  move  in  a 
compact  body  or  to  act  singly  or  inde- 
pendently." 

The  system  of  equitation  now  taught 
is  that  practised  at  the  riding  establish- 
ment at  Canterbury  ;  and  with  the  view  of 
maintaining  one  system  throughout  the 
country,  commanding  officers  of  regi- 
ments are  called  upon  from  time  to  time 
to  select  non-commissioned  officers  and 
soldiers,  and  to  send  them  to  the  riding 
depot  at  Canterbury,  for  the  purpose,  as 
stated  in  the  Queen's  Regulations,  of 
being  practised  in  the  equitation  exercises, 
and  trained  as  riding  instructors  in  their 
corps. 

Erosion — The  act  of  eating  away.  As 
applied  to  guns,  it  is  the  guttering  or 
scoring  observed  at  the  seat  or  vent  of 
the  gun  after  much  firing,  and  is  caused 


EES 


131 


EST 


from  the  action  of  the  inflamed  gun- 
powder upon  the  metal,  as  it  passes  be- 
tween the  upper  surface  of  the  shot  and 
the  gun.  It  will  probably  be  found  that 
the  sulphur  is  the  eroding  part  of  the 
gunpowder,  from  its  affinity  for  iron  in 
its  heated  state,  forming  sulphide  of 
iron.  To  check  the  destructive  escape  of 
the  gas  over  the  projectile,  wads  have 
been  tried,  but  have  been  found  useless. 
Experiments  have  also  been  made  with 
metal  caps  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
projectile,  so  arranged  as  to  be  expanded 
and  pressed  against  the  side  of  the  base 
by  the  action  of  the  powder.  This  mode 
appears  to  be  a  success. 

Ersatz-Reserve,  vide  German  Army. 

Escalade  (Latin  scala,  a  ladder) — A 
sudden  attack  on  an  enemy's  works,  by 
means  of  escalading  ladders.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  hazardous  and  dangerous 
operations  in  warfare,  so  much  so  that 
the  leaders  of  an  escalade  constitute  a 
"  forlorn  hope  "  (q.  v.). 

The  mode  usually  followed  in  taking  a 
place  by  escalade  may  in  a  general  manner 
be  described  as  follows.  A  strong  party 
is  formed  under  the  cover  of  darkness 
(at  early  morn),  and  is  provided  with 
the  necessary  number  of  ladders,  long 
and  short,  with  which  it  proceeds  to  the 
point  of  attack,  supported  by  a  "  firing 
party,"  and  "supports."  Having  ad- 
vanced over  the  glacis  and  covered  way, 
and  descended  into  the  ditch,  the  esca- 
laders  thread  their  way  to  the  curtain  or 
bastion  to  be  attacked,  and  place  their 
ladders  against  the  escarp.  It  is  so  timed 
that  break  of  day  shall  find  the  escala- 
ders  ready  to  rush  to  the  assault.  As 
may  be  supposed,  it  is  a  period  of  intense 
excitement ;  all  is  done  to  hasten  the 
ascent  up  the  ladders — the  utmost  ala- 
crity being  exhibited.  If  opposed,  as  the 
escaladers  would  sure  to  be,  the  firing 
party  must  be  in  a  position  to  enfilade 
and  sweep  off  the  defenders  from  the  para- 
pets. Close  upon  the  escaladers,  the  main 
body  of  the  troops  follow.  This  kind  of 
attack,  which  is  exceptional  nowadays, 
would  only  be  resorted  to  when  time  is 
an  object,  and  there  appears  to  be  every 
chance  of  success.  The  usual  mode  of 
gaining  admittance  into  a  place  is  by 
assault  after  a  practicable  breach  has 
been  made,  and  in  the  attack  of  a  for- 


midable fortress  siege  operations  must  be 
carried  on  to  effect  this. 

Escalading  Ladders,  vide  Ladders,  Es- 
calading. 

Escarp,  or  Scarp — In  fortification,  the 
side  of  the  ditch  next  to  the  place,  which, 
in  a  permanent  work,  is  faced  with  ma- 
sonry. The  scarp  is  less  steep  than  the 
counterscarp,  because  it  has  to  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  parapet.  It  is  usual 
to  give  the  slope  of  the  scarp  a  base 
equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  base  of  the 
natural  slope  of  a  mound  of  fresh  earth 
the  altitude  of  which  is  equal  to  the  depth 
of  the  ditch.  Vauban  generally  gave  his 
revetments  a  slope  of  one-fifth  of  the 
total  height  of  the  wall. 

Escort — A  guard  of  troops  attending 
an  officer  or  person  of  distinction  when 
travelling.  It  is  also  a  guard  placed 
over  prisoners  on  a  march,  or  over  mili- 
tary stores  in  transit. 

Escuage — The  commutation  of  personal 
service  into  a  money  payment,  such  as  is 
observed  in  the  case  of  a  substitute  where 
compulsory  service  is  enacted. 

Esplanade— A  clear  space  of  ground 
separating  the  citadel  of  a  fortress  from 
the  town. 

Esprit  de  corps — A  term  well  known 
in  the  army.  It  is  usually  understood 
to  mean  brotherhood ;  it  means  even  more 
than  this.  As  described  in  James' '  Military 
Dictionary  ' — "  It  is  the  feeling  of  attach- 
ment a  soldier  has  for  his  regiment,  even 
to  the  point  of  thinking  it  the  best  in  the 
army.  It  fosters  good-will  and  fellowship 
among  officers  and  soldiers.  It  produces 
an  emulous  thirst  after  military  glory.  In 
fact,  true  esprit  de  corps  creates  such  a 
feeling  of  enthusiasm  and  love  for  all  that 
is  honourable  and  noble  that  an  officer 
or  soldier  will  be  careful  in  his  conduct 
to  do  nothing  which  would  bring  dis- 
honour or  reproach  on  his  regiment." 

Ess — A  couple  or  spare  link  in  the 
form  of  an  S,  with  holes  to  receive  a 
leather  thong.  Esses  are  used  to  unite 
broken  chains,  traces,  &c.  Chains  can  also 
be  lengthened  or  shortened  by  their  means, 

Establishment  —  The  extent,  materiel, 
and  personnel,  allowed  to  an  army  in 
peace  or  war  time;  in  the  latter  case, 
it  is  regulated  according  to  the  exigencies 
of  the  service,  which  being  much  greater 
during  war  than  peace  has  given  rise  to 
K  2 


EST 


EYO 


the  distinction  of  a  war  and  a  peace  esta- 
blishment. 

Estimate  —  A     computation     of    the; 
probable  expense  of  any  project  or  charges 
to  be  incurred,  framed  on  recognised  data,  j 
derived  from  previous  experience,  such  as  i 
the  yearly  military  and  other  estimates 
of  the  country. 

EstOC — A  small  stabbing  sword,  intro- 
duced in  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 

Etappen — A  department  which  origin- 
ated in  the  Prussian  military  railway 
organisation,  and  which  was  first  formed 
in  1867,  and  revised  in  1869 ;  subse- 
quently certain  changes  were  made  during 
the  war  of  1870-71.  The  object  of  this 
department  is  to  relieve  the  commander- 
in-chief  and  field  army  of  all  responsibility 
for  their  communications  in  the  rear. 

Etappen  commissions  are  appointed  to 
each  loading  and  unloading  station,  to 
which  a  field  officer  as  commandant,  an 
adjutant,  control  officer,  railway  officials, 
and  civil  government  officials,  are  at- 
tached. These  officers  supervise  all  local 
arrangements  for  loading  or  unloading, 
forwarding,  feeding,  billeting,  £c.  One 
of  the  officers  originally  appointed  to  this 
department  was  an  inspector  of  Etappen ; 
he  was  supposed  to  be  a  march  in  rear 
of  head-quarters,  superintending  all  ne- 
cessary arrangements,  but  he  had  no 
authority  over  the  civil  departments  with 
which  he  came  into  contact. 

In  1870  the  inspector  was  found  to 
have  too  much  to  do,  and  a  considerable 
amount  of  friction  ensued.  The  com- 
missariat officer  attached  received  orders 
from  an  inspector  and  from  his  own  chief. 
The  railway  subordinate  was  liable  to 
some  ten  different  chiefs,  and  the  whole 
railway  arrangements  were  half  military, 
half  civil. 

New  regulations  were  subsequently  in- 
troduced which  extended  the  powers  of 
the  inspector  of  Etappen.  The  official  title 
is  "  Inspector  of  Etappen  and  Railways." 
He  is  present  with  head-quarters,  and 
under  him  are  placed — 
Medical 

Commissariat      Under  responsible 
Post-office  heads. 

Telegraphs 

The  general  principle  or  idea  is  this  :— 

A  line  is  imagined  to  be  drawn  through 
the  head-quarters. 


All  in  front  belongs  to  the  active  army, 
all  in  rear  to  the  Etnppcn- Inspector. 

Our  Quartermaster-General's  depart- 
ment has  to  do  both. 

To  take  in  the  whole  of  the  Prussian 
railway  control,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  describe  in  full  the  system  pursued, 
which  space  will  not  admit. 

An  Etappen  department  has  been 
raised  in  the  French  army  after  the 
Prussian  system. 

Euphorbia  Tirucalli — This  plant  is 
much  used  in  making  hedges  in  India. 
It  is  an  evergreen.  The  wood  makes  very 
fair  charcoal  for  gunpowder  purposes, 
but  it  is  not  equal  to  that  derived  from 
the  urhur  or  dhall  bush.  In  Bengali  it 
is  called  lunka  sij,  and  in  Hindustani, 
sendh. 

Evacuate,  To — To  withdraw  from  a 
town  or  fortress,  in  consequence  either 
of  a  treaty  or  a  capitulation,  or  of  supe- 
rior orders. 

Evidence  —  As  given  before  a  court 
martial,  is  a  declaration  on  oath  by  the 
witness  of  any  circumstance  he  is  per- 
sonally acquainted  with,  having  reference 
to  the  matter  brought  before  the  court. 

The  examination  of  the  witness  may 
be  conducted  either  by  his  being  told 
by  the  president  or  the  judge-advo- 
cate, as  the  case  may  be,  to  state  what 
he  knows,  or  by  means  of  question  and 
answer,  or  by  both.  Every  question, 
whether  put  by  the  prosecutor,  the 
court,  or  the  prisoner,  must  be  in 
writing,  and  must  first  be  handed  to 
the  president ;  if  approved  by  him,  it 
is  entered  in  the  proceedings.  If  not 
approved  by  the  president,  and  the  party 
insists  on  putting  the  question,  the 
court,  being  cleared,  proceeds  to  determine 
by  vote  (the  president,  in  case  of  equality, 
having  a  second  or  casting  vote)  whether 
it  shall  be  put  or  rejected. 

Evolutions,  Military — The  movements 
by  which  troops  change  their  position 
either  for  attack  or  defence.  Those  evo- 
lutions are  best  which  can  be  executed 
with  the  greatest  celerity  compatible  with 
regularity,  and  which  are  founded  upon 
strict  mathematical  principles.  In  these 
days  of  arms  of  precision,  it  is  necessary 
that  change  of  movement  should  be  as 
rapid  as  possible,  so  as  to  get  into  posi- 
tion without  any  unnecessary  exposure. 


EXA 


133 


EXE 


This  does  not  therefore  permit  in  action 
of  the  square  movements  of  former  days. 

Examination — An  inquiry  into  the 
qualifications  of  those  who  are  desirous 
of  entering  any  particular  service  or  em- 
ployment. The  examinations  carried  out 
for  first  appointments  to  the  army  are 
competitive.  (  Vide  Appendix  A.) 

Examination  of  Officers  —  A  system 
carried  out  in  the  army  whereby  commis- 
sioned officers  are  examined  in  military 
subjects  before  they  are  promoted  to  a 
higher  grade.  In  accordance  with  the 
rules  of  the  service,  each  officer  up  to  the 
rank  of  field  officer  has  to  be  examined  in 
the  subjects  and  drill  laid  down  for  officers 
of  the  army,  before  he  can  be  promoted 
to  the  rank  above  that  in  which  he 
is.  In  garrisons,  periodical  boards,  or,  as 
occasion  may  require,  boards  on  applica- 
tion, are  assembled  for  the  examination 
of  officers  of  the  several  ranks.  Papers 
for  the  examination  of  infantry  and  ca- 
valry officers  are  sent  to  the  board  by  the 
Director-General  of  Military  Education. 
The  subjects  officers  have  to  pass  in  are 
laid  down  in  the  Queen's  Regulations  ; 
they  include  viva  voce  questions  ;  and  the 
drill  test  in  the  field  is  under  the  eye 
and  presence  of  the  board. 

Artillery  and  engineer  officers  are  also 
examined  by  a  board  of  officers  in  regi- 
mental duties,  military  law,  and  drill. 
The  former  are  further  required  to  pass 
an  examination  in  artillery,  and  the  latter 
must  have  passed  satisfactorily  at  the 
School  of  Military  Engineering. 

The  examination  papers  of  infantry  and 
cavalry  officers,  with  the  board's  report, 
are  sent  through  the  general  with  his 
remarks  to  the  Director-General  of  Mili- 
tary Education.  Those  of  officers  of 
artillery  and  engineers  are  sent  through 
the  general  to  the  adjutant-general  of 
their  respective  regiments,  but  answers 
to  the  questions  in  military  law  to  the 
Director  of  Military  Education.  ( Vide 
Appendix  A.) 

Examination  of  Ordnance — An  accu- 
rate inspection  of  the  bore  and  other 
parts  of  a  gun.  This  is  performed  in 
the  first  place  after  a  gun  has  been 
made  ;  in  the  second,  periodically,  when 
the  gun  is  in  use ;  and  lastly,  in  the 
case  of  smooth  -  bore  iron  ordnance, 
after  each  day's  firing.  In  firing  heavy 


rifled  M.L.  guns,  it  is  ordered,  as  far  as 
possible,  that  the  examination  of  the 
9-inch  gun  and  heavier  calibres  shall  take 
place  after  every  50  rounds ;  and  the 
8-inch,  7-inch,  M.L.R.  and  B.L.R.  guns, 
and  t>4-pr.  M.L.R.  gun,  after  every  100 
rounds ;  the  64-pr.  B.L.R.  gun  after  every 
150  rounds. 

Exchanges  —  The  permission  granted 
to  officers  in  the  British  army  to  ex- 
change from  one  regiment  to  the  other. 
Before  the  introduction  of  non-purchase 
idPthe  army,  it  was  competent  for  an 
officer  to  make  any  monetary  arrange- 
ment with  the  officer  with  whom  he 
exchanged;  but  a  check  was  put  on  this, 
on  purchase  being  abolished  in  the  army, 
as  it  involved,  so  it  was  supposed,  the 
opening  out  again  of  purchase  in  another 
form.  This  led  to  the  subject  being  dis- 
cussed in  parliament,  and  the  result  is 
that  a  bill  has  lately  been  passed  autho- 
rising officers  to  exchange  under  certain 
monetary  and  other  conditions. 

Execution,  Military — Implies  the  pun- 
ishment of  a  soldier  by  hanging  or  shoot- 
ing. Formerly  it  comprised  also  flogging 
and  running  the  gauntlet,  &c. 

Exercise — Manoeuvring  bodies  of  men 
together.  The  drill  of  a  mounted  bat- 
tery of  artillery  is  termed  exercise.  All 
such  use  as  the  soldier  is  instructed  in 
in  the  knowledge  of  his  weapon  is  termed 
exercise,  such  as  bayonet  exercise,  firing 
exercise,  lance  exercise,  manual,  pistol, 
and  sword  exercise. 

Exercise,  The  Field  —  A  book  pub- 
lished by  authority,  for  the  instruction 
of  the  soldier  in  the  drill  and  evolutions 
of  the  army. 

Exercise,  Firing — The  drill  the  recruit 
is  taught  in  loading  and  firing  his  rifle, 
after  he  has  learnt  the  manual  exercise. 
This  drill  takes  the  name  of  what  used 
to  be  the  platoon  exercise. 

Exercise,  Laboratory — The  instruction 
imparted,  in  an  arsenal,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  combustible  and  warlike  stores. 

Exercise,  Manual— A  drill  which  the 
soldier  has  to  practise  in  the  handling  of 
his  rifle  until  he  becomes  proficient  in  the 
use  of  it. 

Exercise,  Repository — The  mechanical 
mano2uvres  with  heavy  guns,  where 
tackles,  levers,  capstans,  &c.  have  to  be 
used. 


EXE 


131 


EXT 


Exercise,  Shelter  Trench. — An  exercis 
which  teaches  the  soldier  how  to  cove 
himself  quickly  from  the  fire  of  th 
enemy. 

Expansion — Is  the  general  effect  o 
heat  in  causing  enlargement  or  expansio: 
in  solids,  liquids,  and  gases.  The  effec 
of  expansion  is  seen  on  heating  spherica 
cannon-shot.  Shot,  on  being  slowly 
cooled,  become  permanently  enlarged. 

Expansive  Steam — The  method  of  ap 
plying  and  economising  steam   power  in 
engines.     It  is  thus  explained  in  Wea%' 
'  Dictionary  of  Terms  of  Art ' : — "  If  w 
allow  steam  to  flow  into  the  cylinder  o 
a  steam-engine,  until   the  piston  be  de 
pressed    to   one-half  of  the   stroke,    am 
then  prevent  the  admission  of  any  furthe 
quantity,  the  piston  will,   if  the  engine 
be  properly  weighted,  continue  its  motion 
to  the  bottom.    The  pressure  of  the  steam 
so  long  as  the  supply  is  continued  from 
the  boiler,  will  be  equal,  it  is  presumed 
to  ten  pounds  upon  the  inch.     With  this 
force,   it  will  act  upon  the  piston  unti 
it  completes  one-half  of  the  stroke :  the 
further  supply  of  steam  will  then  be  ex- 
cluded, and  that  which  is  in  the  cylinder 
will  expand  as   the    piston  descends,   s 
that,  when  the  stroke  is  complete,  it  will 
occupy  the  entire  capacity.    The  pressure 
of  the   steam   will    then  be  half  of  its 
former  amount,  or  five  pounds  upon  the 
inch.     During  the  descent  of  the  piston, 
the  pressure  of  the  steam  does  not  sud- 
denly decrease  from  ten  pounds  to  five, 
but  it    gradually  declines    through    the 
successive    intervals,   until   at    the   final 
point  it  yields  that  force.     It  is  by  this 
gradual  expansion  and  diminution  of  the 
pressure  that  the  superior  action  is  pro- 
duced." 

Expedition  —  The  organisation  and 
march  of  a  small  army  or  body  of  men 
for  hostile  purposes.  One  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  many  small  expeditions  is  sur- 
prise, which,  if  well  carried  out,  will 
ensure  success.  To  the  soldier,  no  part 
of  his  duty  is  so  exciting  and  interesting 
as  an  expedition,  for  it  implies  risk, 
hazard,  and  danger,  in  which  nature  of 
warfare  the  enthusiastic  and  daring  sol- 
dier delights. 

Expense  Magazines— Are  small  gun- 
powder magazines,  containing  the  made- 
up  ammunition  for  the  service  of  the 


guns  on  the  works,  at  the  rate  of  so  many 
rounds  per  gun.  In  fortifications  of  an 
old  construction  an  expense  magazine  was 
made  in  each  bastion  and  battery,  though 
this  was  not  always  the  case.  Expense 
magazines  are  often  made  under  the 
earthen  ramparts  of  fortifications,  with  a 
passage  cut  into  them  in  the  interior 
slopes.  In  more  modern  works,  such 
as  the  'Instruction  in  Fortification  at 
the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich,' it  is  shown  that  expense  maga- 
zines "should  be  placed  as  near  as  is 
practicable  to  the  guns  which  they  have 
to  supply,  and  may  often  be  conve- 
niently constructed  under  the  traverses 
and  below  the  level  of  the  terreplein, 
with  lifts  of  communication.  They  can, 
if  so  situated,  be  easily  secured  against 
the  enemy's  fire,  and  be  provided  with 
subterranean  commmunications  with  the 
main  magazine,  which  would  permit  them 
to  be  replenished  without  risk,  even 
during  action." 

The  first  suggestions  made  as  to  the 
size  of  expense  magazines  in  fortifications 
of  the  present  day  gave  four  guns  to  be 
supplied  by  each,  but  a  later  recommenda- 
tion proposes  only  two  guns,  in  the  case  of 
very  heavy  guns. 

Explosion — The  sudden  expansion  of 
an  elastic  fluid  with  force  and  a  loud 
report,  such  as  is  heard  in  the  explosion 
of  a  magazine,  the  springing  of  a  mine, 
the  bursting  of  a  shell,  or  the  firing  of  a 
charge  in  a  gun. 

Explosives,  Ignitible  —  Substances 
which,  on  a  match,  tube,  or  detonating 
composition  being  applied  to  them,  ignite, 
uch  as  gunpowder,  gun-cotton,  nitro- 
lycerine,  dynamite,  and  glyacyline,  all  of 
ivhich  can  be  used  as  explosive  agents,  for 
ubmarine  as  well  as  land  purposes. 

Exterior  Slope — In  fortification,  is  the 
lope  given  to  the  outside  of  the  parapet, 
t  is  found  by  experience  that  earth  of 
;ommon  tenacity  will  naturally  acquire  a 
lope  of  45°,  even  when  battered  by 
annon.  This  inclination  is  therefore 
nven  to  the  exterior  slope  in  the  first 
ustance,  in  order  that  the  fire  of  the 
nemy's  artillery  may  not  subsequently 
Her  its  shape. 

Extractor  —  An  instrument  used  in 
xtracting  a  projectile  from  a  M.L. 
ifled  gun.  That  introduced  into  the 


FAC 


135 


FEI 


service  for  every  calibre  of  Woolwich 
projectile  is  constructed  to  act  inde- 
pendently of  the  grooves  of  the  gun. 
The  term  extractor  is  given  to  other 
articles  of  artillery  stores,  such  as  are 
used  with  the  Gatling  gun,  and  the 
instrument  used  in  extracting  a  fuze  from 
a  shell. 


F. 


Face  of  a  Gun  —  The  terminating 
plane,  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the 
bore  of  a  gun. 

Faces  of  a  Work — In  fortification,  the 
name  given  to  the  two  sides  of  a  work  which 
form  its  most  prominent  salient  angle, 
such  as  the  faces  of  a  bastion  or  ravelin. 

Facing  Implements — Used  for  facing 
or  renewing  the  vent  and  breech  pieces  of 
an  Armstrong  gun. 

Facings  —  The  name  given  to  the 
colour  of  the  cuffs  and  collar  of  the 
clothing  of  a  regiment.  Regiments  are 
distinguished  by  the  colour  of  their 
facings. 

Factory,  Gun,  vide  Gun  Factories, 
Royal. 

Factory,  Small-arm,  vide  Small-arm 
Factory. 

Falchion — A  peculiarly  shaped  broad- 
bladed  sword,  added  to  the  offensive 
weapons  used  in  Edward  I.'s  reign,  A.D. 
1272-1307. 

Falconet  —  The  name  given  to  the 
smallest  kind  of  cannon  used  in  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries. 

Fall — In  artillery  material,  the  name 
given  to  any  rope  which  is  passed  through 
blocks,  so  as  to  form  part  of  a  tackle. 
The  rope  attached  to  a  gyn,  which  passes 
over  a  double  and  triple  block,  the  end  of 
it  passing  round  the  windlass,  is  termed 
the  fall.  The  fall  for  this  purpose  is 
generally  made  of  strong  rope,  depending 
on  the  weight  to  be  lifted. 

Fall,  To — A  town  or  fortress  is  said  to 
fall  when  it  is  compelled  to  surrender  to 
a  besieging  army. 

False  Attack — A  feigned  assault  made 
for  the  purpose  of  diverting  the  enemy 
from  the  real  point  of  attack.  False 
attacks  should  be  carried  out  on  several 


points  of  the  works  to  be  attacked,  and 
at  the  same  time  as  the  real  one  is  going 
on.  The  strength  of  the  force  detailed 
for  this  duty  should  be  imposing. 

Fanfare — A  particular  military  sound 
made  on  the  trumpet.  A  flourish  of 
trumpets. 

Farcy — A  contagious  disease  among 
horses,  caused  often  from  want  of  venti- 
lation, impure  air,  overcrowding,  &c.  It 
is  the  same  disease  as  glanders,  only  in  a 
modified  form.  (  Vide  Glanders.) 

Farriers  (Latin  ferrum,  iron) — 
Artificers  attached  to  the  mounted 
branch  of  the  service  for  the  purpose 
of  attending  to  the  care  of  the  horses' 
feet.  The  farriers  have  general  super- 
intendence over  the  horses  as  regards 
their  health,  in  subordination  to  the 
veterinary  surgeon.  In  India,  the  Euro- 
pean farriers  overlook  and  instruct  the 
native  farriers  in  making  horseshoes, 
and  are  responsible  that  the  work  is  pro- 
perly done.  A  farrier  sergeant  is  eligible 
as  a  member  of  the  sergeants'  mess  of  a 
regiment. 

Fascines — Twigs  or  brushwood  fastened 
together,  forming  a  cylindrical  fagot, 
18  feet  long,  9  inches  in  diameter,  and 
140  Ibs.  in  weight.  Fascines  are  some- 
times cut  in  two  or  three  lengths,  in  the 
former  case  for  covering  galleries ;  in 
the  latter,  for  crowning  gabions  in 
trenches.  For  revetting  the  interior 
slopes  of  works,  fascines  are  largely  used, 
together  with  gabions,  sandbags,  hurdles, 
planks,  casks,  &c. 

Fathom — A  linear  measure,  equal  to 
6  feet,  and  founded  on  the  distance 
between  the  finger  points  when  the 
arms  and  hands  are  extended  horizon- 
tally. Rope  is  sold  by  the  fathom.  A  coil 
of  rope  generally  measures  120  fathoms. 

Fatigue — The  term  given  to  a  party  of 
soldiers  told  off  for  any  other  duty  than 
a  dress  parade  necessitates. 

Fausse-braye  —  In  fortification,  is  a 
kind  of  second  enceinte;  since  the  in- 
troduction of  the  covered  way,  this 
work  is  quite  inapplicable  to  a  front 
furnished  with  and  covered  by  a  glacis. 

Feelers,  vide  Light  Cavalry  and  Scouts. 

Feint — In  military  operations,  a  mock 
attack  or  assault,  usually  made  to  de- 
ceive an  enemy  as  to  the  real  intentions 
of  his  opponent.  (Vide  False  Attack.) 


FEL 


13G 


FIE 


Fell  Railway — Takes  its  name  from 
the  inventor.  The  railway  under  this 
name  was  well  known  to  travellers  pro- 
ceeding to  or  returning  from  India,  as  it 
was  the  only  means  of  going  over  Mont 
Cenis,  in  Italy,  before  the  tunnel  was 
bored  through  the  mountain.  This  nature 
of  rail  has  been  found  useful  during  war 
time,  and  did  good  siege  service  during 
the  Franco-German  war.  The  gauge  is 
18  inches.  Each  truck  carries  three 
tons ;  500  unskilled  workmen  can  lay  a 
mile  in  a  day. 

Felloes — Segments  of  wood  dowelled 
together,  into  which  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel  are  fitted.  A  felloe  consists  of 
the  back  or  streak  side,  the  bosom  or 
spoke  side,  and  the  chin,  where  the  dowel 
pin  is  introduced.  Each  light  gun  car- 
nage wheel  has  six  felloes. 

Female  Screw — Formed  by  a  spiral 
cavity  cut  on  the  concave  surface  of  a 
cylinder,  corresponding  exactly  to  the 
thread  of  the  male  screw,  which  is  to 
turn  in  it. 

Fencibles— Regiments  formerly  raised 
for  local  defence,  or  at  a  special  crisis, 
and  for  a  limited  time.  The  officers  had 
the  same  rank  as  officers  of  militia 
according  to  the  dates  of  their  respective 
commissions.  The  only  regiment  now 
bearing  this  title  is  the  Royal  Malta 
Fencible  Artillery. 

Fencing — The  art  of  attacking  an  ad- 
versary, as  well  as  of  defending  oneself; 
a  very  salutary  exercise  for  both  officers 
and  soldiers,  rendering  them  expert  in  the 
use  of  the  sword  and  other  hand  arms. 

Fetlock  Joint — The  joint  immediately 
above  the  pastern  of  a  horse's  foot. 

Feu  de  joie — A  discharge  of  musketry 
on  the  occasion  of  a  victory,  Queen's 
birthday,  or  some  such  joyful  occasion. 
It  consists  of  three  discharges,  com- 
mencing with  the  right  of  the  line.  A 
feu  de  joie  is  generally  fired  in  conjunc- 
tion with  artillery,  thus — a  discharge  of 
musketry,  then  seven  guns,  this  repeated 
three  times. 

Fever — In  veterinary  practice,  it  is 
described  as  a  disease  characterised  by 
increased  heat,  quick  pulse,  and  thirst. 
In  horses,  it  is  caused  by  cold  or  chill, 
high  feeding,  irritation,  or  pain.  The 
symptoms  are  lassitude,  shivering,  quick 
pulse,  and  breathing  after  feed.  The  cure 


consists  in  bleeding,  and  keeping  open  the 
bowels  by  clysters  and  laxative  medi- 
cine. The  animal's  body  and  extremities 
should  be  kept  warm  by  clothing  and 
hard  rubbing;  the  diet  green  meat,  or 
bran  mashes,  chilled  water ;  and  the 
horse  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible. 

Fid — A  block  of  wood  used  in  heavy 
gun  exercise,  for  slinging  the  gun,  and 
for  mounting  and  dismounting  purposes. 
The  latest  pattern  of  fid  is  of  beech  or 
elm,  and  each  is  provided  with  a  rope 
grummet,  and  has  the  nature  of  the  gun 
for  which  it  is  intended  stamped  upon  it. 

Field — The  ground  on  which  an  army 
stands  in  the  day  of  battle.  The  term  is 
also  expressive  of  troops  when  entering  on 
a  campaign,  and  as  long  as  they  are  engaged 
against  an  enemy.  Hence,  when  so  situ- 
ated, they  are  said  to  "  keep  the  field." 

Field  Allowance  —  A  daily    sum   of 

money  granted  to  officers  in  her  Majesty's 

service,  at  home  or  in  the  colonies,  when 

placed  under  canvas.     This  allowance  is 

granted    to     meet    the    extra     expense 

!  caused  in  being  so  situated.     A  further 

!  extra  allowance  is  granted  when  troops 

;  are  engaged  on  service  before  the  enemy. 

In  India  there  is  no  such  allowance,  as 
the  pay  officers  receive  is  considered  suf- 
ficient to  enable  them  to  keep  up  their 
camp  equipage,  and  to  meet  all  expenses 
attendant  upon  a  move  from  cantonments 
or  in  setting  out  on  a  campaign. 

Field  Artillery  —  Comprises  horse 
artillery  and  field  batteries,  which,  from 
their  lightness  and  mobility,  are  easy  of 
draught,  and  hence  fitted  for  rapid  move- 
ments in  the  field.  Mountain  batteries 
come  also  under  the  category  of  field 
artillery.  The  horse  artillery  of  the 
British  service  consists  of  wrought-iron 
9-pr.  M.L.  rifled  guns  lined  with  steel,  and 
the  field  batteries  of  16-pr.  M.L.  rifled 
guns  of  the  same  material.  The  latter 
guns  will  in  course  of  time  replace  the 
12-pr.  Armstrong  guns  still  in  the  service. 

Field  Fortification— Works  of  a  tem- 
porary nature  thrown  up  for  the  preser- 
vation of  a  post,  camp,  &c. 

Field  Hospital,  vide  Hospital. 

Field  Marshal — The  highest  military 
rank  a  general  officer  can  enjoy ;  it 
is  in  most  cases  bestowed  on  the  oldest 
and  most  meritorious  officers  in  the 
army. 


FIE 


137 


FIG 


Field  Officer — An  officer  above  the 
rank  of  captain  and  below  that  of  general. 
Thus  a  major,  lieutenant-colouel,  or  colo- 
nel, whether  of  brevet  or  regimental  rank, 
is  a  lield  officer.  A  field  officer  in  command 
of  his  regiment  retains  the  command  for 
five  years,  but  can  be  reappointed  at  the 
will  of  the  commander-in-chief. 

Field  State — A  statement  made  over 
to  the  superior  or  reviewing  officer  on 
parade,  showing  the  number  of  officers 
and  men 'composing  the  troops,  distin- 
guishing those  present  and  absent  (on 
whatever  account  in  the  latter  case) 
under  their  respective  headings. 

Field  Telegraph,  vide  Telegraph. 

Fieldworks — Temporary  works  thrown 
up  either  for  the  protection  of  troops  or 
any  particular  position  which  it  is  not 
intended  permanently  to  retain.  Field- 
works,  such  as  epaulments,  trenches, 
rifle-pits,  &c.,  are  of  great  value  to 
an  army  which  has  one  of  its  tactical 
points  weaker  than  the  other,  but  the 
indiscriminate  use  of  them  should  be 
guarded  against.  On  this  subject  the 
following  deductions  may  be  drawn  from 
the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-71. 
Generals  should  not  misuse  them.  The 
better  drilled  and  disciplined  the  troops 
are,  the  more  this  kind  of  shelter  may 
be  employed,  but  it  becomes  dangerous 
to  use  it  when  the  protection  afforded  is 
defended  by  soldiers  who  are  not  sure  of 
themselves.  Troops  will  remain  in  their 
covered  position  as  long  as  they  can,  and 
it  will  be  no  easy  task  to  make  them  leave 
their  cover  to  attack  in  the  open  field. 
The  result  will  necessarily  follow,  that 


the  enemy,  perceiving  the  impossibility 
of  forcing  the  position  in  front,  will 
turn  it  and  outflank  it. 

In  the  British  army,  a  short  course  of 
instruction  in  fieldworks  is  gone  through 
by  the  infantry  at  all  stations,  where  prac- 
ticable, under  the  superintendence  of  the 
officer  commanding  the  royal  engineers  of 
the  district. 

Fife  —  A  wind  instrument,  generally 
used  in  military  music  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  the  drum.  James,  in  his 
'  Military  Dictionary,'  states  that  it  is  an 
instrument  of  high  antiquity,  and  was 
used  in  the  English  army  till  the  time  of 
James  I.  After  that  time  it  was  in 
disuse  until  the  year  1747,  when  it  was 
introduced  into  the  foot  guards  by  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland  during  the  siege  of 
Maestricht. 

Fight — A  battle  or  engagement  be- 
tween contending  forces. 

To  fight  it  out  is  to  continue  the  con- 
test until  one  side  or  the  other  gets  the 
better.  The  French  express  it  by  se  battre 
a  outrance. 

Figure  of  Merit — Denotes  the  efficiency 
of  the  shooting  of  a  squad,  company,  or 
battalion.  The  figure  of  merit  is  formed 
as  follows  : — 

Average  points  obtained  in  the  first  and 
second  periods. 

The  aggregate  points  to  be  divided  by  the 
number  of  men  who  commenced  the  first 
period. 

Average  points  obtained  in  the  volley 
firing. 

Minus  percentage  of  third-class  shots 
at  final  classification. 


INFANTRY. 


Very  good. 

Good      |  Moderate. 

When  under. 

Average  points   obtained  in  first   and"( 
second  periods  together      ..           ../ 

75 

70 

65 

65 

Average    points     obtained    in 

volley") 

17 

15 

14 

14 

firing 

••) 

When  over. 

Percentage  of  third-class  shots 

at  final  \ 

a 

12 

16 

16 

classification  (minus) 

••/ 

Figure  of  merit 

85 

75 

65 

65 

Average  points  in  independent 

firing  .  . 

18 

16 

15 

15 

Average  points  in  skirmishing 

9 

8 

6 

6 

FIL 


138 


FIR 


File — In  a  regiment  or  squad,  two  ! 
men,  a  front-rank  man  and  his  rear-rank  | 
man.  In  single  rank  it  means  one  man. 

File — A  strap  or  bar  of  steel,  the 
surface  of  which  is  cut  into  fine  points 
or  teeth,  which  act  by  a  species  of  cut- 
ting closely  allied  to  abrasion.  When 
the  file  is  rubbed  over  the  material  to 
be  operated  upon,  it  cuts  or  abrades 
little  shavings  or  shreds,  which,  from 
their  minuteness,  are  called  file  dust ; 
and  in  so  doing,  the  file  produces  minute 
and  irregular  furrows  of  nearly  equal 
depth,  leaving  the  surface  that  has 
been  filed  more  or  less  smooth,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  teeth  of  the  file, 
and  more  or  less  accurately  shaped, 
according  to  the  degree  of  skill  used 
in  the  manipulation  of  the  instrument. 
The  files  employed  in  the  mechanical  arts 
are  almost  endless  in  variety;  a  descrip- 
tion of  them  therefore  is  not  given  in 
this  work. 

Fillets — Bands  or  mouldings  on  smooth- 
bore guns,  such  as  the  vent  field  and 
muzzle  fillets  (q.  v.). 

Filtration — In  chemistry,  the  separa- 
tion of  solids  from  liquids.  The  appa- 
ratus in  chemistry  required  for  this  pur- 
pose are  funnels  and  funnel  stands,  lute 
jars  or  beakers,  stirring  rods,  glass  plates, 
a  wash  bottle,  and  filtering  paper.  The 
best  paper  for  filtering  purposes  is  that 
imported  from  Sweden. 

Finance,  Army — A  civil  department 
of  the  War  Office,  which  regulates  every 
military  expenditure.  Upon  this  depart- 
ment devolves  the  close  scrutiny  and  in- 
spection of  all  accounts,  the  revising  of 
all  estimates,  periodical  or  otherwise. 
This  department  also  furnishes  to  govern- 
ment every  explanation  as  to  the  neces- 
sity of  any  particular  expenditure  to  be 
incurred.  It  may  be  said  to  be  one  of 
the  most  important  departments  of  the 
army. 

Financial  Secretary — One  of  the  three 
principal  officials  under  the  Secretary  of 
War.  In  this  office  is  vested  the  control 
of  the  pay  and  audit  of  the  army. 

Finding — Is  that  part  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  a  court-martial  when,  the  evi- 
dence having  been  concluded,  the  court 
proceeds  to  deliberate  with  closed  doors 
on  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  prisoner. 
The  president  takes  the  votes  of  the 


court,  beginning  with  the  junior  mem- 
ber :  a  majority  of  votes  decides  whether 
the  prisoner  is  "  guilty  "  or  "  not  guilty." 

Fire,  To — To  discharge  a  piece  of  ord- 
nance or  any  fire-arm.  To  ignite  a  mine 
or  train  of  powder. 

Fire,  Vertical,  vide  Vertical  Fire. 

Fire-arms,  vide  Arms. 

Fire-bricks — Used  for  lining  furnaces, 
and  for  all  kinds  of  brickwork  exposed 
to  intense  heat  which  would  melt  com- 
mon bricks.  They  are  made  from  a  na- 
tural compound  of  silica  and  alumina, 
which,  when  free  from  lime  and  other 
fluxes,  is  infusible  under  the  greatest  heat 
to  which  it  can  be  subjected.  Oxide  of 
iron,  however,  which  is  present  in  most 
clays,  renders  the  clay  fusible  when  the 
silica  and  alumina  are  nearly  in  equal 
proportions,  and  those  fire-clays  are  the 
best  in  which  the  silica  is  greatly  in 
excess  over  the  alumina. 

Fire-engine — A  portable  machine  used 
for  extinguishing  fires  in  barracks  and 
permanent  camps.  The  engines  are 
worked  by  soldiers  who  are  exercised 
periodically  in  the  use  of  them.  The 
following  notes  regarding  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  water-hose  attached  to  the 
engine  may  be  found  useful : — 

"  The  engine,  hose,  and  implements, 
&c.  should  be  invariably  kept  in  good 
condition,  and  fit  for  immediate  use,  if 
required.  After  every  working  of  the 
engine,  all  component  parts  should  be  care- 
fully examined,  and  any  slight  repairs 
that  may  be  needed  effected  immediately. 

"The  hose  should  not  be  dragged 
along  the  ground,  but  after  use  should 
be  coiled  and  taken  to  the  work-yard 
to  be  cleaned.  If  of  leather,  it  must  be 
washed  clean,  hung  up  to  drain,  and, 
while  partially  wet,  a  mixture  of  neats- 
foot  and  cod  oil  rubbed  on  with  a  brush. 
If  of  canvas,  it  must  also  "be  washed 
clean,  hung  up  to  drain,  and  not  folded 
until  perfectly  dry.  It  should,  whether 
of  leather  or  canvas,  be  unfolded  at  least 
once  in  every  six  weeks,  and  kept  ex- 
posed in  an  airy  place.  If  kept  too  long 
coiled,  leather  is  liable  to  heat  and 
harden.  When  it  has  had  a  good  airing, 
and  is  well  softened,  it  may  be  again 
coiled.  Anoint  leather  hoses  with  the 
mixture  above  given  at  least  once  in 
every  two  months. 


FIR 


139 


FIT 


"  If  the  engine  has  been  sent  away  for 
use  on  account  of  a  fire  (or  after  tra- 
velling), wash  it  on  its  return  before 
dirt  has  had  time  to  harden,  and  pump 
clean  water  through  the  works,  moving 
the  levers  rapidly  to  remove  mud,  grit, 
£c.  The  cylinders,  after  being  wiped 
dry  and  clean,  should  be  examined  to 
see  if  they  have  sustained  any  injury, 
and  the  pistons  covered  with  salad  or 
olive  oil  for  lubricating  the  cylinders 
and  keeping  the  leather  cups  moist. 
When  you  play  an  engine,  place  the 
branch  pipe,  if  possible,  in  such  a  posi- 
tion that  its  jet  may  be  assisted  by  the 
wind.  In  extinguishing  fire,  the  branch 
pipe  should  be  brought  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  premises  on  fire,  and  if  the  fire- 
men cannot  enter  the  house  or  building, 
use  ladders,  if  desirable.  What  is 
wanted  is,  to  play  with  full  power  on 
the  burning  materials  and  cut  off  the 
flame  at  its  source.  It  is  the  force  of 
the  water  and  not  the  quantity  that  has 
the  greatest  effect.  The  men  working 
an  engine  should  commence  pumping 
slowly,  gradually  increasing  or  quicken- 
ing the  movement,  throwing  all  their 
weight  on  the  down  stroke,  and  allowing 
the  handles  to  rise  by  the  depression  of 
the  levers  on  the  other  side." 

Fire-hook — A  hook  for  pulling  the 
thatch  oft'  barracks  and  other  buildings  so 
covered,  in  case  of  fire.  Fire-hooks  are 
made  in  India  of  sal  or  any  other  suitable 
wood,  when  bamboo  is  not  procurable. 

Fire-ladders,  vide  Ladders,  Fire. 

Firelock — A  term  applied  to  a  musket 
with  a  flintlock  ;  so  called  from  producing 
fire  of  itself,  by  the  action  of  flint  and 
steel.  Firelocks  were  invented  about 
1645,  and  they  superseded  the  matchlock 
some  years  later.  The  Dutch  appear  to 
have  been  the  inventors  of  this  arm.  The 
name,  though  the  arm  is  obsolete,  is  still 
current  among  soldiers. 

Fire-master — A  post  formerly  held  in 
the  Royal  Arsenal,  Woolwich,  by  an  offi- 
cer of  artillery,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
attend  to  all  laboratory  work.  The 
designation  of  fire-master  is  still  known 
in  the  ordnance  branch  of  the  ser- 
vice ;  he  is  an  officer  of  the  royal  artil- 
lery, and  is  entrusted  with  the  inspec- 
tion of  ordnance  stores  at  foreign 
stations. 


Fire-worker — Formerly  an  assistant  to 
the  fire-master.  In  the  early  organisa- 
tion of  the  British  artillery,  this  title  was 
given  to  the  junior  subaltern  grade,  the 
designation  of  the  officer  being  lieutenant 
fire-worker. 

Fireworks — A  pyrotechnical  display, 
used  chiefly  on  days  of  rejoicing  and  fete 
days.  Fireworks  are  made  up  in  the 
laboratory  of  certain  combustible  stores, 
in  which  the  ingredients  of  gunpowder 
form  the  larger  part.  The  variety  of 
stars  and  colours  observed  in  fireworks  is 
formed  principally  of  metallic  filings. 

Firing  Exercise,  vide  Exercise,  Firing. 

Firmness — Represents  steadiness,  con- 
stancy, resolution.  Firmness  of  charac- 
ter and  firmness  of  purpose  are  such 
essential  qualities  in  the  commander  of 
a  regiment  or  army  that  the  want  of  it 
is  the  sure  forerunner  of  disorganisation 
and  disaster.  Without  firmness  of  pur- 
pose in  dealing  with  soldiers,  no  regiment 
or  body  of  men  can  be  commanded. 

Fisherman's  Knot — -A  knot  used  in 
pontooning  to  fasten  the  cables  to  the 
rings  of  the  anchors. 

Fishing  Spars— In  artillery  material, 
consist  of  spars  of  wood  placed  parallel 
to  the  spars  to  be  strengthened,  by  lash- 
ing them  to  one  another. 

Fit  for  Service — From  this  expression 
is  understood,  being  in  a  good  state  of 
health  and  capable  of  bearing  fatigue. 
The  complaints  which  disable  a  soldier 
from  being  "  fit  for  service "  are  laid 
down  by  the  medical  department,  and 
are  such  as  to  incapacitate  a  man  from 
doing  his  duty. 

Fittings — The  name   given  to  certain 
fixtures    in   a    barrack    or   on    board   a 
military    transport    for   the    purpose  of 
keeping  up  a  current  of  pure  air,  and  for 
receiving  the  knapsacks  and  arms.    They 
are  as  follows  : — 
Ventilators. 
Knapsack  and  arm  racks. 

If  there  be  sufficient  height  for  knap- 
sacks, they  should  be  placed  in  battens 
over  the  men's  mess  place.  If  the  deck  be 
lower  than  6  feet,  they  should  be  packed 
separately.  The  fittings  in  the  officers' 
cabins  are  of  the  usual  nature.  For  the 
convenience  of  the  sick,  a  portion  of  the 
ship  is  set  apart  which  has  certain  fix- 
tures. Should  the  wives  of  the  soldiers 


FIX 


140 


accompany  them,  standing  bed  places  are 
erected,  which  come  under  the  head  of 
fittings. 

Fixed  Ammunition  —  When  the  car- 
tridge is  attached  to  the  projectile,  the 
two  together  are  termed  "fixed  ammu- 
nition." During  the  last,  and  even  in 
the  beginning  of  the  present,  century, 
this  nature  of  ammunition  was  used  for 
all  calibres,  but  latterly  it  has  been  re- 
stricted to  the  3-pr.  S.B.  for  mountain 
service  in  India  or  elsewhere,  wherever 
this  gun  may  be  used. 

Flag — An  ensign  or  colour  on  which 
are  usually  worked  certain  figures  or 
devices,  carried  by  each  regiment  as  its 
distinguishing  mark.  (  Vide  Colours,  Mili- 
tary.) 

Flag,  National  —  Is  the  union  jack, 
which  is  authorised  to  be  hoisted  in  all 
fortresses  at  home  and  abroad ;  also  by 
certain  authorities,  such  as  the  governors 
of  dependencies,  commanders -in -chief, 
general  officers  in  command,  &c. 

Flag  of  Truce — -A  flag  (generally  a 
white  handkerchief)  attached  to  a  staff 
and  carried  by  an  officer  sent  to  commu- 
nicate with  the  enemy.  Besides  the  flag, 
the  approach  is  also  signified  by  the 
sound  of  a  trumpet.  The  Queen's  Regu- 
lations direct  that  persons  bearing  a  flag 
of  truce  from  the  enemy  are  to  be 
treated  with  attention  and  civility ;  but 
as  the  object  of  such  communications  is 
sometimes  to  spy  out  the  nakedness  of 
the  land,  or,  in  other  words,  to  gain  in- 
formation as  to  what  is  going  on  in  the 
enemy's  camp,  the  flag  should  be  received 
with  great  reserve  and  caution,  and,  if 
necessary,  the  eyes  of  the  bearer  should  be 
bandaged. 

Flag-staff — A  mast  or  pole  on  which  a 
flag  or  standard  is  hung.  One  is  allowed 
to  each  fort  or  fortress,  and  to  the  gover- 
nors of  our  several  dependencies,  to 
commanders-in-chief,  and  to  officers  com- 
manding divisions  or  districts  of  the 
army. 

Flam — A  beat  or  tap  upon  the  drum 
which  was  formerly  used  in  the  British 
army,  when  regiments  were  going 
through  their  drill  or  exercise,  every 
formation  being  done  by  tap  or  beat 
upon  the  drum.  It  was  likewise  beat 
in  firing  practice  whenever  the  target 
was  struck. 


Flanders  Wagon — A  wagon  suited 
to  the  transport  of  all  light  stores,  and, 
though  still  in  existence,  is  of  an  obsolete 
pattern. 

Flange,  or  Flanoh — The  projecting 
rim  of  metal  on  the  circumference  of  a 
wheel  or  cylinder  to  serve  as  a  bearing, 
for  example,  the  rim  on  the  tire  of 
railway  wheels.  The  rim  of  metal  round 
the  mouth  of  gun  caps  used  with  percus- 
sion muskets  is  called  a  flange. 

Flank — The  extreme  right  or  left  of  a 
body  of  troops  or  a  military  position.  In 
fortification,  the  flanks  of  a  work  are 
those  parts  which  afford  flanking  de- 
fence. 

Flank  Attack — In  warfare,  one  of  the 
modes  of  attack  whereby  the  side  or 
flank  of  an  army  or  body  of  troops  is 
attacked.  Before  the  introduction  of 
rifled  guns  and  arms,  the  attack  in  front, 
by  heavy  columns  of  infantry  covered  by 
skirmishers  and  guns,  was  the  usual  mode 
of  attack,  but  since  then  it  has  been 
found,  in  consequence  of  the  wither- 
ing and  rapid  fire  of  rifles,  that,  depend- 
ing alone  upon  such  an  attack,  a  front 
advance  is  attended  with  extreme  danger. 
Troops  advancing  in  column  under  such 
circumstances  necessarily  break  up  into 
skirmishers,  the  column  form  becomes 
somewhat  abandoned,  both  in  the  leading 
columns,  supports,  and  reserves,  as  each 
moves  up  into  action.  To  remedy  this, 
attack  in  flank  or  rear  is  come  to  be 
received  as  the  best  mode  of  attack ;  not 
that  the  front  attack  is  to  be  altogether 
given  up,  for  to  insure  success  such  an 
attack  is  still  necessary,  though  modified  : 
otherwise  the  enemy  would  be  free  to 
meet  and  frustrate  the  flank  movements  ; 
so  that  really  the  attack  of  the  present 
day  is  a  combination  of  front  and  flank. 

Flank  Defence — In  fortification,  is  the 
means  adopted  in  the  trace  of  a  work  to 
preserve  all  parts  of  it  from  being  unduly 
exposed  to  the  direct  fire  of  the  enemy, 
such  as  would  be  the  case  if  a  parapet 
had  alone  to  protect  itself  in  a  direct 
line  upon  the  besiegers.  Again,  the  face 
of  a  work  is  said  to  receive  flank  defence, 
or  to  be  flanked,  when  the  fire  of  another 
work  is  directed  parallel  or  nearly  so  to 
its  escarp,  so  as  to  defend  its  ditch  or  the 
ground  in  front  of  it.  Any  work  not  so 
provided  would  be  liable  to  be  captured 


FLA 


HI 


FLE 


without  difficulty.  Take  for  instance  a 
faultily  constructed  work,  permitting  of 
the  assailants  getting  close  up  under  the 
rampart  without  the  defenders  seeing 
them  ;  in  this  position  a  few  bold  reso- 
lute men,  with  crowbars  and  a  bag  of 
powder  might,  by  making  a  cavity  in 
the  escarp,  destroy  a  portion  of  the  ram- 
part. To  prevent  however  such  a  possi- 
bility, three  systems  have  been  devised 
for  giving  flanking  defence  to  a  perma- 
nent work.  They  are  the  tenaille  sys- 
tem, the  bastioned  system,  and  the  poly- 
gonal system. 

Extreme  precaution  has  to  be  taken 
in  field  or  permanent  works  to  give 
them  good  flanking  defence. 

Flank  Movement  —  This  term  has 
reference  to  the  change  of  march  of  an 
army  or  a  portion  of  an  army,  which  cir- 
cumstances may  necessitate,  and  which 
may  occur  when  a  battle  is  being  fought, 
with  the  view  to  turning  either  one  or 
both  wings  of  the  enemy,  or  a  better  posi- 
tion being  taken  up.  In  making  a  flank 
movement  before  the  enemy,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  carry  out  the  usual  order  of 
march,  as  laid  down  for  the  march  of  an 
army  to  the  front.  Such  a  formation 
would  be  inconvenient  to  a  large  body  of 
troops,  if  the  ground  or  country  was  cir- 
cumscribed or  enclosed,  having  to  march 
in  one  direction  and  to  fight  a  battle  in 
another,  thus  necessitating  a  long  wheel 
of  its  columns  before  coming  into  action. 
To  avoid  this,  a  new  order  of  march  must 
be  pursued. 

Colonel  Hamley,  in  his  'Operations  of 
War,'  points  out  what  should  be  done 
under  the  circumstances.  "  On  perfectly 
open  ground  such  a  movement  might  be 
accomplished  by  marching  to  a  flank  in 
order  of  battle,  that  is,  in  three  columns 
formed  of  the  two  lines  and  the  reserve, 
with  an  advanced  guard  protecting  the 
flank  towards  the  enemy.  But  the 
question  is  of  making  a  march  of  this 
kind  in  an  average  broken  or  enclosed 
country,  where  very  lengthened  columns, 
especially  of  cavalry  and  artillery,  could 
not  without  great  risk  offer  their  flank  to 
the  enemy."  Colonel  Hamley  then  gives 
the  order  of  march  to  a  flank,  and  winds 
up  in  saying  : — "  When  a  corps  is  moving 
thus  to  a  flank,  it  will  be  of  immense 
importance  to  decide  whether  it  is  to 


form  line  of  battle  to  a  front  or  a  flank, 
relatively  to  the  rest  of  the  army  and  to 
the  enemy.  Thus  Biilow's  march  to  the 
field  of  Waterloo  was  a  flank  march ;  but 
for  the  attack  on  the  French  flank,  the 
order  of  march  to  a  front  was  the  proper 
formation  for  his  columns." 

He  further  states  that — "  The  turning 
of  the  flank  of  a  line  of  battle  may  be 
effected  either  by  originally  directing 
part  of  the  army  beyond  that  flank 
or  by  reinforcing  one  wing  of  a  direct 
attack,  and  deploying  the  added  troops 
beyond  the  menaced  flank  during  the 
engagement.  The  Prussians  always  seem 
to  have  operated  in  the  latter  way, 
engaging  at  the  same  time  throughout 
the  front.  The  history  of  the  victories 
of  the  summer  of  1870  is  that  the 
German  corps  march  straight  for  the 
enemy,  that  the  leading  troops  at  once 
attack,  that  the  rest  hurry  up  to  their 
support,  extending  and  d'eepening  the 
skirmishing  line,  and  that,  after  a  severe 
engagement,  an  extension  beyond  a  flank 
renders  the  position  untenable." 

Flank,  Pivot — When  a  regiment  is 
drawn  up  in  column  right  in  front — that 
is,  when  the  company  which  stood  on  the 
right,  when  in  line,  is  in  front — the  left- 
hand  man  will  be  the  pivot  flank  of  each 
company.  When  the  column  is  left  in 
front,  the  right-hand  man  will  be  the 
pivot  flank  of  each  company. 

Flank,  Reverse — The  extremity  of  the 
division  furthest  from  the  pivot  flank. 

Flanks,  Betired — In  fortification,  are 
those  made  behind  the  line  which  joins 
the  extremity  of  the  face  and  the  curtain 
towards  the  capital  of  the  bastion. 

Flaw  —  In  casting  or  forging,  any 
crack  or  opening  which  may  be  observed. 
In  forging  it  occurs  from  bad  welding. 

Fleche  —  In  fortification,  the  most 
simple  species  of  field  works  ;  it  is  quickly 
and  easily  constructed,  and  therefore 
frequently  used  in  the  field.  It  usually 
consists  of  two  faces  forming  a  salient 
angle  towards  some  object,  from  whence 
it  cannot  be  approached  on  the  prolon- 
gation of  its  capital.  One  simple  rule 
for  the  construction  of  a  fleche  is  to 
select  a  spot  for  the  salient,  and  to  throw 
up  a  breastwork  on  either  side  forming 
an  angle  of  not  less  than  60  degrees,  and 
allowing  a  distance  of  a  yard  to  each  file. 


FLE 


142 


FOR 


Fleeting  —  This  term  is  applied  to 
shifting  or  overhauling  a  tackle. 

Flintlock  —  May  be  described  as  a 
modification  of  and  improvement  on  the 
wheel-lock,  which  was  attached  to  the 
old  musket  for  the  purpose  of  discharging 
the  piece.  In  the  '  Text-book  for 
Musketry  at  Hythe  '  it  is  shown  that 
the  modern  firelock,  the  flintlock,  was 
invented  about  1635,  suggested,  no 
doubt,  from  the  snaphaunce  described 
elsewhere,  and  from  which  it  only 
differed  by  the  cover  of  the  pan  forming 
part  of  the  steel  or  hammer,  which 
retained  its  furrows  until  the  eighteenth 
century.  Before  the  invention  of  the 
flintlock,  the  wheel-lock  was  frequently 
called  the  firelock.  The  flintlock  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  employed  in 
England  until  1677. 

Floating  Target  —  A  floating  mark 
for  the  practice  of  artillery  firing  sea- 
wards. It  consists  of  a  raft  made  of  two 
pieces  of  deal  10  feet  in  length,  9  inches 
wide,  and  3  inches  in  thickness,  united 
together  crosswise,  and  having  a  cask, 
an  ordinary  half-ton  vat,  placed  on  it 
and  secured  by  four  wooden  snugs  and 
four  small  guy  lines. 

A  flag-staff  2£  inches  in  diameter,  and 
14  feet  in  height,  with  a  flag  4  feet  6 
inches  by  4  feet,  is  inserted  upright  in 
the  vat,  and  secured  by  four  guys  to  the 
extremities  of  the  raft. 

A  3-inch  rope,  18£  fathoms  in  length, 
with  an  iron  shackle  at  one  end,  for 
attaching  an  anchor  or  grapnel,  is  made 
fast  to  the  raft. 

Flourish— Any  vibration  of  sound  that 
issues  from  a  musical  instrument. 

Flourish,  of  Trumpets — The  sounding 
used  by  regiments,  having  no  bands,  in 
receiving  a  general  officer  on  parade,  viz. 
by  the  trumpets  or  bugles  sounding  the 
"  flourish."  , 

Flowers  of  Sulphur — The  pure  sulphur 
obtained  by  sublimation,  which  appears 
in  the  neck  of  the  retort  in  the  form 
of  a  very  fine  powder,  known  as  "  flowers 
of  sulphur." 

Fluorine  —  An  elementary  principle 
contained  in  fluor  -  spar,  which  is  so 
called  from  its  acting  as  a  flux  in  the 
working  of  certain  minerals.  (Vide 
Baume's  Flux.) 

Flux — A  substance  or  mixture  used  to 


promote  the  fusion  of  metals  or  minerals. 
The  fluxes  generally  used  are  alkalies. 
Limestone,  fluor-spar,  borax,  are  among 
the  principal  fluxes. 

Fly  Wheel — A  wheel,  with  a  heavy 
rim,  fixed  upon  the  crank  shaft  of  a  land 
engine  for  the  purpose  of  equalising  the 
motion,  by  the  centrifugal  force  absorb- 
ing the  surplus  force  at  one  part  of  the 
action,  to  distribute  again  when  the 
action  is  deficient,  j 

Flying  Bridge  —  Consists  of  one  or 
more  barges  moored  by  a  long  cable  to  a 
point  in  the  centre  of  the  stream.  When 
the  barge  is  properly  steered  in  a  current 
sufficiently  strong,  it  is  swept  by  it  from 
one  bank  to  the  other.  The  proper  form 
of  vessels  for  flying  bridges  should  be 
long  and  narrow.  For  the  value  of  this 
nature  of  bridge,  vide  Bridges,  Mili- 
tary. 

Flying  Brigade  —  A  force  of  three, 
four,  or  five  thousand  troops,  principally 
of  cavalry,  kept  constantly  in  the  field  to 
cover  its  own  garrisons,  and  annoy  the 
enemy. 

Flying  Camp,  vide  Encampment. 

Flying  Sap — In  fortification,  is  a  sap 
formed  by  placing  and  filling  several 
gabions  at  the  same  time  ;  which  may  be 
done  at  times  when  the  attack  is  slack. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  usual 
formation  of  the  second  parallel  in  the 
attack. 

Fodder,  vide  Forage. 

Followers,  Camp,  vide  Camp  Followers. 

Foot  —  A  linear  measure  of  twelve 
inches. 

Foot  Guards — Consist  of  the  following 
regiments :  the  Grenadier,  Coldstream, 
and  Scots  Fusilier  Guards.  They  form 
the  guard  over  her  Majesty's  person, 
and  the  garrison,  ordinarily,  of  the  metro- 
polis. The  officers  of  these  regiments 
hold  higher  army  rank  than  that  they 
bear  regimentally. 

Foot-tons  —  A  convenient  mode  of 
calculating  or  expressing  the  "  work 
done  "  on  impact  by  a  body  in  motion. 
(  Vide  Energy.) 

Forage  —  The  daily  ration  of  food 
given  to  horses  and  other  animals  in  the 
service.  It  is  of  two  kinds,  green  and 
dry  ;  the  former  consists  of  green 
grass,  tares,  vetches,  &c. ;  the  latter  of 
oats  and  hay,  and  sometimes  of  corn  and 


FOR 


143 


FOR 


barley,  according  to  circumstances  and 
the  country  in  which  the  horses  may  be 
serving.  The  daily  ration  laid  down  for 
all  horses  is  12  Ibs.  of  oats  and  12  Ibs.  of 
hay,  which  is  distributed  in  three  por- 
tions, and  given  at  morn,  noon,  and  at 
eve  ;  pack  animals  get  less,  viz.  8  Ibs.  of 
oats  and  10  Ibs.  of  hay.  In  India,  the 
daily  food  given  to  horses  consists  of 
gram  and  grass.  Generally  4  seers  or 
8  Ibs.  per  horse  is  given  of  the  former 
during  the  hot  season,  and  5  seers  or 
10  Ibs.  throughout  the  cold  weather, 
and  when  the  horses  are  on  the  march. 
Grass,  about  30  Ibs.  daily,  is  provided  by 
grass-cutters,  of  whom  there  is  one  to 
every  horse,  or  one  to  every  two ;  but 
in  the  latter  case,  the  grass-cutter  has  to 
provide  a  pony,  and  bring  in  grass  for 
two  horses,  for  which  he  receives  double 
wages.  The  grass  is  cut  from  the  sur- 
rounding country  ;  the  men  going  some- 
times 15  or  20  miles  to  gather  it.  Sur- 
plus grass  is  very  often  stacked  by 
officers,  by  which  means  a  ready  supply 
of  hay  is  at  hand  when  grass  is  scarce, 
which  occurs  in  some  districts  in  the 
north-west  of  India,  during  the  hot  and 
dry  season.  On  the  march,  should  it  be 
difficult  to  obtain  grass,  a  requisition  is 
made  on  the  civil  authorities  to  collect  it 
at  any  named  place.  The  fodder  for 
bullocks  in  India  consists  of  6  Ibs.  of 
grain  and  14  Ibs.  of  chopped  straw  called 
bhoosa.  Camels  feed  on  the  leaves  of 
the  pepul  tree.  Elephants  are  fed  on 
wheaten  cakes  mixed  with  molasses, 
called  in  India  (four.  The  daily  ration  is 
from  15  to  30  Ibs.  according  to  the  size 
of  the  animal.  The  green  food  consists 
of  sugar  cane  or  green  leaves  of  different 
trees. 

Forage  Cap — The  undress  cap  worn 
by  infantry  soldiers,  and  known  as  the 
Glengarry  forage  cap.  When  not  in 
use,  it  is  secured  under  the  straps  of  the 
soldier's  pack. 

Foraging  Parties — Are  men  of  differ- 
ent regiments,  infantry  and  cavalry,  who 
are  employed  in  collecting  fuel  or  straw, 
or  in  carrying  water  from  an  enemy's 
country.  If  the  troops  on  this  duty 
exceed  twenty  men,  and  have  any  distance 
to  march,  a  subaltern  officer  is  to  be  put 
in  command  of  the  party. 

Force — Any  cause  which  produces,  or 


tends  to  produce,  a  change  in  the  state  of 
rest  or  motion  of  a  particle  is  called  force. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  an  armed 
body. 

Ford— The  shallow  part  of  a  river, 
where  troops  can  cross  without  injuring, 
their  arms.  The  depth  of  fords  for 
cavalry  should  not  be  more  than  4  feet, 
and  for  infantry  3  feet ;  should  the 
stream,  however,  be  very  rapid,  depths 
much  less  than  these  could  not  be  con- 
sidered fordable,  particularly  if  the 
bottom  is  uneven.  Gun  carriages  with 
wheels  5  feet  in  diameter  may  cross 
a  ford  4  feet  deep  ;  but  as  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  their  contents  dry,  the  depth 
should  not  be  more  than  2J  feet.  If  the 
force  of  the  current  be  great  or  rapid,  it 
may  be  broken  by  the  cavalry  crossing  a 
little  above  the  ford  ;  but  if  the  bottom 
be  sandy,  the  cavalry  should  cross  after 
the  infantry  and  artillery,  as  the  pass- 
age of  the  former  deepens  a  ford  some- 
times very  materially.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  the  horses  are  not  allowed 
to  trot  in  fording,  nor  to  halt  while 
crossing. 

In  searching  for  fords,  it  will  generally 
be  found  that  the  widest  parts  of  rivers 
are  the  shallowest,  and  that  in  a  straight 
line  across.  In  the  bend  of  rivers  the 
water  is  deepest,  and,  moreover,  the 
bottom  at  curved  parts  is  never  firm 
throughout.  Rivers,  however,  which  are 
not  anywhere  fordable  in  a  perpendicular 
line  across  may  be  found  to  be  so  in 
a  slanting  direction  between  two  sinu- 
osities. Before  committing  the  troops 
to  a  ford,  it  should  be  well  reconnoitred, 
and  this  can  easily  be  done  by  descend- 
ing the  river  in  a  boat  and  taking 
soundings. 

Colonel  Hamley,  in  his  '  Operations  of 
War,'  lays  down  the  following  features 
to  be  observed  in  reconnoitring  fords : 
— "  Their  banks,  their  bottom,  their 
level  at  entering  and  quitting  the  water. 
Their  position,  whether  in  angles,  wind- 
ings, or  straight  parts  of  the  stream. 
The  direction  of  the  ford — depth  and 
rapidity  of  stream — whether  the  ford 
is  shifting  or  permanent — command  of 
the  banks.  Points  existing  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  which  use  may  be 
made  to  deceive  the  enemy  as  to  the  real 
point  of  passage." 


FOR 


144 


FOE 


First  class 

Second  class 
Third  class 


Foreign  Armies — Represent  the  con- 
tinental armies. 

Looking  at  the  armies  of  Europe  from 
every  point  of  view,  their  strength,  the 
rapidity  with  which  they  can  be  mobi- 
lised, and  the  means  of  feeding  them,  they 
mav  be  classed  as  follows  : — • 

1.  Germany. 

2.  France. 

3.  Russia. 

4.  Austria. 

5.  Italy. 

6.  England. 

7.  Belgium. 

8.  Turkey. 

9.  Sweden  and  Norway. 

10.  Holland. 

11.  Denmark. 
Fourth  class^  12.  Spain. 

13.  Portugal. 

14.  Switzerland. 

15.  Greece. 

The  four  armies  of  the  first  class  can 
place  together  in  the  field,  in  round 
numbers,  a  combatant  force  of  3,400,000 
men  and  8652  guns,  whilst  they  can 
count  twice  that  number  of  men  on 
paper.  The  expense  of  these  armies 
exceeds  £07,000,000  per  annum.  Russia, 
Turkey,  and  Austria  keep  their  troops 
at  least  cost,  viz.  from  £25  to  £29 
a  year  per  man ;  the  maintenance  of 
the  British  soldier  is  by  far  the  dearest, 
as  it  amounts  to  close  upon  £100  per 
annum.  In  Germany  the  cost  is  £38  11s. 
per  man. 

Of  the  above  named  fifteen  states  of 
Europe,  seven  have  introduced  the  com- 
pulsory service  as  the  means  of  raising 
their  armies — Germany,  Russia,  Austria, 
France,  Italy,  Denmark,  and  Switzerland. 
Seven  are  recruited  by  conscription,  or 
conscription  and  enlistment,  viz.  Spain, 
Turkey,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Holland, 
Belgium,  Portugal,  and  Greece.  The 
British  army  alone  is  solely  dependent  on 
voluntary  enlistment. 

In  the  following  armies  the  age  for 
joining  the  colours  is  20,  viz.  Austria, 
France,  Russia,  Spain,  and  Switzerland  ; 
21  in  Germany  and  Sweden;  19  in 
Belgium  ;  18  ill  Italy,  and  22  in  Den- 
mark and  Norway.  In  England  men 
enlist  between  18  and  25. 

The  term  of  service    in  Austria,  Ger- 


many, Italy,  and  Greece,  is  12  years;  in 
Russia,  15  ;  in  France  and  Turkey,  20  ;  in 
England,  12  ;  in  Denmark,  16 ;  and  in 
Switzerland,  10.  The  direct  term  of 
army  service,  that  is  to  say,  the  term  the 
recruit  or  the  conscript  has  to  remain  in 
the  active  army  before  entering  the 
reserve  (exceptions  omitted),  is  in  Austria, 
Denmark,  France,  Germany,  and  Italy, 

3  years  ;  in  England,  6  ;  in  Sweden  and 
Norway,  5 ;  in  Turkey  and  Russia,  4. 

The  training  of  a  recruit  lasts  in 
Austria  8  weeks ;  Germany  and  Italy 
require  but  6  ;  Russia  deems  26  requisite  ; 
France  finds  13  sufficient ;  England,  16 ; 
whereas  Turkey  considers  12  weeks 
necessary  for  the  drill  education  of  her 
soldier.  The  active  army  in  Austria  is 
composed  of  the  line,  reserve,  and  eventu- 
ally of  the  Landwehr,  together  with  the 
substitute  reserve.  In  Germany  the 
active  army  is  composed  of  the  same 
parts.  Russia  forms  hers  of  the  line, 
reserve,  and  militia,  who  have  served  but 

4  years    in    that    branch    of  the   army. 
France    has    her   active    army,  and    her 
reserve,  followed  by  the  territorial  army 
and  the  reserve  of  the  territorial.     As  in 
the  case  of  Russia,  her  reserves  as  well 
as  her  territorial  armies  are  but  on  paper, 
as  sufficient  time  has  not  elapsed  for  the 
new    system  to  mature.     Italy  has   the 
line  and  the  mobile  milizia.     In  Turkey 
the  active  army  is  followed  by  three  re- 
serves,   the    idatyal,   the    redij,  and    the 
hiyade,  the  latter  being  a  kind  of  Land- 
sturm. 

In  the  six  principal  armies  of  Europe 
the  proportion  of  guns  and  cavalry  on 
active  service  to  the  strength  of  infantry 
is  as  follows  :  — 


Austria  has 

103  cavalry  and  4  guns 

France       .  .     .  . 

119      „ 

»     3 

Germany 

117      „ 

„     3 

H 

Russia  (Europe) 

178      „ 

„     4 

n 

(Asia)  .. 

910      „ 

„     3 

England     .  . 

133       „ 

>.     4 

' 

Italy   

57       „ 

,,     3 

„ 

The  Austrian  infantry  is  armed  with 
the  Werndl  rifle,  the  Bavarian  with  the 
Werder,  and  the  remainder  of  the  Ger- 
man infantry  with  the  Mauser  rifle. 
France  is  gradually  providing  her  troops 
of  the  line  with  the  modified  Chassepot 
called  the  Gras  rifle,  from  the  name  of 
the  officer  who  has  improved  this  weapon. 


FOR 


145 


FOR 


Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden  use  the 
.Remington  rifle.  Italy  and  Switzerland 
have  adopted  the  Vetterli  rifle  ;  Russia  the 
Berdan,  and  Spain  the  Remington.  Bel- 
gium has  found  the  Albini-Braeude  rifle 
superior  to  all,  and  England  and  Turkey 
the  Martini-Henry.  The  American  troops 
are  armed  with  the  Springfield  rifle. 

Before  closing  this  article  on  the  small- 
arms  of  the  several  foreign  armies,  a 
statement  of  the  guns  used  by  the  four 
largest  continental  powers  may  be  con- 
sidered interesting.  The  field  batteries  of 
the  German  army  are  armed  with  the  8'8- 
centimetre  B.L.R.  gun,  firing  a  shrapnel 
of  17  Ibs.  weight ;  the  horse  artillery  with 
the  7'85-centimetre  B.L.R.  gun,  firing  a 
shrapnel  weighing  12'21bs.  These  guns 
are  made  of  cast  steel,  with  polygrooved 
rifling  and  wedge-break  action  (vide 
Krupp).  For  siege  purposes  the  Ger- 
mans use  the  12-centimetre  (4-68-inch) 
bronze  gun,  firing  a  29-lb.  shell,  and 
steel  and  bronze  guns  of  15-centimetre 
(G'85-inch)  calibre,  firing  a  54-lb.  shell. 
A  21-centimetre  shell  gun  is  soon  to  be 
added  to  this  arm. 

The  field  artillery  of  Austria  is  com- 
posed of  8-pr.  and  4-pr.  bronze  rifled  guns, 
having  calibres  of  3'9  inches  and  3  inches, 
firing  14-lb.  and  8-lb.  shell  respectively. 
Steel  B.L.R.  guns  of  the  Prussian  type 
are,  however,  being  gradually  intro- 
duced. (  Vide  Austrian  Gun.)  The  moun- 
tain batteries  are  armed  with  3-pr.  rifled 
bronze  guns ;  and  for  siege  and  garrison 
purposes  the  guns  in  use  are  B.  L.R.  15- and 
21-centimetre  and  8-inch  bronze  guns.* 

The  Russian  field  artillery  is  armed 
with  both  cast  steel  and  bronze  B.L.R. 
guns,  4-prs.  and  9-prs.  of  3'3-inch  and 
4-iuch  calibres,  firing  12-lb.  and  24-lb. 
shell  respectively.  For  siege  and  gar- 
rison artillery  they  use  12-pr.  and  24-pr. 
guns,  throwing  30-lb.  and  63-lb.  shells, 
and  8-inch  bronze  and  steel  guns.  The 
mountain  gun  is  a  3-pr.  bronze  rifled 
gun,  firing  a  9-lb.  projectile. 

The  field  guns  of  France  are  the 
14-pr.  steel  and  10-pr.  bronze  B.L.R.,  the 
former  the  production  of  Colonel  Reffye, 


*  Since  the  above  was  written,  the  Austrian 
government  has  adopted  a  new  gun,  of  steel- 
bronze,  the  invention  ot  General  Uchatius.  (Ft'cZe 
Steel-bronze  Gun.) 


the  latter  made  by  Major  Pothier,  and  a 
steel  7-pr.  B.L.R.  gun  of  a  new  pattern. 
(  Vide  Appendix  C.) 

Forge — A  furnace  or  place  where  iron 
is  heated  and  beaten  into  shape.  Forges 
are  either  stationary  or  portable.  The 
former  comprise  all  those  used  in  work- 
shops, the  latter  with  batteries  of  artil- 
lery. In  large  establishments,  the  forges 
are  always  blown  by  steam. 

Forge,  To— To  beat  out,  or  form  by 
the  hammer,  metal  which  has  been 
heated  in  the  furnace.  Steam  hammers 
are  very  generally  used  for  this  purpose 
in  all  large  smithy  establishments. 

Forge  Wagon — A  wagon  attached  to 
each  horse  and  field  artillery  battery,  to 
admit  of  repairs  and  other  work  being 
effected  to  the  carriages,  when  on  the  move. 
Forlorn  Hope — In  military  language, 
signifies  men  detached  from  several  regi- 
ments, or  otherwise  appointed,  to  form 
the  storming  party  of  an  escalade  or  in 
the  assault  of  a  breach.  In  the  French 
army,  the  forlorn  hope  is  called  enfants 
perdus,  from  the  great  danger  and  im- 
minent risk  to  which  it  is  unavoidably 
exposed.  By  the  Germans  it  is  called 
verlorner  Posten. 

Form,  To — In  drill  or  in  military  move- 
ments or  dispositions,  to  assume  or  pro- 
duce any  shapeor  figure,  extent  or  depth  of 
line  or  column,  by  means  of  prescribed 
rules. 

Formers,  Cartridge — Wooden  shapes 
for  cutting  out  the  form  and  size  of 
cannon  cartridge  bags ;  their  size  and 
shape  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  cartridge 
to  be  made. 

Formers,  Port-fire — Used  for  making 
port-fire  cases.  They  are  made  of  wood, 
of  a  diameter  slightly  larger  than  the 
port-fire  setting  drift. 

Formers,  Signal  Rocket — For  forming 
the  cases  of  signal  rockets.  They  have  a 
movable  piece  from  two  to  three  dia- 
meters in  length,  which  is  termed  the 
nipple,  the  smaller  end  of  which  fits  into  ^ 
a  hole  made  in  the  former,  and,  when 
slightly  drawn  out,  keeps  the  neck  of  the 
case  open  while  the  choke  is  being  formed 
and  secured. 

Formers,  Wad — Flat  circular  pieces  of 
wood,  hollowed  out  and  grooved.  They 
are  used  for  making  up  grummet  wads 
for  M.L.R.  guns. 

L 


FOR 


FOU 


Fort— In  fortification,  a  work  built  for 
the  protection  of  any  particular  spot  of 
importance,  and  erected  either  as  a  per- 
manent or  field  work.  In  the  latter  case, 
star  and  bastion  forts  are  the  most 
common. 

Fort  Adjutant — An  officer  holding  an 
appointment  in  a  fortress  analogous  to  the 
adjutant  of  a  regiment,  his  duties  being 
chiefly  with  detachments  of  troops  which 
are  oi'ten  located  within  the  fortress. 

Fort  Major — The  staff'  officer  employed 
in  carrying  out  the  duties  of  a  fortified 
town.  He  ranks,  if  under  the  rank  of 
captain,  next  after  the  captains  in  the 
garrison  in  which  he  is  serving. 

Fortification — The  art  of  strengthen- 
ing a  town  or  other  place,  or  of  putting 
it  in  such  a  posture  of  defence  that  every 
one  of  its  parts  defends  and  is  defended 
by  some  other  parts,  by  means  of  ram- 
parts, parapets,  ditches,  and  outworks, 
to  the  end,  that  a  small  number  of  men 
within  may  be  able  to  defend  themselves, 
for  a  considerable  time,  against  the 
assaults  of  a  numerous  army  without. 
It  is  very  generally  understood  that 
the  word  fortification  is  derived  through 
the  Italian  from  the  Latin  fortis  and  fa- 
cere,  meaning  literally  "  making  strong." 
Albrecht  Durer.  the  celebrated  painter  and 
engraver,  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, is  stated  to  have  been  the  first  writer 
on  fortification.  His  principal  system  con- 
sisted simply  of  very  large  semi-circular 
towers  called  1> 'steien,  and  also  Rondele. 
His  works  show  great  talent  in  fortifica- 
tion. 

Fortification  has  been  considered  by 
military  writers  under  two  heads,  viz. 
pernmnent  and  field.  The  former,  as  its 
name  implies,  is  built  to  last  an  indefinite 
time,  thus  becoming  a  permanent  work, 
and  defence  to  all  within  its  enclosure. 
It  has  for  its  object  the  protection  of  the 
frontiers  of  states,  arsenals,  depots  oi 
stores,  towns,  and  everything  that  may 
add  to  the  security  of  a  state.  The 
latter  is  only  a  temporary  work  thrown 
up  for  the  protection  of  armies  in  the 
field,  when  it  is  found  necessary  to 
strengthen  a  position. 

Fortify,  To — To  strengthen  any  place 
by  artificial  or  other  means,  so  as  to 
render  it  strong  enough  to  bid  defiance 
to  any  meditated  attack  or  assault. 


Fortress— In  fortification,  the  name 
*iven  to  a  permanent  work  or  fortified 
city.  The  continent  affords  examples  of 
some  first-class  fortresses,  such  as  Stras- 
3urg,  Metz,  and  others,  including  Paris, 
which  capitulated  to  the  Germans  during 
the  war  of  1870-71.  The  two  first- 
named  fortresses,  since  the  war  adverted 
;o,  have  been  considerably  strengthened 

the  Germans  to  meet  the  arms  of  the 
present  day. 

The  value  set  on  fortresses  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries  was 
very  much  exaggerated.  The  opinion 
that  no  advance  of  armies  could  take 
place,  on  any  particular  point,  without 
fortresses  in  the  way  being  reduced, 
was  subsequently  set  aside  by  Napoleon 
daring  to  pass  by  or  to  neglect  fort- 
resses, and  advance  to  the  attack  in  the 
field.  It  came,  however,  subsequently 
to  be  received  that  fortresses  were  of 
great  value  in  rallying  a  defeated  army. 

In  fortresses,  the  armament,  with  the 
ammunition  and  artillery  material  of 
all  natures,  is  placed  under  the  officer 
commanding  the  artillery.  The  num- 
ber of  guns  forming  the  armament  of 
a  fortress  is  shown  under  the  head  of 
i(  Armament,"  to  which  the  reader  is 
referred.  The  amount  of  ammunition 
that  should  be  supplied  is  shown  in 
the  '  Instruction  on  Fortification,  &c. 
at  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich,' as  follows:  —  "The  quantity  of 
ammunition  provided  for  the  artillery 
should  be  regulated  according  to  the 
nature  of  each  fortress,  those  that  are 
classed  under  the  head  of — 

First  class,  requiring  TOO  shot  or  SCO  shells  I  "5  "o 
Second  „  „        6oO    „     „  400     „     > «  | 

Third    „  „        500    „     „  300      „     I  Jj  p. 

Forts,  Bastioned — Forts  so  traced  that 
from  the  parapet  a  complete  flanking  de- 
fence is  afforded  to  the  ditch  in  all  its  parts. 

Forts,  Star,  vide  Star  Forts. 

Fougass—  A  small  mine  from  6  to 
12  feet  under  ground,  charged  either 
with  powder  or  loaded  shells,  and  some- 
times loaded  with  stones  instead  of  being 
tamped  in  the  ordinary  way.  _ 

Foundry,  Gun — A  building  in  which 
metals  (bronze  or  iron)  are  cast  in 
moulds  or  shapes  for  gun  purposes.  The 
subsequent  operations  of  boring,  rifling, 


FRA 


147 


FRA 


and  finishing  off  the  gun,  are  carried  out 
in  rooms  specially  adapted  for  the  work 
to  be  performed  in  each.  Since  the 
introduction  into  the  service  of  wrought- 
iron  guns,  the  casting  of  guns,  whether 
of  iron  or  bronze,  has  ceased ;  and  all 
guns  in  the  British  service  are  now 
formed  of  wrought-iron  bars,  wound, 
while  red  hot,  into  a  coil  round  a  man- 
dril, a  steel  tube  forming  the  barrel  ot 
the  gun. 

Fractions — Are  known  as  either  vulgar 
or  dscimul.  Vulgar  fractions  denote  a 
part  or  parts  of  a  unit.  They  are  ex- 
pressed by  two  numbers  placed  one  above 
the  other,  with  a  line  drawn  between 
them.  The  lower  number  is  called  the 
'*  denominator,"  and  shows  into  how 
many  equal  parts  the  unit  is  divided  ; 
the  upper  is  called  the  "  numerator," 
and  shows  how  many  of  such  parts  are 
taken  to  form  the  fraction.  Decimal 
fractions  differ  from  vulgar  fractions  in 
having  always  the  same  denominator, 
and  following  the  same  laws  as  whole 
numbers,  like  which  they  can  be  treated 
in  every  respect.  They  are  represented 
like  ordinary  figures,  and  distinguished 
by  a  dot  on  the  left  hand  side  ;  thus, 
•456,  expressed  fractionally,  represents 
4-tenths  plus  5-huudredths  plus  6- 
thousandths,  or  456-thousandths. 

Fraise — In  fortification,  a  palisade  in- 
clining to  the  horizon,  placed  for  defence 
round  a  work  near  the  berm. 

Franc-tireurs  (French,  franc,  free; 
and  tireur,  shooter) — The  first  bodies  of 
franc-tireurs  were  formed  in  the  Vosges. 
They  were  volunteers  who  met  once  a 
week  for  shooting  practice ;  with  them 
rested  the  defence  of  the  defiles  of  the 
Vosges. 

During  the  Franco  -  German  war  of 
1870-71  numerous  bodies  of  these  volun- 
teers were  raised.  They  were  mostly 
composed  of  old  soldiers  or  men  exempt 
from  military  service.  These  free  bodies, 
drawn  from  the  provinces  occupied  by 
the  enemy,  were  to  be  employed  as 
guides  or  scouts,  or,  from  their  know- 
ledge of  the  country,  were  to  harass 
the  enemy,  cutting  oft'  his  supplies  and 
inflicting  the  utmost  possible  injury. 
During  the  first  part  of  the  war  they 
rendered  great  service,  and  also  during 
the  siege  of  Paris.  Those  that  were 


raised  under  the  Republic,  badly  officered, 
without  control,  without  discipline,  com- 
posed mostly  of  men  who  shrank  from 
the  hard  duties  of  military  discipline, 
proved  to  be  a  greater  nuisance  to  the 
French  peasants  than  to  the  German 
soldiery.  They  also  brought  great  suffer- 
ing upon  the  inhabitants,  who  were  pun- 
ished by  the  Germans  for  the  work  of 
the  franc-tireurs.  Villages  were  burnt, 
and  the  chief  inhabitants  shot,  if  it  was 
found  that  a  band  of  these  irregulars 
had  been  harboured  in  any  way.  They 
were  not  considered  as  belligerents  by 
the  Germans,  although  they  were  recog- 
nised as  such  by  the  French  war  office, 
subject  to  the  French  military  law,  and 
commanded  by  French  officers.  The 
German  military  authorities  gave  notice 
that  they  would  be  looked  upon  as  ban- 
ditti, and  shot  when  seized. 

Trapping — In  artillery,  drawing  to- 
gether the  several  turns  of  a  rope  or 
tackle,  which  have  been  already  strained 
to  the  utmost.  The  end  of  the  rope  or 
tackle  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Fraser  Gun — This  gun  takes  its  name 
from  Mr.  Fraser,  of  the  Royal  Gun  Fac- 
tories, Woolwich,  and  is  a  modification 
of  Sir  W.  Armstrong's  original  gun, 
which  was  built  up  of  several  short 
single  wrought-iron  coils  shrunk  to- 
gether and  a  forged  breech  piece.  In 
Sir  W.  Armstrong's  system,  the  number 
of  coils  which  had  to  be  shrunk  on  en- 
tailed time,  expense,  and  labour,  as  each 
coil,  as  it  was  shrunk  on,  necessitated 
the  mass  being  moved  from  the  shrink- 
ing-pit  to  the  turning- lathe,  and  turned 
down  for  the  next  and  succeeding  coils 
to  the  smoothness  of  glass. 

In  Mr.  Fraser's  construction,  which 
differs  from  the  Armstrong  principally 
in  building  up  a  gun  of  a  few  long 
double  or  triple  coils,  only  two  shrink- 
ings  are  necessary,  and  as  described  by 
Captain  Stoney,  R.A.,  in  his  paper  "  On 
the  Construction  of  our  Heavy  Guns " 
from  which  the  above  information  has 
been  derived),  "  where  fifty  tons  were 
moved  in  the  former  case,  only  seven  are 
moved  in  the  latter." 

Again,    Captain    Stoney   says,    in   re- 
marking also  on  there  being  less  waste 
of  material: — ''From  these  circumstances, 
ombined    with    the    employment    of    a 
L  2 


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cheaper  iron,  a  '  Fraser '  gun  can  be 
made  at  two-thirds  of  the  cost  of  a  gun 
of  the  same  nature  as  originally  manu- 
factured." 

Freeburn  Fuze — A  concussion  fuze, 
made  of  wood  ;  it  is  now  obsolete. 

French  Army — One  of  the  chief  con- 
tinental armies  of  Europe. 

Early  in  1868  a  bill  was  carried 
through  the  French  chambers  which 
raised  the  force  of  that  country,  nomi- 
nally, to  800,000  men.  The  term  of  ser- 
vice was  increased  from  seven  to  nine 
years.  The  rate  of  recruiting  per  annum 
was  fixed  at  100,000  men,  selected  by 
conscription  ;  the  proportion  of  which  to 
the  population  (37,000,000)  being  about 
1  to  every  370.  The  nine  years'  service 
men  were  divided  (as  regards  the  70,000 
men  who  were  called  for  sen-ice  out  of 
the  100,000)  between  five  years  passed 
under  the  regimental  colours  and  four 
years  in  a  general  reserve,  called  the 
second  reserve.  The  remaining  30,000 
men  were  enrolled  in  the  first  reserve, 
and  were  not  required  to  perform  any 
military  service  in  peace-time,  except 
five  months'  drill  in  each  of  the  five 
years.  Those  who  were  not  drawn  by 
conscription  had  to  serve  five  years  in 
the  garde  mobile,  being  called  upon  to 
take  the  field  on  emergency. 

Such  was  the  military  system  of 
France  when  the  war  of  1870-71  broke 
out.  It  proved  inefficient  to  produce  a 
trained  second  reserve ;  and  in  order  to 
insure  the  French  army  an  ample  and 
constant  supply  of  recruits,  the  law  of 
general  military  service  of  the  First  Re- 
public was  restored  in  its  fullest  vigour, 
in  a  bill  passed  by  the  Frenchj  assem- 
bly in  July  1872.  The  present  system 
alters  entirely  the  military  recruiting 
of  that  country,  and  is  similar  to  the 
German  one,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
following  principal  clauses  : — 

Every  Frenchman  is  liable  to  military 
service,  and  must  serve  personally,  the 
system  of  substitute  being  abolished. 

He  is  called  upon  to  serve  from  the 
age  of  20  (instead  of  21,  as  by  the  former 
law)  to  the  age  of  40,  the  period  of  ser- 
vice being  thus  distributed  : — 

Five  years  in  the  active  army; 

Four  years  in  the  reserve  of  the  active 
army ; 


Five  years  in  the  territorial  army  ; 

Six  years  in  the  reserves  of  the  terri- 
torial army. 

Every  man  enrolled  in  each  yearly 
contingent  has  to  serve  for  twelve 
months  at  least,  except  those  for  the 
service  of  special  arms — artillery,  en- 
gineers, and  cavalry,  which  require  a 
longer  training — and  they  have  there- 
fore to  serve  a  much  longer  time. 

Notwithstanding  all  permanent  ex- 
emption being  abolished,  there  are 
certain  strictly  determined  cases  of 
a  temporary  kind,  which  exempt  men 
from  the  service,  such  as  :  supporters  of 
families,  eldest  brother  of  orphans,  only  son 
or  grandson  of  widows,  &c.  Young  men 
who  have  obtained  university  and  college 
degrees,  and  those  who  belong  to  govern- 
ment schools,  and  who  desire  to  continue 
their  studies,  may  volunteer  for  one  year. 
They  are  called  volontaires  (Fun  an.  The 
men  of  this  class  must  defray  at  their 
own  expense  the  cost  of  their  uniform, 
equipment,  and  horse,  if  in  the  cavalry. 
After  one  year  they  have  to  pass  an  ex- 
amination, and,  if  not  successful,  have  to 
remain  another  year  in  the  ranks.  At 
the  end  of  their  term,  they  receive,  as  a 
rule,  certificates  of  qualification  as  non- 
commissioned officers  or  officers  in  the 
territorial  army.  Like  all  others,  they 
are  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  serve  on 
the  outbreak  of  war. 

The  rate  of  recruiting  by  this  new  law 
is  computed  to  give  France  a  yearly  con- 
tingent of  150,000  men,  deductions  being 
made  on  occount  of  the  "  dispensed  with  " 
class.  Each  contingent  is  therefore,  in 
different  ways,  subject  to  serve  for  twenty 
years,  and  consequently  at  the  end  of 
that  period  the  forces  of  France  will 
amount  to  an  aggregate  of  twenty  con- 
tingents of  130,000  each,  with  deduc- 
tions for  deaths  and  casualties,  giving 
a  total  of  2,423,164  men. 

In  addition  to  these  levies,  France  has 
a  permanent  army  of  81,722  men,  be- 
longing to  the  permanent  effective,  not 
recruited  by  means  of  the  conscription, 
composed  of  officers,  staff,  administrative 
corps,  gendarmerie,  &c. 

The  active  army  in  time  of  peace  has 
(1875)  a  strength  of  480,000  men,  and 
in  time  of  war,  by  calling  in  the  trained 
contingents  of  780,000  men,  organised 


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in  corps,  and  ready  to  take  the  field  at 
once  on  the  outbreak  of  a  war,  has 
behind  it  "  troops  of  reinforcement " 
amounting  to  279.000  men,  who  have  all 
served  at  least  one  year  in  the  army. 
These  "  troops  of  reinforcement "  will 
bv  distributed  in  the  corps  depots,  to- 
gether with  the  150,000  men  of  the 
last  class  called  up  and  not  yet  fully  in- 
structed. 

Thus  the  fighting  army  of  780,000 
men  may  be  increased  by  429,000  men 
ready  to  fill  up  vacancies  in  the  fighting 
corps. 

The  organisation  of  these  forces  was 
the  subject  of  a  bill  passed  by  the  assem- 
bly, and  promulgated  in  March  1875 ; 
it  is  known  as  the  Loi  des  Cadres.  By 
this  law,  France  is  divided  into  18  mili- 
tary regions,  each  garrisoned  by  an  army 
corps,  besides  a  special  corps  (19th)  for 
Algeria. 

Each  army  corps  has  2  infantry  divisions, 
1  brigade  of  cavalry,  1  brigade  of  artillery, 
1  battalion  of  engineers,  and  1  squadron 
of  field  train,  besides  staff  and  auxiliary 
services.  The  several  army  corps  are 
recruited  indifferently  from  the  whole 
contingent,  and  during  peace  may  be 
moved  from  region  to  region  ;  but  the 
reserves  are  organised  in  their  own 
regions.  On  the  outbreak  of  war,  the 
men  of  the  reserve  will  be  mobilised 
near  their  homes,  clothed  and  armed  at 
depots  already  known  to  them,  within  a 
day's  walk,  and  sent  to  swell  the  ranks 
of  that  corps  which  happens  to  be  sta- 
tioned in  the  region  at  the  time.  The 
territorial  army  will,  at  all  times,  belong 
to  its  own  region.  Its  duties  in  war  will 
be  to  garrison  fortresses,  defend  strategic 
points,  work  the  lines  of  communication, 
and  set  the  active  army  free  for  field 
operations,  but,  if  urgent,  will  also  co- 
operate in  the  field  with  it. 

The  French  army  is  composed  as 
follows :  — 144  regiments  of  the  line, 
each  regiment  consisting  of  4  bat- 
talions, and  each  battalion  of  4  com- 
panies, with  2  depot  companies ;  30  bat- 
talions of  foot  chasseurs  (chasseurs  a 
pied),  each  battalion  of  4  fighting  com- 
panies and  1  depot  company. 

In  addition,  the  19th  corps  d'armee, 
quartered  in  Algeria,  comprises  : — 

Four  regiments  of  zouaves,  each  regi- 


ment of  4  battalions,  consisting  of  4 
fighting  companies  and  1  depot  company. 

Three  regiments  of  Algerian  sharp- 
shooters (turcos),  organised  like  the 
zouaves. 

One  foreign  regiment  of  4  battalions, 
each  4  companies  strong. 

Five  discipline  companies  (z&phyrs). 

Each  fighting  company  consists  of  1 
captain,  1  lieutenant  and  1  sub-lieu- 
tenant, 1  sergeant-major,  4  sergeants,  1 
quartermaster-sergeant,  8  corporals,  2 
drummers  or  buglers,  and  66  privates ; 
total  per  company  on  peace  footing,  3 
officers  and  85  rank  and  file.  At  16 
companies  per  regiment,  this  gives  an 
aggregate  of  48  officers  and  1312  rank 
and  file.  The  two  depot  companies  pre- 
sent an  effective  of  6  officers,  32  non- 
commissioned officers,  and  the  number 
of  men  remains  unknown.  On  the  war- 
footing,  each  company  is  increased  by  1 
lieutenant  or  sub-lieutenant,  1  quarter- 
master-corporal, 4  sergeants,  8  corporals, 
and  2  drummers. 

The  cavalry  branch  of  the  service 
consists  of  77  regiments,  viz. :  12  regi- 
ments of  cuirassiers,  26  regiments  of 
dragoons,  20  of  chasseurs,  12  of  hussars, 
4  of  chasseurs  d'Afrique,  and  3  regiments 
of  spahis  (native  cavalry  of  Algeria). 
The  70  home  regiments  form  18  bri- 
gades of  2  regiments  each,  one  of  which 
is  attached  to  each  corps  d'armtfe. 
This  leaves  34  regiments  available  to 
form  independent  cavalry  brigades  and 
divisions.  Each  of  the  70  home  regi- 
ments consists  of  5  squadrons,  having  on 
peace  footing  45  officers,  830  men,  and 
740  horses.  The  African  regiments  are 
6  squadrons  strong,  and  their  effective 
amounts  to  59  officers,  978  men,  and 
930  horses.  In  addition  there  will  be 
19  squadrons  of  cavalrv  volunteers,  who 
will  supply  the  generals  and  staff  offi- 
cers with  men  capable,  from  previous 
instruction,  of  performing,  efficiently, 
duties  as  guides,  escort,  orderlies,  &c. 

The  artillery  consists  of  38  regiments 
quartered  in  France,  forming  19  bri- 
gades, 2  per  army  corps.  The  first 
regiment  of  each  brigade  consists  of  3 
batteries  a  pied  (without  guns),  8  bat- 
teries monte'es  (with  guns),  2  months 
depot  batteries  (provided  with  guns  for 
drill  and  practice  purposes);  in  all  65 


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150 


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officers,  1349  non-commissioned  officers 
and  men,  and  (535  horses.  The  second 
regiment  of  each  brigade  consists  of  8 
mounted  batteries,  3  batteries  of  horse 
artillery,  and  2  mounted  depot  batteries  ; 
68  officers,  1369  men,  and  878  horses. 
There  are  2  regiments  exclusively  en- 
trusted with  the  bridge  and  pontoon 
department,  10  companies  of  artillery 
artisans,  3  rocket  companies,  and  57 
companies  of  the  artillery  train. 

The  engineering  department  consists 
of  4  regiments  of  sappers  and  miners, 
and  that  of  the  military  train  of  20 
squadrons. 

Besides  the  above  forces,  there  are 
certain  auxiliaries,  viz. — military  clerks 
and  artisans  ;  ambulance  staff"  and  at- 
tendants (injinniers  ini/itaires);  military 
chaplains;  the  gendirmerie  and  a  regi- 
ment of  firemen  of  the  city  of  Paris,  who 
are  picked  men  from  the  army ;  a 
corps  of  military  interpreters,  a  tele- 
graphic staff  and  corps,  a  railway  staff 
and  corps,  the  three  latter  being 
borrowed  from  the  German  system. 
The  various  railway  lines  in  the  rear 
of  the  army  are  to  be  worked  by  these 
corps,  under  military  superintendence 
in  front  of  the  lines.  To  secure  a 
competent  military  railway  staff,  a  cer- 
tain number  of  sappers  and  miners, 
after  one  year's  service  with  the  colours, 
will  be  told  off  to  the  various  rail- 
ways to  complete  their  professional  in- 
struction. 

The  mode  of  officering  the  French 
army  is  partly  from  the  ranks,  partly 
from  the  military  colleges,  specially  from 
the  latter. 

Major  Brackenbury,  in  the  preface  to 
his  translation  of  the  law  on  the  general 
organisation  of  the  French  army,  adverts 
to  the  subject  of  the  principles  on  which 
it  has  been  remodelled,  as  follows : — 

"  1st.  General  obligation  to  military 
service. 

"  2nd.  A  peace  organisation  approach- 
ing as  nearly  as  possible  the  organisation  ! 
for  war.  The  corps  are  always  ready 
with  their  staffs  and  administrative  ser- 
vices, and  only  require  the  addition  of 
their  reserves — always  close  at  hand — 
in  order  to  take  the  field.  Their  stores 
are  also  on  the  spot. 

"  3rd.  Decentralisation.    Each  general 


mobilises  his  own  corps,  is  responsible 
for  his  own  first  supplies,  and  can  have 
no  one  but  himself  to  blame  if  he  is  slow 
or  wants  anything. 

"  4th.  On  the  other  hand,  the  govern- 
ment has  a  corps  of  inspectors,  who  will 
during  peace  detect  the  incompetence  of 
a  commander. 

"5th.  The  control  is  carefully  separated 
from  the  administration,  and  the  generals 
are  expected  to  be  good  administrators 
as  well  as  good  leaders  of  troops. 

"  6th.  Recruiting,  remounts,  hospitals, 
&c.  are  managed  by  the  territorial  staff 
in  each  region,  but  always  under  the 
general  commanding  the  corps  then 
present.  When  a  corps  is  mobilised 
and  quits  its  region,  the  command  of 
the  region  and  its  territorial  troops  is 
handed  over  to  an  officer  previously  ap- 
pointed by  the  minister." 

In  order  to  act  up  to  the  spirit  of  the 
new  law,  the  war  office  has  been  reconsti- 
1  tuted  under  conditions  more  in  accordance 
with  the  organisation  of  the  army  ;  and 
'  the  department  of  the  chief  of  the 
I  general  ministerial  staff"  comprises  now 
a  ministerial  cabinet  and  5  bureaux, 
namely : — 

First  bureau  :  general  organisation  and 
mobilisation  of  the  army;  positions  and 
strength  ;  general  correspondence. 

Second  bureau :  military  statistics ; 
historical  office. 

Third  bureau  :  military  operations  ;  in- 
struction of  the  army ;  topographical 
office. 

Fourth  bureau :  Etaprpen  and  railway 
service  ;  execution  of  movements  of 
troops ;  transport  of  troops  by  land  and 
sea. 

Fifth  bureau  (or  war  depot) :  technical 
services ;  collections ;  material  and  ac- 
counts of  the  general  staff. 

Two  deputy  chiefs  of  the  staff  are  at- 
tached to  the  chief  of  the  staff.  (I'icfe 
Appendix  C.) 

French  Rifled  Gun — A  bronze  muzzle- 
loading  piece.  There  are  three  light 
guns  in  the  service,  a  4-pr.,  8-pr.  and 
12-pr.,  each  having  six  grooves.  The 
French  artillery  may  be  said  to  be  in  a 
transition  state.  Experiments  for  some 
time  past  have  been  carried  on,  the 
result  of  which  has  been  satisfactory  to 
steel  breech-loading  rifled  guns  of  the 


FRI 


151 


FKI 


Reflye  system.  The  heavy  guns  of  the 
service  are  made  of  cast  iron,  hooped 
with  steel,  and  having  a  steel  tube. 
They  are  B.L.R.  guns.  It  is  not  unlikely 
that  a  steel  gun  will  be  introduced  into 
the  French  service. 

The  French  system  of  gun  rifling  is 
thus  described  in  the  '  Treatise  on  Ammu- 
nition for  1874': — "The  bottom  of  the 
groove  is  concentric  with  the  bore,  the 
driving  edge  making  an  angle  of  70°, 
with  a  radius  to  the  centre  of  the  bore, 
and  the  loading  edge  an  angle  of  56°. 
The  studs  are  made  of  a  shape  corre- 
sponding to  the  grooves.  The  driving 
edge  of  the  groove  is  an  easy  inclined 
plane,  up  which  the  stud  mounts,  so  as 
to  centre  the  projectile."  (  Vide  Centring.) 

This  system  of  rifling  has  been  adopted 
for  the  field  guns  of  the  British  artillery, 
and  in  a  modified  form  it  has  been 
applied  to  the  heavy  guns,  giving  rise  to 
the  name  of  the  "  Woolwich  guns."  In 
1865,  after  several  experiments  with  the 
different  heavy  guns,  the  then  Ordnance 
Select  Committee  recorded  their  unani- 
mous opinion  in  favour  of  the  so-called 
French  system  over  other  systems. 
Amongst  other  advantages  recorded  was 
the  simplicity  of  the  grooving  of  the 
gun,  which  led  to  its  being  adopted. 

Friction  —  Is  "the  resistance  which 
bodies  experience  when  rubbing  or 
sliding  on  each  other,  or  the  resistance 
in  machines  caused  by  the  contact  of 
different  moving  parts.  By  the  aid  of 
lubricants,  friction  may  be  reduced  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  can  never  be  tho- 
roughly got  rid  of.  Friction  manifests 
itself  in  many  different  ways  according 
to  the  kind  of  motion  one  surface  has 
upon  another,  and  is  proportional  to  the 
pressure ;  that  is,  everything  remaining 
the  same,  the  friction  increases  as  the 
pressure  increases." 

An  instance  of  friction  is  seen  in 
gunnery  in  the  resistance  offered  to  a 
projectile  in  its  passage  through  the 
bore  of  a  gun,  which  varies  in  in- 
tenseness  in  smooth-bore  and  rifled 
guns.  In  the  former,  from  the  bound- 
ing of  the  shot,  caused  chiefly  by 
windage,  the  resistance  from  friction  is 
comparatively  small ;  but  in  rifled  guns, 
firing  elongated  shot  which  have  no  such 
movement  as  alluded  to,  it  is  consider- 


able, from  the  shot  cleaving  closely  to 
the  grooves.  Colonel  Owen  shows  that 
this  friction  is  chiefly  dependent  "  upon 
the  weight  of  the  projectile  and  on  the 
nature  of  the  materials  used  respectively 
for  the  bore  and  the  stud  of  the  pro- 
jectile, or  other  part  in  contact  with  the 
metal."  What  has  been  stated  will  be 
sufficient  to  show  what  takes  place 
within  the  bore  of  a  gun. 

The  next  instance  is  that  which  occurs 
in  draught,  a  subject,  like  the  former, 
particularly  interesting  to  that  part  of 
our  army  to  which  the  transport  by  car- 
riages or  carts  of  the  material  of  war  is 
committed,  and  especially  to  the  artillery. 

"  In  draught,  there  are  two  kinds  of 
friction  opposed  to  the  movement  of  a 
carriage  : 

"  1st.  That  of  the  arms  of  the  axle- 
tree  in  the  naves ; 

"  2nd.  That  of  the  felloes  upon  the 
ground. 

"  The  more  the  causes  producing  these 
two  kinds  of  friction  are  attenuated,  the 
easier  will  be  the  movement  of  the  car- 
riage. With  reference  to  the  first  kind 
of  friction,  take  two  wheels  of  different 
heights,  having  axle-tree  arms  of  the 
same  diameter,  the  friction  will  be  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  height ;  that  is  to 
say,  wheels  of  2  feet  in  diameter  ex- 
perience double  the  friction  of  wheels 
4  feet  in  diameter,  equal  in  all  other 
respects ;  consequently  the  higher  the 
wheels  are,  the  less  the  friction  will  be  in 
their  naves.  In  two  wheels  of  the  same 
height  having  axle-tree  arms  of  different 
diameters,  the  fraction  in  the  naves  is  in 
direct  ratio  of  the  diameter  of  the  arms  ; 
that  is  to  say,  an  arm  of  4  inches 
diameter  will  experience  double  the 
friction  of  an  arm  2  feet  in  diameter. 
Therefore  the  thinner  the  axle-tree  arms 
are,  the  less  will  be  the  friction  in  the 
naves.  In  two  wheels  of  different 
heights,  having  axle-tree  arms  of  different 
diameters,  the  friction  will  be  in  inverse 
ratio  of  the  quotients  of  the  heights  of 
the  wheels  divided  by  the  diameters ;  for 
instance,  should  one  wheel  be  50  inches 
in  height,  diameter  of  axle-arm  5  inches, 
and  the  other  60  inches  in  height  and  2 
inches  in  diameter,  the  friction  expe- 
rienced by  the  former  will  be  to  that  of 
the  latter  as  |°  to  55"  ,  or  as  3  to  1. 


FRI 


152 


FRO 


Therefore  to  facilitate  '  draught,'  wheels 
must  be  made  as  high,  and  axle-tree 
arms  as  thin,  as  possible.  The  friction 
in  naves  depends  principally  upon  two 
things  : 

"  1st.  The  weight  bearing  upon  the 
axle-tree ; 

"2nd.  The  kind  and  quality  of  the 
materials  of  which  the  axle-tree  and 
interior  of  the  naves  are  formed. 

"  The  second  kind  of  friction  presents 
two  cases,  viz.,  1st,  when  the  ground 
upon  which  the  carriage  moves  is  hori- 
zontal, but  sandy,  muddy,  or  rugged ; 
2nd,  when  ground  of  the  same  nature 
as  in  the  former  case  makes,  likewise,  an 
inclined  plane." 

Friction  Plate — A  plate  of  iron  placed 
on  the  si  lo  of  the  trail  beam  of  wooden 
gun  carriages,  at  that  point  where  the 
wheel  locks  with  the  carriage.  The 
plate  is  placed  in  that  position  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  trail  when  the  limber  is 
being  turned  at  a  sharp  angle  to  the  gun 
carriage. 

Friction  Tubes — Small  copper  tubes 
filled  with  composition,  which  are  used 
in  discharging  guns  in  lieu  of  priming 
powder.  There  are  three  kinds : 

The  short  friction  tube  (about  2  inches 
long)  for  the  7-pr.  M.T.  gun  ; 

The  fan;]  friction  tube  (about  5  inches 
long)  for  10-inch  M.L.R.  guns  and  up- 
wards ; 

The  ordinary  friction  tube  (about  3 
inches  long)  for  all  other  guns. 

These  tubes  are  filled  with  closely 
tamped  mealed  powder,  having  a  vent 
hole  down  the  centre  of  the  composition. 
Near  the  top  of  the  tube  a  hole  is  bored 
through  the  copper,  in  which  a  small 
cylinder  of  copper  is  fastened,  which 
contains  the  detonating  charge,  and 
which  communicates  with  the  main 
portion  of  the  composition  by  a  hole 
bored  into  the  composition  tube.  In  this 
small  cylinder  a  rubber  or  friction  bar  of 
copper  is  inserted,  having  an  eye  on  its 
outer  extremity  ;  above  and  below  this 
bar,  a  small  pellet  of  detonating  com- 
position is  placed,  and  the  tube  is  then 
firmly  compressed  together  with  pincers. 
The  finished  tubes  now  receive  a  coating 
of  black  varnish,  and  a  coating  of  paint, 
and  finally  another  coating  of  varnish ; 
they  are  then  dried  in  a  steam  bath.  By 


this  means  the  joints  of  the  tube  are 
rendered  impervious  to  damp.  To  ignite 
the  tube,  a  lanyard  (q.  c.),  with  a  hook  at- 
tached, is  placed  in  the  eye  of  the  friction 
bar  and  steadily  pulled. 

The  action  of  friction  tubes,  when  new, 
may  be  said  to  be  very  certain,  but  after 
having  been  ten  years  in  store,  they  are 
not  to  be  depended  upon. 

Frog — A  horny  wedge-shaped  sub- 
stance within  the  cavity  of  a  horse's 
hoof.  The  function  of  the  frog  is  to 
share  in  the  pressure  on  the  foot,  and  by 
its  elasticity  to  relieve  or  distribute  the 
pressure  on  the  hoof. 

The  name  is  also  given  to  that  part 
of  a  soldier's  accoutrements  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  waist-belt  for  holding  the 
bayonet. 

Front — As  opposed  to  rear.  The  front, 
with  reference  to  an  alignment,  is  the 
direction  of  the  supposed  enemy.  Used  as  a 
general  term,  the  word  signifies  the  direc- 
tion in  which  soldiers  face  when  occupy- 
ing the  same  relative  positions  as  when 
last  told  off.  The  front  in  artillery  is  the 
direction  to  which  the  horses'  heads  turn 
when  the  battery  is  limbered  up. 

Front  of  Fortification — Comprises  all 
the  works  constructed  on  any  one  side  of 
the  polygon  which  surrounds  the  ground 
to  be  fortified. 

Frontage — This  term  is  expressive  of 
the  ground  troops  in  line  occupy  either 
on  parade  or  in  camp. 

Cavalry  in  one  line  requires  one  yard 
to  each  file,  and  12  yards  between 
squadrons.  Artillery  in  line,  whether  a 
field  or  horse  artillery  battery,  occupies 
95  yards,  and  19  yards  between  battery 
and  battery,  or  between  other  troops. 

The  frontage  required  by  infantry  is  2 
feet  per  file,  with  intervals  of  30  paces 
between  battalions. 

In  camp,  the  frontage,  as  a  general  rule, 
of  cavalry  and  infantry  should,  as  is 
shown  in  the  '  Soldier's  Pocket-book,' 
"  correspond  with  the  space  covered  by 
the  regiments  when  deployed  into  line 
(allowance  being  made  for  intervals 
between  corps),  and  the  lines  of  tents 
should  be  on  the  prolongation  of  the 
squadrons  or  companies  as  they  stand 
when  in  column." 

"  When  troops  are  encamped  in  two 
or  three  lines,  from  200  to  500  yards 


FUE 


153 


FUN 


should  be  left  clear  between  the  rear  of 
one   line  and  the  front   of   that  behind. 
The  frontage  of  a  battalion  of  infantry  j 
in  camp  on  war   establishment   occupies  ' 
320  yards,    a    regiment  of  cavalry   256  ! 
yards,    and   a   battery   of   artillery    110 
yards." 

Fuel — Any  combustible  substance  to 
feed  a  fire,  such  as  wood,  coal,  &c. 

The  fuel  issued  by  the  commissariat  to 
troops  for  cooking  their  food  is  either  of 
wood  or  coal,  3  Ibs.  to  each  man ;  if  the 
latter  be  supplied,  a  small  quantity  of 
kindling  wood  is  also  issued.  On  service, 
if  wood  be  in  abundance  in  the  surround- 
ing country,  the  troops  will  be  inde- 
pendent of  the  commissariat,  and  will 
gather  it  themselves,  parties  being 
formed,  each  under  an  officer  for  that 
purpose.  In  India  the  ration  fuel  is 
always  of  wood. 

Fugleman,  or  Fugelman  (German, 
Flugel,  a  wing)  —  A  soldier  formerly 
placed  in  front  of  a  regiment  to  give 
the  time  in  the  manual,  platoon,  or  sword 
exercise.  This  man  was  the  fugleman, 
and  he  was  generally  posted  in  front  of 
the  right  wing. 

Fulcrum — The  point  of  suspension  in- 
a  balance,  or  axis  of  a  lever  on  which  the 
arm  of  the  scales  is  balanced.  Levers 
are  of  three  kinds,  in  each  of  which  the 
position  of  the  fulcrum  depends  upon  the 
relation  of  the  power  to  the  weight. 
(  Vide  Lever.) 

Full  Charges — In  artillery,  are  the 
ordinary  charges  used  with  rifled  pro- 
jectiles. The  powder  used  for  full 
charges  of  40  Ibs.  and  upwards  is  P. 
powder,  and  for  all  charges  under  40  Ibs. 
L.G.  powder.  (  Vide  Battering  Charges.) 

Fulminate  of  Mercury  (2H.G.OC4N20?) 
— A  salt  of  mercury  with  fulminic 
acid.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  percussion  caps ;  also  in  the  pre- 
paration of  the  E.  time,  R.L.  screw, 
and  B.L.  plain  percussion  fuzes.  It  is 
of  a  highly  explosive  nature,  and  formed 
from  the  combination  of  mercury  and 
nitric  acid,  mixed  with  chlorate  of 
potassa.  The  process  pursued  in  the 
manufacture  of  this  composition  is  as 
follows  : — 

Take  of  mercury       ..    7  oz.  12drs. 
„     „  nitric  acid    ..    4  ,,    4    ,, 
„     „  alcohol         . .    4  Ibs.  8  oz. 


Mix  these  ingredients  together  in  a 
glass  retort,  exposing  them  for  a  short 
time  to  the  action  of  the  sun  ;  then  place 
the  neck  of  the  retort  into  a  receiver, 
being  careful  to  close,  securely,  the  point 
of  junction  with  clay,  so  as  to  prevent 
any  escape  of  the  vapour  arising  from 
the  chemical  action  of  these  ingredients. 
This  action  will  be  seen  to  commence 
shortly  after,  by  thick  white  vapour 
being  thrown  off  through  the  neck  of  the 
retort  into  the  receiver,  where  it  becomes 
condensed.  As  soon  as  this  action  of  the 
ingredients  ceases,  the  retort  is  removed, 
and  at  the  bottom  of  it  will  be  found  a 
residuum,  which  is  fulminate  of  mercury. 
This  is  taken  out  of  the  retort  and 
washed  thoroughly  with  distilled  water, 
until  all  trace  of  acid  be  removed.  This 
is  known  by  dipping  litmus  paper  into 
the  washings,  when,  if  free  from  acidity, 
the  paper  will  not  change  colour,  or 
when  the  water  becomes  tasteless.  The 
fulminating  powder  is  then  dried,  not  in 
the  sun,  but  on  sheets  of  longcloth,  in  a 
room,  spread  on  trays  of  wicker  or  brass 
work.  When  dried,  it  is  packed  away  in 
small  parcels ;  and  the  reason  of  this 
is,  that  from  its  explosive  character  it 
would  be  dangerous  to  heap  it  together 
in  any  quantity.  When  required  for 
use,  it  has  to  be  mixed  with  chlorate  of 
potassa  and  antimony  in  the  following 
proportions : — 

Chlorate  of  potassa      . .        . .     6  oz. 

Fulminate  6    „ 

Antimony  4   „ 

It  is  then  mixed  with  a  soft  hair  brush, 
and  sifted  in  a  fine  brass  sieve  to  which 
a  leather  bottom  is  attached. 

Fulminate  of  mercury  detonates  either 
by  a  blow  or  at  a  heat  above  370°  Fahr. 
It  detonates  in  a  moist  condition,  and  in 
a  dry  state  explodes  readily  when  struck 
or  even  when  harshly  rubbed. 

Funeral,  Military— The  interment  of 
officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and 
soldiers.  What  are  termed  funeral 
honours,  such  as  are  laid  down  in  the 
Queen's  Regulations,  are  only  to  be 
accorded  to  officers  who  at  the  time  of 
their  decease  are  on  full  pay,  or  em- 
ployed on  the  staff  of  the  army,  or  in 
the  exercise  of  any  military  command. 
Non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers 


FUR 


154 


FUZ 


receive  funeral  honours,  as  laid  down  in 
the  regulations  quoted. 

Furlong — Eighth  of  a  mile  ;  forty  rods,  i 

Furlough — Leave  of  absence,  granted  j 
to  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  army,  and  , 
to  members  of  the  civil   service.      The  ! 
term  furlough  is  very  generally  used  in 
India,  when  a  servant  of  the  government 
proceeds    on    leave    out  of  the  country. 
The  period  of  furlough  granted  to  officers 
of  the  Indian  army,  and  to  officers  of  the 
imperial  establishment  on  the  staff,  is  as 
follows.     After  8  years'  actual  service  in 
India,  2  years.     On  the  completion  of  6 
years'  further  actual  service,  after  return 
from  Europe,  an  officer  is    eligible  for  a 
third  year's  furlough,  and  fora  fourth  or 
fifth  year  after  similar  intervals  of  6  years. 

Warrant  officers  are  granted  leave  to 
Europe  after  6  years'  service  in  that 
rank,  and  after  15  years'  service  in 
India,  according  to  the  old  rules  of  the 
service.  In  1868  new  rules  were  issued 
on  the  subject  of  leave  to  this  class  of 
officers,  who  entered  the  service  after  that 
date  ;  but  they  were  applicable  also,  at 
option,  to  those  in  the  service  before  that 
date.  Warrant  officers  holding  veteran 
or  honorary  commissions  can,  if  they 
have  elected  the  rules  of  1868,  enjoy 
the  same  privileges  as  to  furlough  as 
commissioned  officers. 

The  furlough  pay  is  as  follows  : — An 
officer  drawing  staff  pay  in  addition  to 
the  pay  of  his  rank  is  allowed  50  per 
cent,  of  his  substantive  appointment. 
This  has  been  somewhat  modified,  and 
in  no  case  can  the  absentee  now  draw 
more  than  £1000  per  annum. 

Officers  not.  on  staff  employ  in  India  re- 
ceive half  the  Indian  pay  of  their  rank, 
and  in  no  case  are  to  receive  less  than  the 
minimum  of  £250  per  annum.  Short 
leave,  for  a  period  not  exceeding  3  months, 
is  given  in  the  country,  or  elsewhere, 
to  officers  in  general ;  privilege  leave  is 
granted  to  all  officers  for  60  days,  and 
to  those  in  far  distant  districts  for  90 
days,  without  loss  of  pay  and  allowances  ; 
beyond  that  period,  staff  officers  receive 
only  half  staff  allowance. 

Furnace — In  the  general  acceptation 
of  the  term,  any  vessel  or  utensil  for 
maintaining  a  strong  and  searching  heat, 
either  of  coal  or  wood. 

Furnace,  Eeverberatory— A  furnace  in 


which  metal  ores  are  roasted  or  calcined. 
The  principle  of  such  afurnace  is  this,  that 
a  flame  shall  be  produced,  and  reverbe- 
rated or  reflected  down  upon  the  mineral ; 
this  is  usually  done  by  burning  a  bitu- 
minous fuel  in  the  grate,  and  the  flame 
thus  produced  is  reverberated  upon  the 
ore,  by  the  peculiar  form  which  is  given 
to  the  vaulted  top  of  this  kind  of  furnace, 
and  also  by  the  draught  excited  by  a  tall 
chimney.  This  is  the  kind  of  furnace 
used  in  a  foundry  where  guns  are  cast, 
or  metals  are  melted. 

Fusil — As  described  in  the  '  Musketry 
Handbook  for  Hythe,'  "  a  firelock  lighter 
than  the  musket  invented  in  France 
about  1635,  and  deriving  its  name  from 
the  Italian  word/ocz'fe,  'a  flint.'  In  1678 
a  British  regiment  was  armed  with  the 
fusil,  and  the  king  added  a  company  of 
men  armed  with  hand  grenades  to  each 
of  the  old  British  regiments,  which  was 
designated  the  grenadier  company." 

Fusilade — A  general  discharge  of  fire- 
arms. 

Fusilier — Formerly,  a  soldier  armed 
with  a  shorter  and  lighter  musket  than, 
the  rest  of  the  army,  which  he  could 
sling  over  his  shoulder. 

The  fusilier  regiments,  of  which  there 
are  ten  in  the  British  service,  are  not 
distinguished  from  the  infantry  of  the 
line  as  they  formerly  were ;  the  title  is 
now  purely  honorary,  and  they  are 
armed  and  dressed  in  every  way  like 
the  line  regiments,  except  in  the  head- 
dress and  in  the  mode  of  wearing  their 
chevrons.  The  head-dress  of  the  officers 
is  a  busby,  the  material  of  which  is 
made  of  racoon  skin,  for  that  of  the  non- 
commissioned officers  and  of  the  men, 
of  sealskin.  On  parade,  or  marching  iu 
quick  time,  upon  occasions  of  guard- 
mounting  parade,  or  review,  they  march 
to  the  Grenadiers'  March. 

Futchels — Are  strong  pieces  of  wood 
or  iron,  three  in  number,  uniting  the 
splinter  bar  and  the  axle-tree  bed  of  a 
gun  carriage  or  limber. 

Fuze — An  invention  for  igniting  the 
bursting  charge  of  a  shell  at  any  parti- 
cular time  or  object. 

There  are  two  descriptions  of  fuze  in 
the  service,  time  and  percussion ;  the 
former  made  of  wood  after  General  Boxer's 
pattern,  which  is  used  when  it  is  re- 


FUZ 


155 


FUZ 


quired  to  burst  the  shell  at  any  particular 
moment  of  time,  hence  its  name,  time 
fuze  ;  the  latter,  of  which  there  are  dif- 
ferent patterns,  is  used  when  it  is  desired 
to  burst  the  shell  on  impact. 

Time  fuzes  are  used  with  all  natures 
of  shell  fired  from  smooth-bore  and  rifled 
ordnance.  The  principle  on  which  the 
different  natures  of  the  Boxer  fuze  are 
made  is  very  similar ;  some  little  dif- 
ference exists  in  the  capping  and  priming 
the  fuze,  and  in  the  mode  of  conducting 
the  flame  to  the  fuze  composition. 

There  are  three  lengths  of  time  fuzes, 
independent  of  those  for  mortars,  desig- 
nated according  to  the  length  of  time 
they  burn,  viz.  5,  9,  and  20  seconds. 
The  composition  burns  at  the  rate  of  1 
inch  in  5  seconds.  Each  fuze  has 
the  number  of  quarter  seconds,  half- 
seconds,  and  seconds,  painted  on  it,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  fuze.  The  5- 
second  fuze,  for  instance,  reads  to  quarter 
seconds,  the  9-second  fuze  to  half-se- 
conds, and  the  20-second  fuze  to  seconds. 
As  explained  in  the  'Treatise  on  Ammu- 
nition, 1874-,'  it  is  essential  in  firing 
shrapnel  shell  from  field  guns  to  have  a 
fuze  which  acts  at  short  intervals  of 
time,  and  for  this  reason :  "  Suppose  a 
shell  to  be  flying  at  the  rate  of  1200  feet 
or  400  yards  a  second  ;  in  this  case  the 
space  corresponding  to  half  a  second  is 
200  yards ;  it  is  evident  that,  to  develop 
the  full  powers  of  shrapnel  shell,  we 
should  have  a  fuze  which  can  be  bored  to 
act  at  shorter  intervals  than  half-seconds. 
Hence  the  advantage  of  the  5-second 
fuze,  which  can  be  made  to  act  at  inter- 
vals of  quarter  seconds,  corresponding  to 
100  yards  in  flight."  These  minute 
divisions  are  not  essential  in  the  20- 
second  fuzes,  as  the  shells  with  which 
they  are  used  are  fired  at  long  ranges, 
and  consequently  to  bore  into  the  com- 
position at  less  than  one  second  would  be 
unnecessary. 

The  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  in  time 
fuzes  are  thus  explained  by  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Owen,  in  his  treatise  on  '  Modern 
Artillery' : — 

"  (1)  That  they  should  ignite  with 
certainty ;  (2)  that  they  should  burn 
regularly  ;  (3)  that,  when  ignited,  they 
should  not  be  liable  to  extinction  on 
striking  earth,  water,  or  wood." 


With  reference  to  the  latter  condition, 
a  time  fuze  is  very  likely  to  act  as  a 
percussion  fuze  if  the  shell  hits  any  hard 
substance,  point  on. 

The  percussion  fuzes  in  the  service  ar« 
known  as  Pettman's,  for  land  and  general 
service — the  C  cap  percussion  fuze,  the 
nomenclature  of  which  has  been  changed 
to  Fuze,  percussion,  breech-loading,  plain  ; 
and  the  R.L.  percussion  fuze.  The 
two  latter  are  the  only  fuzes  which 
can  be  relied  on  to  act  on  graze.  The 
B.L.  plain  fuze  is  used  with  Arm- 
strong, field-service,  B.L.,  common,  and 
segment  shell ;  the  R.L.  percussion  fuze 
with  all  rifled  M.L.  shells,  up  to  the 
80-pr.  inclusive,  and  with  all  B.L.  shell 
having  the  G.S.  fuze  hole. 

The  essential  requirements  of  a  good 
percussion  fuze  are,  as  further  stated  by 
.Lieutenant-Colonel  Owen  :  "  (1)  That  it 
shall  not  be  ignited  by  the  shock  of 
discharge ;  (2)  that  it  shall  be  ignited  on 
the  impact  of  the  shell  '  against  the 
object' ;  (3)  that  it  may  not  be  liable  to 
explode  during  transport ;  and  (4)  that 
for  naval  service  it  shall  not  explode  on 
striking  water." 

The  use  of  percussion  fuzes  is  thus  ex- 
plained in  the  'Treatise  of  Ammunition, 
1874':  "Percussion  fuzes  are  employed 
for  two  distinct  purposes :  they  are  used 
in  shells  intended  exclusively  to  act 
against  solid  obstacles,  such  as  earth- 
works, brick  walls,  or  wooden  ships  ;  and 
they  are  also  used  in  shells  employed 
against  troops  in  the  field,  as  well  as  in 
shells  directed  against  buildings  and 
material  generally. 

"  For  the  first  purpose,  it  is  desirable 
that  the  fuze  should  only  act  on  direct 
impact,  and  a  very  instantaneous  action 
is  not  required.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  Pettman  G.S.  percussion  fuze  is 
specially  designed  to  act  only  on  direct 
impact. 

"  For  the  second  purpose,  when  used 
against  troops  in  the  open,  it  is  necessary 
the  fuze  should  act  on  graze,  and  that  it 
should  act  almost  instantaneously,  as 
otherwise  the  shell  has  time  to  rise  to  a 
considerable  height  before  bursting,  and 
thus  its  effect  against  troops  is  dimi- 
nished. Such  an  action  is  secured  in  the 
R.L.  screw  and  B.L.  plain  percussion 
fuzes."  These,  with  the  Pettman  L.S. 


FUZ 


156  GAB 


and  G.S.  fuzes,  are   the  only  percussion 
fuzes  in  the  service. 

In  writing  on  the  subject  of  fuzes,  it 
may  be  as  well  to  mention  that  it  has 
been  discovered  in  high  trajectories, 
such  as  in  mortar  practice,  that  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  being  less 
than  when  near  the  ground,  the  fuze 
does  not  burn  so  quickly.  From  experi- 
ments made,  it  appears  that  each  dimi- 
nution of  1  inch  of  barometrical  pressure 
causes  a  retardation  of  1  second  in  a  6-inch 
or  30-second  fuze,  or  each  diminution  of 
atmospheric  pressure  to  the  extent  of  1 
mercurial  inch  increases  the  time  of 
burning  by  one-thirtieth ;  or,  in  other 
words,  the  increments  in  time  are  pro- 
portional to  the  decrements  of  pressure. 

Quartermaster  Mitchell,  R.A.,  first 
brought  this  fact  to  notice,  and  it  has 
subsequently  been  confirmed  by  Dr. 
Frankland,  F.R.S.,  '  Proceedings  of  the 
Royal  Society,' vols.  x.  and  xi.  (Vide  Ap- 
pendix B.) 

Fuze,  Bickford's  —  A  fuze  used  in 
mining  and  for  submarine  purposes.  It 
consists  of  a  very  small  tube  of  strong 
linen  filled  with  gunpowder,  and  served 
round  with  tarred  twine,  and  the  whole 
pitched  over,  which  renders  it  waterproof. 
There  are  about  nine  kinds  of  this  nature 
of  fuze,  which  vary  in  the  amount  of  pro- 
tection given  to  the  linen  or  flax  according 
to  the  purpose  required  of  them  ;  if  for 
sub-aqueous  blasting,  the  fuze  is  covered 
with  gutta-percha.  The  tubing  is  pro- 
cured in  coils  like  small  rope,  and  keeps 
very  well.  It  burns  at  the  rate  of  about 
1  yard  in  70  seconds.  Mines  are  usually 
fired,  or,  as  it  is  technically  termed, 
sprung,  by  a  powder-hose  or  by  Bickford's 
fuze,  the  latter  being  ignited  by  a  de- 
tonator. 

Fuze,  Electric,  vide  Electric  Fuze. 

Fuze  Hole — The  perforation  made  in 
a  shell  for  holding  the  fuze.  To  render 
the  fuze  holes  of  shells,  having  the 
Moorsom  gauge,  capable  of  receiving 
the  G.S.  fuze,  an  adapter  (</.  c.)  must  be 
used. 


G. 


Gabion  (Italian  gobbia,  hollow) — A 
cylindrical  basket,  open  at  top  and 
bottom,  used  for  revetting  the  interior 
slopes  of  a  battery  and  other  field 
works.  It  is  3  feet  high,  2  feet  in 
diameter,  and  weighs  40  Ibs.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  gabions  in  the  service — 
the  wicker,  Tyler's  sheet  iron,  and  Jones' 
iron  band  gabions.  They  are  described 
as  follows  : — 

"  Gabions,  Wicker. — Open  cylinders,  of 
coarse  basket-work,  2  feet  9  inches  high, 
1  foot  9  inches  or  2  feet  9  inches  in 
diameter;  the  smaller  for  saps,  the  latter 
for  batteries ;  no  larger  size  should  be 
made.  Having  set  twelve  pickets,  each 
J  to  1  inch  in  diameter,  in  a  circle, 
begin  by  inserting  the  ends  of  three  rods 
between  three  consecutive  pairs  of  pickets, 
then  weave  them  in  and  out,  round  the 
circle,  taking  care  that  they  pass  alter- 
nately over  and  under  one  another,  and 
to  carry  each  in  turn  outside  two,  inside 
one  picket.  Each  squad  of  three  men  re- 
quires one  bill-hook,  three  gabion  knives, 
one  4-foot  rod,  one  chopping  block,  one 
3-foot  line,  and  sometimes  a  hand  saw. 
The  rods  for  the  web  should  be  from  |  to 
|  inch  in  diameter,  of  the  most  flexible 
material  to  be  procured,  and  stripped  of 
fine  branches.  Three  men  turn  out  a  2- 
foot  gabion  in  two  hours ;  weight  from 
36  to  40  Ibs." 

In  India,  the  bamboo  is  the  best  wood 
for  gabions  ;  whole  bamboos  being  used  for 
the  uprights,  and  split  ones  for  weaving 
round  them.  They  are  very  easily  and 
quickly  worked  up. 

"  Gabions,  Sheet  Iron,  Tyler's.  —  A 
single  sheet  of  galvanised  iron,  about 
0-45  inch  thick,  75  J  inches  long,  36 
inches  wide,  with  four  eyelet  holes,  weight 
26  Ibs.,  requires  no  pickets.  The  sheet 
is  rolled  into  a  cylinder  for  use ;  the  ends 
secured  by  strong  wire  ties.  The  noise 
which  is  made  by  the  gabion  when  car- 
ried empty  is  a  drawback  from  its  gene- 
ral advantages.  The  sheets  may  be  used 
for  roofing  and  other  purposes." 

Two  men  can  make  one  of  these  ga- 
bions in  ten  minutes. 

"  Gabions,   Iron    Band,   Jones'. — Each 


GAD 


157 


GAL 


gabion  is  made  of  ten  bands  of  galvanised 
sheet  iron,  worked  over  twelve  wood 
pickets,  the  ends  brought  together  and  con- 
nected by  two  buttons  at  one  end,  fitting 
into  two  slots  at  the  other.  Each  band  is 
77  inches  long,  3J  inches  wide,  of  No.  20 
gauge,  or  about  0'05  inch  thick;  weight 
of  ten,  29  Ibs.  The  buttons  and  button- 
holes are  required  to  stand  a  weight  of 
672  Ibs.,  the  band  itself  will  support 
about  1500  Ibs. ;  each  band  has  four  holes 
to  admit  of  combination  to  form  bridges, 
beds,  stretchers,  and  for  other  incidental 
applications  :  little  or  no  instruction  is 
required  for  making  these  gabions." 

Two  expert  men  can  make  a  gabion  in 
five  minutes. 

Gabion  Trip  for  Cavalry. — The  bands  of 
Jones'  iron  gabions  may  be  formed  into  a 
network  as  an  obstacle  against  cavalry 
and  even  against  infantry  in  night  at- 
tacks. The  bands  are  buttoned  and 
placed  in  line  3  or  4  feet  apart ; 
each  band  is  connected  with  the  next  by 
stout  wire  or  rope  passed  through  the 
binding-holes.  Bands  thus  connected 
should  be  laid  in  parallel  rows,  chequer- 
wise, 3  or  4  feet  apart,  the  rows  also  con- 
nected by  wire  or  rope  and  secured  at 
intervals  to  pickets  driven  into  the 
ground. 

Sebast  ipol  Hoop-iron  Gabion. — This  ga- 
bion was  made  of  hoop-iron  during  the 
siege  of  Sebastopol.  The  iron  was  ob- 
tained from  the  iron  hoops  used  to  secure 
the  bales  of  clothing,  trusses  of  com- 
pressed hay,  &c.  Three  men  could  make 
a  gabion  in  an  hour.  The  weight  was 
about  30  Ibs. 

In  the  '  Manual  of  Field  Fortification, 
&c.  of  1871,'  published  by  authority,  it  is 
stated  as  follows  : — "  Of  all  the  various 
kinds  of  gabion  here  mentioned,  the  most 
useful  for  battery  purposes  is  the  wicker 
gabion,  as  it  is  found  to  stand  well  in  the 
cheeks  of  embrasures,  and  is  free  from 
the  danger  of  splintering  which  is  the 
great  fault  of  all  iron  gabions." 

Gads,  or  G-ad.li.ngs — An  old  Norman 
name  given  to  that  part  of  the  gauntlet 
which  covers  the  knuckle,  and  which  was 
armed  with  knobs  or  spikes  of  iron.  In 
a  trial  by  combat  adjudged  between  John 
de  Visconti  and  Sir  Thomas  de  la  Marche, 
fought  before  Edward  III.  in  close  lists, 
at  Westminster,  Sir  Thomas  de  la  Marche 


gained  the  advantage  by  striking  the 
gadlings  of  his  gauntlet  into  the  face  of 
his  adversary. 

Gages,  Common  —  Tools  for  setting 
out  lines  and  grooves  parallel  with  the 
margin  of  the  carpenter's  work.  The 
"  stem "  of  the  gage  is  retained  in  the 
head  or  stock  by  means  of  a  small  wedge, 
and  the  cutter  is  fixed  in  a  hole  at  right 
angles  to  the  face  of  the  stem  by  another 
wedge.  There  are  several  forms  of  gages, 
such  as  the  markinij,  cutting,  router,  mor- 
tise gage,  &c. 

Gaining  Twist — Some  of  the  rifles  and 
rifled  ordnance  in  the  service  are  made 
with  grooves  which  have  a  very  slight 
twist  at  the  breech,  but  the  twist  is  in- 
creased regularly  until  it  reaches  the 
muzzle ;  this  is  known  as  the  increasing 
or  gaining  twist.  At  the  instant  of  dis- 
charge, when  the  shot,  from  a  state  of 
rest,  is  instantly  given  a  high  velocity,  it 
would  seem  likely  to  be  pushed  across 
the  grooves,  especially  if  they  have  a 
great  inclination.  To  avoid  this,  the  in- 
clination of  the  grooves  is  made  slight  at 
the  breech,  and  increased  gradually  to- 
ward the  muzzle,  at  which  point  they 
are  sufficiently  inclined  to  give  the  neces- 
sary rotatory  motion.  In  the  increasing 
twist,  though  the  projectile  leaves  the 
seat  or  chamber  of  the  gun  with  great 
velocity,  and  relieves  the  breech  a  good 
deal  from  the  strain  of  the  discharge,  its 
velocity  is  less  than  from  a  gun  with  uni- 
form twist. 

Galena,  or  Sulphide  of  Lead — Is  the 
most  abundant  ore  of  lead  known.  It  is 
found  in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  has 
usually  a  metallic  lustre,  or  a  leaden  grey 
or  blackish  grey  colour,  and  its  structure 
is  lamellar.  The  principal  varieties  of 
this  mineral  are  specular  galena  and  blue 
lead.  It  is  used  in  the  laboratory,  and 
forms  one  of  the  ingredients  in  the  com- 
position of  blue  lights. 

Gall — The  wound  inflicted  on  draught 
or  riding  horses  from  the  imperfect 
fitting  of  the  harness  or  saddle.  Saddle 
galls  are  the  most  common.  For  the 
prevention  of  galls,  vide  Pad. 

Galleries — In  military  mining,  are  the 
excavations  formed  underground  from 
the  end  of  the  shaft,  to  enable  the  miners 
to  reach  the  required  positions  for  placing 


GAL 


158 


GAR 


the  charges ;  they  are  called  shafts  when 
vertical,  and  galleries  when  horizontal  or 
slightly  inclined,  the  latter  being  dis- 
tinguished as  ascending  and  descending. 
What  are  termed  great  galleries  are 
those  used  in  the  attack  of  a  fortress,  for 
descending  from  the  crowning  of  the 
covered  way  into  the  ditch.  In  a  system 
of  countermines,  the  gallery,  which  runs 
parallel  with  the  counterscarp,  and  is 
the  base  of  the  system,  is  known  as  the 
magistral  gallery  ;  that  which  is  paral- 
lel to  it,  and  beyond  it,  is  the  envelope 
gallery  ;  those  that  connect  these  parallel 
galleries  are  galleries  of  communication ; 
and  all  those  pushed  into  the  country, 
beyond  the  envelope  gallery,  are  listening 
galleries. 

Gallop — The  quickest  pace  of  a  horse; 
in  cavalry  manoeuvre,  it  is  about  eleven 
miles  an  hour  or  upwards. 

Galloper  Guns — Light  guns  of  small 
calibre.  Formerly,  these  guns  were 
attached  to  infantry  regiments,  but  they 
have  long  been  abolished. 

Galvanic  Tube — This  tube  has  been 
superseded  by  Abel's  electric  tube  (7.  £.). 

Galvanised  Iron— Iron  covered  with  a 
coating  of  zinc,  either  by  the  electro 
process,  or  by  the  application  of  an 
amalgam  of  zinc  and  mercury  to  the 
surface  of  chemically  cleaned  iron.  The 
latter  is  called  Mallet's  patent  process. 

Galvanism— A  branch  of  electricity, 
named  from  Galvani,  an  Italian,  in  which 
electrical  phenomena  are  exhibited  with- 
out the  aid  of  friction,  and  a  chemical 
action  takes  place  from  the  contact  of 
certain  metallic  and  other  bodies.  The 
subject  was  subsequently  treated  by 
Volta,  and  has  since  been  denominated 
indiscriminately  galvanism  or  voltaic 
electricity.  Galvanism  is  much  used  in 
the  arts. 

Gambesan — Clothing  of  stuffed  and 
quilted  cloth,  which  was  sometimes  used 
to  cover  war-horses  during  the  middle 
ages.  It  was  also  a  garment  worn  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  by  those 
who  could  not  afford  hauberks. 

Gardens,  Military  —  Gardens  sanc- 
tioned for  the  employment  and  amuse- 
ment of  troops  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
In  India  the  produce  of  the  soldiers' 
gardens  is  bought  by  the  commissariat 
department,  and  issued  as  part  of  the 


soldiers'  rations.  The  Queen's  Regulations 
give  the  rules  and  regulations  attending 
the  cultivation  of  gardens  in  Great  Britain. 

Garlands,  vide  Shot  Garlands. 

Garnish  Plate — That  part  of  the  iron 
work  of  the  O.P.  gun  carriage  which 
covers  the  upper  surface  of  the  brackets. 

Garrison — The  troops  left  within  a 
fortified  place  for  its  protection,  or 
merely  as  ordinary  quarters. 

The  proportion  of  men  laid  down  for 
the  protection  of  a  fortress  has  for  its 
object,  first,  the  number  required  for 
the  immediate  security  of  the  place,  and, 
secondly,  that  required  to  sustain  a  siege  ; 
an  arrangement  which  in  peace  avoids 
the  necessity  of  shutting  up  a  consider- 
able body  of  troops  without  an  immediate 
object. 

For  the  immediate  security  of  the 
place,  350  infantry,  10  cavalry,  60  ar- 
tillery, 20  sappers  (=  440  per  bastion) 
might  be  required,  and  in  anticipation 
of  a  siege,  double  that  number  ;  for  the 
fronts  susceptible  of  attack,  surplus  arms 
at  the  rate  of  1  for  every  4  men ;  wall 
pieces,  10  for  each  front ;  musket  ball 
ammunition,  500  per  man;  hand  grenades, 
10  per  man ;  gunpowder  in  barrels,  1\  Ibs. 
per  man,  inclusive  of  that  required  for  the 
artillery  and  engineer  services,  ought  to  be 
provided. 

Of  the  151  line  battalions  composing 
the  garrisons  at  home  and  abroad,  60 
are  stationed  in  India,  20  in  the  colo- 
nies, and  71  at  home;  thus  allowing 
one  battalion  at  home  and  one  abroad 
for  each  brigade.  The  chief  foreign 
garrisons  are  Malta  (7  battalions)  and 
Gibraltar  (5  battalions).  The  largest  home 
garrisons  are  London  (for  the  guards), 
Portsmouth,  Dublin,  Cork,  Plymouth, 
Chatham,  Dover,  and  the  camps  at 
Aldershot,  Colchester,  Shorncliffe,  and 
the  Curragh. 

Garrison  Artillery  —  Comprises  the 
ordnance  placed  on  the  works  of  a 
fortress,  having  either  a  land  or  sea 
front,  and  the  men  for  working  the  guns. 
The  ordnance  used  in  such  positions  are 
for  the  most  part  heavy  artillery,  rifled 
and  smooth-bore,  of  different  natures 
and  sizes,  but  the  latter  are  gradually 
being  replaced  by  rifled  guns.  The  class  of 
guns  placed  under  the  head  of  garrison 
artillery  for  land  fronts  comprises  the 


GAR 


159 


GAT 


64-pr.  M.L.R.  and  the  7-inch  B.L.R.  guns  ; 
also  the  Palliser  converted  guns,  namely, 
the  80-pr.,  the  64-pr.  and  the  56-pr. 
M.L.R.  guns.  These  guns  have  been 
converted  from  our  cast-iron  6.B.  guns, 
from  the  24-pr.,  upwards.  The  guns  for 
sea  fronts  are  of  a  heavier  nature,  and 
comprise  the  7-,  9-,  10-,  11-,  12-  and  12£- 
inch  guns,  of  the  respective  weights  of 
7,  12,  18,  25,35,  and  38  tons.  The  81- 
ton  gun,  which  has  lately  been  constructed, 
may  eventually  be  used  for  coast  defence. 

Garrison  Carriage,  vide  Carriage. 

Garter,  Order  of  the — A  military 
order  instituted  by  King  Edward  111. ; 
though  not  the  most  ancient,  it  is  one 
of  the  most  famous  of  the  military 
orders  of  Europe.  In  Colonel  Luard's 
work  it  is  remarked  that  "the  circum- 
stance that  suggested  the  choice  of  this 
symbol  is  as  great  a  mystery  as  the 
origin  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  plumes ; 
the  popular  tradition  which  assigns  it  to 
the  accidental  fall  of  a  lady's  garter  is 
pretty  generally  rejected  ;  yet,  as  it  does 
not  appear  that  gentlemen  wore  garters 
at  that  period,  it  seems  probable  that 
the  old  tale  may  have  been  true."  The 
well-known  emblem  of  the  order  is  a 
dark  blue  ribbon  edged  with  gold,  bearing 
the  motto,  ffoni  soit  qxi  mil  y  pense,  in 
golden  letters,  with  buckle  and  pendant. 

Gas — An  aeriform  fluid,  but  differing 
from  the  air  of  the  atmosphere.  The  gas 
used  for  inflating  balloons  with  is  com- 
mon coal  gas,  the  specific  gravity  of 
which  is  0'4,  common  air  being  I'O. 
When  this  is  not  procurable,  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  field,  where  balloons  might 
be  required  for  military  purposes,  hy- 
drogen gas  should  be  used,  which  is  pro- 
cured by  passing  steam  through  iron 
cylinders,  charged  with  iron  turnings, 
and  heated  to  redness  in  some  simple 
kind  of  furnace.  By  this  means  the 
steam  is  decomposed,  its  oxygen  uniting 
with  the  iron,  while  the  hydrogen  is  dis- 
engaged. The  latter  should  be  passed 
through  a  reservoir  of  caustic  lye  before 
it  enters  the  balloon. 

The  gas  produced  by  the  explosion  of 
gunpowder  consists  of  carbonic  acid, 
carbonic  oxide,  nitrogen,  the  sulphide, 
cyanide,  and  sulphocyanide  of  potassium, 
carbonate  of  potash,  hydrosulphuric  acid, 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  aqueous  vapour. 


Its  temperature  is  estimated  at  2 1 
Fahr.,  and  its  volume  at  that  tempera- 
ture is  more  than  2000  times  that  of  the 
powder. 

Gasket — In  artillery,  a  flat  plaited  cord 
used  for  "  stoppering  the  fall."  It  may 
also  be  made  (on  the  same  principle  as 
the  sclcaijcc)  by  placing  the  same  number 
of  rope-yarns  in  a  straight  line  and 
marling  down. 

Gates,  vide  Barriers. 

Gatherers — The  fore  teeth  of  a  horse. 

Gatling  Gun — One  of  the  many  types 
of  mitrailleur.s  which  has  been  invented 
of  late  years.  This  weapon  is  the  in- 
vention of  Dr.  Gatling.  His  0'45-inch 
mitrailleur  has  been  introduced  into  the 
British  service  after  undergoing  con- 
siderable improvement.  From  experi- 
ments made  with  this  gun,  657  shots 
have  been  discharged  in  two  minutes. 
It  is  thus  described  in  the  '  List  of 
Changes  in  War  Material ' : — 

"There  are  ten  locks  corresponding  to 
the  ten  barrels.  The  gun  is  worked  by  a 
crank  handle  on  the  right  side,  and  the 
barrels  and  locks  revolve  together ;  but 
irrespective  of  this  motion,  the  locks  have 
a  forward  and  backward  motion  of  their 
own.  The  forward  motion  places  the 
cartridges  in  the  chambers  of  the  barrels, 
and  closes  the  breech  at  the  time  of  each 
discharge,  while  the  backward  motion 
extracts  the  empty  cartridge  cases  after 
firing. 

"  Drum. — The  gun  is  fed  by  means  of  a 
metal  drum,  which  fits  on  a  pin  in  the 
centre  of  a  hopper,  communicating  with 
the  cartridge  carrier.  The  drum  has 
16  channels  or  columns,  each  of  which 
can  receive  15  cartridges.  Thus,  each 
drum,  when  full,  contains  240  cartridges. 
It  weighs,  empty,  22  Ibs. ;  filled,  50  Ibs. 

"  Traversing  Arrangement. — The  gun 
can  be  fired  either  in  a  fixed  direction 
or  with  a  certain  lateral  spread.  The 
traversing  motion  is  communicated  to 
the  barrels  by  means  of  a  traversing 
worm  fitted  with  a  crutch.  The  crutch 
can  be  made  to  gear  with  the  traversing 
worm  or  not,  as  required,  and  the 
amount  of  traversing  to  be  given  is 
regulated  by  four  divisions  on  the  worm 
corresponding  to  horizontal  angles  of 
4°  45',  3°  20',  1°  50',  and  0°  20'  re- 
spectively. 


GAJJ 


160 


GEA 


"  When  no  traversing  motion  is  re- 
quired, the  gun  is  fixed  in  one  position 
by  lowering  a  locking-bolt  into  a  recess 
in  the  rear  of  the  trunnion  plate. 

"  Sijhting. — The  gun  is  sighted  on  the 
right  side,  and  is  supplied  with  two 
sights — viz.  one  fore  sight,  of  steel,  and 
one  hind  sight,  also  of  steel,  graduated  in 
degrees  and  yards." 

The  use  of  this  nature  of  weapon  is  ex- 
plained under  the  head  of  "  Mitrailleur." 

Gauge  —  A  standard  of  measure. 
Gauges  are  in  very  general  use  in  all 
mechanical  departments.  In  the  artillery 
service  they  are  either  in  the  form  of  rings 
or  cylinders,  which  admits  of  the  diameter 
of  shot  and  shell  being  taken  with  expe- 
dition. 

Gauge,  Crusher,  vide  Crusher  Gauge. 

Gauge,  Iron  Cylinder — An  instrument 
adapted  for  testing  the  body,  studs,  and 
pitch  of  rifling  of  muzzle-loading  projec- 
tiles, at  one  operation.  When  the  present 
number  of  this  nature  of  gauge  is  used 
up,  iron  ring  gauges  will  be  introduced 
for  general  issue ;  the  cylinder  gauges 
being  restricted  to  stations  of  inspec- 
tion. 

The  following  are  the  dimensions  of 
the  gauges  for  rifled  field  guns  : — 

Diameter         Diameter       Diameter 
over  body,      over  studs,  low  over  studs. 


3-58 
2-98 
2-98 


Indies. 
3-812 
3-212 
3-182 


Inches. 
3-795 


16-pr. 
9-pr. 
7-pr. 


Gauge,  Pressure — An  instrument  used 
in  determining  the  pressure  of  the  several 
natures  of  powder,  at  certain  intervals 
within  the  bore  of  a  gun.  The  result  of 
experiments  made  with  this  instrument 
has  been  most  successful,  indicating,  very 
exactly,  the  reduced  force  of  both  pellet 
and  pebble  powder  as  compared  with 
ordinary  powder. 

The  principal  instruments  of  this  kind 
are  Hodman's  pressure  gauge  and  a  pres- 
sure gauge  invented  for  the  special  use 
of  the  Committee  on  Explosives,  called 
a  crusher  gauge  (q.  y.).  (  Vide  Proof  of 
Gunpowder.) 

Gauge,  Star — An  instrument  used  to 
ascertain  whether  the  bore  of  a  S.B.  gun 
be  of  the  proper  dimensions  throughout 
its  length. 


Gauge,  Steam — A  contrivance  attached 
to  steam  engines,  which  indicates  the 
pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler. 

Gauge,  Trunnion  —  An  instrument 
used  for  measuring  the  diameter  of  the 
trunnions  of  a  gun. 

Gauges,  Cartridge — Gun-metal  rings 
of  the  required  size,  with  a  handle  to 
each  gauge,  on  which  is  stamped  the 
nature  and  size  of  the  cartridge.  There  are 
two  kinds  :  one,  for  testing  the  diameter 
of  the  rilled  cartridge ;  the  other,  for 
showing  the  length  of  the  cartridge. 

Gauges,  Rocket— Brass  rings,  which 
are  used  to  ascertain  whether  the  case  is 
exteriorly  of  the  proper  dimensions. 

Gauges,  Shot  or  Shell  —  Instruments 
used  for  ascertaining  the  measurement  of 
spherical  projectiles.  They  are  simply  iron 
rings  with  metal  handles,  and  of  varying 
dimensions,  for  determining  the  diameter 
of  the  shot  or  shell.  Only  one  high  gauge 
for  each  calibre  is  issued.  The  projectiles 
should  pass  in  all  directions  through  the 
high  gauge,  but  must  not  pass  through 
the  low  gauge.  Ring  gauges  will  also 
be  used  for  rifled  projectiles  as  well. 
Low  and  high  gauges  are  issued  to  fire- 
masters  and  inspectors  of  warlike  stores 
and  store  stations.  (Vide  Gauge,  Iron 
Cylinder.) 

Gauntlet  (French,  gant,  a  glove) — 
Armour  for  the  hand  and  arm,  made 
either  of  scales  or  mail,  and  used  in  the 
middle  ages.  It  formed  part  of  the 
armour  of  knights  and  men-at-arms. 

The  introduction  of  gauntlets  took 
place  about  the  thirteenth  century. 
Throwing  down  the  gauntlet  in  subse- 
quent ages  was  a  common  mode  of  offer- 
ing a  challenge. 

A  leather  gauntlet  is  now  used,  in  place 
of  gloves,  by  the  household  cavalry. 

Gear — The  name  given  to  the  clothing, 
head,  and  heel  ropes,  &c.  of  horses,  and 
to  the  pads  and  trappings  used  with 
bullocks,  camels,  elephants,  and  mules,  in 
draught  or  in  carrying  loads. 

The  term  is  also  used  when  machinery 
is  in  motion,  in  the  engagement  or  dis- 
engagement of  its  parts,  such  as  lifting  a 
wheel  out  of  gear  and  throwing  a  wheel 
into  gear.  Machines  are  engaged  or  dis- 
engaged while  in  motion  by  various 
means,  such  as  the  sliding  pulley,  fast  and 
loose  pulleys,  &c. 


GEA 


161 


GEN 


Gear  also  implies  all  apparatus  for  the 
lifting  of  heavy  ordnance,  and  for  the 
traversing  and  training  of  guns,  &c. 

Gear,  Bevel,  vide  Bevel  Gear. 

General — A    rank   in  the    army    next 
to  that  of  field-marshal.      As  defined  in 
Brande  and  Cox's  '  Dictionary,'  the  name 
designates  his  command,   as  having   the 
general    or   highest    orders    to    give    in 
battle.     In  the  British   army  there  are 
three   grades  of  this  rank — the  highest, 
general;  the   second,    lieutenant-general; 
the  junior,   major-general.      The  title  of , 
brigadier-general  is   given    to   an  officer  j 
while  in  command  of  a  brigade.     When  , 
a   large  army  is  assembled,  an  officer   is  j 
specially  appointed  to  the  command  who  ; 
may  be,  and  generally  would  be,  a  field-  j 
marshal.     Subordinate  to  him  would  be 
generals,    commanding     corps    d'armfe ;  \ 
lieutenant-generals,    commanding    wings 
of  the  corps  d'armee ;  major-generals,  di- 
visions   in     the    wings ;    and    brigadier- 
generals,  brigades  in  the  divisions. 

The  duties  of  a  general  officer  in  com-  ; 
mand  are  of  a  very  responsible  nature,  i 
and  require  continued  watchfulness  and  j 
circumspection.     In  peace  time  the  chief 
objects  of  his  care  and  regard  should  be  < 
the  condition  of  the  several  equipments 
in    his    command,    respecting    which    he 
should  call  for  specific  information,  and 
occasionally  satisfy  himself  by  personal 
inspection.     These  include  the  ordnance,  : 
carriages,  &c.,  on  the  several  defences ;  , 
the  arsenals  and  magazines  ;    the    state  ! 
and  quantity  of  the   ammunition,  with 
reference   to    the   immediate   wants    for 
service,    both    for    ordnance    and  small- 
arms  ;  the  condition  of  the  horses    and 
cattle  within  his  command :  in  fact,  as 
the  whole   responsibility   devolves   upon 
him,  he  must   have  his   eyes    and    ears 
everywhere. 

Generale — Formerly  a  beat  of  the  drum 
for  the  assembly  of  all  the  troops  prepara- 
tory to  a  march,  battle,  or  action.  When 
beaten  unexpectedly,  it  was  the  signal  for 
the  whole  of  the  troops  to  assemble  at 
the  alarm  posts.  (  Vide  Beat  of  Drum.) 

General  Hospitals  —  Hospitals  speci- 
ally formed  on  the  outbreak  of  a  war,  for 
the  reception  of  the  sick  and  wounded 
who  can  no  longer  be  kept  in  the  field 
hospital.  They  are  of  such  importance 
in  a  campaign  that  the  best  position 


should  be  chosen  for  them,  both  as  re- 
gards safety  and  for  sanitary  reasons. 
General  hospitals  should  be  within  easy 
distance  of  the  army  by  rail  or  water. 
In  selecting  buildings  for  such  purposes, 
ventilation  and  drainage  are  of  primary 
importance.  Huts  and  tents  are  fre- 
quently used  as  general  hospitals,  and 
are  always  preferable  to  private  houses, 
as  the  latter  are  often  too  small  for  the  pur- 
pose required  of  them,  and  do  not  always 
afford  the  regulation  cubic  space  of  air. 
The  size  of  general  hospitals  should  be 
limited  to  the  reception  of  500  or  600  men 
at  a  time,  and  when  it  can  be  managed, 
they  should  be  cleared  out  as  quickly  as 
possible,  and  the  invalids  sent  home  to  be 
distributed  among  the  military  hos- 
pitals. Considering  the  vastness  of 
armies  of  the  present  day,  the  subject 
of  hospital  accommodation  is  a  difficult 
question ;  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded 
must  therefore,  to  some  extent,  be  left 
to  the  many  kind  and  liberal  people  who 
follow  armies  with  the  view  of  attending 
on  the  sick,  and  of  distributing  the  many 
comforts  they  take  with  them,  such  as 
clothing,  medical  and  other  stores,  that 
have  been  collected  and  forwarded,  not 
only  from  the  country  of  the  sick  and 
wounded,  but  from  foreign  nations.  Such, 
it  is  happy  to  think,  is  the  sympathetic 
and  loving  feeling  evinced  nowadays 
by  the  good  and  benevolent  when  war 
breaks  out. 

Geneva,  Convention  of — Promoted  by 
Mr.  Henry  Dunant,  and  signed  by  all 
the  continental  powers  in  August  1864 ; 
Great  Britain,  Greece,  and  Norway  join- 
ing in  it  in  1865. 

By  this  convention  it  was  decided  that — 

1.  Ambulances  and  military  hospitals 
are  to  be  recognised  as  neutral,   and  as 
such    to  be   protected  and  respected   by 
the  belligerents. 

2.  The  personnel  of  these  hospitals  and 
ambulances,  including  the  intendance,  the 
sanitary  officers,  officers  of  the  adminis- 
tration, as  well  as  the  military  and  civil 
chaplains,    are  to  be  benefited    by   that 
neutrality. 

3.  The   inhabitants    of    the    country 
rendering  help  to  the  sick  and  wounded 
are  to  be  respected,  and-free  from  capture. 

4.  The  sick    and  wounded  are    to    be 
attended  to  without  distinction  of  nation. 


GEN 


162 


GER 


5.  A  flag  and  a  uniform  are  to  be  adopted 
for  the  hospitals,  ambulances,  and  convoys 
of  invalids  ;  an  armlet  (brassard)  for  the 
personnel  of  the  ambulances  and  hospitals. 

6.  The  flag  and  armlet  to  consist  of  a 
red  cross  on  a  white  ground. 

In  order  to  carry  out  the  engage- 
ments laid  down  in  this  convention, 
committees  have  been  formed  in  all  the 
large  towns  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United 
.Stales  of  America.  The  society  is  or- 
ganised under  the  name  of  the  Inter- 
national Society  for  the  Aid  of  the  Sick 
and  Wounded.  It  was  first  called  to  play 
an  important  part  during  the  Franco- 
German  War  (1870-1871),  every  nation 
sending  its  contingent  of  ambulances, 
surgeons,  doctors,  &c.,  and  every  purse 
contributing  towards  its  support. 

Genouillere  (French,  genou,  a  knee) 
— Iii  fortification,  is  the  part  of  the 
parapet  reaching  from  the 'platform  to 
the  sill  of  the  embrasure.  It  represents 
the  ordinary  height  above  the  platform  on 
which  the  gun  is  worked.  In  a  barbette 
battery,  the  genouillere  is  the  height  of 
the  crest  of  the  parapet  above  the  plat- 
form. 

The  term  genouillere  is  met  with  in 
ancient  armour,  being  flexible  knee- 
pieces,  with  joints  like  those  of  a  lobster. 

Gentlemen-at-arms  —  A  small  body- 
guard of  about  forty  men,  in  attendance 
upon  the  sovereign  on  state  occasions. 
It  formerly  consisted  of  men  of  noble 
blood,  but  is  now  recruited  from  retired 
officers  of  the  army.  With  the  exception 
of  the  yeomen  of  the  guard,  it  is  the 
oldest  corps  in  the  British  service.  It 
was  instituted  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  by  Henry  VIII. 

Geometrical  Progression — Quantities 
are  said  to  be  in  geometrical  progression 
when  every  succeeding  term  is  a  certain 
constant  multiple  or  part  of  the  pre- 
ceding term.  Thus  a,  ur,  ar2,  ar3,  &c. 
is  a  geometrical  series  of  which  r  is  the 
constant  multiplier,  called  the  "  ratio." 
In  such  a  sum  the  nth  term  =l=arn  —  '; 

lrn-1      rl-a 

and  the  sum  =  a —    v  =  —  -v  • 
r—l        r —  1 

German  Army— One  of  the  chief 
continental  armies  of  Europe. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Prague,  concluded 
between  Austria  and  Prussia  after  the 


war  of  1866,  a  new  German  confedera- 
tion was  formed.  A  few  months  later, 
Prussia  concluded  conventions  with  states 
forming  the  new  confederation,  by  which 
they  were  bound  to  adopt  any  quarrel  of 
Prussia  arising  out  of  the  recent  events, 
and  to  place  their  military  strength  at 
the  absolute  disposal  of  the  Prussians. 
In  order  to  ensure  a  unity  of  organisa- 
tion, the'  military  system  of  the  latter 
was  adopted  by  these  states.  And  now. 
by  the  constitution  of  the  German 
empire,  bearing  date  the  Kith  of  April 
1871,  the  land  forces  of  all  the  states 
form  a  united  army  under  the  command 
of  the  emperor.  The  German  army  thus 
includes  the  contingents  of  Prussia  (with 
Hanover),  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wiirtemberg, 
Baden,  and  a  number  of  other  states. 

The  military  system  of  the  German 
empire  is  as  follows,  and  it  will  be 
remarked  how  closely  the  French  system 
resembles  it.  (Vide  French  Army.) 

Every  man  is  liable  to  military  service, 
and  must  render  such  service  personally, 
neither  substitutes  nor  purchase  of  ex- 
emption being  allowed.  There  are,  how- 
ever, certain  social  exemptions  made, 
such  as  for  sons  of  widows,  supports  of 
families,  &c.  The  number  of  recruits 
annually  raised  is  about  143,000  men, 
and  the  peace  strength  of  the  army  is 
fixed  at  401,659  men  (one-year  volun- 
teers not  included),  or  about  1  per  cent, 
of  the  population.  The  age  of  conscription 
is  21  ;  the  period  of  military  service  is 
12  years,  divided  into  three  portions  of 
3,  4,  and  5  years  ;  3  years  are  passed 
by  the  conscript  in  a  regular  regiment, 
the  next  4  years  (on  furlough)  in  the 
reserve,  and  the  final  period  of  5  years  in 
the  Landwehr  or  second  reserve  of  his 
district.  This  brings  the  soldier  to  about 
32  years  of  age.  After  this,  he  is  in- 
corporated in  the  Lamlsturm,  or  service 
for  home  defence  in  case  of  war.  Every 
young  man  can  be  called  up  3  years 
in  succession ;  those  who  are  exempted 
in  their  third  year  are  passed  into  the 
Ersatz-Reserve,  and  are  free  from  mili- 
tary service,  but  can  be  called  upon  in 
time  of  war. 

In  order  that  civil  professions  mav 
not  be  affected  by  military  exigencies, 
youths  of  good  character  and  education, 
and  who  have  taken  university  or  college 


GER 


163 


GER 


degrees,  can  qualify  themselves  for  one 
year's  service.  These  einjdhrigen  Frei- 
wiliigen  (one-year  volunteers)  have  to 
provide  themselves  with  everything, 
viz.  their  accoutrements,  equipment,  and 
horse,  if  in  the  cavalry. 

The  regiments  of  the  regular  army 
during  peace  time  are,  on  the  breaking 
out  of  war,  raised  to  double  their  number 
by  recalling  an  equal  number  of  men 
from  the  reserve,  and  each  reserve  man, 
so  recalled,  returns  not  merely  to  the 
same  battalion,  but  even  to  the  very 
company  in  which  he  had  passed  the 
first  years  of  his  military  life. 

The  Landwehr  battalion  is  the  basis  of 
the  local  organisation,  both  for  recruit- 
ing and  mobilisation.  In  peace  time, 
these  battalions  exist  only  in  cadres. 

By  this  system  Germany  can  easily 
place  in  the  tield  an  army  of  1,350,000 
men,  not  including  the  Landsturm,  and 
has  now  (1875)  a  peace  establishment  of 
428.000  voted  for  7  years,  including 
officers  and  volunteers,  with  a  budget  of 
£16,000,000. 

The  German  army  is  organised  on  the 
territorial  system,  and  divided  into  18 
army  corps,  of  which  13  are  furnished  by 
Prussia,  including  the  contingents  fur- 
nished by  Hanover,  Schleswig-Holstein, 
and  the  minor  states  annexed  to  Prussia 
in  1866  ;  2  by  Bavaria,  1  by  Saxony,  1 
by  Wiirtemberg,  and  1  by  Baden  and 
the  contingent  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  Each 
corps  d'armee  has  a  district,  which  is 
formed  by  the  province  within  which 
it  is  raised,  recruited,  and  stationed. 
These  corps  districts  are  subdivided  into 
divisions  and  brigades,  and  these  again 
into  Landwehr  battalion  districts.  Dis- 
tricts are  further  subdivided  into  com- 
pany districts,  of  which  there  are  from 
3  to  6  to  each  battalion.  The  corps 
d'arm&e  of  the  guard  and  the  one  fur- 
nished by  Saxony  consist  of  2  infantry 
divisions  and  1  of  cavalry.  The  others 
have  two  divisions,  except  the  llth, 
which  has  3.  Each  division  has 
2  infantry  brigades  and  1  of  cavalry. 
The  Saxon  and  the  12th  corps  have  2 
brigades  of  infantry ;  the  cavalry  of  the 
guard  has  3,  the  Saxon  and  the  loth 
corps  2  brigades  of  cavalry  each. 

Independently  of  these  divisions,  each 
corps  possesses  1  or  2  battalions  of  rifles 


(the  guards  1  of  rifle  and  1  of  sharp- 
shooters, and  the  Bavarian  army  10 
battalions  of  rifles),  1  regiment  of  field 
artillery,  1  regiment  or  battalion  of  foot 
artillery,  1  battalion  of  pioneers,  and  1 
of  military  train,  as  well  as  1  battalion 
Etappen  troops,  1  of  instruction,  1  of 
gendarmerie,  belonging  to  the  staff  or 
permanent  army. 

There  are  74  brigades  of  infantry  ;  each 
brigade  is  composed  of  2  regiments  of 
the  line,  and  2  of  the  Landwehr,  giving 
a  total  of  148  regiments  of  the  line. 

A  regiment  on  war  footing  has  60 
officers,  3000  men,  73  non-combatants, 
with  105  horses  and  19  wagons. 

The  regiments  of  infantry  consist  of 

3  battalions,  the  third  one  being  fusiliers. 
Each  battalion  has  4  companies,  and  has 
a  peace  strength  of  552  of  all  ranks,  and 
a  war  strength  of  1022. 

Besides  these  field  battalions,  a  fourth 
or  depot  battalion,  1240  strong,  is  formed 
on  mobilisation. 

The  rifles  and  sharpshooters  (Jdger 
and  Schutzen)  are  not  organised  in 
regiments,  but  form  independent  bat- 
talions. They  are  recruited  from  picked 
men,  chosen  throughout  the  army  corps 
district. 

The  cavalry  of  the  German  army  is 
divided  into  38  brigades ;  1  brigade  is 
composed  of  4  regiments,  15  of  3,  and 
the  22  others  of  2  regiments,  giving  a 
total  of  93  regiments — 12  of  cuirassiers 
(including  those  of  the  guard),  34  of 
dragoons,  18  of  hussars,  25  of  lancers, 
and  4  Saxon  regiments. 

In  peace  time  these  regiments  consist 
of  5  squadrons,  of  4  officers  and  135 
men  each  ;  in  war  time  they  take  the 
field  with  4  squadrons  of  150  each,  while 
a  fifth  remains  behind  to  form  the  depot. 

The  brigades  of  field  artillery  are 
generally  composed  each  of  2  regiments, 
of  which  1  is  composed  of  2  sections  of 

4  batteries,  forming  the  division    artil- 
lery ;  and  the  other,  consisting  of  2  sec- 
tions  of  3    batteries,    and    1    section    of 
horse    artillery    of   3  batteries,  forming 
the  artillery  of  the  corps  d'arm&e.    Each 
battery  has  4  guns. 

The    foot    artillery    brigade    is,    with 

few  exceptions,  composed  of  2  battalions 

of  4  companies  each ;  to  these  must  be 

added   1  company  of  instructors  for  the 

M  2 


GER 


164 


GER 


school  of  gunnery,  and    1   company  for 
laboratory  purposes. 

The  battalions  of  pioneers  have  each 
4  companies — 1  of  pontoons,  2  of  sappers, 
and  1  of  miners.  The  Etappen  battalion, 
which  is  under  the  direct  command  of 
the  chief  of  the  staff,  has  also  4  companies. 
The  peace  establishment  of  each  com- 
pany is  146  men,  but  on  the  war  foot- 
ing it  is  increased  to  218  men.  Further, 
there  is  1  railway  battalion,  and  13  sec- 
tions of  field  telegraph.  (Vide  Railway.) 
The  train  is  a  mere  skeleton  on  a  peace 
footing,  and  has  37  companies  with  a 
strength  of  5049,  which  amounts  to 
nearly  49,000  men  when  it  takes  the  field. 
The  German  artillery  is  armed  with 
B.L.R.  guns  of  cast  steel  (Krupp's 
system) ;  the  field  batteries  have  8'8-c. 
guns,  and  throw  shrapnel  weighing  17'9 
Ibs. ;  the  horse  artillery  have  7'85-c. 
guns,  throwing  the  same  nature  of  shell, 
weighing  12"2  Ibs. 

On  war  being  declared,  the  different 
corps  dCarmee  are  formed  into  armies ; 
and  to  obtain  the  necessary  strength  to 
place  them  on  a  war  footing,  the  govern- 
ment calls  under  the  colours  the  yearly 
contingent  of  conscripts,  the  reserves, 
and  the  men  of  the  Landwehr,  The 
whole  army  is  then  divided  into  (1)  field, 
(2)  depot,  and  (3)  garrison  troops. 

The  field  troops  of  a  corps  d'armtfe 
comprise : — 

(a)  Two  divisions  of  infantry,  each 
having  1  regiment  of  cavalry  and  1 
detachment  of  artillery  (24  guns). 
(6)  The  artillery  of  the  corps  d'arm&e, 
of  1  regiment  of  field  artillery, 
of  6  field  batteries  and  2  horse 
artillery  batteries. 

(c)  Three    independent    companies    of 

pioneers. 

(d)  Sections    of    columns,    viz.:     10 
columns    of    ammunition,    3    of 
pontoons    and    train,    5    of    pro- 
visions, 3   sanitary  detachments, 
1    remount   depot,    1    column    of 
field  batteries,  5  columns  of  land 
transport,    12    ambulances,     the 
intendance    (commissariat),    field 
post,  &c. 

The  other  cavalry  regiments,  not 
attached  to  the  different  divisions,  are 
formed  into  cavalry  divisions  of  2  and 
3  brigades  and  3  batteries  of  horse 


artillery.  These  divisions  are  under  the 
immediate  command  of  the  general-in- 
chief. 

The  army  is  commanded  by  the 
emperor,  with  a  war  minister,  and  a 
chief  of  the  staff  under  him.  The 
war  department  is  divided  into  three 
principal  offices  as  follows  : — 

1.  Central  office,  including  the  minis- 

terial one. 

2.  General    war     department,     com- 

prising organisation,  mobilisation, 
quartering,  training;  strategical 
and  purely  military  questions. 

3.  Military  finance  department :  pay, 

clothing,  equipment,  and  supply. 
The  great  general  staff  of  the  German 
army  is  thus  divided  : — 

1.  Central     bureau  :     general    corre- 

spondence and  direction  of  all  the 
other  sections. 

2.  Three  sections ;  collect  all  available 

and  latest  information  concerning 
European  armies,  &c.,  each  sec- 
tion having  a  certain  number  of 
countries  under  its  charge. 

3.  Railway  section  (vide  Railways). 

4.  Military  history  section:   historical 

records,  histories  of  great  wars, 
annals,  &c. 

5.  Geographical  statistical  section,  con- 

nected with  the  topographical 
section  :  topography  and  statistics 
of  foreign  nations ;  statistics  of 
Germany. 

6.  Topographical   and  land   triangula- 

tion  :  survey  (land  and  cadastral), 
with  special  regard  to  militarj 
requirements. 

7.  Intelligence  office  (vide  Intelligence 

Department). 

8.  Map  room  :  store  room  for  original 

surveys,  maps  for  distribution. 
There  are  61  officers  on   the   general 
staff  at  Berlin,  and  they  are  divided  into 
two  classes  : — 

1.  Active    staff,   liable  to    serve  with 

corps  and  divisions  in  their  turn, 
and 

2.  The  Neben-Etat,  or  accessory  esta- 

blishment, consisting  of  from  30 
to   40   officers   noted    for   special 
acquirements,  but  who  do  not  be- 
long to  the  first  division. 
There  are  besides  113  employes,  such 
as  registrars,  draughtsmen,  &c. 


GER 


165 


GLA 


Bavaria  and  other  German  states  have  {  canals,    &c.,   and   many  of  them  are  of 
similar  establishments,  under  the  super-  i  considerable  span. 
vision  of  the  great  general  staff  at  Berlin.  |      Girth — A  band  or  strap  made  of  web 

The    mode    of  officering  the    German  i  passing  round  the    belly  of  a    horse  or 
army  is  in  two  ways  : —  j  other  animal,  to   keep  the  saddle  in  its 

1.  By  candidates  passing  the  required    place.     There  is  a  girth   known  as  the 
examination  in  general  subjects,  serving  I  Australian    girth,   which  is  made    of  a 
a  short  time  in  the  ranks  or  otherwise  j  network   of  hide  or   cord.      It    is   very 
as  non-commissioned  officers,  and  quali-  !  much  approved  of  in  the  German  army, 
fying    in    the    theoretical    knowledge  of  i  and  has  been  adopted  by  the  cavalry  of 
their   profession    after   a   nine    months'  I  that    nation.      It    never    gets  saturated 
course'  of  study  at  the  Kriegsschule,  or  i  with  sweat,  and  is  therefore  less    likely 
school  of  war.  :  to  get   stiff'  and  hard,  and  hence  causes 

2.  By  passing  the  latter  examination  j  fewer  girth  galls. 

direct    from    a  special  superior  class  of  j      The  term  girth  is  also  used  with  re- 


the  corps  of  cadets. 

There  is  no  examination  for  promotion 


ference  to  the  circumference  of  timber, 
&c. 


to  any  commissioned  rank  in  the  army,  ,  Gisarme — A  very  ancient  weapon, 
promotion  being  obtained  by  relative  !  formed,  it  is  stated,  with  a  lance  and  a 
merit.  Men  of  ability  are  noticed  by  hook  on  one  side  of  it,  both  to  unhorse 
those  in  authority  and  promoted  ;  those  j  the  rider  and  wound  him  also,  and  to 
of  inferior  capacity  are  kept  in  the  back-  i  leave  him  exposed  to  attack  by  sword. 


ground.     (  Vide  Appendix  C.) 
German  Gun,  vide  Krupp  Gun. 
Ghurrie — An  Indian  term  ;  a  circular 
plate  of  gun-metal,  issued  to  troops  in 
India,  in  the  proportion  of  one  per  regi- 
ment,   for    the  purpose  of    striking  the 
hours.     This  kind  of  plate  is  made  up  in 


the  country. 
Gimbal — A 


mechanical 


Glacis — In  a  fortification,  the  parapet 
of  the  covered  way  extended  in  a  long 
slope  to  meet  the  natural  surface  of  th« 
ground,  so  that  every  part  of  it  shall  b« 
swept  by  the  fire  of  the  ramparts. 

Glanders — A  disease  to  which  horses 
are  subject.  Mayhew,  '  On  the  Horse,' 


states  that  it  is  li  brought  on  by  stimu- 
contrivance  \  lating  food,   combined    with    exhausting 


for  keeping  a  suspended   body  vertical,  [  labour ;  damp   and   want   of  ventilation 
whatever  be  the  derangements  to  which  j  will  also  produce  it.     The  disease  termed 


the  points  of  suspension  are  liable.  It 
consists  of  two  brass  rings  which  move 
within  one  another,  each  perpendicularly 
to  its  plane  about  two  axes,  placed  at 
right  angles  to  each  other. 

Gimlet — A  fluted  tool,  which  termi- 


farcy  is  glanders,  only  modified  by  the 
cause  that  originates  it.  Glanders  is 
the  more  vigorous  form  of  the  disorder, 
farcy  is  the  slow  type  fastening  upon 
general  debility.  The  disease  is  highly 
contagious  ;  and  though  a  stable  may  be 


nates  in  a  sharp  worm  or  screw,  begin-  perfectly  clean,  yet  this  poison  may  have 
ning  as  a  point,  and  extending  to  the  full  been  lodged  there  by  the  last  inhabitants  ; 
diameter  of  the  tool,  which  is  drawn  by  j  it  is  not  only  contagious  to  horses  but 
the  screw  into  the  wood.  The  principal  j  equally  dangerous  to  men.  Running 
part  of  the  cutting  is  done  by  the  j  from  the  nose  indicates  very  often  the 
angular  corner  intermediate  between  the  i  setting  in  of  the  disease,  but  the  follow- 
worm  and  shell,  which  acts  much  like  '  ing  signs  appear  when  glanders  exist : 
the  auger.  The  gimlet  is  worked  until  j  a  staring  coat,  bad  appetite,  and  the 
the  shell  is  full  of  wood,  when  it  is  un-  j  pulse  is  quickened,  and  soon  afterwards 


wound  and  withdrawn  to  empty  it. 


a  slight  discharge  from  one  nostril ;  this 


Girder — The  longitudinal  beam  in  a  is  followed  by  one  of  the  sympathetic 
floor.  Girders  are  the  chief  supports  of  glands,  on  the  same  side  as  the  moist 
a  ground  floor ;  their  depth  is  often  nostril,  altering  its  character.  The  next 
limited  by  the  size  of  the  timber,  but  change  that  takes  place  is  the  disappear- 
not  always  so.  Girders  of  wrought  and  '  ance  of  the  transparent  fluid  from  the 
cast  iron  are  now  extensively  used  in  the  \  nose,  which  is  succeeded  by  a  full  stream 
construction  of  bridges,  to  girt  railroads,  of  unwholesome  pus.  When  the  third 


GLA 


166 


GNO 


stage  is  witnessed,  the  disease  is  rapidly 
hurrying  to  its  termination.  The  mem- 
brane of  the  nose  changes  to  a  dull 
leaden  colour  ;  the  margin  of  the  nostrils 
becomes  dropsical,  and  every  breath  is 
drawn  with  difficulty.  The  defluxion 
exhibits  discoloration  ;  scabs,  masses  of 
bone,  or  pieces  of  membrane,  mingled 
with  patches  of  blood,  next  make  their 
appearance  ;  and  the  internal  parts  are 
evidently  being  broken  up  by  the  viru- 
lence of  the  disorder.  It  is  an  incurable 
disease,  and  the  horse  should  be  shot  at 
once." 

When  farcy,  glanders,  or  other  in- 
fectious diseases  have  shown  themselves 
amongst  artillery  or  cavalry  horses,  the 
animals  so  attacked  should  be  removed 
from  the  rest  of  the  horses,  and  those 
free  of  disease  be  frequently  and  carefully 
examined,  under  the  orders  of  the  com- 
manding officer,  with  the  view  of  detect- 
ing the  slightest  approach  of  the  pre- 
vailing sickness. 

Glazing  —  A  process  to  which  gun- 
powder is  subjected  ;  it  adds  somewhat 
to  its  durability  and  to  its  density,  and 
by  reducing  the  grains  to  nearly  the 
same  size  gives  uniformity  of  range, 
combustion  being  more  equalised  ;  powder 
also,  by  being  glazed,  stores  and  travels 
better.  The  process  of  glazing  follows 
that  of  dusting.  The  barrels  used  in 
the  operation  contain  about  400  Ibs.  of 
powder,  and  make  from  32  to  38  revolu- 
tions in  the  minute.  The  time  expended 
in  glazing  depends  upon  the  nature  of 
the  powder.  A  little  graphite  is  some- 
times placed  in  each  barrel  to  assist  in 
giving  a  polish  to  the  grain.  It  was 
found  in  the  Indian  factory  at  Ishapore 
that  the  mere  friction  of  the  grains 
against  each  other  did  not  impart  a  high 
glaze  without  the  aid  of  graphite. 

Globe  of  Compression,  vide  Compres- 
sion, Globe  of. 

Glue — An  impure  desiccated  gelatine, 
procured  from  various  sources,  such  as 
the  scraps  of  ox  and  'other  thick  hides, 
the  de"bris  of  tanyards,  the  tendons  and 
intestines  of  many  animals,  rabbit  skins 
deprived  of  their  fur,  scraps  of  parch- 
ment, old  gloves,  and  many  other  ap- 
parently worse  than  useless  matters,  all 
contributing  their  quota  in  the  manu- 
facture of  "  glue."  Glue  is  an  invaluable 


substance  in  fixing  together  all  kinds 
of  woodwork. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  glue,  such 
as  lii/uid  glue,  marine  glue,  and  mouth  glue. 

Liquid  glue  is  a  useful  cement ;  it 
withstands  damp  much  better  than  the 
common  glue.  It  is  prepared  as  follows : 
Dissolve  one  ounce  of  borax  in  a  pint  of 
boiling  water  with  two  ounces  of  shel- 
lac, and  boil  in  a  covered  vessel  until  the 
lac  is  dissolved. 

Marine  glue,  that  known  as  Jeffery's 
patented  marine  glue,  is  a  compound  of 
india-rubber,  shellac,  and  coal-tar  or 
naphtha.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  great 
strength.  The  colour  of  this  glue,  how- 
ever, unfortunately  prevents  its  being 
much  used.  The  interior  of  diaphragm 
shells  is  coated  with  it,  so  as  to  fill  up 
any  interstices  which  there  may  be 
between  the  diaphragm  and  the  socket. 
This  glue  also  prevents  the  shell  deterio- 
rating from  rust. 

Mouth  glue  is  used  for  uniting  papers 
and  for  gluing  down  paper  to  plan  or 
drawing  boards.  It  is  made  by  dissolving 
pure  glue  with  the  aid  of  heat,  such  as 
parchment  glue  or  gelatine,  with  about 
one  quarter  or  one-third  of  its  weight 
of  coarse  brown  sugar,  in  as  small  a 
quantity  of  boiling  water  as  possible. 
This,  when  perfectly  liquid,  should  be 
cast  into  thin  cakes  on  a  flat  surface  very 
slightly  oiled,  and,  as  it  cools,  cut  up  into 
pieces  of  a  convenient  size.  • 

Glyacyline  —  An  explosive  substance 
composed  of  gun-cotton  and  nitroglyce- 
rine, invented  by  Mr.  F.  Abel,  F.R.S. 

Gnomon  —  The  hand  of  a  sun-dial. 
Lardner  gives  the  following  explanation 
of  its  use  : — "  It  is  placed  at  such  an  in- 
clination with  the  plate  of  the  dial  that, 
when  properly  set,  the  gnomon  will  be 
directed  to  the  north  pole  of  the  heavens, 
and  its  shadow  will  fall  upon  the  same 
lines  of  the  dial  at  the  same  hours,  what- 
ever be  the  season  of  the  year,  that  is, 
for  one  particular  latitude,  but  dials 
must  be  differently  constructed  for  places 
which  have  different  latitudes.  It  is 
shown  in  astronomy  that  the  elevation 
of  the  celestial  pole  is  equal  to  the  lati- 
tude of  the  place,  and.  consequently,  the 
inclination  of  the  gnomon  of  a  sun-dial 
must  be  also  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the 
place  where  the  dial  is  intended  to  be 


GOL 


167 


GOV 


set.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  a  dial 
constructed  for  London  would  not  be 
suitable  for  Edinburgh." 

Goloshes,  Leather — Are  large,  loose, 
untanued  leather  boots,  the  high  sides  of 
which  extend  a  considerable  distance  up 
the  calf  of  the  leg.  They  are  intended 
to  be  worn  in  magazines,  powder-houses, 
and  buildings  containing  combustible 
stores,  and  are  made  of  different  sizes 
suitable  to  cover  the  ordinary  shoe  or 
boot,  and  must  be  put  on  before  entering 
any  of  the  above  buildings. 

Golundauze  (Persian,  y»l,  a  ball,  and 
anda/Mun,  to  throw) — An  Indian  term 
for  an  artilleryman. 

Gomer  Chamber — A  conical  chamber 
which  is  joined  to  the  cylinder  of  the 
bore  by  a  portion  of  a  spherical  surface. 
It  is  so  called  from  the  French  officer 
who  invented  it,  and  has  been  applied, 
since  the  year  1820,  to  all  S.B.  guns, 
howitzers,  and  mortars. 

Gonfanon,  or  Gonfalon — One  of  the 
arms  used  by  the  Normans  in  the  eleventh 
century.  It  was  a  spear,  sometimes 
ornamented  with  a  small  flag,  fixed  just 
below  the  metal  point,  and  similar  to  our 
present  lance. 

Good-conduct  Badges — Marks  of  dis- 
tinction for  good  conduct,  which  are 
bestowed  upon  soldiers.  Each  badge 
carries  with  it  a  reward  of  a  penny  a 
day.  The  badges  are  worn  by  soldiers 
below  the  elbow,  with  the  points  up. 

Good-conduct  Pay — A  reward  of  ad- 
ditional pay  to  corporals  and  private 
soldiers  for  good  conduct.  It  is  granted 
under  the  following  circumstances.  A 
soldier  whose  name  does  not  appear  in 
the  regimental  defaulter  book  for  at  least 
two  years  preceding  his  claim  receives1 — 

After    2  years,  Id.  per  diem,  with  one 
good-conduct  badge  ; 

After    6  years,  2d.  per  diem,  with  an 
additional  badge  for  each  penny ; 

After  12  years    ..       ..     3d.  per  diem; 
„      18       „      ..      -.     44.        „ 
„      23       „       ..      ..     5d.        „ 
„      28       „       ..       ..     6d.        „ 

A  soldier  of  16  and  less  than  18  years' 
service,  and  whose  name  has  not  been 
entered  in  the  regimental  defaulter 
book  for  14  years,  next  preceding  the 
date  at  which  he  shall  become  entitled 


thereto,  shall  receive  the  rate  granted 
by  article  911  of  the' warrant,  after  18 
years'  service,  on  completion  of  such  14 
years'  continuous  good  conduct :  and  shall 
receive  the  rate  attached  to  23  and  28 
years  after  21  and  26  jears  respectively. 

The  warrant  further  states  that  a 
soldier  shall  not  be  advanced  to  a  higher 
rate  of  good-conduct  pay  unless  he  shall 
have  been  in  the  uninterrupted  receipt 
of  the  next  lower  rate  for  the  2  years 
immediately  preceding  his  claim.  But 
this  condition  shall  not  apply  to  the 
accelerated  rates  specified  in  article  914. 

Non-commissioned  officers  do  not  re- 
ceive good-conduct  pay,  but  receive 
instead  2d.  a  day  as  an  increase  to  their 
regular  pay.  They  receive,  as  well, 
rewards  for  distinguished  or  meritorious 
services,  annuities  and  medals,  either 
while  serving  or  after  discharge. 

A  warrant,  dated  May  29,  1875,  has 
been  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War, 
revising  the  regulations  contained  in 
the  warrant  of  December  27,  1870. 
relative  to  the  forfeiture  of  the  service 
of  soldiers,  and  to  amend  in  certain 
respects  the  regulations  relative  to  good- 
conduct  pay.  (Vide  Appendix  J.) 

Good-service  Pension— An  annuity  of 
£100  a  year,  .given  to  general  or  field 
officers  as  a  reward  for  distinguished  or 
good  service.  Only  a  certain  number  of 
annuities  is  granted.  This  reward  is  held 
either  for  life  or  until  an  officer  succeeds 
to  his  colonel's  allowance. 

Gorge — The  gorge  of  a  work  is  a  line 
joining  its  inner  extremities.  An  en- 
trance in  the  rear  of  a  fortified  work, 
such  as  a  bastion,  redan,  &c.,  is  also 
called  a  gorge. 

Gorget  (Italian,  gorgiera,  a  throat) — 
A  certain  piece  of  ancient  armour  worn 
for  the  protection  of  the  neck.  It 
ceased  to  be  worn,  like  other  articles  of 
body  armour,  during  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne: 

Governor  —  One  who  governs.  An 
official  invested  by  the  sovereign  with 
the  chief  power  of  a  province,  in  which 
he  is  placed  to  represent  the  British 
government.  In  questions  beyond  his 
authority  he  has  to  refer  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  the  Colonies.  The 
governors  of  the  minor  presidencies  of 
India  refer  such  questions  which  they 


GOV 


168 


GRA 


have  not  the  power  themselves  to  settle 
to  the  governor-general  of  that  country, 
or  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India.  In 
some  of  the  colonies  the  governor  is 
command  er-in-chief  as  well. 

Governor  of  an  Engine— As  described 
in  Baker's  '  Elements  of  Mechanism,'  "  is 
one  of  the  most  important  regulators  of 
a  steam-engine  ;  it  consists  of  a  series  of 
jointed  rods,  which  play  upon  a  vertical 
spindle,  having  at  the  extreme  points  of 
the  rods  two  balls.  It  is  connected  with 
the  throttle  valve  of  the  .steam-engine 
by  a  lever,  and  the  proportion  and  posi- 
tion of  the  rods  are  so  adjusted  that 
when  the  balls  descend  to  their  lowest 
position,  the  throttle  valve  opens,  and 
when  they  separate,  it  becomes  gradually 
closed.  A  grooved  wheel,  or  oftener  a 
toothed  pinion,  is  fixed  upon  the  axle  of 
the  spindle,  which  receives  its  motion 
from  any  convenient  part  of  the  machi- 
nery. Suppose  then  the  load  of  the  engine 
to  be  suddenly  diminished,  or  the  force 
of  the  steam  increased,  then  a  momentary 
augmentation  of  speed  will  take  place  in 
the  piston,  and,  consequently,  an  increased 
velocity  will  be  imparted  to  the  wheel 
and  balls  of  the  governor;  these  balls 
will,  therefore,  fly  further  from  the 
spindle,  the  fork  will  be  drawn  down, 
the  throttle  valve  partially  closed,  and 
the  supply  of  steam  to  the  cylinder 
diminished.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the 
load  of  the  engine  be  increased,  or  the 
force  of  the  steam  diminished,  the  speed 
of  the  piston  will  be  momentarily  slack- 
ened, the  velocity  of  the  wheel  diminished, 
the  balls  will  descend  and  approach  the 
spindle,  the  fork  will  be  raised,  and  the 
valve  be  partially  opened.  In  this  man- 
ner the  governor  has  the  effect  of  admit- 
ting at  all  times  to  the  cylinder  just  that 
portion  of  steam  that  is  necessary  to  give 
the  piston  its  proper  speed,  the  quantity 
being  always  proportioned  to  the  load  of 
the  engine." 

Governor-General  of  India— The  chief 
executive  officer  of  that  depeudencv, 
having  also  the  rank  and  position  of  a 
viceroy.  He  is  appointed  by  the  crown 
for  a  period  of  five  years,  which,  how- 
ever, can  be  extended.  The  governor- 
general  is  'subject  in  all  matters  of  mo- 
ment to  the  control  of  the  crown,  through 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  India.  He  is 


assisted  by  an  executive  council,  com- 
posed of  six  members,  should  he  see  the 
necessity  of  so  many,  viz.  two  civilians,  a 
law  and  financial  member,  a  military 
member,  and  a  member  of  public  works. 
All  acts  of  the  government  are  performed 
in  the  name  of  the  governor-general  "  in 
council ;"  not  that  he  is  necessarily  bound 
to  the  majority  of  his  council,  as  he  can 
dissent  altogether  from  their  opinion,  and 
act  accordingly,  if  he  thinks  fit. 

The  above  members,  with  the  addition 
of  a  civilian  from  Madras  and  Bombay,  a 
few  non-official  members  selected  from 
the  European  commercial  community, 
and  one  or  two  native  noblemen,  consti- 
tute the  supreme  legislative  council 
for  making  laws  and  regulations.  But 
the  governor-general  has  the  power  of 
making  rules  and  regulations,  on  an 
emergency,  with  reduced  numbers  of  his 
council. 

Grade — A  degree  of  rank,  in  order  or 
dignity,  civil,  military,  or  ecclesiastical. 

Gradient — A  term  indicative  of  the 
proportionate  ascent  or  descent  of  the 
several  planes  upon  a  railway ;  thus,  an 
inclined  plane,  4  miles  long,  with  a  total 
fall  of  36  feet,  is  described  as  having  a 
gradient  of  1  in  587,  or  9  feet  per  mile. 

Graduate,  To — To  mark  anything  in 
degrees  of  equal  parts,  as  distinguished 
from  the  division  into  inches,  or  other 
certain  and  determinate  measurements. 
Hence,  in  graduating  an  instrument,  the 
length  of  the  degree  is  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  instrument ;  but  a  mea- 
surement in  inches,  &c.  has  no  reference 
to  the  length  of  the  scale  employed. 

Gram  (Cicer  arietinum)  —  A  name 
given  in  Oriental  commerce  to  the  pro- 
duce of  two  leguminous  plants  cultivated 
in  India,  and  chiefly  used  for  feeding 
horses,  bullocks,  &c. 

Granulating  —  An  operation  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  which  follows 
the  process  of  "  pressing "  the  cake, 
whereby  it  becomes  reduced  to  grains  of 
different  sizes,  according  to  the  sieves 
used.  The  reduction  of  the  press  cake 
into  the  form  of  grains  is  effected  by- 
means  of  toothed  rollers  (three  pairs  of 
different  degrees  of  fineness  being  used), 
the  cake  passing  between  each  pair  of 
rollers,  under  which  is  a  screen  covered 
with  a  certain-sized  mesh  wire ;  in  ad- 


GEA 


169 


GKA 


dition  to  these  screens,  as  in  the  Waltham 
Abbey  granulating  machine,  there  are 
three  oblong  sieves  covered  with  different- 
sized  wire,  and  Cyprus  cloth,  respectively, 
fixed  under  and  parallel  to  each  other, 
running  at  an  incline  just  below  the  three 
pairs  of  rollers.  This  arrangement  per- 
mits of  the  powder  being  dusted,  as  well 
as  granulated,  by  the  same  machine. 

Grape  Shot — A  species  of  projectile 
which,  under  the  name  of  quilted  grape, 
was  in  general  use  before  the  introduc- 
.  tion  of  case  shot  (</.  p.).  The  pattern  now 
in  the  service  is  known  as  Caffin' s  pattern, 
which  consists  of  sand  shot,  arranged 
in  three  tiers,  by  means  of  three  cast- 
iron  circular  plates,  and  a  bottom  plate 
of  wrought  iron  ;  the  whole  is  secured 
firmly  together  by  means  of  a  wrought- 
iron  pin,  which  passes  through  the  centre 
of  the  plates.  The  number  of  shot  in 
each  tier  varies  from  three  to  five,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  gun  for  which 
the  grape  shot  is  intended.  The  advan- 
tage of  grape  over  quilted  shot  is  that  it 
stows  better,  is  more  easily  put  together, 
and  more  durable,  and  the  effect  is  con- 
sidered to  be  greater.  In  the  attack  and 
defence  of  works  it  would  still  be  used 
from  smooth-bore  guns,  and  is  effective 
up  to  600  yards. 

Graphite  —  Commonly  called  black- 
lead,  'is  described  in  Abel  and  Bloxom's 
'  Handbook  of  Chemistry '  as  another 
crystalline  modification  of  carbon,  very 
different  in  appearance  and  physical  pro- 
perties to  the  diamond.  It  is  found  in 
Cumberland,  Siberia,  Ceylon,  in  Germany 
and  France,  and  in  North  and  South 
America.  Graphite  is  a  very  good  con- 
ductor of  electricity  ;  like  the  diamond 
it  is  unalterable  by  heat.  It  may  be 
prepared  artificially  by  bringing  an  ex- 
cess of  charcoal  in  contact  with  fused 
cast  iron  ;  a  portion  of  the  carbon  dis- 
solves, and  separates  out  again  on  cool- 
ing in  large  scales.  It  is  used  sometimes, 
amongst  other  purposes,  in  glazing  gun- 
powder. 

Grapnel — A  small  anchor  of  several 
flukes,  used  in  mooring  boats  or  pontoons 
for  military  bridges.  A  grapnel  having 
five  prongs  is  also  used  for  escalading  pur- 
poses, to  aid  the  assailants  in  effecting  an 
entry  into  the  place.  When  it  is  thus 
used,  it  is  thrown  over  any  spot  where  it 


is  likely  to  anchor  itself.  A  2-inch  rope, 
60  feet  in  length,  is  attached  to  the 
shank. 

Grass-cutters— Natives    of   India    at- 
tached   to    the    artillery    and    cavalry 
;  branches  of  the  service  in  that  country, 
:  whose  sole   duty  is  to  collect  and  bring 
in  grass  daily  for  the  horses  of  their  regi- 
ment.    There  is  one  to  each  horse  or  one 
to  every  two  horses ;  the  latter  is  called  a 
jorawallah,  and  receives  the  pay  of  two 
men,  but  under  these  circumstances  he 
t  has  to  keep  a  pony,  and  bring  in  grass 
!  equal  to  the  load  of  two  men.     A  grass- 
;  cutter's  pay  is  from  8s.  to  10s.  a  month. 

Gratuities — In  the  army,  are  sums  of 
money  given  to  soldiers  under  the  fol- 
lowing  circumstances  : — To    soldiers    on 
re-engagement,  that  is,  when  they  engage 
to  serve  on  for  a  longer  term  of  service  ; 
to  soldiers   settling,  on  discharge,  in  the 
colonies  ;  and  to  all  good-conduct  soldiers 
on  discharge.     This    latter    gratuity    is 
j  taken  from  a  fund  formed  of  the  fines 
I  imposed    upon  drunken  soldiers.     (Vide 
I  Appendix  J.) 

Gravimeter — An  instrument  for  ascer- 
taining the  specific  gravity  of  bodies,  solid 
or  liquid. 

Gravity — A  term  used  to  denote  that 
force  by  which  every  material  particle  is 
urged  towards  the  surface  of  the  earth 
as  soon  as  it  is  left  unsupported.  The 
intensity  of  the  force  of  gravity  is 
constant  at  the  same  place,  and  is  a 
uniform  force  which  accelerates  all  bodies 
equally. 

Gravity,  Centre  of — Is  explained  to  be 
"  that  point  in  bodies  through  which  the 
resultants  of  the  gravity  of  their  par- 
ticles pass.  A  line  drawn  in  the  vertical 
direction  through  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  a  body  is  called  the  line  of  direction  of 
the  centre  of  gravity."  In  a  spherical 
shot  of  equal  density  throughout,  the 
centre  of  gravity  will  be  in  its  centre  of 
figure,  but  as  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
cast  solid  shot  of  perfect  sphericity  and 
density,  its  centre  of  gravity  will  be 
found  either  above,  below,  to  the  right  or 
I  left  of  its  centre  of  figure.  In  hollow- 
spheres,  such  as  shells,  the  centre  of  gra- 
vity is  an  imaginary  point  within  the 
cavity  of  the  shell.  In  irregular  figures, 
the  centre  of  gravity  sometimes  falls 
without  the  dimensions  of  the  body. 


GRA 


170 


GEE 


Gravity,  Specific — As  defined,  "  is  the  ! 
relative    gravity    of  any    body    or    sub-  ; 
stance,  considered   with   regard   to  some  j 
other  body  which  is  assumed  as  a  stand- 
ard   of  comparison,  which  standard,   by  I 
universal    consent,    is    rain-water :    this  j 
kind  not  being  subject  to  much  variation  i 
from  time,  place,  or  other  circumstances,  j 
One  cubic  foot  of  rain-water  weighs  ex- 
actly 1000  (avoirdupois)  English  ounces; 
hence  the  relative  weights  of  other  bodies 
is  easily  referred  to  this  standard.     The 
following  table,  showing  the  specific  gra- 
vity of  the   under-mentioned   solids   and 
liquids,  will  be  found  useful  : — 

"Water 1 

Platinum  ..          ..  21-5 

Gold        19-5 

Mercury  .  .          . .  13 '5 

Lead        . .          . .          . .  1 1 • 45 

Silver 10 '5 

Copper 8'96 

Steel 7-8 

Iron,  rod  .  .          . .          7  •  7 

Iron,  cast  .  .  .  .          7 "  2 

Diamond  . .          . .          3' 5 

Rock  crystal       . .          . .          2  •  6 
Window  glass     ..          ..          2*52 
Sulphuric  acid    ..          ..          1-84 

Wax         0  •  964 

Oil  of  turpentine            ..          0'865 
Spirit   of  wine  (strong)  0-83 

Ether 0'72 

"  GASES. 

"  Atmospheric  air  .  .  1 

Carbonic  acid      ..  ..  1-524 

Oxygen    . .          .  .  .  .  1-106 

Nitrogen  ..  ..  0-972 

Carbonic  oxide    ..  ..  0-967 

Hydrogen  ..  ..  0-069" 

Grazing  Fire — When  the  trajectory  is 
low  and  nearly  parallel  to  the  ground, 
and  when  the  projectile  strikes  the  ob- 
ject, whether  vertical  or  horizontal,  at  a 
less  angle  than  10°,  this  is  termed  grazing 
lire. 

Grease — A  lubricator  used  for  the  axle 
arms  and  wheels  of  gun  and  other  car- 
riages. It  was  formerly  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  tallow  (mutton  fat)  and  coarse 
sweet  oil.  This  composition  has  since  been 
changed  for  a  mineral  grease,  "  Fenner's," 
consisting  of  the  heavier  products  ob- 
tained in  the  preparation  of  paraffine  or 


petroleum  oils.  The  lubricant  applied  to 
railway  wheels  is  formed  of  soap  with  a 
small  portion  of  soda,  which  effects  an 
imperfect  saponification  and  thus  pre- 
vents a  too  rapid  expenditure  of  the  mix- 
ture, which  would  otherwise  be  the  case, 
owing  to  the  heat  caused  by  the  rapid 
revolution  of  the  wheels.  Cocoa-nut  oil 
and  palm  oil  are  also  used  as  lubricants. 

In  the  veterinary  art,  the  term  grease 
is  applied  to  a  complaint  which  horses 
are  subject  to,  the  treatment  of  which  is 
as  follows: — "  Cut  the  hair  close,  apply 
finely  powdered  dried  charcoal,  and  poul- 
tice over  it,  give  physic  and  diuretics ; 
when  pain  and  discharge  cease,  apply 
dry  bandages  ;  astringent  applications  are 
sometimes  useful  ;  exercise  is  desirable 
when  the  legs  are  much  swollen  ;  pro- 
cure green  food,  if  possible." 

Greek  Fire — A  combustible  composi- 
tion used  in  ancient  wars,  which  has  the 
power  of  burning  under  water.  It  is 
said  the  Greeks  were  the  first  to  use  it. 
Its  power  appears  to  have  been  greatly 
exaggerated.  It  is  supposed  that  the  fol- 
lowing ingredients  entered  into  its  com- 
position :  the  gum  of  the  pine  and  other 
resins  pulverised,  with  sulphur,  naphtha, 
camphor,  petroleum,  and  other  bitumi- 
nous substances.  The  Americans  used 
it  in  the  bombardment  of  Charleston 
as  prepared  by  Mr.  Levi  Short.  His 
so-called  Greek  fire  consisted  of  two 
kinds,  one  of  which  was  a  dry  compo- 
sition, the  other  liquid.  The  former 
was  composed  of  saltpetre,  sulphur,  and 
lamp-black,  driven  into  a  little  iron  tube, 
about  3  inches  in  length,  and  £  inch  in 
diameter,  and  open  at  one  end.  The  com- 
position was  pierced  a  short  distance  up 
its  centre  with  a  fine  hole,  and  burnt 
therefore  with  considerable  violence  from 
the  open  end.  The  outside  of  the  tube 
was  covered  with  pitch  with  the  object 
of  creating  a  flame.  A  number  of  these 
tubes  were  placed  inside  a  shell  with  the 
bursting  charge,  which  was  ignited  by  a 
fuze  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  explosion 
of  the  bursting  charge  opened  the  shell, 
and  ignited  the  little  tubes  of  "  Greek 
fire,"  which  were  thus  scattered  about 
among  the  enemy. 

The  liquid  kind  of  Greek  fire  was  com- 
posed chiefly  of  naphtha,  and  poured  into 
the  shell  previous  to  being  discharged. 


GEE 


171 


GEE 


Green  Charge— In  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder,  certain  processes  have  to 
be  carried  out,  the  primary  one  being 
that  of  "  mixing  the  ingredients  "  after 
they  have  been  weighed  and  brought  into 
contact  previous  to  being  incorporated. 
The  process  of  mixing  is  performed  by 
putting  the  composition  into  a  cylindrical 
gun-metal  or  copper  drum,  about  2  feet 
m  diameter,  with  an  axle  passing  through 
its  centre,  on  which  there  are  metal 
flyers  like  forks ;  the  machinery  is  so 
arranged  that  the  flyers  and  drum  re- 
volve in  opposite  directions,  at  a  rate  of 
about  100  revolutions  a  minute ;  five 
minutes  is  long  enough  for  a  thorough 
mixture  ;  the  charge  is  then  drawn  off 
by  a  slip  into  a  canvas  bag  capable  of 
holding  a  50-lb.  charge,  which  is  tightly 
tied  and  removed  to  a  small  magazine  until 
required  for  the  incorporating  process. 
In  this  form  it  is  called  a  green  charge. 

Greenwich,  Eoyal  Naval  College  — 
This  college  was  founded  in  1873  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  naval  and  marine 
officers  greater  opportunities,  than  those 
held  out  by  the  naval  college  at  Ports- 
mouth, for  the  study  of  all  subjects,  theo- 
retical and  scientific,  bearing  upon  their 
profession.  The  general  organisation  of 
the  college  is  as  follows :  a  flag-officer 
as  president,  assisted  by  a  post-captain  in 
matters  affecting  discipline.  &c.,  a  director 
of  studies,  and  a  staff  of  professors  on 
various  subjects.  The  college  is  open  to 
naval  officers  from  the  rank  of  sub-lieu- 
tenant to  that  of  post-captain,  and  also 
to  officers  of  the  marine  artillery  and 
marine  light  infantry.  Two  officers  of 
the  royal  marine  artillery  and  six  of  the 
royal  marine  light  infantry,  below  the 
regimental  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  who 
have  been  embarked  for  not  less  than 
two  years,  may  be  admitted  annually  as 
students.  They  are  examined  on  entry, 
and  may  remain  two  terms,  should  they 
satisfy  the  examiners  at  the  end  of  the 
first  term.  The  marine  officers,  after  pass- 
ing into  the  service,  are  kept  at  this  col- 
lege. They  receive  full  pay  and  Is.  6d. 
a  day  towards  mess  expenses.  Royal  ma- 
rine artillery  officers  remain  two  years 
(i.e.  18  working  months);  light  infantry 
officers  9  months,  and  are  required  to 
pass  an  examination  on  leaving  for  head- 
quarters. 


Greeves  —  Plate  armour  for  the  legs, 
worn  by  the  knights  of  old. 

Grenades  ^As  explained  in  Captain 
Majendie's  '  Treatise  on  Ammunition,'  are 
small  shells  thrown  by  hand,  and  hence 
termed  hand  grenades.  They  are  filled 
with  powder,  and  have  a  fuze  fixed  in 
them  ;  they  are  of  two  sizes,  the  land 
service  or  3-pr.  and  the  sea  service  or 
6-pr.  hand  grenade.  The  former  are  used 
in  the  defence  of  places  against  assault, 
being  thrown  amongst  the  storming 
parties  in  the  ditch,  and  the  latter 
against  masses  of  men  attempting  to 
board,  or  under  any  other  such  circum- 
stances in  which  they  can  be  made  avail- 
able. They  are  also  fired  in  volleys  from 
mortars.  The  use  of  grenades  seems  to 
have  become  known  in  1594;  at  least 
they  were  then  invented,  and  were  first 
projected  from  hand  mortars.  They  gave 
the  name  in  France  to  the  troops  called 
grenadiers,  who  were  soldiers  trained  in 
the  art  of  throwing  hand  grenades  in  the 
attack  of  trenches,  or  in  the  covered 
way. 

Grenadier — This  name  was  originally 
given  to  soldiers  who  threw  grenades  ; 
but  as  shown  in  Brande  and  Cox's  'Dic- 
tionary,' it  was  afterwards  conferred  on 
certain  troops  of  the  line,  distinguished 
by  peculiarities  of  dress,  accoutrements, 
&c.  The  name  originated  with  the 
French,  and  subsequently  was  adopted 
in  all  the  armies  of  Europe.  Each  man 
of  the  grenadier  company  carried  gre- 
nades—  hence  the  name  —  besides  his 
matchlock.  It  was  in  1678  that  each 
grenadier  company  in  a  British  regiment 
was  armed  with  grenades,  but  in  Queen 
Anne's  reign  this  ceased  to  be  the  case. 
Generally  the  tallest  and  finest  men  were 
selected  for  the  grenadier  company,  who 
took  the  right  of  the  line.  It  is  not 
many  years  ago  since  there  was  a  grena- 
dier company  in  each  regiment  in  the 
English  army,  but  there  is  no  such  com- 
pany now,  and  the  name  of  grenadiers 
only  exists  with  the  Grenadier  Guards. 

Grenadier  Guards — The  first  regiment 
of  the  household  infantry,  and  the  senior 
regiment  of  infantry  in  the  army.  In 
1656,  under  the  auspices  of  Charles  II. 
when  an  exile  from  England,  and  residing 
in  Spanish  Flanders,  a  little  band  of 
Koyalists,  as  they  were  termed,  composed 


GRI 


172 


GUD 


for  the  most  part  of  Englishmen,  collected 
round  Charles'  standard,  and  formed  the 
first  nucleus  of  this  distinguished  regi- 
ment, the  colours  of  which  bear  the 
record  of  many  a  European  battle-field. 

Gripes — A  complaint  with  which 
horses  are  often  attacked ;  the  remedy 
recommended  is  as  follows: — "On  the 
horse  being  observed  to  be  in  pain,  he 
should  be  trotted  about  until  his  bowels 
are  emptied.  Should  this  fail,  he  must  be 
bled  to  the  extent  of  two  or  three  quarts, 
and  a  ball  composed  of  one  drachm  of 
gum  opium  and  two  of  powdered  ginger, 
made  up  with  bruised  meal,  given  to 
him,  and  a  clyster  of  oatmeal  gruel  every 
two  hours." 

Groove — A  furrow  or  narrow  channel 
cut  in  a  spiral  direction  on  the  interior 
of  a  gun  barrel,  such  as  is  observed  in 
rifled  ordnance  and  small-arms.  ( Vide 
Rifling.) 

Ground — A  common  term  in  military 
phraseology,  meaning  the  field  or  place 
of  action.  What  is  termed  taking  ground 
is  the  extension  of  a  body  of  troops  in 
any  direction.  To  gain  ground  is  to 
advance,  to  lose  ground  is  to  retire  or 
retreat. 

Grummets — Circular  pieces  of  rope 
attached  to  shot  to  keep  the  shot  steady 
in  the  bore.  They  are  made  of  various 
sizes.  Grummet  wads  are  also  used 
when  firing  at  angles  of  depression,  or 
at  angles  of  elevation  less  than  3°;  the 
grummet  is  placed  over  the  shot  to  pre- 
vent it  from  running  out  of  the  piece. 
The  use  of  grummet  wads  with  rifled 
muzzle-loading  guns  has  been  discon- 
tinued for  land  service,  except  when 
these  guns  are  firing  at  a  depression. 
The  term  grummet  is  applied  to  a  rope 
ring  worked  in  a  particular  manner. 


Guard  —  A  body  of 
in  preserving  a  person 
attack  or  injury.  In 


men  occupied 
or  place  from 
garrison 


cantonment,  guards  are  daily  told  off 
to  protect  any  particular  post  or  spot, 
or  government  property  ;  to  quell  petty 
disturbances,  and  to  take  charge  of 
men  placed  in  confinement  for  any  fault 
or  crime  they  may  have  committed  at  or 
near  the  guard.  There  are  a  variety  of 
duties  attached  to  a  guard,  which  are 


guards,  placed  and  named  with  reference 
to  the  duty  they  are  employed  on.  A 
guard  remains  on  duty  24  hours  before 
being  relieved.  The  term  mounting 
guard  is  given  to  a  guard  going  on 
duty. 

Guard  of  Honour — A  guard  drawn  up 
to  receive  royal  personages  and  persons 
of  distinction,  and  to  attend  at  state 
ceremonials.  It  consists,  as  a  general 
rule,  of  100  rank  and  file,  with  a  captain 
in  command,  two  subaltern  officers  (one 
carrying  the  first  colour),  and  a  propor- 
tion of  sergeants.  The  regimental  band 
attends  when  the  Queen  or  other  exalted 
personage  is  to  be  received. 

Guard  Report — A  report  sent  in  by 
the  relieved  officer  to  ihe  officer  com- 
manding, detailing  a  statement  of  duties 
performed  by  his  guard  while  on  duty. 
Commanding  officers  of  guards  are  to 
mention  the  particular  hours  at  which 
they  went  their  rounds,  as  well  as  the 
hours  at  which  their  guards  were  visited 
by  officers  on  duty,  and  by  "  rounds  "  of 
any  description.  Whilst  on  guard,  they 
are  to  send  an  immediate  report  to  the 
field  officer,  or  captain  of  the  day,  of 
any  unusual  occurrence  taking  place. 

Guard  Boom — The  room  occupied  by 
the  guard  during  its  tour  of  duty.  There 
is  a  room  in  the  guard-house  in  which 
prisoners,  awaiting  the  investigation  of 
their  crimes,  are  kept.  Under  the  same 
roof  a  room  is  attached  in  which  the 
officer  commanding  the  guard  resides 
during  his  tour  of  duty. 

Guards — Comprehend  a  body  of  troops 
raised  for  the  protection  of  the  sove- 
reign ;  they  are  called  "  household 
troops."  Sovereigns  of  all  countries 
have  had  body-guards  attached  to  them 
from  the  earliest  times.  In  the  British 
service,  the  horse  and  life  guards,  with 
the  foot  guards,  form  the  household 
troops.  Though  these  troops  are  virtu- 
ally the  protecting  guards  of  the  sove- 
reign, they  are  nevertheless  available  for 
active  service  whenever  required.  (  Vide 
British  Army.) 

Guddeelah — Indian  name  for  a  padded 
cloth  placed  on  the  back  of  a  draught 
elephant  before  the  harness  is  put  on. 
It  is  made  of  kurwah  cloth  stuffed  with 


fully  detailed  in  the  Queen's  Regulations.  |  cotton,    the    edges    being    bound    with 
There    are    further     many    natures    of  1  leather. 


GUD 


173 


GUN 


Gudgee — An  Indian  cloth  used  in  the 
lining  of  sepoys'  tents. 

Gudgeon — Is  thus  described: — "The 
circular  part  of  a  shaft  or  axle  upon 
which  a  wheel  revolves.  The  gudgeons  on 
cast-iron  axles  are  simply  parts  of  the 
extremities  of  the  axles  turned  exactly 
circular  in  a  lathe.  The  circular  aper- 
tures in  which  the  gudgeons  turn  are 
called  brasses;  they  are  made  of  a  com- 
position of  copper  and  tin,  and  are  very 
durable,  as  well  as  not  readily  worn  by 
the  friction  of  the  iron  axles.  The  beams 
in  which  the  brasses  are  fixed  are  called 
"  bearings  "  (q.  c.). 

Guerillas — Small  bands  of  men  raised 
by  the  Spaniards  in  the  Peninsular  cam- 
paign, who  fought  in  detached  bodies 
against  the  French,  harassing  them  in 
the  mountainous  defiles  of  that  country. 
This  desultory  sort  of  warfare  was  most 
damaging  to  the  enemy.  The  warfare 
carried  on  by  the  French  franc-tireurs 
during  the  late  continental  war  may  be 
likened  to  that  carried  on  by  guerillas, 
with  this  exception,  that  the  former 
were  formed  into  companies,  each  com- 
pany fighting  and  manoeuvring  on  its 
own  account,  whereas  the  latter  fought 
independently  in  small  bands.  It  was 
only  during  the  latter  part  of  the  war 
that  it  was  found  necessary  to  attach  the 
franc-tireurs  to  brigades,  and  to  place 
them  under  military  control. 

Guides — Men  raised  in  an  enemy's 
country,  by  high  pay  or  any  other  in- 
ducement, to  give  such  aid  or  information 
to  the  invading  force  as  will  enable  it  to 
compass  the  ends  in  view,  viz.  to  obtain 
reliable  information  as  to  the  eiremy's 
position,  to  enable  the  leading  columns  to 
march  on  the  points  required  in  safety. 
With  this  view  a  body  of  intelligent  men 
is  collected  at  head-quarters,  to  enable 
one  or  more  to  be  sent  with  every  detach- 
ment of  troops  which  leaves  the  camp. 
The  duties  devolving  upon  a  guide  are 
such  that  any  want  of  reliability  or 
truthfulness  would  involve  the  sacrifice 
of  his  life. 

In    the    Indian    army    the    name    of  i 
"  Guides "    is    given    to   a    regiment    of  [ 
cavalry    and    infantry   attached    to    the  j 
Punjab    frontier    force.      It    was    raised 
by  the  late  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  chiefly 
with    the    view    to   the   men   acting   as 


scouts,  and  obtaining  every  available  in- 
formation about  the  country  they  hap- 
pened to  be  in ;  also  to  act  in  expeditions 
as  avant-courriers  of  the  force  to  which 
they  belonged,  and  (the  cavalry  branch) 
in  carrying  orders  that  required  des- 
patch. 

Guidons — The  standards  of  dragoon 
regiments,  on  which  the  devices,  distinc- 
tions, and  mottoes  of  the  regiment  are 
embroidered. 

Gun — Any  kind  of  fire-arm,  or  weapon, 
from  which  balls,  shot,  or  other 
deadly  projectiles,  are  forcibly  dis- 
charged by  the  explosion  of  gunpowder. 
The  term  gun  has  been  often  indiscrimi- 
nately applied  to  fire-arms  of  all  natures ; 
the  name,  however,  is  now  confined  to 
that  species  of  ordnance  called  cannon, 
especially  adapted  for  throwing  solid  shot 
and  shell. 

The  general  shape  of  a  gun  is  that  of 
the  frustrum  of  a  cone,  the  bore  being  a 
cylinder ;  the  thickest  portion  of  the 
metal  is  at  the  breech,  from  which  it 
tapers  to  the  muzzle  ;  and  this  form  is 
necessary,  as  at  the  breech  the  gun  has 
to  stand  the  first  shock  of  the  elastic 
force  of  the  gunpowder,  which  diminishes 
in  power  as  it  extends  towards  the 
muzzle. 

In  the  manufacture  of  our  rifled  guns, 
which  are  built  up  of  a  succession  of 
wrought-iron  coils,  the  same  principle  is 
observed  as  in  smooth-bore  guns,  described 
above.  The  barrel  on  which  the  coils  are 
shrunk  is  a  tube  made  of  steel,  except  in 
the  early  Armstrong  guns  and  those  con- 
verted on  Major  Palliser's  system,  which 
have  a  wrought-iron  instead  of  a  steel 
tube.  The  thickness  of  metal  in  a  gun 
varies  with  the  nature  and  weight  of 
projectile  and  charge,  and  whether  the 
gun  be  rifled  or  smooth-bored ;  in  the 
former  case,  from  the  friction  the  shot 
has  to  overcome  in  the  passage  up  the 
bore,  the  gun  has  to  be  made  stronger 
than  one  of  the  latter  class.  The  length 
of  the  bore  should  be  such  as  to  allow 
the  whole  of  the  charge  to  be  consumed. 
The  length  of  rifled  guns  in  the  British 
service  varies  from  twelve  to  twenty 
calibres.  As  regards  preponderance,  there 
is  very  little  given  to  them,  it  being  found 
that  a  gun  can  be  more  easily  worked 
without  it. 


GUN 


174 


GUN* 


Guns  began  to  be  used  in  Europe  early 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  and,  as  shown 
in  the  article  under  the  head  of  Artil- 
lery, were  very  rough  specimens  of  the 
art.  Within  the  last  century  the  manu- 
facture of  ordnance  has  immensely  im- 
proved, and  though  cast-irou  guns  have 
now  been  superseded,  they  did  their  work 
well  as  our  heavy  artillery.  The  manu- 
facture of  B.L.R.  and  M.L.R.  guns  is  of 
recent  date,  the  former  having  preceded 
the  latter  under  the  able  superintendence 
of  Sir  W.  Armstrong,  the  inventor  of 
the  coil  system.  To  him  is  due  in  a  great 
measure  the  improved  condition  of  our 
artillery,  and  notwithstanding  his  breech- 
loading  system  has  been  discarded,  we  owe 
to  him  the  use  to  which  he  has  put 
wrought  iron  in  the  manufacture  of 
guns.  His  light  guns  have  done  good 
service  in  India  and  China,  and  a  few 
Armstrong  batteries  are  still  in  use  in 
the  former  country;  they  will  soon,  how- 
ever, be  superseded  by  the  M.L.R.  guns, 
which  now  compose  the  Held  artillery  of 
England. 

Some  few  years  ago  it  was  stated, 
and  doubtless  with  some  truth,  that  I 
heavy  breech-loading  cannon  fired  with  a 
quickly  burning  powder  would  not  stand  i 
the  charge  which  it  is  necessary  to  give 
them  ;  but  now  that  pebble  powder  and 
other  slower-burning  powders  have  been 
invented,  exerting  a  much  less  pressure 
on  the  gun,  it  would  appear  safe  to  reiu- 
troduce  heavy  breech-loaders,  for  there  is 
110  doubt,  as  regards  heavy  guns  in  battery 
and  on  board  ship,  that  the  breech- 
loading  system  saves,  if  not  time  and 
labour,  certainly  exposure.  The  intro- 
duction, however,  of  hydraulic  power, 
and  thestrength  of  our  M.L.R.  guns,  would 
seem  to  preclude  any  change  at  present. 

Amongst  other  objections  to  the  heavy 
breech-loader  is  the  back  smoke  on  open- 
ing the  breech-cap ;  in  the  open  air  this 
does  not  appear  to  be  an  objection,  and  on 
board  ship  between  decks,  this  drawback 
might  be  overcome,  especially  in  a  steam 
vessel,  where  the  power  of  machinery 
is  at  hand  to  carry  out  any  invention 
for  getting  rid  of  the  smoke. 

The  continental  powers  for  the  most 
part  prefer  breech-loaders,  light  and 
heavy,  and  have  adopted  them  for  their 
armament. 


The  following  guns  will  be  found  under 
their  own  heads  : — 

Austrian.  Millar. 

Blakeley.  Monk. 

Bloomfield.  Muzzle-loading. 

Breech-loading.  Painham. 

Cavalli.  Palliser. 

Congreve.  Parrot. 

Dahlgren.  Rodman. 

Dundas.  Steel. 

Fraser.  Steel-bronze. 

French.  Swivel. 

German.  Vavasseur. 

Italian.  Wahrendorff. 

Krupp.  Wedge. 

Lancaster.  Whitworth. 

Macomber.  Woolwich. 

(Fz'cfc  Appendix  B.) 
Gun  Ammunition  Box,  vide  Box,  Gun 
Ammunition. 

Gun  Aprons,  vide  Aprons,  Gun. 
Gun    Carriage — This   nature   of  car- 
riage is  described  under  the  several  heads 
of  carriages    provided   for  warlike  pur- 
poses. 

Gun-cotton — An  explosive  substance, 
the  invention  of  Professor  Schonbein. 
It  is  prepared  by  soaking  cotton  in  three 
parts  of  sulphuric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1-85)  and 
one  part  nitric  acid(sp.  gr.  1-45  to  1'50). 
The  excess  of  acid  is  poured  oft'  and  the 
cotton  thoroughly  washed  in  running 
water.  When  partially  dried,  it  is  washed 
in  a  diluted  solution  of  carbonate  of  potass. 
Afterwards  it  is  put  in  a  press  to  free  it 
of  the  alkaline  solution,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  cotton  is  rendered  nearly 
dry.  The  substance  is  then  washed  in  a 
solution  of  pure  nitrate  of  potass,  and 
afterwards  pressed  and  dried.  The  ex- 
plosive force  of  Schonbein's  gun-cotton  is 
nearly  three  times  greater  than  that  of 
gunpowder.  Some  years  ago,  experi- 
ments were  made  in  England  with  Schon- 
bein's cotton,  but  it  was  found  to  explode 
so  instantaneously  that  it  was  rejected 
for  artillery  purposes.  Since  then,  how- 
ever, General  von  Lenk,  of  the  Austrian 
service,  has  discovered  the  means  of 
giving  gun-cotton  any  velocity  of 
explosion,  from  1  foot  per  second  to 
1  foot  in  fjj'gg  of  a  second,  by  open- 
ing out  the  cotton,  and  allowing  it 
to  occupy  a  larger  space  in  the  bore ; 
by  this  means,  it  acts  even  more  slowly 
than  gunpowder. 


GUN 


175 


GUN 


Another  mode  of  treating  guii-cotton 
has  been  applied  by  Mr.  Abel,  the 
chemical  examiner  at  the  War  Office, 
who  has  been  able  to  use  gun-cotton  in  a 
granular  form,  by  first  rendering  it 
into  a  state  of  pulp,  and  afterwards 
forming  it  into  grain  similar  to 
corned  gunpowder.  The  experiments 
have  shown  improved  results  compared 
with  former  specimens  of  gun-cotton,  but 
it  has  not  as  yet  been  perfected,  so  as  to 
render  it  safe  for  use  in  artillery.  For 
sporting  purposes,  gun  cotton  may  be  con- 
sidered a  success. 

Several  committees  have  had  under 
their  consideration  the  subject  of  gun- 
cotton,  and  all  have  reported  as  to  its 
great  value  under  certain  circum- 
stances, as  will  be  gathered  from  the 
following  results  of  experiments  made  at 
different  times  by  different  committees. 
The  committee  of  which  Colonel  Gallwey, 
K.E.,  was  the  president,  reported  as  fol- 
lows:— "For  the  demolition  of  revetments 
and  the  formation  of  breaches  by  mines, 
gun-cotton  is  considered  superior  to  gun- 
powder in  the  proportion  of  5  to  2.  For 
the  demolition  of  single  stockades,  gun- 
cotton  at  the  rate  of  7  Ibs.  per  linear  foot 
of  the  stockade  is  effective,  even  where 
the  timbers  are  from  12  to  14  inches 
square.  In  the  demolition  of  double 
stockades,  with  3  feet  6  inches  between 
the  rows,  25  Ibs.  of  cotton  per  foot  is 
required ;  in  a  trial  with  gunpowder, 
200  Ibs.  failed  to  make  a  practicable 
breach."  • 

The  report  was  considered  so  satis- 
factory that  it  led  to  the  use  of  gun- 
cotton  for  torpedo  purposes. 

For  the  hasty  demolition  of  bomb-proof 
buildings,  gun-cotton  is  also  pronounced 
to  be  most  valuable.  It  is  equivalent  to 
nearly  six  times  its  weight  of  gunpowder. 
For  earth  mines,  however,  and  counter- 
mined works,  it  is  not  recommended.  It 
does  not  exert  in  earth  such  an  upheaving 
power  as  gunpowder,  and  the  gases  gene- 
rated are  injurious  to  the  men  working 
in  the  galleries.  For  these  operations, 
therefore,  powder  will  be  used.  For 
the  removal  and  destruction  of  wrecks, 
rocks,  and  other  obstacles  to  navigation, 
gun-cotton  is  also  very  valuable ;  and  for 
torpedo  purposes,  Colonel  Gallwey's  com- 
mittee follow  the  recommendation  of  the 


Floating  Obstruction  Committee,  which 
in  1868  pronounced  in  favour  of  gun- 
cotton,  as  the  result  of  some  extended 
trials. 

The  exploding  point  of  gun-cotton  is 
about  343°  Fahr.,  gunpowder  being  about 
600°  Fahr.,  a  quality  which  is  taken  ad- 
vantage of  in  using  it  as  priming  for  fuzes 
when  very  small  charges  are  used.  Inde- 
pendent of  its  increased  power,  gun-cotton, 
when  applied  in  the  form  suggested  by 
Mr.  Abel,  viz.  compressed  and  fired  by 
a  detonating  fuze,  has  many  advantages 
over  gunpowder,  among  which  its  perfect 
safety  stands  prominent.  Gun-cotton  of 
this  construction  cannot  be  exploded 
unless  confined  in  a  strong  case,  or  unless 
purposely  fired  by  detonation.  If  a  light 
be  merely  set  to  a- mass  of  it,  it  will 
burn  gradually  and  harmlessly  away, 
without  any  explosive  effect  whatever. 
It  may  be  made  uninflammable  by  the 
simple  process  of  storing  it  damp,  and 
can  be  readily  restored  to  a  condition  for 
use,  or  can  be  used  in  a  wet  state  by  means 
of  a  little  dry  cotton  and  a  detonating 
fuze.  Gun-cotton  is  cheaper  than  gun- 
powder, because,  although  per  pound 
dearer,  one  pound  of  it  goes  as  far  as  from 
four  to  six  of  gunpowder ;  it  is  also 
much  lighter,  and  being  weight  for 
weight  the  same  bulk,  so  much  easier  to 
carry.  For  submarine  work  the  results 
obtained  from  several  experiments  show 
the  same  superiority  under  certain  con- 
ditions for  gun-cotton  over  gunpowder. 
Its  ignition,  at  all  times  more  rapid  than 
that  of  gunpowder,  is.  when  fired  with  a 
detonating  fuze,  immensely  quickened, 
and  the  damaging  effect  of  its  explosion 
is  much  increased,  both  of  which  pro- 
perties are  in  its  favour. 

In  a  recent  report  by  a  special  com- 
mittee on  gun-cotton,  of  which  Colonel 
Younghusband,  R.A.,  F.R.S.,  then  super- 
intendent of  the  Royal  Gunpowder 
Factories,  was  president,  gun-cotton  is 
pronounced  "a  most  valuable  explosive 
agent  for  military  and  naval  purposes  ; 
that,  as  it  is  capable  of  being  manufac- 
tured in  a  wet  state,  there  is  no  danger 
attending  the  process  ;  and  that,  as  it 
can  be  stored  wet,  it  can  be  safely  con- 
veyed on  board  ship  or  warehoused  with- 
out risk." 

It    is  found  that    gun-cotton,    though 


GUN 


17G 


GUN 


tired  by  detonation,  is  not  exploded  by 
being  struck  with  a  bullet.  In  these 
respects  it  is  stated  to  have  contrasted 
favourably  with  litho-fracteur  and  dyna- 
mite, which,  although  tolerably  safe 
to  store  and  transport  when  fresh, 
are  not  so  secure  under  all  circum- 
stances. 

Colonel  Younghusband's  committee 
advert  to  the  experiments  carried  out  by 
Mr.  Brown,  of  the  Woolwich  chemical  de- 
partment, by  which  it  was  shown  that  it 
is  easy  to  accomplish  the  detonation  of 
compressed  gun-cotton  when  in  a  very 
damp  state,  and  even  when  so  wet  as  to  be 
absolutely  uninflammable,  by  detonating 
some  dry  cotton  in  contact  with  it.  One 
of  the  ordinary  experiments  to  illustrate 
this  remarkable  property  of  compressed 
gun-cotton  was  carried  out  as  follows : — 
"  The  operator  takes  a  wet  half-pound  disc 
in  one  hand  and  a  red-hot  poker  in  the 
other.  He  then  proceeds  to  bore  a  hole 
in  the  disc  with  the  hot  iron,  showing 
that  the  wet  gun-cotton  is  absolutely 
uninflammable.  The  wet  disc  is  then 
laid  on  a  large  stone  or  piece  of  timber, 
with  a  half-ounce  dry  disc  or  "  primer," 
in  which  a  detonating  fuze  is  inserted,  in 
contact.  On  firing  the  detonator,  the 
wet  disc  explodes  with  extreme  violence, 
shattering  the  stone  or  timber." 

It  is  also  stated  in  the  '  Treatise  on  Am- 
munition, 1874-,'  that  "it  is  found  that  not 
only  can  dry  gun-cotton  be  detonated  by 
the  action  of  fulminate  of  mercury,  but 
also  that  the  same  effect  is  produced  in 
wet  gun-cotton  if  sufficient  fulminate  be 
used.  A  dry  disc  detonated  by  the  usual 
amount  of  fulminate  is  however  more 
convenient  to  start  the  action ;  a  half- 
pound  dry  disc  will  be  found  sufficient  to 
communicate  the  action  to  a  large  charge 
of  wet  gun-cotton.  This  is  most  impor- 
tant, as  it  allows  of  the  use  of  wet  gun- 
cotton  in  torpedoes,  and  also  does  away 
with  the  risk  connected  with  storing  dry 
cotton."  It  is  further  stated  that,  "  when 
gun-cotton  is  detonated,  its  action  is  so 
very  rapid  that  no  confinement  is  re- 
quired ;  thus  there  ceases  to  be  any 
necessity  for  using  a  strong  case  for 
torpedoes,  or  for  tamping  mines,  and  it 
can  be  used  to  throw  down  stockades,  &c. 
by  simply  attaching  the  discs  loosely  to 
the  obstacle." 


The  force  of  detonated  gun-cotton  is 
stated  to  be  about  four  times  that  of 
exploded  gunpowder,  weight  for  weight. 

The  more  the  action  of  gun-cotton  is 
considered,  the  more  valuable  it  appears, 
especially  for  torpedoes  and  stockades ; 
and  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  store 
it  damp,  either  in  a  magazine  or  in  transit, 
without  danger  of  explosion  or  detriment 
to  its  explosive  power,  renders  it  a  most 
valuable  composition.  Trials  have  been 
made  with  gun-cotton  as  a  detonator  in 
shells  filled  with  water,  and  most  satis- 
factory results  have  been  obtained.  (  Vide 
Water  Shells.) 

Gun  Factories,  Royal — Buildings  ap- 
propriated in  the  Woolwich  Arsenal  for 
the  manufacture  of  guns.  Woolwich  has 
long  been  a  factory  for  the  production  of 
bronze  guns;  but  these  guns  having  ceased 
to  be  manufactured  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  wrought-iron  ordnance,  guns  only 
of  the  latter  metal  are  now  made.  The 
success  with  which  the  manufacture  of 
rifled  guns  of  all  sizes,  up  to  the  81-ton 
gun,  has  been  carried  on  speaks  well  for 
the  manufacturing  powers  of  the  factory. 
(  Vide  Woolwich.) 

Elswick,  which  was  formerly  an  ad- 
junct of  the  Royal  Gun  Factory,  is  now- 
more  of  the  nature  of  a  contractor's 
foundry.  It  was  originally  set  up  by  Sir 
William  Armstrong  &  Co.,  engineers 
and  founders,  and  in  it  was  developed 
much  of  the  machinery  for  making  Arm- 
strong guns  ;  it  would  now  possibly,  as 
any  other  foundry  might,  furnish  guns  to 
the  government  if  guns  were  wanted  in 
greater  number  than  the  factory  at  Wool- 
wich could  turn  out,  the  guns  being  sold 
at  a  contract  price,  payable  after  they 
had  passed  a  rigid  inspection.  The  govern- 
ment, as  will  be  seen,  has  nothing  more 
to  say  to  this  establishment  than  it  would 
to  any  other  of  a  similar  nature,  having 
withdrawn  the  government  aid  in  1863, 
on  the  payment  of  a  certain  sum  to  the 
company  as  compensation  for  the  plant 
they  had  originally  set  up. 

For  the  guns  in  the  service,  both  rifled 
and  smooth-bore,  vide  Appendix  B. 

Gun-fire— A  well-known  name  in  the 
army,  proclaiming  the  break  and  close 
of  day  by  the  firing  of  a  gun ;  in  the 
former  case  troops  turn  out  and  prepare 
for  the  forthcoming  duties  of  the  day, 


GUN 


177 


GUN 


and  in  the  latter  all  night  duties  com- 
mence. (  I  'ide  Tattoo.) 

Gun  Metal,  vide  Bronze. 

Gunner — The  name  given  to  an  artil- 
leryman, obviously  derived  from  the 
word  "  gun  :"  one  who  is  practically 
acquainted  with  the  working  and  use  of 
guns,  lu  the  early  days  of  artillery,  as 
noticed  in  Captain  Duncan's  '  History  of 
the  Royal  Artillery,'  the  gunner,  as  then 
known  by  that  name,  was  not  identical 
with  the  gunner  of  the  present  day,  few 
of  that  denomination  being  attached  to 
either  train  or  battery,  only  one  per 
gun,  assisted  by  a  matross  (9.  ».).  In 
some  degree  the  duties  of  the  mat- 
ross may  at  times  have  been  similar 
to  those  of  the  gunner  as  now  known. 
The  men  who  were  formerly  attached 
to  trains,  as  far  back  as  the  six- 
teenth century,  were  a  class  of  men 
termed  "  artificers,"  who  apparently 
were  entertained  more  for  the  use- 
fulness of  their  trade  than  for  their 
knowledge  of  artillery.  Probably  they 
were  found  useful  for  the  manual  labour 
of  the  guns,  in  putting  them  into 
position  and  the  like,  while  the  gunners, 
who  were  few  in  number,  took  only 
a  general  supervision  of  the  guns  and 
stores,  and  the  laying  and  firing  of  the 
pieces  in  action.  By  degrees,  however, 
as  the  number  of  guns  increased,  so 
did  the  number  of  gunners,  and  except 
for  the  purposes  for  which  artificers  are 
employed,  viz.  to  effect  the  repairs  of 
the  carriages  of  a  train,  the  civil  element 
died  out,  and  the  gunner  became  the 
useful  and  necessary  man  he  has  ever 
proved  himself  to  be. 

The  duties  of  a  gunner  are  very 
varied,  and  require  long  and  careful 
training,  with  considerable  experience. 
Not  only  has  he  to  be  instructed  in  drill, 
and  in  the  service  of  the  different  natures 
of  ordnance,  heavy  and  light,  of  which 
rifled  ordnance  now  forms  the  greater 
part,  but  he  has  to  acquaint  himself 
with  the  ammunition,  the  mode  of  using 
it,  the  care  to  be  bestowed  on  it,  and 
the  several  subjects  which  the  labora- 
tory alone  can  teach  him,  and  which 
afford  ample  scope  for  industry.  Gunners 
should  be  strong,  active  men,  not  too 
tall.  This  latter  remark  has  reference 
especially  to  horse  artillerymen.  The 


rank  of  a  gunner  corresponds  with  that 
of  private  in  the  line. 

Gunner's  Pendulum,  vide  Pendulum. 
Gunner's. 

Gunnery  —  The  science  of  artillery 
theoretically  and  practically  considered. 
Theoretical  gunnery  involves  the  deter- 
mination of  all  problems  having  reference 
to  the  resistance  of  the  air  to  projectiles. 
Practical  gunnery  implies  the  actual 
working,  laying,  and  firing  of  guns,  and 
the  carrying  out  of  what  theory  teaches. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  few  years 
that  the  theory  of  gunnery  has  attained 
its  present  state  of  perfection,  enabling 
the  artillerist,  with  the  aid  of  the  chrono- 
graphs now  in  use,  and  from  the  results 
obtained  with  these  beautiful  instru- 
ments, to  determine  the  most  intricate 
questions  on  the  flight  of  projectiles, 
either  at  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  or  at 
the  several  points  of  their  path.  The 
instruments  now  in  use  for  calculating 
the  velocity  of  a  shot  at  the  mouth  of 
the  piece,  termed  its  initial  velocity  (q.  •».), 
and  at  different  periods  of  its  flight,  are 
Navez-Leurs'  electro-ballistic  apparatus, 
Le  Boulenge's  chronograph,  Bashforth's 
chronograph,  and  Captain  A.  Noble's 
chronoscope  (7.  «.). 

In  our  admiration  of  all  that  the 
science  of  gunnery  teaches  us,  and  the 
perfection  to  which  it  has  attained, 
we  should  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that 
to  Robins  and  Hutton  we  owe  our 
earliest  lessons  in  this  science,  and  to 
the  latter  the  many  valuable  and  practical 
rules  which  later  experiments  have 
tended  to  confirm. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  artillerists 
who  may  not  be  acquainted  with  the 
opinion  of  the  Committee  of  Reference, 
given  some  years  ago  on  the  merits  of 
Bashforth's  instrument,  to  know  the 
answers  to  the  particular  questions  put 
by  the  committee,  as  contained  in  the  fol- 
lowing extracts  of  the  report : — 

"  1.  Whether  it  is  now  to  be  con- 
sidered as  proved  that  the  resistance  of 
the  air  varies  practically  as  the  cube  of 
the  velocity  of  the  shot  for  all  the  velo- 
cities in  use  in  gunnery,  ranging  from 
300  to  1900  feet  per  second,  or  for  what 
range  of  velocities ;  and  if  not  true, 
whether  it  is  nearer  the  truth  than  any 
equally  simple  law  before  propounded  ? 

N 


GUN 


178 


GUN 


"  Ans. — The  law  can  only  be  regarded 
as  approximately  true  for  a  limited  range 
of  velocities.  The  resistance  varies  most 
nearly  as  the  cube  of  the  velocity  for 
velocities  of  about  1200  feet  per  second  ; 
for  velocities  much  higher  or  much  lower 
than  this,  the  co-efficient  of  resistance 
varies  considerably  with  the  velocity. 

"  For  velocities  within  a  limited  range 
the  law  may  be  regarded  as  giving  suffi- 
ciently approximate  results,  provided  the 
coefficient  of  resistance  corresponding  to 
the  mean  velocity  be  employed. 

"  This  law  is  attended  with  the  im- 
portant practical  advantage  that  the 
calculations  required  by  it  are  simple, 
and  the  results  to  which  it  leads  may  be 
readily  embodied  in  tables. 

"  2.  Whether  this  law  of  resistance  is 
to  be  regarded  as  a  new  one,  the  dis- 
covery of  which  is  due  to  Mr.  Bash- 
forth  ? 

"  Ans. — The  law  was  stated  by  Pro- 
fessor Helie  in  his  work  published  in 
1865,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  in  use 
for  some  years  before  that  time  in  the 
school  of  artillery  of  Metz  ;  but  Pro- 
fessor Bashforth,  without  being  aware 
of  this,  independently  deduced  the  same 
law  from  his  own  experiments,  so  far  at 
least  as  the  law  can  be  considered  true, 
viz.  for  a  limited  range  of  the  velocity. 

"  Professor  Bashforth,  by  his  valuable 
experimental  determination  of  the  co- 
efficient of  resistance  corresponding  to 
different  velocities,  has  furnished  the 
data  which  are  absolutely  necessary  in 
order  to  make  the  law  applicable  in 
practice. 

'•  3.  Whether  the  instrument  devised 
and  perfected  by  Mr.  Bashforth  for  re- 
cording successive  small  intervals  of 
time  is  susceptible  of  genera!  employ- 
ment at  schools  of  instruction  in  gun- 
nery ? 

"Ans. — Mr.  Bashforth's  instrument  is 
Minple  in  principle,  easy  to  work  with, 
and  not  readily  liable  to  get  out  of  order, 
and  we  think  it  well  adapted  for  general 
employment  at  schools  of  instruction  in 
gunnery. 

"  4.  Whether  any  means  of  solving  the 
same  problem  with  equal  precision  ex- 
isted before  ? 

"Ans. — We  do  not  think  that  any 
means  existed  before  of  recording  a  num- 


ber of  successive  small  intervals  of  time 
with  the  degree  of  precision  and  trust- 
worthiness attained  by  Professor  Bash- 
forth's instrument." 

Gunny — A  coarse  Indian  cloth  manu- 
factured largely  in  Bengal.  It  is  of  two 
kinds  for  artillery  purposes  in  that  coun- 
try, single  and  double  ;  the  former  is  used 
for  charcoal  bags,  for  package  of  gun- 
powder barrels,  and  as  package  generally  ; 
the  latter  for  slings  for  carrying  shot  and 
shell,  and  small-arm  ammunition  boxes, 
also  for  covering  ammunition  boxes, 
making  sand-bags,  &c.  The  saleetahs  and 
pin-bags  for  tents  are  also  made  of  gunny. 
The  material  from  which  this  article  is 
manufactured  is  the  fibre  of  two  plants 
of  the  genus  Corchorus,  i.e.  Corchorus 
olitaritis,  and  Corchorus  capsularis ;  both, 
but  particularly  the  first-named  plant, 
are  extensively  cultivated  throughout 
Lower  Bengal.  This  nature  of  cloth  is 
universally  used  for  bags  of  all  sorts, 
and  there  is  a  very  large  exportation  of 
this  material  to  America,  the  Coromandel 
and  Malabar  coasts,  and  Singapore. 

Gunny  Bags,  vide  Bags,  Gunny. 

Gun-pits  —  Excavations  made  in  the 
earth  for  the  protection  of  artillei-y  in 
the  field,  when  shelter  is  necessary.  The 
guns  may  be  often  covered  from  the 
enemy's  fire  by  natural  banks,  crests  of 
hills,  sand  mounds,  &c. ;  but  if  there  be 
no  natural  cover,  resort  must  be  had  to 
the  pickaxe  and  spade.  A  gun-pit  can  be 
excavated  in  one  hour  by  experienced  men. 
This  gives  but  a  limited  space  to  the  gun 
detachment,  so  if  there  be  time  the  pit 
can  be  lengthened,  and  the'thickness  of 
the  parapet  increased.  Since  isolated  gun- 
pits,  as  explained  in  the  first  volume  of 
'  Instruction  in  Military  Engineering,' 
would  form  good  marks  for  the  enemy's 
fire,  it  would  be  advisable  to  connect 
them  by  shelter  trenches,  in  which,  how- 
ever, places  should  be  left  to  enable  the 
guns  to  pass  readily  to  the  front.  Should 
no  natural  cover  whatever  be  available 
for  the  limber,  cover  for  it  and  a  pair  of 
horses  might  be  provided  in  a  pit,  some- 
what of  the  form  of  a  charger-pit,  and 
similar  arrangements  should  be  made  for 
the  cover  of  more  horses. 

Gun  Platform,  vide  Platform. 

Gun  Portion — In  fortification,  is  half 
of  the  merlon  on  each  side  of  the  gun, 


GUN 


179 


GUN 


that  is  to  say,  9  feet  on  one  side  of  the 
embrasure  and  9  feet  on  the  other. 

Gunpowder — An  explosive  substance  ; 
the  motive  or  propelling  force  of  pro- 
jectiles from  ordnance  and  small-arms, 
which,  on  being  inflamed,  generates  an 
elastic  force  capable  of  throwing  shot 
and  shell  to  enormous  distances.  Gun- 
powder appears  to  have  been  known 
from  a  very  early  date  both  in  India 
and  China,  long  before  it  was  known 
in  Europe.  Saltpetre  abounds  in  those 
countries,  and  though  the  value  of  it  in 
connection  with  charcoal  may  not  have 
been  known  as  a  propelling  power,  ad- 
vantage was  taken  of  it  to  form  the 
mysterious  fires  so  often  alluded  to  in 
Eastern  books.  Fireworks  'and  rockets 
seem  also  to  have  been  largely  and 
commonly  used  ;  but,  for  artillery  pur- 
poses, the  value  of  gunpowder  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  realised  at  so 
early  a  date:  in  India,  not  until  about 
the  reign  of  Akbar,  when  the  art  of  gun- 
making  was  received  from  Europe.  In 
Europe,  gunpowder  was  unknown  till 
about  the  year  1320,  and  the  discovery 
is  attributed  to  a  German  monk  named 
Schwartz,  though  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  our  countryman,  Roger 
Bacon,  knew  of  it  a  century  earlier ; 
however,  if  he  did,  little  advantage  seems 
to  have  been  taken  of  the  discovery  till 
the  fifteenth  century,  exceptjwith  hand 
guns.  From  this  period  great  strides  in 
artillery  were  made,  especially  in  France. 
The  following  is  a  short  and  general 
description  of  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder. 

Gunpowder  is  formed  from  the  inti- 
mate mixture  of  three  ingredients,  salt- 
petre or  nitre,  charcoal,  and  sulphur,  in 
the  proportion,  as  made  at  the  present 
day  in  English  factories,  of  76,*  15,  10. 
Saltpetre,  before  being  mixed  with  the 
other  ingredients,  should  be  perfectly  re- 
fined and  free  from  all  impurities,  espe- 
cially deliquescent  salts,  such  as  chloride 
of  sodium.  Charcoal  should  be  made  as 
it  is  wanted,  and  used  soon  after,  from 
its  liability  to  imbibe  moisture  if  kepi 
any  time  in  store ;  but  except  for  this 
reason,  there  appears  to  be  nothing  against 


*  This  extra  pound  of  saltpetre  is  given  tc 
make  good  wastage. 


ts  being  used  for  gunpowder  purposes  at 
any  time,  as  long  as  the  analysis  shows 
t  to  possess  the  properties  of  a  good 
charcoal,  when  all  that  is  necessary,  in 
weighing  out  the  charges,  is  to  make  an 
allowance  for  the  moisture,  by  adding  an 
equivalent  in  charcoal.  Good  charcoal 
should  burn  without  leaving  any  residue  ; 
t  should  be  light,  sonorous,  and  easily 
pulverised,  and,  when  broken,  should  have 
a  velvet-like  appearance ;  further,  it 
should  be  soft  and  friable — so  soft  as  not 
;o  scratch  polished  copper,  and  ought 
not  to  exhibit  any  alkali  when  treated 
with  pure  distilled  water.  The  sulphur 
should  be  as  pure  as  possible,  and,  to 
obtain  it  in  this  state,  it  should  be  fused 
or  treated  by  distillation. 

The  three  ingredients,  having  been 
brought  together,  are  first  mixed  in  a 
mixing  machine,  then  transferred  to  the 
incorporating  house,  where  they  under- 
go, from  the  peculiar  motion  of  the 
machinery,  a  grinding,  twisting,  and  a 
mixing  action,  until  formed  into  what  is 
termed  "  mill-cake  ;  "  during  this  process 
distilled  water  in  certain  proportions  is 
added,  ordinary  powder  taking  about  3  per 
cent.,  pebble  powder  from  3  to  6  per  cent., 
according  to  the  state  of  the  weather. 
From  thence  the  powder  in  this  state  is 
taken  to  the  "  breaking-down  house,"  in 
order  that  the  cake  may  be  broken  into 
a  convenient  size,  before  being  taken  to 
the  press  house,  where  it  is  subjected 
to  hydraulic  pressure,  so  many  tons  to 
the  square  foot,  varying  with  the  nature 
of  the  powder.  The  pressure  given  to 
pebble  powder  varies  with  the  seasons,  and 
as  a  rule  it  has  been  found  that  density 
is  more  easily  obtained  in  summer  than 
winter,  owing  to  the  more  effectual  in- 
corporation. The  press-cake  is  now  broken 
up  and  transferred  to  the  granulating 
house,  to  be  there  formed  into  the  several- 
sized  grains  required  for  the  different 
natures  of  powder ;  it  is  also  partially 
dusted  in  this  house.  After  this  pro- 
cess, the  powder  is  taken  to  the  dusting 
house,  to  free  it  still  further  from  the 
small  particles  of  dust  remaining  amongst 
the  grains ;  this  being  completed,  it  is 
glazed,  then  dried  for  2-t  or  36  hours, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  powder, 
and  lastly  dusted  again,  before  being 
examined,  proved,  and  barrelled  up. 
N  2 


GUN 


180 


GUX 


The  great  object  to  attain  in  making 
gunpowder  is  to   produce  equal   results 
from  equal  quantities  of  the  manufacture, 
but  this,  for  various  causes,  cannot  always  j 
be  relied   on  ;  hence  the  unequal  practice  ! 
som'etimes  observed  with  the  same  charges 
and  from  the  same  piece.     The  density  of 
R.L.G.  powder  should  not  be  less  than 
1-68,    and    not    more    than     1'75,    and 
R.F.G.  1-55  to  1-65. 

During  the  year  1873  a  powder  de- 
signated R.F.G.2  was  approved  for  use 
with  the  Martini-Henry  rifle.  It  differs 
from  R.F.G.  powder  in  the  following 
particulars,  viz. : — 

1.  The   charcoal    is    burned    about    2 
hours  longer. 

2.  The    composition   is    milled    about 
twice  as  long. 

3.  The    meal  is  pressed  into   cake    of 
considerably  greater  hardness. 

4.  The  foul  grain  is  glazed  about  twice 
as  long. 

The  size  of  grain  of  both  powders  is 
the  same,  viz.  between  ^  and^  of  an 
inch. 

In  consequence  of  the  greater  hardness 
and   density    of   the     grain    of    R.F.G.2  , 
powder,  it  will  keep  better   than  R.F.G.,  ' 
and  will  dust   less  in  manipulation  and 
transport. 

The  part  that  each  of  the  ingredients 
performs    in   the    inflammation    of  gun- 
powder    is    thus    explained  in  Abel   and 
Bloxam's   '  Handbook  of  Chemistry  ' : — 
"  The  action  of  this  substance  as  a  pro- 
pelling agent  is  dependent  upon  the  rapid  ; 
oxidation  of  the  charcoal   by  the  nitre,  j 
and  the  consequent  sudden  evolution  of 
a    large    volume    of  heated    gas.      In   a  j 
mixture  of  nitre  and  charcoal  alone,  the 
oxidation    (deflagration)    proceeds    with  : 
comparative    tardiness ;    the   addition  of 
sulphur  greatly  augments  the  combus-  j 
tibility  of  the  mixture  (in   consequence 
of  the    lower   temperature   at  which   it 
ignites):    the    sulphur   by   its    presence  i 
also  renders  available  for  the  oxidation  ! 
of  the  carbon  an  extra  amount  of  oxygen 
— namely,  that  which  is  united  with  the 
potassium,  the  latter  being  at  once  con- 
verted into  sulphide  upon  ignition  of  the 
powder.    The  temperature  at  which  gun- 
powder ignites  is  about  600°." 

When  it  may  be  necessary  to  separate 
the  three  ingredients  of  which  gunpowder 


is  formed,  the  following  method  can  be 
pursued : — 

first,  for  Moisture. 

Weigh  accurately  in  a  watch  glass  50 
grains  of  gunpowder,  and  place  the  same 
in  a  water-oven,  which  should  not  exceed 
150°  in  temperature,  until  perfectly  dry 
(say  about  an  hour).  Then  remove  it, 
and  place  it  in  the  scales  ;  the  difference 
of  weight  in  its  cold  and  hot  state  will 
be  the  moisture  required.  Deduct  '01 
of  a  grain  for  the  difference  of  tempera- 
ture of  the  glass  between  its  cold  state 
and  the  degree  of  heat  in  it  when  it 
again  reaches  the  scales,  which  between 
the  oven  and  the  scales  will,  to  a  certain 
extent,  be  lower  than  that  of  the  gun- 
powder. Multiply  by  2  for  the  percent- 
age to  make  up  100  grains. 

Second,  to  extract  the  Saltpetre. 

Weigh  as  before  50  grains  of  gun- 
powder, and  place  the  same  in  a  glass 
beaker,  mixing  it  with  hot  water,  which 
place  on  the  water-oven  for  about  an 
hour.  Decant  the  same  in  a  knoicn  filter 
placed  in  a  glass  funnel,  and  frequently 
wash  the  filter  with  the  wash  bottle,  so 
that  no  trace  of  saltpetre  be  left  in  it. 
Take  the  filtrate,  which  now  contains  a 
solution  of  saltpetre,  and  evaporate  it 
over  the  oven.  When  evaporated,  weigh 
the  result,  which,  multiplied  by  2,  should 
give  nearly  the  original  quantity  of  salt- 
petre with  which  the  gunpowder  was 
made. 

Third,  to  ascertain  the  Weit/ht  of  Sulphur 
and  Charcoal  together. 

Weigh,  after  the  saltpetre  has  been  ex- 
tracted, the  sulphur  and  charcoal  left  in 
the  filter.  This  is  effected  by  placing 
the  filter  with  its  contents  on  the  oven 
to  dry,  and  afterwards  enclosing  it  in  a 
glass  tube  corked  down,  the  weight  of 
the  tube,  cork,  and  empty  filter  in  their 
cold  state  having  been  previously  ascer- 
tained. Deduct  then  the  weight  of  the 
tube,  cork,  and  empty  filter  from  the 
weight  of  the  tube,  cork,  and  filter  with 
its  contents,  and  the  difference  will  be 
the  weight  of  the  charcoal  and  sulphur. 

Fourth,  to  extract  the  Sulphur. 
Take  20  grains  of  gunpowder,  20  grains 
of  pure  saltpetre,  20  grains  of  carbonate 
of  soda,  and  80  grains  of  chloride  of  so- 


GUN 


181 


GUT 


dium  (common  salt).  Mix  these  all  to- 
gether in  a  crucible,  and  place  the  same 
on  a  charcoal  fire,  until  the  mass  becomes 
perfectly  white ;  then  remove  it,  and 
put  it  with  the  crucible  into  a  beaker  of 
cold  water.  Place  the  beaker  on  the 
water-oven  until  the  mass  dissolves,  then 
filter.  The  filtrate  is  now  heated,  and 
acidulated  by  hydrochloric  acid  until  all 
effervescence  subsides.  Then  pour  in  a 
few  drops  of  chloride  of  barium,  from 
time  to  time,  which  will  cause  the  sul- 
phur in  the  solution  to  be  precipitated. 
The  solution  in  the  beaker  is  now  passed 
through  a  filter,  and  the  contents  of  the 
filter  (which  is  now  sulphur  alone)  dried 
and  weighed,  and  deducted  from  the  sum 
of  the  charcoal  and  sulphur  previously 
thus  computed,  leaves  the  charcoal  re- 
quired. A  more  efficacious  mode  of  ex- 
tracting the  sulphur  is  with  bisulphide 
of  carbon. 

The  sum  of  the  three  ingredients,  with 
the  moisture,  should  make  up  99-86  of 
100  grains,  the  slight  difference  being 
supposed  to  have  escaped  during  the 
process  of  separation,  in  the  form  of 
nitric  and  sulphuric  acid  gases. 

Gunpowder  Factory — Consists  of  build- 
ings in  which  the  several  processes  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  are  carried 
out.  A  gunpowder  factory  should  be 
situated  far  away  from  inhabited  locali- 
ties. The  buildings  should  be  made  of 
wood,  so  that  in  case  of  explosion  the 
smallest  resistance  would  be  offered  to 
the  force  of  the  powder.  Explosions 
under  any  circumstances  are  disastrous, 
but,  if  they  occur  in  a  masonry  building, 
are  still  more  so.  The  generality  of  mill- 
houses,  therefore,  will  be  found  to  be 
made  of  wood  and  protected  from  one 
another  by  huge  banks  of  earth  or  thick 
masonry  surrounding  each  house.  There 
is  no  objection  to  making  incorporating 
houses  of  masonry  if  the  walls  be  built 
thick  enough  to  withstand  the  explosive 
force  of  a  "  mill  charge  "  (50  Ibs.).  To 
add  to  the  safety  of  incorporating  houses, 
in  case  of  an  explosion  in  one  room,  the 
charges  in  the  other  rooms  are  by  means 
of  self-acting  machinery  instantaneously 
drowned  in  water. 

The  principal,  indeed  the  only  govern- 
ment, factory  for  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder  in  England  is  at  Waltham 


Abbey.  All  powder  required  in  excess 
of  what  this  factory  is  able  to  turn  out 
is  supplied  by  private  factories  on  con- 
tract. In  India  there  are  three  factories, 
one  in  each  presidency. 

Gun  Sling,  vide  Sling,  Gun. 

Gun  Tackle  —  An  arrangement  of 
blocks  and  ropes  for  the  use  of  raising 
and  lowering  guns.  There  are  two  of 
this  name  used  in  the  artillery  service. 
One  consists  of  two  double  blocks,  called 
a  gun  tackle,  the  other  a  heavy  gun  tackle, 
consisting  of  a  double  and  treble  block. 
In  the  former,  the  power  is  increased 
fivefold  when  the  standing  end  of  the 
fall  is  made  fast  to  the  movable  block, 
and  fourfold  when  made  fast  to  the  other. 
In  the  latter,  the  power  increases  five  or 
six  times,  as  used.  (  Vide  Tackles.) 

Gunter's  Chain — A  chain  used  by  sur- 
veyors for  measuring  land,  and  called 
after  its  inventor.  It  is  66  feet  long, 
and  its  convenience  turns  on  the  fact 
that  10  square  chains  make  1  acre.  The 
chain  is  divided  into  100  links,  and  thus 
100,000  square  links  make  1  acre. 

Gunter's  Scale — A  mathematical  in- 
strument, on  which  lines  and  figures  are 
marked.  The  name  of  this  scale  is  usually 
given  to  three  lines  to  be  seen  on  almost 
any  sector,  and  marked  N.  S.  T.,  meaning 
the  lines  of  logarithmic  numbers,  of  loga- 
rithmic sines,  and  of  logarithmic  tan- 
gents. To  understand  its  construction 
and  use  requires  a  knowledge  of  loga- 
rithms :  they  are  explained  in  every 
school-book  of  practical  mathematics. 

Gusset — A  piece  at  first  of  chain  and 
afterwards  of  plate  armour,  intended  as 
a  protection  to  the  vulnerable  point 
where  the  defences  of  the  arm  and  breast 
left  a  gap. 

Gutta-percha  —  As  explained  in  Bal- 
four's  '  Cyclopaedia  of  India,'  is  the  con- 
crete juice  of  a  forest  tree,  a  native  of 
the  shores  of  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
Borneo,  and  the  neighbouring  countries. 
The  tree  is  from  60  to  70  feet  high, 
and  3  or  4  feet  in  diameter.  Boiling 
appears  necessary  when  the  juice  is  col- 
lected in  large  quantities,  but  when 
a  small  quantity  is  allowed  to  exude 
from  a  freshly  wounded  tree,  and  is  col- 
lected and  moulded  by  the  hand,  it  con- 
solidates perfectly  in  a  few  minutes,  and 
has  all  the  appearance  of  the  prepared 


GUY 


182 


HAT 


article.  Gutta-percha,  when  quite  pure,  is 
greyish  white,  but  it  is  generally  brought 
to  market  of  a  reddish  brown  hue.  The 
great  peculiarity  which  makes  gutta- 
percha  convenient  and  valuable  for  a  va- 
riety of  purposes  is  that,  when  plunged 
into  boiling  water,  it  becomes  so  soft  and 
plastic  as  to  be  easily  moulded  into  any 
desired  form,  and  this  form  it  perma- 
nently retains  on  cooling.  It  is  on  this 
account  used  in  the  artillery  service  to 
take  impressions  of  the  bore  of  a  piece 
of  ordnance  which  exhibits  flaws  or 
cracks  after  firing.  But  its  most  im- 
portant application  has  been  in  the  coat- 
ing of  marine  electric  telegraph  wires. 

Guy  Ropes — Are  steadying  ropes  fas- 
tened to  the  heads  of  spars,  sheers,  der- 
ricks, gyns,  &c. 

Gymnastics — The  art  or  method  of 
exercising  the  body  to  make  it  active, 
supple,  and  capable  of  bearing  much  fa- 
tigue. It  comprises  athletic  exercises — 
fencing,  swimming  (where  opportunities 
exist),  broadsword,  bayonet,  and  running 
exercises — all  of  which  now  form  part  of 
the  instruction  given  in  setting  up  the 
British  soldier. 

Gyn  —  A  machine  for  lifting  heavy 
weights,  and  especially  for  mounting  and 
dismounting  ordnance  from  their  car- 
riage?, &c.  Gyns  were  formerly  constructed 
only  of  wood,  but  are  now  also  made  of 
wrought  iron.  The  gyns  in  use  for  gar- 
rison service  are  termed  triangle  g//ns, 
of  which  there  are  four,  designated  light 
and  heavy,  both  18  feet  in  height.  Two 
are  made  of  wood  and  two  of  iron,  and 
are  capable  of  raising  from  7  to  12  tons. 

A  gyn  consists  of  a  prypole  and  two 
cheeks  with  cross  bars,  with  a  windlass 
fixed  between  them,  forming  the  figure 
of  a  triangle  when  set  up,  hence  its 
name,  triangle  gyn.  An  alteration  in  the 
service  gyn  was  proposed  by  Colonel 
Hay,  R.A.,  which  did  away  with  the 
shackle.  It  consisted  of  fitting  the  pry- 
pole  with  an  arched  and  forked  end,  which 
permitted  of  the  upper  block  of  the  tackle 
being  hooked  to  the  bolt  between  the 
forks  of  the  pole.  This  arrangement  has 
the  advantage  of  allowing  the  gun  to  be 
raised  to  greater  heights  than  in  the 
service  gyn.  Another  gyn  in  the  service, 
the  Gibraltar  gyn,  is  of  a  different  shape 
to  the  triangle  gyn,  and  is  used  for 


mounting  and  dismounting  ordnance  in 
situations  where  the  triangle  gyn,  from 
its  height,  could  not  be  conveniently 
placed.  This  gyn  is  not  capable  of  lifting 
more  than  3  tons. 

Gyration,  Centre  of — Is  that  point  of 
a  system  of  bodies  round  an  axis  in 
which,  if  all  the  matter  of  the  system 
were  collected,  the  same  moving  force 
would  produce  the  same  angular  velocity 
in  the  system. 

Gyroscope— Is  thus  described : — "  An 
instrument  invented  by  M.  Foucault  to 
render  palpable  to  the  eye  the  earth's 
rotation.  Its  success  depends  on  the 
principle,  that  if  a  mass  be  set  in  rotation 
freely  in  space,  it  will,  unless  disturbed 
or  constrained,  preserve  absolutely  the 
plane  of  its  rotation,  and  will,  to  effect 
this,  even  overcome  slight  obstacles." 


H. 


Habergeon — A  short  coat  of  mail,  con- 
sisting of  a  jacket  without  sleeves.  In 
early  times  the  habergeon  was  composed 
of  chain  mail ;  but  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury a  habergeon  of  plate  armour  was 
worn  over  the  hauberk.  The  word 
habergeon,  we  find,  is  used  four  or  five 
times  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Hachures  (French  =  strokes) — In  mili- 
tary drawing,  are  strokes,  or  a  species  of 
shading,  by  which  the  relief  of  the  ground 
is  shown.  Hachures  are  of  two  kinds, 
vertical  and  horizontal. 

Hackbutt,  or  Hagbutt — Another  name 
for  an  improved  kind  of  arquebus,  and 
known  about  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 

Hackery — An  Indian  cart,  used  gener- 
ally in  the  Bengal  presidency  for  the  car- 
riage of  country  produce,  and  often  in  the 
transport  of  government  stores. 

Hacqueton,  vide  Aketon. 

Hair-cloths  —  Cloths  made  of  horse 
hair.  They  are  placed  upon  the  floors 
and  tables  of  magazines,  or  buildings  in 
which  powder  is  stored  or  handled,  to 


HAL 


183 


HAM 


prevent  accidents  from  grit.  They  are 
also  laid  down  on  a  jetty  to  roll  powder 
barrels  on,  or  to  cover  powder  barrels  in 
transit,  for  which  purpose  they  are  better 
suited  than  for  any  other. 

Halberd,  or  Halbert — A  weapon  intro- 
duced about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century  ;  halberdiers  appear  for  the  first 
time  amongst  the  English  infantry  in 
this  century.  Halberds  were,  at  a  later 
period,  and  up  even  to  the  end  of  the 
first  quarter  of  this  century,  used  by 
the  sergeants  of  infantry  and  artillery. 
Its  shape  was  that  of  a  spear,  with  a  ' 
shaft  about  5  feet  long,  the  head  of 
which  was  mounted  with  a  steel  point. 
Besides  this  it  had  a  cross  piece  of  iron 
attached  to  it,  which  enabled  the  halber- 
dier to  cut  as  well  as  to  thrust.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  originally  used  by  the 
Danes. 

Another  use  the  halberd  was  put  to,  I 
viz.  when  soldiers  were  flogged.      Several 
were   heaped  together,    and    the   soldier 
was   lashed   to  them,   hence   the  saying, 
"  I'll  send  you  to  the  halberds." 

Hale's  Rockets,  vide  Rockets,  Hale's. 

Half-batta,  vide  Batta. 

Half-battery — In  artillery,  a  portion 
of  a  field  battery,  consisting  of  three 
guns  with  their  wagons. 

Half-pay — Is  defined  as  follows  in  the 
Queen's  Regulations  : — "  Every  officer 
under  25  years'  full-pay  service,  who 
from  wounds  or  ill-health  contracted  in 
and  by  the  service  shall  become  unfit  for 
duty,  and  who  shall  be  desirous  of  re- 
tiring temporarily  upon  half-pay,  is  to 
transmit  his  application  to  the  Military 
Secretary,  through  the  commanding 
officer,  accompanied  by  a  certificate  of 
a  board  of  medical  officers,  explaining  the 
cause  of  his  becoming  unfit  for  service." 
This  is  termed  temporary  half-pay.  But 
there  is  also  in  the  service  what  is 
known  as  permanent  half-pay,  and  this  is 
accorded  to  every  officer  who  has  served 
25  years ;  it  is  also  given  to  all  field 
otficers  who,  after  serving  for  5  years 
in  the  rank  of  major  or  lieutenant-colonel 
with  a  regiment,  are  not  ve-employed. 
Half- pay  was  instituted  in  the  reign  of 
William  III. 

Half-wrought  Materials — In  artillery, 
consist  of  the  several  parts  of  gun  car- 
riages in  the  rough,  or  partly  shaped  to 


the  form  required.  Supplies  of  these 
materials  are  kept  tn  every  arsenal,  and 
are  issued  to  batteries  on  indent.  Each 
battery  in  the  field  is  allowed  the  fol- 
lowing half-wroughts: — 

Beam          . .  . .  1 

Cheeks        .  . .  2 

Perch  wagon  . .  1 

Splinter  bar  .  .  2 

Shafts,  spare  . .  2,  complete. 

Felloes         ..  ..  12 

Spokes         . .  , .  24 

But  as  a  spare  carriage  is  allowed, 
there  is  no  necessity  to  carry  such  pon- 
derous articles  as  beams,  &c.  ;  the  officer 
commanding  a  troop  or  battery  will, 
therefore,  use  his  discretion,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  service  on  which  he 
may  be  going,  as  to  what  half-wrought 
materials  he  will  carry,  anv  in  excess  of 
the  number  allowed  being  provided  at 
his  own  expense.  On  leaving  a  station 
where  there  may  be  an  arsenal,  he  can, 
if  he  thinks  fit,  return  into 'store  such 
half-wroughts  as  he  may  not  wish  to 
carry  on  the  march,  receiving  from  the 
ordnance  officer  a  receipt,  which  will  be 
his  voucher  for  obtaining  others  free  of 
charge  at  the  next  arsenal. 

The  above  instructions  have  reference 
to  the  artillery  in  India,  wherever  the 
carriages  are  of  the  old  pattern,  viz.  of 
wood.  The  new  field  carriages  being 
made  of  iron,  the  supply  of  half- 
wroughts  as  shown  in  the  above  list 
is  not  required,  except  for  the  wheels 
and  other  wooden  parts  of  the  carriage. 

Halt — Literally,  to  stop  ;  a  term  well 
known  to  soldiers.  It  is  the  word  of 
command  given  to  a  body  of  men,  or  to 
a  regiment  or  an  army,  on  the  move, 
to  discontinue  its  march. 

In  the  march  of  a  body  of  soldiers 
halts  are  very  necessary  for  the  comfort 
of  the  men  ,  to  enable  them  to  rest 
themselves.  On  the  usual  daily  march 
of  a  regiment  in  India,  halts  are  made 
halfway,  and  coffee  is  served  out  to  the 
men.  This  is  a  very  desirable  arrange- 
ment, seeing  how  early  a  regiment  com- 
mences its  march  in  that  country. 
Hambro'  Line,  vide  Line,  Hambro'. 
Hames — Two  pieces  of  iron  encircling 
a  horse's  collar,  connected  at  the  bottom 
by  an  iron  loop,  and  at  the  top  by  a 


HAM 


184 


HAN 


strap  and  buckle.  Attached  to  the  hames 
are  iron  lugs  to  which  the  traces  are 
linked. 

Hammer  —  An  instrument  in  very 
general  use  for  driving  and  drawing  nails, 
beating  out  metals,  &c.  There  are  va- 
rious kinds  of  hand  hammers,  which 
are  used  for  different  purposes.  Their 
weights  are  variously  estimated. 

The  same  name  is  given  to  one  of  the 
parts  of  the  lock  of  small-arms. 

Hammer,  Claw,  vide  Claw  Hammer. 

Hammer,  Cooper's — For  heading  and 
unheading  powder  or  ammunition  barrels, 
and  performing  such  coopering  operations 
in  a  magazine,  or  wherever  powder  is 
being  handled,  as  may  be  required.  Only 
copper  or  wooden  cross-head  mallets  are 
allowed  to  be  used  for  such  purposes. 

In  heading  or  unheading  powder  barrels, 
the  persons  employed  are  not  allowed 
to  use  the  bare  adze  against  the  copper 
hoops,  but  are  invariably  to  apply  a 
driver. 

Hammer,  Sledge  —  A  large  hammer 
used  by  the  blacksmith  when  the  object 
to  be  forged  is  not  very  large.  The  weight 
of  a  sledge-hammer  is  from  10  to  14  Ibs., 
although  sometimes  even  more.  The 
sledge-hammer  is  wielded  by  the  fire- 
man's assistant,  who  is  termed  the 
hammer-man. 

Hammer,  Steam  —  As  described  in 
Weale's  '  Dictionary,'  "  is  employed  in- 
stead of  the  old  helves  or  lift-hammers, 
and  is  worked  by  a  connected  high- 
pressure  steam-engine,  which  raises  the 
hammer  to  any  required  height  within 
its  vertical  range  of  motion,  in  which 
it  is  guided  by  two  planed  guides.  On 
the  escape  of  the  steam,  when  the  valve 
of  the  cylinder  is  opened,  the  hammer 
falls  on  the  work  that  lies  on  the  anvil 
with  the  full  force  due  to  gravity,  with 
scarcely  any  loss  from  friction.  The  in- 
stant the  hammer  has  given  its  blow,  the 
steam  is  again  let  in  under  the  piston, 
and  the  same  action  is  repeated  with  ease 
and  rapidity."  This  hammer  is  the  in- 
vention of  Mr.  Nasmyth.  In  the  first 
hammers  that  were  used,  the  weight  of 
the  descending  mass — viz.  the  hammer- 
block,  hammer,  &c. — was  from  30  to  60 
cwt.,  but  it  is  now  almost  as  many  tons. 
The  Nasmyth  hammer  in  the  gun  factory 
at  Woolwich  has  a  descending  weight  of 


40  tons.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  large  coil  guns,  and  is  worked  with 
the  ease  and  precision  of  the  merest 
toy. 

Hammer,  Tilt — Used  in  forging  imple- 
ments and  tools,  such  as  shovels,  spades, 
mattocks,  and  cleavers. 

Hammer,  "Wrench.  —  Used  to  tighten 
and  loosen  nuts  and  bolts;  it  can,  from 
its  construction,  be  adjusted  to  any  re- 
quired size.  This  nature  of  hammer  has 
a  turn-screw  attached  to  it. 

Hammock — A  kind  of  bed  suspended, 
on  land,  between  trees  or  posts  ;  on  board 
ship,  between  hooks.  Each  soldier  proceed- 
ing to  sea  on  board  a  troop  or  transport  ship 
is  entitled  to  have  a  hammock  told  off  to 
him  as  his  resting-place  of  a  night. 

Hand — A  measure  of  4  inches.  The 
height  of  a  horse  is  computed  by  hands. 

Hand-axe  —  One  of  the  implements 
used  by  the  pioneers  of  a  regiment. 

Handcuff — A  fetter  to  secure  the 
hands  together.  Handcuffs  are  made  of 
iron,  ring-shaped,  with  a  lock  attached, 
and  just  large  enough  to  keep  on  the 
wrists  without  hurting  them. 

Hand  Grenades,  vide  Grenades. 

Handguns — As  used  in  former  days,  and 
as  the  name  imports, were  synonymous  with 
what  we  now  term  •'  small-arms,"  but  very 
rude  in  construction  and  of  considerable 
weight.  They  were  introduced  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  They  are  thus 
described  :  —  "  Handguns  had,  as  already 
mentioned,  been  used  at  the  siege  of 
Arras,  in  the  year  1414,  and  in  this 
reign  they  were  coming  into  more  general 
use  ;  but  they  were  very  rude  in  con- 
struction, being  formed  of  a  simple  iron 
tube  with  a  touchhole  at  top,  fixed  in  a 
stock  of  wood  about  a  cubit  and  a  half 
long,  and  called  the  frame  of  the  lgonne.' 
The  pan,  it  appears,  was  subsequently 
added  to  prevent  the  priming  from  falling 
on  the  ground." 

Handles,  Limbering — The  iron  handles 
on  each  side  of  the  trail  of  a  gun  car- 
riage to  assist  in  limbering  up  the  gun  to 
the  limber. 

Hand-rubbing  —  The  manipulation 
which  horses'  legs  undergo  on  the  march 
and  elsewhere,  chiefly  at  feeding  time, 
and  which  should  he  continued  for  about 
20  minutes  at  each  meal. 

Handsaw  —  A   carpenter's   tool    for 


HAN 


185 


HAR 


cutting  asunder  wood  which  would  be 
too  thick  to  be  cut  by  an  adze,  or  which 
requires  accuracy  in  cutting. 

Handspike  —  A  lever  of  the  first 
order.  There  are  several  descriptions  of 
handspikes  in  the  service,  many  of  which 
are  used  in  the  artillery  for  running  up 
gun  carriages,  raising  or  turning  heavy 
stores,  slinging  ammunition  boxes,  tra- 
versing guns  aud  mortars,  and  for  all 
purposes  where  leverage  is  required  to 
be  used. 

Handspike,  Bevelled,  vide  Bevelled 
Handspike. 

Handspike,  Traversing  —  A  hand- 
spike attached  to  the  end  of  the  trail  of 
gun  carriages.  It  is  movable,  and,  when 
the  gun  is  not  in  action,  is  strapped  on 
the  surface  of  the  carriage. 

Hang  Fire,  To — The  term  is  applied 
when  a  gun  is  slow  in  discharging  itself, 
from  the  flame  being  checked  in  its  pass- 
age to  the  charge,  either  from  the  vent 
being  fouled  or  the  charge  being  damp. 
The  former  can  scarcely  happen  now,  as 
the  friction  tube  conveys  the  flame  to 
the  charge  with  great  certainty. 

Harass,  To — In  a  military  sense,  is  the 
act  of  annoying  and  incessantly  pur- 
suing or  hanging  on  the  rear  and  flanks 
of  a  retreating  force,  so  as,  if  possible, 
to  prevent  its  attaining  its  object,  and 
perhaps  overcoming  the  enemy  altogether. 
Notwithstanding  the  disadvantage  which 
a  retreating  army  has  under  these  circum- 
stances, history  affords  us  examples  that 
if  the  retreat  be  conducted  by  an  able 
commander,  he  has  it  in  his  power,  by  his 
ingenuity  and  other  military  qualities,  to 
avoid  the  enemy,  by  getting  iiito  in- 
accessible places,  or  by  so  disposing  of 
his  troops  as  to  make  it  hazardous  for  a 
pursuing  army  to  follow  him  up,  or  any 
longer  to  endeavour  to  harass  him. 

Harness — The  furniture  or  trappings  of 
horses,  esepcially  of  draught  horses.  The 
term  was  applied  in  the  very  earliest  ages 
to  body  armour  as  well.  The  origin  of 
harness  can  be  traced  back  to  a  very  re- 
mote date.  We  observe  in  ancient  pic- 
tures, and  in  the  description  of  ancient 
ceremonies  and  games,  such  as  the 
Olympic  games,  that  horses  were  attached 
to  carriages  with  harness,  of  what  kind 
and  description  no  writings  tell  us,  vary- 
ing, undoubtedly,  according  to  the  ideas 


of  the  several  nations  which  used  it.  The 
present  mode  of  harnessing  horses  to  gun 
carriages  is  only  of  a  comparatively  late 
date.  The  usual  manner  was  to  place 
one  horse  before  the  other,  similar  to 
the  custom  still  observed  in  the  country 
carts  in  our  own  land,  the  driver  dis- 
mounted, and  walking  alongside  his 
horses.  This,  however,  was  found  to  be 
awkward  when  quick  movement  was  re- 
quired, and  moreover,  on  the  march  with 
a  long  line  of  carriages,  took  up  a  great 
deal  of  space.  The  idea  then  came  to 
harness  the  horses  two  and  two  abreast, 
and  ultimately  to  mount  them  instead 
of  driving  them  on  foot.  This  now  is 
the  custom  in  all  artilleries.  In  the 
English  artillery,  shafts  are  used,  and  to 
each  gun  carriage  the  number  of  horses 
is  regulated  according  to  the  weight  they 
have  to  pull,  each  horse  of  a  team  of 
4  horses  being  able  to  draw  6  cwt.,  or 
24  cwt. ;  a  team  of  6  horses,  5  cwt. 
each,  or  30  cwt.,  and  thus  decreasing 
rapidly  in  their  power  of  draught,  so 
th<»t  when  each  horse  can  only  draw  4 
cwt.,  no  advantage  is  gained  in  employ- 
ing a  greater  number  of  horses  than  12 
for  the  heaviest  load  in  the  service.  The 
harness  for  the  off-wheel  or  shaft  horse 
is  somewhat  different  to  that  for  the 
leading  horses,  loops  or'  lugs  having  to 
be  attached  to  the  chaise  saddle  for  the 
support  of  the  shafts. 

Harness  for  the  use  of  the  artillery  in 
India  is  after  the  same  pattern  as  that 
issued  at  home,  but  it  is  made  up  in  the 
country,  the  Indian  government  having 
establishments  for  that  purpose.  Harness 
is  issued  unblacked,  and  is  kept  in  order 
by  a  mixture  of  bees-wax,  mutton  suet, 
and  spirits  of  turpentine,  which  should 
be  well  and  frequently  rubbed  in ;  the 
whole  to  be  hand-rubbed  daily. 

Harness  for  man  draught  is  occasion- 
ally required.  It  consists,  as  described  in 
the  '  Treatise  on  Military  Carriages,'  of 
white  rope,  with  a  hook  at  one  end  and  an 
eye  at  the  other,"and  fitted  with  web  loops 
to  go  over  the  men's  shoulders.  The  har- 
ness is  heavy  and  light,  and  would  be  used 
when  guns  get  into  a  difficulty  and  re- 
quire assistance,  or  when  there  is  a  defi- 
ciency of  cattle. 

In  harnessing  elephants  to  heavy  guns, 
one  elephant  goes  in  the  shafts,  a  second 


HAR 


186 


HEA 


leads,   and  if  a   third   be   necessary,   the 
animal  assists  by  pushing  from  behind. 

Harsegaye — A  kind  of  demi-lance,  in- 
troduced in  1114. 

Hauberk — A  military  tunic  or  vest- 
ment worn  by  the  Saxons  and  Normans 
at  the  Conquest.  It  was  covered  with 
iron  rings  either  laying  flat  on  the  coat 
or  standing  up  edgeways.  The  dress  was 
used  by  the  Saxons,  as  early  as  the  eighth 
century,  as  defensive  body  armour,  and 
called  by  them  the  tunic  ot'  rings,  but  by 
the  Normans  the  hauberk.  Colonel  Luard, 
in  his  work  on  'The  Dress  of  the  British 
Soldier,'  states  that,  besides  the  hauberk 
of  rings,  there  are  some  marked  with 
transverse  lines,  so  as  to  give  the  idea  of 
being  quilted,  or  stitched  in  chequers,  or 
covered  with  small  lozenge-shaped  pieces 
of  steel  instead  of  rings,  known  about 
this  period,  A.D.  1066-1087,  by  the  name 
of  mascled  armour,  from  its  resemblance 
to  the  meshes  of  a  net.  Other  descrip- 
tions of  armour  were  in  use,  and  in  some 
instances  the  hauberks  appear  to  be  com- 
posed of  rings  and  mascles  mixed;* in 
others,  the  body  is  diamonded,  and  the 
cowl  and  arms  covered  with  rings. 

On  referring  to  a  work  entitled  '  The 
Conqueror  and  his  Companions,'  by  Mr. 
J.  R.  Planche,  Somerset  herald,  the  hau- 
berk as  worn  by  William  the  Conqueror 
is  thus  spoken  of: — -'•  In  the  Bayeux  ta- 
pestry we  behold  him  armed  in  his  hau- 
berk, which  was  not  the  coat  of  chain 
mail  of  the  thirteenth  century,  but  the  | 
ijerinjhed  bt/niie  of  the  eleventh  and  j 
twelfth,  consisting  of  iron  rings,  not  I 
linked  together  and  forming  a  garment  , 
of  themselves,  but  sewn  or  strongly 
fastened  flat  upon  a  tunic  of  leather  or 
of  quilted  linen,  buckram,  canvas,  or  some 
strong  material  descending  to  the  mid- 
leg,  and  which,  being  open  in  the  skirts 
both  before  and  behind  for  convenience  in 
riding,  gave  it  the  appearance  of  a  jacket 
with  short  breeches  attached  to  it,  if, 
indeed,  such  was  not  actually  the  case  in 
some  instances.  The  sleeves  were  loose, 
and  reached  only  just  below  the  elbow." 

Havildar — A  non-commissioned  officer 
attached  to  a  native  regiment  of  infantry 
in  India;  his  position  is  similar  to  that 
of  a  sergeant  in  a  European  regiment. 

Havildar-Major  —  The  sergeant-major 
of  a  native  regiment  of  infantry. 


Havresack  (French,  havre-sac)  —  A 
canvas  or  linen  bag  issued  to  every  sol- 
dier on  a  march,  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing provisions,  odds  and  ends,  &c.  It  is 
carried  on  the  left  side  by  a  strap  passing 
over  the  right  shoulder,  and  is  only  used 
in  the  field  or  cantonments. 

Hawser — -A  rope  made  of  three  strands ; 
it  is  coiled  up  right-handed,  or  what  is 
termed  "  with  the  sun."  It  is  one  of  the 
ropes  used  in  lifting  ordnance. 

Haxo's  System  —  A  system  of  forti- 
fication introduced  by  a  distinguished 
engineer  of  that  name,  who  served  under 
the  first  Napoleon.  He  is  known  to 
English  engineers,  chiefly,  as  the  inventor 
of  casemated  batteries  a  I' Haxo.  These 
batteries  have  earthen  parapets  along 
their  front,  and  their  arches  are  well 
covered  with  earth.  They  are  open  to 
the  terreplein  in  the  rear,  and  there  are 
apertures  in  front  of  the  guns,  opening 
into  embrasures  formed  in  an  extension  of 
the  parapet  at  these  points,  beyond  its 
ordiaary  retired  position.  Being  open  to 
the  rear,  the  circulation  of  air  prevents 
any  inconvenience  from  smoke. 

Batteries  of  this  nature  are  to  be  found 
in  many  of  our  new  works. 

Hay — Grass  cut  and  dried ;  the  forage 
given  to  horses  in  Europe.  In  India, 
grass,  in  lieu  of  hay,  is  issued  to  all 
cavalry  and  artillery  horses.  Surplus 
grass  is  stacked,  and  used  when  there 
is  a  deficiency  of  green  grass. 

Head-quarters — Generally  understood 
to  mean  the  residence  of  the  commander- 
in-chief,  whether  in  camp  or  elsewhere. 
It  is  also  applicable  to  the  place  where 
the  officer  commanding  any  independent 
position  or  body  of  troops  resides. 

Head,  Sponge — In  artillery,  the  top 
of  the  sponge  staff.  It  consists  of  a  block 
termed  the  head,  upon  which  the  wool 
to  form  the  sponge  is  fastened  either 
by  the  process  of  thrumming  or  wigging 
or  some  simpler  mode. 

Head-stall — In  harness,  that  part  of 
the  bridle  which  encompasses  the  horse's 
head. 

Heavy  Cavalry — Commonly  known  as 
the  heavies.  They  receive  their  name  in 
contradistinction  to  the  light  cavalry, 
from  their  equipment  and  weight  being 
greater  than  the  latter.  In  the  British 
service  there  are  7  regiments  of  heavies, 


HED 


187 


HEL 


viz.  the  dragoon  guards.  The  weight 
the  horse  of  the  heavies  has  to  carry  is 
over  19  stone. 

Hedge— An  enclosure  of  small  shrubs 
or  trees  set  round  a  field.  In  certain 
military  positions,  hedges  are  often 
taken  advantage  of  to  form  obstacles  as 
well  as  cover  against  an  advancing  foe. 
To  render  them  valuable,  they  may  be 
strengthened  in  the  several  modes  laid 
down  in  the  Chatham  course  : — 

"  Strong  hedges  form  one  of  the  best 
obstacles  that  can  be  found,  and  with 
comparatively  little  labour  can  be  made 
to  afford  good  cover  for  the  defenders. 
Hedges  that  can  be  easily  enfiladed  by 
artillery  fire  should  not  be  selected  for 
defence.  Their  efficiency  may  be  in- 
creased in  any  of  the  following  ways : — 

"  When  the  hedge  is  more  than  6  feet 
high,  weak  parts  should  be  strengthened 
by  weaving  in  branches  cut  off  above 
that  height.  A  ditch  of  any  section  (say 
3  feet  deep,  8  feet  wide  at  bottom,  and 
10  feet  at  top)  should  be  excavated,  2 
feet  in  front,  the  earth  from  it  thrown 
over  and  laid  against  the  hedge,  forming 
a  parapet  with  a  banquette." 

"  If  time  presses,  the  earth  may  be  ob- 
tained from  a  trench  of  similar  sections, 
12  feet  in  rear,  or  partly  from  front  and 
partly  from  rear. 

"  When  the  hedge  is  situated  on  a 
steep  slope,  the  earth  should  be  taken 
from  a  trench  in  rear. 

"  If  only  half  an  hour  be  available,  a 
trench  2  feet  deep  and  3  feet  wide  could 
be  dug  in  rear,  and  the  earth  thrown  up 
against  the  hedge,  so  as  to  form  a  breast- 
work, behind  which  cover  can  be  ob- 
tained by  stooping.  For  the  sake  of  con- 
cealment, the  branches  should  not  be  cut. 

"  When  the  hedge  is  under  6  feet  in 
height,  a  small  ditch  should  be  dug  in 
front,  and  the  earth  thrown  over  the 
hedge,  a  trench  in  rear  being  also  made 
to  provide  the  necessary  cover. 

"If  there  be  a  ditch  in  rear  of  a  hedge, 
a  very  small  amount  of  labour  may  pro- 
vide cover." 

Heliograph — An  apparatus  (the  in- 
vention of  Mr.  H.  C.  Mance)  for  tele- 
graphing by  means  of  the  sun's  rays. 
It  is  composed  of  a  circular  mirror, 
varying  in  diameter,  according  to  whether 
it  be  for  field  or  for  fixed  observations ; 


this    mirror   revolves    on    a     horizontal 
axis,    and    is   adjusted  to    the    required 
angle  of  incidence  with  the  sun,  in  con- 
nection with  a  telescopic  rod.     By  means 
of  adjusting  screws,  the  rays  of  the  sun 
can    be    made    to    fall    upon   any    given 
point  with  the   utmost  precision.      The 
mirror  can  be  raised  and  depressed  by  a 
vertical  rod  placed  at  its  back,  and  thus 
;  the   flash  occasioned  by  the  rays  falling 
|  upon  it  can  be  made,  according   to  the 
wish    of   the    operator,    of    any    length, 
varied  or   grouped,  representing   letters 
|  or  words  composing  the  messages.     Mr. 
Mance  has  adopted  for  his  sun-telegraphy 
the  Morse  system   of  dashes    and   dots  ; 
and  in  India,  where   this   apparatus  has 
been  in  use  for  some  time,  its   working 
has  been  attended  with  complete  success, 
;  the  range   of  signals  being  very  great, 
!  and  their  intelligibility  absolute.      They 
can  be  read  in  ordinary  weather  without 
telescopes    up  to  50   miles,  and    during 
experiments  made  in  this  country,  in  clear 
j  weather,   messages    were    signalled    and 
i  visible  to  the  naked  eye  up  to  80  or  even 
j  100  miles.     (  Vide  Telegraphy.) 

Heliostat — An  instrument  by  means  of 
|  which  the  rays  of  the  sun  can  be  flashed 
to  great  distances.     This  instrument  was 
invented  by  Gauss  in  1821.     It  consists 
of    an    adjustable    mirror   as    reflector, 
worked   in   connection  with    a  combina- 
tion of  telescopes,  and  is  now  used  in  all 
trigonometrical  surveys,  and  by  its  aid 
i  triangles  having  sides  over  100  miles  in 
length  can  be  formed  and  measured. 

The  heliostat  used  in  Great  Britain  is 
I  that    invented    by   Captain    Drummond, 
:  R.  E.,  an  improvement  on  S'Gravesande's 
|  and    Colonel    Colby's   instruments.      It 
i  consists    of  an   equatorial,  revolving  on 
its  polar  axis,  so  that  the  sun,  when  once 
accurately  in  the  focus  of  the  telescope, 
continues   steadily  fixed  there.     This  in- 
strument is  very  similar  to  that  known 
by  the  name  of  heliotrope. 
Heliotrope,  vide  Heliostat. 
Helix  —  Any  thing   of  a  spiral  form, 
whether  in  one  plane,  as  the  spiral  curve, 
or  in  different  planes,  as  the  screw. 

Helmet — Defensive  armour  for  the 
head.  Anciently  helmets  were  of  two 
kinds,  open  and  closed,  with  ornaments 
on  the  top  of  them.  The  former  only 
covered  the  head,  ears,  and  neck,  leaving 


HEL 


188 


HID 


the   face  open.     The   latter  enclosed  the  j 
face,  besides  having  perforations  on  the  | 
front   of    it    for    the    admission    of   air, 
and  slits  also   to   admit    of  the   wearer 
being  able  to  see ;  this  part  was  styled 
the  visor,  which  could  be  lifted  up.     The  j 
helmet  with  ornament  at  top  appears  to 
have  been  first  worn  at  jousts  or  tourna- 
ments. 

The  helmet  is  still  worn  in  certain 
cavalry  regiments.  In  India  a  helmet 
made  of  cork  is  the  universal  head-dress 
for  officers  of  the  staff,  artillery,  and 
native  army ;  and  a  wicker  one,  covered 
with  white  cloth,  for  the  troops. 

Helve  —  The  wooden  handle  of  en- 
trenching tools,  such  as  axes  (felling  and 
pick),  hatchets,  kodalies,  shovels,  spades ; 
also  the  handle  of  certain'artificers'  tools, 
axes,  and  sledge  hammers. 

Hemp  —  The  fibre  of  certain  plants 
grown  both  in  Europe  and  India,  known 
as  the  Cannabis  sativa  and  indica,  which 
have  been  pronounced  identical  plants. 
Balfour's  '  Encyclopa;dia '  gives  the  fol- 
lowing description  : — "  In  various  notices 
of  Indian  fibres,  we  frequently  meet  with 
the  word  sunn  as  indicating  a  particular 
kind  of  hemp.  Sometimes  we  find  it 
called  Indian  hemp,  and  we  may  often 
see  hemp  enumerated  as  one  of  the  ex- 
ports from  India,  at  other  times  we  may 
see  either  the  same  or  another  fibre  men- 
tioned by  the  name  of  brown  hemp. 
These  various  names  are  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  fibre  of  one  or  two  different 
plants,  or  are  employed  to  distinguish 
the  fibre  of  three  distinct  plants,  all  of 
which  are  grown  for  their  fibres,  and 
have  been  and  might  be  exported  from 
India  ;  though  only  two  of  them  are  now 
usually  to  be  found  among  the  exports 
from  that  country.  Hence,  to  avoid  am- 
biguity, it  is  necessary  to  notice  the 
plants  to  which  these  several  names  are 
correctly  applicable. 

"  The  true  hemp  (Cannabis  sativa), 
gunja  of  the  natives,  is  everywhere  cul- 
tivated in  the  plains  of  India,  not  on  ac- 
count of  its  fibres,  but  for  fts  intoxicating 
leaves  and  their  secretions.  In  the  Hima- 
layas, however,  the  fibre  is  separated 
for  economic  purposes,  and  was  exported 
from  India  to  England  during  the  last 
war,  and  this  has  been  the  case  for  many 
years.  The  fibre  of  the  sunn  or  taag 


(Clotakirfa  juncea)  is  often  called  Indian 
hemp,  but  incorrectly.  It  is  the  kind 
most  generally  cultivated  all  over  India 
on  account  of  its  fibre,  and  is  that  usually 
mentioned  in  the  exports  from  Calcutta 
under  tlie  name  of  hemp,  but  also  as 
sunn.  The  plant  may  be  distinguished 
by  its  flowers  being  of  a  bright  yellow 
colour,  and  of  the  form  of  the  pea  and  of 
the  laburnum,  while  the  leaves  are  entire 
and  lanceolate.  The  fibre  alluded  to  is 
very  valuable  for  cordage,  canvas,  twine, 
&c.  Madras  and  Bombay  both  export 
large  quantities  of  hemp." 

Henchmen — SoLliers  who  guarded  the 
king's  person  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 

Herald— A  public  officer,  whose  prin- 
cipal function  was  formerly  to  declare 
war,  publish  peace,  &c.  Nowadays  heralds 
are  only  used  on  certain  state  occasions. 
The  Lancaster  herald,  at  the  Herald's 
College,  is  inspector  of  regimental 
colours. 

Hero — In  the  present  acceptation  of 
the  term,  a  person  distinguished  for  acts 
of  valour.  Amongst  the  ancients  the 
name  was  accorded  to  men  who  became 
illustrious  in  war,  and  who  were  styled 
demi-gods,  from  a  general  notion  that 
their  actions  entitled  them  to  a  place  in 
heaven  immediately  after  their  decease. 

Herse — In  fortification,  is  a  kind  of 
gate  or  portcullis,  with  iron  bars  like  a 
harrow,  set  in  with  iron  pikes,  placed 
above  gates  and  lowered,  to  impede  the 
advance  of  an  enemy. 

Hide-bound — Applied  to  a  horse,  sig- 
nifies that  his  skin  cannot  be  pulled  up 
or  raised  from  his  ribs  and  back  ;  caused 
from  bad  keep,  poverty,  internal  disease. 
The  remedy  consists  in  good  grooming 
and  diet,  with  gentle  medicine,  and 
keeping  the  animal  warm. 

Hides — The  skins  of  buffaloes,  cows, 
bullocks,  and  other  animals.  Buffalo  hides 
are  used  in  India  for  the  manufacture  of 
buff  accoutrements,  belting  of  machinery, 
&c. ;  bullock  or  cow  hides  for  mending 
cartouches  and  priming  pouches,  and  a 
variety  of  other  leather  work.  For  the 
preparation  of  hides,  vide  Leather. 

Hides,  Tanned,  Powder  —  Buffalo 
hides  which  have  undergone  the  process 
of  tanning.  They  are  used  for  covering 
the  floors  of  powder  houses  and  charge 
magazines. 


HIG 


189 


HON 


Highlander  —  Any  person  from  a 
mountainous  country.  Highland  regi- 
ments, though  assuming  the  dress  of 
Highlanders,  are  made  up  of  her  Majesty's 
subjects  from  all  parts  of  her  dominions, 
nevertheless  it  is  stated  that  79  per  cent, 
are  Scotchmen.  The  depots  of  these  regi- 
ments are  permanently  kept  in  Scotland 
for  the  purpose  of  recruiting.  There 
are  in  the  British  army  nine  regiments  of 
highlanders,  viz.,  42nd,  or  Black  Watch, 
raised  in  1739;  71st,  in  1777;  72nd,  in 
the  same  year  ;  74th,  in  1787  ;  78th,  in 
1793;  79th,  in  1805;  91st,  in  1863; 
92nd,  in  1796 ;  93rd,  in  1800. 

High-pressure  Engine— A  non-con- 
densing engine.  (  Vide  Condensing  Engine.) 

Hilt — -The  handle  of  a  sword. 

Hip  Eafters — The  rafters  or  beams 
running  diagonally  from  the  apices  of  a 
pyramidal  roof  to  the  corners. of  the  roof. 

History,  Military  —  A  narrative  or 
description  of  the  several  military  trans- 
actions, campaigns,  battles,  sieges, 
marches,  &c.  of  armies. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  this  branch  of 
history  is  necessary  to  make  the  military 
man  apt  in  his  profession,  self-reliant,  and 
capable  of  command.  It  is  indeed  the 
secret  of  many  a  commander's  success  in 
the  varied  positions  he  is  placed  in  in  his 
career,  as  in  the  study  of  military 
history  he  finds  a  precedent  for  every 
strategic  emergency,  and  a  solution  of  the 
many  difficult  problems  in  the  art  of  war, 
which  great  generals  have  overcome. 
The  study  of  military  history  further 
tends  to  create  high  aspirations  after 
military  glory,  from  the  perusal  of  deeds 
of  valour  performed  by  men  who  have 
devoted  and  sacrificed  their  lives  for  the 
good  of  their  country. 

Hitch— The  name  given  to  certain 
knots,  such  as  the  timber  hitch,  clove 
hitch,  and  others.  These  knots  are  very 
valuable  for  artillery  and  engineer  pur- 
poses, the  advantage  being  that,  as  long 
as  the  strain  is  kept  upon  them,  they 
never  give  way. 

Hitches  may  be  described  as  overlaying 
a  part  of  a  rope  with  itself  in  such  a 
manner  that  a  loop  or  loops  are  formed 
to  jam  on  each  other. 

Hobilers — An  inferior  kind  of  cavalry 
used  or  raised  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II. 
They  were  stationed  at  Portsmouth  and 


other  maritime  places,  and  bound  to  keep 
a  little  nag  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
notice  of  invasion.  They  wore  an  aketon 
or  armour  of  plates,  a  bascinet,  iron 
gauntlets,  a  sword,  knife,  and  a  lance. 

Hoist — An  apparatus  for  raising  bodies 
from  the  ground-floor  of  a  building  to  a 
floor  above,  such  as  is  used  in  store- 
houses. 

Hold,  To — To  be  in  military  possession 
of  a  place. 

Holdalls,  Leather — Bags  or  cases  for 
carrying  implements  for  the  M.L.R.  7-pr. 
equipment,  are  "off"  and  "near;"  each 
has  links  at  the  back  for  hanging  it  on 
the  saddle. 

Holes,  Blasting — In  the  demolition  of 
masonry  works  and  rocks,  cylindrical 
holes  are  bored  and  charged  with  powder, 
gun-cotton,  or  some  other  explosive 
substance.  The  instrument  used  in 
blasting  is  a  borer  or  jumper.  The  di- 
mensions of  holes  vary,  according  to  the 
purpose  required,  and  whether  powder, 
gun-cotton,  or  other  substance,  is  to  be 
used ;  gunpowder  requires  a  deeper  hole 
than  either  of  the  others. 

Holster — The  leather  case  which  holds 
a  cavalry  man's  pistol.  Lancers  and  non- 
commissioned officers  of  cavalry  have  tw« 
holsters  attached  to  the  front  part  of  their 
saddles.  Wallets  have  been  introduced  in 
lieu  of  holsters  for  the  staff  and  certain 
regiments  in  the  service. 

Home — In  artillery,  the  term  used  to 
express  the  position  of  a  shot  when  the 
gun  is  loaded.  Thus,  "  Is  the  shot  well 
home?"  is  a  common  expression  amongst 
artillerymen. 

Homogeneous  —  A  term  applied  to 
various  substances  to  denote  that  they 
consist  of  similar  parts,  or  parts  of  the 
same  nature  and  kind ;  thus,  the  sub- 
stance of  a  solid  shot  may  be  said  to  be 
homogeneous  when  the  metal  is  of  the 
same  density  and  texture  throughout. 
In  a  perfectly  homogeneous  shot,  the 
centre  of  figure  and  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  mass  are  coincident. 

Honey-combed — In  ordnance,  the  term 
applied  to  the  holes  or  cavities  on  the 
surface  of  the  bore,  which  are  caused  from 
exposure  or  having  been  much  used.  A 
gun  which  is  much  honey-combed  should 
be  condemned  as  unserviceable. 

Honour  —  James,  in  his  '  Dictionary,' 


HON 


190 


HOP 


states  that  this  is  a  term  variously  used 
in  military  life,  and  describes  it  as 
follows  : — "  As  a  quality  of  the  mind  it 
cannot  be  too  much  encouraged  or  too 
much  cultivated  among  officers  of  all 
ranks  and  descriptions.  The  possession 
of  it  is  a  guarantee  for  good  conduct,  a 
bond  of  fidelity,  and  a  certain  barrier 
against  military  corruption.  Most  men 
are  excited  to  deeds  of  valour  and  enter- 
prise, who  would  otherwise  remain  in- 
active, or  only  perform  the  mere  drudgery 
of  service.  This  species  of  honour  is,  in 
fact,  the  root  of  that  esprit  de  corps 
which  makes  a  whole  body  of  officers 
tenacious  of  reputation,  and  solicitous  to 
preserve  it  unsullied,  from  the  colonel  to 
the  lowest  drummer-boy." 

Honourable  Artillery  Company  —  A 
volunteer  force,  and  the  oldest  military 
body  in  England. 

Honours,  Funeral — The  respect  paid 
to  officers  who,  at  the  time  of  their 
decease,  were  on  full  regimental  pay,  or 
employed  on  the  staff,  or  in  the  exercise 
of  any  military  command. 

Honours,  Military — A  general  term 
for  the  external  marks  of  respect  paid  by 
troops  to  royalty  and  officers  of  high  civil 
and  military  rank.  ( Vide  Guard  of 
Honour.) 

The  auxiliary  forces  pay  military 
honours,  and  may  provide  a  guard  of 
honour  or  escort  for  a  member  of  the 
royal  family,  or  for  the  lord-lieutenant 
of  the  county ;  but  a  report  of  the  cir- 
cumstance is  to  be  made  to  the  general 
officer  commanding  the  district  by  the 
commanding  officer.  In  no  other  case 
will  any  body  of  auxiliary  forces  take 
part  in  any  public  procession  or  cere- 
mony, or  form  a  guard  of  honour,  with- 
out the  special  authority  of  the  general 
officer  commanding  the  district. 

Honours  of  War — This  expression  is 
more  immediately  applicable  to  the 
terms  granted  to  a  capitulating  enemy 
when  evacuating  a  fortress.  No  precise 
rules  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  terms 
to  be  granted,  as  they  depend  on  the 
disposition  of  the  victorious  general. 
What  is  considered  granting  the  honours 
of  war  under  such  circumstances  is  the 
permission  to  the  besieged  garrison  to 
march  out  under  arms,  with  colours 
flying,  drums  beating,  &c. 


In  some  cases,  the  conquered  force 
will  only  be  permitted  to  advance  silently 
to  the  front  of  the  works,  there  to 
ground  or  pile  arms,  and  then,  facing 
about,  to  return  to  their  lines  as  pri- 
soners of  war.  Occasionally,  the  capi- 
tulation will  provide  that  the  garrison 
shall  deposit  their  arms  and  warlike 
stores  at  some  specified  spot,  and  then 
march  to  their  own  territory  on  parole 
of  not  serving  during  the  existing  war 
against  the  victors  or  their  allies. 

Hoof — The  hard  horny  substance  on 
the  feet  of  graminivorous  animals.  The 
hoof  of  a  horse  is  the  seat  of  various 
diseases,  to  avert  which  requires  constant 
attention  and  cleanliness.  (Vide Thrush, 
Saudcrack.) 

Hoof  Ointment — An  unguent  which  is 
applied  to  horses'  hoofs.  It  is  used  for 
brittle  feet  or  sandcracks,  and  is  made 
of  tar  and  train-oil  in  equal  parts.  As 
parties  of  cavalry  are  liable  to  be  de- 
tached from  the  head-quarters  of  the 
regiment,  and  without  a  veterinary  sur- 
geon accompanying  them,  they  should 
take  a  small  quantity  of  medicine  for 
the  use  of  the  horses. 

Hook — An  iron  crooked  catch,  in  very 
general  use,  and  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  the  fastening  to  which  it  is 
attached.  There  are  gun  implements 
termed  hooks,  which  are  used  in  carry- 
ing shells  which  have  lugs. 

Hook,  Boat — A  wooden  staff  having  a 
metal  spike  and  hook  at  one  end.  It 
is  used  in  pontooning  and  military 
bridging. 

Hoop — A  band  of  wood  or  metal  to 
confine  the  staves  of  a  barrel  or  cask  in 
their  proper  place.  Copper  hoops  are 
always  attached  to  powder  barrels,  and 
are  made  of  thick  sheet  copper,  50  oz. 
and  upwards  to  the  square  foot. 

Hooping  Cartridges — Under  the  head 
of  Cartridge,  Gun,  it  is  shown'  that  all 
gun  cartridges  are,  what  is  termed, 
hooped,  and  the  necessity  for  doing  so. 
Hooping  consists  in  making  rings  of 
worsted  or  braid,  two,  three,  or  even  more, 
round  the  body  of  a  cartridge,  in  order 
that  it  may  retain  its  shape. 

Hopper  —  A  receptacle  or  wooden 
funnel  through  which  grain  passes  into  a 
mill.  Hoppers  are  attached  to  machines 
which  have  to  be  fed  by  degrees. 


HOE 


191 


HOR 


Horizon — That  line  which  bounds  the 
view,  and  appears  to  separate  the  heavens 
from  the  earth.  The  horizon  is  dis- 
tinguished into  the  sensible  and  the  real. 
The  sensible  horizon  is  the  circular  line 
which  limits  the  view ;  the  real  is  that 
which  would  bound  it  if  it  could  include 
the  hemisphere. 

Horizon,  Artificial — Is  thus  defined  in 
Brmde  and  Cox's  '  Dictionary  ' : — "  The 
plane  of  the  horizon  is  a  tangent  to  the 
curvature  of  the  earth  at  any  place,  and 
is  assumed  very  nearly  by  the  surface  of 
a  quiescent  liquid,  which  thus  becomes 
an  artificial  horizon,  from  which  the  alti- 
tude, of  a  heavenly  body  for  instance, 
mav  be  measured."  The  usual  mode  of 
forming  an  artificial  horizon  is  by  a  bath 
of  mercury,  placed  under  a  two-sided 
glazed  cover. 

Horizontal — Parallel  to  the  horizon  ; 
perpendicular  to  the  plumb  line. 

Hornbeam — The  Carpiiiius  betulns  of 
botanists.  The  wood  is  white,  hard,  and 
heavy,  and  is  used  for  the  cogs  of  wheels 
in  machinery. 

Horns — The  bracket  projections  in 
mortar  beds  for  handspikes  to  take  a 
purchase. 

Hornwork — In  fortification,  a  work 
thrown  out  beyond  the  glacis  before  a 
bastion,  and  having  one  front.  Horn- 
works  having  more  than  one  front,  and 
placed  before  ravelins,  are  called  crowned 
works ;  their  long  branches  or  wings  are 
in  every  case  directed  so  as  to  be  flanked 
by  the  fire  of  some  of  the  main  works. 

Hors  de  combat  (French  =  out  of  the 
fight) — A  military  phrase,  signifying 
that  an  individual,  or  body  of  men,  is  so 
completely  disabled  in  fight  as  to  be 
unable  to  maintain  the  field  of  battle. 

Horse — This  noble  quadruped,  the  most 
important  to  man  of  all  animals,  is  to  be 
found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  native  country  of  the  horse  is  uncer- 
tain. He  is  found  in  his  wild  state  in  the 
Pampas  of  South  America  and  in  the 
Steppes  of  Central  Asia.  In  his  domes- 
ticated state  he  is  used  as  a  beast  of 
burden,  and  for  draught  purposes.  When 
properly  fed  and  treated,  he  performs  all 
that  is  required  of  him  with  alacrity  and 
good  will.  By  nature  he  is  most  docile, 
full  of  intelligence,  and  endowed  with 
affectionateness,  all  which  qualities  would 


be  more  apparent  in  him  if  only  treated 
with  judgment  and  kindness,  instead  of 
the  harsh  and  brutal  treatment  to  which 
he  is  too  often  subjected. 

As  a  military  animal,  the  horse  is  in- 
valuable, both  for  cavalry  and  artillery 
purposes.  In  the  British  army,  horses 
are  purchased  for  the  service  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  The  general  regulations 
state  that  an  annual  allowance  of  £140 
is  given,  per  troop,  to  the  regiments  of 
life  guards  and  horse  guards  for  the 
purchase  of  troop  horses. 

Other  mounted  corps  are  allowed,  for 
each  horse  delivered  at  the  head-quarters 
of  the  regiment  and  finally  approved, 
between  £26  and  £50  for  three-year-olds, 
and  between  £30  and  £36  for  four-year- 
olds  ;  and  these  prices  are  dependent  on 
the  service  for  which  the  horse  is 
required. 

The  standard  of  height  is  fixed  by  the 
commander-in-chief.  The  fitness  of  horses 
in  point  of  appearance,  strength,  and 
action,  is  determined  by  the  purchasing 
officer,  and  their  soundness  by  an  army 
veterinary  surgeon.  The  final  approval 
of  horses  rests  with  the  commanding 
officers  in  the  cavalry  of  the  line  and 
army  service  corps ;  with  the  deputy  or 
assistant  adjutants-general  of  artillery 
and  engineers  respectively,  in  the  case  of 
horses  sent  to  Woolwich  for  the  former 
corps,  or  to  Chatham  or  Aldershot  for  the 
latter ;  and  with  the  commanding  officers 
of  artillery  and  engineers  in  Ireland,  and 
at  stations  abroad. 

In  India  the  horse  is  used  for  the 
draught  of  all  light  field  guns,  but  not  for 
heavy  ordnance  ;  bullocks  and  elephants 
form  the  draught  of  such.  The  horses 
used  in  that  country  for  military  pur- 
poses are,  to  a  great  extent,  born  and 
bred  in  the  country,  some  from  English 
sires  out  of  country  dams,  others  of  a  pure 
country  breed ;  the  latter,  as  colts,  are 
offered  for  sale  to  the  government  stud  or 
remount  depot,  and  such  as  are  selected 
by  the  superintendent  are  reared  in  the 
stud.  When  ready  to  be  draughted  into 
the  service,  they  are,  generally,  from  15 
to  16  hands  high.  They  form  excellent 
horses  for  either  the  cavalry  or  artillery, 
being  strong,  hardy,  and  capable  of  much 
endurance.  Formerly  the  government 
horses  were  entire,  but  geldings  have 


HOR 


192 


HOR 


been    found     equally    efficient,    less    im- 1 
petuous,   and  more   docile  and  tractable. ' 
Besides    stud    horses,    government,  from 
time  to   time,  imports   largely  into    the 
service  horses  from  Australia,  which  have 
been  found,  from  their  size  and  strength, 
to  make  admirable  draught  cattle,  but  do 
not  stand    the    climate    so    well    as    the 
stud-bred,    being    subject    to    liver    com-  j 
plaint    if   picketed    out    during    the  hot  j 
winds  ;     moreover,     they    have    not    the 
speed  of  the  country  horse.     In  the  Bom-  i 
bay    presidency,    Arab    horses    are    very  j 
generally  used  for    draught,  as   well    as 
Gulf  Arab  horses,  but  they  want  height ; 
they  are,  however,  more    hardy,  docile, 
and    willing    than    either    the    stud-bred 
or  Australian. 

Horse  Artillery — One  of  the  mounted 
branches  of  the  British  service.  On 
account  of  its  lightness  and  mobility  it 
acts  with  cavalry ;  the  gunners  are  all 
mounted  on  horseback  and  form  detach- 
ments accompanying  each  gun. 

The  formation  of  this  branch  dates 
back  to  the  year  1793.  when  two  troops 
were  raised  at  Woolwich.  Each  troop 
consisted  of  4  guns,  but  in  November  of 
the  same  year  '1  more  troops  were  added, 
and  each  troop  had  then  6  guns.  Subse- 
quently it  was  raised  to  12  troops.  This 
branch  of  the  service  has  been  further 
augmented  to  the  extent,  at  the  present 
day,  of  6  brigades,  of  5  batteries  each, 
each  battery  having  6  guns. 

The  present  equipment  of  the  horse 
artillery  is  composed  of  9-pr.  M.L.R. 
guns.  The  gun  is  made  of  a  steel  tube 
with  a  wrought-iron  jacket :  calibre,  3 
inches  ;  weight,  6  cwt. ;  length  of  rifling, 
62'3  inches  ;  rifling,  three  grooves,  with 
a  uniform  pitch  of  1  in  30  calibres; 
charge,  1'75  Ib.  The  carriages  for  these 
guns  are  made  of  wrought  iron. 

Horse,  Bat,  w'de  Bat  Horse. 

Horse  Guards — The  official  residence, 
up  to  a  recent  date,  of  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  British  army.  It  is  situated 
in  Parliament  Street,  London.  It  con- 
tained the  offices  of  all  the  head-quarter 
staff  of  the  army ;  and  the  buildings 
are  still  utilised  by  some  of  the  officers 
and  clerks  of  the  Head-quarter  Army 
Department,  though  the  commander-in- 
ohiePs  official  residence  has  been  removed 
to  the  War  Office. 


James,  in  his  '  Dictionary,'  states  that 
the  term  "  Horse  Guards  "  was  given  to 
the  present  building  from  a  guard  having 
been  originally  mounted  there  by  the 
horse  guards. 

Horse  Guards,  Regiment  of — Is  the 
third  heavy  cavalry  regiment  of  the 
household  brigade,  and  known  as  the 
Oxford  Blues.  It  was  raised  in  1661,  and 
took  part  in  Marlborough's  campaigns ; 
it  also  served  under  Wellington  in  the 
Peninsula,  and  at  Waterloo.  This  regi- 
ment, like  the  two  regiments  of  life 
guards,  wears  a  steel  cuirass,  but  over  a 
blue  coatee,  whereas  the  coatee  of  the 
two  latter  regiments  is  red. 

Horse  Holders — Certain  of  the  gunners 
forming  the  mounted  detachment  of  a 
horse  artillery  gun,  who,  on  the  gun 
going  into  action,  do  not  dismount,  but 
hold  or  are  in  charge  of  the  dismounted 
horses. 

Horse  Pits  —  Hasty  intrenchments  ; 
they  are  made  similar  in  construction 
to  limber  pits,  but  with  a  berm  of  2 
feet  for  horses'  heads;  they  are  only 
made  when  the  other  horses,  other  than 
the  wheelers,  cannot  be  provided  with 
cover  along  with  the  limber. 

Horse  Power— By  this  term,  as  intro- 
duced by  Watt,  and  as  explained  in 
Burn,  '  On  the  Steam  Engine,'  "  is  meant 
the  mechanical  force  necessary  to  lift 
33,000  Ibs.  1  foot  high  per  minute 
Engines  now,  however,  calculated  at  this 
rate,  really  exert  a  greater  power  than 
the  nominal  power;  it  is,  therefore,  of 
importance  to  be  able  to  calculate  the 
effective  or  actual  horse  power  of  an 
engine,  without  reference  to  its  nominal 
power.  This  is  ascertained  by  means  of 
the  'indicator,'  which  gives  the  effective 
pressure  on  the  cylinder  of  the  engine; 
from  this  is  deducted  a  pound  and  a  half 
of  pressure  absorbed  in  friction,  &c. ;  the 
velocity  of  the  motion  of  the  friction  in 
feet  per  minute  is  calculated  by  multi- 
plying the  number  of  revolutions  of  the 
engine  per  minute  by  the  length  of 
stroke."  These  data  having  been  ascer- 
tained, the  following  rule  will  give  the 
"  effective "  power  of  the  engine,  cal- 
culated on  Watt's  data  : — "  Multiply  the 
area  of  the  piston  in  square  inches  by  the 
effective  pressure  (found  as  above),  and 
by  the  motion  of  the  piston  in  feet  per 


HOR 


193 


HOS 


minute,  and  divide  this  by  33,000;  the 
quotient  is  the  actual  number  of  horse 
power.  For  each  horse  power  of  an 
engine,  it  is  calculated  that  33  cubic  feet 
of  steam  is  expended  per  minute,  or  an 
evaporation  of  1  cubic  foot  per  hour. 
The  combustion  of  1  Ib.  of  coal  is  cal- 
culated to  raise  6  or  8  Ibs.  of  water  into 
steam.  Land  engines  are  generally  cal- 
culated to  consume  10  Ibs.  of  fuel  per 
hour  for  every  nominal  horse  power,  or  5 
or  6  Ibs.  for  each  actual  horse  power." 

Horseshoes — Plates  of  iron  attached 
to  the  hoofs  of  horses  to  protect  their  feet 
from  injury.  Horseshoes  are  forged 
from  rods  of  bar-iron  of  about  1£  inch 
in  width  and  f  inch  in  thickness.  The 
weight  of  a  shoe  varies  from  12  to  20  oz., 
and  the  width  and  thickness  vary  with 
the  strength  and  age  of  the  horse,  the 
purpose  for  which  he  is  employed,  whether 
for  draught,  riding,  &c.  Old  nails  make 
very  good  horseshoes. 

Horsley  Powder — An  explosive  agent ; 
it  is  composed  of  chlorate  of  potassa  and 
gall-nuts,  in  proportion,  by  weight,  of 
three  to  one  ;  it  has  been  used  in  charging 
torpedoes. 

its  disruptive  action  in  relation  to  the 
best  gunpowder,  volume  for  volume,  is 
something  like  15  to  1. 

Hose — A  flexible  pipe  made  either  of 
leather,    canvas,  or  india-rubber.     It   is  ( 
attached    to    water   engines    to    convey 
water  to  any  particular  spot.     (  Vide  Fire 
Engine.) 

Hose,  Powder — A  hose  formed  by  sew- 
ing together  the  two  edges  of  a  tape,  f 
inch  wide,  along  its  whole  length,  and 
filling  it  with  gunpowder.  It  is  used  in 
springing  mines,  and  is  enclosed  in  a , 
trough  made  of  two  battens  of  wood,  or 
in  a  bamboo.  (Vide  Mining.) 

Hospital,  Military — A  place  of  recep- ' 
tion    for   the    sick    and  wounded    of  an- 
army.    It  is  either  a  permanent  or  tempo- 
rary establishment. 

Of  permanent  military  hospitals  in  Eng-  ; 
land,  that  at  Netley  (q.  v.)  is  one  of  the 
finest,  and  organised  in  every  conceivable 
manner  for  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  \ 
sick  and  wounded  soldier. 

Temporary  hospitals  are  any  avail- 
able buildings,  tinder  protection,  in  the 
vicinity  of  towns  orvillages  where  warlike 
operations  are  being  carried  on.  in  the 


war  between  the  French  and  Germans, 
hospitals  were  formed  in  many  of  the 
captured  French  towns;  churches,  rail- 
way stations,  and  other  public  building;- 
being  made  available. 

Hospitals  are  of  different  natures. 
general,  Ji-elJ,  and  convalescent ;  they  aiv 
established  in  positions,  selected  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  by  the  head  of  the 
medical  department,  with  the  sanction 
of  the  general  commanding  the  army. 

General  hospitals  (7.  E.)  have  taken  the 
place  of  regimental  hospitals,  which  are 
unsuited  for  large  armies,  whereas  the 
former  offer  the  following  advantages : 
greater  economy  of  time  in  carrying  out 
the  administrative  duties  of  the  hospital, 
and  reduced  expenditure. 

All  cases  of  an  infectious  nature  are  sent 
to  some  general  hospital,  appointed  especi- 
ally for  their  reception,  at  some  distance 
in  the  rear  of  the  army,  about  the  dis- 
tance fixed  upon  for  the  sick  in  the  case 
of  an  anticipated  general  action,  viz.  one 
or  two  days'  journey  by  rail  or  water. 

Field  hospitals  are  temporary  esta- 
blishments, formed  for  the  better  attend- 
ance of  the  sick  and  wounded  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  field  of  battle. 
They  receive  all  cases  that  require  more 
careful  treatment  and  diet  than  can  be 
afforded  in  bell  tents  or  ambulances, 
without  hospital  appliances  or  equipment. 

The  proportion  of  field  hospitals  at- 
tached to  each  division  of  an  army  may 
be,  as  suggested,  from  two  to  three, 
which  provides  for  of  per  cent,  of  the 
sick,  the  general  hospital  in  rear  accom- 
modating 4%  per  cent.  ;  altogether  10  per 
cent,  of  the  division.  It  is  further 
suggested  that  no  accumulation  of  sick 
should  ever  be  allowed  in  them,  and  all 
men  whose  cases  may  become  serious 
from  time  to  time  should  be  sent  to  the 
nearest  general  hospital  in  rear;  in  fact, 
all  cases  that  are  not  likely  to  recover  in 
a  few  days  should  be  thus  got  rid  of.  In 
this  way  they  will  be  prepared  for  emer- 
gencies. This  is  all  the  more  essential 
when  the  force  is  moving,  and  particularly 
before  an  action.  The  evils  likely  to 
arise  from  the  collection  of  large  numbers 
of  sick  in  camp  will  thus  be  avoided. 

Convalescent  hospitals  (7.  •».),  as  the 
term  implies,  are  hospitals  for  the  recep- 
tion of  men  well  enough  to  be  discharged 
0 


HOS 


194 


HOU 


from  the  general  hospital,  but  not  suffi- 
ciently convalescent  to  be  returned  to 
the  ranks. 

Commanding  officers  and  medical  men 
will  well  understand,  after  what  has  been 
stated,  the  evils  arising  from  hospitals 
crowded  with  sick  and  wounded,  and  that 
only  a  certain  percentage  should  occupy 
houses,  huts,  or  tents  provided  for  such 
an  object.  Every  care,  therefore,  should 
be  taken  as  to  the  site  of  general  hospitals, 
and  the  usual  sanitary  arrangements  at- 
tended to  as  are  laid  down  for  camps. 
The  size  of  these  hospitals  should  be  such 
as  to  give  each  patient  at  least  600  cubic 
feet  of  space,  in  a  tropical  climate  800  to 
1000.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  recommended 
that  accommodation  should  be  provided 
for  1400  beds  for  each  army  corps. 

In  India,  military  hospitals  are  built 
for  the  sick  of  each  regiment  in  every 
cantonment.  On  service,  they  are  pro- 
vided in  every  camp,  tents — when  build- 
ings are  not  available — being  erected  for 
the  purpose. 

Hospital  Ships — Ships  fitted  out  as 
hospitals  in  all  expeditions  beyond  the 
sea,  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  ; 
they  have  be.m  found  invaluable  in  oui 
foreign  expeditions.  In  China,  in  1860 
four  were  fitted  out,  and  ships  for  this 
purpose  formed  part  of  the  expedition 
t.ie  Gold  Coast  in  1874.  Their  use  is 
thus  described  : — "  They  serve  either  as 
stationary  hospitals  or,  if  sick  accumulate 
can  sail  home  or  to  the  nearest  station 
discharge,  and  return  to  fill  again." 

Hospital  Wagon,  vide  Ambulanc* 
Wagon. 

Hostage — A  person  given  up  to  a: 
enemy  as  a  pledge  or  security  for  th 
performance  of  certain  -conditions. 

Formerly,  on  the  occasion  of  a  tow 
capitulating,  it  was  usual  for  the  victor 
and  vanquished  to  give  into  custody  a 
interchange  of  officers  as  a  pledge  of  goo< 
faith,  that  the  conditions  of  the  surrende 
or  treaty  would  be  carried  out.  When  th 
terms  had  been  completed,  the  hostage 
were  then  exchanged.  But  had  any  viola 
tion  or  evasion  of  the  terms  on  either  sid 
taken  place,  theopposite  side  held  the  righ 
to  put  to  death  or  otherwise  punish  th 
hostages  in  its  possession.  In  these  day 
this  right  would  scarcely  be  exercised. 
Hostility — Denotes  a  state  of  war  o 


nmity    between    two    or    more    nations. 
Vide  Acts  of  Hostility.) 

Hot  Shot — Incendiary  missiles  fired 
•om  S.B.  guns.  These  guns  having 
een  superseded,  to  a  great  extent,  by  the 
ntroduction  of  rifled  ordnance,  from 
hich  hot  shot  are  not  fired,  this  nature 
f  shot  may  be  pronounced  obsolete. 

Hourglass — A  glass  vessel  filled  with 
and,  and  compressed  and  attenuated  at 
ts  centre  into  the  shape  of  the  figure  8, 
thereby  the  sand  can  only  run  through 
he  connecting  orifice  in  a  given  time, 
'his  vessel  is  contained  in  a  wooden 
tand.  Formerly  each  regiment  was  fur- 
tished  with  this  hourglass ;  and  even  at 
,he  present  clay  native  regiments  in  India 
use  it.  A  common  mode  of  keeping 
he  time  by  native  guards  is  by  means 
>f  a  metal  bowl  having  a  small  hole  in  the 
>ottom  of  it,  which  is  allowed  to  swim  on 
;he  surface  of  the  water,  and  to  fill  in  the 
space  of  an  hour.  This  rough  and  ready 
mode  of  ascertaining  time,  though  not 
always  correct,  gives  a  near  approxima- 
tion to  the  lapse  of  an  hour.  This 
nature  of  time-clock  was  the  first  instru- 
ment used  to  measure  the  lapse  of  time, 
independently  of  the  sunshine.  A  simi- 
iar  time-keeper  is  also  kept,  but  the 
arrangement  is  inverted,  the  bowl  being 
filled  with  water,  and  the  water  allowed 
to  escape  into  a  receptacle  in  the  same 
space  of  time,  through  a  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  bowl.  These  kinds  of 
clocks  are  called  clepsydrae. 

House,  Defence  of  a — Warfare  affords 
many  instances  when  it  has  been  neces- 
sary to  defend  ordinary  dwelling-houses. 
The  most  approved  method  of  doing  so  is 
as  follows : — "  The  doors,  windows,  &c. 
should  be  blocked  up  with  sandbags, 
except  such  as  must  be  left  open  for 
communication.  The  latter  should,  if 
possible,  be  strongly  closed  with  massive 
doors ;  loop-holes  should  be  pierced  when 
necessary,  and  if  there  are  no  projecting 
wings  or  porches  to  supply  flanking 
defence,  tambours  or  stockades  should  be 
thrown  out  for  that  purpose.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  afford  increased  obstacles,  a 
ditch  may  be  dug  round  the  house. 
Flat-roofed  buildings  are  found  some- 
times strong  enough  to  bear  light  artil- 
lery ;  ruined  houses,  if  they  have  strong 
walls,  can  be  converted  into  cavalier 


HOU 


195 


HUT 


batteries  by  filling  them  up  with  rubbish 
and  earth." 

Household  Troops  —  Consist  of  the 
3  heavy  cavalry  regiments,  viz.  the  2  life 
guards  and  royal  horse  guards  regiments 
and  the  3  regiments  of  foot  guards. 
The  especial  duty  of  these  regiments  is  to 
guard  the  person  of  the  sovereign  and 
the  metropolis.  (  Vide  Guards.) 

Housing — The  trappings  of  a  horse. 
A  term  nearly  obsolete. 

Howitzer— A  piece  of  ordnance  for 
throwing  shells.  Howitzers  are  shorter, 
lighter,  and  have  less  metal  in  them  than 
smooth-bore  guns  of  the  same  calibre, 
but  are  mounted  in  a  similar  manner, 
having  the  trunnions  placed  in  the 
axis  of  the  piece  instead  of  under  it. 
Howitzers  have,  besides,  a  chamber  for  the 
reception  of  the  charge,  either  cylindrical 
or  gomer  shape ;  the  former  may  be 
regarded  as  obsolete,  all  S.B.  howitzers 
being  now  cast  with  chambers  in  the  latter 
form.  The  advantage  derived  from  this 
shaped  chamber  is  the  concentration  of 
the  charge,  whereby  the  shell  fits  close 
into  the  chamber,  and,  little  or  no  windage 
being  left,  the  projectile  receives  the  whole 
of  the  explosive  force  of  the  powder. 

The  Dutch,  according  to  General  Cotty, 
appear  to  have  first  introduced  howitzers, 
and  the  French  subsequently  cast  them 
at  Douay  in  1749.  In  appearance,  a 
howitzer  is  very  similar  to  a  gun,  having 
the  same  rings  and  mouldings,  but  being 
adapted  specially  for  shell  firing,  its  use 
is  differently  applied.  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Owen  states  in  his  '  Lectures  on  Artillery '  : 
— "  Howitzers  were  originally  introduced 
for  the  purpose  of  firing  shells  at  low 
angles,  and  have  constantly  been  found 
most  useful  both  in  field  and  siege  opera- 
tions, during  the  wars  of  the  last  and 
present  centuries.  Since  the  introduc- 
tion of  shell  guns  their  utility  has  greatly 
decreased,  for  the  shell  gun  possesses 
greater  accuracy  and  range  than  the 
howitzer ;  these  qualities  being,  in  the 
present  day,  of  greater  importance  than 
small  weight."  Siege  howitzers  are 
denominated  according  to  the  size  of 
their  bores  in  inches,  field  howitzers 
according  to  the  weight  of  the  shell  they 
throw.  The  ammunition  used  with 
howitzers  consists  of  common  and  shrap- 
nel shell,  case  shot,  aud  carcass.  An 


8-inch  R.SI.L.  howitzer  has  been  recently 
introduced  into  the  service.  It  weighs 
46  cwt.  and  forms  the  third  of  the  series 
of  ordnance  intended  for  our  future  siege- 
train.  The  length  of  this  piece  is  5  feet 
If  inch  from  muzzle  to  button,  there  being 
no  cascable  as  in  the  "  Woolwich  infant ;" 
length  of  bore  4  feet.  The  rifling  is  on 
the  Woolwich  system,  having  a  uniform 
twist  of  one  turn  in  sixteen  calibres.  It 
has  four  grooves.  (  Vide  Appendix  B.) 

Hurdles — Are  constructed  in  nearly 
the  same  manner  as  gabions,  except  that 
the  pickets  are  placed  in  a  straight  line 
instead  of  a  circle.  Hurdles  are  3 
feet  high,  and  2  feet  broad,  and  are 
found  very  useful  in  fortification,  in  the 
construction  of  a.  hurdle  revetment.  During 
sieges  they  serve  as  a  cover  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  workmen  in  the  trenches, 
being  a  speedy  means  of  throwing  up 
earthworks. 

Hurter — A  piece  of  timber  8  inches 
square,  and  about  8  feet  long,  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  platform,  next  to  the 
interior  slope  of  the  parapet.  This  beam 
prevents  the  wheels  of  the  gun  carriages 
from  injuring  the  slope  of  the  parapet, 
and  is  also  useful  for  night  firing,  as 
marks  can  be  made  upon  the  hurter  from 
observations  of  the  enemy's  position 
taken  during  the  day,  by  means  of  which 
the  guns  are  preserved  in  nearly  the  same 
direction.  There  is,  however,  an  im- 
proved way  now  of  directing  the  fire  of 
guns  by  night.  (  Vide  Collimator.) 

Hussars — Light  cavalry.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  Hungarian  words  hust. 
(twenty),  and  ar  (pay),  because  every 
twenty  houses  had  to  provide  one  horse- 
soldier.  In  the  British  army  there  are 
13  regiments.  The  men  are  armed  with 
a  sabre,  carbine,  and  pistol.  The  weight 
the  horse  of  a  hussar  carries  is  about  1 8 
stone. 

Huts — Permanent  or  temporary  shel- 
ter of  an  army  when  not  in  the  immedi- 
ate vicinity  of  an  enemy,  and  when  no 
fear  exists  of  having  suddenly  to  break 
up  the  camp.  They  are  used  in  prefer- 
ence to  tents,  when  an  army  is  concen- 
trated and  has  taken  up  quarters  for  the 
winter  or  any  other  lengthened  period. 
Sir  G.Wolseley  recommends  the  Gloucester 
and  Sardini<m  huts  as  the  easiest  and 
most  comfortable,  the  former  holding 
o  2 


HYD 


106 


HYD 


L'4-  men,  the  latter  6.  In  a  tropical 
climate,  where  the  bamboo  is  available, 
huts  are  easily  run  up.  In  the  late  war 
on  the  Gold  Coast,  huts  formed  of  leaves 
were  commonly  erected.  In  England, 
standing  camps  have  been  composed,  for 
years  past,  of  permanent  huts  in  different 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  such  as  at  Alder- 
shot,  Shorncliffe,  the  Curragh,  &c..  the 
huts  being  chiefly  formed  of  planking. 
The  cubic  space  given  to  men  in  huts 
should  be  400  cubic  feet  per  man. 

Hydraulic  Buffer,  tide  Buffer,  Hy- 
draulic. 

Hydraulic  Jack,  ride  Jack,  Hydraulic. 

Hydraulic  Press — A  machine  adapted 
for  giving  great  pressure  in  cases  where 
little  motion  is  required.  This  machine 
is  also  called  Bramah's  press,  from  the 
name  of  its  inventor.  The  action  of  this 
press  is  founded  upon  the  fundamental 
principle  in  hydrostatics,  that,  "  when 
:;  liquid  mass  is  in  equilibrium  under  the 
action  of  forces  of  any  kind,  every  mole- 
cule, or  part  of  the  mass,  sustains  an 
equal  pressure  in  all  directions."  "An 
hydraulic  press  consists  essentially  of  two 
distinct  parts,  viz.  the  press  or  machine, 
in  which  the  force  acquired  is  applied, 
and  the  pumping  '  apparatus  '  by  which 
the  water  is  forced  into  the  press ;  these 
two  parts  of  the  entire  machine  being  con- 
nected only  by  the  pipe  through  which 
the  water  passes  from  one  to  the  other." 

The  enormous  multiplying  power 
which  this  machine  imparts  causes  it  to 
be  very  generally  used  in  all  factories 
where  compressing  or  expressing  power  is 
required,  also  for  lifting  weights.  It  is 
a  most  valuable  machine  in  gunpowder 
factories ;  without  it,  accurate  density 
could  not  be  given  to  the  powder.  Then, 
again,  it  is  used  to  give  density  to  metals 
in  their  fluid  state,  a  process  pursued 
in  the  preparation  of  steel  for  ordnance 
and  other  purposes.  The  power  of  the 
press  is  easily  calculated.  Suppose  that, 
the  pump  has  only  one-thousandth  the 
area  of  the  cylinder  of  the  press,  and  that 
by  means  of  its  lever-handle,  the  piston 
of  the  pump  is  pressed  down  with  a  force 
of  500  Ibs.,  the  piston  of  the  cylinder 
will  rise  with  a  force  of  one  thousand 
times  500  Ibs.,  or  more  than  200  tons. 

Hydrogen — A  colourless  gas,  perma- 
nently elastic,  without  taste,  and,  when 


perfectly  pure,  without  smell.     It  can  b« 
procured  as  follows  : — >l  Take  a  small  iron 
tube,    such    as    an    old    gun   barrel,  and 
partly  fill   it  with   iron  tilings,  place  it 
across  a  fire,  so   that  its  middle  portion 
shall  be  red  hot ;  on  sending  vapour  of 
j  water    through  it   from   a   small    boiler, 
j  a    gas    will    issue    from    the   other   end, 
which,  on  the  application  of  a  light,  will 
take    fire  and   burn  with  a  pale  yellow 
flame.    This  is  hydrogen.     In  this  beauti- 
ful experiment,  water,  which  is  a  com- 
pound    of    hydrogen    with    oxygen,    is 
decomposed,  the  oxygen  is  kept  back  by 
the    iron,    and    enters    into    combination 
i  with  it,  producing   oxide  of  iron.     The 
i  hydrogen,  not  having  the  power  of  com- 
bining with  iron,  is  set  free  and  escapes, 
i  Hydrogen     is     the      lightest     substance 
!  known,  hence  its  use  in  filling  air  ballons. 
Hydrogen  has  no  smell  when  quite  pure, 
1  and  is  not  poisonous  ;  it  cannot,  however, 
I  support  life.     Oxygen  is,  bulk  for  bulk, 
j  exactly  sixteen  times  heavier  than  hydro- 
I  gen ;    the    relative     weights,    therefore, 
1  of  any    measure  of  oxygen  and  two  of 
hydrogen  must  be   as    the    numbers    16 
to  2,  or  8  to  1." 

Hydrometer — An  instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  specific  gravities  of  liquids,  and 
thence  also  the  strengths  of  spirituous 
liquors.  "  It  consists  of  a  hollow  ball  of 
glass  or  metal,  with  a  weight  below  it, 
and  a  slender  graduated  stem  above,  so 
adjusted  as  to  float  at  a  particular  mark 
in  pure  water.  When  immersed  in  a 
lighter  liquid,  such  as  spirit,  the  lateral 
pressure  of  the  fluid  particles  which 
support  it  being  diminished,  the  bulb 
sinks,  till  a  portion  of  the  stem  becoming 
immersed,  its  weight  is  decreased,  and 
the  balance  again  restored.  The  instru- 
ment may  be  adjusted  to  different  liquids 
by  movable  weights,  while  the  gradu- 
ations of  the  scale  are  made  to  express 
the  specific  gravities  by  the  degree  to 
which  its  sinks."  There  are  several  kinds 
of  hydrometers,  but  Sykes'  is  most  com- 
monly used. 

Hydro-pneumatic  Carriage,  vide  Car- 
riages, Siege. 

Hydrostatics  — The  science  "  which 
treats  of  the  mechanical  properties  of 
fluids ;  strictly  speaking,  the  weight 
and  equilibrium  of  fluids.  The  weight 
and  equilibrium  of  fluids  at  rest  are  the 


HYG 


197 


IMP 


objects  of  this  science.  When  the  equi- 
librium is  destroyed,  motion  ensues;  and 
the  science  which  considers  the  laws  of 
fluids  in  motion  is  hydraulics." 

Hygiene,  vide  Army  Hygiene. 

Hygrometer — An  instrument  for  ascer- 
taining the  quantity  of  moisture  hefd 
in  the  atmosphere.  "  This  is  effected 
by  observing  the  temperature  of  the  air, 
and  the  dew-point,  or  temperature  at 
which  condensation  of  aqueous  vapour 
first  takes  place.  These  points  being 
ascertained,  the  elasticity  and  density  of 
the  aqueous  vapour,  its  weight  in  a  cubic 
foot  of  air,  its  degree  of  dryness,  and 
rate  of  evaporation,  may  be  ascertained 
from  tables  prepared  for  the  purpose." 

Hyperbola  —  In  geometry,  a  curve 
formed  by  a  section  of  a  cone,  when  the 
cutting  plane  makes  a  greater  angle  with 
the  base  than  the  side  of  the  cone  makes. 
For  the  geometrical  description  of  a 
hyperbola,  the  following  is  given  in 
Taylor's  '  Conic  Sections  ' : — "  If  two 
similar  cones  be  placed  apex  to  apex,  and 
with  the  lines  joining  the  apex  and  centre 
of  base  in  each,  in  a  straight  line ;  then  if 
a  plane  which  does  not  pass  through  the 
apex  be  made  to  cut  both  cones,  each  of 
the  two  sections  will  be  a  hyperbola." 


Ice — Congealed  water  or  other  fluid. 
For  the  transport  of  light  artillery 
across  ice,  the  ice  should  not  be  less  than 
6  inches  in  thickness ;  for  heavy  artil- 
lery, 8  to  12  inches  or  more,  the  entire 
weight  of  the  system  being  so  distributed 
that  each  square  foot  (in  contact  with 
the  bottoms  of  the  runners)  shall  not 
experience  a  pressure  of  more  than  about 
1115  Ibs.  For  the  passage  of  small 
detachments  of  infantry,  the  ice  should 
not  be  less  than  3  inches ;  for  cavalry, 
4  to  7  inches.  To  strengthen  ice,  place 
a  layer  of  straw  over  it,  throwing  water 
upon  it,  allowing  that  to  freeze,  then 
another  layer  of  straw  and  again  water. 


The  penetration  of  spherical  shot  into 
snow  or  ice  may  be  taken  as  follows : 
the  '24-pr.  and  18-pr.  a  mean  depth  of 
15  feet  into  snow,  into  ice  8  feet ;  the 
9-pr.  1 1  feet  into  snow. 

From  experiments  made  in  Austria  in 
1873-74  it  was  found  that  the  4-pr.  and 
8-pr.  Austrian  rifled  guns,  with  percussion 
fuzes,  penetrated  a  parapet  of  snow  of  36 
feet,  tapering  off  to  12  feet,  to  a  mean 
depth  of  12  feet  before  bursting.  The 
8-pr.  appears  to  have  produced  a  remark- 
able effect ;  some  of  the  shells,  which 
lodged  4  feet  below  the  superior  slope  of 
the  parapet,  produced  a  crater  6  feet 
in  external  diameter.  The  conclusion 
arrived  at  was  that  snow  defences  could 
not  withstand  the  continued  fire  of  rifled 
guns. 

To  test  the  effects  of  the  Werndl  rifle 
fire,  a  parapet  of  the  same  dimensions  as 
the  above  was  thrown  up,  but  the  snow 
was  not  rammed  so  hard.  The  mean 
penetration  of  the  bullets  was  found  to 
be  as  follows:  at  100  paces,  3J  feet; 
300  paces,  3  feet;  600  paces,  2£  feet. 
The  conclusion  here  arrived  at  was  that 
a  snow  parapet,  6  feet  high,  and  of  the 
requisite  thickness,  affords  very  efficient 
shelter  against  infantry  fire,  even  at  short 
ranges,  but  that,  owing  to  the  superior 
penetration  of  the  projectiles  in  snow,  the 
protection  is  not  equal  to  that  of  an 
earthen  parapet  of  lesser  dimensions. 

Ichnography — In  drawing,  the  ground 
plan  of  any  work  or  building. 

Impact — The  blow  with  which  a  body 
in  motion  impinges  upon  another  either 
at  rest  or  in  motion,  the  moment  of 
impact  being  that  when  the  bodies  meet. 
Of  the  pressure  the  two  bodies  will  exert 
on  each  other,  we  neither  know  the 
amounts  nor  the  time  during  which  they 
act ;  but  as  Colonel  Boxer,  in  his 
'  Treatise  on  Artillery,'  remarks : — "  The 
third  law  of  motion  will  enable  us  to 
determine  the  relation  existing  between 
the  momenta  of  the  bodies  before  and 
after  impact ;  for  it  follows  from  this 
law  that  whatever  momentum  is  gained 
by  one  body  during  the  impact  is  lost  by 
the  other,  so  that,  provided  no  other 
impulse  has  acted  upon  the  bodies  at  the 
same  time,  the  sum  of  the  momenta 
remains  unaltered.  If,  then,  a  body  of 
small  mass  impinge  with  great  velocity 


IMP 


198 


IXC 


upon  a  body  of  much  larger  mass  at.rest, 
find  the  two  bodies  after  impact  move  on 
together  with  a  velocity  which,  from  the 
nature  of  the  motion,  can  readily  be 
measured,  the  masses  of  the  bodies  being 
ascertained,  the  whole  momentum  of  the 
two  bodies  after  impact  is  known ;  and 
this  being  also  the  momentum  of  the 
smaller  body  before  impact,  the  velocity 
with  which  it  struck  the  larger  body 
is  immediately  known.  Suppose,  for 
instance,  that  a  cannon  ball  weighing 
24  Ibs.  strikes  a  block  of  wood  weighing 
1976  Ibs.,  from  which  it  will  not  rebound, 
so  that  after  the  stroke  the  two  may 
move  on  together  with  one  common 
velocity  of  24  feet  per  second,  the 
block  of  wood  being  perfectly  free  to 
move,  then,  the  momenta  before  and  after 
impact  being  the  same,  if  v  represent 
the  velocity  of  the  ball  before  impact — 

24  y.  v  =  (1976  +  24)  24,  or 
24 «  =  24  x  2000 

,=<Jix|°2°>  =  2000  feet, 

and  the  velocity  with  which  the  ball 
strikes  the  block  is  determined  from  the 
measured  or  computed  velocity  of  24  feet 
of  the  block  and  ball  together  after  the 
impact." 

Impetus  —  Momentum  ;  violent  ten- 
dency to  any  point ;  strictly,  a  force  pro- 
portional to  the  mass  and  the  square  of 
its  velocity  conjointly. 

Impregnable — That  which  cannot  be 
taken.  Any  work  or  fortress  which  resists 
the  repeated  assaults  of  an  enemy  is  said 
to  be  impregnable. 

Incendiary  Shells  —  Comprise  car- 
casses which  are  fired  from  S.B.  guns, 
howitzers,  and  mortars.  Experiments 
were  carried  on  in  1874  at  Eastboiirne, 
to  produce  a  carcass  suitable  for  rifled 
guns,  and  one  was  tried  with  considerable 
success.  Carcasses  are  used  to  set  fire  to 
buildings,  shipping,  &c.  Martin's  incen- 
diary shell  was  once  in  the  service,  but 
became  obsolete  in  1869.  It  contained 
molten  iron,  and  was  intended  to  destroy 
wooden  ships. 

Inch  —  A  measure  of  length,  the 
twelfth  part  of  a  foot.  An  inch  is  the 
smallest  lineal  measure  to  which  a  name 
is  given.  It  is,  however,  divided  by 
mechanics  into  eighths,  and  by  surveyors 


and  others  into  tenths,  hundredths,  and 
thousandths.  The  inch  was  formerly 
divided  into  three  parts  called  barley- 
corns, and  also  into  twelve  parts  called 
lines,  neither  of  which  denominations  is 
now  in  common  use. 

Inclined  Plane — In  mechanics,  is  a 
plane  which  makes  with  the  horizontal 
plane  any  angle  whatever,  forming  one  of 
the  simplest  mechanical  powers.  The 
inclination  of  the  plane  is  measured  by 
the  angle  formed  by  two  lines  drawn 
from  the  sloping  and  the  horizontal 
plane,  perpendicular  to  their  common 
intersection.  The  following  is  the 
mathematical  formula  for  it :  P  =  W 
sin  «,  when  A  =  angle  of  plane,  and 
parts  parallel  to  the  plane.  The  pres- 
sure on  the  plane  =  W  cos  a. 

Incorporation  —  That  process  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  by  which 
the  ingredients  receive  the  threefold 
action  of  crushing,  grinding,  and  mixing, 
The  process  of  incorporation  forms  a 
very  important  part  in  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder,  and  any  failure  in  this  stage 
cannot  be  made  good  by  any  subsequent 
process.  The  incorporation  of  the  in- 
gredients is  performed  by  the  applica- 
tion of  large  iron  cylindrical  rollers,  from 
5  to  7  feet  in  diameter,  and  from  14 
to  18  inches  in  width,  each  weighing 
about  4J  tons,  revolving  in  an  iron 
circular  flat  bed,  about  7  feet  in  dia- 
meter, fixed  very  firmly  in  the  floor  of  the 
building,  and  on  which  the  ingredients 
(previously  mixed)  are  evenly  spread. 
The  charge,  as  it  is  now  called,  is  moistened 
with  4  to  6  pints  of  distilled  water,  and 
the  rollers  are  then  put  into  motion  by 
steam  or  water  power  ;  the  speed  given  to 
the  rollers  during  the  time  the  charge  is 
being  incorporated  is  usually  8  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  At  the  expiration  of 
the  time  given  to  the  incorporation 
varying  from  2|  to  4  hours,  depending 
upon  the  nature  of  powder,  the  mill 
cake  (the  name  it  now  assumes),  which 
is  in  lumps  of  J  to  £  inch  thick,  and 
of  a  blackish  grey  colour,  is  removed  to 
the  charge  magazine  until  required  to 
be  broken  down. 

Increasing  Spiral — A  term  applied  to 
the  twist  or  the  spiral  inclination  of  the 
grooves  of  rifled  arms,  which  increases 
from  the  breech  towards  the  muzzle ;  it 


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is  also  called  a  gaining  tuist  (g.  t/.).  The 
advantages  of  this  kind  of  rifling  are  that 
the  projectile,  not  being  forced  to  take 
the  whole  twist  of  rifling  at  once,  moves 
more  readily  from  its  seat,  and  thus  the 
initial  strain  upon  the  breech  of  the  gun 
is  reduced.  Moreover,  the  studs  on  the 
projectile  are  not  so  liable  to  be  torn  off, 
or  the  edges  of  the  grooves  to  be  set  up. 

Increment — The  quantity  by  which 
anything  increases  ;  in  mathematics,  the 
finite  increase  of  a  variable  quantity. 

Incursion — A  sudden  raid,  with  intent 
to  pillage ;  an  entering,  an  inroad,  into  a 
territory  with  hostile  intentions. 

Indemnity — Compensation  for  injuries 
committed  by  one  nation  or  individual 
against  another. 

Indent — -A  form  of  requisition  used 
when  stores  are  required.  The  term  is 
chiefly  made  use  of  in  India,  in  obtaining 
stores  from  the  ordnance  and  commis- 
sariat departments.  It  is  equivalent  to 
the  meaning  of  drawing  upon  any  esta- 
blishment for  what  is  required,  either  for 
daily  or  periodical  supplies,  or  to  renew 
articles  in  use. 

Indentation  —  In  S.B.  ordnance,  the 
mark  caused  by  the  bounding  of  the 
shot  in  the  bore.  This  phenomenon  in 
the  bore  on  the  combustion  of  the  charge 
may  be  thus  explained.  The  fluids  pro- 
duced by  the  combustion  of  the  charge 
and  a  small  quantity  of  unconsumed 
powder  rush  at  once  between  the  upper 
side  of  the  bore  and  the  shot,  which,  by 
virtue  of  its  inertia,  resists  the  move- 
ment ;  the  current  presses  it  upon  the 
lower  side  of  the  bore,  and  causes  an 
indentation,  which  increases  in  depth  at 
each  discharge  ;  this  cavity  is  called  also 
a  lodgement ;  the  lodgement  gives  rise  to 
a  burr,  formed  immediately  in  front  of  it 
by  the  displaced  metal. 

Indian  Army  —  The  army  which 
garrisons  our  great  Indian  dependency. 
It  consists  of  British  and  native  troops. 

The  Indian  army  in  the  days  of  Clive, 
which  was  composed  of  both  British 
and  native  troops,  was  comparatively 
small,  barely  sufficient  to  hold  its  own ; 
but  even  in  those  days  it  did  great 
deeds  of  valour,  as  the  battle  of  Assaye 
and  other  battles  testify.  By  degrees, 
as  the  East  India  Company  increased  its 
territory,  a  larger  army  was  found  neces- 


ary,  and  both  British  and  native  troops 
were  augmented.  In  1857  the  mutiny  of 
the  native  army  took  place,  which  neces- 
itated  a  change  in  the  organisation  of 
;he  army,  involving  a  large  increase 
of  the  British  force.  From  this  date  the 
irmy  of  the  East  India  Company  became  a 
,)art  of  her  Majesty's  army,  paid  out  of  the 
revenues  of  India. 

The  army  of  India  at  present  consists 
of  62,850  British  troops  and  128,500 
native  troops.  More  than  half  the 
former  are  stationed  in  the  Bengal 
Presidency,  38,000  men  being  in  gar- 
rison along  the  valley  of  the  Ganges, 
Oude,  and  in  the  Punjab,  while  the 
strength  of  the  native  army  for  the  same 
presidency  amounts  to  49,000.  Bengal 
proper  alone  requires  about  7000  English 
troops  for  its  guard,  or  nearly  one-ninth 
of  the  total  number  of  the  British 
employed  in  India.  The  remainder  are 
distributed  amongst  the  North-West  Pro- 
vinces and  in  the  presidencies  of  Madras 
and  Bombay.  (Vide  Appendix  E.) 

Indicator — A  self-registering  instru- 
ment attached  to  a  steam-engine  to  in- 
dicate the  effective  force  of  the  piston. 

Indirect  Fire— In  gunnery,  the  firing 
at  an  object  which  is  covered  by  a  para- 
pet, glacis,  or  wall,  so  that  it  cannot  be 
seen  from  the  battery ;  this  is  also  called 
curved  fire  (q.  v.).  The  value  of  in- 
direct fire  was  shown  at  the  siege  of 
Strasburg  in  1870,  when  the  Germans 
used  a  rifled  gun  (15-centimetre),  short- 
ened, which  enabled  them  to  fire  with 
comparatively  small  charges. 

Inertia  —  The  total  absence  of  all 
power  in  a  body  to  change  its  state. 
Matter  is  no  more  inclined  to  rest  than 
to  motion,  and  were  it  not  for  external 
causes,  such  as  the  resistance  of  the  air 
on  or  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  a 
body  once  put  in  motion  would  continue 
its  direction  for  ever. 

Infantry  —  This  word  is  stated  in 
Brande  and  Cox's  '  Dictionary  of  Science 
and  Literature '  to  be  derived  from  the 
Latin  infans,  a  boy  or  servant,  as,  during 
the  middle  ages,  servants  went  on  foot, 
while  the  knights  rode  on  horseback;  hence 
the  word  infanteria  became  the  name  of 
foot  soldiers  in  general.  Another  origin 
of  the  word  is  stated,  viz.  that  it  is  derived 
from  the  Spanish  soldiery  of  the  infante 


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or  infanta,  and  the  term  infantcrin 
applied  to  them,  in  consequence  of  their 
being  under  the  infanta  of  Spain. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
the  infantry  constituted  the  chief  strength 
of  an  army,  and  since  then,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  those  days  of  chivalry  when 
:\  fictitious  importance  was  given  to 
cavalry,  the  infantry  has  always  been 
considered  the  main  strength  of  an  army. 
In  the  English  army  the  infantry  is 
formed  into  what  is  commonly  called 
regiments,  whether  they  consist  of  one  or 
more  battalions  ;  they  vary  in  strength 
according  to  whether  the  regiments 
are  on  home  or  on  foreign  service.  The 
majority  of  the  regiments  have  only  one 
battalion,  but  twenty-five  have  two ;  one 
has  three  ;  and  two,  four  battalions. 

The  oldest  infantry  regiments  are  the 
Coldstream  Guards  (General  Monk's 
regiment),  the  Grenadier  and  Scots 
Fusilier  Guards,  the  2nd  Queen's  (raised 
for  the  defence  of  Tangiers),  and  3rd 
Buffs  (the  old  London  trainbands).  These 
regiments  were  formed  between  1660  and 
1662. 

Initial  Velocity — This  term  is  applied 
to  the  velocity  of  a  projectile  at  the 
moment  it  leaves  the  piece.  The  formula; 
tor  calculating  the  initial  velocity  of  pro- 
jectiles will  be  found  in  works  treating 
on  ballistics. 

Initiative  —  In  offensive  warfare,  to 
take  the  initiative  is  the  power  of  com- 
pelling your  adversary  to  make  his 
movements  dependent  on  your  own,  the 
result  of  which  is  to  give  the  invader  of 
a  •  territory  great  advantage.  It  is  also 
explained  as  the  success  obtained  by  the 
invader  of  a  territory,  suitable  for  mili- 
tary movements,  and  defended  only  by  an 
army,  not  by  fortifications ;  not  only  is 
the  advantage  in  his  first  onset,  but  in 
subsequent  engagements,  thus  disconcert- 
ing and  to  some  extent  crippling  his  ad- 
versary, so  as  to  frustrate  or  deprive 
him  of  the  power  of  carrying  out  offensive 
measures. 

Inquiry,  Court  of,  vide  Court  of  In- 
quiry. 

Inspection — This  word,  which  means 
careful  examination,  relates  to  a  wide 
scope  of  duties  falling  under  the  cog- 
nisance of  military  men  in  their  several 
petitions,  and  includes  the  inspection  of 


men,  cattle,  books,  ordnance,  indeed 
everything  attached  to  the  personnel  and 
mite'riel  of  their  command,  each  branch 
having  its  inspecting  officer,  from  the 
general  downwards.  Thus  a  general  in- 
spects the  troops  under  him,  a  command- 
ing officer  his  regiment,  a  captain  his 
company.  Each  department  also  has  its 
duties  of  inspection. 

Inspector — An  examining  officer  ;  one 
who  inspects. 

Inspectors-General — Officers  appointed 
by  the  Horse  Guards,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Inspector  -  General  of 
Fortifications,  to  carry  out,  in  the  most 
searching  manner,  the  duties  of  inspection 
in  their  respective  branches,  and  to  bring 
to  the  notice  of  the  commander-iii-chief 
all  points  with  which  he  should  be  made 
acquainted.  They  are  assisted  in  their 
duties  by  inspectors,  who  act  under  their 
instructions. 

Institution,  Royal  Artillery  —  An 
establishment  organised  at  Woolwich  in 
the  year  1838.  The  building  was  erected 
at  government  expense,  and  is  sup- 
ported partly  by  subscriptions  from 
the  officers  of  the  regiment  and  partly 
by  government.  It  contains  a  museum, 
lecture-room,  laboratory,  theatre,  and 
printing-press.  Reports,  verbatim,  of  all 
lectures  which  have  been  delivered  are 
issued  periodically  to  all  its  members.  It 
is  a  repository  for  the  sale  of  military 
books,  stationery,  &c. 

Institution,  Eoyal  Engineers  —  A 
similar  institution  to  that  established  by 
the  royal  artillery  at  Woolwich,  but  of 
older  date  (1813),  and  formed  at  Chatham. 
It  contains  a  library  of  12,000  volumes, 
and  publishes  yearly  a  volume  of  profes- 
sional papers,  with  the  view  of  con- 
veying, to  all  members  of  the  institute, 
the  knowledge  and  experience  acquired 
by  each  officer  of  the  corps.  It  publishes 
besides  a  small  monthly  paper,  printed  at 
the  expense  of  the  institution. 

The  new  buildings  which  now  form  the 
present  institute  comprise  a  lecture-room, 
theatre,  and  class  rooms  for  both  officers 
and  men  for  the  several  branches  of  mili- 
tary engineering,  as  well  as  for  photo- 
graphy, and  for  photographic  and  ordi- 
nary printing. 

Institution,  Royal  United  Service  — 
An  institution  situated  in  London,  and 


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INT 


founded  in  1831,  under  the  auspices 
ot'  William  IV.  and  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  It  has  now 
become  in  every  respect  a  useful  insti- 
tution for  the  advancement  of  professional 
knowledge  and.  the  higher  education  of 
officers  of  all  branches  of  the  service.  It 
contains  a  collection  of  large  and  valuable 
models,  arms,  &c.,  a  map  and  chart  room,  a 
professional  library  of  15,500  volumes,  and 
lecture-room,  where  papei's  of  vital  inter- 
est to  both  army  and  navy  are  read  and 
discussed,  and  subsequently  published  in 
a  well-known  journal,  which  is  appreciated 
by  officers  at  home  and  abroad,  as  well  as 
by  the  governments  of  foreign  countries. 
Many  of  the  most  interesting  subjects 
that  afterwards  occupy  practical  atten- 
tion rind  the  first  germs  of  their  exist- 
ence in  the  lectures  given  in  this 
institution,  and  at  this  time  of  rapid  and 
cnnstant  transition,  the  discussions  that 
take  place  are  acknowledged  to  be  of  the 
greatest  utility  to  both  naval  and  military 
departments  of  the  government. 

The  Royal  United  Service  Institution  is 
maintained  by  subscriptions,  and  receives 
a  grant  as  well  as  a  building,  rent-free, 
from  the  government. 

Instructor,  Musketry — An  officer  at- 
tached to  each  regiment  of  the  regular 
ami  auxiliary  forces,  to  carry  out  the  in- 
struction and  practice  of  the  musket.  He 
is  one  of  the  permanent  staff  of  a  regiment. 

Instructors,  Garrison  —  Officers  of 
either  branch  of  the  service  who  are 
appointed  to  certain  districts  of  the  army 
at  home  and  abroad,  to  instruct  officers  of 
the  regular  army  and  of  the  auxiliary 
forces  in  the  advanced  branches  of  their 
profession.  Schools  are  formed  to  which 
officers,  detached  from  their  regiments, 
have  to  attend.  In  England,  there  is 
a  superintendent  of  garrison  instructors, 
who  resides  at  Aldershot.  In  India 
there  is  a  director,  with  chief,  garrison, 
and  assistant  instructors  under  him.  The 
residence  of  the  director  of  garrison 
instruction  in  India  is  with  the  head- 
quarters of  the  army. 

Instruments  —  Tools  used  in  various 
workshops,  with  which  mechanical  work 
is  performed. 

Insubordination — This  term  is  known 
in  military  life  under  the  following 
phases : — 


1.  Striking  a  superior  officer  ; 

2.  Using    or    offering  violence   against 
a  superior  officer ; 

3.  Offering     violence     in  «a    military 
prison ; 

4.  Disobeying     the     command    of    a 
superior  officer  ; 

5.  Using   threatening    language    to    a 
superior. 

For  either  of  the  above  offences  a 
soldier  is  to  be  tried  by  a  general  court- 
martial. 

Insulation — When  a  body  Containing 
a  quantity  of  free  heat  or  electricity 
is  surrounded  by  non-conductors,  it  is 
said  to  be  insulated. 

Insulator — Any  non-conducting  sub- 
stance is  an  insulator ;  among  the  best 
are — 


Dry  air ; 
Shell-lac ; 
Sulphur  ; 
Kesins ; 


Gutta-percha ; 
Caoutchouc; 
Silk; 
Glass. 


Intelligence  Department — A  branch  of 
the  Quartermaster-General's  department, 
presided  over  by  the  Deputy  Quarter- 
master-General. It  has  for  its  object 
the  collecting,  sifting,  and  arranging 
of  all  information  on  subjects  useful  to 
the  government  or  army  in  peace  or  war. 
This  department  in  England  is  compara- 
tively of  recent  date.  Its  functions  com- 
prise : — 

Topography ; 

Strategical  and  tactical  questions  ; 

Concentrations  ; 

Military  statistics  ; 

Collection  of  all  data  bearing  on  the 
organisation  of  foreign  armies  ; 

Home  and  colonial  defence,  &c. 

The  information  to  be  obtained  on  the 
above  subjects  is  gathered  in  time  of 
peace,  so  that,  when  war  breaks  out,  the 
general  commanding  an  expedition  may 
have  put  into  his  hands,  the  most  de- 
tailed information  that  maps  can  con- 
tain of  the  country  in  which  operations 
are  to  be  carried  on,  and  all  such  other 
information  needful  for  the  vigorous 
prosecution  of  the  war. 

Formerly,  whatever  information  the 
general  obtained,  was  through  the  Quar- 
termaster-General's department,  then  im- 
perfectly organised  for  obtaining  such 
intelligence  as  is  now  afforded,  and  also  by 


INT 


202 


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reconnoissanoes  a  day  or  two  in  advance 
of  the  army.  Nowadays,  a  general  is 
made  acquainted  with  the  country  he 
has  to  traverse  before  he  sets  out,  and  is 
thus  often  enabled  to  map  out  his  future 
movements  before  commencing  operations. 
To  the  intelligence  department  may 
be  attributed,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
success  of  the  German  arms  during  the 
war  of  1870-71.  Before  starting  on  the 
campaign,  maps  of  the  country  the  army 
was  to  invade  were  largely  distributed, 
and  also  handbooks,containing  information 
on  many  valuable  points,  such  as  railways, 
localities,  power  of  districts  to  afford  food, 
&c. — in  short,  all  information  tending  to 
the  successful  issue  of  the  war. 

The  intelligence  department  of  this 
country  is  modelled  after  that  on  the 
continent,  but  only  for  defensive  pur- 
poses ;  it  is  composed  of  staff  officers, 
whose  education  and  intelligence  fit 
them  well  for  the  duties  they  have  to 
perform.  The  department  may  be  said 
to  be  at  present  merely  the  nucleus  of 
what  will  be,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  a  still 
larger  one.  There  is  ample  field  for  an 
increased  number  of  staff  officers,  and  in 
comparison  with  the  continental  depart- 
ments, the  establishment  is  small.  The 
following  extract  from  a  lecture  given 
at  the  United  Service  Institution,  in 
February  1875,  by  Major  Brackenbury, 
R.A.,  D.A.Q.M.G.  an  officer  of  the  intelli- 
gence department,  will  put  the  reader  in 
possession  of  the  information  to  be  ac- 
quired, and  the  work  to  be  performed  by 
the  staff  officers  of  such  a  department, 
as  carried  out  in  Prussia,  Austria,  and 
France : — 

"1.  A  thorough  military  acquaintance 
with  the  topography  and  resources  of  all 
lands  belonging  to  the  nation  and  its 
neighbourhood. 

'•  2.  An  intimate  acquaintance  with  th 
armies  and  military  institutions  of  foreign 
powers,  as  well  as  of  the  home  army  and 
institutions. 

"  3.  A  scheme  for  movement  of  troops 
by  railway,  road,  or  water,  according  to 
probable  eventualities.  This  is  based  on 
a  study  of  home  and  foreign  means  of 
communication. 

"  4.  Military  history,  which  is  always  a 
mine  of  information  if  honestly  drawn  up 
according  to  official  knowledge. 


'  5.  Selections  from  the  above  items  of 
knowledge  carefully  drawn  up  and  pub- 
ished  for  the  information  of  the  army. 
This  requires  frequent  use  of  the  printing- 
press. 

'  6.  In  the  three  countries  the  staff  is 
charged  with  the  issue  of  the  requisite 
maps  in  case  of  war,  and,  for  this  pur- 
pose, is  in  close  intimacy  with  the  great 
map-making  establishments  represented 
by  our  Ordnance  Survey,  which  is  a 
civil  branch,  though  conducted  by  officers 
of  the  royal  engineers." 

In  time  of  war  the  duties  of  this 
department  would  be  similar  to  those 
performed  by  that  section  of  the  general 
staff  in  continental  armies,  with  this 
exception,  that  in  consequence  of  the 
paucity  of  officers  employed  in  this  branch 
of  our  service,  it  would  have  to  be  supple- 
mented by  special  staff  officers,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Quartermaster-General's 
department. 

Preparatory  to  the  commencement  of 
hostilities,  all  information  concerning  the 
country  in  which  the  operations  are  to  be 
carried  on — collected  and  collated  by  the 
intelligence  department  in  time  of  peace — 
will  be  furnished  to  the  general  in  com- 
mand, who  will  next  have  to  obtain  further 
information  through  this  department  as 
to  the  enemy's  positions,  moral,  &c.,  by 
means  of  outposts,  reconnoissances,  spies, 
and  emissaries.  The  names  of  the  enemy's 
generals,  the  organisation  and  the  dress 
of  his  troops  can  then  be  learnt,  as  the 
capture  of  a  single  prisoner  or  patrol  may 
show,  even  by  his  uniform,  buttons,  or 
lace,  the  presence  of  a  particular  corps. 
Newspapers  may  furnish  information  of 
great  value.  During  the  Prusso-Austrian 
war  of  1866,  the  first  authentic  informa- 
tion the  Prussians  received  of  Benedeck's 
march  from  Olmiitz  to  Vienna  was  derived 
from  Brackenbury's  letters. 

The  information  obtained  by  the  means 
of  outposts  is  of  very  great  importance  ; 
and  the  first  step  taken  by  the  staff  of 
continental  armies,  after  the  declaration 
of  war,  is  to  draw  a  cordon  of  light 
cavalry  ;  to  this  force  one  or  two  officers 
of  the  intelligence  department  are  at- 
tached. One  sphere  of  action  is  up  to 
the  enemy's  outposts,  whose  movements 
must  be  watched,  and  all  information 
1  concerning  them  be  obtained  by  means 


IXT 


203 


INT 


of  vedettes,  reconnoissances,  &c.,  with- 
out driving  them  in,  to  do  which  would 
require  a  reconnoissance  in  force  (q.  c.),  a 
measure  of  doubtful  value,  as  it  often 
leads  to  a  general  engagement. 

The  officer  commanding  an  outpost  is 
responsible  for  the  amount,  as  well  as  for 
the  correctness,  of  all  the  information  he 
sends  to  the  officer  commanding  ;  he  has, 
therefore,  to  exercise  his  discretion  as  to 
what  intelligence  he  sends 'in,  and  this 
should  be  rather  too  much  than  too  little. 
In  transmitting  any  knowledge  he  has 
acquired,  he  must  adhere  as  much  as  pos- 
sible to  the  words  of  the  informant ;  but 
if  the  information  be  of  great  value,  the 
person  from  whom  it  has  been  obtained, 
such  as  a  prisoner,  deserter,  or  patrol 
leader,  should  be  sent  in  to  head-quarters. 

The  information  obtained  from  prison- 
ers, deserters,  and  persons  from  the 
enemy's  side,  is  always  valuable.  The  first 
two  classes  do  not  as  a  rule  know  much, 
but  travellers,  and  particularly  boys,  are 
great  sources  of  information,  as  they  are 
close  observers,  and  are  less  likely  to  be 
influenced  by  patriotism,  and  a  small 
bribe  will  suffice  as  remuneration  for 
the  news  supplied. 

The  real  rank  and  file  of  an  intel- 
ligence department,  before  and  after 
hostilities  have  begun,  are  the  regular 
paid  spies.  Officers  commanding  out- 
posts can  make  use  of  local  spies,  but  the 
main  body  of  these  men  remain  attached 
to  the  head-quarters,  for  specific  purposes, 
under  an  officer  specially  appointed  for 
that  duty,  who  should  possess  the  follow- 
ing qualifications : — 

1.  Thorough  reticency ; 

2.  Keen  knowledge  of  human  nature  ; 

3.  Distrust  of  all  unsupported  informa- 
tion. 

Lack  of  information  is  not  the  diffi- 
culty in  war  time,  for  the  shifting  ten- 
dency of  men's  fears  is  to  exaggerate 
dangers ;  the  number  of  spies,  therefore, 
may  be  safely  reduced. 

There  are  two  classes  of  spies,  as  shown 
above : — 

1.  Local  spies. — These  are  men  acci- 
dentally employed,  and  whose  business 
may  take  them  into  the  enemy's  lines. 
They  are  to  be  trusted  in  gaining  intel- 
ligence ;  moreover,  their  powers  of  in- 
formation are  naturally  confined  to  a 


small  area,  and  as  they  are  probably  well 
acquainted  with  that  area,  and  their  being 
on  business,  they  are  not  so  liable  to  sus- 
picion. 

2.  Paid  spies. — These  should  always  be 
kept  apart  and  in  ignorance  of  each  other. 
They  should  receive  liberal  pay,  accord- 
ing to  the  result  of  their  work.  In  India, 
the  plan  formerly  adopted  in  paying  native 
spies  was  to  put  a  bucketful  of  gold  mohurs 
before  the  man,  and  to  allow  him  to  take 
away  as  many  as  his  two  hands  could  hold. 

Some  military  writers  lay  down  that 
all  the  information  obtained  by  the  in- 
telligence department  should  be  published 
to  the  army,  as  experience  has  shown  that, 
by  acting  thus,  surprises  and  panics  have 
been  giiarded  against,  great  fatigue  saved, 
and  that  the  best  marches  have  been  made 
when  the  men  knew  the  object  of  the  un- 
dertaking. 

Having  collected  the  required  informa- 
tion, the  next  point  will  be  the  trans- 
mission of  such  intelligence.  This  is 
performed  in  three  ways  : — 

1.  By  the  electric  telegraph  (?.  r.)  ; 

2.  By  visual  signalling  (q.  t;.); 

3.  By  mounted  orderlies  (<?.  r.). 
Sometimes  the  three  are  combined.   The 

electric  telegraph  is  applicable  for  long 
distances,  between  stationary  points  and 
along  main  lines ;  between  camps  at 
some  distance  from  one  another,  field 
telegraphs  may  be  laid  down.  Visual 
signalling  is  useful  in  broken  ground, 
across  obstacles,  with  ships  at  sea,  and 
also  for  moderate  distances,  where  the 
points  are  not  stationary  for  any  time, 
such  as  the  outposts.  It  was  found 
particularly  useful  in  the  Looshai  expedi- 
tion on  the  borders  of  Assam.  For  short 
distances,  mounted  orderlies  can  be  used, 
between  points  constantly  moving,  as  well 
as  for  transmission  of  news  in  wooded 
countries.  The  following  have  been  found 
good  distances  to  transmit  intelligence  by 
the  modes  indicated  : — 

Electric  telegraph,  above  8  miles  ; 

Visual  signalling,  IJ  to  8  miles ; 

Orderlies,  1  to  1J  mile. 

Intendance — In  continental  armies,  an 
establishment  corresponding  to  our  supply 
branch  of  the  control  department. 

In  the  German  army  it  is  a  small 
department,  and  the  duties  are  more 
restricted  and  entirely  civil.  Until  1866, 


IXT 


204 


IXT 


Prussia  had  no  combatant  officers  attached 
to  the  intendance.  It  has  less  independ- 
ent responsibility,  and  clashes  less  with 
the  war  department,  because  it  only 
refers  to  matters  beyond  general  control, 
and  large  funds  are  always  placed  at  its 
disposal  by  the  military  authorities ; 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  army  expenditure 
is  paid  by  it,  like  the  clothing  department. 

Jn  France,  the  intendance  possesses  the 
direction  and  control  of  everything  that 
concerns  pay,  provisions  (m'initions  de 
bottche),  contracts  fur  the  same,  clothing  de- 
partment, &c.  This  department  is  officered 
exclusively  by  officers  of  the  army,  of  no 
lower  rank  than  that  of  captain,  and 
whose  age  does  not  exceed  35  years ;  they 
have  to  pass  an  examination  before  a  board 
of  officers.  Their  functions  are  purely  ad- 
ministrative, and  they  have  no  relative 
rank. 

Interior  Economy — Applied  to  mili- 
tary affairs,  relates  to  the  whole  manage- 
ment of  a  regiment,  the  responsibility  of 
which  lies  with  the  commanding  officer, 
as  he  is  the  mover  and  director  of  every- 
thing pertaining  to  his  command.  It  in- 
cludes all  duties  in  which  the  officers  and 
men  are  interested,  such,  in  the  former 
case,  as  their  mess,  band,  funds,  &c.,  and 
in  the  latter,  to  the  messes  of  the  non- 
commissioned officers  and  soldiers,  their 
amusements,  libraries,  in  fact,  everything 
tending  to  the  good  order  and  welfare  of 
the  regiment. 

Interior  Slope — In  fortification,  is  the 
inclination  towards  the  town,  given  to 
the  earth  forming  the  rampart  or  parapet. 
It  is  made  steep,  usually  about  {,  to  enable 
the  troops  to  fire  over  the  crest  of  the 
parapet  without  constraint. 

Intern,  To — A  term  used  in  a  military 
sense  to  express  the  act  of  giving  shelter  to 
troops  which  have  taken  refuge  on  neutral 
territory.  On  passing  the  frontier,  the 
men  are  disarmed  and  sent  to  the  different 
quarters  allotted  to  them,  generally  in  the 
interior  of  the  country  ;  they  are  treated 
on  the  same  footing  as  the  soldiers  of  the 
country,  and  the  officers  are  allowed  to 
keep  their  arms,  horses,  and  baggage,  but 
have  to  give  their  parole  that  they  will 
not  attempt  to  escape. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  war  of  1870-71, 
Bourbaki's  army,  sorely  pressed  by  the 
Germans,  took  refuge  in  Switzerland,  to 


escape    being    taken   prisoners,   and    was 
interned  there. 

Interval — In  drill,  the  lateral  space 
between  men  or  corps.  The  following 
is  given  in  '  The  Artillerist's  Manual  ' 
as  the  intervals  in  line  between  the 
different  branches  of  the  service  : — 

"  INTERVALS. 

"  1.  Between  files  when  formed  in 
squadron,  6  inches  from  knee  to  knee. 

"  2.  Between  the  guns  of  a  battery  in 
line,  full  intervals,  19  yards. 

"  3.  Between  squadrons  in  line,  the 
breadth  of  a  division,  but  never  less  than 
12  yards. 

"  4.  Between  cavalry  regiments  in  line, 
or  between  cavalry  and  infantry  in  line, 
as  for  squadrons. 

"  5.  Between  battalions  in  line,  30 
paces. 

"  6.  Between  batteries  in  line,  or  be- 
tween artillery  and  other  troops,  28  i 
yards. 

"  7.  Between  cavalry  regiments  in  con- 
tiguous columns,  as  for  squadrons. 

"  8.  Between  battalions  in  contiguous 
columns,  12  or  30  paces,  as  ordered." 

Intrench.,  To — To  secure  a  position  or 
body  of  men  against  the  attack  of  an 
enemy,  by  digging  a  ditch  or  trench.  An 
army  may  intrench  itself  either  by  a 
continued  or  an  interrupted  line;  in  the 
former  case,  the  line  may  be  composed  of 
parts  so  connected  as  to  leave  no  un- 
covered space  between  them ;  in  the 
latter,  those  parts  may  be  isolated  from 
each  other,  and  uncovered  intervals  left 
between  them. 

Intrenchment — Any  work  or  obstacle 
intended  to  strengthen  a  post,  or  increase 
its  defence, 

The  method  followed  by  the  American 
troops  in  intrenching  themselves  after  a 
day's  march  is  thus  described  by  Major 
(now  Colonel)  H.  A.  Smyth,  R.A.,  in 
'  The  Capture  of  Richmond  ' : — 

"  As  soon  as  the  brigade  was  halted  in 
its  place,  without  another  word,  perhaps, 
than  company  command,  the  arms  were 
piled,  and  the  men  broke  themselves 
into  working  parties  to  intrench.  Of 
each  little  squad  of  twelve  or  fifteen 
men,  a  proportion  betook  themselves 
to  felling  trees,  a  second  proportion  to 
arranging  them  in  the  line  of  the  intended 


INT 


205 


IRQ 


parapet,  a  third  to  carrying  them  or 
other  wood  (especially  fence  rails  where 
procurable)  up  to  the  disposal  of  the 
second,  and  a  fourth  to  throwing  up 
earth  to  the  front  of  the  logs  with  their 
picket  shovels.  These  latter  work  with 
all  their  might  till  out  of  breath,  when 
other  men  relieve  them  at  the  shovelling, 
and  so  on,  so  that  each  man  gets  one  or 
more  turns  at  it  before  the  completion  of 
the  work  ;  and  in  the  very  light  soil  of 
Virginia  a  constant  stream  of  earth  is 
kept  riving  into  the  required  place.  In 
this  manner  I  saw  a  breast-work,  per- 
fectly etiicient  against  musketry  tire, 
thrown  up  along  the  entire  front  of  a 
brigade  in  forty  minutes." 

Intrepidity  —  As  described  in  James' 
'  Dictionary,'  is  "  an  unqualified  contempt 
of  death,  and  indifference  to  fortune,  as 
far  as  it  regards  personal  safety;  a  fear- 
lessness of  heart,  and  a  daring  enterprise 
of  mind.  According  to  Rochefoucault, 
intrepidity,  especially  with  regard  to 
military  daring,  implies  firmness  of 
character,  great  confidence  of  mind,  and 
extraordinary  strength  of  soul.  Buoyed 
up  and  supported  by  these  qualities 
(which  are  sometimes  natural  and  some- 
times acquired),  men  become  superior  to 
every  emotion  of  alarm,  and  are  insensible 
to  those  perturbations  of  the  heart  which 
the  prospect  of  imminent  danger  almost 
always  engenders." 

Inundation — The  flooding  of  a  portion 
of  a  country  with  a  view  to  its  defence, 
by  rendering  it  impassable  to  an  enemy. 
Several  fortified  places  on  the  continent 
are  so  constructed  as  to  be  able  to  inun- 
date the  surrounding  country,  and  thus 
offer  additional  obstacles  to  an  advancing 
army.  The  means  by  which  inunda- 
tions may  be  effected  are  entirely  governed 
by  the  nature  of  the  surrounding  country 
and  the  water-courses ;  no  specific  rules 
thereon  can  be  laid  dowu.  It  is  well 
known  that,  on  the  invasion  of  Holland  by 
Louis  XIV.,  William  of  Orange  inundated 
the  country  by  breaking  down  the  dykes. 

Invalids  —  Are  either  worn-out  or 
maimed  soldiers,  or  soldiers  who  from 
permanent  sickness  are  unable  to  remain 
in  the  army.  Thore  are  some  invalids 
who  from  change  of  climate  recover  their 
health ;  these  men  join  the  ranks  again. 
In  the  British  service,  disabled  men  are 


periodically  invalided  and  sent  home 
from  India  and  the  colonies.  Besides 
Chelsea  Hospital,  for  the  reception  of  worn- 
out  and  disabled  men,  the  corps  of  com- 
missionaires ((].  v.)  is  open  to  pensioned 
soldiers;  whilst  so  attached,  they  can  add 
to  their  livelihood  by  giving  their  services 
as  messengers  or  watchmen. 

Invasion — A  hostile  entrance  into  the 
territory  (if  another. 

Invest,  To — To  surround  a  place,  so  as 
to  prevent  all  communication  with  the 
country. 

Investment  of  a  Fortress— This  act  is 
synonymous  with  blockading  a  place.  In 
the  investment  of  a  fortress,  so  as  to 
counteract  the  preparations  for  defence 
on  the  part  of  the  garrison,  "  the  com- 
mander of  the  forces  about  to  undertake 
the  siege  should  not  only  conceal  his 
intentions  from  his  enemy,  but  endeavour 
to  mislead  him  altogether  with  respect  to 
his  proposed  plan  of  operations.  By 
threatening  other  fortresses,  or  making 
demonstrations  of  offensive  war  in  other 
directions,  he  may  induce  the  enemy  to 
send  troops  and  supplies  to  points  distant 
from  the  fortress  he  intends  to  besiege, 
leaving  it  comparatively  defenceless ;  he 
may  then  suddenly  approach  it  with 
forces  sufficient  to  enclose  it  on  every 
side,  and,  by  occupying  at  the  same  time 
all  the  avenues  to  it,  preclude  the  possi- 
bility of  the  garrison  receiving  supplies, 
or  sending  notice  of  their  situation  to 
their  friends.  By  moving  with  secrecy 
and  despatch,  they  may  succeed  in  sur- 
prising any  parties  sent  from  the  fortress, 
who  may  be  foraging  in  the  neighbouring 
country,  and  may  also  seize  such  pro- 
visions and  stores  as  the  garrison,  had  it 
been  aware  of  their  approach,  would  have 
swept  into  the  place.  This  operation  is 
called  the  investment  of  the  fortress." 

Iron — A  metal  well  known  in  the  arts 
and  in  commerce,  and  the  most  useful  of 
all  the  metals.  It  was  known  from  a  very 
early  date,  and  is  frequently  referred  to 
in  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  though 
it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  exten- 
sively made  use  of  until  subsequent  to 
the  bronze  period.  It  is  invaluable,  espe- 
cially at  the  present  day,  when  ships 
and  guns  are  being  principally  built  of  it. 
The  great  supply  of  iron  is  derived  from 
its  numerous  ores,  which  arj  abundantly 


IRQ 


206 


ITA 


distributed  all  over  the  world.  It  is 
found  in  large  quantities  in  our  own 
country,  particularly  in  the  coal  districts, 
where  it  is  known  as  carbonate  of  iron ; 
it  contains  small  portions  of  manganese 
aud  earthy  matter.  The  ores  found  in 
Great  Britain  are  always  massive,  and 
contain  several  impurities,  which,  if  not 
extracted,  affect  the  quality  of  the  iron 
more  or  less  These  impurities  are  got 
rid  of,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  the  process 
of  calcining  and  smelting.  There  are 
three  different  states  in  which  iron  is 
produced  ;  crwle  or  cast  iron  (q.  v.),  steel 
(7.  c.),  and  malleable  or  wrought  iron 
(7.  r.).  These  three  modifications  are  the 
results  of  several  and  separate  operations, 
although,  when  each  is  tested  separately, 
they  are  found  to  differ  only  in  the  quan- 
tity of  carbon  or  charcoal  in  their  com- 
position. Malleable  iron  is  the  purest, 
and  has  very  little  carbon  in  it ;  steel 
contains  more  carbon,  and  cast  iron 
generally  more  than  steel.  Iron  is  a 
metal  of  bluish  grey  colour,  its  fracture 
fibrous,  and  it  is  susceptible  of  being 
rolled  into  thin  sheets.  When  iron  is 
subjected  to  a  red  heat,  it  softens  and 
becomes  tough,  and  its  property  of  weld- 
ing at  a  white  heat  gives  a  facility  in 
working  it  which  no  other  metal  pos- 
sesses. When  heated  above  the  welding- 
point,  it  crumbles  under  the  strokes  of 
the  hammer. 

Iron  Filings — Small  portions  or  par- 
ticles of  iron  rubbed  off  by  the  act  of 
filing ;  they  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  rireworks  and  for  other  purposes. 

Irregular  Troops  —  Troops  which, 
though  in  the  pay  of  a  nation,  do  not 
belong  to  the  regular  forces.  In  the 
British  army  there  are  no  such  troops. 
In  India  there  are  two  or  three  irre- 
gular forces,  composed  of  cavalry  and 
infantry,  for  the  protection  of  native 
states.  The  present  native  cavalry  regi- 
ments in  her  Majesty's  Indian  army 
were  originally  raised  as  irregular  troops. 
They  found  their  own  horses,  arms, 
clothing,  &c.,  for  which  they  received  a 
certain  monthly  sum ;  but  this  has  been 
modified  of  late  years,  and  they  are  no 
longer  styled  irregular  cavalry. 

Isinglass  —  A  white  glutinous  sub- 
stance made  from  the  sounds  of  certain 
fishes.  It  is  used  in  the  laboratory  as 


one  of  the  ingredients  in  forming  rolled 
stars  for  rockets. 

Italian  Army — One  of  the  armies  of 
Europe. 

Italy,  like  most  of  the  continental  na- 
tions, has  adopted  the  compulsory  system 
in  raising  her  army,  similar  to  France  and 
Germany.  The  yearly  contingent  is  put 
down  at  100,000  men,  70,000  of  which 
serve  in  the  first  category  or  active 
army.  In  this  they  remain  for  3  years 
(in  the  cavalry  5  years) ;  5  in  the  reserve 
of  the  active  army,  and  4  in  the  mobile 
milizii.  The  length  of  service  therefore 
is  altogether  12  years,  and  the  age  of 
joining  the  colours  is  18  years.  The  men 
who  have  not  been  called  to  do  duty  in  the 
active  service  form  the  second  category, 
in  which  they  have  to  serve  5  years  in 
the  reserve  of  the  active  army  and  4 
in  the  militia.  They  are  only  assembled 
for  a  few  months  every  year. 

By  the  law  of  the  ~30th  September 
1873,  Italy  is  divided  into  7  military 
commands  or  army  corps,  five  of  which 
have  2  and  two  3  military  territorial 
divisions.  Each  military  division  con- 
sists of  from  1  to  6  military  districts, 
giving  a  total  of  16  territorial  divisions 
and  62  military  districts.  Further,  the 
kingdom  is  divided  into  6  commands  of 
artillery,  of  1  or  2  divisions  each  (total 
12)  and  into  6  commands  of  engineers  of 
2  or  3  divisions  (total  16). 

The  land  territorial  forces  comprise  the 
permanent  army  and  the  mobile  milizia. 

The  permanent  army  consists  of  the 
staff,  the  artillery,  and  engineers,  the  in- 
fantry, the  cavalry,  a  corps  of  gendar- 
merie, and  the  civil  departments  (com- 
missariat, medical,  administrative,  &c.). 

The  mobile  milizia  comprises  232  bat- 
talions of  infantry,  24  companies  of  rifles, 
15  companies  of  bersaglieri,  and  40  com- 
panies of  field  and  20  batteries  of  siege 
artillery,  together  with  10  companies  of 
engineers. 

By  this  system,  it  is  computed  that 
Italy  can  place  under  arms  the  following 
numbers  : — 

Active  army  . .  395,951 
Reserve  ..  ..  148,004 
Mobile  milizia  ...  279,872 


823,827  men. 
These  forces  in  war  time  are  organised 


ITA 


207 


JIM 


into  20  divisions  forming  10  corps  d'ar- 
me'ti.  {Vide  Appendix  C.) 

Italian  Field  Gun— A  bronze  muzzle- 
loailing  riHed  gun  similar  to  the  French 
gun.  There  are  two  sizes,  viz.  the  8-pr.  and 
16-pr.  Experiments  are  being  made  with 
steel  guns  after  Krupp's  system,  with  the 
view  of  introducing  them  into  the  service. 

Itinerary  —  A  rough  sketch  of  the 
country  through  which  troops  have  to 
march,  giving  the  roads,  villages,  noting 
the  number  ofiuhabitants,  houses, whether 
of  stone,  brick,  or  wood,  and  conveying  as 
much  information  of  the  country  as  can 
be  gathered  in  a  short  space  of  time. 


Jack,  or  Jaque,  of  Defence — A  piece  of 
defensive  body  armour,  worn  in  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries.  Like  all 
defensive  armour,  it  was  generally  made 
of  mail  or  plates  ;  sometimes  the  coat  was 
quilted,  and  made  of  leather  or  canvas. 

Jack,  Hydraulic — A  machine  for  lift- 
ing heavy  weights  by  the  agency  of  watei 
pressure.  Hydraulic  power  is  universally 
used  where  heavy  weights  have  to 
lifted.  The  power  is  applied  either  bj 
hand  or  steam. 

In  the  gun  factory  at  Woolwich,  wher< 
great  weights  have  to  be  raised,  such  a 
guns  in  their  different  stages  of  manu 
facture,  the  hydraulic  jack  is  invaluable 
Jack,  Lifting — A  machine  for  liftin: 
weights.  That  termed  the  field  servic 
is  used  for  field  carriages  only.  Th 
arm,  which  may  be  adjusted  within  cer 
tain  limits  to  any  required  height,  is 
lever  of  the  first  order,  and  is  applie 
accordingly.  The  body  of  the  jack  : 
the  support  on  which  it  works,  and  i 
capable  of  lifting  half  a  ton.  A  liftin 
jack  is  attached  to  each  sub-division  o 
a  battery.  A  good  substitute  for  a  jac 
are  two  handspikes  placed  under  the  axl 
tree,  when,  with  the  aid  of  two  robus 
gunners,  the  carriage  can  be  sufficient] 
raised  to  take  off  the  wheel.  The  jac 
known  as  Clerk's  is  the  common  screxv 


ick  of  the  service,  in  a  cast-iron  conical 
ox,  with  metal  top  and  triangular  base, 
his  jack  is  of  great  power,  and  used  for 
eavy  carriages  in  lieu  of  the  *•  tooth  and 
inion  "  and  "  screw-jack."  There  are 
ther  jacks  in  the  service,  such  as  the 
ack  and  pinion,  lifting  3  tons ;  Haley's, 
rhich  varies  in  power  from  2  to  20 
jns ;  and  Tangye's  hydraulic,  capable  of 
fting  from  4  to  20  tons. 

Jack  Tree  (Artocarpus  integrifolia) — 
^.  well-known  tree  in  India.  It  yields 
n  excellent  timber,  first  yellow,  fading 
o  brown,  hard  and  brittle,  resembling 
atin ;  warps,  if  not  properly  seasoned. 
A.  cubic  foot  of  unseasoned  wood  weighs 
0  Ibs.  The  timber  is  used  in  the  Bombay 
irsenals  for  packing-cases.  The  fruit  of 
;his  tree  is  very  much  esteemed  by  the 
natives  in  the  southern  parts  of  India. 

Jagged  Spike — A  particular  kind  of 
pike,  which  is  used  for  spiking  a  gun 
.hat  has  to  be  abandoned  altogether. 

Jars,  Pegu — Vessels  made  of  pottery, 
and  glazed  externally.  They  are  generally 
of  a  very  large  size,  and  are  constantly 
used  in  Indian  arsenals  for  holding  oil,  &c. 

Javelin — A  spear  used  by  the  ancients 
and  by  most  nations  before  the  intro- 
luction  of  fire-arms.  There  were  several 
sorts  of  javelins,  made  chiefly  of  wood, 
with  a  steel  point ;  and  there  were  some 
which  had  feathers  attached  to  them,  in 
the  same  manner  as  arrows  and  darts  have. 
The  latter  were  used  by  the  Poles  and 
other  nations,  but  principally  by  the 
Moors,  who  called  them  zagais. 

Jemadar — A  native  officer  in  the  Indian 
army,  whose  position  corresponds  with 
that  of  subaltern  in  a  company  of  Eu- 
ropean infantry.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  the  headman  of  a  native  establish- 
ment in  a  factory,  and  indeed  to  any  man 
who  exercises  authority  over  a  number 
or  gang  of  men. 

jib — The  overhanging  part  of  a  crane, 
or  a  triangular  frame  with  a  pulley  at 
the  end  for  the  chain  to  pass  over,  which 
leads  from  the  crane. 

Jigger  Block,  vide  Tackle. 
Jim  Crow — This  is  one  of  the  tools 
used  by  railway  platelayers  for  bending 
rails,  and  forms  one  of  a  set  of  plate- 
layers' tools  attached  to  the  royal  engineer 
siege  equipment.  It  is  suitable  for  bend- 
ing the  2-t-lb.  rails  of  the  trench  railway. 


JOR 


208 


JYX 


Jorawallah  — •  An  Indian  term.  It 
means,  applied  to  a  grass-cutter  (7.  «.), 
one  man  doing  the  work  of  two  — for 
double  wages. 

Journal  —  In  machinery,  the  bearing 
portion  of  the  shaft,  when  it  is  between 
the  points  where  the  power  and  resist- 
ance are  applied ;  it  is  also  a  bearing 
subject  to  torsion. 

Joust — A  mock  and  sometimes  a  real 
encounter  on  horseback.  In  the  former 
case,  it  was  called  a  tournament  or  "  tilt." 
The  mock  joust  took  place  with  pointless 
lances.  But  in  the  real  and  sanguinary 
jousts,  battle-arms  were  used,  and  many 
a  knight  lost  his  life  in  these  tilts. 
The  latter  were  called  jouites  a  outrance. 

Jozeraunt,  or  Jozerine — Ancient  ar- 
mour ;  a  jacket  strengthened  with  plate. 

Judge-Advocate-General  —  A  govern- 
ment functionary,  resident  in  London, 
who  acts  as  the  legal  adviser  of  the 
crown  in  matters  touching  military  law; 
the  appointment  is  most  frequently  con- 
ferred upon  a  barrister  of  some  stand- 
ing, who  is  also  a  member  of  the  House 
of  Commons ;  he  is  sworn  of  the  Privy 
Council,  and  his  tenure  of  office  lapses 
with  that,  of  the  administration  which 
appoints  him. 

To  this  officer,  the  proceedings  of  all 
general  courts-martial  at  home  are  for- 
warded, before  the  execution  of  the  sen- 
tence, in  order  that  he  may  examine 
them  to  ascertain  that  they  have  been 
legally  conducted  ;  it  then  becomes  his 
duty  to  submit  them  to  her  Majesty  for 
her  approval  and  confirmation,  together 
with  his  opinion  on  any  point  of  law,  or 
of  procedure,  upon  which  he  may  think 
it  necessary  to  remark. 

The  judge-advocate-general  is  liable 
to  serve  on  courts-martial,  but  his  duties 
are  usually  performed  at  home,  by  some 
officer  to  whom  he  gives  his  deputation  ; 
and  abroad,  by  an  officer  appointed  to 
officiate  by  the  convening  authority ;  in 
both  cases  the  acting  functionary  is 
known  as  the  officiating  judge-advocate. 

No  general  court-martial  can  proceed 
•without  a  judge-advocate;  there  is  no- 
thing to  prevent  the  latter  being  a  civi- 
lian, but  the  custom  of  the  service  for  a 
long  period  has  confined  the  office  to 
military  men. 

The  judge-advocate-general  of  the  In- 


dian army  is  now,  as  formerly,  appointed 
by  the  government  of  India,  and  he  is 
assisted  by  officers  of  the  army  belonging 
to  his  department. 

Judging  Distance,  vide  Distance. 
Jule — An  Indian  term  for  the  clothing 
of  any  beast  of  burden. 

Jump  of  a  Gun — The  increased  angle 
of  departure  at  which  a  projectile  leaves 
a  gun,  after  the  gun  has  been  truly 
levelled  at  the  target  or  object  to  be 
struck.  The  method  usually  pursued  to 
ascertain  the  "jump  "  of  a  gun  is  to  place 
a  target  at  120  feet  from  the  gun  which 
has  been  truly  levelled,  so  as  to  be  hori- 
zontal. On  firing  the  gun,  the  position 
of  the  hits  on  the  target  determines  the 
"  jump,"  as,  if  above  the  level  on  the 
target,  it  shows  that  the  projectile  has 
left  the  piece  with  a  certain  amount  of 
elevation  ;  if  it  had  not  been  so,  gravity 
would  have  brought  the  shot  below  the 
level  on  the  target.  This  "  jump "  is 
due  to  the  tendency  the  gun  and  carriage 
have  to  rotate  on  the  trail.  As  shown 
in  Captain  W.  H.  Noble's  paper. "On  the 
Calibre  of  Field  Guns": — "Experiment 
has  shown  that  this  'jump'  which  the 
system  makes  before  the  projectile  leaves 
the  muzzle  is  much  affected  by  the  nature 
of  the  rifling.  A  breech-loading  gun  in 
which  the  shot  is  forced  through  the 
bore,  'jumps  '  more  than  a  muzzle-load- 
ing gun  of  the  same  weight  and  length." 

Juniper,  vide  Blasting. 

Junk  —  Old  rope,  which,  being  un- 
twisted, is  used  sometimes  in  arsenals  in 
place  of  oakum,  to  pack  shot  and  shell 
with,  and  in  making  wads. 

Junk  Wads,  vide  Wads. 

Justice,  Military,  vide  Law,  Military. 

Jute — The  fibre  of  the  Corchorus  olito- 
rius  (pot-herb,  or  Jew's  mallow)  and  of 
the  Core/torus  capsularis,  herbaceous  an- 
nuals, which  in  India  grow  from  5  to  14 
feet  high.  The  former  derives  its  name 
from  the  leaves  having  been  eaten  as  a 
kind  of  spinach.  The  sterns  yield  the 
fibre  known  in  commerce  as  that  from 
which  ropes,  bags,  &c.  are  made. 

Jyntee,  or  Jointee  ((Eschynomine  Ses- 
bati) — A  wood,  the  charcoal  of  which  has 
been  used  in  the  government  powder 
works  at  Ishapore,  near  Calcutta,  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder.  It  is  thus 
described  by.  the  late  Colonel  Anderson, 


KAJ 


209 


KIC 


of  the  Bengal  artillery: — "The  jointee 
gru\vs  from  seed,  and  flowers  after  the 
first  year;  it  then  increases  in  size  till 
it  becomes  a  small  tree  ;  at  three  or  four 
years  old,  it  makes  the  best  charcoal, 
the  fibres  being  then  large  and  defined, 
awl  well  separated;  the  charcoal  is  of  a 
lightish  colour,  and  is  not  dense  to  the 
eye  or  touch.  The  tree  flourishes  best 
on  the  banks  of  small  nullahs  or  water- 
courses. Jointee  charcoal  is  not  so  soft 
as  that  of  the  urhur  or  dhall  stalk,  but 
it  is  more  dry,  brittle,  and  hard.  An 
average-sized  tree  of  three  years'  growth 
will;  occupy  about  5  square  yards,  and 
produce  about  three  maunds  of  wood, 
which  will  yield  about  30  Ibs.  of  charcoal, 
the  quantity  required  for  two  100-lb.  bar- 
rels of  gunpowder.  Therefore  10,000  bar- 
rels would  require  about  sixty  beegahs  of 
land  under  constant  cultivation,  one-third 
to  be  cut  each  year.  The  average  specific 
gravity  of  jointee  wood  is  -767,  and  sp.  gr. 
of  the  charcoal  produced  from  it  -275 ; 
and  it  yields  25  per  cent,  of  charcoal." 

Experience  has  shown  that  this  wood 
is  not  so  good  for  gunpowder  purposes  as 
the  dhnll^bush  (q.  v.),  and  therefore  should 
only  be  used  in  case  of  a  failure  of  that 
crop. 


K. 


Kajawahs  —  An  Indian  term.  Large 
panniers,  placed  across  a  camel's  back, 
in  which  camp  kettles,  pots,  £c.  are 
carried  on  the  march.  The  panniers  are 
large  enough  to  carry  disabled  men. 

Kamptulicon — A  composition  of  india- 
rubber,  gutta-percha,  and  cork,  which  by 
a  certain  treatment  is  formed  into  floor 
cloths.  In  appearance  it  is  exactly  like 
oil-cloth,  and  is  susceptible  of  having 
all  kinds  of  patterns  printed  on  it.  It 
has  sometimes  been  used  for  floor-cloths 
in  powder-houses,  but  is  not  so  durable 
as  leather  hides. 

Kanat — An  Indian  term.  The  wall  of 
a  tent. 


' — A  kind  of  strong  tower,  which 
was  built  formerly  in  the  centre  of  a 
castle  or  fort,  to  which  the  besieged  re- 
treated and  made  their  last  efforts  of 
defence.  Of  this  description  is  the  keep 
of  Windsor  Castle. 

In  the  present  day,  in  the  defence  of 
villages,  after  determining  whether  the 
whole  or  only  a  part  of  the  village  shall 
be  defended,  it  is  as  well  to  select  some 
central,  easily  approached,  substantial,  and 
commanding  buildings  to  be  converted  into 
keeps  or  interior  intrenchments.  Keeps 
should  not  be  defended  against  attacks 
made  with  artillery,  but  they  might  be 
useful  as  rallying-points  if  not  so  attacked. 

Keg — Another  term  for  a  small  cask 
or  barrel.  With  heavy  field  batteries,  kegs 
are  used  to  hold  the  tar  and  grease  for 
lubricating  the  axle-tree  arms.  They  are 
also  used  in  the  storage  of  this  compound. 

Kentledge  —  Old  cast-iron  articles, 
which  have  become  unserviceable,  such 
as  condemned  guns,  shot  and  shell,  &c. 

Kettle,  vide  Camp  Kettle. 

Kettle-drums  —  Large  circular  basins 
of  metal,  rounded  at  the  bottom,  the  top 
being  covered  with  vellum  or  goat  skin. 
They  are  used  in  the  cavalry,  and  were 
formerly  also  in  the  artillery. 

Key  of  Position — A  military  position, 
which  may  be  naturally  weak,  but  by 
being  strengthened  can  be  made  a  for- 
midable point  of  defence.  This  may  be 
called  the  tactical  key.  The  sti-ategic  key 
'•has  reference  to  higher  objects  than  mere 
possession  of  the  position  and  defeat  of  the 
enemy;  and  no  battle  should  be  fought 
without  due  consideration  being  given 
to  these  higher  objects. 

Keystone  —  In  masonry,  the  stone  in 
an  arch  which  is  equally  distant  from  its 
springing  extremities, 
j  Khalassie  —  An  Indian  sailor.  This 
race  of  men  come  chiefly  from  the  Chit- 
tagong  district.  Besides  a  sea  life,  kha- 
lassies  take  service  on  shore,  and  form  a 
large  portion  of  the  native  establishment 
attached  to  arsenals  in  India,  bordering 
on  the  seaside.  During  the  march  of  a 
regiment  in  that  country,  they  are  em- 
ployed in  looking  after  the  camp  equipage. 

Kicking  Strap  —  A  strap  used  in 
draught  to  control  a  violent  horse.  One 
or  two  should  be  attached  to  each  horse 
battery.  It  is  fastened  to  the  shafts,  aud 


KIL 


210 


KNO 


passes  over  the  croup  of  the  horse,  thereby 
preventing  him  from  kicking. 

Kilt — A  dress  worn  by  men  living  in 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  by  a  few 
regiments  in  the  British  army.  It  con- 
sists of  a  loose  petticoat  extending  from 
the  waist  to  the  knees. 

The  kilt  appears  to  have  been  worn  by 
the  British  chiefs  as  early  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventh  century  ;  they  were 
made  of  skin,  but  striped  kilts  were  com- 
mon, and  it  is  said  that,  in  all  probability, 
the  Scottish  kilt  was  known  among  the 
British  earlier  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed, from  the  inhabitants  of  North 
Britain  being  on  intimate  terms  with 
their  neighbours  and  likely  to  have 
assumed  the  dress. 

King-post — The  middle  post  of  a  roof, 
the  foot  resting  in  the  tie-beam,  and  the 
head  of  the  post  receiving  the  upper  ends 
of  the  principals. 

Kink — A  twist  or  turn  in  a  coil  of  rope. 

Kit — A  military  term,  expressing  the 
complement  of  regimental  necessaries 
which  soldiers  are  obliged  to  keep  in 
constant  repair. 

The  kits  of  all  mounted  men  are 
packed  and  carried  in  valises ;  those  of 
infantry  soldiers  and  gunners  of  foot 
artillery  are  carried  in  a  knapsack. 

The  name  is  also  given  to  a  composition 
of  rosin,  pitch,  bees- wax,  and  tallow  in  the 
proportion  of  9,  6,  6,  1 ;  when  melted  to- 
gether and  poured  into  water,  and  worked 
with  the  hand,  it  becomes  soft  and  pliable. 
It  was  formerly  used  in  setting  the  old 
pattern  fuze ;  since  the  introduction  of 
Boxer's  fuze  it  is  not  required. 

Kitchen — A  room  or  place  appropri- 
ated for  cooking  purposes.  In  the 
field,  trenches  are  dug  in  which  the  sol- 
diers' meals  are  cooked.  The  width  of 
the  trench  depends  upon  the  width  of 
the  ketttle  used,  and  the  length  upon  the 
number  of  kettles.  The  depth,  as  laid 
down  in  the  '  Soldier's  Pocket  -  book,' 
"  should  be  12  inches  at  the  end  from 
which  the  wind  is  blowing,  and  continue 
that  depth  for  4  feet,  decreasing  then 
gradually  to  3  inches  at  the  opposite  end, 
where  a  space  must  be  left  equal  to  the 
breadth  of  the  trench,  to  serve  as  a  chim- 
ney." For  a  company  on  war  strength, 
the  same  book  gives  two  such  trenches, 
each  10  feet  long. 


Knapsack  (German,  knapp,  tight,  close, 
compact,  and  Sack,  a  sack) — A  square 
case  of  canvas  or  leather,  properly  pre- 
pared, for  strapping  on  an  infantry  sol- 
dier's back,  and  containing  the  whole  ot 
his  regimental  necessaries.  Knapsacks 
are  also  provided  for  foot  artillerymen, 
and  on  the  march  they  are  carried  with 
the  baggage. 

Another  derivation  of  the  word  has 
been  given  besides  that  shown  above. 
Knap,  in  Dutch,  means  eatable,  and  knap- 
pen,  to  eat :  hence  knapsack  is  a  sack 
containing  something  to  eat.  It  is  doubt- 
ful, however,  whether  the  above  is  cor- 
rect. The  author  of  this  derivation 
appears  to  have  confounded  Schmtppsack 
(havresack)  with  the  English  knapsack. 
In  German,  nouns  are  commonly  made  up 
of  various  words,  so  that  the  combination 
expresses  the  precise  signification.  Thus, 
Sc/mappsack  signifies  a  sack  into  which 
a  soldier  would  stuff  anything  in  the  way 
of  eatables  or  drinkables  which  he  might 
pick  up  on  the  march. 

Knight  (German,  Knccht,  or  A'neht, 
also  Saxon  cniht,  a  servant) — A  person 
who  on  account  of  some  eminent  service, 
civil  or  military,  is  singled  out  from  the 
common  class  of  gentlemen,  and  is  person- 
ally invested  with  that  title. 

This  word  is  applied  when  we  speak 
of  a  knight  of  a  shire  ;  it  likewise  means 
a  military  man,  or  rather  a  horseman, 
knights  of  this  description  having  been 
either  the  king's  domestic  servants  or 
his  life-guards. 

Originally,  knights  were  either  the 
king's  domestic  servants  or  they  attended 
upon  him  on  horseback  in  time  of  war. 
The  institution  of  knighthood  is  of  very 
ancient  date ;  it  was  conferred  in  Eng- 
land during  the  Saxon  heptarchy,  and 
the  first  knight  made  by  the  sovereign 
with  the  sword  of  state  was  Athelstane, 
by  Alfred  the  Great. 

The  sovereign  now  bestows  knighthood 
by  a  verbal  declaration,  accompanied  with 
the  simple  ceremony  of  imposition  of  the 
sword.  The  word  "  Sir  "  is  prefixed  to 
the  name  of  knight. 

Knots — Ties  or  fastenings  made  with 
cord  or  rope.  The  most  useful  are  the  tim- 
ber-hitch, half-hitch,  cloce  or  cascable-hitch, 
gun-sling,  reef-knot,  cat's-paic,  bouline- 
knijt,  sheep-shank,  running  bowline-knot. 


KNO 


211 


KKI 


Knotting — A  patent  varnish  used  for 
laying  over  knots  of  wood  previous  to 
painting,  and  for  staining  the  wood  of  iron- 
pointed  levers. 

Kodallie  —  An  Indian  term.  A  tool 
used  by  the  natives  of  India  in  digging 
all  kinds  of  earthwork.  The  face  of  the 
tool  is  shaped  like  a  hoe,  and  has  a  short 
handle  nearly  parallel  to  the  face.  It  is 
used  in  a  kneeling  or  sitting  position. 

Koopah,  or  Dubba — An  Indian  term. 
A  round  hollow  vessel  with  a  narrow 
neck,  to  contain  liquid  substances,  chiefly 
oil.  It  is  made  from  the  buffalo's  hide, 
the  hide  being  cut  into  small  pieces  and 
placed  on  a  mould  in  layers,  until  the 
thickness  required  is  attained.  A  small 
hand  mallet  is  used  to  beat  the  hide 
together,  which  is  then  treated  with  lime, 
salt,  and  ashes. 

Krankentrager  (German  =  sick-car- 
riers)— A  special  corps  organised  by  the 
German  army ;  its  duty  is  to  carry  the 
sick  and  wounded.  The  men  are  mostly 
taken  from  the  Landwchr,  but  some  are 
students  from  hospitals  and  universities. 
The  former  are  in  uniform,  and  the  latter 
in  plain  clothes  ;  but  all  wear  the  red 
cross  on  their  arm,  and  are  under  the 
protection  of  the  Geneva  Convention. 
They  are  men  of  two  years'  service,  in- 
telligent, of  good  character,  and  have 
received  some  theoretical  instruction  in 
surgery  and  medicine.  The  instruction 
imparted  to  these  men  is  directed  by 
superior  officers,  assisted  by  surgeons. 
They  are  taught  to  give  the  first  care  to 
the  wounded  ;  to  carry  them  on  stretchers, 
and  to  form  the  stretchers  from  any 
improvised  material ;  to  transport  the 
wounded  to  the  ambulance  wagons ;  to 
prepare  the  wagons  for  that  purpose ; 
and  to  perform  all  such  duties  as  shall 
be  required  of  them  during  a  battle. 

Kriegsspiel  (German  =  war  game) — 
This  game  was  invented  by  a  Prussian, 
Councillor  Reiswitz,  in  order  to  follow 
with  greater  facility  the  campaigns  of 
Napoleon  I.  His  son,  an  artillery  officer, 
found  it,  by  reproducing  the  campaigns 
on  a  map,  an  easy  method  of  studying  the 
different  movements  of  troops,  and  caused 
the  game  to  be  adopted  in  about  1824  by 
Feldmarschall  von  Miiffling.  The  Kriegs- 
spiel eventually  became  familiar  with  the 
army,  and  was  finally  introduced  in  the 


military  schools  as  the  best  means  of 
studying  strategy  and  tactics. 

This  game  was  not  only  a  study,  but 
a  favourite  pastime,  of  von  Moltke's, 
Blumenthal's,  Prince  Frederick  Charles', 
and  of  other  German  officers,  who  took  a 
prominent  part  during  the  war  of  1870- 
1871.  It  is  stated  that  they  carefully 
studied  for  years,  by  means  of  this  game, 
the  ground  on  which  they  carried  out 
their  operations  in  France. 

The  Kriegsspiel  was  first  introduced 
in  England  after  the  Franco -German 
war  (1870-71),  and  is  now  frequently 
played  in  all  the  large  garrison  towns  of 
this  country.  A  club  has  been  formed 
at  Aldershot  for  that  purpose. 

The  necessary  apparatus  for  playing  the 
Kriegsspiel  is  composed  of  maps  carefully 
prepared  on  a  scale  of  6  or  8  inches  to 
the  mile  ;  of  metal  blocks,  made  to  scale, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  representing  all  the 
different  branches  of  the  service,  from 
regiments  to  skirmishers ;  and  strings 
of  beads,  for  cavalry  reconnoitring.  The 
number  of  persons  taking  part  in  the 
game  consists  of  the  officers  commanding 
the  two  armies,  of  a  judge  or  chief  um- 
pire, supported  generally  by  two  or  three 
umpires.  The  umpires  alone  see  the 
ground  occupied  by  the  two  forces.  In- 
structions are  given  as  to  their  posi- 
tions ;  the  time  of  the  year,  the  length 
of  the  days,  the  state  of  the  roads,  &c. 
are  settled  beforehand.  The  losses  made 
on  both  sides  are  calculated  by  means  of 
tables  carefully  prepared  ;  they  form  a 
large  volume,  and  were  published,  in 
1870,  by  Colonel  von  Trotha. 

Other  circumstances,  such  as  troops 
sheltered  by  earthworks,  artillery  firing 
out  of  range,  are  taken  into  considera- 
tion ;  those  that  have  not  been  laid  down 
in  the  rules  are  decided  by  a  throw  of 
the  dice. 

Thus  the  action  gradually  develops 
itself  as  each  army  advances  on  the  con- 
tested ground,  till  victory  is  declared  for 
one  side  or  the  other. 

The  principal  utility  of  the  game  ap- 
pears to  be  in  the  arrangements  previous 
to  and  during  the  early  conduct  of  an 
action.  When  the  troops  get  to  close 
quarters,  the  element  of  chance  enters 
so  largely  into  the  game  that  it  destroys, 
to  some  extent,  the  dependence  to  be 
p  2 


KRU 


212 


KRU 


placed  on  the  issue  of  the  battle.  The 
game,  however,  affords  great  practice  in 
the  drawing  up  of  the  order  of  march 
of  columns  previous  to  an  action,  and  the 
development  of  the  columns  of  march 
into  formation  for  attack.' 

In  the  hands  of  men  having  some 
military  experience,  this  game  becomes 
a  certain  means  of  acquiring  and  per- 
fecting a  science  which  in  time  of  peace 
cannot  be  easily  acquired.  It  raises 
questions  which  are  strategical  problems 
of  great  interest. 

Krupp  Gun — A  breech-loading  rifled 
gun.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  in- 
ventor, Mr.  Krupp,  who  possesses  at 
Essen  a  large  factory  for  the  manufacture 
of  steel  guns.  The  Krupp  gun  is  well 
known  throughout  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, and  indeed  elsewhere :  it  is  the  gun 
especially  of  the  German  army.  The 
metal  of  which  this  gun  is  made  is  cast 
steel,  manipulated  after  a  manner,  so  it 
is  stated,  known  only  to  Mr.  Krupp. 
The  original  guns  of  his  manufacture 
were  made  out  of  ingots  of  steel,  but 
subsequently  all  his  guns  larger  than 
field  pieces  were,  in  their  construction, 
what  is  technically  termed,  "  built  up," 
somewhat  on  the  same  principle  as  our 
wrought-iron  guns,  the  advantage  of 
which  is  known  to  all  artillerists.  The 
mode  of  building  up,  as  described,  is  by 
shrinking  around  a  tube  successive  layers 
of  steel  hoops,  which  are  cutout  of  a  solid 
ingot  of  crucible  steel,  and  after  being 
punched  through  the  centre,  worked  out 
to  form  rings,  in  the  same  manner  as 
tires  are  made  for  railway  wheels. 

The  description  of  the  German  8J-inch 
gun,  given  in  the  Revue  militaire  a 
I'Etranger,  shows  that  this  gun,  which 
is  9  tons  in  weight,  is  loaded  at  the 
breech,  and  closed  by  a  wedge,  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  the  vent.  The  gun 
consists  of  a  tube,  around  which  nine 
steel  hoops  are  shrunk  on.  The  tube  ap- 
pears to  be  so  manufactured  that  about 
the  loading-chamber  and  vent-piece  there 
are  no  hoops,  the  gun  being  cast  in  that 
part  of  such  thickness  as  not  to  need 
them.  From  this  portion  up  to  about 
half  the  length  of  the  gun  the  building- 
up  commences,  which  is  performed  by 
surrounding  the  tube  with  one  layer  of 
five  rings,  the  rear  one  being  narrow, 


the  front  one  broad ;  this  latter  forms 
the  trunnion  ring.  A  second  layer,  formed 
of  one  broad  hoop,  is  then  shrunk  over 
the  first  and  over  the  powder  chamber. 
The  remainder  of  the  tube,  which  is  at 
this  portion  conical,  and  which  includes 
the  muzzle,  is  strengthened  with  three 
narrower  hoops,  so  arranged  that  they 
form,  on  the  exterior  surface,  steps  as  it 
were,  adjoining  the  five  hoops  before 
alluded  to.  Where  the  hoops  meet,  a  ring, 
half  in  the  tube  and  half  in  the  hoops,  is 
placed,  which  prevents  the  tube  breaking 
away  to  the  rear.  This  short  description 
will  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  con- 
struction of  Mr.  Krupp's  gun.  The  wedge, 
or  what  the  French  term  fermeture,  is 
cylindro-prismatic  in  shape,  and  is  cer- 
tainly the  most  simple  of  all  breech- 
closing  apparatus.  From  its  shape  it 
weakens  the  breech  of  the  gun  less  than 
any  other  wedge.  It  is  strong  and 
durable,  and  easily  worked.  The  most  im- 
portant parts  of  the  breech  are  the  Broad- 
well  ring  and  the  circular  steel  plate  for 
preventing  the  escape  of  gas.  All  Krupp's 
guns  are  fitted  with  these  gas  checks. 

The  gun  described,  which  represents 
the  system  carried  out  in  all  Mr.  Krupp's 
guns,  is  polygrooved  and  consists  of  30 
grooves,  and  has  a  twist  of  1  in  38 
calibres.  The  projectiles  provided  for 
this  gun  are  chilled,  and  the  common 
shells  are  2£  calibres  long. 

The  latest  field  guns  introduced  into 
the  German  service  are  also  of  Mr.  Krupp's 
manufacture,  breech-loaders,  and  mad'e 
of  steel,  but  somewhat  modified  in  con- 
struction to  his  earlier  guns.  The  light 
or  horse  artillery  gun,  as^  also  shown  in 
the  Revue  militaire  a  FEtranger,  has  a 
calibre  of  7'85  centimetres,  the  same  as 
the  old  4-pr.  or  8-centimetre  gun;  whereas 
the  calibre  of  the  heavy  piece  for  field  bat- 
teries is  8-8  centimetres,  which  is  less 
than  that  of  the  old  6-pr.  or  9-centimetre 
gun  (actually  9'15  centimetres).  The 
guns,  as  stated  before,  are  made  of  cast 
steel ;  the  hinder  part  up  to  the  trun- 
nions is  strengthened  by  a  wrought-iron 
jacket,  which  is  shrunk  on.  The  breech- 
closing  apparatus  is  Krupp's  cylindro- 
prismatic  wedge.  Each  gun  has  24 
V-shaped  grooves  with  one  turn  in  50 
calibres. 

The  carriages  for  these  guns  are,  to  a 


KEU 


213 


KRU 


great  extent,  made  of  steel,  the  wheels  : 
being  of  wood.  The  limber  boxes  are  j 
made  of  sheet  iron. 

The  ammunition  is  of  a  peculiar  pat- 
tern. The  shells  are  double-cased,  or 
have  double  sides,  forming  two  projectiles 
encased  one  within  another ;  the  surfaces 
of  each,  as  shown  in  the  translation  in 
the  "  K.  A.  Institution  Papers,'  by  Captain 
Wickham,  R.A.,  are  in  contact,  and  con- 
sist of  a  number  of  small  quadrangular 
pyramids  alternately  salient  and  re-enter- 
ing, so  as  to  form  lines  of  least  resistance 
when  the  shell  bursts.  The  projectiles 
have  two  belts  of  copper  (guide  rings) 
let  into  grooves  on  the  exterior  of  the 
shells,  in  lieu  of  the  lead-coating  on  O.P. 
shells. 

The  weight  of  the  H.A.  common  shell 
is  11-2  Ibs.,  the  shrapnel  shell  12-2  Ibs. ; 
that  of  the  F.B.  common  shell  is  15-4 
Ibs.,  and  the  shrapnel  shell  17-91bs. 

The  new  guns,  besides  having  a  larger 
charge  of  powder  than  has  hitherto  been 
employed  by  any  nation,  carry  a  long 
grenade  with  a  very  strong  explosive 
mixture,  so  that,  when  fired,  the  shell 
bursts  into  two  and  a  half  as  many  frag- 
ments as  an  ordinary  shell.  The  shrap- 
nel, too,  contains  more  bullets  than  the 


ordinary  shrapnel.  The  new  guns  are  also 
provided  with  steel  gun  carriages,  that 
is,  the  trail  brackets  are  of  laminated 
steel  plates,  and  the  axle-tree  is  also  of 
cast  steel ;  their  total  weight,  even  in  the 
case  of  the  heavier  calibres,  is  not  so 
great  as  that  of  the  present  8-centimetre 
gun.  The  powder  provided  for  these 
guns  has  a  great  resemblance  to  pebble 
powder. 

The  result  of  the  trials  made  with  the 
new  Krupp  field  guns  for  the  German 
artillery  is  stated  to  be  in  every  way 
satisfactory. 

The  heavy  guns  manufactured  by 
Krupp,  and  used  for  siege,  naval,  and 
coast  purposes,  are  of  the  following 
calibres  and  weights  : — 

,„  .     v,       (42i  tons. 
13  inches 


12 


11 


33 
J27 
\25 


The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  a 
Krupp  gun  which  has  of  late  been  tried 
in  Austria  along  with  the  new  steel- 
bronze  gun  (g.  v.) : — 


B.L.    8'7-CENTIJIETRE   CAST-STEEL   GUN. 


Total  length  of  the  gun 
Length  of  the  bore 
Number  of  grooves 
Depth  of  grooves 


Pitch  of  rifling . 


Weight  of  the  gun         ..  ..  ..  ..          .• 

Preponderance  of  the  breech  (with  breech  closer)     .. 
Weight  of  the  projectile  (filled) 

"Proportion  of  weight  of  charge  to  the  weight  of  projectile 
Initial  velocity  .. 


Mean  range  corresponding  to  an  angle  of  <      5 


6  feet  6  inches. 
5    „    11     „ 
inches      24 
inch  0-48 

r     3°  59'  10", 
'      or  1  in  45 
j    calibres  for 
I  driving  edge. 
9  cwt.  66  Ibs. 
Ibs.       103-61 
„  13-95 

i  to  2 
1553 
829 


feet 
yards 


Dangerous  zone  for  infantry  (height  6-233 
feet)  at          . .  . .          . .          .  • 


yards  829 
„  1658 
„  2487 


2652 

5793 
85 

32-3 
17'5 


Charges 


Ibs. 


3- SOT 
0-882 


KUL 


LAB 


Double-coated  common  shells,  2J  ca- 
libres long,  and  fitted  with  four  copper 
guide-rings,  were  used  for  direct  shell- 
lire.  For  direct  fire,  with  blind  shells, 
single-coated  shells  were  employed. 

Kullum  (Nauclea  parviflora) — A  wood 
used  in  the  Bombay  presidency  for  fuzes. 
It  is  a  light,  soft,  close-  and  even-grained 
wood,  of  a  light  brown  colour,  not  very 
durable,  and  will  rot  when  exposed  to  wet. 

Kunkur — An  Indian  term  ;  a  limestone 
deposited  from  water.  It  is  very  common 
in  India,  and  used  in  many  parts  of  the 
country  (wherever  it  can  be  procured) 
for  metalling  roads,  and  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  lime.  The  lime  made  from  it  is 
known  under  the  name  of  ghootintj. 

Kyanising,  vide  Corrosive  Sublimate. 


Laboratory — A  department  of  an  ar- 
senal for  the  manufacture  and  examina- 
tion of  ammunition  and  combustible 
stores.  A  laboratory,  as  explained  in  the 
'  Aide-Memoire,'  should  be  divided  off  into 
the  following  rooms  : — 

1.  A  compressing  room,  for  the  lead  used 
in   the  manufacture  of  bullets,  and  for 
the  formation  of  the  bullets  themselves. 

2.  A  room  for  heating  composition. 

3.  Cartridge  rooms,  for  gun  and  small- 
arm  cartridges. 

4.  Composition  rooms,  for  mixing  com- 
positions. 

5.  Driving  rooms,  for  driving  rockets, 
port-fires,  fuzes,  £c. 

6.  Packing  rooms,  for  putting  up  am- 
munition. 

7.  Rooms  for  the  manufacture  of  fric- 
tion tubes. 

8.  A  room  or  rooms  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  fulminate  of  mercury  and   per- 
cussion caps. 

These  rooms  can  be  arranged  either  in 
separate  buildings  or  under  one  roof;  if 
in  separate  buildings,  they  should  be  con- 
nected by  covered  passages ;  further,  they 
should  be  apart  from  any  inhabited  build- 


ings. The  following  precautions  against 
accidents  should  be  taken  : — -To  avoid  as 
much  as  possible  the  use  of  iron  in  the 
construction  of  the  buildings,  fixtures, 
tables,  &c.  of  the  laboratory  ;  to  sink  the 
head  of  iron  nails  if  used,  and  paste  paper 
or  putty  over  them:  better  still,  a  plug 
of  wood.  The  use  of  copper  screws  or 
nails  is  a  still  better  arrangement.  The 
floor  should  be  of  wood,  and  where  powder 
is  manipulated,  covered  with  leather,  and 
frequently  swept.  To  keep  no  more  than 
the  requisite  quantity  of  gunpowder  in 
the  laboratory,  and  to  have  the  ammu- 
nition and  finished  work  taken  to  the 
magazine.  Powder  barrels  should  be 
carried  in  hand  barrows  made  with 
leather  or  canvas,  and  the  ammunition 
in  boxes.  Everything  that  is  to  be 
moved  should  be  lifted  and  not  dragged 
or  rolled  on  the  floor,  except  on  the 
chime  of  the  barrel.  Kockets,  port-fires, 
&c.  should  never  be  driven  in  a  room 
where  there  is  any  powder  or  compo- 
sition, except  that  in  use  at  the  time. 
The  laboratory  should  never  be  entered 
at  night,unless  it  be  absolutely  necessary, 
and  then  a  closed  lantern  with  a  was 
light  should  be  used  ;  no  smoking  or  fire 
should  be  allowed  near  the  laboratory. 

Instructions  on  the  subject  of  labora- 
tories in  artillery  charge,  were  issued  in 
June  1873,  directing  the  following  regula- 
tions to  be  observed.  The  army  circular 
gives  the  definition,  in  the  following 
paragraphs,  of  the  term  "  laboratory," 
and  the.  mode  of  carrying  on  the  opera- 
tions within  it,  such  as  the  making  up  of 
cartridges,  filling  shells,  and  examining 
ammunition. 

"  1.  By  the  term  '  laboratory '  is  meant 
the  block  of  buildings  (with  the  passages 
and  ways  leading  thereto)  in  which  the 
examination  of  all  ammunition  will  take 
place,  cartridges  be  made  up,  and  shells 
filled.  In  most  works  suitable  buildings 
for  the  purpose  have  been  erected,  con- 
sisting of  a  lobby  with  barrier  at  the 
entrance,  and  filling  room  for  shells  or 
cartridges  with  hatches  or  openings  for 
the  admission  and  delivery  of  powder  or 
filled  cartridges  and  shells.  Where  no 
laboratory  building  exists,  a  tent  will  be 
used. 

"  '2.  Laboratory  operations  will  be  car- 
ried on  under  the  superintendence  of  an 


LAB 


215 


LAC 


officer,  who  must  satisfy  himself  that  the 
several  men,  as  detailed  in  section  3,  under- 
stand the  duties  entrusted  to  them.  The 
presence  of  an  officer  will  not,  however, 
be  necessary  at  small  detached  forts  or 
batteries  in  charge  of  master  gunners 
where  ammunition  is  made  up  for  the 
auxiliary  artillery. 

"  3.  The  party  for  laboratory  opera- 
tions will  be  detailed  as  follows:  — 

"  Two  men  as  magazine-men,  to  issue 
the  powder  in  barrels  from  the  maga- 
zine, and  receive  and  stow  cases  or  cy- 
linders containing  made-up  cartridges. 

"  Four  men  for  conveying  the  powder 
barrels  and  cases  with  cartridges  or  filled 
shell  to  and  from  the  laboratory.  Two 
men  will  be  sufficient  if  only  one  barrel 
of  powder,  or  less,  be  required. 

*'  Eight  men  for  the  cartridge  or  shell- 
filling  room,  or  less,  if  a  small  quantity 
of  ammunition  is  to  be  made  up.  These 
men  will  be  detailed  to  unhead  the  barrels, 
weigh  out  charges,  make  up  cartridges, 
or  fill  shells,  as  may  be  required. 

''  Two  men  will  be  required  at  the 
entrance  or  receiving  hatch,  to  pass  in 
empty  shells. 

"  4.  The  men  engaged  in  the  laboratory 
will  exchange  their  clothing  and  boots 
for  laboratory  clothing  and  slippers,  in 
the  place,  provided  at  the  entrance,  and 
will  on  no  account  repass  the  barrier, 
without  again  changing  their  clothing. 

"  5.  Previous  to  being  told  off,  the  men 
must  be  warned  to  lay  aside  any  knives, 
pipes,  matches,  or  combustibles  they  may 
have  about  them.  Any  infringement  of 
this  rule  will  be  dealt  with  as  disobe- 
dience of  orders. 

"  6.  The  operations  of  filling  shells 
and  making  up  cartridges  will  never  be 
carried  on  at  the  same  time  in  the  same 
room  or  tent. 

"  7.  The  greatest  attention  :  will  be 
paid  to  cleanliness  in  all  parts  of  the 
laboratory  and  ways  leading  thereto ; 
also  in  the  wagons  and  barrows  used  for 
the  conveyance  of  the  powder  or  ammu- 
nition to  or  from  the  laboratory.  Any 
loose  grains  of  powder,  dust,  or  grit,  will 
at  once  be  swept  up. 

"  8.  No  barrow,   tool,   or  tackle   used 
outside  will  be  admitted  within  the  bar- 
rier at  the  entrance  of  the  laboratory. 
"  9.  Nothing  will  be  kept   inside  the 


barrier  of  the  laboratory  but  the  au- 
thorised articles  for  a  laboratory,  a  pro- 
portion of  clothing,  also  a  supply  of  zinc 
cylinders  for  cartridges,  which  must  be 
thoroughly  examined  previous  to  admis- 
sion. 

"  10.  The  shells  to  be  filled  will  be 
piled  on  old  shot  or  stone,  outside  the 
entrance  to  the  laboratory  or  hatch,  let- 
tered '  For  admission  of  shell,'  if  there 
be  one.  The  shells  will  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  brushed  externally  before 
being  passed  into  the  laboratory — planks 
being  laid  down  when  the  heavier  shells 
are  filled,  in  order  to  save  the  floor. 

"  11.  All  shells,  previous  to  filling, 
will  be  carefully  searched  internally, 
and  all  loose  filings  or  pieces  of  lacquer 
removed. 

"  12.  All  shells,  up  to  the  9-inch  in- 
clusive, can  be  up-ended  by  hand  on  the 
blocks,  for  examination  and  filling.  Hea- 
vier shells  require  the  tackle  and  strap. 

"  13.  Made-up  cartridges  or  filled 
shells  will  on  no  account  be  issued  by 
the  same  door  or  hatch  through  which 
the  loose  powder  or  empty  shells  are 
passed  in. 

"  14.  Powder  barrels  will  be  conveyed 
to  the  laboratory,  and  zinc  cylinders  con- 
taining filled  cartridges  to  the  magazine 
or  cartridge  store,  in  barrows,  in  order 
to  keep  them  free  from  dirt  or  grit. 

"  15.  The  floor  of  the  chamber  in  the 
laboratory  appropriated  as  a  filling  room 
will  be  covered  with  hides  when  in  use. 

"  16.  Empty  powder  barrels  will  be 
passed  out  at  once,  and  stored  in  a  clean 
place  ;  and  in  the  event  of  a  barrel  not 
being  emptied,  it  will  be  re-headed  and 
returned  to  the  magazine. 

"  17.  Not  more  than  the  equivalent  to 
two  barrels  of  powder  will  be  in  the 
laboratory,  or  in  transit  between  the  ma- 
gazine and  laboratory,  at  the  same  time. 
"  18.  A  copy  of  these  instructions  at- 
tached to  a  board  will  be  hung  up  in  the 
entrance  to  the  laboratory.  Copies  for 
this  purpose,  printed  on  foolscap,  can  be 
obtained  on  demand." 

Lac — As  explained  in  Balfour's  '  Ency- 
clopaedia,' is  "  a  substance  obtained  from 
incrustations  made  by  an  insect  (Coccus 
laced)  on  the  branches  and  twigs  of  many 
trees  in  India.  The  lac  is  formed  by  the 
insect  into  cells,  somewhat  resembling  a 


LAC 


216 


LAI 


honeycomb,  in  which  the  insect  is  gene- 
rally found  entire,  and  owing  to  whose 
presence  stick  lac  yields  by  proper  treat- 
ment a  red  dye,  nearly,  it'  not  quite,  as 
bright  as  that  obtained  from  cochineal, 
and  more  permanent.  Lac  is  found 
encircling  the  branches  of  these  trees  in 
the  form  of  a  tube  ;  the  broken  branches 
with  incrustations  at  various  distances 
.ire  called  in  commerce  stick-lac,  which 
ought  to  be  semi-transparent.  The 
colouring  matter  exhibited  by  grinding 
stick-lac,  and  then  treating  it  with  water, 
constitutes  seed-lac,  which,  when  melted 
up  into  masses,  is  called  lump-lac.  Shell- 
lac  is  obtained  by  further  purifying  the 
seed-lac.  Lac  dye  consists  of  the  colour- 
ing matter  extracted  from  the  stick-lac. 
It  is  met  with  in  small  squares  similar  to 
indigo,  and  is  used  as  red  dye  instead  of 
cochineal.  Lac  dye  is  largely  manu- 
factured in  India  and  exported  to 
England.  In  Bengal,  lac  is  chiefly  pro- 
duced in  the  forests  of  Sylhet  and  at 
Burdwan  ;  it  is  also  procurable  in  the 
Deccan ;  but  Siam  and  Pegu  afford  the 
largest  supplies."  Shell-lac  is  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  sealing-wax,  also  as 
varnish  ;  in  the  latter  form  it  is  applied 
for  setting  the  fulminating  charge  in  gun- 
caps,  and  in  coating  Boxer's  fuzes  and 
friction  tubes. 

Lacquer — A  varnish  for  either  wood 
or  brass,  made  with  shell-lac  and  spirits 
of  wine,  in  the  proportion,  for  wood,  of 
2  Ibs.  of  lac  to  the  gallon  ;  another  recipe 
is  1  Ib.  of  seed-lac  and  1  Ib.  of  white 
rosin  to  a  gallon  of  spirits  of  wine.  For 
brass,  the  proportions  are  J  Ib.  of  pale 
shell-lac  to  1  gallon  of  spirit.  It  should 
l)e  made  without  heat,  simply  by  agita- 
tion for  five  or  six  hours.  It  should 
then  be  left  until  the  thicker  portions 
have  subsided,  when  the  clear  liquor  is 
poured  off,  or,  if  not  sufficiently  clear,  it 
must  be  filtered  through  paper ;  it 
darkens  by  exposure  to  light,  so  that 
paper  should  be  pasted  round  the  bottle 
to  exclude  it.  Or  the  following  recipe 
may  be  used  : — 

Ibs.    oz. 

Seed-lac       . .  . .     5       0 

Turmeric     . .  . .      2       8 

Spirits,  methylated    . .      5  gallons, 

which  will  answer  for  brass  fuzes  or  any 
other  work. 


A  lacquer  called  black-lead    lacquer  is 
used  for  the  preservation  of  the  bores  of 
breech-loading  ordnance  when  laid  up  in 
store,  and  is  composed  as  follows  : — 
Ibs.    oz. 
Black,  lamp,  dry      . .        0     12 

T      ,  /  black,  dry  24       8 

Lead<        ,     ,'      J 

\  red,  dry          . .        b     12 

Oil,  linseed,  raw       .  .        9       0 

There  is  a  red  lacquer  the  ingredients 

!  of  which  are  : — Rosin,   12  Ibs. ;  Spanish 

brown,   2   Ibs.  ;  plaster  of  Paris,    1  Ib. ; 

turpentine,   £  pint ;  this  is  used  to  coat 

the  interior  of  certain  rifled  projectiles  to 

1  prevent  premature  explosion  from  friction 

of  iron  against   powder,  which  in  shells 

with  rapid  rotation  is  very  great. 

Ladders,  Escaladiug — Frames  of  wood, 
similar  to  the  common  ladder,  consisting 
of  two  side  pieces,  connected  by  rounds 
or  steps,  and  sometimes  by  rope.  The 
length  of  the  ladders  should  be  relative 
to  that  of  the  works  or  walls  to  be 
escaladed.  They  are  sometimes  made  in 
two  or  three  parts,  so  that  they  may  be 
more  conveniently  carried. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  escalading 
ladders ;  those  in  lengths  provided  by 
government  with  other  engineers'  stores, 
and  those  of  an  impromptu  kind,  made 
for  the  occasion.  The  first  description 
consists  of  ladders  about  12  feet  in. 
length,  which  fit  into  one  another,  so 
that  each  joint  will  give  an  effective 
length  of  10  feet.  The  second  description 
of  ladder  is  in  one  length,  which  is  diffi- 
cult of  carriage. 

In  India,  escalading  ladders  are  made 
of  two  longitudinal  pieces  of  bamboo,  the 
transverse  pieces  of  wood  being  let  into 
the  bamboo,  and  bound  round  it  with 
strong  rope.  They  are  of  two  sizes,  26  feet 
and  14  feet  long. 

Ladders,  Fire — Ladders  made  of  rope 
or  wire,  and  placed  on  the  roof  of  thatched 
barracks  at  certain  distances  apart.  The 
object  of  the  ladders  is  to  enable  the  men, 
in  case  of  fire,  to  receive  and  pass  along 
the  roof  the  pots  or  buckets  of  water 
handed  up  from  the  ground,  which,  with 
the  assistance  of  water-engines,  may  ma- 
terially assist  in  extinguishing  the  fire* 

Laid  under  Metal — In  artillery,  im- 
plies the  depression  of  the  muzzles  of 
ordnance,  when  standing  out  exposed 
to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  so 


LAM 


217 


LAN 


as  to  prevent  water  lodging  inside  the 
bore. 

Lamellar —  Formed  of  thin  plates  or 
scales. 

Laminable — Metal  is  said  to  be  lamin- 
able  if  it  can  be  extended  by  passing  it 
between  rollers. 

Laminated  Armour — Consists  of  thin 
plates  bolted  together,  so  as  to  form  a 
shield  of  a  certain  total  thickness  ;  this 
depends  on  the  number  and  individual 
thickness  of  the  plates  employed.  Armour 
so  formed  is  stated  to  offer  much  less 
resistance  to  shot  than  solid  plating. 

Lamp — A  contrivance  for  giving  arti- 
ficial light  by  means  of  any  combustible 
substance,  such  as  gas,  oil,  wax,  &c. 
Lamps  are  employed  for  all  purposes, 
but  those  used  in  magazines,  mines,  and 
laboratories,  require  to  be  made  with 
great  care,  to  insure  safety. 

There  are  also  lamps  used  for  night 
signalling  (q.  «.). 

Lampas— A  complaint  horses  get  on 
the  roof  of  the  mouth.  It  is  removed  by 
scarification  or  cautery. 

Lancaster  Gun — An  oval-bored  M.L.R. 
gun.  The  following  is  a  description  of 
the  Lancaster  system  of  rifling  : — "  If  a 
gun  be  bored  out  cylindrically  like  an 
ordinary  smooth-bored  piece,  and  two 
grooves  afterwards  cut,  so  as  to  make  a 
quarter  of  a  turn  in  the  whole  length  of 
the  bore,  but  with  what  is  termed  an 
'  increasing  '  or  '  gaining  twist,'  then  if 
the  corners  of  the  grooves  be  chamfered 
away,  the  bore  will  become  elliptical  in 
form.  The  projectile  was  elongated,  but 
instead  of  the  transverse  section  being 
cylindrical,  it  was  elliptical,  so  as  to  cor- 
respond with  that  of  the  bore,  and  conse- 
quently the  projectile  could  only  pass 
through  the  bore  by  rotating  (J  of  a  re- 
volution) round  its  longer  axis.  The  gun 
was  of  course  muzzle-loading,  and, 
therefore,  had  a  certain  amount  of  wind- 
age ;  the  shells  were  made  of  wrought 
iron,  for  the  tendency  to  'jam'  in  the 
bore  was  so  great  that  cast  iron  would 
not  stand.  This  tendency  to  jam  is  one 
of  the  principal  objections  to  this  system 
of  rifling,  whereby  the  bursting  of  the 
gun  and  fracture  of  the  shell  is  caused." 

When  hostilities  broke  out  between 
Russia  and  England  in  18o4,  some  of  our 
8-inch^  and  68-pr.  cast-iron  guns  were 


oval-bored  on  Mr.  Lancaster's  plan,  and 
!  sent  to  the  Crimea,  but  they  proved  a 
!  failure,  from  the  jamming  of  the  pro- 
I  jectiles  in  the  spiral  bore. 

Lance   (Latin,   lanced) — This  offensive 

weapon,  which  consists  of  a  wooden  shaft 

with  a  sharp  point  attached  to  it,  is  of 

1  very  ancient  date.     Amongst  the  Romans 

:  and  other  ancient  nations,  the  lance  was 

i  used  more  as  a  javelin  than  as  a  pike, 

!  and    was    not    introduced    into    modern 

!  armies  as  a    cavalry   weapon   until    the 

'•  time  of  the  first  Napoleon,  who  organised 

|  several  regiments   of  Polish   lancers    for 

the  service  of  the  French  army.     In  the 

middle  ages,    and    during    the  Crusades, 

knights  were  invariably  armed  with  the 

lance    or    spear,    which    was    used    as    a 

weapon  to  thrust  with,  and  not,  like  the 

i  javelin,  to  be  thrown  at  the  enemy.     It 

|  is  doubtful  whether  the  lance  is  as  effec- 

|  tive  a  weapon  for  cavalry  as  the  sword. 

;  Its  value  in  pursuit  is  incontestable,  but 

'  at  close  quarters  the  sabre  is  a  superior 

and   more    handy   weapon.     During    the 

j  Sutlej   campaign,  some  of  the  16th  Lan- 

;  cers,  in  charging  the  Seikh  infantry,  are 

stated  to  have  suffered  from  wounds  on 

'  the    arm,    inflicted    at    the    moment    of 

thrusting  the  lance,  by  sword  cuts  from 

t  wounded  Seikhs.     This  would  appear  to 

'  show    the    necessity    of    the    lance  arm 

being  protected  by  some  sort  of  defensive 

armour. 

The  shafts  of  lances  are  made  either  of 
ash  or  beech  wood,  but  bamboo  has  been 
found  very  good.     The  length  of  a  lance 
j  is  19  feet  3  inches;  weight,  4  Ibs.  4  oz. 

Lance    Corporal  —  A    rank   above    a 
private  in  the  line.     He  is  distinguished 
by   a  stripe  on  the  arm.     He  performs 
I  the  duties  and  possesses  the  authority, 
I  but  does  not  receive  the  pay,  of  a  corporal. 
Lance  Sergeant — An  acting  sergeant. 
This  position  is  given  to  corporals  when 
additional   non-commissioned  officers  are 
required  to  assist  the  officers  of  troops 
and  companies  in  the  discharge  of  their 
duty ;  and  if  they  prove  themselves  effi- 
cient,   they   are   promoted  as   vacancies 
occur. 

Lancers — A  regiment  of  cavalry  armed 
with  lances.  Each  lancer  is  also  armed 
with  a  sword  and  pistols. 

Four  regiments  of  cavalry  were  armed 
as  lancers  after  the  peace  of  1815,  and 


LAX 


LAS 


dressed  like  the  Polish  lancers.  The  9th, 
12th,  16th,  and  23rd  regiments  were 
selected  for  this  arm.  Another  regiment 
has  since  been  added,  making,  now,  five 
regiments  of  lancers  attached  to  the 
British  army.  This  nature  of  cavalry 
was  much  appreciated  by  the  first  Napo- 
leon, who  placed  great  reliance  on  some 
Polish  regiments.  The  Russian  Cossacks 
are  armed  with  the  lance,  and  are  con- 
sidered the  type  and  perfection  of  lancers. 

Land  Transport — A  branch  of  the 
control  department.  It  comprises  men 
of  the  transport  companies,  and  cattle  for 
the  draught  or  otherwise  of  the  stores 
and  baggage  of  an  army.  Carts  or 
wagons  of  the  lightest  nature  should  be 
used,  and  the  horses  employed  to  draw 
them  should  be  driven  and  not  ridden. 
Pack  animals  should  only  be  used  on 
emergency,  when  a  sufficient  number  of 
carts  cannot  be  obtained.  In  mountainous 
countries,  resort  must  be  had  to  this 
kind  of  transport,  as  was  the  case  in 
Abyssinia.  But,  as  a  rule,  pack  animals 
are  to  be.  avoided,  as  being  the  worst  and 
most  difficult  transport  to  manage.  In 
India,  the  transport  consists  of  bullock 
carts  of  the  country,  elephants,  and  camels. 

Lands — In  artillery,  the  space  between 
the  furrows  or  grooves  of  a  rifled  gun. 

Landsturm — The  third  reserve  of  the 
German  army.  The  German  soldier, 
after  remaining  3  years  in  the  active 
army,  4  in  the  reserve,  and  5  years 
in  the  Landwchr,  is  draughted  into 
the  Landsturm,  which  owes  its  origin  to 
the  wars  of  the  first  empire,  and  was  for- 
merly a  force  raised  for  home  defence 
only.  But,  in  1874,  a  bill  was  passed 
by  which  the  emperor  can  summon  that 
force  of  his  own  authority  in  case  of 
urgency,  and  the  men  of  the  third 
reserve  can  be  draughted  into  the  Land- 
wekr  if  their  services  are  needed. 

It  is  computed  that  this  new  organisa- 
tion will  increase  the  strength  of  the 
German  urmy  up  to  nearly  two  millions 
of  men.  (  Vide  German  Army.) 

Landwehr — The  second  reserve  of  the 
German  army.  It  was  created  in  May 
1813.  (  Vide  German  Army.) 

Langrage,  or  Langrel — Case  shot  made 
up  of  pieces  of  iron  of  irregular  shape  and 
size  (now  obsolete).  It  was  formerly  used 
for  disabling  sails  and  rigging  of  ships. 


Lansquenets  (German,  Landskncchte, 
countrymen,  or  Lanzknect,  from  the  lance 
or  pike  which  they  carried) — German 
foot  soldiers  raised  towards  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  They  enlisted 
voluntarily,  and  hired  themselves  out  as 
mercenaries  to  any  power  that  was  willing 
to  pay  them.  Charles  VII.  of  France  first 
added  them  to  his  infantry.  After  the  six- 
teenth century  the  name  fell  into  disuse. 

Lantern — A  contrivance  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  light ;  it  is  made  of  glass 
or  any  transparent  matter.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  lanterns,  dark  and  Muscovy, 
which  are  used  at  night  in  batteries  or 
on  the  line  of  march. 

Lanyard — A  thin  cord,  with  a  hook 
attached  to  one  end  of  it,  for  pulling  the 
friction  bar  out  of  a  friction  tube,  after 
it  is  placed  in  the  vent  of  the  gun,  by 
which  means  the  tube  'is  ignited  and  the 
flame  conveyed  to  the  charge.  The  hook 
is  placed  in  the  eye  of  the  friction  bar, 
and  at  the  other  end  there  is  either  a  loop 
or  a  wooden  toggle.  There  are  five  sorts 
of  lanyards  for  firing  friction  tubes,  all  of 
which  are  described  in  the  '  Treatise  on 
Ammunition,  1874.' 

Lapel — Facings  of  a  coat. 

Lapping — The  process  a  gun  under- 
goes after  being  rifled,  also  after  "  proof," 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  any  little 
burrs  which  may  be  thrown  up  on  the 
edge  of  the  grooves  by  the  proof  rounds. 

Lascars — Native  seamen,  originally 
from  the  Malay  Archipelago.  The  name 
is  commonly  given  to  the  native  sailors 
used  in  the  mercantile  marine. 

Such  men,  under  the  name  of  khalassies 
(q.  v.\  are  emploved  in  some  of  the 
Indian  arsenals.  At  Hongkong  and  in 
Ceylon  there  are  companies  of  lascars  in 
the  pay  of  the  British  government. 

Lashing — The  securing  together  any 
bodies  by  means  of  ropes ;  there  are  two 
modes  generally  used,  viz.  square  and 
diagonal.  The  nature  of  rope  depends 
on  the  work  to  be  done.  In  securing 
sheers,  guns,  and  any  articles  that  re- 
quire to  be  fixed,  lashing  is  resorted  to. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  rope  used  for 
lashing — log  line,  seizing  line,  and  Ham- 
bro'  line.  Lashings  used  in  mounting 
and  dismounting  guns  are  of  different 
dimensions. 

Lasso  Harness — The  following  descrip- 


LAS 


219 


LAT 


tion  is  given  of  this  harness  in  Griffith's 
'  Artillerist's  Manual  ' :— "  Lasso  harness 
consists  of  a  brown  leather  surcingle 
and  one  trace.  The  surcingle  is  rather  j 
wider  than  a  common  girth,  and  is  com-  | 
posed  of  two  pieces  (joined  together  by 
rings),  one  of  which  is  placed  over  the 
saddle,  and  the  other  round  the  belly  of 
the  horse.  There  are  also  rings  at  the 
end  of  the  surcingle,  which  is  drawn  very 
firmly  round  the  horse,  and  fastened 
tight  by  lapping  a  white  leather  thong 
(fixed  at  one  end  of  the  surcingle)  through 
these  rings.  There  are  two  descriptions 
of  tnaces,  one  being  8  and  the  other  12 
feet  long.  They  have  hooks  at  each  end, 
and,  when  the  lasso  harness  is  made  use 
of  by  cavalry,  &c.,  to  assist  draught 
horses  in  moving  very  heavy  carriages, 
or  in  dragging:  guns,  &c.  up  steep  hills, 
one  of  these  hooks  is  fastened  to  a  ring  in 
the  surcingle,  and  the  other  to  the  car- 
riage, &c. 

"  Lasso  harness  may  be  advantageously 
employed  with  all  horses ;  even  those 
unaccustomed  to  draught  having  been 
found  perfectly  tractable  and  efficient  the 
first  time  they  were  required  to  draw  by 
means  of  the  lasso.  When  two  horses 
are  in  draught,  the  traces  must  be  inside, 
and  each  rider  should  keep  his  horse's 
croup  a  little  outwards." 

Lasting  Cloth — A  material  similar  to 
prunella  cloth,  only  thicker,  which,  is 
used  for  the  clothing  of  mill-men  in 
powder  houses.  It  has  the  property  of 
not  readily  catching  fire. 

Lateral — This  term  in  gunnery  is  used 
to  express  the  deviation  to  one  side  or 
the  other  of  the  vertical  plane  passing 
through  the  axis  of  the  gun,  which  a 
projectile  is  often  observed  to  take  in  its 
course. 

Lateral  Communications — In  warfare, 
"  are  the  communications  which  should  be 
kept  up  between  the  different  portions  of 
an  army  when  moving  from  one  common 
base  by  different  roads  towards  an  enemy, 
so  that,  in  case  of  a  concentration  being 
required  on  any  particular  point,  instruc- 
tions and  orders  can  be  readily  carried 
out,  and  the  different  portions  of  the 
army  brought  together  with  rapidity. 
To  prevent  any  obstruction  to  communi- 
cations being  kept  up,  especially  when 
advancing  towards  the  enemy,  the  several 


roads  on  which  the  army  marches  should 
not,  if  possible,  be  separated  by  rivers, 
morasses,  or  a  mountain  ridge ;  rivers 
would  not  be  so  objectionable,  as  they 
might  be  forded  or  crossed  by  bridges. 
Marches  of  large  armies  have  been  con- 
ducted on  a  single  road ;  but  this  is 
objectionable,  and  should  be  avoided. 
Several  roads  tending  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, with  easy  means  of  concentration, 
is  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  moving 
an  army." 

Lathe — That  known  as  the  common 
foot  lathe  is  described  as  "  a  machine  for 
turning  metals  or  wood,  by  causing  the 
material  to  revolve  on  central  points, 
and  cut  by  a  tool  held  by  the  hand  or 
fixed  in  a  slide  rest.  There  are  other 
lathes,  which  are  self-acting  and  self- 
adjusting,  which  are  adapted  to  plain 
and  circular  turning,  screw-cutting,  and 
boring.  Amongst  the  self-acting  lathes 
is  Whitworth's  patent  duplex  lat/ie. 
The  peculiarity  in  this  lathe  consists  in 
the  employment  of  a  cutting-tool  at  the 
back  of  the  lathe,  in  addition,  and 
opposite,  to  the  tool  in  front,  but  in  in- 
verted positions  each  to  the  other.  The 
transverse  forces  are  thus  balanced,  and 
the  work  produced  is  more  correct,  and 
accomplished  in  less  time  than  by  the 
ordinary  lathe.  A  lathe  consists  of  four 
parts :  the  frame,  head-stocks,  which 
have  also  the  differential  pulleys  to  allow 
the  velocity  to  be  changed ;  the  rest,  for 
the  tools ;  and  the  corresponding  differ- 
ential pulleys  upon  the  shaft  com- 
municating motion." 

Latitude — In  geography,  "  the  latitude 
of  a  place  is  its  angular  distance  from  the 
equator  measured  on  the  meridian,  and 
can  never  exceed  90°.  It  takes  its  name 
according  to  the  situation  of  the  place 
north  or  south  of  the  equator ;  therefore 
all  places  lying  at  the  same  distance 
from  and  on  the  same  side  of  the 
equator  are  said  to  be  under  the  same 
parallel  of  latitude  ;  parallels  of  latitude 
are  circles  parallel  to  the  equator."  In 
astronomy,  the  latitude  of  a  heavenly 
body  is  its  distance  north  or  south  of 
the  ecliptic. 

Latrines — Conveniences  for  soldiers  in 
camps  and  barracks.  Those  used  in  the 
former  are  simply  trenches  dug  in  the 
earth,  at  some  convenient  distance  from 


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the  camp.  If  in  a  standing  camp,  and 
near  bushes,  or  anything  which  can  give 
cover,  a  screen  is  formed  on  one  side  of 
the  trench.  Twice  a  day  dry  earth  is 
thrown  into  the  pits. 

Law,  Military — A  code  which,  formed 
for  the  guidance  of  a  particular  class 
of  the  community — the  standing  army — 
exists  side  by  side  with  the  common 
and  statute  law  of  the  land ;  and 
its  tribunals  exercise  their  functions 
independently  of,  and  yet  in  harmony 
with,  the  ordinary  courts  of  justice, 
with  which  they  do  not,  and  cannot, 
interfere. 

Laying  a  Gun — In  gunnery,  pointing 
a  gun  so  that  the  projectile  shall  strike 
the  object  aimed  at.  This  is  effected  by 
bringing  the  top  of  the  notch  of  the  hind 
sight,  the  apex  of  the  fore  sight  (whether 
muzzle  or  trunnion),  and  the  object  in  line. 
In  laying  a  rifled  gun,  the  scales  for  eleva- 
tion and  deflection  must  be  first  adjusted. 
This  being  done,  Xo.  1  of  the  gun's  crew, 
as  is  shown  in  the  '  Manual  of  Artillery 
Exercises,'  proceeds  to  lay  the  gun.  "  He 
places  himself  in  rear  of  the  gun,  bringing 
his  eye  to  a  level  with  the  top  of  the 
hind  sight,  and  about  6  inches  in  rear  of 
it,  and,  when  laying  guns  where  it  is 
necessary  to  stoop,  places  his  feet  so  that 
the  body  is  well  balanced,  steadying 
himself  by  leaning  on  the  gun  with  his 
arm,  and  gives  the  necessary  orders  for 
elevating  or  traversing,  until  the  gun  is 
laid  as  above  ;  with  field  guns  he  himself 
elevates  or  depresses. 

"  With  guns  fitted  with  a  traversing 
bar,  the  final  adjustment  is  given  by 
No.  1  himself. 

"  In  laying  a  gun,  avoid  putting  the 
back  of  the  nail  on  the  top  of  the  sight, 
the  hand  to  cover  the  eye,  holding  the 
tangent  scale,  or  other  peculiarity." 

In  breech-loading  and  muzzle-loading 
rifled  guns,  provision  is  made  in  the 
sighting  to  meet  what  is  known  as  the 
constant  deflection  of  such  guns  caused 
by  rifling.  To  provide  also  against  de- 
flection by  wind  or  other  inaccuracies, 
such  as  one  wheel  being  higher  than 
another,  a  deflection  scale  is  attached  to 
each  gun.  (  Vide  Deviation.) 

Formerly,  guns  which  had  no  tangent 
scale  were  elevated  by  means  of  the 
quarter  sights  or  quadrant. 


Lead — A  metal  of  bluish  white  colour, 
and  lustrous,  tarnishing  rapidly  by  con- 
tact with  the  air ;  specific  gravity,  when 
pure,  11-84-0  ;  fusible  at  601°"  Fahr. ; 
volatilises  at  a  red  temperature.  Lead  is 
used  in  preparing  solder  for  brass,  mak- 
ing leaden  balls,  &c.,  and  is  made  up  in 
piijs  ;  it  is  also  prepared  in  sheets. 

Lead,  Black,  vide  Black  Lead,  and 
Lacquer. 

Lead  Harness  —  The  furniture  or 
trappings  belonging  to  the  centre  and 
leading  horses  of  a  team. 

Lead,  Rod — Lead  formed  into  the 
shape  of  a  rod.  In  this  form  it  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  compressed  bul- 
lets. The  squirting  machine  for  forming 
the  lead  into  rod  consists  of  an  hydraulic 
press,  the  ram  of  which  is  keyed  on  to  a 
piston,  working  in  a  cylinder  immediately 
above  it.  A  charge  of  melted  lead  is  poured 
in  through  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  near 
the  top  of  which  is  a  die  of  the  diameter 
of  the  rod  required.  The  charging  hole 
being  closed,  and  the  lead  having  been 
allowed  to  cool  down  to  a  point  short  of 
congelation,  the  water  is  pumped  in 
below  the  ram,  the  piston  rises  and 
carries  the  lead  up  against  the  die, 
which  being  then  the  only  exit,  the  lead 
is  squirted  out  in  the  form  of  a  rod,  at 
the  rate  of  between  30  and  40  feet  per 
second.  The  specific  gravity  of  this  rod 
has  been  found  to  be  11-334.  The 
following  chemical  examination  of  lead 
for  bullets  is  herewith  given,  taken  from 
the  '  Woolwich  Instructions  ' : — 

"  Preliminary  Arrangements  and  Pre- 
cautions. 

"  If  distilled  water  cannot  be  pro- 
cured, rain  water  may  be  used  instead, 
provided  it  remains  perfectly  bright 
when  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of 
chloride  of  barium.  This  should  be  tried 
by  adding  a  few  drops  of  the  test  to  some 
of  the  water  in  a  test-tube. 

"  In  obtaining  a  fresh  supply  of  nitric 
acid,  its  purity  must  be  ascertained  in 
the  following  manner  : — 

"Pour  2  measured  drachms  of  the 
acid  into  a  dish,  add  about  12  drops  of 
chloride  of  barium,  and  then  evaporate 
to  dryness  over  the  lamp.  When  the 
dish  is  cool,  dissolve  the  solid  residue  by 
adding  sufficient  water  to  half  fill  tha 


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dish,  and  then  pour  the  solution  into 
a  beaker.  It'  the  liquid  is  not  quite  clear, 
the  nitric  acid  is  not  sufficiently  pure. 

"  The  lead  to  be  examined  must  be 
scraped  perfectly  bright,  and  then  cut 
into  small  fragments. 

"  The  dishes  and  glass  vessels,  after 
having  been  cleaned,  must  always  be 
rinsed  out  with  distilled  or  rain  water 
before  use. 

"  The  exterior  of  the  dishes  and  flasks 
must  bu  carefully  dried  before  they  are 
placed  over  the  lamp  ;  the  liquids  must 
never  be  allowed  to  boil  violently,  and  a 
cold  liquid  must  never  be  poured  into  a 
hot  vessel. 

"  Examination  of  the  Lead. — Place  200 
grains  of  lead  fragments  in  a  conical 
flask,  add  6  drachms  of  nitric  acid  and 
12  drachms  of  pure  water;  place 
the  flask  on  the  gauge  over  the  spirit 
lamp  (using  a  small  flame)  and  heat 
gently,  until  the  lead  has  thoroughly 
dissolved. 

"  If  the  solution  of  the  metal  is  per- 
fectly clear,  there  is  no  considerable 
amount  of  antimony  or  tin  in  the  lead, 
0'2  or  0'3  per  cent,  of  these  metals  would 
render  the  liquid  quite  turbid. 

"  The  liquid  is  poured  into  a  dish  and 
evaporated  to  dryness  over  the  lamp. 
When  it  is  nearly  evaporated,  the  liquid 
must  be  continually  stirred  with  a  glass 
rod,  otherwise  it  will  spurt  violently. 

"  If  the  dryness  is  green,  copper  is 
present.  This  efi'ect  is  produced  by  a 
very  small  quantity  of  that  metal. 
Notice  need  therefore  only  be  taken  of 
this  metal  when  the  liquid,  after  partial 
evaporation,  possesses  a  decided  blue 
colour.  Iron  may  also  be  recognised  by 
its  imparting  a  reddish  brown  colour 
to  the  dryness. 

"  Add  about  4  oz.  of  pure  water  to 
the  dry  substance  in  the  dish,  stir  and 
heat  gently  until  the  solid  has  dissolved, 
then  pour  the  liquid  into  a  beaker  glass. 
If  it  is  perfectly  bright,  or  only  faintly 
turbid,  the  lead  is  free  from  any  appreci- 
able amount  of  antimony,  tin,  arsenic,  and 
sulphur. 

"  If  there  is  any  considerable  amount  of 
sediment  in  the  liquid,  the  latter  must 
be  passed  through  a  filter  (supported 
in  a  funnel  on  the  tripod  with  a  triangle 
placed  across  it,  and  the  paper  moistened 


with  pure  water  from  the  jet  before  the 
liquid  is  poured  upon  it) ;  the  clear 
solution  is  collected  in  one  of  the  large 
flasks.  When  it  has  quite  passed  through 
the  filter,  the  flask  is  removed  and  an 
empty  beaker  substituted. 

"  The  substance  on  the  filter  is  washed 
by  pouring  pure  water  into  the  filter 
from  the  jet,  until  a  few  drops  of  the 
water  (collected  in  a  test-tube  as  they 
drip  from  the  funnel)  remain  quite 
bright  after  addition  of  a  drop  or  two 
of  sulphuric  acid.  Fill  a  test-tube  to 
about  one-sixth  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
add  an  equal  quantity  of  pure  water, 
heat  the  mixture  for  a  short  time,  and 
then  pour  it  slowly  round  the  sides  of 
the  filter,  having  first  placed  the  funnel 
in  a  clean  test-tube ;  if  any  portion 
of  the  substance  on  the  filter  is  not  dis- 
solved, it  shows  that  the  lead  contains 
tin.  Add  a  drop  or  two  of  chloride  of 
barium  to  the  acid  liquid ;  if  a  milki- 
ness  is  produced,  it  is  due  to  sulphuric 
acid,  and  shows  that  the  lead  contains 
sulphur.  Place  a  small  piece  of  litmus 
paper  into  the  liquid  (whether  clear  or 
turbid),  add  ammonia  gradually,  until 
the  colour  of  the  paper  is  permanently 
changed  to  blue,  and  then  a  few  drops 
of  sulphide  of  ammonium;  warm  the 
mixture  in  the  test-tube  or  in  a  dish, 
and  then  filter,  collecting  the  clear 
liquid  in  a  small  flask.  Add  hydrochloric 
acid  to  the  liquid  gradually,  until  a  piece 
of  litmus  paper,  placed  in  it,  is  perma- 
nently reddened,  and  heat  to  boiling,  if 
the  substance  which  separates  has  an 
orange  colour  or  tint,  antimony  is  pre- 
sent (the  colour  should  be  deep  if  the 
quantity  of  antimony  is  at  all  consider- 
able). Arsenic  is  indicated  by  a  yellow 
colour,  which  may  be  masked  by  the 
colour  of  the  antimony,  in  which  case 
the  latter  is  present  in  considerable 
quantity.  If  the  substance  separated 
is  white  or  green,  it  consists  only  of  the 
sulphur  separated  from  the  sulphide  of 
ammonium,  and  the  absence  of  arsenic 
and  antimony  in  the  lead  is  proved.  The 
solution  in  the  flask  is  mixed  with 
three  or  four  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  then  boiled,  sufficient  pure  water 
having  first  been  added  to  fill  the  flask 
about  two-thirds.  If  the  curdy  white 
substance  which  is  first  produced  dis- 


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solves  completely  when  the  liquid  boils, 
the  lead  is  free  from  any  appreciable 
amount  of  silver;  but  if  any  of  the 
substance  remains  insoluble  after  the 
boiling  has  been  continued  a  short 
time,  the  presence  of  that  metal  is  in- 
dicated." 

Leader,  Rocket — A  piece  of  quick- 
match  enclosed  in  paper;  it  is  used  in 
tiring  a  number  of  rockets  simultane- 
ously. The  pattern  approved  of  is  fitted 
with  nine  short  pieces  of  quick-match, 
at  intervals  of  3  feet ;  it  is  34  feet  in 
length,,  and  has  5  feet  of  leader  clear  at 
each  end. 

Leading  Rein — A  rein  attached  to 
the  near  side  of  the  bit  of  the  off  horse, 
and  held  in  the  driver's  right  hand.  It 
consists  of  a  single  strap,  and  enables  the 
driver  to  keep  the  off  up  to  the  near  horse. 

Leaf  Sight — One  of  the  sights  of  rifled 
guns.  It  is  attached  to  the  tangent  sight, 
and  is  called  a  sliding  leaf-head.  ( Vide 
Sights.) 

League — A  measure  of  length,  vary- 
ing in  different  countries  according  to 
the  number  of  geometrical  paces  it  con- 
tains. A  league  at  sea  consists  of  three 
nautical  or  geographical  miles,  or  the 
one-twentieth  of  a  degree,  and  conse- 
quently about  3'45  English  miles. 

Leather  —  The  hide  of  an  animal 
after  undergoing  the  process  of  tanning. 
Hides  for  the  purpose  of  being  manufac- 
tured into  leather  are  plentiful  in  most 
parts  of  the  world.  England  itself  fur- 
nishes vast  quantities,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  ox  and  cow  hides  are  received 
from  Monte  Video.  Buenos  Ayres,  Russia, 
and  Northern  Germany.  The  East  Indies 
send  chiefly  buffalo  hides.  The  prin- 
cipal mart  in  India,  to  which  hides,  both 
buffalo  and  cow,  are  brought  for  sale,  is 
Calcutta,  where  they  pass  into  the  hands 
of  the  English  merchant  for  exportation 
to  Europe,  or  to  the  tanner  to  be  manu- 
factured into  leather. 

The  following  is  the  mode  of  preparing 
hides  as  carried  out  in  India,  which  is 
somewhat  similar  to  that  pursued  in 
England.  Hides  are  generally  brought 
to  the  tanner  in  a  salted  or  dry  state 
with  the  hair  on,^  the  removal  of  which 
is  the  first  process  they  have  to  undergo. 
They  are  then  steeped  in  water  from 
12  to  24  hours,  with  the  view  of  soften- 


ing the  hides  and  extracting  the  salt ; 
to  assist  this,  they  are  once  or  twice 
worked  over  on  a  wooden  bench  or 
"  beam  "  with  a  blunt  curved  knife  to 
complete  the  softening  ;  they  are  then 
transferred  into  powerful  fulling  mills 
called  "  shocks,"  worked  by  machinery, 
in  which  the  hides,  say  50  or  60  at  a 
time,  are  pounded  or  pressed  until  thev 
become  perfectly  soft  and  pliable,  as  if 
just  taken  from  the  back  of  the  cattle. 
They  are  now  well  washed  in  two  or  more 
fresh  waterings,  and  again  straightened 
or  rubbed  over  on  the  beam,  which  pre- 
pares them  for  the  liming  process. 
During  this  process  the  hides  are  passed 
through  a  paste  of  lime  and  water,  so 
that  both  sides  are  well  covered,  and 
then  thrown  into  a  heap  for  12  hours  or 
more,  after  which  they  are  thrown  into 
lime-pits  and  covered  with  strong  lime 
water,  in  which  they  remain  from  2  to 
10  days,  the  time  to  be  regulated  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  hide  itself  and 
the  state  of  the  weather.  The  hides  are 
again  spread  upon  the  beam  and  un- 
haired  by  scraping  them  with  a  curved 
knife,  until  all  the  hair  has  been  re- 
moved. This  operation  has  to  be  re- 
peated several  times,  so  as  to  leave  no 
chance  of  even  the  root  of  a  hair  being 
left,  and  also  with  the  view  of  softening 
the  grain.  The  inner  or  flesh  side  of  the 
hides  has  now  to  be  examined,  and  all 
extraneous  matter,  such  as  bits  of  flesh, 
&c.  removed  by  a  sharp  currier's  knife. 
All  irregularities  in  the  substance  are 
also  to  be  •  adjusted  by  shaving  those 
parts  which  are  too  thick.  The  final 
process  is  now  arrived  at,  viz.  that  of 
preparing  the  hides  for  either  tanning 
or  loshing,  i.e.  converting  them  into  buff 
leather  (7.  i'.). 

For  tanning,  the  hides  have  to  pass 
through  a  chemical  process  of  soften- 
ing or  graining  ;  this  is  done  in  various 
ways  by  the  application  of  acids.  The 
process  is  a  delicate  one,  requiring  much 
care  and  attention,  as,  without  being 
thus  thoroughly  treated,  a  good  leather 
cannot  be  produced,  and,  if  slightly  over- 
done, putrefaction  at  once  takes  place, 
and  the  hides  are  lost.  The  hides  are 
now  washed  in  clean  water,  and  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  tanner.  The 
tanning  process,  or  converting  the  pre- 


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pared  hides  or  skins,  is  a  tedious  one, 
requiring  several  months,  and  in  some  cases 
(according  to  the  substance  of  the  hide) 
even  years,  to  thoroughly  impregnate  the 
pores  with  tannin.  Many  patents  and  ex- 
periments have  been  tried  in  England  to 
facilitate  the  process  of  tanning,  some  of 
which  have  also  been  tried  in  Calcutta,  but 
on  all  sides  it  is  generally  acknowledged 
that  the  slow  and  most  natural  process 
invariably  produces  the  best  and  most 
durable  leather.  Tannin  is  an  astringent 
solution  extracted  from  various  barks 
and  nuts  of  trees.  Those  chiefly  in  use 
in  Bengal  are  the  nuts  known  in  com- 
merce as  the  "myrabolain,"  "gambier," 
and  the  bark  of  the  babool  tree.  The 
first  and  last  of  these  have  to  be  ground 
or  crushed  as  fine  as  possible  by  powerful 
machinery  made  expressly  for  the  pur- 
pose. These  substances  readily  yield 
their  tannin,  and  by  soaking  in  water 
form  a  strong  astringent  solution  called 
"  ooze." 

The  last  reference  to  the  hides  left 
them  in  a  state  ready  for  the  tan  pits, 
which  are  usually  made  of  wood.  The 
hides  are  now  steeped  in  one  of  these 
small  pits  termed  "  handlers,"  containing 
merely  spent  ooze,  or  such  as  have  little 
of  the  tannin  left  in  them.  In  this  the 
hides  are  handled  for  a  few  hours,  when 
the  ooze  is  changed  for  a  fresh  and 
somewhat  stronger  ooze.  The  process 
is  repeated  several  times,  each  time  in- 
creasing the  strength  of  the  ooze,  until 
the  pit  is  thoroughly  and  evenly 
coloured.  They  are  then  gradually 
passed  to  the  larger  tan  pits,  in  which 
they  are  spread  out,  several  hundred 
"  pelts  "  in  a  pit,  with  layers  of  crushed 
bark  and  ready  prepared  ooze.  During 
the  process  of  thoroughly  impregnating 
the  "  pelt  "  with  tannin,  which,  as  before 
mentioned,  occupies  several  months,  the 
hides  have  to  be  thrown  up,  and  each  time 
fresh  supplies  of  crushed  bark  and  pre- 
pared ooze  applied.  When  the  hides  are 
thoroughly  tanned,  the  fibres  are  of  one 
uniform  colour  throughout,  and  they  are 
then  in  a  fit  state  to  be  dried  out  and 
transferred  to  the  hands  of  the  currier, 
by  whom  they  are  prepared  for  the  va- 
rious purposes  of  trade  and  commerce. 

Leather  Cannon — Introduced  by  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  into  the  army  on  account 


of  their  mobility.  Undeniable  evidence, 
however,  of  their  earlier  existence, 
though  of  a  smaller  size,  is  found  in  the 
'  Landeshuter  Harnisch-Kammer-Inven- 
tarium  '  of  1562,  in  which  mention  is 
made  of  a  "  lange  lederne  Biichse  mit 
Kugel-Modell."  Although  Gustavus 
Adolphus  improved  and  perfected  the 
leather  cannon  which  he  introduced  into 
his  army  in  1026,  and  used  in  the  siege 
of  Wormditt,  yet  neither  he  nor  the 
German  Freiherr  Melchior  v.  Wurm- 
brandt,  nor  the  North  British  Baron 
Robert  Scot,  can  be  regarded  as  the  in- 
ventor. The  invention  is  evidently  of 
much  earlier  date. 

A  leather  mortar  for  firing  shells,  on 
exhibition'  in  the  arsenal  at  Venice,  was,- 
the  Venetians  assert,  made  in  1349  ;  it 
is  very  likely,  however,  that  its  origin  is 
somewhat  earlier.  One  is  here  reminded 
of  the  many  substitutes  for  metal  ord- 
nance, especially  of  the  wooden  cannon 
(entirely  bound  with  iron  hoops),  which 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  period 
from  1525  to  1530. 

The    leather    cannon    varied    from    a 
1-pr.  to  a  4-pr.     The  bore  consisted  of  a 
copper  cylinder,  of  the  thickness  of  three- 
|  fourths  of  the  diameter  of  the  ball  used. 
j  The  length  of  the  cylinder  was  sixteen 
I  calibres ;     cascable     and     breech     were 
'  screwed  into  the  cylinder.     The  vent,  of 
!  copper,    was   screwed    into   the    breech. 
i  The  entire  length  of  the  bore  was  covered 
j  with  iron  hoops,  over  which  a  number  of 
j  ropes  were  wound,  which,  in  turn,  were 
covered  with  several  layers  of  varnish. 
Over  these  layers  another  round  of  ropes 
was  wound,  and  over  this  was  spread  a 
layer  of  cement.     This  process  was  re- 
peated until  the  coat  was  of  the  thick- 
ness of  two   calibres  ;  the  last    coating 
consisted  of  tarred  leather,  which  gave 
the     cannon    its    name.       The     charge 
amounted     to    one-fourth,    rarely    one- 
third,    of  the  weight  of  the   ball  ;    the 
cannon  was    loaded  only   with    canister. 
Canister-shot,  until  that  time  only  used 
in   sieges,  was  introduced   by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  into  the  field  service,  and  con- 
sisted mostly  of  musket  bullets,  though 
old  pieces  of  iron  were  very  often  used. 
The  shot  were  put  into  wooden  and  tin 
boxes,  linen  bags,  and  sometimes  onlv  in 
rude  wicker  baskets.    The  leather  cannon, 


LEA 


224 


LEA 


of  90  Ibs.  weight,  with  its  light  carriage, 
was  easily  drawn  by  two  men. 

This  cannon,  however,  by  no  means  met 
the  high  expectations  entertained  of  it. 
Already  in  1631  the  Swedes  ceased  using 
this  nature  of  gun,  because  at  the  battle 
of  Breitenfeld  it  not  only  became  so 
overheated  that  the  charges  ignited  of 
themselves,  but  it  also  gave  a  very  short 
and  unreliable  range. 

In  1629,  a  certain  Lieutenant  Wolf 
Wiiller,  of  Chemnitz,  circulated  the  re- 
port that  he  was  in  the  possession  of  a 
secret  for  the  construction  of  leather 
cannon  which  had  many  and  decided 
advantages  over  metal  ordnance.  The 
elector  of  Saxony  ordered  Colonel  von 
Schwalbach  to  investigate  and  to  report 
as  to  its  worth.  The  report  of  the 
colonel  was  found  to  be  favourable,  and 
expressed  in  these  words  : — "  Owing  to 
their  light  weight,  easy  transportation, 
and  saving  of  powder,  as  well  as  the 
advantages  they  offer  in  the  field  against 
the  enemy,  and  in  mountainous  and 
swampy  regions,  in  which  latter  places 
heavy  cannon  can  seldom  be  used  at 
all,  such  pieces  cannot  be  too  highly 
regarded,"  &c.  The  elector  ordered  the 
construction  of  two  leather  cannon,  for 
which  were  given  "  fifty-seven  florins 
three  groschen  ready  money ;  seventeen 
florins  three  groschen  for  sixty  pounds 
pewter ;  fifty-one  florins  three  groschen 
for  two  and  one-fourth  hundredweight 
refined  copper.  Of  the  copper,  the  cop- 
persmith received  two  hundredweight, 
with  which  he  made  a  tube  four  and  one- 
half  ells  long,  weighing  ninety  pounds, 
and  used  twelve  pounds  for  muzzle  and 
vent.  The  waste  in  melting  twice 
amounted  to  sixteen  pounds,  the  re- 
mainder was  left  to  the  smith  as  pay  for 
his  work."  The  trial  with  these  leather 
guns  could  not  have  been  very  satis- 
factory, if  we  may  judge  from  the  follow- 
ing item  in  a  record  of  weights  of  the 
armoury  at  Dresden,  June  14,  1630 : 
"  Inventory  of  the  weights  of  copper  and 
pewter  of  the  burst  leather  pieces  in  the 
elector's  armoury  at  Dresden: — Cop- 
per, one-half  hundredweight  twenty-six 
pounds ;  pewter,  thirty-four  pounds." 

No  mention  being  made  of  these  guns 
at  a  later  period,  it  is  taken  for  granted 
that  this  one  failure  was  thought  suffi- 


cient to  cool  all  enthusiasm  for  leather 
cannon. 

Leave  of  Absence — The  permission 
granted  to  an  officer  to  be  absent  from  his 
regiment  or  staff'  appointment.  In  apply- 
ing for  leave,  the  War  Office  form  should 
be  used.  The  general  commanding  has  the 
power  to  grant  leave  within  monthly  re- 
turns. .For  special  duties,  the  officer  who 
is  to  perform  the  work  in  the  interim  is 
to  be  named  in  the  application  for  leave. 

The  application  of  a  medical  officer  goes 
first  to  the  principal  medical  officer  in  the 
division  or  garrison ;  that  of  a  paymaster 
to  the  War  Office,  accompanied  by  a  certi- 
ficate from  a  board  that  his  accounts  are 
satisfactory,  cash  balance  correct,  acting 
paymaster  engaged,  and  declaration  made 
that  the  real  paymaster  is  answerable  for 
substitute. 

The  application  of  an  officer  proceeding 
on  sick  leave  must  be  accompanied  by  a 
medical  certificate.  If  the  officer  is  not 
likely  to  rejoin  soon,  it  is  usual  for  the 
medical  board  to  ask  the  general  to  as- 
semble the  board  or  to  get  him  to  apply 
to  the  Horse  Guards,  should  the  regu- 
lations point  out  this  to  be  the  course  to 
be  pursued. 

In  the  Indian  military  service,  leave  of 
absence  includes  three  kinds,  viz. : — 

1.  Furlough  in  or  out  of  India  on  sick 
or  general  leave ; 

2.  General  leave  on  private   affairs  or 
on  sick  certificate  in  India,  or  short  leave 
to  sea ; 

3.  Privilege  leave. 

In  the  rules  which  govern  an  officer's 
furlough  in  or  out  of  India,  there  is  no 
distinction  between  sick  and  general  leave 
with  respect  to  allowances  hitherto 
drawn,  both  being  included  under  the 
general  term  furlough  ;  provision,  how- 
ever, is  made  for  the  obtainment  of 
leave  under  medical  certificate  without 
all  the  restrictions  applicable  to  fur- 
lough when  taken  without  it.  In  the 
rules  under  the  head  of  furlough,  it  is 
shown  that  an  officer  of  the  Indian  army 
must  serve  6  years  after  his  return 
from  England  or  elsewhere,  after  taking 
furlough,  before  he  is  entitled  to  any 
more  leave  counting  as  service ;  but 
should  the  officer  in  question  have 
accumulated  leave,  so  that  after  2  years' 
absence  he  has  still  1  or  2  years'  leave 


LED 


225 


LEG 


due  to  him,  lie  will  be  permitted,  3  years 
after  his  return,  to  proceed  again  on 
leave  without  loss  of  appointment.  Thus, 
by  way  of  illustration,  should  an  officer 
have  4  years'  leave  to  his  credit,  he  may 
take  '2,  return  to  India  for  3  years,  and 
then  take  the  balance  of  his  leave. 

Au  officer  may  taKe  sick  leave  as  often 
as  he  is  directed  to  do  so  by  a  medical 
board,  but  all  leave  in  excess  of  what  he 
is  entitled  to  by  the  furlough  rules  will 
have  to  be  made  up  again  in  completing 
his  service  for  pension.  Again,  absence 
on  medical  certificate  for  a  longer  period 
than  2  years  at  one  time,  or  departure 
on  such  furlough  within  3  years  of 
the  date  of  return  from  a  previous  fur- 
lough of  not  less  than  1  year,  will  in- 
volve forfeiture  of  appointment.  This 
may,  however,  be  extended  to  a  third 
year  on  English  pay.  An  officer  of  the 
roval  (late  Indian)  service,  such  as  the 
artillery,  engineers,  and  new  line  regi- 
ments, and  who  is  on  staff  employ,  may 
proceed  under  the  rules  of  1868  to  Eng- 
land for  2  years  without  loss  of  ap- 
pointment, even  should  it  be  a  5-year 
tenure  ;  but  the  time  he  is  absent  will  be 
deJucted  from  the  5  years. 

An  officer  of  the  British  army,  and 
holding  a  5-year  appointment,  if  pro- 
ceeding on  leave  on  medical  certificate, 
can  only  do  so  for  6  months,  retaining 
his  appointment.  To  regimental  officers 
of  her  Majesty's  British  service,  the  fur- 
lough rules  of  1868  are  not  applicable. 

With  reference  to  the  next  head,  viz. 
leave  in  India,  it  is  ruled  that  an  officer, 
if  he  wishes  it,  may  take  all  his  leave  in 
that  country,  under  the  same  circum- 
stances as  if  he  went  to  Europe.  Further, 
an  officer  may  take  short  leave  in  India, 
for  6  months  in  a  year,  for  2  successive 
years,  without  forfeiture  of  appointment ; 
but  should  he  take  advantage  of  this 
for  a  third  year,  he  will  lose  his  staff 
appointment. 

Then,  again,  an  officer  may  take  6 
months'  leave  on  medical  certificate,  and 
have  it  renewed  for  another  6  months, 
should  his  health  require  it,  limiting  the 
absence  to  1  year  without  forfeiture  of 
appointment,  which  will  not  be  looked 
upon  as  furlough,  but  will  be  held  to 
constitute  a  part  of  the  maximum  period 
of  8  years'  leave  of  absence  to  which  an 


officer  of  the  Indian  army  is  entitled  in 
his  entire  period  of  service. 

S/tort  leaie  not  exceeding  3  months 
may  also  be  taken  to  sea  on  the  condition 
mentioned  in  the  above  paragraph,  but 
absence  from  India  for'  any  longer  period 
will  be  treated  as  furlough. 

Privilege  leave  for  60  and  90  days  re- 
spectively (depending  upon  the  part  of  the 
country  an  officer  is  cantoned  in),  in  each 
year,  is  granted  to  all  officers  in  military 
employ  without  loss  of  allowances;  should 
this  time  be  exceeded,  it  must  be  con- 
verted into  general  leave,  unless  sick- 
ness has  been  the  cause  of  detention. 

Ledger — A  debtor  and  creditor  account 
book  in  which  the  entry  of  stores  from 
the  day-book  are  made.  In  a  regiment, 
pocket  ledgers  are  kept,  in  which  sol- 
diers' accounts  and  other  information  re- 
garding the  soldier  are  recorded. 

Legion — In  the  common  acceptation  of 
the  term,  signifies  any  large  body  of 
men,  and  is  applied  to  a  distinct  force 
of  horse  and  foot  serving  with  an  army. 
Such,  for  instance,  was  the  British 
Legion  which  served  in  America,  and  the 
Spanish  Legion  in  Spain.  The  term 
legion  in  antiquity  was  given  to  a  body 
of  Roman  infantry,  which  usually  con- 
sisted of  10  cohorts,  or  6000  men.  This, 
however,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a 
fixed  number,  as  at  different  periods  in 
Roman  history  the  legion  varied  from 
3000  to  6000  men. 

Legion  d'Honneur  (Legion  of  Honour) 
— A  French  military  and  civil  order  in- 
stituted by  Napoleon  I.  as  a  reward  for 
gallant  deeds  in  the  field  or  services 
rendered  to  the  state.  There  are  five 
grades  in  this  order :  chevaliers  (com- 
panions), officers,  commanders,  grand 
officers,  and  grand  crosses.  In  evening 
dress  or  uniform,  the  commanders  wear 
a  collar  ribbon,  the  grand  officers  and 
grand  crosses  a  broad  ribbon  under  the 
waistcoat,  and  just  peeping  over  the  edge 
of  it.  The  grand  crosses  also  wear  on 
the  breast  a  star  and  a  jewel  cross  pen- 
dant. 

In  mufti,  the  chevaliers  wear  a  slip  or 
small  bow  of  red  ribbon  in  the  button- 
hole ;  the  four  other  grades  a  rosette. 
The  lowest  grade  in  the  Legion  of  Honour 
carries  (in  the  army)  a  pension  of  £10  a 
year. 

Q 


LEN 


226 


LEY 


Length  of  Fuze — Has  reference  to  the 
period  a  fuze  is  required  to  burn,  the 
time  being  determined  by  the  range. 
Fuzes  (time),  such  as  are  used,with  M.L.K. 
guns,  burn  a  certain  number  of  seconds, 
viz.  5,  9,  and  20  seconds  respectively. 
The  use  and  object  of  these  different  ' 
fuzes  are  as  follows:  — 

The  5-second  fuze  is  used  with  shrapnel 
shell    (G.S.    gauge),    up    to    the    80-pr.  : 
inclusive.     This    fuze   is   very   necessary 
for  F.S.  shrapnel  shell,   which  must   be  i 
burst  with  great  accuracy  to  develop  its 
power.     (  Vide  Fuze.) 

The  9-second  fuze  is  used  with  com- 
mon and  shrapnel  shell  (G.S.  gauge),  up 
to  80-pr.  inclusive,  at  long  ranges. 

The  20-second  fuze  is  used  for  common 
shell  (G.S.  gauge,  garrison  service),  up 
to  the  80-pr.  inclusive,  at  long  ranges. 
It  is  only  used  in  the  F.S.  for  high-angle 
firing  from  the  7-pr.  gun.  It  is  not 
available  for  shrapnel,  as  it  has  no 
powder  channels. 

B.L.R.  guns  use  fuzes  of  the  same 
lengths  as  above. 

The  following  will  be  fouud,  as  a  gene- 
ral rule,  nearly  correct  for  getting  the 
length  of  fuze  with  muzzle-loading  rifled 
guns. 

Divide  the  number  of  hundreds  of  yards 
in  the  range  by  2,  and  add  1  up  to  1000 
yards,  2  up  to  2000  yards,  and  so  on,  for 
length  of  fuze  in  tenths  of  inches. 

Length  of  a  Gun — In  S.B.  guns,  is  the 
distance  between  the  rear  of  the  base  ring 
and  face  of  the  muzzle,  measured  in  a 
line  parallel  to  the  axis.  The  length  of 
B.L.R.  guus  is  measured  from  behind  the 
breech  to  the  face  of  the  muzzle,  the 
breech  screw  not  being  included,  and  the 
length  of  M.L.R.  guns  from  the  neck  of 
the  cascable  to  the  face  of  the  muzzle. 
The  length  of  a  mortar  is  the  whole 
distance  from  face  to  breech,  measured 
along  the  axis.  The  length  of  guns  is 
sometimes  expressed  by  their  calibres, 
but  this,  except  with  S.B.  guns,  as 
shown  by  Major  Morgan,  R.A.,  in  a 
lecture  ou  "  Breech-loading  and  Muzzle- 
loading  for  Guns,"  is  a  very  inaccurate 
method  of  comparing  the  lengths  of  rifled 
guns.  "  To  say  with  smooth-bore  guns 
that  they  were  so  many  calibres  long 
was  sufficiently  accurate,  because  the 
weight  of  charge  and  shot  was  always 


in  proportion ;  but  with  rifled  guns, 
which  not  only  differ  in  this  respect  very 
greatly  from  smooth-bore  guns,  but  even 
among  themselves,  to  speak  in  this  man- 
ner is  very  misleading.  A  68-pr.  gun 
has  about  the  same  length  of  bore  as  the 
8-iuch  rifled  gun,  and  is  consequently 
the  same  length  in  calibre ;  but,  as  the 
charge  of  the  latter  is  double  that  of  the 
former,  the  number  of  expansions  with 
an  8-inch  gun  is  only  half  of  what  it  is 
with  a  68-pr."  The  more  scientific  way, 
as  is  shown  by  Captain  Simpson,  U.S.N., 
is  to  designate  the  length  of  bores  by  the 
number  of  expansions  of  the  charge. 

Length  of  Projectiles  —  This,  as  is 
shown  in  Captain  Orde  Browne's  '  Treatise 
on  Ammunition,'  "  necessarily  varies  in 
the  different  descriptions  of  projectiles 
for  the  same  gun,  inasmuch  as  it  is  to 
some  extent  subordinate  to  the  considera- 
tion of  bringing  them  all  (with  certain 
exceptions)  to  the  same  weight,  but  it 
has  been  decided  that  a  length  of  two 
calibres  at  least  is  necessary  for  very 
accurate  shooting,  and  it  is  desirable  for 
good  vis  vint.  or  destructive  effect  on 
impact,  at  any  but  very  short  ranges,  to 
have  the  weight  great  in  proportion  to 
the  calibre,  or  in  fact  to  the  surface  of 
resistance,  and  of  course  this  is  favoured 
by  an  increased  length  of  projectile." 

Lens  —  A  portion  of  any  medium 
bounded  by  two  spherical  surfaces  having 
a  common  axis,  or  by  a  spherical  surface 
and  a  plane  one. 

Letter  Book— A  book  containing  the 
entry  of  all  official  letters  written  by 
the  commanding  officer,  or  under  his 
direction,  to  the  public  departments, 
and  to  individuals,  on  regimental  busi- 
ness. It  contains  an  alphabetical  index, 
and  a  separate  index  for  the  public  de- 
partments. It  need  not  be  preserved 
beyond  three  years,  after  it  is  completed, 
care  being  taken  to  keep  copies  of  such 
letters  as  may  be  likely  to  be  required 
for  reference. 

Letters,  Official,  vide  Correspondence. 

Levee  (French) — This  term  originally 
meant  visits  of  ceremony  paid  in  the 
morning  among  persons  of  rank.  It  is 
now  understood  to  mean  an  assembly  at 
court,  on  state  occasions,  of  those  of  her 
Majesty's  subjects  who  are  entitled  to  the 
privilege  of  presenting  themselves  before 


LEV 


227 


LIB 


the  .sovereign.  The  privilege  of  holding 
levees  is  also  accorded  to  her  Majesty's 
representatives  at  home  and  abroad,  to 
tin-  field  marshal  commanding  in  chief, 
and  other  high  functionaries. 

Levee  en  masse  (French) — The  general 
rising  of  a  nation  in  self-defence  to  repel 
invasion,  or  to  answer  the  intentions  of 
its  governing  powers. 

Level — An  instrument  for  determining 
the  difference  of  height  between  any  two 
objects  or  places. 

Level,  Spirit — A  glass  tube  closed  at 
the  ends,  and  nearly,  but  not  quite,  filled 
with  water  or  spirit  ;  it  is  fixed  in  a 
piece  of  wood  or  metal,  with  a  flat  base 
to  which  the  tube  is  perfectly  parallel  ; 
when  placed  on  a  level  surface,  an  air 
bubble  will  be  in  the  centre  of  the  tube. 
Of  spirit  levels  used  in  connection  with 
instruments  for  measuring  the  differences 
of  level,  or  vertical  distances  between 
different  stations,  are  the  Y  level, 
Troughton's  improved  level,  and  Gravatt's 
level. 

Lever- — As  described  by  Lardner,  is 
"a  straight  and  solid  bar  turning  on  an 
axis.  The  arms  of  the  lever  are  those 
parts  of  the  bar  extending  on  each  side 
of  the  axis.  The  axis  is  called  the  ful- 
crum or  prop.  Levers  are  commonly 
divided  into  three  kinds,  according  to  the 
position  which  the  fulcrum  has  in  rela- 
tion to  the  power  and  weight.  If  the 
fulcrum  be  between  the  power  and 
weight,  the  lever  is  of  the  first  kind.  If 
the  weight  be  between  the  fulcrum  and 
power,  the  lever  is  of  the  second  kind. 
If  the  power  be  between  the  fulcrum  and  ' 
weight,  the  lever  is  of  the  third  kind.  Of 
whatever  kind  the  lever  may  be,  the  j 
conditions  of  equilibrium  of  the  power 
and  weight  will  be  such  that  they  are 
inversely  as  their  distances  from  the  j 
fulcrum,  this  being  the  general  condition 
of  equilibrium  for  all  machines  which 
turn  round  a  fixed  axis." 

Lever,  Armstrong  Gun  —  An  iron 
handle  which  is  fitted  on  the  circular 
portion  of  the  breech-screw  end  of  the 
gun,  and  revolves  with  it.  It  is  kept  in  its 
position,  endwise,  by  two  split  keep-pins, 
working  in  grooves,  turned  on  the  breech- 
screw.  The  object  of  the  lever  and 
tappet  arrangement  is  to  gain  a  power- 
ful momentum  in  tightening  up  and  re- 


leasing  the  vent-piece   from    its  seat  in 
the  gun. 

Lever  Hitch — A  knot  similar  to  the 
drag-rope  knot  or  woolding-stick  hitch. 
It  is  used  for  tightening  ropes,  but  in- 
stead of  turning  the  woolding  -  stick 
round,  it  is  applied  on  the  principle  of 
the  lever. 

Lever  Sheers — Consist  of  a  long  heavy 
spar,  with  one  end  resting  on  the  ground, 
and  the  other  supported  on  two  short 
spars,  crossed  and  securely  lashed  to- 
gether. The  butt  end  of  the  spar  is  heavily 
weighted,  and  is  usually  sunk  a  little  in 
the  ground,  resting  against  a  board  or 
slab  of  wood,  to  prevent  the  earth  from 
yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  force 
acting  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  spar, 
and  tending  to  force  the  end  of  it  into 
the  ground.  A  rear  guy  is  also  em- 
ployed, to  prevent  the  short  cross  spars, 
or  sheers,  from  falling  to  the  front.  The 
pressure  of  the  spar  or  lever  at  the  point 
where  the  short  spars  cross  prevents 
them  from  inclining  to  the  rear. 

Lever  Truss  Bridge,  vide  Spar  Bridge. 

Levy — In  the  military  acceptation  of 
the  term,  the  act  of  raising  men  for  the 
defence  and  safety  of  a  country.  Colonel 
Graham,  in  his  '  Art  of  War,'  states  that 
"  the  personnel  of  an  army  is  levied  in 
conformity  with  such  custom  as  may 
prevail  in  each  state,  or  such  laws  as  the 
government  of  the  state  may  seem  fit  to 
adopt." 

Lewis — An  ingenious  mode  of  lifting 
heavy  weights.  It  consists  of  three 
pieces  of  iron,  two  of  them  wedge-shaped, 
and  the  third  straight,  which,  when 
placed  together  with  the  straight  piece 
in  the  centre,  form  a  dove-tailed  wedge. 
The  wedge  is  inserted  in  a  hole  of  similar 
shape,  cut  either  in  stone  or  in  metal. 
To  the  end  of  each  of  the  pieces  a  ring 
is  attached,  through  which  a  horseshoe 
ring  is  passed,  and  to  this  the  rope  or 
chain  is  fastened. 

Libraries,  Garrison — Consist  of  a  col- 
lection of  books  granted  by  the  state  to 
each  garrison  of  the  army,  which,  in 
connection  with  regimental  recreation 
rooms,  give  soldiers  an  opportunity,  as 
the  Queen's  Regulations  explain,  "  of 
employing  their  leisure  hours  in  a  man- 
ner that  shall  combine -amusement  with 
the  attainment  of  knowledge." 

Q  2 


LIE 


228 


LIF 


A  committee  is  formed  quarterly  in 
each  garrison,  the  president  being  ap- 
pointed by  the  adjutant-general,  for  the 
audit  of  accounts  and  the  management  of 
the  library. 

Garrison  libraries  are  formed,  not  only 
for  soldiers,  but,  as  is  shown  in  Army 
Circular  1872,  clause  117,  for  the  use  of 
officers  under  instruction,  as  libraries  of 
reference ;  they  are  established  in  the 
principal  military  stations.  The  garrison 
instructor  is  responsible  for  the  library. 
The  circular  alluded  to  details  the  rules 
to  be  observed  in  the  distribution  of  the 
books. 

Lieutenant  (Latin,  locum  tenens,  hold- 
ing a  place  ;  French,  lieu  tenant,  supplying 
or  holding  the  place  of  another) — The 
rank  next  below  a  captain.  The  senior 
lieutenant  takes  the  command  of  a  com- 
pany in  the  absence  or  death  of  the 
captain. 

In  the  foot  guards  24  of  the  lieu- 
tenants have  the  rank  of  captain  in  the 
army,  and  are  called  lieutenants  and 
captains. 

Lieutenant  -  Colonel — The  rank  next 
below  that  of  colonel  in  the  army.  An 
officer  of  this  grade  commands  a  regiment 
in  his  own  right,  if  senior,  regimentally, 
and  provided  he  has  been  selected  for 
the  post,  agreeably  to  the  regulations, 
after  purchase  in  the  army  was  abolished. 
Upon  him  devolves  the  care,  responsi- 
bility, and  discipline  of  the  officers  and 
soldiers  under  his  command.  He  is  per- 
mitted to  retain  the  command  for  5 
years,  but  after  that  he  has  to  give  it  up 
without  he  is  reappointed.  After  5 
years'  regimental  service,  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  becomes  a  brevet-colonel,  if  he  has 
not  previously  received  that  rank  by  bre- 
vet, or,  as  may  be  the  case,  in  the  artillery 
and  engineers,  by  regimental  promotion. 

Lieutenant-General — The  rank  next 
below  that  of  general.  In  war  time,  he 
would  command  the  wing  of  a  corps 
d'armee. 

Life  Guards  —  The  mounted  body- 
guard of  the  sovereign.  In  the  British 
army  there  are  two  corps  so  designated. 
They  never  leave  the  country  except  on 
great  emergency.  These  regiments  were 
engaged  in  the  Peninsula,  and  were 
present  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  where 
they  greatly  distinguished  themselves. 


The  two  regiments  of  life  guards  wear 
a  cuirass  over  a  scarlet  tunic.  Their  head- 
piece is  a  steel  helmet.  The  remainder 
of  their  dress  consists  of  leather  breeches, 
gauntlets,  and  jack-boots.  Their  weapons 
are  the  sword  and  carbine. 

Life-saving  Apparatus,  Boxer's  — 
An  apparatus  used,  in  case  of  shipwreck, 
to  save  lives.  It  consists  of  a  rope  car- 
ried by  a  rocket  from  the  shore  to  the 
wrecked  vessel.  The  rocket  is  fired  from 
a  bed,  in  prolongation  of  which  a  pry- 
pole  is  fixed,  and  from  the  rear  end  of 
which  spring  two  legs,  one  opening  to 
the  right  and  one  to  the  left.  A  stick 
is  attached  to  the  side  of  the  rocket,  and 
a  line  runs  through  a  hollow  at  either 
end  of  the  stick,  and  the  end  of  the 
line  is  secured  by  a  common  overhand 
knot.  The  effect  of  the  too  sudden  jerk, 
which  is  given  to  the  line  when  the 
rocket  is  fired,  is  provided  for  by  washers 
placed  between  the  knot  and  the  stick. 
The  rocket  case  is  made  of  Atlas  metal, 
and  the  interior  is  protected  from  the 
action  of  the  composition  in  the  same 
way  as  Hale's  rockets.  The  maximum 
range  of  this  rocket  is  about  500  yards. 

Life-time — As  applied  to  cannon,  "is 
the  length  of  time  or  the  number  of 
rounds  a  piece  of  ordnance  will  stand 
before  it  becomes  unserviceable.  This  is 
estimated  in  smooth-bore  ordnance  at 
from  1000  to  1200  rounds  with  service 
charge  and  one  shot.  Experience,  how- 
ever, has  shown  that  it  is  not  so  much 
the  number  of  rounds  fired  which  de- 
stroys a  gun  as  the  high  elevation  given 
to  it  to  obtain  extensive  range.  Guns 
fired  horizontally,  or  at  no  greater  eleva- 
tion than  5°  or  6°,  do  not  experience  the 
great  strain  which  a  gun  fired  at  30° 
would,  and  the  reason  is  obvious,  as 
guns  fired  at  a  low  elevation  recoil  in 
proportion  to  the  relative  weight  and 
friction  of  the  projectile :  whereas,  when 
elevated  to  30°,  the  gun  cannot  recoil, 
the  force  therefore  is  exerted  downwards, 
and  the  gun  impinges  on  its  support, 
which  is  comparatively  immovable ;  thus 
the  force  which  displaced  the  gun  in  the 
first  instance  is  now  exerted  on  the 
sides  of  the  gun.  The  initial  velocity 
is  also  increased  with  the  angle  of  pro- 
jection, which  causes  the  shot  to  press 
more  upon  the  charge  and  thus  to 


LIG 


229 


LIG 


increase  the  resistance  of  the  expansion 
of  the  gases.  This  increased  resistance 
also  adds  to  the  strain  upon  the  gun." 
Suflicient  experience  has  not  vet  been 
had  of  rifled  guns  to  state  what  number 
of  rounds  the  different  classes  of  such 
ordnance  can  bear,  but  it  may  be  inferred 
that  their  endurance  will  be  considerable. 

Light  -  balls,  Ground  —  Combustibles 
fired  from  mortars  at  night,  to  discover 
the  operations  of  an  enemy  ;  they  might, 
failing  carcasses,  be  used  in  their  place. 
They  continue  alight  from  9  to  16 
minutes,  according  to  the  calibre.  Light- 
balls  are  of  four  different  natures,  viz. 
10-inch,  8-inch,  5£-inch,  and  4|-inch. 
Their  form  is  oblong,  and  about  1J 
calibre.  The  skeleton  frame  is  made  of 
wrought  iron,  and  is  partially  covered 
with  canvas,  and  filled  with  composition 
which  burns  with  a  brilliant  light. 

The  proportion  of  composition  is  as 
follows  : — 

Ibs.  oz.  drs. 

Saltpetre,  ground  . .  640 
Sulphur,  ground  . .  280 
Rosin,  pounded  . .  . .  1  14  0 
Linseed  oil,  boiled  . .  078 

Light,  Bengal,  vide  Bengal  Light. 

Light,  Blue,  vide  Blue  Lights. 

Light  Cavalry — Regiments  of  mounted 
soldiers  who,  from  their  light  equipment 
and  active  horses,  are  especially  adapted 
for  making  long  marches,  performing  out- 
post duties,  skirmishing,  &c. 

The  experience  of  the  wars  of  1866 
and  1870-71  has  shown,  clearly  and 
convincingly,  that  the  splendid  charges, 
which  in  the  days  of  Frederick  and 
Napoleon  frequently  decided  the  fate  of 
battles,  have  passed  away,  and  that,  in  the 
future,  it  is  before  an  action  that  the 
main  role  of  the  cavalry  will  be  found 
to  lie.  Since  the  introduction  of  arms  of 
precision,  the  duties  of  this  branch  may 
well  be  considered  purely  strategical,  as 
cavalry  can  seldom  be  employed  to  take  a 
decisive  part  in  a  battle.  Upon  this 
branch  now  devolves  the  task  of  pre- 
paring the  way  for  an  engagement,  by 
reconnoitring  the  positions  of  the  enemy, 
and  giving,  as  to  his  movements,  as 
much  valuable  information  as  possible. 
Light  cavalry  can  therefore  be  used  as  a 
screen  to  mask  the  movements  of  the 
advancing  or  retreating  army,  and,  like  a 


swarm  of  spies,  to  search  the  country  of 
the  enemy,  gather  information  from  all 
quarters,  facilitate  and  often  render  un- 
necessary an  armed  attack,  and,  finally, 
bewilder,  by  harassing,  the  foe.  Em- 
ployed as  eclaireurs  or  feelers  in  every 
direction,  they  make  a  ring  of  mystery 
round  their  own  army.  The  enemy 
does  not  know  their  whereabouts,  while 
they  carry  back  valuable  information  to 
their  chiefs. 

The  duties  now  thrown  upon  the  light 
cavalry  soldier  demand  much  increased 
intelligence,  and  not  only  intelligence, 
but  a  knowledge  of  the  operations  of 
war.  The  value  of  good  information  is 
so  important,  and  the  evil  of  bad  so 
great,  that  it  would  never  be  safe  to 
trust  any  body  of  ordinarily  trained  men 
to  fulfil  these  duties.  Light  cavalry  form 
an  important  branch  of  the  intelligence 
department,  and  it  may  be  well  said  that 
"  they  are  the  eyes  and  ears  of  an  army." 

The  hussar  regiments  form  the  light 
cavalry  of  the  British  army  ;  but  the 
lancers  and  dragoons,  although  classed  as 
medium  cavalry,  are  often  employed  in 
the  same  duties.  (  Vide  Cavalry.) 

Light,  Coast-guard — A  light  used  for 
signals,  and  which  burns  about  five 
minutes.  It  has  superseded  the  coast- 
guard portfire,  and  its  composition  con- 
sists of  saltpetre,  7  Ibs. ;  sulphur,  1  Ib. 
12  oz. ;  red  orpiment,  8  oz.  The  top  of 
the  composition  is  primed  with  mealed 
powder,  and  the  flash  blows  off  the  cap. 
It  is  ignited  by  placing  a  G.S.  primer  in 
the  hole  in  the  head  of  the  apparatus,  and 
a  sharp  blow  with  a  pin  projecting  from 
it  sets  the  light  on  fire.  The  primer  is 
made  on  a  similar  plan  to  the  friction 
tube ;  the  pin  is  roughed  and  coated 
with  friction  tube  composition. 

Light,  Electric,  vide  Electric  Light. 

Light  Infantry — Formerly  a  body  of 
active  and  strong  men  selected  from  the 
aggregate  of  regiments  in  the  service, 
and  made  up  of  promising  recruits. 
They  are  now,  as  far  as  any  distinctive 
characteristic  in  uniform  is  concerned, 
abolished ;  but  the  light  infantry  regi- 
ments, still  borne  on  the  'Army  List,' 
and  whose  appellation  is  purely  honorary, 
can  be  distinguished  by  their  equipment ; 
they  bear  the  bugle  on  the  forage  cap 
and  knapsack. 


LIG 


230 


LIM 


Light  infantry  were  originally  formed 
by  the  first  Napoleon,  after  the  Revolu- 
tion.    They  were  conscripts  indifferently 
drilled,  but  were  necessary  to  oppose  the 
vast  armies  that  assailed  France.    Though 
not  so  well  trained  as  the  regular  soldiers 
of  the    line,    they    were    formidable    by 
their  numbers  when  acting  as  skirmishers. 
It    was    soon    found,   as    is    related    by 
Colonel    Hamley,    that    "these    lines    of 
skirmishers — '  clouds  of  skirmishers,'  as 
writers    are    fond    of  calling    them,   not 
without    reason — might    be    made    emi- 
nently   useful    to    cover    formations,    to . 
deceive  the  enemy,  and  to  conceal  tactical 
enterprises.    .    .    .     Now,  however,  light ; 
infantry  were  rendered  capable  of  oppos-  ! 
ing   disciplined    battalions,    and    further  j 
training  enabled  them  also  to  take  their 
places  in  the  line  of  battle." 

As  stated  above,  there  are  still  certain 
regiments  designated  light  infantry;  and 
like  every  other  regiment  in  the  service, 
they  are  practised  in  light  infantry  drill. 

Light,  Long  G.S. — This  light  is  used 
for  signalling  and  illuminating.  It 
burns  about  five  minutes,  and  is  ignited 
by  a  G.S.  primer,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
coast-guard  light.  The  old  long  light 
was  lit  by  a  cap. 

Light,  Magnesium — This  light  is  used 
for  signalling  or  illuminating.  It  burns 
one  minute,  with  a  very  brilliant  white 
flame,  and  is  composed  of  saltpetre, 
14  Ibs. ;  sulphur,  3^  Ibs. ;  red  orpiment, 
1  Ib. ;  magnesium,  containing  25  per 
cent,  of  paraffine,  £  Ib.  It  is  ignited  in 
the  same  way  as  the  coast-guard  light. 

Light,  Parachute,  vide  Parachute 
Light. 

Lightning  Conductor,  vide  Conductors, 
Lightning. 

Lignum  Vitse — A  wood  which  grows 
in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America. 
It  is  very  hard  and  heavy,  indeed  one  of 
the  heaviest  of  woods.  It  is  much  used 
in  machinery,  and  for  a  variety  of  work 
requiring  hardness  and  strength.  This 
wood  contains  a  large  quantity  of  gum 
guaiacum. 

Limb — The  graduated  arc  of  a  survey- 
ing instrument. 

Limber — A  carriage  mounted  on  two 
wheels  of  the  same  height  as  the  gun 
carriage,  and  to  which  the  gun  is  at- 
tached when  limbered  up.  It  has  shafts 


to  which  t.he  horses  are  harnessed.  A 
light  field  liniher  consists  of  a  frame- 
work of  wood,  which  is  composed  of 
three  futchels,  an  iron  axle-tree,  axle- 
tree  bed,  foot  and  platform  boards,  shafts, 
and  a  splinter  bar.  This  is  known  as 
the  O.P.  limber,  but  the  limber  of  a  later 
construction,  made  for  the  9-pr.  and 
16-pr.  M.L.R.  guns,  has  a  wrought-iron 
instead  of  a  wooden  axle-tree  bed,  and 
no  block  between  the  latter  and  the 
limber-hook.  There  are  several  other 
alterations,  chiefly  in  iron  being  substi- 
tuted for  wood,  which  are  to  be  found 
in  the  '  Treatise  on  Field  Carriages, 
1874.'  Three  ammunition  boxes  are 
placed  on  the  framing  over  the  .axle-tree 
bed,  "  near,"  "  aft,"  and  "  centre ; "  on  each 
of  the  two  former  a  gunner  sits,  having  an 
iron  guard  on  the  s.ide  next  to  the  wheel 
to  prevent  accident.  At  the  back  of  the 
limber  is  an  iron  hook  or  pintle,  termed  a 
limber-hook,  to  which  the  trail  of  the 
gun  carriage  is  attached,  forming  for  the 
purpose  of  transport  or  manoeuvring  a 
four-wheeled  carriage.  The  limber-hook 
is  stated  to  have  been  invented  by  an 
Englishman  in  1804. 

Limber  Pits — Artificial  cover  provided 
in  warfare  for  the  limbers  of  guns ;  size 
12  feet  long,  5^  feet  wide  at  bottom, 
7  feet  at  top,  3  feet  deep ;  ramps  at  each 
end  may  be  made.  A  pit  of  this  size  can 
be  executed  in  2  hours  by  8  men.  Each 
pit  should  cover  a  limber  and  two  horses. 

Limber  Up — An  order,  given  to  the 
gun  detachment  of  a  battery  after  firing, 
to  attach  the  gun  to  the  limber,  prepa- 
ratory to  advancing  or  retreating. 

Lime,  or  Oxide  of  Calcium  (CaO) — 
This  very  useful  substance  is  described  as 
being  prepared  by  the  decomposition  of 
carbonate  of  lime  by  heat.  The  opera- 
tion is  carried  out  on  a  very  large  scale 
in  kilns  or  furnaces.  Anhydrous  lime, 
or  "  quicklime,"  is  a  soft  white,  amor- 
phous solid.  When  exposed  to  air,  it 
soon  absorbs  water,  the  lumps  crumbling 
to  a  bulky  powder,  which  is  hydrate  of 
lime,  or  "  slaked  lime."  Lime  is  one  of 
the  most  infusible  bodies  which  we 
possess  ;  it  resists  the  highest  heat  of  our 
furnaces.  The  uses  to  which  quicklime 
and  slaked  lime  are  put  will  be  found  on 
reference  to  Abel  and  Bloxam's '  Handbook 
of  Chemistry.'  Lime  is  occasionally 


L1M 


231 


LIN 


found  in  saltpetre.  It  can  be  detected 
by  oxalate  of  ammonia. 

Limit,  Founder's — In  the  manufacture 
of  ordnance,  the  limitation  of  error  for 
guns,  shot,  &c.  allowed  to  the  founder. 

Linen  Pin  —  A  steel  pin  running 
through  an  eye  at  the  end  of  the  axle- 
tree  arm  of  artillery  carriages  to  prevent 
the  wheel  coming  off.  The  metal  of  which 
the  pin  is  made  is  mild  steel. 

Line — In  military  affairs,  a  term  given 
to  the  regular  and  numbered  troops  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  guards  and 
the  auxiliary  troops  of  the  British  army. 

The  term  in  line  is  applied  to  a  bat- 
talion when  its  companies  are  deployed 
on  the  same  alignment  to  their  full  ex- 
tent, i.  e.  in  two  ranks.  Columns  are  said 
to  be  in  line  whon  I  heir  fronts  are  on 
the  same  alignment. 

Line,  Cotton — Cordage  used  for  tent 
ropes  and  slow-match. 

Line,  Hambro' — A  small  description 
of  cordage  ;  it  is  composed  of  four  slightly 
twisted  yarns  of  coarse  hemp,  twisted  to- 
gether, forming  three  strands  which  are 
twisted  together.  This  kind  of  cordage 
is  made  in  skeins,  and  is  used  in  the  artil- 
lery service  for  the  same  purpose  as  log 
line. 

Line,  Log — Cordage  used  for  lashing 
to  gun  aprons,  sponge  and  muzzle  caps, 
&e.  There  is  also  a  log  line  made  in  India 
which  is  used  for  choking  rockets ;  for 
handles  for  case  shot,  &c. 

Line,  Seizing — Cordage  used  on  the 
march  for  lashing  any  spare  articles :  it 
should  be  well  rubbed  with  tar  and 
grease,  as  it  is  much  exposed  to  the 
weather.  It  is  made  up  in  skeins  about 
ti9  feet  long  and  is  1  inch  in  circum- 
ference. 

Line  of  Battle — The  formation  of  an 
army  for  battle.  In  all  actions  it  is 
necessary  to  place  troops  in  such  a  for- 
mation previous  to  making  the  assault,  or 
in  showing  front  to  the  adversary,  as 
shall  expose  them  as  little  as  possible, 
and  yet  place  them  in  the  readiest  mode 
to  carry  out  the  orders  of  the  com- 
mander. It  has  been  the  custom  from  a 
very  ancient  date,  coming  to  us  from  the 
Romans,  and  an  accepted  principle  by 
most  nations,  that  an  army,  when  drawn 
up  for  battle,  should  be  formed  in  three 
distinct  lines :  the  first  line,  to  com- 


mence the  battle ;  the  second,  to  support 
it,  and  to  fill  up  the  gaps;  the  thiid. 
which  is  in  rear  of  all,  as  a  reserve. 

This  triple  formation,  though  modified, 
remains  much  the  same  at  the  present 
day ;  but  instead  of  deployed  lines  or 
lines  of  heavy  columns,  the  troops  are 
placed  in  lines  of  half-column  formation. 
This  has  been  rendered  necessary  from 
the  withering  fire  and  long  range  of  the 
present  arms  of  precision,  which  necessi- 
tate the  reduction  of  the  front  of  bat- 
talions. It  has  also  become  necessary, 
whether  taking  the  offensive  or  standing 
on  the  defensive,  that  shelter,  either 
artificial  (such  as  shelter  trenches)  or 
natural,  should  be  taken  advantage  of  to 
screen  the  men  as  much  as  possible,  and 
so  not  to  expose  them  (in  the  case  of  an 
attacking  party)  more  than  can  be  helped 
before  the  moment  of  formation  previous 
to  the  final  rush  in  upon  the  enemy's' 
position.  (  Vide  Tactics.) 

Line  of  Fire — In  gunnery,  is  the  pro- 
duction of  the  axis  of  the  gun  directed 
upon  a  point  which  is  at  a  vertical  dis- 
tance above  the  object  to  be  struck,  cor- 
responding to  the  time  of  flight  required 
for  the  range,  and  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  shot  will  be  brought  to  the 
object  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

Line  of  Least  Eesistance  —  In  blast- 
ing or  mining,  is  a  line  drawn  from  the 
centre  of  the  charge  perpendicular  to 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Line  of  Metal — In  gunnery,  the  visual 
line  connecting  the  front  and  back  sight 
when  the  latter  is  at  its  lowest  point, 
i.  e.  connecting  the  notch  on  the  tangent 
sight  with  the  notch  on  the  swell  of  the 
muzzle,  or  dispart  sight,  when  the  trun- 
nions are  perfectly  horizontal. 

Line  of  Metal  Elevation — In  gunnery, 
is  the  elevation  due  to  the  conical  form 
of  the  gun,  when  the  gun  is  laid  on  an 
object  by  means  of  the  sights  without 
giving  any  elevation.  From  the  thick- 
ness of  metal  at  the  breech,  the  line  of 
metal  elevation  varies  from  one  to  two 
degrees  or  more. 

Line  of  Sight — In  gunnery,  is  the  line 
passing  through  the  notch  of  the  tangent 
scale  and  tip  of  the  trunnion  sight  (at 
any  elevation)  and  the  object. 

Lines  —  A  connected  series  of  field- 
works,  whether  continuous  or  at  intervals. 


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Lines  of  Defence — In  fortification, 
the  distance  between  the  flanking  and 
the  extreme  limit  of  the  flanked  portion 
of  a  parapet. 

In  warfare,  lines  of  defence  are  natuntl 
and  artificial. 

Of  the  first  are  deserts,  mountain- 
ranges,  great  rivers,  and  dense  forests. 
In  general,  the  frontier  line  which 
divides  one  country  from  another  is 
formed  by  some  one  of  the  above-named 
obstacles  (q.  i'.),  or  a  combination  of  them. 
That  which  presents  the  greatest  difficulty 
to  an  invading  army  is  a  desert,  which 
will  be  understood  by  all  military  men. 

Lines  of  Operation — With  reference  to 
the  movements  of  an  army,  are  "  the  lines 
by  which  it  advances  from  its  base  into  the 
theatre  of  war.  The  advance  may  happen 
to  be  by  one  road  only,  but  it  more  often 
embraces  every  road  by  which  the  frac- 
tions of  the  army  march.  A  large  force 
may  thus  include  a  considerable  breadth 
of  country  in  the  march  of  its  columns. 
When  all  the  marching  fractions  are 
in  communication  with  each  other,  the 
army's  line  of  march  is  called  a  sini/le 
line  of  operations"  (  Vide  Lateral  Com- 
munications.) 

Lining  —  In  artillery,  is  the  process 
pursued,  after  the  proving  of  rifled  guns, 
to  enable  the  manufacturer  to  adjust  the 
sights  and  elevating  plates. 

Link — The  connecting  part  of  a  chain. 
To  measure  the  length  of  links,  the  inside 
dimensions  are  taken,  as  they  alone  con- 
tribute to  the  length  of  a  chain. 

Linked  Regiments — In  localising  the 
forces  of  the  British  army,  it  is  laid  down 
that  in  each  of  the  sub-districts  of  the 
country  two  regiments  shall  be  perma- 
nently selected  (whether  absent  or  present) 
to  be  so  localised,  and  the  mode  of  selec- 
tion is  of  regiments  having  any  connec- 
tion with  the  county.  These  regiments 
are  termed  linked,  and  in  the  case  of  one 
of  the  regiments  going  or  being  on 
foreign  service  requiring  men  to  make 
up  its  numbers,  soldiers  are  drafted  from 
the  regiment  remaining  at  home. 

Linseed — The  seed  of  the  flax  plant. 
In  India,  it  is  principally  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  linseed  oil ;  the  oil  is  con- 
tained in  the  kernel  of  the  seeds  (Lin»m 
usitatissimum),  and  may  be  either  cold 
drawn,  or,  as  is  usual,  obtained  after  the 


seeds  have  been  subjected  to  a  heat  of 
200°.  It  is  one  of  the  cheapest  fixed  oils, 
and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paints, 
varnishes,  and  printing  inks ;  it  is  what 
is  termed  a  drying  oil.  When  required, 
linseed  oil,  if  fresh,  is  made  use  of  in  its 
unboiled  state,  and  it  will  be  found 
superior  to  any  other  oil.  When  quite 
fresh,  it  answers  very  well  in  making 
paints,  but  if  not,  it  requires  to  be 
boiled  before  being  used  ;  a  quantity  of 
litharge,  pounded  and  wrapped  in  a  piece 
of  muslin,  being  boiled  in  it  as  a  dryer. 

Linstock — Used,  when  necessary,  to 
hold  the  slow-match  in  a  standing  battery. 
It  is  made  of  wood,  the  lower  end  pointed 
and  shod  with  iron,  the  upper  end,  for 
holding  the  slow-match,  being  also  made 
of  iron. 

Lip-strap  —  A  small  strap  with  a 
buckle  passing  from  one  cheek  of  the  bit 
through  a  ring  in  the  centre  of  the  curb 
chain  to  the  other  cheek,  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  the  horse  from  seizing  the 
cheek  of  the  bit  in  his  mouth. 

Liquation — In  metallurgy,  is  the  pro- 
cess of  separating,  by  a  regulated  heat, 
an  easily  fusible  metal  from  one  less 
fusible,  with  which  it  is  combined. 

Liquids,  vide  Boiling  Point. 

List,  Unattached,  vide  Unattached  List. 

Listening  Galleries,  vide  Galleries. 

Litharge — Vitrified  lead.  It  is  mixed 
with  paint  which  has  been  manufactured 
with  boiled  oil,  and  is  used  as  a  dryer. 

Litho-fracteur  —  An  explosive  agent 
known  also  as  "  Krebs'  explosive."  The 
substance  consists  in  the  major  part,  of 
nitro-glycerine.  It  is  a  superior  descrip- 
tion of  dynamite,  and  contains  from  50  to 
70  parts  of  nitro-glycerine,  the  remainder 
consisting  of  nitrate  of  soda,  earthy 
matter,  sand,  saw-dust,  and  powdered 
coil.  This  substance  was  largely  used 
by  the  Germans  during  the  war  of 
1870-1.  It  was  also  used  to  destroy  the 
iron  guns  captured  at  Paris.  For  general 
mining  purposes,  litho-fracteur  is  stated 
to  be  inferior  to  gun-cotton. 

Litmus — A  violet-blue  dye,  prepared 
chiefly  in  Holland  from  a  lichen  which 
grows  in  the  Canary  and  Cape  de  Verde 
Islands.  It  is  met  with  in  small  cubical 
cakes  of  a  dusky  blue  colour,  light  and 
easily  pulverised.  It  is  used  as  a  che- 
mical test  of  acidity,  being  reddened  by 


LIT 


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acids,  while  the  blue  is  restored  by  al- 
kalies; for  this  purpose  it  is  employed' 
either  in  the  form  of  a  tincture  or  of' 
unsized  paper  coloured  with  it.  A  more 
convenient  and  perhaps  more  generally 
useful  blue  test  paper  is  prepared  from 
the  red  cabbage.  When  this  is  sliced  and 
boiled  in  water,  a  blue  solution  is  pro- 
cured. On  this  being  concentrated  by 
evaporation,  it  may  be  used  in  the  same 
manner  as  litmus  for  dyeing  paper.  The 
colour  of  such  paper  is  rendered  red  by 
acids,  and  blue  by  alkalies,  while  it  is 
entirely  unaffected  by  the  neutral  salts. 

Litter — A  sort  of  stretcher  or  hurdle 
bed  on  which  wounded  officers  or  soldiers 
are  carried  off  the  field  of  battle.  It  is 
especially  used  for  the  badly  wounded, 
who  can  only  be  carried  lying  down.  It 
weighs  15  Ibs.  The  advantage  of  this 
nature  of  transport  is,  that  the  patient 
can  be  placed  in  it  on  the  ground  and 
so  lifted  into  the  ambulance  wagon. 

Another  kind  of  litter,  similar  to  the 
cacolet  ('/.v.),  as  described  in  the  '  Treatise 
on  Military  Carriages,'  is  used  in  warfare. 
Two  are  attached  to  the  saddle  by  hang- 
ing bars  on  each  side  of  the  mule,  and 
are  hooked  to  the  saddle  and  steadied  by 
a  strap  passed  round  the  body  of  the 
mule.  When  not  required  for  use,  they 
can  be  folded  in  three.  The  weight  of 
a  pair  of  litters  is  93£  Ibs.  The  doolie 
(q.  v.)  of  India  is  made  use  of  for  the 
same  purpose  as  the  litter,  but  is  always 
carried  on  men's  shoulders. 

Live  Shells — Shells  loaded  with  their 
bursting  charge  ready  for  service. 

Load,  To — To  "  set  home  "  the  charge 
and  projectile  in  a  gun  or  small-arm. 
Loading  is  effected  either  at  the  muzzle 
or  breech,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
arm.  In  muzzle-loading  guns,  the  first 
operation  before  loading  is  to  sponge  out 
the  piece ;  this  being  accomplished,  the 
cartridge  is  inserted  and  rammed  home, 
the  shot  or  shell  then  follows,  and  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  shot  is  well 
rammed  home,  as  any  space  left  between 
the  cartridge  and  the  shot  would  render 
the  gun  liable  to  burst ;  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  this  should  be 
attended  to  ;  the  gun  being  loaded  is  then 
pointed,  and  primed  with  a  friction  tube, 
when  it  is  ready  for  action.  In  loading 
heavy  M.L.R.  guns,  special  apparatus  is 


used  for  lifting  the  projectile  into  the 
mouth  of  the  gun.  In  the  Armstrong 
guns,  which  are  loaded  at  the  breech,  a 
lubricator  is  used,  which  cleans  the  gun 
out  after  every  round. 

All  service  small-arms  are  loaded  at 
the  breech,  and  the  result  of  this  system 
has  been  to  produce  great  rapidity  of  fire 
and  less  fatigue  in  loading. 

Loader  —  An  instrument  used  with 
S.B.  siege  howitzers  to  steady  the  shell 
in  the  passage  down  the  bore.  The  fixed 
iron  band  which  crosses  the  hollow 
hemisphere  of  the  loader  has  a  hole  in 
it  which  embraces  the  fuze,  and  which 
on  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  bore  can 
be  easily  disengaged. 

Loading  Side  of  a  Gun  —  Represents 
the  side  of  the  grooves  of  a  gun,  by  which 
a  projectile  passes  down  the  bore  of  a 
rifled  gun  from  the  muzzle.  The  studs  of 
the  shot  press  against  this  side  when  being 
loaded,  but  on  being  forced  out  by  the 
explosion  of  the  charge,  they  press  against 
the  other  side,  termed  the  driving  side. 

Loading,  Simultaneous — Firing  with 
fixed  ammunition,  viz.  cartridge  and  shot 
all  in  one. 

Loads  on  Bridges  —  The  weight 
brought  upon  bridges  in  the  passage 
of  troops,  which  is  as  follows  : — 

"  Infantry  in  fours,  in  marching  order, 
cause  a  load  of  222  Ibs.  per  lineal  foot 
of  roadway ;  if  crowded  by  a  check  in 
front,  560  Ibs. 

"  Cavalry,  in  inarching  order,  in  file, 
and  occupying  12  feet  of  bridge,  cause  a 
load  of  116  Ibs.  per  lineal  foot  of  road- 
way ;  if  in  double  file,  233  Ibs.  If  crowded 
by  a  check  and  in  double  file,  a  load  of 
about  350  Ibs. 

"  Artillery,  having  the  weight  un- 
equally distributed,  is  calculated,  the 
16-pr.  M.L.R.  gun,  as  giving  a  load  of 
525  Ibs.  per  lineal  foot ;  the  40-pr.  Arm- 
strong gun,  888  Ibs." 

Under  the  head  of  Weight  of  Animals 
will  be  found  the  actual  weight  of  bag- 
gage animals,  such  as  the  elephant,  camel, 
and  pack  bullock.  In  calculating  the 
load  each  brings  to  bear  on  a  bridge,  it 
may  be  put  down  as  follows  : — 

44  cwt.  may  be  brought  on  to  one  foot 
of  an  elephant ; 

For  the  camel,  10  cwt.  to  one  foot ; 

Pack  bullock,  83  cwt.  to  one  foot. 


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Loadstone  (Icelandic,  liederatein  =  lead- 
ing-stone ;  from  the  Saxon  Icedan,  to  lead, 
whence    the    English    name    lodestone  or  j 
leadimj-stone) — A  combination  of  the  pro-  j 
toxide  and  peroxide  of  iron.     This  term  | 
is  applied   to  the  magnetic  iron   ore,  or 
natural  magnet,  from  an  early  observa- 
tion of  its  most  useful  directive  property 
by  various  nations.     (  Vide  Magnet.) 

Local  Rank,  vide  Rank,  Local. 

Lock,  Gun — Formerly  a  flintlock  at- 
tached to  naval  guns ;  it  was  intro- 
duced into  the  British  naval  service  in 
1778,  and  continued  in  use  until  1818, 
when  the  double-flinted  lock,  invented  by 
Sir  H.  Douglas,  was  ordered  for  general 
use  in  the  navy.  This  lock  was  also  re- 
commended by  that  officer  for  land  guns, 
whether  field,  siege,  or  garrison,  and 
the  recommendation  was  strongly  backed 
by  the  late  Sir  A.  Dickson,  of  the  royal 
artillery.  Subsequently,  the  discovery 
of  the  percussion  principle  having  been 
made,  percussion  locks  and  tubes  were 
introduced ;  but  since  the  introduction 
into  the  navy  of  Colonel  Boxer's  friction 
tube,  made  with  a  quill,  the  percussion 
lock  has  been  superseded. 

Lock,  To — In  draught,  this  term  is 
applied  when  putting  on  the  drag  or 
locking  chain  to  a  wheel. 

Locking  Angle — The  turning  angle  of 
carriages,  or  the  angle  formed  between  the 
gun  carriage  and  limber,  when  the  wheel 
of  the  latter  comes  in  contact  with  the  trail. 

Locking  Chain  —  The  chain  attached 
to  a  gun  carriage  to  retard  its  progress 
in  steep  descents.  It  is  fastened  under- 
neath the  carriage. 

Locking  Plate — A  plate  of  metal  fixed 
on  each  side  of  the  trail  of  a  wooden 
field  carriage,  at  that  point  where  the 
wheel  of  the  limber,  when  it  is  turned 
round,  comes  in  contact  with  the  trail, 
called  the  locking  angle.  The  plate  being 
thus  placed,  the  trail  can  receive  no 
damage,  as  the  plate  acts  as  a  fender. 

Lodging  Money — An  allowance  made 
by  government  to  all  officers  and  soldiers 
for  whom  there  is  not  sufficient  accom- 
modation in  barracks.  Married  non-com- 
missioned officers  and  soldiers  married 
"  with  permission  "  are  granted  lodging 
money,  when  separate  rooms  are  not 
available,  at  various  rates  up  to  8s.  a 
week. 


Lodgment — In  gunnery,  the  hollow  or 
cavity  in  the  under  part  of  the  bore, 
where  the  shot  rests  when  rammed  home ; 
it  is  formed,  in  smooth-bore  ordnance,  after 
much  firing,  from  the  elastic  force  of  the 
powder  acting  upon  the  upper  surface 
of  the  projectile,  and  forcing  it  down,  so 
as  to  occasion  an  elliptical  indentation. 

In  fortification,  the  word  means  an  in- 
trenchment  hastily  thrown  up  on  a  cap- 
tured breach  or  outwork,  in  order  to 
maintain  the  position  against  recapture. 

Log  Huts  —  Huts  made  of  logs  of 
wood.  Wherever  trees  are  in  abundance, 
such  as  in  the  American  and  other  forests, 
huts  can  then  be  erected  without  any 
great  expense.  They  last  for  years,  and 
can  be  easily  constructed.  The  '  Soldier's 
Pocket-book  '  gives  a  description  of  how 
huts  should  be  put  together. 

Log  Line,  vide  Line,  Log. 

Logarithm — The  logarithm  of  a  num- 
ber is  the  power  or  exponent  of  any 
other  number,  called  the  base,  to  which 
the  latter  must  be  raised  to  equal  that 
number.  For  instance,  10  being  the  base, 
the  logarithm  of  100  is  2  (10*),  of  1000 
(103),  &c. 

Logistics — With  reference  to  military 
science,  is  the  study  of  the  military  re- 
sources of  countries,  which  forms  part  of 
the  information  gathered  by  the  intelli- 
gence department  (q.  ».)  of  armies. 

Long  Course,  vide  Schools,  Military. 

Long  Light,  G.S.,  vide  Light,  Long  G.S. 

Longe — The  training  ground  for  the 
instruction  of  a  young  horse,  to  render 
him  quiet,  tractable,  and  supple ;  to  give 
him  free  and  proper  use  of  his  limbs,  to 
form  his  paces,  and  to  prepare  him  in  all 
respects  for  the  cavalry  service. 

Longitude — In  geography,  "  signifies, 
with  reference  to  the  earth,  its  extent 
from  east  to  west,  in  contradistinction 
to  its  latitude,  or  extent  from  one  pole 
to  another.  The  longitude  of  a  place  is 
its  distance  from  some  given  point  called 
the  meridian,  which  is  reckoned  either 
east  or  west.  The  English  reckon  from 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich.  The  longi- 
tude of  a  heavenly  body  is  the  arc  of 
the  ecliptic  intercepted  between  the  first 
points  of  Aries  and  the  circle  of  latitude 
passing  through  the  body.  It  is  mea- 
sured from  west  to  east,  entirely  round 
the  circle." 


LOO 


235 


MAC 


Loophole — An  opening  or  small  em- 
brasure, in  military  and  other  buildings, 
for  musketry  fire.  In  fieldworks,  loop- 
holes are  made  with  sandbags  and  other 
contrivances,  which  are  laid  down  in  all 
works  on  fortification. 

Loot — A  term  for  plunder  or  pillage, 
commonly  used  in  India. 

Low  Pressure — The  term  low  pressure 
was  formerly  applied  to  a  condensing 
engine,  which  was  worked  with  steam  at 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  or  even 
under,  hence  it  was  called  a  low-prussitre 
engine  ;  but  this  nature  of  engine  is  as 
often  worked  with  steam  at  a  pressure  of 
several  atmospheres  as  at  low  pressure  ; 
so  that  this  distinctive  name  may  be  said 
to  have  ceased. 

Lubrication  —  The  act  of  applying 
grease,  oil,  or  any  fatty  substance,  to  sur- 
faces which  come  in  contact  with  each 
other.  For  the  composition  used  in  the 
lubrication  of  axle-arms,  vide  Grease. 

Lubricator,  Cartridge  —  Consists  of 
two  thin  cups  of  tinned  iron  soldered 
together,  containing  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  tallow  and  linseed  oil,  attached 
to  a  wad  of  felt,  backed  by  mill- 
board. This  lubricator  is  inserted  into 
the  cartridge  and  placed  on  the  top  of 
the  powder.  Lubricators  are  used  with 
B.L.  guns  to  cleanse  the  bore  from 
leadings,  and  to  save  the  trouble  and 
delay  of  sponging  the  gun  after  each 
round. 

Lug — The  ear  or  loop  formerly  cast 
on  a  mortar  shell. 

Lunette  (French,  lune  =  moon)  —  In 
fortification,  a  work  larger  than  a  redan, 
consisting  of  two  faces  and  two  flanks. 
It  is  much  used  in  field  fortification,  and 
is  sometimes  placed  on  the  capitals  of  the 
works  in  a  permanent  fortification,  in 
advance  of  the  glacis,  to  cover  some 
ground  which  it  is  desirable  to  occupy. 

Lute — Chemists'  clay  or  loam.  It  is 
used  in  closing  a  retort  placed  in  a  re- 
ceiver for  the  purpose  of  excluding  the 
air.  There  is  also  a  mixture  termed  lute 
composition  used  for  keeping  the  bungs 
of  powder  cases  air-tight,  and  on  the 
lid  of  metal-lined  and  metal  cases  to  ex- 
clude the  air  as  much  as  possible ;  it  is 
composed  of  equal  parts  of  tallow  and 
bees-wax. 


Mace — A  military  weapon,  a  club  of 
metal,  used  in  the  early  Anglo-Saxon 
period.  It  continued  to  be  in  use  up  to 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
when  it  was  exchanged  for  the  pistol. 

Nowadays,  as  a  relic  of  olden  times, 
the  mace  is  still  borne  before  magistrates. 
By  the  old  English  writers  it  is  used 
synonymously  with  sceptre. 

Machicolation  —  A  term  applied  to 
openings  at  the  tops  of  old  castles  a.nd 
fortifications,  through  which  combus- 
tibles, melted  lead,  and  stones,  were 
dropped  on  the  heads  of  the  assailants. 

Machicoulis  Galleries — One  of  the 
means  of  defence  for  protecting  the  en- 
trance and  badly  flanked  parts  of  a 
building.  They  are  constructed  over  the 
entrance  of  a  house  or  enclosure,  or  over 
posts  where  an  opening  is  liable  to  be 
effected,  the  floor  being  perforated  to 
enable  the  defenders  to  fire  downwards, 
A  balcony  may  be  converted  into  a 
machicoulis  gallery  by  making  the  front 
and  sides  bullet-proof,  and  forming  open- 
ings in  the  floor,  so  as  to  enable  a  per- 
pendicular musketry  fire  to  be  directed 
upon  the  enemy  below.  Special  precau- 
tions must  be  taken  if  the  building  is 
likely  to  be  subjected  to  artillery  fire, 
to  throw  up  earthen  parapets  around 
the  walls.  An  exposed  doorway  may 
also  be  protected  by  a  blindage,  or  row 
of  stout  timbers  touching  each  other  and 
resting  against  the  wall  at  an  angle  of 
about  45°.  Sandbags  or  rammed  earth 
must  be  placed  over  the  timbers.  Other 
means  of  defence  will  also  suggest  them- 
selves to  the  officer  in  command  for 
strengthening  his  position. 

Machine  —  In  a  general  sense,  is  de- 
scribed as  "  anything  that  is  used  to  aug- 
ment or  to  regulate  moving  forces  or 
powers.  The  term  is  generally  restricted 
to  a  certain  class  of  agents  which  seem 
to  hold  a  middle  place  between  the  simple 


MAC 


MAC 


tools  and  the  more  complicated,  called 
engines ;  this  distinction,  however,  has 
not  a  place  iu  a  scientific  point  of  view  ; 
all  such  compound  agents  being  really 
machines,  the  parts  of  which  they  are 
composed  being  mechanical  powers." 

Machine,  Boring,  vide  Boring  Machine. 

Machinery — A  general  term  applied  to 
mechanical  combinations  of  parts  for 
creating  power  or  producing  work,  which 
may  otherwise  be,  more  or  less  perfectly, 
made  with  the  hand.  The  application 
of  this  subject  is  so  universal  and  so 
varied  that  it  will  only  be  possible  in  a 
work  of  this  kind  to  direct  attention  to 
the  great  and  continued  improvement 
taking  place  in  the  mechanical  con- 
trivances of  the  present  day,  which,  with 
the  aid  of  steam,  play  such  a  conspicuous 
part  in  all  our  military  manufacturing 
establishments. 

Maeomber  Gun — A  gun  invented  by  Mr. 
Macomber,  C.E.,  an  American.  The  pecu- 
liarity of  the  gun  consists  in  its  stated 
extraordinary  strength.  It  is  a  breech- 
loader, and  is  provided  \vith  a  gas-check 
of  Mr.  Macomber's  own  invention,  which 
effectually  prevents  the  escape  of  gas  at 
the  breech. 

In  a  lecture  at  the  United  Service  Insti- 
tution, in  February  1874,  Mr.  Macomber 
gave  a  description  of  his  gun,  and  as  it 
may  be  thought  interesting,  an  extract 
from  his  lecture  is  herewith  given  : — 

"  The  chamber  for  holding  the  powder 
and  the  breech  of  the  gun  are  formed  of 
discs  of  wrought  iron,  composed  of  three 
different  qualites  of  wrought  iron,  the 
softest  forming  the  centre  and  the  hardest 
the  outer  circumference  of  the  disc,  which 
are  thoroughly  welded  together,  leaving 
a  hole  in  the  centre.  After  a  sufficient 
number  of  these  are  prepared  to  form  the 
gun,  they  are  roughly  engine-turned  to 
bring  them  to  a  uniform  thickness." 

"  These  discs  are  then  submitted  to  a 
process  of  '  setting  '  by  steel  punches  (each 
disc  separately),  by  powerful  blows  of  a 
steam-hammer,  beginning  lightly,  and  in- 
creasing   gradually    until    the  soft   and  I 
hard  metal   have  been  forced  (in  a  cold 
state)  from  centre  to  circumference  to  the 
point  of  enlargement  of  the  latter,  which  j 
commencement   of    enlargement   is  proof  \ 
that  every  portion  of  the  disc   will  bear  j 
its  equal  proportion  of  a  future  strain  or 


concussion  which  it  may  be  subjected  to, 
and  which,  in  the  use  of  gunpowder,  can- 
not exceed  the  test  thus  applied." 

"  After  the  discs  are  set,  they  are  welded 
one  at  a  time  upon  a  mandrel,  by  the  pro- 
cess known  to  smiths  as  'jump  welding.' 

"  Subsequently,  the  mandrel  upon 
which  the  discs  were  forged  will  be  en- 
tirely taken  out  by  the  process  of  boriug 
the  gun,  leaving  only  the  metal  which 
has  been  subjected  to  the  steam-hammer 
and  punch." 

The  breech  of  the  gun  is  surrounded  with 
steel  rings,  which  are  forced  over  it,  in  a 
cold  state,  by  a  powerful  hydraulic  press. 
The  gas-check,  as  has  been  mentioned 
before,  is  Mr.  Macomber's  own  inven- 
tion. He  uses  Dyer  and  Sons'  friction 
primers,  and  makes  use  of  the  strongest 
powder  and  of  a  fine  grain  ;  but  he  states 
that  he  would  have  no  objection  to  use 
gun-cotton.  The  weight  of  the  gun  he 
exhibited  was  12  cwt.,  calibre  If  inch, 
weight  of  shot  3  Ibs.,  initial  velocity 
about  2000  feet  per  second.  The  in- 
ventor states  that  at  an  elevation  of  38° 
the  shot  attained  a  range  of  9£  miles. 

Macrometer  (Greek,  makros,  long ; 
metron,  measure) — An  instrument,  the  in- 
vention of  Captain  Poste,  50th  Regiment, 
by  means  of  which  the  ranges  of  distant 
objects  can  be  determined  with  rapidity 
and  accuracy. 

It  consists  of  two  mirrors,  disposed 
somewhat  similarly  to  the  mirrors  of  a 
marine  sextant,  the  observations  being 
taken  much  in  the  same  way.  One  of 
the  mirrors  is  movable,  and  is  fixed  to  an 
arm  on  which  the  several  distances,  from 
20  to  2000  yards,  are  marked.  The  arm 
moves  over  a  peculiar  curve  placed  on  a 
part  of  the  instrument  called  the  "  fan," 
and  indicating  the  distances  answering  to 
any  given  inclination  of  the  mirror.  The 
arm,  moreover,  is  fitted  with  a  slide,  so 
as  to  be  capable  of  being  set  to  any  length 
of  base,  and  this  base  may  either  be 
measured  by  a  chain  or  may  be  paced,  the 
slide  being  set  to  the  line  marked  "yards" 
or  "  paces,"  as  the  case  may  be.  The  "re- 
sult is  always  given  in  yards.  When  it 
is  required  to  make  an  observation,  two 
men  take  up  a  position  so  as  to  form  ,1 
triangle  with  the  object,  the  distance  of 
which  it  is  desired  to  ascertain.  One  of 
the  two  observers,  by  means  of  an  optical 


MAD 


237 


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square,  places  himself  so  as  to  be  at  right 
angles  with  the  distant  object  and  the 
second  observer,  by  whom  the  macrometer 
is  used. 

From  experiments  made  with  this  in- 
strument, the  distance  of  moving  objects 
has  been  ascertained  with  very  great 
accuracy,  and  in  the  case  of  stationary 
objects  the  error  has  been  found  to  be  less 
than  1  per  cent.  The  notation  of  the 
instrument  admits  of  the  units  being 
taken  to  represent  chains  and  links  ;  thus 
835  would  be  8  chains  35  links. 

Mad  Staggers — A  cerebral  affection 
with  which  horses  are  sometimes  af- 
fected. There  are  two  different  symptoms 
of  staggers,  the  sleepy  and  mad  staggers. 
The  former  implies  the  dull  stage,  which 
indicates  that  the  brain  is  oppressed  ;  the 
latter  denotes  the  furious  stage,  when  the 
brain  has  become  acutely  inflamed.  Over- 
feeding is  the  origin  of  the  disease. 

Mayhew  gives  the  following  as  the 
treatment  which  should  be  pursued  : — 

"  The  best  remedy  when  a  horse  has 
gorged  himself  is  to  keep  him  from 
drinking  and  to  administer  a  quart  of  any 
oil.  Oil  is  preferable  to  the  solution  of 
aloes.  Should  no  amendment  be  detected, 
in  six  hours  repeat  the  dose.  In  another 
six  hours  give  another  dose,  with  twenty 
drops  of  croton  oil  in  it.  When  another 
period  has  elapsed,  should  no  improve- 
ment have  taken  place,  give  thirty  drops 
of  croton  in  another  quart  of  oil.  Should 
none  of  these  drinks  take  effect,  the 
round  must  once  more  be  gone  over. 
However,  on  the  slightest  amendment, 
stop  all  medicine.  The  following  signs 
announce  the  approach  of  mad  staggers. 
The  lid  is  raised,  and  the  eye  assumes  an 
unnatural  brightness.  The  nasal  mem- 
brane reddens,  the  surface  becomes  as  hot 
as  it  was  previously  deficient  in  warmth, 
the  movements  are  quick  and  jerking. 
The  breath  is  no  longer  laborious ;  it  is 
rapid,  sharp,  and  drawn  with  a  kind  of 
panting  action.  The  whole  appearance 
is  altered,  and  the  characteristics  of  ap- 
proaching frenzy  can  hardly  be  mis- 
taken." 

Magazine — This  name  is  given  to  a 
store-house  or  small  arsenal  in  India, 
what  Lieutenant  Collen,  R.A.,  in  his 
prize  essay  of  1872  on  arsenals,  would 
designate  as  a  second-class  arsenal,  as 


possessing  within  it  the  stores,  guns, 
small-arms,  &c.  of  the  army  dependent 
on  it,  and  having  the  means  of  making 
or  repairing  certain  warlike  stores. 

Magazine,  Expense,  vide  Expense  Ma- 
gazines. 

Magazine,  Main — The  principal  maga- 
zine in  a  work  or  battery,  in  which  there 
is  more  than  one  magazine. 

Magazine,  Portable,  vide  Portable  Ma- 
gazine. 

Magazine,  Powder — A  receptacle  for 
the  storage  of  gunpowder.  Powder  is 
stored  in  barrels,  which  are  placed  in  some 
magazines  in  racks  or  "  bays"  ;  in  others 
the  barrels  are  piled  pyramidally  from 
the  floor  upwards,  without  any  sup- 
port from  racks.  In  powder  magazines 
fitted  with  racks,  one  of  the  racks  should 
be  left  empty  for  the  sake  of  shifting  the 
powder,  or  the  barrels  may  be  rolled  in 
their  own  compartments,  which  would 
answer  the  purpose.  During  fine  and 
dry  weather,  magazines  may  be  opened 
daily  to  air,  if  necessary,  but  during 
damp  and  wet  weather  they  must  be 
kept  closed,  until  a  break  in  the  weather 
takes  place,  when  advantage  should  be 
taken  of  a  dry  day,  especially  in  India, 
during  the  monsoon  or  rains,  to  open  them. 

Magazines— Places  of  deposit  for  the 
food  and  munitions  of  an  army  while  on  a 
campaign.  The  organisation  and  posi- 
tion of  such  necessary  depots  form  one  of 
the  most  important  duties  of  the  com- 
mander of  an  army,  and  necessitate  his 
greatest  solicitude  and  care ;  for  when  an 
army  sets  out  from  its  base  of  operations, 
where  the  main  supplies  are  stored,  each 
day's  march  takes  it  farther  away  from 
them,  and  the  greatest  difficulty  would  be 
found  after  a  certain  time  in  feeding  the 
troops,  were  not  a  system  of  small  maga- 
zines, with  here  and  there  a  main  maga- 
zine, advantageously  established,  say  three 
or  four  days'  march  apart. 

To  keep  these  magazines  filled,  a  safe 
and  guarded  communication  must  be  kept 
up  with  the  main  magazines  in  rear,  upon 
which  the  smaller  ones  are  dependent. 
When  the  country  into  which  the  army 
is  advancing  can  offer  supplies,  advan- 
tage will  of  course  be  taken  to  draw  on 
it,  and  when  this  is  the  case,  the  maga- 
zines for  food  should  not  be  indented 
upon ;  but  as  this  mode  of  supply  is  very 


MAG 


238 


MAG 


precarious,  no  army  can  be  kept  up  if 
a  system  of  magazines  is  not  carried  out. 

In  the  days  when  armies  subsisted  on 
pillage,  and  soldiers  became  marauders, 
living  on  plunder,  and  seizing,  in  coun- 
tries they  entered,  all  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence they  could  put  their  hands  on, 
magazines  were  not  then  thought  of; 
but  the  organisation  of  armies  in  the 
eighteenth  century  rendered  it  very 
necessary  to  depend  on  them  for  storing 
food. 

The  position  of  such  depots  will  neces- 
sarily become  a  matter  of  primary  import- 
ance for  the  consideration  of  the  general. 
In  these  days  of  railways,  when  the  faci- 
lity in  bringing  up  stores  from  the  rear 
is  so  great,  and  food  can  be  brought  up  in 
abundance,  such  a  means  of  transport 
appears  to  be  the  best,  provided  the  line 
is  guarded  and  not  likely  to  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy :  there  is  however 
this  danger  that  it  may.  and  this,  a  pro- 
vident commander  will  take  into  account. 
Junctions  of  important  lines  of  railway 
form  good  positions  for  the  principal  ma- 
gazines, from  which  the  transport  of  food 
to  the  army  a  few  marches  ahead  can  be 
easily  performed.  Formerly  magazines 
were  generally  echeloned  along  main  lines 
of  communication  at  intervals,  and  if  it 
were  necessary  to  establish  further  inter- 
mediate depots  to  maintain  communica- 
tion, they  were  classed  according  to  size 
and  importance,  the  largest  being  gener- 
ally in  rear.  Jomini  recommends  that 
magazines  should,  when  possible,  be 
formed  on  three  main  lines,  corresponding 
to  centre  and  wings,  to  embrace  more 
country  and  to  facilitate  supply. 

Magazines  are  usually  formed  wherever 
a  break  in  system  of  carriage  occurs,  viz. 
the  point  of  disembarking,  where  sea 
transport  ends — always  a  great  depot  at 
all  events ;  also  where  river  transport 
ends  and  land  transport  begins,  or  where 
rail  ends. 

Wellington's  despatches  abound  in 
illustrations  of  preparatory  formations  of 
magazines,  and  in  Hamley's  'Operations 
of  War,'  it  is  shown  that  the  Archduke 
Charles,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  who 
confronted  Napoleon,  gives  an  illustra- 
tion of  a  system  of  magazines  as  applied 
to  a  supposed  advance  from  Moldau  to 
Wernitz,  and  further  shows  that,  as  an 


army  advances,  its  magazines  are  esta- 
blished at  principal  points  in  rear,  at  dis- 
tances varying  from  30  to  60  miles,  with 
intermediate  temporary  depots,  and  as  the 
army  converges  towards  the  objective, 
magazines  are  formed  on  a  narrower 
front. 

When  an  army  can  be  fed  by  the  coun- 
try round,  the  magazines  for  food,  as 
before  shown,  are  not  to  be  indented  upon, 
and  care  should  be  taken  that  food 
received  from  the  inhabitants  is  paid  for. 

During  the  Franco-German  war  of 
1870-71,  the  German  army  corps  had 
supply  trains  generally  attached  to  the 
divisions  of  each  corps  ;  these  distributed 
food  to  the  troops — they  carried  4  days' 
rations  for  men.  Then  they  had  a  cer- 
tain number  of  supply  wagons,  contain- 
ing food  for  men  and  horses  for  6  days ; 
these  kept  in  rear  of  the  corps,  and  could 
communicate  with  the  magazines.  When 
travelling  by  rail,  the  troops  were  fed  at 
certain  stations,  or  took  in  their  food  at 
these  stations.  The  whole  management 
of  supply  appears  to  have  been  admirably 
carried  out,  and,  when  so  performed,  it 
considerably  facilitates  operations. 

The  subject  of  the  formation  and  posi- 
tion of  magazines  is  one  of  such  vast  im- 
portance that  military  men  will  do  well 
to  study  the  history  of  past  campaigns, 
when  they  will  observe — to  take  only  one 
example — how  Napoleon,  in  the  wars  of 
the  republic,  was  careful  to  accumulate 
great  magazines  and  to  keep  his  commu- 
nications open,  notwithstanding  that  his 
troops  helped  themselves  pretty  freely 
off  the  country  they  invaded ;  never- 
theless, no  general  ever  realised  more 
than  he  did  the  necessity  of  having  accu- 
mulated supplies  ready  to  fall  back  upon, 
and  to  keep  his  communication  to  the 
rear  carefully  guarded. 

Magistral  Line — The  trace  or  outline 
of  a  work  as  the  plan  of  its  guiding  or 
magistral  line.  In  field  fortifications, 
this  line  is  the  interior  crest  line.  In 
permanent  fortifications,  it  is  usually  the 
line  of  the  top  of  the  escarp  of  each  work. 

Magnesium.  —  A  malleable  ductile 
metal,  of  the  colour  and  brilliancy  of 
silver.  When  ignited  in  dry  air  or  in 
oxygen  gas,  it  burns  with  extraordinary 
brilliancy,  and  is  oxidised  into  magnesia. 
To  prevent  it  from  oxidising,  it  is  pre- 


MAG 


239 


MAJ 


pared  with  paraifine.  It  is  used  in  the  , 
preparation  of  magnesium  signal  lights,  ] 
which  burn  tor  one  minute  with  a  very 
brilliant  white  flame. 

Magnesium  Light,  vide    Light,  Mag- 
nesium. 

Magnet — Derives  its    name  from  the 
city  of  Magnesia,  in  Asia  Minor,  where  it 
was   first   discovered.     It  was  also  called 
the  loadstone  or  leading  stone,  from  the 
early  navigators  believing  that  the  magnet 
pointed  always  to  the  north  pole,  and  that  ; 
therefore   by  means  of  it  they  could  tell  ' 
the  direction  of  their  meridian,  and  thus 
be  directed  aright  on  their  course. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  magnets,  natu- 
ral and  artificial.  The  former  is  found 
in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  an  j 
oxide  of  iron ;  the  latter  is  for  the  most 
part  a  straight  or  bent  bar  of  tempered 
steel  which  has  been  magnetised  by  the 
action  of  other  magnets  or  of  the  gal- 
vanic current.  This  nature  of  magnet 
is  used  in  producing  magnetic  needles  for 
compasses.  A  magnet,  as  is  well  known, 
has  the  power  of  attracting  iron,  but 
is  by  no  means  equal  in  its  power  to 
attract  throughout  its  length  ;  for  when 
a  magnet  passes  over  a  bar  of  iron,  it 
affects  the  two  points  and  not  the  centre,  j 
the  magnetic  force  being  stronger  at  each  j 
end  as  the  distance  increases  from  the 
middle  of  the  bar.  These  extreme  points, 
where  the  attractive  power  is  greatest, 
are  called  the  poles.  They  are  desig- 
nated as  north  pole  and  south  pole  from 
the  following  phenomena,  amongst 
others,  exhibited  by  artificial  magnets,  as 
described  in  Brande  and  Cox's '  Dictionary' : 
— "  The  point  of  the  needle  which  dips 
below  the  horizon,  and  points  to  the  west- 
ward of  the  meridian,  is  called  the  north 
pole  of  the  needle,  and  the  elevated  one 
the  south  pole.  When  the  horizontal 
needle  is  used,  the  same  terms  apply ; 
the  end  which  varies  westward  being  the 
north  pole,  and  the  other  the  south 
pole." 

A  horseshoe  magnet  is  used  in  testing 
rooms  of  submarine  mining  stations,  for 
steadying  the  deflections  of  galvano- 
meters, and  for  other  purposes.  It  weighs 
2  Ibs.  13  oz.,  and  will  support  a  weight  of 
131bs.  10  oz. 

Mahogany  (Swietcnia  mahogani") — A 
wood  indigenous  to  the  West  Indies  and 


the  Spanish  Main,  and  naturalised  in  some 
parts  of  India,  where  it  belongs  to  an- 
other genus,  and  is  decidedly  inferior  to 
the  real  mahogany.  The  latter,  however, 
has  been  grown  in  the  Botanical  Gardens, 
Calcutta,  and  pronounced  very  favour- 
ably upon,  showing  that  the  true  variety 
may  be  grown  in  the  East  Indies.  It  is 
found  in  some  of  the  Tenasserim  gardens, 
where  it  appears  to  flourish.  Professor 
Royle,  in  his  '  Productive  Resources  of 
India,'  states,  "  the  tree  is  now  common 
in  Northern  as  well  as  Southern  India." 

Mail  (French,  maille,  from  Latin 
macula,  a  hole  or  mesh  of  a  net) — Pri- 
marily denotes  the  holes  or  meshes  in 
a  net.  It  likewise  signifies  a  round 
iron  ring ;  hence  "  coat  of  mail,"  a  coat 
of  armour  or  steel  network,  anciently 
worn  for  defence. 

This  word,  as  is  shown  in  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel J.  Luard's  '  Dress  of  the 
British  Soldier,'  is  the  British  word  mael, 
for  iron.  The  same  author  states  : — "  The 
tunic  covered  with  rings,  to  which  the 
word  mail  was  afterwards  applied  bv 
the  Norman  French,  was  literally  called 
by  the  Saxons  gehrynycd  byrn,  ringed 
armour." 

Main — Signifies  first  in  size,  rank,  or 
importance.  It  has  many  useful  com- 
pounds attached  to  it,  such  as: — 

Main  body  of  an  army,  the  body  of 
troops,  other  than  those  forming  the  ad- 
vanced or  rear  guard. 

Main  guard,  a  body  of  men  generally 
of  the  strength  sufficient  to  guard  a  per- 
son or  place  from  injury  or  attack.  It 
remains  on  duty  24  hours  before  being 
relieved.  Large  forts  or  fortresses  have 
a  main  guard  chosen  from  the  troops 
garrisoning  them,  under  which  guard  all 
disturbers  of  the  peace,  drunkards,  &c. 
are  placed,  as  well  as  all  people  who  can- 
not by  night  give  an  account  of  them- 
selves, or  who  do  not  know  the  parole. 

Main  Magazine,  viJe  Magazine,  Main. 

Major — An  officer  next  below  the  rank 
of  a  lieutenant-colonel.  Since  the  re- 
organisation of  the  army,  he  is  a  selected 
man,  and  his  term  of  service  in  this  rank 
is  for  five  years,  after  which,  if  not  re- 
employed,  he  is  put  on  half-pay.  This 
does  not  relate  to  majors  of  the  artillery 
and  engineers. 

The  duties  of  a  major  depend  upon  the 


MAJ 


240 


MAL 


nature  of  the  service  on  which  he  is  em- 
ployed. In  the  line,  whilst  with  his  regi- 
ment, he  has  to  see  to  the  drill  and  equip- 
ment of  the  men  in  conjunction  with  the 
adjutant.  Being  a  field  officer,  he  is 
mounted  on  all  parades  and  in  action.  In 
the  artillery  and  engineers,  the  rank  of 
major  has  been  recently  reintroduced,  and 
.single  batteries  of  artillery  are  now  com- 
manded by  officers  of  this  rank,  instead  of 
by  a  captain,  as  hitherto.  It  was  in  the 
year  1827  that  the  rank  of  major  in  the 
artillery  was  abolished,  its  holders  being 
made  lieutenant-colonels. 

It  appears  that  this  class  of  field  officer 
did  not  exist  in  the  army  until  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Major,  Brigade,  vide  Brigade  Major. 

Major,  Fort,  vide  Fort  Major. 

Major-General — The  lowest  grade  of 
general  officers.  His  command  in  peace 
time  in  England  is  that  of  a  district ;  in 
India,  a  division  of  the  army.  A  brigade 
of  the  army  is  properly  a  major-general's 
command.  Thus,  on  service  with  a  large 
army,  a  general  would  command  a  corps 
d'anne'e,  a  lieutenant-general  a  division, 
and  a  major-general  a  brigade. 

Major,  Town,  vide  Town  Major. 

Male  Screw,  vide  Female  Screw. 

Malingerer — One  who  feigns  illness  to 
avoid  his  work. 

Malleable — Flexible  ;  ductile ;  forge- 
able.  In  metallurgy,  capable  of  being 
spread  out  by  heating  or  by  rolling, 
or  under  the  blows  of  a  hammer.  In 
speaking  of  iron,  it  is  the  term  applied 
to  wrought  iron. 

Mallenders  —  Described  by  Mayhew 
as  ';  a  scurfy  eruption  which  some- 
times appears  at  the  back  of  the  knee 
of  a  horse  which,  if  neglected,  will 
degenerate  into  a  troublesome  sore  ending 
in  a  discharge.  It  is  brought  on  gene- 
rally by  carelessness  and  neglect  on  the 
part  of  the  stable  attendant.  For  the 
relief  of  this  disease,  it  is  necessary  to 
pay  scrupulous  attention  to  cleanliness, 
giving  the  animal  tonic  alterative  drinks, 
as  follow : — 
"Liquor  arsenicalis  ..  ..  1  oz. 

Tincture  of  the  muriate  of  1    ., , 
iron         j1*02' 

Porter  or  stout       . .  1  quart. 

Mix  and  give  one  pint  night  and  morning; 
at  the  same  time  apply  the  following  : — 


"  Animal  glycerine   . .  . .      1  oz. 

Mercurial  ointment  ..      2  drs. 

Powdered  camphor  ..      2  drs. 

Spermaceti . .  . .  . .      1  oz. 

thrice  daily,  after  thoroughly  incorpo- 
rating the  ingredients.  If  the  scurf  has 
degenerated  into  a  sore,  treat  after  the 
manner  for  cracked  heels." 

Mallet — A  wooden  hammer.  It  is  used 
for  a  variety  of  purposes  in  the  field, 
such  as  driving  pickets,  tent-pins,  &c. 
The  head  is  made  of  elm,  and  tho  helve  of 
ash.  Mallets  vary  in  size  and  shape,  and 
are  made  in  India  of  babool  or  soondry 
wood.  Mallets  are  also  very  generally 
used  by  mechanics,  such  as  joiners  and 
carpenters,  coopers,  tinmen,  &c. 

Mallet's  Mortar — A  monster  mortar 
manufactured  some  years  ago  by  Mr. 
Mallet.  It  consisted  at  the  lower  end  of 
a  solid  cast-iron  breech,  abutting  on  which 
were  a  series  of  wrought-iron  hoops,  fol- 
lowing each  other  in  succession  up  to  the 
muzzle  ;  these  were  inserted  into  each 
other  by  rebates,  and  were  firmly  secured 
by  six  iron  staves,  at  equal  intervals, 
about  its  surface,  extending  longitudi- 
nally the  whole  length  of  the  mortar. 
The  total  weight  of  the  mortar  was  50  tons 
13J  cwt.  ;  the  diameter  of  the  shell 
3  feet,  and  its  weight,  when  unfilled, 
26J  cwt.  From  the  experiments  made 
with  this  mortar,  it  appears  that  there 
was  a  tendency  to  separation  between 
the  trunnions  and  the  cascable,  and 
consequently  there  was  reason  to  think 
that  it  could  never  be  employed  on 
service. 

There  is  no  piece  of  ordnance  as  this  in 
the  service,  but  a  model  of  it  may  be 
seen  in  the  Royal  United  Service  Institu- 
tion, Whitehall. 

Maltese  Cart — A  cart  which  can  be 
used  with  either  single  or  double  draught. 
The  two  side  pieces  of  the  cart  form  the 
shafts,  and,  as  described  in  the  '  Treatise 
on  Military  Carriages,  1874,'  are  "  bolted 
across  an  axle-tree  bed,  and  connected  also 
by  a  hind  ear-bed,  splinter-bar,  and  axis 
slats."  The  cart  is  formed  of  wood,  and 
is  adapted  for  man  draught.  Its  weight 
is  under  7  cwt. 

Maltese  Cross — A  cross  worn  by  the 
hospitallers  and  other  orders  of  knight- 
hood. It  is  termed  a  cross  of  eight 
points. 


MAM 


241 


MAP 


Mameliere — Ancient  breast  armour. 
It  consisted  of  one  or  two  round  plates. 

Mamootie — An  Indian  term  for  a  kind 
of  large-sized  hoe,  which  is  used  by  the 
natives  of  India  for  digging,  clearing  ob- 
structions on  the  roads,  &c.  Mamooties 
form  part  of  the  tools  carried  with  a 
siege  train. 

Man,  To — This  term  is  commonly  used 
in  artillery  to  signify  the  arming  of  a 
battery  with  men,  ready  for  action. 

Manacle,  ride  Handcuff. 

Manege — A  school  for  instruction  in 
horsemanship  and  for  training  horses. 

Manby's  Life-saving  Apparatus — This 
apparatus  has  been  superseded  by  Boxer's 
life-saving  rocket,  a  12-pr.  (</.  ».). 

Mandrel — The  spindle  which  carries 
the  centre  chuck  of  a  lathe,  and  commu- 
nicates motion  to  the  metal  to  be  turned  ; 
in  small  lathes,  it  is  driven  by  a  pulley. 

Mandril — A  tapered  iron  roller,  on 
which  the  first  winding  bar  of  a  coiled 
gun  is  wound  round. 

Mange — An  infectious  disease  which 
attacks  horses  when  neglected.  It  is 
described  as  "  brought  on  from  want  of 
grooming,  irregular  hours  in  feeding, 
coarse  diet,  and  a  filthy  stable.  It  is  of  the 
first  importance,  therefore,  to  be  particular 
in  the  cleaning  of  the  horse's  skin,  which, 
if  neglected,  generates  in  it  a  small  in- 
sect, upon  the  presence  of  which  mange 
depends.  Horses  are  more  subject  to  it  in 
the  winter,  after  putting  on  their  winter 
coats.  The  cure  for  it  is  as  follows  : — 

"  4  parts  of  sweet  oil ; 
1  part  mercurial  ointment; 
1  part  hellebore. 

"  Have  the  horse  shaved,  apply  the 
above,  and  let  it  remain  on  three  days  ;  the 
horse  must  then  be  washed  with  soap 
until  it  gets  in  a  lather  ;  he  must  then  be 
trotted  about  till  he  sweats.  Let  him 
remain  for  three  days,  and  then  apply 
the  ointment  a  second  time,  and  after 
three  days  he  is  to  be  washed  again  in 
the  manner  above  detailed ;  the  insects 
then  should  all  have  been  killed." 

Manifesto — A  public  declaration  by  a 
power  or  state,  containing  its  reasons  for 
entering  into  a  war.  This  custom  dates 
back  to  a  very  early  period,  but  the  for- 
mality of  a  manifesto  has  been  con- 
siderably relaxed  in  modern  times. 

Manoeuvre,    To   (French,  tncmceuvrer, 


to  drill) — To  handle  troops  with  facility  ; 
to  move  or  change  the  position  of  soldiers 
on  the  drill-ground. 

Manoeuvres,  Military — The  movement 
and  evolution  of  any  large  or  small 
body  of  troops,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
handling  of  a  body  of  men  in  any  posi- 
tion, generally  over  a  large  extent  of 
country.  In  order  to  instruct  generals  in 
tactics,  and  officers  and  men  in  their 
duties  in  the  field,  mimic  warfare  is  car- 
ried on  yearly,  under  the  name  of  military 
manauvres,  by  our  own  and  most  con- 
tinental armies.  In  England,  they  are 
known  as  autumn  manoeuvres  or  summer 
drills. 

The  introduction  of  arms  of  precision 
having  altered  the  formation  of  the  orders 
of  battle,  and  the  formation  of  troops,  ma- 
noeuvres have  been  considerably  modified. 
Mantlets — Musket-proof     shields     of 
iron  or  some  other  material.     They  are 
!  generally    provided    at    sieges    for    all 
I  embrasures,  as  a  protection  to  the  gun- 
ners when  working  or  laying   the  guns. 
;  Mantlets   of    various    kinds    have,    from 
I  time  to  time,  been  proposed,    either    of 
|  rope,    timber,   iron,    or   steel,    but  none 
I  appear    to     be    approved    of,    either   on 
j  account  of  their  weight  or,  in  the  case 
I  of  thin  iron  plates,  from  their  not  being 
!  adapted    for  closing   the   embrasures    of 
guns  liable  to  be  attacked  directly  or  re- 
I  plied  to  by  artillery.     The  efficiency  of 
•  tarred-rope  mantlets,  which  were  used  at 
Sebastopol,  was  considerable  ;  they  were 
found    to    be    more   protective    against 
musketry  fire  than  timber.     Rope  mant- 
lets   placed  in   the  embrasures  of  case- 
mates are  said  to  answer  the  purpose  of 
keeping  out  the  smoke  of  the  guns,  which 
in  a  confined  space  like  a  casemate  would 
be  much  felt,  were  it  not  for  some  ar- 
rangement of  this  sort.     Since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Martini-Henry  rifle,  mant- 
lets  of  3-inch  rope    and    of  four  thick- 
nesses   offer  no  protection    against  such 
rifles,  though    proof  against  the  Snider 
rifle  at  all  ranges. 

Manual  Exercise,  vide  Exercise,  Manual. 
Map  (Latin,  ma/jpa,  a  cloth) — A  re- 
presentation on  paper,  on  a  reduced  scale, 
of  some  portion  of  the  globe,  by  means 
of  conventional  signs  and  other  forms. 
Maps  are  of  three  kinds,  viz.  military 
plaits  or  maps,  topographical  and  geogra- 


MAR 


242 


MAR 


phical  maps.     The  two  former  are  those 
used  for  military  purposes. 

Plans  are  the  representation  on  a  large 
scale  —  showing  therefore  more  nume- 
rously the  details — of  a  small  part  of  the 
earth,  such  as  a  town,  building,  fortifi- 
cation, £c.  They  are  generally  drawn 
on  a  scale  of  25  inches  to  a  mile. 

A  topographical  map,  of  which  the 
Ordnance  Survey  is  a  good  example, 
being  on  a  smaller  scale,  gives  fewer 
details,  but  embraces  a  larger  extent  of 
ground.  It  represents  the  general  aspect 
of  the  ground,  every  object  being  propor- 
tionately reduced  to  the  scale  adopted,  and 
shown  by  distinctive  marks  or  conven- 
tional signs.  Vertical  dimensions,  such 
as  heights,  elevations,  &c.,  being  uneven, 
whilst  the  paper  on  which  they  are  repre- 
sented is  flat,  are  treated  in  a  conventional 
manner,  so  that  such  relief  and  character 
are  given  to  the  map  as  will  represent  the 
inequalities  of  that  part  of  the  ground 
represented  on  paper.  The  scales  (7.  v.~) 
used  for  this  kind  of  map  are  various, 
the  largest  being  that  prepared  for  the 
Kriegssjjiel (6  inches  to  a  mile). 

There  are,  besides,  relief  maps,  made  of 
plaster  or  wood,  all  the  inequalities  of  the 
earth's  surface  being  modelled  and  exe- 
cuted on  certain  scales.  These  maps  are 
very  useful  for  the  understanding  of 
topographical  ones,  as  they  convey  to  the 
mind  a  correct  idea  of  the  inequalities. 

The  method  of  representing  ground  by 
our  survey  and  topographical  depart- 
ments is  in  four  ways :  1st,  by  contours 
alone  ;  2ndly,  by  vertical  hachures ;  Srdly, 
horizontal  kachures,  and  4thly,  by  a  com- 
bination of  contours  and  horizontal  or 
vertical  hachures. 

A  geographical  map  is  a  general  map  of 
the  world  or  of  a  large  extent  of  country. 

Maraud,  To — To  plunder  in  time  of 
war  in  separate  small  bodies,  for  per- 
sonal purposes,  and  not  for  the  general 
wants  of  an  army. 

In  the  armies  of  civilised  nations, 
marauding  and  plundering  are  at  all 
times  promptly  and  rigorously  repressed, 
as  being  considered  disgraceful  to  soldiers. 
For  this  purpose,  in  the  British  service, 
the  provost-marshal  is  vested  by  the 
Articles  of  War  with  exceptional  powers, 
which  go  so  far  as  summary  punishment 
on  any  soldier  being  detected  in  the  act 


of  marauding.  (  Vide  Provost  Marshal.) 
It  is  however  difficult  to  suppress  it  alto- 
gether, in  countries  that  employ  irre- 
gular troops. 

Marauders — Men  who  go  in  search  of 
plunder.  (  Vide  Maraud,  To.) 

March. — The  moving  of  a  body  of 
troops  from  one  place  to  another,  either 
on  a  campaign  or  in  the  usual  relief  from 
station  to  station.  Troops  nowadays 
are  usually  conveyed  by  rail,  but  march, 
when  there  is  no  railway,  the  number 
of  miles  constituting  the  regular  daily 
march.  The  average  march  for  small 
bodies  of  troops  is  from  12  to  15  miles 
a  day.  Large  bodies,  such  as  corps 
d'annec,  composed  of  30,000  or  40,000 
men,  when  they  have  not  the  advantage 
of  a  railway,  move  slowly,  and  have  been 
known  to  accomplish  only  a  mile  or  less 
an  hour,  depending  on  certain  circum- 
stances ;  but  the  length  of  march  for 
such  bodies  of  troops  may  be  put  down 
from  5  to  10  miles  per  diem. 

The  slowness  of  march  of  large  bodies 
of  troops  may  be  judged  of  by  the  follow- 
ing account  given  in  Hamley's  '  Opera- 
tions of  War.'  In  1859,  at  the  passage 
of  the  Ticino,  Picard's  brigade  hurried 
up  to  support  the  guard  at  Magenta,  viz. 
from  Novara  to  Ticino,  9  miles,  and  took 
5  hours.  In  1866,  the  Austrian  eighth 
corps,  before  Sadowa,  took  14  hours  to 
get  over  12  miles,  the  roads  being  bad 
and  encumbered. 

The  above  instance  shows  the  diffi- 
culty bodies  of  troops,  when  not  aided  by 
railways,  have  of  getting  quickly  over 
the  ground,  except  under  pressing  cir- 
cumstances, such  as  Napoleon's  march 
from  the  Channel  to  the  Rhine,  in 
1805,  viz.  400  miles  in  25  days.  He 
had  with  him  then  seven  corps  <farm€e. 
Another  and  more  recent  instance  is  that 
of  the  second  German  army,  which 
marched,  in  1870,  from  Metz  to  the  Loire, 
and  averaged  12  miles  a  day.  The  ninth 
corps  averaged  13£  miles  for  the  first 
9  days.  In  consequence  of  urgent  orders 
received  at  Troyes,  it  pushed  on  to  Fon- 
tainebleau,  76  miles,  in  4  days. 

The  rate  of  march  ordinarily  for 
different  troops  is  as  follows : — Infantry, 
2f  miles  an  hour;  field  artillery, 
3%  miles  an  hour ;  horse  artillery  or 
cavalry,  4  to  5  miles  an  hour ;  but  these 


MAR 


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rates  only  apply  to  small  bodies  march- 
ing independently.  Practically,  infantry 
in  large  bodies  can  only  march  at  the 
rate  of  2  miles  an  hour.  Infantry,  being 
the  slowest  marchers,  necessarily  regu- 
late the  pace  of  mixed  columns. 

It  is  computed  that  a  division  of 
infantry  of  12  battalions,  of  800  men, 
marching  in  fours,  will  occupy  about 
7680  yards.  Its  artillery  (2  batteries), 
without  wagons,  and  marching  by  divi- 
sions, occupies  about  400  yards.  A  divi- 
sion complete,  including  the  advanced  and 
the  rear  guard,  will  cover  about  7  miles. 

A  body  of  36  battalions,  forming 
about  25,000  men,  will  cover  three  times 
the  above  ground,  and  will  take  a  little 
more  than  three  hours  to  deploy  on  its 
centre.  A  division  of  cavalry,  of  24 
squadrons,  of  48  files,  marching  by  fours, 
will  occupy  1311  yards.  Its  deployment 
on  one  of  its  wings,  on  a  ground  free  from 
obstacles,  takes  8  minutes  at  a  trot,  and 
4  minutes  on  its  centre. 

The  following,  taken  from  a  French 
military  manual,  is  the  rule  given  for 
finding  the  time  required  for  a  body 
of  troops  to  go  over  a  given  distance. 
It  is  based  upon  the  knowledge  that  in 
general  a  body  of  infantry  marches  8  kilo- 
metres (about  8749  yards)  in  two  hours, 
and  that  a  column  of  cavalry,  at  a  walk 
and  trot  alternately,  gets  over  a  mi/ria- 
metre  (about  10,936  yards)  in  1  hour. 

Let  D  be  the  length  of  march  ;  d,  the 
distance  traversed  in  1  minute  by  the 
column  ;  /,  the  length  of  the  column  ; 
d',  the  time  given  for  delays  caused  by 
difficult  passages,  heavy  ground  across 

fields,  &c.  ;    t  —  —  ,    i.e.  the   time   taken 

d 

by  the  left  of  the  column  to  get  over  the 
ground  covered  by  the  whole  body  of 

troops.      T  =  t   +  d'  +    —  ,    the    time 

d 
required. 

Ex.  =  D  =  25  kilometres, 
d  —  66  metres, 
/  =  1000  metres, 
d'—  90  minutes, 
1000 


-, 
66    ' 

105  4-  379  =  484,  or  8  hours  and  4  min. 


One  of  the  elements  of  d'  is  the  length- 
ening (t)  of  a  column  in  a  defile ;  it  is 

accounted  for  by  introducing   —  in  the 

d 
formula. 

Troops  in  England,  such  as  have  to 
march,  generally  start  about  8  A.M.  In 
India,  during  the  hot  weather,  the  march 
is  commenced  between  3  and  4  o'clock 
in  the  morning;  later  in  the  winter, 
especially  if  marching  in  the  North- West 
Provinces. 

The  general  principle  to  be  observed 
in  the  march  of  an  army  is  that  it 
should  march  in  as  many  columns  as 
possible,  and  each  on  the  largest  front ; 
when  possible,  cavalry  and  artillery 
should  march  by  a  different  road  from 
the  infantry.  In  commencing  a  cam- 
paign or  ordinary  march,  troops  should 
always  begin  with  short  marches  ;  then 
as  they  begin  to  get  into  marching  con- 
dition, the  march  should  be  lengthened. 
Forced  marches  are  only  undertaken 
under  extraordinary  circumstances,  as 
they  cannot  be  sustained  for  more  than 
a  few  days,  that  is,  marches  from  20  to 
25  miles  a  day.  If  prolonged  operations 
are  to  be  carried  on,  no  more  than  10 
miles  a  day,  with  halts,  should  be  reckoned 
on  as  a  continuance. 

The  instructions  for  the  march  of 
bodies  of  troops,  small  or  large,  are  laid 
down  in  Sir  G.  Wolseley's  '  Soldier's 
Pocket-book,'  and  are  fully  given  in  the 
lectures  delivered  at  Sandhurst  on  the 
subject  of  orders  of  march  and  formation 
of  columns,  and  condensed  as  follows  : — 

An  army  consists  of  two  portions,  com- 
batant and  non-combatant  (or  train). 
The  first  is  of  primary  importance ;  the 
second  has  to  provide  for  the  wants  of 
the  army,  but  to  keep  out  of  its  way. 

General  Maxims. — Everything  to  be 
arranged  in  column  of  route  in  the  order 
in  which  it  is  likely  to  be  required. 
When  at  a  distance  from  the  enemy, 
ease  and  comfort  of  troops  to  be  mainly 
considered.  When  near  the  enemy,  every- 
thing must  give  way  to  tactical  con- 
siderations. 

Troops  may  march  by  single  regi- 
ments, by  brigades,  divisions,  or  corps. 
By  single  regiments  is  the  least  fatiguing 
to  men,  but  only -applicable  in  peace,  or  at 
a  distance  from  the  enemy.  A  regiment 
B  2 


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244 


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has  its  own  baggage-train,  but  no  pro- 
vision wagons ;  special  arrangements 
must  be  made  by  contract  for  supplies. 
This  is  tisually  done  by  billeting  or 
from  magazines  previously  established 
at  selected  halting-places. 

Marching  by  brigades  is  not  common  ; 
it  is  a  little  easier  to  men  than  marching 
by  divisions,  but  entails  breaking  up  of 
control  and  hospitals  (usually  organised 
divisionally),  also  the  separation  of  the 
three  arms. 

Marching  by  divisions  is  most  common, 
and  6000  to  9000  a  convenient  number 
to  march  together ;  tactically  complete, 
with  proportions  of  the  three  arms ; 
complete  administratively,  with  con- 
trol, hospitals,  provision  columns,  and 
reserve  ammunition.  (F/cfe  Column  of 
March.) 

All  experienced  officers  know  that  the 
strength  of  the  soldier  (that  most  pre- 
cious portion  of  the  capital  of  a  general)  I 
cannot  be  too  much  economised.  It  is  not  I 
so  much  the  actual  distance  traversed 
during  the  day,  but  the  waiting  about 
in  heavy  marching  order  before  starting, 
and  constant  checks  on  the  march — sure 
to  take  place  when  the  staff1  is  not  up  to 
its  duty — which  exhaust  the  strength, 
depress  the  spirits,  and  wear  out  the 
patience  of  the  soldier. 

Colonel  du  Vernois,  in  his  '  Studies  of 
Troop  Leading,'  remarks  that — 

"  Special  attention  must  be  devoted  to 
the  times  for  marching  off;  unnecessary 
excitement,  as  a  rule,  causes  it  to  be  for- 
gotten that  so  large  a  force  as  a  division, 
even  if  divided  into  several  parts,  can- 
not be  set  in  motion  at  once,  and  the 
troops  are  only  tired  by  being  assembled 
too  early.  It  is  impossible  to  estimate 
beforehand  what  hardships  are  in  pro- 
spect for  the  day,  and  therefore  all  the 
greater  precaution  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  unnecessary  fatigue." 

The  term  march  is  also  applied  to  a 
piece  of  music  composed  chiefly  for  mili- 
tary bands,  to  accompany  the  marching 
of  troops,  to  help  them  to  preserve  time 
and  to  act  as  a  preventive  against  fatigue. 
Marches  are  played  on  wind  instruments 
or  by  the  fifes  and  drums,  and  are 
generally  some  simple  popular  air.  Each 
regiment  in  the  British  service  has  its 
special  march  for  marching  past ;  the 


fusiliers  are  allowed  to  play  on  tha* 
occasion  the  "  British  Grenadier." 

March,  Column  of,  vide  Column  of 
March. 

March,  Order  of,  vide  Order  of  March. 

March  Past — An  expression  made  use 
of  when  a  regiment  or  any  larger  body 
of  men  pass  in  review  order  before  the 
sovereign  or  reviewing  officer.  It  is  usually 
performed  in  column  or  quarter-column 
at  quick  march  or  at  the  double,  and  with 
the  mounted  branch,  when  so  ordered,  at 
a  quick  trot,  canter,  or  gallop.  In  England, 
the  "  march  past  "  of  large  bodies  of  troops 
is  carried  out  after  the  completion  of  the 
autumn  manoeuvres  or  summer  drills. 

March,  To — To  move  in  a  military 
manner  ;  to  walk  in  step,  and  at  a  certain 
pace,  as  practised  by  soldiers,  each  indivi- 
dual stepping  out  at  the  same  time  and 
with  the  same  foot.  This  mode  of  march- 
ing distinguishes  a  disciplined  body  of 
troops  from  a  mere  crowd  of  men.  It  is 
called  mirchinfj  in  step.  In  a  note  at 
page  41  of  '  Staff  College  Essays,'  by 
Lieutenant  Baring,  R.A.,  he  shows  that 
marching  in  step,  although  reintroduced 
by  Frederick  into  the  Prussian  army, 
dates  from  a  very  ancient  period.  Livy 
says  that  the  Romans  marched  "  veloce 
sed  scquo  pede."  It  was  also  practised  in 
the  armies  of  ancient  Greece.  Marshal 
Saxe  first  introduced  it  into  the  French 
army. 

In  the  British  service,  flow  march  is  at 
the  rate  of  75  paces,  each  of  30  inches, 
in  a  minute;  quick  march,  116  paces,  in 
which  all  evolutions  are  performed; 
double,  150  running  paces,  with  the  knees 
raised  high. 

Marines,  Eoyal — A  body  of  men  raised 
for  service  as  soldiers,  either  on  shore  or 
on  board  ship,  and  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  Board  of  Admiralty.  The 
whole  regiment  is  never  afloat,  only  por- 
tions of  it,  the  rest  being  stationed  at 
some  of  the  naval  seaport  towns.  The 
royal  marines  were  first  raised  in  1664, 
and  have  been  considerably  strengthened 
since  the  commencement  of  this  century. 
They  rank,  when  acting  with  the  troops 
of  the  line,  between  the  49th  and  50th 
regiments.  The  royal  marines  are  a 
non-purchase  corps,  and  the  officers, 
as  in  the  artillery  and  engineers,  rise 
by  seniority.  The  corps  now  possesses  a 


MAR 


245 


MAR 


marine  force  of  artillery,  consisting  of 
13  companies,  which  is  a  most  effective 
and  valuable  body  of  men.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  royal  marine  artillery 
are  at  Eastney,  near  Portsmouth.  Many 
of  the  chief  garrisons  in  the  south  of 
England  have  divisions  of  the  marines 
quartered  in  them,  such  as  Woolwich, 
Chatham,  Portsmouth,  Plymouth.  The 
strength  of  the  corps  amounts  to  14,000 
men  and  287  officers. 

Marking — -A  punishment  (now  abo- 
lished)  which  was  formerly  inflicted  on 
soldiers  sent  to  military  prisons  for  deser- 
tion or  bad  character.  In  the  former  case 
the  soldier  was  marked  with  a  D  on  the 
left  breast,  and  in  the  latter  with  B  C. 
This  part  of  the  sentence  was  performed — 
if  the  man  was  to  be  handed  over  to  the 
civil  powers — by  the  trumpet-major  or 
drum-major,  in  presence  of  the  adjutant 
and  the  medical  officer,  and  then  entered 
in  the  regimental  records. 

Marks — A  stamp  or  impression.  All 
government  stores,  packages,  &c.  are 
marked  in  such  a  manner  that  either  in 
store  or  on  service  they  shall  -be  easily 
distinguished ;  and  this  is  absolutely 
necessary,  considering  the  multifarious 
stores  composing  an  army  equipment, 
which,  bearing  a  similar  denomination 
and  appearance,  are  easily  mistaken  one 
for  the  other. 

Marline — A  small  line  used  for  wind- 
ing round  ropes  and  cables. 

Marline  Spike — An  iron  pointed  tool, 
used  in  splicing  ropes. 

Marquee — An  awning  or  cover  of 
canvas  forming  an  officer's  tent ;  a  tent 
complete.  Marquees  are  of  two  kinds, 
viz.  dining  and  sleeping  marquees :  the 
former  being  used  as  officers'  mess 
tents. 

Marquois'  Scales — The  following  de- 
scription is  given  in  Heather's  'Treatise 
on  Mathematical  Instruments  ' : — "  These 
scales  consist  of  a  right-angled  triangle, 
of  which  the  hypothenuse  or  longest  side 
is  three  times  the  length  of  the  shortest, 
and  two  rectangular  rules.  Either  rule 
is  1  foot  long,  and  has,  parallel  to  each 
of  its  edges,  two  scales,  one  placed  close 
to  the  edge,  and  the  other  immediately 
within  this,  the  outer  being  termed  the 
artificial  and  the  inner  the  natural  scale. 
The  divisions  upon  the  outer  scale  are 


three  times  the  length  of  those  upon  the 
inner  scale,  so  as  to  bear  the  same  pro- 
portion to  each  other  that  the  longest 
side  of  the  triangle  bears  to  the  shortest. 
Each  inner  or  natural  scale  is,  in  fact, 
a  simply  divided  scale  of  equal  parts, 
having  the  primary  divisions  numbered 
from  the  left  hand  to  the  right  through- 
out the  whole  extent  of  the  rule.  The 
first  primary  division  on  the  left  hand  is 
subdivided  into  ten  equal  parts,  and  the 
number  of  these  subdivisions  in  an  inch 
is  marked  underneath  the  scale,  and 
gives  it  its  name.  In  the  artificial  scales 
the  zero  point  is  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  edge  of  the  rule,  and  the  primary 
divisions  are  numbered  both  ways  from 
this  point  to  the  two  ends  of  the  rule, 
and  are  every  one  subdivided  into  ten 
equal  parts,  each  of  which  is  consequently 
three  times  the  length  of  a  subdivision 
of  the  corresponding  natural  scale." 

Married  Roll— A  register  kept  in  each 
regiment,  troop,  battery,  or  establish- 
ment, in  which  are  inserted  the  names  of 
all  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers 
who  are  married  with  permission.  All 
non-commissioned  officers  holding  the 
rank  of  staff"  sergeants  of  certain  grades 
are  permitted  to  marry,  and  also  ser- 
geants of  troops,  batteries,  or  companies, 
&c.,  in  a  certain  proportion,  as  laid 
down  in  the  regulations.  Of  the  rank 
and  file,  7  per  cent,  in  England  and 
10  per  cent,  in  India  are  allowed  to 
marry,  and  are  entered  on  the  married 
roll ;  these  numbers  are  calculated  upon 
the  establishment  of  the  corps,  except 
in  the  royal  artillery,  in  which  the  cal- 
culation is  made  upon  the  establishment 
of  each  battery.  No  non-commissioned 
officer  or  soldier  is  entitled  to  have  his 
name  placed  on  the  married  roll  without 
having  obtained  the  consent  of  his  com- 
manding officer  before  marriage.  In  the 
case  of  a  soldier  below  the  rank  of  ser- 
geant wishing  to  marry,  he  must  have 
completed  7  years'  service  and  be  in  pos- 
session of  at  least  one  G.C.  badge.  If  he 
has  a  balance  in  the  savings-bank  of  £5 
or  upwards,  it  will  be  considered  a  desir- 
able qualification.  The  fact  of  the  name 
of  a  non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier 
appearing  on  the  married  roll  ensures 
him  and  his  family  certain  privileges 
which  are  not  accorded  to  men  marrying 


MAR 


246 


MAE 


without  the  consent  of  their  command- 
ing officer. 

Marroons  —  Decorations  for  rockets. 
They  are  cubes  filled  with  grained  powder, 
and  enveloped  with  two  or  three  layers 
of  strong  twine  or  marline  ;  to  give  them 
more  consistency,  they  are  dipped  in  kit ; 
they  are  primed"  by  punching  a  small  hole 
in  one  corner  and  inserting  quick-match. 

Marsh — Low  boggy  land  usually  or 
generally  covered  with  water.  In  recon- 
noissance  (</.  r.)  such  should  be  shown  and 
described ;  as  in  the  march  of  an  army 
such  an  obstacle,  if  of  any  extent,  might 
prove  very  inconvenient,  necessitating  the 
change  of  direction  of  the  march,  as 
marshes,  particularly  if  wet  and  miry 
and  of  the  nature  of  quicksand,  could 
not  be  crossed  like  rivers. 

Marshal  —  This  term  was  originally 
applied  to  an  officer  in  charge  of  horses, 
being  derived  from  the  old  German  mahre, 
.1  horse,  and  schalp,  a  servant. 

Marshal,  Field,  vide  Field  Marshal. 

Martel  de  Fer  —  An  offensive  weapon 
in  use  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  It  was  in  the  shape  of  a  pointed 
hammer  or  small  pickaxe.  It  is  stated  to 
have  made  sad  havoc  in  mail  or  armour, 
aud  left  fatal  openings  for  the  passage  of 
the  sword  or  lance. 

Martello  Towers — The  name  given  to 
the  circular  towers  erected  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  present  century  on 
different  parts  of  our  coast,  especially 
Kent  and  Sussex,  at  intervals  of  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile.  They  were  built  to 
ward  off  the  meditated  invasion  of  Napo- 
leon. Most  of  them  have  since  been  dis- 
mantled, and  the  armaments  of  others 
removed.  The  name  is  stated  to  be  de- 
rived from  a  fort  in  Martello  Bay,  Corsica, 
which  was  captured  by  the  British  in 
1794.  The  towers  that  have  not  been 
destroyed  are  garrisoned  by  either  coast- 
guard men  or  old  master  gunners. 

Martial  Law — According  to  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  is  neither  more  nor  less 
than  the  will  of  the  general  that  com- 
mands the  army.  In  fact,  martial  law 
means  no  law  at  all ;  therefore  the  gene- 
ral who  declares  it,  and  commands  that 
it  shall  be  carried  into  execution,  is  bound 
to  lay  down  the  rules,  regulations,  and 
limits,  according  to  which  his  will  is  to 
be  carried  out. 


The  effect  of  a  proclamation  of  martial 
law  in  a  district  of  England  is  a  notice 
to  the  inhabitants,  that  the  executive 
government  has  taken  upon  itself,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  disturbed  state  broiight 
about  either  by  acts  of  rebellion  or  some 
other  seditious  rising,  the  responsibility 
of  superseding  the  jurisdiction  of  all 
the  ordinary  tribunals  for  the  protection 
of  life,  person,  and  property,  and  has 
authorised  the  military  authorities  to  do 
whatever  they  think  expedient  for  the 
public  safety.  It  would  be  an  extreme 
measure  to  resort  to  martial  law,  and 
then  only  in  case  of  great  danger  and 
necessity. 

Martinet — A  term  applied  to  a  strict 
disciplinarian.  It  is  supppsed  to  have 
taken  its  origin  from  an  adjutant  of  that 
name,  who  was  in  high  repute  in  the 
French  army  as  a  drill  officer  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV. 

Martingale — A  thong  of  leather,  fas- 
tened at  the  end  of  the  girth  under  the 
belly  of  a  horse,  and  at  the  other  end  to 
the  musral,  to  keep  him  from  rearing. 

Martini-Henry  Kifle  —  A  rifle  lately 
introduced  into  the  British  army,  and 
which  has  superseded  the  Snider-Enfield, 
the  arm  hitherto  of  the  service.  The 
weapon  may  be  termed  a  compound  one, 
as  the  barrel  is  the  invention  of  Mr. 
Henry  and  the  breech  arrangement  that 
of  Mr.  Martini. 

The  following  explanation  of  the  form 
of  rifling,  and  the  particulars  as  to  the 
breech  mechanism  of  this  new  weapon,  is 
taken  from  Captain  Majendie's  lecture  on 
this  arm  : — 

"The  Henry  rifling  is  a  polygonal 
system  of  nine  or  seven  sides,  the  latter 
having  been  adopted  in  the  new  arm. 
The  angles  are  broken  by  ribs,  which 
create  re-entering  angles,  the  inscribing 
circle  tangential  to  the  ribs  being  de- 
scribed with  the  same  radius  as  the  in- 
scribing circle  tangent  to  the  plane  sides. 
The  twist  is  1  in  22,  uniform. 

"  The  breech  mechanism  consists  briefly 
of  a  swinging  block  hinged  upon  a  pin 
passing  through  its  rear  end,  the  recoil 
being  taken  by  the  shoe.  The  cartridge 
(Boxer's)  is  exploded  by  a  direct-acting 
piston,  which  is  driven  by  the  action  of  a 
strong  spiral  spring  within  the  breech- 
block. The  block  is  moved  by  means  of 


MAR 


247 


MAS 


a  lever  to  the  rear  of  the  trigger-guard. 
The  motion  of  pushing  the  lever  forward 
depresses  the  block,  compresses  the  spring, 
and  rejects  the  empty  cartridge  case. 
When  the  lever  is  drawn  back,  the  block 
is  raised  and  the  breech  closed,  the  arm 
remaining  cocked.  If  desired,  the  safety 
bolt  can  now  be  employed  to  secure  the 
gun  from  going  off.  There  is  also  an 
indicator  at  the  side  to  show  if  the  arm 
is  cocked  or  not." 

The  cartridge  is  on  the  central-fire 
system  ;  the  bullet  is  Mr.  Henry's.  The 
weight  is  480  grains.  Weight  of  powder, 
85  grains.*  Maximum  diameter  equal 
to  that  of  the  bore,  0-45  inch. 

As  regards  rapidity,  a  rate  of  firing, 
without  aiming,  of  25  rounds  a  minute 
has  been  obtained  ;  15  rounds  being  ob- 
tained under  the  same  conditions  with 
the  Snider-Enfield. 

This  rifle,  as  now  issued  to  the  British 
army,  is  described  as  follows  in  the  '  List 
of  Changes  in  War  Materiel ': — 

"  The  Martini-Henry  rifle  is  a  breech- 
loading  arm  on  the  falling  block  system. 

"  The  action  consists  of — 

Body,  Trigger-spring, 

Block,  Tumbler, 

Main-spring,      Tumbler-rest, 
Striker,  Trigger-guard, 

Stop-nut,  Extractor, 

Lever,  and 

Trigger,  Indicator, 

with  the  corresponding  screws  and  pins. 

"  The  barrel  is  made  of  steel,  bored  to 
a  mean  diameter  of  0'45  inch,  which  is 
obtained  by  allowing  a  0'449-inch  plug 
to  run,  and  a  0'451-inch  plug  to  re- 
ject. 

"  The  bore  is  slightly  enlarged  towards 
the  breech,  so  that  a  0'451-inch  plug 
will  run  down  4  inches  from  the  breech, 
and  a  0'45-inch  plug  8  inches.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  bore  is  cylindrical. 

"  The  barrel  is  rifled  with  7  grooves, 
0'03  inch  of  the  original  bore  being  left 
between  adjacent  grooves  as  lands. 

li  The  depth  of  the  rifling  is  progressive 
from  the  breech  for  11  inches,  after  which 
it  is  the  same  throughout.  The  pitch  of 
rifling  is  one  turn  in  22  inches. 

"  The  barrel  is  chambered   to  receive 


*  This  weight  of  powder  and  bullet  has  been 
reduced,  and  without  disparagement  to  the  good 
shooting  of  the  weapon. 


the  cartridge,  and  the  chamber  is  coned 
•018  inch  to  facilitate  extraction. 

"  The  stock  is  in  two  parts — '  butt  ' 
and  '  fore  end.'  The  butts  are  of  two 
lengths — viz.  14  inches  and  14-5  inches. 

"  The  rifle  is  sighted  to  1400  yards. 
Weight  —  of  barrel,  3  Ibs.  6  oz. ;  of  rifle 
(without  bayonet),  about  8  Ibs.  12  oz. 
Length  —  of  barrel,  2  feet  9'22  inches; 
of  rifle  (without  bayonet),  short  butt, 
4  feet  1  inch  ;  long  butt,  4  feet  1$  inch. 

''  The  bayonet  is  simply  the  pattern 
'53  bayonet  altered  in  the  socket  so  as 
to  fit  the  barrel  of  the  Martini-Henry 
rifle."  (  Vide  Appendix  F.) 

Martin's  Shell — An  incendiary  shell, 
now  obsolete. 

Mask — In  fortification,  a  casemated 
redoubt,  one  or  two  stories  high  and 
12  yards  wide  at  the  capital,  which 
is  sometimes  added  in  front  of  the 
caponier;  a  ditch,  10  yards  wide,  may 
be  formed  in  front  and  rear  of  it.  Its 
salients  being  made  circular  and  loop- 
holed,  a  close  and  powerful  fire  can  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  enemy  if  he 
succeeds  in  establishing  himself  in  the 
ravelin.  The  name  mask  is  given  to  this 
redoubt,  as  it  acts  as  an  efficient  mask  or 
counter-guard  to  the  caponier. 

Masked — This  term  is  applied  to  bat- 
teries that  are  hidden  or  concealed  for 
the  purpose  of  opening  upon  the  enemy 
unawares. 

Mass  —  The  mass  of  a  body,  or  the 
quantity  of  matter  of  which  it  consists, 
is  the  collection  of  atoms  or  molecules 
which  composes  it.  These  atoms  or  mole- 
cules, not  being  in  actual  contact,  are 
capable  of  compression  and  being  forced 
into  less  dimensions,  and  a  body  is  either 
termed  porous  or  dense  according  to  the 
closeness  or  otherwise  of  the  atoms  that, 
form  the  mass ;  thus  wood  is  said  to  be 
porous,  a  cannon-shot  dense. 

The  mass  of  a  body  is  the  quotient  of 
its  weight  divided  by  g :  thus  w  =  mi/ 
where  w  =  weight,  m  =  mass. 

Massing  Guns— The  best  mode  of  suc- 
cessfully silencing  the  enemy's  artillery, 
or  of  destroying  some  special  position  of 
his,  is  by  means  of  a  number  of  guns 
brought  to  bear  on  that  point.  This 
system  was  first  introduced  by  Napoleon 
at  the  battles  of  Wagram,  the  Moskwa, 
and  Liitzen,  and  subsequently  was  em- 


MAS 


248 


MAT 


ployed  with  great  effect  by  the  Germans 
during  the  war  of  1870-71. 

In  the  concentration  of  artillery  in 
action  it  is  not  necessary — as  shown  in 
'Short  Notes  on  Field  Batteries' — that 
all  the  guns  should  be  formed  up  into  one 
gigantic  battery.  With  pieces  command- 
ing a  range  of  3000  yards,  a  hundred  guns 
might  generally  direct  their  fire  on  to 
one  spot,  without  being  crowded  together, 
and  it  is  hardly  likely  so  many  guns  would 
be  required  to  concentrate  their  fire.  It 
is  further  shown  that  it  is  important  in 
massing  guns,  especially  under  the  fire 
of  an  enemy,  that  the  guns  should  come 
into  action  as  nearly  simultaneously  as 
possible  ;  otherwise  each  battery  may  be 
crushed  in  its  turn  as  it  comes  up,  from 
the  enemy  having  got  the  exact  range  of 
the  battery  which  first  got  into  posi- 
tion. 

Master-General  of  the  Ordnance — An 
officer  formerly  at  the  head  of  the  board 
of  ordnance.  Before  the  present  regi- 
mental organisation  of  the  artillery,  all 
details  of  the  regiment  came  under 
the  care  and  superintendence  of  the 
master-general.  It  is  stated  in  the 'His- 
tory of  the  Royal  Artillery,'  by  Captain 
Duncan,  that  the  position  of  master-gene- 
ral was  introduced  into  the  army  as  early 
as  1483  ;  at  all  events,  that  seems  to  be 
the  earliest  date  that  the  name  of  such  a 
functionary  can  be  traced.  This  officer 
was  at  the  head  of  the  board  of  ordnance, 
to  which  most  important  duties  were  as- 
signed ;  and  if  any  one,  as  Captain  Duncan 
observes,  would  wish  to  learn  what  the 
master-general  had  to  do  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  let  him  go  to  the  Tower 
and  examine  the  correspondence  of  Lord 
Dartmouth,  the  faithful  friend  and  ser- 
vant of  Charles  II.,  a  professional  artil- 
leryman, and  James  II.,  a  skilled  master- 
general  to  the  last. 

The  last  master-general  of  the  ordnance 
was  Lord  Raglan,  who  died  while  in  com- 
mand of  the  British  army  in  the  Crimea. 

Master  Gunner — Formerly  an  ancient 
office  under  the  crown,  as  far  back  as  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  appointment 
is  now  filled  by  pensioned  sergeants  of 
artillery.  A  master  gunner,  as  under- 
stood nowadays,  is  a  warrant  officer  se- 
lected from  the  non-commissioned  officers 
of  artillery,  whose  duty  is  to  take  charge 


of  guns,  ammunition,  stores,  &c.  in  a  fort- 
ress. 

The  coast  brigade  is  composed  of  master 
gunners  (pensioners),  and  there  are  3 
classes,  1st,  2nd,  and  3rd,  containing 
16,  26,  and  83  respectively. 

Master  Tailor  —  A  competent  tailor, 
attached  to  each  regiment,  who  has  been, 
if  a  soldier,  pronounced  by  a  board  of 
sergeant  master  tailors  to  be  efficient  and 
well  up  to  his  work,  or  who  has  been 
instructed  in  the  art  of  tailoring  at  the 
Government  Clothing  Establishment,  Pim- 
lico.  A  civilian  tailor  may  volunteer  for 
the  situation ;  and  if  so,  he  will  have  to 
pass  an  examination  at  the  Royal  Army 
Clothing  Depot,  and  be  enlisted  as  a 
sergeant  master  tailor. 

Mastic  —  A  resinous  substance  which 
exudes  in  the  form  of  tears  from  the 
Pistaci/t  lentiscus.  It  is  a  valuable  in- 
grtdient  in  varnish,  and  dissolves  either 
in  spirits  of  wine  or  oil  of  turpen- 
tine without  the  aid  of  heat.  To  form 
the  varnish,  take  3  Ibs.  of  mastic  to  a 
gallon  of  oil  of  turpentine,  strain  it  after 
agitation,  pour  it  into  a  bottle  loosely 
corked,  and  expose  it  to  the  sun  and 
air  for  a  few  weeks.  This  makes  a  good 
varnish  for  painting.  What  is  termed 
Indian  mastic  is  composed  of  lime  (made 
from  shells),  oil,  and  pitch,  and  is  used 
in  India  for  paying  ships'  bottoms. 

Match  —  The  name  given  to  a  ma- 
terial, such  as  cotton,  hemp,  tow,  &c. 
which  is  rendered  combustible  by  being 
dipped  or  soaked  in  some  ignitible  solu- 
tion. There  are  two  kinds  of  match 
familiar  to  the  artilleryman,  quick-match 
and  slo'f-match.  Quick-match  is  made  of 
different-sized  threads — viz.  four-,  six- 
and  ten-thread — soaked  in  a  solution  of 
gunpowder,  mixed  with  gum  arabic  and 
water  in  a  boiling  state,  and  of  such 
consistency  that  the  thread  shall  be  tho- 
roughly coated  with  it ;  it  is  then  wound 
on  reels,  and  gunpowder  sifted  on  it. 
If  it  be  stiff,  and  has  the  coating  of 
powder  perfect  over  the  surface,  it  is 
serviceable.  If  it  has  been  bruised  or 
twisted,  and  the  coating  of  powder  re- 
moved, it  is  unserviceable.  It  is  largely 
used  for  priming  fuzes,  &c. 

Slow-match  is  made  of  slightly  twisted 
hempen  rope,  soaked  in  lime-water  and 
saltpetre,  and  then  dried,  or  it  can  be  pre- 


MAT 


249 


MAX 


pared  by  washing  the  hemp  in  a  lye  of 
water  and  wood-ashes.  It  burns  at  the 
rate  of  one  yard  in  eight  hours.  It  is 
used  for  lighting  portfires,  &c. 

Matchlock — -The  name  formerly  given 
to  a  small-arm  or  musket.  The  earliest 
muskets  were  fired  by  means  of  a  piece 
of  slow-match  applied  by  the  hand  to 
the  touch-hole.  An  improvement  on  this 
mode  of  ignition  was  made  at  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century  by  a  lock 
being  attached  to  the  musket  which  held 
the  match,  and,  by  pressure  applied  to  the 
trigger  of  the  lock,  it  brought  the  lighted 
match  down  on  the  powder-pan  and  thus 
ignited  the  priming  powder.  This  mode 
of  ignition  caused  the  musket  to  be  called 
the  matchlock. 

Material  —  In  this  term  is  compre- 
hended the  stores,  &c.  used  in  the  seve- 
ral departments  of  the  army  in  the 
manufacture  of  articles  for  warlike  and 
other  purposes.  Under  the  head  of  Tim- 
ber is  shown  the  wood  formerly  used, 
and  where  produced,  in  the  manufacture 
of  our  O.P.  Indian  gun  carriages. 

Materiel  (French  =  material  of  war) — 
One  of  the  great  subdivisions  of  an  army, 
the  personnel  being  the  other.  The  ma- 
teriel comprises  all  instruments,  weapons, 
machines,  or  engines  of  war,  designed 
for  the  protection  of  the  army,  as  well 
as  the  provisions  required  for  the  preser- 
vation of  life ;  and,  generally,  all  the 
baggage,  equipments,  and  stores  indis- 
pensably necessary  to  keep  an  army  in 
efficient  condition  come  under  this  term. 

Mathematics — A  science  which  teaches 
to  number  and  measure  whatever  is 
capable  of  it,  comprised  under  lines, 
numbers,  superficies,  or  solids. 

Matross — A  name  formerly  given  to 
an  artilleryman.  In  the  early  organisa- 
tion of  the  British  artillery,  there  were 
only  two  trained  artillerymen  per  gun  ; 
they  consisted  of  a  gunner  and  his  mate 
or  matross.  It  was  in  the  year  1783 
that  the  term  gunner  was  substituted  for 
that  of  mntross.  It  would  appear  from 
this  that  the  mate,  or  matross,  was  in 
fact  a  gunner.  Another  explanation  of 
the  word  is  as  follows :  a  man  whose 
business  it  is  to  be  in  the  train  of  artillery 
next  the  gunners  to  assist  them  in  load- 
ing, firing,  and  sponging  the  guns. 

Matter — Everything  which  has  weight 


is  called  matter,  and  a  body  is  a  portion 
of  matter  limited  in  every  direction.  The 
quantity  of  matter  in  a  body  is  called  its 
mass,  and  is  measured  by  its  weight. 

Maul — A  heavy  wooden  hammer  simi- 
lar to  a  mallet.  It  is  used  for  driving 
anything  with  force,  and  is  in  very  gene- 
ral use  in  the  field.  The  head  is  made 
of  hard  wood,  iron-bound,  and  rounded  at 
each  end.  The  weight  is  nearly  12  Ibs. 

Maund — An  Indian  weight  of  40  seers, 
or  3200  tolahs.  It  is  also  equal  to 
100  Ibs.  troy  or  82|  Ibs.  avoirdupois. 
This  is  termed  the  bazaar  maund.  In 
commerce,  however,  the  factory  as  well 
as  the  bazaar  maund  is  used ;  the  former 
is  equal  to  74  Ibs.  10§  oz.  avoirdupois. 

Mauser  Rifle — A  breech-loading  rifle, 
the  invention  of  Herr  Mauser,  with  which 
the  whole  army  of  Germany,  except 
the  contingent  of  Bavaria,  is  armed. 

Five  patterns  of  this  arm,  built  on 
the  same  system,  have  been  adopted  by 
the  German  authorities,  viz.  the  infantry 
rifle,  the  Jilger  rifle  with  double  trigger, 
the  pioneer  rifle,  the  cavalry  carbine, 
and  the  wall  gun. 

The  infantry  rifle  is  an  arme  a  verrou, 
firing  a  metallic  cartridge,  and  arranged 
for  central  fire.  The  barrel  is  of  puddled 
steel,  with  a  calibre  O43  inch ;  its  length 
is  2-78  feet,  and  that  of  the  rifled  part 
2-55  feet.  The  whole  length  of  the  rifle 
is  4-16  feet ;  with  sword-bayonet,  5'70 
feet. 

Its  weight  is  10'5  Ibs. ;  with  sword- 
bayonet,  11-22  Ibs. 

There  are  4  circular  grooves,  with  a 
depth  of  0-158  inch;  the  twist  is  0-021 
inch. 

The  weight  of  cartridge  is  648-159 
grains;  that  of  the  powder-charge,  77'162 
grains,  and  of  the  bullet,  385-809  grains. 

The  cavalry  carbine,  adopted  to  replace 
the  Chassepot,  with  which  the  German 
cavalry  was  armed  after  the  war  of 
1870-71,  is  very  similar  in  size  to  the 
latter.  Its  lever  is  bent  on  the  side,  so 
as  not  to  impede  the  movements  of  the 
horseman.  Its  cartridge  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  infantry  rifle.  ( Vide  Ap- 
pendix F.) 

Maximum  Range  —  In  gunnery,  ex- 
presses the  extreme  range  of  a  projectile 
either  in  vacuo  or  in  the  air.  In  the 
former  (were  it  possible),  with  a  given 


MEA 


250 


MEA 


velocity,  the  extreme  range  of  a  sphe- 
rical projectile  would  be  obtained  at 
an  angle  of  45°;  in  the  latter,  with  a 
velocity  of  1600  feet  per  second,  the 
maximum  range  would  be  obtained  at 
an  angle  of  about  32°;  a  56-lb.  shot 
would,  under  these  circumstances,  at 
32°  elevation,  range  5720  yards  in  the 
air,  and  23,946  yards  in  vacu>,  and  at  45°, 
26,666  yards  in  vacua.  The  maximum 
range  of  rifled  ordnance  is  much  in  excess 
of  that  of  smooth-bore  guns,  the  9-inch 
gun  having  ranged  over  11,000  yards. 

Mealed  Powder  —  Finely  pulverised 
gunpowder.  It  causes  compositions  to 
burn  readily  and  quickly. 

Mean — As  a  general  term,  implies  the 
medium  between  two  extremes,  and  is 
ordinarily  understood  to  be  what  is  known 
in  mathematics  as  an  arithmetic  mean. 
An  arithmetic  mean  between  two  num- 
bers is  found  by  adding  them  together 
and  dividing  by  two.  A  geometric  mean 
is  found  by  dividing  the  larger  number 
by  the  smaller,  and  taking  the  square 
root,  which  gives  the  common  ratio  ;  the 
smaller  number  multiplied  by  this  ratio, 
or  the  greater  number  divided  by  it,  gives 
the  mean.  A  harmonic  mean,  is  found  by 
adding  the  reciprocals  of  the  numbers 
and  dividing  by  two;  the  reciprocal  of 
the  result  is  the  mean. 

Mean  Range  of  a  Shot — The  sum  of 
all  the  ranges  divided  by  the  number  j 
of  shot  fired. 

The  following  is  the  mode  given  in 
Owen's  '  Modern  Artillery '  for  calcu- 
lating the  accuracy  of  guns  : — 

"  To  find  the  mean  difference  of  range 
or  the  mean  error  in  range. — Take  the  dif- 
ference between  each  range  and  the  mean 
range  ;  add  the  difference  together,  divide 
by  the  number  of  shot  fired,  and  the 
quotient  will  be  the  mean  difference  of 
range. 

"  To  find  the  mem  deflection. — Add  to- 
gether separately  all  the  right  deflections 
and  all  the  left  deflections ;  subtract  the 
smaller  sum  from  the  larger,  and  divide 
the  difference  by  the  number  of  shot 
fired. 

"  The  mean  reduced  deflection,  or  the 
mean  error  in  direction,  is  found  as 
follows :  —  Find  the  distance  of  each 
deflection  from  a  line  passing  through 
the  mean  deflection  ;  add  these  distances 


termed  reduced  deflections  together,  and 
divide  by  the  number  of  shot  fired  for 
the  me  m  reduced  deflection." 

As  further  shown  from  the  book 
named  —  ''  The  accuracy  of  fire  of  a  gun 
must  obviously  be  judged  by  the  mean 
difference  of  range  and  the  mean  reduced 
deflection,  and  not  by  the  mean  range 
and  the  mean  deflection." 

Measure  of  Precision — An  expression 
made  use  of  in  gunnery,  in  comparing  the 
regularity  or  otherwise  of  the  initial 
velocity  of  service  projectiles  fired  from 
service  guns  with  service  charges. 
B.L.R.  guns,  in  consequence  of  the  ab- 
sence of  windage,  have  the  greatest  regu- 
larity ;  smooth-bore  guns,  as  might  be 
expected,  the  greatest  irregularity. 

Measure  of  Uniformity — In  gunnery, 
denotes  the  regularity  in  the  velocity 
given  by  a  number  of  consecutive  rounds. 
It  is  calculated  as  follows : — Take  the 
mean  observed  velocity,  and  from  this 
deduct  the  difference  of  each  round,  and 
divide  the  sum  of  the  differences  by  the 
number  of  rounds  fired. 

Measurement  of  Ordnance — 

1.  All  service  cast-iron  and  brass  ord- 
nance (smooth-bore)  are  measured  from 
behind  the  base  ring  to  the  face  of  the 
muzzle. 

2.  All  muzzle-loading  rifled  or  smooth- 
bore wrought-iron  ordnance  without  base 
rings  are  measured  from  the  neck  of  the 
cascable  to  the  face  of  the  muzzle. 

3.  All    breech-loading    guns    (either 
screw    or    wedge)   are     measured    from 
behind    the   breech   to  the    face  of   the 
muzzle,  taking    in,  therefore,  the   total 
length    of    the    construction,   not,    how- 
ever, including  any  part  that  can  be  de- 
tached— as  a  breech-screw. 

4.  All    guns    with    attached    breech 
pieces,    or    screws,    are   measured    from 
the    end  of    such   screws,  when  screwed 
up,  to  the  face  of  the  muzzle,  exclusive 
of  the  handle  or  lever,  if  any. 

Measurement  of  Shipping  for  Ton- 
nage—The act  of  ascertaining  the  capa- 
city of  a  ship  as  to  its  power  of  holding 
men  or  stores.  This  is  ascertained  while 
the  vessel  is  empty,  and  the  hold  clear. 
The  calculation  of  tonnage  for  baggage, 
stores,  &c.  is  by  measurement,  a  ton  con- 
sisting of  40  cubic  feet ;  but  metals  and 
very  heavy  articles  are  estimated  by 


MEA 


251 


MEG 


actual  weight  without  reference  to  the 
bulk.  The  following  is  the  rule  for 
ascertaining  the  tonnage,  as  given  in  the 
'  Artillerist's  Manual ' : — 

"  Rule.  —  Divide  the  length  of  the 
upper  deck,  between  the  after  part  of 
the  stem  and  the  fore  part  of  the  stern- 
post,  into  six  equal  parts. 

"  Depths. — At  the  foremost,  the  mid- 
dle, and  the  aftermost  of  those  points 
of  division,  measure  in  feet  and  decimal 
parts  of  a  foot  the  depth  from  the  under 
side  of  the  upper  deck  to  the  ceiling  at 
the  limber  strake.  In  the  case  of  a 
break  in  the  upper  deck,  the  depths  are 
to  be  measured  from  a  line  stretched  in 
continuation  of  the  deck. 

"  Breadths. — Divide  each  of  those  three 
depths  into  five  equal  parts,  and  measure 
the  inside  breadths  at  the  following 
points,  viz.  at  one-fifth  and  at  four- 
fifths  from  the  upper  deck  of  the  fore- 
most and  aftermost  depths,  and  at  two- 
fifths  and  four-fifths  from  the  upper  deck 
of  the  midship  depth. 

"  Length. — At  half  the  midship  depth, 
measure  the  length  of  the  vessel  from 
the  after  part  of  the  stem  to  the  fore 
part  of  the  sternpost ;  then  to  twice  the 
midship  depth  add  the  foremost  and  the 
aftermost  depths  for  the  sum  of  the 
depth ;  add  together  the  upper  and 
lower  breadths  at  the  foremost  division, 
three  times  the  upper  breadth,  the  lower 
breadth  at  the  midship  division,  and  the 
upper  and  twice  the  lower  breadth  at 
the  after  division  for  the  sum  of  the 
breadths;  then  multiply  the  sum  of  the 
depths  by  the  sum  of  the  breadths,  and 
this  product  by  the  length,  and  divide 
the  final  product  by  3500,  which  will 
give  the  number  of  tons  for  register. 

"  If  the  vessel  have  a  poop  or  half- 
deck,  or  a  break  in  the  upper  deck, 
measure  the  inside  mean  length,  breadth, 
and  height  of  such  part  thereof  as  may 
be  included  within  the  bulkhead  ;  mul- 
tiply these  three  measurements  together, 
and  dividing  the  product  by  92-4,  the 
quotient  will  be  the  number  of  tons 
to  be  added  to  the  result  as  above 
found. 

"  In  order  to  ascertain  the  tonnage  of 
open  vessels,  the  depths  are  to  be  mea- 
sured from  the  upper  edge  of  the  upper 
strake. 


"  To  ascertain  the  Tonnage  of  Steam- 
vessels. 

"Rule. — In  addition  to  the  foregoing 
rules,  when  applied  for  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  the  tonnage  of  any  ship  or 
vessel  propelled  by  steam,  the  tonnage 
due  to  the  cubical  content  of  the  engine 
room  must  be  deducted  from  the  total 
tonnage  of  the  vessel,  as  determined  by 
either  of  the  rules  aforesaid,  and  the  re- 
mainder will  be  the  true  register  tonnage 
of  the  said  ship  or  vessel. 

"  To  determine  the  Tonnage  due  to  the 
Cubical  Content  of  the  Engine-room. 

"  Rule. — Measure  the  inside  length  of 
the  engine-room  in  feet  and  decimal  parts 
of  a  foot,  from  the  foremost  to  the  after- 
most bulkhead,  then  multiply  the  said 
length  by  the  depth  of  the  ship  or  vessel 
at  the  midship  division  as  aforesaid,  and 
the  product  by  the  inside  breadth  of 
the  same  division  at  two-fifths  of  the 
depth  from  the  deck,  taken  aforesaid, 
and  divide  the  last  product  by  92-4, 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  tonnage 
due  to  the  cubical  content  of  the  engine- 
room." 

Measurement  of  Timber — The  act  of 
measuring  timber  of  different  dimensions. 
The  following  rule  is  to  be  pursued  for 
round  timber  : — Multiply  the  length  by 
the  square  of  one-fourth  the  mean  girth 

LC" 

for  the  solid  contents,  or  - — ;    L  being 
16 

the  length  of  the  log,  and  C  half  the  sum 
of  the  circumference  of  the  two  ends. 
Sawed  or  hewn  timber  is  measured  by 
the  cubic  foot,  or  more  commonly  by 
board  measure,  the  unit  of  which  is  a 
superficial  foot  of  a  board  1  inch  thick. 

Measuring  Chain — A  chain  used  in 
surveying ;  it  consists  of  100  links,  or 
22  yards ;  this  is  the  English  length, 
which  is  seldom  used  in  India,  where  the 
100-feet  chain  is  the  most  common. 

Mechanical  Manoeuvres — Include  all 
such  mechanical  appliances  as  are  used  in 
the  mounting,  dismounting,  and  moving 
of  heavy  ordnance,  the  mode  of  apply- 
ing which  will  be  found  in  the  '  Manual 
of  Artillery  Exercises.' 

Mechanical  Powers — Contrivances  by 
which  a  great  weight  can  be  sustained 
or  a  great  resistance  overcome  by  a  force. 


MEG 


252 


MED 


Mechanics — That  branch  of  mathe- 
matics which  treats  of  motion,  and  deve- 
lops the  effects  of  powers  or  moving 
forces,  so  far  as  they  are  applied  to 
engines. 

Medaille  Militaire — A  French  military 
medal,  instituted  by  Napoleon  III.  It 
is  conferred  principally  on  privates  and 
non-commissioned  officers  for  gallantry 
in  the  field,  and  carries  with  it  a  pen- 
sion of  £5  a  year.  The  mgdaille  mili- 
taire  is,  however,  also  conferred  on  field- 
marshals  and  generals  when  they  have 
attained  to  the  highest  rank  of  military 
honours,  that  of  Grand-Croix  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour.  It  exhibits  the 
effigy  of  the  founder,  surmounted  by  an 
eagle,  and  is  attached  to  a  yellow  ribbon 
with  a  green  border.  It  was,  after  the 
Crimean  War,  bestowed,  to  a  large  extent, 
on  British  soldiers. 

Medal  (French,  ingdnille) — A  piece  of 
metal  in  the  form  of  a  coin,  not  issued 
or  circulated  as  money,  but  stamped  with 
a  figure  or  device  to  preserve  the  portrait 
of  some  eminent  person,  or  the  memory  of 
some  illustrious  action  or  event.  Mili- 
tary medds  are  generally  made  of  silver, 
sometimes  of  bronze,  manufactured  out  of 
the  bronze  guns  taken  in  battle.  Medals 
are  either  circular  or  star-shape  ;  in  the 
latter  form  is  the  Maharajpore  metal.  In 
the  former  is  stamped  on  one  side  the 
effigy  of  the  sovereign,  and  on  the  other 
some  warlike  design.  They  are  granted 
by  the  sovereign  to  officers  and  men 
after  the  conclusion  of  a  campaign,  to 
commemorate  the  part  each  soldier  has 
taken  in  it.  They  are  attached  to 
certain  coloured  ribbons,  and  are  worn 
on  the  left  breast.  In  addition  to  those 
given  for  war,  medals  are  given,  to  sol- 
diers for  good  service.  Humane  rued  Us 
for  saving  life  are  also  given  by  the 
Humane  Society  to  officers  and  soldiers, 
who  may  wear  them  with  her  Majesty's 
permission  ;  they  are  worn  on  the  right 
breast.  No  foreign  medal  is  allowed  to 
be  worn  without  her  Majesty's  sanction. 
(Vid'i  Appendix  L.) 

Medical  Department — One  of  the  civil 
departments  of  the  British  army,  to 
which  are  assigned  all  matters  relating 
to  army  hygiene,  care  of  sick  and 
wounded,  hospitals,  and  ambulances. 
It  is  shown  from  the  reports  of  dif- 


ferent commissions  extending  back  to 
the  Crimean  War  that  the  above  sub- 
jects have  engrossed  the  attention  of  the 
country,  and  great  improvements  have 
been  effected  in  this  branch  of  the  mili- 
tary service,  especially  within  the  last 
few  years.  Doubtless  the  progress  of 
medical  science  has  had  much  to  do  in 
carrying  out  all  recent  improvements, 
combined  with  the  desire  to  prolong  the 
valuable  life  of  the  soldier.  Indepen- 
dent of  the  humanity  of  the  cause, 
economy  in  the  saving  of  life  demanded 
that  every  effort  should  be  made  to  pre- 
serve the  sick  and  wounded,  and  this  led 
to  the  intimate  study  of  sanitary  mea- 
sures (a  branch  of  the  medical  depart- 
ment) to  preserve  the  health  of  the 
soldier,  whether  in  time  of  peace  or 
war. 

It  is  gathered  from  the  reports  of  the 
commissioners  on  the  sanitary  condition 
of  the  army  in  1858  that  the  percen- 
tage of  deaths  in  the  foot  guards  was 
nearly  as  3  to  1  of  the  civil  population, 
and  in  the  rest  of  the  army  as  1£  and  2J  to 
1,  the  cavalry  being  the  most  favourable. 
Various  causes  were  attributed  by  the 
commission  to  account  for  this  mor- 
tality ;  the  most  important  being  de- 
fective barrack  accommodation,  which 
included  crowding,  want  of  ventilation, 
and  bad  sewerage.  This  led  to  certain 
improvements,  viz.  increased  space  of 
air  for  the  soldier  to  breathe  in,  and 
improved  ventilation,  drainage,  &c. ;  be- 
sides adding  comforts,  such  as  improved 
cooking,  recreation  rooms,  libraries,  &c., 
and  causing  certain  alterations  in  the 
soldier's  dress.  Such  then  were  some 
of  the  improvements  made  towards  ar- 
resting disease  and  death  in  the  soldier's 
daily  life. 

In  the  field,  even  more  than  in  bar- 
racks, the  want  of  proper  sanitary 
measures  was  clearly  shown  in  the  per- 
centage of  deaths,  which  occurred  at 
one  time  in  the  Crimea,  when  the  rate 
of  mortality  was  something  appalling; 
but  when  proper  sanitary  measures  were 
adopted  in  May  185(3,  sickness  was  re- 
duced to  a  very  low  rate,  somewhere 
about  8  per  1000.  The  importance, 
therefore,  to  be  attached  in  camp  to 
cleanliness,  drainage,  hutting,  and  good 
food,  cannot  be  over-estimated. 


MED 


253 


MEK 


Under  their  respective  heads  will  be 
found  the  subjects  of  Hospitals  and  Am- 
bulances. 

The  personnel  of  the  medical  depart- 
ment consists  of  the  director-general, 
who  ranks  as  a  major-general,  and  is 
attached  to  the  War  Office  ;  surgeon- 
general,  as  a  brigadier-general,  or  after 
5  years'  full-pay  service,  as  a  major- 
general  ;  deputy  surgeon-general,  as  a 
lieutenant-colonel,  or  after  5  years' 
full-pay  service,  as  colonel  ;  surgeon- 
majors,  as  majors,  under  20  years'  ser- 
vice— above  that  period,  as  lieutenant- 
colonels,  but  junior  of  the  rank  ;  surgeons, 
as  captains,  after  6  years'  service — 
as  lieutenants,  under  that  period. 

Medical  School,  vide  Schools,  Military. 

Medium  —  In  gunnery,   expresses  the 

elastic  fluid  through  which  a  projectile, 

after  leaving  the  piece,  has  to  pursue  its 

course,  termed  the  resisting  medium, 

Melting  Point  —  In  metals,  that  de- 
gree of  heat  when  fusion  commences, 
which,  in  the  under-mentioned,  is  as 
follows : — 

Fahr. 
Iron    and  platinum  melt   at 

about         3300° 

Cast  iron 2786 

Copper  ..  ..      '    ..      1996 

Autimony     ..  ..  ..        800 

Zinc 773 

Lead 612 

Tin 442 

Memorial — An  address  in  the  form 
of  a  petition  to  a  sovereign  or  other 
authority,  able  to  redress  the  grievance 
of  the  memorialist.  Memorials  or  peti- 
tions of  the  nature  above  adverted  to 
may  be  addressed  by  officers  to  parlia- 
ment ;  they  must  be  written,  not  printed, 
and  signed  by  the  writer. 

Mensuration — -That  branch  of  practi- 
cal geometry  which  teaches  the  methods 
of  calculating  the  dimensions  and  areas 
of  figures,  the  volumes  of  solids,  &c., 
from  the  measurement  of  certain  lines 
or  angles  of  the  figures  or  solids,  which 
supply  the  requisite  data. 

Mercury  (HglOO) — Is  described  as  "a 
substance  which  has  only  of  late  years 
been  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  metal, 
from  the  idea  that  it  could  not  be  soli- 
dified, and  was  looked  upon  as  an 
imperfect  or  semi-metal,  containing  a 


principle  regarded  as  pure  vitrifiable 
earth — silica  of  modern  times.  In  1859, 
the  knowledge  that  it  could  be  solidified, 
acquired  by  the  academicians  of  St. 
Petersburg,  was  first  the  means  of  re- 
moving the  notion  of  its  semi-metallic 
nature,  and  of  inducing  inquiries  by  several 
learned  chemists,  which  led  to  its  being 
recognised  as  a  true  metal.  Its  fluidity 
at  all  ordinary  temperatures,  coupled 
with  its  silvery  whiteness  and  metallic 
lustre,  gave  it  the  popular  name  of 
quicksilver.  It  was  known  long  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  the  Spanish  mines 
at  that  period  yielded  large  supplies.  It 
is  found  still  in  Spain,  but  other  coun- 
tries yield  it,  viz.  Hungary,  Sweden, 
Peru,  New  Granada.  Mexico,  California, 
and  China.  With  reference  to  its  pro- 
perties, it  is  fluid  at  all  temperatures 
between  39'5°  Fahr.  and  its  boiling-point, 
which  is  somewhere  about  670°  or  680°. 
It  solidifies  at  —40°,  and  in  this  state 
permits  of  being  beaten  out  under  the 
hammer,  welded,  &c.  like  other  metals." 

Mercury  is  used  in  artillery  labora- 
tories in  the  preparation  of  "  fulminate 
of  mercury,"  for  percussion  caps,  and 
in  taking  the  density  of  gunpowder.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  13-586,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  75°.  (  Vide  Fulminate  of  Mer- 
cury.) 

Spherical  shot  are  floated  in  mercury 
to  'ascertain  whether  they  are  homo- 
geneous, and  if  so,  should  rest  indiffer- 
ently in  any  position  in  the  mercury. 

Meridian  (Latin,  meridies,  mid-day) — 
As  explained  in  works  on  astronomy  and 
geography,  is  an  imaginary  great  circle 
passing  through  the  terrestrial  and  celes- 
tial poles,  cutting  the  equator  and  equi- 
noctial at  right  angles.  A  meridian 
is  supposed  to  pass  through  every  place 
on  the  earth  and  every  point  in  the 
heavens,  but  only  24-  are  drawn  on  the 
globe,  through  every  15°  of  the  equa- 
tor and  equinoctial,  including  altogether 
360°.  The  meridians  mark  the  space 
which,  in  consequence  of  the  earth's 
diurnal  rotation,  the  heavenly  bodies 
appear  to  describe  every  hour  through 
the  24  in  the  day.  They  are  sometimes 
called,  therefore,  hour  or  horary  circles. 
As  15°  answer  to  an  hour,  1°  answers 
to  four  minutes  of  time,  £°  to  two 
minutes,  and  |°  to  one  minute. 


MER 


254 


MET 


Merlon — In  fortification,  is  that  por- 
tion of  the  parapet  contained  between 
two  embrasures ;  it  is  generally  from 
15  to  18  feet  in  length. 

Mess  (Latin,  m-nsa,  table  ;  or,  French, 
nuts,  dish) — In  the  British  army,  a  regi- 
mental institution  for  the  maintenance  of 
a  common  table  for  all  the  officers  in  a 
regiment,  who  are  bound  to  subscribe  an 
annual  subscription,  whether  present  or 
absent.  Married  men  pay  one  half  if 
they  do  not  regularly  attend  the  mess, 
but  they  pay  all  contributions  to  the 
mess  fund.  The  introduction  of  messes 
into  the  British  army  has  been  attended 
with  the  happiest  results.  Officers  of 
all  ranks  meet  together  on  an  equal 
social  footing,  and  the  youngest  officer  in 
the  regiment  is  able  to  enjoy  the  society 
of  his  senior  and  brother  officers  without 
reserve.  The  advantages  of  a  mess  are 
manifold,  and  are  seen  not  only  in  its 
social  value,  but  also  in  the  means  it  offers 
to  all  ranks  of  living  well  and  comfortably. 
A  small  government  allowance  (Queen's 
allowance,  </.  u.)  is  granted  in  aid  of  the 
expenses  of  the  officers'  mess.  Messes 
are  extended  also  to  the  non-com- 
missioned officers  and  men  of  a  regi- 
ment, who  have  their  several  messes 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  officer 
commanding  the  regiment  and  the  cap- 
tains of  companies. 

Messages — -Communications  passing 
between  officials  whether  in  peace  or 
war  time.  In  the  former,  messages  are 
generally  sent  by  dismounted  orderlies, 
except  the  communication  is  urgent, 
when  it  is  sent  by  a  mounted  orderly. 
In  the  latter,  mounted  orderlies  are 
sent  between  the  general  and  his  staff, 
on  subjects  relating  to  the  army  and 
requiring  expedition.  The  'Soldier's 
Pocket-book '  lays  down  that  impor- 
tant messages  forwarded  to  a  distance, 
and  where  the  bearers  may  fall  into  the 
enemy's  hands,  should  be  sent  in  dupli- 
cate, one  real,  the  other  false ;  the  former 
to  be  concealed  in  a  quill  about  his 
person,  in  such  a  way  as  is  not  likely 
to  be  discovered,  and  which  way  will  in 
peril  suggest  itself;  the  latter  in  the 
form  of  a  letter.  One  orderly  is  not 
considered  safe ;  one  or  two  more  should 
be  sent  at  certain  intervals  of  time,  say 
two  or  three  hours  between  each. 


Emissaries  sent  from  besieged  cities 
with  messages  to  relieving  forces  or  to 
friends  should  use  great  wariness  to 
avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy ;  but  if  they  do,  they  should  be 
able  to  conceal  the  message,  which  in 
all  probability  would  be  in  cipher  and 
in  only  a  few  words,  about  their  person. 
The  modes  resorted  to  in  warfare,  to 
avoid  written  communications  being 
seized,  are  numerous. 

During  the  siege  of  Metz,  Marshal 
Bazaine,  desirous  of  communicating  with 
the  government  at  Tours,  sent  two  emis- 
saries disguised  as  peasants,  who  both 
managed  to  pass  through  the  German 
lines  ;  one  carried  his  despatch  in  cipher 
inside  a  hollow  tooth,  and  the  other  had 
his  message  woven  in  one  of  his  socks. 

Carrier  pigeons  (7.  u.)  very  often  play 
an  important  part  in  the  transmission  of 
messages  during  hostilities,  as  they  did 
during  the  siege  of  Paris  in  1870-71. 

Messman — A  caterer  or  superintend- 
ent of  the  officers'  mess  establishment. 
He  is  either  a  civilian  or  a  sergeant  ot 
the  regiment. 

Metal-lined  Cases  —  Powder  barrels 
lined  with  sheet  copper,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  holding  prepared  cartridges. 

Metal-lined  cases  are  used  as  portable 
magazines.  When  tested,  they  should  be 
perfectly  water-tight. 

Metallurgy  —  The  art  of  working 
metals  and  separating  them  from  their 
ores. 

Metals — Elementary  bodies  capable  of 
combining  with  oxygen  ;  many  of  them, 
during  this  combination,  exhibit  the 
phenomenon  of  combustion.  Metals  are 
distinguished  by  their  great  specific 
gravity,  considerable  tenacity,  hardness, 
opacity,  and  property  of  reflecting  the 
greater  part  of  the  light  which  falls  on 
their  surface,  giving  rise  to  metallic 
lustre  or  brilliancy. 

Methylated  Spirit — Consists  of  alcohol 
(C4H50,HO),  of  specific  gravity  of  -83, 
mixed  with  10  per  cent,  of  wood  spirit, 
or  methylic  alcohol  (C2H30,HO),  which 
is  one  of  the  products  of  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  wood.  Methy- 
lated spirit  is  used  for  damping  deto- 
nating compositions,  so  as  to  form  them 
into  paste,  when  they  can  be  handled. 
It  dissolves  shellac. 


MET 


255 


MIL 


Metre — The  French  unit  of  length  ; 
equal  to  39-371  inches. 

Metric  System — The  modern  French 
system  of  weights  and  measures,  which 
has  the  metre  for  its  basis,  and  which 
is  fixed  at  the  ten-millionth  part  of  the 
quadrant  of  the  meridian,  and  equal  to 
39'37  English  inches.  (  Vide  Appendix  M.) 

Micrometer  (Greek,  mikros,  a  little ; 
metron,  measure) — An  instrument  for 
measuring  very  minute  spaces,  the  thou- 
sandth part  of  an  inch  being  correctly 
ascertained  by  it. 

Mile — The  length  of  the  geographical 
mile  varies  in  different  countries.  The 
English  geographical  mile  =  1760  yards, 
or  69J  miles  to  a  degree.  A  geometrical 
mile  consists  of  1000  geometrical  paces. 

Military — Anything  pertaining  to  the 
soldiery.  The  word  comes  originally 
from  miles,  a  soldier.  The  French  term 
militaire  is  used  to  signify  any  individual 
who  bears  arms  for  his  country  or 
belongs  to  the  profession. 

Military  Academy,  vide  Academy. 

Military  Administration,  vide  Ad- 
ministration, Military. 

Military  Asylum,  Koyal,  vide  Schools, 
Military. 

Military  Drawing,  vide  Drawing,  Mili- 
tary. 

Military  Finance,  vide  Finance,  Army. 

Military  Honours,  vide  Honours,  Mili- 
tary. 

Military  Law,  vide  Law,  Military. 

Military  Pits  (French,  trous  de  loup) — 
Rows  of  pits  in  the  form  of  inverted 
cones  or  pyramids  made  before  a  work, 
and  having  a  strong  palisade  or  stake  in 
the  centre  of  each.  To  prevent  the 
enemy's  riflemen  from  making  use  of 
them,  they  should  be  made  either  too 
deep  or  too  shallow,  that  is,  either 
8  feet  or  1\  feet  deep.  The  diameter  of 
the  deep  pits  at  the  top  is  6  feet,  and 
1  foot  at  the  bottom  ;  that  of  the  shallow 
pits,  3  feet  square  at  the  top,  and  not 
more  than  2£  feet  deep.  The  usual 
position  for  military  pits  is  beyond  the 
counterscarp,  and  principally  opposite 
the  salient  angles.  They  would  form  an 
obstacle  to  cavalry.  One  man  can  con- 
struct two  deep  pits  per  day  in  easy  soil, 
and  ten  shallow  pits  under  the  same  cir- 
cumstances. 

Military  Police,  vide  Police,  Military. 


Military  Schools,  vide  Schools,  Mili- 
tary. 

Military  Secretary — An  officer  at- 
tached to  the  staff  of  the  commander-in- 
chief,  to  governors  of  provinces,  and  to 
an  officer  commanding  an  army  in  the 
field.  His  duties  to  some  extent  are 
confidential,  and  he  relieves  the  officer 
under  whom  he  is  serving  of  a  great 
deal  of  personal  correspondence.  He 
adds  to  his  other  duties  sometimes  that 
of  aide-de-camp. 

An  Assistant  Military  Secretary  for 
the  British  army,  in  addition  to  the 
Assistant  Military  Secretary  for  India,  is 
also  allowed  at  the  Horse  Guards ;  they 
receive  the  relative  rank  of  colonel,  if  not 
of  that  rank.  (  Vide  Staff.) 

Military  Stores,  vide  Stores. 

Military  Telegraphy,  vide  Telegraphy. 

Military  Train — A  corps  raised  after 
the  Crimean  War  for  the  purpose  of  per- 
forming the  transport  duties  of  an  army 
during  a  campaign.  Subsequently  it 
was  amalgamated  into  the  control  de- 
partment under  the  name  of  Transport 
Branch. 

In  organising  transport  for  a  campaign, 
Lord  Strathnairn's  committee,  some  years 
ago,  proposed  one  general  military  train 
to  provide  for  all  the  requirements  of 
an  army,  and  this  seems  to  be  the  view  of 
all  staff  and  general  officers.  Regimental 
officers  however  prefer  each  department 
by  itself,  regiments  objecting  to  parting 
with  their  transport.  Tho  true  principle 
appears  to  be  the  minimum  amount  of 
regimental  transport. 

Militia  (Latin,  miles,  a  soldier) — A 
domestic  force  for  the  defence  of  a  na- 
tion, as  distinguished  from  the  regular 
army.  The  name  militia  was  known 
in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  but  as  late 
as  1641  it  appears  to  have  been  a 
novel  expression.  Under  other  names, 
however,  the  militia  was  a  very  ancient 
body.  The  early  Anglo-Saxons  had  their 
fyrd,  or  general  army  of  the  population. 
This  term  continued  as  late  as  Henry  I., 
and  it  was  in  the  midst  of  the  London 
militia  or  fyrd,  which  were  under  his 
personal  command,  that  Harold  fell  at 
Hastings.  Trainbands,  a  force  partaking 
of  the  nature  of  militia  and  volunteers, 
were,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  substi- 
tuted for  the  fyrd,  and  the  term  was  in 


MIL 


256 


MIL 


use,  as  applied  to  the  London  militia,  till 
the  middle  of  the  last  century. 

During  the  Civil  War,  the  militia  or 
trainbands  were  generally  on  the  side 
of  parliament,  and  the  London  regiments 
played  an  important  part  in  the 
struggle. 

In  those  days  the  militia  were  com- 
posed of  horse  and  foot. 

At  the  Restoration,  some  important 
acts  were  passed,  placing  the  militia 
under  the  control  of  the  king,  and  fixing 
the  basis  on  which  it  rested  until  1757. 

In  1757  an  act  was  passed  which 
regulated  the  militia  until  1803.  The 
ballot  was  then  introduced,  in  case  a 
sufficient  number  of  volunteers  did  not 
come  forward. 

At  the  present  day  the  militia  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  which  forms  with  the 
volunteers    the    auxiliary  forces    of   the 
country,  is  raised  practically  by  volun- 
tary recruitment ;  but  should  volunteer- 
ing fail,  a  levy  by  ballot  would  probably 
be  resorted  to  upon  all  the  inhabitants  of 
a  county,  between  the  ages  of  18  and  35. 
The  power  of  making  this  ballot  always  , 
exists,    and    would    by  law    have  to   be 
enforced,  but  for  the  Militia  Ballot  Sus- 
pension Act,  which,  when  the  measure  is 
unnecessary,  is  passed  from  year  to  year.  | 
Many  classes  are  exempt  from  the  ballot. 
The  militia  is  subject  to  the  Articles  of 
War  during   the  period  of  training  and 
embodiment.   As  regards  the  former,  they 
are  bound   to  assemble   annually  for  28 
days ;  as  regards  the  latter,  the  govern- 
ment   can    embody    the    whole    or    part  ; 
of    the     force    at    any   national     crisis, 
which   has  been  done  from  time  to  time. 
The     quota    of    the    United     Kingdom, 
according   to  the  parliamentary  returns 
of  1875,    is    about     139,000    men    (vide 
Appendix     E),    of    whom    only    103,000 
are   likely  to  be  enrolled ;  this   number 
includes  16,839  artillerymen.   The  militia 
do  not  leave  the  country  except  volun-  j 
tarily,    and    then    only   by  special   per-  j 
mission    of    parliament.     The    value    of| 
this  force  cannot  be  too  highly  extolled,  j 
enabling     the    country    in    troublesome  j 
times  to  set   free   the  regular  army  for  i 
aggressive  operations  ;  and,  if  necessary,  ! 
the  militia  can  be  sent  abroad,  as  a  portion  ! 
of  it  was  to  the  Mediterranean  during  the  ! 
Crimean  War.     (  Vide  Appendix  A.) 


Local  regiments  of  militia,  which  are 
divided  into  heavy,  light,  rifles,  and 
Highland  infantry,  are  distributed  in 
different  counties  whose  names  they 
bear.  Every  county  has  its  regiment  of 
militia,  the  larger  ones  having  several. 
In  case  of  mobilisation  (q.  r.)  they  would 
be  attached  to  the  different  corps  d'armtfe 
according  to  the  scheme  laid  down  in 
1875.  The  permanent  head-quarters  of 
the  militia  of  a  county  is  at  the  brigade 
depot  of  a  subdistrict,  where  the  adju- 
tant and  permanent  staff  live.  Recruit- 
ing is  carried  on  mainly  at  head-quarters, 
by  the  recruiting  officer,  and  the  adjutant 
and  permanent  staff,  or  by  militiamen 
themselves  who  bring  friends.  No  enlist- 
ing money  is  given,  but  a  militia  volun- 
teer receives  a  bounty  of  £6,  payable 
partly  on  joining,  and  partly  by  instal- 
ments after  each  period  of  training.  All 
matters  relating  to  this  force,  such  as  the 
calling  out,  date  of  training,  inspection, 
promotion,  examination  of  officers,  and 
correspondence,  goes  to  the  Inspector- 
General  of  Auxiliary  Forces.  First  com- 
missions in  the  militia  are  given  by  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  War,  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  lords-lieutenants  of  the 
counties. 

Militia  Adjutant  —  An  officer  ap- 
pointed to  each  regiment  of  militia  to 
superintend  the  drill  and  instruction  of 
the  regiment.  He  is  taken  from  the 
regular  army.  The  following  are  the 
regulations  recently  issued  relative  to 
the  duties  of  adjutants  of  militia': — 

"  1.  The  militia  adjutant  will  be, 
during  the  non-training  period,  the 
representative  at  the  brigade  depot  of 
the  officer  commanding  the  militia  bat- 
talion or  battalions. 

"  2.  He  will  raise  and  enrol  all  recruits 
for  the  militia  battalion  or  battalions,  and 
superintend  the  out-station  recruiting  for 
the  army  and  the  militia  as  required. 

"  3.  He  will  have  military  charge  of 
the  militia  staff  during  the  non-training 
period,  and  the  military  charge  and  super- 
vision of  the  drill  of  the  militia  recruits 
when  they  are  trained  in  large  bodies ; 
militia  recruits,  when  they  come  up 
singly  or  in  small  numbers,  will  be  at- 
tached to  squads  of  line  recruits,  and 
they  will  in  that  case  be  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  officer  of  the  brigade  depot. 


MIL 


257 


MIN 


'•4.  The  duties  specified  in  the  fore- 
going paragraphs  will  have  priority  over 
all  others,  but  when  militia  adjutants 
are  not  employed  upon  them,  they  will 
be  liable  to  perform  such  other  depot  and 
subdistrict  duties  as  the  officer  com- 
manding the  brigade  depot  or  subdistrict 
may  direct." 

Militia  Artillery — Forms  a  large  body 
of  artillery  in  addition  to  that  of  the 
regular  forces  of  Great  Britain. 

Formerly  the  militia  artillery  was 
called  upon  to  exercise  with  all  kinds  of 
ordnance,  but  since  1873  they  only 
practise  with  garrison  and  coast  guns. 
Each  regiment,  however,  has  some  Arm- 
strong guns  for  the  drill  of  recruits ; 
but,  from  the  absence  of  horses,  its  j 
organisation  into  batteries  remains 
incomplete.  The  places  of  meeting 
chosen  for  the  yearly  drills  (two  months 
for  recruits,  and  one  for  a  regiment) 
are  some  fortified  points  of  the  coast, 
where  the  men  are  taught  to  exercise 
with  garrison  and  field  pieces. 

There  are  30  regiments  of  artillery, 
composed  of — 

796  officers, 

66  surgeons, 
15,978  men,  or 


16,839  all  ranks. 

(  Vi-le  Appendix  E.) 

Militia  Keserve  —  A  force  created  by 
the  act  of  1867  ;  its  numbers  not  to 
exceed  one-fourth  of  militia  quota ;  the 
men  to  be  enlisted  for  5  years,  during 
which  time  they  remain  on  the  strength 
of  militia  regiments,  but  are  liable  to  be 
drafted  into  the  army  in  time  of  war. 

Mill— A  machine  for  grinding  or  pul- 
verising any   grain,  fruit,  or  other  sub-  ! 
stance.  The  power  employed  to  turn  a  mill  ; 
is  sometimes  wind,  water,  or  steam.    Mills 
are  often  wanted  during  a  campaign  for  | 
grinding  corn  into  flour  ;  and,  therefore,  ! 
in  the  reconnoissanca  of  a   country,    it ' 
should  be  distinctly  shown  whether  they 
are     available,     for     without     them    a 
supply  of  corn  may  be  valueless,  or,  as 
Marshal  Marmout  expresses  it,  "  without 
them    an    army  might    starve     among 
heaps  of  corn." 

The  French,  in  the  Peninsula,  suffered 
severely  from  the  want  of  mills,  so  much 
so  that,  before  Torres  Vedras,  they  had 


to  beat  out  the  corn  between  stones. 
Napoleon  also  felt  great  want  of  them 
in  Russia,  and  suffered  severely.  During 
the  Crimean  War  a  ship  was  fitted  out 
with  mills,  which  ground  24,000  Ibs.  of 
wheat  daily. 

As  a  supply  of  bread  must  depend  on 
flour,  the  importance  of  mills  will  be  under- 
stood, and  portable  mills  should  be  taken 
with  every  force  proceeding  on  service. 

Mill  Ca'ke,  vide  Cake,  Mill. 

Millar's  Guns — Introduced  into  the 
service  by  General  Millar  in  1827.  The 
thickness  of  metal  at  the  breech  is  con- 
siderable, and  comparatively  slight  in  the 
chase.  Two  of  his  8-inch  guns  are  still  in 
the  service.  Besides  these  guns,  General 
Millar  also  introduced  the  10-inch  and 
8-inch  iron  howitzers  and  the  present 
L.S.  S.B.  iron  mortars. 

Millbank— A  large  prison,  situated  on 
the  banks  of  the  Thames,  Chelsea.  All 
soldiers  under  sentence  of  courts-martial 
for  lengthened  terms  of  imprisonment  in 
England  are  committed  to  the  military 
division  of  this  prison. 

Soldiers  also  sent  from  abroad  under 
punishment  for  lengthened  periods  are 
generally  sent  to  Millbank,  or  to  the 
military  prison  in  the  district  in  which 
they  disembark. 

Mills,  Powder  —  The  buildings  in 
which  gunpowder  is  manufactured. 
They  consist  of  the  following :  charcoal 
furnaces,  a  sulphur  house  for  distilling 
the  sulphur,  a  saltpetre  refinery,  mixing, 
incorporating,  bruising  or  breaking-down, 
press,  granulating,  dusting,  glazing,  and 
drying  houses,  with  sundry  charge  maga- 
zines; the  latter  are  required  in  each 
process  of  the  manufacture  for  storing 
the  charges  in  until  removed  to  other 
manufacturing  houses.  A  small  chemical 
laboratory  is  also  attached. 

Mines — Excavations  made  in  the  earth 
or  in  solid  rock,  in  which  gunpowder  or 
some  other  combustible  is  placed  and 
fired,  for  the  purpose  of  rending  and 
loosening  the  surrounding  soil.  This 
method  is  commonly  resorted  to  in 
quarries  and  such-like  soils,  and  is  known 
as  cicil  mining,  in  contradistinction  to 
military  mining,  which  takes  place  at  less 
depth  in  the  ground,  and  is  carried  on 
in  a  somewhat  different  manner.  In 
military  mining,  the  object  is  to  destroy, 


MIN 


258 


MIT 


by  explosion,  an  enemy's  troops  or 
works,  as  well  as  works  abandoned  and 
no  longer  defensible,  in  order  that  an 
enemy  may  not  use  them.  To  effect  this, 
the  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  sink  a  shaft, 
and  to  run  a  gallery  from  the  bottom  of 
the  shaft  in  whatever  direction  it  may  be 
required.  Shafts  are  sunk  by  means  of 
frames  of  wood  composed  of  pieces,  two 
of  which  are  long  and  two  short,  the 
sides  being  supported  either  wholly  or 
partially  by  wooden  lining  ;  on  arriving 
at  the  necessary  depth,  the  excavation, 
now  termed  the  gallery,  is  carried  on  in 
a  horizontal  or  inclining  direction,  the 
miner  supporting  the  top  and  sides  of  his 
excavation  with  wooden  linings,  unless 
the  soil  should  prove  of  sufficient  tenacity 
to  require  only  the  top  of  the  gallery  to 
be  supported.  Small  galleries  run  out 
from  the  main  gallery  are  termed 
branches,  when  their  dimensions  are 
under  3  feet  by  4  feet.  (  I  'it/e  Galleries.) 

For  the  charges  of  mines  in  which 
gunpowder  only  should  be  used,  the 
following  rules  can  be  taken  in  com- 
puting the  quantity  of  powder  necessary 
to  raise  a  given  volume  of  the  earth,  as 
for  example,  a  cubic  yard.  This  quan- 
tity will  vary  according  to  the  weight 
and  tenacity  of  the  soil,  but  when  ascer- 
tained by  experiment,  the  rule  for  deter- 
mining the  charge  is  clear,  viz.  to 
take  U  of  the  cube  of  the  line  of  least 
resistance  for  the  volume,  then  multiply 
the  result  so  obtained  (reduced  to  cubic 
yards)  by  the  quantity  of  powder  re- 
quired to  raise  1  cubic  yard,  this  latter 
quantity  being  variable  under  different 
circumstances  of  soil.  But  in  ground 
of  ordinary  weight  and  tenacity,  it  has 
been  found  that  by  taking  -,'g  of  the 
cube  of  the  line  of  least  resistance  in 
feet,  the  proper  charge  of  powder  for 
common  mines  is  given  in  pounds.  The 
line  drawn  from  the  charge  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  surface  is  called  the  "  line 
<>f  least  resistance."  ( Vide  '  Aide-Me- 
moire.') 

Minie  Rifle — -A  rifle  introduced  some 
years  ago  and  adapted  for  firing  the 
Minie  bullet,  the  peculiarity  of  which 
bullet  was  that  it  had  an  iron  cup 
placed  in  a  cavity  at  the  base,  which, 
on  the  rifle  being  fired,  expanded  the 
lead  into  the  grooves  of  the  barrel.  In 


1851  a  rifle  musket  of  the  Minie  pattern 
was  supplied  to  the  English  army,  but 
only  to  a  limited  extent ;  it  was  used 
in  the  Crimea,  at  the  battles  of  the  Alma 
and  Inkerman.  Notwithstanding  its 
many  advantages,  it  was  found  to  be 
defective  in  practice,  and  was  superseded 
by  the  Enfield  rifle  in  1853. 

Minim— The  sixtieth  part  of  a  fluid 
drachm. 

Minister  of  War  —  The  responsible 
head  of  the  army,  in  whom  rests  the 
actual  government  of  the  army,  the 
sovereign  being  the  virtual  head.  (  Vide 
Secretary  of  State  for  War.) 

Minute  —  A  measure  of  time,  the 
sixtieth  part  of  an  hour ;  a  measure  of 
an  angle ;  the  sixtieth  part  of  a  degree 
of  a  circle. 

Minute  Guns  —  Guns  fired  on  the 
interment  of  an  officer  of  rank,  or  of 
some  high  personage  of  the  realm.  The 
officer  to  whom  these  honours  are  paid 
must  have  been  above  the  rank  of 
colonel  in  the  army,  or  of  commodore  in 
the  navy,  and  have  died  on  service. 

Minutes — A  brief  or  rough  report  of 
the  proceedings  of  a  society  or  council 
drawn  up  by  the  secretary  ;  they  are  so 
called  from  being  taken  down  shortly, 
and  in  minute  or  small  writing,  to  be 
afterwards  engrossed. 

Mirror  (French,  miroir) — A  looking- 
glass  or  any  polished  surface  capable  of 
reflecting  images  by  means  of  light.  That 
used  in  the  artillery  service  is  a  small 
circular  looking-glass  for  examining  the 
bores  of  guns. 

Missile — A  projectile,  or  a  weapon  that 
is  thrown  by  the  hand,  or  any  projectile 
that  carries  death  with  it. 

Mitford's  Percussion  Bullet — This  is 
merely  an  ordinary  Enfield  bullet, 
having  a  chamber  down  its  longer  axis, 
to  within  \  inch  of  the  hollow;  this 
chamber  contains  4£  grains  of  detonating 
composition;  and  ,the  bottom  is  closed 
with  wax.  It  is  intended  to  >explode 
ammunition  wagons. 

Mitrailleur,  or  Mitrailleuse  —  A  ma- 
chine gun  intended  to  throw  mitraillc, 
that  is,  groups  of  small  projectiles, 
independently,  to  distances  of  1000 
yards,  and  to  be  used  against  troops 
under  certain  circumstances.  This  nature 
of  gun  was  known  in  the  French 


259 


MIT 


army  upwards  of  a  hundred  years  ago. 
It  is  thus  described  ia  an  old  French 
military  dictionary: — "  Orgues,  ou  un 
Ori/ne,  sout  plusieurs  canons  de  mous- 
quets  disposes  de  suite  sur  uu  meme  fut, 
les  lumieres  re'poudant  les  unes  aux 
autres,  en  soi'fce  qu'une  meme  traiuee  met 
le  t'eu  a  tous  les  canons  a  la  fois." 

There  are  several  types  of  mitrail- 
leurs,  such  as  the  Gatling  gun  (q,  t>.) ;  the 
French  mitrailleur;  the  Bavarian;  the 
mitrailleurs  of  Montigny  (</.  v.)  and  Chris- 
topl<£  ;  the  mitrailleur  of  Nobel,  and  the 
mitrailleurs  of  Winborg  and  Palmcrantz. 
The  committee  appointed  to  report  on 
the  several  natures  of  mitrailleurs  gave 
their  decided  opinion  in  favour  of  the 
adoption  of  the  Gatling  gun  in  a  modi- 
fied form,  to  be  treated  purely  as  a 
defensive  weapon,  and  to  be  generally 
intrenched  and  kept  as  far  as  possible 
from  artillery  fire.  This  led  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Gatling  gun  into  the 
British  army,  the  more  recent  construc- 
tion of  which  presents  several  improve- 
ments on  the  original. 

On  the  first  introduction  of  the 
mitrailleur  it  was  thought  it  would  be 
an  improvement  on  case  shot,  the  efficacy 
of  which,  it  was  considered,  would  be 
reduced  by  the  use  of  rifled  ordnance. 
This  however  was  found  to  be  an 
erroneous  opinion,  and  that  the  use  of 
the  mitrailleur  was  chiefly  applicable  to 
positions  where  it  would  act  as  a  sure  and 
rapid  infantry  fire,  in  fact,  in  positions 
where  infantry  fire  was  not  available. 

Major  Fosbery,  V.C.,  of  the  Bengal  Staff 
Corps,  who  interested  himself  very  much 
on  the  subject  of  mitrailleurs,  and  sub- 
mitted a  report  some  years  ago  to  the 
India  Office  on  the  trials  carried  out  by 
the  Montigny  mitrailleur,  does  not  re- 
commend this  arm  as  a  substitute  for 
artillery — and  this  is  now  a  very  general 
opinion  —  but  as  an  addition  to  the 
proper  complement  of  that  arm  in  the 
field,  for  the  defence  of  roads,  bridges, 
and  defiles ;  for  the  attacks  of  mountain 
passes  ;  for  flanking  short  pieces  of  works  ; 
for  covering  the  landing  of  troops.  From 
its  portability  it  can  be  carried  up  and 
fired  from  the  cross-trees  of  a  ship. 
Such  a  weapon  would  be  especially 
useful  in  India,  for  the  protection  of 
isolated  positions. 


During  the  Franco-German  war,  there 
were  many  instances  of  the  value  of  the 
mitrailleur,  and  the  good  turn  it  served 
the  French  in  some  of  their  actions. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  where  so  many 
systems  or  types  of  mitrailleur  have 
been  invented,  there  will  be  different 
opinions  as  to  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  the  several  inventions.  The 
Gatling  gun  appears  to  answer  the  pur- 
poses required  of  it :  it  is  durable,  not 
likely  soon  to  get  out  of  order,  and 
discharges  a  sufficient  number  of  balls  in  a 
short  space  of  time  to  make  it  a  formidable 
weapon  to  face,  being  capable  of  firing 
j  300  to  400  rounds  in  a  minute.  The 
I  calibre  of  the  Gatliug  used  in  the  British 
|  service  is  '45,  the  same  as  that  of  the 
i  Martini-Henry  rifle.  Few  Catlings,  how- 
I  ever,  up  to  this  date,  have  been  manu- 
factured for  the  service,  and  this  perhaps 
is  judicious,  seeing  the  improvements 
that  are  taking  place  from  time  to  time 
in  machines  of  this  nature. 

A  very  interesting  report  is  given  in 
the  '  Minutes  of  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Royal  Artillery  Institution,'  a  translation 
of  an  extract  from  the  report  of  the 
Swedo-Norwegian  artillery  commission, 
giving  the  opinion  of  the  committee  on 
all  the  different  mitrailleurs.  From  this 
report  it  is  gathered  that  the  experi- 
ments on  the  mitrailleurs  of  Winborg 
and  Palmcrantz  were  considered  the  most 
satisfactory,  and  the  advantages  of  the 
weapon  are  thus  described : — "  All  the 
mechanism  is  put  in  motion  by  a  lever 
working  horizontally  on  the  right  side 
of  the  piece. 

"  The  construction  of  this  mitrailleuse 
is  far  simpler  and  stronger  than  those  of 
all  others  known,  which  at  the  same 
time  renders  it  little  liable  to'deranger 
ment  by  rust  or  fouling." 

The  Nobel  mitrailleur  is  the  one 
used  in  the  Russian  army.  It  is  a  ten- 
barrelled  gun  on  the  Gatling  system, 
slightly  modified  by  General  Gorlotf. 

Mr.  Hale,  the  inventor  of  the  rocket 
which  is  known  by  his  name,  has  in- 
vented a  mitrailleur  which  fires  five 
rockets  at  a  time. 

Mitre  Wheel — A  wheel  having  teeth, 

formed  so  as  to  work  at  an  angle  of  45° 

to  the  centre  line  of  the  shaft  on  which  it 

is  fixed,  to  move  with  another  wheel  of 

a  2 


MIX 


2GO 


MOB 


equal  si/e  fixed  on  a  shaft  at  right  angles 
to  the  former  one. 

Mixing  the  Ingredients — The  first 
process  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder 
after  the  ingredients  have  been  weighed, 
and  previous  to  submitting  them  to  the 
incorporating  mills.  This  process  is 
performed  by  putting  the  composition 
into  a  cylindrical  gun-metal  or  copper 
drum  about  2  feet  in  diameter,  having 
an  axle  passing  through  its  centre,  on 
which  there  are  metal  flyers  like  forks. 
The  machinery  is  so  arranged  that  the 
flyers  and  drum  revolve  in  opposite 
directions  at  the  rate  of  about  100  revo- 
lutions per  minute ;  5  minutes  is  suffi- 
cient for  a  thorough  mixture.  The  com- 
position is  then  drawn  off  by  a  "  slip  "  into 
a  canvas  bag,  capable  of  holding  a  50-lb. 
charge,  which  is  tightly  tied,  and  taken 
to  the  charge  magazine.  In  this  state  it 
is  called  a  green  charije  (7.  v.),  and  is  now 
ready  for  the  next  process,  viz.  that  of 
incorporation. 

Moat — A  wet  or  dry  ditch,  dug  round 
the  walls  of  a  town  or  fortified  place. 

Mobilisation— The  act  of  preparing 
troops  for  war.  It  consists  in  raising 
the  army  from  a  peace  to  a  war  footing, 
which  in  England  would  be  to  call  out  the 
reserves,  auxiliary  and  volunteer  forces, 
to  organise  the  several  departments  of 
the  service,  and  to  place  them  in  that 
state  of  efficiency  in  cattle,  provisions, 
and  munitions,  as  would  render  the 
army  compact  and  in  thorough  fighting 
order. 

The  labours  of  the  staff  of  an  army 
are  directed  towards  arriving  at  a 
great  rapidity  in  mobilisation  ;  the 
success  of  a  war  depending  greatly  on 
the  celerity  with  which  armies  can  be 
got  ready  previous  to  their  being  con- 
centrated on  the  threatened  points,  thus 
enabling  them,  if  necessary,  to  take  the 
offensive. 

The  rapidity  with  which  armies  can 
be  mobilised  has  been  of  late  years 
very  great.  In  1859,  it  took  thirty- 
seven  days  for  France  to  collect  on 
the  river  Po  a  force  of  104,000  men, 
with  12,000  more  in  Italy.  In  1866,  the 
Prussian  armies (220,000  in  number)  were 
placed  on  the  frontiers  of  Saxony  and 
Silesia  in  a  fortnight ;  and  in  1870, 
Germany  was  able  to  mobilise  her  forces 


in  nine  days,  and  to  send  in  eight  days 
more  to  the  French  frontier  an  army  of 
400,000  soldiers  and  1200  guns. 

The  mobilisation  of  the  British  army 
has  been  provided  for  under  orders  issued 
by  the  War  Office  and  Horse  Guards.  By 
this  scheme,  which  is  not  only  based  upon 
defensive  requirements,  but  also  adapted 
for  offensive  warfare  as  well,  300,000  men 
will  be  available  within  a  few  days  for 
the  defence  of  the  country,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, a  certain  portion  of  the  force  can 
be  embarked  for  a  war  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  general  details  will  be  found 
in  the  Monthly  Army  List  of  the  service  ; 
but  a  short  description  of  the  scheme,  as 
officially  promulgated  towards  the  end  of 
1875,  is  herewith  given. 

The  army  will  be  divided  into  8 
army  corps,  consisting,  with  few  excep- 
tions, of  troops  quartered  in  the  terri- 
torial districts  allotted  to  the  corps. 
Each  army  corps  will  be  divided  into 
3  divisions,  and  each  corps  will  have 
a  reserve,  under  the  immediate  orders  of 
its  own  commander.  The  number  of  all 
ranks  of  each  army  corps  will  consist, 
inclusive  of  the  civil  departments,  of 
36,228  men,  10,585  horses,  1410  car- 
riages, and  90  guns.  Each  division  will 
be  composed  of  2  brigades,  and  will 
muster  9743  of  all  ranks,  1805  horses, 
344  carriages,  and  18  guns. 

The  cavalry  attached  to  each  corps 
will  consist  of  3480  men,  with  3306 
horses,  and  the  artillery  will  furnish 
90  guns,  thus  giving  a  total  for  the  8 
corps  d'«rmee  of  a  force  of  720  guns. 
There  will  be  besides,  attached  to  each 
corps,  a  pontoon  train  and  a  body  of 
1258  engineers,  and  300  military  police, 
while  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded 
will  be  secured  by  the  presence  of  3185 
officers  and  men  and  418  horses,  belong- 
ing to  the  medical  department..  The 
control  department  will  be  allowed  a 
staff  of  369  officers  and  men,  390  horses, 
and  99  carriages,  for  the  supply  of  pro- 
visions and  stores,  besides  the  special  staff 
attached  to  the  bakery  and  butchery, 
which  will  require,  in  addition,  541 
officers  and  men.  378  horses,  and  77  car- 
riages. Each  army  corps  will  have  1410 
carriages  in  all. 

The  first  army  corps,  composed  entirely 
of  regulars,  will  have  its  head-quarters 


MOB 


261 


MOL 


at  Colchester,  and  each  of  its  divisions  at 
Colchester,  Chelmst'ord,  and  Gravesend. 
The  second  corps  will  be  formed  of  two- 
thirds  ot'  regulars  and  one  of  militia,  with 
head-quarters  and  first  division  at 
Aldershot,  a  second  division  at  Guildford, 
and  third  (entirely  of  militia)  at  Dork- 
ing. The  first  division  of  the  third  corps 
will  be  entirely  composed  of  the  foot 
guards,  with  head-quarters  at  Croydon  ; 
the  second  and  third  divisions,  each  of 
militia,  will-be  mobilised  at  Red  Hill  and 
Tunbridge  Wells  respectively.  The  first 
division  of  each  of  the  other  corps  will  be 
at  Dublin,  Salisbury,  Chester,  York,  and 
Edinburgh,  the  particular  division  in 
each  case  having  its  special  nucleus  of  a 
first  brigade  of  three  battalions  drawn 
from  the  nearest  barracks,  whilst  the 
head-quarters  of  the  other  two  divisions 
are  fixed  in  such  a  way  that  will  enable 
them  to  communicate  easily  with  each 
other. 

By  this  scheme  the  defence  of  the  coasts 
has  been  provided  for  by  a  garrison  or 
sedentary  army,  made  up,  to  some  extent, 
of  the  garrison  artillery  of  the  regular 
army  and  that  of  the  militia  and  volun- 
teers, and  divided  into  separate  com- 
mands for  Portsmouth,  Plymouth,  Port- 
land, Dover,  Chatham  (with  Sheerness 
and  Tilbury),  Harwich,  Pembroke,  Edin- 
burgh, Cork,  Dublin,  Jersey,  Guernsey 
and  Alderney.  To  this  garrison  army, 
the  volunteers  will  contribute  a  valuable 
contingent  by  maintaining  one-fourth  of 
their  number  on  duty ;  whilst  those  of  the 
metropolis  would  form  a  distinct  camp, 
stationed  at  Tilbury,  and  constantly 
attended  by  one-fourth  of  each  regiment. 

The  yeomanry  will  be  mobilised  with  the 
corps  stationed  near  its  own  county,  and 
will  do  duty  with  the  regular  cavalry 
or  reserve. 

Mobility  (Latin,  mobilita*,  from  moveo, 
I  move) — Lightness,  facility  in  moving. 
In  warfare  it  is  of  the  highest  import- 
ance that  the  artillery  and  transport 
of  the  army  should  be  as  light  and 
movable  as  is  consistent  with  efficiency. 
Not  only  does  this  term  apply  to  the 
particular  branches  above  adverted  to, 
but  mobility  expresses  also  the  facility 
and  rapidity  with  which  an  army  can 
traverse  a  country,  when  called  upon  to 
do  battle  with  the  enemy,  which,  com- 


bined with  concentration  of  force,  is  likely 
to  bring  matters  to  a  successful  issue. 

Model — A  pattern  or  imitation  of  any- 
thing on  a  small  scale,  in  wood,  stone, 
wax,  or  any  other  convenient  substance. 
Models  are  not  only  made  for  the  reduc- 
tion in  size  of  articles  of  all  sorts,  and 
for  the  possession  of  fac-similes  of  all 
such  works  as  are  either  too  large  to  be 
moved  or  too  expensive  to  be  bought, 
but  they  are  valuable  in  a  military  point 
of  view  in  giving,  in  a  handy  and  in- 
structive form,  the  elevation  of  ground 
sketched  out  in  topographical  maps  (vide 
Maps),  and  which  is  also  applicable  to 
fortifications,  &c. 

Under  the  name  of  model  an  apparatus 
has  been  lately  invented  by  Captain  E. 
Padmore  Clark  (Instructor  of  Musketry, 
Herefordshire  Militia),  for  the  purpose 
of  instructing  officers  and  men  in  the 
cavalry  and  infantry  drill.  The  infantry 
model  consists  of  a  miniature  regiment  of 
infantry,  in  metal,  and  is  so  formed  that 
the  ranks  can  be  simultaneously  turned 
in  any  direction,  and  the  position  of 
officers  and  markers  is  clearly  defined. 

This  apparatus,  which  is  called  "  Drill 
Model  Apparatus,"  consists  of  a  bat- 
talion of  six  companies,  with  mounted 
and  other  officers,  colour-party,  band, 
and  pioneers,  complete.  Two  of  the 
companies  are  divisible  into  half-com- 
panies, for  the  purpose  of  showing  the 
movement  of  the  side-face  companies 
in  the  formation  of  a  two-deep  square  in 
a  battalion  of  four  companies.  There 
are  six  small  stands  to  attach  to  the  right 
or  left,  or  the  centre,  of  each  company, 
for  the  leading  guide  in  formations  of 
fours  to  a  (lank,  or  for  the  right  guide  in 
retiring  in  line. 

This  apparatus  will,  doubtless,  prove 
very  useful  in  imparting  to  young 
officers  practical  knowledge  in  this  im- 
portant branch  of  their  profession,  and 
will  assist  them  in  clearly  understand- 
ing the  different  movements  which  com- 
panies and  battalions  are  called  upon 
to  perform  on  the  drill-ground  or  in  the 
field.  The  drill  model  for  cavalry  is 
similar,  and  represents  a  whole  regiment, 
and  the  troops  and  squadrons  are  divi- 
sible on  the  plan  of  the  infantry  model. 

Molecules  (Latin,  moles,  a  mass) — The 
infinitely  small  material  particles  of 


MOL 


262 


MOK 


which  bodies  are  conceived  to  be  aggre- 
gations. 

Molten  Iron — Iron  in  a  state  of  fusion. 

Momentum — The  "momentum"  of  a 
body  is  the  product  of  its  velocity  and 
quantity  of  matter,  which  last  is  in  the 
compound  ratio  of.  its  density  and  mag- 
nitude. Let  M  be  the  momentum  of  a 
body,  W  its  quantity  of  matter  or  weight, 
and  v  its  velocity,  then 

M  W 

M  =  Wv,  whence  W  =  —  and  v  =  =rp 

Thus,  if  a  body  weighing  20  Ibs.  be 
moving  with  a  velocity  of  6  feet  per 
second,  then  M  =  Wo  =  20  X  6  =  120  feet 
momentum. 

Mom-raughun  (Indian,  mom,  wax ; 
raiu/hun,  oil) — A  composition  used  for  pre- 
serving harness  and  furniture  in  India. 
It  consists  of  two  parts  of  bees-wax,  two 
parts  of  sweet  oil  or  mutton  fat,  one 
part  of  turpentine,  and  a  very  small 
quantity  of  camphor. 

Moncrieff  Carriage,  tide  Carriage, 
Moncrieff. 

Money,  Smart,  ride  Smart  Money. 

Money,  Subsistence,  vide  Subsistence 
Money. 

Monk — A  piece  of  junk  or  touchwood 
laid  over  the  priming  of  a  mine  to  give 
the  miner  time  to  retire. 

Monkey — A  heavy  weight  for  driving 
piles,  and  which  is  dropped  from  a  pile- 
driving  machine. 

Monk's  Guns — Pieces  of  ordnance  cast 
upon  a  principle  which  was  brought  for- 
ward by  Mr.  Monk  in  1838.  He  designed, 
amongst  his  other  guns,  the  32-prs.  known 
by  artillerists  as  the  A,  B,  and  C  Monk 
guns,  which  are  still  in  the  service. 

Montigny  Mitrailleur  —  One  of  the 
many  types  of  mitrailleurs  which  have 
been  invented  of  late  years.  It  is 
thus  described  by  Major  Fosbery,  V.C., 
of  the  Bengal  Staff  Corps  :  —  "  This 
machine  consists  of  thirty-seven  rifled 
steel  barrels,  hexagonally  formed  ex- 
teriorly, and  fitted  and  soldered  into  a 
wrought-irontube,  somewhat  in  the  form 
of  an  ordinary  piece  of  artillery.  This 
has  a  movable  breech-piece,  worked  by 
means  of  a  lever,  and  containing  a  spring 
and  striker,  corresponding  with  each 
barrel.  The  whole  of  the  barrels  can 
be  charged  simultaneously  by  the  intro- 


duction of  a  steel  plate  containing  the 
thirty-seven  cartridges ;  they  can  be 
fired  independently,  and  at  any  interval 
of  time,  or  the  whole  may  be  fired  in  one 
second  ;  reloading  takes  five  seconds,  and 
a  continuous  fire  at  the  rate  of  ten  dis- 
charges per  minute  can  be  maintained. 

"  The  gun  is  provided  with  both  ver- 
tical and  horizontal  adjustments,  and 
may  be  made  to  sweep  horizontally  along 
a  line  of  adjustment  between  each  dis- 
charge, or  during  the  discharge  itself. 
As  there  is  no  recoil,  the  gun  once  laid 
will  continue  to  throw  28  Ibs.  weight  of 
projectiles  per  minute  on  the  same  spot, 
or  at  various  points  of  any  line  requiring 
the  same  elevation  without  any  further 
labour  than  that  involved  in  the  work- 
ing of  the  lateral  adjustment."  It  ap- 
pears from  Major  Fosbery's  account,  who 
was  sent  to  Belgium  by  the  English 
government  to  report  on  this  mitrailleur, 
that  at  866  yards  the  hits  were  32-12 
per  cent. 

From  the  report  of  the  special  com- 
mittee appointed  to  carry  out  compara- 
tive experiments  with  the  Montigny  and 
Gatling  mitrailleurs,  it  would  seem  that 
the  result  is  in  favour  of  the  latter.  In  the 
special  competition  between  this  gun  and 
the  Montigny  mitrailleur  of  thirty-seven 
barrels,  the  former  made  618  hits  in  3 
minutes  31  seconds,  in  720  rounds  at 
600  yards ;  the  Montigny,  at  the  same 
range  and  with  the  same  number  of 
rounds,  scoring  538  in  4  minutes.  With 
558  rounds  at  800  yards,  the  result  was 
even  more  favourable  to  the  Gatling, 
which  made  439  hits  in  2  minutes 
26  seconds,  against  the  Montigny's  292 
in  3  minutes  3  seconds. 

Moorsom's  Fuze — A  percussion  fuze, 
made  of  metal  (brass  or  bronze),  and 
screwed  into  the  shell  (naval)  like  the 
ordinary  naval  fuze.  This  fuze  has  been 
superseded  by  Pettman's  fuze,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  liability  to  burst  pre- 
maturely when  fired  with  full  service 
charges. 

Moral*  (French)  —  Means  the  state 
of  the  moral  faculties  of  a  man  or  an 
army,  in  contradistinction  to  the  phy- 
sique. Hence  it  is  applied  to  the  assur- 


*  We  have  preferred  keeping  the  French 
spelling  of  the  word,  as  morale,  as  it  is  often 
erroneously  spelt,  has  a  different  meaning 


MOE 


263 


MOR 


ance    which    a   man    feels    in    conscious 
superiority. 

Morass — Uncultivated  land,  saturated 
with  water  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be 
dangerous  to  walk  upon.  Such  lands, 
however,  can  be  drained  and  made  useful 
for  cultivation.  A  morass  comes  under 
the  head  of  a  military  obstacle,  and  would 
form,  if  necessary,  a  good  point  cCappui 
for  troops  to  rest  upon.  (Vide  Recon- 
noissance.) 

Moiion — A  kind  of  open  helmet,  with- 
out visor  or  bever,  somewhat  resembling 
a  hat.  It  was  commonly  worn  by  arque- 
busiers  and  musquetiers.  It  first  ap- 
pears in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. 

Morse  Instrument  —  An  instrument, 
invented  by  an  American  (Dr.  S.  Morse), 
for  transmitting  messages  by  means  of 
electricity.  The  system  pursued,  and  by 
means  of  which  signals  can  be  recorded, 
consists  of  an  alphabet  composed  of  dots 
and  dashes,  marked  on  a  slip  of  paper 
that  unrolls  itself,  which  are  produced 
by  the  emission  of  an  electric  current  of 
a  length  of  time  proportioned  to  the 
length  of  the  signal.  This  system  is 
generally  employed  on  most  telegraph 
lines,  as  being  the  simplest,  and  is  used  in 
the  field  telegraphy  of  the  army. 

Mortar — A  short  piece  of  ordnance 
made  of  cast  iron  or  bronze,  and  having 
the  trunnions  in  rear  of  the  breech.  The 
bores  of  bronze  mortars  are  from  \\  to 
2  calibres  in  length,  iron  mortars  being 
about  2  calibres,  and  the  shape  of  the 
chamber  a  truncated  cone  or  gomer  shape, 
named  after  a  French  artillery  marshal 
of  that  name.  Mortars  were  used  by  the 
Turks  at  the  siege  of  Khodes  in  1522,  and 
introduced  into  the  French  artillery  in 
1634,  and  were  first  used  afloat  in 
1679,  at  the  French  attack  on  Algiers. 
They  were  then  discharged  from  a  bomb 
ketch.  The  object  of  this  shaped  piece  is 
to  throw  shells  at  high  angles,  generally 
45°,  for  .the  purpose  of  bombarding 
towns,  forts,  or  works  of  any  kind  ;  from 
their  penetrating  power,  in  consequence  of 
the  high  angles  at  which  they  are  fired, 
they  are  most  effective ;  the  shells  are  also 
valuable  in  setting  fire  to  any  combusti- 
ble matter  amidst  which  they  may  fall, 
and  when  carcasses  are  used,  the  destruc-  j 
tion  is  very  great  on  falling  into  dock- 
yards, arsenals,  and  amongst  shipping,  &c. 


The  iron  mortars  used  for  land  service 
are  the — 

13-inch  of  36  cwt. 

10-inch  of  18  cwt. 

8-inch  of    9  cwt. 

Bronze  mortars — 

5J-inch  royal  of  \\  cwt. 
4|-inch  royal  of    \  cwt. 

Iron  mortars  are  used  in  fortresses, 
and  for  siege  purposes,  the  8-inch  mortar 
forming  also  part  of  the  ordnance  of  the 
heavy  field  batteries  rsed  in  India. 
Bronze  mortars  are  very  useful  in  the 
advance  trenches  in  the  attack  of  fortified 
places,  from  the  facility  in  moving  them 
from  place  to  place  ;  and  in  mountain  war- 
fare, from  their  lightness,  they  are  very 
valuable.  Iron  mortars  have  generally  a 
fixed  elevation,  viz.  45°,  and  the  length 
or  otherwise  of  the  range  is  regulated  by 
the  charge. 

The  Germans  used  rifled  mortars  in 
the  war  of  1870-71,  and  they  were  found 
very  effective. 

Mortar,  Coehorn,  vide  Coehorn  Mortars. 

Mortar  Platform,  vide  Platform,  Mor- 
tar. 

Mortar  Portion  —  The  information 
given  under  the  head  of  Gun  Portion 
will  inform  the  reader  that  a  mortal- 
portion  is  similarly  constructed  ;  the 
ditch,  however,  would  have  to  be  made 
from  23  feet  to  26  feet  wide,  on  account 
of  the  solid  parapet.  The  mass  of  earth 
to  be  thrown  up  to  form  the  epaulmeut 
being  consequently  greater  than  in  the 
gun  portion,  the  working  party  will 
have  to  be  increased. 

Mortar  Shell — A  hollow  projectile  of 
dimensions  to  fit  the  pieces,  shown  under 
the  head  of  Mortar.  Mortar  shells  are 
issued  loose,  but  are  filled  with  a  charge 
of  bursting-powder  at  the  time  they  are 
required.  They  are  fired  from  mortars 
at  high  angles;  the  larger  natures,  with 
the  object  of  setting  fire  to  buildings, 
ships,  or  other  combustible  constructions 
(and  in  the  attack  of  a  place,  they  would 
be  especially  directed  on  the  gunpowder 
magazines) ;  the  smaller  natures,  to 
annoy  or  drive  out  troops  behind  parapets 
or  any  particular  cover. 

Mortise  (Latin,  mordere,  to  bite) — In 
carpentry,  a  hole  cut  in  a  piece  of  wood 
to  receive  a  corresponding  projection 
formed  upon  another  piece. 


MOR 


264 


Mortise  and  Tenon  —  A  description 
of  joint  used  in  wood-work.  The  extre- 
mity of  one  piece  of  timber  is  let  into 
the  face  of  another  piece,  a  tongue  being 
formed  at  the  end  of  the  piece  to  be  let 
in,  which  is  called  a  tenon,  and  the 
hole  cut  in  the  face  of  the  other  is  called 
a  mortise. 

Moss  Troopers  —  Marauders  ;  free- 
booters ;  plunderers.  They  were  confined 
to  the  districts  which  divided  the  Scotch 
and  English  territories  before  the  Union. 
They  were  banded  together  in  clans,  and 
lived  by  rapine,  and  received  this  deno- 
mination from  the  character  of  the 
country  over  which  they  travelled  in 
their  adventurous  mode  of  life.  They 
were  seldom  heard  of  after  the  Union. 

Mother  Liquor — The  water  enclosed  in 
the  crystals  of  various  salts  before  they 
have  been  finally  boiled  and  pulverised. 
In  the  present  system  of  refining  salt- 
petre, which  has  been  adopted  for  some 
years  past  (vide  Saltpetre),  the  crystals 
are  so  minute  that  no  liquor  remains 
within  them  ;  this  is  a  great  advantage, 
and  lessens  the  cost  of  refining. 

Motion — The  passing  of  a  body  from 
one  place  to  another ;  the  continued  and 
successive  change  of  place.  Motion  is 
of  two  kinds,  either  uniform  or  variable, 
and  is  produced  by  force ;  and  upon  the 
nature  of  the  force  or  forces  depends  in 
what  manner  the  body  acted  upon  will 
move.  The  simplest  case  of  motion  is 
that  of  a  body  moving  uniformly  in  a 
straight  line,  or,  in  other  words,  travers- 
ing equal  distances  in  any  equal  successive 
proportions  of  time  whatever,  when  it  is 
called  a  uniform  motion. 

The  next  in  simplicity  is  that  of  a  body 
moving  in-  a  straight  line,  but  not  uni- 
formly, or,  as  it  may  be  described,  tra- 
versing unequal  distances  in  any  equal 
successive  portions  of  time,  when  it  is 
called  variable  motion. 

The  motion  is  said  to  be  accelerated 
when  the  distances  traversed  in  equal 
times  are  successively  greater  and 
greater ;  and  when  these  distances  are 
less  and  less,  it  is  said  to  be  ret.irded. 

There  are  three  general  laws  of  mo- 
tion according  to  Newton's  '  Principia ': — 

1.  That  a  body  always  perseveres  in 
its  state  of  rest,  or  of  uniform  motion 
in  a  straight  line,  till,  acted  upon  by 


some  extraneous   cause,    it    be    made    to 
change  its  state. 

2.  That   when  any  force  acts  upon  a 
body  in  motion,  the   change    of   motion 
which  it  produces  is  the  same  in  magni- 
tude and  direction   as  the  eifect   of  the 
force  upon   the  body  at  rest.     Hence  it 
appears  that,  if  the  time  during  which  a 

I  constant  force  acts  upon  a  particle  be 
i  divided  into  any  number  of  equal  por- 
tions, the  same  change  of  momentum 
will  be  produced  by  the  force  during 
each  of  these  portions  of  time,  and, 
consequently,  the  entire  change  pro- 
duced by  the  force  during  any  interval 
of  time  will  be  proportional  to  the 
length  of  this  interval. 

3.  That  action  and  reaction  are  equal 
and  in  opposite  directions,  and  from  this 
law  it  appears  that  the  changes  of  mo- 
mentum produced   by  different  forces  in 
the  same  time  are    proportional  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  forces  as  measured  by 
the  weights  they  would  support,  and  are 
entirely  independent  of  the  masses  of  the 
bodies  upon  which  the  forces  act,  and  of 
the    nature    of    the    connection    of    the 
several  parts  of  those  bodies. 

Motion,  Parallel,  vide  Parallel  Motion. 
Motion,  Reciprocating,  vide  Recipro- 
cating Motion. 

Motive  Power — The  whole  power  or 
force  acting  upon  any  body,  or  quantity 
of  matter,  by  which  it  is  put  in  motion ; 
such  as  gunpowder  acting  upon  a  shot  or 
shell. 

Motto — In  heraldry,  a  word  or  short 
sentence  which  forms  an  accompaniment 
to    a   coat-of-arms,    crest,    or    household 
badge.    On  reference  to  the  Queen's  Regu- 
lations,   it    will    be     found    that    most 
regiments  have  a  motto  on  their  standards 
and  colours  conferred  by  royal  authority. 
|  Regiments   which    have    no    colours    or 
|  standards  have   the  badges,  devices,  and 
i  mottoes    borne    on    their    appointments. 
,  The  origin  of  the  motto,  "  Dieu  et  mon 
i  droit,"  which  accompanies  the  royal  arms 
;  of  Great  Britain,  is  stated  to  be  supposed 
I  to  have  been  a  war-cry,  and  was  used  in 
I  England  at  least  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Henry  VI.     Its  origin  is  attributed  to  a 
saying  of  Richard  I. :  '•  Not  we,  but  God 
and  our  right  have  vanquished  France." 

Moulding  Earth,  vide  Earth,  Mould- 
ing. 


MOU 


265 


MOU 


Moulds  —  Forms  or  shapes  made  in 
loam  or  dry  sand  in  which  guns  are 
cast.  It  is  considered  unnecessary  to 
give  an  account  of  the  method  pursued 
in  forming  moulds  for  casting  guns,  as 
this  mode  of  manufacture  has  been 
abandoned  in  the  service  for  that  now 
known  as  "  building  up,"  the  gun  being 
built  up  with  a  succession  of  coils  of 
wrought  iron. 

Shot  and  shell  are  cast  in  moulds 
made  of  metal  or  sand  ;  in  the  latter  case, 
the  sand  is  similar  to  that  formerly  used 
in  casting  guns,  though  a  less  refractory 
sand  is  needed,  as  the  mass  of  metal  is 
less,  and  possesses,  consequently,  a  less 
amount  of  heat.  It  is  mixed  with  clay- 
water  to  give  the  moulds  form  and  con- 
sistency. In  the  manufacture  of  Palliser's 
projectiles,  the  heads  are  cast  in  metal, 
or,  in  other  words,  chilled,  and  the 
bodies  in"  sand.  By  this  method,  the 
head  has  the  full  crushing  strength, 
while  the  body  has  more  tenacity,  and 
probably  impresses  rather  more  of  its 
force  on  the  target  on  impact  before  it 
splits  away  from  the  head,  but  the  main 
advantage  in  casting  the  bodies  in  sand 
is,  that  the  metal  is  believed  to  be  far 
less  subject  to  the  action  of  the  mole- 
cular forces,  which  may  either  split  it 
in  store  or  crack  it  so  as  to  cause  rup- 
ture in  the  bore  of  the  gun. 

Mount,  To — An  expression  variously 
made  use  of  in  military  affairs.  Thus, 
to  mount  a  breach  is  to  assault  it ;  and 
to  mount  guard  is  going  on  guard  ; 
to  mount  a  gun  is  to  place  it  on  its 
carriage. 

Mountain  Artillery  —  Ordnance  of 
small  calibre,  especially  adapted  to 
mountainous  countries.  The  ordnance 
forming  the  equipment  of  a  mountain 
battery  consists  of  7-pr.  rifled  guns, 
which  carry,  besides  the  usual  ammuni- 
tion for  such  guns,  double  shell.  Such 
guns,  made  of  steel  and  150  Ibs.  in 
weight,  were  used  in  the  Abyssinian 
campaign,  now  familiarly  known  amongst 
artillerymen  as  the  "  Steel  Pens  "  of  the 
service,  from  the  name  of  the  command- 
ing officer  of  the  battery,  Major  (now 
Colonel)  Penn,  R.A.  There  is  in  the  ser- 
vice a  new  rifled  M.T.  gun  of  200  Ibs. 
made  of  steel. 

In  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  Punjab, 


mules  or  ponies  carry  this  nature  of  ord- 
nance. In  Assam,  a  country  abounding  in 
forest,  and  subject  to  much  rain,  elephants 
alone  are  used. 

Mountain  Carriages,  vide  Carriages, 
Mountain. 

Mountains — Elevations  or  eminences 
on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  consisting 
of  masses  of  earth  or  rock,  and  rising 
to  many  thousands  of  feet  in  height. 
They  present  themselves  to  the  eye  in 
the  form  of  ranges  of  hills  or  mountains, 
and  often  form  the  natural  boundaries 
of  countries.  In  warfare,  mountains 
offer  a  considerable  obstacle  to  an  in- 
vading army,  and,  if  properly  defended, 
may  either  stay  the  advance  of  an 
enemy  or  prevent  ingress  into  the 
country.  The  difficulty  to  be  overcome 
will  be  still  greater  if  there  be  other 
obstacles,  such  as  rivers  and  a  succession 
of  mountain  ranges.  In  such  warfare  the 
invading  general  should  use  every  precau- 
tion in  examining  each  step  of  the  way, 
and  gleaning  all  information  in  his  power 
from  maps,  guides,  and  reconnoissances. 
Further,  he  should  be  careful  that  he  does 
not  fall  into  a  trap,  which  the  enemy  may 
lay  for  him  in  feigning  retreat,  when 
he  is  endeavouring  to  outflank  him  and 
get  in  his  rear,  thus  rendering  the  posi- 
tion of  the  invader  very  precarious.  It 
should  therefore  be  laid  down  as  a 
maxim  that,  in  mountain  operations 
especially,  the  flanks  and  rear  of  the 
invading  army  must  be  secured,  to  pre- 
vent being  surrounded. 

One  of  the  great  difficulties  in  this 
nature  of  warfare  is  keeping  the  com- 
munication open  with  the  rear  and 
bringing  up  food  for  the  army,  as 
mountain  ranges,  passes,  &c.  do  not 
afford  facility  for  using  wheeled  car- 
riage ;  and  the  transport,  therefore, 
resolves  itself  into  men  and  pack 
animals.  Such  transport  forms  but  a 
slow  and  precarious  means  of  carrying 
forward  supplies,  if  not  well  guarded. 
History  affords  examples  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  mountain  warfare  in  trans- 
porting the  materiel  of  war ;  thus,  for 
instance,  that  of  Napoleon,  the  First 
Consul,  whilst  effecting  the  passage  of 
the  Alps,  with  the  French  army,  in  that 
part  called  the  Great  and  the  Little  St. 
Bernard.  The  carriage  of  his  artillery 


MOU 


266 


MUX 


and  stores  was  a  source  of  great  anxiety 
and  difficulty.  The  exertion,  James  tells 
us  in  his  '  Military  Dictionary,'  of  a  whole 
battalion  was  requisite  for  the  convey- 
ance of  one  field-piece,  with  its  propor- 
tion of  ammunition ;  one  half  of  the 
regiment  could  only  draw  the  load,  while 
the  other  half  was  obliged  to  carry  the 
knapsacks,  firelocks,  camp  kettles,  and 
rive  days'  rations. 

Mousing  a  Hook — A  mode  of  passing 
a  piece  of  spun  yarn  round  the  point  and 
back  of  the  hook  of  a  block,  in  order  to 
prevent  its  disengaging  itself  from  any- 
thing to  which  it  may  be  hooked. 

Mouth — The  aperture  of  anything, 
such  as  the  mouth  of  a  cannon,  the 
mouth  of  an  embrasure,  the  mouth  of  a 
river. 

Movement — The  regular  and  orderly 
motion  of  an  army  for  some  particular 
purpose.  It  is  also  described  as  the 
changes  made  by  an  army  from  place 
to  place,  either  to  take  up  new  camp- 
ing ground,  to  engage  the  enemy,  or  to 
avoid  him. 

Under  this  term,  as  described  in 
James'  '  Dictionary,'  are  comprehended 
all  the  different  evolutions,  marches, 
countermarches,  and  manoeuvres,  which 
are  made  in  tactics,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
treating from  or  of  approaching  towards 
an  enemy.  The  science  of  military  move- 
ments forms  one  of  the  principal  features 
in  the  character  of  a  great  commander. 
If  he  be  full  of  resource  in  this  impor- 
tant branch,  he  may  oftentimes  defeat 
an  enemy  without  even  coming  to  blows, 
for  to  conceal  one's  movements  requires 
great  art  and  much  ingenuity. 

Movement,  Flank,  vide  Flank  Move- 
ment. 

Movement,  Turning,  vide  Turning 
Movement. 

Moving  or  Motive  Force  —  In  me- 
chanics, as  described  in  Brande  and  Cox's 
'  Dictionary  of  Science,'  "  the  cause  of  the 
change  of  velocity  in  the  motion  of  a 
body.  At  any  instant  it  is  measured  by 
the  increment  of  momentum,  referred  to 
the  units  of  time,  and  is,  therefore,  ex- 

d          d*s 
pressed  by  m  ^  =  m-^  .      The  unit  of 

moving  force  is  that  which  in  every 
unit  of  time  could  impart  to  the  unit 


of  mass  a  unit  of  velocity.  That  part 
of  the  moving  force  which  may  be  con- 
ceived to  be  acting  upon  each  unit  of 
mass  of  a  moving  force  is  often  called 
the  accelerating  force." 

Mufti  —  A  term  in  the  army  for 
plain  clothes,  the  opposite  of  regimental 
clothing.  In  the  British  army,  an  officer 
in  England  is  permitted  to  appear  in 
mufti  when  off  duty. 

Mule — The  hybrid  between  the  jackass 
and  the  mare.  Mules  are  used  chiefly  in 
mountainous  countries  as  beasts  of  burden. 
They  may  be  procured  in  most  parts  of  the 
world.  In  the  mountainous  parts  of  the 
Punjab  they  form  the  usual  draught  and 
carriage  for  mountain  guns.  The  Indian 
mules,  though  smaller  in  stature  than 
the  Spanish  or  other  continental  mules, 
are  not  weaker ;  indeed,  if  anything, 
they  are  stronger,  and  can  go  through 
more  fatigue.  This  was  shown  in  the 
Abyssinian  campaign.  On  a  level  road 
a  mule  will  carry  about  250  Ibs.  This, 
however,  would  be  a  heavy  load  for  con- 
tinuous marching  in  a  hilly  country, 
which  proved  to  be  the  case  in  Abyssinia ; 
the  mules  being  unable  to  carry  more 
than  100  Ibs.  when  the  force  reached 
Magdala.  (  Vide  Sumpter  Mules.) 

Muller — A  hand  instrument  made  of 
wood  and  covered  with  leather;  it  is 
used  in  the  laboratory  for  reducing 
powder  to  great  fineness.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  the  painter's  stone  for 
mixing  paint. 

Multiple  —  In  arithmetic,  any  quan- 
tity which  contains  another  an  exact 
number  of  times,  without  a  remainder, 
is  a  multiple  of  the  latter,  and  the  latter 
is  a  submultiple  or  part  of  the  former. 

Munoheel — A  kind  of  litter  which  is 
used  on  the  Madras  and  Bombay  side  of 
India.  It  is  simply  a  hammock  sus- 
pended from  a  horizontal  pole,  and  is 
carried  by  two  men.  It  weighs  about 
20  Ibs.  To  keep  the  canvas,  of  the  cot  or 
hammock  at  full  length,  there  is  a  cross 
piece  of  wood  at  the  top  and  bottom.  On 
service  it  would  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose  as  the  doolie  of  Bengal.  Under 
another  name,  the  muncheel  is  commonly 
used  to  carry  people  about  in  the  Hima- 
laya Mountains.  A  large  umbrella  is 
used,  to  guard  against  the  sun,  and  a 
waterproof  piece  of  cloth,  or  a  blanket, 


MUN 


MUT 


is  thrown  over  the  supporting  pole  to 
keep  oft'  the  rain. 

Munitions  of  War — Ammunition  and 
military  stores  of  every  description. 

Music,  vide  Schools,  Military. 

Musket  (French  mousquct ;  from  mou- 
chet,  a  sparrow-hawk ;  in  the  same  way 
that  other  shooting  implements  were 
named  falcon,  falconet,  &c.) — The  general 
name  given  to  the  arm  of  an  infantry 
soldier.  Muskets  were  introduced  into 
England  before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  In  the  '  Hythe  Text-book  '  it 
is  shown  that  a  musket  is  properly  a 
fire-arm  borne  on  the  shoulder  ;  it  was 
applied  to  the  matchlock,  and  the 
term  firelock  to  the  wheel-lock  in  this 
century,  and  to  the  flintlock  towards 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Latterly  both  terms  seem  to  have 
been  applied  indifferently.  In  1839 
the  percussion  principle  was  intro- 
duced, and  since  then  the  musket,  as 
it  is  still  called,  has  been  brought  to 
great  perfection  in  the  rifled  small-arm 
of  the  present  day. 

Musketry  Instruction  —  The  know- 
ledge imparted  to  the  officers  and 
soldiers  of  a  regiment,  to  perfect  them 
in  the  theory  and  practice  of  small- 
arms.  The  following  is  the  course 
pursued  in  all  line  regiments. 

Every  year,  in  the  infantry  and  cavalry, 
each  company  and  troop  in  a  regiment 
is  struck  off  duty  in  turn,  to  go  through 
the  annual  course  of  musketry,  under 
the  regimental  instructor.  This  is  di- 
vided into  preliminary  drill  and  practice. 
The  former  lasts  four  days,  and  con- 
sists of  position  (standing  and  kneeling), 
aiming,  and  judging  distance  drill,  and 
the  teaching  of  theory ;  the  latter  is 
divided  into  three  periods,  and  consists 
in  firing  a  number  of  rounds  at  different 
distances,  from  150  to  800  yards — stand- 
ing, kneeling,  or  in  any  position.  Volley 
and  independent  firing,  skirmishing,  &c. 
form  part  of  the  course,  during  which 
each  man  fires  90  rounds. 

The  result  of  each  man's  firing  is  con- 
signed to  carefully  drawn  up  tables,  and 
classified  by  regiments  according  to  the 
figure  of  merit.  These  tables  are  published 
yearly  in  a  blue-book. 

Musketry  Instructor,  vide  Instructor 
of  Musketry. 


Musketry  Powder  —  Comprises  the 
powders  used  with  small-arms  and 
pistols.  A  powder  designated  R.F.G.2 
is  the  powder  used  with  the  Henry- 
Martini  and  Snider  rifles. 

Musketry,  School  of,  vide  Schools,  Mili- 
tary. 

Musquetoon — A  species  of  musket, 
but  thicker  and  wider  in  the  bore  than 
the  ordinary  musket.  This  arm  was 
used  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  ;  it  is  now  obsolete.  It  propelled 
a  ball  about  5  oz.  in  weight. 

Mussuck  (Persian,  musk,  leather) — A 
leathern  bag  for  carrying  water,  which  is 
slung  on  a  man's  back.  Sometimes  a 
pair  of  mussucks  is  slung  across  the  back 
of  a  pony,  mule,  or  bullock.  A  leather  bag 
is  universally  used  in  India  and  in  other 
Asiatic  countries  for  carrying  water. 
On  the  march,  water  is  carried  by 
bheesties  in  mussucks  for  the  use  of  the 
troops. 

Muster  (French,  montrer,  to  show,  to 
put  forth,  to  display) — This  definition 
will  at  once  convey  the  origin  of  our 
word  "  muster "  and  explain  its  object, 
viz.  that  the  troops  may  show  them- 
selves, and  be  counted  over. 

Muster  Roll— A  return  or  list  of  all 
troops  and  establishments,  actually  pre- 
sent on  parade  or  otherwise  accounted 
for,  which  is  taken  on  the  last  day 
of  every  month.  The  presence  at  muster 
of  all  concerned  is  peremptorily  neces- 
sary, otherwise  an  officer  or  soldier  sub- 
jects himself  to  forfeiture  of  pay,  unless 
leave  by  competent  authority  has  been 
obtained.  The  Queen's  Regulations  lay 
down  that  the  presence  of  the  com- 
manding officer  is  necessary  on  all  muster 
parades,  without  he  is  on  leave,  when  the 
next  in  command  will  take  the  muster 
and  sign  the  usual  documents.  The 
commanding  officer's  absence  on  leave  is 
to  be  noted  in  the  muster  roll. 

Mutiny,  To  —  To  mutiny  is  to  rise 
against  lawful  authority.  The  term  has 
long  included  behaviour,  either  by  word 
or  deed,  subversive  of  discipline,  or  tend- 
ing to  undermine  superior  authority. 

The  acts  now  constituting  mutiny 
proper  are,  as  stated  in  the  Articles  of 
War,  "  exciting,  causing,  or  joining  in 
any  mutiny  or  sedition  ;  when  present 
thereat,  failing  to  use  the  utmost  effort 


MUT 


268 


NAP 


to  suppress  it ;  when  knowing  of  a 
mutiny  or  intended  mutiny,  failing  to 
give  notice  of  it  to  the  commanding 
officer;  striking  a  superior  officer,  or 
using  or  offering  any  violence  against 
him,  while  in  the  execution  of  his 
duty ;  disobeying  the  lawful  command 
of  a  superior  'officer."  The  punishment 
of  the  above  offences,  which  extends 
under  certain  circumstances  to  death,  is 
detailed  in  the  articles  quoted. 

The  most  recent  case  of  mutiny  of  an 
army  is  that  of  the  Indian  army  in  1857. 

Mutiny  Act — An  act  for  the  punish- 
ment of  mutiny  and  desertion.  This  act, 
which  the  British  parliament  passes  from 
year  to  year,  investing  the  sovereign 
with  large  powers  to  regulate  the  good 
government  of  the  army,  was  first  framed 
in  the  reign  of  William  III.,  and  is  the 
immediate  ancestor  of  the  one  now  in 
force.  With  the  view  of  placing  a  check 
upon  the  exercise  of  the  military  power 
of  the  king,  the  act  was  passed  for  six 
months  only  at  first.  This  act,  which 
empowers  the  crown  to  form  articles  of 
war,  and  to  constitute  military  courts- 
martial,  was  renewed  soon  after  its  ex- 
piration, and  has  been  annually  re- 
enacted,  with  ma.ny  alterations  and 
amendments,  ever  since.  The  act  pro- 
vides for  the  assembling  and  constitution 
of  courts-martial,  and  a  variety  of  other 
military  duties,  and  the  punishment  of 
military  crimes  and  offences. 

Muzzle,  Drooping  of,  vide  Drooping. 

Muzzle-loader — The  name  given  to  all 
guns,  smooth-bore  or  rifled,  which  are 
loaded  at  the  mouth  or  muzzle,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  those  loaded  at  the 
breech.  All  the  newly  made  ordnance 
used  in  the  service  are  rifled,  and  loaded  at 
the  muzzle,  but  the  first  rifled  guns  (Arm- 
strong's) were  breech-loaders.  The  change 
from  breech-loading  to  muzzle-loading 
was  brought  about,  chiefly,  from  the  in- 
stability of  the  system  in  heavy  guns, 
a  want  of  a  reliable  breech-closer,  and 
the  want  also  of  a  suitable  percussion 
fuze.  Moreover,  the  nature  of  the  powder 
used  when  heavy  breech-loaders  were  in 
the  service  was  such  as  to  render  the 
breech  apparatus  unsafe. 

A  muzzle-loading  gun,  as  described 
by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Owen,  R.A.,  "  has 
a  simpler,  less  costly,  and  stronger  con- 


struction ;  the  ammunition  is  less  costly, 
and  a  simple  fuze,  without  percussion 
arrangement,  can  be  used."  ( Vide  Ap- 
pendix B.) 

Muzzle  of  a  Gun — A  term  applied  to 
the  mouth  of  a  gun. 

Muzzle-pivoting  Carriages,  ride  Car- 
riages, Muzzle-pivoting. 

Muzzle  Velocity,  vide  Velocity. 


N. 


Naick — An  Indian  term  for  a  corporal 
in  a  native  regiment. 

Nail — A  pointed  piece  of  metal  which 
is  used  as  a  fastening  in  wood  and  iron 
work,    and    for    other    purposes.      Nails 
are  of  different  sizes  and  material.     Iron 
nails   are   either   wrought,  cast,  or  cut 
out    of  sheet-iron ;    wrought    nails    are 
also    made    from    plates  rolled   for   the 
purpose,  and  then  slit  by  means  of  slit- 
ting   rollers    into    nail     rods    or    split 
rods  of  various  sizes  and   qualities,   ac- 
cording to  the  variety  of  nail  required. 
The   various    sorts    of   forged   nails   are 
many,    numbering   upwards    of  300,  to 
which  are  given  specific  names,  as  hurdle, 
\  scupped,  mop,  &c.,  and  are    known  also 
under  the  retail  terms  of  fourpenny,  six- 
penny, tenpenny,  &c.     Nails  are  also  dis- 
tinguished after  the  forms  of  their  heads 
and  points,  as  rose,  clasp,  diamond,  &c. 
|  heads,   and  flat,  sharp,  spear,  &c.  points. 
1  The  thickness  is  expressed  by  the  terms 
:  fine,  bastard,  strong  ;  the  length  of  some 
I  sorts  by  direct  lineal  measure,  but  it  is 
more  usually  included  in  the  weight  of 
1000  of  the  nails  referred  to. 

Naphtha — A  bituminous  inflammable 
liquid,  known  also  as  rock-oil.  It  is 
obtained  by  distillation  from  petroleum. 
In  the  '  Soldier's  Pocket-book,'  a  pre- 
paration of  naphtha  is  suggested  as  a 
good  substance,  when  set  fire  to,  to  throw 
on  a  river  above  where  the  enemy  is 
making  a  bridge  of  boats,  either  to  set 
j  fire  to  the  bridge  or  to  throw  a  light 


NAS 


2G9 


NAY 


upon  his  movements,  which  might  make 
him  desist. 

Nasmyth's  Hammer,  vide  Hammer, 
Steam. 

National  Anthem — A  piece  of  music 
set  to  words,  and  common  to  all  nations. 
In  England  the  national  anthem  is  "God 
save  the  Queen,"  which  is  played  when 
troops  pay  the  prescribed  honours  to  the 
sovereign  and  members  of  the  royal 
family ;  in  the  latter  case  only  six  bars  of 
the  anthem  are  played.  The  first  part 
of  the  national  anthem  may  also  be 
played  at  the  salute  of  a  viceroy,  at 
state  ceremonials,  and  at  the  trooping  of 
colours.  The  playing  of  the  national 
anthem  is  only  due  to  those  personages 
who  are  entitled,  under  the  regulations, 
to  a  royal  salute. 

National  Defence — The  defence  of  a 
state  or  a  nation  against  invasion. 

The  national  defences  of  a  country 
consist,  besides  her  armies  and  reserves, 
of  the  navy ;  of  the  fortifications,  forts, 
and  fortresses  built  along  the  coasts,  and 
on  some  important  strategical  points, 
either  inland  or  on  the  frontier  line ;  of 
torpedoes  laid  down  for  the  protection 
of  harbours,  arsenals,  &c.  When  these 
have  been  found  insufficient,  an  appeal 
is  made  to  all  men  able  to  carry  arms 
to  stand  up  for  the  defence  of  the 
country,  and  to  repulse  the  invasion. 
This  is  called  a  levee  en  misse  (<?.  v.*).  In 
England,  in  the  event  of  a  threatened 
invasion,  the  volunteers  would  be  called 
out  and  mobilised  with  the  different 
army  corps  to  which  they  belong. 

National  Rifle  Association,  vide 
Volunteers. 

Nave — The  central  part  of  a  wheel ;  it  is 
generally  composed  of  a  cylindrical  block 
of  wood  in  which  the  spokes  are  firmly 
fixed,  and  in  which  the  axle-arm  works. 
This  has  hitherto  been  the  nave  of  all 
artillery  carriages  in  the  British  service, 
but  in  the  newly  constructed  wrought- 
iron  carriages  the  Madras  pattern  nave, 
made  of  metal,  with  some  slight  modi- 
fication, has  been  adopted. 

In  the  Madras  wheel,  as  originally 
formed,  the  nave-box  is  made  of  gun- 
metal,  and  cast  in  one  piece  with  one 
of  the  plates,  but  the  principle  of  con- 
struction is  the  same  whether  it  be  so 
united  or  cast  separately.  Between  the 


two  plates,  12  spokes  are  placed,  so 
formed  that  the  parts  which  enter  the 
nave  are  in  close  contact  with  each 
other,  and  with  their  ends  forming  an 
arch  completely  round,  but  not  quite 
touching,  the  nave  box.  The  whole 
construction  is  then  firmly  bolted  to- 
gether, with  12  triangular  bolts  passing 
through  holes  in  the  discs,  and  fitting 
into  the  triangular  spaces  formed  be- 
tween each  spoke  by  their  radiation 
from  each  other.  These  bolts  have  cir- 
cular heads,  and  when  driven  into  their 
places,  their  ends  are  secured  outside  by 
nuts.  The  naves  are  in  two  or  three 
parts.  The  great  advantage  in  the 
latter  is  that  the  top  and  bottom,  as  two 
of  its  parts  are  termed,  are  almost 
rendered  perpetual,  whereas  in  the  nave 
in  two  parts,  if  the  box  wears  and  there- 
fore becomes  unserviceable,  the  box  with 
bottom,  altogether  nearly  three-fourths 
of  the  nave,  is  rendered  useless,  and  must 
be  renewed  ;  but  with  the  nave  in  three 
parts,  the  box  alone  is  renewable  if  it 
wears  away. 

In  the  late  Madras- artillery,  the  gun- 
met  il  nave  had  been  in  use  for  the  last 
sixty  or  seventy  year?,  and  no  failure  of 
its  strength  or  want  of  durability  had 
ever  been  reported.  For  many  reasons 
it  was  a  great  improvement  on  the 
block  nave.  Its  durability  was  apparent 
after  the  occupation  of  Burmah  in  1852, 
and  subsequent  years.  In  that  country, 
for  a  long  period  after  it  was  annexed  to 
the  British  possessions,  gun  carriages, 
Bengal  and  Madras,  had  for  want  of 
cover  to  stand  out  exposed  to  sun  and 
rain.  During  that  period  not  a  Madras 
wheel  was  the  worse  for  exposure, 
whereas  the  majority  of  the  Bengal 
wheels  had  large  deep  splits  in  the 
wooden  naves,  which  necessitated  their 
being  replaced,  and  the  wheels  set  up 
afresh. 

Very  serviceable  wooden  naves  can,  if 
required,  be  made  from  the  preserved  or 
non-decayed  parts  of  condemned  naves  put 
together  in  three  pieces ;  they  are  termed 
compound  or  joined  naves. 

Nave  Box,  vide  Box.  Nave. 

Navez'  Electro-ballistic  Apparatus, 
vide  Electro-ballistic  Apparatus. 

Navez'  Pendulum,  vide  Pendulum, 
Navez'. 


NBA 


270 


NEU 


Near— Applied  to  the  left-hand  or 
riding  horse  of  a  team  ;  to  the  left  feet, 
fore  or  hind,  of  an  animal  ;  to  the  side 
or  stirrup  on  which  the  horse  is 
mounted.  (Vide  Off.) 

Necessaries — In  a  military  sense,  are 
such  articles  of  clothing,  &c.  as  are 
provided  by  the  state  for  the  soldier  on 
his  first  entering  the  army.  The  articles 
thus  named  are  known  also  as  the 
soldier's  kit  (7.  ?;.).  On  troops  proceeding 
to  India  or  the  colonies,  they  are  pro- 
vided besides  with  a  sea  kit. 

Neck — In  S.B.  guns,  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  gun ;  it  is  comprised  between 
the  muzzle  astragal  and  fillets  and  the 
swell  of  the  muzzle.  It  is  also  that 
portion  of  metal  behind  the  breech  ogee, 
termed  the  neck  of  the  cascable,  and 
which  is  contained  between  the  neck 
fillet  and  the  button  astragal. 

In  fortification,  the  interior  opening 
of  an  embrasure  is  termed  the  neck. 

Needle,  Dip  of  the,  vide  Dip  of  the 
Needle. 

Needle-gun — A  breech-loading  rifle, 
the  principle  of  which  rests  in  the 
manner  the  charge  is  ignited,  viz.  by 
means  of  a  pointed  piston  or  "  needle  " 
driven — as  in  the  original  Prussian  needle- 
gun,  into  a  small  case  of  fulminate  con- 
tained in  and  situated  between  the 
powder  and  the  bullet  of  the  cartridge, 
or.  as  in  the  Martini  -  Henry  and  the 
Snider,  against  the  cap,  which  is  placed 
at  the  base  of  the  cartridge — by  the 
action  of  a  spiral  spring  or  hammer. 
In  the  action  of  opening  the  breech, 
the  spiral  spring  is  set  by  the  trigger  ; 
and  thus  the  trigger,  when  pulled,  re- 
leases into  operation  the  spiral  spring, 
which,  in  its  turn,  forces  the  needle 
into  the  cartridge  and  fires  the  piece. 
Small  -  arms  of  this  kind  were  first 
adopted  by  Prussia  in  1848,  under  the 
name  of  Ziindnadelgewehr.  Since  then, 
from  the  defects  which  were  found  in 
this  arm,  many  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  mode  of  igniting  the  cart- 
ridge in  all  breech-loaders,  and  also  in 
the  mechanism  of  the  lock,  &c.  All 
breech-loaders  are  needle-guns.  (Vide 
Appendix  F.) 

The  German  army  is  now  supplied  with 
a  greatly  improved  needle-gun,  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Mauser  rifle  (q.  c.). 


Needles — These  useful  articles,  -which 
are  for  the  most  part  made  of  steel, 
and  are  used  in  sewing,  are  so  well 
known  as  to  need  no  description.  In 
certain  departments  of  the  army,  such  as 
the  ordnance  and  clothing,  steel  needles 
are  used  either  by  the  hand  or  with  a 
machine  known  as  the  "  sewing-machine," 
which  may  be  said  now  to  be  invariably 
employed. 

Netley — A  place  situated  in  the  county 
of  Hants,  on  the  shore  of  the  South- 
ampton Water.  Its  name  is  well  known 
in  the  army  as  possessing  one  of  the 
finest  military  hospitals  in  the  world, 
which  is  named,  after  the  Queen,  the 
Royal  Victoria  Hospital.  All  detach- 
ments of  invalids,  also  the  orphans  of 
soldiers,  on  arriving  from  abroad,  are 
sent  at  once  to  Netley,  under  the  officer 
who  has  had  charge  of  them  during  the 
voyage,  accompanied  by  the  medical  officer 
in  charge,  and  are  made  over,  together 
with  their  documents,  to  the  com- 
mandant of  the  Royal  Victoria  Hospital. 
Troops  serving  in  the  surrounding  dis- 
tricts are  also  sent  there.  The  hospital 
is  capable  of  holding  1000  patients. 
Netley  is  also  the  head-quarters  of  the 
female  iiurses  of  the  army,  under  the 
control  of  a  lady  named  the  superin- 
tendent-general ;  a  medical  school  for 
the  training  of  army  surgeons  has  also 
been  established  there.  (  Vide  Schools.) 

Neutrality — The  following  is  the 
definition  given  in  Brande  and  Cox's 
'  Dictionary  of  Science' : — "  The  condition 
of  a  state  which  does  not  take  part  in  a 
war  between  other  states.  A  neutral 
nation  has  the  right  of  furnishing  to 
either  of  the  contending  parties  all  sup- 
plies which  do  not  fall  within  the  descrip- 
tion of  contraband  of  war,  and  to  conclude 
treaties  with  either  unconnected  with 
the  subject  of  the  war.  It  appears  to 
have  been  the  old  principle,  with  regard 
to  the  maritime  trade  of  a  neutral 
nation,  that  the  property  of  an  owner 
belonging  to  the  hostile  country  might  be 
seized  by  a  belligerent  on  board  a  vessel 
or  vessels  belonging  to  a  neutral  power  ; 
but  the  general  rule  now  asserted  is 
that  the  flag  covers  the  cargo ;  by 
which  means,  right  of  search,  except  for 
specific  purposes,  is  rendered  unnecessai-y. 
By  the  declaration  of  March  28,  1854, 


NEW 


271 


NIT 


made  on  the  occasion  of  the  Russian 
war,  England  waived  the  right  of  seizing 
enemy's  property  on  board  a  neutral 
vessel,  unless  contraband,  but  did  not 
abandon  it." 

New  Zealand  Cross  —  A  decoration 
instituted  in  the  year  1869.  The  New 
Zealand  Cross  was  provided  in  the  year 
1869,  by  the  government  of  the  colony, 
with  the  sanction  of  the  crown,  as  a 
reward  for  acts  of  distinguished  valour 
similar  to  those  recognised  by  the  Vic- 
toria Cross.  The  fourth  clause  of  the 
order  in  council,  which  subsequently 
received  her  Majesty's  special  sanction, 
as  "  fountain  of  honour,"  provides  that 
"  The  distinction  shall  only  be  conferred 
upon  those  officers  or  men  who,  when 
serving  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy, 
shall  have  performed  some  signal  act 
of  valour  or  devotion  to  their  duty,  or 
who  shall  have  performed  any  very  in- 
trepid action  in  the  public  service ;  and 
neither  rank  nor  long  service,  nor 
wounds,  nor  any  other  circumstance  or 
condition  whatever,  save  merit  or  con- 
spicuous bravery,  shall  be  held  to  esta- 
blish a  sufficient  claim  to  the  honour." 

Night  Firing — The  mode  pursued, 
after  sunset,  of  directing  any  piece  of 
ordnance,  but  particularly  mortars, 
against  the  enemy's  works,  so  as  to 
obviate  the  inconvenience  that  would 
take  place  if  they  had  to  be  laved  at 
night  after  each  round.  The  mode  is  as 
follows.  The  direction  being  known,  and 
the  gun  or  mortar  having  been  properly 
laid,  while  it  is  light,  nail  the  battens  to 
the  platforms,  touching  the  felloes  of  the 
wheels  or  trucks  or  side  of  the  mortar 
bed.  The  elevating  screw  or  quoins 
must  also  be  fixed.  A  method  of  laying 
rifled  guns  by  night  will  be  found  under 
the  head  of  Collimator. 

Nipple — The  passage  of  communication 
in  percussion  arms  between  the  cap  and 
the  charge ;  the  percussion  cap  is  placed 
on  the  nipple  when  the  firelock  is 
primed,  and  by  the  action  of  the  lock  the 
piece  is  discharged.  In  breech-loading 
arms,  except  in  the  Snider,  there  is  a 
different  arrangement  for  igniting  the 
charge,  which  renders  the  nipple  unne- 
cessary ;  these  are  fired  by  means  of  a 
needle  or  some  similar  method. 

Nitrate  of  Silver— The  most  import- 


ant of  the  salts  of  silver.     It  is  prepared 
by  several  methods. 

"  1.  By  dissolving  pure  silver  in 
dilute  nitric  acid  with  the  aid  of  heat, 
and  evaporating  to  crystallisation. 

"  2.  From  standard  silver  dissolved  in 
dilute  nitric  acid,  the  solution  evaporated 
to  dryness  in  a  porcelain  dish,  and  the 
residue  heated  nearly  to  redness.  The 
nitrate  of  silver  fuses  without  change, 
but  the  nitrate  of  copper  is  decomposed, 
leaving  the  black  oxide  of  copper ;  a 
small  portion  of  the  mass  is  removed  ' 
from  time  to  time,  dissolved  in  water, 
the  solution  filtered,  and  tested  with 
excess  of  ammonia.  When  this  reagent 
ceases  to  produce  a  blue  colour,  the 
process  is  completed,  and  if  the  residue 
be  treated  with  water,  the  solution  will 
yield,  on  evaporation,  crystals  of  pure 
nitrate  of  silver." 

A  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  is  a 
valuable  test  for  detecting  the  presence  of 
chlorides  in  saltpetre. 

Nitre,  vide  Saltpetre. 

Nitric  Acid,  vide  Acid,  Nitric. 

Nitrogen  (symbol,  N  ;  atomic  weight, 
14;  sp.  gr.  0-9713) — This  is  the  gas  which 
exists  in  the  air,  and  dilutes  the  oxygen 
so  as  to  moderate  its  activity  and  fit 
it  for  the  proper  maintenance  of  life, 
combustion,  and  numerous  other  offices  it 
has  to  fulfil.  Nitrogen,  in  its  pure  state, 
is  quite  free  from  smell ;  it  instantly 
extinguishes  flame,  and  cannot  support 
life.  Atmospheric  air  is  a  mixture  of 
very  nearly  four  measures  of  nitrogen 
with  one  measure  of  oxygen ;  it  con- 
tains, besides,  small  quantities  of  other 
gaseous  substances,  as  vapour  of  water, 
carbonic  acid,  and  ammonia. 

Nitrogen  is  also  stated  to  be  "  an 
important  component  of  many  organic 
substances,  and  is  remarkable  as  one  of 
the  constituents  of  most  of  the  fulmi- 
nating compounds,  such  as  fulminating 
gold,  silver,  and  mercury." 

Nitro-glycerine  (C6H5N30I8),  known 
also  as  Glonoin  or  Glonoin  Oil — -It  is  de- 
scribed as  ".an  explosive  oil,  in  many  re- 
spects analogous  to  gun-cotton.  It  is  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  mixed 
with  oil  of  vitriol,  upon  glycerine,  the 
sweet  substance  obtained  when  oils  and 
fats  are  steamed.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
treacherous  explosive  substances  known 


NOL 


272 


NUM 


to  chemists,  and  frightful  accidents  have 
been  caused  by  incautiously  using  it  in 
its  crude  state.  In  the  course  of  many 
endeavours  to  counteract  or  reduce  the 
sources  of  danger  attending  the  use  of 
nitro-glycerine,  Mr.  Nobel  made  the  im- 
portant observation  that  its  explosive 
properties  were  not  reduced,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  somewhat  favoured,  by  mixing 
the  liquid  with  solid  substances,  in 
themselves  thoroughly  inert.  This  led 
to  the  production  of  dynamite  ('/.  v.). 
It  has  been  found  that  the  exposure  of 
nitro-glycerine  compounds  to  musketry 
fire,  within  ordinary  infantry  ranges,  will 
cause  ignition,  and  a  package  of  dynamite 
or  litho-fracteur  will  explode  with  con- 
siderable violence  ;  not  so  gun-cotton." 

Nolan's  Eange-finder,  vide  Range- 
finder. 

Nomenclature — As  applied  to  military 
stores,  a  systematic  classification  of 
words  given  to  each  article  used  in  the 
service. 

Nominal  Power — By  this  term  is 
understood  a  steam-engine  having  a 
cylinder  of  given  diameter,  a  given 
length  of  stroke,  with  a  uniform  pres- 
sure upon  the  piston  of  7  Ibs.  per  inch. 
By  the  term  actual  power  is  meant  the 
number  of  times  the  engine  is  capable  of 
lifting  33,000  Ibs.  1  foot  high  per 
minute. 

Non-combatant — A  man  who,  although 
in  the  army,  is  not  called  upon  to  fight, 
his  duties  being  restricted  to  the  civil 
department  of  the  army. 

Non-commissioned  Officer  —  As  the 
name  implies,  is  an  officer  without  a 
commission,  but  who  by  his  position  in  a 
regiment,  and  by  virtue  of  the  power 
attached  to  that  position,  exercises  con- 
trol over  the  private  soldiers.  Non- 
commissioned officers,  such  as  troop  and 
battery  sergeant-majors  and  colour 
sergeants,  in  cases  of  misconduct,  are 
liable  to  revert  to  the  rank  and  pay  of 
sergeant,  at  the  discretion  of  their  com- 
manding officers,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  a  court-martial,  provided 
they  have  done  nothing  to  merit  a  court- 
martial.  All  non-commissioned  officers, 
not  being  army  schoolmasters,  can 
be  reduced  to  the  ranks  either  by 
sentence  of  a  regimental  or  other 
court-martial,  or  by  order  of  the  com- 


mander-in-chief,  or,  if  in  the  militia, 
the  commandant  of  the  regiment  or 
corps.  The  Queen's  Eegulations  state 
that  non-commissioned  officers  may,  with 
their  commanding  officers'  consent,  resign 
their  rank  or  appointments,  and  revert  to 
the  rank  or  position  they  may  have  pre- 
viously held,  but  they  are  not  allowed  to 
do  so,  in  order  to  escape  trial  by  court- 
martial,  without  the  special  sanction  of 
the  general  officer  commanding. 

A  royal  warrant  lately  issued  regulates 
the  pay  and  position  of  non-commissioned 
officers  of  the  army,  and  gives  an  entire 
reclassification  of  the  several  grades  of 
non-commissioned  officers.  By  this  war-  • 
rant,  staff'  sergeants  and  others  having 
special  duties  to  perform,  requiring 
more  than  ordinary  intelligence  or  appli- 
cation, are  elevated  to  a  higher  relative 
position,  in  some  cases  rising  two  classes 
at  a  step. 

Non-condensing  Engine  —  A  high- 
pressure  engine,  the  steam  not  being 
condensed  after  leaving  the  cylinder,  but 
passing  out  into  the  atmosphere  after 
having  acted  upon  the  piston. 

Non-conductors — Substances  through 
which  the  electric  fluid  passes  with  con- 
siderable difficulty,  or  not  at  all,  such  as 
glass,  resin,  sulphur,  silk,  hair,  wool,  the 
air,  &c. 

Non-effective — In  the  army,  are  the 
officers  or  men  employed  on  other  duties 
than  regimental,  such  as  in  staff  appoint- 
ments and  the  like.  Sick  and  disabled 
men  also  come  under  this  category,  and 
so  do  all  officers  on  retired  or  half-pay, 
pensioners,  and  superannuated  officers. 
The  term  is  used  as  the  primitive  or 
negative  of  effective. 

Notch. — A  nick,  a  hollow  in  anything. 
In  gunnery,  the  groove  on  the  base-ring, 
or  tangent  scale,  and  swell  of  the  muzzle, 
or  on  any  other  sight  by  which  a  gun  is 
laid. 

Nullah — An  Indian  term,  signifying  a 
small  stream,  or  the  arm  of  a  river ; 
also  the  place  which  was  once  the  bed  of 
a  river. 

Numdah  (Persian,  numad,  a  coarse 
cloth) — A  species  of  felt,  which  is  used, 
amongst  other  purposes,  as  a  saddle-cloth. 
The  word  numnah  is  sometimes  used  for 
numdah,  but  in  India  the  latter  mode  of 
pronouncing  the  word  is  universal. 


273 


OBL 


Nurse,  Military — A  female  hospital 
attendant.  Subsequent  to  the  Crimean 
campaign,  a  staff  of  female  nurses  was 
organised  on  an  established  footing  to 
attend  upon  the  sick  in  all  military 
hospitals.  These  nurses  are  placed  under 
the  control  of  a  lady  styled  Superintend- 
ent-General of  Army  Nurses,  and  are 
trained  at  the  Netley  Hospital. 

Attention  was  first  called  to  the  great 
value  of  these  attendants  by  the  help 
rendered  in  military  hospitals  on  the 
continent  by  the  sisters  of  charity,  and 
during  the  Crimean  War  by  the  unre- 
mitting care  given  to  the  wounded  and 
sick  soldiers  by  a  band  of  self-sacrificing 
ladies,  headed  by  Miss  Nightingale. 

Nut — A  square  or  hexagonal  metal 
or  wooden  block,  having  a  spiral  hole 
through  its  centre,  into  which  a  screw 
fits,  and  by  the  interplacement  of  the 
threads  of  which  with  those  in  the  nut 
"  the  cohesive  strength  of  the  hold " 
consists. 


0. 


Oakum — The  untwisted  strands  of  old 
rope.  It  is  used  in  packing  shot  and 
shell,  'wiping  the  vents  of  guns  after 
firing,  cleaning  elevating-screws  and 
different  implements,  and  also  in  making 
washing  sponges.  One  of  the  occupations 
of  prisoners  in  our  many  jails  at  home 
and  abroad  is  the  untwisting  or  pulling 
apart  the  strands  of  old  rope  for  pur- 
poses of  general  use. 

Oath. — An  oath  is  defined  by  Paley  as 
"  the  calling  on  God  to  witness,  i.e.  to 
take  notice  of  what  we  say,  and  invoking 
His  vengeance  or  renouncing  His  favour 
if  what  we  say  be  false,  or  if  what  we 
promise  be  not  performed."  By  the  juris- 
prudence of  nearly  all  known  nations,  it 
has  been  admitted,  in  one  form  or  another, 
as  the  solemn  test  of  truth  in  judicial 
proceedings.  In  military  courts-mar- 
tial, evidence  is  given  by  all  Christians 
on  oath  sworn  on  the  Bible,  except  by 
such  sects  as  profess  conscientious  ob- 


jections to  oaths,  when  a  solemn  affirma- 
tion is  made. 

Obedience  —  Performance  of  what  is 
enjoined  by  authority.  The  first  duty  of 
an  officer  or  soldier  is  obedience  to  orders. 
This  is  the  life-spring  of  an  army:  with- 
out it  no  body  of  men  can  be  kept  together. 
It  is  a  principle,  therefore,  which  cannot 
be  too  strongly  inculcated  amongst  all 
ranks.  "  He  who  has  never  learned  to 
obey,"  said  -a.  great  authority,  "  will 
never  be  fit  to  command." 

Object-glass — In  optics,  the  lens  of  a 
telescope  or  microscope  which  first  re- 
ceives the  rays  of  light  coming  directly 
from  the  object,  and  collects  them  into  a 
focus,  where  they  form  an  image  which 
is  viewed  through  the  eye-glass.  Tele- 
scopes are  largely  used  in  the  field. 

Objective — A  technical  military  term, 
signifying,  as  the  word  implies,  the  aim 
or  object  of  the  military  combinations 
and  movements  on  the  theatre  of  war. 

Oblique  Fire  —  Taking  the  enemy 
slantwise.  Thus,  when  two  batteries 
bring  their  fire  obliquely  upon  one  point 
of  the  enemy's  line,  they  make,  what  is 
called,  a  cross  or  concentrated  fire,  which 
is  very  destructive  upon  columns,  though 
not  so  effective  as  enfilade  fire. 

The  subject  of  oblique  fire  against  iron 
plates  is  thus  described  in  an  interesting 
article  in  the  Times : — "  If  a  pointed  pro- 
jectile strike  an  iron  plate  at  a  less  angle 
than  that  formed  by  a  tangent  to  the  curve 
of  the  head,  it  will  probably  glance  off,  as 
the  tendency  of  the  shoulder  will  be  to 
slide  along  the  plate,  and  the  point  will 
find  a  difficulty  in  '  biting.'  If,  however, 
the  angle  be  greater  than  about  50  de- 
grees, the  resistance  will  approximately 
be  increased  in  the  proportion  of  the  extra 
thickness  to  be  traversed.  In  this  case 
the  sharp  point  of  the  projectile  '  bites  ' 
the  plate  on  striking,  and  the  shot  has  a 
tendency  to  bring  its  axis  perpendicular 
to  the  face  of  the  target ;  perforation 
then  depends  upon  the  energy  with 
which  the  projectile  may  be  animated. 
Thus  the  side  of  the  Monarch  (7-inch 
plates)  could  be  perforated  "  directly  "  by 
a  projectile  having  a  zone-energy  of  90 
foot-tons,  but  it  would  require  120  foot- 
tons  to  send  the  same  projectile  through 
at  an  angle  of  60  degrees.  The  defence, 
therefore,  should  not  rely  too  much  on 


OBL 


274 


the  chance  of  shot  striking  '•  obliquely  "  ;  j 
tor  the  projectiles  tired  from  large  modern 
rifled  ordnance  would  probably  perforate 
all  thinly  armoured  ironclads  at  all 
fighting  angles  and  ranges." 

Oblique  Order  —  Military  writers  de- 
scribe this  order  of  battle,  as  one  in 
which  the  primitive  parallel  order  has 
been  departed  from,  with  the  design  of 
giving  the  one  force,  by  manoeuvring, 
a  superiority  over  the  other,  or,  in  other 
words,  if  an  army  attacks  its  enemy  in 
flank,  say  the  right,  its  own  right  must 
be  refused,  and  hence,  when  it  arrives 
on  the  enemy's  line,  the  army  will  be  in 
oblique  order. 

In  order  to  make  use  of  the  oblique  order 
with  success,  the  enemy  must  be  deceived 
as  to  the  intention  to  attempt  it,  otherwise 
it  may  be  in  his  power  to  frustrate  its 
execution  by  reinforcing  the  menaced 
flank  ;  extreme  caution,  therefore,  in  the 
preparation  for  such  a  manoeuvre,  and 
the  utmost  rapidity  in  its  execution,  are 
indispensably  requisite. 

The  aim  of  using  this  order  of  battle 
is  to  turn  or  outflank  the  enemy. 

Observation,  Army  of  —  A  detached 
portion  of  an  army,  for  instance,  a  corps 
d'arme'e,  sent,  either  on  the  flanks  or 
to  the  front,  to  watch  the  movements  of 
an  enemy  who  is  believed  to  be  bringing 
up  reinforcements,  and  to  keep  him  in 
cheek  if  necessary. 

Observatory — A  building  erected  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  astronomical  ob- 
servations, and  furnished  with  the  most 
approved  instruments.  In  Europe,  one 
of  the  first  observatories  was  built  by 
Tycho  Brahe,  a  nobleman  of  Denmark, 
on  the  island  of  Huen,  in  1576.  The 
observatory  of  Paris  was  built  in  1667, 
that  of  Greenwich  in  1675.  Public 
observatories  are  now  maintained  in 
almost  every  civilised  country,  and  there 
are  several  private  ones  in  England.  From 
the  daily  observations  which  are  made, 
and  the  means  taken  of  publishing  these 
observations,  a  great  advance  has  been 
arrived  at  in  astronomical  science. 

In  different  parts  of  India,  and  espe- 
cially near  Delhi,  the  ruins  of  large  native 
observatories  are  to  be  seen,  showing 
the  great  interest  and,  as  we  know,  the 
intense  study  given  by  the  natives  of 
India  to  the  sidereal  world. 


Obstacles — Impediments  which  render 
the  approaches  to  positions  or  military 
works  difficult  to  an  enemy.  They  are 
of  two  kinds,  natural  and  artificial. 
Natural  obstacles  are  any  positions  that 
present  advantages  for  defence,  and  pre- 
vent the  approaching  columns  of  the 
enemy  from  advancing  or  deploying. 
Mountains,  rivers,  defiles,  swamps,  fulfil 
these  conditions.  The  effect  of  such  im- 
pediments to  the  advance  of  an  enemy 
is  very  great,  and  exercises  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  operations  of  a  war,  and 
greatly  complicates  and  increases  the 
difficulty  of  carrying  on  a  campaign. 

Each  country  presents  different  forms 
of  obstacles  ;  in  England,  from  the 
country  being  highly  cultivated,  the 
fences  and  th«  ditches  separating  arable 
from  pasture  lands  would  make  it  diffi- 
cult for  armies  to  find  space  to  form 
front  for  battle. 

A  study  of  the  topographical  map 
of  the  country  in  which  the  operations 
•  of  war  are  to  be  carried  on  will  show 
what  natural  obstacles  may  present 
themselves,  and  how  they  can  be  made 
use  of  by  the  advancing  army  or  by 
the  enemy.  The  ignorance  of  such 
may  often  alter  the  plan  of  a  battle,  as 
was  the  case  with  the  rivulet  of  Pape- 
lotte  at  Waterloo. 

Of  artificial  obstacles,  fortresses, 
bridges,  bridge-heads,  may  be  considered 
as  the  most  important.  Fortresses  are 
generally  built  to  replace  rivers  or  moun- 
tains on  a  weak  point  of  a  line  of  frontier, 
and  become  of  immense  importance  if 
a  frontier  already  naturally  strong  has 
but  few  issues.  The  importance  of  bridge- 
heads is  easily  understood,  as  they  may 
j  stop  the  passage  of  a  river  to  an  enemy. 

Artificial  obstacles  of  a  minor  nature 
are  placed  in  the  ditches  of  fieldworks, 
or  in  front  of  any  position  that  requires 
being  defended,  with  the  view  of  check- 
ing and  delaying  the  enemy  under  the 
fire  of  the  work.  Of  such  are  abatis, 
palisades,  stockades,  trous-de-loup,  che- 
vaux-de-frise,  harrows,  crows'  feet,  fou^- 
gasses,  inundations.  Broken  wheels  and 
bottles,  long  rough  stones,  &c.  can  be 
also  used  in  cases  of  emergency. 

Obtuse  Angle,  vide  Angle,  Obtuse. 

Occupation,  Army  of — An  army  that 
remains  in  possession  of  a  newly  con- 


OFF 


275 


OGE 


quered  country,  retaining  it  as  a  kind  of 
hostage,  until  peace  is  signed  and  the 
war  indemnity  paid.  Armies  of  occu- 
pation are  generally  fed  at  the  expense  of 
the  defeated  nation. 

Off — Most  distant ;  a  term  commonly 
used  in  speaking  of  horses  harnessed  to  a 
carriage,  in  contradistinction  to  near.  It 
means  the  animal  which  is  harnessed  on 
the  right  hand  facing  the  front  of  a  team. 

Offence— A  crime  committed  by  an 
officer  or  soldier  for  which  he  deserves 
punishment.  All  acts  that  are  contrary 
to  good  order  and  discipline,  omissions  of 
duty,  £c.  may  be  called  military  offences, 
and  subject  the  offender  to  be  tried  by 
court-martial.  The  principal  offences 
are  specified  in  the  Articles  of  War. 

Offence,  Guns  of — Generally  heavy 
guns,  that  can  be  moved  with  an  army, 
and  which  are  used  either  as  batteries 
of  position  or  for  siege  operations,  &c., 
because  they  combine  long  range  with 
great  accuracy  and  great  destructive 
effect. 

Offensive  in  Battle — To  act  on  the 
offensive  in  battle  means  that  an  army 
comes  into  the  field  to  attack  an  opposing 
force,  instead  of  waiting  to  be  attacked, 
and  in  contradistinction  to  the  attitude 
of  standing  on  the  de/ensice.  On  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each 
position,  '  The  Artillerist's  Manual '  states 
as  follows  on  the  subject  of  battles : — 

''  If  the  fortune  of  war  permit  the 
general  to  choose  between  the  offensive  and 
the  defensive,  he  ought,  perhaps,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  to  choose  the 
latter ;  for  the  difficulties  of  the  attack 
and  the  advantages  of  the  defence  have 
been  undeniably  increased  by  the  intro- 
duction of  breech-loading  rifles.  While 
the  difficulties  of  the  attack  generally 
have  been  much  increased,  the  special 
difficulties  of  a  front  attack  have  been 
so  enormously  increased  that  a  general 
is  amply  justified  by  experience  in  con- 
concluding — (1)  that,  if  he  remains  on  the 
defensive,  it  is  at  least  thr«e  to  one  that 
the  enemy  will  merely  make  feigned 
attacks  on  his  front,  and  will  make  the 
real  attack  on  his  flank  ;  (2)  that,  if  he 
takes  the  offensive,  the  chances  of  the 
success  of  a  well-ordered  flank  attack  are 
at  least  treble  the  chances  of  the  success 
of  a  front  attack. 


"  The  moral  is  simple.  Whether  acting 
offensively  or  defensively,  a  general  must 
lave  in  hand  a  large  body  of  troops 
specially  intended  to  turn  the  enemy's 
lank,  or  to  prevent  the  enemy  from 
turning  his  own.  The  third  division  is 
reserved  for  this  special  service.  By  the 
defensive  is  meant  an  active,  energetic 
defence." 

Offensive  Warfare,  vide  War. 

Offensive  Weapons — All  arms  of  the 
present  day,  such  as  cannon,  small-arms, 
swords,  and  other  weapons  which  would 
3e  used  on  an  army  taking  the  field  for 
offensive  operations. 

Officer — A  person  employed  to  perform 
any  public  duty.  In  a  military  sense,  the 
name  is  applied  to  an  officer  in  a  regi- 
ment or  department  who  exercises  con- 
trol or  command,  and  executes  authority 
under  a  commission  from  the  sovereign. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  a  person  acting 
in  a  civil  situation  under  government. 

Officer,  Field,  vide  Field  Officer. 

Officers,  Examination  of,  vide  Ex- 
amination of  Officers. 

Officers,  Warrant,  vide  Warrant  Offi- 
cers ;  also  vide  Conductors. 

Official  Letters,  vide  Correspondence, 
Military. 

Off-reckonings  —  An  allowance  for- 
merly given  to  the  commanding  officers 
of  regiments  and  captains  of  companies, 
out  of  the  annual  clothing  money  set 
aside  for  their  men.  The  allowance  was 
subsequently  paid  only  to  the  colonels  of 
regiments,  and  was  a  fluctuating  sum, 
depending  on  the  amount  of  the  surplus 
left  after  the  clothing  was  made  up. 
About  twenty-five  years  ago,  an  average 
of  thirty  years  was  struck,  and  a  fixed 
sum  from  that  period  allowed  yearly 
to  colonels,  termed  colonel's  allotcance, 
amounting  to  about  £600  a  year  in  line 
regiments,  in  addition  to  the  regular  pay. 
The  term  off-reckonings  is  therefore  now 
obsolete. 

Off-sets — In  surveying,  a  perpendicular 
let  fall  from  the  stationary  lines  to  the 
hedge,  fence,  or  extremity  of  an  in- 
closure. 

Ogee — A  moulding  in  architecture, 
partly  concave  and  partly  convex. 
Mouldings  termed  ogees  are  cast  on 
smooth-bore  guns  and  mortars,  and  are 
known  in  the  former  as  the  breech  and 
T  2 


OIL 


276 


OED 


base  ring  ogees,  in  the  latter  as  the  re- 
inforce and  muzzle  ogees. 

Oil — An  unctuous  liquid,  the  product 
of  certain  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral 
substances.  For  machinery,  vegetable 
oils  are  chiefly  used,  especially  cocoa-nut 
oil,  which  is  extracted  by  expression 
from  the  cocoa-nut  palm ;  mustard  and 
linseed  oils  are  used  for  the  purposes 
described  below.  To  obtain  oil  from 
the  cocoa-nut,  the  nut  is  stripped  of  the 
husk  or  coir,  the  shell  is  broken,  and 
the  fatty  lining  inclosing  the  milk  is 
taken  out.  In  India,  this  substance  is 
called  cobri,  copra,  or  copperah,  accord- 
ing to  the  locality.  Three  maunds  of  j 
copperah  are  thrown  into  a  mill  with 
about  three  gallons  of  water,  and  from 
this  three  maunds  are  produced,  or  seven 
gallons  and  three-quarters,  of  oil.  Mus-  j 
tard  and  linseed  oils  are  also  exti-acted 
by  expression,  from  the  seeds  of  the 
plants  bearing  those  names.  The  use  to  I 
which  these  oils  are  put  is  very  general.  j 

Cocoa-nut  oil  is  applied  to  the  cleaning  ; 
of  machinery,  elevating-screws  of  guns, 
parts  of  steam-engines,  and  various 
other  metallic  articles.  It  should  never 
be  used  for  the  barrels  of  small-arms, 
as  it  contains  an  acid  destructive  to 
the  interior  of  the  barrel.  Mustard 
oil  is  used  in  preparing  hides,  and  by 
laboratory  men,  after  working  carcass 
composition,  £c.,  for  cleaning  their 
hands ;  linseed  oil,  in  making  paint, 
and  in  mixing  paint  which  has  become 
thick  from  long  keeping.  There  is  also 
another  oil  used  for  paint,  viz.  that  de- 
rived from  the  gurjun  tree  (wood  oil), 
which  is  found  in  Indian  arsenals,  to 
answer  better  for  painting  on  metal  than 
•any  other,  and  is  also  used  for  painting 
case  shot  and  other  projectiles;  it  is  very 
volatile,  and  dries  rapidly  even  in  wet 
weather,  at  which  time  common  oils  dry 
very  slowly. 

For  the  prevervation  of  small-arms  from 
rust,  neat's  foot  oil  is  used,  and  for  gun- 
stocks,  petroleum  oil,  known  as  Price's 
Rangoon  oil.  Petroleum  is  a  rock  oil,  pro- 
cured from  great  depths  in  the  earth  by 
means  of  wells.  Its  colour  in  its  crude 
state  is  a  dark  green,  but  when  refined 
and  distilled,  it  is  perfectly  transparent. 
Burmah,  Canada,  and  North  America 
produce  large  quantities  of  this  oil. 


Oil,  Stone,  vide  Stone  Oil. 

Olympic  Games — Instituted  by  Her- 
cules, A.M.  2856,  in  honour  of  Jupiter 
Olympus,  at  Olympia.  a  city  of  Elis,  in 
the  Peloponnesus.  They  were  celebrated 
every  four  years.  The  design  of  these 
games  was  to  accustom  the  young  military 
men  to  all  athletic  and  military  exercises. 

Open  Works,  vide  Works. 

Opening  of  the  Trenches  —  Syno- 
nymous with  breaking  ground,  or  the 
commencement  of  the  works  of  attack 
against  a  fortress. 

Operation,  Lines  of,  vide  Lines  of  Ope- 
ration. 

Operations,  Base  of,  vide  Base  of 
Operations. 

Operations,  Military — General  move- 
ments of  troops  or  armies  in  the  field 
during  mimic  or  real  warfare.  They  are 
of  two  kinds,  strategical  and  tactic'tl.  The 
former  are  undertaken  before  being  with- 
in reach  of  the  enemy,  whilst  the  latter 
take  place  on  the  field  of  battle  itself. 
(  Vide  Strategy  and  Tactics.) 

Operations,  Siege,  vide  Siege. 

Operations,  Theatre  of,  vide  Theatre  of 
War. 

Order — An  imperative  injunction  given 
by  a  superior  to  an  inferior,  which  must 
be  carried  out  without  demur,  and 
obeyed  with  readiness.  To  avoid  their 
being  misunderstood,  orders,  if  verbal, 
should  be  given  in  most  concise  terms ; 
if  long  and  elaborate,  they  should  be 
given  in  writing.  Appeal  may  be  made 
afterwards  if  not  in  accordance  with  the 
regulations  or  the  recognised  rules  of 
the  service. 

A  general,  or  any  other  responsible 
officer,  may,  however,  judge  whether 
orders  sent  by  a  distant  authority  are 
to  be  implicitly  obeyed,  if  the  circum- 
stances under  which  they  were  given 
differ  from  those  existing  when  the 
orders  are  received.  The  responsibility 
of  dereliction  is  very  great,  but  is  often 
necessary  for  the  success  of  a  battle. 
Napoleon  I.  states  on  this  subject  that 
"  Passive  obedience  is  required  to  orders 
given  by  a  superior  on  the  spot,  but  not 
to  those  sent  by  one  from  a  distance, 
not  cognisant  of  existing  circumstances." 
Military  history  affords  many  examples 
of  such  dereliction. 

A  general  or  other  responsible  officer 


ORD 


277 


OED 


in  the  hands  of  the  enemy  loses  the  power 
of  giving  orders,  and  even  should  he 
attempt  to  seud  any,  they  would  be  con- 
sidered null  aud  void. 

Order  of  Battle,  tide  Battle. 

Order  of  March  —  The  formation  as- 
sumed by  troops  on  the  march,  and 
which  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
country  they  are  moving  in,  the  object 
to  be  attained,  and  the  characteristic  of 
the  enemy,  as  well  as  the  number  of 
troops  composing  the  force.  If  at  any 
distance  from  the  enemy,  the  comfort  of 
the  men,  as  well  as  the  means  of  giving 
them  the  necessary  supplies,  must  be 
studied.  When  in  the  proximity  of  the 
opposing  force,  tactical  considerations 
must  alone  weigh  in  disposing  of  the 
order  of  march.  In  all  cases  an  army  is 
preceded  by  an  advanced  guard,  followed 
by  the  main  force,  the  rear  of  which  is 
covered  by  a  rear  guard. 

Orderlies — Soldiers  told  off  in.  a  regi- 
ment to  officers  in  authority,  either  in  a 
district,  garrison,  or  regiment,  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  official  messages 
and  letters.  Sometimes  orderlies  are 
mounted,  when  speed  and  urgency  ne- 
cessitate, and  the  distance  will  not  per- 
mit of  their  duties  being  carried  out  on 
foot.  These  orderlies  are  furnished  by 
mounted  regiments. 

Orderly  Boom — The  court  of  the  com- 
manding officer,  where  charges  brought 
against  the  men  of  his  regiment  are 
investigated,  and  sentence  passed.  It  is 
also  the  office  of  the  commanding  officer, 
from  which  all  orders  emanate. 

Orders,  Beating,  vide  Beating  Orders. 

Orders,  Military  —  Companies  of 
knights  instituted  by  kings  and  princes, 
either  for  the  defence  of  the  faith  or  to 
confer  marks  of  honour  on  their  military 
subjects.  The  most  ancient  and  most 
celebrated  ot  these  orders  is  that  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem,  which  owes  its  origin 
to  the  Hospital  of  St.  John,  founded  in 
Jerusalem  in  the  year  1048.  It  be- 
came in  1118  a  religious  order  of 
knighthood,  and  from  1309  the  Knights 
were  called  Knights  Hospitallers  of 
Rhodes,  and  from  1530  Knights  of 
Malta.  The  representative  of  this 
order  in  England  was  the  Prior  of 
Clerkenwell,  who  had  a  seat  in  parlia- 
ment, j  and  was  styled  the  First  Baron 


of  England.  This  order  is  now  almost 
extinct,  no  grand-master  having  been 
elected  since  1805.  The  badge  worn 
by  all  the  knights  is  a  Maltese  cross, 
enamelled  white  and  edged  with  gold, 
suspended  to  a  black  ribbon.  Some 
members  of  this  order  did  duty  during 
the  war  of  1870-71  with  the  sick  and 
wounded,  the  order  thus  appropriately 
ending,  as  it  had  begun,  in  hospitals. 

The  Teutonic  Order  is  also  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  religious  and 
military  orders  to  which  the  Crusades 
gave  birth.  It  was  founded  in  1190 
under  the  name  of  Teutonic  Order  of  St. 
Mary  of  Jerusalem.  Only  Germans  of 
noble  birth  were  admitted,  and  they  wore 
a  white  mantle  with  a  black  cross.  This 
order  began  to  decline  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  at  the  Reformation,  when  its 
members  abandoned  the  papacy  and  em- 
braced the  Protestant  religion.  It  was 
abolished  by  Napoleon  in  1809,  the  lands 
passing  to  the  sovereigns  in  whose  do- 
minions they  lay.  The  Teutonic  Order, 
however,  still  continues  to  preserve  a 
titular  existence  in  Austria,  and  its 
statutes  were  reorganised  in  1840  and  in 
1865. 

The  Order  of  the  Knights  Templars  also 
received  its  appellation  from  Jerusalem, 
and  took  its  name  from  the  convent 
being  close  to  that  of  the  Temple.  It 
was  founded  in  1118  by  Hugues  de 
Paganes  and  other  French  knights.  The 
whole  order  was  in  1312  suppressed 
throughout  Europe,  and  its  property  be- 
stowed on  the  Knights  of  St.  John.  The 
habit  of  Templars  was  white,  with  a  red 
cross  of  eight  points  of  the  Maltese  form 
worn  on  the  left  shoulder. 

The  following  are  the  principal  mili- 
tary orders  of  Europe  : — 


Country. 

Order. 

siitutea 
in 

Austria 

Golden  Fleece 

1429 

V 

Elizabeth-Theresa 

1750 

Maria-Theresa 

1759 

Baden 

Charles-Frederick 

1807 

Bavaria 

Maximilien-Joseph 

1806 

>T 

jRoyal  Order  of  Mili-"! 
\     tary  Merit             / 

1866 

Belgium 

Leopold 

1832 

Denmark 

Elephant 

1693 

England 

Garter 

1338 

i> 

Bath 

1399 

OKD 


278 


ORD 


England 


1687 


1818 


Instituted 
Country.  Order.  ia 

(St.  Andrew  or   the"! 
Thistle  / 

St.  Patrick  1783 

(St.  Michael  and  St. 

George 

Star  of  India  1861 

France         Legion  of  Honour  1802 

Holland       William  1815 

(St.  Maurice  and  St.)        IA?I 
Italv  <      T  f        14:o4- 

(      Lazare  ) 

*„  Military  Order  of  Savoy  1831 

„  Iron  Crown  of  Italy  1868 

Prussia  Military  Merit  1665 

„  Black  Eagle  1701 

„  Iron  Cross  1813 

Russia  White  Eagle  1325 

„  St.  Alexander-Newski  1722 

„  St.  George  1769 

„  St.  Wladimir  1782 

Saxony  St.  Henry  1736 

Spain  Alcantara  1156 

Calatrava  1158 

St.  Jacques  de  1'Bpee  1175 

„  Our  Lady  of  Montesa  1316 

„  Golden  Fleece  1429 

,,  St.  Ferdinand  1811 

,,  Ste.  Hermenegilde  1814 

Sweden  &)  c 

v,  >b\VO 

.Norway) 

„          St.  Olaf  1847 

Turkey        Medjidie-  1852 

Orders,  Regimental — Such  orders  as 
are  issued  by  the  officer  commanding  a 
regiment  for  the  information  of  the 
officers  and  regiment  generally. 

Regimental  orders  follow  up  all 
orders  issued  by  the  officer  commanding 
the  brigade,  garrison,  station,  &c.  having 
reference  to  the  regiment. 

Ordnance — By  this  term  is  understood 
in  the  British  service  any  description  of 
warlike  stores ;  but  its  special  significa- 
tion, as  used  by  the  artillery,  compre- 
hends every  gun,  and  every  projectile 
fired  from  a  gun ;  it  also  signifies  a  por- 
tion of  the  material  forming  a  part  of 
the  equipment  of  that  branch  of  the 
military  service.  Ordnance  as  applied  to 
guns  comprehends  smooth-bore  and  rifled, 
breech-loading  and  muzzle-loading. 

Smooth-bore  ordnance  comprise  cast- 
iron  and  bronze  guns,  howitzers  and 
mortars,  ranging  from  112  to  9  cwt.  in 
weight.  The  best  known  guns  are  Bloom- 


, 
ord 


1-00 
Io22 


field's,  Dundas',  Miller's,  and  Monck's. 
These  guns  are  now  nearly  obsolete,  and 
have  been,  for  the  most  part,  replaced  by 
rifled  guns. 

Rifled  ordnance. — Guns  in  which  two 
or  more  spiral  grooves  are  cut  by  the 
operation  of  rifling,  so  as  to  give  the 
projectile  a  rotatory  motion  coinciding 
with  the  axis  of  the  gun. 

The  object  of  rifling  a  gun  is  to  re- 
medy the  many  defects  observed  in  the 
fire  of  projectiles  discharged  from  smooth- 
bore cannon,  which  mav  be  classed  as 
follows : — 

1.  The  shot  not  fitting  tightly,  which 
causes  it  to  bound  in  its  progress  up  the 
bore,   and  to  take  a  direction  either  to 
the  left  or  right  after  leaving  the  gun, 
according   to  the  side   of  the  barrel  it 
struck  before  expulsion. 

2.  Windage,  which  leaves  a  consider- 
able space  between  the  upper  surface  of 
the  bore  and  that  of  the  shot,  thus  tend- 
ing, on  the  explosion  of  the  charge,  to 
press  the  shot  downwards  into  the  under 
side  of  the  barrel,  known  as  the  "  seat  of 
the    shot,"  and  to  cause  an  indentation 
after  much  firing. 

3.  From  the  space  alluded  to  between 
the  upper  surface  of  the  shot  and  that  of 
the  barrel,  the    powder   gas    is    enabled 
freely  to  pass  and  to  act  upon  the  barrel 
of  the   gun  in  that  part  so  as  to  cause 

I  erosion  (g.  t>.),  and  to  prevent  the  full 
force  of  the  powder  acting  on  the  shot. 

4.  An    unequal    rotation,    from    the 
i  causes    mentioned,    takes   place    in   the 
j  flight  of  spherical  projectiles,  so  that  the 

true  flight  cannot  be  depended  on. 

5.  The  resistance  of  the  air  is  greater 
to  spherical  projectiles  of  the  same  weight 
than  to  oblong  shot. 

With  these  defects  it  was  natural  that 
artillerists  should  seek  for  a  remedy  in 
I  order  to  counteract  the  varying  tenden- 
cies observed  in  smooth-bores,  and  which 
could  not  be  obviated  as  long  as  they 
were  used.  It  occurred,  therefore,  as 
is  stated  in  '  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia,' 
to  all  who  sought  to  work  out  the  im- 
provements required,  that  this  could 
best  be  managed  by  securing  that  the 
plane  of  rotation  of  the  ball  should  be  at 
right  angles  to  its  motion  of  translation, 
as  the  irregularities  in  the  structure 
of  a  spherical  shot,  which  produce  the 


ORD 


279 


ORG 


aberrations  caused  by  a  loosely  fitting 
.shot  and  a  want  of  homogeneity,  would 
thus  act  equally  in  all  directions,  pro- 
ducing an  exact  counterbalance,  while 
the  aberration  from  the  ball's  rotation 
would  wholly  disappear ;  and  the  con- 
stancy of  the  vertical  transverse  position 
of  the  plane  of  the  ball's  rotation  was 
obtained  by  making  one  or  more  spiral 
grooves  along  the  interior  of  the  barrel. 

The  introduction  of  rifled  guns  into 
Europe,  at  least  such  guns  as  are  used  at 
the  present  day  (for  the  invention  of 
rifling  barrels  was  known  in  Germany 
some  centuries  ago),  was  in  184(3, 
when  Major  Cavalli  and  Baron  Wahren- 
dorff  produced  their  breech-loading  guns. 
Subsequently  we  find  inventors  in  all 
countries  (vide  Gun),  producing  each  his 
own  mode  of  rifling,  some  of  which  have 
been  adopted  by  the  several  continental 
powers.  In  England,  in  the  year  1854, 
Mr.  (now  Sir  W.)  Armstrong's  sys- 
tem of  rifled  guns,  built  up  of  wrought- 
iron  coils,  was  adopted.  His  principle  of 
construction,  though  modified,  is  still  car- 
ried out  in  the  manufacture  of  our  ord- 
nance ;  but  his  system  of  breech-loading 
has  been  superseded  by  a  muzzle-loading 
gun,  adapted  to  light  and  heavy  artillery. 

The  advantages  derived  from  rifled 
guns  are  as  follows : — 

1.  Accuracy  of  fire.     This  is  brought 
about  by  giving  the  projectile  a  rotation 
round  an  axis  coincident  with  that  of  the 
bore. 

2.  By  substituting  elongated  for  spheri- 
cal projectiles,  increased  range  is  obtained. 

3.  The  facility  of  centring  a  shot,  par- 
ticularly in  a  B.L.R.  gun,  whereby  greater 
accuracy  of  range  and   direction   is  ob- 
tained. 

4.  The  velocity  of  the  shot,  from  being 
elongated  and  the  wind  not  so  telling  upon 
it,  is  kept  up  with  less  diminution  of  speed 
over  the  range  it  has  to  go  than  one  of  a 
spherical  form. 

5.  In  the  penetrating  power  imparted 
to  projectiles. 

The  pre-eminence  of  rifled  guns  over 
smooth-bores  is  established  in  all  the 
armies  of  the  world.  Their  penetrating 
power  is  enormous,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  reports  on  rifled  guns  against  armour- 
plating.  The  advantage  was  at  one  time 
in  favour  of  the  plates,  but  subsequent 


results  of  rifled  practice  show  the  superi- 
ority of  the  gun  over  armour.  However, 
this  may  still  be  considered  a  moot  point. 
What  is  now  known  as  the  "  Woolwich 
gun  "  (q.  u.)  is  a  modification  of  the  French 
gun  as  regards  the  rifling,  but  resembles 
it  in  nothing  else.  All  guns  in  the  British 
service  are  now  what  is  termed  "built  up." 
The  result  of  the  trials  and  tests  made 
with  our  muzzle -loading  rifled  guns 
proves  them  to  be  sound  and  durable, 
with  great  penetrative  power  and  of 
vast  range.  There  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  in  the  artillery  world  as  to  the 
advantages  of  muzzle-loading  and  breech- 
loading  guns ;  each  has  its  advocates. 
The  next  war  in  which  England  may  be 
engaged  may  probably  settle  the  question 
of  the  two  systems.  (  Vide  Appendix  B.) 

Ordnance,  Board  of,  vide  Board  of 
Ordnance. 

Ordnance,  Examination  of,  vide  Ex- 
amination of  Ordnance. 

Ordnance,  Measurement  of,  vide  Mea- 
surement of  Ordnance. 

Ordnance  Select  Committee— A  per- 
manent committee  of  officers,  with  a 
secretary  attached,  for  the  consideration 
of  all  warlike  inventions  and  other  ord- 
nance subjects.  The  committee  sits  at 
Woolwich,  and  carries  out  all  proofs  of 
ordnance,  as  directed  by  the  minister  of 
war.  It  decides  and  alters  certain  stores 
and  materiel  of  the  army,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  above  named  authority. 

The  proceedings  of  this  committee  are 
published  quarterly. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century 
the  work  of  testing  new  inventions  was 
carried  out  by  field  officers  of  the  corps 
of  artillery,  and  in  1797  a  committee  of 
field  officers,  something  similar  to  the 
present  ordnance  select  committee,  was 
then  formed  to  consider  and  pronounce 
upon  the  inventions  brought  before  it. 

Ordnance  Survey,  vide  Survey. 

Ordnance  Survey  Department — A  de- 
partment of  the  British  government  in 
which  the  maps  and  plans  of  the  whole 
kingdom  and  its  parts  are  prepared. 

Ordnance,  Surveyor-General  of,  vide 
Control  Department. 

Ord's  Hose  —  Used  for  firing  mines  ; 
it  acts  as  a  waterproof  leader,  having 
instantaneous  action. 

Organisation  —  The  act  or  process  of 


ORG 


280 


OEP 


forming  bodies  of  soldiers,  and  regulating 
the  administration  appertaining  to  them. 
Colonel  Graham,  in  his  'Art  of  War,' 
savs: — "Levies,  when  assembled,  present 
only  a  confused  mass,  and  are  incapable 
of  moving  with  order  or  regularity,  or 
arranging  themselves  in  a  form  suitable 
for  a  inarch  or  a  battle,  until  they  them- 
selves have  been  divided  and  subdivided 
into  regular  proportions.  One  body 
must  be  formed  out  of  the  elements 
which  have  been  brought  together,  all 
the  members  of  which  may  be  instantly 
put  in  motion  by  an  impulse  communi- 
cated from  the  head,  so  as  to  execute  the 
service  required.  This  is  called  the  or- 
ganisation of  an  army. 

•'The  necessity  of  this  organisation 
must  have  suggested  itself  the  moment 
the  first  levies  were  collected.  Order, 
discipline,  and  the  power  of  adapting 
the  disposition  of  forces  to  places  and 
circumstances,  were  the  result  of  the 
mechanism  thus  introduced,  the  main- 
spring of  which  is  the  chain  of  respon- 
sibility from  the  general  down  to  the 
commander  of  the  smallest  subdivision." 

•'  An  organised  body  of  troops,"  says 
Sir  J.  Burgoyne,  "  amenable  to  the  laws 
of  discipline,  accustomed  to  act  together, 
mutually  reliant,  trained  to  perform  in 
unison  the  movements  best  suited  to  the 
march  and  the  battle,  is  more  formidable 
than  an  assemblage,  however  numerous 
and  however  skilful  in  the  use  of  their 
weapons,  but  in  whom  the  concerted 
action  is  wanting." 

The    organisation   of  an  army  is  the 
duty   of    the    general    staff  in    time    of 
peace,  and,    unless  thoroughly  prepared 
beforehand    in    its  most  minute  details, 
will   break   down    on  the  eventuality  of 
a  war,  as  was  proved    during    the   war 
of  1870-71.     France  was  beaten  because 
she  was  not  ready,  and  her  armies  may  j 
be  said   to  have  been  defeated  before  a  ; 
shot  was  fired,  her  organisation  being  so  | 
inferior  to  that  of  the  Germans. 

Jomini  lays  down  the  following  general  | 
conditions,  as  essential  to  the  perfect  or- 
ganisation of  an  army : — 

1.  A  good  system  of  recruiting. 

2.  An  efficient  formation. 

3.  A  well  organised  system  of  national 
reserves. 

4.  That   officers    should    be    well    in- 


structed in  drill  and  mano?uvres,  and  in 
all  the  duties  of  a  camp  and  in  the  field, 
and  that  there  should  be  a  good  system 
of  interior  economy. 

5.  A  discipline  strict,  but  not  humi- 
liating ;  a  spirit  of  subordination  as  far 
as  possible  on  a  conviction  pervading  all 
ranks  of  its  importance,  rather  than  on 
the  mere  orders  of  the  service. 

6.  A  well  regulated  system  of  rewards 
and  a  spirit  of  emulation. 

7.  A  special   corps,  engineers  and  ar- 
tillery, well  instructed. 

8.  An  armament  well  understood,  and, 
if    possible,    superior    to    that    of    the 
enemy,    comprising    arms    defensive    as 
well  as  offensive. 

9.  A  staff  capable  of  applying  all  these 
elements    to    the    greatest    advantages, 
and  with  an  organisation  adapted  to  the 
theoretical  and   practical  instruction  of 
its  members. 

10.  Well  organised  commissariat  and 
medical  departments. 

11.  The  command  of  armies  and   the 
supreme    direction    of    operations    by  a 
sound  practical  system. 

12.  The  maintenance  of  a  high  military 
spirit. 

Orgnes  (French  =  organ) — In  fortifica- 
tion, long  and  thick  pieces  of  wood  shod 
with  iron,  each  suspended  by  a  separate 
piece  of  rope  over  a  gate,  so  as  to  close 
it  up  upon  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 

The  word  orgue  is  given  to  an  ancient 
piece  of  ordnance,  composed  of  a  number 
of  musket  barrels,  so  joined  on  the  same 
carriage,  and  the  touch-holes  correspond- 
ing with  each  other,  that  they  can  be 
discharged  simultaneously.  This  weapon 
may  be  said  to  be  the  origin  of  the 
mitrailleuse. 

Orillon — In  fortification,  the  circular 
part  of  the  Hank  towards  the  shoulder 
of  a  bastion,  which  serves  to  cover  the 
rest  of  the  flank. 

Orpiment — A  sulphuret  of  arsenic. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  orpiment, 
one  in  fine  golden  coloured  scales,  another 
in  dense  yellow  stony  lumps,  a  third 
in  earthy-looking  masses,  called  king's 
yellow,  a  familiar  paiut ;  but  the  orpi- 
ment required  in  the  laboratory  for 
blue  lights,  signal  lights,  and  parachute 
light-balls,  is  the  red  proto-sulphuret  or 
realgar. 


osc 


281 


OUT 


Oscillating  Engines  —  Engines  in 
which  the  cylinders  oscillate  upon  hollow 
axes  or  trunnions,  through  which  the 
steam  is  admitted  to  and  withdrawn 
from  the  cylinders ;  the  piston-rod  by 
this  means  accommodates  itself  to  the 
motion  of  the  crank,  without  the  parallel 
motion  being  required. 

Oscillating  Screw,  vide  Screw,  Oscil- 
latiug. 

Oscillation  (Latin,  oscillo,  I  swing) — 
Is  described  as  "  the  motion  which  a 
pendulum  undergoes  when  moved  by  any 
force,  and  which  is  indicated  by  the  centre 
of  gravity  describing  alternately  a  circular 
arc  on  the  one  side  or  the'other  of  its  posi- 
tion of  rest.  If  there  were  neither  friction 
nor  atmospheric  resistance,  this  motion 
of  vibration  or  oscillation,  on  either  side 
of  the  position  of  equilibrium,  would 
continue  for  ever,  but  in  consequence  of 
these  resistances,  the  distance  to  which 
the  pendulum  swings  decreases  more  and 
more  with  every  swing,  until  it  comes 
to  rest." 

"  The  centre  of  osci'lation  is  that  point 
in  a  body  vibrating  about  a  horizontal 
axis  in  which,  if  the  whole  mass  of  the 
body  be  supposed  collected,  the  period  of 
oscillation  will  be  the  same  as  before." 

Outfit  Allowance — A  sum  of  money 
given  to  a  cavalry  or  infantry  non- 
commissioned officer  who  succeeds  in 
getting  his  commission  from  the  ranks. 
£150  is  given  to  the  former,  and  £100  to 
the  latter.  In  giving  the  cavalry  man 
the  additional  sum  of  £50,  it  is  to  en- 
able him  to  purchase  his  charger. 

Outflank,  To — To  turn  the  flank  or 
flanks  of  an  army.  (Vide  Flank  Move- 
ment.) 

Out-lying  Picket,  vide  Pickets. 

Outposts  —  Bodies  of  troops,  chiefly 
cavalry  and  infantry,  posted  beyond  the 
bound  or  limits  of  the  encampment,  to 
give  an  army  or  detachment  timely  notice 
of  the  movements  of  the  enemy,  and  to 
guard  against  surprises.  "  Like  advanced 
guards,"  as  Colonel  Hamley  shows  in  his 
'  Operations  of  War,'  "  they  must  be  placed 
at  a  distance  from  the  main  body  which 
will  fulfil  this  purpose,  without  exposing 
them  to  be  cut  off'  or  overpowered ;  and 
as  they  occupy  much  ground  in  propor- 
tion to  their  force,  3  miles  is  as  great  a 
space  as  should  intervene  between  them 


and  the  army."  The  advanced  guard 
usually  supplies  the  outposts,  and  the 
mode  of  disposing  of  them  depends  on  the 
ground  taken  up  by  the  main  force. 

Artillery  is  employed  on  outpost 
duties  only  on  special  occasions,  when  it 
is  important  to  hold  certain  points,  such 
as  defiles,  bridges,  causeways,  &c.,  and  is 
usually  attached  to  the  reserve.  When 
attached  to  outposts  stationed  in  a  de- 
file, the  guns  are  unlimbered  and  are 
prepared  for  action ;  in  all  other  cases 
they  remain  limbered  up,  as  near  to  the 
main  road  as  possible,  and  never  in  an 
inclosed  space.  If  it  be  intended  to  defend 
any  particular  position  in  advance  of  the 
reserve,  emplacements  should  be  made  for 
the  number  of  guns  to  be  employed,  but 
they  should  not  be  permanently  occupied. 
In  short,  the  rule  is  that  artillery  is  only 
brought  on  outpost  duty  where  a  favour- 
able opportunity  for  its  employment 
presents  itself;  when  required  for  the 
defence  of  a  position,  the  guns  must  not 
be  detached,  but  be  held  in  readiness  to 
take  their  place  in  a  work  which  has 
been  prepared  for  their  reception. 

Officers  commanding  outposts  should 
make  themselves  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  locality  in  which  they  are 
placed,  by  carefully  examining  the  post, 
the  heights  within  musket  shot,  the 
roads  and  paths  leading  t»  or  near  the 
post,  ascertaining  their  breadth  and 
practicability  for  cavalry  or  artillery,  in 
order  to  insure  a  constant  and  ready 
communication  with  the  adjoining  posts 
and  vedettes.  The  hollows  which  may 
cover  the  enemy's  approach  should  be 
examined,  and  all  points  considered  with 
reference  to  the  possibility  of  an  attack. 

Colonel  Macdougall,  in  his  'Theory  of 
War,'  explains  the  object  of  an  outpost 
as  follows : — "  The  safety  of  an  army 
in  an  enemy's  country  materially  de- 
pends on  the  manner  in  which  the  out- 
post duty  is  performed.  The  outposts, 
pickets,  and  advanced  sentries,  are  the 
watch-dogs  of  the  army,  whose  peculiar 
business  is  to  detect  and  give  timely 
warning  of  the  approach  of  an  enemy, 
as  well  as  every  circumstance  which 
may  appear  to  threaten  its  safety.  An 
officer  in  command  of  an  outpost  should 
invariably  act  as  if  the  safety  of  the 
whole  army  depended  on  his  individual 


OUT 


282 


PAC 


vigilance,  and  he  should  impress  the 
same  feeling  of  responsibility  on  the 
mind  of  every  one  of  his  sentries." 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  task  of  an  officer  engaged  in 
the  duty  of  commanding  an  outpost  is 
not  only  dangerous  and  arduous,  but 
demands  prudence  and  coolness,  as  he 
has  to  act  upon  his  own  speedily  formed 
judgment ;  to  waver  or  hesitate  is  to  be 
lost.  His  position  requires  attention, 
endurance,  and,  above  all,  discernment. 
He  must  secure  the  troops  from  a  sur- 
prise, and  to  inform  himself  and  report  as 
to  the  enemy's  movements.  Constantly 
visiting  the  chain  of  sentries,  and  ready 
to  examine  all  those  who  pass  through 
the  lines,  no  time  is  allowed  to  him  for 
sleep,  and  in  case  of  attack  he  has  to 
hold  the  enemy  in  check,  till  the  main 
body  has  time  to  take  up  a  position  and 
to  deploy. 

The  average  strength  of  outposts 
should  be  about  one-fifth  of  the  force  to 
be  protected. 

Outrance  (French) — To  the  utmost ; 
to  the  last  extremity.  Thus  the  French 
say,  se  battre  a  otitrance,  to  fight  to  the 
last  extremity. 

Outworks  —  In  fortification,  are  the 
works  constructed  beyond  the  enceinte 
or  body  of  the  place  and  within  the  glacis, 
such  as  ravelins,  tenaille,  horn  and  crown 
works,  counter-guards,  lunettes,  covered 
ways,  &c. 

Oven — An  apparatus  for  baking,  and 
cooking  soldiers'  food.  In  the  army,  the 
ovens  for  baking  the  soldiers'  bread  are 
of  two  kinds,  steam  and /e/d  (dependent  on 
the  nature  of  the  service).  The  former  is 
mounted  on  a  carriage,  and  can  be  drawn 
by  a  pair  of  horses.  Ovens  of  this  kind 
will  bake  in  each  batch  on  an  average  109 
loaves  of  3  Ibs.  or  2  field  rations  each. 
The  latter  (Aldershot  pattern)  can  bake 
100  rations  (150  Ibs.)  at  a  time. 

Travelling  bakery  wagons  are  also  now 
approved  for  the  use  of  the  army  'service 
corps.  The  wagons  are  covered,  and  in 
them  the  bakers  can  knead  and  prepare 
the  bread  for  the  ovens. 

For  cooking  purposes,  ovens  of  various 
kinds  have  been  invented;  amongst  others, 
those  by  Captain  Grant,  both  for  barrack 
use  and  in  the  field,  and  Soyer's  cooking 
stoves,  which  were  used  in  the  Crimea. 


Oxidation — -The  conversion  of  metal 
surfaces  into  rust,  by  their  combination 
with  a  certain  portion  of  oxygen. 

Oxide  of  Calcium,  vide  Lime. 

Oxide  of  Iron — Results  from  the  com- 
bination of  iron  with  oxygen,  in  suffi- 
ciently large  quantities  to  cause  it  to 
lose  its  metallic  state. 

Oxygen  (  symbol,'  0  ;  eq.  8  ;  sp.  gr. 
1'1057) — One  of  the  elements  widely  dif- 
fused throughout  nature,  but  which  is 
never  found  in  a  pure  isolated  form.  In 
the  atmosphere,  it  is  mechanically  mixed 
with  nitrogen;  in  water,  it  is  chemically 
combined  with  hydrogen.  Oxygen  was 
discovered  by  Priestley  in  August  1774, 
and  one  year  later  by  Scheele,  who  was 
then  unware  of  Priestley's  discovery. 
Eighty-nine  per  cent,  (by  weight)  of 
water  consists  of  oxygen ;  atmospheric 
air  contains  23  per  cent,  of  the  same 
element,  which  also  exists  in  combina- 
tion with  most  of  the  other  elements  in 
various  proportions. 


P. 


Face — The  rate  at  which  a  man  or 
animal  moves,  either  at  the  walk,  trot, 
or  gallop.  The  usual  length  of  a  man's 
pace  is  about  30  inches  for  ordinary 
marching,  and  3  feet  for  the  double, 
but  the  soldier  is  trained  to  increase  his 
pace  as  required.  A  horse  walks  at  the 
rate  of  328  feet  in  a  minute,  or  nearly 
3J  miles  an  hour;  trots  656  feet  in  a 
minute,  or  nearly  7^  miles  an  hour  ;  and 
gallops  1056  feet  in  a  minute,  or  12 
miles  an  hour. 

Pack  Saddle,  vide  Saddle. 

Pack  Thread — A  coarse  thread  or 
string  used  for  sewing  up  and  securing 
packages. 

Package — This  term  is  applied  to  the 
wrapper  or  packing  cloth  round  stores 
in  transit,  or  whatever  constitutes  the 
covering  of  stores  for  their  preservation. 


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283 


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Package  of    Ammunition  —  In   the 

artillery  service,  this  is  carried  out  in 
boxes  of  a  sanctioned  pattern,  and  the 
ammunition,  shot,  or  shell,  is  secured  in 
compartments  or  in  some  other  way 
most  convenient  or  suitable.  The  boxes 
are  carried  on  ammunition  wagons,  which 
escort  the  gun. 

Small-arm  ammunition  is  packed  in 
boxes,  and  carried  on  a  campaign  in 
special  wagons  made  for  the  purpose. 

Packing  Box — A  box  used  for  keeping 
fixed  shot  or  shell  in  store,  or  in  transit 
from  place  to  place,  or  on  the  march  with 
siege  trains.  The  name  is  given  to  any 
box  or  case  containing  military  stores. 

Paddling — The  removal,  by  means  of 
a  copper  spud,  of  such  lumps  of  gun- 
powder as  adhere  to  the  faces  of  the 
rollers  during  the  incorporating  process 
in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  The 
operation  requires  great  care,  and  shotild 
only  be  resorted  to  under  exceptional  cir- 
cumstances. Generally  water  poured  on 
the  face  of  a  roller  will,  to  some  extent, 
loosen  the  powder. 

Padlock  —  A  lock  hung  on  a  staple. 
The  pattern  padlock  used  as  the  fastening 
of  artillery  ammunition  boxes  is  a  spring 
lock  with  key. 

Pads  —  In  the  artillery  and  cavalry 
service,  are  used  to  protect  saddle  and 
draught  horses  from  galls.  The  pad  re- 
commended is  in  the  form  of  a  folded 
blanket,  or  pad  made  of  sheep  or  kid's 
skin,  stuffed  with  hair,  6  inches  by  4 
inches.  When  placed  above  and  below  the 
gall,  considerable  relief  will  be  afforded. 

In  '  Short  Notes  on  Field  Batteries,' 
the  following  remedies  for  gall  wounds 
are  recommended  : — 

"If  a  piece  of  harness  is  seen  to  be 
commencing  to  rub  a  horse,  besides 
altering  the  fitting,  friction  may  be 
prevented  by  rubbing  in  any  lubricant 
(tallow  will  do  on  an  emergency). 

"To  cure  a  gall  or  sore  while  the 
horse  continues  his  work,  pads  must  be 
judiciously  applied.  Sheep  skin  is  the 
favourite  specific  of  many  collar-makers  ; 
it  sometimes  effects  more  than  would  be 
expected ;  it  enables  the  harness  and 
skin  side  of  the  sheep  skin  to  move, 
while  the  ends  of  the  hair  remain  with- 
out motion  on  the  tender  part  of  the 
horse.  The  rubbing  of  a  trace  is  some- 


times difficult  to  prevent;  I  have  seen 
the  pressure  completely  removed  by  at- 
taching a  short  flat  piece  of  wood  along 
a  hip  or  bearing  strap,  with  the  ends 
extending  2  inches  past  the  trace, 
small  pads  being  fixed  on  it  above  and 
below  the  trace.  It  looks  iigly,  but  it 
works  well." 

Elastic  pads  constructed  of  a  certain 
number  of  tubes  of  vulcanised  caout- 
chouc united  together,  and  invented,  some 
years  ago,  by  General  Angelini,  of  the 
Italian  army,  are  stated  to  have  been 
very  successful  in  the  Italian  cavalry  in 
preventing  galls. 

Paint — A  kind  of  paste  made  by 
mixing  white-lead,  turpentine,  and  lin- 
seed oil  together ;  other  substances  are 
used,  such  as  colouring  matters  or 
"  stainers,"  drying  materials  or  "  dryers," 
&c.,  but  white-lead  is  the  basis  of  all 
ordinary  paints,  and  forms  at  least  -fa 
of  their  composition.  The  turpentine 
used  in  paint  has  the  property  of  dis- 
solving fatty  and  resinous  substances. 
On  exposure  to  the  air,  it  absorbs  oxygen 
and  hardens  ;  this  renders  it  suitable  as 
an  ingredient. 

Linseed  oil  also  takes  up  oxygen  on 
exposure  to  the  air  and  hardens ;  from 
this  quality  it  is  known  as  a  drying  oil. 
Its  drying  powers  are  much  increased  by 
boiling  it  along  with  litharge  (red-lead) 
or  binoxide  of  manganese.  After  this 
process  it  is  known  as  boiled  oil. 

From  the  above  properties,  it  will  be 
seen  that  paint,  when  mixed,  will  soon 
become  unserviceable  if  exposed  to  the 
air.  It  is  not  desirable,  therefore,  to  mix 
paint  long  before  it  is  wanted  for  use ; 
even  in  closed  tins  it  is  apt  to  spoil. 

A  great  variety  of  paiats  are  used  for 
different  purposes,  such  as  the  painting 
of  gun  carriages,  shot  and  shell,  and 
other  military  stores.  It  is  unnecessary, 
however,  to  go  into  detail  on  their  manu- 
facture or  use,  as  each  arsenal  or  military 
establishment  has  its  own  instructions 
how  to  make  and  apply  them. 

Paint,  Anticorrosion  —  A  paint  for- 
merly used  as  a  lacquer  for  the  exterior 
of  iron  guns,  for  cast-iron  garrison  car- 
riages, war  rockets,  and  very  generally  on 
all  iron  work  which  is  exposed.  It  has 
been  superseded  by  Pulford's  magnetic 
paint  (q.  v.). 


PAI 


284 


PAP 


Pairing — A  name  given  to  one  of  the 
processes  employed  in  basket-work,  in 
making  brushwood  gabions. 

Paixhan's  Gun  —  A  muzzle-loading 
shell  gun  or  howitzer,  introduced  many  j 
years  ago  into  the  French  and  Russian  I 
navies  by  a  French  general  of  that  name.  > 
Loaded  shells,  with  time  fuzes,  were  the  • 
projectiles  fired  from  this  piece.  The  j 
destruction  of  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope  • 
was  caused  by  these  guns. 

Palisade  (French,  palissade) — A  bar- 
rier    made    of   wooden    posts  firmly  set  \ 
in  the  ground.     In  fortification  palisades 
form    one    of   the    auxiliary   means    of  j 
defence  in  permanent  and  field    works ; 
in   the   former,  they  are  usually  planted  i 
in  the  covert  way ;  and  in  the  latter,  in 
the  ditch  of  the  work.     Where  there  is 
a  covert  way,  palisading  becomes   indis-  ; 
pensable,  and  the  palisades   are  usually 
fixed    on    the    banquette,    about    1  foot 
from    the    glacis,    and    standing    about  | 
1  toot   above    the    crest.        For    perma-  : 
nent    works    they    are    constructed    of  | 
timber    sawn    into    lengths    of  8  or  10 
feet  long,   and   8    inches  and   4^   inches 
square,    depending    on    the    size    of   the 
timber.     Palisades  for  fieldworks  are  sel- 
dom made  of  timber  sawn  into  scantling, 
but  are    constructed  of  unhewn  timber 
of  trees  suited   to   the   purpose,  planted 
firmly   in    the    ground,    and    connected 
above    with    a    riband,    into    which   the 
palisades    are   spiked.      The   position  of 
palisades   for  the  security  of  field  forti-  | 
fications   should  be  under  musketry  fire  | 
from  the  parapet,  or  flanking  works,  so 
as  to  command  the  ditch. 

Palliser's  Gnus — These  guns  bear  the 
name  of  an  officer  of  cavalry,  who  has 
devoted  much  0f  his  time  and  resources 
to  the  subject  of  artillery,  and  is  the 
originator  of  a  method  of  strengthening 
cast-iron  guns  with  internal  tubes  of 
wrought  iron  which  are  rifled. 

The  object  of  the  conversion  is  to 
utilise  old  cast-iron  guns  for  general 
service.  The  result  has  been  most  satisfac- 
tory, showing  that  such  guns  are  capable 
of  a  greater  amount  of  endurance  than 
before  they  were  re-lined  ;  and  that,  as 
shell  guns,  they  are  well  adapted  for  use 
against  wooden  ships,  or  the  land  fronts 
of  forts.  The  guns  which  have  been 
converted  are  the  8-inch  of  65  cwt.  and 


32-prs.  of  58  and  56  cwt.  into  64-pr. 
R.M.L.  guns  of  different  weights,  and  the 
68-pr.  of  95  cwt.  into  an  80-pr.  rifled  gun 
of  5  tons.  (  Vide  Appendix  B.) 

This  officer's  name  is  well-known  to 
artillerists  as  the  inventor  of  the  chilled 
shot  (g.  ».). 

Pan  Coupe  —  In  fortification,  the  sa- 
lient angle  of  a  place-at-arms,  filled  up 
to  form  a  short  face  or  a  curve  for  mus- 
ketry fire  on  the  salient,  or  for  one  or  two 
guns  placed  en  barbette. 

Panic  (Greek,  panikos,  groundless  fear) 
— A  sudden  and  groundless  alarm 
which  is  known  to  seize  upon  men's 
fancies  without  any  visible  cause. 
The  word  traces  its  origin  from  the 
mythical  story  of  the  god  Pan,  who  is 
stated,  during  the  Indian  expedition 
of  Bacchus,  to  have  been  surrounded  by 
enemies,  and  that  the  shouting  of  his 
men,  favoured  by  the  echoes  of  a  rocky 
valley,  so  frightened  them  that  they  in- 
stantly took  to  flight,  and  hence  it  came 
to  pass  that  all  sudden  fears  impressed 
upon  men's  spirits,  without  any  just 
reason,  were  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
called  panic  terrors. 

Panniers  (French,  panier,  basket)  — 
Light  baskets  for  carrying  medical  stores 
or  signalling  stores.  They  are  carried  on 
pack  animals,  either  on  mules  or  camels. 
Panniers,  in  the  case  of  a  mountain  cam- 
paign, are  provided  for  carrying  rockets. 
In  fact,  all  kinds  of  light  baskets  capable 
of  holding  stores,  and  which  are  swung 
across  a  pack  animal,  are  called  panniers. 

Pantograph  (Greek,  pan,  all ;  grapho, 
I  write) — An  instrument  for  copying 
drawings  on  a  larger  or  smaller  scale 
than  the  original. 

Pantometer  (Greek,  pan,  all ;  metron, 
measure) — An  instrument  for  measuring 
all  sorts  of  angles,elevations,and  distances. 

Paper — A  thin  and  flexible  substance, 
usually  made  of  vegetable  fibre,  such  as 
the  pulp  of  linen,  cotton  rags,  &c.,  and 
which  is  used  for  writing,  printing,  draw- 
ing, and  other  purposes.  The  following 
table  contains  the  names  and  dimensions 
of  many  of  the  writing  and  drawing 
papers  in  use  : — 

Inches.    Inches. 

Antiquarian..          ..     52^  by  30J 

Double  elephant       ..     39|    „    2t>£ 

Atlas  ..  33      „    26 


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Inches.      Inches. 

Columbian  ..  ..  34|  by  23 
Elephant  ..  . .  28  „  23 
Imperial  ..  ..  29*  „  21£ 

Super-royal  .  .  . .      27*     ,    19* 

Royal  23£     ,    19 

Medium         . .  .  .      22|     ,    17^ 

Demy  ..          . .      19£     ,    151 

Foolscap        ..          . .      16|     ,    13* 
Drawing  papers  are   not  made  smaller 
than  demy.      Writing    papers    are   not 
made  larger  than  double  elephant,  and 
seldom  larger  than  imperial. 

A  very  useful  paper  is  tracing  paper, 
which  is  rendered  transparent  by  brush- 
ing it  over  with  a  mixture  of  Canada 
balsam  and  oil  of  turpentine,  or  nut-oil 
and  turpentine.  It  is  used  for  taking 
a  trace  of  any  plan  or  drawing. 

Paper,  Bibulous,  vide  Bibulous  Paper. 
Paper,  Portfire  —  A  coarse  kind  of 
brown  paper,  used  for  portfire  and  signal 
rocket  cases,  and  for  rough  reports  and 
returns,  as  are  usually  made  out  in  the 
artillery  park  and  batteries. 

Papier-mache  (French  =  chewed  paper) 
— A  substance  made  from  the  pulp  of 
paper  which  has  been  ground  up  with 
other  materials.  It  is  susceptible  of  being 
moulded  into  any  shape  or  form.  In  the 
artillery  service,  it  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  wads  for  fuze  holes,  &c. 

Papyrography  (Greek,  papyros,  a 
plant  from  which  paper  was  first  made  ; 
firapho,  I  write)  —  A  term  given  by 
Captain  Abney,  in  a  lecture  before  the 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science,  at  Belfast,  in  1874,  to  a  modi- 
fied process  of  photolithography  for 
enlarging  copies  of  maps,  which  he  con- 
sidered to  possess  certain  advantages  for 
use  in  the  field.  The  process  is  carried 
out  by  means  of  an  ink  invented  by 
Captain  Abney,  which  is  not  greasy,  and 
drawings  made  with  which  upon  ordinary 
paper  might  be  transferred  to  stone  or 
zinc,  for  the  reproduction  of  topographical 
maps  and  military  sketches. 

This  invention  has  been  introduced  into 
the  British  army. 

Parabola — The  curve  described  by  a 
body  which  is  under  the  influence  of  an 
impulsive  force  and  gravity  only. 

It  is  also  thus  described : — "  One  of 
the  conic  sections  formed  by  the  inter- 
section of  a  plane  and  a  cone  when  the 


plane  passes  parallel  to  the  side  of  the 
cone.'' 

Parabolic  Theory — In  gunnery,  has 
reference  to  the  laws  which  govern  the 
flight  of  a  projectile  in  vacuo.  The 
dediictions  from  this  theory  were  in  the 
very  early  days  of  artillery  science  con- 
sidered to  be  applicable  to  a  projectile 
fired  in  a  resisting  medium,  but  it  is  now 
well  known  that  it  is  valueless  in  prac- 
tice, except  when  the  initial  velocities  of 
projectiles  are  less  than  200  or  300  feet 
per  second,  and  when  the  resistance  of 
the  air  is  very  small. 

Parachute  Light — A  suspended  light, 
invented  by  Colonel  (now  General) 
Boxer,  R.A.,  and  which  is  used  for  the 
same  purpose  as  //round  light-balls  (q.  c.), 
viz.  to  light  up  the  enemy's  works  and 
working  parties.  It  is  preferred  to  light- 
balls,  as  they  can  be  extinguished  or  their 
lights  hid  with  a  few  shovelfuls  of  earth, 
whereas  the  parachute  has  the  advantage 
of  being  out  of  reach,  so  cannot  be  inter- 
fered with. 

The  parachute  lijht,  as  described  in 
the  '  Treatise  on  Ammunition,  1874,' 
"  consists  of  two  outer  and  two  inner 
tinned  iron  hemispheres  ;  the  two  outer 
are  lightly  riveted  together,  the  two 
upper  hemispheres  are  connected  by  a 
chain ;  the  inner  upper  hemisphere  has 
a  depression  at  the  top,  to  admit  the 
bursting  charge  and  fuze.  A  quick- 
match  leader  conducts  the  flash  from  the 
bursting  charge  to  the  fuze  composition 
in  the  lower  inner  hemisphere.  The  inner 
upper  hemisphere  contains  the  parachute 
tightly  folded  up.  To  insure  its  opening, 
a  cord  is  passed  between  its  folds,  and 
through  a  hole  in  the  top  of  the  parachute, 
and  is  fastened  to  the  upper  inner  hemi- 
sphere, so  that,  when  the  hemisphere  is 
blown  away,  the  cord  is  pulled  through, 
and  the  parachute  expanded. 

"  The  lower  inner  hemisphere  contains 
the  composition.  A  hole  is  bored,  and 
driven  with  fuze  composition,  and 
matched  as  usual ;  this  hemisphere  is 
connected  with  the  •  parachute  by  cords 
and  chains. 

"  The  bursting  charge  is  issued  in  the 
parachute,  the  fuze  is  bored  to  the  re- 
quired length  and  well  hammered  in; 
the  parachute  placed  in  the  mortar  and 
fired." 


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286 


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The     action    is    further    described    as  ' 
follows  : — The  fuze  ignites   the   bursting  , 
charge,  the  outer  hemispheres  are  blown  , 
away,  and  the  inner  upper  hemisphere, 
which  is  chained  to  the  outer  one,  is  blown 
away  with  it;  the  parachute  is  opened  by 
the  cord  and  expands,  the  composition  in 
the  lower  hemisphere   being  ignited   by 
the  quick-match  leader,  which  ignites  the 
fuze  composition,  the   composition  burn- 
ing about  three  minutes  when  fired  from 
the  10-inch  mortar. 

Parade — Any  place  where  troops  as- 
semble for  muster,  inspection,  drill,  &c. 

Parades  are  distinguished  as  follows  : — 

General par<ide,  where  all  the  troops  of 
a  garrison  draw  up. 

Regimental  parade,  where  a  single 
regiment  is  formed  under  the  inspection 
of  the  officer  commanding  the  regiment. 

Private  parade,  where  officers  com- 
manding troops  or  companies  inspect 
their  men  previous  to  joining  the  regi- 
mental parade. 

In  camps  the  parade-grounds  are 
usually  in  front  of  the  line  of  tents. 

Parade,  To— Signifies  the  act  of  draw- 
ing up  a  body  of  men,  in  view  to  their 
being  inspected. 

Farado  —  In  fortification,  a  traverse 
made  t«  give  protection  from  splinters, 
or  fire  from  the  rear,  as  well  as  to 
cover  powder  magazines  and  part  of  the 
garrison. 

Parallax — A  change  of  apparent  posi- 
tion of  any  celestial  object,  or  the  differ- 
ence between  the  true  and  apparent  place 
of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

Parallel  Motion — A  simple  and  beau- 
tiful arrangement  of  linkwork,  invented 
by  the  celebrated  Watt,  to  convert  the 
reciprocating  circular  motion  of  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  great  beam  of  the  steam- 
engine  into  a  reciprocating  rectilinear 
motion  adapted  to  the  piston-rod. 

Parallels  —  During  a  siege,  deep 
trenches  formed  to  connect  the  several 
approaches  carried  on  before  a  besieged 
place. 

In  commencing  the  attack  of  a  fortress, 
the  besieger  is  careful  to  make  his  first 
parallel  at  such  a  distance  as  shall  pre- 
vent the  fire  of  the  place  or  the  musketry 
fire  of  sorties  disturbing  his  working 
parties,  and  at  the  same  time  not  too  far 
away  from  the  place  invested,  as  the 


greater  the  distance  of  the  parallel,  the 
greater  will  be  the  length  of  the  ap- 
proaches leading  from  it  to  the  place.  The 
change  from  smooth-bores  to  rifled  guns 
has  affected  the  distance  at  which  the 
first  parallel  was  formerly  opened.  The 
second  parallel  is  formed  when  the  ap- 
proaches have  been  extended  halfway 
from  the  first  parallel  to  the  fortress ; 
the  third  parallel,  when  the  approaches 
arrive  within  120  yards  of  the  salients 
of  the  covered  way. 

In  a  note  given  in  the  '  R.  M.  A.  In- 
struction Book  on  Fortification,  &c.'  the 
following  is  stated  on  the  subject  of 
the  "  first  parallel  "  : — "  The  experience 
of  the  war  of  1870-71  seems  to  show 
that,  if  the  besieger's  first  batteries  are, 
by  reason  of  the  power  of  his  guns, 
placed  at  distances  of  from  2000  to  4000 
yards  from  the  fortress,  the  ordinary 
'  first  parallel '  may  be  dispensed  with, 
that  is  to  say,  the  ground  in  front  of 
these  distant  batteries  would  at  the 
commencement  of  the  siege  be  occupied 
by  rifle-pits  and  military  posts  rather, 
perhaps,  than  by  continuous  trenches. 
Afterwards,  no  doubt,  a  continuous  trench 
would  have  to  be  constructed  to  protect 
the  approaches  and  gain  ground,  though 
not  to  cover  the  first  batteries,  and  this 
trench  might  be  called  the  '  first  paral- 
lel,' though  not  the  first  protective  or 
defensive  work  undertaken." 

After  this,  while  the  approaches  are 
being  made  from  the  third  parallel  to- 
wards the  two  ravelins,  a  double  sap 
may  be  pushed  forward  on  the  capital 
of  the  bastion,  and  a  fourth  parallel  con- 
structed to  connect  it  with  the  trench 
cavaliers,  as  well  as  to  support  the 
lodgments  on  the  glacis.  Lastly,  a 
fifth  parallel  should  be  commenced,  so 
as  to  protect  the  lodgments  on  each 
flank  of  the  attack,  which  lodgments  are 
then  converted  into  batteries  of  5  guns 
each  to  breach  the  ravelins.  (  Vide  Siege.) 

Parallels  of  Latitude — Small  circles 
supposed  to  be  drawn  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  north  and  south  of  the 
equator,  and  parallel  to  it,  dividing  the 
globe  into  two  unequal  parts.  Parallels 
of  declination  are  such  circles  produced 
in  the  heavens,  north  and  south  of  the 
equinoctial,  and  parallel  to  it. 

Parapet     (Italian,  parapetto,    breast- 


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287 


PAR 


work) — In  a  permanent  work,  the  para- 
pet is  described  as  "  the  covering  shot- 
proof  mass  ou  the  exterior  side  of  the 
rampart.  In  fieldworks,  it  is  a  mass  of 
earth  thrown  up  as  a  protection  against 
an  enemy's  progress ;  the  ditch  from 
which  the  earth  is  excavated  forming  an 
additional  impediment.  The  parapet 
should  always  be  of  sufficient  height  to 
screen  the  defenders  from  the  view  of 
the  enemy,  and,  therefore,  on  level 
ground,  the  height  must  be  nearly  8 
feet.  But  if  a  work  be  intended  merely 
to  cover  a  guard,  or  to  hold  out  against 
a  sudden  assault,  a  parapet  of  6  feet 
high  will,  in  many  cases,  be  sufficient. 
The  thickness  should  vary  in  proportion 
to  the  calibre  of  the  projectile  which  the 
parapet  is  intended  to  resist." 

Parbuckle,  To — In  artillery  exercise, 
to  roll  a  gun,  so  as  to  cause  it  to  move 
in  either  direction  from  the  spot  on 
which  it  rests.  For  this  purpose,  the 
gun  must  be  placed  on  skids ;  and  if  it 
i.s  to  be  moved  up  or  down  a  slope,  two 
4j-inch  ropes  must  be  made  fast  to  some 
suitable  object  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
slope,  and  the  ends  carried  under  the 
chase  and  breech  of  the  gun  respectively, 
round  it  and  up  the  slope.  If  the  running 
ends  of  these  ropes  are  hauled  upon,  the 
gun  ascends ;  if  eased  off,  it  descends. 
If  the  ground  is  horizontal,  handspikes 
only  are  necessary  to  move  the  gun.  If 
the  slope  is  not  great,  one  rope  will 
suffice  to  parbuckle  a  gun  up  with.  In 
this  case,  it  must  be  made  fast  to  one  of 
the  trunnions,  and  passed  as  many  times 
round  the  gun  in  rear  of  and  close  to 
them  as  may  be  convenient,  the  running 
end  coming  out  as  before  over  the  gun 
and  up  the  slope.  In  hauling  the  gun 
up,  the  rope  uncoils  itself.  The  breech 
end  of  the  gun,  on  account  of  its  greater 
thickness,  will  always  advance  quicker 
than  the  muzzle. 

Parchment — The  dressed  skin  of  an 
animal ;  it  is  used  for  legal  and  other 
documents.  Soldier's  final  discharge  cer- 
tificates are  made  out  on  parchment.  The 
flesh  of  drums  is  also  made  of  parchment. 

Pare,  To — In  carpentry,  to  cut  or  trim 
the  surface  of  a  plank  with  an  adze.  In 
farriery,  the  expression  means  to  cut  or 
pare  down  the  hoof  of  a  horse  in  order 
to  fit  the  shoe. 


Park — An  inclosure,  or  any  place 
where  guns,  wagons,  carts,  &c.  can  be 
placed  in  safety. 

A  park  of  artillery,  in  the  field,  signi- 
fies the  whole  train  of  artillery  forming 
the  guns,  ammunition,  carts,  wagons, 
and  stores  required  for  a  siege  or  other 
purposes,  as  well  as  the  reserve  of  gun 
and  small-arm  ammunition  for  the  army. 
The  term  is  applied  also  to  the  ground  on 
which  all  guns  stand  or  are  parked. 

During  a  siege  the  park  must  be 
sheltered  and  screened  as  much  as  pos- 
sible from  the  view  and  fire  of  the 
enemy,  but  in  a  position  to  communi- 
cate freely  with  the  besieger's  trenches. 
If  possible,  its  locality  should  also  be 
chosen  close  to  some  good  line  of  com- 
munication, either  a  road  or  river. 
Great  thought  should  be  given  to  the 
position  of  the  laboratories;  they  should  be 
farthest  away  in  the  park  from  the  enemy. 

The  officer  in  charge  of  a  park  is 
assisted  by  well  trained  men  of  the 
ordnance  branch,  and  a  large  number  of 
artificers  of  various  trades  are  attached 
to  the  park. 

An  engineer  park  comprehends  all  the 
material,  tools,  &c.  attached  to  that 
branch  of  the  service. 

A  siege  park  comprises  the  guns 
collected  together  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  investment  of  a  fortress, 
taken  from  the  artillery  park  and 
manned  by  artillerymen,  aided  by  men  of 
the  ordnance  department.  (Vide  Siege 
Train.) 

Park,  To — To  lodge,  to  place  anything 
in  a  safe  and  convenient  manner ;  to  in- 
close. This  expression  is  applied  in  mili- 
tary matters  to  the  parking  of  the  artil- 
lery, cattle,  &c.,  whence  the  expression, 
"  the  artillery  was  parked  in  the  fields." 

Parkinsonia — A  shrub  found  com- 
monly in  Bengal.  It  has  been  stated 
to  yield  a  very  fair  charcoal  for  gun- 
powder purposes ;  but  from  trials  made 
of  it,  of  late  years,  at  the  government 
powder  works  at  Ishapore,  it  was  not  found 
to  be  equal  to  that  made  from  urhur  or 
dhall  stalk.  Nevertheless  it  might  be 
used  if  the  latter  crop  failed. 

Parley — Oral  treaty  ;  conference. 

Parley,  To — In  a  military  sense,  means 
to  enter  into  conference  with  the  enemy. 
This  is  done  by  means  of  a  flag  of  truce. 


PAR 


288 


PAS 


Parole — A  word  published  in  orders 
every  day,  by  the  officer  in  command  of  a 
garrison,  for  the  purpose  of  distinguish- 
ing friends  from  foes,  and  without  the 
knowledge  of  which  no  one  can  approach 
or  pass  by  a  sentry's  post.  It  is  also 
the  pass-word  or  order  transmitted  from 
front  to  rear  of  an  army,  by  word  of 
mouth.  Also  the  word  of  an  officer 
under  confinement  as  a  prisoner  in  an 
enemy's  camp  or  country,  who  is  allowed 
to  be"  at  large,  having  promised  not  to 
effect  his  escape.  An  officer  in  the 
hands  of  the  enemy  may  even  be  per- 
mitted to  proceed  to  his  country  on 
parole,  having  previously  promised  not 
to  take  up  arms  again  against  his 
captors  until  the  war  is  over. 

Parrott  Gun — A  rifled  gun,  the  inven- 
tion of  Mr.  R.  P.  Parrott,  an  American. 
The  cannon  proper  is  a  cast-iron  gun  of 
very  light  proportions,  rifled  with  fine 
grooves,  the  circumference  of  the  bore 
being  equally  divided  between  the  lands 
and  the  grooves.  Three  calibres  were 
introduced  into  the  U.S.  service,  viz. 
10-prs.,  20-prs.  and  30-prs.  The  projec- 
tile used  with  these  guns  is  an  elongated 
shell,  of  a  length  equal  to  3  calibres,  and 
cylindro-conical  in  form. 

Parson's  Gun,  vide  Converted  Gun. 

Partisan — A  leader  of  a  detached  body 
of  light  troops  who,  knowing  the  country 
in  which  the  operations  of  war  are  carried 
on,  is  employed  either  in  obtaining  intel- 
ligence or  harassing  the  enemy,  by  fall- 
ing on  his  rear,  attacking  his  convoys, 
and  destroying  his  line  of  communica- 
tions. Guerillas  during  the  peninsular 
campaigns,  and  franc-tireu'S  (<?.  0.)  during 
the  war  of  1870-71,  carried  on  partisan 
warfare. 

Partizan — A  kind  of  pike  introduced 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  It  is  stated 
that  it  was  found  more  useful  than  the 
actual  pike  in  making  trenches,  and  in 
attacking  and  defending  lodgments.  This 
arm  continued  in  use  during  Elizabeth's 
reign. 

Party — As  applied  to  military  matters, 
expresses  any  small  number  of  soldiers 
detached  from  an  army  or  regiment  on 
any  particular  duty  either  in  peace  or 
war  time.  A  party  is  often  sent  out  to 
forage,  reconnoitre,  and  gain  intelli- 
gence. The  term  is  applied  also  to  other 


duties  which  small  bodies  of  men  are 
engaged  on,  such  as  recruiting  parties, 
icorking  parties,  storming  parties,  and 
firing  parties.  The  three  former  will 
be  found  under  their  own  heads.  Firing 
parties  are  men  selected  to  fire  over  the 
grave  of  any  one  buried  with  military 
honours. 

Pass  —  In  military  life,  a  "pass"  is 
simply  the  permission  granted  by  the 
officer  commanding  a  regiment  to  a  soldier 
to  be  absent  from  his  quarters,  recorded 
and  signed  by  the  commanding  officer, 
so  that  the  soldier  may  be  able  to  show 
to  others,  if  necessary,  the  authority  for 
his  being  absent  from  his  regiment. 
The  Queen's  Regulations  lay  down  the 
rules  on  the  subject  of  granting  passes. 

Pass,  Mountain  —  A  road  or  path 
leading  from  one  side  of  a  mountain  to 
another.  In  latitudes  where  much  snow 
falls,  the  "  passes "  are  only  open  for 
egress  or  ingress  during  the  summer 
months.  In  warfare,  mountain  passes 
play  a  very  important  part,  if  the  opera- 
tions, whether  defensive  or  offensive,  are 
carried  on  in  a  mountainous  country. 
(  Vide  Mountains.) 

Passage  Warrant  —  One  among  the 
numerous  royal  warrants  issued  for  the 
guidance  of  the  army.  It  relates,  as  its 
name  implies,  to  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions to  be  observed  in  applying  for 
passages  on  board  troop  and  other  go- 
vernment ships.  The  accommodation 
granted  to  officers,  and  the  quantity  of 
baggage  allowed,  as  well  as  messing 
costs,  will  be  found  in  the  copy  of  this 
warrant.  (  Vide  Appendix  N.) 

Paste — A  tenacious  mixture  of  flour 
and  alum  in  the  proportion  of  2  Ibs.  of 
flour  to  1  oz.  of  pounded  alum  mixed 
with  1  gallon  of  boiling  water.  The 
mode  of  preparing  it  is  as  follows.  Heat 
it  gently,  stir  it,  and  let  it  boil  f  of  an 
hour ;  when  it  becomes  ropy,  pour  it 
into  bowls,  and  pass  it  through  a  sieve 
before  it  is  quite  cold.  It  should  be 
used  cold,  and  only  2  or  3  days'  supply- 
made  at  a  time,  but  it  may  be  preserved 
longer  by  adding  alum  in  the  proportion 
of  one-tenth  the  weight  of  flour.  Paste 
is  used  in  the  laboratory  in  case-making, 
for  portfires,  rockets,  light-balls,  &c. 

Pastern — The  part  of  a  horse's  foot 
from  the  fetlock  to  the  heel. 


PAT 


289 


PAY 


Patch,  vide  Dispart. 

Path — In  gunnery,  the  direction  of  a 
projectile  in  its  flight ;  also  termed  the 
trajectory  (q.  r.). 

Patrick,  St.,  Order  of,  vide  St.  Patrick, 
Order  of. 

Patrol  (French,  patrouille) — A  party 
told  off  from  the  main  or  regimental 
guard  for  the  purpose  of  quelling  dis- 
turbances, picking  up  stragglers,  or  any 
such  duty  as  may  be  required  of  it  in 
garrison  or  camp.  Also  bodies  of  men 
moving  between  the  line  of  posts  to  keep 
the  one  informed  of  the  state  of  the 
other  are  termed  "patrols." 

Paul — The  name  given  to  a  sepoys' 
tent.  It  is  of  a  different  pattern  to  the 
European  soldiers'  tent,  being  much 
smaller  and  lighter. 

Pauldroons — In  ancient  armour,  plates 
of  metal  for  the  protection  of  theshoulders. 

Paulins— Canvas  cloth,  either  waxed 
over    or    tarred,    for    the    protection    of 
stores.      The    former    are    not  used    for 
home  stores,    but    are    found    in    Indian 
arsenals.     They  are  of  four  sizes,  viz. : — 
Magazine,  large  ; 
Magazine,  small ; 
Camel  paulins ; 
Cart  paulins. 

Large  paulins  are  used  on  the  floors  of 
laboratory  tents.  Small  magazine  paulins 
are  used  in  covering  powder  barrels  and 
live  shells  in  the  batteries.  Camel  paulins, 
being  of  a  small  size,  are  frequently  very 
convenient,  and  are  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  small  magazine  paulins. 
Cart  paulins  are  used  with  tilts  for 
artificers'  carts.  With  the  exception  of 
the  camel  and  cart  paulins,  which  are 
made  of  coarse  country  canvas,  all  others 
are  made  of  vitry. 

1'arpaulins  are  of  different  size,  and  are 
used  in  England  and  the  colonies,  but  not 
commonly  in  India. 

Pavise — A  heart-shaped  shield  used  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  and  hanging  on  the 
backs  of  arbalisters.  This  shield  was 
carried  in  action  by  a  pavisier,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  ward  off  from  the  bow- 
men the  missiles  of  the  enemy. 

Pawl — A  catch  which  holds  in  a  ratchet 
and  restrains  a  capstan  or  windlass  from 
flying  round  in  a  reverse  direction  during 
any  pause  in  the  winding. 

Pay — Compensation  given  or  a  return 


made  in  money  for  services  done,  such 
as  the  pay  given  to  officers  and  soldiers. 
Pay  is  distributed  once  a  month  to 
officers,  and  weekly  to  men  in  the  ranks. 

The  salary  of  officers  and  men  in  the 
army  differs  according  to  rank.  Troops 
began  to  be  in  the  pay  of  the  govern- 
ment after  1660. 

Deprivation  of  pay  can  be  awarded,  as  a 
punishment  to  soldiers,  for  such  offences 
as  are  not  of  sufficiently  serious  nature 
to  be  brought  before  a  court-martial. 
(  Vide  Appendix  0.) 

Pay  Abstract— A  form  of  document  in 
which  the  pay  of  a  company  or  regiment 
is  drawn,  and  the  establishments  attached 
to  a  regiment. 

Pay,  Deferred — An  increase  of  2d.  per 
diem  granted  by  parliament  to  the  non- 
commissioned officers  and  soldiers  of  the 
army  and  army  reserve,  under  the  fol- 
lowing conditions: — 

"  The  2d.  per  diem  for  the  army  with 
the  colours,  to  be  payable  on  the  dis- 
charge or  death  of  every  non-commis- 
sioned officer  or  man,  in  respect  of  all 
service  (previously  to  the  completion 
of  12  years'  service)  from  April  1, 
1876.  The  2d.  per  diem  for  the  army 
reserve,  to  be  paid  annually  in  arrear 
to  all  men  in  it.  Any  sum  earned 
by  a  man,  dying  during  the  year,  to  be 
paid  to  his  representatives.  £1  per  man, 
now  paid  for  necessaries,  not  to  be  pay- 
able to  men  accepting  the  new  terms." 

Pay  Department,  vide  Control  Depart- 
ment. 

Pay,  Good-conduct,  vide  Good-conduct 
Pay. 

Pay,  Half,  vide  Half-pay. 

Pay,  Staff,  vide  Staff  Pay. 

Paymaster — An  officer  of  the  army 
attached  to  each  infantry  and  cavalry 
regiment,  and  to  brigades  of  artillery 
other  than  those  in  India.  His  duties 
are  confined  to  paying  the  officers  and 
men  of  the  regiment,  and  keeping  a  strict 
account  of  all  money  passing  through  his 
hands,  a  statement  of  which  he  has  to 
submit,  in  England,  to  the  accountant- 
general,  and  in  India  to  the  examiner  of 
accounts.  Advances  in  India  are  made 
monthly  or  oftener  from  the  nearest 
district  paymaster.  The  pay  of  the 
artillery  in  India  is  disbursed  by  the 
commanding  officers  of  batteries.  A  pay-"-' 
u 


PAY 


290 


FED 


master,  on  joining  his  regiment,  has  the 
relative  rank  of  captain,  and  his  pay  and 
rank  are  improved  from  length  of  service. 

There  are  also  control  paymasters,  who 
are  not  in  any  way  connected  with 
regimental  paymasters.  They  pay  the 
start',  contractors'  bills,  &c.,  and  render 
their  accounts  to  the  War  Office. 

Paymaster-Sergeant,  vide  Sergeant. 

Peace— Rest,  quietness ;  direct  oppo- 
sition to  war ;  the  result  and  ultimate 
object  of  any  contest. 

Peace  Establishment  —  The  reduced 
number  of  effective  men  of  an  army 
during  peace  time ;  regiments  are  raised 
to  their  full  complement  in  war  time, 
or,  as  it  is  termed,  to  a  war  establishment. 
In  Great  Britain  the  raising  of  the  army 
from  a  peace  to  a  war  establishment  is 
effected  by  calling  out  the  reserve,  the 
militia,  enrolled  pensioners,  and  volun- 
teers ;  iu  continental  armies,  where  the 
compulsory  service  is  in  force,  by  calling 
out  the  men  on  furlough  and  the  reserves. 

Pearl-ash — Impure  carbonate  of  pot- 
ash, called  in  Hindustani  sdji  mutti.  It 
is  used  for  removing  paint  or  grease. 

Pebble  Powder  —  A  large-grained 
powder  which  is  used  with  heavy  guns. 
It  receives  its  name  from  the  grains 
being  originally  broken  up  into  lumps 
resembling  the  size  of  small  pebbles. 
The  grains  are  now  cut  into  cubes  of 
about  £  inch,  but  the  size  depends  upon 
the  size  of  the  gun  from  which  this 
nature  of  powder  is  fired.  Experiments 
which  have  lately  been  made  tend  towards 
using  a  larger  grain  than  the  above  with 
the  38-ton  gun.  Experience  has  shown 
that  a  grain  of  IJ-inch  cube  with  this 
nature  of  powder  is  the  most  suitable 
for  the  above  gun.  In  the  proof  of  the 
81-ton  gun,  cubes  of  powder  from  1-7  to 
2  inches  were  used  with  great  success, 
the  pressure  being  within  permissible 
bounds,  and  not  exceeding  25  tons  to  the 
square  inch.  This  nature  of  powder, 
technically  termed  "P.  powder,"  is  made 
with  the  same  ingredients,  and  with  the 
same  proportions,  as  ordinary  service  gun- 
powder. 

The  mode  of  manufacturing  "  P. 
powder"  is  somewhat  different  in  some 
of  the  processes  to  that  of  ordinary 
powder,  especially  in  the  density,  which 
varies  from  1-75  to  1-80,  and  in  the 


drying  of  the  powder.  The  pebbles  or 
cubes  are  formed  by  cutting  up  the 
"  press-cake  "  into  lumps  of  the  required 
size  by  means  of  a  machine,  the  sharp 
edges  of  the  lumps  or  cakes  being  re- 
moved by  glazing  in  a  revolving  barrel. 

The  object  of  using  gunpowder  of 
such  large-sized  grains  is  to  relieve 
the  gun  of  the  great  pressure  or  strain 
exerted  by  a  smaller  grain,  the  pres- 
sure of  P.  powder  being  a  third  less, 
or  even  more,  in  heavy  guns  (with  which 
it  is  only  used),  than  R.L.G.  powder. 
Great  improvements  have  been  made 
in  the  manufacture  of  this  powder  since 
it  was  first  introduced.  In  a  lecture 
given  by  Captain  Morgan,  K.A.,  at  the 
United  Service  Institution,  in  March 
1874,  he  remarks  on  the  inconsistencies 
observed  in  the  result  of  the  early  ex- 
periments with  this  nature  of  powder, 
and  the  difficulties  attending  the  manu- 
facture of  it,  so  as  to  arrive  at  uniform 
results ;  but  after  much  seeking  and 
experiments,  and  the  proof  of  a  vast 
number  of  samples,  he  says,  "  I  fancied 
I  saw  into  the  secret  recesses  of  pebble 
powder  and  its  mode  of  action. 
The  whole  question  seems  to  lie  in  the 
porosity  of  the  grains.  The  more 
porous  the  grains  the  more  violent  will 
be  the  action."  Hence  is  apparent  the 
necessity  of  giving  this  powder  increased 
density.  But  this  alone  did  not  procure 
the  best  powder  required.  It  was  found 
necessary  also  to  extract,  by  increased 
heat  and  stoving,  the  moisture  within 
the  pebble,  as  its  absence  or  otherwise 
affected  the  ignition  'and  uniformity  of 
ignition,  causing,  when  all  the  moisture 
was  not  extracted,  a  speedier  explo- 
sion of  the  grains,  and  therefore  a 
great  pressure  on  the  gun.  This  action 
would  also  affect  the  uniform  velocity  of 
the  shot  at  the  mouth  of  the  piece.  As 
Captain  Morgan  remarks,  "  this  part  of 
moisture,  if  not  dried  out  of  the  pebble, 
might,  for  all  we  know,  generate  steam 
within  the  pebble  on  being  ignited,  and 
by  its  action  cause  considerable  porosity 
iu  the  several  pebbles  of  the  charge." 

Peddowk  \Pterocarpus  dolbergtidies) — 
A  tree  which  grows  in  the  forests  of 
Burmah  and  the  Andaman  Islands.  It 
resembles  mahogany  in  its  colour.  It 
was  formerly  much  used  by  the  Burmese 


PEE 


291 


PEN 


for  gun  carriages,  and  was  introduced, 
some  years  back,  into  the  gun  carriage 
manufactory  at  Madras.  A  cubic  foot  of 
unseasoned  wood  weighs  from  65  to  70  Ibs. 

Peemah  (JLagerstrmnia  reginse) — A 
tree  which  grows  in  India  and  Burmah, 
and  is  made  use  of  in  the  Madras  gun 
carriage  factory  for  certain  portions  of 
gun  carriages.  It  is  a  light  and  tough 
wood.  There  are  two  descriptions  of  it, 
red  and  white  coloured  ;  the  former  is  the 
tougher  of  the  two.  A  cubic  foot  of  un- 
seasoned wood  weighs  from  50  to  52  Ibs. 

Pellet  Powder — This  powder,  in  place 
of  being  made  into  press-cake,  and  then 
granulated,  which  involves  the  formation 
of  a  quantity  of  smaller  grains  and 
particles,  is  pressed  into  a  number  of 
cylindrical  pellets,  about  -5  inch  long, -75 
inch  in  diameter,  perforated  at  one  end  to 
about  the  centre.  The  object  is  to  obtain 
a  comparatively  slow-burning  powder, 
having  a  large  and  uniform  grain  or 
pellet.  The  pressure  that  this  powder 
exerts  on  the  walls  of  a  gun  is  much 
less  than  that  of  the  ordinary  R.L.G. 
This  powder  is  not  used  in  the  service. 

Pell-mell  (French,  pele-mele)  —  Con- 
fusedly ;  in  disorder  ;  in  heaps,  &c. 

Penal  Servitude  —  A  punishment 
awarded  by  the  Articles  of  War  for  cer- 
tain crimes  committed  by  soldiers. 

Pendulum  —  In  mechanics,  denotes 
"  any  body  so  suspended  that  it  is  at 
liberty  to  vibrate  or  swing  backwards  and 
forwards  about  a  horizontal  axis  of  sus- 
pension by  the  action  of  gravity.  The 
vibrations  of  a  pendulum  are  called  its 
oscillations ;  the  time  of  each  being 
counted  from  the  time  of  its  descent  from 
the  highest  point  on  one  side,  till  it  at- 
tains the  highest  point  on  the  other  side. 

"The  lengths  of  pendulums  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  force  of  gravity  in  different 
latitudes,  the  increment  above  the  force 
at  the  equator  being  nearly  as  the  square 
of  the  sine  of  the  latitude ;  and  since 
the  length  of  the  second's  pendulum 
is  directly  proportional  to  the  force  of 
gravity,  the  increment  in  its  length 
above  the  length  at  the  equator  varies 
also  as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the 
latitude.  Hence,  if  39-0265  be  the  length 
of  the  second's  pendulum  at  the  equator, 
and  0-1608  the  increment  in  its  length 
at  the  pole,  the  length  L  of  the  pendulum 


in  any  latitude,  A.,  is  given  by  the  equa- 
tion L  =  39-0265  +  0-1608  sin2  A." 

Pendulum,  Gunner's — Consists  of  an 
upright  frame  of  wood,  having  a  cross- 
arm  attached  to  it,  from  which  a  pen- 
dulum is  suspended,  vibrating  seconds, 
consisting  of  a  string  with  a  leaden  ball, 
measuring,  from  the  point  of  suspension 
to  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ball, 
a  length  equal  to  a  second's  pendulum 
having  reference  to  the  latitude ;  in 
latitude  22°  the  length  is  39'1.  It  is 
used  :to  measure  the  time  of  flight  of  a 
mortar  shell. 

Pendulum,  Navez' — The  principal  part 
in  Navez'  electro-ballistic  apparatus.  It 
is  thus  described  by  Captain  Noble,  late 
R.A. : — "  The  principal  parts  are  the 
pendulum  and  graduated  arc.  The 
pendulum,  before  an  observation,  is  held 
suspended  by  an  electro-magnet,  the 
current  magnetising  which  passes  through 
the  first  screen.  To  the  pendulum  is 
attached,  by  means  of  the  pressure  of 
a  spring,  an  arm  with  a  vernier.  The 
pressure  of  this  spring  is  so  regulated 
that  the  arm  vibrates  freely  with  the 
pendulum,  but  at  the  same  time  it  offers 
but  little  resistance  to  the  action  of 
a  powerful  horse-shoe  electro-magnet, 
which,  when  the  circuit  magnetising  it 
is  complete,  clamps  the  vernier  arm  with 
great  firmness." 

Pendulum  Sight — A  graduated  sine 
scale,  by  means  of  which  a  gun  on  an 
incline  can.  be  directed  on  an  object 
without  making  any  allowance  for  one 
wheel  being  higher  than  the  other.  It 
consists  of  an  upright  piece  of  sheet 
brass,  and  has  a  movable  slider  and  scale. 
At  the  lower  end  a  bulb  or  disc  is 
placed,  filled  with  lead.  The  scale  passes 
through  a  slit  in  a  piece  of  steel,  and  is 
connected  with  it  by  a  brass  screw, 
which  serves  as  a  point  on  which  the 
scale  vibrates  laterally  ;  the  slit  is  made 
long  enough  to  allow  the  scale  to  assume 
a  vertical  position  in  any  ordinary  cases 
of  irregularity  of  the  ground  on  which 
the  gun  carriage  may  stand.  The  ends 
of  the  piece  of  steel  are  formed  into 
journals  or  trunnions,  by  means  of  which 
the  scale  is  supported  on  the  seat  attached 
to  the  base  of  the  breech,  and  is  at 
liberty  to  vibrate  in  the  direction  of  the 
axis  of  the  piece.  This  sight  is  believed 
U  2 


PEN 


292 


PEN 


to  be  the  invention  of  a  Russian  officer, 
and  the  Americans  adopted  it  for  their 
artillery.  A  similar  pendulum,  a  few 
years  back,  was  brought  to  the  notice 
of  the  Indian  government  by  the  late 
Captain  Butt,  of  the  then  Bengal  artil- 
lery, who,  unaware  of  the  Russian  inven- 
tion, submitted  his  pendulum  sight  for 
the  approval  of  the  Indian  government, 
which,  after  trial,  was  reported  on  most 
favourably,  and  directed  to  be  attached 
to  all  mountain  pieces.  Captain  Butt 
thus  describes  the  error  of  the  tangent 
scale  when  the  carriage  is  on  uneven 
ground,  and  the  correction  the  pendulum 
sight  affords  : — 

'•The  line  between  the  two  sights  at 
the  muzzle  and  breech  being  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  piece,  the  gun  (if  it  have 
a  dispart  sight)  can  always  be  laid 
correctly  point-blank ;  the  error  begins 
with  the  elevation,  when  the  tangent 
scale  is  drawn  out  obliquely  (instead  of 
vertically,  as  it  should  be),  and  the  hori- 
zontal distance  between  the  breech  sight 
and  the  axis  being  greater  than  the 
horizontal  distance  between  the  muzzle 
sight  and  axis,  the  line  of  the  sights 
produced  crosses  the  line  of  the  axis 
produced.  The  pendulum  sight  starts 
from  the  same  fixed  point  as  the  tangent 
scale,  but  it  rises  vertically,  and  every 
point  on  it  is  at  the  same  horizontal 
distance  from  the  axis  that  the  muzzle 
sight  is,  and  the  line  of  the  sights  pro- 
duced is  always  parallel  to  the  line  of 
the  axis  produced.  In  attaching  the 
pendulum  to  the  gun,  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  fulcrum  of  the  pendulum 
and  the  muzzle  sight  be  in  the  same 
plane  with,  and  equi-distant  from,  the 
axis  of  the  piece." 

This  instrument  is  not  used  with  rifled 
guns,  as  they  have  a  deflection  scale, 
which  corrects  the  position  of  the  gun 
when  one  wheel  is  higher  than  another. 

Penetration — The  depth  a  projectile 
buries  itself  into  earth,  masonry,  iron, 
wood,  or  snow.  As  stated  in  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Owen's  work  on  'Modern  Artil- 
lery,' "  the  penetration  of  a  projectile 
depends  upon  a  variety  of  circumstances, 
such  as  its  velocity  at  the  moment  of  im- 
pact, the  charge  given,  its  form,  density, 
diameter, .  nature,  of  the  object  struck, 
and  th<e  relative  position,. of  t,he  lattei; 


with  regard  to  the  trajectory  or  path  of 
the  projectile.  Elongated  shot  at  long 
distances  penetrate  farther  than  spherical, 
the  velocity  of  the  former  not  decreasing 
so  rapidly  as  the  latter.  Further,  in  the 
penetrating  powers  of  elongated  pro- 
jectiles fired  from  rifled  guns,  the  form 
of  head  has  much  to  say  to  the  disruptive 
effects  on  the  object  struck  ;  and  it  has 
been  found  from  experience  that  the 
ogival-headed  shot  is  much  more  pene- 
trating and  destructive  than  any  other 
form."  The  reader  is  referred  to  the 
work  alluded  to  above  for  the  formulas 
for  working  out  the  penetrative  power 
of  projectiles  into  different  materials. 

In  experiments  which  have  been  made 
with  cannon  shot  into  plates  of  varying 
thickness,  it  has  been  found  that  little 
difference  in  resistance  exists,  whether 
a  solid  plate  is  being  fired  into,  or 
plates  of  the  same  thickness  composed 
of  layers.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  resist- 
ance is  much  the  same  whether  the  plate 
be  15  inches  thick  or  three  plates  of 
5  inches.  Again,  it  has  been  found  that 
33  foot-tons  per  inch  of  shot's  circum- 
ference (in  7  inches  calibre)  represents 
the  limit  of  resistance  of  a  single  5-inch 
plate.  Two  5-inch  plates  give  three 
times  the  resistance  of  a  single  one,  and 
three  5-inch  plates  six  times.  (TYcfc  Ap- 
pendix P.) 

Pennon  (Latin,  penna,  a  feather.)  — 
A  military  ensign,  which  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.  took  the  place  on  the  lance  of 
the  gonfanon.  It  appears  to  have  re- 
sembled it  in  its  swallow-tailed  form,  but 
was  longer  and  broader.  This  military 
ensign  is  generally  charged  with  the  crest, 
badge,  or  war-cry  of  the  knight ;  his 
arms  being  emblazoned  on  the  banner. 

Pension  —  In  the  British  service,  a 
pension  is  understood  to  be  an  annuity, 
granted  as  compensation  for  wounds,  or 
in  consideration  of  length  of  service.  In  the 
Indian  army,  the  annuity  or  retired  pay 
given  to  an  officer  is  called  a  "  pension," 
the  amount  of  which  depends  upon  his 
rank  and  length  of  service.  For  instance, 
a  captain  on  the  old  Indian  cadre  is  en- 
titled to  the  pension  of  that  rank  after 
20  years.  After  22  years,  he  may  suc- 
ceed to  the  pension  of  his  rank,  whatever 
that  may  be,  but  this  is  not  applicable  to 
officers? of  the  Jndian  staff  corps.  After 


PEST 


293 


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24-  years,  an  officer  is  entitled  to  a  major's 
pension ;  after  28  years,  to  that  of  a 
lieutenant-colonel ;  after  32  years,  to  the 
pension  of  a  colonel ;  and  after  35  and  38 
years  respectively,  to  increased  pensions. 
The  widows  and  orphans  of  officers  also 
receive  pensions. 

Soldiers  receive  pensions  for  long 
service,  good  conduct  (q.  v.~),  or  disability. 
Claims  by  soldiers  to  pensions  can  be 
forfeited  for  bad  conduct,  but  they  can 
be  restored  by  an  undeviatiug  course 
of  good  behaviour  or  gallant  service 
spread  over  a  certain  number  of  years. 

Pension,  Good-service,  vide  Good-ser- 
vice Pension. 

Pensioner — A  soldier  who  receives  a 
pension  from  the  government  he  has 
served. 

In-pensioncr,  a  worn-out  soldier,  for 
whom  a  home  is  found  in  Chelsea  Hos- 
pital (q.  «.). 

Out-pensioner,  a  pensioned  soldier,  but 
not  maintained  in  Chelsea  Hospital.  All 
out-pensioners  are  to  be  ready  to  join  the 
ranks  when  called  upon  to  do  so. 

Peon — In  India,  a  term  formerly  given 
to  a  foot  soldier,  but  in  these  days  it 
does  not  bear  this  signification.  Native 
servants  or  messengers  attached  to  the 
government  offices  in  India  are  designated 
peons,  and  wear  a  belt  with  a  brass  plate 
bearing  the  name  of  the  office  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  private  servants. 

Perambulator  —  In  surveying,  an 
instrument  for  measuring  distances, 
named  also  the  pedometer  and  surveying 
wheel.  There  are  two  kinds :  cue  with 
a  large  wheel,  requiring  two  men  to 
turn  it ;  and  the  other  a  smaller  kind, 
which  one  man  can  direct. 

Perch — In  artillery,  the  beam  of  an 
ammunition  wagon  or  carriage,  by  means 
of  which  it  is  connected  with  the  limber. 

Percussion — The  impression  made  by 
one  body  falling  or  striking  upon  another. 
Of  percussive  applications,  one  that  we  are 
most  familiar  with  is  the  percussion  lock 
in  small-arms  striking  a  cap ;  the  cap 
is  charged  with  a  fulminating  material 
which  ignites  on  the  hammer  falling 
upon  it.  Another  is  a  percussion  fuze 
that  explodes  the  shell  on  its  striking  an 
object.  Gunpowder,  when  suddenly  struck, 
is  found  to  be  percussive. 

Percussion  Caps,  vide  Caps,  Percussion. 


Percussion  Fuze,  vvle  Fuze. 

Perforated  Disc  Gunpowder  —  Com- 
pressed gunpowder,  perforated  with  a  cer- 
tain number  of  holes.  From  the  excessive 
pressure  given  to  the  discs,  the  powder 
burns  slowly  ;  it  has  been  and  is  still  used 
for  discharging  rifled  ordnance  by  some 
foreign  artilleries.  In  the  British  artil- 
lery it  is  not  used. 

Perimeter  (Greek,  peri,  around ;  me- 
tron,  a  measure)  —  The  perimeter  of  a 
figure  is  the  sum  of  all  its  sides  taken 
together. 

Periphery  (Greek,  periphero,  I  carry 
round) — The  circumference  of  any  curve, 
as  the  circle,  ellipse,  parabola,  &c. 

Permanent — Anything  which  is  made 
to  last  an  indefinite  time,  such  as  per- 
manent fortifications,  barracks,  &c.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  substantive  rank 
(vide  Rank)  in  the  army. 

Perpendicular — When  a  straight  line 
standing  on  another  straight  line  makes 
the  adjacent  angles  equal  to  one  another, 
each  of  these  angles  is  a  right  angle,  and 
the  line  perpendicular. 

Persian  Wheel  —  A  contrivance  for 
raising  water  from  a  well  or  stream,  and 
used  in  the  country  from  which  it 
takes  its  name.  It  is  also  extensively 
used  in  Egypt,  where  it  is  known  as  the 
saguieh,  in  northern  India,  in  the  Punjab, 
in  Sinde,  and  also  in  Spain  as  the  noria. 
It  consists  of  a  wheel,  about  4-  feet  in 
diameter,  revolving  on  a  wooden  axle, 
which  is  flush  with  the  mouth  of  the 
well,  and  is  set  in  motion  by  means  of 
a  driving  wheel  turned  by  a  pair  of 
bullocks.  The  wheel  has  on  its  rim  pins 
of  wood  inserted  into  it,  at  short  distances 
apart,  to  which  buckets  or  jars  are  sus- 
pended by  means  of  an  endle.-s  band 'or 
double  rope  ;  the  buckets  descend  on  one 
side  into  the  well  and  ascend  on  the  other 
filled  with  water,  and  discharge  them- 
selves into  a  reservoir  at  the  mouth  of 
the  well.  The  Persian  wheel,  used  for 
raising  water  from  a  stream  instead  of  a 
well,  has  the  buckets  somewhat  differ- 
ently arranged  for  lifting  the  water,  but 
the  principle  is  the  same. 

Personnel — A  French  word  introduced 
into  our  military  language,  as  meaning 
the  ensemble  of  persons  forming  part  of 
an  administration  or  of  a  bodv.  The 
personnel  is  one  of  the  two  (and  the  effec- 


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291 


PHO 


tive)  subdivisions  forming  the  numerous 
elements  composing  an  army,  the  materiel, 
or  non-effective,  being  the  other. 

The  personnel  is  levied  in  conformity 
with  such  custom  as  may  prevail  in  each 
state,  or  such  laws  as  the  government  of 
the  state  may  see  fit  to  adopt. 

Perspective — Jn  drawing,  "is  the 
method  by  which  all  objects  are  por- 
trayed on  a  plane  surface,  as  in  a  picture, 
according  to  their  appearance  in  their  real 
.situation.  Perspective  is  of  two  kinds, 
linear  and  aerial,  the  first  having  refer- 
ence to  the  form  of  on  object,  the  second 
to  its  distinctness  and  colour." 

Petard — -A  machine  (now  obsolete)  in 
the  shape  of  a  cone  or  bell,  made  of 
bronze  or  cast  iron,  and  loaded  with  gun- 
powder. Petards  were  formerly  used  for 
bursting  open  gates,  barriers,  &c.  The 
invention  of  this  nature  of  machine  dates 
as  far  back  as  1579,  when,  it  is  stated, 
the  Huguenots  took  the  town  of  Cahors 
by  means  of  "  petards." 

Petroleum,  vide  Oil. 

Pettman's  Fuze— A  percussion  fuze 
invented  some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Pettman, 
a  workman  in  the  Royal  Arsenal  at 
Woolwich,  and  introduced  subsequently 
into  the  service.  There  are  two  kinds,  the 
L.S.  and  G.S.  The  former  is  used  with 
common  shell  of  common  gauge ;  the 
latter  acts  equally  well  from  a  S.li.,  B.L. 
or  M.L.R.  gun. 

Pewter  (Normandy  French,  p&tutre) 
— An  alloy  of  tin  and  lead ;  but  the 
best  pewter  is  made  of  12  parts  of  tin 
with  1  part  of  antimony  and  a  very  small 
addition  of  copper. 

Phalanx  —  Peculiar  to  the  Grecian 
army.  It  consisted  of  a  square,  compact 
body  of  men,  closely  formed,  with  their 
fields  joined  and  pikes  across.  This 
was  called  the  Macedonian  phalanx,  and 
numbered  about  8000  men. 

Phosphorus  (Greek,  phos,  light,  and 
pliGros,  bearing)  —  Symbol,  P;  atomic 
weight,  31  ;  sp.  gr.  1-826.  A  highly  in- 
flammable elementary  substance,  obtained 
from  calcined  bones,  which  emits  light 
when  placed  in  the  dark,  owing  to  its 
undergoing  a  slow  combustion. 

In  combination  with  tin  and  copper,  it 
forms  w-hat  is  termed  phosphor-bronze, 
and  has  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
guns  and  tools.  From  experiments  made 


m  1870,  in  Belgium,  with  guns  of  this 
nature,  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Monte- 
fiori-Levi  and  Kiinzel,  the  inventors  of 
this  phosphor-bronze,  it  was  found  that 
the  increase  in  the  tenacity  of  the  alloy 
by  the  addition  of  phosphorus  was  very 
great,  and  proved  that  phosphoric  bronze 
was  much  harder  than  ordinary  bronze  ; 
but  it  showed  itself,  from  experiments 
some  years  previous,  an  unreliable  metal, 
as  the  gun  suddenly  burst  without  giving 
any  indication,  after  examination  of  the 
bore,  that  it  was  likely  to  do  so.  Such  an 
occurrence,  which  would  not  have  hap- 
pened with  the  ordinary  bronze,  is  fatal 
to  the  use  of  this  alloy,  as  no  more  de- 
pendence can  be  placed  on  it  than  on  a 
gun  made  of  cast-iron  or  steel.  (The 
Germans  in  their  report  on  it  say  just  the 
contrary.) 

Subsequent  experiments  were  made  in 
France  and  Belgium  by  Dr.  Kiinzel,  and 
it  is  stated  that  he  had  discovered  a  mode 
whereby  the  amount  of  phosphoric  action 
can  be  assured  in  any  degree  that  may  be 
desired.  This  certainty  of  result  appears 
to  be  wanting  in  every  other  description  of 
phosphor-bronze.  The  method  adopted 
by  Dr.  Kiinzel  is  kept  secret.  The  result 
of  treating  this  alloy  appears  satisfac- 
tory, and  should  the  bronze  not  come  up 
to  what  is  expected  of  it  for  guns,  its 
utility  for  many  other  purposes  cannot 
be  questioned. 

There  is  one  peculiarity  with  regard 
to  this  alloy  which  is  worthy  of  notice. 
It  differs  from  all  others  in  the  fact  that 
it  can  be  produced  in  a  definite  manner, 
without  any  difficulty  as  to  the  precise 
degree  of  hardness  required.  It  is  also 
singularly  pure  and  homogeneous,  and 
can  be  produced,  it  is  stated,  free  from 
all  tin  spots  and  imperfections. 

The  hard  phosphor-bronze  is  less 
liable  to  emit  sparks  when  brought 
into  violent  contact  with  gritty  sub- 
stances than  either  copper  or  gun-metal, 
and  for  this  reason  found  of  great  use 
for  implements  and  tools  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder.  It  has  been 
found  to  answer  in  the  royal  carriage 
department  as  a  material  for  the  con- 
struction of  sheaves  for  blocks  and  of 
bearings  for  engines  and  grindstones. 

Photography  (Greek,  phos,  light,  and 
grapho,  I  write) — The  art  of  producing 


PHO 


295 


PHO 


pictures  from  nature  by  the  action  of 
light  upon  certain  chemical  preparations. 
The  adaptation  of  this  beautiful  art  to 
military  purposes  has  never  extended 
beyond  that  of  copying,  enlarging,  and 
reducing  maps  and  plans.  But  it  has 
been  shown  by  a  Frenchman,  M.  Auguste 
Chevalier,  that  it  can  be  applied  still 
more  usefully  to  surveying. 

This  ingenious  method  of  surveying 
is  thus  described  by  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Baillie,  of  the  Bengal  staff  corps,  in  a  lec- 
ture before  the  Royal  Institution  in  1869  : 
— "It  consists  in  taking  small  circular 
pictures  or  panoramas  round  each  station 
of  the  triangulation  into  which  the  survey 
is  divided.  These  panoramas  are  printed 
by  the  ordinary  photographic  method,  and 
are  cut  out  and  fastened  on  a  sheet  of 
drawing  paper  in  the  relative  position  to 
each  other  which  they  occupied  on  the 
ground  to  be  surveyed ;  and  straight 
lines  or  radii  being  produced  from  the 
centre  of  each,  through  the  objects  shown 
in  them,  give  by  their  intersections  the 
relative  position  of  each  object  on  the 
paper,  so  that  the  '  filling  in,'  as  it 
is  technically  termed,  is  completed  as 
rapidly  as  these  intersections  can  be 
found." 

Such  a  system  dispenses  with  the  slow 
process  of  observing  each  object  sepa- 
rately, and  the  liability  to  any  possible 
error  in  recording  the  observation  in  the 
field-book,  which  is  now  quite  dispensed 
with. 

Photozincography  and  Photolitho- 
graphy —  The  processes  by  means  of 
which  photographic  facsimiles  of  original 
manuscripts,  engravings,  drawings,  or 
letterpress,  may  be  made  on  the  same  or 
on  any  desired  scale,  and  transferred  to  a 
zinc  plate  or  lithographic  stone,  so  that 
any  number  of  copies  may  be  printed  off 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  in  ordinary 
zincographic  or  lithographic  printing. 

The  utility  of  such  a  process  for  copying 
old  and  rare  original  manuscripts  or  maps 
and  plans  of  all  kinds  for  the  use  of  engi- 
neers and  others  will  at  once  be  apparent, 
and  it  has  already  been  largely  adopted 
in  the  Ordnance  Survey  Office,  South- 
ampton, for  the  reproduction  of  maps  and 
old  manuscript  records ;  at  the  India 
Museum,  London,  for  the  reproduction  of 
the  patterns  of  Indian  fabrics;  and  at 


Woolwich  Arsenal,  for  the  reproduction 
of  drawings  of  ordnance  equipment,  &e. 
It  is  also  largely  used  by  the  war  de- 
partments of  the  various  European  states 
and  in  America,  but  in  no  country  in  the 
world  has  photozincography  been  so  ex- 
tensively and  so  usefully  applied  to  the 
reproduction  of  maps  as  in  India,  where 
skilled  lithographic  draughtsmen  and 
engravers  are  very  scarce.  It  has  been 
most  successfully  worked  in  the  sur- 
veyor-general's office,  Calcutta,  in  the 
office  of  the  superintendent  of  the  Great 
Trigonometrical  Survey,  Dehra  Dhoon, 
and  in  the  photozincographic  office  of  the 
Bombay  government  at  Poonah.  By  its 
aid  the  maps  of  the  various  surveys  are 
issued  to  the  public  within  a  few  months 
after  the  completion  of  the  survey,  in- 
stead of  being  kept  back  for  years,  as 
they  would  be,  had  they  to  be  litho- 
graphed or  engraved.  Besides  being 
used  in  so  many  government  offices,  this 
process  is  extensively  worked  by  private 
individuals  in  Europe  and  America. 

Several  processes  of  this  kind  have 
been  introduced  from  time  to  time,  but 
one  of  the  most  efficient  for  general  pur- 
poses is  that  practised  at  the  Ordnance 
Survey  Office,  Southampton,  and  in  the 
Indian  survey  offices. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  in  a  work 
like  the  present  to  enter  into  full  prac- 
tical details,  but  the  following  short 
sketch  will  be  sufficient  to  give  a  general 
idea  of  the  working  of  the  process. 

The  process  consists  in  printing  from 
a  suitable  photographic  negative  on  to  a 
sheet  of  paper  coated  with  a  mixture  of 
gelatine  and  bichromate  of  potash.  After 
exposure  to  light,  the  print  is  evenly 
covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  litho- 
graphic transfer  ink,  and  washed  in 
warm  water  to  remove  the  unaltered 
gelatine  in  the  unexposed  parts,  and  with 
it  the  superfluous  ink,  while  the  insoluble 
gelatine  forming  the  lines  retains  the  ink, 
and  thus  a  perfect  copy  of  the  original  is 
obtained  in  greasy  ink,  which  may  then 
be  transferred  to  zinc  or  stone  and 
printed  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  suc- 
cess of  the  operations  in  copying  maps 
and  drawings,  &c.  by  this  process  de- 
pends entirely  upon  the  ground  of  the 
negative  being  perfectly  opaque,  while 
the  lines  are  as  clear  as  the  bare  glass ; 


296 


PIC 


and  in  order  to  insure  the  best  results,  the 
plans  should  be  specially  drawn  for  the 
purpose  on  smooth  white  paper  in  per- 
fectly black  ink.  Pale  ink  or  washes  of 
any  colour  except  light  blue  must  on  no 
account  be  used.  The  lines  should  be 
firm  and  clear,  and  the  work  as  open  as 
possible ;  and  when  the  plan  is  intended 
to  be  reduced,  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  lines  are  drawn  sufficiently  thick  to 
produce  the  required  effect  when  re- 
duced. 

The  plan  must  be  placed  in  a  good 
light,  and  the  camera  carefully  adjusted, 
so  that  the  plane  of  the  ground  glass 
may  be  perfectly  parallel  to  the  plane  of 
the  plan,  so  as  to  avoid  distortion;  and 
the  apparatus  must  be  firmly  fixed  to 
prevent  vibration,  which  would  injure 
the  sharpness  of  the  lines.  The  negative 
is  taken  by  the  usual  wet  collodion  pro- 
cess, slightly  modified  in  order  to  secure 
the  greatest  transparence  in  the  lines ; 
but  as  this  alone  will  not  give  sufficient 
intensity,  it  is  obtained  by  intensifying 
the  negative  in  the  usual  way,  then  apply- 
ing a  saturated  solution  of  bichloride  of 
mercury  till  the  film  becomes  white,  and 
afterwards  applying  a  dilute  solution  of 
hydrosulphate  of  ammonia,  which  in- 
stantly changes  the  colour  of  the  film  to 
a  dark  black  or  brown  colour.  It  is 
afterwards  varnished. 

The  next  operation  is  to  print  from 
this  negative  a  photograph  in  greasy  ink 
which  may  be  transferred  to  zinc  or 
stone.  To  obtain  this,  advantage  is 
taken  of  the  property  possessed  by  alka- 
line bichromates  of  rendering  gelatine, 
gum,  albumen,  &c.  insoluble  under  the 
influence  of  light,  and  at  the  same  time 
giving  them  an  affinity  for  greasy  ink. 

To  prepare  the  sensitive  paper,  a  sheet 
of  bank  post  paper  is  coated  in  the  dark 
with  a  mixture  of  from  3  to  5  parts  of 
gelatine,  1  to  2  parts  of  bichromate  of 
potash,  and  50  parts  of  water,  and  hung 
up  to  dry ;  then  coated  again  and  hung 
up  to  dry  by  the  other  end,  so  as  to 
equalise  the  coating.  Before  use,  the 
paper  is  passed  through  a  glazing-press 
to  smooth  the  surface.  It  is  then  ex- 
posed to  light  under  a  negative  from  1 
to  3  minutes  in  the  sun,  or  until  the 
finest  lines  are  distinctly  visible.  When 
sufficiently  exposed,  it  is  taken  out  of  the 


printing  frame  and  passed  through  a 
lithographic  press  in  contact  with  a 
polished  zinc  plate  which  has  been  rolled 
in  with  thin  re-transfer  ink,  and  thus 
receives  an  even  coating  of  greasy  ink. 
It  is  then  immersed  for  a  few  minutes  in 
a  trough  of  water  to  soften  the  gelatine 
still  remaining  soluble  in  those  parts 
which  have  not  been  acted  upon  by 
light.  It  is  next  laid  on  a  sloping  glass 
slab,  and  washed  with  a  sponge  and  tepid 
water  till  all  the  unaltered  gelatine  is 
washed  away,  carrying  the  superfluous 
ink  with  it,  while  the  lines  on  which  the 
light  has  acted  remain  insoluble  and  re- 
tain the  ink.  When  all  the  details  are 
clearly  and  sharply  defined,  and  the 
ground  quite  free  from  ink,  the  print  is 
rinsed  with  clear  water,  dried,  and  is 
then  ready  to  be  transferred  to  zinc  or 
stone,  j  ust  as  an  ordinary  transfer  draw- 
ing. 

The  zinc  plates  used  for  the  purpose 
are  about  -fa  inch  in  thickness,  and 
have  one  surface  carefully  planed  and 
smoothed  ;  but  in  order  to  give  a  some- 
what porous  surface  to  the  plate,  so  that 
it  may  be  more  absorbent  of  moisture 
and  greasy  ink,  the  planed  side  of  the 
plate  is  grained  by  being  rubbed  with 
very  fine  sand  and  water  ;  the  sand  is 
sifted  through  a  sieve  of  120  holes  to  the 
linear  inch.  After  the  transfers  are 
made,  the  plate  is  etched  with  a  prepara- 
tion of  gum  and  decoction  of  nut-galls,  to 
which  a  little  phosphoric  acid  is  added. 
If  the  transfers  are  made  to  a  lithographic 
stone  instead  of  a  zinc  plate,  the  opera- 
tions are  conducted  just  as  in  transferring 
an  ordinary  lithographic  drawing,  except 
that  the  stone  need  not  be  heated.  The 
operations  of  printing,  whether  for  zinc 
or  stone,  are  just  the  same  as  in  ordinary 
lithography. 

Phiowra — An  'Indian  term  for  a  kind 
of  spade  or  hoe.  (  Vide  Mamootie.) 

Phunsee  (Caral/ia  integrifolia) — A  tree 
which  grows  in  the  Bombay  presidency 
and  in  the  Tenasserim  and  Martaban 
provinces.  It  is  tough,  and  not  easily- 
worked.  It  is  used  in  the  Bombay 
arsenals  for  sponge  staves. 

Physique  (French) — A  term  meaning 
the  physical  state  of  a  man  or  of  an 
army,  in  contradistinction  to  their  moral. 

Pice — A  quarter  of  an  anna,  equal  to 


no 


297 


PIL 


three  pie.     The  commonest  coin  in  circu- 
lation in  an  Indian  bazaar. 

Pickaxe  —  An  instrument  having  a 
sharp  point  at  one  end  and  a  blade  at  the 
other.  It  is  used  in  all  military  works 
where  the  earth  has  to  be  loosened. 

Picket,  To — -To  secure  or  fasten  horses 
in  their  lines,  in  camp,  or  in  cantonments. 
This  is  effected  by  fastening  the  head  and 
heels  of  the  animal  by  ropes  or  chains  to 
pegs  of  wood  termed  pickets  ;  hence  the 
term  "  to  picket  "  a  horse. 

Pickets  —  Small  detachments  taken 
from  the  outposts,  in  numbers  depending 
upon  the  strength  of  the  advanced  guard, 
and  posted  at  an  average  distance  of  400 
yards  to  the  front  of  the  outpost. 

It  is  truly  said  that  the  "  real  outposts 
of  any  body  of  troops  are  the  pickets, 
with  their  dependant  small  bodies,  patrols, 
and  vedettes.  They  are  in  the  line 
nearest  to  the  enemy,  and  on  them  de- 
volve the  most  important  of  the  duties 
and  cares  of  watchfulness.  Their  num- 
ber and  strength  depend  on  the  nature 
of  the  line  of  country  to  be  occupied,  the 
nearness  of  the  enemy,  and  his  probable 
operations,  while  other  circumstances 
may  also  have  their  influence,  such  as  the 
proportion  of  men  who  can  be  easily  fur- 
nished for  the  duty,  &c.  As  a  rule,  20  or  30 
men  is  a  reasonable  strength  for  a  picket." 

If  pickets  in  larger  force  are  required, 
it  would  be  better  to  have  two  small 
pickets  than  one  large  and  unwieldy  one. 
The  duty  of  pickets  is  to  watch  for  the 
enemy,  and,  if  in  view,  to  note  his  every 
movement ;  to  guard  against  surprises, 
and  in  case  of  attack  to  be  the  first  to 
receive  and  oppose  it. 

Inlying  pickets  are  detatchments  of 
the  army,  generally  a  company  from 
each  battalion,  told  off  to  remain  in 
camp,  but  fully  accoutred  and  ready  to 
turn  out  instantly  in  case  of  alarm. 

Outlying  pickets  are  detachments  of 
cavalry  and  infantry,  accompanied  some- 
times with  light  guns,  and  posted  on  the 
front  and  flanks  of  an  army  in  the  field, 
in  order  to  guard  against  surprise,  and  to 
keep  reconnoitring  parties  at  a  distance. 
(  Vide  Outposts.) 

Pickets,  Mortar,  vide  Pointing  Rods. 

Pickets,  Park  —  Small  wooden  posts 
which  support  the  rope  line  round  the 
artillery  park.  They  are  carried  either 


on  carts  or  camels  in  India  when  on  the 
march.  Dimensions — length  53  inches, 
and  diameter  3  inches. 

Pickling — A  process  pursued  in  clean- 
ing plates,  iron  or  copper,  or  castings  of 
these  metals.  It  is  effected  by  allowing 
the  metals  to  remain  some  hours  in  a 
diluted  acid. 

Picric  Powder  —  A  combustible  in- 
vented by  Mr.  Abel.  It  is  of  a  bright 
yellow  colour.  It  is  far  more  powerful 
than  gunpowder,  and  very  satisfactory  re- 
sults have  been  obtained  from  it.  It 
appears  to  be  less  susceptible  than  gun- 
powder to  ignite  by  means  of  friction 
or  a  blow. 

Pie — An  Indian  coin  representing  the 
twelfth  part  of  an  anna. 

Piece — A  term  generally  applied  to  all 
ordnance. 

Pierrier  (from  the  French  pierre,  a 
stone) — A  species  of  mortar  once  used  for 
throwing  stones ;  it  is  termed  a  stone 
mortar. 

Piers  —  In  fortification,  are  kinds  of 
buttresses  on  which  the  roadway  of  a 
bridge  rests.  Piers  are  made  of  barrels 
in  the  case  of  wooden  bridges. 

Pig  Iron — The  name  given  to  cast  iron 
run  into  moulds,  forming  semi-cylindrical 
bars. 

Pigeon,  vide  Carrier  Pigeon. 

Pike — A  weapon  formerly  much  in 
use  in  the  English  army,  as  early  as  the 
Norman  Conquest.  In  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam III.  it  was  superseded  by  the  bayonet. 
The  pike  had  a  shaft  from  10  to  18  feet 
long,  with  a  flat-pointed  steel  head  called 
the  spear. 

Pikemen — Men  who  were  armed  with 
the  pike.  From  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
to  that  of  William  III.  the  greater  part 
of  the  English  army  was  formed  of  pike- 
men. 

Pile  Arms,  To — To  place  three  mus- 
kets with  bayonets,  fixed  or  unfixed,  in 
such  a  relative  position  that  they  shall 
mutually  support  each  other.  This  is 
done  when  men  stand  from  their  arms 
either  on  parade,  on  the  march,  or  in 
camp. 

Pile  Driver,  vide  Hammer,  Steam. 

Piles  —  Beams  of  wood  driven  into 
the  ground  to  form  a  solid  foundation 
for  building.  For  wharves  and  jetties, 
piles  boarded  over  form  admirable  land- 


PIL 


298 


PIL 


ing-places   and   good    frontage   for  river 
banks. 

Piles,  Barrel—  Refers  to  the  mode 
pursued  in  "  piling  "  barrels  in  magazines, 
which  is  shown  in  the  undermentioned  for- 
mulas, by  Captain  S.  E.  Pemberton,  K.A. 

Case  1.  —  Pyramid  pile. 

8  =  1  +  2  +  8  .....  +n; 
where  S  =  number  of  barrels, 

n  =  number  in  bottom  row. 


In  an  incomplete  pyramid  pile, 


S  = 


n  (n  +  1 )  _  (m_- 
2  2 

n2  —  m?  +  n  +  ?n 


.(2) 


(n  +  m)  (n  —  m  +  1) 

2    ' 
where  rn  =  number  in  top  row. 

Case  1.  —  Where  one  end  of  the  pile 
rests  against  an  upright,  and  the  top  row 
djes  not  touch  the  upright. 

S  =  n2  -  m2  ; 

where  n  —  number   in  bottom  row,  and 
m  number  in  top  row. 

Suppose  the  pile  continued  till  m  =  1. 
Then, 
S  =  2  (1  +  2  +  3  ____  +  n)  -  n  -  1 

=  »  (n  +  1)  -  (n  +  1) 

=  (»  +  l)(n-  1)  =  ,»*-!;    ....(3) 
and  in  an  incomplete  pile, 
S  =  («2  -  1)  -  (m-  -  1)  =  n2  -  m*..(4) 

Case  3.  —  If  the  top  row  touch  the  up- 
right. 

S=  n2  -m?  +  m  .........  (5) 

Case  4.  —  Where  the  barrels  are  piled 
between  tw  >  uprights  so  that  if  bottom 
row  =  n,  second  =  n  —  1,  third  =  n,  and 
so  on. 

If  top  row  =  n  —  1,  i.e.  if  top  row  do 
not  touch  the  uprights, 


vhere  m  =  number  of  courses. 

When  top  row  =  n,  i.e.  when  top  row 
touches  uprights, 

S  =  mn  —  £  (m  —  1) 
.         _i»(2n-  1)  +  1 

2  .........  W 


These  results,  being  only  calculated  for 
piles  of  one  barrel  in  depth,  must  of 
course  be  multiplied  by  the  number  of 
barrels  in  the  depth  of  the  piles. 

Piles,  Shot  —  Shot  or  shell  piled 
one  above  another.  Spherical  shot  are 
piled  according  to  their  nature  and 
calibre,  and  under  cover  if  practicable; 
for  though  all  shot  and  shell  are  painted, 
when  exposed,  they  are  more  or  less  sub- 
ject to  atmospheric  influences  which 
corrode  them.  In  piling  shot,  the  piles 
should  be  made  as  narrow  as  possible, 
to  facilitate  a  free  circulation  of  air  be- 
tween the  layers.  The  ground  for  the  base 
of  a  pile  should  be  prepared  by  raising  it 
above  the  surrounding  ground,  so  as  to 
throw  off  the  water ;  it  should  then  be 
levelled,  well  rammed,  and  covered  with 
a  layer  of  screened  sand  or  charcoal.  The 
bottom  of  the  pile  is  usually  made  with 
a  tier  of  unserviceable  shot,  buried  about 
two-thirds  of  their  diameter  in  the  sand  ; 
the  base  should  be  well  cleaned,  and  the 
pile  now  formed,  putting  the  fuze-hole  of 
shells  downwards,  in  the  intervals,  and 
not  resting  on  the  shells  below.  The  base 
may  be  made  of  brick  or  stone.  Canister 
should  be  piled  in  store-rooms  on  the 
ground  floor. 

Shot  should  he  painted  or  lacquered 
as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  re- 
ceived, and  when  repainted,  the  old  paint 
should  be  scraped  off. 

To  fnd  the  number  of  shot  in  a  trian- 
gular pile. — Multiply  the  number  in  the 
base  by  the  same  +  1,  and  this  pro- 
duct again  by  the  base  +  2,  and  divide 
byS. 

To  find  the  number  in  a  square  pile.— 
Multiply  the  corner  row  *by  the  corner 
row  +  1,  then  this  product  by  twice  the 
corner  row  +  1,  and  divide  by  6. 

To  fnd  the  number  in  an  oblong  pile. — 
From  three  times  the  length  of  the  base 
+  1,  subtract  the  breadth,  and  this  pro- 
duct by  the  breadth  +  1,  and  divide 
by  6. 

In  an  incomplete  pile,  according  to  either 
of  the  preceding  rules,  find  the  number 
in  the  pile  considered  as  complete,  then 
the  number  in  the  upper  part,  and  the 
difference  between  the  two  piles  will  be 
the  number  in  the  incomplete  part. 

The  above  calculations  are  for  spherical 
shot. 


PIL 


299 


PIS 


Oblong  shot  and  shell  (Armstrong)  are 
piled  in  rectangular  piles. 

8   =   (2n  +  r  -  1)  ~, 

where  n  —  number  in  length  of  top 
course,  r  =  number  of  courses,  m  = 
number  in  breadth. 

The  following  formula  has  been  recom- 
mended for  elongated  projectiles,  as 
communicated  by  Captain  R.  O'Hara, 
R.A.,  to  the  Royal  Artillery  Institution:  — 

Let  B  =  number  in  breadth  of  pile  : 
L  =  number  in  length 


Pillage  —  The  act  of  plundering.  (  Vide 
Maraud,  To.) 

Pillar  Fuze  —  This  fuze  (now  obsolete) 
was  used  with  all  the  heavier  natures  of 
Armstrong  shells,  as  a  concussion  fuze. 

Pin  —  A  short  piece  of  wood  or  metal, 
generally  with  a  head  and  a  hole  at  the 
other  end  to  receive  a  key.  There  are 
many  sorts  used  in  army  material. 

Pin,  Linch,  vide  Linch  Pin. 

Pincers,  Gun  —  An  instrument  used  for 
extracting  _a  bit  or  drift  from  the  vent 
of  a  gun. 

Pinching—  In  artillery  exercise,  is  the 
operation  of  moving  a  gun  or  mortar  by 
small  heaves  of  the  handspike,  without 
allowing  it  to  turn  on  its  axis.  It  is 
moved  little  by  little,  and  rubs  against 
the  skid  on  which  it  rests. 

Pinion  —  In  mechanics,  a  spindle  in  the 
body  of  which  there  are  several  notches 
into  which  the  teeth  of  a  wheel  catch 
which  serves  to  turn  it  round  ;  it  is  also 
the  name  of  a  lesser  wheel  which  plays  in 
the  teeth  of  a  larger  one. 

Pintail,  or  Pintle  —  A  hook  attached 
to  the  rear  of  the  limber  axle-tree  bed 
of  a  light  field  carriage  to  enable  the 
gun  or  ammunition  carriage  to  be  lim- 
bered up  to  it.  In  this  position  the  gun 
forms  a  counterpoise  to  the  weight  that 
would  otherwise  rest  on  the  shafts.  It  is 
calculated  that  the  weight  on  the  horse's 
back  of  a  fully  packed  limber,  with  the 
hook  fixed  to  the  axle-tree  bed,  averages 
about  75  Ibs.  In  heavy  howitzers  and 
siege  carriages  formed  with  bracket  sides, 
the  pintail  is  either  a  stiff  or  movable 
iron  perch,  attached  to  the  top  of  the 


limber  axle-tree,  to  which  the  gun  car- 
riage is  limbered  up  by  a  hole  passing 
through  the  rear  transom ;  this  mode  of 
limbering  up  is  necessary  in  consequence 
of  the  weight  and  dimensions  of  the 
trail. 

Pioneers — A  small  body  of  men  (one  per 
company),  attached  to  each  infantry  regi- 
ment for  the  purpose,  whilst  on  the  march, 
of  clearing  the  road,  and  cutting  down 
all  obstacles,  such  as  trees,  jungle,  &c., 
as  may  be  found  necessary  for  the  on- 
ward progress  of  the  regiment  or  army. 
Each  pioneer,  besides  carrying  a  tool  of 
some  description,  carries  a  saw-backed 
sword,  which  serves  both  as  a  weapon 
and  a  tool.  Besides  being  made  use  of 
for  the  purposes  named,  the  pioneers  are 
to  be  regarded  as  a  small  corps  of  regi- 
mental artificers,  competent  to  put  a 
hand  to  any  work  that  may  be  required 
at  home  or  abroad ;  and  also  capable  of 
imparting  instruction  to  men  desirous 
of  learning  a  trade.  With  this  view,  men 
of  trades  should  be  enlisted,  if  possible, 
or  men  of  the  regiment  should  be  placed 
for  instruction  in  government  workshops, 
such  as  the  Woolwich  ArseYial  or  School 
of  Military  Engineering  at  Chatham.  The 
Queen's  Regulations  explain  very  fully 
how  the  men  are  to  be  instructed. 

Pipe,  Trace — The  leather  pipe  or  cover- 
ing of  a  horse  trace. 

Pipe-box — The  cylindrical  box  in  the 
nave  of  a  wheel  in  which  the  axle-tree 
arm  works,  and  in  which  is  a  recess  for 
holding  grease.  A  hard  alloy,  techni- 
cally known  as  "metal,"  composed  of 
copper,  tin,  and  zinc,  is  now  used  as  the 
material  for  pipe-boxes  in  preference  to 
cast  iron,  on  account  of  the  less  develop- 
ment of  friction  between  it  and  the  iron 
arm. 

Pipe-clay — A  silicate  of  alumina.  It 
is  a  white  argillaceous  earth,  with  which 
soldiers'  belts  are  cleaned.  It  is  found 
in  the  Isle  of  Purbeck,  in  Dorsetshire,  and 
at  Teignmouth,  in  Devonshire. 

Piper — One  who  plays  a  r«ed  instru- 
ment. The  men  who  play  the  bagpipes 
in  a  Highland  regiment  are  termed  the 
pipers. 

Pistol— A  kind  of  fire-arm,  of  which 
there  is  an  infinite  variety,  from  the 
single-  and  double-barrelled  pistol  to  the 
many-barrelled  revolver.  The  pistols  fur- 


PIS 


300 


PIT 


nished  to  the  lancer  regiments  and  to  troop 
sergeant-majors  of  cavalry  are  M.L.R. 
pistols.  Pistols  were  first,  known  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (Vide  Appendix  F.) 

Piston — In  machinery,  a  movable  air- 
tight division  within  the  steam  cylinder, 
acted  upon  by  the  steam.  Pistons  are 
either  metallic  or  packed.  Metallic  pistons 
usually  have  segments  of  brass  or  cast- 
iron,  called  junk  rings,  pressed  outward 
by  springs.  Packed  pistons  are  surrounded 
by  well-greased  hemp. 

A  piston-rod  is  fixed  to  the  piston  to 
communicate  its  motion  to  the  crank. 
This  rod  is  turned  exactly  circular,  and 
passes  through  a  circular  hole  in  the 
centre  of  the  cap  of  the  cylinder,  the 
hole  being  made  to  fit  the  rod  so  exactly 
as  not  to  let  the  steam  escape,  and  to 
move  at  the  same  time  so  freely  as  to 
require  very  little  power  to  urge  it. 

Pit  Charcoal — Wood  charred  in  a  pit 
instead  of  in  closed  retorts.  The  opera- 
tion is  performed  as  follows.  From  3  to 
4  cords  of  wood  (a  cord  of  wood  measures 
14  x  3  x  3  feet,  or  126  cubic  feet)  are 
built  up  in  a  circular  mound  about  10  feet 
in  diameter,  and  5  feet  high,  having  a  hole 
left  in  the  centre  which  acts  as  a  chimney. 
The  mound  of  wood  is  then  covered  with 
stubble  or  straw,  3  or  4  inches  deep,  and 
over  this  a  layer  of  charcoal  dust  or 
sand  about  the  same  thickness.  Lighted 
charcoal  is  put  down  the  chimney,  which 
is  now  closed  up.  The  process  of  charring 
then  commences.  A  shifting  screen  is 
always  placed  to  windward  to  regulate 
the  draught,  and  small  holes  are  left  at 
intervals  to  allow  of  the  escape  of  the 
vapour.  After  three  days  and  nights  the 
operation  is  completed.  Pit  charcoal  is 
used  for  firework  composition,  and  also 
as  an  ingredient  in  the  manufacture  of 
pit-powder. 

Pitch. — A  thick  substance  obtained  by 
boiling  down  tar  to  the  requisite  con- 
sistency, either  by  itself  or  combined  with 
a  portion  of  rosin;  it  becomes  solid  on 
cooling,  but  is  soon  softened  by  the  heat 
of  the  hand,  in  which  state  it  is  very 
adhesive.  When  of  good  quality,  it  is 
clear  and  hard.  It  is  used  in  making 
carcasses,  light-balls,  kit,  and  smoke-balls. 

The  term  is  also  used  in  wheel-work, 
signifying  the  distance  between  the  centres 
-  of  two  contiguous  teeth.  Pitch-line  is  the 


circle  concentric  with  the  circumference 
which  passes  through  all  the  centres  of 
the  teeth. 

What  is  known  as  the  pitch  of  a  screw 
is  the  interval  between  the  points  of 
starting  and  arrival  of  a  complete  revo- 
lution of  a  screw,  and  consequently  of  the 
thread  of  a  screw,  which  is  traversed  by 
the  screw,  or  its  thread,  when  it  has  com- 
pleted an  entire  revolution.  The  pitch  is 
therefore  independent  of  the  diameter  of 
the  screw. 

In  rifling,  the  pitch  is  described  by 
Captain  J.  B.  O'Hea,  in  his  lecture  at  the 
United  Service  Institution,  as  "  resistance 
to  the  direct  progressive  motion  of  the 
projectile  through  the  bore.  This  resist- 
ance varies  according  to  the  incline  as  well 
as  the  pattern  of  rifling  ;  for  as  the  more 
defined  the  pattern  the  more  the  resist- 
ance, so  the  sharper  the  pitch  the  greater 
the  rotation  of  projectile  round  the  axis 
of  progression,  and  consequently  the  more 
difficult  its  initial  and  the  slower  its 
direct  forward  motion."  There  are  two 
natures  of  pitch,  an  increasing  and  de- 
creasing pitch,  the  merits  and  demerits  of 
which  are  described  in  the  above  officer's 
lecture. 

Pitch  a  Tent,  To — The  act  of  raising 
a  tent  from  the  ground  and  setting  it  up 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  it  habitable. 
There  is  an  art  in  pitching  a  tent,  and 
the  men  of  a  regiment  should  be  in- 
structed from  time  to  time  how  to  pitch 
their  tents  and  to  strike  them  ready  for 
a  march ;  but  they  will  soon  come  to 
know  how  to  do  so,  even  if  they  have  had 
no  previous  experience,  when  once  they 
enter  on  camp  life. 

The  tents  used  in  the  British  army  out 
of  the  tropics  are  circular  tents,  compa- 
ratively small  to  those  under  which  sol- 
diers encamp  in  in  India,  and  which  in  con- 
sequence of  their  limited  size  do  not  entail 
the  same  time  or  trouble  in  pitching. 
Nevertheless,  it  requires  experience  to 
pitch  a  tent  in  England,  and  to  pitch 
one  in  India.  The  tents  in  the  latter 
country  are  roomy  and  lofty,  and,  but  for 
the  carriage  they  entail,  would  be  all  that 
could  be  desired  on  the  march.  Soldiers 
soon  get  into  the  way  of  pitching  these 
tents,  and  it  is  astonishing,  after  a  regiment 
arrives  on  its  encamping  ground,  to  see 
with  what  ease  and  rapidity  they  erect 


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PLA 


them.  The  great  thing  in  pitching  a 
tent  is  not  to  dig  inside  but  outside  of 
it,  viz.  to  use  such  means,  in  case  of  rain, 
that  water  shall  not  flood  the  tent.  This, 
however,  cannot  always  be  prevented,  but 
a  drain  dug  all  round  the  tent  to  the 
lowest  ground  may  save  a  flooding.  Then, 
again,  to  secure  a  tent  from  being  blown 
down,  the  corner  ropes  should  be  bushed. 
(  Vide  Bushing  Tents.) 

The  '  Soldier's  Pocket-book  '  gives  the 
mode  of  pitching  a  circular  tent,  and  what 
it  states  about  the  sides  of  tents  being 
rolled  up,  if  the  weather  be  fine,  is  very 
desirable;  it  is  the  means  of  ventilating 
the  tents,  and  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view 
very  necessary. 

Pitching  Fire,  vide  Curved  Fire. 

Pits — In  warfare,  are  generally  hasty 
excavations  made  in  the  earth,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  protection  to  men,  guns, 
horses,  &c.  The  following  are  the  pits 
alluded  to,  which  are  of  various  dimen- 
sions and  forms,  and  which  will  be  found 
under  their  respective  heads : — 
Charger  Pit ;  Limber  Pit ; 

Gun  Pit ;  Military  Pit ; 

Horse  Pit ;  Rifle  Pit ; 

Shelter  Pit. 

Pit-saw — An  instrument  used  in  saw- 
ing up  timber  at  the  pit.  It  is  worked 
vertically  by  two  men,  called  the  top-man 
and  the  pit-man  ;  the  former,  as  his  name 
implies,  stands  upon  the  surface  of  timber 
to  be  sawn.  The  pit-saw  is  about  6  to  8 
feet  in  length,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  timber.  To  adapt  it  to  the  hands 
of  the  sawyers,  it  has  at  the  upper  part 
a  transverse  handle,  or  tiller,  and  at  the 
lower  a  box.  The  introduction  of  circular 
saws,  driven  by  steam,  has,  to  a  great 
extent,  done  away  with  the  cutting  up  of 
timber  by  hand-work. 

Pivot — A  point,  fixed  or  movable,  on 
which  a  body  turns.  It  is  applied  to 
the  fixed  or  halted  pivot  of  a  company  of 
soldiers  at  drill ;  to  that  point  on  which 
an  axle  turns ;  to  the  pivot  of  the  nut  of 
an  elevating-screw ;  &c.  The  application 
of  the  term  is  endless. 

Pivot  Flank,  vide  Flank,  Pivot. 

Places  of  Arms — As  applied  to  India, 
are  buildings  in  several  of  the  canton- 
ments in  which  the  arms  and  accoutre- 
ments of  a  native  regiment  are  kept. 
Each  company  has  its  proper  allotment 


of  arm-racks  and  pegs.  Only  1 2  rounds  of 
ammunition  in  pouch  are  kept  in  these 
buildings ;  the  rest  of  the  ammunition  is 
retained  in  the  regimental  magazine,  and 
spare  arms  belonging  to  men  on  furlough 
are  lodged  in  the  quartermaster's  stores. 

Plaid — A  woollen  shawl  of  a  tartan 
pattern,  worn  over  the  shoulder  by  the 
Scotch  Highlanders,  and  still  worn  by 
Highland  regiments. 

Plain  Clothes — A  citizen's  every-day 
dress,  as  applied  to  an  officer  not  in  uni- 
form ;  this  dress  is  also  known  by  the 
familiar  name  of  mufti  (g.  ».).  It  is  left 
to  the  discretion  of  general  officers  com- 
manding, to  permit  the  use  of  plain 
clothes  for  the  purpose  of  recreation ; 
otherwise  all  officers  must  appear  in  uni- 
form in  camp  or  quarters,  or  when  at- 
tending public  balls  within  the  district 
in  which  they  are  quartered. 

Plan,  Military — The  representation  on 
paper,  on  a  reduced  scale,  by  means  of 
conventional  signs  and  process,  of  any  por- 
tion of  the  earth's  surface. 

In  fortification,  a  plan  shows  the 
tracing,  also  the  horizontal  lengths  and 
breadths  of  the  works,  the  thickness  of 
the  ramparts  and  parapet,  the  width  of 
the  ditches,  &c.  It  exhibits  the  extent, 
division,  and  distribution  of  the  works, 
but  the  depth  of  the  ditches  and  the 
height  of  the  works  are  not  represented 
in  a  plan.  (  Vide  Map.) 

What  is  known  as  a  plan  of  a  cam- 
paign is  a  general  and  detailed  outline  of 
the  operations  of  war  to  be  carried  on, 
prepared  before  entering  upon  a  campaign 
by  a  government,  in  communication  with 
the  chief  selected  by  them,  and  modified 
according  to  circumstances.  There  are 
many  considerations  to  be  taken  account 
of  in  deciding  upon  the  plan  of  a  cam- 
paign, such  as  the  political  and  geo- 
graphical aspect  of  affairs,  the  relative 
strength  of  the  belligerents,  the  facilities 
offered  by  the  mobilisation,  and  concen- 
tration of  the  respective  armies. 

Plane — In  carpentry,  a  tool  used  by  the 
carpenter  or  joiner  for  taking  the  rough 
surface  off  the  timber  to  be  smoothed  in 
surface.  The  plane  is  a  chisel  inserted 
in  one  of  the  several  forms  of  stocks  or 
guides,  the  general  object  being  to  limit 
the  extent  to  which  the  blade  can  pene- 
trate the  wood,  to  provide  a  definite  guide 


PLA 


302 


PLA 


to  its  path  or  direction,  and  to  restrain 
the  splitting  in  favour  of  the  cutting 
action.  There  are,  a  variety  of  planes, 
which  are  distinguished  by  their  names, 
length,  &c.,  and  the  peculiar  work  they 
are  intended  to  perform. 

In  geometry,  this  term  denotes  a  plane 
figure  or  a  surface  lying  evenly  between 
its  bounding  lines,  such  as  the  horizontal 
plane,  which  is  level  or  parallel  to  the 
horizon;  the  inclined  plane,  which  makes 
an  oblique  angle  with  a  horizontal  plane. 
The  simplest  form  of  inclined  plane  is  to 
be  seen  in  cutting  a  wedge  through 
lengthways,  the  vertical  plane  passing  at 
right  angles  to  the  horizontal  plane. 

Plane  of  Fire — In  gunnery,  the  ver- 
tical plane  passing  through  the  axis  of 
the  gun. 

Plane  of  Site  —  In  fortification,  the 
general  level  of  the  ground  or  ground 
line  upon  which  the  works  are  con- 
structed, whether  that  plane  be  hori- 
zontal or  oblique  to  the  horizon. 

Plane  Table — Described  as  "an  instru- 
ment much  used  in  land-surveying,  by 
means  of  which  a  plan  is  made  on  the  spot, 
without  any  after-protraction  or  plotting. 
It  consists  of  a  plane  rectangular  board  of 
any  convenient  size,  generally  about  16 
inches  square,  the  centre  of  which,  when 
used,  is  fixed  by  means  of  screws  to  a  three- 
legged  stand,  having  a  ball  and  socket, 
or  universal  point,  at  the  top,  by  the  aid 
of  which,  when  the  legs  are  fixed  on  the 
ground,  the  table  is  inclined  in  any  direc- 
tion, but  can  be  set  horizontal  by  means 
of  a  circular  spirit  level.  A  compass 
box,  with  a  magnetic  needle,  is  screwed 
into  one  side  of  the  table  to  indicate  the 
bearings,  and  to  enable  the  surveyor  to 
set  up  the  instrument  at  a  new  station 
parallel  to  the  position  which  it  had  at  a 
former  one. 

"  A  brass  rule  or  index  with  a  sloping 
edge,  and  having  perpendicular  sight- 
vanes  erected  at  each  extremity,  com- 
pletes the  apparatus." 

Plauimeter — An  instrument  used  in 
the  survey  department  for  calculating 
superficial  areas  on  paper. 

Planing  Machine — Is  described  as  "  an 
application  of  the  slide-rest  to  plane  sur- 
faces. In  the  planing  machine  the  work  is 
firmly  bolted  to  a  table  sliding  in  dove-tail 
grooves,  and  travelling  backwards  and  for- 


wards under  the  cutting  tool,  which  admits 
of  accurate  adjustment.  When  one  end  of 
the  work  has  escaped  from  under  the 
tool,  the  table  is  moved  back,  and  the 
slide-rest  is  moved  a  little  way  across  the 
table,  so  as  to  take  off  the  next  shaving 
close  to  the  one  previously  cut.  It  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  tool  cool  during 
the  work,  by  allowing  cold  water  to  drip 
upon  it,  otherwise  the  edge  would  soon 
become  soft." 

Plank — A  term  applied  to  all  super- 
ficial timber  which  is  4  inches  thick  and 
under,  except  1  inch  and  sometimes  1£ 
inch,  which  come  under  the  denomination 
of  board. 

Plant,  To — Used  in  a  military  sense, 
signifies  to  place,  to  fix;  as,  to  pltnt  a 
standard:  to  plant  a  sentry. 

Plantations — Trees  which  are  some- 
times planted  on  the  glacis  of  fortresses. 
When  judiciously  placed,  they  form  a 
valuable  aid  to  the  defence.  First,  in 
the  wood  being  used  for  timber,  as  they 
would  be  cut  down  when  the  place  was 
about  to  be  attacked.  Secondly,  in  the 
roots  of  the  trees  which  run  under  the 
glacis  forming  a  considerable  obstacle  to 
the  besieger's  saps.  In  the  '  Instructions 
on  Fortification,  &c.  at  the  Royal  Mili- 
tary Academy,  Woolwich,'  it  is  stated  as 
follows  on  the  subject : — "  Care  should 
be  taken  to  leave  a  space  of  about  20  feet 
clear  in  front  of  the  crest.  This  part 
will  be  of  no  use  to  the  besieger,  as  the 
sap  of  his  lodgment  will  probably  be  exca- 
vated outside  of  it ;  and  the  defenders  may 
have  occasion  during  the  siege  to  cut 
ramps  in  it  ascending  from  the  covered 
way  to  facilitate  sorties,  or  to  construct 
lodgments  thereon  for  riflemen.  For  the 
same  reason  it  would  be  advisable  to 
avoid  planting  any  parts  of  the  glacis 
where  it  is  likely  the  defenders  will  have 
to  excavate  counter-approaches." 

Plate,  Armour,  vide  Armour  Plating. 

Plate,  Friction,  vide  Friction  Plate. 

Plates,  Range,  vide  Range  Plates. 

Platform — A  horizontal  plane.  It  is 
made  of  stone,  masonry,  or  wood,  and  for 
military  purposes  is  used  to  place  a  gun 
or  mortar  upon,  when  standing  in  battery 
on  the  works  of  a  fortification.  Gun 
platforms  are  laid  at  different  angles  of 
inclination  to  check  recoil. 

Platform,  Gun— A  platform  laid  for 


PLA 


303 


PLU 


the  efficient  working  of  heavy  ordnance, 
whether  for  siege  or  garrison  service.  By 
being  thus  provided,  guns  are  worked  with 
greater  ease,  expedition,  and  accuracy. 

Siege  platforms  are  portable,  and  of 
such  a  weight  as  to  render  them  easy  of 
transport.  They  are  used  for  the  service  of 
guns  and  mortars.  They  consist  of  a  floor  of 
planks,  resting  on  balks  of  wood  termed 
sleepers.  The  planks  are  either  spiked 
to  the  outer  sleepers  or  kept  down  by  a 
riband  piece  along  the  outer  edges,  secured 
by  rack-lashing.  Such  a  platform  would 
not  only  be  used  with  certain  heavy  guns, 
but  for  field  guns,  when  they  have  to  be 
fired  for  any  length  of  time  from  the 
same  spot.  There  are  several  patterns  in 
the  service,  such  as  the  ground,  Alder- 
derson's,  and  Clerk's  platforms. 

Garrison  platforms,  or  those  used  for 
garrison  guns  in  permanent  fortifications, 
are  made  of  stone,  and  have  a  slope  of 
1  in  15.  The  object  of  this  slope  is  to 
check  the  recoil  of  the  piece.  There  is 
also  a  traversing  platform  used  some- 
times when  guns  are  mounted  on  garri- 
son carriages ;  it  is  a  strong  frame,  pro- 
vided with  trucks,  and  made  to  traverse 
in  any  required  arc  of  a  circle. 

Since  the  introduction  of  heavy  M.L.R. 
guns,  wrought-iron  traversing  platforms, 
casemate  and  dwarf  (g.  v.~),  have  been  in- 
troduced into  the  service  for  guns  of 
9  tons  and  upwards.  The  gear  used  with 
these  platforms  consists  of  two  main  por- 
tions, viz.  that  for  traversing  and  that 
for  running  the  carriage  in.  These  are 
worked  by  the  same  winch  handles,  and 
are  arranged  so  that  the  running-in 
portion  can  be  detached  from  that  for 
traversing,  when  required  for  use.  Seve- 
ral additions  and  alterations  have  lately 
been  made  to  the  traversing  platforms 
and  carriages  constructed  of  wrought 
iron  which  are  now  in  the  service. 

Platform,  Mortar — A  platform  similar 
to  that  used  with  siege  guns,  but  of 
smaller  dimensions,  and  without  a  slope. 

Platform,  Wagon — A  carriage  on  four 
wheels  having  no  sides,  and  used  for  the 
transport  of  guns,  mortars,  traversing 
platforms,  and  for  every  description  of 
heavy  stores. - 

Platoon  (French,  peloton) — This  word 
was  used  some  centuries  ago  to  represent 
a  small  body  of  musketeers,  who  were 


placed  at  the  angles  of  a  square  of  in- 
fantrv,  or  were  used  as  skirmishers.  It 
also  formerly  signified  a  body  of  men 
who  fired  together  in  a  volley. 

Plomb,  To  Strike  —  In  artillery,  an' 
expression  made  use  of  when  a  shot  strikes 
an  object  direct. 

Plotting — In  surveying,  transferring 
to  paper  the  dimensions  of  the  different 
angles  and  measurements  made  by  a 
surveying  instrument  in  the  field. 

Plough. — A  wooden  wedge  or  shoe  shod 
with  leather.  It  is  attached  to  a  gun- 
powder incorporating  mill,  for  confining 
the  charge  under  the  path  of  the  runner. 
There  are  two  attached  to  each  pair  of 
runners. 

Plug — Anything  used  to  stop  an  orifice 
or  hole.  In  artillery  material,  there  are 
a  variety  of  plugs,  which  are  chiefly  re- 
quired for  the  different  natures  of  shells. 
There  are  two  classes  of  plugs,  known  as 
fuze-hole  and  loading-hole  plugs.  They 
are  made  of  gun  metal. 

Plumes — Feathers  worn  in  the  full- 
dress  hats  or  helmets  of  staff  officers  and 
officers  of  certain  regiments  in  the  ser- 
vice. 

Plummer  Block — In  machinery,  the 
carriage  or  support  for  a  bearing  to  turn 
in,  which  is  generally  made  of  gun-metal. 

Plummet — A  contrivance  consisting  of 
a  line  with  a  weight  attached  to  it  (a 
leaden  ball  generally)  to  regulate  any 
work  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  hori- 
zon ;  it  is  used  by  masons,  carpenters,  &c. 
Another  application  of  the  plummet  is  in 
laying  a  mortar  ;  it  is  further  used  as  a 
pendulum  to  indicate  the  time  of  flight  of 
a  mortar  shell. 

Plunder,  To,  vide  Maraud,  To. 

Plunging  Fire  —  When  a  battery  is 
raised  considerably  above  the  object,  so 
that  the  shot  impinges  at  a  great  angle, 
and  is  buried  without  grazing,  the  fire  is 
termed  "  plunging  fire." 

Pluviometer— A  rain  gauge ;  an  instru- 
ment to  measure  the  quantity  of  rain  that 
falls.  It  usually  consists  of  a  metal  funnel 
from  5  to  7  inches  in  diameter,  the  rain 
being  collected  in  a  glass  bottle.  This 
bottle  should  be  placed  in  a  small  stand 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  to  protect 
the  bottle  from  the  action  of  the  sun. 
The  amount  of  rain  fallen  in  a  given  time 
is  measured  in  a  graduated  glass-jar,  one- 


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tenth  the  area  of  the  funnel,  and  so  divided 
that  every  inch  in  depth  of  the  tube  shall 
indicate  f'g  inch  falling  in  the  funnel. 
The  amount  of  rain  which  has  fallen  can 
be  measured  by  such  an  instrument  to 
jjjjj  part  of  an  inch,  or  even  less. 

Another  kind  of  rain  gauge  may  also 
be  adopted.  It  consists  of  a  cylinder  of 
copper  or  other  metal,  from  5  to  7  inches 
in  diameter,  and  30  inches  long.  A  float, 
just  so  much  smaller  as  to  allow  it  to 
rise  freely,  is  placed  within  the  cylinder, 
and  to  the  centre  of  the  float  an  upright 
stuff  is  attached,  marked  in  inches  and 
tenths  of  an  inch,  which,  rising  through 
a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  funnel,  indi- 
cates the  depth  of  rain  received  into  the 
gauge. 

Pneumatics — The  properties  of  air  or 
fluids  ;  a  branch  of  hydrostatics. 

Pocket  Ledger — A  small  account-book 
with  which  a  soldier  is  provided,  and  in 
which  is  inserted  the  monthly  settlement  of 
his  accounts,  having  reference  to  his  pay, 
the  state  of  his  savings-bank  account, 
date  of  enlistment,  &c.  Commanding 
officers  are  to  see  that  these  books  are 
kept  with  the  utmost  regularity,  the 
officers  commanding  the  company  of  the 
soldier  being  responsible  that  the  book 
is  kept  correctly,  his  signature  being  a 
voucher  for  the  same.  This  book  is  fami- 
liarly termed  by  the  soldier  his  "Tommy 
Atkins"  (</.  £.). 

Point  —  In  geometry,  is  a  quantity 
which  has  np  parts,  being  indivisible. 
It  is  also  a  term  frequently  used  in  a 
military  sense,  as  a  spot  from  which 
troops  are  moved  according  to  certain 
rules  of  drill,  such  as  : — 

Covering  point,  which  in  changes  of 
position  materially  concerns  the  move- 
ment of  one  line  with  another. 

Lite rmedi  tie  point,  which  is  the  point 
that  lies  between  the  spot  marched  from 
and  the  spot  towards  which  a  body  is 
advancing. 

Point  of  alignment,  upon  which  troops 
are  formed  and  dress  by. 

Point  of  formation,  upon  which  they 
are  formed. 

A  strategical  point  is  a  position  held  by 
troops  in  a  line  of  battle,  which  may  pre- 
sent weak  and  strong  points ;  and  it  re- 
quires great  ability  and  experience  for  a 
general  to  discover  the  weak  points  of 


an  enemy's  position,  so  as  to  enable  him 
to  throw  all  his  strength  upon  it  and 
defeat  him. 

Strong  points  are  those  which  are  na- 
turally so,  or  made  such  by  artificial 
means.  Arms  of  precision  have  altered 
the  tactics  of  attack  on  these  points,  as 
a  general  prefers  turning  them  to  attack- 
ing them  in  front. 

Point,  To — To  lay  a  gun  so  as  to  hit  the 
object,  or  to  come  as  near  it  as  possible. 

In  artillery,  the  term  pointing  or  to 
point  a  rope  is  given  to  the  mode  of  taper- 
ing one  end  of  a  rope  so  as  to  make  it 
enter  easily  into  a  hole  or  block. 

Point  d'appui  (French) — A  fixed  point 
of  support  in  rear  of  the  operations  of 
an  army,  or  on  its  flanks,  such  as  a 
fortress  or  some  convenient  locality  to 
resort  to  in  case  of  necessity.  A  point 
d'appui  is  of  great  importance  in  mili- 
tary tactics.  Few  battles  have  been 
fought  without  making  use  of  villages, 
hills,  and  even  single  trees  as  points 
d'appui.  In  changes  of  front,  one  flank, 
or  part  of  the  force,  should  be  held 
securely  appuyed.  Artillery  massed  in 
batteries  have  also  served  as  points 
d'appui,  as  instanced  at  the  battles  of 
Borodino,  Ramilies,  Hohenkirch,  &c. 

Point  of  Impact — That  point  or  spot 
which  a  projectile  first  strikes  on  meet- 
ing an  opposing  body. 

The  •  method  of  finding  the  point  of 
mean  impact  is  described  as  follows  in 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Owen's  '  Modern  Artil- 
lery ' : — 

"  The  horizontal  distance  of  each  shot 
upon  the  target  from  a  fixed  vertical 
base  (generally  one  side  of  the  target) 
is  first  found,  and  a  mean  horizontal  dis- 
tance obtained,  by  dividing  the  sum  of 
the  distance  by  the  number  of  shot ;  the 
same  process  is  followed  to  obtain  a  mean 
vertical  distance  from  a  fixed  horizontal 
base  (generally  the  bottom  of  the  target). 
The  intersection  of  the  two  lines  drawn 
parallel  to  the  bases  respectively  and  at 
distances  equal  to  the  horizontal  and 
vertical  mean  distances  already  found, 
gives  what  is  termed  the  points  of  mean 
impact.  The  distance  of  each  shot  from 
the  point  of  mean  impact  is  measured  ; 
these  distances  are  added  together,  and  the 
sum,  divided  by  the  number  of  shot  on 
the  target,  gives  the  figure  of  merit. 


POI 


305 


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Half  a  diagonal  is  allowed  for  every  shot 
that  does  not  strike  the  target." 

Point-blank — A  gun  is  said  to  be  laid 
point-blank  when  the  production  of  its  axis 
passes  through  the  object  to  be  aimed  at ; 
a  gun  may  therefore  be  "  point-blank  " 
with  reference  to  an  object,  and  yet  have 
several  degrees  of  elevation  or  depression 
with  regard  to  the  horizon. 

In  the  '  li.  A.  Institution  Papers,' Colonel 
(now  Major-General)  Lefroy  shows  that 
what  is  termed  point-blank  range  is  a  mis- 
nomer. What  is  usually  called  point- 
blank  range,  viz.  the  distance  at  which  a 
shot  impinges  on  a  level  plane,  when  tired 
parallel  with  it,  is  nothing  more  than 
the  range  due  to  an  angle  of  elevation 
equal  to  the  angle  subtended  by  the 
height  of  the  gun  from  the  point  struck. 

Pointing  Rods  —  Pickets  or  rods  of 
iron  |  inch  round,  and  about  2  feet  long, 
two  of  which  are  placed  upon  the  epaul- 
meut  of  a  battery  in  front  of  each  mor- 
tar, by  means  of  which,  with  the  aid  of  a 
plummet,  the  mortar  can  be  directed  with 
tolerable  accuracy  upon  the  object  to  be 
struck. 

The  pickets  are  first  lined  upon  the 
object;  the  plummet,  which  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  laying  officer,  who  stands 
behind  the  mortar,  is  made  to  coincide 
with  them,  and  the  mortar  is  then  tra- 
versed until  the  line  of  the  plummet 
covers  the  centre  line  on  the  mortar, 
which  is  denoted  by  a  notch  on  the 
muzzle,  and  another  behind  the  vent :  a 
chalked  line  is  generally  drawn  on  the 
exterior  surface  of  the  mortar  between 
these  notches.  In  masonry  works,  they 
must  be  placed  on  a  fir  plank,  and  about 
6  inches  from  each  end.  The  plank  should 
be  fitted  with  a  grummet  or  handle  at 
each  end.  In  earthworks,  two  ramrods 
will  answer  for  pointing  rods. 

Davidson's  collimator  is  a  more  con- 
venient and  truer  way  of  laying  a  mortar 
than  the  mode  described  above. 

Points,  Tactical,  vide  Tactical  Points. 

Poitrinal  —  In  ancient  armour,  the 
breast-piece  which  formed  part  of  the 
harness  of  a  war-horse  in  the  middle  ages. 

Pole — That  part  of  a  carriage  to  which 
the  wheel  horses  are  attached.  Poles 
were  formerly  used  in  the  Indian  artil- 
lery, but  are  now  abolished,  and  shafts 
for  horse  draught  alone  used,  as  in  the 


home  service.  For  carts  and  all  extra 
carriages  drawn  by  bullocks,  the  pole  is 
indispensable. 

Police,  Military — A  few  steady  soldiers 
who  are  chosen  from  a  regiment  or  regi- 
ments to  maintain  order  and  regtilarity 
within  the  lines  of  a  camp  or  garrison. 
They  are  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  provost  sergeant,  and  their  number 
varies  according  to  circumstances.  When 
on  duty,  they  wear  a  badge  round  their 
right  arm  marked  M.P. 

When  an  army  is  in  the  field,  it  is 
recommended  that  a  troop  of  police 
should  be  attached  to  each  division,  and 
one  to  the  head-quarters  of  each  army 
corps,  to  preserve  civil  order  as  distinct 
from  military  discipline.  This  body 
of  men  to  be  under  the  provost-marshal, 
who,  during  war  time,  is  vested  with  ex- 
ceptional powers. 

Poltroon — A  coward,  a  dastard,  one 
who  has  no  courage.  The  origin  of  this 
word  is  stated  by  some  to  come  from  the 
Latin  pollex  truncus,  in  consequence  of 
the  frequent  instances  of  men  cutting 
oft'  their  thumbs  to  disqualify  themselves 
for  military  service.  Others,  however, 
derive  it  from  High  Dutch,  Polster,  a  bed, 
from  poltroons  taking  to  their  beds  when- 
ever any  peril  presents  itself;  or  again 
from  the  Italian  poltrone,  a  colt,  because 
of  that  animal's  readiness  to  run  away. 

Polygon — A  plain  geometrical  figure 
having  more  than  four  sides.  Every  piece 
of  ground  to  be  fortified  is  surrounded 
by  a  polygon,  either  regular  or  irregular, 
upon  the  sides  of  which  the  work  is  con- 
structed. 

Polygonal  System — Known  also  as  the 
caponier  system.  One  of  the  three  systems 
adopted  in  permanent  fortifications  to 
afford  flanking  defence  ;  it  takes  its  name 
from  the  trace  of  the  works  having  the 
form  of  a  polygon,  and  the  ramparts  of 
the  body  of  the  place,  instead  of  being 
formed  into  bastions,  being  placed  on  the 
sides  of  the  polygon.  The  flanking  defence 
is  sometimes  effected  by  projecting  build- 
ings, such  as  large  towers  or  tower  bas- 
tions, and  sometimes  by  buildings  of  less 
relief,  called  caponiers  (7.  v.~)  and  placed 
traversely  in  the  ditch. 

This  system  is  stated  to  have  been 
originated  by  an  Italian,  F.  Martini,  who 
lived  in  the  fifteenth  ceatarv.  With 


POL 


306 


POS 


certain  modifications,  it  has  been  of  late  Portable  Magazine — A  wooden  box  or 
adopted  in  Germany,  and  has  been  found  metal-lined  case  covered  with  canvas, 
to  possess  many  advantages,  as  com-  :  and  of  such  size  as  to  be  easily  carried  in 
pared  with  the  bastioned  systems.  This  I  a  battery  from  place  to  place  when  there 
system  of  polygons  is  also  applied  to  is  only  one  expense  magazine  for  several 


lines  in  field  fortification. 

Polygrooved  —  Many  -  grooved. 


batteries  ;  but  this  would  scarcely  ever 
The    be    the   case   in    the    future,  as    expense 

term  is  applied  to  such  rifled  guns  and  j  magazines  in  the  present  fortifications 
small-arms  as  have  a  multiplication  of  i  are  provided  in  the  proportion  of  1  to 
grooves,  such  as  the  Armstrong  gun  and  j  every  4  or  5  guns,  or  in  the  case  of  very 
other  arms.  heavy  guns,  1  to  every  2  or  3. 


Poniard — A  small  pointed  dagger. 
Pontoon  Train — An  equipment  of  pon- 


Portcullis — A  strong  defensive  frame- 
work of  timber,  hung  in  grooves  within 


toons,  which  is  kept   up  in  the  corps  of  i  the  chief  gateway  of  a   fortress  ;  it  re- 


engineers  ;  it  consists  of  two  troops, 
ready  equipped  for  service.  This  train 
comprises  the  boats,  carriages,  and  per- 
sonnel for  driving  and  forming  the  bridge. 
The  train  is  in  units  of  100  yards  of 
floating  bridge,  and  carries  trestles  for 
each  end,  so  as  to  be  able  to  make  a  bridge 
over  a  river  120  yards  wide.  Each  troop 
has  31  wagons.  Each  pontoon  wagon 
carries  one  pontoon  and  5  yards  of 
bridge,  and  the  boat-wagon  carries  one 
boat  and  5  yards  of  bridge. 

Pontoons — Constructions  of  metal  or 
wood  which  are  used  in  forming  a  bridge 
across  a  river  for  the  passage  of  an  army. 
They  are  either  light  open  boats  with  flat 
bottoms,  upon  which  a  roadway  of  planks 
is  formed,  or  cylinder-shaped,  with  hemi- 
spherical ends,  such  as  General  Blanchard's 
pontoons,  which  have  been  hitherto  the 
pattern  pontoons  used  in  the  British  army, 
but  have  now  been  superseded  by  the  new 
pattern  pontoon.  This  pattern  pontoon  is 
a  boat  with  similar-decked  ends,  and  is 
partly  decked  at  the  sides,  where  eight 
rowlock  blocks  are  fixed.  The  pontoon 
weighs,  dry,  about  7  cwt.,  and  draws, 
when  floating  and  empty,  2£  inches,  and 
t>  inches  when  in  bridge.  It  is  made  of 
Clarkson's  material  on  light  wooden 
frames,  and  in  shape  like  scows.  It 
measures  22  feet  6  inches  over  all  in 
length,  4  feet  in  width,  2  feet  4  inches  in 
depth,  and  weighs  850  Ibs. 

Each  inch  of  immersion  of  these  pontoons 
gives  about  500  Ibs.  of  buoyancy.  The 
buoyancy  is  sufficient  to  admit  of  the  pass- 
age of  siege  artillery  and  steam  sappers. 

Poppet-head — That  part  of  a  lathe 
which  holds  the  back-centre,  and  ran  be 


fixed  on  any  part  of  the  bed. 
machines  have  a  poppet-head. 


Borinsr- 


sembles  a  harrow,  but  is  placed  vertically, 
having  a  row  of  iron  spikes  at  the  bottom, 
and  is  let  down  to  stop  the  passage  in  case 
of  assault. 

Portfire  —  A  composition  of  mealed 
powder,  sulphur,  and  saltpetre,  driven 
into  a  case  of  paper  to  fire  the  priming 
powder  of  a  gun.  Portfires  were  in 
general  use  before  the  introduction  of 
friction  tubes ;  since  then  they  have 
been  for  the  most  part  in  disuse.  There 
were  four  different  kinds  of  portfires  at 
one  time  in  the  service,  viz.  the  miners, 
slow,  "blue,  and  common ;  the  latter  was 
the  portfire  used  for  igniting  the  charge 
of  a  gun ;  the  first  three  have  become 
obsolete. 

The  common  portfire  is  16  inches  long, 
and  burns  at  the  rate  of  1  inch  in  a 
minute. 

Portfire  Socket,  vide  Socket. 

Portion,  vide  Gun  and  Mortar  Portion. 

Position — In  a  military  sense,  is  a 
place  which  is  either  weak  or  strong  ac- 
cording to  its  nature  and  state  of  defence, 
and  is  or  may  be  held  by  a  force  on  a  field 
of  battle,  such  as  a  hill,  village,  building, 
&c.  Rivers,  morasses,  woods,  are  also  con- 
sidered as  positions  if  covering  the  front 
of  an  army  or  enabling^  its  wines  to  rest 
upon  them.  Each  position  has  some  point 
or  points  called  the  key  or  keys  of  the 
position  (q.  v.). 

The  expression  "  taking  up  a  position  " 
means  the  act  of  occupying  ground  by  a 
force. 

The  selection  and  occupation  of  a  mili- 
tary position  belong  to  strategy  and  the 
higher  branches  of  tactics,  and  require 
great  experience  in  the  field. 

Military  positions  are  either  defensice  or 
offensive.  In  either  case,  they  must  be 


POS 


307 


POU 


chosen  with  reference  to  the  position  of 
the  enemy,  and  must  command  the  ap- 
proaches to  the  position  in  the  first  case, 
and  the  del/ouches  from  the  position  in 
the  second. 

If  they  present  any  weak  points,  these 
must  be  strengthened  by  means  of  field- 
works,  &c.  (  Vide  Reconnaissance.) 

Position,  Batteries  of,  vide  Batteries  of 
Position. 

Post — A  soldier's  beat  while  on  sentry, 
or  a  position  assigned  to  or  taken  up  by  a 
soldier  or  body  of  men ;  it  generally  con- 
sists of  an  entrenched  village  or  position, 
or  any  building  placed  in  a  state  of 
defence. 

The  necessity  of  strengthening  a  post 
is  admitted  to  be  of  paramount  im- 
portance, and  every  endeavour  should  be 
made  by  the  officer  in  command  to  place 
himself  in  such  a  defensive  position 
as  shall  prevent  his  being  taken  un- 
awares, or,  if  attacked,  enable  him  to 
make  a  good  fight  of  it.  Often  neither 
time,  material,  intrenching  tools,  nor  men 
will  permit  of  solid  works,  such  as  a  re- 
doubt or  other  elaborate  fieldworks,  being 
thrown  up,  but  it  is  possible,  when  vil- 
lages or  detached  houses  are  occupied  by 
troops,  to  throw  up  temporary  cover 
which  shall  greatly  strengthen  the  posi- 
tion. The  mode  of  carrying  out  such  a 
system  of  defence  should  be  known  to 
every  officer  in  the  army. 

The  following  are  the  principles  to  be 
borne  in  mind  in  forming  a  military  post 
or  in  strengthening  a  position,  extracted 
from  the  'Instruction  in  Military  Engi- 
neering ' : — 

"  1.  To  obtain  cover  for  the  men  from 
the  enemy's  fire. 

"  2.  To  enable  the  troops  to  fire,  in 
the  most  advantageous  manner,  on  the 
ground  over  which  the  enemy  must  ad- 
vance. 

"  3.  To  hinder  the  approach  of  the 
enemy  by  obstacles,  which,  even  if  sur- 
mountable, shall  be  sufficient  to  break 
his  order  and  detain  him  for  some  time 
under  fire. 

"  4.  To  enable  the  troops  to  pass 
freely  from  one  part  of  the  works  to 
another,  in  order  to  concentrate  on  any 
point  attacked. 

"  5.  To  impede  the  flank  movements 
of  the  enemy  as  much  as  possible,  and 


thus  prevent  his  different  parties  from 
supporting  each  other  effectually." 

To  give  one  example  of  the  value  of  a 
military  post,  the  following  is  related : — 
"  If  an  example  be  required  of  the  prac- 
tical benefit  of  a  military  post,  it  is  to  be 
found  in  the  case  of  Hougomont,  a  forti- 
fied farmhouse  in  front  of  the  position  at 
Waterloo,  which  baffled  the  repeated 
efforts  of  the  French  to  take  it  throughout 
the  whole  of  the  battle."  (  Vide  Outposts 
and  Advanced  Posts.) 

The  term  post  is  given  to  the  bugling 
which  precedes  the  tattoo.  This  is  the 
first  pott,  the  last  post  that  which  follows 
it. 

Postern — In  permanent  fortification,  a 
vaulted  passage  of  masonry  constructed 
•underneath  the  mass  of  the  rampart,  gene- 
rally leading  from  the  interior  of  a  work 
to  the  ditch.  In  a  bastion  front  it  is  con- 
structed under  the  middle  of  the  curtain. 
Posterns  are  usually  8  feet  wide,  and  10 
feet  high  at  the  crown  of  the  arch,  and 
are  closed  at  each  extremity  by  doors. 

Post-office — A  place  in  which  letters 
are  received,  and  from  which  they  are 
despatched.  In  armies  in  the  field,  a 
regular  post-office  is  organised  under  an 
officer  named  for  that  purpose,  who  is 
assisted  by  a  staff  of  men,  probably  the 
police  of  the  army.  In  military  stations, 
the  delivery  of  letters,  when  the  barracks 
are  within  the  limits  of  the  post-office, 
is  made  by  the  postmaster,  provided  the 
commanding  officer  prefers  that  mode ; 
otherwise,  special  arrangements  are  made 
for  their  delivery,  generally  in  a  non-com- 
missioned officer  being  sent  to  the  post- 
office. 

Pot — In  ancient  armour,  the  pot  was  an 
iron  hat  with  a  broad  rim.  It  resembled 
the  morion. 

Potassa,  vide  Saltpetre. 

Potassium,  vide  Chloride  of  Potas- 
sium. 

Pouch,  Small-arm  —  A  leather  case 
lined  with  tin  for  carrying  a  soldier's 
ammunition ;  it  has  a  flap  buttoned 
down,  which  protects  the  ammunition 
from  rain  getting  into  the  case.  In- 
fantry pouches  contain  40  rounds,  artil- 
lery 20  rounds ;  but  the  soldier  in  the 
former  service  takes  besides  10  in  expense 
bag  and  20  in  valise,  the  reserve  of  30 
rounds  being  carried  in  the  regimental 
X  2 


PO.U 


308 


POW 


ammunition  wagons,  so  that  there  will  ' 
be    with    the  battalion   100   rounds  per  < 
man.     In    the  manufacture    of  pouches, 
butValo  hide  is  generally  used. 

Pounce — Gum  sandarac  powder ;  when 
formed  into  paste,  it  is  used  in  public 
offices  as  an  adhesive  for  letters. 

Pounder — The  name  by  which  different 
natures  of  ordnance  and  shot  and  shell  are 
distinguished.  By  being  so  denominated, 
the  weight  of  the  projectile  which  the 
srun  throws  is  implied.  Projectiles  fired 
from  heavy  howitzers  and  mortars  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  diameter  of  the  pieces, 
such  as  those  propelled  from  the  10-inch 
and  8-inch  howitzer  and  mortar ;  and  it 
would  be  advisable  to  denominate  all  pro- 
jectiles by  the  diameter  of  the  piece,  and 
also  by  the  weight  of  the  projectile  itself. 
This  is  done  in  the  case  of  shot  and  shell 
used  with  the  heavy  M.L.R.  guns  of 
7-inch  calibre  and  upwards,  but  below 
this  calibre  they  are  known  only  by  the 
weight  of  the  shot.  The  weight  of  heavy 
rifled  ordnance  is  always  expressed  in 
tons,  if  of  5  tons  or  upwards ;  otherwise 
in  cwts. 


Pourpoint — A  military  habit  worn  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  but  which  was 
subsequently  modified,  and  from  the 
peculiar  work  with  which  it  was  then 
ornamented  obtained  the  name  of  p  >ur- 
point  or  counterpoint.  A  complete  suit, 
consisting  of  a  sleeved  tunic  and  chausses, 
was  frequently  worn  by  the  knights 
of  this  period  beneath  the  surcoat, 
which  was  considerably  lengthened, 
and  emblazoned  with  the  arms  of  the 
wearer. 

Powder  —  A  common  term  for  gun- 
powder ('/.  ?:.).  Under  this  name  is 
found  a  variety  of  powders  in  use  at 
the  present  day  for  small-arms  and 
guns,  either  in  England  or  on  the  con- 
tinent. 

The  cannon  and  small-arm  powders 
used  in  the  British  artillery  are  pebble, 
rifle  large  grain,' large  grain,  and  ritie  fine 
grain,  technically  known  as  P.,  R.L.G., 
L.G.,  R.F.G.  and  R.F.G.2. 

The  following  table  gives  the  propor- 
tions of  the  composition  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  in  the  coun- 
tries mentioned  below : — 


GUNPOWDER. 


SMALL-ARM  POWDKK. 


COUNTRIES. 

Saltpetre. 

Charcoal. 

Sulphur. 

Saltpetre. 

Charcoal. 

Sulphur. 

America         ..           ..            ..        75 

12-50  i    12-50       75-50       13-20 

11-30 

Austria 

70 

17 

16 

75-50 

13-20 

11-30 

England        ..                        ..{     ™ 

15 

14-50 

10 
9-50 

76-50 
76 

14-50 
13-50 

y 

9 

France           ...           .  .                    75 

14-50 

9-50 

75 

12-50 

12-50 

Germany 

75 

13-50 

11-50 

75 

12-50 

12-50 

Italy              

76 

12 

12 

75-50 

13-20 

11-30 

Russia 

71 

17-50 

11-50 

80 

11-30 

8-70 

Spain            76-50       12-70       10-80 

75-50       13-20 

11-30 

Powder  Barrels,  vide  Barrels,  Powder. 

Powder  Hides,  vide  Hides. 

Powder,  Horsley,  turfe  Horsley  Powder. 

Powder  Hose,  vide  Hose,  Powder. 

Powder  Magazine — A  receptacle  for 
the  storage  of  gunpowder.  The  '  Aide- 
Memoire  to  the  Military  Sciences  '  affords 
the  following  information  on  magazines  : 
— ''A  gunpowder  magazine  should  be  built 
with  reference  to  the  object  required, 
whether  as  storage  after  manufacture,  or 


the  supply  of  an  armed  place  such  as  a 
fortress.  In  the  latter  case,  it  should 
be  bomb-proof  and  capable  of  holding 
1000  barrels.  In  fortified  places,  such 
as  large  fortresses,  it  is  considered  con- 
venient to  place  the  magazines  in  de- 
tached parts  of  the  fortification,  such  as 
the  centre  of  empty  bastions,  or  open 
spaces  within  the  enceinte.  Powder 
magazines  are  usually  provided  with 
double  doors  and  window  shutters,  which 


POW 


309 


POW 


are  made  of  thick    materials  and  covered  I 
with  copper.     The  air  holes,  both  inside 
and   out,   are   covered   with  copper,   and 
copper  plates  having  a  great  number  of 
small  holes  perforated  in  them.     No  iron 
or  steel  is  ever  permitted  in  the  construc- 
tion   of  powder   magazines.      Sometimes 
magazines  have  been  formed  with  groined 
arches,  that   is   to  say,  with  two  sets  of 
arches  of  equal  height,  or   nearly  so,  in- 
tersecting   each    other   at   right   angles. 
In  this  method  there  is  a  saving  of  mate- 
rials, and  a  greater  interior  space   may 
be    gained,  because,  instead  of  interme- 
diate pier  walls  extending  in  a  continued 
line  from  one  end  of  the  magazine  to  the 
other,    as    in    the    former    construction, 
there  are  only  small  pillars  of  about  4  or 
5  feet  square  at  the  utmost,  which  may 
be  placed  at  considerable  intervals  apart, 
and  from  which  the  groined  arches  spring 
in  contrary  directions.    This  conduction 
has,    however,  been   seldom   used,  being 
less  simple  and  weaker  than   the   former 
mode.       With    respect    to    the   roof  of 
magazines  and  other  bomb-proofs,  which 
are    not   covered  at  the  top  with   some 
feet  of  rubbish,  like   those  of  casemates, 
it   is  prudent  on  that  account  to  add  to 
the    thickness  of  masonry,  in   order  to 
make     them     equally     secure      against 
shells,  but  the  same  precautions  against 
damp  are  unnecessary,  for  the  common 
slates    or    tiling,    &c.  used  in  dwelling- 
houses  are  quite  sufficient,  provided  that 
the  ridges  and  gutters  are  leaded.    Much 
depends  upon  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  which 
ought  to  be  rather  steep,  than  otherwise.' 
Powder  magazines  built  for  the  storage 
and  preservation    of  powder  in    time  o; 
peace  should  be  kept  separate  from  each 
other    and  surrounded  by  high  mounds 
of  earth  ;  they  should  each  be  capable  o 
holding  4000  or  5000  barrels,  or  even  more 
Gunpowder  is  stored  in  barrels  which 
are    placed   in    racks,    or   bays    in    some 
magazines ;   in    others,  the    barrels    an 
piled    pyramidally  from    the    floor    up 
wards    without    any    support.      In    al 
powder    magazines    one    of    the    rack 
should    be    left  empty   for  the  sake    o 
shifting   the  powder,  or  the  barrels  ma; 
be  rolled    in    their    own  compartments 
which  would  answer  the  purpose.  Durin: 
the  dry  season   in  India,  magazines  ma 
be  opened  daily  to  air,  if  necessary,  bu 


uring  the  rains  they  should  be  kept 
losed,  until  a  break  in  the  weather 
akes  place,  when  advantage  should  be 
aken  of  a  dry  day  to  open  them. 

The  following  memoranda  respecting 
he  ventilation  of  powder  magazines  is 
erewith  appended,  being  the  instruc- 
ions  issued  by  the  War  Office  for  the 
guidance  of  officers  in  charge  of  maga- 
ines : — 

"  1.  The   dampness    complained    of  in 

uildings    will    frequently    be    found    to 

rise  from  condensation    of    the  watery 

vapour  of  the  air  which  enters  the  build- 

ng.     Buildings   with    thick    walls    and 

vaulted     roofs,     and      especially     'those 

covered    with     earth,    are    particularly 

iable  to  dampness  from  this  cause. 

"  2.  Air  always  contains  some  pro- 
>ortion  of  watery  vapour.  When  the 
>roportion  is  small,  the  air  is  said  to  be 
dry,  and  when  large,  the  air  is  said  to 
ie  damp ;  when  the  proportion  is  the 
reatest  that  can  be  diffused  through  air 
at  a  given  temperature,  the  air  is  said  to 
saturated  at  that  temperature. 

"  3.  The  proportion  of  watery  vapour 
which  saturated  air  contains  varies  with 
the  temperature,  being  greater  for  high 
than  for  low  temperatures.  Air  con- 
taining a  particular  proportion  of  mois- 
ture is  rendered  less  capable  of  depositing 
moisture  by  its  temperature  being  raised, 
and  the  reverse  when  it  is  lowered. 

'  4.  Air  may  be  brought  to  a  state  of 
saturation  by  reducing  its  temperature. 
If  the  air  contain  but  little  moisture,  the 
reduction  of  temperature  .must  be  con- 
siderable ;  but  if  it  contain  much,  a 
slight  reduction  will  bring  it  to  a  state 
of  saturation. 

"  5.  If  air  be  cooled  below  the  degree 
of  temperature  at  which  it  will  be  in  a 
state  of  saturation,  a  portion  of  the 
watery  vapour  contained  therein  will  be 
deposited  on  any  cold  substance  with 
which  it  may  come  in  contact.  The  de- 
gree of  temperature  at  which  air  will 
thus  begin  to  deposit  moisture  is  called 
its  dew-point. 

"  6.  When  warm  air  enters  a  compara- 
tively cold  building,  the  temperature  of 
the  air  is  reduced  by  coming  in  contact 
with  the  interior  walls  and  other  cold 
surfaces ;  and  if  its  temperature  be  thus 
reduced  below  the  dew-point,  condensa- 


POW 


310 


PRE 


tion  will  take  place.  la  the  latter  case 
it  is  obvious  that  t^e  admission  of  fresh 
air  will  not  tend  to  dry  a  building,  but 
to  render  it  damp. 

"  7.  If  a  magazine  40  feet  by  24  feet 
by  12  feet,  the  temperature  of  whose  in- 
ternal walls,  &c.  is  45°,  were  to  be  filled 
with  saturated  air  having  a  temperature 
of  50°,  and  the  magazine  were  then 
closed,  nearly  a  pint  of  moisture  would 
be  deposited  during  the  cooling  of  the 
fresh  air  to  the  temperature  of  the  walls. 
The  pint  of  moisture  would  result  from 
the  quantity  of  air  sufficient  merely  to 
fill  the  magazine ;  but  if  the  ventilators 
were  open,  the  air  might  be  renewed 
many  times  in  the  course  of  a  day,  and 
very  much  more  than  a  pint  of  moisture* 
be  deposited. 

"  8.  Air  entering  a  building  whose 
temperature  is  higher  than  its  own 
becomes  capable  of  absorbing  moisture 
from  damp  surfaces. 

';  9.  The  efficiency  of  the  ventilation  of 
a  magazine  will  depend  upon  the  degree 
of  dryness  which  the  fresh  air  admitted 
into  it  possesses,  and  the  rapidity  of  the 
current  of  dry  air  passing  through  the 
building. 

"  10.  The  dryness  of  air  is  indicated  by 
the  number  of  degrees  by  which  its  tem- 
perature exceeds  its  dew-point. 

"11.  The  ventilators  of  magazines 
should,  in  all  cases,  be  constructed  so  as 
to  exclude  or  admit  the  external  air  at 
discretion,  and  the  instructions  for  their 
ns'i  sko'ild  be  framed  with  a  view  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  external  air  when  the 
tcm/ierature  of  its  de'C-point  is  abvva  that 
of  tfie  interior  of  the  building,  and  the  ad- 
mission of  the  air  when  its  de>c-point  is 
belo'o  the  temperature  of  the  interior  of 
the  bui'ding. 

"  12.  For  the  foregoing  reasons,  the 
common  practice  by  which,  under  art. 
491,  '  Ordnance  Regulations,'  1855, 
magazines  are  open  for  purpose  of  venti- 
lation on  '  every  fine  day,'  is  considerably 
modified. 

"  13.  The  interior  of  a  bombproof 
magazine  with  thick  walls  and  a  vaulted 
roof  is  commonly  colder  than  the  out- 
side air  in  summer  and  warmer  in  win- 
ter. Winter  is  therefore  the  more 
favourable  season  for  ventilation  :  but  in 
the  climate  of  England  the  exceptions  to 


this  rule  are  numerous,  owing  to  the 
prevalence  during  winter  of  warm  damp 
winds  from  the  south  and  west,  and 
during  summer  of  cold  dry  winds  from 
the  north  and  east. 

"  14.  Whenever,  notwithstanding  a 
careful  attention  to  ventilation,  maga- 
zines are  found  to  be  damp,  their  con- 
dition may  be  improved  by  the  use  of 
quick-lime,  which  has  the  property  of 
absorbing  from  the  air  about  one-third  of 
its  own  weight  of  water. 

"  15.  The  proper  time  for  using  lime  is 
when  the  condition  of  the  magazine 
would  not  be  improved  by  ventilation, 
and  when,  consequently,  the  ventilators 
are  closed.  Lime  would  be  of  very  little 
service  while  a  rapid  current  of  air  was 
passing  through  the  building. 

"  16.  Lime  will  be  used  during  the 
seasons  of  the  year  least  favourable  for 
ventilation  in  all  magazines  that  show 
signs  of  dampness. 

"  17.  The  lime  should  be  fresh  from 
the  kiln,  broken  into  lumps  not  larger 
than  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  and 
exposed  to  the  air  of  the  interior  of  the 
magazine  in  shallow  vessels.  It  should 
be  kept  in  air-tight  casks  until  spread 
out  for  use." 

Powder  Mills,  vide  Mills,  Powder. 

Powers,  Mechanical,  vide  Mechanical 
Powers. 

Pozzuolana — A  volcanic  sand  brought 
from  Italy;  it  forms  a  cement  which 
hardens  under  water,  and  thus  makes 
the  best  mortar  for  the  piers  of  bridges. 
In  India  a  mortar  is  made  having  similar 
properties,  and  called  soorky  (7.  •».). 

Practice — Habit  ;  dexterity  ;  frequent 
use;  the  carrying  out  what  theory  teaches. 
In  the  instruction  given  to  officers  and 
soldiers  in  the  use  of  their  arms,  the  term 
practice  is  familiarly  known  under  the 
name  of  musketry,  gun,  and  mortar  prac- 
tice. The  name  is  also  given  to  such 
practice  as  the  autumn  manoeuvres  afford, 
fitting  the  soldier  for  actual  warfare. 

For  the  course  of  practice  carried  on 
with  small-arms,  vide  Musketry  ;  and  for 
that  of  artillery,  vide  Shoeburyness. 

Precedence — The  relative  rank  of  men 
and  women  in  society  ;  strictly,  it  means 
the  order,  as  shown  in  Brande  and  Cox's 
'  Dictionary,'  in  which  they  follow  one 
another  in  a  state  procession,  which  it  is 


PEE 


311 


PRE 


part  of  the  office  of  herald's  duty  to 
ascertain  and  preserve. 

The  precedence  of  the  officers  of  the 
army  follows  that  of  the  navy,  according 
to  their  comparative  rank  and  length  of 
service. 

The  following  is  the  order  of  prece- 
dence of  the  several  ^regiments  and  corps 
of  her  Majesty's  service,  viz. : — 

(1)  The  regiments  of  life  guards,  and 
the  royal  regiment  of  horse  guards. 

(2)  The  royal   horse  artillery  ;  but  on 
parade,  with   their  guns,  this   corps  will 
take  the  right,  and  march  at  the  head  of 
the  household  cavalry. 

(3)  The    regiments  of  cavalry  of  the 
line,  according  to  their  number  and  order 
of  precedence. 

(4)  The  royal  regiment  of  artillery. 

(5)  The  corps  of  royal  engineers. 
(G)  The  regiments  of  foot  guards. 

(7)  The  regiments  of  infantry  of  the 
line  according  to  their  number  and  order 
of  precedence. 

(8)  The  departmental  corps. 

The  royal  marines,  when  acting  with  \ 
the  troops  of  the  line,  take  rank  next  to 
the  49th  regiment. 

The  rifle  brigade  ranks  next  to  the  93rd 
regiment. 

The  militia  regiments  have  precedence 
after    those    of    the    line,    according    to 
their    respective    numbers    as    fixed   by 
lot.     When    regiments    of   British    and  ; 
Irish  militia  of  the  same  arm  are  serving 
together,  the  militia  of  that  part  of  the 
United  Kingdom  in  which  the  regiments 
may  at  the  time  be  quartered   has   pre-  : 
cedence  over  other  militia,  but  regiments  ; 
of  artillery  militia  always  have    prece- 
dence over  the  infantry  militia. 

On  parade,  for  purposes  of  manoeuvring, 
corps  are  to  be  distributed  and  drawn 
up  in  the  mode  which  the  general  or 
other  officer  commanding  may  judge  most 
convenient,  and  best  adapted  to  the  pur- 
poses of  the  service.  Rifle  battalions 
should  be  formed  up  on  a  flank. 

Precipitation — In  chemistry,  is  most 
frequently  employed  for  the  separation 
of  substances  from  each  other.  This 
operation  consists  in  the  conversion  of 
one  constituent  part  of  a  liquid  into  a 
solid  form,  when  it  may  be  separated  by 
mechanical  means ;  this  may  be  effected 
by  changing  either  the  chemical  nature 


of  the  constituent  to  be  separated  or 
that  of  the  liquid  in  which  this  con- 
stituent is  dissolved. 

Precision — Exactness  ;  accuracy ;  scru- 
pulous observance  of  certain  given  rules. 
In  military  phraseology,  this  term  is  often 
employed  when  remarking  on  the  drill 
or  marching  of  a  regiment.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  rifled  arms  under  the 
name  of  arms  of  precision  (7.  c.). 

Precision,  Measure  of,  vide  Measure  of 
Precision. 

Preliminary  —  Introductory  ;  that 
which  precedes  the  principal  course  of 
business,  and'  in  military  language  is 
applied  generally  to  drill. 

As  a  substantive,  the  term  preliminary, 
in  its  plural  sense,  signifies  an  introductory 
measure,  such  as  the  preliminaries  of  peace. 

Premature  Explosions  of  Shell,  vide 
Lacquer,  Black  Lead. 

Preponderance — In  artillery,  the  ex- 
cess of  weight  of  a  gun  in  rear  of  the 
trunnions.  As  applied  to  modern  guns, 
it  is  the  pressure  which  the  breech  por- 
tion of  the  gun,  when  horizontal,  exerts 
on  the  elevating  arrangement.  A  certain 
amount  of  "  preponderance  "  is  necessary 
in  all  guns,  in  order  that  they  may  rest 
steadily  on  their  carriages,  but  it  is  de- 
sirable that  it  should  be  as  small  as  pos- 
sible, to  enable  heavy  guns  to  be  elevated 
or  depressed  without  difficulty.  The  pre- 
ponderance varies  in  different  guns  in  the 
service,  in  smooth-bore  guns  between 
J  and  ^  of  the  total  weight  of  the  piece. 
In  M.L.R.  guns  of  the  heavier  natures, 
such  as  the  9-inch,  8-inch,  and  7-inch, 
the  preponderance  is  between  5  and  6 
cwt. ;  in  guns  of  18  tons  and  upwards, 
it  should  not  exceed  3  cwt. 

Preservation  of  Iron  Ordnance — The 
act  of  preserving  iron  ordnance  from  rust 
or  corrosion.  Great  attention  should  be 
paid  to  this  duty.  With  smooth-bore 
ordnance,  the  first  step  to  be  taken  is  to 
clear  the  bore  and  exterior  surface  from 
rust  and  dirt ;  the  inside  is  cleansed  with 
circular  spring  scrapers,  fixed  on  the  end 
of  a  long  shaft ;  they  are  made  to  press 
on  the  sides  of  the  cylinder,  and  by  being 
drawn  backwards  and  forwards  will  re- 
store a  regular  smooth  surface ;  the  end 
of  the  bore  is  also  scraped  with  a  tool 
for  that  purpose.  The  vent  is  opened 
by  turning  a  square  steel  rimer  through 


PRE 


312 


PEI 


it,  until  it  is  clear.  The  bore  is  then 
brushed  out  with  a  hard  round  brush, 
and  then  with  a  turk' s-licad  brush,  so 
that  no  residue  is  left.  This  done,  a 
coat  of  lacquer  is  to  be  laid  on ;  and  when 
dry,  a  second  is  added,  which  is  performed 
by  a  common  paint  brush  fixed  vertically 
on  the  end  of  a  staff  long  enough  to  reach 
down  the  bore;  the  bottom  of  the  bore  is 
lacquered  by  a  brush  attached  horizon- 
tally to  the  end  of  the  staff.  The  outside 
of  the  piece  is  to  be  well  scraped  with  a  tole- 
rably sharp  steel  tool ;  about  the  mould- 
ings where  former  coatings  have  collected, 
and  where  the  rust  will  not  give  way,  it 
should  be  slightly  hammered,  so  •as  to 
loosen  it.  The  pieces  should  not  be  re- 
moved until  the  paint  is  quite  dry.  The 
painter  should  mark  the  date,  to  show 
how  long  the  lacquering  lasts. 

Where  auti-corrosion  paint  was  for- 
merly used  for  lacquering  the  exterior 
and  bores  of  guns,  PulforcCs  magnetic 
paiat  ('/.  t\)  is  now  used. 

In  the  preservation  of  rifled  ordnance, 
the  following  is  directed  for  their  care. 
The  bores  of  guns  to  be  lacquered ;  20- 
pr.  B.  L.  guns  and  upwards  are  painted  on 
the  exterior  with  one  coat  of  Pulford's 
"magnetic  paint,  but  all  other  wrought- 
iron  field  guns  are  bronzed  only. 

The  exposed  gun-metal  portions  are 
"  bronzed,"  the  steel  parts  are  "  blued." 

Press,  Hydraulic,  vide  Hydraulic  Press. 

Press-cake,  vide  Cake,  Press. 

Pressure  Gauge,  vide  Gauge,  Pressure. 

Pressure  of  Atmosphere,  vide  Atmo- 
sphere. Pressure  of. 

Preventor  Ropes — Ropes  used  in  the 
artillery  service  to  cheek  any  motion 
which  is  liable  to  become  too  rapid, 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  recoil  of  a  gun. 

Primers — In  the  artillery  service,  are 
tubes  of  leather  paper  1\  inches  long,driv- 
en  with  mealed  powder,  and  pierced  like 
a  friction-tube ;  they  are  used,  when  re- 
quired, with  the  40-pr.  and  7-inch  B.L.R. 
guns,  and  are  placed  in  the  horizontal  part 
of  the  vent  piece  before  it  is  placed  in  the 
gun,  to  communicate  the  flame  from  the 
friction  tube  to  the  cartridge.  The  length 
and  form  of  the  vent  holes  in  these  guns 
are  such  that  the  friction  tube  alone  will 
not  always  readily  ignite  the  cartridge. 
It  is  stated,  however,  that  it  is  very 
seldom  necessarv  to  use  them. 


A  primer  is  issued  with  Boxer's  Shrapnel 
shell  for  rifled  guns.  It  is  used  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  the  bursting  charge, 
and  to  give  greater  regularity  to  the 
bursting  of  the  shell. 

Priming  of  a  Gun — The  powder  poured 
into  the  vent  of  a  gun,  with  the  view 
of  its  communicating  with  the  cart- 
ridge. This  mode  of  priming  was  the 
usual  method  before  the  introduction  of 
friction  tubes,  and  when  the  priming  was 
ignited  by  means  of  a  portfire. 

In  the  preparation  of  fuzes,  carcasses, 
&c.  a  priming  is  used  to  assist  in  igniting 
them.  For  M.L.R.  field  guns,  gun-cotton 
priming  has  beeu  introduced  for  use  with 
shells  when  firing  at  high  angles  with 
small  charges,  as  the  quick-match  often 
fails  to  iguite  the  shell. 

Principals  —  The  sloping  beams  of.  a 
roof.  (  Vide  Tie-beam.) 

Pripole,  or  Prypole — The  front  leg  of 
a  gyn. 

Prism — In  mathematics,  a  solid  whose 
bases  or  ends  are  parallel  plane  figures, 
and  whose  sides  are  parallelograms. 

In  artillery,  a  rectangular  block  be- 
velled on  either  side  of  the  upper  surface  ; 
it  is  used  for  raising  a  gun  out  of  the 
trunnion  holes  when  a  short  skid  cannot 
be  got  under  it. 

Prismatic  Compass — A  surveying  in- 
strument, by  means  of  which  horizontal 
angles  can  be  observed  with  great  ra- 
pidity, and,  when  used  with  a  tripod 
stand,  with  a  considerable  degree  of- 
accuracy.  It  is  a  very  valuable  instru- 
ment to  the  military  surveyor,  who 
can  make  his  observations  with  it,  while 
holding  it  in  his  hand,  with  all  the 
accuracy  necessary  for  a  military  sketch. 

Prismatic  Powder  —  Powder  formed 
into  discs  and  perforated. 

Prisoners  of  War — Soldiers  captured 
from  the  enemy,  or  such  who,  during 
military  operations,  have  surrendered 
themselves,  finding  that  any  further 
opposition  is  useless.  Civilisation  has  so 
far  changed  all  the  extreme  measures  of 
warfare  that  pains  and  penalties  are  sel- 
dom exercised  towards  those  whom  mis- 
fortune has  placed  in  an  adverse  position. 
In  fact,  the  sympathy  of  the  conquerors 
is  such  that  kindness  is  the  prevailing 
feature  towards  prisoners  of  war,  and 
humanity  bids  that  it  should  be  so,  seeing 


PRI 


313 


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with  what  brave  adversaries  armies  have 
to  deal. 

Prisons,  Military — Places  of  confine- 
ment for  soldiers  undergoing  long  sentences 
by  courts-martial.  There  are  altogether 
six  military  prisons  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland — at  Gosport,  Millbank,  Greenlaw, 
Cork,  Dublin,  and  Limerick.  There  are 
besides,  in  various  parts  of  our  colonies,  six 
other  similar  establishments — at  Barba- 
does,  Gibraltar,  Halifax,  Malta,  and  the 
Mauritius.  In  India  there  are  also  mili- 
tary prisons  in  the  different  presidencies. 

Private — A  term  used  in  the  British 
infantry  to  express  a  soldier  in  the  ranks. 
A  corporal,  though  numbered  among  the 
rank  and  rile,  does  not  come  under  the 
denomination  of  private. 

Prize  Agents — Officers  belonging  to  an 
army  in  the  field,  who  are  chosen  after  a 
campaign  to  collect  all  property  belong- 
ing to  the  enemy  which  has  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  victors.  If  the  prize 
property  be  considerable,  it  is  a  lucrative 
position,  as  a  certain  percentage  on  what 
is  collected  is  granted  to  the  prize  agents. 
(  Vide  Prize  Money.) 

Prize  Money — Is  the  value  of  the 
property  captured  from  the  enemy  after 
its  realisation  by  sale.  To  carry  out  the 
rules  having  reference  to  prize  property, 


prize  agents  are  appointed,  selected  by 
the  army,  to  collect,  all  property  which 
has  been  captured  in  each  of  the  towns 
and  fortresses  through  which  the  con- 
quering army  has  passed.  No  oppression 
is  permitted  in  the  matter ;  all  that  is 
demanded  is  that  what,  by  the  rules  of 
war,  falls  to  the  possession  of  the  captors 
be  given  up.  Such  property  is  sold,  and 
finally  divided  among  the  army. 

Probable  Rectangles — This  term  has 
reference  to  the  method  of  comparing 
the  shooting  of  different  guns,  as  proposed 
by  Captain  A.  Noble,  F.R.S.,  late  R.A. 
The  calculations  involved  will  be  found 
in  vol.  viii.  No.  7  of  the  '  Royal  Artillery 
Institution  Papers  ;'  in  the  same  papers, 
Captain  W.  H.  Noble,  R.A.,  gives  the 
following  definition  of  the  term  : — 

"  The  '  probable  rectangle '  represents 
an  area  on  the  horizontal  plane,  within 
which  there  is  an  even  chance  of  any  one 
shot  falling ;  that  is  to  say,  the  area 
would  probably  contain  half  the  number 
of  shots  fired.  The  smaller  the  rectangle, 
therefore,  the  greater  the  accuracy  of  the 
shooting.  The  length  of  the  probable 
rectangle  depends  upon  the  value  of  the 
'  mean  difference  of  range ; '  the  breadth 
upon  that  of  the  '  mean  reduced  deflec- 
tion,' or — 


"  Length    = 


Breadth  = 


sum  of  differences  of  range  from  mean  range 


one  less  than  the  number  of  shots 

sum  of  differences  of  deflection  from  mean  deflection 

one  less  than  the  number  of  shots 


X  constant. 


X  constant." 


Profile— If  a  plane  pass  through  a  work 
in  any  direction,  and  the  cut  made  be 
vertical  and  perpendicular  to  the  face  of 
the  work,  it  is  a  profile. 

Progress  Eeport — A  weekly  report  of 
the  progress  of  a  regiment  or  detachment 
on  the  march,  accompanied  by  a  present 
state;  it  is  sent  to  the  quartermaster- 
general  of  the  division  in  which  the  troops 
may  be,  and  to  the  quartermaster-general 
of  the  army.  These  reports  are  only  now 
required  in  India. 

Projectiles  —  Blocks  of  metal  of  dif- 
ferent shapes  and  sizes,  which,  when  in- 
troduced into  guns  and  small-arms,  can 
be  projected  by  means  of  a  charge  of 
gunpowder,  at  varying  distances,  for 
the  purpose  of  causing  destruction  in 


the  ranks  of  the  enemy  or  in  his  works 
of  defence. 

Projectiles  must  offer  two  particular 
conditions :  first,  they  should  be  of  a 
weight  and  shape  capable  of  facilitating 
their  range  and  direction ;  secondly,  if  a 
shell,  to  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  capable 
of  bursting  at  a  given  time  in  one  or 
more  fragments.  For  small-arms,  they 
are  commonly  designated  bullets,  and  for 
guns,  shell,  shot  (round  or  elongated), 
canister  shot,  &c. 

Sound  or  spherical  projectiles  are  only 
used  with  smooth-bore  guns. 

Elongated  projectiles,  with  rifled  guns ; 
they  present  the  following  advan- 
tages : — 

(1)  The  head  may  have  any  shape,  ac- 


PEG 


314 


PEG 


cording   to  the    purpose    for  which    the 
projectile  is  required. 

(•_')  The  capacity  of  the  projectile  for 
powder  or  bullets  is  increased. 

(3)  Percussion  fuzes  may  be  made  of  a 
more  simple  character,  as  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  provide  for  action  in  one  direction. 

(4)  The  weight  of  the  various  projec- 
tiles  fired    from    the  same  gun  may  be  | 
assimilated  by  varying  the  length. 

(5)  A  great  saving  of  powder  is  effected. 
(  I  'ide  A  ppendix  B.) 

Prolonge — -A  four-stranded  rope,  up-  j 
wards  of  1  inch  in  diameter,  and  72  feet 
in  length,  with  which  field  artillery  is 
provided,  to  enable  it  to  fire  while  re- 
treating, without  the  necessity  of  lim- 
bering and  unlimbering.  It  is  rarely  of 
any  value. 

Promotion— The  act  of  promoting.  In 
matters  appertaining  to  the  army,  the 
advancement  of  an  officer  or  soldier  to 
some  higher  rank  in  his  regiment,  or 
higher  place  in  a  department,  is  under- 
stood as  promotion.  Regimental  promo- 
tion among  officers  was,  up  to  within  a 
few  years,  carried  on  by  purchase  (q.  r>.) 
in  the  cavalry  and  infantry,  but  pro- 
motion is  now  regulated  by  efficiency 
and  selection. 

The  rules  which  regulate  the  pro- 
motion of  officers  in  the  auxiliary  forces 
will  be  found  in  the  circular  of  May 
1874  for  that  body  of  men.  (Vide  Ap- 
pendix A.) 

Proof  (Latin,  probo,  I  try  or  test) — A 
test;  the  degree  of  strength  of  anything, 
whether  it  be  capable  of  bearing  what  is 
stated.  The  term,  in  military  matters,  is 
well  known  in  conjunction  with  the  mate- 
rial of  war,  such  as  .the  proof  of  gun- 
powder (<?.  c.),  ordnance,  &c. 

Proof  of  Gunpowder — A  process  pur- 
sued in  testing  gunpowder  as  regards 
its  quality,  strength,  and  uniformity. 
The  quality  is  ascertained,  both  small 
and  large  grain,  by  its  general  ap- 
pearance, its  firmness,  glazing,  unifor- 
mity of  grain,  and  density  ;  its  strength 
and  uniformity,  as  explained  further  on. 
The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  govern- 
ment powder  varies  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  powder.  The  process 
of  flashing  is  also  resorted  to  for  test- 
ing the  cleanliness  and  intimate  mix- 
ture of  the  ingredients.  With  this  view, 


about  3  drachms  of  powder  are  placed 
on  a  glass  plate,  and  fired  with  a  red- 
hot  iron,  when,  if  the  powder  has  been 
properly  made,  no  residue  or  foulness 
should  be  left.  In  addition  to  the  above 
proof,  the  hygrometric  test  is  a  very 
necessary  one  to  be  taken  of  all  natures 
of  powder. 

The  usual  mode  adopted  to  test  the 
explosive  strength  or  pressure  of  gun- 
powder in  a  gun  is  thus  explained  : — 
"An  8-inch  proof  gun  is  fitted  with  3 
screw  gauges,  or  '  crushers,'  by  which 
the  pressure  of  the  exploding  charge  is 
recorded  at  three  points  in  the  bore, 
namely — in  the  axis  by  a  gauge  screwed 
through  the  cascable  of  the  gun  ;  by  a 
gauge,  screwed  into  the  side  of  the  gun 
at  7f  inches  from  the  end  of  the  bore ; 
and  by  a  gauge  screwed  into  the  side  of 
the  gun  at  15 J  inches  from  the  end  of 
the  bore.  The  velocity  of  the  shot,  or 
cylinder,  is  measured  by  two  Navez- 
Leurs'  or  Boulenge's  chronoscopes.  For 
this  purpose  four  wire  screens  are 
arranged  in  front  of  the  gun  at  the 
respective  distances  from  the  muzzle 
of  90  feet,  100  feet,  210  feet,  and  220 
feet.  Nos.  1  and  3  screws  belong  to 
No.  1  instrument,  Nos.  2  and  4  screws 
to  No.  2  instrument.  The  velocity  of 
each  projectile  is,  therefore,  registered 
at  two  points  in  front  of  the  gun, 
namely,  at  150  feet  and  160  feet,  by 
two  independent  instruments.*  This 
affords  a  complete  check  on  the  method 
of  recording  the  velocity.  The  '  crusher ' 
gauge,  or  instrument  for  measuring  the 
pressure  caused  by  the  explosion  of  the 
charge,  consists  of  a  screw-plug  of  steel, 
provided  with  a  movable  base  which 
admits  of  the  insertion  of  a  small  copper 
cylinder,  £  inch  in  length,  into  a 
chamber.  One  end  of  this  copper  cy- 
linder rests  on  an  anvil,  while  the  other 
is  acted  upon  by  a  movable  piston.  The 
copper  cylinder  is  centred  in  the  chamber 
by  a  small  circular  watch  spring. 

"  The  action  of  the  apparatus  is  as 
follows.  Upon  the  explosion  of  the 
charge,  the  gas,  acting  on  the  area  of 


*  The  instrument  records  the  time  the  pro- 
jectile takes  to  pa^s  over  the  space  included 
between  the  two  screens ;  the  observed  velocity, 
therefore,  is  at  a  point  midway  between  the 
screens. 


PRO 


315 


PRO 


the  piston,  one  end  of  which  is  almost 
flush  with  the  interior  of  the  bore, 
crushes  the  copper  cylinder  against  the 
anvil.  The  amount  of  compression  which 
the  copper  thereby  sustains  becomes  an 
indication  of  the  pressure.  The  area  of 
the  copper  cylinders  used  for  proof  of 
gunpowder  is  T'j  square  inch,  while  the 
area  of  the  piston  is  £  square  inch.  To 
form  a  table  of  pressures,  a  series  of  ex- 
periments has  been  carried  out  in  a 
testing  machine,  so  as  to  determine  the 
pressure  required  to  produce  a  definite 
amount  of  compression  in  copper  cy- 
linders corresponding  to  those  used  in 
the  instrument.  The  tabulated  results 
furnish  a  means  of  comparison  whereby 
the  amount  of  compression  produced  in 
the  '  crusher '  becomes  a  direct  indica- 
tion of  the  pressure  at  that  part  of  the 
bore  where  the  plug  is  inserted.  The 
interesting  experiments  carried  out  by 
the  committee  on  explosives  have  shown 
that  the  pressure  indicated  by  each 
'  crusher  gauge  '  is,  practically  speak- 
ing, a  true  measure  of  the  strain  on  the 
gun  at  that  point. 

"  The  modus  operandi  of  conducting  an 
individual  experiment  in  connection  with 
the  proof  of  gunpowder  is  as  follows. 
The  electric  batteries  and  wire  screens 
for  use  with  the  chronoscopes  having 
been  duly  prepared,  and  the  operator 
having  satisfied  himself  that  the  in- 
struments are  in  thorough  working 
order,  the  command  is  given  to  "  load." 
Upon  this  the  men  at  the  gun  insert  a 
cartridge  of  35  Ibs.  weight  and  19  inches 
length  into  the  bore,  and  ram  it  home 
until  a  stopper  on  the  stave  of  the 
rammer  comes  in  contact  with  the  face 
of  the  muzzle.  The  cylinder,  flat  at 
both  ends,  is  then  inserted  and  rammed 
home  in  a  similar  manner.  This  pro- 
ceeding ensures  uniformity,  as,  owing 
to  the  stops  on  the  rammer  staves,  each 
charge  occupies  the  same  space  in  the 
bore.  The  'crusher'  plugs  are  then 
screwed  into  their  respective  holes,  the 
copper  cylinders  having  previously  been 
fitted  into  the  chamber  in  the  extremity 
of  the  plug.  All  is  now  ready.  The 
operator  adjusts  the  chronoscopes,  and 
gives  the  signal  to  fire.  The  projectile 
passes  through  the  wire  screens  before 
it  buries  itself  in  the  earth  butt  at 


which  it  is  directed.  The  operator  notes 
the  readings  of  the  instruments.  The 
'crusher'  plugs  are  withdrawn,  and 
the  little  copper  cylinders  removed, 
stamped  with  the  experimental  number 
of  the  series,  and  measured  in  a  callipers 
or  micrometer  gauge.  A  reduction  in 
the  length  of  the  copper  cylinder  of  ^ 
inch  indicates  a  pressure  of  12  tons  on 
the  square  inch ;  of  one-tenth  and  a 
half,  of  sixteen  tons ;  of  fa  of  21  tons ; 
of  fa  of  36  tons,  &c.  Thus  the 
operator,  in  each  round,  records  two 
velocities,  which  ought  to  be  almost 
equal,  and  pressures  at  three  points 
in  the  bore.  Let  us  assume  that  the 
pressures  at  the  three  points  are  re- 
spectively 17'6  tons,  17'9  tons,  and  16'3 
tons,  and  that  the  observed  velocities 
per  second  are  1430  and  1426  feet  at  the 
respective  distances  of  150  feet  and  160 
feet  from  the  muzzle.  As  a  flat-headed 
cylinder  of  180  Ibs.  weight  and  8  inches 
in  diameter,  travelling  at  1400  feet  a 
second,  would,  owing  to  the  resistance 
of  the  air,  lose  about  15  feet  velocity  in 
passing  over  150  feet  of  space,  the  mean 
velocity  at  the  muzzle  will  be  1443  feet. 
This  batch  of  powder,  therefore,  would 
have  passed  proof  within  the  terms  of 
the  specification.  Had,  however,  the 
pressure  recorded  at  any  one  point  ex- 
ceeded twenty  tons,  or  the  observed 
velocities  been  less  than  about  1405  feet, 
or  greater  than  about  1465  feet,  the 
powder  would  be  rejected." 

The  instrument  invented  by  Le  Bou- 
lenge",  for  proving  powder,  has  now  nearly 
superseded  that  of  Navez-Leurs,  both  in 
India  and  in  England. 

A  very  valuable  paper  on  "  Fired 
Gunpowder,"  by  Captain  A.  Noble  (late 
R.A.),  F.R.S.,  and  Professor  Abel,  F.R.S., 
will  be  found  in  the  '  Philosophical 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  '  for  the 
year  1875,  in  which  is  given  the  result  of 
certain  experiments  for  ascertaining  the 
different  phenomena  of  fired  gunpowder 
within  the  bore  of  a  gun,  a  subject  until 
very  lately  veiled  in  obscurity  for  want 
of  suitable  instruments  and  data  on 
which  to  carry  out  the  experiments. 
The  different  chronographs  which  have 
been  invented  give  us  the  measure  of 
velocity  of  a  projectile  at  the  muzzle  of 
a  gun  and  during  its  flight,  but  the 


PRO 


316 


PRO 


velocity  of  a  shot  within  the  bore  from  i 
its    first  movement,  along   certain  fixed 
points,  until   it  leaves  the  gun,  has  been  j 
left  to  Captain  Noble  to  discover  with  his  j 
beautiful   chronoscope,  which   is  able   to  : 
record    the    millionth   part  of  a  second. 
This  instrument,  in  conjunction  with  the  ; 
'•  crusher  gauge,"  enables  us  to  ascertain 
all   the   phenomena    attending   the   com-  ; 
bustion  of  gunpowder,  such  as  its  tension 
or  pressure — its  rapidity  of  ignition — the 
time  occupied  in  burning  different  natures 
of  gunpowder,  &c.     The  subject  is  so  in- 
teresting  that  it  cannot    fail   to  attract 
the  attention  of  all  scientific    men   and 
that  of  the  practical  artillerist. 

The  length  of  the  memoir  prevents,  in 
a  work  of  this  sort,  a  longer  allusion  to 
the  results  of  the  experiments  than  is 
now  given. 

Proof  of  Ordnance — The  test  ordnance 
is  put  to  after  being  manufactured.  The 
proof  of  rifled  guns  is  carried  out  as 
follows,  as  described  in  Captain  Stoney's 
paper  '•  On  the  Construction  of  our  Heavy 
Guns  " : — 

"  Gutta-percha  impressions  are  taken 
of  the  whole  length  of  the  bore  in  the 
four  quarters.  The  gun  is  then  proved 
with  two  rounds — the  projectile  being 
equal  in  weight  to  the  service  one, 
but  flat-headed  for  7-inch  guns  and 
upwards,  in  order  that  it  may  penetrate 
as  little  as  possible  into  the  butt,  and 
the  charge  being  1J  the  weight  of  the 
battering  or  highest  charge  used  in  the 
service.  The  gun  is  fired  in  the  open 
by  means  of  an  '  Abelic '  electric  tube 
connected  with  a  magneto-electric  battery 
in  a  bomb-proof  shed.  After  proof,  water 
is  force-pumped  into  the  bore,  with  the 
pressure  of  120  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch. 
This  was  instituted  for  guns  with  wrought- 
iron  barrels  to  ascertain  that  the  breech 
was  perfectly  closed,  and  is  still  continued 
in  the  case  of  solid-ended  steel  barrels,  to 
make  sure  that  the  end  has  not  been  split 
in  proof.  After  this  the  gun  is  cleaned, 
and  gutta-percha  impressions  of  the  bore 
being  taken  as  before,  the  two  sets  of 
impressions  are  compared  to  ascertain 
that  no  flaw  of  a  serious  character  has 
been  developed  by  proof.  If  any  defect 
appears  of  which  there  is  eveu  the 
slightest  doubt,  the  gun  is  subjected  to 
five  more  rounds  with  service  charges, 


and  if  after  that  the  flaw  does  not  appear 
to  have  increased,  the  gun  is  passed." 

For  the  future,  the  proof  of  guns  firing 
pebble  powder  is  to  consist  of  one  round 
with  battering  charge,  and  two  with 
proof  charges,  all  three  with  service 
weight  of  shot. 

Prosecutor — On  a  court-martial,  the 
person  who  originates  the  charge,  the 
prisoner's  commanding  officer,  or  a  staff 
officer,  may  be  ordered  to  perform  the 
duty;  in  inferior  courts  the  adjutant  of 
the  prisoner's  regiment  is  usually  the 
prosecutor ;  in  alj  cases  the  official  pro- 
secutor must  be  subject  to  military  law. 
If  an  officer  is  to  be  called  as  a  witness, 
he  ought  not  to  be  detailed,  if  possible, 
to  act  as  prosecutor.  In  former  days 
it  would  appear  that  the  major  of  a 
regiment  discharged  the  duty  of  pro- 
secutor. 

Protection — The  act  of  protecting, 
defending,  or  covering. 

This  term  is  applied  in  a  general  sense 
in  the  case  of  natural  or  artificial  defences 
thrown  up  for  the  covering  of  a  body  of 
troops,  or  the  defence  of  a  weak  position 
for  their  protection  against  the  enemy's 
fire. 

Protection  is  afforded  to  the  men  in 
the  field  by  any  hasty  earthworks  thrown 
up  for  that  purpose,  such  as  shelter 
trenches,  pits,  &c. ;  in  forts,  by  screens 
placed  in  front  of  the  embrasures  called 
mantlets  (q.  v.) ;  in  siege  operations,  on 
the  formation  of  a  sap,  &c.,  by  fascines, 
gabions,  &c. 

In  skirmishing,  men  are  taught  to 
make  use,  as  a  means  of  protection,  of 
every  tree,  ridge,  ditch,  hedge,  in  fact  any 
available  cover. 

Protractor — In  surveying,  an  instru- 
ment for  laying  down  on  paper  the  angles 
taken  in  the  field. 

Protractor,  Semi-circular — An  instru- 
ment used  for  measuring  the  inclination 
of  the  vent  of  a  piece  of  ordnance. 

Provisions — The  term  provisions,  in  a 
general  sense,  includes  all  articles  pro- 
vided for  the  daily  wants  of  the  soldier 
and  the  cattle  of  an  army ;  known  also 
under  the  name  of  rations  (7.  ».).  Pro- 
visions vary  in  quantity  and  quality  de- 
pending on  circumstances. 

Provost  Marshal  —  A  functionary 
vested  with  powers  of  a  special  and 


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extraordinary  nature,  the  offspring  of 
the  exigencies  of  armies  in  the  field.  The 
Articles  of  War  lay  down  the  duties 
of  provost-marshals  in  the  following 
terms  : — 

"For  the  prompt  and  instant  re- 
pression of  all  irregularities  and  crimes 
abroad  which  ma)r  be  committed  by 
troops  in  the  field  and  on  the  line  of 
march,  provost-marshals  shall  be  ap- 
pointed by  us,  or  by  our  commander  of  the 
forces,  or  general  commanding,  and  their 
powers  shall  be  regulated  according  to 
the  established  usages  of  war  and  rules 
of  our  service,  being  limited  to  the 
punishment  of  offenders  whom  they  may 
detect  in  the  actual  commission  of  any 
crime  ; — the  general  commanding  our 
forces  in  the  field  will  cause  them  to 
exercise  the  powers  entrusted  to  them  in 
such  manner  and  under  such  circum- 
stances as  he  may  consider  best  calcu- 
lated to  prevent  and  instantly  to  repress 
crimes  injurious  to  the  discipline  of  our 
army  and  the  public  service ; — their 
duties  are  to  take  charge  of  prisoners 
confined  for  offences  of  a  general  descrip- 
tion ; — to  preserve  good  order  and 
disciple  ; — to  prevent  breaches  of  both, 
by  soldiers  and  followers  of  the  army, 
and  to  punish  on  the  spot,  or  the  same 
day,  those  whom  they  may  find  in  the 
immediate  act  of  committing  breaches  of 
good  order  and  military  discipline ; — 
provided  that  the  punishment  be  limited 
to  the  necessity  of  the  case,  and  shall 
accord  with  the  orders  which  the  provost 
may  from  time  to  time  receive  from  our 
commander  of  the  forces  in  the  field, 
and  that  whatever  may  be  the  crime,  the 
provost-marshal  or  his  assistants  shall 
see  the  offender  commit  the  act  for 
which  summary  punishment  may  be 
inflicted,  or  if  the  provost-marshal  or  his 
assistants  should  not  see  the  offender 
actually  commit  the  crime,  but  that 
sufficient  proof  can  be  established  of  the 
offender's  guilt,  a  report  shall  be  made 
to  the  commander  of  our  army  in  the 
field,  who  is  hereby  empowered  to  deal 
with  the  case  as  he  may  deem  most 
conducive  to  the  maintenance  of  good 
order  and  military  discipline." 

Provost  Prison  Cells— Military  pri- 
sons, garrison  or  regimental,  for  the  con- 
finement of  soldiers  summarily  awarded 


imprisonment  by  authority  of  the  com- 
manding officer,  as  well  as  for  carrying 
into  effect  the  sentences  of  imprisonment 
by  courts-martial,  for  periods  not  exceed- 
ing forty-two  days. 

Provost  Sergeant,  vide  Sergeant. 

Prussian  Rifled  Gun,  vide  Krupp 
Gun. 

Prypole,  vide  Pripole. 

Public  Accounts,  vide  Accounts,  Public. 

Puddling — In  metallurgy,  a  process  in 
the  refining  of  iron  which  consists  in 
stirring  the  metal  actively  about,  when 
in  a  state  of  fusion. 

Pukhal  (Sanskrit,  pat,  water ;  khal, 
hide) — An  Indian  term  for  a  leathern 
water-bag,  commonly  carried  on  the  back 
of  a  bullock  or  mule. 

Pulford's  Magnetic  Paint — A  paint 
now  universally  used  instead  of  anti-cor- 
rosion paint  for  lacquering  iron  ordnance 
and  projectiles.  It  is  an  oxide  of  iron. 
This  paint  is  called  "  magnetic  "  from  the 
property  of  being  attracted  by  a  magnet. 

Pulley — One  of  the  six  mechanical 
powers.  It  is  described  as  follows : — "  The 
pulley  is  a  small  wheel  movable  about  an 
axis  passing  through  its  centre  ;  in  the 
circumference  of  the  wheel  is  a  groove  to 
admit  a  rope  or  flexible  chain.  Pulleys 
are  of  two  kinds,  fixed  and  movable, 
according  as  their  axes  are  fixed  or 
movable.  In  the  fixed  pulley,  the  power 
is  equal  to  the  weight.  In  the  movable 
pulley,  the  power  is  to  the  weight  as  the 
radius  of  the  pulley  is  to  the  chord  of 
the  arc  enveloped  by  the  rope,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  movable  pulley  doubles 
the  power,  and  can  be  increased  in  any 
ratio  by  adding  to  the  number  of  pulleys. 
In  a  combination  of  pulleys,  the  advan- 
tage, however,  is  greatly  diminished  by 
the  friction  of  the  axles  and  of  the  ropes. 
Too  complex  a  combination,  therefore, 
would  not  be  of  service,  as  the  friction 
would  be  increased  without  a  proportional 
advantage,  and  from  the  complexity  of 
the  machine  would  be  more  liable  to  be 
put  out  of  order."  (  Vide  Blocks.) 

Pull-off —  In  musketry,  is  the  test 
applied  to  the  trigger  of  all  small-arms. 
The  test  is  regulated  so  as  to  require  a 
mean  weight  of  about  7  Ibs.  to  be  applied 
to  the  finger-piece  of  the  trigger,  in 
order  to  release  the  sear  nose  from  the 
top  bent ;  this  result  is  obtained  only 


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when  the  lock  and  trigger  are  perfectly 
clean  and  free  from  dried-up  oil,  or  other 
matter  causing  obstruction  to  the  free 
working  of  the  various  parts. 

As  a.  rule,  the  pull-oft'  of  the  small- 
arms  in  use  will  be  found  to  be  influenced 
mainly  by  the  condition  of  cleanliness  of 
the  lock  and  trigger. 

Should  the  lock,  after  having  been 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  oiled,  be  found 
to  pull-off  either  light  or  heavy,  i.e. 
below  ti  Ibs.  or  above  8  Ibs.,  it  may  easily 
be  regulated  by  squaring  the  sear  nose 
and  top  bent  in  the  tumbler,  care  being 
taken  to  preserve  the  same  angles. 

Pultun — An  Indian  term  for  a  regi- 
ment of  infantry. 

Pump,  Air,  vu.Je  Air  Pump. 

Pump,  Forcing  —  As  described  in 
Weale's  series,  "  is  an  engine  for  raising 
water  above  the  level  to  which  it  is 
driven  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  forcing  pump  consists  of  a  barrel 
fitted  with  a  solid  piston  or  forcer,  the 
barrel  being  also  provided  with  a  branch 
forcing  pipe.  The  lower  part  of  the 
barrel  and  the  branch  pipe  are  each  fitted 
with  a  valve  opening  upwards,  and  by 
repeated  strokes  of  the  piston,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  from  above  being  removed, 
the  fluid  is  brought  up  to  fill  the  space 
between  the  two  valves,  and  being  pre- 
vented from  returning  by  the  lower 
valve,  it  passes  through  the  upper  valve 
of  the  branch  pipe  into  a  capacious  upper 
vessel,  and  there  accumulating,  may  be 
ejected  in  a  constant  instead  of  an  inter- 
mittent stream." 

Punch — A  tool  for  cutting  circular 
or  other  shaped  pieces  out  of  metal, 
wood,  or  other  materials,  and  for  forcing 
a  hole  through  a  plate. 

Punches,  Steel  Vent — Used  for  clearing 
the  vents  of  guns.  They  are  of  different 
lengths,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
gun. 

Punching — A  term  used  in  artillery. 
The  penetration  of  a  vessel's  side,  either 
by  an  elongated  shot  or  shell,  which 
is  intended  to  kill  the  crew,  blow  up  the 
magazine,  damage  the  machinery,  and 
sink  the  vessel  by  holes  made  through 
her  at  or  near  the  water-line,  is  termed 
"  punching." 

Punching  Machine — A  machine  for 
punching  holes  through  thick  metal  plates. 


Punishments,  Military  —  Sentences 
awarded  by  courts-martial  or  command- 
ing otlicers  for  crimes  committed  by 
officers  or  soldiers.  They  are  detailed  in 
the  Articles  of  War.  They  consist  of 
death  by  hanging  or  shooting,  according 
to  the  offence,  and  of  flogging.  These  are 
the  punishments  for  the  most  aggravated 
and  flagrant  form  of  offences.  The 
minor  punishments  include  imprison- 
ment, loss  of  good-conduct  stripes,  de- 
gradation of  rank,  loss  of  appointments, 
extra  drill,  stoppage  of  pay,  and  confine- 
ment to  barracks.  An  officer  can  be 
sentenced  by  a  general  court-martial  to 
death,  cashiering,  or  dismissal  from  the 
service,  according  to  the  crime  he  is 
guilty  of.  Without  the  intervention  of  a 
court-martial,  or  any  other  form  of  dis- 
missal, the  services  of  an  officer  can  be 
dispensed  with  by  order  of  the  sovereign. 

Purchase — The  system  formerly  carried 
out  in  the  British  army,  whereby  pro- 
motion was  obtained  amongst  the  several 
ranks  by  the  sale  of  an  officer's  commis- 
sion. In  1871  a  bill  was  passed  by 
parliament  for  the  abolition  of  purchase, 
with  the  view  of  putting  the  regular 
army  and  the  militia  on  the  same  footing, 
and  instituting  a  system  of  promotion 
throughout  the  service  by  seniority  and 
selection.  Promotion  by  purchase  has 
existed  in  all  regiments — except  in  the 
artillery,  engineers,  and  marines,  for  the 
last  170  years — death  and  other  vacancies 
only  being  obtained  without  purchase. 

In  mechanics,  the  term  purchase  sig- 
nifies to  gain  or  have  an  advantage 
over  something  by  mechanical  means 
in  raising  it ;  thus,  to  place  a  lever  or 
handspike  under  any  weight  preparatory 
to  heaving  it  is  a  "  purchase." 

Pursue,  To — To  run  after  with  desire 
to  catch ;  to  follow  in  hostility. 

Pursuit — The  act  of  running  after  and 
following  with  the  desire  of  catching. 

Pursuit  comes  after  victory.  The 
great  aim  of  pursuit  is  to  prevent  a 
defeated  enemy  from  rallying  and  re- 
forming, and  if  it  be  well  carried  out, 
his  forces  will  soon  be  but  a  disorgan- 
ised mass,  without  arms.  This  is  done, 
first,  by  the  reserves  being  launched 
upon  him  so  as  to  prevent  his  covering 
his  retreat  by  fresh  troops,  and  then  by 
following  him  up,  pushing  him  without 


PYR 


319 


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ceasing,  by  means  of  horse  artillery  and 
cavalry  passing  round  his  flanks,  and 
attempting  to  cut  him  off  from  his  line 
of  retreat,  and  thus  increasing  the  con- 
fusion of  the  troops  and  abandonment  of 
material.  (Vide  Rear  Guard.) 

Pyroligneous  Acid — One  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  destructive  distillation  of 
wood,  which,  in  the  manufacture  of  char- 
coal (iu  retorts)  is  burnt  in  the  charcoal 
furnace. 

Pyrometer  (Greek,  pur,  fire  ;  metron, 
measure) — An  instrument  for  estimating 
heat  at  a  high  temperature,  such 
as  that  at  which  the  more  infusible 
metals  melt,  or  of  a  reverberatory  or 
wind  furnace  for  which  the  common 
thermometer  is  unavailable.  If  an  ap- 
proved pyrometer  could  be  obtained,  it 
might  be  used  with  advantage  for  ascer- 
taining the  heat  in  all  charcoal  furnaces 
for  gunpowder  purposes. 

Pyrotechny  (Greek,  pur,  fire  ;  techne, 
an  art) — This  term  denotes  the  art  and 
science  of  controlling  and  making  use  of 
combustible  matter,  particularly  in  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  fireworks. 

The  origin  of  artificial  fireworks  ap- 
pears to  be  unknown,  but  it  has  been 
clearly  established  that  Eastern  countries 
such  as  India  and  China,  which  produce 
saltpetre  as  a  natural  product  of  the 
ground,  made  them  long  before  they 
were  introduced  into  Europe,  which  is 
comparatively  of  recent  date. 

The  composition  which  enters  into  the 
manufacture  of  fireworks  is  the  same 
as  that  for  gunpowder,  viz.  nitre,  char- 
coal, and  sulphur,  but  generally  in  a 
mealed  state;  to  which  are  added  filings 
of  different  metals,  camphor,  resin,  lyco- 
podium,  &c.,  and  certain  chemical  sub- 
stances, which  give  the  various  colours 
observed  when  they  explode.  For  in- 
stance, iron  and  steel  filings  produce  a 
red  and  white  colour ;  copper,  green  ; 
zinc,  blue  ;  lycopodium,  rose  ;  &c. 


Quadrant — In  gunnery,  is  an  instru- 
ment, generally  made  of  brass,  for 
ascertaining  or  adjusting  the  elevation 
of  ordnance,  particularly  mortars,  which 
have  no  tangent  scale.  The  quadrant 
is  graduated  into  degrees  and  parts  of  a 
degree,  having  a  movable  index,  with 
a  spirit-level  and  vernier  attached  to  it. 
When  the  instrument  is  used,  the  limb 
or  bar  of  the  quadrant  is  inserted  into 
the  bore  of  the  piece  ;  the  index  which 
is  attached  to  the  graduated  arc  is  then 
fixed  to  the  particular  elevation  required, 
and  the  piece  elevated  or  depressed  until 
the  spirit-level  is  horizontal,  which  is 
shown  by  the  air  bubble  running  to 
the  centre.  Another  pattern  quadrant 
to  that  hitherto  in  use  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  service.  It  differs  from 
the  one  generally  known  in  being 
altogether  of  a  stronger  form ;  the  bar 
or  limb  has  been  reduced  to  12  inches 
in  length  ;  the  base  is  broader,  and  is 
fitted  with  a  stop  to  prevent  its  slipping 
into  the  chamber.  The  counterbalance 
weight  is  arranged  so  as  to  ensure  the 
quadrant  lying  flat  oa  the  bottom  of  the 
bore  of  the  piece. 

A  gunner's  quadrant  is  an  instrument 
employed,  like  the  spirit-level  quadrant, 
to  give  angles  of  elevation  or  depression 
when  there  are  no  sights  to  a  gun,  or 
when  they  cannot  be  used.  It  differs 
from  the  spirit-level  quadrant  in  having 
no  spirit-level,  but  a  plumb-line  which 
is  suspended  from  the  right  angle. 

Quadrate,  To — To  ascertain  if  a  piece 
of  ordnance  is  properly  placed  on  its  car- 
riage, and  the  wheels  are  of  equal  height. 

Quaker — A  sham  gun  made  of  wood. 

Qualitative — In  chemistry,  this  term 
has  reference  to  the  properties  of  a  body, 
and  .the  kinds  of  matter  of  which  it  is 
composed,  without  reference  to  quantity. 

Quantitative — In  chemical  analysis,  is 
the  determination  or  quantity  of  every 
individual  element  in  the  substance  to  be 
analysed. 


QUA 


320 


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Quarrels — An  ancient  name  for  arrows 
tired  from  the  cross-bow,  having  a  four-  j 
sided  or  pyramidal  head.  From  this 
weapon  there  was  also  fired  another  kind 
of  arrow  called  vireton,  a.  French  name. 
The  arrows  of  this  nature  were  fitted  some 
with  feathers,  others  without. 

Quarter — •'  To  give  quarter  "  is  to 
spare  the  life  of  a  vanquished  enemy. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  is  usual  to 
send  a  prisoner  to  his  captors'  quarter 
for  liberation,  ransom,  or  to  be  detained 
until  peace  be  signed. 

Quarter,  To — To  place  troops  under 
cover  in  any  building ;  in  fact,  to  house 
them,  generally  in  barracks.  When 
troops  are  thus  settled  for  a  season  or 
any  particular  time,  they  are  said  to 
be  quartered  there. 

Quarter  Guard — A  guar.l  mounted  in  . 
camp,  immediately  on  the  arrival  of  each  i 
corps  on  its  ground.    It  is  placed  in  front  ; 
of  the  centre  of  the  camp,  at  about  80 
paces  from  it. 

Quartermaster  —  An  officer  attached 
to  each  regiment  of  infantry  and  cavalry, 
also  to  a  brigade  of  artillery  and  to  the 
engineers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after 
the  quarters  and  rations  of  the  soldiers 
and  the  ammunition  belonging  to  the 
regiment.  On  the  march  he  has  to  attend 
to  the  billeting  of  the  men  and  the  lay- 
ing out  of  the  camp.  A  quartermaster 
holds  the  relative  rank  of  lieutenant. 

Quartermaster-General — An  officer  of 
high  rank  at  the  Horse  Guards.  He  is 
the  chief  of  the  department  to  which 
he  gives  his  title.  He  has  under  his 
control  all  matters  relating  to  the  march- 
ing, embarking,  disembarking,  quartering, 
billeting,  cantoning  of  troops,  encamp- 
ments, and  a  variety  of  other  duties,  too 
numerous  to  be  defined.  The  intelli- 
gence department  also  forms  one  of  the 
branches  of  his  office.  All  orders  relating 
to  his  department  are  issued  through  him. 

The  rank  of  the  quartermaster-general 
is  ordinarily  that  of  major-general.  He  is 
assisted  in  his  office  by  a  deputy  quarter- 
master-general and  an  assistant  quarter- 
master-general. To  each  district  or 
division  of  the  army,  either  at  home  or 
abroad,  there  is  an  assistant  or  deputy 
assistant  quartermaster-general  attached. 
Sometimes  the  duties  of  both  the  adju- 
tant-general's and  quartermaster-gene- 


ral's departments  are  performed  by  the 
same  officer.  The  duties  of  the  intelli- 
gence department  are  carried  on  under  the 
supervision  of  the  deputy  quartermaster- 
general,  all  points  of  importance  being 
referred  to  the  quartermaster-general. 

Quartermaster-Sergeant — A  non-com- 
missioned officer,  an  aid  to  the  quarter- 
master. In  a  battery  of  artillery  he 
performs  the  quartermaster's  work.  He 
ranks  as  a  start'  sergeant. 

Quarters — In  military  stations,  are  the 
apartments  in  barracks  or  huts  told  off 
for  the  accommodation  of  officers  and 
men.  In  India  the  quarters  of  officers 
are  generally  in  houses  or  bungalows, 
which  officers  have  to  hire. 

The  rules  regarding  the  choice  of  officers' 
quarters  are  detailed  in  the  Queen's 
Regulations. 

Quarters,  Head,  ride  Head-quarters. 

Quarters,  Out — Small  bodies  of  troops, 
when  detached  away  from  head-quarters 
of  their  regiment,  are  said  to  be  at  out- 
quafters. 

Quarter-sights,  vide  Sights. 

Queen's  Allowance  —  An  allowance  in 
aid  of  the  expenses  of  the  officers'  mess. 
It  is  applied  towards  reducing  the  cost 
of  wine  and  diminishing  the  daily  ex- 
penses of  the  mess,  in  equal  proportions, 
viz.  one-half  for  wine  and  one-half  for 
mess  expenses.  This  grant  is  also  known 
as  the  regent's  allowance. 

Queen's  Colours,  vide  Colours,  Military. 

Queen's  Eegulations — Regulations  and 
orders  issued  by  her  Majesty  (through 
the  commander-in-chief),  having  for 
their  object  the  regulation  of  the  whole 
military  system  of  the  army,  with  re- 
ference to  its  internal  economy  and 
discipline.  Every  officer  is  directed  to 
supply  himself  with  a  copy,  and  to  make 
himself  perfectly  acquainted  with  the 
regulations. 

Quell,  To — To  appease  or  put  down  a 
mutiny,  rebellion,  or  any  disturbance. 
When  the  military  are  called  out  to 
quell  a  disturbance,  the  Mutiny  Act  is  read 
before  any  violence  is  proceeded  with. 

Quick-match,  vide  Match. 

Quick-time — A  pace  soldiers  ordinarily 
march  at,  viz.  3'3  miles  an  hour  or 
30  inches  to  the  pace.  (  Vide  Step.) 

Quilted  Armour — Armour  formed  of 
some  padded  material  and  stitched  at 


QUI 


321 


RAD 


regular  intervals.  It  was  worn  in  the 
middle  ages,  and  was  known  under  the 
name  o( poU'-point, 

Quilted  Grape — The  old  pattern  grape 
shot,  which  consisted  of  a  round  iron 
plate  or  bottom,  having  an  iron  pin  in 
its  centre,  around  which  the  small  shot 
were  piled,  quilted  with  canvas,  and  tied, 
so  as  to  appear  in  form  something  like  a 
bunch  of  grapes. 

Quinsey — A  throat  complaint,  which 
is  common  to  horses ;  it  is  brought  on 
by  cold  or  chill.  The  symptoms  are 
difficulty  in  swallowing,  cough,  fever. 
The  horse  should  be  bled  and  given  a 
fever-ball,  and  either  a  blister  ointment 
or  embrocation  should  be  applied. 

Quiver  —  The  receptacle  for  holding 
the  arrows  of  a  bow,  formerly  worn  by 
archers  or  bowmen. 

Quoin — A  wedge  of  wood  or  iron  laid 
under  the  breech  of  heavy  guns  or  the 
muzzles  of  siege  mortars,  by  which  the 
piece  is  elevated  or  depressed.  The 
smaller  natures  of  mortars,  as  well  as 
all  field  pieces,  are  fitted  with  elevating 
screws. 

Quota — That  part  which  each  member 
of  a  society  has  to  contribute  or  receive 
in  making  up  or  dividing^  certain 
sum. 


E. 


Rabbet,  or  Rebate — A  deep  groove, 
or  channel,  cut  longitudinally  in  a  piece 
of  timber  to  receive  the  edge  of  a  plank, 
or  the  ends  of  a  number  of  planks,  which 
are  to  be  securely  fastened  in  it. 

Racers — Circular  rails  of  metal  let 
into  the  ground  on  which  the  trucks  of 
traversing  platforms  run.  The  racers 
used  with  wooden  platforms  are  made  of 
wrought  iron,  laid  with  the  upper  surface 
raised.  For  wrought-iron  traversing 
platforms  on  which  heavy  M.L.R.  guns 
of  less  size  than  the  10-inch  gun  stand, 
flanged  racers  of  wrought  iron  are  used, 


but   for   guns    of   a  larger  size    steel    is 
substituted  for  wrought  iron. 

Rack  and  Pinion — A  combination  in 
machinery  which  is  described  in  Baker's 
'  Elements  of  Mechanism  '  "  as  the  con- 
necting link  between  wheel  work  and 
the  lever,  and  is  the  most  simple 
machine  of  the  kind  for  producing  a 
continuous  vertical  motion  with  great 
power.  In  this  machine  the  axis  of 
motion  forms  the  fulcrum  of  a  lever 
whose  longer  arm  is  called  the  winch, 
and  describes  a  complete  circle ;  the 
shorter  arm  forming  the  8  leaves  or 
teeth  of  the  pinion ;  and  there  is 
always  one  of  these  employed  in  lifting 
by  one  of  its  teeth  the  rack  to  which  the 
load  or  other  resistance  is  applied." 

Racking — A  term  used  in  artillery. 
It  is  the  impact  of  heavy  projectiles 
moving  at  low  velocities,  and  intended  to 
shatter  the  ship's  armour,  and  by  re- 
peated shakes,  ultimately,  to  knock  the 
whole  structure  to  pieces. 

Racking-down  —  An  operation  per- 
formed with  the  aid  of  rack-lashing  in 
laying  a  gun  or  mortar  platform,  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  the  planks  and 
the  ribands  of  the  platform  together,  so 
as  to  prevent  them  from  moving. 

Rack-lashing — Rope  used  in  pontoon 
or  boat  bridges  for  securing  the  baulks  to 
the  pontoon.  Rack-lashing  is  also  used 
for  gun  platforms,  to  secure  the  ribands, 
planks,  and  sleepers  together.  It  consists 
of  a  piece  of  2-inch  rope  about  6  feet 
long,  fastened  to  a  picket  about  15  inches 
in  length,  having  a  hole  in  its  head  to 
receive  the  rope. 

Radiation  of  Heat— In  the  description 
given  on  this  subject,  it  is  stated  that  "  a 
body  hotter  than  surrounding  objects  will 
give  offitsheat  in  right  lines  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  a  body  colder  than  surrounding 
objects  will  receive  heat  from  them  in  right 
lines  in  all  directions.  The  transference  of 
heat  in  this  manner  is  called  radiation. 
Heat  radiated  from  bodies  follows  the  same 
laws  of  reflection  as  light.  The  rapidity 
with  which  bodies  can  radiate  and  absorb 
heat  appears  to  depend  mainly  upon  the 
nature  of  their  surfaces.  Bright  metallic 
surfaces  have  least,  and  dark  and  rough 
surfaces  the  greatest,  power,  and  may  be 
said  to  be  inversely  seini-proportioual  to 
their  reflecting  powers." 


RAD 


322 


RAI 


Radii  of  Rupture — In  military  mining, 
to  effect  an  explosion  of  the  surrounding 
ground,  a  charge  of  gunpowder  is  used, 
which,  according  to  its  strength,  the 
nature  of  ground,  and  the  depth  at  which 
it  is  placed,  more  or  less  affects  the  quan- 
tity of  earth  to  be  displaced.  Such  an 
explosion  raises  and  scatters  a  portion  of 
the  superincumbent  earth,  and  causes  a 
hollow  or  crater.  Besides  this  effect,  an 
internal  commotion  is  caused,  capable  of 
injuring  or  destroying  shafts  or  galleries 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  The 
distances  from  the  charge  to  which  this 
commotion  extends  are  called  radii  of 
rupture. 

Radius  —  In  geometry,  the  semi-dia- 
meter of  a  circle. 

Rafts — Baulks  of  timber  lashed  toge- 
ther to  form  a  bridge  for  crossing  a  river 
or  stream,  when  more  perfect  means  are 
not  at  hand.  From  their  low  degree  of 
buoyancy,  however,  they  are  seldom  em- 
ployed. 

Fir,  pine,  hazel,  poplar,  juniper,  larch, 
and  willow,  being  the  lightest  woods,  are 
the  best  for  making  timber  rafts.  Rafts 
of  timber  should  not  be  used  in  rivers 
where  the  velocity  of  the  current  ex- 
ceeds 6  feet  per  second,  or  4  miles  per 
hour. 

Good  rafts  can  be  made  of  casks  or 
barrels,  and  form  a  better  bridge  than 
baulks  of  timber. 

Ragstone  —  A  slaty  stone  used  for 
whetting  or  sharpening  the  edges  of  tools 
subsequent  to  their  having  been  ground 
on  revolving  grindstones.  The  stone  is 
imported  from  Norway,  and  gives  a  finer 
edge  than  sandstone. 

Raid — Sudden  incursion  into  a  district 
by  marauders  or  savage  tribes. 
Rail,  vide  Railways. 
Railways,  or   Railroads — Roads   con- 
structed   of    iron  bars   called    rails,  on 
which  the  wheels  of  carriages  roll,  drawn 
by  steam-engines,  and  to  which   they  are 
confined  by  ledges  or  flanges  raised  on  the 
tires  of  the  wheels. 

The  history  of  the  past  twenty  years 
shows  the  great  value  of  railways  in  time 
of  war.  In  mobilising  armies,  in  con- 
centrating them  on  the  frontier  or  the 
threatened  points  of  an  invaded  terri- 
tory, and  in  bringing  up  material  and 
supplies  of  all  sorts  from  the  base 


of  operations,  are  found  the  principal 
advantages,  in  a  military  point  of 
view,  in  the  introduction  of  railroads 
previous  to  and  during  a  campaign. 
Valuable  use  can  be  made  of  them 
even  after  the  operations  have  begun, 
such  as  transferring  fractions  of  an 
army  from  a  distant  point ;  bringing 
up  reinforcements  rapidly  at  critical 
times ;  and  for  other  purposes  which  a 
general  will  employ  as  he  thinks  right. 

It  is  in  their  effect  in  modifying  the 
conditions  of  war,  as  far  as  supply  is  con- 
cerned, that  railways  are  of  great  impor- 
tance, as  they  enable  an  army  to  dispense, 
in  a  great  measure,  with  the  enormous 
transport  trains  which  formerly  passed 
between  an  army  and  its  base  ;  and  from 
the  great  speed  and  comparative  certainty 
that  can  be  obtained  from  them,  the  area 
of  supply  is  largely  increased.  The 
wounded  and  sick  —  which  in  former 
days  remained  in  the  place  where  they 
had  fallen  or  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
thus  encumbered  the  movements  of  armies 
— can  nowadays  be  removed  with  greater 
ease  and  regularity,  and  receive  better 
care  in  the  hospitals  established  away 
from  the  field  of  operations.  This  also 
applies  to  prisoners  of  war,  who  can  be 
promptly  disposed  of  by  means  of  railways. 
Great  economy  is  thus  obtained  from  the 
use  of  railways  :  economy  of  time  and 
physical  labour  in  the  concentration 
of  armies  and  accumulation  of  food  and 
transport  of  stores;  economy  of  life  by 
disencumbering  armies  of  the  s,ick  and 
wounded,  who  receive  proper  attention 
in  established  hospitals. 

The  introduction  of  railways  in  warfare 
has  in  no  way  altered  the  main  principles 
which  govern  the  selection  of  points  on 
which  magazines  are  established,  and  the 
direction  of  the  lines  of  supply ;  indeed 
they  have  made  the  choice  of  these  points 
and  the  establishment  of  magazines 
much  easier,  as  they  can  be  placed  at  the 
junction  of  important  lines.  However, 
as  railways  are  more  easily  destroyed 
than  roads,  greater  care  than  ever  must 
be  taken  by  generals  to  protect  their 
lines  of  communication  against  the  in- 
roads of  an  enterprising  enemy. 

The  influence  of  railways  upon  and  their 
great  value  in  military  operations  were 
exemplified  during  the  Federal  War  in 


KAI 


323 


KAI 


America,  and  in  the  Franco-German  war 
of  187U-71.  General  Sherman  states  that 
one  single  line  of  railroad,  which  he  had 
conquered  bit  by  bit  from  the  enemy,  sup- 
plied his  army  (100,000  men)  so  admir- 
ably that  not  a  man,  horse,  or  mule,  was 
for  a  day  without  food,  and  the  troops  were 
always  provided  with  abundant  supplies  of 
clothing  and  ammunition ;  and  not  only 
was  the  daily  supply  kept  up,  but  provi- 
sions for  several  weeks  were  stored  on  dif- 
ferent points  of  his  line  of  communication. 
During  the  Franco-German  war,  the 
Germans,  reaping  the  advantage  of  an 
offensive  warfare,  possessed  numerous 
lines  between  their  front  and  their  base. 
During  the  investment  of  Paris,  they 
were  able,  on  a  single  line,  to  run  from 
1'2  to  14  trains  a  day,  which  enabled  them 
to  feed  their  army  r6und  the  besieged 
town,  to  bring  up  artillery  and  siege 
material,  and  reinforcements  averaging 
from  2000  to  3000  men  daily. 

Besides  these  enormous  advantages, 
railways  greatly  facilitate  the  first  ope- 
rations of  the  assailants,  and  Colonel 
Hainley,  in  his  '  Operations  of  War,' 
writes  as  follows  on  their  influence  in 
offensive  and  defensive  warfare  : — 

•'  Offensive,  compared  with  defensive, 
war  must  still  be  enormously  costly. 
But  the  invader  will  retain  and  even 
augment,  by  means  of  his  railways,  the 
advantage  of  making  a  sudden  concen- 
trated advance  on  part  of  an  extended 
line  of  defence ;  and  even  the  combined 
resources  of  telegraphs  and  railways  could 
not  avail  to  meet  the  first  onset  under 
circumstances  geographically  unfavour- 
able to  the  defence.  .  .  . 

'•  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  defender, 
if  forced  to  retreat,  will  easily  destroy  for 
the  time  the  railways  in  the  territory 
which  he  is  quitting,  while  preserving  the 
full  use  of  those  which  he  still  covers ; 
whereas  the  assailant  must  either  con- 
tent himself  with  the  ordinary  roads,  or 
pause  to  repair  the  railways  and  to  re- 
organise the  means  of  supply  through 
those  channels.  Thus  the  advantages 
of  the  initiative  will,  in  such  a  case,  be 
much  more  transient  than  before,  and  the 
defender  will  concentrate  on  the  threat- 
ened line  with  far  greater  comparative 
facility." 

From  the  above,  the  same  author  con- 


cludes that  "  an  invader  (supposing  other 
circumstances  to  be  favourable)  should 
direct  his  attack  on  a  part  of  the  theatre 
where  railways  exercise  small  influence, 
since  their  effect,  on  the  whole,  is  in  favour 
of  the  defender. 

"  The  movement  to  a  flank,  of  large 
bodies,  by  rail,  within  reach  of  the  enemy, 
must  be  especially  dangerous,  because  the 
troops  follow  each  other  in  small  isolated 
fractions,  and  are  very  defenceless  if  at- 
tacked during  the  transit." 

The  Crimean  was  the  first  war  in  which 
a  railway  was  prominently  used.  A  line 
5  miles  in  length  was  built  from  Bala- 
clava to  Sebastopol,  and  was  worked  by 
the  land  transport.  This  line  was  princi- 
pally used  for  the  transport  of  material, 
and,  in  a  strategical  point  of  view  had 
no  influence  on  the  operations  of  the  war. 
It  was  in  the  Italian  campaign,  when  the 
French  were  able  to  pour  troops  into 
Piedmont  with  great  rapidity  and  regu- 
larity, that  the  use  and  great  advantage 
of  railroads  were  shown  for  concentrating 
purposes ;  and  on  two  occasions  during  that 
campaign,  the  armies  in  the  field  were 
augmented  during  the  progress  of  the 
battle  by  fresh  troops  brought  up  by  rail. 

The  civil  war  in  America  was  the  next 
conflict  which  illustrated  the  immense 
power  and  influence  of  railways ;  and 
during  the  war  of  1870-71  railroads 
played  a  very  important  part,  heavy  calls 
being  made  on  them  ;  and  by  these  means 
the  Germans  were  able  to  place  fifteen 
corps  d'armee,  complete,  on  the  frontier  in 
a  fortnight  from  the  day  of  the  order  of 
mobilisation  being  given.  A  Fell  railway 
(7.  •».)  was  also  made  by  them  and  found 
very  useful. 

The  experience  obtained  from  these 
wars  shows  that,  without  a  well  or- 
ganised railway  department,  war  cannot 
at  the  present  day  be  carried  on  with 
any  prospect  of  success.  The  follow- 
ing on  the  means  of  managing  rail- 
ways on  the  continent  may  prove  in- 
teresting to  the  reader,  as  a  similar 
system,  based  upon  them,  has  been 
lately  introduced  in  this  country,  by 
an  Engineer  and  Jlailtcay  Staff  Volunteer 
Corps.  The  object  of  this  corps  is  to 
secure  unity  of  action  among  the  rail- 
way companies  in  time  of  war.  It 
consists  of  three  classes — namely,  eminent 
" 


RAI 


321 


RAI 


civil  engineers,  the  general  managers  of 
railway  companies,  and  the  leading 
contractors.  Their  duty  is  to  consider 
points  relating  to  the  transport  of  troops, 
the  formation  of  lines  of  railway,  &c,  and  to 
meet  any  exigency  in  time  of  war,  all  which 
information  would  prove  of  great  value. 

In  Germany  the  railways,  as  far  as  they 
are  employed  for  military  purposes,  are 
under  the"  control  of  the  great  general 
staff  at  Berlin,  a  special  section  of  that 
department  being  entirely  devoted  to 
collect  and  arrange  systematically  all 
information  on  railways,  at  home  and 
abroad,  especially  with  regard  to  their 
capacity  for  carrying  troops.  This  branch 
of  the  staff,  works  out  the  instructions 
given  for  the  transport  of  troops  and 
munitions  of  war,  examines  all  projects 
of  railways,  and,  lastly,  prepares  plans  for 
the  transport  of  German  troops  under 
different  circumstances,  so  that  in  the 
event  of  war  they  can  be  concentrated 
with  the  greatest  possible  speed  on  i 
any  given  point.  The  railway  battalion,  ! 
which  was  organised  after  the  war  of 
1870-71,  and  which  is  now  in  full  work- 
ing order,  is  under  the  superintendence  of 
this  section. 

This  battalion  is  composed  in  time  of 
peace  of  four  companies,  recruited  from 
among  the  employes  and  officers  of  exist- 
ing railways.  The  men  are  taught  by  very 
practical  lessons  how  to  construct  and 
work  a  line,  being  employed,  while  learn- 
ing the  first  duty,  on  the  state  railways 
and  afterwards  on  a  special  line,  called 
the  "  military  railway,"  running  from 
Berlin  to  the  artillery  practice  ground 
at  Zossen.  On  war  breaking  out,  the 
battalion  is  mobilised,  and  consists  then 
of  eight  conslrtictiiuj  and  four  working 
companies.  The  duties  of  the  former  are 
to  make  impromptu  lines,  and  for  that 
[purpose  each  company  is  provided  with  a 
train  of  its  own,  containing  all  the  neces- 
sary implements.  The  four  working  com- 
panies, taking  up  the  line  as  it  is  made, 
will  begin  to  put  it  in  running  order, 
manning  it  with  drivers,  guards,  stokers, 
pointsmen,  and  telegraph  clerks  from 
their  own  number,  and,  after  the  service 
is  regularly  established,  handing  it  over 
to  the  ordinary  civilian  staff,  while  they 
pass  forward  to  make  a  fresh  section  on 
ahead.  This  battalion  includes  three 


classes :  line,  reserve,  and  Lamlwehr ; 
the  two  latter  being  at  present  supple- 
mented by  a  list  of  ordinary  railway 
servants,  engaged  for  immediate  enrol- 
ment in  time  of  need. 

In  Russia,  a  system  has  been  organised 
closely  resembling  that  adopted  by 
Germany.  Every  year  picked  men  and 
officers  are  sent  on  all  the  railway  lines, 
the  former  to  study  the  theory  of  all  that 
concerns  the  working  and  managing  of 
railways,  the  latter  to  fulfil  the  duties 
of  station-masters.  In  1871,  after  two 
years'  practice,  these  men  (432  and  8 
officers),  together  with  a  division  of  in- 
infantry,  and  a  battalion  of  engineers, 
constructed  in  seven  days  a  line  of  5  miles 
in  length,  with  two  stations  and  ten 
bridges,  one  of  them  of  54-  yards  span. 
The  cost  of  the  line  was  valued  at  £21,200, 
and  was  so  well  constructed  that  it  has 
remained  in  use  ever  since. 

By  an  imperial  ukase  promulgated 
in  1870,  all  the  Russian  railway  com- 
panies have  to  provide  a  certain  number  of 
carriages  for  the  wounded,  fitted  up  with 
litters,  and  well  ventilated,  and  a  number 
of  carriages,  wagons,  and  trucks,  specially 
devised  for  military  purposes. 

France  has  also  introduced  a  railway 
battalion  under  her  new  military  organi- 
sation. The  men  of  this  battalion  will 
be  in  time  of  war  associated  with  the  civil 
railway  staff,  and  are  classed  in  three  cate- 
gories :  the  first  (two-thirds  of  annual 
contingent)  is  incorporated  in  the  active 
battalion,  and  instructed  as  sappers  and 
miners,  or  as  soldiers  of  the  engineer 
train.  The  second  (one-sixth  of  the 
contingent)  serves  one  year  only  in  the 
active  battalion  ;  after  which  it  is  dis- 
tributed among  certain  of  the  principal 
railway  companies,  in  order  to  learn  the 
working  and  management  of  the  lines, 
their  construction  and  restoration.  The 
third  (one-sixth  of  the  contingent)  serves 
only  one  year  in  the  active  battalion, 
and  is  then  transferred  to  the  depots. 
This  carries  on  operations  with  torpedoes, 
and  is  practised  generally  in  the  de- 
struction of  railways,  bridges,  &c. 

A  very  similar  organisation  of  the  .mili- 
tary railway  department  has  been  esta- 
blished in  Italy. 

In  most  of  the  continental  countries, 
the  gauge  of  the  existing  railways  i> 


RAI 


RAM 


the  same  as   in   England,  viz.  4  feet  8J 
inches. 

In  reviewing  the  value  of  railways 
during  war,  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  their  importance  causes  them  to  be 
attacked,  and  consequently,  when  within 
reach  of  the  efforts  of  an  enemy,  precau-  • 
tions  must  be  taken  for  their  protection. 
The  nature  of  defence  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  attack  likely  to  take  place. 
During  the  American  war,  the  railways 
were  exposed  to  constant  raids  from 
large  bodies  of  cavalry  ;  isolated  sentries, 
therefore,  were  of  little  use,  -and  good 
signalling  observations  and  riving  columns 
wore  the  modes  resorted  to  for  th*-ir  de- 
fence. In  the  German  war,  under  the 
Etappen  department,  troops  were  supplied 
from  the  Landwehrio  carry  out  any  mea- 
sures "necessary  for  their  protection,  and 
when  there  were  not  many  regular  troops 
available,  the  duty  was  committed  to 
small  parties  of  patrols,  and,  if  the  rails 
were  destroyed,  the  inhabitants  were 
punished. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  defence  of  a 
railway,  are  the  means  of  destroying  it, 
and  the  reasons  for  doing  so.  The  officer 
charged  with  this  duty  should  be  well 
acquainted  with  the  time  at  his  disposal, 
and  with  the  nature  of  the  operations  of 
his  general.  It  would  not  be  desirable 
to  destroy  large  bridges,  or  to  create 
serious  obstacles,  when  the  object  is  only 
to  delay  the  enemy  for  a  short  time, 
while  troops  are  being  assembled,  after 
which  the  offensive  is  to  be  taken  and 
the  line  reopened. 

On  the  other  hand,  railways  may  be 
destroyed  in  a  definite  manner,  so  as  to 
render  them  useless  to  the  advance  of 
the  enemy,  or  to  break  up  his  lines  of 
communication.  This  is  done  by  remov- 
ing the  rolling  stock,  demolishing  the 
water  tanks,  burning  the  stores  of  fuel, 
rilling  up  the  cuttings,  making  gaps  in 
the  embankments,  blowing  up  the  bridges 
and  viaducts,  and  destroying  or  removing 
the  permanent  way. 

In  dismantling  a  railway,  the  points, 
crossings,  and  switches  should  be  removed, 
and  the  rails  destroyed.  This  is  effectually 
done  by  heating  and  twisting  them,  it  being 
impossible  to  use  them  when  so  treated. 
Concerning  the  destruction  and  repair  of 
railways,  little  has  been  added  to  the 


above  described  modes  during  the  war  of 
1870-71.  Attempts  were  made  by  the 
French  to  stop  the  German  convoy  trains 
by  means  of  torpedoes  (7.  v.),  which  were 
placed  under  the  rails,  and  were  to  ex- 
plode when  the  heavy  trains  passed  over 
them.  The  danger  was  averted  by  the 
Germans  forcing  hostages  to  accompany 
the  trains  on  the  engine.  This  measure, 
which  is  scarcely  according  to  the  usages 
of  war,  proved  efficacious,  and  the  trains 
were  left  unmolested  by  the  French,  as 
soon  as  the  fact  was  known  that  their 
own  countrymen  would  forfeit  their 
lives  if  any  such  attempt  were  made. 
(  Vide  Transport.) 

Eain  Gauge,  vide  Pluviometer. 

Raise  a  Siege,  To — To  abandon  the 
siege  of  a  fortress  or  any  other  fortified 
town. 

Raking  —  Enfilading  or  sweeping  a 
work  with  artillery. 

Rally,  To — To  re-form  disordered  or 
dispersed  troops. 

Ram — In  hydraulics,  a  solid  metal 
plunger  or  piston  which  fits  tightly  into 
the  cylinder  of  an  hydraulic  press. 

Ram,  Battering,  ride  Battering  Ram. 

Ram,  To — In  fortification,  means  the 
act  of  compressing,  by  means  of  rammers, 
the  loose  earth  used  in  building  parapets 
and  in  filling  gabions.  Although  a  parapet 
of  loose  earth  is  less  injured  by  shot 
than  a  rammed  one,  ramminy  is  essen- 
tial for  the  stability  of  the  ramparts 
and  parapets,  as  they  might  be  seriously 
injured  by  a  continuance  of  bad  weather. 

To  rum  is  also  a  term  used  in  thrusting 
home  the  charge  into  a  piece  of  ordnance. 
Hence  "  to  ram  home  "  a  charge. 

Rammer  Head — A  circular  block  'of 
wood  attached  to  the  sponge  staff  of  light 
guns,  and  which  is  slightly  hollowed  out 
to  receive  a  female  screw  for  the  purpose 
of  withdrawing  the  charge,  if  necessary  ; 
to  prevent  injuring  the  fuze,  the  holes 
in  rammer  heads  have  been  enlarged. 
The  rammer  head  itself  is  used  for  ram- 
ming home  the  shot  or  shell  into  a  gun 
or  howitzer.  The  form  and  size  of  ram- 
mer heads  depend  on  the  nature  of  gun 
with  which  they  are  used. 

Rammer  heads  for  garrison  and  siege  guns 
are  not  attached  to  the  sponge  staves, 
but  there  is  one  for  each  nature  of  gun, 
and  the  head  is  mounted  on  its  own  staff. 


RAM 


326 


Rammers  — •  Large  blocks  of  wood, 
commonly  used  in  military  works,  for  the 
ramming  of  loose  earth.  The  word  ram- 
»i'.-r  is  also  applied  to  the  men  employed 
iu  that  duty. 

Ramp  (French,  rampc,  a  slope) — A 
geutle  incline  of  earth,  constructed  along 
the  interior  slope  of  a  rampart,  to  faci- 
litate the  passage  of  artillery,  &c.  from 
the  interior  to  the  terreplein  of  the  work, 
or  in  continuation  of  the  roadway  of  a 
bridge.  Ramps  for  artillery  should  not 
have  slopes  greater  than  one-seventh, 
and  should  be  8  feet  wide  for  a  field  gun. 

Rampart — Iu  fortification,  the  great 
mass  of  earth  thrown  up  from  the  ditch 
inwards,  in  order  to  give  the  defenders 
a  commanding  surface  for  their  cannon 
and  musketry.  On  the  exterior  of  the 
rampart  is  the  escarp  wall,  between  30 
and  oo  feet  in  height.  It  may  either  be 
detached  from  the  rampart  or  may  be 
joined  to  it,  forming  a  retaining  wall  or 
revetment  to  its  exterior.  On  the  rampart 
stands  the  parapet.  The  term  rampart 
is  only  applicable  to  permanent  fortifica- 
tions." 

Ramrod  —  An  instrument  of  iron  or 
•steel  for  ramming  home  the  charge  in 
muzzle-loading  small-arms. 

The  first  ramrods  which  were  invented 
were  made  of  wood,  and  were  not  at- 
tached to  the  musket,  but  were  carried 
in  the  hand,  or  stuck  in  the  belt.  In 
this  manner  they  got  frequently  broken, 
and  often  during  an  engagement  only 
one  or  two  sound  ramrods  were  to  be 
found  in  a  company.  The  introduction 
of  the  iron  or  steel  ramrod,  which  took 
place  somewhere  about  1741,  rendered 
the  musket  therefore  much  more  service- 
able. 

Handing — In  fortification,  is  a  kind  of 
basket-work,  formed  in  making  gabions. 
One  rod  only  is  used,  and  an  odd  number 
of  pickets,  in  forming  the  basket,  the  rod 
being  passed  alternately  inside  and  out- 
side the  pickets.  (Vide  Brushwood.) 

Random — Want  of  direction  in  firing  n 
gun  or  musket ;  hence  the  expression, 
to  fire  at  random.  A  random  shot  is  a 
common  expression  when  a  fire-arm  has 
been  discharged  without  aiming  in  any 
particular  direction. 

Range  —  In  gunnery,  is  defined  as 
"  the  distance  from  the  muzzle  of  a 


gun  to  the  second  intersection  of  the 
trajectory  with  the  line  of  siij/it."  (The 
first  intersection  is  made  near  the 
muzzle,  where  the  shot  in  its  ascent 
crosses  the  line  of  sight.)  "The  range  is 
not  accurately  the  distance  to  the  point 
at  which  the  shot  impinges  on  the  plane, 
unless  that  is  also  the  point  aimed  at,  but 
the  difference  is  practically  of  impor- 
tance only  at  short  distances.  In  practice 
the  range  is  usually  measured  from  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun  to  the  point  of  impact 
on  the  object,  or  to  the  first  graze  of 
the  projectile.  The  range  depends  on  the 
initial  velocity,  the  form  and  density  of 
the  projectile,  the  angle  of  elevation  of 
the  gun,  and  the  difference  of  level  be- 
tween the  planes  upon  which  the  gun 
and  object  respectively  stand." 

The  range  of  field  artillery  nowadays 
with  rifled  guns  may  be  said  to  ex- 
tend from  800  to  4000  yards ;  this,  as 
suggested  by  a  German  general,  may 
for  convenience  sake  come  under  the 
name  of  the  zone  of  accurate  fire,  and 
the  zone  nf  imperfect  fire.  The  extreme 
range  of  rifled  small-arms  may  be  placed 
at  1000  or  1200  yards. 

Range  Board — This  nature  of  board 
is  intended  for  guns  in  fortresses,  from 
the  7-iuch  calibre  upwards ;  it  is  placed 
in  a  convenient  position  in  the  fortress 
where  it  can  be  seen  and  consulted.  It 
has  the  distances  painted  on  it  of  pro- 
minent objects  within  the  range  of  the 
guns  mounted  on  the  works. 

Range,  Maximum,  vide  Maximum 
Range. 

Range  of  a  Shot,  Mean,  vide  Mean 
Range  of  a  Shot. 

Range  Plates— Plates  of  brass  attached 
to  the  brackets  of  the  16-pr.  and  9-pr. 
wrought-iron  field  carriages. 

They  are  marked  with  three  columns 
of  figures,  showing  the  range  in  yards 
from  100  to  4000  for  16-prs.  and  "from 
100  to  3500  for  9-prs.,  with  the  corre- 
sponding elevations  and  tenths  of  fuze. 

Range,  Point-blank,  vide  Point-blank. 

Range-finder  —  An  instrument  for 
ascertaining  the  range  of  a  piece  of  ord- 
nance or  small-arm.  Nolan's  is  con- 
sidered the  best  instrument  of  its  kind 
for  guns,  and  has  lately  been  admitted 
into  the  service,  after  a  considerable 
number  of  trials. 


RAN 


327 


RAN 


The  following  is  a  brief  notice  of  the 
apparatus,  as  extracted  from  the  Times : 
— "  It  consists  of  a  pair  of  angle  measures, 
right  aud  left,  each  formed  of  a  pair  of 
telescopes,     placed    at     right   angles    to 
and  across  each  other,  one  telescope  being 
much     larger    than    the    other.      These 
instruments    are     mounted    on    tripods 
which   fold   up,  and    are  carried  just  as 
luvel    legs    are,   the    instruments    being 
packed  away  in  leather   cases  for  trans- 
port   from    point    to    point.      In    using ; 
the    apparatus,    the    larger    telescope  of 
the   instrument  is  directed  at  the  object 
the    range    of    which    is    required,    the 
smaller      one      being     directed     toward 
the    twin    instrument    upon    the    twin 
tripod.       This  gives  the  angle  of  which 
the   intersection  of  the  telescopes  forms 
the  apex,  and   the  object  and  twin   tri- 
pod the   extremities.      Besides  the  angle 
measures    and  their  fittings,  a    50-yard 
measuring  tape  and  a  metal  calculating 
roller  are  required.    The  roller  is  a  metal 
plate  or  disc,  about  4  inches  in  diameter, 
inside  which  two  flat  rings  are  made  to 
rotate,  a  number  of  figures  and  divisions 
being  inscribed  on   each.     To  explain  its 
use,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  distance 
between  the  two  tripods  is  first  measured, 
and    that    an    angle    represented    by  a 
number  never  exceeding  100  is  obtained 
at  each  of  the  two  stations.     There  are, 
therefore,  three  numbers  to  be  combined 
together    or   dealt    with    to   obtain    the 
range.     To  do  this,   one  of  the  rings  is 
turned  round  until  the  word   '  tape  '   has 
been    brought  under  the    number  given 
by  the    tape^as  the  distance  between  the 
guns.      The   second  ring  is  then  turned 
until    a    mark    representing    a    gun  is 
brought  under  the  number  on  the  ring  im- 
mediately above   it,  found   by  the  angle 
measurer    at    one    tripod.       The    third 
number,  found  at  the  other  tripod,  is  then 
sought    for  on    the    inner    ring    of   the 
roller.       Above    this    is  another  figure, 
from  which  a  line  leads  up  to  the  actual 
range  which    is  engraved  on  the    outer 
ring.     With  this  apparatus    ranges  can 
be  readily  found  for  guns  before  they  are 
brought     into    position    in    front    of  an 
enemy."     (  Vide  Telemeter.) 

Bank — The  relative  position,  in  the 
army,  which  officers  and  men  hold  with 
respect  to  each  other.  The  following 


represent  the  different  ranks  in  the  army  : 
re  imental  rank,  local  ran1;,  army  rank,  re- 
latioe  rank,  honorary  ran1!,  brecet  rank, 
substantive  or  permanent  rank. 

Army  rank  is  the  position  an  officer 
holds  in  the  army  either  by  brevet  or  ' 
regimental  rank.  Should  the  date  of 
commission  of  any  two  officers  be  iden- 
tical, the  seniority  of  position  will  be 
referred  to  the  date  of  last  promotion 
in  the  rank  below. 

Brevet  rank  is  army  rank,  and  superior 
to  the  regimental  rank  which  an  officer  has 
attained.  It  is  given  for  gallant  service  in 
he  field,  or  for  long  service.    In  the  latter 
:ase,    for   instance,    a    lieutenant-colonel 
)ecomes  a    brevet-colonel    after    having 
erved  5  years  regimentally  in  that  rank. 
Honorary  rank. — Such  increased  rank 
is  is  accorded  by  her  Majesty  to  officers 
who  have  retired   on  full  pay  from  the 
service.     A  colonel   under  such   circum- 
stances is  gazetted  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general    on    retirement,    but    the    rank 
confers  no  command  or  pay ;  it  merely 
ives  title  and  precedence. 

Lvcal  rank. —  The  rank  given  to  an 
officer  in  her  Majesty's  service  serving  in 
a  foreign  land  with  other  troops,  whereby 
e  is  placed  in  his  proper  position,  as  re- 
ards  equality  of  rank,  with  those  officers 
whose  first  commissions  are  of  the  same 
date,  but  who  have  been  more  fortunate 
in  promotion.  For  instance,  a  British 
officer  located  in  India,  with  his  regi- 
ment and  with  troops  belonging  to  the 
Indian  army,  may  find  himself  junior 
in  rank  to  an  Indian  officer,  though 
his  first  commission  is  of  the  same  date ; 
to  equalise  their  standing  in  the  country, 
what  is  termed  tocal  rank  is  conferred 
by  the  commander-in-chief  in  India. 

Relative  rank  is  described  as  follows  : — 
"  Signifies  the  precedence  which  certain 
non-combatant  officers  and  others  are 
entitled  to  take  among  their  combatant 
brethren ;  for  instance,  a  commissary- 
general  has  the  rank  of  major-general. 
Relative  rank  carries  with  it  all  prece- 
dence and  advantages  attaching  to  the 
military  rank  with  which  it  corresponds, 
except  command,  and  regulates  rates  of 
lodging  money,  number  of  servants, 
rations  of  fuel  and  light  (or  allowance 
in  their  stead),  detention  an  I  prize 
money.  Relative  rank  does  not  entitle 


RAN 


328 


RAT 


the  holder  to  salutes  from  ships  or  fort- 
resses, nor  to  the  turning  out  of  a  guard." 
It  has  lately  been  determined  that  the 
assistant  military  secretary  at  the  Horse 
Guards  is  to  have  the  relative  rank  of 
i:olonel. 

Substantive  rank  may  be  termed  solid 
or  permanent  rank,  such  as  confers  upon 
an  officer  the  pay  of  his  rank  with  the 
position  and  precedence  attending  it. 
Thus  a  major  drawing  a  major's  pay, 
and  consequently  enjoying  a  major's  posi- 
tion in  his  regiment,  is  an  example  of 
substantive  rank. 

The  terms  rank  and  appointment  being 
very  generally  misapplied  when  used  with 
respect  to  positions  held  by  non-com- 
missioned officers  and  men  of  the  army,  it 
has  lately  been  notified  by  the  commander- 
in-chief  that  the  following  are  ranks,  viz. : 
—Regimental  corporal-major,  regimental 
sergeant-major,  quartermaster  corporal- 
major,  regimental  quartermaster  sergeant, 
sergeant,  corporal,  bombardier,  second 
corporal,  and  private.  All  other  posi- 
tions, whether  conveying  relative  rank 
or  not,  are  appointments. 

The  term  rank  is  also  applied  to  a  line 
of  soldiers  drawn  up  side  by  side  in  one 
row.  This  is  called  single  rank;  and 
double  rank  when  there  are  two  rows  of 
men,  one  behind  the  other. 

Bank  and  File — The  body  of  soldiers 
constituting  the  mass  of  the  army,  and 
including  all  ranks  from  corporal  down- 
wards. Rank  and  file  means  also  literally 
the  lines  of  men  from  side  to  side,  and 
from  front  to  rear  ;  a  rank  being  a  row 
of  men  standing  side  by  side,  and  a  file 
of  soldiers  a  line  of  men  standing  one 
behind  another. 

Ranking  Past — A  military  movement 
performed  by  mounted  corps  at  reviews 
before  the  reviewing  officer.  It  consists  in 
marching  past  by  single  rile  or  in  sections. 

Ransack,  To — To  pillage  ;  to  plunder. 

Ransom — The  price  paid  for  the  release 
of  a  prisoner  of  war  from  captivity  or 
punishment,  or  the  release  of  a  private 
individual  from  brigands. 

Rapidity  of  Fire — The  rate  at  which 
ordnance  of  all  natures  can  be  fired.  As 
remarked  by  Lieut.-Colonel  Owen,  in  his 
'  Modern  Artillery  ' — '•  When  rapidity  is 
combined  with  accuracy  of  fire,  the  effect 
is  greatly  increased,  but  the  latter  should 


i  not  be  sacrificed  to  the  former,  except  at 
|  case-shot  ranges  ;  a  too  rapid  fire  is  dan- 
j  gerous  to   the    gunners,  and    wastes  the 
ammunition.     As  a  general  rule,  the  fire 
may  be  more  rapid  as  the  range  decreases, 
i  the  probability  of  hitting  being  less  as  the 
range    increases.     In    ordinary  practice, 
ritled  guns  can  be  fired  as  quickly  as  smooth- 
bore guns,  and  muzzle-loading  rifled  guns 
as  rapidly  as  breech-loading  pieces.    With 
well-drilled  gunners,   about  two  rounds 
of  shell  can  be  fired  from  a  .rifled  piece 
in    a   minute,*  the   gun  being  properly 
laid  at  each  round  ;  three  or  four  rounds 
of  case  can  be  fired  in  the  same  time." 

Rapier — Formerly  signified  a  long, 
straight  broadsword,  but  is  now  under- 
stood to  mean  a  light,  edgeless,  finely 
pointed  sword  about  3  feet  long.  This 
nature  of  sword  is  only  now  worn  on 
occasions  of  court  ceremonial. 

Rarefaction  (Latin,  rarefacio,  I  make 
thin) — In  physics,  the  act  of  causing  a 
substance  to  become  less  dense ;  it  also 
denominates  the  state  of  this  lessened 
density. 

Rasp — A  species  of  file  which  is  ex- 
plained as  being  formed  when  the  surface 
of  the  steel  is  dotted  over  with  separate 
teeth  formed  by  the  indentation  of  a  pointed 
chisel  or  punch.  Rasps  are  used  for  woods 
and  soft  materials ;  double-cut  files  for 
metals  and  general  purposes.  They  are 
in  very  general  use  with  most  artificers. 
Ratan  (Calamus) — The  plants  which 
yield  ratans  are  considered  by  botanists 
as  a  genus  of  the  family  of  palms. 
They  are  abundant  in  all  the  forests  of 
the  Malay  and  Philippine  Archipelagoes, 
and  are  used  extensively  as  cordage  or 
ligatures,  or  in  the  manufacture  of  mats 
and  basket-work.  The  best  are  the  pro- 
duce of  Malacca.  A  coarse  description 
is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  peninsula 
of  India,  and  it  is  used  for  ordinary 
purposes,  as  baskets,  &c.  It  answers 
better  than  bamboo  for  baskets,  and  for 
strong  fences  when  interwoven  between 
stakes.  The  ratan,  when  burnt,  yields 
an  ordinary  black  for  paint. 

Ratchet  Wheel — Is  described  as  "  a 
simple  contrivance  for  preventing  a  wheel 


*  Segment,  with  percussion  fuzes,  rather  more 
quickly— about  seven  rounds  in  three  minutes ; 
but  hhrapnel,  with  time  fuzes,  only  about  five 
rounds  in  the  same  time. 


EAT 


329 


EEA 


from  turning  except  in  one  direction.  A 
catch  plays  into  the  teeth  of  the  wheel, 
permitting  it  to  revolve,  but  preventing 
any  recoil  on  the  part  of  the  weight,  or 
resistance  contrary  to  the  direction  of 
the  power.  This  contrivance  may  be  con- 
nected with  other  machinery  by  means 
of  teeth  instead  of  cords,  or  the  wheel 
and  axle,  as  in  the  cases  of  the  turn- 
stiles of  bridges,  &c.,  where  the  number 
of  turns  of  the  ratchet  wheel  is  required 
to  be  registered." 

Bate-book  —  A  priced  vocabulary  of 
government  stores,  by  which  officers  and 
.soldiers  are  debited  for  the  loss  of  or  in- 
jury done  to  government  property  under 
their  charge,  if  committed  through  care- 
lessness, &c. 

Ratio  —  In  mathematics,  the  mutual 
relation  of  two  magnitudes  of  the  same 
kind  to  one  another,  in  respect  of  quantity. 
Ratios  are  divided  into  arithmetical  and 
geometrical.  An  arithmetical  ratio  con- 
sists in  the  difference  of  the  quantities, 
and  a  geometrical  ratio  in  their  quotient. 
Thus  the  arithmetical  ratio  between  6  and 
4  is  6  —  4  or  2,  which,  added  to  the  less, 
gives  the  greater,  or,  deducted  from  the 
greater,  gives  the  less.  The  geometrical 

4 
ratio  between  4  and  2  is  —  or  2,  and  the 

A 

less  being  multiplied  by  2  will  make  the 
greater,  or  the  greater  divided  by  2  will 
make  the  less. 

Ration — A  soldier's  daily  allowance  of 
food,  and  the  daily  forage  (<?.  v.)  issued  to 
a  horse  or  other  animal.  In  the  Eng- 
lish army  the  peace  ration  is  f  Ib.  of 
meat,  1  Ib.  of  bread  per  man  ;  37  Ibs.  of 
coals  to  every  1.2  men  daily ;  2T3g  gills  of 
oil  to  every  18  men,  and  such  groceries 
and  vegetables  as  the  soldier  chooses  to 
buy.  The  war  ration  is  as  follows : — 

24  oz.  of  bread. 

16  oz.  of  fresh  meat,  if  procurable;  if 
not,  salt  meat. 

2  oz.  of  rice. 

2  oz.  of  sugar. 

1  oz.  of  coffee,  or  in  lieu  of  it  \  oz.  of 
tea. 

£  oz.  of  salt. 

1  gill  of  spirits. 

The  ration  varies  slightly :  1  Ib.  of 
biscuits  for  1J  Ib.  of  bread  ;  tea  instead 
of  coffee  ;  fresh  vegetables  when  avail- 
able ;  if  not  to  be  obtained,  preserved 


potatoes  and  compressed  vegetables 
should  be  issued. 

In  a  scientific  investigation  which 
took  place  some  years  ago,  it  was  settled 
that  the  nutriments  required  to  keep 
able-bodied  men  doing  heavy  work  in 
health  should  contain  three  carboni- 
ferous elements  to  one  nitrogenous. 

In  India  the  soldiers'  ration  consists  of — 

1  Ib.  of  bread  i  oz.  of  tea,  or 

1  Ib.  of  meat.  coffee  in  lieu. 

4  oz.  of  rice.  |  oz.  of  salt. 

2J  oz.  of  sugar.  1  Ib.  of  vegetables. 

3  Ibs.  of  firewood. 

During  the  Franco-German  war,  the 
Germans  largely  used  pea  cake  or 
sausage,  which  was  introduced  by  Prince 
Frederick  Charles.  It  was  found  to  be 
very  portable,  and  was  marked  in  por- 
tions ;  it  made  good  pea  soup. 

In  the  field,  when  provisions  are 
scarce,  an  officer  can  claim  to  be  rationed. 

Rat-line — The  rope  or  cord  used  for 
enclosing  any  spot  or  ground. 

Rat's-tail — A  tapering  file  ;  also  the 
tapering  at  the  end  of  a  rope. 

Ravage,  To — To  do  all  the  mischief 
possible  in  a  country  by  force  of  arms 
or  other  ways. 

Ravelin  —  In  fortification,  a  work 
having  two  faces  forming  a  salient  angle, 
placed  beyond  the  main  ditch  opposite  to 
the  curtain,  and  separated  from  the 
covered  way  by  a  ditch  that  runs  into 
the  main  ditch. 

Raw — In  a  military  sense,  unripe  in 
skill,  wanting  in  knowledge.  This  term  is 
applied  to  troops  when  they  have  little 
experience  in  the  use  of  arms.  Hence  the 
expression,  "  raw  recruit." 

Raze,  To — In  fortification,  to  demolish, 
to  level  with  the  ground. 

Ready — Prepared,  prompt.  It  is  also 
a  word  of  command  in  rifle-firing  exer- 
cise, being  the  contraction  of  make  ready 
or  be  prepared. 

Reagents  —  In  chemistry,  bodies  em- 
ployed by  the  analyst  in  ascertaining  the 
presence  of  others  under  examination. 
They  are  usually  divided  into  general  and 
special  reagents.  The  former  designation 
is  commonly  applied  to  those  substances 
which  are  used  to  separate  bodies  into 
different  groups;  and  the  latter,  to  those 
employed  to  distinguish  the  members  of 
these  groups  from  each  other. 


REA 


330 


REG 


Bealgar,  vide  Orpiment. 
Beam,  To — To  scoop  out ;  to  enlarge 
or  widen  the  bore  of  a  piece  of  ordnance 
to  the  required  calibre.  The  practice  of 
reaming  out  guns,  or  bo'  ing  tl<em  up,  first  j 
took  place  in  the  British  service  in  1830  ;  | 
it  was  done  with  the  view  of  increas- 
ing the  weight  of  metal  projected  from 
such  guns  as  were  then  on  hand  in  the 
British  service,  at  the  time  when  the  ! 
advantages  of  large-ealibred  ordnance 
were  not  absolutely  decided  on.  It  was 
therefore  but  a  temporary  expedient,  and 
for  that  particular  purpose,  reaming  out 
has  been  abandoned.  But  in  the  conver- 
sion of  smooth-bore  ordnance  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  rifled,  the  guns  have  still  to 
be  reamed  out  preparatory  to  beingrelined. 
Bear — In  the  general  acceptation  of 
the  word,  anything  situated  or  placed 
behind  another.  This  term  is  variously 
used  in  military  matters. 

Re  tr  of  a  bod'/  of  tnops  means  the 
hindermost  part  of  that  body,  such  as 
the  re'ir  of  an  army,  battalion,  squadron, 
or  company ;  rear  rank,  the  rank  which 
covers  the  front  rank. 

Bear  Guard — A  detachment  of  troops 
which  brings  up  and  protects  the  rear  of 
an  army.  It  should  be  composed  of  com- 
panies from  several  regiments,  not  of 
whole  battalions.  The  strength  of  rear 
guards  varies  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
fifth  the  whole  force,  and  should  be 
formed  from  the  reserves  or  the  freshest 
troops.  In  an  open  country  all  the 
available  cavalry  should  be  employed, 
and  always  some  of  the  best  infantry, 
whether  the  army  be  advancing  or  re- 
treating. In  the  former  case,  such  a  guard 
has  for  its  object  the  collecting  of  strag- 
glers, the  protection  of  the  baggage  of 
the  force  or  army,  and  the  bringing-in 
in  safety  the  last  man  who  loiters  behind, 
or  the  last  cart  or  beast  of  burden  em- 
ployed in  the  transport  of  the  stores  or 
baggage.  It  is  generally  a  tedious  duty,  and 
needs  an  officer  of  firmness  and  patience. 
In  the  latter,  the  duty  is  still  more 
important,  for  in  a  retreating  army, 
which  in  all  probability  is  a  beaten  one, 
all  is  in  confusion.  Men  are  unwilling  to 
form,  especially  if  run  in  upon  by  the 
pursuing  army,  and  consequently  great 
disorder  may  be  expected  if  Tarrange- 
ments  are  not  made  by  the  retreating 


general  to  check  the  pursuit  of  the 
enemy.  To  meet  such  a  possibility 
and  danger,  generals,  as  Colonel  Hamley 
states,  usually  keep  part  of  their  re- 
serves out  of  action,  in  order  to  cover 
the  retreat,  which  will  give  time  to 
restore  order,  and  to  take  advantage  of 
favourable  ground  to  make  a  stand  ;  under 
such  circumstances,  seldom  more  than  a 
fifth  or  sixth  of  the  total  force  forms 
the  rear  guard,  especially  if  it  be  formed 
entirely  of  the  troops  of  the  reserve. 

Bebate  Plane — In  carpentry,  a  sur- 
facing plane,  having  the  cutting  edge  of 
the  iron  extending  the  full  width  of  the 
sole  of  the  plane. 

Beceiver  —  In  chemistry,  a  form  of 
vessel  employed  to  collect  the  product 
of  any  distillation.  Receivers  used  in 
the  laboratory,  generally,  consist  of  glass 
globes  of  sizes,  provided  with  one  or 
more  necks. 

Beciprocal  (Latin,  reciprocus,  alter- 
nating)— In  mathematics,  is  that  number 
which,  when  used  as  a  multiplier  to  the 
number,  gives  1  as  the  result.  For  in- 
stance, the  reciprocal  of  7  is  j  or 
•1428571,  and  vice  versa. 

Beciprocal  Defence — A  sort  of  flank- 
!  ing  defence,  to    be    found  in    permanent 
I  fortifications.     In  constructing  works  of 
this    nature,    the     following     are     the 
I  objects  aimed  at : — 

"  1.  To  afford  cover  or  protection  to  the 
guns,  masonry,    and    bodies   of  the    de- 
i  fenders    from  the  effects  of   an   enemy's 
;  fire  of  every  description. 

"  2.  To  arrange  the  covering  works  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  defenders  may 
use  their  weapons  with  facility,  and  that 
the  enemy  may  be  kept  under  fire  from 
his  first  appearance  within  range  of  the 
heaviest  guns  to  the  moment  even  of  his 
•  arrival  at  the  crest  of  the  defender's 
j  works,  a  condition  which  necessarily  leads 
to  the  introduction  of  reciprocal  or  flank- 
ing defence,  as  it  would,  in  many  cases, 
be  impossible  that  it  could  be  fulfilled  by 
means  of  direct  fire  alone,  each  work  of 
defence  becoming  a  cover  to  the  assail- 
ants against  the  fire  of  its  defenders  when 
they  have  advanced  to  its  base,  it  being 
also  evident  that  flanking  fire  is  much 
more  efficient  than  direct  fire. 

"  The  term  '  reciprocal '  here  used  ex- 
presses   more    fully    the    character   and 


RKC 


331 


EEC 


object  of  such  defence  than  the  term 
'  flanking,'  as  it  generalises  the  idea 
intended  to  be  conveyed,  by  including 
reverse  fire  and  every  arrangement  by 
which  the  ground  not  acted  upon  by 
direct  fire  of  one  part  of  a  work  is 
brought  within  the  action  of  the  fire  of 
another  part." 

Reciprocating  Motion — The  movement 
of  a  body  backwards  and  forwards.  Re- 
ciprocating motion  is  frequently  required 
in  some  kinds  of  machinery,  and  the 
application  of  this  motion  is  best  observed 
by  a  crown-wheel,  double  rack,  and 
eccentric  wheel. 

Reckonings,  tide  Off-reckonings. 

Recoil  (French,  reculer,  to  go  back) — 
In  artillery,  the  motion  of  a  gun  and  its 
carriage,  or  of  a  small-arm,  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  that  of  the  shot  when  the  piece 
is  fired.  It  is  caused  from  the  ignition 
of  the  charge  impelling  the  gun  and 
shot  in  opposite  directions.  This  action 
of  recoil  has  a  very  destructive  effect  j 
upon  the  carriage  of  a  gun.  With  heavy 
guns,  the  effect  is  considerably  reduced 
by  the  use  of  hydraulic  or  pneumatic 
buffers  (q.  t\). 

Recoil,  it  is  stated,  has  no  effect  upon 
either   the    velocity    or    the    range  of  a  j 
projectile  in  artillery  guns.      The  shot,  I 
it  is  believed,  has  left    the  piece  before  j 
the    gun    commences    to    recoil.      With  j 
small-arms,   the  recoil  is  known   as  the 
/tick,    and    there    is    a    perceptible    dif- 
ference in  the  range  whether  the  gun  be 
fired  from  the  shoulder  or  from  a   fixed 
rest.      The    'Artillerist's    Handbook    of. 
Reference '  gives  the  formula  for   ascer-  ' 
taining  the  velocity  of  recoil  of  a  gun  and 
its  carriage. 

Reconnaissance  —  The  act  of  recon- 
noitring ;  an  examination  of  a  portion  of 
country  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  its 
resources  for  the  movements  and  subsist- 
ence of  an  army. 

This  duty  properly  belongs  to  the 
quartermaster-general's  department,  but 
as  light  cavalry  is,  nowadays,  constantly 
employed  in  gaining  intelligence  of  the 
enemy  and  reporting  as  to  the  features  of 
the  country  in  front  of  advancing  armies, 
cavalry  officers,  and,  indeed,  all  officers, 
should  be  able  to  make  intelligent  reports 
on  and  sketches  of  roads,  rivers,  and 
military  positions.  With  this  view, 


classes  of  instruction  in  reconnaissance 
have  been  formed  in  the  principal  mili- 
tary stations  under  the  quartermaster- 
general's  department,  in  connection  with 
the  intelligence  department  of  the  army. 

Reconnaissances  are  of  two  kinds:  1. 
Reconnoitring  the  enemy,  or  offensive 
reconnaissance ;  and  2.  Topographical  or 
defensive  reconnaissance  of  ground. 

An  enemy  may  be  reconnoitred  either 
secretly  or  openly  by  force.  In  the  first 
case,  the  reconnaissance  is  executed  by 
an  officer  alone,  or  accompanied  by  a 
small  escort ;  he  endeavours  to  approach 
the  enemy's  position  as  near  as  he  can 
to  ascertain  his  strength  and  intentions, 
and  even,  if  necessary,  to  draw  upon 
himself  the  fire  of  his  sentries,  which 
would  disclose  the  position  of  his  outposts. 

In  the  second  case,  the  reconnaissance 
is  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
covering the  strength  and  position  of  an 
enemy,  with  the  view  of  attacking  him. 
The  execution  of  such  a  reconnaissance 
demands  great  intelligence,  and  as  it 
cannot  be  thoroughly  practised  in  time 
of  peace,  and  can  only  be  practically 
learnt  in  actual  service  in  the  field,  no 
rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  mode  of 
carrying  it  out.  This  kind  of  reconnais- 
sance is  conducted  by  a  general  officer, 
who,  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  force, 
marches  openly  towards  the  enemy,  drives 
in  his  outposts,  and  forces  him  to  discover 
his  position  and  line  of  battle.  Such  a 
reconnaissance  is  called  armed  recon- 
naissance or  reconnaissance  in  force.  It 
should  be  resorted  to  as  seldom  as  pos- 
sible, as  it  often  leads  to  collisions,  some- 
times even  to  general  actions. 

A  t-ipogm/'hictil  reconnaissance  of  ground 
is  undertaken  by  staff  officers  or  others 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  information 
for  the  general  in  command  relative  to 
the  country  in  which  he  is  operating. 
No  operation  in  war  can  be  safely  con- 
ducted unless  the  officer  commanding  the 
troops  in  the  field  is  acquainted  (either 
personally  or  by  means  of  information  sup- 
plied by  others)  with  the  country  in  which 
he  is  acting.  As  it  is  impossible  for  that 
officer  to  examine  the  country  minutely 
by  himself,  he  employs  others  to  do  so  for 
him,  and  to  obtain  such  information  as 
is  necessary  for  the  proper  combination 
of  his  movements,  in  conjunction  with 


EEC 


332 


REC 


the  information  previously  obtained  from 
the  intelligence  department  (7.  c.).  The 
importance  of  reconnaissances  can  hardly 
be  over-estimated,  for  upon  their  accuracy 
the  fate  of  a  battle  or  even  of  a  campaign 
may  depend.  This  instruction  should 
therefore  not  only  be  confided  to  military 
colleges  and  the  staff,  but  also  practised  by 
olKcers  of  every  branch  of  the  service, 
so  as  to  enable  them  to  perform  in  an 
efficient  manner  the  duties  of  flanking 
parties,  of  detachments,  and  of  outposts. 

A  topographical  reconnaissance  consists 
of  a  sketch  of  the  ground,  accompanied  by 
a  written  report.  Want  of  time,  and  the 
presence  of  the  enemy,  may  prevent  an 
officer  from  doing  more  than  making  a 
rapid  examination  of  the  country  or 
object  he  is  ordered  to  reconnoitre.  In 
this  case  a  written  report  without  a 
sketch  may  prove  of  greatValue. 

Certain  qualifications  are  necessary  to 
be  possessed  by  officers  sent  on  recon- 
noitring duties,  such  as  a  facility  in 
sketching,  in  judging  distances  correctly 
by  the  eye,  by  their  own  pace,  and  that 
of  their  horses.  A  knowledge  of  the 
language  of  the  country  reconnoitred,  of 
fortifications,  as  well  as  the  habit  of  ob- 
serving ground  with  reference  to  military 
operations,  are  most  useful. 

In  reconnoitring,  the  following  general 
observations  and  notes  should  be  made  : — 

Boads. — These  should  be  examined  and 
described  mile  by  mile,  and  a  report  made 
upon  them  as  to  their  width,  their  fit- 
ness for  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery  ; 
whether  they  are  likely  to  become  im- 
passable in  bad  weather  ;  whether  easily 
repairable,  and  whether  materials  for 
mending  them  exist  near  at  hand  and  of 
what  kind ;  their  contraction,  such  as 
fords,  bridges,  and  defiles ;  width,  material, 
and  strength  of  the  bridges ;  the  means 
of  defending  the  passage  over  them.  The 
names  of  the  towns,  villages,  and  single 
houses  along  the  road ;  the  cross-  and 
by-roads,  and  the  distance  to  the  towns, 
villages,  and  private  houses  they  lead  to. 

Rivers  and  streams. — Their  sources  and 
their  general  direction  ;  their  breadth, 
depth,  nature  of  their  bottoms,  banks, 
and  beds ;  whether  navigable,  and  by 
what  description  of  vessels  ;  the  quality 
of  their  water,  and  the  variations  to 
which  they  are  subject  at  certain  seasons; 


the  number  of  fords,  their  quality, 
capacity,  and  possibility  of  improve- 
ment ;  the  nature  of  the  ground  within 
cannon-shot  of  each  bank.  The  bridges  ; 
the  material  used  in  their  construction  ; 
their  length  and  breadth  ;  whether  acces- 
sible to  artillery  and  capable  of  sustain- 
ing its  weight ;  the  best  method  of 
destroying,  and  what  material  at  hand  to 
repair  them  if  destroyed  ;  the  best  posi- 
tion for  defending  them  and  works  to 
defend  them.  The  ferries;  their  length, 
nature,  and  landing  place  on  each  side ; 
the  number  and  nature  of  boats  used ; 
the  number  of  men  and  horses  that  can  be 
transported  at  each  trip. 

Canals. — Their  course  and  breadth  ;  the 
nature  of  the  traffic  carried  on  by  them  ; 
the  number  of  boats  and  their  capacity  ; 
the  number  of  locks,  and  how  they  can 
be  destroyed  or  repaired. 

Fords. — When  and  where  passable  ; 
nature  of  their  bottoms,  whether  sand, 
clay,  rock,  or  gravel ;  notice  landmarks, 
depths,  fluctuations.  Describe  the  roads 
and  approaches  to  the  fords  ;  best  position 
for  defending  them,  and  what  works  to  be 
constructed  to  cover  them  ;  how  they  can 
be  improved,  and  how  to  be  obstructed. 

Marshes,  lakes,  ami  ponds.  —  Their 
situation  and  extent,  boundaries,  naviga- 
tion, landing-places.  The  method  and 
means  of  crossing  them ;  how  fed  by 
water ;  if  dry  at  certain  seasons ;  their 
general  character. 

Inundations. — Their  cause,  and  means 
of  traversing  them ;  or  if  impassable, 
what  are  the  shortest  routes  round 
them. 

Mountains  and  hills. — What  parts  of 
the  country  "are  mountainous,  hilly,  or 
undulating ;  whether  the  hills  are  steep 
or  broken  by  rocks,  or  if  their  ascent  is 
gradual.  Their  roads,  passes,  and  paths ; 
whether  practicable  to  artillery,  cavalry, 
or  infantry.  The  best  way  of  defending 
them  ;  the  works  that  will  be  required 
to  improve  them ;  the  supplies  to  be 
obtained.  The  nature  of  the  valleys  and 
ravines ;  their  breadth,  and  whether  easy 
or  difficult  of  passage. 

Defiles. — Note  their  length  and  their 
nature  ;  how  they  can  be  occupied  and 
defended  in  case  of  retreat.  Whether  they 
can  be  attacked  or  turned  if  strongly 
occupied. 


REG 


333 


EEC 


Fu  rests  and  icoods. — What  roads  pass 
through  them;  their  extent  and  their 
capacity  for  troops  ;  whether  they  are  an 
advantage  or  hindrance  to  attack  or  de- 
t'ence.  The  kind  of  trees  composing 
them ;  whether  adapted  for  abatis,  en- 
tanglement, or  for  telegraphic  purposes; 
if  far  apart,  permitting  cavalry  to  pene- 
trate, or  thick  and  difficult  to  traverse. 
Single  trees  should  be  noted,  or  other 
conspicuous  objects  to  give  direction  to 
columns. 

Tuicns  and  villages.  —  Their  size ; 
whether  fortified  or  open,  the  number  of 
houses  and  inhabitants;  what  supplies 
can  be  obtained.  The  description  of 
houses  and  the  number  of  troops  which 
can  be  accommodated  ;  what  stabling  or 
other  cover  for  horses ;  the  best  means  to 
place  them  in  a  state  of  defence  if 
attacked  ;  whether  healthy  or  unhealthy 
at  particular  seasons  and  the  cause ;  the 
supply  of  water ;  the  number  of  car- 
riages, horses,  mules,  and  draught  oxen; 
of  bakeries,  butchers'  shops,  mills,  and 
forges. 

Lietached  houses. — How  they  are  built ; 
of  what  materials  their  roofs ;  if  well 
supplied  with  forage  and  provisions ; 
their  defensible  capacities  ;  whether  easily 
burnt. 

Ri.di.ways. — Their  direction,  length,  and 
gauge  ;  their  construction  as  regards  the 
country  through  which  they  pass ;  tun- 
nels, cuts,  and  viaducts  ;  their  breadth 
and  length  and  depth.  Whether  they 
consist  of  double  or  single  lines  ;  descrip- 
tion of  rails  used,  and  how  secured. 
The  number,  size,  and  situation  of  sta- 
tions ;  the  means  they  afford  in  trans- 
porting troops  and  material  ;-the  quantity 
of  rolling  stock  they  possess  (locomotives, 
carriages,  trucks,  &c.),  their  adaptation 
to  transport,  and  the  best  means  of  de- 
stroying them. 

Positions  should  be  reconnoitred  with  a 
view  to  their  military  occupation,  and, 
in  doing  so,  the  number  and  description 
of  troops  necessary  to  occupy  them,  as 
well  as  their  distribution,  according  to 
the  features  presented  by  the  positions, 
should  be  taken  into  account.  No  rigid 
rules  can  be  laid  down  upon  this  point ; 
but  the  depth  of  the  position,  the 
obstacles,  such  as  rivers,  morasses,  &c.. 
whether  in  rear,  front,  or  flanks,  the 


means  of  strengthening  them,  the  key  or 
keys,  and  lines  of  communication  should 
be  considered. 

These  principles  apply  equally  to  the 
selection  of  sites  for  encamping  grounds  ; 
the  supply  of  water  and  means  of 
transport  should  be  noted ;  the  space 
required,  the  best  position  for  head- 
quarters and  outposts,  as  well  as  its  sani- 
tary condition. 

In  reconnoitring  a  fortified  post  or 
village,  all  obstacles  that  may  impede 
the  march  of  the  attacking  force  should 
be  observed  and  reported  upon. 

Fences. — Their  use  as  defences,  and 
how  they  may  be  levelled. 

Slopes. — Whether  all  arms  can  move 
up  and  down  them ;  whether  cavalry^ 
after  ascending,  will  be  in  a  condition  to 
charge. 

Districts. — It  should  be  observed  what 
parts  are  mountainous,  hilly,  •  or  flat ; 
nature  of  hills,  direction  of  chief  ridges, 
extent  of  their  valleys  and  ravines  ; 
whether  the  country  is  barren  or  culti- 
vated ;  by  what  cattle  and  in  what 
numbers  it  is  grazed ;  what  parts  are 
open,  and  what  parts  are  enclosed ;  the 
nature  of  enclosures  and  of  the  soil ; 
what  parts  are  suitable  for  cavalry,  in- 
fantry, and  artillery ;  care  should  also 
be  taken  to  observe  the  geology,  botany, 
and  climate. 

The  general  features  of  the  district 
should  be  considered  with  reference  to 
their  bearing  upon  any  plan  of  campaign 
which  may  be  denoted  in  the  instruc- 
tions as  being  under  consideration.  The 
best  positions  to  be  occupied  with  a  view 
to  the  operations  of  the  campaign  should 
be  pointed  out  and  described,  and  a 
sketch  of  them  should  be  annexed  to  the 
report.  The  lines  of  operation,  either 
covered  or  impeded  by  them,  as  well  as 
any  positions  favourable  to  the  enemy, 
should  be  noticed. 

Reconnaissances  can  be  made  daily 
from  outposts  by  officers  commanding 
pickets.  These,  with  a  few  men,  can 
creep  up  to  commanding  points  near  the 
enemy's  position  for  the  purpose  of 
seeing  what  he  is  about. 

An  easy  mode  of  finding  out  whether 
a  village  is  occupied  by  the  enemy  or  not 
is  by  sending  a  party  of  horsemen  at 
full  gallop  through  the  main  street. 


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If  occupied,  the  enemy  will  fire,  and,  if 
not,  the  party  will  pass  unmolested,  and 
thus  the  information  be  obtained. 

Balloons  (7.  v.)  arford  effective  means 
of  learning  the  whereabouts  and  doings 
of  an  enemy. 

Before  disembarking  troops  on  the 
enemy's  shore,  in  order  to  select  a  good 
spot  for  that  purpose,  a  reconnaissance 
should  be  made  by  the  naval  and  military 
officers.  (  Vide  Disembarkation.) 

Reconnoitre,  To  (French,  reconnoitre, 
to  vie\v,  to  examine)  —  In  military 
phraseology,  this  term  means  to  observe 
the  country  and  the  enemy  ;  to  remark 
the  roads,  obstacles,  &c.  by  means  of  re- 
connaissances (q.  v.). 

Recruit,  To  (French,  rccruter)  —  To 
supply  what  is  wanting.  In  military  life, 
to  till  up  the  ranks  of  a  regiment  with 
young  soldiers  who  have  enlisted  to 
serve  in  the  army. 

Recruiting  Districts — Districts  formed 
in  several  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom 
under  the  charge  of  officers  specially 
appointed  for  that  purpose,  aided  by 
noii-commissioned  officers,  to  recruit  men 
for  the  several  regiments  and  depart- 
ments of  the  army. 

Recruits — Men  raised  for  service  in  the 
regular  army  and  militia,  to  fill  vacancies 
in  regiments  or  to  augment  the  strength 
of  the  army.  A  recruit  remains  a  re- 
cruit from  the  date  of  his  enlistment 
until  he  has  passed  his  drill,  which 
extends  generally  to  16  weeks. 

The  Mutiny  Act  details  the  rules  and 
regulations  to  be  observed  in  the  en- 
listment of  recruits.  (  Vide  Enlist,  To,  and 
Smart  Money.) 

.Rectification — In  chemistry,  the  pro- 
cess of  drawing  anything  off  by  distilla- 
tion, in  order  to  obtain  it  in  a  state  of 
greater  purity. 

Rectilinear — Consisting  of  right  lines. 

Redan — In  fortification,  the  simplest 
kind  of  trace  for  fieldworks,  having  two 
faces,  forming  a  salient  angle ;  it  serves 
to  cover  a  bridge,  causeway,  avenue,  &c., 
and  being  quite  open  at  the  gorge,  is  only 
suitable  for  defence  when  resting  its  ex- 
tremities on  a  river  or  obstacle  which 
prevents  its  being  turned,  or  else,  when 
within  the  full  sweeping  fire  of  works  in 
its  rear,  that  an  enemy  may  be  deterred 
from  any  attempt  to  assault  by  the  gorge. 


Redoubt — In  fortification,  a  fieldwork 
enclosed  on  all  sides,  having  its  ditch  not 
flanked  from  the  parapet.  It  may  be 
of  a  s /uare,  polygon  il,  circular,  or  irre- 
gular figure  ;  the  circular  form  is  rarely 
used,  from  the  unsuitable  nature  of  such 
an  outline  to  ground  in  general,  and  the 
total  impossibility  of  giving  any  flanking 
defence  to  its  ditch.  The  sides  of  a 
square  redoubt  should  not  be  less  than 
24  yards,  or  in  general  more  than  42 
yards. 

Red-sear  Iron — A  defect  in  iron  which 
causes  it  to  become  brittle  when  heated, 
and  to  break  when  forged. 

Red-short  Iron — One  of  the  three  prin- 
cipal varieties  of  malleable  iron,  possess- 
ing this  defect,  that  it  is  brittle  when  hot, 
but  extremely  soft  and  ductile  whilst 
cold. 

Reduce,  To — Means  to  constrain,  to 
force.  To  reduce  a  place  is  to  oblige  the 
garrison  to  surrender  it  to  the  besiegers  ; 
to  capitulate.  To  be  reduced  to  the 
ranks  is  to  be  reduced  from  a  superior 
rank  in  a  regiment  to  that  of  a  private. 

Reduit — In  fortification,  a  keep  capable 
of  defence  after  the  enemy  has  pene- 
trated into  the  outer  works  of  a 
field  fortification  or  military  post ;  it 
greatly  tends  to  the  security  of  any 
work.  It  should  have  a  command  of 
5  feet,  so  that  it  may  not  be  seen 
into  by  the  enemy.  Blockhouses  form 
the  most  suitable  reduits  for  field- 
works. 

Reef-knot — A  knot  in  common  use  for 
lashings  when  two  ropes,  or  the  ends  of 
one  rope,  have  to  be  fastened  so  as  to  be 
easily  undone. 

Re  -  engagement  —  The  permission 
granted  to  soldiers,  before  and  after  being 
discharged  (within  a  stated  period),  on 
completion  of  their  first  period  of  service, 
to  re-enter  the  army.  The  conditions 
under  which  they  can  re-engage  for  a 
further  period  of  service  are  given  in 
the  Mutiny  Act. 

The  substance  of  the  act  is  as  follows. 
By  the  55th  article  of  the  Mutiny  Act, 
any  soldier  who  has  commenced  the  last 
year  of  his  first  term  of  enlistment,  or 
who,  being  within  3  years  of  its  expira- 
tion, is  ordered  abroad,  may,  with  the 
approval  of  his  commanding  officer  or 
other  competent  military  authority,  be  re- 


KEE 


335 


REG 


engaged  for  .such  period  as  shall  complete 
21  years ;  and  at  the  end  of  that  terra  he 
may  continue  to  serve  with  the  approval 
of  competent  authority.  Soldiers  who  have 
taken  their  discharge  at  the  expiration 
of  limited  engagement  may  be  permitted 
to  re-engage,  provided  they  do  so  within 
12  months  from  date  of  discharge,  are  of 
good  character,  and  under  34  years  of  age. 
Soldiers  who  have  declined  to  re-engage 
abroad,  and  have  been  sent  home  at  the 
public  expense,  will  not  be  permitted  to 
re-engage  in  this  country. 

Re-entering  Angle — In  fortification, 
is  an  angle  pointing  inwards  or  towards 
the  place. 

Re-entering  Order  of  Battle — An  order 
of  battle,  the  front  of  the  army  forming  ' 
a  re-entering  or  enclosing  angle,  and  the  ( 
reverse    of  the  salient    formation.     This  i 
order  presents  many  advantages,  as  it  can  j 
enclose  the  enemy,  and  shake  morally  and  ; 
physically    the    troops    which    form    the  I 
angle  of  the  salient,  by  their  rear  being 
threatened  and  their  retreat  cut  off. 

Re-entering  Places  of  Arms — Enlarge- 
ments in  the  covered  way,  at  the  re- 
entering  angles  of  the  counterscarp ;  this 
space  is  formed  by  setting  off  demi- 
gorges  of  30  yards  (more  or  less),  and 
making  the  spaces  form  angles  of  100° 
with  the  adjoining  branches  of  the  covered 
way. 

Reeve,  To — To  pass  a  rope  or  tackle 
through  a  block. 

Refining  —  The  purification  of  any 
metal  or  salt ;  such  as  nitre,  for  instance, 
undergoes  before  it  is  fit  for  gunpowder 
purposes.  For  the  process  observed, 
vide  Saltpetre. 

Re-form,  To — In  drill,  means  to  bring 
back,  after  some  manoeuvre,  a  body  of 
men  to  its  natural  or  original  formation 
by  aligning  it  on  some  given  point. 

Refraction  of  Saltpetre — In  commerce, 
is  the  ascertaining,  with  accuracy,  the 
quantity  of  pure  salt,  or  the  amount 
of  impurities,  contained  in  a  given  sample. 
Government,  for  gunpowder  purposes, 
generally  purchases  saltpetre  at  5  per 
cent,  refraction. 

Refuse,  To — A  military  phrase,  sig- 
nifying to  throw  back,  or  to  keep  back 
out  of  the  regular  alignment  which  is 
formed  when  troops  are  upon  the  point 
of  engaging  the  enemy.  Thus  it  is  said, 


in  the  oblique  order  of  battle,  that  if 
the  right  flank  attacks,  the  left  must  be 
''refused." 

Regent's  Allowance,  tide  Queen's 
Allowance. 

Regiment — The  derivation  of  the  word 
"  regiment "  seems  to  come  from  the 
Latin  nyere,  to  rule  or  govern.  Hence 
a  regiment  is  said  to  be  governed  or 
commanded  by  a  colonel.  A  regiment 
consists  of  a  body  of  soldiers  enrolled 
together,  consisting  of  one  or  more 
battalions  of  infantry,  or  several  squadrons 
of  cavalry.  In  the  British  army,  most 
of  the  regiments  have  only  one  battalion 
(y.  c.).  The  regiment  of  artillery  is  com- 
posed of  brigades,  the  term  brigade  being 
synonymous  with  that  of  regiment,  and 
each  brigade  is  commanded  by  the  senior 
lieutenant-colonel.  The  engineers  are 
termed  a  corps,  not  a  regiment,  and  the 
organisation  of  that  body  is  in  companies  ; 
the  system  of  brigades,  as  in  the  artillery, 
or  of  battalions,  as  in  the  line,  not  being 
observed.  The  word  regiment  began  to 
be  applied  to  bodies  of  British  troops  in 
Elizabeth's  reign  ;  regiments  are  spoken 
of  at  the  time  of  the  Armada,  1588.  and 
as  composing  the  force  in  Ireland,  1598. 
From  that  time  forward,  the  army  and 
militia  of  Britain  have  been  organised 
into  regiments. 

Regimental — Anything  belonging  to  a 
regiment. 

Regimental  Band,  vide  Band. 

Regimental  Colours,  vide  Colours, 
Military. 

Regimental  Orders,  vide  Orders,  Regi- 
mental. 

Regimental  Parade,  vide  Parade. 

Regimental  Schools,  vide  Schools,  Mi- 
litary. 

Regimental  Staff,  vide  Staff. 

Regimental  Transport,  vide  Transport. 

Regimentals — The  uniform  clothing  <  f 
officers  and  men  in  the  service,  as  laid 
down  for  each  regiment  and  department. 
(Vide  Clothing,  Military.) 

Regiments,  Linked,  vide  Linked  Regi- 
ments. 

Regular — According  to  rules  ;  made  in 
form  ;  such  as  regular  attacks,  that  is, 
attacks  made  by  regular  approaches. 

Regular,  when  applied  to  the  army, 
signifies  well  disciplined  and  fit  for  ser- 
vice; hence  rejUlar  troops. 


REG 


336 


EEL 


Regulars — Troops  whose  conditions  of 
enrolment  are  not  limited  to  time  or  place, 
in  contradistinction  to  militia  and  volun- 
teer corps. 

Regulation  Price — As  applied  to  an 
officer's  commission,  was  the  regulated 
price  paid  by  officers  for  each  step  of  rank 
(according  to  a  fixed  scale),  other  than 
death  vacancies,  vacancies  caused  by 
augmenting  a  regiment,  or  vacancies 
resulting  from  the  promotion  of  colonels 
to  be  major-generals.  When  an  officer 
of  any  rank,  from  a  lieutenant-colonel 
downwards,  was  desirous  of  retiring 
from  the  service,  he  was  entitled  to  sell 
his  commission  for  the  price  stipulated  by 
the  regulations.  Sometimes  he  received 
more  than  the  regulation  sum. 

Purchase  being  no  longer  permitted  in 
the  army,  the  sale  of  commissions  men- 
tioned in  the  foregoing  paragraph  has 
only  reference  to  officers  who  entered  the 
army  before  November  1,  1871. 

Regulations,  Military — All  codes  of 
rules  which  have  been  embodied  for  the 
guidance  of  officers  of  the  army,  to  insure 
uniformity  in  carrying  out  the  permanent 
orders  of  the  government  or  commander- 
in-chief;  such  are  the  Articles  of  War, 
Mutiny  Act,  and  Queen's  Regulations. 
All  warrants  and  orders  of  the  Secretary 
of  War  issued  from  time  to  time  for  the 
guidance  and  instruction  of  the  civil  and 
military  branches  of  the  army  may  also 
be  classed  under  the  head  of  military 
regulations;  they  are  communicated  to 
regiments  and  departments  in  monthly 
army  circulars  through  the  Horse 
Guards. 

Regulations,  Queen's,  vide  Queen's 
Regulations. 

Regulator — As  described  by  Lardner, 
"  a  class  of  contrivance  which  has  for  its 
object  to  render  the  posver  and  resistance 
proportionate  to  each  other.  Regulators 
generally  act  upon  that  point  of  the 
machine  which  commands  the  supply  of 
the  power  by  means  of  some  mechanical 
contrivances,  which  check  the  quantity 
of  the  moving  principle  conveyed  to  the 
machine  whenever  the  motion  becomes 
accelerated,  and  increase  the  supply  when- 
ever it  becomes  retarded.  For  example, 
this  is  accomplished  in  a  steam-engine 
by  acting  on  a  valve  called  the  throttle 
valve,  placed  in  the  main  pipe,  through 


which  steam  flows  from  the  boiler  to  the 
cylinder." 

Reinforce — The  name  given  to  that 
part  of  a  gun  where  an  increase  of  metal 
is  required  to  enable  it  to  withstand  the 
explosion  of  the  charge.  There  are  two 
reinforces  in  the  ordinary  smooth-bore 
cannon  ;  the  first  reinforce  extending  from 
the  rear  of  the  base  ring  to  that  of  the 
first  reinforce  ring,  a  little  in  rear  of  the 
trunnions ;  second  reinforce,  from  the 
rear  of  the  first  to  that  of  the  second 
ring  in  front  of  the  trunnions.  It  is  in 
the  first  reinforce  (round  the  breech) 
where  the  greatest  thickness  of  metal  is 
found.  Since  the  introduction  of  coiled 
guns,  the  term  reinforce  is  in  disuse  in 
describing  rifled  ordnance. 

Reinforce,  To  —  To  strengthen;  to 
fortify. 

Rejoinder — In  military  courts-martial 
other  than  general  courts-martial,  is  the 
defendant's  answer  to  the  plaintiff's  repli- 
cation ;  that  is,  when  the  prosecutor 
makes  a  reply  to  the  defendant,  the  latter 
may  answer  again,  and  he  may  even  call 
witnesses  to  re-establish  the  character  for 
credulity  of  such  of  his  witnesses  as  may 
have  been  impugned  by  the  prosecutor's 
evidence  in  reply. 

Release — As  applied  to  soldiers  under- 
going imprisonment,  is  the  prerogative 
of  a  commanding  officer  to  release  a 
prisoner  from  confinement.  This  power 
is  vested  in  him  alone.  He  has  further 
the  power  of  remitting  the  sentence  of  a 
regimental  court-martial,  convened  by 
himself,  and  directing  the  release  of  the 
prisoner,  should  he  not  approve  of  the 
sentence  or  finding. 

Relief — In  fortification,  the  general 
height  to  which  the  works  are  raised  ; 
if  the  works  be  generally  high  and  com- 
manding, they  are  said  to  have  a  bold 
relief ;  If  the  reverse,  a  low  relief. 

The  term  relief  is  also  given  to  a  party 
of  soldiers  detached  from  a  guard,  who 
relieve  sontries  oft"  their  post  on  the  ex- 
piration of  their  term  on  duty. 

Relieve,  To — To  replace;  "to  change. 
In  military  language,  this  word  applies 
to  bodies  of  troops  when  they  take  the 
place  of  others.  Thus  to  relieve  guard  is 
to  change  or  put  fresh  men  upon  guai-d, 
which  is  generally  done  every  24 


BEM 


337 


REP 


To  relieve  the  trenches  is  to  change  the 
guard  of  the  trenches. 

To  relieve  sentries  is  to  put  fresh  men 
on  sentry  duty.  This  is  done  ordinarily 
every  2  hours,  by  the  corporal  of  the 
guard,  who  sees  whether  the  relieved 
sentry  gives  over  the  instructions  he 
received  to  the  one  relieving  him. 

Remblai — In  fortification,  the  quan- 
tity of  earth  or  soil  contained  in  the 
mass  of  the  rampart  and  parapet  of  a 
work.  In  general,  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  contained  in  the  remblai  has  been 
furnished  by  the  deblai,  so  as  to  balance 
each  other. 

Remission — Abatement ;  forgiveness. 
Remission  of  punishment,  as  regards  a 
soldier  tried  by  a  court-martial,  is  in  the 
power  of  the  confirming  authority,  and 
he  can  at  any  time  remit  any  portion  of 
the  sentence  at  discretion.  The  periodical 
visitors  of  military  prisons  have  the  power 
of  recommending  remission  of  punish- 
ment. When  a  prisoner  confined  in  a 
military  prison  is  recommended  for  a  re- 
mission of  punishment  by  his  commanding 
officer,  the  recommendation  should  be  sub- 
mitted for  the  approval  of  the  periodical 
visitors. 

Though  a  soldier's  punishment  may 
have  been  wholly  remitted,  there  is  to  be 
no  remission  of  any  penalty  consequent  on 
his  conviction,  such  as  forfeiture  of 
service,  good-conduct  pay,  &c.  ( Vide 
Queen's  Regulations.) 

Remonstrate,  To  —  To  urge  strong 
reasons  against  the  instructions  given  by 
superior  authority.  If  an  officer  or  soldier 
considers  himself  aggrieved  on  any  point, 
he  is  permitted  to  represent  his  case,  but 
it  must  be  done  in  a  respectful  manner 
through  his  commanding  officer  to  higher 
authority ;  at  the  same  time,  where  the 
duty  of  the  service  may  require  it,  that 
duty  must  be  first  carried  out  with  cheer- 
fulness and  alacrity. 

Remount,  To — To  furnish  the  cavalry 
with  horses  in  the  room  of  those  which 
have  been  killed,  disabled,  or  cast. 

Remounts — The  name  given  to  horses 
that  are  passel  into  the  government  ser- 
vice by  purchase  for  artillery  or  cavalry 
purposes,  or  which  are  reared  in  a  stud 
((/.  v.),  as  in  India.  The  general  age  of  re- 
mounts varies  from  3  to  5  years  old. 

Rendezvous    (French)  —  A  term   ex- 


pressing any  appointed  place  of  assembly 
or  meeting. 

Report — A  specific  statement  on  any 
particular  subject,  or  person,  which 
superior  authority  may  desire  to  possess, 
and  which  it  is  in  the  power  of  the 
person  applied-to  to  afford. 

The  word  report  is  also  used  to  express 

a  loud  noise,  such  as  that  made  by  the 

;  discharge  of  a  cannon  or  musket.     The 

I  distance  to  which  cannon  can  be   heard 

depends  on  the  wind  and  the  state  of  the 

atmosphere,  also  whether  conveyed  over 

water,  which  considerably  increases  the 

distance    to    which    sound    can    reach. 

During  the  Sutlej  campaign  in  1845-46, 

the   report  of  the  guns  at  the  battle  of 

!  Sobraon  was  distinctly   heard  at  Loodi- 

!  anah,  a  distance  of  80  miles.     But  the  re- 

:  port  of  cannon,  it  is  stated,  has  been  heard 

at  far  greater  distances.     (  Vide  Sound.) 

Report,  To— To  make  a  statement  of 
facts  when  an  officer  or  soldier  is  accused  of 
a  breach  of  military  discipline.  A  report 
is  usually  made  by  stating  on  paper  in  offi- 
cial form,  by  the  officer  making  the  report, 
the  nature  of  the  case,  for  the  information 
of  the  commanding  officer.  In  a  regiment 
this  is  done  through  the  adjutant. 

Reports,  Confidential,  vide  Confidential 
Reports. 

Repository — A  museum,   or   place  of 
deposit  of  musters  or  samples  of  the  dif- 
ferent arms,  tools,  stores,  &c.  used  in  the 
service.      The    repository    at    Woolwich 
!  forms  a  school  of  instruction    for  both 
officers    and    men    on   first  joining  the 
I  artillery,  and  is  interesting  and  instruc- 
j  tive  to  all  ranks  in  the  regiment. 

Repository  Exercise,  vide  Exercise,  Re- 
;  pository. 

Reprimand  —  A   rebuke,  which  is  in- 

j  eluded  in  the   army  under  the  head  of 

|  punishments.    Courts-martial  only  inflict 

it  on  officers,  in  which   case  it  may  be 

either  a  simple   reprimand   or  a  severe 

reprimand,  and  may,  at  the  discretion  of 

the    confirming    officer,  be  administered 

privately  or  publicly. 

Reprisal — Retaliation  ;  a  species  of 
vengeance.  Reprisals  form  the  worst 
features  of  warfare,  and  are  seldom  re- 
sorted to  in  conflicts  between  civilised 
nations,  or,  at  least,  should  not  be.  They 
are  carried  out  by  submitting  prisoners 
or  men  found  with  arms  in  their  hands  to 
z 


REQ 


338 


RES 


the  same  as  or  even  worse  treatment  than 
is  imposed  upon  the  prisoners  of  the  other 
side. 

The  word  reprisal  has  reference  also 
to  the  capture  of  property  belonging 
to  the  subjects  of  a  foreign  power, 
MS  well  as  to  the  capture  of  the  subjects 
themselves,  in  satisfaction  of  losses  sus- 
tained by  a  citizen  of  the  capturing 
state.  Letters  of  reprisal  are  grantable 
by  the  law  of  nations  where  the  subjects 
of  one  state  have  been  oppressed  or  in- 
jured by  the  subjects  of  another,  and 
where  justice  has  been  refused  on  appli- 
cation by  letters  of  request. 

Request,  Courts  of — -Local  courts 
assembled  periodically  in  India,  for  the 
recovery  of  small  debts  not  exceeding 
400  rupees.  In  each  military  czmton- 
ment,  a  court  of  request  is  assembled 
monthly,  and  all  persons  are  amenable 
to  it  except  soldiers  in  the  ranks.  Not 
less  than  three  officers,  all  military  men, 
should  form  the  court. 

Requisition  —  A  most  common  and 
usual  system  pursued  by  armies  to  secure 
food  during  war.  The  term  includes  all 
compulsory  systems,  whether  by  seizure, 
billeting,  or  demand,  and  whether  sup- 
plies, so  obtained,  are  paid  for  or  not. 

Though  the  term  is  comparatively 
modern,  the  principle  is  old,  seeing  that 
armies  were  at  times  largely  fed  by  seizing 
the  produce  of  the  country  they  occupied. 
In  former  times  the  country  was  plun- 
dered in  the  most  reckless  and  wasteful 
manner,  but  supplies  are  now  collected 
and  stored  in  magazines  (g.  v.)  in  rear  of 
an  army,  and  a  requisition  is  made  on 
them  for  the  daily  wants  of  the  troops. 
Of  all  the  systems  of  supply,  the  roughest 
and  readiest  is  seizure,  but  it  should  be 
avoided  if  possible,  as  it  only  brings  on 
the  worst  features  of  a  campaign,  viz. 
collision  with  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  plunder,  waste,  and  sundry 
other  acts. 

Reserve — In  a  general  sense,  a  reserve 
is  a  body  of  troops  organised  and  brought 
together  to  supply  and  fill  up  the  vacancies 
of  an  army  in  the  field. 

Reserves  are  of  two  kinds  : '  strategical 
and  tactical.  Strategical  reserves  are 
forces  whose  members  in  peace  time  pur- 
sue their  usual  occupation,  but  are  called 
out  in  time  of  war  either  to  garrison 


towns  and  strong  places,  or,  if  necessary, 
to  take  an  active  part  in  the  field.  Nearly 
all  the  continental  armies  have  their 
reserves,  reserves  of  the  active  army  and 
reserves  of  the  territorial  forces ;  they 
are  men  who  have  served  a  number  of 
years  in  the  ranks.  (  Vide  Foreign  Armies.) 
This  system  has  been  universally  adopted, 
as  it  would  be  too  costly,  and  the  country 
would  suffer  from  want  of  hands,  if  it 
maintained  under  arms  the  number  of  men 
called  upon  to  serve  by  compulsory  service. 

In  the  British  army  this  force  consists 
of  the  auxiliary  forces  (militia,  yeomanry, 
and  volunteers),  as  well  as  the  army  re- 
serves (g.  •».),  the  militia  reserve,  or  any 
other  reserve  and  land  forces,  as  defined 
by  act  of  parliament,  within  the  United 
Kingdom,  serving  or  liable  to  be  called 
upon  to  serve  her  Majesty  in  any  military 
capacity,  and  not  forming  part  of  the  active 
army.  In  case  of  war  or  of  an  invasion 
of  the  country,  these  troops  would  be 
mobilised  with  the  regular  army.  ^  (Vide 
Mobilisation.) 

During  the  period  the  reserve  forces 
are  assembled  for  training  or  exercise, 
they  are  under  the  command  of  the 
officer  commanding-in-chief,  and  of  the 
general  officers  of  the  regular  forces 
commanding  in  the  districts  within  which 
such  militia  regiments  or  corps  are 
assembled.  All  orders  are  conveyed  to 
these  forces  from  the  commander-in- 
chief  through  the  inspector-general  of 
auxiliary  forces,  who  is  attached  to  the 
head-quarter's  staff  of  the  army  for  that 
purpose. 

As  nations  have  their  reserve  armies, 
so  have  armies  their  division  reserves ; 
these  are  tactical  reserves.  They  are 
bodies  of  troops  retained  in  the  rear  of  an 
army,  generally,  to  support  an  attacking 
force,  or  to  protect  its  retreat  ia  case  of 
defeat. 

"There  is  no  principle  in  war  more 
universally  recognised,"  writes  Colonel 
Graham,  in  his  '  Art  of  War,'  than  "  the 
importance  of  a  reserve  on  the  field  of 
battle.  It  is  the  instrument  in  the  hands 
of  the  general  which  he  holds  to  conquer 
events  and  restore  the  fortune  of  the  day. 
The  wisdom  of  keeping  a  body  of  fresh 
troops  in  hand  to  the  close  of  an  action  is 
apparent ;  the  safety  of  the  army  depends 


339 


EES 


History  proves  that  battles  have  been 
decided  by  reserves,  and  that  victory  is 
commonly  the  prize  of  the  general  who 
is  the  last  to  bring  his  reserves  into  action. 
It  was  to  the  proper  employment  of  re- 
serves that  Napoleon  owed  so  much  of  his 
success;  and  the  barren  victory  of  Borodino 
and  his  complete  defeat  at  Waterloo  are 
by  mauy  attributed,  in  the  one  case  to 
his  holding  back  the  guard  altogether, 
and  in  the  other  to  his  delay  in  using  it. 
Jomiui  and  other  writers  lay  down  that 
reserves  being  the  last  argument  on  the 
battle  field  should  always  be  composed 
of  troops  of  a  superior  kind,  but  the 
experience  of  recent  wars  shows  that,  on 
account  of  the  new  tactics  which  have  been 
adopted  since  the  introduction  of  arms  of 
precision,  all  troops,  so  far  as  they  have  not 
come  into  action,  are  reserves  to  the  leader. 

Reserves  should  be  placed  near  enough 
to  support  the  troops  in  action,  but  they 
must  be  kept  out  of  sight,  and  their 
position  concealed  from  the  enemy.  Their 
distance  from  the  second  line  depends 
entirely  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground, 
as  well  as  upon  the  extent  of  the  ground 
covered  by  the  line  from  right  to  left ; 
and  their  strength  should  consist  of  about 
one-fourth  or  one-fifth  of  the  whole  force 
in  cavalry  and  infantry,  and  of  about  one- 
third  of  the  guns.  The  reserve  batteries 
may  either  be  kept  with  the  main  reserve, 
or  concentrated  on  any  point  where  their 
united  fire  may  help  to  shake  the  enemy 
previous  to  the  final  attack. 

In  the  attack  of  a  fortress,  no  assault 
should  be  attempted  without  a  sufficient 
reserve,  which  should  be  well  placed  for 
following  the  supports  of  the  escalading 
parties;  its  strength  should  never  be 
less  than  three-fourths  of  the  garrison  of 
the  work  assaulted. 

Keserve  Ammunition — This  term  is 
applied  to  the  supply  of  war  ammunition 
carried  in  rear  of  an  army  for  replenish- 
ing men  and  guns  with  fresh  ammunition 
in  ease  the  first  supply  fails. 

The  reserve  ammunition  of  a  regiment 
is  carried  in  carts,  one  for  the  cavalry  and 
three  for  the  infantry.  These  carts  can 
carry  9600  rounds  each  of  Martini-Henry 
or  8960  rounds  of  Snider.  In  the  artillery, 
there  are  three  reserves  of  ammunition. 
The  first  (108  rounds  per  9-pr.  and 
72  per  16-pr.  gun)  is  that  contained 


in  the  second  line  of  wagons  of  each 
battery ;  the  second  (44  per  9-pr.  and 
108  per  16-pr.  gun)  is  conveyed  in  the 
artillery  general  service  wagons,  and 
should  be  always  up  with  the  army,  but 
kept  from  under  fire.  The  third  reserve 
is  carried  by  the  transport,  and  contains 
200  rounds  per  9-pr.  gun  and  200  per 
16-pr.  gun,  and  remains  at  one  or  two 
days'  march  in  rear  of  the  army.  The 
above  number  of  rounds,  with  those  with 
the  battery,  makes  up  500  rounds  per 
9-pr.  gun,  and  480  rounds  per  16-pr.  gun. 

Reserve,  Militia — A  portion  of  the 
militia.  A  certain  number,  not  exceeding 
the  fourth  part  of  the  quota  of  the  pri- 
vates of  the  militia  for  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland,  respectively,  may  volunteer 
to  join  this  force.  They  may  volunteer  to 
be  trained  for  56  days  in  each  year  with 
the  regular  army,  and  in  case  of  national 
danger  or  great  emergency  are  liable  to 
general  service  in  the  regular  army. 

Residuum— A  term  used  to  express 
what  is  left  after  the  principal  agent  of 
any  substance  or  body  has  been  ex- 
tracted ;  for  instance,  the  impurities  lert 
after  saltpetre  has  been  thoroughly  ex- 
tracted from  the  crude  substance. 

Resign,  To — To  give  up  the  service  ;  to 
resign  an  appointment.  In  the  former 
case,  an  officer  must  apply  through  his 
commanding  officer  for  permission  to 
retire.  In  the  latter,  an  officer  sends  in  his 
resignation  through  the  prescribed  chan- 
nels. Non-commissioned  officers  are  not 
allowed  to  resign  their  situation  to  escape 
trial  by  court-martial,  except  by  special 
sanction  of  the  general  commanding.  They 
can  resign  when  they  find  themselves 
unequal  to  perform  the  duties  of  their 
rank,  with  the  consent  of  their  command- 
ing officer. 

In  no  instance  whatever  can  an  officer, 
non-commissioned  officer,  or  soldier,  pre- 
sume to  quit  the  service  without  having 
previously  obtained  the  permission  todo  so. 

Resistance  of  the  Air — Besides  what 
has  been  stated  under  the  head  of  Air, 
Resistance  of,  the  following  further 
information  may  prove  interesting,  as 
gathered  from  the  calculations  of 
Captain  W.  H.  Noble,  R.A.,  from  trials 
made  with  Navez-Leurs'  electro-ballistit 
machine : — 

"  1.  The  resistance  to  the  air  is  prac- 
z  2 


RES 


340 


RET 


tically  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
diameter  of  the  projectile. 

"2.  Within  the  limit  of  1200  and 
1500  feet,  the  resistance  appears  to  vary 
nearly  as  the  velocity  cubed. 

"  3.  When  the  velocity  of  the  pro- 
jectile passes  below  1100  feet,  there 
appears  to  be  a  gradual,  but  at  the  same 
time  rapid,  reduction  in  the  amount  of 
resistance,  as  if  the  projectile  were  being 
rapidly  relieved  from  some  extra  pres- 
sure. This  rapid  diminution  ceases  when 
the  projectile  reaches  about  1000  feet. 

"4.  Within  the  limit  of  1000  feet  and 
600  feet,  the  resistance  appears  to  vary 
nearly  as  the  curve  of  the  velocity." 

Captain  Xoble  says,  in  his  5th  para- 
graph on  the  same  subject,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  account  for  the  rapid  diminu- 
tion of  resistance  between  1100  and  1000 
feet. 

But  the  difficulty  appears  subsequently 
to  have  been  solved  by  Professor  Haughtou 
as  follows : — "  The  air  cannot  follow  a 
projectile  at  a  higher  velocity  than  that 
of  sound  ;  that,  as  long  as  the  projectile 
travels  slower  than  sound,  the  air  closes 
in  completely  behind  it  by  molecular 
propagation  of  impulse  ;  but  the  moment 
that  velocity  exceeds  that  of  molecular 
propagation  (or  sound),  that  moment 
there  exists  an  imperfect  vacuum  behind 
the  shot."  "  This,"  Captain  Noble  says, 
"  would  account  for  the  rapid  reduction 
in  the  resistance  alluded  to." 

Bessairdar — A  native  officer  in  a  native 
cavalry  regiment  who  commands  the  left 
troop  of  a  squadron. 

Eessalah — The  Indian  term  for  a 
squadron  of  native  cavalry. 

Eessaldar — A  native  officer  in  a  native 
cavalry  regiment. 

Eessaldar-Major — The  native  comman- 
dant of  a  regiment  of  native  cavalry. 

Rest — In  a  lathe,  a  piece  of  iron  for 
holding  the  turning  tool,  fixed  at  the 
<-nd  of  a  slide  by  a  set-screw  ;  the  slide 
can  be  moved  at  right  angles  to  the  bar 
of  the  lathe,  and  the  whole  can  be  fixed 
at  any  part  of  the  bed  between  the 
centres. 

Rests — In  all  campaigns  certain  pauses 
have  to  be  noted  in  the  march  of  an 
army,  such  as  stationary  positions, 
blockades,  armistices,  winter  quarters. 
These  are  known  as  rests  and  halts. 


Eetardation  —  The  resistance  offered 
to  any  body  in  motion  by  the  medium 
through  which  it  moves.  Thus  a  shot  is 
retarded  in  its  flight  by  the  resistance  of 
the  air.  (  Vide  Medium.) 

Retire,  To — To  fall  back  from  a  posi- 
tion. To  retire  under  the  guns  of  a  place 
is  to  take  up  a  position  under  some  fort- 
ress, for  the  purpose  of  being  entrenched. 

To  retire,  in  another  sense,  is  to  leave 
the  army.  The  following  are  the  rules 
on  the  subject  of  retirement  from  the 
army  : — 

Agreeably  to  the  regulations  of  the 
service,  there  is  a  certain  time  laid  down 
in  the  British  army  before  an  officer  can 
retire  from  the  active  branch  of  his  pro- 
fession, receiving  the  pay  or  pension  at- 
tached to  his  rank  or  length  of  service. 
This  period  is  after  30  years'  service, 
when  an  officer  can  retire  on  full  pay  ; 
after  25  years  on  half-pay.  Medical 
officers  attached  to  the  army  are  per- 
mitted to  retire  on  full  pay  after  25 
years'  service.  In  the  Indian  army,  a 
full  pay  retirement  or  pension  is  granted 
to  officers  of  the  rank  of  captain,  major, 
lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel  respec- 
tively, after  20,  24,  28,  32  years',  and  an 
increased  pension  after  35,  and  38  years' 
service ;  to  officers  not  belonging  to  the 
staff  corps,  after  22  years  on  the  pension 
of  their  rank  (on  the  Regulations  of 
1796).  After  38  years,  officers  of  the  line 
and  cavalry  receive  their  colonel's  allow- 
ance if  they  have  served  12  years  in  the 
grade  of  lieutenant-colonel.  The  pension 
after  38  years  is  available  for  all  officers, 
but  it  would  probably  only  be  taken  by 
officers  of  engineers  and  artillery  late  of 
the  Indian  army,  as  they  do  not  receive 
the  colonel's  allowance,  like  the  infantry 
and  cavalry,  after  a  fixed  period  of 
service. 

Retired  Flanks,  vide  Flanks,  Retired. 

Retort  —  A  chemical  vessel  generally 
of  glass,  earthenware,  porcelain,  clay, 
iron,  &c.,  in  which  some  kind  of  dis- 
tillation is  carried  on.  A  receiver  is 
usually  annexed  to  it  for  the  purpose 
of  collecting  the  products  of  distilla- 
tion. 

Retreat — The  term  retreat  is  given  to 
a  bugle-sound,  followed  by  a  roll  of  the 
drums,  or  sound  of  the  trumpets  of 
the  cavalry,  in  camp  or  garrison ;  it  is 


RET 


341 


REV 


sounded  every  day  at  sunset,  after  which 
no  trumpets  nor  bugles  are  to  be  sounded 
or  drums  to  be  beat,  except  at  tattoo, 
or  in  case  of  fire  or  other  alarm. 

Retreat,  To — To  fall  back  from  a 
position  before  the  enemy.  This  is  either 
done  as  a  strategical  movement  or  when, 
being  beaten  by  the  adversary,  a  com- 
pulsory retreat  is  unavoidable.  Falling 
back  is  always  a  delicate  operation,  and 
to  effect  a  masterly  retreat  speaks  more 
for  the  general's  capabilities  than  even 
a  victory. 

To  retreat  with  a  harassed  and  broken 
army  is  the  most  difficult  position  a  com- 
mander can  be  put  in :  discipline  deserts 
his  troops,  confusion  sets  in,  and  nothing 
is  left  him  but  to  seek  his  reserves,  and 
so  to  rally  his  men  against  the  pursuit 
of  the  enemy.  The  increased  range  of 
ordnance  and  small-arms  nowadays  renders 
retreating  still  more  precarious. 

In  carrying  out  a  retreat,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  form  a  strong  rear  guard — so 
strong  that  it  shall  be  able  to  fight  inde- 
pendently, should  the  enemy  come  up 
with  it,  thus  enabling  the  main  body  to 
have  time  to  rally  and  to  take  up  a  posi- 
tion ready  to  attack  the  enemy.  Again, 
in  having  a  strong  rear  guard,  it  not  only 
keeps  the  pursuers  at  bay,  but  enables 
the  artillery  train  and  baggage  to  pass 
defiles,  cross  streams,  and  overcome  all 
obstacles  incidental  to  a  retreating  march. 

Retrenchments — In  fortification,  are 
inner  defensible  lines  to  cut  off  a  trench 
or  other  weak  point,  so  that  the  capture 
of  the  lines  shall  not  involve  that  of  the 
retrenched  post. 

Retrenchments  are  also  described  as  a 
short  line  of  works  constructed  inside  a 
large  work,  in  order  to  enable  the  de- 
fenders to  resist  the  enemy  after  he  has 
penetrated  the  outer  line. 

Returns  —  Documents  which  are  re- 
quired periodically  or  otherwise  from 
every  regiment  and  department  of  the 
army,  and  which  embody  in  their  respec- 
tive branches  all  the  information  required 
by  higher  authority. 

Reveille  (French,  rfreil,  awaking) — 
Beat  of  drum  or  bugle  sound,  as  a 
signal  for  the  troops  to  rise.  In  England, 
the  hour  to  turn-out  is  5.30  in  summer 
and  6.30  in  winter,  after  which  the 
sentries  cease  to  challenge. 


Reverberatory  Furnace,  vide  Furnace, 
Reverberator}-. 

Reverse  Fire  —  In  gunnery,  when  the 
shot  strikes  the  interior  slope  of  the 
parapet  at  an  angle  greater  than  30°,  it 
is  called  reverse  fire. 

Reverse  Flank,  vide  Flank,  Reverse. 

Revetment  — In  a  permanent  fortifica- 
tion, the  masonry  support  afforded  to 
the  banks  of  earth  on  each  side  of  the 
ditch,  backed  interiorly  by  buttresses. 
The  escarp  and  counterscarp  are  such 
revetments.  In  field  fortification,  the 
materials  used  for  the  revetments  are 
gabions,  fascines,  sandbags,  and  occasion- 
ally sods,  hurdles,  casks,  wood,  plank- 
ing, &c. 

Revictual,  To — To  throw  stores,  am- 
munition, and  provisions,  into  a  fortified 
place,  when  invested. 

Review — In  a  military  sense,  is  the 
inspection  of  a  body  of  troops  by  the 
sovereign  or  any  other  high  personage, 
or  by  the  general  in  command.  The 
programme  generally  comprises  a  "march 
past "  (<?.  v.)  in  column,  and  subsequent 
manoeuvres  in  imitation  of  a  battle. 

Revolver — A  pistol  having  revolving 
mechanism  attached  to  the  breech,  hence 
the  name  given  to  this  peculiar  kind  of 
fire-arm.  It  consists  either  of  many 
chambers  with  a  corresponding  number  of 
barrels  which  revolve,  or  of  one  stationary 
barrel  with  chambers  which  alone  re- 
volve. By  a  certain  mechanical  arrange- 
ment in  the  latter  kind  of  revolver,  which 
is  now  the  most  common,  the  chambers 
revolve,  and  are  brought  successively 
under  the  action  of  the  trigger,  and  after 
the  discharge  of  one  chamber  another 
succeeds,  and  thus  several  shots  can  be 
fired  without  the  necessity  of  re-loading. 

Revolvers  are  no  new  invention  ;  some 
were  invented,  it  is  stated,  as  far  back  as 
the  seventeenth  century. 

The  most  modern  revolvers  are  Colt's, 
Adams',  and  Deane's.  The  Colt  was 
invented  by  Colonel  Samuel  Colt,  and 
brought  out  in  1835.  It  consists  of  :\ 
rifled  barrel  of  considerable  strength,  of 
a  diameter  of  bore  of  0'358  inch,  7 
grooves,  and  with  a  twist  of  1  in  36,  and 
of  a  massive  breech  perforated  with  six 
chambers,  which  are  brought  into  line 
with  the  barrel  by  the  action  of  the  trig- 
ger. Each  chamber  has  its  nipple  for  a 


REV 


342 


RIG 


cap,  which  is  brought  under  the  hammer 
by  the  same  motion  that  brings  the 
chamber  round.  In  the  latest  inventions 
this  capped  nipple  has  disappeared,  the 
cap  being  contained  within  the  cartridge. 
The  hammer  is  discharged  by  the  trigger, 
and  acts  nearly  horizontally  in  a  forward 
direction. 

The  Adams  and  Deane  revolvers  are 
similar  in  many  points  to  the  above,  with 
this  difference  that  there  is  a  spur  behind 
the  trigger  which  must  be  pressed  by 
the  middle  finger,  while  the  forefinger 
through  the  trigger  discharges  the  piece. 
The  diameter  of  the  bore  of  the  Adams  re- 
volver is  0-443,  and  that  of  Deane's,  0-434, 
with  5  grooves  and  a  uniform  twist  of 
rifling  of  1  in  24  and  1  in  20  respectively. 

The  revolver  principle  has  been  success- 
fully applied  to  the  manufacture  of  a  re- 
volving gun  for  small  projectiles  known  as 
the  mitrailleur  (q.  u.).  (  Vide  Appendix  F.) 

Devolving  Gun  —  A  breech-loading 
machine  devised  for  fog  signalling,  to 
avoid  the  labour  of  sponging  and  ramming 
home,  as  in  the  common  guns  formerly 
i:>ed  for  that  purpose. 

The  fore  part  consists  of  a  barrel  open 
at  both  ends  ;  the  breech  front  abuts  in 
a  close-fitting  joint  against  the  mouth  of 
A  chamber,  formed  in  a  horizontal  wheel 
containing  five  chambers.  A  passage 
communicates  through  the  top  of  the 
breech-carrier  with  the  rear  of  the  cham- 
ber next  to  the  barrel.  This  passage  is 
so  arranged  by  means  of  a  catch-spring 
that  the  communication  is  interrupted, 
except  when  a  chamber  is  exactly  fitted 
to  the  barrel,  and  then  only  can  the  gun 
be  fired. 

This  gun  is  not  adapted  to  warfare, 
being  constructed  merely  to  fire  blank  cart- 
ridge. The  weight  of  the  gun  is  35  cwt. 

Reward — A  recompense  given  for  good 
service.  Rewards  are  either  honorary  or 
pecuniary.  Of  the  former,  titles,  orders, 
and  crosses  are  conferred  on  officers  and 
men  as  marks  of  distinction  for  gallantry 
and  good  conduct  and  services  rendered 
t<>  the  country.  The  most  recent  reward 
for  military  merit  is  the  Victoria  Cross 
('/.  v.).  Of  the  latter,  is  the  good-service 
pension. 

This  reward  is  an  annuity  generally 
of  £100,  and  is  granted  to  general  or 
field  officers  who  have  passed  a  distin- 


guished military  career  either  in  the 
field  or  in  good  service  to  the  state.  It 
can  be  enjoyed  by  the  recipient,  in 
addition  to  his  regular  pension,  until 
he  succeeds  to  the  colonel's  allowance. 
In  the  Indian  army,  an  officer  receiv- 
ing an  enhanced  pension,  in  addition 
to  his  regular  pension,  would  not  be 
allowed  to  retain  the  reward  for 
distinguished  service  if  the  aggregate 
sums  received  by  him  exceeded  £1000  a 
year. 

Meritorious  non-commissioned  officers 
receive  good-conduct  rewards  in  the  shape 
of  annuities  of  £10,  £15,  or  £20  each. 

Ribands — Scantlings  of  wood  about  15 
feet  long  and  4  inches  square,  and  used  in 
rack-lashing  gun  platforms  to  keep  the 
platform  secure ;  they  are  also  used  for 
mortar  platforms.  Two  ribands  accom- 
pany each  platform. 

Ribaudequins — The  name  given  to 
organ  guns,  which  consisted  of  a  number 
of  tubes  placed  in  a  row  like  those  of  an 
organ,  evidently  the  forerunners  of  the 
modern  mitrailleurs.  (  Vide  Orgues.) 

Ricochet  Fire — The  bounding  course 
of  a  projectile  fired  at  a  low  angle  in  the 
field,  not  exceeding  3°,  or  in  the  ricochet 
of  a  fortification  not  exceeding  10°.  As  ex- 
plained by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Owen,  R.A., 
"  ricochet  fire  consists  in  placing  a  battery 
at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  troops  or 
works  aimed  at,  as  in  enfilade,  but  the 
shot  having  to  clear  a  parapet  which 
covers  them,  it  is  necessary  to  fire  with  a 
reduced  charge  and  greater  elevation,  so 
as  to  give  the  shot  a  low  *  velocity  and 
a  high  curve,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
brought  down  immediately  after  clearing 
the  crest  of  the  parapet,  and  then  by 
rebounding  along  the  face  of  the  work, 
dismount  the  guns,  or  rake  the  line  of 
troops  under  cover,  as  the  case  may  be. 
The  ordnance  best  adapted  for  ricochet 
fire  are  the  8-inch  shell  guns  of  52  or  50 
cwt.,  but  any  rifled  gun  throwing  an 
elongated  projectile  which  is  capable  of 
holding  a  large  bursting  charge  might 
also  be  used  to  drop  shells  into  a  battery 
so  as  to  burst  on  grazing ;  the  path, 
however,  of  an  elongated  projectile  is  so 
eccentric  after  grazing  as  to  render  it 

*  But  it  is  now  generally  acknowledged  that 
it  is  far  better  to  rely  upon  the  explosion  of  a 
shell  than  on  the  bound  of  a  shot  moving  slowly. 


RID 


343 


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not  so  well  adapted  for  ricochet  fire  as 
the  balls  of  smooth-bore  pieces." 

Ride,  To —  la  horsemanship,  to  be 
carried  on  horseback.  To  insure  a  uni- 
form system  of  equitation  throughout  the 
cavalry,  non-commissioned  officers  and 
soldiers  are  selected  and  sent  to  the  depot 
at  Canterbury  to  be  trained  as  riding 
instructors  in  their  corps. 

In  artillery,  to  ride  has  reference  to  a 
rope  when  one  part  overlaps  another  on  a 
capstan,  windlass,  &c.,  when  it  is  said  to 
ride. 

Biding  Establishment  —  A  school  at 
Woolwich,  established  for  the  instruction 
of  the  men  of  the  artillery  in  riding.  It 
was  formed  on  the  organisation  of  the 
horse  artillery  under  the  Duke  of  Rich- 
mond, when  master-general.  It  continued, 
as  a  mixed  department,  with  the  royal 
artillery  until  the  year  1809,  when  it  was 
made  into  a  distinct  establishment.  It  con- 
sists of  7  officers,  218  men,  and  144  horses. 

Riding  the  Wooden  Horse — A  punish- 
ment formerly  much  resorted  to,  not  only 
in  the  British  army,  but  in  the  armies  of 
other  nations.  The  horse  is  described 
as  "  made  of  plank,  roughly  nailed  to- 
gether, forming  a  sharp  ridge  to  repre- 
sent the  back  of  the  horse ;  it  was  then 
supported  by  posts  to  serve  as  the  legs 
of  the  animal,  about  6  or  7  feet  long, 
the  whole  being  placed  on  a  movable 
truck.  When  a  soldier  or  soldiers  had 
to  undergo  punishment,  they  were  placed 
on  this  horse,  with  their  hands  tied  be- 
hind their  back,  and  frequently  muskets 
were  tied  to  their  legs,  to  prevent  the 
horse,  as  was  humorously  observed,  from 
kicking  off." 

Riding-master — An  officer  attached  to 
a  cavalry  regiment,  or  to  the  other 
mounted  branches  of  the  service ;  he  in- 
structs officers  and  men  in  riding  and  the 
use  of  their  horses.  He  is  commonly 
selected  from  the  ranks,  and  has  the  rela- 
tive rank  of  lieutenant.  After  30  years' 
service,  of  which  15  must  have  been  as 
riding-master,  he  can  retire  on  10s.  a  day, 
with  the  honorary  rank  of  captain. 

Rifle — A  musket  or  carbine,  the  barrel 
of  which  is  provided  with  grooves  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  a  rotatory  motion 
to  the  projectile,  thus  obviating  the  de- 
fects so  apparent  in  the  fire  of  smooth- 
bore arms.  As  early  as  1498,  the  citizens 


of  Leipzig  possessed  the  germ  of  the 
future  rifle,  for  their  arms  had  a  grooved 
bore,  but  the  grooves  were  straight. 
Later  on,  in  1520,  Augustin  Kutter,  of 
Xiirnberg,  was  celebrated  for  his  rose-  or 
star-grooved  barrels,  in  which  the  grooves 
had  a  spiral  form.  This,  then,  may  be 
said  to  be  the  origin  of  the  rifle  of  the 
present  day. 

In  the  British  army,  as  well  as  in  all 
the  continental  armies,  a  breech-loading 
rifle  is  now  the  general  arm  in  use  (vide 
Foreign  Armies) ;  but  the  introduction 
of  it  is  of  comparatively  recent  date.  The 
rifle  formerly  used,  and  then  only  in  small 
numbers  in  the  British  army,  was  a 
two-grooved  arm,  a  muzzle-loader.  Dur- 
ing the  American  war  in  1812,  the 
Americans,  in  the  contest  with  England, 
appear  to  have  used  rifles  with  deadly 
effect  from  behind  hedges  and  other  cover, 
picking  off  large  numbers  of  officers  and 
men  of  the  British  force. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the 
reader  to  know  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  change  from  muzzle-loading 
rifles  to  breech-loaders  took  place  in  the 
British  army. 

In  July  1864,  a  committee  on  small- 
arms  was  appointed  by  government, 
which  recommended  that  it  would  be 
desirable  to  arm  the  British  soldier  for 
the  future  with  a  breech-loading  rifle. 
The  question  then  was  as  to  the  means 
of  carrying  out  the  recommendation.  It 
was  suggested  that  the  Enfield  rifle  (q.  v.) 
should  be  converted,  pending  the  more 
important  question  of  a  totally  new  arm 
being  introduced  into  the  service.  It  was 
proposed  also  at  the  same  time  that,  in  the 
conversion  of  the  Enfield  rifle,  the  principle 
of  separating  the  shooting  part  of  the  gun 
— viz.  the  barrel — from  the  loading  part, 
or  breech,  should  be  distinct  questions; 
and  upon  this  principle  was  settled  the 
conversion  alluded  to,  which  guided  the 
government  ultimately  in  its  selection 
of  the  Martini-Henry  rifle  (</«,«. ). 

The  question  of  conversion  having  been 
settled,  and  the  arms  having  proved  satis- 
factory, the  government  were  enabled  to 
take  their  own  time  in  maturing  a  new 
arm,  which,  notwithstanding  the  efficiency 
of  the  Enfield,  was  not  lost  sight  of. 

As  is  well  known  to  all  soldiers,  the 
i  Snider-Enfield  rifle  proved  a  success,  and 


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344 


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was  pronounced  by  the  breech-loading 
committee  "a  most  efficient  military 
weapon."  The  cartridge  (Boxer's)  also 
proved  satisfactory,  upon  which,  as  Cap- 
tain Majendie  observes,  "the  success  of 
the  system  must  in  a  great  measure 
hinge."  From  further  experience,  how- 
ever, of  the  Snider  rifle,  derived  in  the 
handling  of  the  converted  weapon,  it  was 
found  that  the  breech-loading  apparatus 
had  this  defect,  viz.  that  the  breech  was 
not  secure  in  the  event  of  explosion ;  for 
though  no  very  heavy  percentage  of 
casualties  had  occurred  from  this  cause, 
there  had  been  sufficient  to  illustrate  the 
disadvantage  of  a  non-safety  breech. 

Notwithstanding  this  imperfection,  the 
Snider  breech-loader  would  probably  have 
remained  the  service  arm  of  the  British 
soldier,  "  could  it,"  as  Captain  Majendie 
observes.  "  have  held  its  own  against  the 
numerous  improvements  of  an  active  age." 
"But,"  as  he  further  remarks,  "was 
it  reasonable  to  expect  that  the  ingenuity 
which  for  some  years  has  been  concen- 
trated upon  the  production  of  a  good 
breech-loader  could  suggest  no  improve- 
ment in  an  arm  of  which  the  breech  action 
(which,  moreover,  was  hampered  with 
the  condition  of  its  application  to  exist- 
ing arms)  was  adopted  in  1866,  before 
the  period  of  unexampled  activity  in  this 
direction,  and  of  which  the  shooting  ap- 
paratus had  been  adopted  in  1853,  sixteen 
years  ago  ?  " 

It  having  been  determined,  therefore, 
that  a  new  breech-loader  should  be  in- 
troduced into  the  service,  possessing  the 
conditions  required  by  the  committee, 
viz.  accuracy,  low  trajectory,  and  non- 
liability to  fouling,  with  the  greatest 
perfection  and  simplicity  of  breech  appa- 
ratus, the  government  offered  a  reward 
for  the  best  rifle  and  cartridge.  A  large 
number  of  arms  was  submitted  by  vari- 
ous inventors  for  competition,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  Martini  and  Henry  rifles 
being  considered  as  the  arms  best  answer- 
ing the  required  conditions.  In  the  ex- 
posure test  it  was  found  that  the  Mar- 
tini mechanism  had  slightly  the  advan- 
tage of  the  Henry ;  but  the  rifling  of  the 
latter  was  accepted  as  the  "  most  suitable 
in  all  respects  for  the  requirements  of 
the  service."  Thus  it  came  to  pass  that 
an  alliance  was  made  between  the  Henry 


barrel  and  the  Martini  breech  to  give  us 
the  arm  of  the  future,  and  this  was 
recommended  by  the  committee. 

The  trials  made  with  this  rifle  show 
!  incontestably  that  we  have  got  an  arm 
!  which  at  500  yards  is  25  per  cent,  better 
j  than  the  Snider,  and  which,  as  regards 
i  rapidity,  can  fire  25  shots  a  minute. 
(Vide  Appendix  F.) 

Rifle  Association,  vide  Volunteers. 
Rifle,    Magazine  —  A   breech-loading 
rifle,  having  a  tube  in  the  stock  in  which 
a  series  of  cartridges  is  inserted,  which, 
I  by  a  simple  action,  pass  into  the  barrel 
for  discharge.    The  best  known  magazine 
I  rifles  are  the    Spencer,  the  Winchester, 
'  and  the  Vetterli  rifles  (7. ».). 

Rifle  Pits — Holes,  or  short  trenches, 
capable  of  containing  one  man,  and  in 
the  shape  of  an  inverted  frustum  of  a 
cone,  with  a  seat  in  the  rear ;  the  top  of 
the  breastwork  is  made  by  placing  two 
sandbags  across  the  parapet,  and  a  third 
resting  on  these  in  the  direction  of  it,  to 
cover  the  head  and  shoulders  of  the  rifle- 
man. A  man  should  be  able  to  complete 
a  pit  in  one  hour. 

The  diameter  of  the  top  and  bottom 
respectively  is  4  feet  6  inches,  and  2  feet 
6  inches,  while  the  depth  is  4  feet. 

Rifle  Regiments  —  The  regiments  so 
designated  are  the  Rifle  Brigade  and  the 
60th  Regiment,  which  were  originally 
armed  with  rifles,  when  the  majority  of 
regiments  were  armed  with  smooth-bore 
muskets ;  and  though  the  whole  army  is 
now  furnished  with  rifles,  these  regi- 
ments still  retain  their  designation  and. 
clothing  (dark  green). 
Rifled  Ordnance,  vide  Ordnance. 
Riflemen,  Mounted — Or,  in  other 
words,  mounted  infantry,  the  designa- 
tion of  riflemen  being  given  to  them 
from  the  arm  they  were  equipped  with. 
Mounted  riflemen  are  soldiers  trained  to 
act  as  foot  and  cavalry  soldiers.  This 
arm  is  unknown  at  the  present  time  in 
the  British  service,  but  since  the  war  of 
1870-71,  which  has  confirmed  the  opinion 
held  by  many  soldiers,  that  "mounted 
riflemen  are  now  essential  to  every  enter- 
prising army,"  the  subject  of  reintroducing 
it  in  the  army  has  been  often  discussed. 

The  first  mention  in  military  histor/  of 
mounted  riflemen  is  that  of  the  dragoons 
created  by  Mare"chal  de  Brissac  in  1600. 


RTF 


345 


RIP 


They  were  foot  soldiers  mounted  on 
horses,  who  on  emergencies  carried  a 
comrade  en  croupe.  The  first  official 
record  of  such  troops  in  the  British 
service  dates  from  a  royal  warrant  of 
1672,  which  regulates  the  matchlock  as 
one  of  the  arms.  The  Scots  Greys, 
who  were  raised  in  1683,  carried  also 
fire-arms,  as  well  as  the  British  dragoons 
of  the  seventeenth  century ;  'both  were 
instructed  to  act  as  infantry  on  horses,  to 
enable  them  to  make  more  rapid  move- 
ments. Dragoons,  acting  as  such,  were 
eventually  changed  into  cavalry ;  and 
the  last  corps  bearing  the  name  of 
mounted  riflemen  was  that  at  the  Cape, 
which  was  disbanded  a  few  years  ago. 
This  nature  of  mounted  infantry  has  been 
reintroduced  in  the  volunteer  forces  of 
the  country,  there  being  four  small  bodies 
of  mounted  riflemen. 

Mounted  riflemen  were  considerably 
used  and  appreciated  by  Napoleon  I.  and 
his  generals.  Jomini  writes  on  the  subject 
as  follows :  "  It  is  certainly  an  advantage 
to  have  several  battalions  of  mounted 
infantry,  who  can  anticipate  an  enemy 
at  a  defile,  defend  it  in  retreat,  or  scour 
a  wood."  Sir  G.  Wolseley,  in  writing  on 
the  subject  of  outposts,  gives  it  as  his 
opinion  that,  whenever  mounted  infantry 
is  introduced  into  our  service,  and  its 
employment  properly  understood,  these 
outpost  duties  will  devolve  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent  on  it.  Such  men  are  in- 
valuable in  covering  retreats  ;  to  seize, 
destroy,  and  hold  bridges  ;  for  works  of 
destruction,  such  as  removing  rails  and 
telegraphs,  &c.  For  these  duties  they 
were  frequently  employed  in  the  American 
and  the  last  continental  wars,  most  foreign 
armies  having  adhered  to  that  system. 
Colonel  Hamley  says,  in  his  'Operations 
of  War,'  second  edition: — "As  cavalry 
alone  could  effect  nothing  in  an  intersected 
country,  or  against  a  body  of  mixed 
troops,  or  a  force  sheltered  by  obstacles, 
it  is  indispensable  that  the  troops  thus 
employed,  while  mounted  for  the  sake  of 
celerity,  should  be  able  to  meet  infantry 
on  good  terms.  Their  chief  action  must 
therefore  be  as  infantry,  the  horses  of 
the  dismounted  men  being  held  by  their 
comrades.  .  .  .  Mounted  infantry  is  alto- 
gether a  different  thing  from  dismounted 
cavalry,  and  the  two  kinds  of  force 


should  be  kept  carefully  distinct.  All 
experience  has  shown  that  cavalry  who 
are  habituated  to  rely  on  their  fire-arms 
are  apt  to  lose  their  distinctive  cha- 
racteristics of  promptitude,  impulsion, 
and  resolution  in  attack  ;  and  it  would 
be  impossible,  by  any  amount  of  train- 
ing, to  combine  such  opposite  functions 
in  the  same  troops.  By  establishing 
mounted  riflemen  as  a  separate  arm  of 
the  service,  men  and  horses  of  a  size 
which,  though  admirably  suited  for  rapid 
and  sustained  movements,  is  deficient 
in  the  power  and  weight  that  tell  so 
formidably  in  the  charge,  might  be  turned 
to  excellent  account." 

Colonel  Hamley  further  states  that 
on  this  kind  of  troops  might  properly 
devolve  the  business  of  reconnoitring  or 
heading  the  advanced  guards,  of  seizing 
defiles,  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
regular  cavalry,  spared  in  great  measure 
the  harassing  duties  which  fritter  away 
its  strength,  would  be  preserved  intact 
for  the  day  of  battle. 

In  a  country  like  India,  infantry  can 
be  mounted  on  camels,  and  has  been  so 
utilised  when  it  was  desirable  to  send 
troops  on  a  forced  march  to  take  a  place 
by  surprise,  or  to  scatter  a  collecting 
force.  Each  camel  carries  two  men.  It 
would  be  necessary  on  such  service  to 
dismount,  and  rest  the  men  during  the 
journey.  But  except  for  the  expense 
there  is  no  reason  why  there  should  not 
be  a  permanent  corps. 

Rifling — The  act  of  cutting  two  or 
more  grooves  in  the  barrel  of  a  gun  or  of 
a  small-arm.  A  citizen  of  Leipzig  appears 
to  have  been  the  originator  of  the  mode  of 
rifling.  Some  attribute  the  first  inven- 
tion of  a  rifle  to  Gaspard  Zuller,  of  Vienna, 
in  the  fifteenth  century ;  others  to  a 
gunmaker  of  Nurnberg,  in  1520  ;  and  Den- 
mark, it  is  also  stated,  introduced  the  sys- 
tem of  rifling  in  1545.  However,  be  this  as 
it  may,  the  great  advantage  and  effect 
of  rifling  was  not  known  until  the  middle 
of  the  last  century,  when  Robins,  in  his 
tract,  in  1747,  on  '  Rifled-barrel  Pieces,' 
explained  not  only  the  advantage  of 
rifling,  but  the  effect  of  spiral  rifling 
over  the  system  of  straight  rifling,  as 
introduced  by  the  first  inventors. 
Robins'  tract  not  only  remarked  on  the 
value  of  rifling,  but  suggested  the  shape 


RIG 


346 


R1N 


a  projectile  should  be,  viz.  elongated  ; 
and  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  whatever 
.state  should  thoroughly  comprehend  the 
nature  and  advantages  of  rifled  barrel 
pieces  would  acquire  a  superiority  to 
the  advantage  of  the  state  using  them. 

Captain  J.  B.  O'Hea,  late  25th  King's 
Own  Borderers,  in  his  lecture  at  the 
United  Service  Institution  in  1873,  on 
the  subject  of  rifles  and  rifling,  defines 
a  i-ifled  barrel  as  follows: — "A  rifled 
barrel  or  tube  is  literally  nothing  more 
or  less  than  a  compound  mechanical 
power,  i.  e.  a  female  screw,  the  nut 
through  which  a  bolt  (the  projectile)  is 
driven  with  more  or  less  velocity,  accord- 
ing to  the  power  applied  to  it,  and  as 
the  pitch  and  form  of  screw  afford  more 
or  less  facility  for  its  transmission. 
This,  whether  the  projectile  be  a  perfect 
or  imperfect  sphere,  a  rifled  cylinder  for 
its  whole  length,  or  only  in  part.  In 
;uiy  case,  the  projectile  becomes  the 
male  screw  if,  when  passing  through  the 
bore  or  any  part  of  it,  its  surface  is 
made  to  conform,  in  any  way,  or  by  any 
means,  to  the  incline  of  rifling.  Whether 
this  conforming  is  effected  by  expansion 
at  or  ramming  down  from  the  muzzle, 
as  ia  early  rifles  (and  indeed  in  those 
used  far  into  the  present  century) ;  by 
expansion  at  the  breech  caused  by  ram- 
ming on  a  pillar  on  Colonel  Thouvenin's 
plan,  or  by  a  cup  or  plug  inserted  at 
the  base  of  the  bullet ;  whether  the  pro- 
jectile is  made  to  conform  to  the  pitch 
of  rifling  by  means  of  a  sabot,  as  in  the 
Prussian  gun,  or  by  a  jacket  of  leather, 
paper,  or  other  material,  or  is  compelled 
to  follow  the  rifling  by  studs,  grooves, 
ribs,  &c. ;  in  every  case  where  the  sur- 
face of  the  projectile  is  made  to  rotate 
in  the  bore  round  its  axis  of  progression 
the  projectile  is  the  male,  and  the  barrel, 
being  the  means,  is  the  female  screw." 

What  is  termed  the  pitch  of  rifling 
(9.  v.)  is  the  angle  at  which  the  grooving 
of  the  barrel  is  formed.  This  and  the 
number  of  the  grooves,  which  is  termed 
the  pattern  of  rifling,  depend  on  the 
fancy  or  system  of  the  inventor.  These 
may  be  classed  under  three  or  at  most 
four  systems  :  (1)  the  ordinary  land  and 
groove  pattern ;  (2)  the  elliptical  or 
Lancaster  system  ;  (3)  the  polygonal  or 
Whitworth.  All  other  patterns  appear 


to  be  offshoots  or  modifications  of  the 
above  systems. 

With  reference  to  the  manufacture 
of  rifles,  the  rifling  is  performed  by 
a  machine,  especially  adapted  for  this 
operation.  The  '  Text-book  on  the  Con- 
struction of  Rifled  Ordnance '  explains 
how  this  machine  performs  its  work. 
"  In  order  that  the  tool  in  the  rifling 
machine  may  cut  a  spiral  groove  in 
the  gun,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should 
have  given  to  it  a  motion  of  rotation  as 
well  as  that  of  progression.  Did  it 
simply  progress  along  the  bore,  a  straight 
groove  would  be  made,  and  did  it  rotate 
without  moving  forward,  a  ring  would 
be  cut  round  the  bore.  Now,  by  com- 
bining these  two  motions,  and  regulating 
the  ratio  of  the  rotation  to  the  progres- 
sion, a  spiral  of  any  required  pitch  can 
be  obtained." 

The  forms  of  rifling  used  for  M.L.R. 
guns  in  the  service  are — (1)  Woolwich  ; 
(2)  plain  groove;  (3)  French;  (4)  French 
modified  ;  and  (5)  shunt ;  the  latter 
will  be  gradually  abolished,  but  a  large 
number  of  guns  still  retain  this  form. 

Big,  To — In  artillery,  to  fit  up ;  an 
expression  made  use  of  in  fitting  up  a 
gyn  or  capstan  for  working,  &c. 

Eight  Angle— In  geometry,  is  that 
formed  by  a  line  falling  perpendicularly 
on  another,  or  that  which  subtends  an 
arc  of  90°. 

Eight  Ascension — In  astronomy,  the 
arc  of  the  celestial  equator  inter- 
cepted between  the  first  point  of  Aries 
and  the  circle  of  declination  passing 
through  the  body.  The  right  ascension 
is  always  measured  from  west  to  east, 
entirely  round  the  circle. 

Rimer — A  steel  tool  of  four,  five,  or 
eight  sides,  for  drilling  holes  in  iron  work. 
It  is  also  a  conical  bit  of  the  shape  of  the 
fuze  hole  of  a  shell,  used  formerly  for 
giving  the  shell  the  proper  dimensions 
and  finishing  off. 

Eing  Bone  —  Mayhew,  '  On  the 
Horse,'  describes  it  as  "  a  bony  deposit  in 
one  of  the  pasterns  of  a  horse's  foot.  It 
is  principally  confined  to  draught  horses 
which  have  to  drag  heavy  weights  up 
steep  ascents.  The  entire  force  is  then 
thrown  upon  the  bones  of  the  pastern  ; 
inflammation  ensues  ;  lymph  is  effused  ; 
the  lymph  becomes  cartilage,  and  the 


RIN 


347 


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cartilage  is  converted  into  bone.  Then  an 
exostasis  is  established,  and  a  ring  bone 
is  the  consequence.  Remedy. — Apply 
poultices  on  which  one  drachm  of  pow- 
dered opium  and  one  of  camphor  have  been 
sprinkled.  Rub  the  disease  with  equal 
parts  of  oil  of  camphor  and  of  chloroform. 
Then,  after  the  pain  has  ceased,  apply  the 
following  ointment  night  and  morning  : — 

Iodide  of  lead,  one  ounce. 

Lard,  eight  ounces." 

King,  Broadwell's— A  means  of  pre- 
venting the  escape  of  gas  in  a  B.L.R.  gun. 
It  is  the  invention  of  an  American,  and 
is  used  in  Mr.  Krupp's  and  other  guns. 

Ring  Gauges,  vide  Gauges,  Shot  or 
Shell. 

Riot — A  disturbance  ;  a  breach  of  the 
peace  committed  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons amounting  to  twelve  or  more.  The 
military  are  often  called  upon  to  suppress 
riots,  when  an  act,  called  the  Riot  Act, 
passed  by  parliament  for  prohibiting 
riotous  assemblies,  is  read  to  the  mob  by 
a  magistrate  or  police  officer.  If  the 
rioters  do  not  disperse  in  a  given  time,  the 
soldiery  may  fire  upon  them,  and  reduce 
and  disperse  them  by  force  of  arms. 

River — A  large  stream  of  water  flowing 
towards  the  ocean.  The  course  of  a  river 
is  the  natural  tendency  of  water  to  obey 
the  law  of  gravitation,  by  moving  down- 
wards to  the  lowest  position  it  can  reach. 

Rivers  play  a  very  important  part  in  the 
science  of  war,  either  as  obstacles  (7.  v.~) 
or  as  forming  the  frontier  line  between 
two  states,  and  thus  they  can,  either  in 
a  strategical  or  a  political  point  of  view, 
considerably  alter  the  attitude  of  the 
belligerents.  If  these  are  only  separated 
by  a  frontier  line  such  as  a  river,  the 
army  that  first  crosses  the  stream  by 
means  of  bridges,  secured  by  bridge-heads, 
will  always  find  itself  immensely  superior 
to  the  force  that  can  interpose  it,  as  it 
gives  the  enormous  advantage  of  being 
able  to  penetrate  the  enemy's  country 
at  pleasure,  to  carry  therein  an  offensive 
warfare,  or  to  retreat  safely  in  case  of  a 
reverse.  Military  history  affords  many 
interesting  instances  of  the  advantages 
obtained  by  generals  having  succeeded 
in  crossing  rivers,  whether  the  Rhine,  the 
Danube,  or  the  Potomac,  that  separated 
them  from  the  enemy,  as  well  as  the 
different  manoeuvres  carried  on  by  those 


who  were  entrusted  with  their  defence 
in  order  to  foil  these  attempts. 

As  obstacles,  rivers  present  many  advan- 
tages, as  the  defenders  can  deploy,  so  as  to 
bring  an  overwhelming  and  convergent  fire, 
both  of  small-arms  and  artillery,  to  bear 
upon  an  enemy  attempting  to  cross  them. 
Their  defence  is  safer  than  that  of  moun- 
tain passes,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
a  rich  country,  they  offer  to  the  enemy 
increased  means  of  crossing,  and  at  the 
same  time  they  screen  his  movements. 
The  examination  of  rivers  is  therefore  of 
the  utmost  importance  in  time  of  war, 
and  this  can  only  be  done  by  means  of  re- 
connaissances (</. ».). 

The  passage  of  rivers  can  be  accom- 
plished by  various  means,  such  as  bridges, 
pontoons,  boats,  fords,  &c.,  and  in  time  of 
war,  in  the  case  of  large  streams  which 
are  unbridged,  this  duty  belongs  to  the 
engineers.  (  Vide  Pontoons.)  It  is  a  very 
difficult  and  hazardous  operation,  and  de- 
mands a  superiority  of  force,  especially  of 
artillery,  and  for  this  reason,  generals  en- 
deavour to  gain  a  footing  on  the  opposite 
bank  by  manoeuvring.  But  in  case  a  small 
body  of  troops,  unaccompanied  by  en- 
gineers, should  find  its  progress  stopped  by 
a  small  but  unfordable  stream,  the  officer  in 
command  should  endeavour  to  find  boats 
of  a  sufficient  size  to  ferry  the  troops  and 
the  baggage  across ;  if  not  procurable, 
such  small  boats  as  can  be  obtained  may 
be  used  to  form  a  floating  bridge,  or,  if 
not  sufficient  for  a  bridge,  to  form  a  raft. 
The  carts,  especially  corrugated  iron, 
which  may  accompany  a  force,  can  be 
easily  floated  across  a  river  by  unloading 
them,  and  simply  fastening  an  empty 
barrel  underneath  each.  Other  materials, 
such  as  casks,  barrels,  trees,  may  be  put 
together  to  form  floating  supports  for  a 
platform  or  a  raft.  The  materials  neces- 
sary for  these  constructions  can  be  obtained 
from  adjacent  buildings  or  woods,  and 
among  the  soldiers  a  few  carpenters  may 
be  found  to  put  them  together  ;  but  only 
small  streams  can  be  crossed  by  troops 
who  are  marching  without  the  usual 
pontooning  equipment. 

The  swiftness  of  a  river  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  height  of  the  water,  and  is 
generally  more  rapid  where  the  bed  is  the 
deepest,  but  varies  according  to  its  depth 
or  its  breadth. 


EIV 


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The  following  method  is  given  as  the 
simplest  to  ascertain  the  swiftness  of  the 
current  of  a  river.  Set  two  flags  on  the 
bank  at  any  convenient  distance  from  each 
other  and  parallel  to  the  direction  of 
the  current.  Throw  into  the  Thalweg, 
or  the  line  that  follows  the  lowest  part  of 
the  valley  in  which  the  river  flows,  above 
the  upper  flag,  a  piece  of  wood  or  cork, 
which  will  be  but  little  affected  by  the 
wind.  Observe  very  accurately  the  time 
taken  by  the  floater  in  passing  from  one 
flag  to  the  other.  Repeat  the  operation 
several  times  and  take  the  mean. 

The  mean  velocity  can  be  found  by  the 
following  formula; : — 

Let  U  be  the  swiftness  at  the  surface 
(measured  as  above),  V  the  mean  velocity ; 
then — 

I  U  is  less  than  1-2  foot  ppr  second,  V=0-75  U 
If  U  is  between  1-2  ft.  and  4  ft.    „        V=0-84  U 

II  LT  is  between  4  feet  and  8  feet  „        V=0-85  U 

or  again  the  mean  velocity  of  water  in 

/   /yf     i\2    I    y 
rivers  =    -  —  — ,  where  V  is  the 

2 

superficial  velocity  expressed  in  inches. 

A  river  is  said  to  be  sluggish  when  it 
flows  at  the  rate  of  1  foot  6  inches  per 
second  (about  1  mile  per  hour)  ;  ordinarily 
swift,  from  2  to  3  feet  per  second  (about  2 
miles  per  hour);  rapid,  from  3  to  5  feet  per 
second  (about  3  miles  per  hour);  very 
rapid,  from  5  to  8  feet  per  second  (about 
5  miles  per  hour)  ;  a  torrent,  from  9  feet 
and  upwards  (about  6  miles  per  hour 
and  upwards). 

A  fordnble  river  is  a  river  which  may 
be  passed  without  the  assistance  of  any 
floating  machines  or  bridges.  ( Vide 
Fords.) 

BivetS — Short  bolts  of  metal  inserted 
in  a  hole  at  the  juncture  of  two  plates, 
and  after  insertion  hammered  abroad  at 
the  ends  so  as  to  keep  the  plates  to- 
gether. 

Rivetting  Machine — By  this  machine, 
the  invention  of  Mr.  Fairbairn,  the  work 
of  rivetting  metal  plates  together  is  done 
by  an  almost  instantaneous  pressure,  and 
without  any  noise.  The  boiler  or  any 
other  work  is  suspended  between  a  die 
on  the  upright  post,  when  a  moving 
slide  and  die  worked  by  the  action  of  a 
revolving  cam  upon  an  elbow  joint  closes 
the  work  and  finishes  the  rivet. 


Roadway — In  military  bridges,  is  that 
part  of  the  bridge  or  pontoon,  placed  on 
the  longitudinal  bearers  between  the 
handrails,  which  admits  a  clear  passage 
of  troops  or  material.  Roadways  differ 
in  size  according  to  the  dimensions  of  the 
bridge. 

Rock  Oil,  vide  Naphtha. 

Rocket — In  its  commonest  form,  is 
nothing  more  than  a  species  of  fire- 
work, and  is  commonly  used  in  all 
pyrotechnical  displays.  For  military 
purposes,  there  are  two  natures  of 
rockets — the  signal  rocket  (q.  c.)  and 
the  wtr  rocket,  the  latter  known  as  ffale's 
rocket  (q.  v.),  which  has  superseded  Con- 
greve's  rocket. 

Lieutenant-Colonel  Owen,  R.A.,  in  his 
lectures  on  artillery,  gives  the  following 
general  description  and  principle  of  a 
rocket : — 

"  A  rocket  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
case  of  paper  or  metal  containing  an 
j  inflammable  composition ;  to  the  end  of 
the  case  is  attached  a  head  usually  of  a 
conical  or  cylindro-conical  form,  and  the 
other  end  is  closed,  but  has  one  or  more 
vents  or  holes  in  it,  for  the  escape  of  the 
gas,  from  the  ignited  composition. 

"The  composition  is  driven  into  the 
case  over  a  conical  spindle,  passing  to  a 
certain  distance  up  the  centre,  thus  leav- 
ing a  hollow  space  in  the  interior  of  the 
rocket,  the  base  of  the  hollow  cone  coin- 
ciding with  that  of  the  rocket. 

"The  object  of  having  this  cavity  in 
the  interior  of  the  rocket  is  that  a  large 
surface  of  composition  may  be  at  once 
ignited  when  the  rocket  is  fired,  and  so 
great  a  quantity  of  gas  generated  within 
the  case  that  it  cannot  escape  from  the 
vent  as  quickly  as  formed,  and  therefore 
it  exerts  a  pressure  in  every  direction  on 
the  interior  surface  of  the  rocket.  The 
pressures  on  the  sides  of  the  rocket 
mutually  balance  each  other,  but  the 
pressure  on  the  head  is  greater  than  that 
on  the  base,  in  consequence  of  the  escape 
of  gas  from  the  vent  or  vents ;  it  is  this 
excess  of  pressure  on  the  head  over  that 
on  the  base  which  causes  the  rocket  to 
move  forwards,  this  being  merely  a 
similar  action  to  the  recoil  of  a  gun 
fired. 

"  A  stick  or  long  rod  is  attached  to  the 
base  or  side  of  the  rocket  in  order  to 


EOC 


349 


ROC 


counteract,  by  the  resistance  of  the  air 
upon  it,  any  tendency  to  turn  over,  and 
to  maintain  the  rocket  during  its  flight 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  direction  in 
which  it  is  fired ;  when  accuracy  is  re- 
quired, the  stick  should  be  strictly  in 
prolongation  of  the  axis  of  the  rocket." 

The  following  history  of  the  intro- 
duction of  rockets  into  the  British  ser- 
vice, as  extracted  from  the  Times,  will 
doubtless  be  found  interesting  to  the 
military  student : — 

"  The  rocket  was  first  introduced  into 
the  British  service  in  1806  strictly  as 
an  incendiary  projectile.  At  this  period 
the  only  means  of  bombarding  and  burn- 
ing towns  and  shipping  was  by  mortar 
fire,  for  although  shells  were  fired  from 
howitzers  with  small  charges  about  1700, 
it  was  not  until  1822  that  General  Paix- 
hans  pointed  out  the  proper  use  of  shell- 
guns  for  horizontal  fire.  In  the  early 
part  of  this  century,  therefore,  bombard- 
ments were  effected  by  discharging  either 
common  shells  or  carcasses — projectiles 
filled  with  inflammable  composition — 
from  comparatively  ponderous  pieces  of 
ordnance,  such  as  13-inch,  10-inch,  and 
8-inch  mortars.  The  10-inch  sea  service 
mortar  weighed  over  50  cwt.,  and  fired 
a  spherical  carcass-shell  of  105  Ibs., 
filled  with  about  7  Ibs.  of  composition. 
The  latter  was  ignited  by  the  discharge 
of  the  piece,  and  burnt  very  fiercely  for 
about  nine  minutes,  the  flames  issuing 
from  three  vents.  This  projectile,  there- 
fore, on  falling  among  combustible  mate- 
rial, produced  a  conflagration,  but  such 
was  the  force  of  its  descent  from  the  height 
to  which  it  had  been  thrown  by  the  mor- 
tar that,  on  falling  upon  a  building,  it 
frequently  went  through  the  roof  and 
all  the  floors  of  the  house,  until  it  ulti- 
mately buried  itself  in  the  cellar,  where 
there  was  nothing  combustible.  The 
32-pr.  rocket,  on  the  other  hand,  also 
contained  about  7  Ibs.  of  carcass  com- 
position in  its  head,  but  was  about 
one-third  of  the  weight  of  the  10-inch 
shell.  It  could  be  easily  carried  by  one 
man,  and  discharged  by  means  of  a  tube 
of  a  simple  and  light  construction. 
Moreover,  it  would  range  even  farther 
than  the  10-inch  shell,  and,  owing  to  its 
comparative  lightness  and  shape,  would 
lodge  somewhere  inside  the  body  of  the 


house  it  struck  ;  it  was  therefore  more 
likely  to  cause  a  conflagration.  Rockets 
appear  to  have  been  first  used  by  us  in 
the  bombardment  of  Boulogne  in  1806, 
when  200  rockets  were  discharged  and 
the  town  set  on  fire  in  many  places  with- 
out the  slightest  opposition  or  loss  being 
incurred  by  the  attacking  party.  They 
were  subsequently  used  with  great  effect 
during  the  siege  of  Flushing. 

"  But,  although  Sir  William  Congreve's 
first  idea  was  an  incendiary  projectile 
which  was  to  be  thrown  in  large  num- 
bers from  boats  into  a  seaport  town  or  a 
harbour  crowded  with  shipping,  the  sys- 
tem gradually  expanded  until  it  com- 
prehended military  as  well  as  naval 
operations.  The  32-pr.  rocket  was  after 
a  time  abolished,  and  24-prs.,  12-prs.,  and 
6-prs.  introduced,  and  in  1813  rocket 
troops  of  royal  artillery  were  formed.  The 
service  rendered  by  the  rocket  detach- 
ments attached  to  the  allied  army  at  Leip- 
zig is  a  matter  of  history.  In  telling  the 
story  of  the  battle,  Sir  Edward  Cust 
says  that  the  destructive  effect  of  the 
flights  of  rockets  was  so  fearful  that  a 
whole  brigade  surrendered  after  being  a 
few  minutes  under  their  fire.  But  this 
was  by  no  means  the  first  occasion  on 
which  rockets  were  used  against  troops. 
They  had  long  been  known  to  and  used 
by  Eastern  powers,  and  Tippoo  Saib 
taught  us  the  value  of  the  rocket  as  a 
projectile  during  the  siege  of  Seringapa- 
tam  in  1799,  when  the  British  troops 
are  said  to  have  suffered  more  from  the 
enemy's  rockets  than  from  shells  or  any 
other  weapon. 

"  Thus  by  degrees  the  rocket  was  gene- 
rally adopted  as  an  engine  of  war  both 
for  naval  and  military  purposes,  and 
gradually  its  original  object  came  to  be 
lost  sight  of.  Carcass  rockets  went  out 
of  fashion,  and  shell  rockets  were  intro- 
duced with  time  fuzes  and  all  the  para- 
phernalia for  boring  them.  The  cast-iron 
head  of  the  rocket  was  fitted  with  a  fuze 
next  the  composition  and  a  small  hole  in 
the  apex  for  the  insertion  of  the  bursting 
charge  through  which  the  boring  machine 
— somewhat  similar  to  a  bit  and  brace — 
was  introduced  when  it  was  required  to 
bore  into  the  fuze  composition.  When 
the  rocket  was  to  act  as  a  shell,  the  screw 
plug  in  the  apex  was  removed,  and  the 


HOC 


350 


ROC 


fuze  composition  bored  into  for  a  depth 
corresponding  to  the  distance  at  which 
the  shell  was  required  to  burst ;  the 
bursting  charge  was  then  poured  in  and 
the  screw  plug  replaced.  Now  this  opera- 
tion was  a  work  of  time,  and  the  service 
of  the  rocket  was  proportionately  delayed. 
Moreover,  the  shell-head  even  of  the 
largest  size  rocket,  the  24-pr.,  only  con- 
tained about  9  oz.  of  gunpowder,  while 
that  of  the  12-pr.  did  not  hold  half 
that  quantity.  These  considerations  led 
the  ordnance  select  committee  in  1806 
to  recommend  that  the  use  of  war  rockets 
as  shells  be  discontinued,  and  when  Kale's 
rockets  were  introduced  in  the  following 
year,  the  hollow  in  the  cast-iron  head  was 
simply  plugged  up  with  a  piece  of  oak. 
In  fact,  as  at  present  manufactured,  the 
rocket,  as  a  man-killing  projectile,  acts 
mainly  as  a  shot,  while  its  incendiary 
powers  are  confined  to  the  flames  which 
issue  from  its  tail — that  is,  to  the  burn- 
ing of  the  rocket  composition,  which  only 
lasts  a  few  seconds.  We  readily  join  with 
Sir  Samuel  Baker  in  deprecating  this 
arrangement.  This  form  of  artillery 
appears  to  us  to  have  neither  soul  nor 
body.  We  by  no  means  wish  to  reintro- 
duce  fuzes  and  thus  complicate  the  ser- 
vice of  rockets,  but  we  think  the  piece  of 
wood  in  the  head  might  be  advantageously 
replaced  by  gunpowder  or,  perhaps,  by  a 
more  powerful  explosive — picric  powder, 
for  instance.  The  wood  is  a  perfectly 
inert  substance,  and  is  of  no  value  what- 
ever, whereas  the  gunpowder  would,  at 
any  rate,  blow  the  cast-iron  head  to 
pieces  when  the  composition  had  burnt 
out,  and  might  thus  cause  some  destruc- 
tion. But  the  modification  we  should 
like  best  would  be  a  return  to  our  first 
love.  We  have  introduced  rifled  guns 
without  adopting  a  special  incendiary 
projectile  (common  shells  excepted),  and 
it  seems  to  us  that  rockets  might  be  made 
to  undertake  this  role.  Thus  the  primary 
object  of  Sir  William  Congreve  would  be 
kept  in  view.  Possibly,  even  the  principle 
of  the  rocket  may  be  successfully  applied 
to  the  transmission  of  torpedoes  either 
under  water  or  through  the  air,  but  in 
any  case  the  destructive  powers  of  the 
engine  should  not  solely  depend  upon  its 
motive  power.  Sir  Samuel  Baker  appears 
to  have  just  cause  of  complaint  when  he 


points  to  the  non-incendiary  powers  of 
the  Hale  rockets  used  by  him,  and, 
although  the  rockets  supplied  to  the  Gold 
Coast  expeditionary  force  appear  to  have 
acted  well  in  a  man-killing  sense,  still 
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  would  undoubtedly 
have  found  less  difficulty  in  setting  fire 
to  Coomassie  if  these  engines  had  a 
carcass  head  instead  of  a  wooden  one." 

Rocket  Drifts,  vide  Drifts,  Rocket. 

Rocket,  Life-saving,  vide  Life-saving 
Apparatus. 

Rockets,  Congreve — Rockets  known, 
up  to  a  late  date,  as  the  war  rockets  of  the 
service.  They  are  now  obsolete. 

Rockets,  Bale's — The  war  rockets  now 
used  in  the  British  service.  They  were 
introduced  in  1867,  superseding  the 
Congreve  rocket.  They  are  the  invention 
of  Mr.  Hale.  These  rockets  arc  described 
as  "  made  of  Atlas  metal,  formed  into  a 
cylinder  corrugated  in  three  planes,  to 
prevent  the  composition  from  giving  way 
in  flight.  Originally  the  cases  were  made 
of  drawn  tubing,  which  was  liable  to  split. 
The  head  of  the  rocket  is  made  of  cast 
iron,  filled  with  oak  and  secured  to 
the  body  by  rivets.  The  composition,  con- 
sisting of  pellets  pressed  into  the  case, 
having  a  conical  hollow  bored,  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  head  by  a  mill-board  disc, 
and  from  the  base  by  a  mill-board  washer. 
The  base  of  the  case  is  closed  by  a  cast- 
iron  ring,  tapped  to  receive  a  tail-piece  of 
cast  iron  with  three  conical  vents  with 
the  larger  part  of  the  cone  towards  the 
interior.  The  vents  are  cut  away  on  one 
side,  so  as  to  leave  three  projecting  wings 
against  which  the  gas  acts  and  causes 
the  rocket  to  rotate.  By  this  rotatory 
motion  on  its  longer  axis,  with  the  pres- 
sure of  the  gas  within  the  case  acting 
with  greater  force  on  the  head  than  on 
the  base,  the  rocket  proceeds  forwards  in 
its  flight,  point  foremost,  as  in  the  case 
of  an  elongated  projectile  fired  from  a 
rifled  cannon ;  no  stick  therefore  is 
required  as  in  a  signal  or  Congreve 
rocket. 

"The  rocket  is  fired' from  a  V-shaped 
triangle  made  of  sheet-iron  supported  at 
the  rear  by  three  legs,  two  short  ones 
opening  right  and  left,  and  one  long  one  to 
the  front.  The  elevation  is  given  by  means 
of  a  ring  sliding  up  and  down  the  front 
leg  (which  is  graduated)  and  clamping 


ROC 


351 


RON 


it.  There  are  two  natures  of  war  rockets 
in  the  service,  viz.  of  9  Ibs.  and  24  Ibs. 
— the  former  for  service  in  the  field,  the 
latter  to  be  used  from  fortresses." 

Rockets,  Signal — As  their  name  im- 
plies, are  used  as  signals  between  dis- 
tant camps,  forts,  &c.,  and  are  most 
valuable  on  accoxmt  of  the  distance 
they  can  be  seen  on  a  clear  night,  ascend- 
ing to  heights  varying  from  450  to  1200 
yards,  according  to  their  diameter.  It 
has  been  ascertained  that  they  can  be 
seen  within  a  circuit  of  from  35  to  40 
miles. 

The  case  of  the  rocket  is  made  of 
thick  brown  paper,  and  is  capped  with 
a  cone-like  head ;  in  the  case  is  the 
composition,  in  the  head  the  composi- 
tion of  the  stars.  Rockets  are  fired 
from  stands,  and  in  a  perpendicular 
position.  Those  used  in  the  service  are 
of  two  sizes,  viz.  1-prs.  and  £-prs. 

Rod  Lead,  vide  Lead,  Rod. 

Rodman  Gun — A  cast-iron  gun,  the 
invention  of  Captain  Rodman,  of  the  U.S. 
army.  His  invention  lies  in  the  mode 
adopted  for  gradually  cooling  the  metal 
while  in  the  process  of  casting,  which,  it 
is  said,  produces  great  hardness  round 
the  bore. 

A  15-inch  gun  of  his  manufacture  was 
tried  in  1867  at  Shoeburyness,  but  the 
result,  though  fair,  was  not  sufficiently 
encouraging  to  recommend  its  introduc- 
tion into  the  British  service. 

Rodman's  Pressure  Gauge — The  in- 
vention of  the  officer  whose  name  it 
bears,  and  the  inventor  of  the  Rodman 
gun ;  the  gauge  is  used  for  determining, 
as  described  by  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Owen,  "  the  absolute  pressure  of  the  gas 
in  the  bore  of  a  gun,  the  metal  of  which 
is  perforated  at  different  distances.  Into 
each  hole  a  pressure  gauge  is  screwed, 
consisting  of  a  piston,  an  indenting  tool, 
and  a  disc  of  copper ;  when  the  piece  is 
tired,  the  piston,  one  end  of  which  pro- 
jects as  far  as  the  bore,  being  exposed  to 
the  pressure  of  the  gas,  is  forced  out- 
wards, and  presses  the  tool — having  a 
broad  but  thin  point — into  the  copper 
disc,  the  indentation  made  being  com- 
pared with  that  obtained  in  a  testing 
machine  with  the  same  tool,  and  a  piece 
of  copper  cut  off  the  same  bar." 

An  improvement  upon  this  gauge  was 


made  for  the  use  of  the  committee 
on  explosives,  called  a  crusher,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  gas  being  ascertained  by  the 
compression  of  a  copper  cylinder  upon 
an  anvil  by  the  piston. 

Roll  of  a  Drum — A  continuous  and 
uniform  beat  of  the  drum  for  a  certain 
time.  What  is  known  as  the  long-roll 
is  a  beat  by  .which  troops  were  formerly 
assembled  at  any  particular  spot  of  ren- 
dezvous or  parade. 

Roll-call— In  military  life,  it  is  neces- 
sary, for  the  sake  of  discipline  and  to 
prevent  soldiers  from  wandering  aboxit 
indiscriminately  at  all  hours,  as  well  as 
for  the  purpose  of  having  them  available 
at  any  moment  in  case  their  services  are 
required,  that  the  men  of  a  regiment, 
company,  or  detachment  should  be  pre- 
sent to  answer  their  names  during 
certain  fixed  periods  of  the  day,  or  at 
any  time  the  commanding  officer  may 
think  advisable.  This  is  termed  roll-call. 

Rollers — Solid  cylinders  of  wood,  used 
in  mounting  and  dismounting  guns,  in 
shifting  them  from  carriage  to  carriage, 
and  in  moving  them  upon  the  ground, 
or  shifting  a  siege  gun  from  the  firing 
to  the  travelling  holes.  There  are  three 
descriptions,  ground,  shifting,  and  gun. 
Their  dimensions  vary,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  service  for  which  they  are 
intended. 

The  name  is  also  given  to  massive 
rollers  of  iron,  weighing  about  4£  tons, 
having  faces  18  inches  broad,  which  are 
used  in  the  incorporation  of  gunpowder. 
They  are  termed  edge  rollers  or  runners. 
(  Vide  Runners.) 

Romans— The  following  quaint  cus- 
tom, extracted  from  James'  '  Dictionary,' 
may  not  be  without  interest : — "  Before 
the  establishment  of  the  mess  at  the 
Horse  Guards,  which  was  formerly  pai.l 
out  of  the  king's  privy  purse,  and  sub- 
sequently charged  in  the  extraordinaries 
of  the  army,  the  captain  of  the  guard 
at  St.  James's  kept  a  table  for  the  sub- 
alterns attached  to  that  duty.  In  order 
to  enable  the  captains  to  support  these 
expenses,  a  certain  number  of  men  were 
allowed  to  work  in  the  metropolis,  on 
condition  that  they  left  their  pay  in  the 
hands  of  their  officers ;  these  men  were 
called  Romans." 

Rondel  —  In    fortification,    a     round 


ROP 


352 


ROT 


tower,  sometimes  erected  at  the  foot  oi 
a  bastion. 

Rope — This  name  is  usually  applied  to 
all  cordage  above  1  inch  in  circumference 
made  of  hemp,  spun  into  yarns  or  threads, 
of  a  certain  length  ;  a  number  of  yarns 
or  threads,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
rope,  are  twisted  together  into  a  strand. 
Three  of  these  strands  twisted  or  laid 
together  are  called  a  hawser-laid  rope, 
and  nine  of  them  a  cable-laid  rope.  When 
the  rope  is  made  very  thick,  it  is  called 
a  cable,  and  when  very  small,  a  cord. 
The  following  is  also  another  definition 
of  a  rope  : — "  A  rope  consists  of  three 
strands,  a  strand  of  a  certain  number  of 
yarns,  and  yarns  are  made  of  the  hempen 
fibres.  The  number  of  the  fibres  making 
a  yarn  is  not  counted,  but  the  yarn  is 
estimated  by  the  weight  of  the  hemp  in 
a  given  length.  Fibres  are  spun  into 
yarn,  yarns  are  registered  into  strands, 
and  strands  are  Itid  into  rope.  Rope- 
making  dates  from  the  earliest  times. 
Various  kinds  of  fibre  have  been  used 
for  the  purpose,  such  as  hemp  and  flax, 
tough  grass,  the  husk  of  the  cocoa-nut, 
the  fibres  of  the  wild  banana,  &c.,  and 
animal  substances  have  been  used,  such  as 
strips  of  an  ox  hide,  horse  hair,  and  wool. 
Ropes  have  also  been  made  of  metallic 
wire.  The  size  of  a  rope  is  designated 
by  the  circumference  or  girth :  thus  a 
'i-inch  rope  measures  3  inches.  The 
length  is  usually  expressed  in  fathoms." 
The  strength  of  ropes  is  sometimes 
calculated  by  the  following  rule.  Mul- 
tiply the  circumference  of  the  rope  in 
inches  by  itself,  and  the  fifth  part  of  the 
product  will  express  the  number  of  tons 
the  rope  will  carry ;  in  practice,  a  rope 
should  not  be  subjected  to  more  than 
half  this  strain.  It  stretches  from  one- 
seventh  to  one-fifth,  and  its  diameter  is 
diminished  from  one-seventh  to  one- 
fourth,  before  breaking.  White  rope  is 
stronger  than  tarred  rope,  and  only  ropes 
that  are  to  be  immersed  in  water  should 
be  tarred.  The  strength  of  Manilla  rope 
is  less  than  that  of  hemp  rope.  The  good 
quality  of  rope  is  sometimes  discernible 
by  its  colour,  which  borders  on  silver 
grey,  though  this  is  not  always  a  sure 
sign  ;  a  better  test  is  its  smell.  Cordage 
of  a  strong  odour  should  have  the  pre- 
ference, and  such  as  smells  rotten, 


mouldy,  or  exhales  heat,  should  be  re- 
jected. To  store  ropes,  they  should  be 
placed  in  the  upper  stories  of  a  building, 
coiled  up  and  labelled  ;  large  ropes  on 
skids,  so  as  to  allow  the  circulation  of 
air,  small  ropes  being  hung  up.  Ropes 
should  be  uncoiled  every  year,  and 
stretched  out  for  several  days  at  the 
beginning  of  the  dry  season  in  India. 
Rope  is  issued  in  coils  of  120  fathoms 
each,  marline  and  Hambro'  line  in  skeins, 
and  spun  yarn  in  pounds. 

Government  rope  is  distinguished  by  a 
coloured  thread,  red,  yellow,  or  blue, 
running  through  it.  There  are  several 
descriptions  of  ropes  which  are  used 
chielly  in  the  artillery  service. 

Rope,  Bowsing,  vide  Bowsing  Rope. 

Rope  Bridge,  vide  Suspension  Bridge. 

Rose-engine — Is  described  as  "  a  pecu- 
liar kind  of  turning  lathe  having  special 
chucks  for  the  production  of  those  pat- 
terns of  curved  Hues  called  by  the  French 
rosettes,  from  the  slight  resemblance  which 
they  bear  to  a  full-blown  rose,  and  hence 
the  term  rose-engine.  The  rose-engine 
lathe  differs  from  the  common  lathe  in 
this,  that  the  centre  of  the  circle  in  which 
the  work  revolves  is  not  a  fixed  point, 
but  is  made  to  oscillate  with  a  slight 
motion  while  the  work  is  revolving  upon 
it,  the  tool  being  all  the  time  stationary, 
and  hence  the  figure  will  be  "out  of 
round,"  as  the  turners  call  it,  or  will 
deviate  from  the  circular  figure  as  much 
and  as  often  as  the  motion  is  given  to 
the  centre." 

Rosin  —  An  exudation  from  trees 
belonging  to  the  Coniferae  or  fir  tribe, 
and  the  residue  left  in  the  still,  after 
the  oil  or  spirit  of  turpentine  has  been 
distilled.  It  is  very  combustible,  and  is 
used  in  light-ball  and  carcass  compo- 
sition. 

Roster  —  A  list  which  regulates,  in 
succession,  the  services  of  officers  and 
men  for  regimental,  garrison,  and  other 
military  duties.  For  regimental  duty, 
the  officers'  roster  is  kept  in  the  ad- 
jutant's office;  for  brigade  duty,  in  the 
jrigade-major's  office.  This  word  was 
formerly  spelt  roister. 

Rotation,  Velocity  of— A  term  used  in 
gunnery  to  express  the  speed  with  which 
a  projectile  rotates  at  the  mouth  of  the 
piece  or  along  any  portion  of  its  path, 


ROT 


353 


EOU 


which  varies  with   the  charge  and  twist 
of  the   grooves.     This    velocity    further 
depends  upon  the  form,  length,  weight,  j 
and  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  projectile. 

Eotatory  Motion — In  gunnery,  is  the 
motion  given  to  a  projectile  fired  from  a  j 
smooth  or  rifled  barrel.  In  the  former  ( 
case,  in  consequence  of  the  eccentricity  ; 
of  round  shot,  the  shot  acquires  a  rota-  | 
tion  of  which  the  axis  and  direction  are 
altogether  uncertain;  in  the  latter,  the 
rotatory  motion  is  acquired  around  an  axis 
coincident  with  that  of  the  bore,  so  that 
the  direction  of  rotation  is  known.  This 
fixed  rotation  adds  greatly  to  the 
steadiness  and  accuracy  of  the  projectile 
in  its  flight,  and  the  deviation  being  a 
constant  quantity  can  be  allowed  for 
by  a  scale  of  deflection,  or  the  gun 
can  be  sighted  "  true,"  when  manufac- 
tured, so  that  no  allowance  is  necessary 
except  for  wind.  Again,  elongated  pro- 
jectiles offer  less  resistance  to  the  air 
than  spherical  projectiles  of  the  same 
weight,  and  consequently  range  further. 

Rough  Rider — In  the  artillery  or 
cavalry,  an  instructor  in  equitation,  and 
an  assistant  to  the  riding  master.  One 
is  allowed  to  each  troop  or  battery. 

Roughing — A  mode  of  treating  horse- 
shoes during  slippery  weather,  when 
ice  is  lying  on  the  ground.  The  old 
mode  of  carrying  out  this  operation  is 
considered  an  inconvenient  and  exceed- 
ingly injurious  plan.  A  new  method 
of  roughing  is  recommended  by  Mr. 
George  Fleming,  a  veterinary  surgeon 
in  the  royal  engineers,  which  consists  in 
the  insertion  of  a  small,  pointed,  square 
plug  of  steel,  measuring  from  1  to  3 
inches  (nearly  always  the  former)  at  the 
heel  and,  if  desirable,  at  the  toe  also  of 
each  shoe,  in  a  simple  square  hole 
punched  at  these  points.  The  result 
is  stated  to  be  most  satisfactory,  horses 
being  enabled,  in  the  most  frosty  state  of 
the  roads,  to  do  their  work  as  in 
ordinary  weather.  The  army  horses  at 
Chatham  were  so  roughed  during  the 
winter  of  1875,  and  nothing  could  have 
been  more  satisfactory. 

The  term  roughing  is  applied  to  the 
action  of  a  rasp  on  a  fuze,  to  make  it 
bite  in  the  fuze-hole,  and  also  in 
rendering  the  external  surface  of  any- 


thing not  smooth  capable  of  takin^  a 
hold. 

Round  —  In  artillery,  a  "  round  of 
ammunition  "  comprehends  the  charge  of 
powder,  the  projectile,  and  the  priming 
or  friction  tube.  To  fire  one  or  more 
rounds  is  to  discharge  each  gun  in  suc- 
cession from  a  battery  or  a  portion  of 
it,  until  the  turn  comes  round  for  the 
first  gun  to  fire  again.  Light  artillery 
can  come  into  action  and  fire  one  round 
in  28  seconds,  timing  from  the  order, 
"  Action  front,"  to  the  discharge  of  the 
piece ;  and  in  15  seconds  if  the  first 
cartridge  and  shot  be  carried  in  a  box 
on  the  gun  axle-tree.  (Vide  Rapidity 
of  Firing.) 

In  a  plural  sense,  the  term  is  applied 
in  gun-drill  to  the  change  of  numbers  in 
the  gun's  crew,  comprehended  in  the 
order,  "Change  rounds."  It  is  also  applied 
to  the  number  of  small-arm  cartridges 
carried  by  a  soldier  in  his  pouch  or  else- 
where, which  is  reckoned  by  rounds,  as 
40  rounds  in  pouch. 

Round  Shot — Spheres  of  iron  or  steel 
fired  from  smooth-bore  guns. 

Rounds — A  duty  performed  by  com- 
manding officers  of  guards,  which  consists 
in  their  visiting  the  guards  and  sentries 
under  their  command.  They  should  go 
their  rounds  at  least  twice  a  day  and 
twice  by  night ;  and,  in  addition,  a  non- 
commissioned officer,  with  a  file  of  men, 
ought  frequently  to  visit  the  sentries, 
in  order  to  ascertain  that  they  are 
acquainted  with  their  orders,  and  are 
carrying  them  out  in  a  proper  manner. 
The  latter  are  called  visiting  rounds. 
Field  officers  of  the  day  go  what  is  called 
the  grand  rounds. 

Route  (French,  route,  a  road)  —  An 
order  for  troops  to  march  from  one 
place  to  another.  It  expresses  also  the 
road  by  which  they  are  to  move.  The 
route  or  line  of  march  is  appointed  bv 
the  quartermaster-general  of  the  army, 
under  whose  orders,  by  direction  of  thu 
commander-in-chief,  all  transfers  or  re- 
liefs of  regiments  take  place. 

Route,  Column  of,  vide  Columun  of 
March. 

Routine — Capacity   or  the  faculty  of 

arranging ;      a    certain    method    rather 

acquired  by  habit  and  practice  than   by 

study     and    rule.      It    signifies    also    a 

2  A 


ROW 


354 


RUN 


general  custom  or  usage,  established  by  | 
habit,  and  followed  mechanically  and 
without  reflection. 

Row,  To — In  artillery,  to  move  a  gun 
in  the  direction  of  its  length,  by  means 
of  handspikes  used  with  a  rowing 
motion. 

Royal  Academy,  vide  Academy. 
Royal  Arsenal,  vide  Woolwich. 
Royal  Cambridge  Asylum— An  insti- 
tution founded   by  the  father  of  the  pre- 
sent Duke  of  Cambridge,  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  a  home  to  one  widow  of  each 
British   regiment.     It    is    not   yet    com- 
pleted, and  is  only  capable  at  present  of 
receiving  abjut  iJO  widows. 

Royal  Scots,  The  —  The  regimental  ! 
title  given  to  the  1st  Regiment  of  Foot. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  the  oldest  regular 
corps  in  Europe ;  the  men  originally 
came  from  Scotland,  and  entered  the 
French  army,  but  afterwards  returned 
to  England  in  IGSo,  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  J.,  and  then  received  the  title  of 
Royal  Regiment  of  Foot. 

Royal  Standard,  vide  Standard,  Royal. 
Royal  Warrant — An  act  of  the  sove- 
reign, authorising,  for  military  purposes, 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  War  to  issue 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  guidance 
of  the  several  departments  of  the  army. 
Royal  warrants,  where  the  army  is  con- 
cerned, relate  to  all  matters  touching 
the  soldier,  his  pay,  clothing,  travelling, 
food,  &c.,  and  are  issued  from  time 
to  time,  by  the  War  Office,  in  army 
circulars,  for  the  observance  of  all  con- 
cerned. 

Rubbers — Strong  heavy  files,  generally 
made  of  an  inferior  kind  of  steel ;  they 
measure  from  12  to  18  inches  long,  from 
y  inch  to  2  inches  on  every  side,  and 
are  made  very  convex  or  fish-bellied. 
Rubbers  are  only  for  coarse  manufac- 
turing purposes,  when  the  object  is 
rather  to  brighten  the  surface  of 
the  work  than  to  give  it  any  specific 
form. 

Ruffle— A  low  vibrating  sound,  which 
is  beat  upon  the  drum,  but  not  so  loud 
as  a  roll.  It  is  generally  performed  in 
paying  military  compliments  to  general 
officers,  and  at  military  funerals. 

Rule  (Anglo-Saxon,  re/ol;  Latin,  re- 
tftt/rt) — In  arithmethic,  denotes  "  a  certain 
prescribed  series  of  numerical  operations, 


adapted  to  discover,  from  the  given  con- 
ditions to  which  an  unknown  number  is 
subjected,  what  that  number  is.  They 
are  generally  distinguished  by  particular 
names,  according  to  the  purposes  for 
which  they  are  given,  or  the  particular 
nature  of  the  business  for  which  they 
are  required ;  as  the  rules  of  interest, 
&c." 

The  word  applies  also  to  an  instrument 
on  which  different  scales  are  marked, 
and  which  is  used  for  measuring,  such  as 
the  carpenter's  rule,  a  common  2-foot 
rule,  jointed  in  the  centre,  for  measur- 
ing timber.  It  is  not  only  used  by  car- 
penters, but  by  other  artificers.  It  has 
a  variety  of  scales,  to  facilitate  the 
calculations  of  most  frequent  occur- 
rence. 

Gunner's  rule. — A  rule  made  either 
of  box  or  ivory,  and  jointed  in  three 
places,  for  the  convenience  of  carriage, 
having  various  tables  of  weight  and 
dimensions  of  S.B.  guns,  shot,  shell,  &c. 
marked  on  it. 

Runners  —  Metal  cylinders  used  in 
the  incorporating  mills  of  a  gunpowder 
manufactory,  known  also  under  the  name 
of  edge-rollers.  They  were  formerly  made 
of  gun-metal,  but  iron  runners  have  been 
found  to  be  equally  safe,  and  are  much 
cheaper.  Iron  runners,  like  gun-metal, 
become  honey-combed  after  being  in  use 
for  some  time,  from  the  action  of  the 
saltpetre,  if  the  metal  has  not  been  pro- 
perly hardened.  They  are  about  7  feet 
in  diameter,  18  inches  broad  (the  face), 
and  from  4J  to  5  tons  in  weight. 

Running  Drill — A  drill  forming  part 
of  the  training  of  a  soldier.  It  comes 
under  the  head  of  gymnastic  training. 
It  is  ordered  to  be  carried  out  in 
all  infantry  regiments.  The  object  ot 
it  is  to  make  the  men  supple,  active, 
and  capable  of  bearing  fatigue.  The 
distance  to  be  run  is  not  to  exceed  300 
yards  during  the  first  fortnight.  For' the 
second  fortnight  the  distance  may  be 
increased  to  600  yards,  and  for  the 
third  fortnight  to  900,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  the  practice  is  to  be 
carried  on  daily  at  1000  yards,  the 
men  running,  on  alternate  days,  with 
arms  and  accoutrements.  For  further 
instructions,  vide  Queen's  Regulations  of 
1873. 


RUN 


355 


RUS 


Running  the  Gauntlet — A  punishment  ;  service   is  fixed  at   15  years,  divided   as 

follows : — 

Four  years  under  the  colours  ; 

Two  on  furlough  ; 

Nine  in  the  reserve,  with  the  exception 


for    by    regular    troops    or  land   forces 

and  national  legions. 

The  land  forces  are  composed  of- — 

1.  The  active  army,  completed  by  the 


formerly     enforced    in    the    navy,     and 

which    was    inflicted    also    on    soldiers. 

As    related    by  James,    in  his  '  Military 

Dictionary,'     the     mode     of    procedure 

was    as    follows.      When  a  soldier  was    of  the  horse  artillery,  cavalry,  and  frontier 

sentenced     to     run     the     gauntlet,     the  !  guards. 

regiment     was    paraded    in    two   ranks,  |      The  defence  of  the  country  is  provided 

facing  one  another,  each   soldier  having 

;i     switch     in    his    hand,     and    as    the 

criminal  ran  between  the    ranks,  naked 

from  the  waist  upwards,  he  was   lashed 

by    the    soldiers.       While     he    ran,    the  ]  annual  contingents ; 

drums   beat    at  each  end   of  the  ranks. 

Sometimes  he  ran  three,   five,  or  seven 

times,   according  to    the    nature  of  the 

oti'ence.       Happily,     such     a     barbarous 

punishment  no  longer  disgraces  the  army 

or  navy. 

Rupee  —  An  Indian  coin,  weighing 
180  grains  troy,  or  one  tolah.  The 
standard  quality  is  eleven-twelfths  sil- 
ver, one-twelfth  alloy,  general  value 
about  2s.  English  money,  but  not  re- 
mitted to  England  nowadays  at  this 
rate.  Diameter  of  the  rupee,  -^  foot, 
which  makes  it,  if  necessary,  a  standard 
of  length.  The  tolah  or  imperial  rupee 
i-;  the  standard  of  weight  in  India. 
Compared  with  the  English  weights,  32 
tolahs  make  1  Ib.  troy,  or  0'823  Ibs. 
avoirdupois. 

Ruse  (French) — A  trick  ;  a  stratagem. 
(  Vide  Stratagem.) 

Russian  Army— One  of  the  chief  con- 
tinental armies  of  Europe. 

Early  in  1870,  a  new  bill  was  submitted 
to  the  emperor  and  the  imperial  council 
for  the  reorganisation  of  the  Russian 


2.  The  reserves,   composed  of  time-ex- 
pired soldiers,  called   into    the  ranks    in 
time  of  war  ; 

3.  The  Cossacks  ; 

4.  Specially  organised  troops. 

The  national  legions  are  composed 
of  all  the  men  not  included  in  the 
regular  army,  but  capable  of  bearing 
arms,  from  the  age  of  20  inclusive  up 
to  that  of '40.  They  are  divided  into  two 
classes : — 

1.  Men  destined  to  fill  up  the  vacan- 
cies   in    the    ranks   of  the    army,  or  to 
complete  the  reserve  in  case  of  paucity 
of  numbers; 

2.  Men    forming    the    depots    of  the 
legions. 

There  are  besides  two  classes  of  volun- 
teers admitted  into  the  army  :  young 
men  who  have  completed  their  education 
in  public  schools,  and  those  who  have 
formed  or  still  form  part  of  the  legions. 
The  former  are  bound  to  serve  in  the 
active  army  for  3  or  6  months  or  2 
years,  according  to  their  education  and 
proficiency.  Those  who  have,  on  draw- 


army,  aud  by  an  ukase  dated  November  j  ing  for  the  conscription,  been  exempted 
16  of  the  same  year,  it  became  the  mili-  i  from  joining  the  colours  are  incor- 
tary  law  of  the  country.  !  porated  in  the  national  legions,  and  are 

This  bill  lays  down,  as  a  first  principle,  I  compelled  to  go  through  an  annual  cours«- 
that  the  defence  of  the  Russian  territory  !  of  training.  Other  classes  of  individuals 
is  a  sacred  duty  incumbent  on  every  |  may  also  be  exempted  from  service  in  the 
Russian  subject  without  distinction  of  i  active  army,  such,  for  instance,  as  fathers 
class  or  position.  Military  service  is  |  of  families;  but  they  are  liable  to  be  called 
therefore  obligatory,  and  substitutes  are  out  in  case  of  an  insufficient  supply  of 
not  admitted  into  the  ranks  of  the  army.  |  conscripts. 

All  young  men  who  have  attained  the  age  j  Russia  has  a  male  population  of  3(i 
of  20  are  liable  to  be  drawn  as  conscripts.  :  millions,  and  the  number  of  young  men 
A  drawing  by  lot  takes  place  to  decide  j  who  annually  attain  the  age  for  being 


who  shall  remain  at  home,  after  under- 
going six  weeks'  training.  These  men, 
for  6  consecutive  years,  form  part  of 
the  reserve.  The  duration  of  military 


drawn  in  the  conscription  is  set  down  at 
600,000.  Estimating  the  mortality  of 
the  men  under  4  per  cent.,  and  those 
not  on  active  duty  at  2  per  cent.,  the 
2  A  2 


RUS 


356 


RUS 


defensive    forces    of    Russia    have    been 


r 

! 

LEGIONARIES. 

AGE-      1°BMYE    RESEBVE- 
ARMY.    ,                                  lgt 

2nd 

!           : 

Scries. 

Series. 

21      '  200000 

200  000 

22         192 

000 

196 

000 

23         184 

000 

192 

000 

24         177 

000 

188 

000 

25         170 

000 

184 

000  1 

26        163 

000 

180 

000  ! 

27 

157,000 

176,000 

23 

154,000 

172,000 

29 

151,000 

'   169,000 

30      , 

148,000 

166,010 

31          ; 

14o,UOO 

163.000 

32 

142,000 

:    160,000 

33 

139,OnO 

!    157,000 

34 

136,000 

1    154,000 

35 

133,000 

151,000 

36 

275,000 

37 

269,000 

38 

'    263,000 

Making,  without  counting  time-expired 
soldiers,  5,806,000  men.  The  active 
army,  it  will  be  seen,  is  set  down  at 
1,086,000  men.  In  time  of  peace,  how- 
ever, this  number  is  not  kept  under  arms, 
for  although  in  special  branches  the 
duration  of  the  service  is  fixed  at  7 
years,  the  infantry  is  generally  discharged 
during  the  last  2  years  of  service; 
so  that  the  army  may  really  be  set 
down  at  700,000  men  under  the  colours, 
and  300,000  more  on  furlough.  As  an 
adjunct  to  this  army  of  1,000,000  of 
men,  the  first  class  of  legionaries  com- 
prises 1,140,000  men,  all  of  whom  may  be 
called  upon  to  fill  up  the  ranks.  The 
reserve  is  composed  of  1,305,000  men, 
and  by  the  time  this  part  of  the  law 
comes  in  force,  they  will  be  all  good, 
solid  troops,  having  passed  through 
the  ranks  of  the  army.  The  second 
cla'ss  of  legionaries,  as  shown  in  the 
above  table,  is  composed  of  2,275,000 
men,  all  of  whom  will  be  trained  to  the 
use  of  arms  when  drawn  by  the  con- 
scription, and  they  will  count  amongst 
them  nearly  half  a  million  of  time-ex- 
pired troops. 

The  Russian  peace  footing  is  estimated 
to  have  been  increased  by  about  50,000 
men  in  1875.  The  troops  reinforced 


are  chiefly  the  cavalry  and  horse 
artillery,  who  have  been  put  on  a  per- 
manent war  footing,  and,  being  mostly 
stationed  along  railway  lines  in  the 
western  provinces,  are  ready  for  imme- 
diate action  in  the  field. 

The  Russian  territory  is  divided  into 
14  military  districts;  the  country  occu- 
pied by  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don  forms  a 
separate  district,  with  a  special  organisa- 
tion. 

The  permanent  army*  is  divided  into 
47  divisions  of  infantry,  7  brigades  of 
rifles,  10  divisions  of  cavalry,  50  brigades 
of  field  artillery,  26  batteries  of  horse 
artillery,  5  brigades  of  engineers ;  the 
numerical  strength  of  the  whole  active 
army  may  be  put  down  in  peace  time  at 
33,043  officers  and  735,539  men,  and  in 
time  of  war  at  43,355  officers  and 
1,358,672  men. 

The  infantry  is  composed  of  12  regi- 
ments of  the  guard,  16  regiments  of 
grenadiers,  4  Caucasian  regiments,  4 
battalions  of  rifles  of  the  guard,  20  of 
rifles  of  the  line,  4  Caucasian  and  4 
Turkestan  rifles,  and  148  regiments  of  in- 
fantry, giving  a  total  of  196  regiments  of 
the  line. 

These  are  massed  into  3  divisions  of 
infantry  of  the  guard,  4  of  grenadiers, 
40  of  infantry,  and  7  brigades  of  rifles. 
The  division  in  the  Russian  army  is  the 
highest  unit,  there  being  no  corps  d'armee 
except  in  the  guards. 

Each  division  of  infantry  is  composed 
of  2  brigades,  each  brigade  of  2  regiments 
of  3  battalions  each,  with  the  exception 
of  the  2  brigades  of  the  4  Caucasian  di- 
visions, which  have  3  regiments.  Each 
battalion  is  composed  of  4  companies. 

The  cavalry  is  divided  into  active  ca- 
valry and  reserve  squadrons. 

The  active  cavalry  comprises  10  regi- 
ments of  the  guard,  77  of  the  line  (includ- 
ing 21  of  Cossacks),  and  4  of  Caucasian 
troops.  The  guards  are  composed  of  4 
regiments  of  cuirassiers,  2  of  lancers,  2 
of  hussars,  1  of  grenadiers,  and  1  of 
Cossacks.  The  Russian  caTalry  is  divided 
into  20  divisions,  viz.  4  of  the  guards  (3 
mixed  and  1  division  of  Cossacks),  14 


*  Most  of  the  differpnt  branches  of  the  Russian 
army  may  be  said  to  be  in  a  transitional  state  of 
reorganisation. 


EUS 


357 


BUS 


of  the  line,  and  2  of  Caucasian  cavalry. 
Each  division  comprises  4  regiments 
divided  into  2  brigades  :  1  of  lancers,  1  of 
dragoons.  1  of  hussars,  and  1  of  Cossacks; 
each  regiment  having  the  same  number. 
Thus  the  1st  division  contains  the  1st 
hussars,  the  1st  lancers,  &c.  Each 
brigade  of  cavalry  of  the  guard  has  2 
regiments ;  the  2nd  division  has  3  bri- 

Batteries  of  9-prs 141 

Batteries  of  4-prs 94 

Batteries   of  mitrailleurs  47 


gades.  Each  regiment  has  4  squadrons, 
with  a  strength  of  224  combatants. 

The  reserve  squadrons,  whose  duty  in 
time  of  peace  is  to  train  horses  and  provide 
their  regiments  with  them,  will  in  time 
of  war  fill  up  the  vacancies  produced  by 
the  campaign. 

The  field  artillery  is  composed  as  fol- 
lows : — 

with  1128  guns  and  3384  wagons. 
„       752     „       „    1504 
„       376     „       „      762         „ 


Giving  a  total  of     ..     282 

Each  brigade  of  foot  artillery  is  com- 
posed of  6  batteries  (3  batteries  of  9-prs., 
2  of  4-prs.  and  1  of  mitrailleurs). 

The  horse  artillery  of  the  regular  army 
is  composed  of  21  batteries  and  5  bat- 
teries of  the  guard,  2  depot  and  1  instruc- 
tion batteries  ;  each  battery  is  formed  of 
6  guns.  The  organisation  of  these  bat- 
teries into  brigades  has  been  changed 
with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  guard, 
which  are  still  formed  into  1  brigade. 
Throughout  the  rest  of  the  army,  2 
batteries  are  attached  to  each  division  of 
cavalry,  and  come  under  the  immediate 
command  of  the  divisional  commander. 
These  will,  however,  be  soon  increased  to 
6  batteries  of  the  guard  (1  Cossack),  and 
28  batteries  of  ordinary  horse  artillery 
(7  Cossack),  of  8  guns  each.  There  will 
be  besides  14  Cossack  batteries  in  reserve. 

The  5  brigades  of  engineers  comprise 
1  battalion  of  sappers  of  the  guard,  1  of 
grenadiers,  and  9  of  sappers  and  miners, 
total  11  battalions  ;  6  half-battalions  of 
pontoon  train. 

There  were  at  the  time  of  the  reorga- 
nisation of  the  army  3  classes  of  troops 
which  did  not  belong  to  the  active  army : 
(1)  the  local  or  sedentary  troops  (25 
battalions  of  garrison  infantry,  and  18 
battalions  of  infantry  of  the  line)  ;  (2)  the 
interior  service  troops  (71  battalions) ; 
and  (3)  the  reserve  troops  (72  battalions 
of  the  line,  10  of  rifles,  56  squadrons  of 
cavalry,  6  brigades  of  artillery,  and  4 
battalions  of  sappers).  In  the  military 
districts  of  Russia  in  Asia,  the  present 
organisation  has  been  maintained  for  the 
local  troops  ;  but  in  the  other  districts 
they  have  been  reorganised,  and  form 
now  29  regiments  of  4  companies  each  of 


2256 


5650 


garrison  infantry,  and  199  battalions  of 
depot  troops.  When  the  army  is  mobi- 
lised, the  strength  of  the  depot  battalions 
is  raised  to  1000  men  each  by  means  of 
the  men  of  the  1st  class  of  the  militia. 
On  war  breaking  out,  the  2nd  class  of  the 
militia  will  be  formed  into  ]  64  infantry 
battalions  of  4  companies  each  and  with  a 
nominal  strength  of  1000  men.  The 
duty  of  these  battalions  will  be  to  keep 
up  the  communications  and  guard  the 
rear  of  the  army  in  the  field  and  to 
garrison  the  towns. 

The  Cossack  troops  are  divided  into 
regiments  and  sotnias  (sections  of  100 
men)  ;  the  strength  of  each  regiment  va- 
ries according  to  the  number  of  sotnias 
called  out.  The  whole  male  population 
is  obliged  to  serve.  By  an  order  issued 
in  1872,  the  Cossacks  have  been  formed 
into  a  body  of  men  perfectly  organised 
in  time  of  peace,  easily  assembled  and 
added  to  the  cavalry  divisions  in  time  of 
war.  Under  the  new  arrangements  they 
will  supply  62  regiments  and  22  batteries 
in  time  of  war.  In  peace  time  they 
have  21  regiments  and  8  horse  batteries 
under  arms.  The  strength  of  the 
Cossacks  is  between  50,000  and  55,000 
men,  with  a  reserve  of  30,000  more. 

The  supreme  command  of  the  Russian 
army  is  vested  in  the  emperor,  with  a 
war  ministry  under  him.  This  ministry 
is  divided  into  bureaux,  including  a  war 
council  of  permanent  committees,  who 
deal  with  all  the  technical  questions 
appertaining  to  the  different  branches  of 
the  service. 

The  mode  in  Russia  of  officering  the 
army  does  not  differ  much  from  that  of 
other  continental  armies.  The  young 


RUS 


358 


SAB 


men    who    decide   on  a    military  career  :  servative    against    rust,    and    is    a   good 
proceed  at  the  age   of  16  to  one  of  the  !  composition    for    guns  when    packed    in 
military   schools,   whence,  at  the  age  of   boxes    for  transit  abroad,  viz.  one    part 
19  or  20.  having  passed  an  examination,  ;  white  lead,  seven  parts   tallow.      {Vide 
they  obtain  an  ensigncy,  and  then  follow  j  Varnish.) 
the   various  grades  without  further   ex- 
amination.   A  second  captaincy  is  reached  ' 
in  about  8  years'  service,  and  then  merit 
can   gain  the  epaulettes  of  a  general  in  a  : 
very  short  time. 

Candidates  for   the  staff  have  to   pass 
through  the  Nicholas  Staff'  Academy. 

The    Russian  infantry   is  armed   with 
the   Berdan  breech-loading   rifle.     {Vide1 
Appendix  C.) 
Russian   Gun — The    Russian   artillery 

may  be  said    to  be  in  a  transition  state,  "• 

experiments  being  continually  carried  on, 
if  not  to  change  its  material,  to  modify 

the  present  ordnance,  so  as  to  allow  that  i      S.A.A.  Wagons — An   abbreviation   for 
branch  of  the   army  to   bear  comparison  I  small-arm  ammunition  wagons,  in  which 

with    that   adopted    or  on   the    point  of ,  the    reserve    small-arm    ammunition    of 

being    adopted    by   other    armies.      The  '  an    army    travels.     ( Vide  Reserve    Am- 

guus   of  the  Russian  artillery  are  4-pr.  \  munition.) 

and  9-pr.   B.L.R.  guns,  for  the  most  part  j      Sabicu — A    wood   used    for    artillery 

of  bronze.    The  4-pr.,  of  3'3-inch  calibre,    purposes,  in  the  formation  of  certain  parts 

fires  a  projectile   weighing  12  Ibs.     The  I  of    a  carriage  either   for   land  or  naval 

9-pr.   gun,   which    forms   three-fifths    of '  purposes. 

its  actual  armament,  fires  a  shell  weighing  |      Sabot  (French)  —  A    wooden    shoe;  it 


24-  Ibs.  with  a   charge   of  2-69  Ibs.,  and 
possesses  an  initial  velocity  of  1060  feet 


means  also  the  wooden  attachment  to 
an  article.  In  artillery,  sabots  are 
wooden  bottoms  attached  to  spherical 
Experiments  have  been  made  of  late  i  projectiles  by  means  of  a  copper  rivet, 
with  steel  guns  of  the  Krupp  system  |  The  object  of  the  sabot  is  to  keep  the 
(500  of  which  are  said  to  be  ready  and  shot  or  shell  in  the  axis  of  the  piece,  and 
held  in  reserve),  as  well  as  with  the  9-pr.  i  by  its  cylindrical  shape  to  cause  the  pro- 
modified.  The  improvement  made  in  that  j  jectile  to  glide  out  of  the  piece  without 
gun,  by  means  of  casting  the  metal  in  |  bounding  up  and  down  in  the  bore,  by 
metallic  moulds  and  then  chilling  it,  j  which  it  acquires  a  rotatory  motion, 
have  enabled  it  to  obtain  an  initial  velo-  j  prejudicial,  from  its  uncertain  rotation, 
city  of  1369  feet.  It  differs  slightly  from  j  to  the  direction  of  the  projectile.  This 
the  old  9-pr.,  the  dimensions  of  the  j  uncertain  rotation  has  reference  only  to 
chamber  being  made  to  allow  the  use  of  j  shot  and  shell  fired  from  smooth-bore 
a  charge  of  7-23  Ibs.  of  powder.  The  I  ordnance. 

projectile   is   provided   with    2   belts   of  I      Sabre    (French  =  sword)  —  A    heavy 
copper  in  lieu  of  a  leaden  coat.     In  order  j  sword,  slightly  curved  towards  the  point. 


to  obtain  a  flatter  trajectory  in  long 
ranges,  a  truncated  shot-bottom  similar 
to  one  proposed  by  Whitworth  has  been 
tried.  The  weight  of  the  gun  and  that  of 
the  projectile  are  the  same  as  in  the  old 
9-pr. 


The  back  of  the  sword  is  made  thick,  so  as 
to  give  it  greater  force  in  delivering  the 
cut  or  thrust.  It  is  used  in  the  mounted 
service  of  the  army.  (  Vide  Appendix  F.) 
Sabretache  (German,  Sabel,  a  sabre, 
and  Tasche,  a  pocket) — Usually  an  ob- 


Rust — Oxide  of  iron,  which  forms  on  long  leather  case  or  pocket  scolloped  at 
the  surface  of  iron  from  exposure  to  ]  the  bottom,  with  a  device  in  the  centre, 
atmospheric  influence  or  contact  with  j  and  suspended  from  the  left  side  of  the 
acids.  The  following  forms  a  good  pre-  '  sword  belt  by  three  slings  of  the  same 


359 


SAI 


material  as  the  belt.  It  is  worn  by  all 
mounted  officers  of  the  army. 

Sack,  To — To  pillage,  to  plunder. 

Saddle — The  seat  on  which  a  rider  sits 
when  on  horseback.  A  military  saddle 
consists  of  the  following  principal  parts : 
1 ,  the  tree  ;  2,  the  web ;  3,  girth ;  4, 
Haps  ;  5,  seat ;  (5,  panel ;  7,  surcingle  ; 
N,  stirrups  ;  9,  leather  (stirrups). 

The  following  form  the  requisites  of  a 
good  saddle : — 

1.  it  should  be  as  light  as  is  consist- 
ent with  strength. 

2.  The  pressure  of  the  whole  and  each 
part  should  be  distributed  over  as  large 
a  space  as  possible. 

3.  The  weight  should  be  placed  upon  the 
part  of  the  animal  best  fitted  to  bear  it. 

4.  The    shape    of  the   seat   should   be 
such   as  to  allow  the  rider  to   sit   well 
down    into    it,    and    balance    himself   in 
every  position  of  the  animal. 

5.  There  should  be  no  pressure  on  any 
jointed  surface  either  of  man,  horse,  or 
saddle.      A    military    saddle,   having   to 
carry  the  rider's  kit,  is  not  as  light  as 
an  ordinary  hunting  saddle. 

In  the  mounted  branch  of  the  service, 
the  pattern  saddle  is  termed  universal. 
In  a  battery  of  artillery  there  are  three 
descriptions  of  saddles,  viz.  the  uni- 
versal, driver's,  and  luggage.  The 
weight  of  the  universal  saddle  is  28  Ibs. 
'lit  oz.  complete. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  saddles  in 
use  in  the  service,  termed  pack  saddles, 
which  are  carried  on  the  backs  of  horses, 
mules,  or  ponies.  They  are  suitable  for  the 
transport  of  mountain  artillery,  with  its 
ammunition,  or  for  any  military  stores, 
which  in  mountainous  countries  can  only 
be  carried  by  beasts  of  burden.  The 
weight  of  the  pack  saddle  is  27  Ibs.,  and 
is  known  in  the  service  as  saddle  pack, 
general  service. 

In  pontooning,  a  saddle  forms  part  of 
the  superstructure  of  a  pontoon.  It 
consists  of  a  frame  of  timber  placed  cen- 
trally over  the  axis  of  the  pontoon,  and 
secured  to  it  by  lashings. 

Safe-conduct — In  war  time  and  under 
the  circumstances  of  an  enemy  being  shut 
up  in  a  fortress,  from  which  there  is  no 
egress,  a  safe-conduct  is  a  pass  or  per- 
mission granted  by  the  general  of  the 
besieging  force  to  any  individual  in 


authority  in  the  besieged  fortress  to  pro- 
ceed unmolested   to    the    enemy's  head- 
quarters, should  he  desire  to  hold  com- 
munication on  any  subject  of  importance. 
Safety  Valve — Is  described  as  "  that 
:  important  part  of  a  steam-engine  without 
•  which  it  could  not   exist.     It  consists  of 
a  small  cover   or  stopper,  sitting  loosely 
i  on  or  in  a  small  aperture  in  the  boiler, 
,  but  kept  down  by  a  certain  w«ight  made 
I  to  increase  its  effect  by  a  lever,  so  that  it 
|  may,  by  being    slid    along  it,  like   the 
weight    on   a    steelyard,  serve    without 
change  of  weights   to  vary  the  pressure 
which  the  steam  is  allowed  to  acquire. 
This  of  course  it   cannot  exceed  without 
lifting    the  valve    and    escaping,    until 
reduced  below  the  limit  thus  allowed  it. 
The  valve  is  simply  the  weakest  or  most 
yielding  part  of  the  boiler,  and  by  taking 
care  that  it  shall  always  be  the  weakest, 
the  danger  of  explosion  is  avoided.     The 
safety  valve  is  the  invention  of  a  French- 
man, Dr.  Papin." 

St.  Andrew  or  the  Thistle,  Order  of— 
A  Scottish  military  order  of  knighthood, 
instituted  by  James  VII.  of  Scotland  (II. 
of  England)  in  1687.  It  fell  in  abey- 
ance during  the  reign  of  William  and 
Mary,  but  was  revived  by  Queen  Anne, 
Dece'mber  31,  1703. 

The  star  consists  of  a  St.  Andrew's 
cross  of  silver,  in  the  centre  of  which 
is  a  thistle  of  gold  upon  a  field  of 
green,  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  green, 
bearing  the  motto  of  the  order  in  gold 
characters.  It  is  worn  on  the  left  side, 
and  the  ribbon  to  which  the  jewel  is 
attached  is  dark  green,  worn  over  the 
left  shoulder  and  tied  under  the  arm. 
By  a  statute  passed  in  May  1827,  the 
order  consists  of  the  sovereign  and  six- 
teen knights,  who  place  the  letters  K.T. 
after  their  names.  The  motto  of  the 
order  is  that  of  Scotland,  "  Nemo  me 
impune  lacessit." 

St.  Michael  and  St.  George,  Order  of—- 
An English  military  and  civil  order  of 
knighthood,  established  in  1818  by 
George  III.  It  is  generally  conferred  for 
services  in  the  colonies;  K.C.M.G.  are 
the  initials  indicating  the  knighthood. 

St.  Patrick,  Order  of — The  national 
order  of  knighthood  for  Ireland,  esta- 
blished by  George  III.  in  1783,  and 
enlarged  in  1833.  It  consists  of  the 


SAI 


360 


SAL 


sovereign,  a  grand-master,  and  twenty- 
two  knights. 

The  star  is  worn  on  the  left  side ;  it  is 
surrounded  by  rays  of  silver.  Within 
this  is  a  band  of  sky-blue  enamel  charged 
with  the  motto  of  the  order,  "Quis 
separabit.  JIDCCLXXXIII."  in  gold  let- 
ters. The  collar  is  of  gold,  and  composed 
of  roses  alternating  with  harps,  tied 
together  with  a  knot  of  gold  ;  the  badge 
or  jewel  is  of  gold,  and  similar  to  the 
cross,  with  this  difference,  that  it  is  oval 
and  surrounded  by  a  wreath  of  shamrocks. 
The  ribbon  is  sky  blue,  and  worn  over 
the  right  shoulder.  The  order  is  indi- 
cated by  the  initial  K.P. 

St.  Petersburg,  Convention  of  —  A 
convention  signed  in  December  !S>i8  in 
that  city,  by  all  the  European  powers 
except  Bavaria,  and  the  United  States  of 
America,  for  interdicting  the  use  of 
explosive  bullets  in  time  of  war. 

Saji  Muttee — An  Indian  term  for  car- 
bonate of  soda.  It  is  found  in  many 
parts  of  India  on  the  surface  of  the  soil 
as  a  carbonate  or  sulphate  of  soda,  in  the 
proportion  of  50  per  cent,  of  the  former 
to  10  or  15  of  the  latter.  By  washing, 
heating,  and  evaporation,  the  sulphate  is 
converted  into  a  sulphuret  of  sodium, 
which,  by  further  heating  and  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere,  is  changed  into  car- 
bonate of  soda.  In  its  crude  state  it  is 
commonly  used  in  India  in  clearing  off 
the  old  coat  of  paint  from  gun-carriages 
previous  to  applying  the  new  one,  and 
for  removing  grease,  &c. 

Salade— In  ancient  armour,  a  kind  of 
bascinet,  but  projecting  much  behind 
the  head,  and  having  a  movable  visor. 
It  was  introduced  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.  It  is  also  written  sallet. 

Sal-ammoniac — A  compound  of  ammo- 
nia and  hydrochloric  acid  (NH4CL),  and 
known  as  muriate  of  ammonia.  Since 
the  establishment  of  gasworks,  it  has 
been  chiefly  derived  from  the  liquor 
obtained  during  the  preparation  of  coal 
gas.  It  is  translucent  and  colourless, 
and  is  used  in  tinning  to  prevent  the 
oxidation  of  the  surface  of  the  copper. 

Saleetah — An  Indian  term  for  a  bag 
containing  a  soldier's  bedding,  &c.  on 
the  march.  Saleetahs  are  also  used  in 
packing  the  component  parts  of  tents. 
They  are  made  of  gunny  cloth. 


Salient  Angle,  vide  Angle,  Salient. 

Salient  Order  of  Battle — An  order  of 
battle,  the  front  of  the  army  being 
formed  on  a  salient  or  outward  angle. 
This  formation  is  seldom  resorted  to,  as 
it  presents  many  disadvantages.  Certain 
attacks  of  necessity  assume  the  salient 
form,  not  to  await  the  enemy,  but  for 
immediate  attack,  provision  being  made, 
by  reinforcing  the  head  of  the  attack, 
for  insuring  and  following  up  its  suc- 
cesses, and  by  feints  carried  on  elsewhere 
to  weaken  the  resistance.  On  the  de- 
fensive, the  salient  order  can  be  resorted 
to,  without  entailing  a  defeat,  if  the 
wings  can  be  strongly  protected  by  ob- 
stacles, aud  the  open  of  the-  triangle 
placed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  deprive 
the  cross-fire  of  the  enemy's  artillery  of 
its  full  effect. 

Masses  of  cavalry  may  operate,  how- 
ever, with  great  effect  from  the  apex  of 
a  salient  order. 

Sally-port — A  passage,  in  old  fortifi- 
cations, from  the  body  of  the  place 
towards  the  country  through  which 
"  sallies "  were  made,  which  obtained 
for  them  the  name  of  sally-ports.  The 
postern  is  sometimes  called  a  sally- 
port. 

Saltpetre — Chemically  called  nitrate 
of  potassa  (KO.NO5).  This  salt  occurs 
in  nature  as  an  incrustation  upon  the 
surface  of  the  earth  in  hot  climates,  such 
as  in  India,  Arabia,  and  South  America. 
In  Bengal  it  is  found  in  great  abundance, 
especially  in  the  districts  of  Tirhoot, 
Behar,  and  Agra.  Wherever  saltpetre 
exists,  the  ground  is  found  impregnated 
with  saline  matter  and  perfectly  barren. 
During  the  periodical  rains,  these  districts 
are  overflowed,  the  various  salts  are 
dissolved  and  brought  into  contact,  when 
new  combinations  follow,  and  fresh  salts 
result,  as  the  water  evaporates  or  per- 
colates the^  soil.  These  are  found  and 
collected,  and  after  repeated  washings, 
evaporations,  &c.  the  nitre  passes  into 
the  market,  where  it  undergoes  crystal- 
lisation, and  is  in  this  state  exported  to 
Europe.  The  crude  mass  is  called  in 
Hindustani  dhoah,  and  when  transformed 
into  crystals  and  well  washed,  calmee, 
and  valued  at  94  per  cent,  of  pure  nitre, 
which,  however,  is  very  much  over- 
estimated. Saltpetre,  before  it  is  made 


SAL 


361 


SAL 


u.se  of  as  an  ingredient  for  gunpowder, 
has  to  be  thoroughly  refined,  so  as  to  free  | 
it  from  all  its  impurities,  which  consist  i 
of  extraneous  salts,  such  as  muriates,  sul- 
phates, &c.,  and  this  process  is  performed 
by  boiling  the  crude  saltpetre  in  large 
copper  pans,  for  six  or  eight  hours,  re- 
moving, on  its  becoming  heated,  all  the 
scum  that  floats  on  the  surface.  It  is 
then  pumped  off  and  received  into  fil- 
tering bags,  and  the  liquid,  after  passing 
through  these  bags,  is  conveyed  by  a 
copper  pipe  or  channel  into  the  refining 
room,  where  large  cisterns,  lined  with 
copper,  are  ready  to  receive  it.  Imme- 
diately on  the  liquid  falling  into  the 
cisterns,  it  is  agitated  with  wooden 
rakes,  until  fine  crystals  of  saltpetre 
form,  which  are  raked  up  and  placed  on 
a  sloping  frame,  where  they  remain  till 
sufficiently  drained  ;  after  this  the  salt- 
petre is  thrown  into  a  washing  cistern, 
which  has  a  false  bottom,  and  thoroughly 
saturated  with  filtered  water,  and  subse- 
quently with  distilled  water — in  the 
former  case  for  a  couple  of  hours,  in  the 
latter  for  four-and-twenty — when  it  is 
drawn  off,  and  the  saltpetre  thrown  into 
a  drying  bin,  which  has  also  a  false 
bottom.  It  is  afterwards  dried  either  by 
solar  or  artificial  means,  and  packed 
away  in  barrels.  The  proportion  of 
grouqli  saltpetre  (the  usual  name  given 
to  coarse  and  unrefined  saltpetre)  to 
water  is  about  \\  Ib.  of  the  former  to 
1  Ib.  of  the  latter.  A  charge  of  salt- 
petre is  about  40  cwt.,  mixed  with  270 
gallons  of  water. 

The  following  method  of  extracting  salt- 
petre from  damaged  gunpowder  may  be 
found  useful  to  officers  in  the  ordnance  de- 
partment, who  have  not,  in  all  probability, 
in  arsenals  in  India,  the  appliances  of  a 
gunpowder  factory  for  carrying  out  the 
operation  with  the  nicety  required  : — 

"  A  half-hogshead  barrel  must  be  pre- 
pared to  stand  over  a  common  copper 
cooling  pan ;  holes  must  be  drilled  in  the 
bottom,  and  a  stratum  of  fine  sand,  one 
foot  deep,  filled  in ;  over  this  is  to  be 
placed  a  false  bottom,  also  pierced  with 
holes.  Four  times  the  weight  of  powder 
of  pure  well-water  must  now  be  added 
to  the  damaged  powder,  and  well  worked 
together  in  a  separate  half-hogshead. 
This  mixture  must  be  transferred  to  the 


filter  by  degrees,  whence  it  will  soon 
run  in  a  clear  stream.  The  water  must 
then  be  emptied  into  a  magazine  boiler, 
and  over  a  fire,  in  a  safe  corner,  be  thick- 
ened down  by  evaporation  to  one-half  its 
quantity,  when  it  will  be  found  that 
crystals  of  pure  saltpetre  will  form  on  any 
bit  of  common  earthenware  on  which  it 
is  dropped.  This  being  the  case,  the 
liquor  may  be  poured  into  a  second 
cooling  pan,  and  allowed  to  remain 
twenty-four  hours,  when  a  fine  crop  of 
clean  crystals  will  be  obtained.  The 
drawn-off  water  may  be  again  reduced 
over  the  fire,  and  again  placed  to  cool, 
and  the  operation  continued  until  no 
water  remains.  Should  the  crystals  be 
discoloured,  they  may  be  re-boiled  with 
a  very  small  quantity  of  clear  spring 
water. 

"  By  this  operation  over  50  Ibs.  of  pure 
saltpetre  may  be  recovered  at  the  ex- 
pense of  a  little  firewood,  from  every 
100  Ibs.  of  damaged  powder ;  and  each 
magazine  can  thus  supply  itself  with  this 
necessary  article." 

Salute — A  mark  of  respect  performed 
in  different  ways  according  to  circum- 
stances. 

An  artillery  salute  consists  of  firing  a 
certain  number  of  guns,  having  reference 
to  the  rank  of  the  person  to  be  saluted, 
or  the  occasion  on  which  the  salute  is  fired. 

All  roi/al  salutes  consist  of  twenty-one 
guns,  and  are  fired  at  home  and  abroad 
on  days  appointed  for  the  celebration  of 
anniversaries,  such  as  the  birth,  the  ac- 
cession, the  coronation  of  the  reigning 
sovereign,  and  all  other  royal  occasions. 

The  following  are  the  number  of  guns 
fired  as  salutes  in  compliment  to  autho- 
rities,   civil    and    military,   British   and 
foreign : — 
Lord  -  lieutenant    of    Ireland 

within  his  vice-royalty  ..  21  guns. 
Viceroy  of  India  ..  ..  21  „ 

Diplomatic  Authorities. 

Ambassadors  extraordinary 

and  plenipotentiary  ..  19  guns. 

Envoys  extraordinary  and 
ministers  plenipotentiary, 
and  envoys,  ministers,  and 
others  accredited  to  sove- 
reigns, with  the  exception 
of  such  ministers  as  are 


SAL 


362 


SAN 


accredited  in  the  specific 
character  of  "  minister 
resident "  ..  ..15  guns. 

Ministers  resident,  diplo- 
matic authorities  below 
the  rank  of  envoy  extra- 
ordinary and  minister  ple- 
nipotentiary, and  above 
that  of  charg^  d'affaires  ..  13  „ 

Charges  d'affaires,  or  sub- 
ordinate diplomatic  agents 
left  in  charge  of  missions  11  „ 

Consuls -general        ..  ..          9     „ 

Consuls  7     , 


ers  of  the  Army  and  Navy. 

The  lord  high  admiral,  or 
the  lords  commissioners 
for  executing  the  office  of 
lord  high  admiral,  or  the 
commander-in-chief,  or 
the  officer  commanding-in- 
chief,  the  army  of  the 
United  Kingdom  ..  . .  IS  guns. 

The  first  lord  commissioner 

of  the  Admiralty  ..  ..  15  „ 

Field-marshals  or  admirals 

of  the  fleet  ..  ..  17  „ 

Commander-in-chief  in  India       17     „ 

Admirals  or  generals  ..       15     „ 

Lieutenant-generals  or  vice- 
admirals  ..  ..  ..  13  „ 

Rear-admirals  or  major-gene- 
rals   11  „ 

Brigadier-generals  or  com- 
modores ..  ..  ..  9  „ 

Return  salutes  to  captains 
of  the  navy  and  officers 
of  inferior  rank  ..  ..  7  „ 

In  India  the  following  officers  (civil 
and  military)  are  entitled  to  be  saluted : — 

Members  of  the  council  of 

India  while  in  office  ..  15  guns. 

Provincial  commanders-in- 

chief  13  „ 

Agents  to  the  governors-ge- 
neral ..  ..  ..  13  „ 

Residents    at    native    courts       13     „ 

Chief  commissioners  of  pro- 
vinces ..  ..  ..  13  „ 

Political  agents        ..  ..       11     „ 

Feux  de  joie  (q.  v.)  are  also  fired  as 
salutes  on  certain  occasions. 

It  is  laid  down  that  no  artillery  salute 
shall  be  fired  before  8  A.M.,  nor  after 


sunset,  nor  during  the  usual  hours  for 
divine  service  on  Sundays.  In  firing 
salutes  10  seconds  is  to  be  allowed 
between  each  round.  Should  the  number 
of  guns  available  be  so  few  as  to  render 
such  quick  firing  unsafe,  the  officer  in 
command  may  use  his  discretion  as  to  the 
time  to  be  observed  in  firing  the  salute.  . 

A  general  salute  is  given  by  a  body  of 
troops  drawn  up  on  parade  to  a  general 
officer.  The  mode  of  performing  this 
salute  is  by  the  whole  regiment  or  body 
of  troops  presenting  arms,  the  officers 
lowering  their  swords,  the  colours  being 
unfurled,  the  drums  beating,  and  the  band 
playing.  Should  the  officer  saluted  be  the 
sovereign  or  a  member  of  the  royal 
family,  the  bands  play  the  national 
anthem,  and  the  colours  are  lowered. 

A  salute  is  made  by  an  inferior  meet- 
ing or  passing  his  superior,  when  in 
uniform  and  even  out  of  uniform,  by 
raising  his  hand  to  his  cap  or  chaco. 
The  following  instructions  on  the  subject 
have  lately  been  approved  by  the  marshal 
commanding  in  chief: — 

"  With  a  view  of  establishing  one  uni- 
form system  of  saluting  throughout  the 
army,  the  Duke  of  Cambridge  has  ap- 
proved the  following  rules  being  observed 
in  future,  and  noted  in  the  Field  Exercise 
of  1874:—!.  When  a  soldier  at  the  halt 
salutes  an  officer  at  the  halt,  he  will 
make  a  pause  of  slow  time  between  the 
first  and  second  motions  of  the  salute.  2. 
When  a  soldier  passes  an  officer,  he  will 
salute  on  the  fourth  pace  before  reaching 
him,  and  will  lower  the  hand  on  the 
fourth  pace  after  passing  him.  3.  When  an 
officer  passes  a  soldier  who  is  at  the  halt, 
the  soldier  will  salute  when  the  officer  is 
four  paces  from  him,  and  will  lower  the 
hand  after  a  pause  of  six  paces  in  quick 
time." 

Salvo — Any  number  of  guns  fired  to- 
gether at  the  same  moment ;  simultane- 
ous discharge  of  artillery.  This  mode 
of  firing  is  very  effective  in  breaching ; 
the  concussion  of  a  number  of  shot  pro- 
ducing considerable  destruction  either 
on  masonry  or  earthworks.  Moreover, 
such  mode  of  firing  affects  the  spirits  of 
the  besieged. 

Sand  —  Very  fine  silicious  matter. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  sand.  viz.  pit 
sand,  river  sand,  and  tea  sand.  Sand  for 


SAN 


363 


SAP 


moulding   purposes,   such   as   is  used   in 
casting,  is  properly  a  yellow  pit-earth. 

Sandarac — A  resin,  softer  and  less 
brilliant  than  shell-lac,  but  much  lighter 
in  colour;  it  is  used  for  making  a  pale 
varnish  for  light-coloured  woods,  and 
other  works  for  which  the  dark  colour 
of  shell-lac  would  be  unsuitable.  This 
resin  is  generally  dissolved  in  spirits 
of  wine,  and  with  lac  varnish  consti- 
tutes the  basis  of  what  are  called  spirit 
varnishes. 

Sandbag  Eevetments,  vide  Revet- 
ments. 

Sandbags,  vide  Bags,  Sand. 

Sandcrack — A  complaint  common  to 
horses,  caused  sometimes  in  a  dry  country 
by  treading  for  any  length  of  time  upon 
ground  from  which  all  moisture  is  absent, 
which,  by  rendering  the  horn  hard  and 
dry,  causes  the  hoof  to  be  brittle  and 
gives  rise  to  sandcrack.  In  India  it  is  I 
not  at  all  an  uncommon  complaint,  i 
Linseed  meal  poultices,  and  covering 
the  sole  with  cow-dung,  are  not  bad 
remedies. 

Sandhurst,  Royal  Military  College— 
A  college  for  cadets  for  the  infantry  and 
cavalry,  situated  in  the  county  of  Hamp- 
shire, on  the  borders  of  Surrey,  and  about 
30  miles  distant  from  London.  The 
"  cadets'  college  "  was  originally  situated 
at  Great  Marlow,  but  was  removed  to 
the  present  building  in  the  year  1812. 

On    the  abolition  of  purchase   in  the 
army,  the  system  that  hitherto  prevailed,  i 
of  sending   candidates   direct    to    Sand- 
hurst, to  study  as  cadets  for  their  com-  i 
missions,    was    abolished.      Since     then  j 
every   young    man  desirous  of  entering 
into  the  infantry  or  cavalry  branches  of 
the  service  has  to  pass  before   the  Civil 
Service  Commissioners  a  successful  com- 
petitive   examination ;    he    is  then  sent 
to  the  Royal  Military  College,  where  he 
enters   as  an  officer  with   the  rank  of  a  | 
sub-lieutenant  on  the  half-pay   list,  and  j 
is  gazetted,  if  qualified,    to  a  regiment 
on  completion  of  a  course  of  studies  in 
all    subjects  relating  to  military  know- 
ledge.   This  course  lasts  one  year.    (  Vide 
Cadet.) 

The  establishment  is  placed  under  a 
military  governor  with  an  assistant.  The 
military  branch  consists  of  a  chaplain,  a 
paymaster,  a  quartermaster,  a  control 


officer,  two  surgeons,  and  a  riding-master. 
There  are  three  professors  attached  to 
the  educational  branch,  besides  twenty 
instructors,  in  fortification,  military  sur- 
veying, drill,  &c.  (  Vide  Appendix  A.) 

Sand-shot — In  artillery,  balls  of  iron 
cast  in  sand  (whence  their  name),  instead 
of  in  iron  moulds ;  this  nature  of  shot 
varies  in  weight  from  4  Ibs.  to  1J  oz. 
They  are  used  in  making  up  case  and 
grape  shot,  and  also  Shrapnel  for  rifled 
guns. 

Sap — A  trench  formed  by  sappers,  in 
making  approaches  under  the  fire  of  the 
besieged,  the  working  party  protecting 
themselves  by  filling  gabions  and  placing 
them  as  fast  as  possible  along  the  in- 
tended line  of  parapet.  When  the  fire  of 
the  enemy  is  slack,  so  that  many  gabions 
may  be  placed  and  filled  at  the  same  time, 
it  is  called  a  flying  sap. 

An  ordinary  sap  is  constructed  by  men 
of  the  royal  engineers  ;  a  flying  sap  by  in- 
fantry men.  As  explained  in  the '  R.  M.  A. 
Instruction  Book  on  Fortification,'  &c. : — 

"  There  are  three  kinds  of  sap  (properly 
so  called),  single,  double,  and  half-dotible. 

"  Single  sap  is  employed  for  construct- 
ing trenches,  the  reverse  sides  of  which 
are  not  exposed.  There  are  two  methods 
of  executing  it,  kneeling  and  standing  sap. 

"  Double  sap  is  used  for  constructing 
trenches  when  100  yards  of  zigzag  do 
not  carry  the  approaches  32  yards  to  the 
front,  or  when  the  reverse  sides  are  ex- 
posed to  musketry  fire.  It  has  a  parapet 
on  each  side,  and  is  crossed  by  traverses 
at  frequent  intervals  to  defilade  it  from 
the  work  on  which  it  is  advancing.  It 
may  be  executed  either  by  standing  or 
kneeling  sap. 

"  Half-double  sap. — This  sap  can  be 
used  instead  of  a  double  sap  when  the 
reverse  side  is  exposed  only  to  an  oblique 
fire,  as  in  forming  the  lodgments  along  the 
crest  of  the  glacis  of  a  ravelin.  The 
trench  formed  by  this  sap  is  protected 
from  both  enfilade  and  reverse  fire." 

Sappers  and  Miners — A  body  of  men 
now  known  in  the  British  army  as  the 
royal  engineers ;  but  the  rank  and  file 
still  colloquially  retain  the  name  of  sap- 
pers. (Vide  Engineers.) 

Sapping — A  mode  of  making  trenches 
by  continually  advancing  the  head  of  the 
trench  when  the  execution  of  common 


SAP 


364 


SAW 


trench    work    or    flying    sap  would    ex- 
pose the    workmen    to   a   close     fire  of , 
musketry  before  they  could  obtain  cover.  ! 

Sap-roller — A  hollow  cylinder  formed 
of  two  concentric  gabions,  the  interval 
between  being  stuffed  with  strong  fascines 
and  with  rods  1£  to  2  inches  in  diameter. 
Sap-rollers  are  used  to  cover  the  heads 
of  saps,  and  are  usually  made  7  feet 
long,  the  diameter  of  the  outer  cylinder 
being  4  feet,  and  of  the  inner  one  2  feet 
6  inches.  A  finished  7-foot  sap-roller 
weighs,  when  new,  14  cwt. 

Sap-shield — A  steel  plate  mounted  on 
wheels  for  the  purpose  of  giving  cover  to 
the  sapper  in  a  single  sap,  should  the 
earth  thrown  up  by  him  not  be  of  suf- 
ficient thickness  to  give  him  shelter. 
The  shield  used  in  the  service  is  that  in- 
vented by  Sergeant-Major  Knight,  R.E. 

Sardinian  Huts — Wooden  huts  made 
by  many  English  officers  in  the  Crimea 
and  by  the  Sardinians  for  their  men. 
They  were  14  feet  3  inches  long  and  7 
feet  1  inch  wide  in  the  clear ;  they  could 
contain  6  infantry  soldiers,  and  were 
found  very  comfortable. 

Sash — Part  of  the  dress  of  an  officer  j 
and  non-commissioned  officer.  It  is  worn 
across  the  shoulder  by  officers  and  ser- 
geants of  the  infantry ;  it  is  made  of 
crimson  silk  for  the  former,  and  of  a 
mixture  of  crimson  and  white  cotton  for 
the  latter. 

Sashes  were  formerly  worn  round  the 
waist,  and  were  originally  invented  for 
the  convenience  and  ease  of  wounded 
officers,  as  they  might  by  such  means  be 
carried  off  the  field  with  the  assistance  of 
two  men. 

In  full  dress  the  silk  sash  is  replaced  by  a 
narrow  one  made  of  gold  and  crimson  silk, 
Satringee,  vide  Dhurree. 
Saturation — In  chemistry,  the  solution 
of  one  body  in  another  until  the  receiving 
body  can  contain  no  more.  A  solution  is 
said  to  be  saturated  with  an  acid  or  an 
alkali  when  the  latter  is  added  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  render  it  neutral,  and  super- 
saturated when  the  point  of  neutrality 
has  been  exceeded. 

Saucisson  (French  =  sausage) — A  long 
tube  of  linen,  filled  with  gunpowder  and 
laid  in  a  wooden  case  or  bamboo  (in  India) 
to  protect  it  from  being  trodden  upon  or 
misplaced.  It  is  used  for  exploding  fou- 


gasses  or  mines.    This  name  is  also  given 
to  an  extra  large  fascine. 

Saul  (Vaticu  robust  <)  —  A  tree  well- 
known  in  India,  especially  in  the  North- 
West  Provinces.  It  is  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  parts  of  gun  carriages.  The 
wood  is  strong,  tough,  coarse-grained,  and 
fibrous,  not  easily  worked,  and  when 
dressed  has  a  hard  horny  surface,  and  the 
fibres  appear  to  be  interlaced  with  each 
other.  A  cubic  foot  of  unseasoned  wood 
weighs  from  68  to  72  Ibs.  This  tree 
grows  also  in  Assam  and  Burmah. 

Savings-banks  —  Government  insti- 
tutions established  by  act  of  parliament 
with  a  view  to  encourage  habits  of 
economy.  They  have  been  introduced 
into  the  army.  By  means  of  such  banks 
the  soldier  can  profitably  deposit  his 
money  under  government  security  to  the 
extent  annually  of  £30,  the  whole  deposit 
being  confined  to  £200,  inclusive  of  in- 
terest. Interest  at  the  rate  of  £3  15s.  per 
cent,  per  annum  is  paid ;  no  interest  is 
allowed  on  other  parts  of  a  pound  than 
6s.  8d.  and  13s.  4d.,  nor  on  sums  that 
have  not  remained  in  deposit  one  month. 
Saw — A  tool  used  in  working  timber. 
It  usually  consists  of  a  long  strip  of  thin 
steel  with  one  edge  cut  into  a  continuous 
series  of  sharp  teeth.  This  nature  of  tool 
admits  of  great  variation  adapted  to 
different  purposes.  The  principal  saws 
are  described  as  follows  : — 

"  Bow  saw,  or  frame  saw,  also  called 
the  turning  saw  or  sweep  saw. — Used  for 
the  general  purposes  of  carpentry.  In 
using  the  bow  saw,  the  work  is  mostly 
fixed  vertically,  and  therefore  the  blade 
i  is  used  horizontally ;  but  the  frame  is 
placed  at  all  angles,  to  avoid  the  margin  of 
the  work,  and  it  is  frequently  necessary 
to  twist  the  handles  or  pins  during  the 
cut  to  modify  the  position  of  the  frame." 

"  Circular  saw. — A  saw  which  has  come 
into  universal  use  within  the  present  cen- 
tury, wherever  machinery  can  be  had  for 
working  it.  It  is  generally  so  fitted  as  to 
be  worked  under  a  flat  bench,  a  part  only 
of  the  blade  projecting  through  a  narrow 
slit  cut  in  the  top  of  the  bench.  It  is 
made  to  revolve  with  great  rapidity, 
which  depends  on  the  power  which 
moves  it,  and  the  wood  resting  on  the 
bench  is  pushed  against  the  saw  in  the 
direction  it  is  intended  to  be  cut." 


SAW 


365 


SCA 


"  Compass  saw. — Resembles  the  hand 
saw  in  ics  general  structure  and  in  the 
form  of  its  teeth,  to  allow  them  to  be  as 
a  tangent  to  the  curve." 

"  Endless  sait-band. — An  instrument  for 
a  swing  material  of  an  irregular  form. 
There  are  two  kinds,  one  for  cutting 
wood  and  another  for  cutting  iron.  By 
the  latter,  iron  1  inch  thick  can  be  cut 
into  any  curved  form  at  the  rate  of  1^ 
inch  per  minute.  This  saw  is  extensively 
used  for  cutting  the  brackets,  transoms, 
and  all  irregular  forms  required  in  the 
manufacture  of  wrought-iron  carriages." 

'•  Hand  saw. — This  nature  of  saw  is  used 
for  ordinary  purposes,  such  as  preparing 
woods  for  the  work  required  after  they 
have  been  cut  at  the  saw-pit  into  planks 
and  boards.  The  hand  saw  is  made  taper 
in  order  that  the  blade  may  possess  a 
nearly  equal  degree  of  stiffness  through- 
out the  greater  width  ;  it  also  facilitates 
the  attachment  of  the  handle.  Were  the 
blade  as  wide  at  the  point  as  at  the 
handle  or  heel,  it  would  add  useless 
weight  to  the  saw,  which,  from  the  weight 
at  the  far  end,  would  be  more  flexible  at 
the  handle  than  at  the  point." 

"  Tenon  saw. — A  smaller  nature  of  saw 
than  the  hand-saw.  It  tapers,  and  has  a 
back  to  it  of  stout  sheet  iron  or  truss 
folded  together.  It  is  used  for  fine  and 
accurate  work  and  for  such  work  as  its 
name  denotes.  It  has  about  8  teeth  to 
the  inch." 

Saw-setter — An  instrument  for  bend- 
ing the  teeth  of  the  saw.  It  consists  of 


according  to  their  rank  and  position. 
(  Vide  Appendix  F.) 

Scale  (Italian,  scala,  a  ladder)  —  In 
mensuration,  a  line  or  rule  of  a  definite 
length  divided  into  a  given  number  of 
equal  parts,  and  used  for  the  purpose  of 
measuring  other  linear  magnitudes.  In 
map  or  plan  drawing,  the  scale  expresses 
the  relation  which  the  dimensions  of 
the  map  bear  to  the  natural  features  of 
the  ground ;  this  relation  is  frequently 
expressed  by  a  representative  fraction. 
For  example,  the  representative  fraction 
of  a  map  on  a  scale  of  1  inch  to  a  mile 
is  gj^j,  that  is,  1  inch  on  the  map  is 
equal  to  63,360  inches  (1  mile)  on  the 
ground ;  in  other  words,  the  map  repre- 
sents all  features  on  the  ground  63,360 
times  smaller  than  their  natural  size. 

The  following  is  the  rule  given  for 
finding  the  fraction  of  a  given  scale. 

Reduce  the  number  of  yards  in  a  mile 
into  inches  ;  divide  the  number  found  by 
the  number  of  inches  on  which  the  scale 
is  made,  and  the  dividend  will  be  the 
number  of  inches  represented  by  one 
mile. 

Ex. — To  find  the  representative  frac- 
tion of  a  scale  six  inches  to  a  mile. 

6  inches  =  1  mile  or  1760  yards  or 
63360  inches. 

.     63360 

v  — - —  =  10560. 
o 

Therefore  1  inch  =  10560   or  ^m. 
Rule  for  finding  the  number  of  inches 


a  narrow  blade  of  steel  with  notches  of  |  to  a  mile  when  t°he  representative  frac- 
various    widths    for   different    saws,     in    tjon  js  given 

using  the  saw-setter,  the  saw  is  allowed  j      Divjde  th;  fraetion  bv  the  number  of 
to    remain    in  the  clamps   after  having    mches   -n  a  yard .  the  di"vidend  will  give 


been  filed,  and  the    alternate  teeth  are 


the  number  of  yards  represented  by  an 


inserted  a  little  way  in  that  notch  which  j  inch_     TheQ  diyide  the  number  of  yards 
fits  the  blade  most  exactly,  and  they  are    in  ft  mile  by  the  number  of  yards  repre. 


bent  over  by  applying  a  small  force  to 
the  handle,  which  is  either  raised  up  or 
depressed  equally  for  each  tooth. 

Scabbard — -The  sheath  of  a  sword  or 
bayonet ;  it  is  made  either  of  metal 
or  of  leather,  in  the  latter  case  tipped 
and  surmounted  with  metal.  In  the 
infantry,  the  scabbards  of  general  and 
field  officers  are  made  of  brass.  In  the 
cavalry  and  artillery,  officers  of  all 
ranks,  as  well  as  men,  wear  steel  scab- 
bards ;  staff  officers,  either  brass  or  steel, 


sented  by   1   inch,    and    the  result  will 
give  the  number  of  inches  to  a  mile. 

Ex. — Find  the  number  of  inches  to  1 
mile  in  a  scale,  the  representative  frac- 
tion being  ^W 


1540 
~36~ 
1760 


=  440. 


=  4, 


440 
or  4  inches  to  1  mile. 


SCA 


366 


SCA 


All    countries    have    adopted    special 
scales  for  their  various  classes  of  maps  and 


plans  ;  the    following  are  those  in  use  in 
the  English  ordnance  survev  : — 


Natural  Scale. 


Inches  to  1  Mile. 


REMARKS. 


300 

126-720 

Plans  of  towns. 

3J8 

120 

Ditto. 

T050 

63-36 

Ditto. 

TOSS 

60 

Ditto. 

T7SO 

36 

Special  maps. 

2576 

26-6 

Ditto. 

5305 

25-344 

Parish  plans.     Cadastral  survev. 

36*45 

24 

Special  maps. 

55^0 

12 

Ditto. 

TOW 

6 

County  maps.     Reconnaissances. 

T5675 

5 

Indexes. 

13830 

4 

Special  maps. 

21T20 

3 

Indexes.     Reconnaissances  of  roads. 

3TS85 

2 

Special  maps. 

63360 

1 

General  map  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

i55«S 

0-25 

Special  maps  (4  miles  to  an  inch). 

3TS350 

0-2 

Ditto       (5  miles  to  an  inch). 

633S55 

o-i 

Index  map  (10  miles  to  an  inch). 

W55500 

0-03 

Special  maps  (30  miles  to  an  inch). 

The  best  scales  for  field  surveys  are 
2,  4,  and  8  inches  to  a  mile;  for  an 
index  plan,  2  and  3  inches  to  a  mile. 

Continental  nations  indicate  the  scale 
upon  which  a  map  is  drawn,  by  the  frac- 


tion that  any  linear  distance  measured 
thereon  is  of  the  actual  distance  on  the 
ground. 

The  principal  scales  used  for  military 
maps  in  Europe  are  as  follows  : — 


Austria 
Belgium 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 


Holland 
Italy . . 


m55  =  4'4  inches  to  the  mile. 

1         O.O 

58555  —  ^  ^              j,  „ 

86155  =  °'733    mch  „ 

••     50555  =  3'168   inches  „ 
30550  =  1-58*   inch 


issW  =  0-396      „ 

•  •       85555  and  TO055- 

350505  =  » 

55555  =  2-534  inches 
aJL,  =  1-268   inch 


T55505  = 


55550  ana  55500- 
•  •        S5150  and  55555  and  53W50- 


SCA 


367 


SCA 


Russia 
Spain 

Sweden  and  Norway 
Switzerland 


=  O754   iiich  to  the  mile. 

=  °'508        » 

B05B5  =   1'05(i         »  » 

1 
100000- 

50TO5  and  TTOJBB  and  20iW 
55W55  and  3OTSB- 


By  dividing  63,300  (number  of  inches 
in  a  mile)  by  the  denominator  of  the 
traction  of  the  scale,  the  number  of 
inches  it  is  to  the  English  mile  will 
be  found.  Thus  — 


or  the  scale  of  ^^  is  equal  to 

O733  inch  to  the  mile. 
A  scale  of  shade,  the  invention  of  Colonel 
Scott,  R.E.,  has  been  introduced  into  the 
service,  and  is  used  as  a  guide  in  deter- 
mining the  thickness  and  distance  apart 
of  each  hachure  for  different  angles  and 
slopes.  This  scale  is  engraved  for  con- 
venience on  the  back  of  a  protractor,  and 
is  graduated  for  35°.  25°,  15°,  10°,  7°, 
5°,  3°,  and  2°. 

The  term  scale  is  also  applied  to  a 
mathematical  instrument  consisting  of  an 
assemblage  of  lines  engraved  on  a  rule 
of  wood  or  ivory,  by  means  of  which 
certain  proportional  dimensions  or  pro- 
portions are  obtained  by  means  of  com- 
passes. The  principal  are  the  plain  scale, 
the  diagonal  scale,  and  Gunter's  scale. 

The  diagonal  scale  is  a  mathematical 
instrument  which  is  used  when  minute 
parts  of  a  measurement  are  required, 
such  as  the  tenth  or  hundredth  part  of 
an  inch.  The  formation  of  this  scale  is 
thus  described  in  Heather,  on  '  Mathema- 
tical Instruments':  —  "Draw  eleven  pa- 
rallel equidistant  lines  ;  divide  the  upper 
of  these  lines  into  equal  parts  of  the 
intended  length  of  the  primary  divisions  ; 
and  through  each  of  these  divisions  draw 
perpendicular  lines,  cutting  all  the  eleven 
parallels,  and  number  them  1,  2,  3,  &c., 
commencing  from  the  second.  Subdivide 
the  first  of  these  primary  divisions  into 
ten  equal  parts,  both  upon  the  highest 
and  lowest  line  of  the  eleven  parallel 
lines,  and  let  these  subdivisions  be  reck- 
oned in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  pri- 
mary divisions,  as  in  the  simply  divided 
scales.  Draw  the  diagonal  lines  from  the 
tenth  subdivision  below  to  the  ninth 


above,  and  so  on,  until  a  line  from  the 
first  below  joins  the  zero  point  above. 
Then,  since  these  diagonal  lines  are  all 
parallel  and  equidistant,  the  distance 
between  any  two  of  them  in  succession, 
measured  upon  any  of  the  eleven  parallel 
lines  which  they  intersect,  is  the  same  as 
this  distance  measured  upon  the  highest 
or  lowest  of  these  lines,  that  is,  as  one  of 
the  subdivisions ;  but  the  distance  be- 
tween the  perpendicular,  which  passes 
through  the  zero  point,  and  the  diagonal 
through  the  same  point,  being  nothing 
on  the  highest  line,  and  equal  to  one  of 
the  subdivisions  on  the  lowest,  is  equal 
to  one-tenth  of  a  subdivision  on  the 
second  line,  two-tenths  on  the  third,  and 
so  on ;  so  that  this,  and  consequently 
each  of  the  other  diagonal  lines,  as  it 
reaches  each  successive  parallel,  separates 
further  from  the  perpendicular  through 
the  zero  point  by  one-tenth  of  a  sub- 
division, or  one-hundredth  of  a  primary 
division." 

Gunter's  scale  is  a  flat  brass  rule, 
usually  2  feet  in  length,  and  about  1£ 
inch  broad,  having  on  one  side  equal 
parts,  rhombs,  cords,  &c.,  as  on  the  other 
plane  scale,  and  on  the  other,  the  loga- 
rithms of  these  numbers  ;  hence  the 
lines  on  this  side  are  called  the  logarithmic 
lines. 

The    term    scale   is    also    given   to    a 

graduated  steel  or  wooden   bar  attached 

|  to  guns,  and  known  as  the  tangent  scale. 

The  tangent  scale  attached  to  S.B.  ord- 

I  nance  is  a  rod  of  metal  or  wood,  made  to 

|  slide  perpendicularly  in  a  groove  at  the 

'•  breech,  having  engraved  upon  it  the  actual 

j  lengths  of  the  tangents  to  the  different 

j  angles  of  elevation. 

The  object  of  the  tangent  scale  is  to 
I  give    elevation  to    a    piece    of  ordnance 
beyond  what  the  line  of  metal  affords. 

In  rifled  guns  the  tangent  scales,  of 
which  there  are  two  attache!  to  each 
gun,  do  not  rise  in  a  vertical  plane,  as 
in  smooth-bore  ordnance,  but  are  set  at 


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an  angle  to  the  left  from  the  vertical,  to 
compensate  for  the  lateral  deviation 
caused  by  the  right-handed  rifling.  They 
each  consist  of  a  rectangular  steel 
bar,  on  which  is  engraved  all  infor- 
mation for  the  successful  discharge  and 
laying  of  the  gun,  such  as  the  range, 
length  of  fuze,  nature  of  charge,  &<.:. 
On  the  top  of  the  scale  a  tangent  sight  is 
attached,  which  has  a  cross-head  with 
sliding  leaf  and  clamping  screw,  by 
means  of  which  the  deflection  caused  by 
the  wind  blowing  across  the  range,  or  one 
wheel  being  higher  than  another,  can  be 
rnet.  This  is  known  as  the  deflection, 
scale.  This  scale  is  graduated  to  30'  on 
each  side  of  the  cross  head,  each  30' 
being  divided  into  three  spaces  of  10' 
each.  By  the  aid  of  this  scale,  as  shown 
above,  compensation  can  be  made  to  the 
right  or  left  for  the  deflection  of  the 
shot  by  wind  or  inequality  of  the  ground 
on  which  the  carriage  may  be  standing. 

This  scale  must  not  be  mistaken  for 
the  scale  for  pennanent  deflection  caused 
by  the  rifling  of  the  gun.  This  deflection 
is  met  by  the  position  of  the  tangent 
scale  or  sight.  (  Vide  Sights.) 

Scale,  Beam,  vide  Beam  Scale. 

Scale,  To — To  climb.    (  Vide  Escalade.) 

Scales — Ancient  armour  made  of  thin 
brass,  laid  like  fish  scales  one  over  the 
other,  for  the  protection  of  any  part  of 
the  body,  chiefly  for  the  shoulders  and 
the  head.  It  is  still  used  in  the  East 
and  by  Circassian  soldiers. 

Scales,  Marquoise,  vide  Marquoise 
Scales. 

Scalet — An  ancient  name  given  to  a 
lifting-jack.  It  was  chiefly  used  in  ex- 
tricating wheels  from  deep  ruts  and  soft 
ground. 

Scaling — -In  artillery,  firing  a  small 
charge  of  powder  from  M.L.  ordnance, 
before  commencing  practice,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  clearing  the  piece  from  any  dirt  or 
deposit  which  may  be  lying  in  the  bore. 

Scaling  Ladders,  vide  Ladders. 

Scantling — The  transverse  dimensions 
of  a  piece  of  timber  in  breadth  and 
thickness.  It  is  also  the  name  given 
to  quartering  for  a  partition,  &c.  All 
quartering  under  5  inches  is  termed 
"  scantling." 

Scarfing — The  junction  of  two  pieces 
of  timber  by  being  bolted  or  nailed  trans- 


versely together,  so  that  the  two  appear  as 
one.    Scarfing  is  also  applied  in  ironwork. 

Scarp,  vide  Escarp. 

Schoolmaster,  Army — A  non-commis- 
sioned officer  of  the  first  class,  ranking 
next  to  a  sergeant-major.  His  duty  is 
to  teach  the  soldiers  and  their  children 
the  rudiments  of  general  knowledge,  to 
examine  the  girls'  schools,  and  to  deliver 
lectures  to  soldiers.  There  are  in  the 
British  army  5  first-class  schoolmasters, 
receiving  7s.  9d.  per  diem  ;  5  second-class, 
6s.  9d.  per  diem,  and  164  army  school- 
masters, whose  pay  varies  from  3s.  9d. 
to  6s.  9d.  a  day.  Schoolmasters  for  the 
army  are  trained  at  the  Duke  of  York's 
School,  Chelsea. 

By  the  139th  Article  of  War,  an  army 
scoolmaster  may  be  sentenced  to  dis- 
missal or  loss  of  service,  but  not  to 
reduction. 

Schoolmistress,  Army — A  person  at- 
tached to  each  regiment  or  corps  for  the 
purpose  of  instructing  the  daughters  of 
soldiers  and  their  sons  under  8  years 
of  age  in  the  rudiments  of  English  and 
in  plain  needlework.  There  are  three 
classes,  first,  second,  and  third  class 
schoolmistresses,  of  which  there  are  14 
of  the  first  class,  receiving  from  £44  to 
£50  per  annum  ;  48  of  the  second  class, 
at  £36  per  annum,  and  122  of  the  third 
class,  at  £30  per  annum. 

These  and  the  schoolmasters  are 
assisted  in  their  duties  by  acting  school- 
mistresses and  schoolmasters,  pupil 
teachers  and  monitresses. 

Schools,  Military — Establishments  for 
the  education  of  officers,  non-commis- 
sioned officers,  and  men  of  the  armv. 
These  schools  are  either  regimental  or 
special,  and  are  placed  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  director-general  of  military 
education,  assisted  by  military  inspectors 
of  schools.  (  Vide  Education,  Military.) 

Regiinenhd  schools  are  attached  to 
each  regiment,  battalion,  corps,  or  gar- 
rison, under  a  schoolmaster  (7.  o.),  for  the 
purpose  of  affording  to  non-commissioned 
officers,  soldiers,  and  their  children,  boys 
and  girls,  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  a 
sound  and  useful  education.  Every  en- 
couragement is  given  to  enable  them  to 
attend  these  schools,  and  commanding 
officers  can  require  married  soldiers  to 
send  their  children  to  these  institutions 


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oa  pain  of  forfeiting  certain  privileges. 
In  addition  to  the  schools  where  adults 
and  more  advanced  children  are  taught, 
an  infant  and  industrial  school,  under  a 
schoolmistress  (7.  v.),  is  established  in 
every  corps. 

Adult  soldiers  are  admitted  gra- 
tuitously ;  for  children  there  is  a  nominal 
charge  of  Id.  each  a  month.  Children 
of  soldiers  serving  abroad  and  orphans  of 
soldiers  are  received  without  payment ; 
those  of  pensioners,  &c.  at  3d.  a  month, 
and  the  children  of  officers  at  5s.  a 
month. 

There  are  also  in  some  of  the  large 
garrisons,  such  as  at  Aldershot,  officers' 
children's  schools,  under  a  board  of 
management,  composed  of  a  president 
and  two  members,  appointed  by  the 
general  commanding,  and  superintended 
by  a  lady  principal.  Officers  and  others 
employed  by  government  having  a 
relative  military  rank  can  send  their 
children  at  a  charge  of  from  15s.  to 
7s.  6d.  a  month,  according  to  the  age  of 
the  child  and  the  rank  of  the  father. 

Special  schools  are  establishments  for 
the  preparation  of  candidates  for  the 
army,  and  for  the  instruction  of  officers 
and  men  in  the  special  duties  of  the 
ditl'erent  branches  of  the  service.  The 
former  are  the  Royal  Academy  (</.  v.)  at 
Woolwich,  for  artillery  and  engineers ; 
the  College  of  Sandhurst  (q.  v.),  for 
infantry  and  cavalry  ;  and  the  Greenwich 
Royal  Naval  College  (<?.  e.),  for  officers  of 
the  marine  artillery  and  infantry.  The 
latter  comprise  the  following : — 

Schools  of  instruction. — Establishments 
for  the  education  of  officers  of  the 
regular  army  and  of  the  auxiliary  forces 
in  the  advanced  branches  of  their  pro- 
fession. To  give  officers  an  opportunity 
of  going  through  the  course  carried  on 
at  these  schools,  they  are  detached  in 
turn  from  their  regiments.  Schools  have 
been  established  in  all  the  large  gar- 
rison towns  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  specially  for  the  auxiliary  forces, 
at  Glasgow,  London,  Manchester,  and 
Dublin,  where  they  are  placed  under 
garrison  instructors.  In  India,  similar 
means  of  instruction  are  given  to  officers, 
and  for  this  purpose  garrison  instructors 
are  appointed  to  each  of  the  principal 
cantonments  or  districts. 


School  of  Gunnery.  • —  Established  at 
Shoeburyness  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
practical  instruction  to  officers  and  men 
of  the  artillery,  and  for  carrying  out  ex- 
periments connected  with  their  branch  of 
the  service.  This  school  consists  of  a  com- 
mandant and  a  brigade-major,  with  6 
instructors  in  gunnery  and  2  super- 
intendents of  experiments.  Officers,  non- 
commissioned officers,  as  well  as  squads 
of  men,  selected  from  brigades  of  artil- 
lery, are  sent  thither  from  Woolwich  for 
instruction  in  gunnery  and  the  use  of 
military  machines,  &c.  The  course  of 
instruction  at  this  establishment  is 
divided  into  a  long  and  short  course. 

The  long  course  is  an  annual  course  of 
instruction  for  officers  and  non-commis- 
sioned officers  of  the  royal  artillery, 
partly  carried  out  at  Woolwich,  and 
partly  at  Shoeburyness.  One  officer 
is  selected  from  every  brigade  at  home 
and  abroad,  and  2  or  3  non-commis- 
sioned officers  from  a  home  brigade;  they 
assemble  at  Woolwich  on  February  1, 
and  go  first  through  the  manufacturing  de- 
partments of  the  Woolwich  Arsenal  for 
2  months.  They  then  go  to  Shoeburyness, 
and  remain  there  9  months,  during  which 
time  they  complete  a  course  of  gunnery, 
signalling,  bridging,  £c.  At  the  end 
of  this  period,  they  have  to  be  examined, 
and  certificates  are  given  according  to 
their  qualifications.  Officers  obtaining  a 
first-class  certificate  are  eligible  for  the 
appointment  of  instructors,  and  non 
commissioned  officers  for  that  of  assistant 
instructors. 

The  short  course  is  a  similar  course,  but 
only  lasts  2,  3,  or  4  months,  and  is  formed 
as  circumstances  allow,  but  at  no  specified 
time.  It  is  usually  composed  of  2  or  3 
non-commissioned  officers  from  each  or 
several  home  brigades.  This  course  is 
usually  confined  to  gun  exercises  and  the 
uses  of  the  various  kinds  of  ammunition. 

School  of  Military  Engineering. — Formed 
at  Chatham  for  the  special  training 
of  officers  of  the  royal  engineers,  after 
they  have  passed  through  the  academy 
at  Woolwich,  also  for  the  men  and 
recruits  of  the  corps.  This  school  conshts 
of  a  commandant,  a  brigade-major,  2 
discipline  officer,  and  11  officer  in- 
structors in  construction,  surveying, 
field  fortification,  telegraphy,  &c. 
2  a 


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Officers  of  the  cavalry  and  infantry 
are  permitted  to  attend  the  classes  of  in- 
struction given  at  Chatham  in  flag- 
signalling,  surveying,  &c.* 

A  branch  of  this  school  has  been  esta- 
blished on  board  her  Majesty's  ship  Hood, 
in  the  Medway,  for  the  training  of  engi- 
neers in  submarine  or  torpedo  duties.  The 
men  forming  the  torpedo  companies  are 
selected,  on  the  completion  of  their  course 
of  instruction  in  fieldworks,  from  the 
depot  companies  of  the  School  of  Military 
Engineering,  where,  later  on,  extensive 
and  practical  knowledge  of  electricity  in 
its  application  to  the  ignition  of  mines  is 
imparted  to  them. 

School  of  Musketry.  —  Established  at 
Hythe,  in  1854,  with  the  view  of  giving 
a  special  training  in  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  musketry  to  officers,  non-commis- 
sioned officers,  and  soldiers,  qualifying 
as  musketry  instructors  for  their  regi- 
ments. In  order  to  secure  a  uniform 
system  of  instruction  throughout  the 
army,  each  regiment  sends  officers,  non- 
commissioned officers,  and  men  to  Hythe 
to  receive  the  necessary  instruction  ;  the 
course  lasts  two  months.  These  officers 
and  men,  on  joining  their  regiments,  are 
employed  as  instructors.  With  regard  to 
the  choice  of  officers  sent  to  this  school, 
it  is,  for  the  most  part,  voluntary ;  but 
if  none  send  in  their  names,  the  com- 
manding officer  chooses  them  himself. 

Officers  obtain  certificates  at  the  end 
of  the  course,  according  to  their  pro- 
ficiency :  extra  first,  first,  and  second 
class.  An  officer,  before  being  appointed 
an  adjutant,  has  to  go  through  the 
course,  and  must  obtain,  at  least,  a  first- 
class  certificate. 

The  school  is  composed  of  a  com- 
mandant, an  assistant  deputy  adjutant- 
general,  and  5  instructors  of  musketry. 
Returns  are  made  out  yearly  and  pub- 
lished by  the  War  Office." 

Medicil  Schiol. — An  establishment  at 
Netley  for  training,  in  military  surgery 
and  medicine,  young  men  desirous  of  en- 
tering the  army  as  surgeons.  It  is  placed 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
principal  medical  officer  of  Netley 
Hospital,  who  is  assisted  by  a  staff  of 


*  These  classes  have  been  transferred  from 
Chatham  to  Aldershot. 


9   professors  and  assistant  professors  in 

surgery,  medicine,  &c. 

Attached  to  this  school  is  the  hospital 

of  Netley  (q.  c.),  where  military  nurses 

are  trained  and  instructed. 

School  of  Music,  at  Kneller  Hall,  near 
Hounslow,  for  the  training  of  band- 
masters and  musicians.  Men  showing 
musical  talent  and  abilities,  and  de- 
sirous of  being  trained  as  band-masters 
and  musicians,  may  offer  themselves 
as  candidates  to  this  school  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  band  committees,  and  are 
admitted  into  it  under  certain  conditions. 
Duke  of  York's  School. — A  government 
institution  at  Chelsea  for  the  education 
of  the  male  orphans  of  British  soldiers. 
This  school  was  established  in  1803  by 
the  Duke  of  York,  and  at  present  con- 
tains about  500  boys,  who  are  brought 
up  to  some  trade  or  prepared  for  the 
army.  A  branch  of  this  establishment 
is  set  aside  for  the  education  of  military 
schoolmasters. 

Similar  schools  have  been  established  in 
India.  In  Bengal  they  are  situated  in  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  and  are  known  as 
the  Lawrence  asylums,  after  the  founder, 
the  late  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  ;  in  Madras, 
at  Ootacamund  ;  and  in  Bombay,  in  the 
Mahableshwur  Hills. 

Royal  Hibernian  Military  School. — A 
military  school  at  Dublin  for  the  main- 
tenance, education,  and  training  of  boys 
for  the  purposes  of  enlistment  and  ser- 
vice in  the  army. 

The  children  to  be  admitted  into  the 

I  institution    must    be    free    from    mental 

,  or  bodily  defect  or  infirmity.  They 
must  be  the  children  of  a  non-commis- 

i  sioned  officer  or  soldier  in  her  Majesty's 

,  regular  forces,  or  of  a   non-commissioned 

j  officer  or  soldier  deceased  or  discharged 
from  the  service.  Children  to  be  ad- 
mitted must  not  be  under  7  nor  above 
12  years  of  age. 

In  the  selection  of  boys  for  admittance, 

;  preference  in  general  is  given  : — 
Firstly,  to  orphans ; 
Secondly,  to  those  whose  fathers  have 
been  killed   or  have  died  in  foreign  or 
home  service  : 

Thirdly,  to  those  who  have  lost  their 

|  mothers,  and  whose  fathers  are  absent  on 

\  dutv  abroad ; 

i      Fourthly,  to  those  whose  fathers  are 


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ordered  abroad  on  foreign  service,  or 
whose  parents  have  other  children  to 
maintain. 

Advanced  Class,  Woolwich.  —  Though 
not  strictly  included  under  .the  head  of 
military  schools,  the  Advanced  Class  at 
Woolwich  for  the  instruction  of  artillery 
officers  in  the  higher  branches  of  their 
service  may  advantageously  rind  insertion 
here.  This  class  was  first  established  in 
1864.  It  was  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  artillery  officers  a  special  train- 
ing in  military  and  scientific  subjects. 
The  result  of  the  instruction  given  at 
this  institution  has  been  all  that  could  be 
desired,  aud  the  value  of  this  advanced 
class  appears  to  be  appreciated  from 
year  to  year.  An  examination  is  held 
every  second  year,  and  the  course  lasts 
for  18  months.  The  examination  is 
conducted  by  the  director- general  of 
military  education.  The  class  is  open 
to  all  royal  artillery  officers  who  have 
9  years'  service.  Lieutenants  must, 
before  competing,  have  passed  the  ex- 
amination for  promotion  to  captain,  and 
all  officers  must  be  favourably  reported 
on  by  their  commanding  officers  for 
efficiency,  &c. 

The  class  consists  of  8  officers,  who  are 
instructed  in  mathematics,  chemistry, 
and  physics.  At  the  end  of  the  18 
months,  there  is  a  final  examination, 
which  is  open  to  all  students,  and  if  the 
result  is  satisfactory,  the  individuals  are 
recommended  for  appointments,  though 
the  fact  of  having  passed  does  not  consti- 
tute any  claim  to  an  appointment. 

Science — The  regular  development  of 
any  branch  of  knowledge. 

Science  of  War — The  study  of  warfare 
worked  out,  in  the  first  place,  theoreti- 
cally, and  in  the  second,  practically,  or, 
in  other  words,  on  the  drill-ground  and 
in  the  field.  Such  study  leads  the 
soldier  to  the  attainment  of  a  knowledge 
which  must  sooner  or  later  bring  out  his 
best  instincts  and  qualifications,  and  in  a 
nation  the  power  of  taking  care  of  itself. 
This  science  is  a  progressive  one,  and 
is  developed  by  a  nation  in  the  study 
of  what  other  nations  have  done  in 
acquiring  a  knowledge  of  warfare,  in 
making  use  of  the  knowledge  it  possesses 
in  developing  its  own  resources,  in 
placing  itself  in  a  position  to  ward  otf 


disaster,  and  in  succeeding  in  the  hour  of 
danger. 

Improvements  in  fire-arms  and  all 
warlike  munitions,  and  the  facilities  of 
locomotion,  are  continually  altering  the 
conditions  of  modern  warfare.  A  system 
which  has  placed  one  nation  at  the  head 
of  others  may,  30  years  afterwards^  be 
its  destruction  if  blindly  adhered  to,  and 
on  this  point  we  may  learn  from  the 
study  of  the  science  of  war  how  the  pre- 
eminence and  the  deterioration  of  a 
nation  may  take  place. 

This  subject  is  thus  alluded  to  in  an 
old  French  work,  entitled  '  Nouveau 
Dictionnaire  Militaire  ' : — "  The  science 
of  war,  or  the  knowledge  of  military 
tactics  upon  an  extensive  scale,  is  perhaps 
the  most  comprehensive  operation  of  the 
human  mind,  and  demands  the  full  exer- 
cise of  all  its  powers.  To  be  equal  to 
the  multifarious  branches  of  this  un- 
bounded art,  the  strictest  attention  must 
be  given  to  military  discipline.  The  best 
authors,  both  ancient  and  modern,  must 
be  resorted  to  for  information,  and  when 
the  mind  has  been  well  stocked  with  the 
sound  principles  of  theory,  practice  and 
experience  must  follow,  in  order  to  con- 
firm what  has  been  carefully  selected 
from  the  first  authorities,  and  maturely 
digested.  Courage,  zeal,  prudence,  and 
discretion  must  likewise  be  the  constant 
companions  of  those  persons  who  would 
distinguish  themselves  in  war ;  and  it 
ought  never  to  be  forgotten  that  a  scru- 
pulous adherence  to  morality,  a  rigid 
observance  of  every  social  duty,  and  a 
manly  subjugation  of  the  many  passions 
by  which  different  men  are  differently 
agitated,  must  constitute  the  character 
of  a  real  warrior.  These  are  the  quali- 
fications by  which  the  science  of  war  is 
distinguished  from  every  other  pursuit 
in  life;  and  without  these  qualifications, 
a  conqueror  can  neither  be  called  a  hero 
nor  an  able  general,  but  only  a  lucky 
soldier.  We  have,  indeed,  our  military 
colleges  and  institutions,  and  so  had  the 
Grecians  and  Persians,  not  only  for  the 
instruction  of  the  privates,  but  also  for 
the  education  and  formation  of  those  in- 
dividuals who  were  destined  to  be  officers. 
These  colleges  and  institutions  were 
under  the  superintendence  of  persons  who 
had  established  their  reputation  by  a 
2  B  2 


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knowledge,  not  only  of  the  theoretical, 
but  also  of  the  practical  branches  of  their 
profession.  Nobody  could  be  admitted 
in  the  capacity  of  master  or  professor 
unless  he  had  previously  undergone 
several  examinations  respecting  the  science 
of  war,  both  as  to  offensive  and  defensive 
operations.  These  professors  were  called 
tacticians." 

Scimitar  —  A  short  curved  sword, 
chiefly  used  by  Orientals,  but  worn  in 
Europe  during  the  fourteenth  century. 
It  was  borrowed  from  the  Turks,  and 
introduced  as  an  offensive  weapon  into 
England  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II. 

Scissel  (Latin,  scissilis,  that  may  be  rent 
or  broken) — The  clippings  or  leavings 
of  metal,  such  as  are  left  after  the  manu- 
facture of  copper  caps,  tubes,  coinage,  &c. 
Scotching — A  term  used  in  artillery 
to  prevent  a  wheel  from  moving,  by  the 
application  of  a  scotch  or  wedge  of  wood. 
This  is  rendered  necessary  in  mounting 
or  dismounting  ordnance  from  their  car- 
riages. 

Scots  Greys,  vide  Dragoons. 

Scour,  To — To  clear  a  space  ;  to  drive 

away.     Hence  to  scour  the  country  means 

to  clear  the   country  of  the  enemy  for 

miles  around. 

Scouts — Light  horsemen  sent  on  in 
advance  of  an  army,  or  on  the  enemy's 
flanks,  or  again  for  special  purposes  when 
armies  are  nearly  in  contact.  They  are 
used  for  gaining  information,  and  form 
a  valuable  branch  of  the  intelligence 
department,  once  hostilities  have  com- 
menced. They  are  also  known  under  the 
names  of  "  feelers,"  eelaireurs  (q.  v.), 
(  Vide  Light  Cavalry.) 

Scrap  Iron- — Receives  its  name  from 
its  being  made  up  of  old  wrought-iron 
articles,  such  as  bolts,  nuts,  keys,  screws 
horseshoes,  musket-barrels,  hooks,  &c 
which  are  cleaned  by  the  process  o: 
"  drumming,"  to  clean  off  the  rust  befon 
they  are  fit  for  use.  This  is  one  kind  o: 
scrap  iron  ;  but  there  is  another  produce( 
from  the  shavings  obtained  in  the  pro- 
cess of  turning  and  boring  the  various 
parts  of  wrought-iron  guns.  This  natur 
of  iron  is  used  in  solid  forgings,  such 
as  the  breech-pieces,  trunnion-rings,  cas- 
cables,  &c.  of  guns.  The  first  named  is 
the  most  tenacious,  and  the  other  the  mos: 
uniform  in  structure. 


Scratch  Brush — A  cylindrical  bundle 
of  fine  steel  or  brass  wire  tightly  bound 
n  the  centre,  with  the  ends  projecting 
at  both  extremities  so  as  to  form  a  stiff 
arush  for  cleaning  and  scratching  metals 
preparatory  to  gilding  or  silvering,  or, 
as  in  the  case  of  small-arms,  preparatory 
to  browning  them.  As  well  as  the  shape 
above  described,  there  is  another,  in 
which  the  steel  wire  is  fastened  in  long 
lengths  on  leather  or  cloth,  and  in  this 
form  is  known  as  scratch  card. 
Screen  Battery,  ride  Battery. 
Screw  —  One  of  the  six  mechanical 
powers.  It  is  applied  in  pressing  or 
squeezing  bodies  together,  and  also  in 
raising  weights.  The  definition  of  a 
screw  is  given  as  follows  : — "  A  spiral 
groove  or  thread  winding  round  a  cylin- 
der, and  everywhere  making  the  same 
angle  with  the  length  of  it ;  so  that,  if 
the  surface  of  the  cylinder,  with  this 
spiral  thread  upon  it,  were  unfolded  and 
stretched  into  a  plane,  the  spiral  thread 
would  form  a  section  of  any  inclined 
plane  whose  length  would  be  to  its 
height  as  the  circumference  of  the  cylin- 
der is  to  the  distance  between  two  threads 
of  the  screw.  When  the  spiral  thread  is 
upon  the  outside  of  the  cylinder,  the 
screw  is  said  to  be  a  male  one ;  but  if  the 
thread  be  cut  along  the  inner  surface  of 
a  hollow  cylinder,  it  is  said  to  be  a 
female  screw." 

Screw,  Elevating,  vide  Elevating 
Screw. 

Screw-driver  —  An  instrument  for 
driving  a  screw,  also  for  unloosening  it. 
Known  commonly  as  the  "  turn-screw." 

Screw-jack — An  instrument  for  lifting 
heavy  weights  through  short  lifts ;  it 
rests  by  means  of  a  large  nut  upon  a 
hollow  base  or  pedestal,  and  is  raised  or 
lowered  by  turning  the  nut. 

Screw-plate — Is  explained  as  "a  ma- 
chine for  cutting  small  metal  screws 
wormed  and  notched,  but  furnished  with 
several  holes  varying  slightly  in  size,  the 
worm  being  formed  progressively  by 
using  holes  gradually  diminishing  in 
size.  From  2  to  6  holes  are  intended  for 
each  thread,  and  are  arranged  in  gnnips 
for  the  purpose.  Although  the  screw- 
plate  is  sometimes  used  for  common 
screws  as  large  as  from  £  to  f  inch 
diameter,  it  is  better  to  use  die-stocks 


SCR 


373 


SEA 


for    all   screws    exceeding    about  T's  inch 
diameter." 

Screws,  Oscillating — Elevating  screws 
attached  to  heavy  ordnance  carriages 
for  elevating  the  gun ;  they  are  used 
either  with  guns  of  position  or  siege 
guns. 

Searcher — A  gun  implement  used  in 
examining  the  bores  of  smooth-bore  ord- 
nance. 

Seasoned  Timber — Ttmber  which  has 
been  deprived  of  its  sap  and  moisture,  and 
thus  rendered  dry  and  hard.  Before 
timber  can  be  used,  the  juices  must 
be  got  rid  of  from  the  capillary  vessels, 
or  the  wood  will  remain  moist  and  green 
for  a  considerable  period,  and  the  planks 
formed  from  it  will  be  subject  to  dry-rot. 
In  Europe,  after  the  tree  has  been  felled, 
barked,  and  roughly  squared,  it  is  thrown 
into  either  running  or  standing  water : 
the  former  is  preferred,  as  the  constant 
motion  of  the  water  carries  away  with  it 
the  juices  from  the  wood,  and  the  water 
more  readily  evaporates  from  the  wood 
at  a  future  period.  The  length  of  time 
that  timber  should  be  seasoned  depends 
on  whether  the  logs  are  soaked  in  stand- 
ing or  running  water,  a  longer  period  being 
necessary  in  the  former  case.  After  being 
taken  out  of  the  water,  the  logs  should 
be  stacked  in  open  and  airy  sheds,  so  as 
to  allow  the  timber  to  dry  thoroughly 
before  it  is  taken  to  the  saw-pit.  Various 
means  have  been  devised  for  seasoning 
wood  other  than  those  described  above. 
To  season  by  steam  is  not  so  efficacious 
as  the  old  and  usual  method  of  seasoning. 
The  following  extract  from  a  very  useful 
little  pamphlet  on  the  timber  of  Bengal, 
by  Mr.  W.  Clifford,  formerly  attached  to 
the  gun-carriage  manufactory  at  Madras, 
entitled  '  Indian  and  Burman  Timbers,' 
is  herewith  given,  showing  that  the 
method  of  seasoning  in  Europe  is  fatal  to 
wood  in  India  : — 

"  Seasoning  develops  and  consolidates 
all  the  good  qualities  of  wood,  and  they 
reach  their  highest  degree  of  perfection 
by  gradual  seasoning — results  which  can 
be  reached  in  India  by  no  other  process, 
for  experience  has  proved  that  forcing 
not  only  leads  to  greater  loss  in  season- 
ing, but  impairs  the  more  valuable  pro- 
perties of  the  wood. 

"In   Europe  it  is   the   practice,  and 


xperience  must  have  decided  its  advan- 
tage, to  give  timber  a  preparatory  season- 
ng  in  log,  exposed  to  the  weather.  In 
India  it  is  simply  worse  than  useless  to 
do  so.  The  effect  of  two  or  three  years' 
exposure  is  to  cover  the  surface  with 
deep  sun-flaws,  penetrating  to  the  depth 
of  1J  to  2  inches,  destroying  effectually 
much  of  the  best  portion  of  the  log  for 
all  purposes  of  the  carriage-builder. 
Long-continued  exposure  will  render  the 
log  worthless.  If  kept  in  log,  it  must  be 
protected  from  the  sun  and  rain,  then 
;ood  may  result  from  the  measure,  but 
not  even  then  in  proportion  to  the  delay 
and  consequent  loss  of  capital  which  it 
involves  ;  for  seasoning  in  log  is  a  very 
tedious  process.  It  must  be  evident  that 
the  smaller  the  scantlings,  and  the 
greater  the  surface  acted  on,  the  quicker 
will  be  the  process  of  drying.  A  piece 
of  wood  that  will  take  years  to  dry  in 
the  log  would  dry  better  in  as  many 
months  if  cut  to  its  required  size ;  the 
ratio  of  drying  being  the  same  in  both. 
A  saul  plank  16  inchesx  1  inch  will  take 
from  six  to  eight  months  to  season,  a  scant- 
ling 4x4  inches  will  take  two  years  and 
eight  months,  the  cubic  contents  of  each 
being  the  same.  The  result  of  exposure 
to  saul  timber  is  to  flaw  the  surface  to  the 
extent  the  drying  proceeds,  to  close  the 
pores  of  the  wood,  and  to  prevent  the 
free  evaporation  of  the  internal  moisture; 
and  it  will  be  found  in  converting  the 
log  that  it  is  nearly  as  wet  inside  as 
when  first  felled,  so  that  the  only  gain  is 
the  absolute  loss  of  the  finest  portion  of 
the  log;  besides,  timber,  however  well 
seasoned  in  log,  always  holds  a  latent 
proportion  of  moisture  which  is  not  set 
free  till  it  is  converted,  or  till  the  log 
attains  a  great  age. 

"Therefore,  if  timber  cannot  be  pro- 
tected from  the  sun,  it  should  be  con- 
verted at  once,  and  stored  to  season,  and 
the  sooner  this  is  done  the  less  will  be 
the  loss  in  conversion,  and  the  quicker 
will  the  material  be  fit  for  use. 

"  For  this  purpose  the  material  should 
be  cut  into  a  half  wrought  state — that 
is  to  say,  sufficient  should  be  allowed 
over  the  finished  dimensions  to  cover 
shrinkage,  superficial  flaws,  warping,  and 
end  splits.  A  safe  ratio  of  allowance  in 
saul  is  2  inches  to  the  foot  in  length, 


SEA 


374 


SEC 


breadth,  and  thickness ;  thus  in  the 
finished  dimensions  ot' large  framings,  21 
feet  x  12  inches  X  4J  inches,  the  half 
wrought  would  be  24  feet  6  inches  X  14 
inches  x  5J  inches,  or,  for  such  a  large 


scantling,  it  would  be  safer  to  make  it  iif    seconds. 


Second — The  sixtieth  part  of  a  minute 
whether  of  time  or  of  angular  magni- 
tude. Thus,  a  degree  of  a  circle  and 
an  hour  of  time  are  each  divided  into 
60  minutes,  and  each  minute  into  60 


inches.  For  sissoo  and  teak,  the  allowance 
may  be  reduced  about  one-third. 

"  The  material  should  be  stored  in  a 
good  shed,  well  ventilated.  The  shed 
should  be  built  at  opposite  angles  to  the 
prevailing  winds,  and  be  constructed  so 
as  to  protect  the  material  from  the  direct 
action  of  the  wind  from  any  quarter,  for 
experience  has  proved  that  the  material 
suffers  quite  as  much  from  the  dry  winds 
playing  on  it  as  from  the  heat. 

"  Advantage  would  be  gained  by  lower- 
ing the  temperature  of  the  seasoning 
shed  during  the  hot  months,  either  by 
underground  air  ducts,  or  by  the  more 
simple  plan  of  a  bheestie's  mussnck ; 
what  is  wanted  is  to  check  the  too  rapid 
evaporation  of  the  surface  moisture, 
which,  by  the  unequal  contraction  in 
shrinkage,  has  such  a  ruinous  effect  on 
saul.  Quick  drying  is  not  so  much 
wanted  as  gradual  and  regular  drying, 
for  it  will  be  found  that  what  is  gained 
in  time  is  more  than  lost  in  material.  It 
is  the  extremes  of  our  Indian  climate 
that  render  seasoning  such  a  difficult  and 
costly  process. 

"  All  woods,  even  when  dry,  absorb 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere  in  wet 
weather  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  ;  of 
the  woods  I  have  noticed,  saul  the  most, 
sissoo  the  least.  The  best  preservative 
against  this  is  good  paint." 

Seasoned  Troops — Troops  which  have 
grown  accustomed  to  the  climate  of  a  coun- 
try, and  have  become  able-bodied  soldiers. 

Seat — In  gunnery,  this  term  is  applied 
to  the  position  of  the  shot  in  the  bore 
of  a  piece  of  ordnance  when  rammed 
home. 

Seat  of  War — The  country  in  which  a 


Seconded  —  The  term  is  applied  to 
officers  whose  services  are  lent  by  the 
War  Office  to  another  department  or 
government,  and  who  are  not  provided 
for  in  the  estimates.  The  place  of  officers 
on  the  seconded  list  is  filled  up  by  regi- 
mental officers,  so  that  the  effective 
strength  of  the  corps  does  not  fall 
below  its  number.  Seconded  officers  are 
permitted,  on  special  occasions,  and  on 
being  reappointed,  to  be  absent  from 
their  corps  for  10  years.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  they  must  return  to  regi- 
mental duty,  or  permanently  retire  from 
the  army  on  full  or  half  pay ;  if  not  en- 
titled to  retire,  by  the  regulations  of 
the  service,  they  must  resign  their  com- 
missions. 

Secret  Correspondence,  vide  Messages. 

Secretary  —  An  officer  appointed  to 
carry  on  the  correspondence  of  an  office, 
under  the  orders  of  his  superior.  (Ficfc 
Military  Secretary.)  . 

Secretary  of  State  for  War — An  officer 
appointed  by  the  crown  to  administer 
the  affairs  of  the  army.  He  is  assisted 
by  the  commander-in-chief,  and  is  re- 
sponsible to  parliament  for  the  efficiency 
of  the  army  in  men  and  materiel.  He  has 
immediate  control  over  every  branch,  and 
has  two  under-secretaries  of  state  as  as- 
sistants. The  Queen's  Regulations  define 
the  correspondence  on  military  subjects 
which  should  be  referred  to  his  office. 

Section  (Latin,  sectio,  from  seco,  I 
cut) — A  cut  made  by  a  plane  passing 
through  a  work  in  any  direction. 

Sectograph — A  scale  for  use  with  a 
contoured  map  or  plan,  which  enables 
the  surveyor  to  make  a  section  of  the 
ground  with  the  least  possible  expendi- 


ture of  time  and  labour.  The  contours 
on  the  map  furnish  the  data,  and  enable 
the  surveyor  to  produce  the  required  sec- 


war  is  carried  on. 

Sebastopol    Hoop-iron   Gabion,    vide 
Gabion. 

Secant  (Latin,  seco,  I  cut) — In  trigo-  tions.  It  is,  as  stated  by  the  designer, 
nometry,  a  line  drawn  from  the  centre  of  Lieutenant  Tressider,  R.E.,  a  means  of 
the  circle  through  one  of  the  extremities  giving  to  a  map  the  advantages  of  a 
of  the  arc  to  meet  the  tangent  at  the  ,  model  without  its  defects. 


other  extremity.     The  secant  of  an  angle 
is  the  reciprocal  of  the  cosine. 


Sector — The  sector  of  a  circle  is  the 
figure  contained  by  an  arc,  and  the  two 


SED 


375 


SEN 


radii  drawn  to  the  extremities  of  the  arc.  , 
A  sector  is  also  a  mathematical  instru- 
ment which  is  used  in  making  diagrams, 
laying  down  plans,  &c. 

Sedentary  Troops — Bodies  of  troops 
that  remain  at  home  to  garrison  towns, 
fortresses,  &c.,  after  the  active  army  and 
the  reserve  have  left  the  country.  By  j 
the  new  mobilisation  scheme,  a  large 
force,  including  a  few  regular  regiments 
and  the  garrison  artillery,  forms  the  gar- 
rison or  sedentary  army  of  the  country. 
It  is  divided  into  13  separate  commands, 
and  will  in  time  of  war  have  to  watch 
and  to  defend  the  coasts.  (Vide  Mobili- 
sation.) 

Seer — An  Indian  weight  of  2  Ibs. 
Segment  (Latin,  se<jme>itum,  a  part  cut 
off) — In    geometry,    any    part     cut    off 
from   a  figure.     Thus  the  segment  of  a 
circle  is  the  part  cut  off  by  a  chord. 
Segment  Shell,  vide  Shell. 
Seizing  Line,  vide  Line,  Seizing. 
Selection — The    act    of    choosing    and 
taking  from   among  a  number,      lu  the 
British  army,  selection  according  to  merit 
is    the   system    observed     in    promoting 
officers  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  grade. 

Sell  Out,  To — The  permission  formerly 
given  to  an  officer  in  the  army,  on  retir- 
ing from  the  service,  to  sell  his  commis- 
sion for  the  stipulated  sum  of  money  laid 
down  by  the  regulations.  Since  the  non- 
purchase  system  has  been  established,  this 
sanction  is  only  granted  to  those  officers 
who  entered  the  service  previous  to  1871, 
in  which  year  the  purchase  of  commis- 
sions was  abolished.  Officers  who  were 
in  the  service  prior  to  that  year  receive 
the  value  of  their  commissions  from  the 
Army  Purchase  Commissioners. 

Selvagees — Are  formed  of  returns  of 
spun  'yarn  turned  into  a  circular  form 
and  bound  together.  They  are  used  for 
the  purpose  of  attaching  the  hooks  of  a 
tackle,  the  selvagee  being  passed  round 
the  object  and  the  tackle  hooked  to  the 
bights. 

Semaphore — A  mode  of  communicating 
intelligence  by  means  of  signals,  which 
was  in  use  before  the  introduction  of  the 
electric  telegraph.  It  consisted  of  a  tower, 
on  the  top  of  which  there  was  certain 
machinery,  consisting  of  movable  arms 
for  making  the  required  signals.  The 
towers  were  always  placed  on  the  most 


conspicuous  and  commanding  sites.  The 
rapidity  with  which  messages  were  sent 
was  remarkable,  the  time  at  Greenwich 
(1  o'clock)  being  sent  to  Portsmouth 
within  f  minute. 

Senior- — -In  the  army,  one  who  is  above 
another,  either  in  regimental  or  army 
rank. 

Seniority — Priority  given  to  a  regi- 
ment or  an  officer ;  it  has  reference  to 
the  date  of  the  raising  of  the  former  or 
the  date  of  commission  of  the  latter. 

Sentence — The  judgment  of  a  court^ 
martial  in  allotting  the  punishment  of  a 
convicted  soldier.  The  punishment  to  be 
awarded  is  arrived  at  by  the  votes  of 
every  member  of  the  court. 

Before  deciding  as  to  the  quantity,  the 
court  should  settle  as  to  the  nature  of 
punishment.  In  all  cases  the  opinion  of 
the  majority  should  be  absolute,  but  if  the 
votes  are  equal,  the  more  lenient  sentence 
should  be  given.  No  sentence  of  death 
can  be  passed  unless  two-thirds  of  the 
members  of  the  court  concur  therein. 

Sentinel,  or  Sentry  (Italian,  sentinclla') 
— A  soldier  placed  in  such  a  position  as  to 
be  able  to  watch  the  approach  of  the 
enemy,  to  prevent  surprises,  to  stop  any 
person  who  would  endeavour  to  pass  his 
post  without  an  order,  or  without  stating 
who  he  is.  Sentries  are  placed  before 
the  arms  of  all  guards,  at  the  tents  and 
quarters  of  general  and  commanding 
officers,  or  over  any  person  or  property 
to  be  guarded.  All  sentries  are  to  be 
vigilant  on  their  posts ;  they  are  not 
on  any  account  to  sing,  smoke,  nor 
suffer  any  noise  to  be  made  near 
them.  They  are  to  have  a  watchful 
eye  over  the  things  committed  to  their 
charge.  They  are  not  to  suffer  any  light 
to  remain  or  any  fire  to  be  made  near 
their  posts  in  the  night-time ;  neither  is 
any  sentry  to  be  relieved  or  removed 
from  his  post  but  by  the  corporal  of  the 
guard.  They  are  not  to  suffer  any  one 
to  touch  or  handle  their  arms,  or  in  the 
night-time  to  come  within  10  yards  of 
their  post. 

No  person  is  to  strike  or  abuse  a  sentry 
on  his  post ;  but  when  he  has  committed 
a  crime,  he  is  to  be  relieved  and  then 
punished  according  to  the  Articles  of 
War. 

In  planting  sentries,  regard  must  le 


SEN 


376 


SER 


had  to  the  duty  on  which  they  are  to  be 
engaged.  Picket  sentries,  except  under 
certain  circumstances,  must  be  double, 
and  placed  in  the  most  advantageous  posi- 
tion for  hearing  and  observing  any  alarm 
in  front.  By  day  they  should  be  placed 
on  a  height  in  the  most  commanding 
situation  ;  but  at  night  they  should  be 
withdrawn  lower  down,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  see  any  approaching  party.  When 
sentries  hear  people  approaching  them 
by  night,  they  must  challenge  them, 
order  them  to  halt,  and  allow  only  one 
person  to  advance  until  they  are  satisfied 
that  they  are  friends.  By  day,  sentries 
must  not  allow  more  than  one  stranger 
at  a  time  to  approach  their  post  on  any 
pretence.  Sentries  should  be  relieved 
every  hour  of  the  night.  Mounted  sen- 
tries are  called  vedettes  (q.  v.). 

Sentry-box — A  place  of  shelter  for  a 
sentry  in  bad  weather  or  against  the 
effects  of  the  sun.  It  is  made  either  of 
masonry  or  wood. 

Sepoy,  or  Sipahi — Indian  name  for 
soldier,  derived  from  sip,  a  bow  and 
arrow,  which  Indian  soldiers  in  ancient 
times  were  accustomed  to  carry.  The  word 
sepoy  is  given  to  a  native  of  India  who 
has  enlisted  into  her  M  ajesty's  Indian  army. 
The  class  of  men  who  enlist  are  Hindoos, 
chiefly  of  the  Rajpoot  class,  Mahommetans, 
Seikhs,  and  Goorkhas  (hillmen). 

Serge  —  A  quilted  cloth,  made  of 
woollen,  and  manufactured  in  many 
counties  of  England,  especially  in  Devon- 
shire. Serge  was  used  very  recently  in 
the  manufacture  of  gun  cartridges,  but 
it  has  been  superseded  by  silk  cloth. 
White  serge  is  used  for  lining  the  panels 
of  saddles. 

Sergeant — A  non-commissioned  officer 
next  in  rank  above  a  corporal.  Sergeants 
are  attached  to  a  company,  troop,  or 
battery,  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the 
commanding  officer  in  maintaining  dis- 
cipline and  good  order,  in  instructing  the 
soldier  in  his  duties,  and,  in  fact,  in  im- 
planting in  him  all  that  is  soldier-like 
and  proper. 

In  the  army,  the  name  and  rank  of 
sergeant  is  given  to  two  classes  of  non- 
commissioned officers,  those  who  are 
employed  in  the  various  departments  of 
the  service,  and  those  who  have  risen  in 
wi  are  attached  to  regiments  of  in- 


fantry, cavalry,  batteries,  and  other 
branches.  The  former  are  classed  as 
staff  sergeants ;  the  latter  are  known  as 
regimental  sergeants,  with  the  exception 
of  the  sergeant-major,  the  quarter- 
master sergeant,  the  sergeant  instructor 
of  musketry,  and  the  armourer  sergeant 
of  a  regiment,  who  are  also  classed  as 
staff  sergeants. 

The  following  are  the  names  and  duties 
of  the  sergeants  of  a  regiment,  troop,  or 
company : — 

Armourer  sergeant. — A  skilled  me- 
chanic attached  to  regiments  of  infantry, 
cavalry,  and  to  the  engineers,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  repairing  and  keeping  the  arms 
of  the  regiment  in  order. 

Sand  sergeant. — One  of  the  sergeants 
of  a  regiment  who  is  placed  in  charge  of 
the  band.  He  is  responsible  for  the  dis- 
cipline and  conduct  of  the  men  in  the 
band.  He  does  not  instruct  them  in, 
music ;  this  is  left  to  the  bandmaster. 

Colour  sergeant. — The  senior  sergeant 
in  a  company  of  infantry.  He  assists  in 
carrying  the  colours. 

Cook  sergeant.  — A  sergeant  appointed 
to  look  after  the  culinary  department 
of  a  regiment  of  infantry,  a  brigade  of 
artillery,  and  of  the  engineers  ;  two  are 
allowed  to  the  latter  corps. 

Drill  sergeant. — An  assistant  to  the 
adjutant  in  carrying  out  the  drills  of  a 
regiment. 

Hospital  sergeant. — There  is  no  such 
non-commissioned  officer  now  in  the 
army,  the  duties  of  hospital  sergeant 
being  performed  by  the  staff  of  the  army 
hospital  corps  (<?.  c.). 

Lance  sergeant. — An  acting  sergeant. 

Orderly  sergeant. — A  sergeant  who  is 
on  duty  for  the  day.  His  duties  consist  in 
superintending  the  routine  of  the  corps. 

Pay  sergeant. — A  sergeant  who  keeps 
the  accounts  of  the  company,  troop,  or 
battery,  under  the  supervision  of  the  cap- 
tain in  command. 

Paymaster  sergeant. — An  aid  to  the 
paymaster. 

Pioneer  sergeant.  —  The  non-commis- 
sioned officer  in  charge  of  the  pioneers  of 
a  regiment. 

Provost  sergeant. — A  sergeant  specially 
selected — with  reference  to  his  fitness  for 
the  position,  from  the  regiments  in  garri- 
son, provided  the  strength  of  the  garrison 


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is  not  under  two  troops  or  companies-^— to 
take  charge  of  the  prison  cells,  to  see  to 
the  safe  custody  of  prisoners,  for  which 
he  is  responsible,  and  to  carry  their 
sentences  into  effect ;  it  is  also  part  of 
his  duty  to  perform  the  police  duties  of 
the  barracks,  &c. 

Saddler  sergeant. — A  sergeant  attached 
to  cavalry  regiments  to  superintend  the 
repairs  of  the  saddlery. 

Sergeant  instructor  in  fencing.  —  A 
sergeant  attached  to  each  cavalry  regi- 
ment, to  instruct  the  officers  and  men  in 
the  art  of  fencing. 

Sergeant  instructor  of  gunnery. — A 
sergeant  appointed  to  assist  the  gunnery 
instructor,  attached  to  each  brigade  of 
artillery. 

Sergeant  instructor  of  musketry. — A 
sergeant  attached  to  each  line  regiment, 
and  two  to  the  engineers,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  assist  the  instructor  of  musketry 
in  teaching  the  use  of  small-arms. 

Sergeant  master  tailor.  —  A  non-com- 
missioned officer  who  superintends  the 
tailoring  of  a  regiment.  He  is  taken 
from  among  the  soldier  tailors  in- 
structed at  the  Royal  Army  Clothing 
Depot  at  Pimlico ;  it  is  not,  however, 
necessary  that  he  should  be  educated 
at  the  above  depot,  as  a  civilian  tailor 
on  enlistment,  after  undergoing  the  pre- 
scribed examination  in  his  trade  at  the 
Royal  Army  Clothing  Depot,  can  be 
appointed  to  that  post. 

Sergeant-Major — The  senior  non-com- 
missioned officer  in  a  regiment.  His 
duties  are  of  a  very  important  nature, 
as  will  be  realised  when  it  is  considered 
that  he  is  the  adjutant's  right-hand 
man.  In  him  should  be  embodied  all 
that  is  manly,  soldier-like,  and  zealous. 
His  duties  are  so  manifold  that  for  the 
proper  performance  of  them  he  should  be 
the  smartest  and  most  intelligent  man  in 
the  regiment,  and  his  example  and  con- 
duct such  as  shall  cause  him  to  be 
esteemed  and  respected  by  every  soldier 
in  it.  Besides  the  sergeant-major  of  a 
regiment,  there  are  troop  sergeants-major 
in  the  cavalry,  and  battery  sergeants- 
major  major  in  the  artillery. 

Sergeants-at-Arms — Formerly  a  sort 
of  body-guard  attendant  upon  the  person 
of  the  sovereign  or  of  the  lord  high 
steward  when  sitting  in  judgment  on  a 


traitor.  They  numbered  about  thirty.  The 
functions  of  this  body  have  long  ceased. 

The  Houses  of  Lords  and  Commons  have 
each  a  sergeant-at-arms,  both  of  whom 
execute  the  commands  of  the  house  to 
which  they  belong,  as  regards  the  appre- 
hension or  custody  of  all  persons  com- 
mitted by  order  of  parliament.  The 
office  is  usually  held  by  a  military  man, 
who  is  seldom  under  the  rank  of  a  field 
officer. 

Serpents — In  pyrotechny,  decorations 
with  which  rockets  are  charged. 

Servants,  Military  —  Soldiers  taken 
from  the  ranks  for  the  purpose  of  waiting 
upon  officers.  This  privilege  of  having 
a  soldier  servant  is  not  granted  on  Indian 
service,  or  where  a  colonial  allowance 
is  granted  in  lieu  of  servants.  Each 
infantry  regimental  officer  is  allowed  to 
have  one  soldier  to  attend  on  him ;  field 
officers  and  adjutants  keeping  horses 
for  regimental  purposes,  as  well  as  all 
cavalry  officers  when  present  at  head- 
quarters or  employed  on  duty,  two  each. 

Service — This  word,  as  far  as  it  is 
applied  to  military  affairs,  admits  of  a 
variety  of  significations,  but  in  a  general 
sense  it  means  all  duty  performed  by  an 
inferior  under  the  influence  of  a  superior 
from  the  time  he  enters  his  service  in 
any  capacity  whatever.  In  the  army, 
the  term  is  used  to  express  the  amount 
of  time  a  soldier  has  followed  that  pro- 
fession in  an  active  manner,  and  is  com- 
monly expressed  thus,  "  He  has  been 
some  years  in  the  service"  or,  " He  has 
seen  much  service;"  the  latter  implying 
that  a  certain  degree  of  experience  has 
been  acquired  by  being  in  actual  contact 
with  an  enemy.  The  term  also  points  out 
the  particular  profession  to  which  a  man 
belongs,  as  land  service,  or  sea  service, 
meaning  in  the  army  or  the  navy. 

Set — In  artillery,  another  term  for 
the  "  dip  "  of  an  axle-tree  arm. 

Setter,  Fuze — A  wooden  instrument, 
the  mouth  of  which  is  slightly  hollowed 
out ;  it  is  used  with  the  aid  of  a 
mallet  to  set  the  fuze  into  common  and 
diaphragm  shells.  Mallets  and  setters 
are  issued  with  garrison  S.B.  guns,  and 
form  part  of  a  set  of  fuze  implements. 

Sewing-machine — A  machine  which 
now  performs  what  the  sewing-needle  by 
handwork  can  do.  It  is  largely  used  in 


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military  clothing  factories  and  in  other 
military  establishments. 

For  a  description  of  the  various  sew- 
ing-machines in  use,  vide  lire's  '  Dic- 
tionary of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines.' 

Sextant  (Latin,  sextans,  the  sixth  part ; 
the  limb  of  the  instrument  being  »  sixth 
part    of    a   circle) — An    instrument    for  I 
measuring  the  angular  distance  of  objects  ! 
by  means  of  reflection. 

The  poc/.et  sextant  is  an  instrument 
used  in  surveying ;  it  enables  the  sur-  ! 
veyor  to  measure  the  actual  angle  be- 
tween any  two  objects  to  a  single  mi- 
nute. It  requires  no  support  but  the 
hand,  and  is  easily  adjusted.  The  pre- 
sent pattern  pocket  sextant  (without 
telescope)  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
former  pattern  ;  it  is  bronzed,  and  is  at- 
tached to  the  case  by  bayonet  joints  in- 
stead of  by  a  screw.  The  dark  glass  is 
fixed  in  an  improved  manner. 

Shabraque  (German,  Schabracke;  Po- 
lish, czabraq  ;  Turkish,  tsc/iapraf:) —  A 
large-sized  saddlecloth  placed  over  a 
cavalry  or  horse  artillery  officer's  saddle. 
There  are  two  kinds,  the  undress  and  full 
dress. 

Shackle — In  artillery  material,  is  the 
iron  riiig  attached  to  a  triangle  gyn, 
from  which  the  block  and  tackle  are  sus- 
pended. It  is  fastened  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  prypole  and  cheeks  by  means  of  a 
bolt  called  the  "  shackle  'bolt."  The 
term  is  also  given  to  the  ring  at  the  end 
of  the  shaft  of  an  anchor. 

Shaft — In  military  mining  is  the  per- 
pendicular passage  sunk  from  the  surface 
of  the  ground  to  the  required  depth, 
from  which  the  branches  of  the  mine 
diverge,  termed  "  galleries  "  (q.  v.).  The 
common  mode  of  proceeding  is  to  sink  a 
square  shaft  or  well  to  the  necessary 
depth,  and  from  the  bottom  of  this  shaft 
to  drive  out  a  gallery  of  the  length  re- 
quired, so  as  to  lodge  a  sufficient  charge 
of  gunpowder  in  a  chamber  at  its  ex- 
tremity, which,  by  its  explosion,  will 
destroy  the  enemy's  works.  Shafts  and 
galleries  are  lined  with  timber  to  prevent 
the  soil  from  breaking  in. 

In  machinery,  a  cylindrical  bar  of  iron 
fixed  in  the  wall  or  any  convenient  posi- 
tion in  a  workshop  for  conveying  the 
power  of  the  prime  mover,  generally  a 
steam-engine,  to  the  work.  Drums  are 


fixed  to  the  shaft,  over  which  the  belting 
is  placed  that  turns  the  machines. 

Shafts — In  draught,  consist  of  two 
wooden  poles  attached  to  carriages  of  all 
natures,  between  which  one  of  the  wheel 
horses  is  placed  and  harnessed.  They 
consist  of  an  off  and  near  shaft;  the  for- 
mer fixed  to  the  axle-arm  outside  the 
wheel,  passing  through  an  iron  loop 
underneath  the  end  of  the  splinter  bar; 
the  latter  in  the  same  position  as  the 
pole  formerly  occupied,  viz.  underneath 
the  centre  of  the  splinter  bar,  where  it  is 
pinned  and  keyed  from  above. 

Shako,  vide  Chaco. 

Sham  Fight  —  Not  real,  pretended 
fight. 

Shank  of  an  Anchor — The  shaft  or 
principal  part  of  an  anchor,  to  one  end 
of  which  the  flukes  are  attached,  and  to 
the  other,  the  shackle. 

Shaping  Machine — A  machine  par- 
ticularly adapted  for  shaping  levers, 
cranks,  and  connecting  rods,  also  for 
work  in  general.  It  is  the  invention  of 
Sir  J.  Whitworth. 

Sharp  Affair— A  contest  in  war  of  a 
vigorous  nature. 

Sharpshooter — A  good  marksman.  A 
term  formerly  given  to  riflemen. 

Shears — An  instrument  for  cutting 
sheet  metal  and  other  metallic  articles. 

Shear-Steel — A  steel  produced  from 
blistered  steel,  which,  to  prepare  it  for 
forging  into  edge-tools,  requires  to  be 
condensed  and  rendered  uniform  by  the 
process  of  shearing.  The  process  is  also 
called  tilting,  on  account  of  a  tilt  hammer 
being  used. 

Sheave  —  A  solid  wheel  fixed  in  a 
block  and  turning  on  a  pivot.  A 
':  groove  is  formed  on  the  circumference 
of  the  wheel,  in  which  the  rope  runs, 
the  wheel  revolving  with  it.  The  object 
of  the  sheave  revolving  with  the  rope 
'  is  to  remove,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
;  friction,  which  would  otherwise  prove 
!  a  great  impediment  to  the  efficiency  of 
the  power.  Two  or  more  sheaves  are 
placed  in  a  block  when  so  required. 

Sheep-shank — A  knot  in  common  use, 
serving  to  shorten  a  rope  without  cutting 
it  or  unfastening  the  ends.  This  knot  is 
formed  by  doubling  the  rope  in  three 
parts  and  taking  a  hitch  over  the  bight 
'.  at  each  end  with  the  other  rope. 


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Sheers — Apparatus  for  raising  heavy 
weights.  In  the  artillery  service,  they 
are  used  for  raising  guns  out  of  boats, 
also  lor  raising  them  on  the  ramparts  of 
a  fortification  and  other  positions  in  a 
fortified  work  where  the  gyn  cannot  be 
used.  They  are  formed  of  two  heavy 
masts  or  spars  set  across  each  other  at 
the  upper  ends,  and  steadied  by  guy 
ropes  made  fast  to  pickets  or  some  other 
convenient  object.  There  are  three  na- 
tures, ordinary,  lever,  and  gyn  sheers. 

Shell — A  hollow  projectile,  formerly 
called  a  bomb  (7.  c.),  containing  gun- 
powder or  some  other  explosive  compound, 
so  arranged  that  it  shall  explode  by  means 
of  a  fuze  at  a  certain  point  and  time, 
and  spread  destruction  around  by  the 
forcible  dispersion  of  its  fragments. 

Since  the  introduction  of  rifled  ord- 
nance, a  shell  of  an  elongated  form 
has  become  the  most  common  kind  of 
projectile ;  it  is  exploded  by  means  of  a 
fuze,  either  time  or  percussion,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Palliser  shell. 

The  different  natures  of  shell  used 
with  rifled  guns  are — with  B.L.R.  guns, 
the  common,  segment,  and  Shrapnel  (boxer) 
shells ;  those  with  M.L.R.  guns,  of  the 
Woolwich  construction,  are  the  common, 
Shrapnel  (Boxer),  and  Palliser.  For  other 
natures  of  rifled  guns,  the  same  pattern 
shells  are  used,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Palliser ;  there  are  also  in  the  service 
a  double  and  a  star  shell,  as  shown 
below. 

A  common  shell,  either  for  B.L.R.  or 
M.L.R.  guns,  roughly  speaking,  is  a 
hollow  cylindrical  casting  having  an 
ogival  head.  It  is  filled  with  powder 
which  forms  the  bursting  charge,  and  is 
fitted  with  either  a  time  or  percussion 
fuze  (<?.  t).),  according  to  the  nature  of 
ordnance  from  which  it  is  fired. 

The  use  of  this  shell  is  for  all  pur- 
poses where  great  destructive  effect  is 
required,  such  as  against  men  in  masses, 
buildings,  shipping,  and  material  gene- 
rally, either  by  bursting  during  flight  or 
at  rest,  when  the  shell  acts  as  a  mine. 
It  is  used  particularly  in  the  field  when 
the  enemy  is  sheltered  from  direct  fire, 
or  against  cavalry  to  frighten  the  horses 
and  create  confusion. 

Shrapnel  shell. — This  shell  is  similar 
to  the  common  shell  in  its  external  form, 


but  it  is  filled  with  bullets  (sand  shot), 
cemented  together  with  rosin ;  the  head 
is  of  conoidal  shape,  riveted  on  to  the 
cylinder  which  forms  the  shell,  and  has 
a  gun-metal  socket  in  it  to  receive  the 
fuze.  The  shell  is  ignited,  as  shown  in 
B.L.R.  guns,  by  means  of  a  time  or  per- 
cussion fuze.  The  bursting  charge  is  at 
the  base  of  the  shell,  which  in  this  posi- 
tion serves  to  give  an  onward  impetus 
to  the  balls  in  the  direction  of  the  line 
of  fire  on  the  bursting  of  the  shell.  The 
object  in  using  Shrapnel  shell  is  to  give 
the  projectile  at  long  distances  the  power 
and  efficacy  of  case  shot ;  it  is  most 
effective  when  used  against  masses  of 
troops,  and  the  fuze  should  be  so  ad- 
justed as  to  cause  the  shell  to  burst 
some  little  distance  (between  50  and 
100  yards)  short  of  the  object  fired  at. 
The  original  Shrapnel  shell  was  invented 
by  General  Shrapnel,  R.A.,  and  was  in- 
troduced into  the  service  in  1808.  It 
was  then  a  hollosv  sphere  filled  with 
bullets ;  it  has  since  the  introduction 
of  rifled  guns  been  modified  and  made  of 
a  cylindrical  shape  by  Colonel  (now  Gene- 
ral) Boxer,  and  is  known  as  the  Boxer 
Shrapnel. 

The  value  of  Shrapnel  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Lieut.  E.  Clayton,  R.A.,  in  his 
prize  essay  of  1873  : — "  Shrapnel  is  by 
far  the  most  effective  projectile  against 
troops  of  all  kinds,  under  such  cover  as 
shelter  trenches,  gun  pits,  or  woods. 
Shells  are  effective  if  they  burst  in  the 
right  place,  but  their  effect  is  altogether 
lost  if  they  do  not  do  so,  whereas  Shrap- 
nel covers  a  large  space  of  ground  with 
its  effects. 

"  Against  artillery,  Shrapnel  also  has 
the  best  effect,  as  the  fire  of  a  battery  is 
more  quickly  silenced  by  placing  the  men 
and  horses  hors  de  combat  than  by  dis- 
mounting the  guns  themselves. 

"  Shrapnel  is  not  so  efficacious  against 
fieldworks  as  common  shell,  but  against 
embrasures  most  effective,  as  it  would 
destroy  the  gunners  at  their  guns." 

Segment  shell. — Consists  of  a  thin  cast- 
iron  cylindro-conoidal  shell,  enclosing  a 
series  of  segments  of  the  same  metal, 
cast  separately,  and  built  up  in  layers  on 
an  iron  disc  having  a  cylindrical  chamber 
in  the  centre.  The  segments  are  held 
together  by  a  thin  coat  of  alloy  of  lead 


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arid  antimony,  which  is  run  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  shell  from  the  base  to  the 
shoulder  ;  the  alloy  also  runs  into  the 
interstices  between  the  segments,  and 
coats  the  powder  chamber.  The  form  of 
the  outer  portion  of  the  lead  in  this 
shell  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  solid  shot 
and  common  shell ;  a  small  bursting 
charge  is  used  with  it.  It  can  be  used 
as  shot,  shrapnel,  or  case.  This  nature 
of  shell  is  no  longer  issued  to  M.L.R.  bat- 
teries, but  is  still  retained  for  the  use  of 
B.L.R.  guns. 

The  object  originally  of  introducing 
the  segment  shell  was  that  it  might,  by 
its  construction,  take  the  place  of  common 
shell,  which,  it  was  found,  did  not  break 
up  into  sufficiently  small  pieces.  Then  it 
was  hoped  that  it  would  act  as  Shrap- 
nel, but  again  it  was  observed  that, 
from  the  bad  shape  of  the  segments,  it 
did  not  fly  forward  with  sufficient  velo- 
city, and  scattered  too  much.  Again,  fired 
with  a  time  fuze,  it  was  not  reliable  as 
to  bursting  at  the  exact  moment  re- 
quired ;  so  it  was  not  considered  efficient 
as  Shrapnel,  and  contained  too  small  a 
charge  of  powder  to  make  it  useful  as  a 
common  shell  against  buildings,  field- 
works,  &c. 

Double  shell. — A  shell  similar  to  a 
common  shell,  but  of  greater  length,  the 
7-inch  shell  being  4  calibres  long.  It 
contains  a  larger  bursting  charge,  and  is 
intended,  owing  to  its  great  length,  for 
use  against  wooden  ships ;  up  to  2000 
yards  it  has  given  good  results.  There 
is  only  one  nature  of  double  shell  in  the 
service,  the  one  described  and  that  used 
with  the  7-pr.  The  latter  is  for  high- 
angle  firing  with  a  low  charge  (4  oz.) ; 
it  carries  a  large  bursting  charge,  and 
would  be  effective  against  houses. 

Palliser  shell. —  A  common  shell,  fired 
from  the  7-inch  gun  and  upwards.  It 
is  cylindro-conoidal  in  form,  having  an 
ogival  head.  The  body  is  cast  in  sand, 
the  head  in  an  iron  mould ;  it  is  fitted 
with  a  gun-metal  plug  screwed  into  the 
bush  at  the  bottom  of  shell  to  close  the 
filling-hole.  This  shell  is  fired  without 
a  fuze,  and  breaks  up  and  explodes  on 
striking  an  iron  object ;  it  is  used  against 
iron-clad  vessels. 

Star  shell. — A  thin  iron  shell  used  with 
the  7-pr.  M.L.R.  guns,  filled  with  stars, 


and  intended  to  light  up  an  enemy's  posi- 
tion at  night. 

It  contains  six  stars  of  magnesium 
light  composition,  burning  about  13  or 
14  seconds,  and  seven  stars  of  signal 
light  composition,  burning  about  34 
or  36  seconds.  It  is  complete  in  itself, 
having  the  burster  (£  drachm  of  R.F.G. 
powder)  with  quick-match  priming  ar- 
ranged in  the  interior,  and  only  requires 
the  time-fuze  to  be  prepared  and  fixed 
when  required  for  action.  By  adopting 
a  code  where  certain  words  are  repre- 
sented by  different  colours,  a  complete 
system  of  communication  might  be  kept 
up  between  two  bodies  of  troops  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  each  other. 

Shell,  Diaphragm,  vide  Diaphragm 
Shell. 

Shell,  Incendiary,  vide  Incendiary  Shell. 
Shell,  Mortar,  vide  Mortar  Shell. 
Shell,  Water,  vide  Water  Shell. 
Shell,  To — To  assault  a  place  by  means 
of  shells  ;  to  bombard. 
Shell-lac,  vide  Lac. 

Shelter  Pits — Pits  dug  for  the  protec- 
tion of  skirmishers,  which  the  men  should 
be  able  to  make  for  themselves.     In  most 
instances,   as  described  in  the  '  Instruc- 
tion in  Military    Engineering,'  the  men 
will  only  have  to  improve  natural  cover, 
but  it  may  be  necessary  to  dig  small  pits 
\  which  may  be  called  slielter  pits,  in  con- 
j  tradistinction  to  the  larger  pits  required 
j  at  sieges,  &c.,  which  are  called  rifle  pits. 
1  Each  shelter  pit  should  be  for  one  man 
j  only.     Such  a  pit  may  be  made  in  about 
I  5  minutes  ;  the  depth  need  not  be  uni- 
|  form,   but    should    be    about    10    inches 
where  the  man's  body  will  be,  and  about 
6  inches  in  other  parts. 

Shelter  Trench  Exercise,  vide  Exer- 
cise, Shelter  Trench. 

Shelter  Trenches  —  Trenches  con- 
structed in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  to 
provide  cover  for  troops  exposed  in  the 
field  to  the  action  of  shot  and  shell. 
This  can  be  best  obtained,  where  natural 
cover  is  not  at  hand,  by  means  of  small 
trenches  called  shelter  trenches. 

As  explained  in  the  '  Instructions  in 
Military  Engineering,'  "  it  is  essential  that 
there  should  be  ready  means  of  getting  in 
and  out  of  these  trenches  both  to  the  front 
and  the  rear ;  it  is  also  desirable  that 
they  should  not  offer  any  great  impedi- 


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SHE 


meat  to  a  forward  movement,  and  that 
troops  should  be  able  to  march  straight 
over  them  when  necessary.  At  every  100 
yards  or  so,  to  enable  guns,  cavalry,  &c. 
to  pass,  slight  ramps  should  be  formed 
or  intervals  left  in  the  trenches,  which 
may  at  these  places  be  made  to  overlap. 

"  The  most  rapid  way  for  infantry  to 
obtain  cover  is  by  the  excavation  of  a 
trench  2  feet  wide  and  1J  foot  deep ; 
the  earth  is  thrown  to  the  front,  so  as  to 
form  a  parapet  1£  foot  high,  the  interior 
slope  being  built  up  as  steep  as  possible 
with  sods,  clods,  &c.  Such  a  trench  can 
be  executed  by  men  with  their  accoutre- 
ments on,  and  distributed  at  from  4  to  6 
feet  intervals  in  from  10  to  20  minutes." 

Shield — Defensive  armour  of  very  an- 
cient date,  and  worn  even  at  the  present 
day  among  nations  where  civilisation 
has  not  made  much  progress.  Shields 
have  been  made  of  wood,  iron,  and  basket 
work,  and  were  carried  on  the  left  arm 
in  defence,  while  the  right  arm  wielded 
the  sword  or  spear. 

The  term  shield  is  also  given  to  those 
massive  structures  of  iron  which  are 
used  as  outer  casings  to  the  granite  or 
brick  walls  of  masonry  of  a  fortification, 
or  as  covers  to  embrasures.  Shields  of 
all  dimensions,  representing  the  sides  of 
plated  armour  ships,  are  set  up  from 
time  to  time  at  Shoeburyness,  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  their  resistance  against 
rifled  projectiles. 

Shoeburyness — A  locality  in  the  county 
of  Essex  where  ordnance  experiments 
are  carried  out.  As  far  back  as  1842, 
ground  was  set  apart  at  Shoeburyness 
as  ranges  for  the  use  and  practice  of 
artillery.  Since  then  it  has  become  a 
school  of  gunnery  for  the  regiment 
of  artillery,  where  two  courses  of  in- 
struction are  carried  out,  viz.  the 
long  and  short  course.  (Vide  Schools, 
Military.) 

Detachments  of  the  volunteer  artil- 
lery are  sent  yearly  to  Shoeburyness  for 
a  training  lasting  a  fortnight. 

Shoes,  Horse,  vide  Horseshoes. 

Shoes,  Powder,  vide  Goloshes,  Leather. 

Shoot,  To — To  discharge  a  fire-arm. 

Shot — A  name  given  to  all  kinds  of 
balls  used  for  artillery  and  fire-arms. 
For  artillery  purposes  they  are  classified 
as  elongated,  round  (solid  and  hollow),  case 


or  canister,  grape,  bar,  chain,  stone,  and 
chilled  shot.  Since  the  introduction  of 
rifled  artillery,  elongated  shot  have  been 
introduced  into  the  service,  and  are  used 
with  both  breech-loading  and  muzzle- 
loading  guns ;  with  the  former,  Arm- 
strong's solid  shot ;  and  with  the  latter, 
Palliser's  shot  of  12-inch,  10-inch,  9- 
inch,  8-inch,  and  7-inch  calibres.  (Vide 
Projectiles.) 

Shot  Bearers,  vide  Bearers,  Shot. 

Shot  Bottom,  vide  Bottom,  Shot. 

Shot,  Hollow — A  hollow  sphere  of 
iron,  formerly  used  with  shell  guns  ;  now 
obsolete. 

Shot,  Hot,  vide  Hot  Shot. 

Shot  Sling,  vide  Sling,  Shot. 

Shot-garlands — Stands  on  which  shot 
and  shell  are  piled ;  they  are  used  to 
retain  shot  placed  on  defences,  and  are 
made  either  of  iron  or  wood.  Hitherto, 
garlands  have  been  made  of  cast  iron  and 
of  a  square  pattern,  but  they  are  ordered 
to  be  used  up  and  replaced  by  wrought 
iron  of  a  rectangular  form.  They  pre- 
serve the  shot  from  deterioration,  and  it 
is  usual  to  place  a  tier  of  unservice- 
able shot  under  the  serviceable  pile. 

Shovel — An  instrument  made  of  iron, 
with  slightly  turned  edges  and  a  handle ; 
it  is  in  very  general  use  for  removing  the 
earth  loosened  by  the  pickaxe.  Engineers 
and  working  parties  use  this  instrument 
very  commonly. 

Shoulder  Angle — In  fortification,  is 
the  angle  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the 
face  and  flank  of  a  bastion. 

Shrinkage — A  process  pursued  in  the 
manufacture  of  rifled  guns.  It  is  thus 
explained  in  the  '  Text-book  of  the  Manu- 
facture of  Rifled  Ordnance,'  by  Captains 
Storey  and  Jones,  R.A. : — 

"  When  two  coils  are  prepared  for 
shrinking,  that  is,  when  their  surfaces 
which  are  to  be  in  contact  are  brought 
to  their  proper  dimensions  and  to  the 
necessary  degree  of  smoothness,  the  ex- 
cess of  the  exterior  diameter,  AB,  of  the 
inner  one  above  the  interior  diameter, 
CD,  of  the  outer  one,  both  coils  being 
cold,  is  termed  '  the  shrinkage.'  " 

The  principle  of  shrinking  on  successive 
layers  of  wrought-iron  coils  affords  very 
great  strength  to  the  system  of  building 
up  guns,  since  by  its  aid  the  strain  of  dis- 
charge is  transmitted  to  the  very  exterior 


SHU 


382 


SIE 


of  the  gun,  which  thus  adds  its  quota  to 
the  resistance. 

Shunt  Gun — A  muzzle-loading  rifled 
cannon,  introduced  by  Sir  W.  Armstrong, 
on  \vhat  he  terms  the  shunt  principle. 
In  the  shunt  gun,  the  projectile  is  intro- 
duced into  the  piece  on  ribs  or  buttons, 
but  with  this  peculiarity,  that  the  projec- 
tile enters  by  one  set  of  grooves  and  comes 
out  by  another  set.  Or,  as  explained 
by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Owen,  "  when 
the  shunt  gun  is  loaded,  each  stud  presses 
against  the  loading  side  of  a  groove,  and 
runs  easily  home,  being  shunted  on  its 
way  down  into  the  narrow  portion  of  the 
groove ;  but  on  coming  out  again,  it 
presses  against  the  driving  side,  and  near 
the  muzzle  rises  up  the  incline  into  the 
shallow  part,  or  on  the  high  level,  and  so 
is  slightly  compressed ;  the  projectile 
therefore  leaves  the  bore  fitting  tightly, 
and  with  its  axis  stable." 

Sick  and  Wounded — Men  disabled, 
either  by  sickness  or  wounds. 

Hospitals  (q.  c.)  are  established  in  the 
army  for  the  better  care  of  the  sick  and 
wounded,  and  a  new  organisation  has  been 
approved,  for  attending  upon  the  wounded 
on  the  field,  by  means  of  ambulance  esta- 
blishments. All  slight  cases  of  illness  are 
attended  to  on  the  spot  by  regimental 
surgeons.  The  field  hospital  receives  all 
patients  who  require  more  careful  treat- 
ment and  diet  than  cases  of  an  infectious 
nature,  which  are  sent  to  a  hospital 
appointed  for  that  purpose.  All  regi- 
mental transport  for  the  conveyance  of 
sick  and  wounded  has  been  abolished. 

Sir  G.  Wolseley  states  that,  "  with  an 
army  actively  engaged  in  the  field,  the 
proportion  of  sick  and  wounded  to  the 
strength  of  the  force  may  be  estimated 
thus  :^ 

"Sick          ..  ..      10  per  cent. 

Wounded..          ..      16         „ 

Total  ..          ..     26  per  cent. 
"  But  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  provide 
hospital  accommodation  for — 

"Sick,  constant  dailv 


PI  I'll    BVWJUUUVUBV1UI1    ' 

'  Sick,  constant  daily 

average 
Sick,  reserve 
Wounded     after    a 

general     action 

Total       .. 


5  per  cent. 


15  per  cent." 


It  is  computed  that  the  proportion  of 
wounded  to  that  of  killed,  during  a 
general  action,  is  4  to  1.  (  Vide  Ambu- 
lance and  Geneva  Convention.) 

Sickleghar — An  Indian  term.  A  native 
of  India  employed  in  arsenals  for  cleaning 
metal  work. 

Side  Arms,  vide  Arms,  Side. 

Sidereal  Day,  vide  Day,  Apparent  Solar. 

Siege  (French,  s»fi;/e,  a  seat,  from  the  sit- 
ting down  of  an  army  before  a  beleaguered 
place) — A  siege  is  a  regular  organised 
attack  on  a  fortified  position,  by  means 
chiefly  of  artillery.  The  approach  to  the 
place  is  carried  on  under  cover  of 
trenches,  termed  parallels,  saps,  galleries, 
&c.  Since  the  introduction  of  rifled  guns 
several  changes  have  taken  place  in  siege 
operations,  such  as  the  mode  of  attack, 
the  position,  distance,  and  construction 
of  batteries,  the  opening  of  the  several 
parallels,  &c. — all  brought  about  by  the 
superior  fire  of  the  guns  and  small-arms 
of  the  present  day,  so  that  the  method 
hitherto  of  attacking  a  fortified  place  has 
had  to  some  extent  to  be  modified. 

The  capture  of  the  many  fortresses  in 
France  by  the  German  army  during  the 
war  of  1870-71  affords  many  instructive 
lessons  as  to  the  mode  to  be  adopted  in 
future  sieges. 

In  all  operations  attending  the  invest- 
meat  or  attack  of  a  fortress,  victory  must 
previously  have  crowned  the  arms  of  the 
investing  force ;  and  in  order  to  cap- 
ture the  fortress,  either  a  numerical  or 
moral  superiority  is  necessary.  The 
strength  of,  the  besieger's  force  should 
enable  it  to  surround  the  place  on  all  sides. 
In  this  position  the  besieger  is  liable, 
should  the  defender  be  in  force,  and  capa- 
ble of  giving  battle  outside  the  walls  of 
the  fortress,  to  fight  a  series  of  battles  be- 
fore the  besieged  are  driven  within  their 
stronghold.  During  this  period,  how- 
ever, a  good  reconnaissance  of  the  fortress 
can  and  should  be  made,  which  will  en- 
able the  general  of  the  besieging  force  to 
select  a  point  on  which  the  attack  is  to 
be  directed,  and  to  proceed  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  necessary  batteries  and 
approaches  to  aid  in  effecting  a  breach  and 
subsequently  an  entrance  into  the  place. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  the  point  of 
attack  should  be  decided  upon  from  the 
commencement  of  operations,  as  all  ulte- 


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383 


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rior  arrangements  depend  upon  it,  such 
as  the  extent  of  front  of  the  siege  works, 
and  the  measures  necessary  to  be  under- 
taken for  capturing  other  works  ;  and 
especially  is  the  siege  park  guided  by  it, 
as  well  as  the  position  of  intermediate 
depots,  £c.  In  these  days  of  railways  it 
is  recommended  that  the  choice  of  the 
front  of  attack  should  be  such  in  which 
a  railway  is  available  for  the  transport 
of  guns  and  ammunition,  which  are  now, 
from  their  size  and  weight,  not  so  easy 
to  move  as  formerly.  This  considera- 
tion is  most  necessary,  and  will  have 
great  weight  in  the  decision  of  the  point 
to  be  attacked,  so  much  so  that  it  is 
doubtful  whether  a  successful  attack 
could  be  made  on  a  large  fortress,  favour- 
ably situated  with  all  resources  at  its 
command,  and  gallantly  defended,  if  the 
besiegers  have  not  such  transport  at  their 
disposal.  This  has  reference  to  fortresses 
with  modern  appliances,  and  such  as 
would  be  found  in  future  sieges. 

From  the  moment  the  point  of  attack 
is  settled  upon,  the  object  of  the  besiegers 
will  be  to  construct  their  batteries  at 
such  distances  and  in  such  positions  as 
will  enable  them  to  effect  the  object  of 
the  operations,  viz.  making  a  feasible 
breach  in  the  ramparts  of  the  fortress. 
The  distance  at  which  the  besiegers'  guns 
will  be  opened  will  depend  upon  the 
energy  of  the  defence.  Should  the  be- 
sieged not  be  driven  within  the  fortress 
after  the  besiegers  appear  before  it,  for  a 
considerable  period,  the  first  position 
batteries  of  the  besiegers  will  have  to  be 
planted  at  distances  varying  from  1500 
to  2500  yards  from  the  works,  but  de- 
pendent also  upon  the  ground  and  the 
distance  the  enemy's  outposts  are  placed 
in  front  of  his  works. 

The  attack  of  a  place  is  a  succession  of 
making  and  moving  on  batteries  nearer  to 
the  place,  and  of  pushing  forward  the  out- 
posts until  the  ground  is  gained  on  which 
the  first  parallel  is  to  be  thrown  up,  which 
nowadays  would  be  constructed  at  some 
considerable  distance  from  the  fortress. 
This  distance  depends,  however,  upon  the 
position  of  the  outposts,  consequently  upon 
the  energy  of  the  defence,  and  upon  the 
ground.  It  is  suggested  by  Kraft,  Prince 
of  Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen,  "  that  if  the 
attack  is  opened  from  the  first  artillery 


position,  the  first  parallel  can  be  esta- 
blished with  greater  certainty  and  with 
less  loss,  by  gradually  pushing  forward 
the  outposts  up  to  the  ground  where 
the  first  parallel  is  to  be  opened,  throw- 
ing up  shelter  trenches  between  the  posi- 
tions of  the  outposts,  and  afterwards 
lengthening  and  widening  them  into  the 
first  parallel." 

After  fixing  the  first  parallel,  the  next 
step  will  be  to  establish  the  batteries  of 
the  second  artillery  position.  Those  of 
the  first  position  were  at  too  far  a  dis- 
tance to  insure  certainty  of  hitting,  so 
that  it  becomes  necessary  to  open  fire 
nearer  to  the  place.  The  batteries  now 
placed  include  those  for  direct,  ricochet, 
and  high-angle  firing,  counter  batteries, 
and  batteries  for  breaching  and  demo- 
litions. The  guns  used  for  high-angle 
firing  would  form  breaches  'by  curved 
fire,  and  act  as  counter  batteries  or  for 
demolitions.  The  distance  at  which  the 
second  position  of  guns  would  be  placed, 
would  be  somewhat  less  than  half  the 
distance  of  the  first.  Third  or  fourth 
parallels  are  constructed,  leading  on  to 
the  "  crowning."  Then  comes  the  ap- 
proach to  the  glacis  and  subsequent 
descent  into  the  ditch  and  the  passage  of 
the  ditch.  When  each  of  these  is  accom- 
plished,  the  breach  having  been  reported 
practicable,  the  storming  takes  place. 

The  duration  of  sieges  depends  on  cir- 
cumstances ;  some  fortresses  take  weeks 
and  months  to  reduce.  Though  the  pene- 
trating power  of  the  arms  which  would 
now  be  used  at  a  siege  is  far  greater  than 
it  used  to  be,  but  principles  in  carry- 
ing on  a  siege  remain  much  the  same  as 
they  were. 

The  following  information  on  com- 
mencing a  siege,  giving  a  general  idea  of 
the  number  of  men  and  quantity  of  mate- 
rial considered  necessary,  is  abridged  from 
Sir  John  Jones'  '  Peninsular  Sieges.' 

The  number  of  men  required  for  a 
siege  depends  on  certain  contingencies,  of 
which  the  general  in  command  is  alone 
capable  of  judging.  Certain  points  have 
to  be  looked  to  before  commencing  the 
siege,  such  as  how  many  reliefs  the 
troops  shall  have,  that  is,  the  propor- 
tion of  rest  to  duty,  and  the  strength 
of  the  force  with  reference  to  their 
ability  to  cope  with  the  garrison  of 


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384 


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the  place  to  be  attacked.  These  points 
being  ascertained,  the  detail  of  the 
work  to  be  performed  follows.  For 
the  guard  of  the  trenches,  three- 
fourths  of  the  strength  of  the  gar- 
rison should  be  the  minimum  calculation. 
This  duty  is  for  a  short  service  \vith  three 
reliefs.  The  workmen,  however,  cannot 
do  with  less  than  four  reliefs.  Supposing 
the  front  to  be  attacked  to  be  180  toises, 
with  a  ravelin,  and  the  length  of  the  first 
parallel  to  be  opened  the  first  night 
be  about  4000  yards,  it  would  require 


nearly  3000  men.  For  the  second  night 
after  operations  had  commenced,  the 
same  number  would  be  required  in  the 
trenches.  For  the  remainder  of  the  siege, 
much  fewer  will  suffice,  say  2000  men. 

Taking  into  account  also  the  number 
of  men  required  for  other  duties  of  the 
camp,  &c.,  it  is  calculated  that  one-tenth 
of  the  whole  army  would  be  employed 
in  conducting  the  siege.  It  may  be  as- 
sumed therefore  that  for  the  siege  of  a 
place  with  a  garrison  of  5000  men  the 
following  would  be  required  : — 


"Guard  of  the  trenches,  3750,  at  three  reliefs  .. 
Working  parties,  2000,  at  four  reliefs* 


11,250 
8,000 


19,250 

General  duties   of  the   camp,  one-tenth  of  the  whole  )     10  „„„ 
army,  at  four  reliefs  . .  . .  . .  •  •  /  _ 

Total,  independent  of  sick  and  casualties  . .       32,080" 


(Vide 
'  R.  M.  A. 
Instruction 
in  Fortifica- 
tion.') 


"  From  this  calculation,  it  is  evident, 
casteris  paribus,  that  the  more  numerous 
the  garrison  the  smaller  the  besieging 
army  need  be  in  proportion  to  it ;  for 
the  attack  of  a  similar  front  or  fronts  of 
fortification  is  little  different  if  the  place 
contain  a  garrison  of  5000  or  a  gar- 
rison of  10,000  men  ;  the  guards  of  the 
trenches  and  the  other  duties  increase 
proportionately,  but  the  work  does  not. 

"  Hence  it  is  that  the  most  celebrated 
commanders  and  best  engineers  are 
agreed  that,  as  a  general  principle,  the 
besieging  army  should  vary  in  its  pro- 
portion to  the  strength  of  the  garrison 
according  to  the  numbers  of  the  garri- 
son ;  and  as  an  approximation  have 
fixed  that  proportion  at  5  to  1  when  the 
garrison  consists  of  15,000  men,  6  to 
1  when  of  10,000  men,  7  to  1  when  of 
5000,  8  to  1  when  of  3000,  and  in  still 
greater  proportion  when  it  consists  of  a 
less  number." 

The  proportion  and  strength  of  artillery 
to  be  used  in  the  attack  of  a  fortress  or 
any  fortified  place  which  it  is  necessary 
to  capture,  either  by  bombardment  or 
breaching,  will  depend  on  a  variety  of 
contingencies,  such  as  the  size  of  the 
fortress,  its  strength,  the  number  of  guns 
in  the  place  to  be  captured,  &c. 


*  Would  require  nowadays  to  be  more  numerous. 


The  guns  which  form  the  siege 
artillery  of  the  British  army  will  be 
found  under  the  head  of  Siege  Train. 

Siege  Carriage,  vide  Carriage,  Siege. 

Siege  Park,  vide  Park,  Siege. 

Siege  Train — The  men,  guns,  and  mate- 
rial collected  together  for  the  conduct 
of  a  siege.  The  following  shows  the 
proportion  of  personnel  and  materiel  of  a 
siege  train  of  105  pieces : — 

55  rifled  64-prs.  |on  .ir^^S    'ar- 

20  rifled  40-  ,rs.         ™&*  WIth    sle§e 
(      limbers; 

30  rifled  8-iuch  howitzers  on  travel- 
ling carriages. 

The  number  of  rounds  per  gun,  as  well 
as  the  charges  to  be  employed,  varies 
according  as  these  are  intended  for  direct, 
ricochet,  or  curved  fire.  Ten  per  cent, 
spare  fuzes  and  20  per  cent,  spare  tubes, 
and  a  number  of  extra  barrels  of  powder, 
should  be  allowed  and  provided  above 
that  which  may  have  been  calculated  as 
adequate  to  the  quantity  of  projectiles 
required.  Besides  these,  a  large  pro-, 
portion  of  gyns,  handspikes,  skidding, 
tackles,  &c.  are  provided.  A  train  of 
the  above  nature  would  be  also  supple- 
mented by  mortars. 

The  number  of  men  required  for  a 
sioge  equipment  is  computed  to  be  as 
follows.  Allowing  10  men  per  gun,  5  for 
large  mortar,  and  3  for  small  mortar,  the 


SIE 


385 


SIG 


proportion  for  three  reliefs,  exclusive  of 
magazine  and  store  duties,  and  a  reserve 
to  replace  casualties,  would  be : — 
30  men  per  gun  ; 
15     „     per  large  mortar ; 
9    ,,     per  small  mortar. 

Siege  Wagon — A  general  service  wagon 
fitted  with  movable  trays  for  shot  and 
shell. 

Sieve — A  netted  utensil  for  separating 
the  smaller  particles  of  substances  from 
the  grosser.  In  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder, sieves  are  indispensable  for 
separating  the  different  sizes  of  grain. 
They  are  made  of  wire  of  different 
dimensions,  and  are  known  by  the  number 
of  meshes  to  the  linear  inch. 

Sight,  Eye — The  power  the  eye  has  of 
distinguishing  objects  far  and  near.  In 
judging  distances,  good  eyesight  is  most 
necessary ;  in  fact,  defect  in  a  soldier's 
vision  renders  him  unable  to  shoot,  and 
no  recruit  should  be  admitted  into  the 
service  if  the  power  of  his  eyesight  is  not 
adequate  to  meet  the  demand  made  upon 
it  consequent  on  the  increased  range  of 
small-arms  of  the  present  day,  the  length 
of  which  is  about  1000  yards.  This  maxi- 
mum range,  or  even  an  intermediate  one, 
requires  that  the  soldier  who  uses  such 
weapons  shall  have  a  clear  vision,  and 
shall  be  able  to  judge  correctly  the  dis- 
tance of  an  object,  the  size  of  a  man,  in 
any  position  up  to  that  extent  of  range. 

The  medical  officer  who  examines  the 
recruit  is  able  to  judge  of  his  fitness 
or  otherwise  for  the  service  as  regards 
his  eyesight,  and  is  responsible  that, 
before  the  recruit  is  admitted,  he  has 
undergone  the  examination  and  test  laid 
down  in  the  '  Manual  of  Instruction  on 
Defective  Vision,'  published  by  Surgeon- 
General  Longmore,  C.B. 

The  original  order  on  the  subject  of  the 
examination  stated  "  that  men  should 
not  be  received  into  the  service  who  do 
not  see  well,  to  600  yards  at  least,  a 
black  centre  3  feet  in  diameter  on  a 
white  ground."  The  question  then  arose 
how  this  test  was  to  be  carried  out. 
Surgeon-General  Longmore  devised  a 
measure  by  means  of  test-dots  painted 
on  black  discs,  which,  when  held  at  a 
given  distance,  formed  retinal  images  of 
the  same  size  as  the  bull's-eye,  3  feet  in 
diameter,  at  600  yards  distance.  The 


size  of  each  of  the  discs  or  test-dots  was 

1  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  distance  at 
which  it  was  to  be  held  was  10  feet.    This 
was  considered  a  convenient  distance,  as 
the  size  of  the  small  test-dot  was  found 
by  a  simple  calculation  of  proportion,  viz. 
as  600  yards  :  3  feet  :  :  10  feet  :  \  inch. 

The  visual  angle  of  the  dot'  \  inch 
in  diameter  at  10  feet,  then,  being  the 
same  as  that  of  the  large  bull's-eye 
3  feet  in  diameter  at  600  yards,  it  fol- 
lowed, other  conditions  being  alike,  that, 
if  the  recruit  could  distinguish  clearly 
the  small  bull's-eye  at  10  feet  distance, 
he  could  equally  see  the  3-foot  bull's- 
eye  at  600  yards.  The  bull's-eyes  were 
subsequently  changed  from  circular  to 
rectangular,*  and  the  bull's-eye  became 

2  feet  square,  which  the  recruit  was   to 
see  under  the  same  circumstances  as  he 
before  had  looked    at  the  round  3-foot 
centre  ;  but  to  do  this,  the  test-dots  had 
to  be  held  at  a  distance  of  15  feet  from 
the  recruit. 

It  is  shown  in  the  'Artillerist's  Manual ' 
that  good  eyesight  recognises  masses  of 
troops  at  1700  yards.  At  1300  yards, 
infantry  may  be  distinguished  from 
cavalry,  and  the  movements  of  troops 
may  be  seen,  but  the  horses  of  cavalry 
are  not  quite  distinct.  A  single  indi- 
vidual maybe  seen  at  1100  yards,  but 
his  head  does  not  appear  as  a  round  ball 
beyond  700  yards.  At  600  yards,  white 
cross-belts  may  be  seen.  At  500  yards, 
the  face  seems  a  light-coloured  spot;  the 
uniform,  head,  body,  arms,  and  their 
movements,  can  be  made  out.  At  250 
yards,  buttons  may  be  seen,  and  officers 
distinguished  from  men.  Officers  with 
bright  scabbards  and  men  with  fixed 
bayonets  can  be  discovered,  on  a  clear 
day,  at  a  distance  of  1500  yards. 

Sight,  Line  of,  vide  Line  of  Sight. 

Sights — Small  pieces  of  metal,  fixed  or 
movable,  on  the  breech,  muzzle,  centre, 
or  trunnions  of  a  gun,  or  on  the  breech 
and  the  muzzle  of  a  rifle,  pistol,  &c.,  by 
means  of  which  a  gun  is  levelled,  on  the 
object  to  be  struck. 

In  smooth-bore  guns,  quarter-sights 
are  cut  on  the  upper  quarter  of  the 
base  ring,  and  numbered  up  to  3°. 


*  They   have    again   been   changed  back  to 
circular.    (_  Vide  Addenda,  Musketry  Drill.) 
2  c 


SIG 


386 


SIG 


The  mode  of  elevating  the  gun  is  by 
bringing  the  division  on  the  base  ring 
expressing  the  required  degree  of  ele- 
vation and  the  notch  on  the  side  of  the 
muzzle  in  direct  line  with  the  object ;  the 
gun  will  then  have  the  proper  degree  of 
elevation.  To  lay  the  gun  point-blank, 
the  lowest  notch  on  the  base  ring  and 
that  on  the  side  of  the  muzzle  are 
brought  directly  in  line  with  the  object ; 
and  though  the  gun  may  have  been  laid 
point-blank  with  reference  to  the  object, 
it  may  have  several  degrees  of  elevation 
or  depression  with  regard  to  the  ground 
or  plane  of  the  horizon. 

Heavy  smooth-bore  ordnance  are  pro- 
vided with  Millar's  sights,  which  con- 
sist of  a  graduated  tangent  scale  at  the 
breech,  and  a  dispart  sight  in  front  of  the 
second  reinforce.  A  wooden  tangent  scale 
is  also  used  for  elevation  over  the  clear- 
ance angle. 

Heavy  B.L.R.  guns  (Armstrong)  are 
sighted  with  a  barrel-headed  and  a  trun- 
nion sight  on  each  side  of  the  piece ;  the 
barrel-headed  sight  is  held  in  a  tangent 
ring  or  in  a  socket  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  gun,  the  slots  of  the  tangent  ring 
inclining  to  the  left  at  an  angle  of  2°  16'. 

A  barrel-headed  sijht  consists  of  a  bar, 
elevating-nut,  cross-head,  two  thumb- 
screws, and  leaf.  The  whole  is  made  of 
gun-metal,  except  the  bar,  which  in 
most  guns  is  made  of  steel.  The  bar  is 
graduated  on  one  side  in  degrees,  on  the 
other  in  yards.  The  degrees  are  divided 
into  6  parts  of  10'  each,  and  any 
number  of  minutes  up  to  10'  each  can 
be  given.  The  cross-head  is  horizontal, 
and  is  graduated  to  give  £°  of  deflection 
either  to  the  right  or  left,  and  this  £°  is 
also  divided  into  three  parts  of  10'  each 
on  both  sides ;  at  each  end  of  the  slide  is 
a  graduated  nut  divided  into  minutes  up 
to  10',  and  these  nuts  are  connected  by  a 
screw  crossing  the  bar  at  right  angles. 
A  leaf  with  the  sight-notch  slides  along 
the  scale,  and  can  be  moved  either  right 
or  left  by  either  nut.  These  sights  will 
become  obsolete,  on  the  guns  to  which 
they  are  attached  being  no  longer  re- 
quired. 

The  trunnion-sight  is  of  two  kinds, 
viz.  drop-sight  and  scrciced-in  sight.  Cer- 
tain guns  have  the  former,  other  guns 
the  latter.  The  drop-sight  consists  of  a 


gun-metal  socket,  collar,  and  pillnr,  and 
a  steel  leaf.  The  socket  fits  into  the  gun, 
the  collar  locks  into  the  socket,  and  the 
pillar,  at  the  top  of  which  the  leaf  is 
screwed,  fits  into  the  collar.  The 
screwed-in  sight  is  made  of  steel,  and  has 
a  steel  leaf  dove-tailed  into  its  top  and 
screwed  into  a  hole  above  the  trunnion. 
The  leaf  is  hog-backed  in  shape,  and  its 
rear  surface  roughened  to  prevent  the 
reflection  of  the  light  interfering  with 
laying  the  gun. 

The  sights  attached  to  heavy  M.L.R. 
guns  are  very  similar  to  those  of  breech- 
loaders, with  this  difference,  that,  instead 
of  the  barrel-headed  sight,  they  have  a 
simple  cross-head  with  sliding-leaf  and 
clamping-screw  attached  to  the  tangent 
sii/ht  bar.  This  sliding-leaf  head  gives 
30'  deflection  right  or  left,  and  is  only 
for  use  when  one  wheel  is  higher  thnn 
another,  or  to  allow  for  wind  or  some  other 
inaccuracy.  They  have  also  a  trunnion 
fore  (drop)  sight  on  each  side  of  the  gun, 
an  hexagonal  tangent  scale  graduated  to 
5°,  and  a  dispart  or  fore  (drop)  sight  on 
top  of  the  piece ;  the  breech  tangent 
sights  fit  into  sockets  let  into  the  side 
of  the  breech,  and  are  inclined  to  the 
left,  like  those  of  a  B.L.R.  gun,  but  at 
different  angles,  the  inclination  of  sight 
for  the  7- inch  gun  being  3°,  for  the 
8-inch  23',  for  the  9-inch  44',  and  for 
the  10-inch  1°  10'. 

The  64-pr.  and  80-pr.  converted  guns 
are  each  provided  with  a  breech  and 
trunnion  sight  on  each  side  of  the  gun, 
but  they  have  no  top  sights  ;  a  wood  side 
scale  is  also  supplied. 

The  64-pr.  wedge-gun  (Armstrong) 
has  an  hexagonal  brass  sight  (tangent 
scale),  graduated  to  5°,  and  a  dispart 
or  fore  (drop)  sight ;  the  former  on  the 
top  of  the  breech,  the  latter  on  the  top 
of  the  trunnion-ring. 

The  40-pr.  and  25-pr.  are  side-sighted, 
having  two  tangent  sights  and  screw 
trunnion  sights  of  the  usual  pattern. 

The  field  guns  are  sighted  as  follows. 
The  16-pr.  is  side-sighted,  and  has  two 
tangent  sights  set  at  1°  50'  to  the  left, 
and  two  steel  trunnion  sights  screwed  in. 
The  tangent  sights  have  rectangular  steel 
bars  with  gun -metal  sliding-leaf  heads, 
and  are  graduated  with  degree,  yard, 
and  fuze  scales. 


SIG 


387 


SKI 


The  9-pr.  is  central-sighted.  Its  tan- 
gent scale  is  inclined  at  1°  30',  and  is 
graduated  to  6°  and  12°,  each  degree 
being  subdivided  into  20  divisions  of  3' 
each.  There  is  also  a  deflection  scale 
graduated  to  30'.  The  fore-sight  is  a 
small  hog-backed  sight,  screwed  into  a 
recess  in  the  dispart  patch. 

The  7-pr.  M.L.R.  gun  is  also  central- 
sighted.  The  tangent  scale  is  inclined  to 
3°,  and  has  a  plain  head  and  no  deflection 
scale  ;  it  is  graduated  up  to  12°. 

Small-arms  are  provided  with  two 
sights,  viz.  fore-sight  and  back-sight.  The 
latter  consists  of  a  flap  and  a  slide, 
which  in  the  Martini-Henry  is  sighted  to 
1400  yards. 

Signal — Any  motion  given  by  a  sign. 
Signals  in  time  of  war  are  agreed  upon 
for  conveying  intelligence  to  the  different 
portions  of  an  army  previous  to  an  attack 
or  assault,  so  as  to  insure  the  movements 
allotted  to  each  corps  being  carried  on 
simultaneously.  These  signals  may  be 
given  in  various  ways,  as  by  the  dis- 
charge of  a  gun,  by  signal  rockets  (a.  c.), 
&c. 

Signal  Lights,  vide  Light. 

Signal  Rockets,  vide  Rocket. 

Signalling,  vide  Telegraphy. 

Signs,  Conventional  —  Symbols  used 
in  topography  to  denote  certain  features 
of  the  ground  which  could  not  be  other- 
wise shown.  Thus,  in  the  English  survey 
maps,  bridges  are  represented  by  two 
parallel  lines  with  their  ends  bent  out- 
wards, churches  are  marked  with  a  cross, 
railroads  by  thick  parallel  lines  connected 
by  thin  cross  lines. 

Silence,  To — In  an  action,  "  to  silence 
the  fire  "  of  the  enemy's  guns  is  to  dis- 
able his  artillery  in  such  a  way  that  he 
is  unable  to  reply. 

Silk  Cloth — A  material  now  used  for 
cartridges  of  rifled  guns  in  lieu  of 
serge. 

Sill,  ride  Embrasure. 

Simultaneous  Loading,  vide  Loading, 
Simultaneous. 

Sine — In  geometry,  a  right  line  drawn 
from  one  end  of  an  arc  perpendicular 
to  the  radius  passing  through  the  other 
end.  The  sine  of  a  quadrant  90°  is  equal 
to  the  radius. 

Single  Lever  Bridge,  and  Single  Truss 
Bridge,  vide  Spar  Bridge. 


Sinnet — A  kind  of  knittle  or  line  used 
as  a  seizing. 

Sissoo  (Dalbergia  Sissoo) — A  wood  used 
in  India  in  the  construction  of  ordnance 
carriages  and  other  work.  As  described 
by  Conductor  Skinner,  the  wood  is  close- 
grained,  hard,  and  flexible,  of  a  dark 
purple  colour  fading  to  brown.  A  cubic 
foot  of  unseasoned  wood  weighs  from  60 
to  65  Ibs. 

Skeleton — The  framework  of  anything. 
In  a  military  sense,  the  term  is  applied 
to  the  diminished  state  of  a  regiment  from 
casualties  in  the  field  or  from  sickness. 

The  term  is  also  applied,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  word  drill,  to  skeleton  drill, 
which  is  a  method  of  instructing  officers 
and  non-commissioned  officers  in  drill, 
when  a  sufficient  number  of  men  cannot 
be  collected  to  form  a  battalion  in  single 
rank.  As  explained  in  the  '  Field  Exer- 
cises and  Evolutions  of  the  Infantry,'  a 
skeleton  battalion  is  formed  of  companies 
composed  of  two,  four,  or  eight  men 
each,  representing,  if  there  are  two,  the 
flanks  of  the  company  ;  if  there  are  four, 
the  flanks  of  half-companies ;  if  there 
are  eight,  the  flanks  of  sections.  The  in- 
tervals between  the  flanks  are  preserved 
by  means  of  a  piece  of  rope  held  at  the 
ends  to  its  full  extent.  By  this  means 
any  set  or  number  of  manoeuvres  may 
be  performed. 

Skids — Slabs  of  wood  or  iron  of  vari- 
ous dimensions  placed  under  guns  and 
stores  to  keep  them  off  the  ground  ;  they 
are  also  placed  under  guns  on  being 
moved ;  and  under  such  circumstances, 
when  not  moved  by  parbuckling,  the 
skids  should  be  watered. 

Skin,  Lamb — The  skin  of  a  lamb;  it 
is  used  in  a  standing  battery  to  put 
over  the  muzzle  of  a  mortar  or  howitzer 
to  prevent  the  fuze  being  ignited  from 
sparks  falling  into  the  bore,  also  for 
wiping  the  bottoms  of  shells  to  free 
them  from  all  sand  and  dirt  that  may 
have  clung  to  them  before  loading. 

Lamb  skins  are  also  used  for  mounted 
corps,  and  are  placed  over  the  shabraque, 
and  also  as  a  covering  for  the  valise. 

Skins,  vide  Leather. 

Skirmishers — Soldiers  acting  in  a  loose 
and  dispersed  order  in  front  of  a  battalion 
or  body  of  troops :  they  form  the  first 
line  of  battle. 

2  c  2 


SLA 


388 


SLI 


The  employment  of  skirmishers  dates 
from  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution, 
when  France,  assailed  on  all  sides,  supplied 
great  numbers  of  conscripts,  who,  from 
want  of  instruction  and  practice  in 
discipline,  were  thrown  out  to  fight  in  a 
loose  order,  where  coherence  and  precision 
were  not  so  much  wanted  as  intelligence 
and  courage.  (  Vide  Light  Infantry.) 

Since  then,  skirmishing  has  become 
one  of  the  formations  of  the  line  of  battle, 
used  in  all  modern  wars,  but  it  has  lost 
the  demonstrative  character  it  formerly 
possessed,  when  it  was  simply  utilised  to 
engage  and  sustain  the  action,  to  clear  up 
the  situation,  and  to  consume  the  strength 
of  the  enemy.  The  great  power  of  rirled 
weapons  has  rendered  skirmishing  more 
decisive,  or,  at  least,  has  made  skir- 
mishers the  most  important  actors  in 
a  battle;  it  is  upon  skirmishers  that 
now  devolves  the  task  of  bringing  on  the 
satisfactory  issues  of  a  battle. 

The  experience  of  the  war  of  1870-71 
has  shown  that  it  is  not  sufficient  for  troops 
fighting  on  the  first  line  to  deploy  one- 
third  alone  of  their  effective  numbers, 
keeping  the  remaining  part  as  a  reserve. 
On  isolated  occasions  during  this  war, 
the  tenacious  employment  on  the  part  of 
the  Germans  of  the  close-order  system,  as 
well  as  a  too  extensive  dispersion  of  their 
first  line,  proved  disastrous,  and  made 
them  adopt  a  formation  which  has  been 
generally  introduced  into  other  armies.  It 
was  found  necessary  to  deploy  long  lines 
of  skirmishers,  "  clouds  of  skirmishers," 
amounting  to  many  thousands  of  men,  to 
lead  them  on  to  the  .decisive  point,  to 
make  them  strike  at  the  enemy's  weakest 
position,  and  to  penetrate  therein  by .  a 
vigorous  attack. 

Skirmishers,  to  perform  their  work 
satisfactorily,  must  act  together  and  with 
vigour,  either  to  break  the  enemy's  lines 
or  to  repulse,  according  to  circumstances, 
the  counter  attacks  of  the  enemy ;  they 
must  be  maintained  in  a  regular  order, 
"  order  in  disorder,"  as  a  foreign  writer 
expresses  it,  and  be  regularly  reinforced 
by  the  supports,  which,  being  placed  at  a 
certain  distance  behind  them,  are  always 
ready  to  advance  and  feed  the  first  line 
when  the  time  comes. 

To  prepare  for  the  final  charge,  by 
crushing  the  enemy  with  their  fire,  is  the 


first  aim  of  skirmishers ;  to  support  them 
when  weakened,  to  push  their  line  by 
successive  bounds  till  they  reach  the 
enemy's  positions,  is  the  duty  of  the 
supports.  The  reserve  follows  in  rear, 
becoming  in  its  turn  supports,  according 
to  circumstances,  ultimately  joining  the 
skirmishers  in  the  last  attack,  assisting  in 
penetrating  the  enemy's  position,  striking 
the  final  blow,  and  in  pursuing  the  enemy 
with  its  fire. 

Slat  Bar — The  bar  of  a  siege  howitzer 
limber  between  the  splinter  bar  and 
bolster,  and  connecting  the  futchels. 

Sledge  Hammer,  vide  Hammer. 

Sleepers — Form  part  of  a  gun  plat- 
form on  which  the  flooring  of  the  plat- 
form is  laid,  and  to  which  it  is  fastened 
either  by  screws,  spikes,  or  rack-lash- 
ings. Sleepers  must  be  well  embedded 
in  cuts  or  trenches,  and  firmly  fixed  or 
pinned  into  the  earth,  then  covered  with 
planks,  and  finally  completed  with 
ribands  and  rack-lashings  (<?.  c.)  on  each 
side. 

Sleigh — A  particular  pattern  of  car- 
riage used  for  the  transport  of  artil- 
liery  in  countries  where  much  snow 
falls,  such  as  in  Canada.  The  carriages 
of  the  country  are  termed  "  sleds,"  and 
when  artillery  was  sent  to  Canada  in 
1862,  the  sleds  were  found  very  useful 
and  better  adapted  than  our  sleighs. 
The  term  sleigh  is  also  given  to  the  car- 
riage on  which  heavy  guns  are  moved  in 
store.  The  mode  of  moving  this  nature 
of  carriage  is  by  means  of  rollers  placed 
underneath  the  sleigh  and  worked  by 
hand-spikes. 

Slew,  To — To  slew  a  gun  or  mortar, 
strictly  speaking,  is  to  turn  it  on  its  axis 
without  moving  it  from  the  spot  on 
which  it  rests.  This  is  called  "  slewing 
the  trunnions."  If  the  piece  to  be  slewed 
rests  on  skids,  a  hand-spike  is  placed 
close  to  it  on  each  skid,  bevel  up,  and  on 
that  side  of  it  towards  which  it  is  to  be 
turned.  This  is  then  called  "  scotching/' 
or  "  chocking." 

Slide -rest  —  An  appendage  to  the 
turning-lathe,  so  contrived  as  to  hold  a 
tool  firmly  to  the  work,  and  while  cut- 
ting a  shaving  from  the  bar  in  the 
lathe,  the  tool  is  slid  gently  along  and 
the  bar  is  turned  quite  true.  There 
are  two  slides  to  the  rest,  by  the 


SLI 


389 


SLI 


separate  or  combined  motions  of  which 
the  tool  can  be  made  to  act  along  or 
across  the  work  with  great  accuracy ; 
the  attendance  of  a  workman  may  even 
he  dispensed  with,  by  attaching  a  star 
to  the  wheel,  and  an  iron  Jin/er  to  the 
end  of  the  work  in  the  lathe :  as  the 
work  revolves,  the  finger  will  bear  down 
one  of  the  points  of  the  star,  the  effect 
of  which  is  the  same  as  turning  the 
screw  handle,  by  which  the  tool  is  moved 
along  the  surface  of  the  work. 

Slide-valve — A  form  of  valve  in 
which  the  opening  and  closing  of  the 
orifice  is  regulated  by  a  gliding-plate, 
Its  most  common  application  is  to  the 
steam-engine,  to  govern  the  admittance 
of  steam  to  and  from  the  cylinder,  its 
movements  being  controlled  by  a  moving 
part  of  the  engine  called  the  eccentric. 

Sling — A  weapon  used  in  the  earliest 
ages.  It  consisted  of  a  piece  of  leather 
with  a  round  hole  in  the  middle  and  two 
cords  or  strings,  a  round  pebble  being 
hung  in  the  leather  by  the  cords;  the 
strings  were  held  firmlv  in  the  right 
hand  and  swung  rapidly  round.  The 
velocity  communicated  to  the  pebble  was 
very  great,  and  the  range  and  force  im- 
parted much  greater  than  could  be  given 
to  it  by  the  hand  unaided.  This  weapon 
was  in  very  general  use  before  the  intro- 
duction of  fire-arms.  It  was  used  by  the 
Saxons  at  the  battle  of  Hastings. 

The  name  sling  is  also  given  to  a  rope 
or  band  by  which  anything  is  suspended. 
In  the  artillery  service  it  is  very  com- 
monly used  for  hoisting  guns,  &c. 

Sling  Cart — A  special  kind  of  cart  for 
moving  heavy  guns,  not  exceeding  65 
cwt.,  and  for  8-  and  10-inch  mortars,  on 
hard  and  level  roads.  It  weighs  15  cwt., 
and  is  a  two-wheeled  carriage,  having 
wheels  7  feet  in  diameter.  The  gun  is 
slung  below  the  cart. 

Sling,  Gun — A  sling  for  lifting  a  gun 
off  its  carriage  or  off  the  ground  when 
placed  under  a  gyn  or  other  lifting 
machine.  It  is  formed  by  splicing  the 
ends  of  a  length  of  white  rope  together, 
the  dimensions  of  the  rope  varying  with 
the  weight  to  be  lifted.  For  very  heavy 
guns,  chain  slings  are  used. 

Guns  should  invariably  be  slung  as 
short  as  possible.  This  becomes  abso- 
lutely necessary  when  heavy  guns  are  to 


be  raised,  otherwise  the  tackle  will  be 
"  chock-a-block  "  before  the  gun  is  suffi- 
ciently high  to  admit  of  the  trunnions 
clearing  the  carriage. 

Sling,  Shot — A  sling  for  carrying 
heavy  shot  or  shell.  It  is  made  of  can- 
vas or  gunny  cloth. 

Sling  Wagon — A  wagon  made  of 
wood  or  iron.  It  is  employed  in  moving 
heavy  ordnance,  standing  carriages,  and 
traversing  platforms,  to  longer  distances 
than  a  sling  cart  is  capable  of  doing. 
There  are  several  sling  wagons  in  the  ser- 
vice, capable  of  carrying  from  6  up  to  2;> 
tons  and  even  greater  weights.  Each 
is  fitted  with  a  windlass.  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Owen,  in  his  'Modern  Artillery,' 
thus  describes  the  sling  wagon  made 
of  wood  :  —  "  The  ordinary  sliny  waijon 
consists  of  a  wooden  frame  ami  perch, 
the  eye  of  which  hooks  into  a  straight, 
pintail  on  the  limber,  thus  forming 
a  four-wheel  carriage  ;  it  has  a  wind- 
lass over  the  axle-tree,  worked  by  levers, 
for  raising  the  gun  or  mortar,  the  trun- 
nions of  which  are  supported  by  iron 
tldmbles  and  a  sling  of  6-inch  rope.  The 
wheels  are  7  feet  in  diameter,  and  the 
gun  is  slung  below  the  wagon  with  its 
muzzle  to  the  rear,  the  breech  being 
lashed  up  to  the  perch  ;  besides  the  gun, 
its  carriage  is  also  carried  over  the 
perch." 

The  iron  sling  wagon  is  of  the  same 
general  form  as  the  wood  wagon  in  the 
body  and  limber. 

Slips — Wrought-iron  cylindrical  cases 
about  4£   feet  long  by  2  feet  5  inches  in 
diameter,  in  which  wood  for  gunpowder 
purposes  is  distilled  ;  the  .cases  are  fitted 
with  lids,  and  are  made  to  fit  into  iron 
retorts,  which  are  imbedded  in  masonry 
in  such    a   manner    that  the  heated  air 
from   the  furnace    shall  circulate   freely 
round  them,  and  thus  convey  an  equable 
heat  to  all  parts  of  the  retort  through- 
out the  operation  of  charring.     In  each 
slip  there  are  two  holes,  which  correspond 
j  with    similar    holes    in    the    retort,    and 
j  through  which  the  gases  from  the  wood 
!  pass    off   in    the    process    of  distillation. 
The  charge    of   dhall    stalk   (the    wood 
used  in    India)  for  a  slip  depends  upon 
the   size   of  the  wood.     If  of  large  size. 
j  the    slip    will    hold    150    Ibs.,  medium 
70  Ibs.,  and  small  size  50  Ibs. 


SLO 


390 


SMA 


Slopes  —  In  fortification,  the  inclina- 
tion given  to  the  earth  in  the  formation 
of  the    ramparts  and    parapets,  such  as 
the  exterior  and  interior  slopes  (q.  v.),  and 
expressed    usually  by  fractions  in  which 
the  numerator  represents  the  height  and  I 
the  denominator  the  base  of  the  slope,  i 
Thus  a  slope  described  as  f  (or  verbally  as  I 
two  in  one)  is  one  in  which  the  vertical  j 
height  is  twice  the  base  ;  whilst  that  ex- 
pressed by  ^  (or  verbally  as  one  in  two) 
is.  on  the    contrary,  one    in  which    the 
base  is  double  the  vertical  height. 

Slopes  of   hills  or   mountains   are  es- 1 
pressed    in    topography    by    vertical    or . 
horizontal  hachures.    Uphill  at  15°,  slopes  , 
are    accessible    for    guns,    but    at    that  I 
degree  their   fire    would    be  useless ;    at  i 
30°,  it  would  be  difficult  for  cavalry  to 
ascend,    and  at   10°  to  charge ;   at  20°, 
infantry  cannot    ascend     in    order,    but 
slopes  are  accessible  for  skirmishers  at 
45°,    at    60°   inaccessible    for    infantry. 
Downhill,  they  are  suitable  for  attack  or 
defence  for  infantry  at  1 0°.  artillery  4°, 
and  cavalry  not  more  than  5°. 

Slot — A  long  cut  or  narrow  opening, 
cut  in  metal  by  means  of  a  slotting 
machine.  The  application  of  the  slot 
may  be  seen  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  Armstrong  gun  in  the  cut  made  for 
the  introduction  and  removal  of  the  vent 
piece ;  in  various  other  metal  work  slot- 
ting is  commonly  employed. 

Slotting  Machine — As  described  in 
Brande  and  Cox's  '  Dictionary.'  is  a 
machine  in  which  a  tool  moves  vertically, 
in  the  manner  of  a  mortising  chisel,  so 
as  to  cut  out  slots  or  mortises,  or  to  pare 
round  the  edge  of  any  object  requiring 
to  be  made  fair  and  smooth  on  the  edge. 
Slotting  machines  are  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  purposes. 

Slow  Time — A  pace  of  13  inches  and 
of  75  paces  a  minute,  which  is  taught  to 
recruits  and  marched  at  funerals.  The 
instruction  given  in  manual  and  firing 
exercises  is  performed  in  slow  time. 

Slow-match,  vide  Match. 

Slags — Cylindrical  or  cubical  pieces 
of  metal  fired  from  a  gun,  rifle,  &c. 
(  Vide  Cartridge,  Buck-shot.) 

Sluice  (German,  Schleuse,  from  schliessen, 
to  close) — A  flood-gate  for  regulating  the 
flow  of  water.  It  is  made  either  of  wood 
or  iron,  usually  sliding  in  a  vertical  frame. 


Sluice  Gate  —  In  fortification,  is  a 
strong  vertically  sliding  door,  placed  in  a 
batterdeau,  to  regulate  the  flowing  of 
the  water  in  the  ditch.  Sluice  gates  arc- 
used  besides  for  retaining  and  raising  the 
water  of  a  river  or  canal,  and,  when 
necessary,  to  give  it  vent. 

Small-arm  Ammunition — The  ammu- 
nition used  in  the  various  small-arms  of 
the  service.  It  is  now  confined  to  the 
Martini-Henry  rifle,  Snider-Enfield,  long 
and  short,  Lancaster,  and  Westley- 
Richards  rifles.  (Vide  Appendix  F.) 
In  England,  small-arm  ammunition  is 
made  up  at  Woolwich ;  in  India,  at  the 
factories  in  Bengal  and  Bombay. 

Small-arms — Include  all  hand  weapons, 
whether  fire-arms  or  otherwise,  such  as 
muskets,  rifles,  carbines,  pistols,  swords, 
bayonets,  lances,  &c.,  a  description  of 
which  will  be  found  under  their  re- 
spective heads.  The  latest  introduction  is 
the  Martini-Henry  rifle,  with  which  the 
British  army  is  supplied.  (Vide  Ap- 
pendix F.) 

Small-arm  Cartridge,  vide  Cartridge. 
Small-arm. 

Small-arms  Factories,  Royal— Esta- 
blishments in  which  the  small-arms  of 
the  service  are  made,  viewed,  and  re- 
paired. The  English  government  has  a 
factory  at  Enfield,  where  the  arms 
issued  to  the  regular  and  auxiliary 
army  are  made,  the  factory  being 
able,  when  in  full  work,  to  turn  out, 
daily,  a  thousand  and  upwards  of  com- 
plete arms,  tested  and  ready  for  use ;  at 
Birmingham,  the  government  has  also 
a  large  establishment  for  viewing  the 
arms  supplied  by  contract,  and  at  Pimlico 
there  is  an  establishment  for  repairing 
damaged  arms,  and  for  training  armourer 
sergeants  for  detached  service  with  re- 
giments. All  arms  are  made  on  the 
interchangeable  system,  so  that  the  parts 
of  any  one  rifle  will  fit  the  parts  of  any 
other  when  thrown  promiscuously  to- 
gether. 

Smart  Money — A  sum  paid  by  a  re- 
cruit to  free  himself  from  his  engage- 
ment. This  is  done  in  the  presence  of  a 
magistrate,  and  previous  to  attestation. 
The  amount  is  20s.,  which  includes  the 
enlisting  shilling ;  the  enlisting  ser- 
geant receives  one-half  (9s.  6d.),  the 
remainder  is  credited  to  the  public. 


SME 


391 


SNA 


When  a  recruit  is  illegally  or  irregu- 
larly enlisted  or  attested,  he  is  discharged 
with  a  protecting  certificate,  and  the 
expenses  are  debited  against  the  officer 
who  signed  the  attestation. 

A  protecting  certificate  is  always  given 
to  a  discharged  recruit  to  prevent  his 
being  apprehended  as  a  deserter. 

A  recruit  cannot  legally  be  attested 
until  24^  hours  have  elapsed  from  re- 
ceipt of  the  enlisting  shilling ;  he  can 
claim  itoi  hours' grace  before  attestation, 
if  the  enlister  neglects  to  have  him 
attested  within  %  hours  after  enlist- 
ment, the  engagement  is  void  and  the 
recruit  free. 

Sundays,  Christmas  Day,  and  Good 
Friday,  do  not  count  as  time  against  a 
recruit,  though  he  may,  if  he  wishes, 
allow  them  to  count ;  thus  a  recruit 
unlisted  on  Saturday  night  cannot  be 
attested  against  his  will  on  the  following 
Monday,  although,  if  willing,  he  may  be 
attested. 

Smelting — The  process  of  separating 
metals  from  the  earthy  and  other  matters 
with  which  they  are  combined  in  the 
state  of  ore. 

Smoke-ball — Consists  of  a  paper  shell 
having  one  vent  (the  thickness  of  the 
paper  depending  on  the  nature  of  the 
shell) ;  the  shell  is  filled  with  a  com- 
position which,  upon  igniting,  evolves 
a  large  volume  of  smoke.  It  is  thrown 
into  mines  or  other  confined  situations, 
to  suffocate  the  enemy's  working  parties. 
It  has  also  been  used  as  a  signal  in  the 
Arctic  regions. 

Smoothing  Plane — A  small  hand  plane 
without  a  handle  or  toat.  It  is  used  for 
smoothing  the  surfaces  of  bodies. 

Snaffle — A  horse's  bit,  and  the  most 
common  bit  in  use. 

Snaking — When  the  spiral  motion  of 
rotation  of  an  elongated  projectile  round 
its  original  direction  (caused  probably  by 
irregular  resistance  and  want  of  homo- 
geneity) becomes  of  exaggerated  extent, 
the  projectile  may  be  seen  to  describe  a 
sort  of  helix  round  its  primary  direction, 
and  the  accuracy  of  shooting  is  greatly 
influenced  by  the  part  of  the  helix  which 
may  first  happen  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  ground.  Projectiles  subject  to  this 
influence  are  technically  said  to  snake. 

Snap-cap — A  small    leather    cylinder 


with  a  metal  top  of  the  size  of  the  hammer 
of  a  percussion  musket,  and  fitting  closely 
to  the  nipple.  It  is  used  to  preserve  the 
nipple  from  the  action  of  the  hammer. 
The  snap-cap  used  with  the  Martini- 
Henry  rifle  is  described  in  the  '  Change  of 
War  Materiel '  as  follows  : — 

"  The  body  of  the  snap-cap  consists  of 
an  iron  tube  surrounded  by  one  of  brass, 
the  latter  being  made  somewhat  elastic. 
Longitudinal  slits  are  cut  to  allow  of 
sufficient  compression  to  insert,  the  snap- 
cap  into  the  bore  of  the  rifle. 

"  The  base  is  made  similar  to  the  base  of 
a  breech-loading  rifle  cartridge,  but  has  a 
portion  of  the  sides  of  the  flange  cut  away 
to  allow  the  horns  of  the  extractor  to  pass, 
when  the  snap-cap  is  used  at  snapping 
drill. 

"  The  interior  of  the  snap-cap  consists 
of  a  spiral  spring,  supporting  a  piece  of 
ebonite,  which  receives  the  blow  of  the 
striker.  The  spiral  spring  is  kept  in  its 
place  by  a  screw  at  the  head  of  the  snap- 
cap." 

Snaphaunce  —  A  flintlock  originally 
attached  to  muskets.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  in  Germany  about  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  was 
so  called  by  a  set  of  Dutch  marauders 
designated  "  Snaphans,"  or  poultry 
stealers,  who,  finding  the  light  of  the 
match  betrayed  them  in  their  marauding 
trips,  and  the  wheel-lock  too  expensive, 
used  a  lock  consisting  of  a  piece  of  steel, 
furrowed  like  the  wheel  of  a  wheel-lock, 
set  on  a  steel  post,  and  which  moved  on 
a  pivot,  and  a  cock  in  which  was  fixed  a 
flint  instead  of  a  piece  of  pyrites ;  the 
priming  pan  was  provided  with  a  cover, 
which,  when  it  was  required  to  fire  the 
arm,  was  pushed  on  one  side,  and  the 
steel  bent  down  over  the  pan  ;  on  the 
trigger  being  pressed,  the  cock  with  the 
flint  fell  on  the  steel,  and  forced  it  back 
from  the  pan,  evolving  at  the  same  time 
sparks  which  fired  the  priming.  The 
improvement  on  this  lock  gave  us  our 
flintlock,  which  has  now  become  an  arm 
of  the  past. 

Snatch  Block  (Dutch,  snaaken,  to  seize 
hastily) — A  block  with  a  single  sheave ; 
it  has  an  opening  on  one  side,  to  allow  the 
rope  being  placed  in  or  out  of  the  block 
without  putting  its  end  in  first.  It  is 
closed  by  means  of  a  hook  and  staple. 


SNI 


392 


SOC 


Snider  Rifle — Originally  the  Enfield 
rifle,  but  subsequently  converted  into  a 
breech-loader,  deriving  its  name  from  the 
inventor. 

The  length  of  this  rifle  (long),  bayonet 
included,  is  5  feet  1 1^  inches,  and  it  weighs 
9  Ibs.  14J  oz.  The  barrel  is  3  feet  3  inches 
long  ;  the  bore  is  -577  inch  in  diameter, 
and  is  rifled  with  3  grooves,  each  forming 
a  regular  spiral  of  one  turn  in  6  feet  6 
inches. 

The  bullet  is  1-04  inch  long,  and  -575 
inch  in  diameter;  its  general  figure 
is  cylindrical,  but  round  in  front.  In 
its  base  a  conical-shaped  cavity  is  formed, 
closed  by  a  plug  made  of  baked  clay. 
In  the  head  there  is  another  cavity, 
cylindrical  in  form,  which  is  left  empty 
and  closed  over  with  lead,  and  which 
serves  both  to  readjust  the  position  of 
the  centre  of  gravity  and  to  permit  the 
bullet  to  be  made  of  greater  length 
without  increase  of  weight.  The  dia- 
meter of  the  bullet  is  '002  inch  less  than 
that  of  the  bore  ;  but  as  the  first  shock 
of  explosion  is  received  by  the  clay  plug, 
the  latter  is  driven  into  the  conical  cavity 
in  the  base  of  the  bullet,  thus  causing 
the  lead  to  bulge  with  tolerab'e  unifor- 
mity, and  at  once  to  fill  the  grooves, 
which  inconsequence  of  their  spiral  twist 
impart  to  the  projectile  a  rotary  motion  ! 
round  an  axis  coincident  with  the  line  of 
flight. 

The  weight  of  the  bullet,  with  its  clay 
plug,  is  480  grains,  the  charge  of  powder 
is  72  grains  (about  2|  drs.).  The  mode  of 
igniting  is  that  known  as  the  central-fire 
system,  there  being  a  cap  in  the  base  of 
the  cartridge  which  is  exploded  by  means 
of  a  piston  passing  through  the  breech 
lock.  The  rifle  is  sighted  up  to  950 
yards,  but  its  practice  is  good  at  a 
longer  range.  (  Vide  Appendix  P.)  The 
militia  and  volunteers,  and  many  of  the 
native  infantry  regiments  in  India,  are 
armed  with  the  Snider  rifle  (long)  ;  the 
royal  marine  artillery  and  sergeants  of 
militia  and  volunteer  corps  are  provided 
with  a  shorter  rifle  of  similar  construc- 
tion to  the  foregoing.  Its  length,  with 
sword-bayonet,  is  5  feet  3£  inches ;  its 
weight  is  10  Ibs.  8  oz. 

Kifled  carbines,  breech-loading,  on  the 
Snider  principle,  are  supplied  to  the 
cavalry  and  to  the  artillery,  the  ammu- 


nition being  the  same  as  for  the  Enfield 
rifle.  The  length  of  the  artillery  car- 
bine is  5  feet  4J  inches,  and  its  weight 
9  Ibs.  3  oz.,  including  the  sword-bayonet, 
which  is  of  the  same  dimension  as  that 
supplied  with  the  short  rifle.  It  is 
sighted  up  to  600  yards. 

The  cost  of  altering  an  Enfield  to  a 
Snider  varies  from  15s.  to  20s.  More 
than  a  million  have  been  converted,  and 
the  factories  can  turn  out  1100  rifles 
daily.  (  Vide  Appendix  F.) 

Snifting  Valve — 'As  described,  is  "  the 
air  or  blow-valve  in  a  condensing  steam- 
engine.  It  receives  its  name  from  the 
peculiar  noise  made  when,  the  air  having 
all  bubbled  out  of  the  cylinder  (from  the 
steam  being  let  in),  the  steam  begins  to 
follow,  and,  instead  of  escaping  in  bubbles, 
is  instantly  condensed  by  the  water  with 
a  kind  of  decrepitation." 

Snow — Congealed  water,  which  falls 
from  the  atmosphere.  Snow  flakes  in 
their  fall  assume  various  forms  or  classes 
of  crystal,  chiefly  belonging  to  the  rhombo- 
hedral  system. 

The  density  of  snow,  with  which  we 
are  chiefly  interested,  having  reference  to 
the  penetration  of  projectiles  into  it,  is 
less  than  ordinary  ice.  Under  the  latter 
head  will  be  found  the  result  of  experi- 
ments on  the  penetration  of  projectiles 
into  snow  and  ice. 

Society,  International,  for  the  Sick 
and  Wounded,  vide  Geneva,  Convention 
of. 

Socket — Any  hollow  pipe  which  re- 
ceives something  inserted  into  it,  such 
as  the  socket  of  a  bayonet.  &c. 

Sockets  are  attached  to  rifled  ordnance 
for  holding  the  tangent  scale.  Each  socket 
contains  a  slot  for  the  tangent  scale,  to 
which  the  sight  is  attached,  and  which 
fits  into  the  side  of  the  breech,  and  is 
prevented  from  turning  by  a  projection 
which  dovetails  into  the  metal  of  the  gun. 
The  sight  is  provided  with  separate  move- 
able  clamps.  The  slots  in  B.L.R.  guns 
are  inclined  to  the  left,  at  an  angle  of 
2°  16'.  In  M.L.R.  guns,  similar  arrange- 
ments are  made  ;  but  the  breech  tangent 
sights  are  inclined  at  different  angles. 

The  portfire  socket  consists  of  a  metal 
tube  or  receptacle  for  receiving  a  port- 
fire. It  is  so  made  that  one-half  of  the 
socket  falls  back  on  a  hinge  to  receive 


SOD 


393 


SOL 


the  portfire,  and  is  closed  again  with  a 
running  ring. 

Sod  Revetment,  vide  Revetment. 

Soda-water  Bottles,  vide  Bottles,  Soda- 
water. 

Sods — In  fortification,  pieces  of  turf 
with  which  works  are  faced. 

Sola — -The  name  of  a  plant,  stated,  in 
Balfour's  '  Cyclopaedia',  to  be  common  in 
moist  places,  and,  in  the  rainy  season,  in 
many  parts  of  the  plains  of  India.  It 
belongs  to  the  genus  ./Eschynomene.  The 
plants  are  remarkable  for  their  light  and 
spongy  texture,  and  seem  indeed  to  be 
composed  almost  entirely  of  pith.  This 
light  substance  is  collected  in  the  dry 
season,  and  applied  to  a  variety  of  uses, 
particularly  in  the  manufacture  of  hats 
which  afford  a  good  protection  against  the 
sun.  This  nature  of  hat  is  commonly 
worn  by  soldiers,  in  India,  off'  parade. 

Soldering — As  described  in  Weale's 
series,  "is  the  process  of  uniting  the  edges 
or  surfaces  of  similar  or  dissimilar  metals 
and  alloys  by  partial  fusion.  In  general, 
alloys  or  solders  of  various  and  greater 
degrees  of  fusibility  than  the  metals  to 
be  joined  are  placed  between  them,  and 
the  solder,  when  fused,  unites  the  three 
parts  into  a  solid  mass  ;  less  frequently 
the  surfaces  or  edges  are  simply  melted 
together  with  an  additional  portion  of  the 
same  metal." 

In  applying  solder,  instructions  state 
that  "it  is  of  importance  that  the  edges 
to  be  united  should  be  chemically  clean, 
and  as  in  this  state  they  have  a  strong 
affinity  for  oxygen,  they  are  protected 
from  the  air  by  means  of  some  flux.  The 
usual  fluxes  are  borax,  sal-ammoniac, 
chloride  of  zinc,  &c.  A  good  liquor  for 
tinning  or  soldering  can  be  prepared  from 
a  mixture  of  chloride  of  zinc  and  muriate 
of  ammonia,  as  follows.  Dissolve  3  oz. 
of  zinc  in  a  pint  of  muriatic  acid,  letting 
it  stand  in  a  warm  place  about  8  hours. 
Strain  the  solution  through  a  cotton  oi- 
lmen cloth,  add  a  tea-spoonful  of  pul- 
verised sal-ammoniac  to  a  pint  of  the 
solution,  and  let  it  boil  for  ten  minutes ; 
when  cool,  it  is  fit  for  use." 

Soldier  (Latin,  so/darius,  one  who 
serves  for  pay) — In  the  common  accep- 
tation of  the  term,  a  soldier  is  one  who 
enlists  to  serve  the  government  for 
certain  pay  and  privileges.  He  forms 


one  of  a  body  for  the  protection  of  the 
country  from  outward  invasion  and  for 
keeping  down  all  internal  dissensions  ; 
in  short,  protecting  the  interests  of  the 
country  at  home  and  abroad. 

Soldiers'  Daughters'  Home,  Harnp- 
stead — An  institution  founded  March  8, 
1855,  for  the  maintenance  and  educa- 
;  tion,  on  the  principles  of  the  Church  of 
England,  of  the  daughters  of  soldiers, 
whether  orphans  or  not.  Every  girl 
receives  a  supply  of  uniform  clothing  on 
admission,  and  an  outfit  of  the  value  of 
nearly  £8,  incluJing  a  Bible  and  prayer- 
book,  when  placed  in  service.  Six  hundred 
and  sixty  girls  have  been  received  into 
the  asylum  since  its  foundation,  of  whom 
6  have  been  trained  as  schoolmistresses 
and  assistant  teachers,  and  261  have  been 
placed  in  service,  and  have  generally  done 
well;  138  rewards  of  £2  and  £1  each 
have  been  distributed  among  the  girls  in 
service  for  2  years'  continuance  in  one 
place  with  certified  good  conduct.  There 
are  now  in  the  home,  where  accommodation 
can  be  found  for  200  girls,  170  girls,  of 
whom  21  are  supported  by  kind  friends 
and  by  regiments,  the  remainder  exclu- 
sively by  the  income  of  the  home. 

Soldiery  —  Soldiers  collectively.  A 
body  of  soldiers. 

Sole — A  veterinary  term.  That  por- 
tion of  a  horse's  foot  which,  together 
with  the  bars  and  frog,  comes  in  direct 
contact  with  the  ground. 

In  fortification,  the  term  sole  is  given 
to  the  foot  or  bottom  of  the  embrasure. 

Solid  Shot — Projectiles  made  of  solid 
iron  or  steel.  The  only  solid  shot  used  in 
the  service  for  rifled  guns  are  the  Palliser 
shot  of  the  following  calibres — 12^-inch, 
12-inch,  10-inch,  9-inch,  8-inch,  and 
7-inch,  and  they  are  only  intended  to  be 
used  against  iron-clad  vessels. 

Sollerets — In  ancient  armour,  the 
overlapping  plates  which  formed  the 
shoe  of  an  armed  knight. 

Solution  (Latin,  solutio,  from  solco,  I 
loose) — The  term  "solution,"  in  its 
widest  sense,  is  applied  to  the  perfect 
union  of  a  fluid  with  another  substance, 
no  -matter  whether  gaseous,  liquid,  or 
solid.  But  we  call  solution  more  pro- 
perly absorption  if  the  dissolved  substance 
is  gaseous  •  if  liquid,  the  term  mixture  is 
more  frequently  made  use  of.  The  appli- 


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394 


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cation  of  the  term  solution,  in   its  usual 
and  more  restricted  sense,  is  confined  to  [ 
the  perfect  union  of  a  solid  substance  with 
a  fluid. 

Solvent — In  chemistry,  the  liquid  in 
which  a  solid  is  dissolved. 

Soondree  (Heriteria  minor) — A  wood 
used  in  India  for  the  poles  and  shafts  of 
carriages  and  the  spokes  of  wheels.  It  is 
thus  described  by  Conductor  Skinner : — 
•'  The  wood  is  strong,  tibrous,  and  flexible, 
tolerably  close-  and  straight-grained,  not 
very  durable,  of  a  light  red  colour, 
turning  to  a  reddish  brown,  and  not  easily 
worked.  A  cubic  foot  of  unseasoned 
wood  weighs  75  to  80  Ibs." 

Soorkey — Pounded  brick  dust ;  it  is 
used  in  India  for  building  purposes, 
and,  in  combination  with  lime,  to  make 
mortars,  stucco,  &c.  It  is  well  known 
to  the  Indian  engineer.  It  has  the 
property  of  making  lime  hydraulic, 
taking  the  place  of  the  European  pozzuo- 
lana  and  other  hydraulic  cements. 

Sortie — A  dash  made  by  the  besieged 
against  the  investing  army  to  annoy  the 
besiegers,  retard  their  operations,  destroy 
their  works,  and  break  through  the  in- 
vesting line. 

Sound — The  sensation  produced  on  the 
organ  of  hearing  by  the  vibrations  of  the 
air  or  any  other  elastic  medium,  the  equi- 
librium of  which  has  been  momentarily 
disturbed.  Sounds  are  propagated  to 
great  distances  and  with  remarkable  dis- 
tinctness over  a  surface  of  water  or  ice. 
It  is  stated  that  at  the  bombardment  of 
Holmia,  in  Sweden,  in  1658,  the  sound 
was  heard  180  miles  from  the  scene  of 
action  ;  and  in  the  fight  between  Eng- 
land and  Holland,  in  1672,  the  report  of 
the  guns  was  heard  at  a  distance  of  200 
miles.  According  to  Russian  accounts, 
the  sound  of  the  bombardment  of  Sebas- 
topol  was  heard  at  a  distance  of  177 
miles. 

Sound,  Velocity  of — At  the  tempera- 
ture of  33°,  the  mean  velocity  of  sound 
is  1100  feet  in  a  second.  It  is  increased 
or  diminished  J  foot  for  each  degree  of 
temperature  above  or  below  33°. 

Sowar  (Persian  =  a  rider,  pronounced 
suicdr) — A  trooper  of  an  Indian  cavalry 
regiment. 

Space — Room  ;  the  interval  between 
troops  when  drawn  up  in  line  or  column. 


In  a  battle,  the  amount  of  frontage  which 
would  be  required  for  troops  to  act  in. 
The  '  Soldier's  Pocket-book  '  lays  down 
1000  yards  as  a  fair  calculation  for  every 
6000  or  8000  men  of  all  arms.  (Vide 
Frontage.) 

Spahi  (Persian,  sepiih-i,  a  soldier) — A 
native  cavalry  man  of  Algeria  in  the  pay 
of  the  French  government.  The  regiments 
of  spahis,  of  which  there  are  three,  are 
partly  officered  by  French  officers.  A 
part  of  the  Turkish  cavalry  is  so  called. 
In  India,  the  native  infantry  regiments 
are  called  sepahis  or  sepoys. 

Spanner — A  screw  wrench,  used  for  the 
purpose  of  tightening  nuts  upon  screws. 

The  spanner  used  in  the  field  is 
"  McMahon's  15."  It  has  a  fixed  and  a 
movable  claw  for  use  as  a  wrench.  The 
movable  claw  can  be  set  at  any  distance 
from  the  fixed  claw  by  means  of  a  thumb- 
screw. 

Spar — A  small  beam.  In  bridging, 
spars  are  used  for  the  building  of  light 
bridges,  called  spar  and  truss  bridges. 

Spar  Bridge— A  light  bridge  for  cross- 
ing broken  arches,  rivers  with  steep 
banks,  &c.,  in  which  it  is  not  practicable 
or  convenient  to  obtain  supports  for  the 
bridge  from  the  bottom  or  on  the  surface 
of  the  river.  Works  on  military  bridging 
give  the  following  as  the  best  known  for 
spanning  intervals  with  timber  : — 

Single  lever  bridge. — Composed  of  two 
frames  locking  into  each  other,  and  not 
meeting  at  a  greater  angle  than  120°. 
This  nature  of  bridge  is  not  suitable  for  a 
greater  span  than  30  feet. 

Double  lever  bridge.  —  Suitable  for 
spans  of  40  feet ;  it  consists  of  two 
frames  locking  into  a  connecting  frame 
or  two  or  more  longitudinal  pieces,  with 
cross  transoms.  The  opening  is  thus 
divided  into  three  spaces,  and  the  span 
of  the  road  bearers  is  about  14  feet. 

Single  truss  bridge. — Can  be  used  for 
spans  up  to  50  feet  ;  it  consists  of  two 
frames  locking  into  each  other  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  single  lever  bridge, 
and  provides  three  points  of  supports, 
viz.  one  on  each  frame,  and  a  third  sus- 
pended by  the  ropes  from  the  head  of 
the  frames. 

Lever  truss  bridge. — Suitable  for  spans 
of  about  50  feet ;  it  is  a  combination  of 
the  single  and  truss  bridges. 


SPA 


395 


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Spars,  Fishing,  vide  Fishing  Spars. 

Spatula — A  wooden  slice  or  instrument ; 
it  should  be  used  with  great  care  in  mix- 
ing inflammable  or  detonating  compounds. 

Spavin  —  A  veterinary  term.  Any 
bony  growth  or  bony  enlargement  in  a 
horse,  seen  or  felt  in  the  inner  side  of 
the  hough. 

Speaking  Trumpet — An  instrument 
which,  on  being  applied  to  the  mouth, 
carries  sound  to  a  considerable  distance. 
It  was  formerly  used  in  large  armies  ; 
and  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar,  General 
Elliott  (afterwards  Lord  Heathfield) 
caused  the  words  of  command  to  be 
given  through  a  speaking  trumpet. 

Spear — A  weapon  having  a  wooden 
shaft  mounted  with  a  sharp  steel  point. 
It  has  been  known  and  used  from  time 
immemorial,  first  as  a  hand  or  missile 
weapon,  and  subsequently  as  a  pike  or 
lance. 

In  the  early  Norman  period,  A.D.  1066- 
1087,  the  spear  was  a  well-known  mili- 
tary arm.  It  was  sometimes  ornamented, 
like  the  lance  of  the  present  day,  with  a 
small  rlag  fixed  just  below  the  metal 
point,  and  termed,  in  the  language  of 
that  day,  gonfanon  or  gonfalon  (<j.  v.). 

Specific  Gravity,  vide  Gravity,  Specific. 

Spent — A  projectile  is  said  to  be  spent 
when  it  reaches  an  object  without  suffi- 
cient force  to  pass  through  it,  or  other- 
wise to  wound  than  by  contusion. 

Spew,  To — In  gunnery,  to  run  at  the 
mouth ;  applied  to  a  gun  when,  from  too 
quick  firing,  it  bends  at  the  chase,  or  the 
muzzle  droops. 

Spherical  Case  Shot,  vide  Shell. 

Spike — An  instrument  in  the  form  of 
a  nail,  made  of  steel,  and  used  for  render- 
ing ordnance  either  temporary  or  per- 
manently unserviceable.  Spikes  form  a 
portion  of  the  stores  of  a  battery.  They 
are  of  two  kinds,  common  or  jagged  and 
spring  (7.  v.). 

Spike,  Marline,  vide  Marline  Spike. 

Spike,  To — To  choke  up  the  vent  of  a 
piece  of  ordnance,  so  as  to  render  it  use- 
less. The  following  is  one  of  the  modes 
and  the  readiest  one,  though  not  the 
most  permanent.  Take  the  common 
spike,  which  is  4  inches  long,  -27  inch  in 
diameter  at  the  head,  and  about  •!  inch  at 
the  point,  drive  it  as  far  as  it  will  go 
into  the  vent,  and  afterwards  break  it  oft' 


close  to  the  gun.  The  next  is  the  spring 
or  temporary  spike,  which  is  '17  inch  in 
diameter,  and  has  a  flat  head,  to  prevent 
its  falling  through  the  vent  into  the 
bore,  and  also  a  spring  about  2  inches 
in  length,  which  extends  from  the  point 
towards  the  head.  In  passing  through 
the  vent,  the  spring  is  compressed,  but 
as  soon  as  it  is  clear  of  the  metal  it  ex- 
pands, and  cannot  be  withdrawn,  unless  it 
is  again  compressed  sufficiently  to  allow 
it  to  be  drawn  again  into  the  vent.  This 
however  may  be  done  by  pressing  the 
rammer  head  against  it,  provided  the 
spring  be  towards  the  muzzle,  which  is 
known  by  a  small  notch  cut  in  the  head 
of  the  spike,  to  point  out  its  direction. 
The  point  of  a  bayonet,  or  of  a  ramrod,  or 
a  common  nail,  will  make  a  very  good 
spike,  if  no  spike  is  at  hand.  When 
spikes  are  not  available,  a  gun  may  be 
rendered  unserviceable  by  removing  the 
cap-squares,  elevating-screw,  and  any 
small  support  it  is  dependent  on ;  or 
wrap  a  shot  in  a  piece  of  cloth — a  neck- 
cloth or  stocking  will  answer — and  jam 
it  hard  home  with  a  rammer. 

Spindle — In  moulding,  this  term  is 
applied  to  the  rod  upon  which  the  core 
of  shells  is  formed.  Also  the  wooden 
spindle  upon  which  a  gun  mould  is  made. 
In  mechanics,  it  denotes  the  axis  of  a 
wheel  or  roller. 

Spiral  Bit,  vide  Bit,  Spiral. 

Spiral,  Increasing,  vide  Increasing 
Spiral. 

Spirals — In  geometry,  are  transcen- 
dental curves,  which  derive  their  name 
from  making  several  revolutions  round 
a  fixed  point,  and  receding  at  the  same 
time  continually  from  this  point.  There 
are  various  kinds  of  spirals,  named  ac- 
cording to  their  properties  or  their  dis- 
coverers, and  known  as  the  spiral  of 
Archimedes,  hyperbolic  spiral,  logarith- 
mic spiral,  parabolic  spiral,  &c.  In 
rifling  a  gun,  the  grooves  made  in  it  are 
termed  spiral  grooves. 

Spirit  Level,  vide  Level,  Spirit. 

Spirit,  Methylated,  vide  Methylated 
Spirit. 

Spirit  of  Turpentine  —  A  spirit  ob- 
tained by  distillation  from  certain  Coni- 
ferae  or  trees  of  the  fir  tribe.  It  is 
known  in  commerce  as  turps  or  terps. 
The  source  of  common  turpentine  is  the 


SPI 


396 


SPO 


I'inus  sylvestris,  and  its  collection  is  an- 
important  branch  of  business  in  America. 
It  is  used  in  the  ordnance  department 
tor  mixing  with  paints. 

Spirits  of  Wine,  vide  Alcohol. 

Splay  —  In  fortification,  the  widening 
of  an  embrasure  towards  the  mouth. 

Splice,  To — To  join  the  two  ends  of  a 
rope  together  without  a  knot,  or  to  unite 
the  end  of  a  rope  to  any  part  thereof,  by 
interweaving  the  strands  in  a  regular 
manner.  The  instrument  used  for  the 
purpose  is  a  marline  spike.  There  are  j 
two  kinds  of  splice,  short  and  long,  for 
making  which  the  following  instructions 
are  given:— "To  make  a  short  splice, 
untwist  from  4  to  8  inches  of  each  of 
the  two  ends  of  the  rope,  and  interlock 
the  strands  up  to  the  close  parts  of  the 
rope,  those  of  the  two  ends  alternating  ; 
hold  in  the  left  hand  one  end  of  the 
rope  with  the  loose  strands  in  front,  and 
cross  each  strand  of  that  end  over  the 
strand  of  the  other  end  which  is  to  the 
left  hand  of  it ;  then  by  means  of  the 
marline  spike  pass  it  under  the  same 
strand  of  the  second  end,  and  draw 
firmly  on  the  strand  which  is  passed 
through.  Pursue  the  same  course  with 
the  strands  of  the  second  rope.  To  in- 
crease the  strength  of  the  splice,  pass 
each  strand  round  the  one  on  its  left  a 
second  time,  and  cut  off  the  loose  ends. 
The  short  splice  is  used  for  slings,  block 
straps,  or  when  the  rope  is  not  intended 
to  pass  through  blocks.  To  make  a  long 
splice  for  a  rope  which  is  to  pass 
through  a  pulley,  the  short  splice  being 
too  thick,  untwist  about  8  inches  of 
the  two  ends,  and  interlock  as  before, 
untwist  a  strand  of  one  end  from  the 
close  part  of  the  rope  and  replace  it 
by  the  strand  of  the  other  rope  which 
comes  to  hand ;  cross  the  end  of  the 
latter  strand  over  the  one  which  is  re- 
placed, and  pass  it  under  the  adjacent 
strands.  Substitute,  in  this  manner, 
every  other  strand  of  the  other  rope,  and 
cut  off  the  loose  ends.  The  long  splice  is 
used  to  unite  two  ends  of  a  rope  which  is 
to  pass  through  a  block." 

Splint — In  veterinary  practice,  is  de- 
scribed as  "  a  bony  tumour  on  the  inner 
and  lower  part  of  the  knee-joint  of  a 
horse.  The  best  treatment  for  this 
malady  is  conveyed  in  the  old  maxim, 


'  Time  and  patience.'  Rest  will  do  more 
than  physic.  To  check  the  further  en- 
largement of  a  splint,  employ  the  follow- 
ing ointment : — 

oz. 

Iodide  of  lead  . .  . .    1 

Simple  ointment       ..  ..8 

Apply  with  friction,  thrice  a  day." 

Splinter  Bar — The  wooden  bar  of  a 
limber  which  connects  the  futchels  or 
framing  pieces  of  the  carriage  with  the 
axle-tree  bed  by  means  of  iron  stays  at 
the  ends.  The  traces  of  the  wheel 
horses  are  attached  to  the  splinter  bar. 

Splinter  Proof —  In  fortification,  a 
building  strong  enough  to  resist  the 
splinters  of  bursting  shells.  To  protect 
the  gunners  in  a  battery  from  the  splin- 
ters of  shells,  splinter  proof  traverses,  6 
feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  are  erected  across 
the  terre-plein,  so  that  the  effect  of  a 
shell  bursting  is  confined  to  the  space 
between  two  traverses. 

Splinters  —  Fragments  of  exploded 
shells,  wood,  &c. 

Splints — In  ancient  armour,  the  small 
overlapping  plates  for  the  defence  of  the 
bend  of  the  arm ;  they  constituted  part 
of  the  suit  called  almaine-rivets,  which 
was  worn  for  the  defence  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  body. 

Spoke — A  portion  of  a  wheel,  the 
tenon  of  which  is  fitted  into  the  nave. 
In  gun  carriages,  each  wheel  has  twelve 
spokes,  on  the  extremity  of  which  the 
felloes  are  fastened,  and  which  form  one 
continued  circle. 

Spokeshave — A  small  iron  plane  some- 
thing like  a  penknife,  set  in  the  middle  of 
a  frame,  which  can  be  used  with  both 
hands.  It  works  easily  in  the  direction 
of  the  grain,  and  is  used  for  shaping  and 
smoothing  small  rounded  surfaces.  This 
instrument  is  used  by  the  carriage-maker, 
cooper,  saddler,  and  other  artisans. 

Sponge — A  porous  marine  substance, 
adhering  to  rocks,  &c.  This  useful 
article  comes  from  the  shores  of  the  Ba- 
hamas, from  Greece,  Tunis,  Turkey,  and 
other  countries.  It  is  of  different  quali- 
ties and  texture,  and  is  in  very  general  use 
in  the  army,  especially  in  the  mounted 
branches  for  cleaning  saddlery  and  harness. 

Sponge  Buckets  —  Buckets  made  of 
wood  or  leather,  and  used  for  cleaning  or 
damping  the  sponges  of  siege  and  field 


SPO 


897 


SPY 


guns.  They  hold  water  for  washing 
the  guns,  watering  the  cattle,  and  other 
purposes  connected  with  the  cleanliness 
of  the  battery. 

Sponge  Cloth  —  A  peculiar  kind  of 
cloth,  moist  with  oil ;  it  is  used  to 
clean  the  screws  of  Armstrong  guns,  and 
is  made  of  cloth  so  woven  that  no  fibre 
comes  off  in  use  by  which  the  worms  of 
the  screws  could  be  clogged. 

Sponge,  Gun — Consists  of  a  rammer- 
head,  staff,  and  sponge-head  block.  It  is 
used  for  cleaning  out  a  piece  of  ordnance 
after  it  has  been  discharged,  or  for  free- 
ing it  of  any  lighted  fragments  of  the 
cartridge.  Sponges  are  of  different  di- 
mensions and  forms,  according  to  the 
nature  of  ordnance  with  which  they  are 
used.  The  approved  pattern  head  is 
cylindrical,  except  for  the  11-inch  M.L.R. 
gun  of  25  tons,  which  is  conical. 

Sponge  Head,  vide  Head,  Sponge. 

SpDnge,  Washing — A  coarse  kind  of 
mop,  made  of  oakum,  jute,  or  old  rope, 
lashed  to  a  wooden  stave.  It  is  used  for 
cleaning  the  bores  of  ordnance. 

Spontaneous  Combustion — Taking  fire 
of  itself.  This  phenomenon  is  known  in 
the  mineral  and  organic  world.  Fre- 
quently cases  are  stated  of  coals  becom- 
ing ignited  of  their  own  accord.  This  is 
more  often  seen  on  board  ships  laden 
with  coal,  where,  from  the  heat  of  the 
hold,  and  the  moisture  from  water  which 
a  ship  takes  in  from  leakage,  or  other 
causes,  the  coal  becomes  heated  and 
moistened,  and  from  the  conjunction  of 
pyrites  in  the  coal,  in  which  the  proto- 
sulphide  is  associated  with  the  bisulphide 
of  iron,  it  takes  fire. 

New-burnt  charcoal,  and  particularly 
new  ground  charcoal,  is  very  liable  to 
spontaneous  combustion.  Phosphorus  is 
another  mineral  subject  which,  in  its  dry 
state,  is  very  liable  to  burn  spontaneously. 
Articles  of  cotton  or  wool  saturated  with 
oil  (vegetable),  and  heaped  together,  are 
very  liable  to  burn  spontaneously,  oil 
having  always  an  affinity  for  oxygen,  and 
thus  causing  ignition.  Many  of  the  dis- 
asters that  occur  in  powder-houses,  when 
the  houses  have  been  closed  and  explosion 
has  taken  place,  may  possibly  have  oc- 
curred from  cotton-waste  containing  oil 
being  left  collected  in  a  corner  of  the 
house. 


Spontoon — A  long  pike  or  lance;  by 
some  writers,  a  wide-bladed  spear,  which 
came  into  use  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
It  is  stated  that  the  spontoon,  in  the 
shape  of  a  pike  or  lance,  was  earned  by 
officers  in  the  British  army  about  a  cen- 
tury ago. 

Spring  Spike  —  In  artillery,  a  spike 
with  a  spring  attached  to  it,  which  is 
used  for  rendering  a  gun  temporarily 
unserviceable.  (  Vide  Spike,  To.) 

Spring,  To — An  expression  made  use 
of  in  firing  a  mine.  There  are  various 
methods  of  springing  a  mine,  either  by 
Orde's  mining  hose,  Bickford's  fuze,  &c. 

Spun  Yarn,  vide  Rope. 

Spur — An  instrument  made  of  brass 
or  steel,  having  a  rowel  with  sharp 
points,  and  worn  on  the  heel  of  the  boot 
of  a  horseman.  It  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  quickening  the  pace  of  a  horse. 
All  cavalry,  horse  artillery,  and  staff 
officers,  wear  spurs  ;  for  the  two  former, 
they  are  made  of  steel,  for  the  latter,  of 
brass.  In  horsemanship,  it  is  not  desirable 
to  use  the  spur  more  than  can  be 
helped. 

In  the  days  of  chivalry  the  use  of  the 
spur  denoted  the  knight.  The  saying, 
"  to  win  his  spurs,"  was  for  a  young  man 
to  earn  knighthood  by  gallant  conduct, 
and  to  disgrace  a  knight  was  to  deprive 
him  of  his  spurs ;  and  when  one  had  had 
enough  of  him,  that  is  to  say,  he  had 
outstayed  his  welcome,  the  method  pur- 
sued was  to  place  a  pair  of  spurs  on  a 
dish  before  him. 

Anciently,  the  difference  between  the 
knight  and  esquire  was  that  the  knight 
wore  gilt  spurs  and  the  esquire  silver 
ones.  The  wearing  of  spurs  dates  back 
some  centuries. 

Spur  Wheel — In  machinery,  a  wheel 
which  has  the  cogs  or  teeth  on  the  edge 
or  periphery,  projecting  radially  from  the 
centre. 

Spy  (French,  espiori) — A  person  sent 
into  an  enemy's  camp  to  gain  informa- 
tion as  to  the  intentions  of  the  enemy. 
The  work  committed  to  him  should  be 
carried  out  with  great  secrecy  and  with- 
'  out  suspicion ;  if  not  done  so,  his  life 
i  would  be  in  great  jeopardy. 

Spies  may  be  divided  into  two  classes : 

— first,    those    who    betray    their    own 

1  country  to  the  enemy ;   secondly,  those 


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who,  being  enemies,  are  sent  by  their  own 
party  to  obtain  surreptitiously  informa- 
tion about  the  opposing  army.  Not- 
withstanding this  difference,  that  the 
first  class  are  traitors,  and  the  second  are 
often  brave  men  who  dare  much  in  the 
service  of  their  country,  martial  law 
orders  in  both  cases  the  death  of  a  spy. 

Spies  are  very  necessary  to  an  army, 
before  and  after  hostilities  have  begun, 
as  by  making  a  proper  use  of  these  men, 
and  by  paying  them  well,  the  most  secret 
designs  of  an  enemy  may  be  obtained,  and 
the  position  his  army  is  to  take  and  hold 
at  the  time  may  be  discovered,  as  well  as 
his  strength,  &c.  (  Vide  Intelligence  De- 
partment.) 

Squad  (French,  escouade) — A  small  por- 
tion of  a  company  for  purposes  of  interior 
economy.  In  the  .infantry  it  corresponds 
with  a  section.  Also  any  small  body  of 
soldiers  told  off  for  drill  or  any  particular 
duty. 

Squad  Bags — Canvas  bags  provided  for 
troops  (one  for  every  25  men),  for  the 
purpose  of  relieving  a  soldier  from  carry- 
ing a  complete  kit  on  the  line  of  march 
or  in  the  field.  In  India,  where  knap- 
sacks are  not  carried  by  the  soldier  on 
the  march,  a  small  squad  bag  is  issued 
to  each  soldier. 

Squadron  (French,  escadron) — One  of 
the  main  divisions  of  a  cavalry  regiment, 
consisting  of  two  troops.  It  is  the  unit 
of  cavalry  tactics.  A  regiment  in  Eng- 
land has  four  squadrons ;  in  India,  only 
three.  The  strength  of  a  squadron  varies 
with  that  of  the  component  troops,  but 
it  may  be  put  down  between  120  and  200 
sabres. 

Square — A  tactical  formation  of  troops, ' 
of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  the  solid 
square,  which  faces  outwards,  having  for 
its  object  to  resist  cavalry ;  and  the 
hollow  square,  in  which  the  men  face  in- 
wards, for  the  purpose  of  hearing  orders, 
&c.  read,  this  being  the  most  compact 
form  in  which  all  the  men  of  a  regiment 
can  hear  simultaneously. 

The  application  of  the  solid  square  to 
resist  cavalry  appeal's  to  have  been  intro- 
duced in  1798,  when  the  French  army  in 
Egypt,  being  weak  in  cavalry,  was  op- 
posed to  overwhelming  hordes  of  Mame- 
lukes. At  the  battles  of  Chebreifs  and 
of  the  Pyramids,  Buonaparte  formed  his 


infantry  echeloned  in  squares  against  the 
Egyptian  horse. 

Since  the  introduction  of  arms  of  pre- 
cision, the  square  is  no  longer  considered 
as  the  formation  absolutely  necessary 
against  attacks  of  cavalry ;  considering 
the  annihilating  effect  of  rifle  fire,  the 
infantry  can  now  repulse,  in  every  for- 
mation, a  cavalry  attack.  The  square 
formation  has,  however,  been  maintained 
in  drill  regulations. 

The  name  square  is  given  in  carpentry 
to  a  steel  blade,  with  the  stock  at  right 
angles  to  it.  This  instrument  is  used  by 
carpenters  to  ascertain,  when  pieces  of 
wood  have  been  planed,  whether  the  sur- 
face and  sides  are  at  right  angles  to  each 
other. 

In  geometry,  a  square  is  a  four-sided 
rectilinear  figure,  of  which  all  the  angles 
are  right  angles,  and  all  the  sides  equal. 

Square  Boot  —  In  mathematics,  a 
number  considered  as  the  root  of  a  second 
power  or  square  number ;  or  a  number 
which,  multiplied  by  itself,  produces  the 
given  number.  Thus  8  is  the  square  root 
of  64 ;  ^  is  the  square  root  of  ^,  and  -05 
the  square  root  of  -0025. 

Stables — Shelter  for  horses  or  other 
cattle.  In  the  inclement  climate  of  Eng- 
land, cavalry  horses  should  be  covered 
in ;  only  during  service  would  they  be 
picketed  out  in  the  open  air.  In  India, 
stables  are  provided  in  all  cantonments, 
though  the  horses  often  stand  out  where 
no  stables  are  available,  as  they  would 
have  to  do  on  service. 

Staff — A  body  of  officers  appointed  to 
assist  a  general,  or  any  other  officer  in 
command,  in  carrying  out  his  multifarious 
duties,  and  to  form  a  link  between  him 
and  the  different  branches  of  the  army, 
thus  giving  coherence  to  all  its  parts. 

The  staff  constitutes  one  of  the  most 
important  parts  of  the  organisation  of 
modern  armies,  of  which  it  is  the  life  and 
soul.  A  general  placed  at  the  head  of 
any  considerable  body  of  troops  cannot 
at  any  time,  and  far  less  during  war, 
carry  out  the  minute  details  of  his  com- 
mand. Such  a  task  would  be  above  the 
physical  strength  of  any  man,  and  would 
oblige  that  officer  to  lose  sight  of  the 
ensemble  of  the  forces  under  his  orders. 
To  help  him  to  carry  out  his  duties,  aids 
are  therefore  appointed  to  assist  him  with 


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their  advice  and  knowledge  in  the  special 
branches  of  the  service  to  which  they 
belong  ;  such  aids  are  called  staff'  officers. 
Occasions  often  arise  in  which  the  com- 
mander of  an  army  can  only  see,  as  it 
were,  through  the  medium  of  their  eyes, 
at  a  moment  when  circumstances  require 
him  promptly  to  decide  upon  difficult 
and  critical  operations. 

The  duties  of  the  general  staff  in  time 
of  peace  are,  to  prepare  itself  and  the 
army  for  war ;  to  keep  up  with  the  times 
in  all  matters  connected  with  strategy, 
tactics,  and  organisation ;  to  prepare 
beforehand  outlines  of  all  campaigns 
likely  to  occur  in  the  future;  to  receive 
and  digest  information  concerning  foreign 
armies ;  and  to  take  care  that  its  own 
army  is  in  no  respect  behindhand  in 
efficiency.  One  of  the  most  important 
branches,  if  not  the  most  important,  of 
the  general  staff  is  the  intelligence  de- 
partment (q.  v.).  Officers  attached  to 
the  staff  of  generals  commanding  corps 
d'arme'e,  divisions,  or  districts,  have  to 
apply  themselves  to  the  study  of  ques- 
tions on  mobilisation,  marches,  manoeu- 
vres, and  on  the  working  of  railways  and 
telegraphs. 

In  time  of  war,  the  duties  of  the  officers 
of  the  general  staff  are  necessarily  of  a  very 
laborious  and  active  nature.  They  have : — 

1.  To  draw  tip,  according  to  circum- 
stances, all  orders  relating  to  the  canton- 
ing  of    troops,    outposts,    marches,    and 
battles.      To   give    instructions    to   ad- 
vanced and  rear   guards,  and   to   make 
such  arrangements  as  are   required   for 
the  maintenance  of  order  in  the  camps,  as 
well  as  for  their  security. 

2.  To  communicate  in  good  time    all 
necessary   orders,   either  verbally  or    in 
writing ;  and  to  interpret  the  wishes  and 
even  give  expansion  to'  the  intentions  of 
the  general  in  command. 

It  is  laid  down  that,  to  avoid  the 
possibility  of  being  misunderstood,  stati' 
officers  are  directed  to  deliver  all  verbal 
orders  entrusted  to  them  in  the  plainest 
and  most  concise  terms. 

3.  To    collect   and  prepare   all   docu- 
ments, maps,  &c.  concerning  the  theatre 
of  war,  as  well  as  all  information  as  to 
its  resources. 

4.  To  collect  and  digest  the  informa- 
tion   concerning    the    enemy  brought  in 


by  reconnoitring  parties,  spies,  &c.,  and  to 
communicate  such  information  to  superior 
authority. 

5.  To  maintain  the  troops  in  such  con- 
dition that  they  may  always  be  ready  to 
fight,  and   to  be  acquainted  with  their 
wants   in   every   respect.      To   establish 
depots,  magazines,  hospitals,  as  well  as 
convoys  and  means  of  transport. 

6.  To  guide  the  head  of  each  column 
to   its   destined   position,  either   on   the 
field  of  action  or  on  the  ground  selected 
for  encampment. 

7.  To  keep  a  journal,  noting  therein 
all  that  is  done  during  the  day,  especially 
on  the  march,  battles,  engagements,  every 
change  of  position,  the  precise  time  at 
which    each   movement   is    carried    into 
execution  ;  in  fact,  every  incident  which 
is  calculated  to  be  of  the  slightest  interest 
in  its  results ;  taking  note  at  all  times 
of  the  strength  of  every  corps  and  of  all 
casualties. 

8.  To   fulfil   special  duties,   especially 
reconnaissances  (q.  ».),  in  which  the  staff 
of  an  army  takes  a  prominent  share. 

The  duties  of  staff  officers  require, 
therefore,  coolness,  tact,  quick  ability, 
and  reticence ;  they  must  be  courteous 
in  their  communication  with  other 
officers  of  the  army,  and  above  all  must 
have  great  confidence  in  their  own  judg- 
ment based  upon  experience. 

The  staff  of  the  British  army  may  be 
classed  under  three  heads : — 

1.  General  officers    commanding   divi- 
sions, districts,  brigades,  &c. 

2.  General  staff,  including  the  depart- 
ments of  the  adjutant-general  and  quarter- 
master-general (q.  t).). 

3.  Personal  staff,   consisting  of  mili- 
tary secretaries,  assistant  military  secre- 
taries, and  aides-de-camp. 

1.  Appointments    to     commands    are 
made  from  the  list  of  superior  officers  of 
corresponding   rank :    those   of  brigades 
are  usually  given  to  colonels,  with   the 
rank    of    brigadier-general.      They    are 
assisted  in  their  duties,  and  their  orders 
are  conveyed  to  the  troops,  by  the  staff. 

2.  Officers  of  the  general  staff  are  se- 
lected from  the  regular  army,  and  must 
have  passed  through  the  Staff  College, 
except   in   cases   of   proved   abilities   in 
the  field.     'A  chief  of  the  staff  (7.  v.)  is 
appointed  to  an  army  in  the  field,  and 


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under  his  authority  are  the  adjutant- 
general  and  the  quartermaster-general. 

3.  Personal  staff  officers  are  not  re- 
quired to  pass  through  the  Staff  College, 
but  have  to  undergo  a  qualifying  exami- 
nation. They  are  appointed  by  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  general  officer,  holding  their  situ- 
ation during  his  pleasure.  No  pay  is 
allowed  for  such  appointments  unless 
authorised  by  the  general's  letter  of  ser- 
vice, or  specially  sanctioned  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  War.  Extra  aides-de- 
camp may,  however,  if  absolutely  neces- 
sary, in  time  of  war  or  in  cases  of  emer- 
gency, be  appointed  by  a  general  officer 
in  command,  subject  to  approval  by  the 
War  Office  upon  the  recommendation  of 
the  commander-in-chief.  These  are  not 
entitled  to  staff  pay,  but  are  granted  the 
allowances  of  an  aide-de-camp. 

The  general  staff  of  the  British  army, 
appointed  to  relieve  the  commander-in- 
chief  at  the  Horse  Guards  of  the  im- 
mense amount  of  detail  work  belonging 
to  his  office,  is  composed  as  follows  : — 

1  adjutant-general. 

1  quartermaster-general. 

1  deputy  quartermaster-general. 

3  deputy  adjutants-general. 

1  inspector  of  auxiliary  forces. 

2  deputy  inspectors  of  auxiliary  forces. 
1  inspector-general  of  recruiting. 

4  assistant    adjutants  -  general    and 

quartermasters-general. 

4  deputy  assistant   adjutants-general 

and  quartermasters-general. 
1  director  of  topographical  branch. 

5  assistants  of  topographical  and  intelli- 

gence branches,  with  rank  of  deputy 
assistant  quartermaster-general. 
1  private  secretary. 

1  military  secretary. 

2  assistant  military  secretaries  (one  for 

Indian  affairs). 

6  aides-de-camp. 

1  officer  attached  for  duty. 

In  time  of  war  the  staff  of  an  army 
differs  in  numbers  according  to  the 
amount  of  troops  in  the  field.  By  a 
recent  order  it  has  been  classed  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Army  Corps. 

1  general  commanding. 
4  aides-de-camp. 


2  deputy  adjutants-general  and  quarter- 
masters-general. 

2  assistant  adjutants-general  and  quar- 
termasters-general. 

2  deputy  assistant  adjutants-general 
and  quartermasters-general. 

1  commandant  at  head-quarters. 

1  brigadier-general,  R.A. 

1  brigade-major,  R.A. 

1  aide-de-camp,  R.A. 

1  colonel  commanding,  R.E. 

1  brigade-major,  R.E. 

1  aide-de-camp,  R.E. 

1  provost-marshal. 

1  commissary-general. 

1  principal  medical  officer. 

1  chief  staff  veterinary  surgeon. 

1  principal  chaplain. 
12  staff  clerks. 

Division, 

1  lieutenant-general  commanding. 

2  aides-de-camp. 

2  assistant  adjutants-general  and  quar- 
termasters-general. 

1  deputy  assistant  adjutant-general 
and  quartermaster-general. 

1  lieutenant-colonel,  R.A. 

1  adjutant,  R.A. 

1  lieutenant-colonel,  R.E. 

1  adjutant,  R.E. 

1  assistant  commissary-general. 

1  principal  medical  officer. 

1  chaplain. 

6  staff  clerks. 

Cavalry  and  Infantry  Brigades. 

1  major-general  commanding. 

1  brigade-major. 

1  aide-de-camp. 

1  commissary. 

1  staff  clerk. 

The  word  staff  is  also  applied  to  cer- 
tain officers  attached  to  the  various 
civil  departments  (g.  t.)  and  regiments, 
to  carry  out  certain  duties  in  subordina- 
tion to  superior  authority.  Such  are  the 
medical  and  regimental  staffs. 

The  regimental  staff  is  formed  of  the 
adjutant,  the  instructor  of  musketry,  the 
quartermaster,  the  paymaster,  the  sur- 
geon, the  quartermaster  sergeant,  &c. 

Staff  College — Iu  the  British  army,  the 
school  of  instruction  for  officers  at  Sand- 
hurst who  wish  to  be  placed  on  the  staff 
of  the  army,  or  who  wish  to  improve 


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themselves  in  the  knowledge  of  their 
profession.  It  was  founded  in  1858. 
(  Vide  Appendix  A.) 

Staff  Corps — Formerly  an  organised 
regiment  of  officers,  many  of  whom  served 
nnder  the  Duke  of  Wellington  on  the  staff. 
After  the  close  of  the  Peninsular  War,  the 
corps  died  out.  The  staff  corps,  as  now 
known  under  that  name,  is  that  in  India, 
which  is  formed  into  three  corps,  one  in 
each  presidency,  and  which  was  raised 
after  the  mutiny  of  1857-58.  The  corps 
are  made  up  chiefly  of  officers  of  cavalry 
and  infantry  of  the  late  Indian  army,  and 
vacancies  are  filled  up  by  young  officers 
from  her  Majesty's  European  regiments. 

Staff  Pay — Pay  given  to  officers  and  sol- 
diers in  the  government  service,  who  per- 
form duties  either  on  the  permanent  staff 
of  an  army  or  in  regimental  or  depart- 
mental employment.  (  Vide  Appendix  0.) 

Staff  Sergeants  —  Non-commissioned 
officers  employed  on  the  staff  of  a  regi- 
ment, district,  or  division.  The  following 
are  classed  under  the  above  head : — 

Master  gunner. 

Sergeant-major. 

Schoolmaster. 

Bandmaster. 

Quartermaster  sergeant. 

Sergeant  instructor  of  musketry. 

Sergeant  instructor  in  fencing  and 
gymnastics. 

Sergeant  assistant  instructor  of  gun- 
nery. 

Farrier-major. 

Drum,  trumpet,  pipe,  or  bugle-major. 

Paymaster  sergeant. 

Orderly-room  sergeant. 

Armourer  sergeant. 

Hospital  sergeant. 

Saddler  sergeant. 

Collarmaker-major. 

Wheeler-major. 

The  above  staff  sergeants  are  entitled 
to  lodging,  fuel,  and  light  allowance 
when  there  is  no  barrack  accommodation. 
(  Vide  Addenda,  Allowance.) 

Staggers — A  complaint  with  which 
horses  are  sometimes  attacked ;  termed 
also  vertigo.  A  kind  of  giddiness. 

Stakes — Small  pieces  of  wood,  either 
formed  by  hand  or  cut  from  the  small 
branches  of  abatis.  They  are  used  as 
an  obstacle  against  the  advance  of  an 
attacking  force,  being  sharply  pointed  and 


driven  into  the  ground  until  only  1  foot 
or  2  feet  project.  They  should  be  placed 
either  in  front  of  the  counterscarp  or  in 
the  ditch. 

Stampede — Terror  and  confusion  among 
flying  troops,  horses,  &c. 

Stand  of  Arms  —  A  single  rifle  or 
musket  with  bayonet  complete.  ' 

Stand,  To — To  refuse  to  give  way  or 
yield.  Thus,  to  stand  the  enemy's  fire 
means  to  remain  with  firmness,  in  an 
orderly  array,  without  giving  way  to 
the  withering  fire  of  the  enemy.  To  stand 
under  arms  means  to  be  ready  for  action. 

Standard — A  flag  or  banner.  Standards 
are  carried  by  heavy  cavalry  regiments 
only.  The  royal  standard,  or  colour,  in 
the  guards  is  never  to  be  carried  by  any 
guard  but  that  which  attends  on  the 
person  of  the  sovereign.  In  certain  forts 
or  garrisons,  the  royal  standard  is  hoisted 
on  royal  anniversaries  and  state  occasions. 

Standing  Camps,  vide  Encampment. 

Standing  End— The  fixed  end  of  the 
fall  of  a  tackle. 

Staple — A  loop  of  iron  which  passes 
through  the  opening  in  the  hasp,  and  to 
which  the  padlock  is  attached. 

Star — In  military  life,  a  star  is  an 
order  (<?.  v.),  or  decoration,  also  a  mark  of 
rank,  worn  by  officers  on  the  collar  of  the 
regimental  coat,  sometimes  alone,  and 
sometimes  in  conjunction  with  the  badge 
of  the  crown,  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  officer. 

In  astronomy,  the  general  name  for 
all  the  heavenly  bodies.  Stars  are  dis- 
tinguished as  fixed  and  wandering;  the 
former  are  those  which  have  usually  been 
observed  to  keep  the  same  distance  with 
regard  to  each  other,  the  latter  to  change 
their  places  and  distances,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  particular  names  of 
planets,  cornets,  satellites,  &c. 

Star  Forts  —  Field  works  proposed  to 
remedy  the  defects  of  redoubts  which 
have  the  ground  before  their  angles  un- 
defended by  a  flanking  fire.  By  this 
tracing  a  cross  fire  is  brought  upon  the 
ground  before  the  angles,  but.  in  conse- 
quence of  the  great  exterior  slopes  neces- 
sarily given  to  field  profiles,  the  lengths 
of  the  faces  are  greatly  diminished, 
affording  but  a  feeble  quantity  of  fire 
from  each;  and  for  the  ditches,  the 
flanking  defence  amounts  to  nothing. 
2  D 


STA 


402 


STE 


Baron  Jomini  says  that  "  star  forts  are 
the  very  worst  description  of  fortifica- 
tion. They  cannot  have  flanks,  and  the 
re-entering  angles  take  so  much  room 
from  the  interior  space  that  there  is  no 
room  for  troops  or  artillery." 

Star  Gauge,  vide  Gauge,  Star. 

Star  of  India — An  order  instituted 
by  her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria,  in  1861, 
for  the  purpose  of  rewarding  officers, 
civil  or  military,  native  princes,  and 
others  who  have  rendered  important  ser- 
vice to  the  crown  in  India.  There  are 
three  classes  of  the  order :  knights 
grand  cross,  knights  commanders,  and 
companions.  The  insignia  consist  of  the 
collar,  composed  of  the  heraldic  rose  of 
England,  two  palm  branches,  in  saltire, 
tied  with  a  riband,  and  the  lotus  flower, 
alternately  connected  together  by  a  double 
gold  chain.  In  the  centre  is  the  impe- 
rial crown,  from  which  is  depended  the 
badge,  consisting  of  a  mullet  set  with 
brilliants,  over  an  oval  medallion  con- 
taining an  onyx  cameo  bust  of  the  Queen, 
surrounded  by  the  motto  of  the  order, 
"  Heaven's  light  our  guide." 

Star  Shell,  vide  Shell. 

Staring  Coat — Applied  to  the  skin  or 
coat  of  a  horse  the  hairs  of  which  stand 
erect.  This  appearance  is  produced 
either  from  bad  care  of  the  animal  or 
happens  at  the  change  of  the  season 
when  winter  sets  in. 

Stars — In  pyrotechny,  the  decorations 
of  rockets  which  are  observed  when  the 
head  of  the  rocket  explodes.  (  Vide  Fire- 
works.) 

Statics  —  In  mechanics,  the  science 
which  considers  the  weight  of  bodies, 
or  the  motion  of  bodies  arising  from 
gravity. 

Station,  Military — A  locality  chosen 
for  the  garrisoning  of  troops. 

Status  quo  (Latin  =  the  state  in  which) 
— The  position  of  two  or  more  belligerents 
towards  each  other,  after  having  entered 
into  a  treaty  by  which  they  remain  as  they 
were  before  hostilities  broke  out  with 
regard  to  their  territories,  fortresses,  &c. 

Staves — Long  narrow  pieces  of  wood, 
which,  when  braced  together,  form  the 
sides  of  catks  or  powder  barrels.  In 
England,  powder  barrels  are  usually  made 
of  American  oak  ;  in  India,  of  teak. 

Stay-irons — In  artillery  carriages,  the 


iron  rods  which  connect  the  ends  of  the 
axle-bed  to  the  splinter-bar. 

Steam — Water  expanded  into  an  aeri- 
form state  by  the  addition  of  heat. 
Water  boils  at  212°,  and  at  that  point 
gives  off  vapour  or  steam. 

Steam,  Expansive,  vide  Expansive 
Steam. 

Steam-engine — The  following  descrip- 
tion is  taken  from  Weale's  series  : — 

"  A  machine  for  deriving  power  from 
the  expansion  which  results  from  the 
conversion  of  water  into  vapour  or  steam 
by  the  application  of  heat.  This  expan- 
sion is  so  great  that  a  given  quantity  of 
water  becomes,  when  changed  into  the 
form  of  steam,  enlarged  to  about  1728 
times  its  original  bulk  ;  and  this  expan- 
sion takes  place  with  a  force  that  may 
be  termed  irresistible.  Thus,  if  water 
be  enclosed  in  a  vessel,  say  of  iron  or  any 
other  strong  material,  and  the  water  be 
expanded  into  steam,  and  insufficient 
space  left  for  the  expansion,  the  vessel 
will  be  burst  by  the  force  of  the  steam 
within.  A  steam-engine  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  vessel  into  which  the  steam 
is  admitted,  and  which  is  provided  with 
;  a  movable  disc,  closely  fitting  the  inte- 
rior and  capable  of  sliding  within  the 
vessel.  This  vessel  is  made  cylindrical, 
because  this  form  gives  the  greatest 
strength,  and  is  the  most  readily  fitted 
with  the  movable  disc.  The  vessel  is 
termed  the  cylinder,  and  the  disc  the 
piston.  Supposing  the  cylinder  to  be  placed 
upright  and  fitted  with  a  close  cover, 
I  and  that,  while  the  piston  is  near  the 
•  bottom  of  it,  steam  is  admitted  to  rush  in 
through  a  pipe  below  the  piston,  the 
piston  will  be  driven  up  by  the  steam, 
and  if,  when  it  reaches  the  upper  part  of 
,  the  cylinder,  the  steam  from  below  is 
shut  off,  and  admitted  through  an  upper 
pipe  to  press  upon  the  top  surface  of  the 
piston,  it  will  be  forced  down  again. 
Thus  a  rectilinear  motion  up  and  down  is 
produced,  and  this  constitutes  what  is 
called  the  princifde  of  the  steam-engine. 
All  its  other  parts  are  for  the  purpose  of 
regulating  the  admission  of  the  steam, 
i  and  converting  the  rectilinear  motion 
|  produced  by  the  cylinder  into  a  rotary 
motion  at  the  point  where  the  power  is 
required  to  be  applied  for  working  ma- 
chinery. The  steam,  when  no  longer 


STE 


403 


STE 


required  for  that  purpose,  is  allowed  to 
escape  into  the  open  atmosphere,  or  con- 
ducted in  a  pipe  to  another  vesselT  which, 
being  cooled  by  the  application  of  cold 
water,  rapidly  condenses  the  steam — 
that  is,  reconverts  it  into  water.  If 
permitted  to  escape  into  the  air,  the 
steam  has  to  force  itself  against  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  whereas,  if 
conducted  into  a  condenser,  this  force  is 
not  required.  Hence  steam  of  less  pres- 
sure will  work  what  is  termed  a  low- 
pressure  or  condensing  engine,  while  that 
already  described  is  for  distinction  called 
a  high-pressure  engine.  A  third  variety 
of  steam-engine  is  worked  by  shutting  off 
the  steam  before  it  has  driven  the  piston 
the  whole  length  of  the  cylinder,  or  com- 
pleted the  stroke,  as  it  is  termed,  and  the 
subsequent  expansion  of  the  steam  com- 
pletes the  impulse  upon  the  piston.  En- 
gines thus  worked  are  distinguished  as 
expansive  engines.  The  principal  differ- 
ence in  the  mechanism  of  condensing  and 
expansive  steam-engines  is  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  apparatus  which  admits  and 
shuts  off  the  steam,  or  the  valves,  which 
act  as  doors  within  the  pipes.  The 
several  parts  of  a  condensing  engine  and 
its  appliances  are  as  follows  : — Firstly, 
the  boiler,  in  which  the  steam  is  produced 
from  water  by  the  action  of  fire  in  the 
furnace  beneath ;  secondly,  the  steam-pipe, 
in  which  the  steam  is  conveyed  to  the 
engine  ;  thirdly,  the  steam-chest,  in  which 
the  steam  is  received,  and  which  commu- 
nicates with  the  two  induction-pipes  that 
lead  into  the  upper  and  lower  part  of  the 
cylinder ;  fourthly,  the  cylinder  fitted  with 
the  piston,  and  having  pipes  called  the 
edttction-pipes,  through  which  the  steam 
passes  away,  when  its  work  in  the  cylinder 
is  completed,  into  the  condonser ;  fifthly, 
the  air-pump,  which  abstracts  the  water 
formed  by  the  condensed  steam,  sending 
it  into  the  boiler,  producing  a  partial 
vacuum  within  the  condenser,  and  thus 
assisting  the  escape  of  the  steam  from 
the  cylinder  ;  sixthly,  the  condenser  itself, 
which  is  kept  cool  with  water  pumped  up 
by  the  cold-water  pump.  The  pistoii 
has  a  rod  fixed  to  it,  which  works  through 
a  steam-tight  opening  or  stuffing-box  in 
the  lid  of  the  cylinder,  and  this  piston-rod 
is  attached  to  one  end  of  a  beam,  which 
turns  upon  a  centre,  and  the  other  end  of 


which  works  a  connectini/-rod  attached  to 
a  crank,  to  the  side  of  which  a  rotary 
motion  is  thus  imparted.  In  some  en- 
gines the  piston-rod  is  connected  by  links 
directly  with  the  crank,  and  these  are 
hence  termed  direct-action  steam-engines, 
while  the  former  are  distinguished  as 
beam  engines.  In  others,  again,  the  piston- 
rod  is  attached  to  the  crank  without 
links,  and  the  cylinder,  instead  of  being 
fixed,  is  made  to  vibrate  or  oscillate : 
these  are  therefore  termed  vibrating  or 
oscillating  engines.  Marine  engines,  for 
propelling  vessels  on  the  water,  and  loco- 
motive engines,  for  propelling  trains  of 
carriages  upon  railways,  are  each  distin- 
guished by  peculiarities  of  construction 
and  arrangements  fitting  them  for  their 
especial  duties." 

Steam-gauge,  vide  Gauge,  Steam. 

Steam-hammer  —  Besides  the  usual 
form  of  steam-hammer,  as  described 
under  Hammer,  Steam,  there  is  the' 
double-acting  steam-hammer,  in  which 
the  steam  power  is  used  not  only  to 
raise  the  block  but  also  to  drive  it 
down  upon  the  forging.  In  this  hammer 
the  steam  cylinder  is  fixed,  and  the  fall- 
ing weight  is  attached  to  the  piston-rod. 
This  hammer  is  used  in  the  Royal  Gun 
Factories,  and  also  smaller  ones  con- 
structed after  Condie's  patent,  in  which 
the  piston  is  stationary,  and  the  cylinder 
moves,  the  hammer  being  attached  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  ;  and  the  piston- 
rod,  which  is  a  stationary  cylindrical 
pipe,  serves  to  convey  the  steam  to  and 
from  the  cylinder.  In  all  modern  ham- 
mers, the  steam  presses  the  hammer  down 
as  well  as  raises  it  up. 

Steel  (German,  StahT)  —  This  widely 
known  and  useful  metal  is  a  compound 
of  iron  and  carbon,  in  the  proportion  of 
the  latter,  for  ordinary  purposes,  of  1'5  or 
2  per  cent. 

Mr.  Anderson,  C.E.,  who  was  a  'few 
years  ago  assistant  superintendent  in  the 
Royal  Gun  Factories,  Woolwich,  gave  an 
admirable  description  of  iron  and  steel, 
in  the  manufacture  of  ordnance,  in  a  lec- 
ture at  the  Royal  United  Service  Institu- 
tion, in  1862,  an  extract  of  which,  re- 
lating to  steel,  it  is  considered  worth 
while  inserting: — 

"  The  material  called  steel  is  an  inter- 
mediate compound  between  cast  iron  and 
2  D  2 


STE 


404 


STE 


the  former  material  of  wrought  iron. 
Steel  is  comparatively  a  pure  iron,  con- 
taining a  small  percentage  of  carbon, 
with  some  other  substance  in  combina- 
tion, which  is  rather  obscure,  and  re- 
garding which  there  is  considerable 
difference  of  opinion.  This  combination 
gives  the  material,  which  is  entirely 
different  in  character  from  either  of  the 
metals  out  of  which  it  is  made,  some 
very  peculiar  characteristics  of  its  own. 
Steel  can  either  be  made  from  wrought 
iron  or  from  cast  iron.  The  latter 
arrangement  is  the  cheapest  process,  but 
the  former  method  affords  the  most 
certain  results  at  the  present  time,  and 
that  is  the  system  chiefly  resorted  to  in 
making  the  finer  qualities  of  steel.  To 
make  good  steel  of  high  quality,  a  bar 
of  pure  wrought  iron  is  selected,  mostly 
Swedish,  which  has  been  made  with  char- 
coal in  all  its  previous  stages.  The 
iron  bars  are  put  into  a  fire-brick  chest 
along  with  a  quantity  of  charcoal 
powder ;  every  part  of  the  bar  being 
surrounded  with  the  carbon,  the  air 
being  excluded,  the  whole  is  made  white- 
hot,  and  kept  in  that  condition  for 
several  days,  generally  about  a  week, 
according  to  the  amount  of  conversion 
.that  is  required.  During  this  period  the 
pure  white-hot  iron  imbibes  a  new 
property  from  the  charcoal  into  its  own 
nature.  A  chemical  action  takes  place, 
and  the  wrought  iron  has  been  thus 
gradually  turned  into  steel.  Such  steel, 
however,  is  very  imperfect.  The  de- 
fects are  chiefly  owing  to  its  local  irregu- 
larities of  conversion,  for  although  the 
entire  mass  of  the  bar  may  have  had  the 
proper  quantity  of  carbon  put  into  it, 
yet  it  is  found  to  be  much  improved 
through  mixing  the  particles,  either  by 
welding  several  bars  together  into  one 
bar,  or  even  the  mere  working  of  a  single 
bar  under  the  hammer  has  the  effect  of 
equalising  and  greatly  improving  the 
quality.  The  most  effectual  way,  how- 
ever, of  obtaining  a  thorough  mixture 
of  the  particles  is  to  break  the  original 
steel  bars  into  small  pieces,  then  to  melt 
them  together  in  a  crucible  into  liquid 
steel,  and  then  to  mix  and  pour  this 
metal  into  an  ingot,  which,  when  solid, 
is  then  drawn  into  a  bar  of  steel  of  the 
required  dimensions.  By  this  means  of 


putting  carbon  into  pure  iron,  cast  steel 
is  produced,  which  is  the  finest  in  quality 
of  any.  of  the  varieties  of  this  valuable 
metal.  But  good  passable  steel  can  be 
made  directly  from  cast  iron,  simply  by 
not  carrying  the  puddling  process  on  to 
the  full  extent  of  wrought  iron.  Such 
material  is  called  puddled  steel,  and 
although  at  the  present  time  it  is  not 
equal  in  quality  to  that  which  is  made 
in  the  other  way,  still  it  is  very  much 
cheaper,  and  when  more  experience  has 
been  gained  so  as  to  determine  the  best 
descriptions  of  cast  iron  that  are  suit- 
able for  Ithis  particular  process,  as  also 
the  precise  period  when  to  discontinue 
the  puddling  operation,  so  as  to  leave  the 
proper  quantity  of  carbon  in  the  metal, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  such 
cheap  steel  will  be  extremely  valuable 
for  many  purposes,  seeing  that  puddled 
steel  is  malleable,  and  has  even  a  higher 
tenacity  than  wrought  iron.  A  very 
fine  material  is  now  produced  exten- 
sively by  breaking  up  the  rough  bars 
of  puddled  steel  and  melting  them  into 
a  cast  steel,  which,  for  many  purposes, 
is  found  equal  to  ordinary  cast  steel  as 
made  from  Swedish  iron ;  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  however,  it  is  not  so  good  for  edge 
tools. 

"Good  steel  can  be  made  in  a  still 
more  summary  manner  by  means  of  the 
'  Bessemer  process.'  The  crude  cast  iron, 
when  in  a  melted  state,  is  poured  into  a 
large  refractory  vessel  heated,  and  a 
strong  blast  of  air  is  forced  through 
the  fluid,  producing  a  violent  agitation  ; 
the  silicium  and  carbon  in  the  iron  unite 
with  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  and  are 
driven  off  from  the  metal,  until  the  re- 
maining mass  is  almost  pure  wrought 
iron.  There  is  then  added  to  the  iron 
(in  order  to  make  it .  steel)  a  definite 
quantity  of  carbon ;  it  is  introduced  in 
the  condition  of  liquid  cast  iron  of  known 
mixture  and  quality ;  the  whole  is  then 
thoroughly  mixed,  and  the  entire  process 
is  completed  in  about  half  an  hour  from 
the  time  of  first  pouring  in  the  cast  iron 
to  the  final  running  out  of  the  steel 
into  moulds  or  ingots.  By  the  '  Bessemer 
process '  large  masses  of  steel  can  be 
made  more  easily  than  by  any  other 
method  yet  introduced,  and  apparently  at 
less  cost,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  in 


STE 


405 


STE 


time    this   process  will  produce  uniform 


quality. 
"  Steel 


in    all    its    combinations    is    a 


most  valuable  metal ;  in  its  ordinary 
state,  it  is  closer  in  structure,  has  greater 
power  of  resisting  compression,  and  pos- 
sesses a  higher  tenacity  than  wrought 
iron  even  of  the  best  quality,  and  as 
such  it  commends  itself  to  the  engineer 
for  the  manufacture  of  the  best  class  of 
articles,  notwithstanding  its  greater  cost, 
and  the  still  greater  expense  which  has 
to  be  incurred  in  its  fabrication  into  the 
requisite  forms.  But  it  has  another 
property  which  causes  it  to  transcend  in 
value  all  other  metals,  namely,  the  capa- 
bility of  being  tempered  to  any  degree 
of  hardness  or  softness.  The  discovery  of 
the  fact  that  a  piece  of  soft  steel,  when 
heated,  and  then  suddenly  cooled,  no 
matter  by  what  means,  assumes  a  hard- 
ness approaching  that  of  the  diamond, 
is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  any  in 
connection  with  the  whole  range  of 
metals,  and  has  been  of  the  greatest 
service  to  mankind.  In  addition  to  this 


plays  an  important  part  in  all  modern 
efforts  to  use  steel  either  for  guns  or 
armour  plates,  or  for  anything  exposed 
to  jar  or  sudden  vibration."  • 

The  latest  improvement  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  steel  is  the  process  pursued  by 
Sir  Joseph  Whitworth  in  condensing  the 
metal  in  a  fluid  state,  whereby  the  chance 
of  air  bubbles  is  obviated,  thus  rendering 
the  steel  very  much  stronger,  and  doing 
away  altogether  with  the  complaint 
formerly  made  of  its  brittleness  for  guns. 

The  metal  with  which  the  Krupp  guns 
are  made  is  stated  to  be  a  mixture  of  steel 
and  wrought  iron,  melted  in  crucibles 
made,  with  great  care,  of  fire-clay,  to 
which  a  little  plumbago  is  added,  or 
wholly  of  that  metal,  and  holding  about 
30  Ibs.  each.  The  ore  employed  is  re- 
ceived from  two  sources,  one,  furnishing 
the  well-known  Spiegeleisen,  a  highly 
crystalline  variety,  containing  about  4 
per  cent,  of  manganese,  the  other 
partly  red  iron  ore,  both  smelted  with 
coke.  The  puddling  process  for  steel  is 
similar  to  that  employed  for  iron,  except 


property  of  hardening,  when  the  said  that  the  former  is  conducted  at  a  lower 
hard  substance  is  exposed  to  a  gentle  temperature,  and  requires  nicer  manage- 
heat,  it  gradually  begins  to  give  off  a  ment ;  but  in  the  case  of  steel  the  cast 


portion  of  its  hardness,  until  at  length 
it  loses  it  altogether,  and  as  it  so  happens 
that  at  the  same  time  that  the  hardness  is 


iron  to  be  operated  upon  is  never  refined. 
In  order  to  free  the  puddled  steel  from 
a  certain  intermixture  of  cinder,  and  to 


gradually  departing,  a  definite  change  of  I  give  it  homogeneity,  it  is  remelted  into 

crucibles,  when  it  becomes  converted  into 


colour  of  the  surface  of  the  steel  accom- 
panies the  softening  process,  this  change 
of  hue  becomes  a  correct  measure  of  the 
change  in  hardness,  aad  thus  the  precise 
degree  of  hardness  or  temper  that  may 
be  required  for  any  purpose  can  be  at- 


cast  steel.  On  leaving  the  furnace,  the 
metal  is  kept  flowing  in  a  continuous 
stream  into  a  reservoir,  and  from  that 
into  moulds,  great  care  being  taken 
in  timing  the  movements  of  that  opera- 


tained  with  great  certainty  and  unifor-  j  tion.  The  cast  is  then  allowed  to  cool 
mity.  Steel,  wrought  iron,  and  cast  j  till  it  has  shrunk  sufficiently  from  the 
iron  can  all  be  rendered  softer  and  less  !  mould  to  be  turned  out,  when  it  is  sur- 
brittle  by  means  of  the  annealing  pro-  '  rounded  by  hot  cinders  and  kept  hot 
cess,  which  is  simply  causing  the  materials  j  till  wanted  for  forging.  In  order  to  in- 
to be  made  red-hot,  then  keeping  them  in  crease  the  density,  strength,  and  elas- 
that  state  for  a  short  time,  and  after-  ticity,  as  well  as  for  the  sake  of  homo- 
wards  allowing  the  whole  to  cool  down  geneity,  all  castings  are  made  cylindrical 
very  slowly,  so  that  every  part  may  cool  or  square,  and  hammered  to  the  rough 
at  a  uniform  rate,  and  no  part  or  particle  1  shape  required.  Whilst  being  hammered, 
be  under  any  restraint  from  premature  the  ingot  is  kept  at  the  same  tern- 
withdrawal  of  heat,  thus  causing  local  perature  by  frequently  heating  it,  and 
contraction  and  hardness.  By  prolong-  when  fully  worked,  the  breaking  strain 
ing  the  period  of  cooling,  a  mass  of  of  the  metal  is  about  44  tons  per  square 
steel  comparatively  brittle  acquires  the  inch. 

character  of  toughness  in  a  remarkable  The  essential  difference  between  steel, 
degree,  and  this  process  of  annealing  now  wrought  iron,  and  cast  iron,  consists  in 


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the  proportion  of  carbon  present  in  each, 

which  is  as  follows  : — 

Wrought  iron     0- 1  to  0-3  per  cent,  by  weight. 

Steel     ....      0-3  to  2  „ 

Cast  iron  2      to  5  „  ,. 

Krupp's  steel  is  stated  to  contain  from 
0 '  5  to  1  per  cent,  of  carbon. 

Steel,  Blistered,  vide  Blistered  Steel. 

Steel,  Cast,  vide  Cast  Steel. 

Steel,  Firth's — The  steel  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  tube  of  British  rifled 
guns.  Its  tensile  strength  is  about  30  tons 
uutempered  (about  50  tons  when  tem- 
pered), and  its  elastic  limit  about  13  tons, 
Krupp's  gun  steel  being  over  30  tons  in  ten- 
sile strength  and  about  6^tons  in  elasticity. 

Steel  Guns — As  the  name  implies,  are 
guns  made  of  steel.  In  the  British 
artillery,  guns  entirely  made  of  that 
metal  have  not  been  adopted,  except  for 
one  nature  of  mountain  gun.  The  M.L.R. 
guns  of  the  service  have  the  inner  barrel 
made  of  steel.  (Vide  Woolwich  Gun.) 

The  mountain  gun  above  alluded  to 
(7-pr.)  is  made  from  a  solid  block  of  steel, 
rough  bored  and  shaped,  then  toughened  in 
oil,  and  afterwards  finished  in  the  usual 
manner.  The  bore  is  3  inches,  and  rifled 
with  three  grooves  on  the  French  system, 
having  a  twist  of  one  turn  in  20  calibres. 

This  rifling  differs  from  the  modified 
French  system  (as  applied  to  the  9-pr.  and 
16-pr.)  in  not  having  the  corners  rounded, 
and  in  the  curve  of  the  bottom  of  the 
groove  being  described  concentric  to  the 
bore.  The  grooves  are  0-6  inch  wide  at 
the  bottom  and  O'l  inch  deep.  (Vide  Ap- 
pendix B.) 

Since  the  introduction  of  rifled  ordnance 
in  Europe  and  America,  special  attention 
has  been  directed  to  steel  as  a  material 
capable  of  withstanding  the  immense 
strain  to  which  rifled  guns  are  subjected  ; 
but  English  artillerists  found  an  objection 
to  this  metal  chiefly  on  account  of  its 
brittleness  and  want  of  endurance,  the 
trials  made  with  steel  guns  in  this  country 
and  on  the  continent,  some  years  ago,  not 
having  been  considered  satisfactory. 

The  want  of  confidence  in  steel  guns 
arose  probably  from  the  fear  that  manu- 
facturers had  not  yet  attained  to  the 
perfect  method  of  forming  the  gun  or 
the  want  of  knowledge  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  metal  itself;  but  the  system 
lately  pursued  by  Sir  J.  Whitworth, 


j  of  compressing  steel    in    its   fluid    state 
|  by    hydraulic    pressure,    has     produced 
guns  which  afford  all  the  endurance  and 
1  strength    that    can    be   desired.     In    the 
j  compression   of  this  metal,    all   cavities 
or  air  cells  are  driven  out,  and    it  be- 
j  comes  perfectly  homogeneous.     Steel  pos- 
sesses important  advantages  over  wrought 
iron,  such  as  elasticity,  tenacity,  and  hard- 
ness, but  it  is  more  expensive. 

Steel,   as    a    metal    for  the    manufac- 
ture   of    ordnance,    has    been    adopted 
by  most    continental    nations,   the  chief 
manufacturer    being      Mr.     Krupp,    of 
:  Essen,  in  Prussia,  whose  guns  have  been 
adopted  not  only  by  Germany,  but  also 
by  Russia,  Belgium,  Holland,  Italy,  Spain, 
j  ^yP^  Turkey,  and  even  Japan.  Austria, 
.  for  a  time,  carried  on  experiments  with 
I  some  of  Krupp's  guns  with  the  view  of 
j  introducing  them  into  her  service;  but 
preference  has  since  been  given  to  steel- 
I  bronze   (q.   t>.),  which  is  stated  from  ex- 
periments to  be  superior  to  steel. 

Krupp's  guns  of  a  small  calibre  are 
manufactured  from  one  solid  block ;  those 
j  above  8-inch  calibre  are  compound,  being 
!  weighted  and  strengthened  by  external 
I  rings  in  the  manner  described  under  the 
!  head  of  Krupp  Guns. 

The  uncertainty  of  some  of  Krupp's 
heavy  guns  was  shown  some  years  ago, 
particularly  in  the  trials  made  in  Russia. 
Two  burst  after  firing  a  comparatively 
:  few  number  of  rounds,  one  66,  the 
other  109  rounds ;  the  former  is  stated 
to  have  burst  from  the  jamming  of  the 
shot ;  the  latter,  it  is  inferred,  from  de- 
fective metal,  though  the  contrary  is 
reported.  Four  guns  were  then  tested  for 
endurance ;  two  of  which,  M.L.R.  guns, 
withstood,  the  one,  215,  the  other  286 
rounds.  The  other  two  were  S.B.  guns, 
and  withstood  1025  and  790  rounds 
respectively.  None  of  them  burst,  but 
they  were  all  worn  and  eaten  into 
i  the  seat  of  the  shot,  by  gas,  to  -such 
an  extent  that  the  committee  considered 
that  the  service  of  the  rifled  guns  could 
not  with  safety  be  assigned  a  higher 
duration  than  250  rounds.  An  11-inch 
cast-steel  Krupp  gun,  tried  in  1871  at 
Cronstadt,  burst  at  the  muzzle  after  the 
ninth  shot,  this  result  being  probably  due, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  committee,  to  a  flaw 
in  the  metal  near  the  muzzle.  During 


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the  war  of  1870-71,  many  of  Krupp's 
light  guns  are  stated  to  have  become  un- 
serviceable, but  probably  they  became  so, 
not  so  much  from  any  fault  in  the  metal, 
as  from  some  mechanical  derangement  in 
the  breech-loading  apparatus,  which  has 
doubtless  since  been  remedied.  The  Krupp 
guns  lately  manufactured  for  the  German 
army  appear  from  the  reports  to  be  very 
satisfactory. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  principal  results 
attained  in  the  manufacture  of  the  early 
steel  ordnance.  Whether  guns  of  this 
metal  will  eventually  be  introduced  into 
the  British  service,  it  is  difficult  to  say ; 
as  far  as  can  at  present  be  seen,  no  change 
is  likely  to  be  made.  Another  drawback, 
besides  the  uncertainty  of  the  metal 
resisting  the  strain  of  the  charge,  is  the 
great  cost  involved  in  melting  and  cast- 
ing the  material,  together  with  the  ex- 
pense of  turning  and  boring  such  a  hard 
metal,  all  which  add  greatly  to  the  price 
of  the  gun. 

The  relative  cost  of  steel  guns  compared 
with  those  of  pieces  manufactured  of  other 
materials  has  been  computed  as  follows : — 
Per  ton. 

Cast-iron  guns        £21 

Armstrong  (original  construc- 
tion), wrought  iron  with 
steel  tube 100 

Armstrong  (Fraser  construc- 
tion)    65 

Steel,  on  Krupp's  or  Whit- 
worth's  plan  170 

Gun-metal       190 

Russia  has  large  steel  factories  at  Abou- 
koffsky  and  at  Oberchoff.  In  England,  the 
Sheffield  Works  and  the  Vavasseur  Fac- 
tory in  London  manufacture  steel  guns. 

Steel-bronze  (German,  Stahlbronze) — 
An  alloy  of  tin  and  copper,  so  hardened 
as  to  render  it  as  durable  and  strong  as 
steel ;  hence  its  name.  The  mode  of  treat- 
ing this  alloy  is  the  invention  of  a  French- 
man, M.  Lavessiere.  It  has  been  of  late 
improved  on  by  General  Uchatius,  director 
of  the  royal  arsenal  at  Vienna,  and  em- 
ployed by  him  in  the  manufacture  of 
light  field  guns.*  It  takes  its  name, 
not  from  any  steel  entering  into  its  com- 
position, but  is  simply  given  to  signify 

*  It  has  not  yet  been  decided  whether  steel- 
bronze  is  applicable  to  heavy  ordnance. 


that    the  metal    possesses,  as   is    shown 

above,  the  properties  of  steel,  so  as  to 

|  qualify  it  as  a  substitute  for  that  metal 

|  in  gun-making.     It  is  also  alleged  that 

there  is  no  phosphorus  in  it. 

The  composition  of  steel-bronze  differs 
only  slightly  from  that  of  ordinary 
bronze  (90  per  cent,  of  copper  and  10 
per  cent,  of  tin),  the  alloy  consisting  of 
92  per  cent,  of  copper  and  8  per  cent, 
of  tin.  The  great  secret  of  producing 
this  metal  lies  in  the  manner  it  is  cast, 
and  this  comprises  two  operations,  viz. : 
(1)  casting  in  an  iron  mould,  around  a 
metallic  core  ;  and  (2)  passing  the  metal, 
when  cold,  through  the  rolling  mill. 

The  moulds  are  of  cast  iron,  and  3'9 
inches  thick ;  in  the  centre  of  each  is 
placed  a  wrought  copper  core,  1*9  inches 
in  diameter,  around  which  the  metal  is 
cast  and  chilled. 

Steel-bronze  Gun — A  gun  lately  intro- 
duced into  the  Austrian  service,  and 
made  of  steel-bronze. 

The  mode  of  manufacture  is  as  follows. 
The  metal  having  been  prepared  as 
shown  above,  the  cylinders  are  bored 
!  to  a  diameter  smaller  than  that  required 
for  the  bore  of  the  gun.  For  this 
purpose  the  cylinders  are  placed  verti- 
cally on  a  support,  then  steel  punches  or 
cones  are  forced  into  the  aperture  by 
means  of  a  powerful  hydraulic  press. 
The  size  of  these  cones  increases  gradually, 
so  as  to  produce  a  progressive  widening  of 
the  inside  of  the  bore  ;  six  cones  are  suffi- 
cient to  alter  a  diameter  of  3'15  inches 
into  one  of  3'425  inches.  In  the  forma- 
tion of  the  gun  in  the  process  adopted, 
the  surface  of  the  bore  acquires  a  hard- 
ness equal  to  that  of  steel,  and  the  strain 
given  by  the  distension  of  the  interior  is 
far  greater  than  can  be  given  to  the 
powder  chamber  on  the  explosion  of  the 
greatest  charge  it  can  be  made  to  hold. 
General  Uchatius  states  in  his  report  the 
reasons  that  led  him  to  adopt  the  above 
process,  in  the  following  words  :— 

"  The  work  done  by  the  powder  to  the 
detriment  of  the  gun  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  shooting,  namely,  the  en- 
largement of  the  bore,  must  be  exerted 
by  mechanical  pressure  beforehand,  and 
to  a  still  greater  degree  than  the  work 
done  by  the  strongest  occurring  powder- 
gas  pressure,  whereby  the  elastic  power 


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of  resistance  of  the  barrel  will  be  so 
increased  that  the  subsequent  smaller 
powder-gas  pressures  will  exert  no  further 
effect,  and  the  metal  immediately  sur- 
rounding the  surface  of  the  bore  must  be 
given  the  necessary  degree  of  hardness  by 
subjecting  it  to  a  process  analogous  to 
that  of  rolling  out." 

Thus  is  repeated  what  is  done  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  Macomber  gun  (</.  «.), 
with  this  difference,  that  that  gun  is  "  built 
up  "  of  wrought-iron  discs,  "set"  by  means 
of  a  powerful  hammer,  and  the  breech 
encircled  with  heavy  steel  rings. 

General  Uchatius  further  says  of  his 
gun : — "  All  metal  strata  surrounding  the 
bore  concentrically  are  in  a  state  of 
elastic  tension,  and  exert  a  pressure,  from 
without  inwards,  equal  to  the  pressure 
exerted  by  the  hydraulic  press  ramming 
from  within  outwards,  and  which  the 
table  of  pressures  shows  to  correspond 
very  nearly  with  a  state  of  about  2400 
atmospheres." 

The  experiments  made  with  these  new 
guns  have  shown  that  the  bronze-steel, 
as  it  is  also  called,  is  not  only  as  hard  as 
cast  steel,  but  far  more  elastic,  and  the 
action  of  the  powder-gas  seems  to  injure 
the  gun  very  little;  further,  it  is  less 
liable  to  damage  from  atmospheric  action 
than  steel.  The  initial  velocity  is  very 
little  less  than  that  of  the  Krupp  gun,  and 
to  these  advantages  must  be  added  the 
great  difference  in  price  (cost  of  construc- 
tion), which  is  stated  to  be  only  £35 
per  gun. 

The  dimensions  of  this  new  gun  are  the 
same  as  the  Krupp  gun  (q.  c.)  of  8'7 
centimetres,  from  which  it  was  copied, 
the  only  difference  being  in  the  length 
of  the  bore,  which  is  6  feet  5  inches. 
The  wedge  and  the  vent  bush  are  also 
slightly  different ;  the  bore  is  provided 
with  a  copper  Broadwell  ring,  and  closed 
with  a  flat  wedge  of  Uchatius'  construc- 
tion ;  the  vent  bush  is  bored  in  a  copper 
screw,  and  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
of  the  bore. 

The  Austrian,  committee  of  artillery, 
after  the  late  experiments  with  the  steel- 
bronze  gun,  reported  as  follows: — "The 
steel-bronze  B.L.R.  gun,  throwing  a  pro- 
jectile of  about  14  Ibs.,  with  a  charge 
of  3'3  Ibs.,  showed  great  durability ; 
after  2147  rounds  had  been  fired  from 


it  almost  without  interruption,  the 
melting  of  the  tin  particles  was  con- 
siderably less  than  the  burning  out  of 
the  breech  surface  of  the  Krupp  gun 
of  the  same  calibre  that  was  tried 
along  with  it ;  and,  besides,  the  erosion 
did  not  exceed  the  admissible  limits. 

"  The  comparative  firing  showed  that 
the  steel-bronze  gun  possesses  the  same 
accuracy  as  that  of  the  cast-steel  gun. 
Notwithstanding  the  melting  of  the  tin 
particles,  the  accuracy  of  the  firing  was 
in  no  way  diminished,  and  the  projectile 
that  was  purposely  allowed  to  burst  in 
the  bore  after  2121  rounds  damaged 
the  parts  but  little  where  the  explosion 
took  place,  and  even  then,  the  firing  was 
not  inferior  to  what  had  taken  place. 
The  extreme  durability  of  the  bore  is  due 
not  only  to  the  excellence  of  the  material, 
but  also  to  the  construction  of  the  load- 
ing chamber,  as  well  as  to  the  construction 
of  the  projectile.  The  projectiles  used  in 
the  trial  were  of  two  kinds  :  a  common 
shell  and  a  bolt-shaped  shell,  with  double 
case,  of  2^  calibres  in  length,  with  four 
belts  of  copper  wire  or  guide-ring 
encased  in  its  cylindrical  portion." 

Competent  artillerists  in  Germany,  it 
is  stated,  have  shown  themselves  favour- 
able to  the  steel-bronze,  and  the  com- 
mittee of  artillery  at  Berlin  has  caused 
two  pieces  of  this  metal  to  be  manufac- 
tured for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out 
experiments.  If  these  give  good  results, 
it  is  proposed  to  employ  steel-bronze  in 
the  manufacture  of  garrison  and  naval 
guns,  and  thus  utilise  the  large  stock  of 
bronze  ordnance  possessed  by  the  German 
artillery. 

Steelyard,  or  Roman  Balance  —  A 
balance  by  means  of  which  the  weights 
of  bodies  are  ascertained  by  a  single 
standard  weight.  The  steelyard  is  a 
lever  having  unequal  arms ;  on  the 
shorter  arm  the  body  to  be  weighed  is 
placed,  and  on  the  longer  the  standard 
weight  is  placed,  which  moves  backwards 
and  forwards  on  the  arm  until  it  touches 
a  point  which  counterpoises  the  body 
being  weighed.  Divisions  graduated  on 
the  longer  arm  indicate  the  weight  of 
the  body  weighed. 

Stencilling — A  method  of  producing 
the  picture  of  an  object  without  drawing 
it.  It  consists  in  simply  tracing  out  on 


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paper,  or  on  some  other  substance,  such  as 
thin  leather  or  oil-cloth,  the  objects  which 
it  is  desirous  to  delineate  on  some  smooth 
surface.  The  object  having  been  traced, 
the  parts  to  be  delineated  are  cut  out, 
and  the  vacant  spaces  rubbed  over  with 
colour  on  the  wall  or  surface  to  be 
painted  ;  on  raising  the  paper,  the  picture 
will  be  observed  below.  Stencilling  is 
much  used  in  decorating  the  walls  of 
rooms,  and  also  largely  in  factories 
where  there  is  much  marking,  the 
address  being  cut  out  on  thin  metal,  and 
then  rubbed  over  with  paint.  It  saves 
much  labour  and  expense.  Powder  and 
other  barrels  are  so  marked. 

Step  —  A  pace  ;  progression  made  in 
walking  by  the  removal  of  the  foot. 
Hence  to  step  out  means  to  lengthen  the 
pace,  or  to  march  quicker ;  to  step  back, 
to  take  one  pace  to  the  rear. 

Quick  step. — A  military  step  of  30 
inches,  with  a  cadence  (number  of  steps  per 
minute)  of  116  per  minute,  in  the  British 
army.  It  constitutes  what  is  technically 
called  quick  time  in  marching.  At  that 
rate,  a  small  body  of  troops  can  march 
o'l  miles  an  hour  without  halting,  but  it 
would  be  better  to  calculate  the  rate  of 
marching  for  infantry  at  2£  miles  an 
hour. 

In  the  German  army,  the  quick  step  is 
31j  inches,  with  a  cadence  of  112  per 
minute  ;  in  the  Austrian  29J  inches,  with 
a  cadence  of  115  to  130  per  minute;  in 
the  Italian,  29J  inches,  with  a  cadence 
of  120  per  minute.  In  the  French  army  it 
was  increased,  in  1875,  from  25£  inches 
to  29^  inches,  and  the  cadence  raised 
from  111  to  115  per  minute. 

Step  is  figuratively  used  to  signify  pro- 
motion ;  thus,  the  step  from  a  lieutenant 
to  a  captain,  and  so  on  to  higher  grades. 

Step  Over,  To — To  rise  above  another ; 
to  receive  promotion  over  another  officer 
or  soldier. 

Sterro  Metal — A  species  of  brass  con- 
sisting of  copper  60,  zinc  44,  iron  4,  tin 
2.  It  is  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Baron 
von  Rosthorn,  of  Vienna.  It  derives  its 
name  from  a  Greek  word  signifying 
"  firm."  It  has  a  brass  yellow  colour,  is 
close  in  grain,  is  free  from  porosity,  and 
has  considerable  hardness,  whereby  it  is 
well  adapted  for  bearing  metal,  or  other 
purposes  where  resistance  to  friction  is 


needed.  Its  tensile  strength  is  nearly 
double  that  of  bronze,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  secure  uniformity  in  the  casting. 

Sterro  metal  possesses  another  quality, 
which,  in  reference  to  its  application  to 
guns,  would  be  regarded  as  more  important 
than  its  tenacity — namely,  its  great  elas- 
ticity; but  it  has  never  been  used  for  guns. 

Stick,  Gold — A  name  or  position  ac- 
corded to  the  colonels  of  the  two  regi- 
ments of  life  guards,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
be  present  in  immediate  attendance  on  the 
sovereign  on  all  state  occasions.  These 
officers  take  the  duty  in  turn,  monthly. 
The  officer  on  duty  is  called  the  gold 
stick  in  waiting.  It  is  stated  that  the 
name  originated  in  the  sovereign  giving 
the  colonel  of  the  life  guards  a  gold  stick 
on  his  receiving  the  regiment. 

Stick,  Silver— The  field  officer  of  the 
life  guards,  when  on  duty,  is  called  silver 
stick. 

Still  (Latin,  stillo,  I  drop) — Maunder 
describes  it  as  "  a  chemical  apparatus  for 
vapourising  compound  fluids,  and  recon- 
densing  the  vapours  of  each  of  the  com- 
ponent parts  as  they  are  successively 
raised  by  heat.  It  consists  of  a  body  or 
boiler,  a  worm,  a  refrigerator,  and  a  re- 
ceiver." 

Stirrup — An  iron  hoop  fastened  to  the 
saddle  by  a  leather  strap,  to  enable  the 
rider  to  mount  and  dismount,  and  support 
his  foot  while  in  the  saddle.  The  present 
pattern  stirrups  are  similar  to  those 
attached  to  a  hunting-saddle.  The 
stirrup  irons  are  made  of  shear  steel. 
The  lance  stirrup  has  a  leather  bucket 
attached  to  it,  for  the  butt  of  the  lance. 

Stock — The  nave  of  a  wooden  wheel  j 
the  handle  of  a  tool.  The  whole  of  the 
wooden  part  of  a  rifle,  pistol,  &c.  is 
termed  the  stock  ;  it  is  generally  made  of 
walnut  wood. 

Stock  with  Taps  and  Dies — Tools  used 
in  workshops.  The  dies  and  taps  are 
made  of  cast  steel ;  the  former  for  cutting 
screws  or  bolts,  the  latter  for  internal 
screws,  as  in  nuts ;  they  are  of  three 
sizes,  large,  medium,  and  small.  A  set 
of  either  size  comprises  a  stock,  3  dies 
of  sizes,  9  taps,  or  3  to  each  die ;  named 
entering,  second,  and  full  tap,  and  a 
wrench. 

Stockade — A  solid  barricade  of  timber, 
for  intrenchments  or  redoubts,  8  or  9 


STO 


410 


STO 


feet  high,  or  even  more,  with  a  loop- 
holed  arrangement  for  musketry  fire. 
In  some  stockades  each  man  has  a  trap- 
hole  in  the  banquette  in  rear,  into 
which  he  disappears  after  discharging  his 
musket.  The  Burmese  and  Malays  re- 
sort very  much  to  this  mode  of  defence. 
It  is  found  to  be  the  usual  protection 
of  native  villages  among  wild  and 
forest  tribes  who  have  wood  at  their 
command.  The  best  way  to  destroy 
a  stockade  is  to  blow  it  up  either  with 
powder  bags  or  with  gun-cotton.  Shot 
or  shell  of  the  largest  nature  make  very 
little  impression  upon  this  class  of  de- 
fence. (  Vide  Bags,  Gunpowder.) 

Stoking — The  operation  of  feeding  a 
furnace  with  coal.  It  requires  great 
attention,  skill,  and  experience.  It  may 
often  happen  that  two  stokers  do  not 
stoke  alike,  the  bad  stoker  burning  more 
coal,  at  the  same  time  keeping  up  less 
steam.  The  secret  in  stoking  is  this, 
that  the  coal  should  be  broken  up  into 
small  pieces,  and,  when  thrown  on  the 
furnace,  should  be  so  placed  as  to  cover 
the  whole  surface  of  the  grate,  and 
prevent  cold  air  from  coming  up  between 
the  bars  into  the  furnace,  which  would 
reduce  the  temperature,  and  consequently 
the  amount  of  steam.  In  locomotives 
the  coal  should  be  thrown  on  a  little  at 
a  time. 

Stone — A  weight  of  14  Ibs.  A  mounted 
cavalry  man,  with  his  appointments, 
weighs  from  17  to  19  stone,  depending  on 
the  nature  of  cavalry.  This  is  the  total 
weight  the  horse  has  to  carry. 

Stone  Coal — Another  nnme  for  an- 
thracite coal  (<?.  ».).  South  Wales  abounds 
in  this  nature  of  coal. 

Stone,  Oil — For  sharpening  tools,  such 
as  chisels,  planes,  &c.  It  is  also  called 
Turkey  stone. 

Stone  Shot  —  Used  with  guns  up  to 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  class  of  ord- 
nance from  which  they  were  discharged 
was  comparatively  weak  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  present  day,  and  conse- 
quently the  projectiles  were  of  no  great 
size.  Stone  shot  were  also  discharged 
from  mortars.  (  Vide  Pierrier.) 

Stool-bed — A  wooden  support  for  the 
quoin  and  breech  of  a  gun,  placed  above 
the  elevating  screw. 

Stoppages   of    Pay  —  The  money  de- 


ducted from   a   soldier's   pay   under  the 
following  circumstances:  — 

1.  When  at  duty.     This   stoppage  in- 
cludes what  he  is  liable  for  for  his  mess- 
ing and  his  washing  ;  it  is  not  to  exceed 
5£d.  a  day. 

2.  Stoppages  when  in  hospital : — 

Men.  Boys. 

If  receiving  hospital  diet      . .      7d.     6d. 
If  receiving  medical  comforts, 

but  no  diet 6d.     6d. 

In  cases  of  illness  brought  on  by  the 
soldier's  own  misconduct,  he  is  liable  to  a 
stoppage  of  the  whole  of  his  pay,  with 
the  exception  of  such  residue  as  may  be 
prescribed  by  the  Articles  of  War  for  the 
time  being  in  force. 

There  are  also  further  stoppages  as 
follows : — 

Monthly,  for  hair-cutting,  Id. 

To  replace  necessaries,  &c.,  all  his  pay 
except  Id.  a  day. 

When  confined  in  military  or  provost 
prison,  or  in  garrison  cells,  1  Jd.  a  day  for 
28  or  less  number  of  days,  if  supplied 
with  prison  clothing. 

Barrack  damages,  whole  amount  or 
share. 

Marking  clothing  and  necessaries  (ex- 
cept first  issue),  §d.  per  article. 

Spirit  ration,  Id.  a  ration. 

Maintenance  of  wife  and  children — 
above  rank  of  sergeant,  6d. ;  below,  3d. 
a  day. 

Fines  for  drunkenness. 

On  board  ship,  1-Jd.  for  groceries,  and 
Id.  for  spirit  rations  or  their  equivalent. 

Stopper — A  plug  placed  in  the  muzzles 
of  muzzle-loading  small-arms,  not  in 
breech-loaders,  to  keep  the  bore  free 
from  rust,  and  to  prevent  dirt  from 
entering  into  the  barrel.  It  is  made 
of  cork  or  india-rubber,  having  a  brass 
top.  To  make  it  thoroughly  service- 
able, the  cork  or  india-rubber  should  be 
covered  with  serge  or  flannel. 

A  stopper  is  also  a  gasket  or  short 
piece  of  rope  used  to  keep  any  weight 
suspended,  or  to  take  the  strain  off  a 
rope,  one  end  being  always  attached  to 
some  fixed  object.  It  must  be  stronger 
than  the  rope  it  has  to  hold. 

Stopper-hitch — A  knot  for  stoppering 
the  fall  of  a  tackle,  &c. 

Stoppering  a  Fall— Making  fast  the 
fall  of  a  tackle  to  some  fixed  object,  at  a 


STO 


411 


STR 


point  intermediate   between  the  running  | 
and  standing  ends. 

Storekeeper — A  class  of  men  found 
in  certain  government  establishments 
where  stores  are  kept.  The  receipt  and 
issue  of  such  stores  are  made  by  store- 
keepers under  the  supervision  and  orders 
of  the  head  of  the  factory. 

Storm,  To — To  make  a  vigorous  assault 
on  any  position  occupied  by  an  enemy. 

Storming  Party — A  select  body  of 
men,  detailed  to  storm  a  position,  fortress, 
&c.  It  is  backed  up  by  supports  and 
reserves,  and  should  be  equal  to  about 
half  the  garrison  of  the  work  £o  be 
assaulted.  ( Vide  Assault.) 

Strain  on  Guns — The  pressure  exerted 
by  the  explosion  of  the  charge,  the  ab- 
sence or  amount  of  windage  influencing 
the  pressure.  There  are  two  principal 
strains  which  the  metal  of  a  gun  is 
subjected  to,  a  transverse  or  tangential 
and  a  longitudinal  strain.  All  guns  are 
more  or  less  subjected  to  these  strains, 
and  the  best  test  of  a  gun  is  that  it  bears 
the  force  of  the  gunpowder  without  being 
disrupted,  or  the  parts  of  the  gun  being 
in  any  way  affected.  The  friction  of  the 
projectile  in  making  its  way  up  the  bore 
is  a  great  element  of  strain. 

Strake,  vide  Streak. 

Stratagem — Artifice  in  war.  It  is 
thus  mentioned  by  Colonel  Macdougall, 
in  his  '  Theory  of  War ' : — "  The  success 
of  a  stratagem  depends  mainly  on 
the  commander's  knowledge  of  human 
nature  in  general,  and  of  his  opponent's 
character  in  particular.  Its  object  is 
to  deceive  the  enemy  as  to  your 
designs.  If  you  desire  a  general  action, 
spread  reports  of  the  weakness  of  your 
army  and  appear  to  avoid  one.  If  the 
contrary,  put  on  a  bold  face,  and 
appear  desirous  to  engage.  The  em- 
ployment of  stratagem  is  particularly 
applicable  to  operations  having  for  their 
object  the  forcing  of  any  long  line 
which  it  is  impossible  for  an  enemy  to 
guard  at  all  points,  such  as  mountain 
ranges,  rivers,  entrenched  lines,  &c." 
(  Vide  Surprises.) 

Strategical  Point — Colonel  Macdou- 
gall, in  his  'Theory  of  War,'  explains  what 
such  a  point  is  in  warfare  as  follows : — 
"  Every  point  on  the  theatre  of  war, 
whatever  be  its  nature,  which  con- 


duces in  any  manner  to  strengthen  your 
line  of  operation  or  of  communication 
is  a  strategical  point." 

He  further  explains  that  "  Decisive 
strategical  points  are  those  only  which 
are  decisive  in  insuring  the  success  of 
any  operations  of  strategy  either  for 
offence  or  defence.  .  .  .  Thus,  any 
point  may,  by  the  relative  situations  of 
the  hostile  armies,  become  a  decisive 
strategical  point;  but  the  points  most 
likely  to  do  so  are  strong  positions  com- 
manding the  principal  great  roads,  or  a 
permanent  bridge  over  a  great  river,  or 
blocking  up  the  approach  to  passes  over 
a  range  of  mountains." 

Strategy — All  movements  which  are 
not  within  the  reach  or  view  of  the  enemy 
belong  to  strategy.  It  embraces,  as 
well,  all  arrangements  of  war  prior  to 
tactical  operations ;  hence  the  organisa- 
tion, administration,  mobilisation,  and  all 
the  complicated  machinery  of  an  army 
on  a  war  footing  come  under  this  head. 
Strategical  skill  consists  in  unity  of 
purpose  and  of  action,  in  simplicity  of 
design  and  vigour  of  execution,  and  in 
bringing  large  concentrated  masses  into 
action  at  the  decisive  point. 

The  following  explanation  of  the 
object  of  strategy  is  given  by  Colonel 
Hamley,  in  his  '  Operations  of  War  ' : — 
"The  object  of  strategy  is  so  to  direct 
the  movements  of  an  army  that,  when 
decisive  collisions  occur,  it  shall  encounter 
the  enemy  with  increased  relative  advan- 
tage. .  .  .  The  purely  military  advantages 
to  be  attained  by  strategical  operations 
are  of  two  kinds  : — 

"1.  The  probabilities  of  victory. 

"  2.  The  consequences  of  victory." 
The  particular    objects  of  strategical 
movements  are : — 

"1.  To  menace  or  assail  the  enemy's 
communication  with  his  base. 

"  2.  To  destroy  the  coherence  and 
concerted  action  of  his  army,  by  breaking 
the  communications  which  connect  the 
parts. 

"  3.  To  effect  superior  concentrations  on 
particular  points." 

Straw — The  stalk  of  wheat,  barley, 
&c.  In  the  army,  it  forms  the  bedding 
of  cavalry  horses,  and  in  the  field,  the 
bedding  also  of  soldiers. 

Streak — Iron  plate  fastened  in  pieces  to 


STR 


412 


STU 


form  the  tire  round  the  circumference  of 
gun-carriage  or  other  wheels.  This  method 
is  pursued  in  the  home  service  in  tiring 
large  wheels.  The  artillery  wheels  of  light 
or  siege  carriages  at  home  and  abroad 
have  now  one  baud  of  iron  for  the  tire. 

Stream — A  small  land  current  of  water. 
(  Vide  River  and  Reconnaissance.) 

Strength — Power  of  any  kind.  As 
understood  in  military  matters,  the  term 
is  variously  applied,  such  as  to  a  forti- 
fication, a  fortress,  or  any  other  military 
position  of  magnitude.  The  word  is 
also  used  in  all  returns  of  regiments 
giving  the  full  number  of  men  borne  upon 
the  establishment  in  contradistinction 
to  the  effective  force,  which  means  the 
number  fit  for  duty. 

Strength,  Tensile,  vide  Tensile 
Strength. 

Stretcher — A  portable  litter  for  carry- 
ing a  sick  or  wounded  man  off  the  field 
of  battle.  It  is  so  called  from  cross 
pieces  or  stretchers  keeping  the  poles 
separate  and  the  canvas  stretched,  thus 
producing  a  firm  but  soft  surface  for  the 
disabled  man  to  lie  on.  The  weight  of  the 
English  regulation  stretcher  is  15  Ibs. 

The  requirements  of  a  good  field 
stretcher  are :  Firm,  but  not  hard  sup- 
port for  the  patient,  and  one  easily  cleaned 
of  blood  and  dirt ;  lightness,  to  facilitate 
carriage  by  bearers ;  strength,  to  resist 
shocks  and  rough  usages  of  war ;  sim- 
plicity of  construction,  combined  with 
capability  of  folding  into  a  small  com- 
pass for  stowage.  There  must  be  no 
detached  pieces,  which  are  liable  to  be 
lost.  Provisionjshould  be  made  for  keeping 
the  patient  off  the  ground  when  the 
stretcher  is  laid  down.  The  latest 
pattern  consists  of  a  tarred  canvas 
bottom,  attached  to  two  ash  poles,  which 
are  kept  at  the  required  distance  apart 
by  two  jointed  galvanised  iron  rods.  It  is 
fitted  with  four  short  iron  legs,  and  has 
a  pillow  secured  to  the  head. 

Stretcher  Bearers — Men  of  the  army 
hospital  corps  whose  special  duty  in 
time  of  war  is  to  carry  the  wounded 
from  the  battle-field,  to  the  ambulance, 
wagons,  or  field  hospitals.  The  ambu- 
lance committee  has  recommended  that 
150  of  these  men  should  be  attached  to 
each  division,  and  36  to  each  brigade  of 
cavalry.  (  Vide  Krankentrager.) 


Strike,  To — There  are  several  defi- 
nitions of  this  word,  but  the  most  com- 
mon is  to  touch  or  to  hit. 

To  strike  a  blow,  in  warfare,  is  to  make 
such  an  impression  on  the  adversary  as 
probably  to  insure  victory. 

To  strike  a  tent  means  in  castrame- 
tation  to  loosen  the  cords  of  a  tent  which 
has  been  regularly  pitched. 

The  duty  of  striking  tents  is  performed 
by  the  soldiers  who  inhabit  them,  and  is 
carried  out  in  accordance  with  rules 
bearing  on  that  subject. 

To  strike  a  gyn,  to  dismount  or  take 
down  a  gyn. 

To  strike  a  camp. — The  act  of  breaking 
up  the  camp.  This  is  performed  accord- 
ing to  orders  issued  over  night,  which 
detail  the  hour  for  assembly,  and  the 
hour  for  reveille,  as  it  is  very  desirable 
that  the  men  should  not  be  disturbed 
sooner  than  is  requisite.  Immediately 
after  the  reveille  has  sounded,  the  cooks 
should  prepare  coffee  for  the  troops ; 
whilst  this  is  being  got  ready,  the 
men  pack  up  their  blankets,  and  place 
them  in  the  wagons.  When  they  have 
finished  their  breakfast,  fires  should  be 
extinguished,  and  tents  struck  and  rolled 
up  in  their  bags.  All  trenches  and 
latrines  should  be  filled  up  before  the 
men  leave  the  ground. 

Stripe,  vide  Good-conduct  Badges ;  also 
Badge. 

Stripping — A  term  in  gunnery  given 
to  the  action  of  such  projectiles  as  are 
coated  with  lead,  and  which,  when  fired 
from  ordnance,  throw  off  strips  of  lead, 
and  thus  prove  sometimes  very  danger- 
ous, particularly  when  firing  over  the 
heads  of  troops  on  active  service. 

Strontia — Is  described  as  "  an  earth 
contained  in  a  mineral,  generally  of  a 
pale  green  tint  and  radiated. crystalline 
texture,  found  at  Strontian,  in  Argyle- 
shire,  which  is  a  carbonate  of  strontium  ; 
strontia  is  the  oxide  of  the  metal  stron- 
tium." The  nitrate  of  strontium,  which 
gives  a  red  rose  colour,  is  used  in  pro- 
ducing the  red  colour  in  fireworks  and 
theatrical  exhibitions. 

Stud — A  place  where  horses  are  bred 
or  kept.  In  England,  the  government 
does  not,  under  this  name,  possess  any 
such  establishment.  Horses,  when 
wanted,  are  purchased  in  the  market, 


STU 


413 


SUB 


and  distributed  to  the  different  regi- 
ments of  the  mounted  branch  of  the 
service.  In  India,  on  the  Bengal  side, 
the  government  of  that  country  pos- 
sesses stud  depots  at  Ghazeepore,  Buxar, 
and  Kurrentadhee,  in  the  Central  Pro- 
vinces, and  two  in  the  North  West 
Provinces,  at  Haupper  and  Saharun- 
pove.  They  are  under  the  control  of 
officers  of  the  army  specially  appointed, 
belonging  to  the  stud  department.  When 
the  studs  do  not  produce  a  sufficient 
number  of  horses,  they  are  purchased 
either  in  the  country  or  in  the  colonies. 
(  Vide  Horse  and  Remounts.) 

By  a  late  order  the  name  of  stud  has 
been  changed  to  that  of  remount. 

Studs  —  Projections  or  buttons  on 
the  surface  of  projectiles  fired  from 
rifled  guns,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
the  shot  take  the  grooving  of  the  gun, 
and  steadying  the  shot  or  shell  in  its 
passage  out  of  the  piece,  also  for  pre- 
venting the  body  of  the  projectile  resting 
on  the  bore. 

The  form  of  the  studs  on  the  upper  sur- 
face of  heavy  muzzle-loading  rifled  guns 
is  made  to  coincide  with  the  grooves  in 
the  gun,  instead  of  being  concentric  with 
the  projectile. 

The  studs  of  all  heavy  projectiles  of 
7-inch  M.L.R.  guns  and  upwards  are 
made  of  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  and 
fastened  on  in  the  same  way  as  those  of 
the  projectiles  for  the  pieces  rifled  on  the 
Woolwich  system,  viz.  by  being  pressed 
into  under-cut  holes  in  the  projectiles. 
All  other  projectiles  have  copper  studs. 

Stuffing-box — In  Bourne's  '  Catechism 
on  the  Steam-engine,'  a  stuffing-box  is 
thus  described:  —  "The  hole  on  the 
cylinder  lid,  through  which  the  piston- 
rod  passes,  is  furnished  with  a  recess 
called  a  'stuffing-box,'  into  which  a 
stuffing  or  packing  of  plaited  hemp  is 
forced,  which,  pressing  on  the  one  side 
against  the  interior  of  the  stuffing- 
box,  and  on  the  other  side  against  the 
piston-rod,  which  is  smooth  and  polished, 
prevents  any  leakage  in  this  situation. 
The  packing  of  this  stuffing-box  is  forced 
down  by  a  ring  of  metal  tightened  by 
screws.  This  ring,  which  accurately 
fits  the  piston-rod,  has  a  projecting 
flange,  through  which  bolts  pass  for 
tightening  the  ring  down  upon  the 


packing ;  and  a  similar  expedient  is 
employed  in  nearly  every  case  in  which 
packing  is  employed." 

Sub  (Latin  =  under) — A  familiar  abbre- 
viation used  in  the  British  army  to  signify 
a  subaltern. 

Subahdar — A  native  officer  of  the 
Indian  army  whose  position  corresponds 
with  that  of  a  captain  in  a  European 
company  of  infantry.  It  is  also  the 
Hindu  name  for  the  governor  of  a  subah 
or  province. 

Subahdar  -  Major  —  The  native  com- 
mandant of  an  Indian  regiment  of  infantry. 

Subaltern  (Latin,  sub,  under ;  altemus, 
another) — Literally  means  below  another. 
The  term  is  applied  to  a  commissioned 
officer  in  the  army  under  the  rank  of 
captain. 

Subdistrict  of  the  Army,  vide  Brigade 
Depot. 

Subdivision — In  artillery,  a  gun  with 
its  wagon.  In  the  infantry,  before  the 
change  in  drill  took  place,  half  a  com- 
pany was  called  a  subdivision. 

Sub-lieutenant  —  The  rank  which  has 
been  introduced  into  the  service  in  lieu 
of  that  of  ensign.  It  is  given  to  all 
cadets  (cavalry  and  infantry)  after  pass- 
ing the  prescribed  examination  before 
the  Civil  Service  Commissioners,  if  the 
vacancies  in  the  army  permit  of  the 
number  who  have  passed  being  gazetted. 

The  regulations  on  the  subject  require 
that  all  who  have  passed  the  examination 
(except  those  posted  to  regiments  in  India) 
shall  proceed  to  Sandhurst,  and  there  com- 
plete a  professional  examination  in  mili- 
tary drill  and  all  other  military  subjects, 
after  which  they  will  be  posted  to  regi- 
ments. The  sub-lieutenants  sent  to  regi- 
ments in  India  will  pursue  similar  studies, 
and  undergo  similar  examinations  in  that 
country,  before  the  garrison  instructor  of 
the  district,  to  those  they  would  have 
followed  at  Sandhurst. 

The  above  rules  are  to  be  altered  from 
January  1,  1877. 

Sublimate,  Corrosive,  vide  Corrosive 
Sublimate. 

Sublimation  (Latin,  sublimis,  on  high) 
— Is  explained  as  "  a  process  by  which 
solids  are,  by  the  aid  of  heat,  converted 
into  vapour  which  is  again  condensed, 
and  often  in  crystalline  form.  This 
operation  is  frequently  resorted  to  for 


SUB 


414 


SUL 


the  purpose  of  purifying  various  chemical 
products,  and  separating  them  from  sub- 
stances which  are  less  volatile."  The 
process  is  observed  in  the  distillation  of 
sulphur,  the  result  being  "  flowers  of 
sulphur." 

Submarine  Mine,  vide  Torpedo. 

Subordination — Subjection  to  the  will 
of  another ;  under  command  ;  readiness  to 
submit  one's  self  to  the  orders  of  superiors. 
In  the  army,  this  feeling  cannot  be  too 
deeply  instilled  into  all  ranks.  Without 
it,  110  body  of  men  could  work  together ; 
like  discipline,  it  is  the  mainspring  of 
order ;  and  unless  it  reigns  supreme 
in  every  regiment,  confusion  and  every 
imaginable  evil  must  ensue.  In  effect, 
a,s  James,  in  his  '  Military  Dictionary,' 
states,  it  is  subordination  that  gives  soul 
and  harmony  to  the  service ;  it  adds 
strength  to  authority  and  merit  to 
obedience,  and,  while  it  secures  the  effi- 
cacy of  command,  reflects  honour  upon 
its  execution.  It  is  subordination  which 
prevents  every  disorder,  and  procures 
every  advantage  to  an  army. 

Subsidiary — As  applied  to  war-time, 
means  the  help  or  assistance  given  by  the 
troops  of  one  nation  to  those  of  another 
upon  the  payment  of  a  certain  sum  of 
money. 

Subsidy — A  sum  of  money  given  to  a 
foreign  power  to  enable  it  to  carry  on 
a  war  by  procuring  unlimited  succour 
of  auxiliary  troops,  ships  of  war,  provi- 
sions, &c. 

Subsist,  To — To  maintain  with  food 
and  clothing.  In  a  military  sense,  to 
give  pay,  allowance,  &c.  to  soldiers. 

Subsistence  Money  —  An  allowance 
granted  for  the  subsistence  of  soldiers 
who,  whilst  in  imprisonment  in  cells,  or 
confinement  in  the  guard-room,  forfeit 
their  daily  pay.  The  regulated  rate  is 
6d.  a  day.  (  Vide  Queen's  Regulations.) 

Substitute,  Military — One  who  takes 
the  place  of  another  in  the  conscription 
for  a  certain  remuneration  ;  at  least,  this 
is  the  case  in  continental  countries  where 
conscription  is  the  mode  of  raising  troops 
for  the  army.  Substitutes  are  readily 
found  among  military  men  who  have 
already  served  their  prescribed  period. 

Succour — Assistance  in  men,  stores,  or 
ammunition.  To  throw  succour  or  help 
into  a  place  means  to  introduce  armed 


men,  ammunition,  provisions,  &c.  into  a 
besieged  place. 

Succour,  To — To  come  to  the  rescue ; 
to  help  when  in  difficulty;  to  relieve  a 
force  requiring  assistance. 

Sulphur  —  A  yellow  brittle  mineral, 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 
England  receives  its  supply  from  Italy 
and  Sicily.  In  India  it  is  obtained  from 
the  Persian  Gulf,  Sinde,  Sumatra,  and 
Burmah,  and  for  the  gunpowder  factories 
is  often  exported  from  England ;  most 
volcanic  regions  yield  it.  Before  it  can 
be  used  for  gunpowder  purposes,  it  has  to 
be  distilled  to  free  it  from  all  impurities, 
and  especially  from  all  acids.  The  fol- 
lowing is  taken  from  the  late  Major 
Baddeley's  pamphlet : — "  A  large  iron  pot 
or  retort  is  set  about  3  feet  off  the 
ground,  or  about  the  height  that  an 
ordinary  boiling  copper  is  placed,  having 
a  furnace  underneath.  This  pot  has 
a  movable  lid,  which  is  fixed  into  the 
top  of  the  pot  with  clay,  and  in  which 
lid  is  an  iron  conical  plug  removable 
at  pleasure.  From  the  pot  lead  two 
pipes,  one  to  a  large  circular  dome,  and 
another  to  an  iron  retort  rather  below 
its  level.  The  latter  pipe  has  an  iron, 
casting  or  jacket  round  it,  which  can  be 
filled  with  cold  water.  When  desired,  the 
communication  of  these  pipes  with  the 
melting-pot  can,  by  a  mechanical  arrange- 
ment, be  shut  off  or  opened  as  occasion 
requires.  About  5J  to  6  cwt.  of  grough 
sulphur  is  broken  into  small  pieces  placed 
in  the  iron  melting-pot,  and  subjected  to 
the  action  of  the  furnace.  The  plug-hole 
in  the  lid  and  the  pipe  leading  to  the 
dome  are  now  left  open,  but  the  pipe 
leading  to  the  receiving-pot  is  closed. 
After  about  two  hours,  a  pale  yellow 
vapour  arises,  when  the  plug  is  put  in, 
and  the  vapour  is  conducted  into  the 
dome,  where  it  condenses  on  the  sides  and 
floor  in  the  form  of  an  impalpable  powder, 
commonly  called  '  flowers  of  sulphur.'  A 
small  pipe  leads  from  the  bottom  of  the 
dome  on  the  opposite  side  into  a  tub  filled 
with  water  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  air, 
and  sulphuric  acid  is  taken  up  by  this 
water.  In  about  1£  to  2  hours  after,  the 
vapour  becomes  a  deep  iodine  colour,  when 
the  communication  with  the  dome  is  shut 
and  that  with  the  receiving-pot  is  opened  ; 
at  the  same  time,  cold  water  from  a  tank 


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above  is  allowed  to  pass  into  the  jacket 
covering  the  latter ;  the  vapour  then  dis- 
tils over,  is  condensed  into  the  pipe,  and 
runs  into  the  retort  below  in  the  form  of 
a  thick,  yellow  fluid ;  when  nearly  all  has 
distilled,  which  can  be  known  by  the 
jacket  getting  cold,  the  communication 
is  again  closed  with  the  retort,  and  the 
fluid  sulphur  left  an  hour  to  get  suffi- 
cieatly  cool  to  ladle  out  into  moulds ; 
the  furnace  door  and  the  communication 
with  the  dome,  at  the  same  time,  are 
again  thrown  open,  that  the  rest  of 
the  vapour  may  pass  into  the  latter. 
The  flowers  of  sulphur  thus  obtained 
are  used  for  laboratory  purposes, 
being  unfit  for  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder from  the  acid  they  contain ; 
and  the  crystalline  sulphur,  after  being 
allowed  to  cool  in  the  moulds,  is  barrelled 
up,  and  used  as  the  third  ingredient  in 
gunpowder.  To  ascertain  the  purity  of 
sulphur,  if  a  small  portion  is  burned  on 
a  piece  of  porcelain,  no  residue  should  be 
left ;  also,  if  it  is  treated  with  distilled 
water,  litmus  paper  should  not  be  dis- 
coloured." 

A  description  of  the  refining  appa- 
ratus, with  plans,  is  given  in  the  '  Hand- 
book of  the  Manufacture  and  Proof 
of  Gunpowder,'  by  the  late  Captain 
F.  Smith,  R.A.,  assistant  superintendent 
of  gunpowder  at  the  Royal  Gunpowder 
Factory,  Waltham  Abbey. 

Sulphide  of  Lead,  vide  Galena. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  vide  Acid,  Sulphuric. 

Sumpter  Mules — The  baggage  mules 
of  early  English  armies  were  called  sump- 
ter  mules.  The  term  is  obsolete  now  in 
the  British,  but  is  still  retained  in  the 
American  army. 

Sun  Telegraphy,  vide  Telegraphy. 

Sunken  Battery,  vide  Battery. 

Superficial  Measure — The  measure  of 
surfaces  or  area ;  also  called  square 
measure. 

Superheated  Steam  —  Steam  heated 
above  the  temperature  due  to  its  pres- 
sure. It  is  used  as  a  means  of  economising 
fuel. 

Superior  Slope — In  fortification,  the 
slope  of  the  parapet  towards  the  country. 

Supernumerary  —  A  term  signifying 
above  the  number,  and,  when  applied  to  an 
officer  in  the  army,  means  that,  on  being 
detached  from  his  regiment  on  staff  or 


other  employment,  he  becomes  super- 
numerary, and  has  his  place  and  duties 
in  the  regiment  taken  by  another  officer, 
promoted  from  the  next  lower  rank.  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  officer  in  staff 
employment  is  in  excess  of  the  regulated 
number  of  officers  of  that  grade,  and  is 
shown  in  italics  in  his  regiment  as  such. 
After  serving  five  years  away  from  his 
regiment,  he  returns  to  it,  and  remains  a 
supernumerary,  until  absorbed ;  or  should 
his  regiment  be  in  India,  or  ordered 
home,  he  must  then  rejoin  his  regiment. 

Superseded,  To  Be — To  have  another 
put  in  one's  stead. 

Supplies — Necessary  stores  and  pro- 
visions furnished  to  troops.  Under  the 
latter  head  are  rations  (q.  c.)  which  are 
supplied  by  the  commissariat. 

On  an  army  taking  the  field,  food  of 
various  descriptions  is  dealt  out  to  it 
from  day  to  day,  arrangements  being 
made  by  means  of  supply  carts  to  carry 
the  food  from  the  nearest  magazines. 
If  fresh  meat  can  be  supplied  in  the 
country,  well  and  good ;  if  not,  salt  meat 
will  form  one  portion  of  the  ration. 
Bread  is  provided  by  travelling  bakery 
wagons. 

In  time  of  peace  the  method  of  supply  is 
by  contract  for  the  principal  articles  of 
sustenance,  such  as  bread,  meat,  corn, 
hay,  straw,  &c.,  which  the  commissariat 
inspects  and  issues.  Smaller  articles, 
such  as  groceries,  &c.,  are  purchased  by 
the  soldier.  In  large  standing  or  per- 
manent camps  in  the  country,  butcheries 
and  bakeries  have  been  introduced,  and 
with  advantage  to  the  efficiency  of  the 
commissariat. 

In  war-time,  there  are  four  sources 
from  which  an  army  can  be  supplied  :— 

1.  Supply  from  home ; 

2.  By  contract,  delivery  to  be  made 
at  base  of  operations ; 

3.  By  purchase  in  the  country  occupied ; 

4.  By  requisition    or   seizure ;  or    by 
a  combination  of  all  the  four  above  men- 
tioned methods. 

The  fourth  mode,  viz.  by  seizure, 
would  be  exceptional,  and  even  then 
everything  would  have  to  be  paid  for. 
Nowadays,  an  army  for  the  most  part 
is  dependent  for  its  supplies  on  the  dif- 
ferent magazines  (7.  v.)  established  in  its 


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The  English  method  of  payment  for  all 
supplies  in  an  enemy's  country  is  the  more 
certain  and  satisfactory  mode  of  obtain- 
ing what  is  required,  especially  in  a  poor 
country  and  over  a  restricted  area.  For 
though  the  system  pursued  by  the  French 
during  the  Peninsular  War,  of  forced  re- 
quisitions, enabled  them  to  support  their 
troops  when  the  English  could  not,  ex- 
perience has  shown  that  the  principle  we 
have  adopted  is  the  most  sure  in  the 
end,  the  most  just,  and  establishes  a  good 
feeling  between  the  army  and  the  inha- 
bitants. In  1 814,  in  the  south  of  France, 
Wellington  was  able  to  maintain  his  army 
in  abundance  from  carrying  out  this  sys- 
tem, whereas  the  French  army  was  al- 
most starving  in  its  own  country,  the 
population  preferring  ready  money  to 
bans.  The  Prussians,  in  Bohemia,  in  1866, 
suffered  great  want,  though  the  country 
abounded  in  cattle,  from  the  inhabitants 
driving  their  cattle  away  into  the  moun- 
tains, to  escape  requisitions.  In  the 
Franco-German  war,  the  Germans,  it  is 
said,  gave  up  this  system,  and  purchased 
all  articles  of  food. 

In  the  defence  of  a  place  such  as  a 
large  fortress,  every  endeavour  must  be 
made  to  husband  the  resources  within  it. 
The  food  which  will  keep  longest,  such 
as  biscuits,  must  be  kept  to  the  last. 
The  surrounding  country,  as  far  as  is 
possible,  should  be  made  to  yield  all  it 
can  up  to  the  last  moment,  and  all  food 
in  the  hands  of  the  inhabitants  should  be 
seized ;  and  when  once  shut  up,  everyone 
within  the  fortress  who  is  able  should 
contribute  to  the  common  store  such 
supplies  as  each  possesses. 

Each  German  army  corps  on  war  foot- 
ing carries  in  provision  wagons  four  days' 
rations  for  men,  and  a  further  number  of 
wagons  carrying  six  days'  rations  for  men 
and  horses.  The  latter  wagons  maintain 
connection  with  the  magazines.  The 
soldier  himself  carries  three  days'  ordinary 
and  three  days'  reserve  rations. 

Supplies,  Director  of,  vide  Director  of 
Supplies  and  Transport. 

Supply  Department  —  A  branch  of 
the  control  department  (<jr.  •».),  now  abo- 
lished, and  replaced  by  the  commissariat 
department.  ( Vide  Addenda,  Commis- 
sariat Department.) 

This  department  has  for  its  object,  as 


its  name  implies,  the  providing  of  an  army 
with  food,  whether  in  time  of  peaceor  war. 

Support — An  aid  ;  a  sustaining  power. 
In  military  manoeuvres,  the  term  supports 
is  given  to  a  technical  formation,  being 
the  second  line  in  a  battle,  either  in  the 
attack  or  the  defence.  (  Vide  Skirmishers.) 

Surcharged  Mine,  vide  Compression, 
Globe  of. 

Surcingle  —  A  girth  made  of  strap 
leather  and  attached  to  the  saddle.  It 
consists  of  a  long  body  and  short  strap, 
and  is  buckled  with  exactly  the  same 
degree  of  tightness  as  the  girth,  the  buckle 
being  placed  so  as  just  to  touch  the  lower 
edge  of  the  near  flap  of  the  saddle. 

Surcoat — A  tunic  worn  by  knights  of 
the  middle  ages  over  the  coat  of  mail ;  it 
was  usually  made  of  silk  of  one  uniform 
colour,  but  sometimes  variegated,  some- 
times richly  embroidered. 

Surgeon — A  medical  officer  attached  to 
regiments  to  assist  the  surgeon-major  in 
his  duties.  (  Vide  Addenda,  Medical  De- 
partment.) 

Surgeon-Major — A  medical  officer  who 
is  attached  to  and  in  medical  charge  of  a 
regiment.  He  is  assisted  by  one  or  more 
medical  officers  subordinate  to  himself.  As 
senior  medical  officer,  he  remains  always 
with  the  head-quarters  of  the  regiment 
when  any  portion  of  it  is  detached. 

Surprise,  To — Suddenly  to  come  upon 
the  enemy. 

Surprises — Certain  stratagems  of  war 
made  use  of  by  an  army  wishing  to 
take  an  enemy  unawares.  The  object 
of  such  an  attack  is  with  the  view  of 
surprising  and  capturing  some  important 
post,  stronghold,  &c.,  or  to  disconcert 
the  enemy  in  some  unexpected  way.  To 
carry  out  such  a  movement  necessitates 
great  secrecy  being  observed,  in  order 
that  the  enemy  may  have  no  suspicion  of 
what  is  intended  ;  and  with  this  view 
great  precautions  must  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent information  being  carried  to  the 
enemy  by  spies,  villagers,  or  any  other 
party  likely  to  be  favourable  to  the  op- 
posing force. 

The  troops  detailed  to  carry  out  the  sur- 
prise must  be  composed  of  men  of  strength 
and  vigour,  whose  physique  is  equal  to  any 
fatigue,  and  who  are  confident  in  them- 
selves as  to  their  power  of  executing  the 
duty  imposed  upon  them.  Guides  should 


SUE 


417 


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accompany  the  force,  and  be  distributed 
among  the  troops  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
prevent  wandering  from  the  right  path. 
Before  and  after  the  departure  of  the 
surprising  party,  no  one  should  be 
all  iwed  to  leave  the  camp  or  fortress  for 
a  considerable  time,  so  as  to  prevent  any 
information  being  taken  to  the  enemy  of 
what  is  going  on.  Patrols  of  cavalry 
should  be  sent  out  around  and  about  the 
camp  at  some  distance  to  pick  up  strag- 
glers, who  may  be  likely  to  carry  intel- 
ligence to  the  enemy. 

There  are  no  laid-down  rules  for 
carrying  out  a  surprise.  The  instruc- 
tions given  to  the  party  must  depend  on 
circumstances,  which  the  general  in 
command  of  the  army  will  be  best  able 
to  explain.  Much  must  be  left  to  the  in- 
telligence and  ingenuity  of  the  officer  com- 
manding the  party  to  bring  the  attack  to 
a  satisfactory  conclusion.  Secrecy,  how- 
ever, is  the  chief  point  to  be  observed. 

"  History,"  as  James,  in  his  '  Military 
Dictionary,'  states,  "furnishes  us  with 
various  instances  in  which  fortified  places, 
strongholds,  and  gates,  have  been  sur- 
prised. There  are  others  again  in  which 
surprises  have  been  practised  with  success 
by  means  of  spies  and  of  secret  intercourse 
with  one  or  more  of  the  party  against 
whom  you  are  engaged." 

Surrender,  To — To  give  up  possession 
of  anything.  In  battle,  when  unable  to 
make  good  one's  retreat,  or  in  the  case  of 
a  fortress  being  unable  to  stand  out 
against  the  attack  of  the  besiegers,  to 
surrender  is  then  to  lay  down  arms  and  to 
give  up  the  garrison  as  prisoners  of  war. 

Not  by  force  of  arms  alone  has  a  fort- 
ress to  surrender ;  it  may  have  to  do  so 
from  being  starved-  out  by  the  besiegers. 

The  greatest  surrender  of  troops  in  the 
field  that  we  are  acquainted  with  in  late 
years  is  that  of  the  French  army  at 
Sedan ;  of  fortresses,  that  of  Strassburg, 
of  Metz,  and  others  in  France  during  the 
Franco-German  war  of  1870-71. 

To  surrender  at  discretion  means  to  give 
oneself  up,  or  to  deliver  up  an  army  or  a 
fortress,  into  the  hands  of  the  victorious 
general  without  stipulating  any  terms. 

Survey,  To  (French,  surcoir,  to  over- 
look)— The  art  of  measuring  and  deter- 
mining the  boundaries  and  superficial 
extent  of  any  portion  of  the  earth's  sur- 


face. Surveying  is  carried  out  either  by 
means  of  a  chain  or  with  the  aid  of  an- 
gular instruments. 

Trigonometrical  survey  is  the  highest 
branch  of  measurement  of  the  earth's 
surface,  in  which  the  use  of  instruments, 
such  as  the  theodolite,  the  sextant,  &c., 
is  indispensable  in  forming  the  network 
of  triangles  upon  which  the  accuracy  of 
the  survey  depends.  This  nature  of  survey 
is  used  for  making  geographical  maps,  or 
for  measuring  an  arc  of  the  terrestrial 
meridian. 

In  ludia  the  trigonometrical  survey 
has  been  carried  on  for  many  years  past 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Indian,  now 
royal,  engineers. 

Topographical  survey  is  a  minute  and 
particular  description  of  places,  as  rivers, 
hills,  woods,  villages,  roads,  bridges,  and 
other  buildings.  This  nature  of  survey 
is  generally  applied  to  military  purposes, 
in  the  formation  of  maps  for  the  guidance 
and  information  of  the  general  in  com- 
mand, who  should  possess  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  physical  conformation 
of  the  country,  its  obstacles  and  resources, 
in  which  he  has  to  operate. 

Frederick  the  Great  was  one  of  the 
first  to  recognise  the  value  and  necessity 
of  such  information,  as  it  enabled  the 
commander  of  a  force,  technically,  "to  see 
before  him."  Good  military  maps  of  a 
country  are  most  useful  either  to  the  in- 
vaders or  invaded  ;  but  it  frequently 
happens  that  the  field  of  warfare  is  one 
of  which  no  careful  survey  has  been  made 
or  is  procurable.  Officers  of  the  staff  are 
therefore  required  to  make  good  this  defi- 
ciency, by  traversing  with  rapidity  the 
country  to  be  surveyed,  measuring  the  dis- 
tances by  their  own  pace  or  that  of  their 
horse,  and  obtaining  a  rough  knowledge  of 
the  hills,  rivers,  valleys,  &c.  by  a  rapid 
glance  or  by  means  of  angular  instru- 
ments, such  as  the  pocket  sextant  or  the 
prismatic  compass  ;  and,  having  obtained 
all  the  necessary  information,  submit- 
ting a  topographical  survey  of  the  whole 
country  reconnoitred. 

Such  surveys  or  military  sketches  are 
furnished  by  the  topographical  branch  of 
the  intelligence  department  (</.  «.),  but  the 
execution  of  them  devolves,  in  the  field,  on 
the  quartermaster-general's  department. 

In  peace-time  advantage  is  taken  by 
2  E 


SUR 


418 


SWO 


the  intelligence  department  to  secure 
maps  and  all  information  of  countries 
which  may  become  theatres  of  war.  In 
these  maps  every  detail  likely  to  assist 
the  commander  should  be  delineated. 
A  careful  reconnaissance  of  the  country 
would  also  give  the  necessary  information. 

In  most  countries  the  topographical 
surveys  are  either  completed  or  in  pro- 
gress. In  England  all  operations  con- 
nected with  such  surveys  are,  with  the 
cadastral  survey,  concentrated  in  one 
department,  the  ordnance  survey,  which 
since  1870  has  formed  part  of  a  purely 
civil  department  of  the  state,  the  Office  of 
Works.  Originally  the  topographical  sur- 
vey was  purely  a  military  survey,  but 
tor  many  years  past  the  ordnance  survey 
maps  have  been  constructed  with  the 
paramount  view  of  general  utility  to  all 
classes  in  the  kingdom,  and  the  military 
character  of  the  topographical  map  on 
the  1-inch  scale  has  given  way  to  the  civil 
requirements  of  the  state.  On  the  conti- 
nent the  topographical  survey  is  conducted 
by  the  war  department  of  the  country. 

Abroad,  as  well  as  in  England,  large 
establishments  are  kept  up  for  the 
reproduction  of  topographical  maps, 
whereby  an  infinity  of  copies  can  be 
struck  off  by  the  process  of  photography, 
photozincography,  photolithography,  he- 
liogravure, and  papyrotype. 

Surveys  are  drawn  on  different  scales 
('/.  «.),  and  those  surveyed  upon  a  25-inch 
scale  take  the  name  of  cadastral  surveys. 
(  Vide  Cadastral,  and  Map.) 

Surveyor-General  of  Ordnance— One 
of  the  three  great  officers  of  state,  whose 
department  has  the  supply  of  all  kinds 
of  stores,  transport,  and  quarters. 

Suspension  Bridge — A  bridge  made  of 
rope  or  chain,  and  employed  in  military 
operations  to  effect  a  passage  across  an 
opening  where  no  intermediate  points 
of  support  are  obtainable.  Suspension 
bridges  can  be  made  also,  in  case  of  emer- 
gency, of  Jones'  iron  gabion  bands, 
joined  together  by  bolts  and  nuts,  and 
used  from  one  to  four  thicknesses  accor- 
ding to  the  strength  required. 

Suspension  of  Arms— A  short  truce 
(7.  t>.)  between  hostile  armies  to  enable 
them  either  to  bury  their  dead  or  to 
treat  with  the  view  of  making  proposals 
lor  surrender,  &c. 


Suttlers — Camp  followers  (7.  t\). 

Swage  Tools — Rounding  tools  for  the 
heads  of  screws,  collars,  flanges,  &c. 

Sweep  Bar — The  rear  bar  of  a  siege 
howitzer  limber  (O.P.),  which  connects 
the  futchels. 

Swingle-tree — Used  for  draught  pur- 
poses and  fastened  to  the  splinter  bar 
on  the  near  side  of  the  shaft. 

Switches — As  explained  in  Brande  and 
Cox's  '  Dictionary,'  are  "  movable  rails, 
which  are  used  to  deflect  a  train  from  one 
line  of  rails  on  to  another.  At  one  end 
they  are  fixed  to  a  centre,  while  the  other 
end,  which  is  tapered  to  a  point,  is  moved 
against  the  side  of  the  rail  by  a  horizon- 
tal rod  and  handle,  to  which  a  heavy 
weight  is  attached  to  bring  back  the 
switch  to  its  normal  position  as  soon  as 
the  handle  is  released.  Switches  are 
either  single  or  double,  the  first  being 
made  with  one  movable  rail,  and  the 
second  with  two.  Double  switches  are 
usually  employed  for  sidings,  as  they 
throw  the  rails  less  out  of  gauge,  and  less 
disturb  the  continuity  of  the  line." 

Swivel-gun — In  artillery,  a  gun  fixed 
on  a  swivel  either  on  the  back  of  an  ani- 
mal, such  as  a  camel,  or  on  a  wall,  or 
any  commanding  position. 

Sword — An  offensive  weapon,  consist- 
ing of  a  steel  blade,  long  and  pointed,  flat 
or  triangular,  and  slightly  curved,  en- 
cased in  a  sheath  of  steel,  brass,  or 
leather.  The  handle  has  a  guard  and 
pommel,  in  which  the  tongue  of  the 
sword  is  rivetted.  The  sword  is  a  weapon 
in  general  use  throughout  the  world,  and 
is  the  arm  of  the  British  cavalry,  except 
in  the  Lancer  regiments.  The  mounted 
artilleryman's  sword  is  a  cavalry  sword ; 
that  of  the  dismounted  branch,  a  short 
sword.  The  swords  used  in  the  British 
service  are  made  at  Sheffield.  ( Vide 
Appendix  F.) 

During  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  A.D. 
450-1016,  as  stated  by  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Luard,  in  his  work  on  the  early  his- 
tory of  '  The  Dress  of  the  British  Soldier,' 
the  sword,  like  all  the  other  weapons 
of  that  period,  was  made,  very  wisely, 
of  iron,  two-edged,  long,  and  straight 
— "  long  broadswords  double-edged." 

During  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  the 
following  swords  were  in  use  in  Europe  : — 
The  bragemort  or  short  sword,  the  French 


swo 


419 


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rencontre  sword,  the  saccado  or  long 
sword,  the  espadan  or  two-handed  sword, 
the  Swiss  or  basket-kilted  sword,  a  Spanish 
sword  called  the  toledo,  or  more  properly 
rapier,  a  tuck  inclosed  in  a  walking-stick, 
a  poniard,  a  dagger,  sabre,  and  scimitar. 

Sword  Exercise — The  method  of  teach- 
ing the  use  and  practice  of  the  sword. 
As  stated  in  the  revised  '  Infantry  Sword 
Exercise,'  "  the  object  of  the  sword  exer- 
cise is  to  give  quickness  and  dexterity 
in  the  use  of  that  weapon,  and  this  can 
easily  be  acquired  by  practising  the  move- 
ments laid  down  in  the  drill-book." 

Sword-bayonet — A  weapon  which  can 
be  used  either  as  a  sword  or  a  bayonet.  It 
lias  been  issued  to  the  engineers,  to  rifle 
regiments,  and  to  sergeants  of  the  line, 
and  it  is  contemplated  to  issue  it  to 
the  foot  artillery.  The  weight  of  the 
sword-bayonet  is  1  Ib.  15  oz. ;  that  of 
the  scabbard  (leather),  9£  oz. ;  the  length 
of  the  blade  is  25|  inches. 


T. 


Tabard — An  -upper  military  garment 
which  was  generally  worn  in  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.,  and  continued  in  use  till  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.  It  was  a  species  of 
tunic,  which  covered  the  front  and  back 
of  the  body,  but  was  generally  open  at 
the  sides  from  the  shoulders  downwards. 
From  the  time  of  its  first  introduction  it 
was  used  by  the  military  ;  afterwards  it 
was  emblazoned  like  the  surcoat  with 
armorial  bearings. 

Table,  Bound — A  knightly  but  some- 
what mythical  brotherhood,  instituted 
as  a  distinction  for  military  merit,  by 
King  Arthur,  son  of  Uther  Pendragon, 
third  son  of  Constantine.  It  consisted  of 
twenty-four  knights,  of  whom  the  king 
himself  was  chief,  who  came  from  all 
parts  to  the  court  at  Camelot,  to  give 
proof  of  their  prowess  in  arms.  To  avoid 
jealousies  and  questions  of  precedence, 
King  Arthur  caused  a  round  table  to  be 


made  for  these  festive  gatherings,  whence 
the  knights  were  called  Knights  of  the 
Round  Table.  At  Whitsuntide  in  each 
year,  they  used  to  meet  in  full  conclave 
at  Winchester,  where  may  now  be  seen 
what  tradition  asserts  to  be  the  famous 
Round  Table  itself;  though  the  learned 
in  such  subjects  say  that  its  date  is  of 
no  greater  antiquity  than  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII. 

Tabling — In  carpentry,  the  process  of 
letting  one  piece  of  timber  into  another 
so  as  to  form  one  solid  piece.  This  method 
is  very  often  resorted  to  when  wood  of 
sufficient  scantling  is  not  to  be  obtained 
for  any  particular  work,  such  as  the  beam 
of  a  gun-carriage. 

Tackle — A  machine  for  raising  and 
lowering  heavy  weights.  Tackles  are 
thus  described  : — "  A  simple  tackle  con- 
sists of  one  or  more  pulleys  rove  with  a 
single  rope.  The  rope  is  termed  a  fall, 
and  the  pulleys  are  called  blocks.  When 
a  tackle  is  in  use,  one  end  of  the  fall  is 
made  fast,  the  other  is  hauled  upon.  The 
fixed  end  is  called  the  standing  end  of  tlie 
fall;  the  other,  the  running  end.  Each 
separate  part  of  the  fall  contained  be- 
tween two  blocks,  or  between  either  ex- 
tremity and  a  block,  is  called  a  return  of 
the  fall. 

"  To  overhaul  a  tackle  is  to  separate 
the  blocks. 

"  To  fleet  blocks  is  to  bring  them  as 
close  together  as  possible  by  hauling  on 
the  fall.  Wooden  blocks  are  generally 
bound  on  the  outside,  in  the  direction  of 
their  length,  with  a  grummet,  which  is 
called  the  strap  of  the  block. 

"  If  the  strap  be  continued,  so  as  to 
form  a  tail,  at  the  end  of  the  block  which 
has  no  hook,  the  block  is  called  a  tail 
or  jigger  block,  and  if  a  tackle  has  its 
movable  block  so  furnished,  it  is  called  a 
jigger  tackle.  A  single  movable  block  is 
called  a  whip  ;  another  single  block  ap- 
plied to  the  fall  converts  it  into  a  ichip 
upon  whip.  Two  double  blocks,  one  fixed 
and  the  other  movable,  make  a  gun  tac'ile. 
A  single  and  a  double  block,  the  former 
fixed  and  the  latter  movable,  make  a  lu/ 
tackle. 

"  A  treble  and  a  double  block,  the 
former  fixed,  the  latter  movable,  are 
called  a  gyn  tirkle. 

"A  runner  tickle  is  merely  a  Juff 
2  E  2 


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tackle  applied  to  the  end  of  a  large  rope 
rove  through  a  single  block." 

Tactical  Points — Are  thus  defined  by 
Colonel  Macdougall  : — "  All  points  on  a 
field  of  battle  which  may  impede  the 
advance  of  an  enemy  to  attack  your 
position,  or  which  may  facilitate  the 
advance  of  your  army  to  attack  the 
euemy's  position,  are  tactical  points,  and 
should  be  occupied." 

"  Tactical  decisive  points"  he  further 
explains,  "  are  points  on  a  field  of  battle 
which,  when  occupied  by  your  army, 
will  enable  it  to  make  an  attack  on  the 
enemy,  whose  success  would  be  decisive 
on  the  issue  of  the  engagement ;  and  all 
points  on  a  field  of  battle  in  possession  of 
the  enemy  which  will  enable  him  to 
frustrate  your  attack  on  any  other  part 
of  his  position,  or  which  will  enable  him 
to  impede  or  intercept  your  line  of  re- 
treat, if  repulsed,  are  tactical  decisive 
points  for  offence.  Reverse  the  condi- 
tions, and  you  will  obtain  the  tactical 
decisive  points  for  defence. 

"The  flanks  and  most  advanced  salients 
of  the  position  are,  in  general,  the  most 
decisive  points." 

Tactics — All  movements  of  an  army 
executed  in  presence  of  or  near  an 
enemy  ;  the  manoeuvres  carried  out  on 
the  battle-field. 

"  The  tactics  of  a  soldier,"  writes 
Colonel  Burne,  in  his  '  Military  Dic- 
tionary,' "  are  the  correct  performance 
of  military  movements ;  those  of  an 
officer,  to  know  how  to  direct  their  exe- 
cution, and  those  of  a  general,  to  com- 
bine them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  en- 
sure success."  Under  tactics  are  in- 
cluded the  different  orders  of  battle,  posi- 
tions, attacks,  pursuit,  retreat,  all  of 
which  subjects  will  be  found  separately 
treated  each  under  its  own  head. 

From  feudal  times,  when  soldiers  were 
urmed  with  axes  and  shields,  to  our 
days  of  rifled  guns  and  breech-loading 
rifles,  tactics  have  undergone  great 
and  remarkable  changes,  the  formation 
of  lines  of  battle  getting  thinner  and 
thinner  as  weapons  became  improved. 
The  Greeks  fought  in  a  depth  of  sixteen 
and  even  eighteen  ranks ;  the  Roman 
legions,  in  ten,  and  towards  the  end  of 
the  empire  in  eight  and  subsequently 
»ix  ranks  deep.  These  formations  gra- 


dually decreased  on  the  continent  to 
three  ranks  until  1713,  and  that  forma- 
tion remained  so  until  two  ranks  were 
adopted.  This  again  was  modified  to 
meet  the  requirements  necessitated  by 
the  introduction  of  arms  of  precision  ; 
and  loose  formation  and  skirmishers  are 
now  required  where,  under  previous  con- 
ditions, solid  and  compact  bodies  were 
maintained.  Extended  movements  neces- 
sitate that,  for  the  infantry,  troops  should 
be  divided  into  a  first  line  composed  of 
skirmishers  (q.v.),  a  second  line  (first  and 
second  supports),  and  a  reserve  ;  and  thus 
the  component  parts  of  a  tifctical  forma- 
tion are  threefold  instead  of  twofold  as 
before.  This  formation  gives  a  greater 
facility  of  deployment,  adding  at  the 
same  time  greater  power  to  troops  of 
taking  advantage  of  the  shelter  offered 
to  them  during  the  advance,  and  thus 
lessening  the  number  of  casualties. 

The  tactics  of  the  mounted  branches 
of  the  army  have  also  been  considerably 
changed  of  late.  The  cavalry  (q.  •».),  to 
which  ancient  and  modern  leaders  owe 
most  of  their  victories,  will  not,  probably, 
take  in  the  future  the  prominent  part  it 
has  played  in  the  past.  Its  duties  during 
a  campaign  belong  more  to  strategy  than 
to  tactics,  and,  therefore,  every  cavalry 
reform  has  tended  of  late  towards 
giving  a  more  complete  independence 
to  that  branch  of  the  service.  Not- 
withstanding, as  exemplified  by  late 
wars,  cavalry  can  still  be  called  upon 
to  render  great  service  in  certain  cases 
of  emergency,  such  as  keeping  in  check 
an  advancing  foe,  silencing  guns,  and  in 
pursuit.  In  attacks  of  cavalry  against 
cavalry,  long  lines  very  rarely  occur ; 
during  the  late  wars,  cavalry  was  never 
or  seldom  used  with  a  very  large  front, 
that  of  a  regiment  being  usually  about 
the  extreme.  Attacks  in  open  column, 
that  is,  with  a  body  immediately  in  sup- 
port, and  another  in  rear  as  reserve, 
have  been  generally  made ;  attacks  in 
echelon,  either  in  e'chelon  from  the  right 
or  left  or  echelon  from  the  centre,  being 
generally  useful,  as  well  as  those  of 
oblique  formations  on  either  flank. 

With  the  great  power  of  rifled  guns 
and  the  destructive  effect  of  Shrap- 
nel, cavalry  is  taught  to  show  itself 
in  bodies  as  little  as  possible  within 


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range  of  the  enemy's  artillery.  In  attacks 
on  batteries,  either  to  silence  the  guns  or 
to  force  them  to  limber-up  for  a  time, 
a  formation  in  skirmishing  order  has  been 
advocated,  that  is,  one  troop  extended, 
supported  by  a  squadron  with  open  files 
to  advance  rapidly  upon  the  guns. 

Cavalry,  in  future,  may  not  be  able  to 
act  successfully  against  steady  infantry 
in  thorough  formation.  During  the  war 
of  1870-71,  the  German  infantry  received 
the  charges  of  the  French  cavalry  in  open 
order,  the  men  firing  from  behind  cover, 
the  old  square  formation  being  thus 
abandoned.  Cavalry  movements,  in  the 
future,  will  be,  probably,  directed  towards 
turning  a  flank  or  piercing  a  centre. 

The  adoption  of  rifled  guns  has 
not  been  without  its  influence  on  the 
tactics  of  field  artillery,  but  the  gene- 
ral principles  on  which  the  tactics 
of  that  arm  are  based  have  not  under- 
gone notable  changes,  and  its  main 
role  has  remained  what  it  used  to  be — 
to  prepare  the  path  for  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry. Artillery  opens  fire  only  when 
within  a  good  range  of  the  enemy  ;  in 
favourable  circumstances  of  weather  and 
of  open  ground,  it  is  now  impossible  to 
maintain  column  formation  under  the 
fire  of  rifled  artillery  at  any  distance 
under  4000  yards.  Shrapnel  shell  can 
be  used  with  considerable  effect,  even 
against  skirmishers,  at  ranges  under  2000 
yards.  Important  results  can  be  obtained 
by  concentrating  the  fire  of  artillery  on 
one  point  if  possible;  this  is  effectually 
gained  by  massing  guns  (<?.  v.).  The  use 
of  field  batteries  greatly  depends  on  their 
mobility.  The  Germans,  during  the  war 
of  1870-71,  pushed  their  artillery  to  the 
front,  in  advance  of  the  skirmishers,  with 
the  object  of  gaining  time  and  establishing 
a  superiority  of  fire  early  in  the  battle. 

The  following  principles  on  the  subject 
of  artillery  tactics  are  taken  from  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Brackenbury's  lecture  at 
the  United  Service  Institution  on  April 
28,  1876:— 

"  1st  principle. — Since  field  artillery 
can  move  at  a  trot,  and  its  fire  is  of 
great  value  at  all  stages  of  a  battle,  and 
at  all  ranges,  a  general  should  endeavour 
to  obtain  a  superiority  of  artillery  as 
early  as  possible.  To  gain  this,  his  whole, 
or  nearly  his  whole,  force  of  guns  should 


be  pushed  well  forward  and  massed  at 
the  beginning  of  a  combat,  so  that  it 
may  crush  the  enemy's  artillery  in  detail 
as  the  latter  comes  into  position.  2nd 
principle. — Whether  acting  offensively  or 
defensively,  artillery  can  protect  its  own 
front  in  ordinary  open  country,  and 
should  not  retire  before  infantry  unless 
the  whole  force  is  retreating.  3rd  prin- 
ciple.— But  artillery  can  be  sorely  an- 
noyed, or  even  caused  to  retire,  by  the 
fire  of  infantry  skirmishers,  well  con- . 
cealed  in  folds  of  ground  or  behind  walls 
and  trees.  Therefore  infantry  should  not 
attack  in  any  formation,  but,  so  to  sav, 
stalk  the  guns,  and  this  being  granted, 
infantry  always  attack  guns ;  who  knows 
but  that  they  may  be  unsupported  ?  4th 
principle. — The  only  reply  to  such  hidden 
attacks,  early  in  the  battle  before  the 
friendly  infantry  has  come  up,  is  by  the 
use  of  dismounted  cavalry ;  or,  better 
still,  by  mounted  men  trained  to  work  on 
foot  either  as  riflemen  or  gunners,  and 
permanently  attached  to  the  batteries. 
5th  principle. — Since  artillery  can  take 
care  of  itself,  provided  its  flanks  are  pro- 
tected, a  line  of  guns  may  be  deployed, 
and  behind  it  the  infantry  may  effect 
turning  movements  to  act  on  the  enemy's 
flank.  When  such  a  flank  attack  is  ready 
to  be  delivered,  the  mass  of  guns  should 
concentrate  their  fire  on  that  part  of  the 
enemy's  line  about  to  be  assailed  till  it  is 
shaken.  6th  principle.  —  A  system  of 
signals  should  be  devised  and  used  so  as 
to  enable  a  large  number  of  guns  to  act 
simultaneously  against  the  same  point. 
1th  principle. — When  the  infantry  com- 
bat has  commenced,  as  many  guns  as 
possible  should  be  pushed  close  up  to  the 
enemy — say,  within  1000  yards — or  to 
that  distance  where  they  will  find  the 
best  and  nearest  positions  to  the  enemy. 
8th  principle. — When  artillery  advances 
to  close  combat,  a  considerable  number  of 
men  and  horses  should  follow  the  bat- 
teries as  near  as  they  can  consistently 
with  keeping  under  cover.  If  this  be 
done,  there  is  no  fear  of  leaving  the  guns 
in  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  At  such 
moments  cover  becomes  a  secondary  c6n- 
sideration.  Artillery,  like  infantry  or 
cavalry,  in  close  combat  must  count  on 
heavy  losses  in  men  and  horses,  but  they 
must  determine  to  crush  the  enemy  in 


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that  part  of  the  field,  remembering  that 
'  omelettes  are  not  made  without  breaking 
of  eggs.'  9th  principle. —  Since  a  frontal 
attack  can  be  beaten  off  at  any  range, 
artillery,  if  it  has  a  clear  space  of  1000 
yards  in  front  of  it,  and  scouts  on  flanks, 
should  not  allow  itself  to  be  turned  from 
its  immediate  purpose  by  the  reported 
approach  of  large  bodies  of  infantry. 
Such  attacks  may  be  neglected  till  the 
enemy  comes  within  1000  yards.  10th 
principle. — Range-finders,  telescopes,  and 
scouts  are  indispensable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  full  power  of  artillery  ;  the 
same  may  be  said  of  spare  men,  horses, 
and  ammunition.  The  front  line  of  the 
battery  should  have  as  few  men  and 
horses  as  possible,  and  should  be  fed  from 
the  rear,  two  or  three  times  over  if 
necessary.  But  the  great  principle  of  all, 
and  that  which  must  underlie  all  minor 
ones,  is  that  artillery  has  issued  from  its 
childhood,  and  is  as  well  able  to  shift  for 
itself  as  any  other  arm.  This  does  not 
mean  that  it  is  independent  of  the  others, 
but  that  it  is  only  dependent  on  them  in 
the  same  sense  that  they  are  dependent 
on  it.  Cavalry  should  feel  the  way,  and 
be  ready  afterwards  to  support  the  guns 
with  the  dashing  self-devotion  charac- 
teristic of  its  nature  and  history.  The 
infantry  should  never  forget  that  the 
guns  in  front  may  be  sorely  in  need  of 
the  arm  which  can  do  everything  but 
move  quickly.  Artillery  is,  after  all, 
only  preparing  the  way  for  the  glorious 
strife  of  the  foot-soldiers.  The  gunners 
are  dying  that  the  infantry  may  live  and 
win  the  day.  On  the  field  of  battle  we 
are  all  brothers,  and  our  only  rivalry 
should  be  to  try  which  can,  at  any  sacri- 
fice, do  most  for  the  common  good." 

In  general  tactics,  the  erroneous  prin- 
ciple of  remaining  on  the  defensive  has 
been  abandoned,  notwithstanding  the 
great  advantage  given  to  that  system  by 
modern  arms  ;  the  danger  in  assuming  the 
offensive  from  such  a  position  is  avoided 
by  a  vigorous  and  rapid  attack,  by  a  well- 
directed  fire,  by  making  use  during  the  ad- 
vance of  all  accidents  of  ground,  and  lastly 
by  combining  an  advance  on  either  or  both 
flanks  of  the  enemy  with  a  front  attack, 
in  order  to  harass  and  perplex  him. 

Tambour  —  In  field  works,  a  small 
stockade,  made  in  the  shape  of  a  redan 


or  lunette,  and  placed  in  front  of  a  long 
loop-holed  wall,  by  which  means  a  flank- 
ing defence  is  given  to  the  wall.  An 
opening  is  made  through  the  centre  of 
the  wall  to  give  admittance  into  the 
tambour,  to  the  entrance  of  which  a 
stout  door  or  barrier  should  be  provided, 
and  loop-holed  to  fire  through,  if  forced. 

Tampeon,  or  Tompion — A  wooden  plug 
of  the  diameter  of  the  bore  of  the  ord- 
nance it  is  intended  to  fit.  Tampeons 
are  placed  in  the  muzzles  of  ordnance  to 
exclude  dirt  and  wet  from  the  bore,  but 
they  are  no  preventive  against  moisture, 
unless  they  are  covered  with  serge.  It 
is  much  better,  therefore,  if  the  precau- 
tion of  binding  them  with  serge  is  not 
taken,  to  leave  the  bores  exposed  to  the 
circulation  of  the  atmosphere.  The  cylin- 
drical portion  of  the  tampeons,  which 
is  made  partially  hollow  for  lightness" 
sake  for  heavy  M.L.R.  guns,  is  covered 
with  woollen  serge  and  strips  of  leather 
sewn  upon  it  to  fill  the  grooves  in  the 
gun.  The  tampeons  of  B.L.R.  guns  are 
somewhat  different,  the  cylinders  being 
solid,  and  having  no  leather  strips.  Tam- 
peons for  field  guns  have  two  or  three 
thicknesses  of  cotton  cloth  glued  on  the 
portions  which  enter  the  bore. 

Tamping  of  Mines — As  described  in 
the  '  Instruction  in  Military  Engineering,' 
1870,  "consists  of  filling  up  the  gallery 
with  solid  material,  for  a  certain  dis- 
tance from  the  chamber,  with  the  view 
of  preventing  the  force  of  the  explosion 
expending  itself  in  the  gallery,  rather 
than  in  the  direction  in  which  the  mine 
is  required  to  act.  The  tamping  should 
extend  from  the  charge  for  a  distance 
equal  to  at  least  one  and  a  half  time 
the  line  of  least  resistance  (or  twice  for 
a  three-lined  crater) ;  and  if  the  material 
used  for  forming  the  tamping  be  not 
or  but  loosely  packed,  this  distance  should 
be  twice  that  line." 

Tangent— In  geometry,  a  straight  line 
is  said  to  be  a  tangent  to  a  circle  when  it 
meets  the  circumference  in  one  point  only. 

Tangent  Block,  vide  Block,  Tangent. 

Tangent  Scale,  vide  Scale. 

Tangye  Hydraulic  Jack,  vide  Jack, 
Lifting. 

Tanned  Hides,  vide  Hides,  Tanned. 

Tap — A  hardened  steel  screw  with  a 
square  head,  which  can  be  turned  by  a 


TAP 


423 


TEG 


wrench.  It  is  grooved  from  end  to  end,  and 
is  slightered  tapered.  It  is  used  for  cutting 
an  internal  screw,  as  that  of  a  nut,  &c. 

Tapets,  or  Laces — In  ancient  armour, 
flexible-  plates,  which  were  hooked  on 
to  the  skirts  of  the  cuirass. 

Tappet  King — The  ring  which  is  fitted 
on  the  octagonal  part  of  the  breech  screw 
of  an  Armstrong  gun,  and  is  what  the 
lever  acts  upon  for  working  the  breech 
screw.  Should  it  be  removed  for  any 
purpose,  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is 
returned  to  its  seat  in  the  same  position 
it  occupied  at  first,  for  if  fixed  in  any 
other  way,  the  lever  will  not  act  on  it  in 
a  proper  manner.  A  separate  ring  called 
the  indicator  is  placed  in  front  of  the 
tappet  ring  in  the  N.P.  40-pr.  guns,  and 
has  an  arrow  cut  upon  it,  which  must  cor- 
respond with  a  similar  arrow  cut  on  the 
gun  to  show  that  the  vent  piece  is  "  home." 

Taptoo,  or  Tattoo — The  beat  of  drum 
announcing  the  hour  at  which  the  day 
closes  in,  when  all  day  duties  cease,  and 
night  duties  commence,  and  when  soldiers 
must  be  in  quarters,  The  hour  varied, 
until  very  late,  according  to  the  season  of 
the  year.  But  it  is  changed  now  to  10  P.M. 
throughout  the  year.  At  foreign  stations 
this  hour  is  to  be  adhered  to  as  far  as  is 
practicable,  but  it  may  be  changed  at  the 
discretion  of  general  officers  commanding, 
to  suit  the  degree  of  latitude  in  which 
their  respective  commands  are  situated. 

This  rule  does  not  apply  to  troops  on 
active  service  in  the  field,  and  the  tattoo 
is  to  be  sounded  at  such  an  hour  as  may  be 
ordered  by  the  commander  of  the  forces. 

Tar — A  dark  brown  viscid  liquid, 
chiefly  extracted  from  the  roots  of  the 
fir,  by  a  kind  of  distillation,  a  slow  com- 
bustion of  the  tree  taking  place  by  cer- 
tain means,  as  in  making  charcoal. 

Tare — In  commerce,  the  weight  or 
allowance  made  to  the  purchaser  for  the 
weight  of  the  case,  cask,  or  package  con- 
taining the  goods  or  articles  purchased. 

Target — A  mark  to  be  fired  at.    For 
light  gun  practice,  targets  are  made  of 
wood,  6  feet  by  6  feet,  and  \  inch  thick  ; 
targets  for  heavy   guns  firing  seawards 
are  floating  targets  (q.  t>.).     Targets  for 
small-arm  practice  are  made  of  cast  iron,  j 
6  feet  by  2  feet,  with    circular   bull's-  j 
eyes  and  centres,  according  to  the  latest 
pattern.     The  thickness  of  the  plate  is  J  l 


inch,  bulked  up  to  1  inch  in  the  centre. 
(  Vide  Addenda,  Musketry  Drill.) 

Tarpaulin — Canvas  covered  with  tar 
for  the  protection  of  stores  against  wet 
and  damp.  This  nature  of  paulin  is  not 
generally  used  on  the  Bengal  side  of  India, 
a  waxed  paulin  having  been  substituted 
for  it. 

Tartan — A  pattern  cloth  of  different 
colours,  printed  side  by  side  and  cross- 
ways,  forming  the  well  known  checkered 
pattern.  The  tartan  pattern  admits  of 
great  variety  of  modifications,  each  clan  in 
Scotland  having  its  own  pattern.  The 
Highland  regiments  have  each  distinctive 
tartans. 

Teak  (Tectona  grandis) — This  is  the 
staple  timber  of  India  and  Burmah,  and 
the  most  useful  and  durable  timber 
known,  soon  seasoning  and  easily  worked. 
The  Malabar  teak  is  superior  to  that  of 
Burmah  in  strength  and  durability. 
Good  teak  resembles  coarse  mahogany, 
with  reddish-brown  streaks,  having  close 
and  straight  grains.  A  cubit  foot  of  un- 
seasoned wood  weighs  55  to  60  Ibs.  It 
is  extensively  used  in  the  Bombay  Gun 
Carriage  Agency. 

Team — Two  or  more  horses  or  animals 
of  any  description  harnessed  together. 
Thus,  in  applying  the  term  in  artillery 
draught,  it  me  ins  the  horses  attached  in 
double  draught  to  batteries,  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  service.  (  Vide  Harness.) 

Technical  Troops — A  name  given  to 
a  body  of  troops  peculiar  to  Germany  and 
Austria,  consisting  of  men  trained  iu 
technical  engineer  duties,  but  incorpo- 
rated with  the  different  battalions  of  the 
guards,  line,  and  Landwehr.  They  do  not 
seem,  during  the  campaign  of  1870-71, 
to  have  been  of  much  use,  for,  brought 
under  fire  in  conjunction  with  their  com- 
rades, they  suffered  severely  during  the 
earlier  actions,  and  afterwards  the  bat- 
talions to  which  they  belonged  were  so 
weak  that  the  technical  troops  were  re- 
tained for  the  ordinary  duties  of  infantry 
soldiers.  Our  pioneers  could  easily  be 
converted  into  an  equivalent  force. 

Teeth  of  Wheels— In  machinery,  those 
prominent  portions  in  the  peripheries  of 
wheels  which,  locking  in  each  other, 
convey  the  power  of  a  prime  mover  to 
the  working  parts  of  the  machinery. 

Tegulated  Armour — Ancient  armour, 


TEL 


424 


TEL 


worn  in  the  time  of  Stephen.  It 
was  composed  of  small  square  plates 
of  steel,  lapping  over  each  other  like 
tiles. 

Telegraph  (Greek,  tele,  far  off;  grapho, 
I  write)  —  A  means  of  communicating 
intelligence  to  a  great  distance  by  various 
signals  or  movements  previously  arranged. 
The  conveyance  of  information  by  signals 
was  practised  from  the  earliest  ages ;  but 
a  telegraph  universally  applicable  was 
first  described  by  Hooke  in  1684.  It  was 
not,  however,  put  in  practice,  nor  was 
telegraphic  communication  applied  to  any 
useful  purpose  until  1794,  when  it  was 
used  to  convey  intelligence  to  the  French 
armies. 

Telegraphy — The  art  of  conveying  in- 
telligence by  means  of  the  telegraph.  In 
the  army,  telegraphic  communication  is 
carried  on  by  two  methods,  visual  sig- 
nalling and  the  electric  telegraph. 

Visual  signalling  was  formerly  carried 
on  by  semaphores  (7.  v.),  but  it  has  been 
superseded  by  army  signalling  and  sun 
telegraphy. 

Army  signalling  (q.  c.)  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  Hags  during  the  day,  and  by 
coloured  lamps,  or  by  a  system  of  long 
and  short  flashes,  during  the  night. 

These  modes  of  corresponding  are  useful 
at  distances  over  half  a  mile  and  not  ex- 
ceeding 8  miles. 

Sun  telegraphy  is  a  system  of  corre- 
spondence by  means  of  the  sun's  rays. 

Making  use  of  the  sun  as  an  agent 
to  convey  intelligence  is  of  a  very  ancient 
date.  It  is  stated  that  Alexander  the 
Great  caused  his  fleet  to  be  guided  along 
the  Persian  Gulf  by  means  of  mirrors. 
The  Russians  had  recourse  to  this  mode 
of  telegraphy  during  the  siege  of  Se- 
bastopol,  and  it  is  practised  to  this  day 
by  the  Indians  in  the  North  American 
prairies.  During  the  last  century  it 
was  employed  to  connect  the  meridians 
of  Paris  and  Greenwich,  and  out  of 
this  measurement  sprang  the  trigono- 
metrical survey  of  the  United  King- 
dom. The  S3rstem,  as  at  first  carried  on, 
was  by  means  of  Argand  lamps,  sub- 
stituted later  on  by  lime-lights ;  and  in 
1822-23,  Colonel  Colby,  R.E.,  who  con- 
duoted  the  survey,  devised  a  sun-flashing 
instrument,  which  was  attended  with 
much  success.  Captain  Drummond  sub- 


sequently produced  an  instrument  far 
more  effective,  but  more  delicate  and 
complex,  known  as  the  heliostat  ((/.  v.), 
by  the  means  of  which  the  surveying 
officers  were  enabled  to  make  their  ob- 
servations at  three  times  the  distance 
they  could  previously,  with  much  greater 
ease,  and  with  far  less  liability  to  error. 
At  the  same  time,  Professor  Gauss  in- 
vented a  similar  instrument,  which  was 
used  by  him  in  the  survey  of  Hanover ; 
and  with  subsequent  modifications,  such 
as  reducing  the  complexity  of  the  instru- 
ment, dispensing  with  the  telescope,  &c., 
the  heliostat  then  became  what  it  has 
ever  since  remained.  The  heliostat,  which 
is  in  no  sense  a  talking  instrument, 
although  used  at  times  by  surveyors  to 
convey  to  each  other  signals  concerning 
their  operations,  led  to  the  invention  of 
the  heliograph  (7.  v.~),  by  means  of  which 
the  rays  of  light  can  be  converted  into 
active  speaking  agents. 

Applied  to  military  telegraphy,  the 
heliograph  may  present  many  advantages 
over  the  electric  telegraph,  as  the  limit 
of  its  range  is  dependent  only  on  the  ele- 
vation at  which  it  can  be  placed.  During 
a  siege  it  can  signal  over  the  heads  of  the 
besiegers,  who  cannot  intercept  it,  and 
is  therefore  well  adapted  to  replace  the 
electric  wires  when  destroyed,  being 
liable  to  no  interruption  from  the 
enemy.  In  field  operations,  it  may  also 
be  used  for  securing  communications  be- 
tween patrols,  flanking  and  reconnoitring 
parties,  advanced  and  rear  guards ;  and, 
"  in  comparison  with  flags,"  says  Mr. 
Samuel  Good,  in  his  lecture  on  Mance's 
heliograph,  "  it  excels  in  range,  speed, 
ease  of  manipulation,  secrecy,  less  lia- 
bility to  confusion,  and  capability  of 
making  itself  seen." 

However,  a  great  objection  presents 
itself  to  the  employment  of  an  instrument 
the  use  of  which  depends  entirely  on  the 
presence  of  the  sun,  especially  in  a  coun- 
try like  England,  where  the  sun  does  not 
shine  for  weeks  at  a  time  ;  and  although 
the  heliograph  will  never  supersede  or  be 
substituted  for  other  modes  of  signalling, 
it  may,  with  great  advantage,  supplement 
them. 

The  code  of  signals  adopted  for  the 
heliograph  is  the  Morse,  that  is,  short 
and  long  flashes. 


TEL 


425 


TEL 


Electric  telegraph. — A  mechanical  ap-  : 
paratus  by  means  of  which  messages  can 
be  transmitted  to  any  distance  through  \ 
the  agency  of  electro-magnetic  wires,  ac- 
cording to  a  recognised  code  of  signals. 

The   electric   telegraph  is   a   new   ele-  j 
ment  of  war.     England  was  the  first  to  [ 
apply  it  to  military  operations.     During  j 
the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  telegraphic  lines 
were  established  by  the  allied  armies,  and 
later,  during   the  Indian  mutiny,  a  first  ! 
attempt  was  made  to  organise  a  field  tele-  j 
graph,  which  succeeded  admirably,  under  • 
the  direction  of  the  late  Captain  Stewart, 
of  the  Bengal  engineers.     In    1859,   the 
French  army  was  accompanied  by  a  large 
personnel    belonging    to    the    civil   tele-  ! 
graphic  administration,  whose  duty  was  ; 
to  establish  a  service  during  the  marches. 
The   war  in  America,  and  that  between  ' 
Austria  and  Prussia  in  1866,  showed  con-  j 
vincingly  the  importance  of  such  an  in- 
troduction into  military  operations.    Per- 
manent   lines    on    a    large   extent    were 
established  and    worked   by  the   troops ;  j 
all  those  that  existed  in  the  zone  of  ope-  j 
rations  of  the  armies  were  seized.    Trains  j 
of  a  special  field  material  followed  each  j 
corps,  to  be  used   on  the  march,  in  can- 
tonments, and  even  on  the  field  of  battle. 
In  1866,  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies 
employed,  to  a  great  extent,  telegraphic  ] 
lines  during  the  marches  and  manoeuvres 
that  preceded  Sadowa.    The  war  of  1870-  j 
1871  is  another  instance  of  the  immense 
advantages  that  can  be  derived  from  the 
use  of  the  electric  telegraph,  when  well 
organised    and    employed.      During    the 
latter  end  of   the    war,  Manteutfel   and 
Werder,  operating  in  the  east,  separately, 
and  on  different   lines,  were  able  to  com- 
bine their  movements  and  to  receive  direct 
instructions   from   the   head-quarters  at 
Versailles  by  means  of  the  wire. 

The  telegraphic  department  in  time  of 
war  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct 
branches.  The  first  comprehends  the 
seizure  and  use  of  all  permanent  lines 
existing  in  the  country  in  which  the  opera- 
tions are  carried  on,  or,  in  the  absence  of 
these,  the  creation  of  new  lines  of  the  same 
kind.  The  influence  of  the  telegraph  is  very 
great,  as  it  enables  the  general  in  com- 
mand, as  long  as  the  opposing  armies  are 
concentrated,  to  transmit  intelligence  and 
directions  between  his  head-quarters  and 


the  rear  of  his  army,  or  between  himself 
and  the  generals  commanding  wings.  The 
organisation  and  working  of  such  lines 
should  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  trans- 
port by  rail  of  troops  and  supplies. 
Whether  already  existing  or  newly 
created,  it  is  considered  as  a  general  rule 
that,  within  the  zone  of  operations,  an 
army  should  exclusively  dispose  of  all  the 
lines  indispensable  for  its  correspondence, 
and  that  these  should  be  carefully  watched 
over,  whilst  those  that  are  not  necessary, 
and  might  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  should  be  destroyed. 

The  second  branch  of  this  department 
comprehends  the  transport,  the  establish- 
ment, and  the  working  of  mobile  lines, 
known  as  the  field  telegraph.  These  are 
used  when  the  opposing  armies  are  in  pre- 
sence of  each  other,  and  on  an  extended 
front,  and  in  cases  when  concentrated 
action  is  essential  to  success.  By  the 
field  telegraph,  corps  <£arm£e  are  placed 
in  intimate  communication  with  each 
other,  and  are  connected  with  their  base 
of  operations  by  means  of  the  permanent 
lines.  On  the  march,  the  telegraph  can 
easily  be  laid  down  as  each  column  ad- 
vances, and  thus  the  commander-in-chief 
be  placed  in  communication  with  the  whole 
of  his  army.  In  certain  cases,  when  circum- 
stances permit  of  it,  the  field  telegraph,  as 
was  seen  during  the  Indian  mutiny  and 
later  wars,  can  be  brought  on  the  battle- 
field, following  closely  the  combatants. 

Lines  of  a  light  nature  can  move  easily 
with  armies  in  the  field,  and  can  subse- 
quently be  replaced  by  others  of  a  more 
solid  material,  called  semi-permanent,  if 
communication  is  to  be  kept  up  for  any 
length  of  time.  Field,  semi-permanent, 
and  permanent  telegraphs  differ  in  mate- 
rials and  manner  of  laying. 

The  field  telegraph  should  be  of  such 
a  nature  that  it  can  be  constructed  or 
taken  up  at  the  same  rate  as  an  infantry 
regiment  marches. 

The  semi-permanent  telegraph  is  con- 
structed of  more  solid  material  and  sub- 
stantial wire ;  its  weight,  including  the 
poles,  should  not  exceed  1  ton  per  mile, 
and  it  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be 
laid  at  a  rate  of  from  20  to  30  miles  a  day 
for  every  100  men  employed.  The  wires 
are  suspended  from  poles,  trees,  or  in  any 
other  convenient  mode. 


TEL 


426 


TEL 


The  permanent  telegraph  can  be  con- 
structed at  the  rate  of  10  miles  a  day. 

There  is  a  point  below  which  the  elec- 
tric telegraph  ceases  to  be  advantageous 
over  other  modes  of  communicating  in- 
telligence, such  as  is  carried  on  by  signal- 
ling and  by  mounted  orderlies.  The 
handing-in,  the  transmitting,  and  the  re- 
ceiving of  a  telegram  require  a  certain 
amount  of  time,  which  may  be  longer 
than  that  necessary  for  a  mounted  orderly 
to  cross  the  distance  between  the  two 
places.  The  electric  telegraph,  therefore, 
should  only  be  made  use  of  for  distances 
of  8  miles  and  upwards. 

In  England,  the  military  telegraph  is 
worked  by  a  branch  of  the  royal  en- 
gineers, of  which  there  is  one  troop.  At 
present,  this  troop  is  composed  of  3 
officers  and  245  non-commissioned  officers 
and  men;  12  wagons,  each  carrying  3 
miles  of  insulated  wire,  rolled  on  6  drums 
for  paying-out,  and  iron  rods  for  carrying 
over  roads.  A  telegraph  troop  forms  3 
sections,  composed  of  3  travelling  offices, 
3  general  service  wagons,  and  3  artificers' 
wagons. 

In  time  of  war,  this  branch  of  the 
service  would  be  placed,  in  each  army 
corps,  under  the  immediate  control  of  a 
director  of  telegraphs,  with  an  assistant. 
His  chief  duty  should  be  to  keep  up 
the  communication  between  corps  and 
divisions  and  head-quarters.  He  should 
never  be  without  one  or  two  alternative 
lines  in  case  of  accidents,  and  be  always 
prepared  to  alter  and  adapt  existing 
lines.  Between  important  points  there 
should  be  two  or  more  separate  lines, 
remembering  that  the  sole  value  of  tele- 
graphs lies  in  their  security. 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  watch 
over  the  telegraphic  lines  used  by  an 
army  in  the  field,  and  to  destroy  those  of 
the  enemy.  Their  destruction  is  easily 
executed ;  and  this  duty  generally  de- 
volves on  cavalry.  It  is  sufficient  to 
pull  down  the  poles,  and  to  cut  them  in 
several  pieces,  or  carry  away  as  much 
of  the  wire  as  possible ;  to  destroy  the 
insulators,  as  well  as  the  instruments 
and  batteries  found  in  telegraphic  sta- 
tions. A  non-conducting  wire,  having 
the  outward  appearance  of  an  ordinary 
wire,  can  be  used  also  for  destroying 
communication,  by  splicing  it  to  the  elec- 


tric wire  in  one  or  two  places  along  the 
line.  The  result  will  be  that  all  gal- 
vanic communication  will  be  stopped, 
and  it  will  be  difficult  to  discover  where 
the  break  exists. 

In  telegraphy,  as  well  as  in  the  other 
branches  of  military  art,  it  is  important 
to  be  acquainted  with  the  resources  of 
the  country,  and  to  take  as  much  advan- 
tage of  these  resources  as  is  possible. 
These  are  obtained  by  means  of  recon- 
naissances, and  note  must  be  taken  of  the 
plan  and  direction  of  all  existing  lines, 
and  the  advantages  that  may  accrue  from 
them  by  connecting  them  with  other 
stations  ;  the  number  and  kind  of  instru- 
ments used  in  the  stations  ;  whether  the 
roads  to  be  traversed  by  the  army  are 
planted  with  trees  or  posts,  on  which  the 
wires  can  be  set  up ;  and  whether  the 
neighbouring  woods  can  furnish  timber 
for  posts. 

Telemeter  (Greek  tele,  far  off;  metron, 
a  measure) — An  instrument  for  measuring 
distances  ;  it  is  also  known  by  the  name 
of  range-finder  (q.  c.). 

Many  of  these  instruments  have  been 
invented,  and  one  of  the  latest  is  that  by 
Captain  Nolan,  R.A.,  which  has  been  in- 
troduced into  the  service,  and  is  known 
as  Nolan's  range-finder. 

M.  Le  Boulenge,  a  Belgian  major  of 
artillery,  has  also  recently  invented  a  tele- 
meter, so  constructed  that,  by  measuring 
the  intensity  of  the  report  of  a  distant 
piece  of  ordnance,  it  indicates  the  exact  dis- 
tance between  the  guu  and  the  observer. 
It  is  composed  of  a  glass  tube,  provided 
with  a  graduated  scale  representing  dis- 
tances, and  containing  an  index,  floating 
in  sulphuric  ether.  The  observer,  after 
having  previously  brought  the  index  to 
the  extremity  of  the  tube  that  corresponds 
with  the  beginning  of  the  scale,  places 
the  instrument  horizontally  in  his  hand 
and  watches  the  enemy's  position.  As 
soon  as  he  perceives  the  smoke  of  a  gun, 
he  brings  the  instrument  suddenly  in  a 
vertical  position,  and  the  index  descends 
along  the  tube ;  then,  when  the  report  is 
heard,  he  reverses  the  telemeter,  and  the 
index  remains  stationary.  The  division 
of  the  scale  on  which  the  index  has 
stopped  gives  the  distance  between  the 
gun  and  the  observer. 

Besides  the  above  instrument,  he  has 


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succeeded  in  making  a  telemeter,  on  the 
same  principle,  of  such  small  dimensions 
and  of  so  compact  a  form  that  it  can  be 
easily  fitted  in  and  carried  by  any  small- 
arm.  It  is  composed  of  a  small  crystal 
tube,  closed  at  both  ends,  and  filled  with 
rectified  benzine.  In  the  tube  an  ivory 
index  floats,  painted  red.  The  instrument 
is  encased  in  the  flat  part  of  the  stock  of 
a  rifle,  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the 
barrel ;  a  small  opening  cut  in  the  wood 
enables  the  reading  of  the  scale.  The  mode 
of  using  it  is  very  similar  to  the  before 
mentioned  instrument,  the  rifle  being 
turned  instead  of  the  hand. 

Telescope — An  optical  instrument.  By 
a  proper  arrangement  of  the  lenses  or 
glasses  in  a  tube,  objects  at  a  great  dis- 
tance are  brought  near  to  the  eye.  The  in- 
vention of  this  invaluable  instrument  is 
ascribed  to  Roger  Bacon  or  Baptista  Porta. 

Tempering— In  metallurgy,  the  pre- 
paring of  metal,  especially  steel,  by  plung- 
ing it  suddenly  into  cold  water,  after 
it  has  been  raised  to  a  high  temperature, 
so  as  to  render  it  more  compact,  hard, 
and  firm ;  or  the  reverse,  more  soft  and 
pliant.  For  special  purposes,  oil,  mercury, 
and  saline  solution  are  also  used. 

Templet — A  gauge  to  indicate  the  exact 
measurement  of  work  to  be  done,  and  for 
ascertaining  the  size  of  various  articles, 
such  as  wire,  &c.  Templets  are  made  of 
iron,  steel,  wood,  or  of  such  material  as 
is  considered  most  suitable. 

Tenacity — In  a  general  sense,  extreme 
adhesiveness. 

In  metal,  it  is  the  property  it  possesses 
of  resisting  rupture  by  traction.  It  is 
proportionate  to  the  weight  which  the 
wire  or  rod  of  a  metal,  of  a  given  area,  is 
capable  of  sustaining. 

The  term  tenacity  is  used  when  troops 
hold  fast  a  post  with  great  persistence 
and  bravery. 

Tenaille — In  fortification,  a  low  work 
in  the  main  ditch  before  the  curtain  and 
between  the  flanks  of  the  half-bastions 
of  a  front  of  fortification.  It  is  usually 
16  yards  in  thickness,  and  revetted  with 
masonry  all  round. 

Tenaille  System — In  fortification,  a 
mode  devised  for  preventing  the  besiegers 
from  approaching  too  close  to  the  ram- 
parts without  being  seen.  There  are 
three  different  ways  of  preventing  this, 


viz.  by  the  system  adverted  to,  the  bas- 
tioned  system,  and  the  polygonal  or 
caponier  system.  Of  these  three,  the 
tenaille  system  is  the  most  defective. 
The  trace  of  this  system  is  an  indented 
or  star  trace,  the  rampart  being  disposed 
in  straight  lines,  forming  with  one 
another  alternately  salient  and  re-enter- 
ing angles,  the  flank  defence  being  sup- 
plied from  the  re-entering  angles,  either 
by  means  of  casemates  behind  the  escarp 
or  from  the  ramparts. 

The  disadvantages  of  this  system  are 
— (1)  the  liability  of  its  faces  to  enfilade 
fire ;  (2)  the  insecure  position  of  its 
flank  defences  when  casemated,  viz.  at 
the  inner  end  of  a  long  ditch,  the  prolonga- 
tion of  which  can  be  easily  occupied  by  an 
enemy  ;  (3)  the  great  length  of  the  ram- 
parts as  compared  with  the  space  they 
enclose ;  and  (4)  the  oblique  defence. 

Tenon — In  carpentry,  the  square  end 
of  a  piece  of  wood  or  metal  reduced  to 
one-third  of  its  thickness,  which  is  in- 
serted in  a  hole  in  another  piece  made 
to  receive  it,  called  the  mortise,  for  the 
jointing  or  fastening  of  the  two  to- 
gether, and  a  pin  driven  through  to  keep 
them  in  place.  (  Vide  Mortise  and  Tenon.) 

Tensile  Strength — As  applied  to  iron, 
is  its  power  to  resist  being  torn  asunder 
by  a  force  exerted  by  a  breaking  instru- 
ment in  the  direction  of  its  length.  Cast 
iron  of  good  quality,  such  as  is  used  in 
casting  guns,  ranges  from  14,000  to 
17,000  Ibs.  on  the  square  inch.  In  ex- 
periments made  in  America,  whenever 
the  tensile  strength  of  iron  fell  below 
20,000  Ibs.  the  square  inch,  the  quality 
was  rejected  and  pronounced  bad,  and 
the  gun  unfit  for  service.  The  capacity 
of  cast  iron  to  resist  compression  is  six 
times  greater  than  its  capacity  to  resist 
extension. 

Tent — A  covering  of  canvas  for  troops 
in  the  field.  Tents  are  of  various  sizes  and 
descriptions  ;  those  issued  to  the  British 
army  are  circular  tents.  They  are 
10  feet  high;  diameter  at  the  base,  12'5 
feet,  and  weight,  complete  with  pole, 
when  dry,  74  Ibs.  A  circular  tent 
holds  15  men. 

For  the  use  of  the  troops  in  India,  a 
much  larger  and  loftier  tent  is  provided, 
consisting  of  a  double  fly  or  roof,  and  a 
single  kanat  or  wall  round  it.  It  holds 


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428 


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16  men,  but  seldom  more  than  12  men 
are  put  into  it  iu  peace-time.  Tents 
are  carried  either  on  elephants  or  camels, 
or  in  country  carts.  Non-commissioned 
officers  are  provided  with  single-pole 
tents  with  double  Hy  and  single  kanat. 
Tents  for  officers  differ  in  size.  A  field 
officer  has  a  double-pole  tent  with  two 
rlies  and  two  kanats ;  captains  and  sub- 
alterns have  single-pole  tents  from  12  to 
14  feet  square,  with  double  flies  and 
double  or  single  kanats.  Officers  have  to 
find  their  own  tents.  Tents  for  native 
soldiers  in  India  are  termed  pals  or  pauls, 
and  are  of  a  smaller  and  lighter  descrip- 
tion than  those  used  by  the  European 
soldiery.  A  put  weighs  248  Ibs. 

Tentes      d'abri      (French  =  shelter- 
tents) —  Small  tents  used  in  the  French 
army.    They  are  easily  put  up  and  struck. 
They  are  carried    by  the  men  on    their 
knapsacks,  two  men  to  each  tent,  but  they 
have  been  found  to  be   a  great  incum- 
brance,  too  much  weight  being  placed  on  •, 
the  men's  shoulders.     A  tente  d'abri  con- 
sists  of  2  sheets  about  5  feet  6  inches  j 
broad,    2  poles,  and  7  pins,  and   weighs 
about   11    Ibs.   when   dry ;    it  is  issued 
at  the  rate   of  1   to  every  3  men.     The  '• 
sheets,  by  means  of  buttonholes,  can  be  • 
converted  into  bags,  or  can  be  joined  to  ; 
other  sheets  and  form  a  larger  tent. 

Terminal  Velocity — Is  thus  described  : 
by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Owen  : — "  When  a  ' 
body  descends  in  air  from  a  state  of  rest,  j 
its  velocity  increases  for  a  time  by  the  | 
action  of  gravity  on  it ;  but  since  the  : 
resistance  of  the  air  increases  also  while  i 
the  velocity  increases,  it  must  at  length 
become  equal  to  the  accelerative  power 
of  gravity,  which  is  constant ;  after  which  ; 
the  body  will  move  uniformly  with  the  | 
velocity  acquired  at  that  time.  This  is  ' 
called  the  terminal  velocity  of  the  body."*  i 

Terms,  Military  —  Certain  technical! 
expressions  which  officers  of  the  army  ; 
should  be  acquainted  with,  and  which,  j 
directly  or  indirectly,  ought  to  be  used  j 
in  writing  on  military  matters,  or  in  re- 
lating the  events  of  a  war. 

Terre-plein — In  fortification,  is  the  part 
of  the  rampart  not  occupied  by  the  guns, 

*  In  strictness,  a  terminal  velocity  is  never 
exactly  attained  ;  but  in  a  short  time  from  the 
commencement  of  the  descent,  the  body  acquires 
a  velocity  which  is  extremely  near  being  uniform. 


and  in  rear  of  them ;  it  is  from  25  to  40 
feet  in  breadth. 

Territorial  Army— This  term  is  given 
to  an  organised  military  force  in  France, 
or  second  reserve.  It  is  designated  a 
special  army,  having  its  own  numeric 
classification,  its  special  corps,  and  its 
independent  organisation.  France  has 
really,  therefore,  two  armies,  the  active 
and  territorial.  The  former  is  intended 
for  mobile  war  in  the  field  ;  the  latter,  on 
the  contrary,  is  charged  with  the  care 
and  defence  of  fixed  points  of  territory, 
fortresses,  strategic  points,  coasts,  and 
Etappen  stations  and  lines.  It  will,  as  a 
rule,  have  to  operate  only  in  more  or 
less  important  detachments,  while  the 
active  army  operates  in  masses.  The 
territorial  army  will  rarely  detach  bodies 
of  troops  to  join  the  active  army,  and  if 
the  law  has  provided  for  this  detachment, 
it  is  only  mentioned  as  an  exception.  The 
strength  of  the  territorial  army  may  be 
said  to  be  always  less  than  half  the  active 
army. 

At  the  present  time,  the  name  of  each 
individual  belonging,  according  to  the  last 
military  law,  to  the  territorial  army  has 
been  entered  on  local  registers,  and  then 
distributed  (on  paper)  among  the  sereral 
territorial  regiments.  Each  of  the  18  mili- 
tary districts  into  which  France  is  di- 
vided has  either  8  or  9  such  regiments 
of  infantry,  with  the  exception  of  the 
first  (Lille  corps)  district,  which  has  but 
7.  To  provide  for  the  cavalry  of  the 
territorial  army  (the  scheme  contem- 
plating the  separate  formation  of  each 
arm),  returns  have  been  made  of  the 
local  distribution  of  all  horses  in  private 
hands  capable  of  being  adapted  for  the 
service.  In  the  same  manner,  the  regi- 
ments of  the  territorial  artillery,  each 
assigned  to  one  district,  will  be  raised 
according  to  specially  arranged  districts, 
each  to  be  capable  of  horsing  one  regiment 
of  field  batteries.  A  battalion  of  engineers 
will  be  enrolled  in  each  of  the  regular 
districts,  taken  from  such  men  as  will  be 
specially  fit  for  it.  (  Vide  French  Army.) 

Tertiate — To  examine  the  thickness  of 
metal  in  ordnance  with  callipers. 

The  term  "  tertiating  "  is  derived  from 
the  process  originally  adopted  in  measur- 
ing the  three  principal  dimensions  of  a 
gun,  viz.  the  calibre,  the  length  of  the 


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429 


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bore,  and  the  thickness  of  the  metal  at 
the  breech. 

Test — A  proof  or  examination  of  any- 
thing. In  the  proof  of  gunpowder,  a 
hygrometric  test  is  taken,  which  shows 
the  quantity  of  water  in  gunpowder  after 
it  has  been  manufactured,  and  at  any 
period  of  storage.  For  testing  the  tensile 
strength  of  metals,  a  testing  machine  is 
used,  as  shown  below. 

Testing  Machine — A  machine  used  for 
testing  the  tensile  strength  of  metals  ;  it 
consists  of  two  levers,  one  acting  on  the 
other  in  such  a  manner  that  any  weight 
applied  to  the  first  exerts  a  strain  of  200 
times  as  great  on  the  test  specimen. 

Tete-de-pont  (French  —  bridge-head) — 
In  fortification,  a  work  covering  the  com- 
munication across  a  river ;  also  termed 
a  bridge-head.  Bousmard  says  a  tete-de- 
pont  ought  to  unite  the  properties  of  a 
perfect  defence  of  the  river  on  both  sides, 
to  cover  the  bridge  well,  with  space  suf- 
ficient to  contain  the  garrison,  and  to  fur- 
nish a  free  passage  for  a  considerable  body 
of  troops.  The  tete-de-pont  should  also  be 
sufficiently  strong  to  resist  an  assault. 

Thalweg  (German  =  path  of  the  valley) 
— A  term  applied  to  that  line  of  a  stream 
of  water,  river,  &c.  where  it  runs  the 
swiftest.  It  follows  the  lowest  part  of 
the  valley  in  which  the  river  flows,  hence 
its  name. 

Theatre  of  War — The  whole  area  of  a 
country,  in  any  part  of  which  the  hostile 
armies  can  come  into  collision  with  one 
another. 

Theodolite  ( Greek,  theao,  I  see ; 
dolichos,  long) — According  to  Heather, 
is  a  surveying  instrument  which  measures 
at  the  same  time  both  the  horizontal 
angles  subtended  by  each  two  of  the 
points  observed  with  it,  and  the  angles 
of  the  elevation  of  these  points  from  the 
point  of  observation.  The  theodolite,  as 
at  present  constructed,  consists  chiefly 
of  a  pair  of  parallel  plates,  with  adjust- 
ing screws,  fitting  on  a  tripod  (similar 
in  construction  to  the  supports  to  the  V 
and  other  levels),  a  horizontal  limb  for 
measuring  horizontal  angles,  and  a  verti- 
cal limb  for  measuring  vertical  angles. 

Thermometer  (Greek,  t/iermo*,  heat ; 
matron,  a  measure) — An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  degree  of  sensible  heat. 
The  following  description  is  given  in 


Tomlinson's  '  Cyclopaedia  of  Useful  Arts 
and  Manufactures ' : — "  There  are  three 
varieties  of  this  instrument,  differing 
merely  in  the  notation.  Fahrenheit, 
whose  thermometer  is  generally  used  in 
this  country,  fixed  the  zero  of  his  scale 
at  the  temperature  of  a  mixture  of  snow 
and  salt,  and  divided  the  interval  between 
this  and  the  boiling-point  of  water  into 
212  equal  parts  or  degrees,  so  that  on 
this  scale  water  freezes  at  32°,  and  there 
j  are  180°  between  its  freezing  and  boiling 
|  points.  Celsius,  in  constructing  his  mo- 
dification of  the  thermometer,  assumed  as 
the  zero  of  his  scale  the  freezing-point 
of  water,  and,  proceeding  on  the  decimal 
principle,  divided  the  interval  between 
this  and  the  boiling-point  into  100  equal 
parts,  so  that  on  this  scale  the  point  of 
ebullition  is  indicated  by  100°.  Hence, 
his  instrument,  which  is  used  exten- 
sively on  the  continent,  has  been  called 
the  Centigrade.  In  Be'aumur's  scale,  as  in 
the  Centigrade,  the  freezing-point  is  the 
zero  ;  but  the  distance  between  the  freez- 
ing and  boiling  points  is  in  Reaumur's 
divided  into  80  equal  parts,  instead  of 
100,  so  that  on  this  scale  the  boiling- 
point  of  water  is  at  80°.  In  each  of  these 
thermometers,  the  degrees  of  temperature 
under  the  zero  are  indicated  by  the  sign 
minus.  Thus  —  15°  Fahr.  indicates  fifteen 
degrees  of  that  scale  below  the  tempera- 
ture of  a  mixture  of  snow  and  salt ; 
while  the  same  notation  on  the  Centi- 
grade or  Reaumur  scale  signifies  a  tem- 
perature fifteen  degrees  of  the  one  or  the 
other  of  these  scales  below  the  freezing- 
point  of  water." 

The  following  are  the  rules  for  finding 
each  thermometric  degree  and  its  equi- 
valent on  other  scales. 

Fahrenheit's  scale,  one  degree  equals 
|  of  one  of  Reaumur's,  and  jj  of  the  Centi- 
grade. 

To  convert  a  degree  of  Fahrenheit  into 
its  equivalent  on  tie  Reaumur  scale. — Mul- 
tiply the  number  of  degrees  above  and 
below  32°,  or  freezing-point,  by  4,  and 
divide  by  9.  Ex. — What  is  the  equivalent 
of  9»°  Fahrenheit  on  the  Reaumur  scale  ? 

98  —  32  —  66  above  the  freezing-point ; 

66x4 

— 0— =29-3  Reaumur. 

To  convert  a  degree  of  Fahrenheit  into 


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430 


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its  equivalent  on  the  Centigrade  scale. — 
Multiply  the  degrees  in  Fahrenheit  that 
are  below  32°  by  5,  and  divide  by  9. 
Ex. — What  is  the  equivalent  of  212° 
Fahrenheit  on  the  Centigrade  scale  ? 
212-32  =  180; 

180x5 

—5 — =  100  Centigrade, 
y 

To  change  a  Reaumur  degree  into 
Fahrenheit. — Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  4, 
and  add  32. 

To  cliange  a  Centigrade  degree  into 
Fahrenheit. — Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  5, 
and  add  32. 

Fahrenheit's  thermometer  can  be  used 
to  ascertain  the  height  of  mountains  by 
the  following  formula:  —  Let  T  =  tem- 
perature of  boiling  water  at  any  station 
deducted  from  212,  and  H  =  height  in 
feet  of  station  above  the  sea.  By  boiling 
some  water  and  ascertaining  T  by  means 
of  a  thermometer :  H  =  520  T  +  T2. 

Thimble  —  An  iron  ring  attached  to 
the  end  of  drag-ropes,  siege  and  field. 
The  thimble  is  firmly  secured  in  its  place 
by  a  spliced  eye  of  rope  surrounding  its 
outer  circumference. 

Thistle,  Order  of,  vide  St.  Andrew's, 
Order  of. 

Thorough-pin — In  a  horse,  is  the  en- 
largement between  the  flexor  of  the  foot 
and  the  extensor  of  the  back.  It  is  the 
result  of  over-work,  but  hardly  con- 
stitutes unsoundness  in  a  horse.  It 
should  be  treated  as  for  windgall. 

Thread — A  very  small  twist  of  flax, 
wool,  cotton,  or  other  fibrous  substance. 
Skeins  of  cotton  thread,  weighing  about 
2  oz.  each,  are  used  in  arsenals  and  maga- 
zines for  quick-match,  and  in  a  twisted 
state  by  sailmakers  for  sewing. 

Worsted  thread  is  used  in  forming 
the  cups  of  quill  tubes ;  12  oz.  will  be 
sufficient  for  about  1000  cups.  (Vide 
Pack  Thread.) 

Throttle-valve — A  valve  in  the  steam 
pipe  of  an  engine  for  regulating  the  sup- 
ply of  steam  to  the  cylinder.  In  land 
engines,  it  is  generally  connected  with  the 
governor. 

Thrush — A  foul  discharge  issuing  from 
the  cleft  of  a  horse's  frog,  and  attended 
with  disorganisation  of  the  horn.  It  is  de- 
rived from  two  causes,  either  internal  dis- 
ease or  bad  stable  management.  Astrin- 


gent ointments  should  be  applied  for  its 

.re. 

Thumb-knot — A  simple  knot  used  to 
prevent  ropes  running  through  blocks 
when  rove,  &c. 

Thumb-screw — A  pressure  screw ;  an 
adjusting  screw. 

Thumb-Stall — In  artillery,  a  piece  of 
leather  used  by  the  gunner  who  serves 
the  vent  to  protect  his  thumb. 

Tie-beam — In  a  roof,  is  the  beam 
which  runs  across  the  breadth  of  the 
building,  the  ends  resting  on  the  side 
walls  of  the  house.  Two  sloping  rafters, 
called  principals,  are  mortised  into  the 
tie-beam  at  their  ends  by  a  joint,  and 
to  prevent  the  principal  from  start- 
ing upwards  out  of  the  mortise,  it 
is  strapped  down  to  the  tie-beam  by 
iron  straps,  bolted  or  screwed  to  both 
timbers. 

Tier  Shot,  vide  Grape  Shot. 

Timber — Wood  used  for  building  and 
other  purposes.  In  England,  the  following 
are  the  different  woods  used  for  artillery 
purposes,  which  are  thus  described  : — 

Oak  is  the  strongest,  toughest,  and 
most  lasting,  and  hence  is  used  where 
strength  and  durability  are  required,  as 
in  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  It  contains 
an  acid  which  tends  to  corrode  iron  in 
contact  with  it. 

Elm  is  a  very  cross-grained  tough 
wood,  little  liable  to  splinter,  and  very 
durable  under  constant  wet.  Hence  its 
use  for  naves  of  wheels  and  ends  of 
ammunition  boxes. 

Ash,  a  tough  wood,  and  very  elastic, 
which  renders  it  well  adapted  for  shafts, 
handspikes,  felloes,  &c.  It  does  not  stand 
exposure  well. 

Beech  is  a  hard,  strong  wood,  but  will 
not  stand  exposure.  Used  for  fuzes,  &c. 

The  chief  foreign  woods  are  African 
oak,  sabicu,  teak,  mahogany,  and 
pine. 

African  oak,  a  very  durable,  hard, 
close-grained  wood;  stronger,  heavier, 
and  darker  than  English  oak. 

Sabicu,  an  exceedingly  hard,  heavy, 
and  durable  wood,  and  hence  it  is  used 
for  surfaces  on  which  there  may  be  much 
rubbing,  or  where  durability  is  an  object, 
and  weight  not  objectionable. 

Teak  possesses  great  strength,  tough- 
ness, and  durability,  but  splinters  readily. 


TIM 


431 


TIM 


It  contains  an  oil  which  preserves  iron- 
work.    Used    for  work   sent    to    foreign 


stations. 
Mahogany 


is   strong  in  all  directions, 


and  preserves  its  shape  well. 

Pine  is  soft,  light,  and  elastic.    Yellow 
pine  is  used  for  the  interior  fittings  of 


spruce  fir,  is  used  for  ammunition  boxes 
and  the  boarding  of  wagons. 

Larch  is  a  strong,  durable,  but  knotty 
timber,  and  is  only  used  for  "  uphirs," 
ladders,  &c.  (Vide  'Treatise  on  Military 
Carriages.') 

In  India,  the  following  are  the  principal 


wagons.     Yellow  deal,  the  produce  of  the  J  woods  used  in  arsenals  and  workshops  : — 

IN  BENGAL. 


Description  of  Timber. 


Localities  where  produced. 


Saul,  Sliorea  rdbusta 
Sissoo.  Dalbcrgia  Sissoo . . 
Teak,  Tectona  grandis    .. 
Btibool,  Acacia  arabica  . . 


Oude. 
Oude. 
Burmah. 
Burmah. 


MADRAS. 


Description  of  Timber. 


Localities  where  produced. 


Pegu  teak,  Tectona  grandis 

Anuamallay  teak       „  „ 

Malabar  teak  „  „ 

Saul,  Shorea  robnsta 

Peddowk,  Petroc'irpus  Dalbenjioclies 

Rose 

Trincomallie 

Peemah,  Lager strcemia  regina   .. 

Satin,  Swietenia  chloroxylon 

Babool,  Acacia  arabica  .. 


Burmah. 

Annamallay  forest. 

Malabar. 

Burmah  and  Cuttack. 

Burmah. 

Annamallay. 

Trincomallie. 

Burmah. 

Annamallay  and  Ceylon. 

All  over  India. 


Ix  BOMBAY. 


Description  of  Timber. 


Localities  where  produced. 


Aeen  (name  given  to  it  at  Bombay),  ) 
Terminalia  glabra   ..  ..  . .   / 

Babool,  Acacia  arabica 

Black-wood,  Dalbergia  latifolia          . .  i 

Bendie  (the  name  it  is  known  by  at  "I 
Bombay),  Thespesia  populnea  . .  ) 

Teak,  Tectona  grandis 

Phunsee  (the  name  it  is  known  by  at  \ 
Bombay),  Corallia  integrifulia  . .  ) 


Coimbatore,  teak  forests  of  India  and 

Burmah. 

Common  all  over  India. 
Annamallay    forest ;    other    parts    of 

India  and  Burmah. 
Southern  parts  of  India.     Grows  best 

near  the  coast. 
Malabar,  Burmah. 

Burmah. 


TIM 


432 


TON 


Timber  Hitch — One  of  the  knots  used 
in  moving  or  lifting  ordnance,  bridging, 
&c.  It  is  made  by  passing  the  end  of  the 
rope  round  a  spar  or  piece  of  timber, 
leading  round  the  standing  part,  and 
passing  several  turns  round  itself,  then 
hauling  taut.  It  has  this  advantage, 
that,  as  long  as  the  strain  is  maintained, 
it  never  gives  way.  It  is  a  good  fastening 
for  hauling  a  carriage  out  of  a  difficulty. 

Timber,  Measurement  of,  vide  Mea- 
surement of  Timber. 

Timber,  Seasoned,  vide  Seasoned 
Timber. 

Time  Fuze,  vide  Fuze. 

Time  of  Plight — In  gunnery,  the  time 
a  projectile  takes  in  describing  any  por- 
tion of  the  trajectory,  reckoned  from 
the  moment  of  discharge,  or  the  whole 
range. 

Time-expired  Men — Non-commissioned 
officers  and  men  whose  time  of  service  is 
expired.  On  their  return  from  foreign 
service,  they  are  sent  to  the  regimental 
depot  to  be  discharged. 

Tin — A  white  metal  approaching  silver 
in  lustre.  It  is  found  in  great  abundance 
in  Cornwall  and  in  parts  of  Europe,  in 
Chili  and  Mexico,  in  the  peninsula  of 
Malacca,  and  in  the  island  of  Banca.  It 
is  very  malleable  ;  it  fuzes  at  442°  Fahr., 
and  contracts  slightly  on  consolidation. 
Its  density  varies  from  7'29  to  7'6,  the 
lightest  being  the  purest  metal.  It  is 
used  as  an  alloy  with  copper  in  forming 
gun-metal.  (  Vide  Block  Tin.) 

Tin,  Sheet  —  Formed  by  coating 
metals  such  as  iron  and  copper  with  tin, 
especially  thin  sheet  iron.  The  iron  is 
first  scoured  or  thoroughly  cleaned  by 
means  of  an  acid,  and  then  immersed  in 
melted  tin.  There  are  two  kinds,  single 
and  double  tin,  differing  in  thickness  and 
in  the  quantity  of  tin  with  which  the 
iron  is  coated. 

Tincal — An  impure  biborate  of  soda. 
Borax  (</.  v.)  is  prepared  from  it. 

Tirailleurs  (r'rench  =  sharpshooters, 
skirmishers)  —  An  independent  body  of 
marksmen,  formerly  in  the  French  army, 
when  few  regiments  were  armed  with 
rifled  arms.  They  were  used  sometimes 
in  front  of  the  army  to  annoy  the  enemy, 
sometimes  in  rear  to  check  his  pursuit. 
The  term  tirailleur  is  now  applied  to  all 
troops  acting  as  skirmishers.  It  appears 


that  tirailleurs  were  first  employed  in 
the  American  army.  (Vide  Skirmishers.) 

Tire,  or  Tyre — An  iron  band  which 
encircles  a  carriage  or  cart  wheel.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  tires,  viz.  the  ring-tire 
and  streak-tire.  The  former,  which  is 
simply  a  band  of  iron  fastened  on  without 
any  break,  has  been  universally  used,  fur 
years  past,  in  the  artillery  service  in  India. 
In  the  home  service,  until  very  lately,  the 
streak-tire,  which  is  fastened  upon  the 
wheel  in  pieces,  and  not  in  one  continued 
ring,  was  the  usual  pattern ;  but  the 
ring-tire  is  now  adopted  for  all  wheels 
not.  exceeding  3  inches  in  breadth.  The 
breadth  of  field  carriage  tires  is  3  inches, 
and  j  inch  thick,  that  of  siege  carriages, 
G  inches,  and  3  inch  thick. 

Title,  Kegimental — The  distinguishing 
name  given  to  each  regiment  in  the 
service.  Thus  the  First  Dragoon  Guards 
are  called  the  Kind's  Dragoon.  Guards.'  In 
the  infantry  of  the  line,  there  is  both  a 
regimental  and  county  title.  For  instance, 
the  regimental  title  of  the  13th  Regi- 
ment is  the  Prince  Albert's  Light  In- 
fantry ;  its  county  title,  1st  Somersetshire. 

Tobrah — An  Indian  term  for  a  horse's 
leather  nose-bag. 

Toggel,  or  Toggle — A  belaying  pin. 
Also  a  small  piece  of  wood  fastened  to 
the  end  of  a  string  or  lanyard  serving  as 
a  hold  to  grip  by. 

Tombac — Red  brass ;  an  alloy  com- 
posed of  93  per  cent,  of  copper  and  7  per 
cent,  of  zinc. 

Tommy  Atkins  —  A  familiar  term 
given  by  soldiers  to  their  pocket  ledger 
or  small  account  book.  The  origin  of 
this  name  arose  from  every  document, 
paper,  &c.  being  headed,  for  convenience 
sake,  "  I,  Tommy  Atkins,"  &c. 

Tonnage — The  amount  of  space  that 
stores  take  up  on  board  ship,  which  is  cal- 
culated either  by  weight  or  by  cubic  mea- 
sure, a  ton  consisting  generally  of  40 
cubic  feet;  but  metals  and  very  heavy 
articles  are  estimated  by  actual  weight, 
without  reference  to  bulk.  ( Vide  Mea- 
surement of  Shipping.) 

The  following  is  the  mode  given  in  the 
'  Treatise  on  Military  Carriages '  of 
taking  the  tonnage  of  a  gun  carriage, 
which  is  equally  applicable  to  any  other 
article  : — 

"The    movable    parts,    such    as    the 


TOO 


433 


TOR 


wheels,  shafts,  &c.,  are  taken  off,  and  the 
body  of  the  carriage  laid  upon  the 
ground,  right  side  up,  or  otherwise,  as  > 
may  be  most  convenient.  The  length  of 
the  longest  part  is  then  measured,  as  a  ! 
guide  for  the  least  length  of  space  which 
the  carriage  can  occupy,  and  the  width  ; 
of  the  widest  part  for  the  least  width. 
These  dimensions  give  the  size  of  the 
rectangular  base,  upon  which  the  body 
and  the  other  portions  are  packed  as 
closely  as  may  be  convenient.  When 
packed,  the  greatest  height  in  feet,  mul- 
tiplied by  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
base  in  feet,  gives  the  number  of  cubic  feet 
occupied  by  the  carriage,  and  the  product 
divided  by  40  gives  the  tonnage." 

Tools — Instruments  employed  to  facili- 
tate the  various  operations  which  have 
to  be  carried  on  by  hand  or  by  machinery 
either  in  wood  or  metal  work. 

Topographical  Department  —  A  de- 
partment of  the  War  Office  under  the 
director  of  surveys,  who  is  an  officer  of  the 
royal  engineers.  It  comprises  the  ord- 
nance survey,  which  includes  the  various 
national  surveys  and  the  topographical 
depot,  the  collection  of  maps,  plans,  de- 
scriptive books,  and  journals  of  staff  j 
officers  from  all  parts  of  the  globe.  The 
officers  of  the  topographical  depot  keep 
themselves  informed,  up  to  the  latest  date, 
on  all  matters  pertaining  to  their  depart- 
ment, so  that,  on  an  army  taking  the 
field,  the  general  may  at  once  be  put  in  j 
possession  of  all  information  about  the 
country  to  be  invaded  or  occupied. 

Topographical  Survey,  vide  Survey,  To. 

Topography  (Greek,  topos,  a  place ; 
grapho,  I  describe)  —  A  minute  and  par- 
ticular description  of  the  soil  and  surface 
of  any  country. 

Torpedo — A  destructive  engine  of  war, 
used  under  the  sea  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
stroying ships. 

Torpedoes  were  first  used  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  the  Baltic  in  1854,  and  subse- 
quently, with  great  success,  by  the 
Americans  during  the  civil  war  of  1861- 
1865.  The  Germans,  in  1870,  effectually 
defended  their  coasts  against  the  French 
fleet  by  means  of  these  engines. 

Torpedoes,  as  described  by  Major 
Stotherd,  R.E.,  in  his  work  on  the  sub- 
ject, are  "charges  of  gunpowder,  gun- 
cotton,  or  other  explosive  agents,  of 


various  sizes,  up  to  2000  Ibs.  of  gun- 
powder or  its  equivalent,  enclosed  in 
water-tight  cases  of  iron  or  other 
material  and  placed  under  water  at  such 
depths  that,  by  their  explosion,  they  may 
sink  or  seriously  damage  a  vessel  passing 
in  their  vicinity." 

The  word  "  torpedo,"  strictly  speaking, 
is  applied  more  to  offensive  machines, 
or  such  machines  as  are  used  in 
naval  .warfare,  than  to  those  used  for 
defensive  purposes  in  stationary  posi- 
tions, which  should  properly  be  called 
submarine  mines  ;  at  least  such  was  the 
suggestion  of  the  late  Sir  John  Bur- 
goyne,  R.E.,  in  talking  of  stationary  tor- 
pedoes. 

The  latter  are  placed  along  a  coast 
for  the  defence  of  harbours,  estuaries, 
rivers,  or  of  such  sea-shores  as  are  open 
to  an  invader  and  unprotected  by  any 
natural  or  artificial  means.  They  are  a 
safeguard  against  suprise,  as  no  vessel 
could  pass  at  night  or  in  a  fog  through  a 
channel  protected  by  them. 

There  are  two  classes  of  defensive  tor- 
pedoes, self-acting  or  exploding  on  a  ship 
coming  in  contact  with  them,  and  electric 
torpedoes,  fired  by  means  of  an  electric 
current  supplied  from  the  shore.  The 
latter  present  the  greatest  advantages ;  for 
they  are  the  safest  to  friendly  ships,  as 
they  are  always  under  the  control  of  the 
observer  in  charge  of  them.  By  simply 
detaching  the  voltaic  battery  employed 
to  fire  them,  which  may  be  done  by  the 
removal  of  the  connecting  plug,  they 
become  perfectly  harmless,  and  ships  can 
pass  over  them  with  safety,  which  is  not 
the  case  with  self-exploding  torpedoes. 

A  torpedo  of  the  self-acting  class  is 
composed  of  a  hollow  iron  cone,  water- 
tight, with  a  ring  at  its  apex,  to  which 
the  sinker  is  attached.  The  lower  end 
of  the  cone  is  filled  with  the  explosive 
agent,  the  charge  varying  from  100  to 
300  Ibs.  of  gunpowder  or  its  equiva- 
lent, while  the  upper  part  is  left  empty 
for  the  sake  of  buoyancy.  At  the  top 
of  the  powder  is  an  iron  case  filled 
with  lime,  in  which  a  tube  of  thin  glass 
containing  sulphuric  acid  is  enclosed.  An 
iron  rod,  moving  on  a  joint,  passes 
through  the  empty  part  of  the  torpedo 
and  some  distance  above  it ;  at  the 
lower  end  of  this  rod  is  a  ring  which 
2  F 


TOR 


434 


TOR 


surrounds   the    upper  part  of  the    glass 
tube,    whilst    two    horizontal    rods    or 
"  feelers "    are   attached    rigidly    to    its 
upper  extremity.      When  a    ship  strikes  I 
the  feelers,  the  rod  is  deflected  from  the  i 
perpendicular,  the  ring  breaks  the  glass  ! 
tube,  and  the  sulphuric  acid,  acting  che-  ! 
mically  on  the  lime,  generates  great  heat  ' 
aad  explodes  the  powder.    Vide  Addenda, 
Torpedo.) 

The  electric  torpedo,  or  submarine 
mine,  in  its  complete  form  consists  of 
three  parts,  the  fuze,  the  charge,  and  the 
torpedo  case  or  tank ;  the  shape  of  the  case 
differs,  together  with  the  necessary  inter- 
nal and  external  arrangement  of  electric 
connection  and  conduction,  from  that  of 
the  self-acting  class.  As  explained  in 
'  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia,'  "  two  wires 
are  laid  along  the  bottom  of  the  water 
from  the  shore,  passed  through  the  ring 
below  the  cone,  and  brought  in  at  the  top 
to  two  knobs  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
powder-keg.  Between  these  a  piece  of 
platinum  wire  passes  through  a  sensitive 
cartridge.  As  soon  as  the  circuit  of 
electricity  is  completed  on  shore,  the 
platinum  becomes  incandescent,  and  the 
explosion  takes  place."  When  gun-cotton 
is  used  as  an  explosive  agent,  and  this  com- 
position is  preferred  to  gunpowder,  as  it  is 
not  affected  by  being  wet,  and  is  three  times 
as  effective  in  its  explosive  force,  the 
charges  are  placed  in  cases,  the  principal 
being  known  as  the  electro-contact,  holding 
100  Ibs.  of  gun-cotton.  The  torpedo  is 
placed  at  such  a  depth  as  to  strike 
the  bottom  of  a  ship.  The  other  kind  of 
cases  are  intended  for  depths  varying 
from  30  feet  to  60  feet  and  over.  An 
electro-contact  is  encased  in  wood  to  pre- 
vent the  charge  being  damaged  by 
striking  friendly  ships.  The  mines  are  re- 
tained in  position  by  means  of  "  sinkers," 
of  which  there  are  two  descriptions,  the 
saddle  and  mushroom,  the  weights  of 
which  depend  on  the  velocity  of  the 
current  of  the  stream  and  the  nature  of 
its  bed.  In  connecting-up  the  mine,  the 
circuit-closer  is  placed  in  a  jacket,  and 
the  electric  cables  are  attached  to  the 
circuit-closer  and  the  mine,  the  main 
and  branch  cables  as  well  as  the  fuze 
piece  being  joined  together.  The  cables 
are  stopped  by  moving  lines,  which  are 
fastened  by  shackles  to  the  mooring 


chains.  Different  kinds  of  cables  are 
used ;  that  known  as  the  branch  cable 
is  always  used  in  water,  and  protected  by 
steel  or  iron  wires.  The  core  in  all 
cables  consists  of  a  strand  conductor  of 
four  copper  wires,  tinned,  with  a  case  of 
vulcanised  india-rubber.  The  fuzes  used 
are  either  platinum  wire  or  Mr.  Abel's 
tension-fuzes.  The  battery  for  firing  is 
Le  Clanche's  of  low  internal  resistance. 

To  ascertain  the  right  moment  at 
which  to  complete  the  circuit,  elaborate 
observations  are  necessary  from  the  shore. 

Of  electric  torpedoes  for  offensive  pur- 
poses, the  best  known  are  the  Harvey,  the 
Spar,  and  the  Whitehead  (fish) ;  the  first 
named  is  also  used  for  defensive  purposes. 

Concerning  the  rule  br  which  the 
size  of  charges  may  be  calculated,  only 
an  approximate  rule  can  be  given,  and 
until  such  is  fixed,  the  following  may  be 
taken :  500  Ibs.  of  gunpowder  up  to  a 
depth  of  20  feet,  2000  Ibs.  as  maximum 
charge,  to  be  used  at  a  depth  of  not 
less  than  40  feet  of  water.  Gun-cotton 
presents,  as  an  agent  for  exploding  tor- 
pedoes, many  advantages  over  gunpowder. 
A  charge  of  gun-cotton  calculated  to  do 
the  same  work  as  a  given  charge  of  gun- 
powder would  only  occupy  one-fourth  to 
two-fifths  of  the  space ;  the  cost  of  the 
torpedo,  therefore,  would  be  reduced  in 
proportion,  and  much  labour  saved  in 
handling,  fixing,  or  mooring  the  torpedoes, 
and  the  space  required  for  storing  them 
diminished.  The  amount  of  buoyancy 
required  to  keep  torpedoes  in  place  would 
!  similarly  favour  the  employment  of  gun- 
i  cotton  as  a  charge.  This  agent  is,  besides, 
not  affected  by  wet,  and  therefore  more 
certain  than  gunpowder. 

A  small  kind  of  torpedo  has  also  been 
used  on  land  for  destroying  railway  lines, 
trains,  &c.  During  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71,  a  torpedo  was  placed  by 
a  party  of  franc-tireurs  under  the  rails 
of  a  line  used  by  the  enemy,  and  exploded 
as  a  train  ran  over  it,  causing  the  entire 
destruction  of  the  train.  Experiments 
have  been  carried  on  lately  in  Germany 
with  land  torpedoes,  to  be  employed  for 
the  defence  of  fortresses  or  other  fortified 
places.  These  torpedoes,  or  subterranean 
mines,  are  shells  Hi  inches  long,  with  a 
double  casing  0-58  inch  thick,  and  con- 
taining an  explosive  charge  of  4-4  Ibs. 


TOR 


435 


TOU 


of  gunpowder  or  its  equivalent  in  gun- 
cotton.  A  double  row  of  these,  con- 
nected by  a  subterranean  electric  wire, 
is  placed  in  the  ground  over  which  the 
enemy  is  expected  to  pass.  The  facility 
with  which  these  mines  can  be  discovered 
has,  however,  prevented  their  ranking 
amongst  other  useful  engines  of  war,  but 
every  effort  is  being  made  to  bring  them 
to  perfection  for  defensive  purposes. 

The  manufacture  of  torpedoes  of  the 
Whitehead  class  and  other  government 
torpedoes,  together  with  the  apparatus 
forming  their  equipment,  is  carried  on  in 
the  Royal  Laboratory  at  Woolwich.  The 
working  of  torpedoes  for  defensive  pur- 
poses is  placed  under  the  royal  engineers, 
who  go  through  a  special  training  in  that 
department.  (  Vide  Schools,  Military.) 

Torrent  —  A  swift-flowing  body  of 
water.  (  Vide  River.) 

Torsion — -In  mechanics,  the  twisting  or 
wrenching  of  a  body  by  the  exertion  of  a 
lateral  force.  The  effects  of  torsion  are 
seen  in  the  force  exhibited  by  a  weight 
attached  to  a  wire  or  metal  rod,  which 
is  made  to  revolve  several  times  in  the 
same  direction,  whereby  it  becomes 
twisted,  and  is  then  disengaged,  in  virtue 
of  its  elasticity  untwining  itself,  causing 
the  weight  to  revolve  in  a  contrary 
direction,  the  process  of  untwining  con- 
tinuing until  the  wire  recovers  its  original 
position. 

Touch — A  military  term,  signifying 
that  a  man  in  the  ranks  is  feeling  the 
elbow  of  the  man  next  to  him. 

Touch-hole — The  primitive  name  for 
the  vent  of  a  gun. 

Toughness — In  metallurgy,  denotes 
the  property  metal  has  of  resisting  ex- 
tension or  fracture  by  tearing  or  binding. 
Copper  is  an  instance  of  toughness. 

Tour  of  Duty — Duty  in  succession. 
As  defined  in  the  Queen's  Regulations, 
"  the  tour  of  duty  is  to  be  from  the 
senior  downwards. 

"The  first  is  the  guard  of  the  sove- 
reign ; 

"  2nd.  Of  members  of  the  royal  fa- 
mily ; 

"  3rd.  Of  viceroys  ; 

"  4th.  Captain-general  or  governor  of 
a  colony  ; 

"  5th.  Of  the  general  commanding  at 
home  or  abroad  ; 


"  6th.  Divisional  duties  under  arms  ; 

"  7th.  Brigade  or  garrison  duties  under 
arms ; 

"  8th.  Regimental  duties  under  arms ;  • 

"  9th.  Courts-martial ; 

"  10th.  Boards  or  courts  of  inquiry  ; 

"  llth.  Working  parties  ; 

"  12th.  Duties  of  fatigue." 

Tournament  —  A  military  exercise 
that  took  its  origin  from  the  ancient 
gladiatory  combats,  which  had  for  their 
object  the  training  of  the  youth  of  the 
day  in  all  exercises  tending  to  make  them 
active,  athletic,  and  expert  in  the  art  of 
war.  This  led  to  those  encounters  termed 
jousts  in  which  a  couple  of  knights  met 
each  other  to  test  their  prowess  and  gal- 
lantry, being  clad  in  armour  and  using 
weapons  of  warfare,  such  as  the  sword  and 
lance,  as  their  arms.  On  this  followed 
the  tournament,  a  gathering  held  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  together  a  number  of 
knights  who  should  have  the  opportunity 
of  exhibiting  before  this  assembly  their 
skill  and  valour.  In  such  encounters  as 
were  held  under  the  name  of  tourna- 
ments in  the  middle  ages,  life  was  not 
unfrequently  sacrificed ;  but  the  knight 
who  slew  or  disabled  his  adversary  was 
indemnified  against  all  consequences.  In 
later  times,  to  make  the  tournament 
more  a  field  for  deeds  of  strength  and 
prowess  than  for  deadly  combat,  two 
sorts  of  arms  were  employed,  those  ex- 
pressly made  for  the  purpose,  viz.  lances 
with  blunt  heads  of  iron,  and  the  ordi- 
nary arms  of  warfare  with  which  knights 
had  the  opportunity,  if  permitted,  of 
signalising  themselves  in  more  than  an 
ordinary  degree.  Every  knight  attending 
was  required  to  prove  his  noble  birth,  or 
rank,  as  a  title  of  admission.  The  com- 
petitors were  at  first  proclaimed  by  the 
heralds  with  sound  of  trumpet ;  and 
hence  the  word  blazonry  (which  signifies 
the  correct  deciphering  of  the  heraldic 
symbols  on  a  coat-of-arms),  derived  by 
some  from  the  German  blasen,  to  blow. 
Afterwards,  when  armorial  bearings  be- 
came general,  the  shield  of  the  knight 
gave  token  of  his  rank  and  family. 

In  succeeding  centuries,  tournaments 
were  graced  by  the  presence  of  ladies, 
who  distributed  the  prizes  to  those 
knights  whose  bearing  in  the  encounter 
stamped  them  as  worthy  of  recognition ; 
2  F  2 


TOU 


436 


TRA 


and  we  find  still  later  on  that  the  jousts 
or  tournaments  were  generally  held  in 
honour  of  ladies,  every  knight  being 
bound  to  possess,  in  reality,  or  in  show, 
a  dame  of  his  affections,  for  whose  sake 
all  these  deeds  of  chivalry  were  supposed 
to  be  performed. 

Tourniquet  (French,  tourner,  to  turn) 
— In  surgery,  a  bandage  which  can  be 
tightened  or  compressed  to  any  extent. 
It  is  chiefly  used  to  stop  haemorrhage  in 
cases  of  amputation,  and  is  invaluable 
on  the  field  of  battle.  In  cases  of  emer- 
gency and  in  the  absence  of  a  surgical 
tourniquet,  a  silk  or  cotton  handkerchief 
twisted  tight  by  means  of  a  stick  passed 
through  the  slack,  is  a  good  substitute ; 
a  bullet  or  round  stone  being  placed  over 
the  artery. 

Tow — Flax  or  hemp  ready  for  spin- 
ning. It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
rope. 

Tower — A  movable  engine  used  in 
ancient  sieges,  and  of 'such  a  height  as 
to  place  the  besiegers,  by  being  thus 
raised,  on  a  more  equal  footing  with  the 
besieged. 

Tower  of  London — In  the  early  days 
of  English  history,  a  powerful  fortress, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  subse- 
quently a  state  prison  of  mournful  asso- 
ciations, and  now  a  repository  for  small- 
arms  and  the  jewels  of  the  crown.  The 
reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  Hepworth 
Dixou's  exhaustive  account  of  the  Tower 
of  London  for  all  particulars.  The  in- 
terest in  the  Tower  remains  to  the  present 
day,  and  is  still  associated  with  the  army 
in  having  a  governor,  an  officer  of  dis- 
tinguished rank  and  services,  placed  in 
charge  of  it,  with  a  deputy  governor. 

Towers,  Martello,  vide  Martello 
Towers. 

Town-Major — An  officer  who  regulates 
the  duties  of  .a  garrison,  such  as  the 
detail  and  supervision  of  garrison  guards, 
the  disposal  of  prisoners  in  the  garrison 
guard-room,  the  roster  of  officers  for 
garrison  duties,  the  superintendence  of 
military  police  escorts  (a  regiment  is 
usually  told  off  weekly  for  this  duty), 
parole  and  countersign,  hours  for  retreat, 
and  preparation  and  issue  of  garrison 
orders. 

Trace,  To — In  fortification,  to  mark 
out  on  the  ground  the  dimensions  of  a 


work.  The  word  trace  in  a  general 
sense  is  interchangeable  with  plan. 

Traces  —  Form  an  essential  part  of 
harness,  and  are  indispensable  to  the 
draught.  They  consist  of  lead,  wheel, 
and  short  traces,  and  are  made  of  3-inch 
white  rope,  of  special  manufacture,  en- 
cased in  leather  piping,  having  trace- 
hooks  and  trace-links  attached. 

Track  of  Artillery  Carriages — The 
breadth  contained  between  the  two 
wheels  of  a  carriage,  measuring  from 
the  outer  rim  of  each  wheel.  The 
track  of  field  artillery  carriage  wheels 
is  5  feet  2  inches  from  outside  to  out- 
side of  the  tire. 

Traction,  vide  Angle  of  Traction. 

Traction  Engine — A  steam-engine  for 
pulling  heavy  \veights  along  an  ordinary 
road  at  a  moderate  rate.  It  was  first 
used  on  roads  in  England  in  1860.  This 
nature  of  engine  has  been  found  useful 
in  warfare.  The  Germans  reported  very 
favourably  of  its  use  in  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870-71.  It  is  used  for 
heavy  transport  in  rear  of  an  army. 

A  large-size  engine  weighs  about  28 
tons,  travels  at  the  rate  of  5  miles  an 
hour,  and  consumes  a  ton  of  coal  per  day. 

Trail — In  a  field  carriage,  that  part  of 
the  carriage  which  rests  on  the  ground 
when  unlimbered,  and  which  is  hooked 
on  to  the  pintail  of  the  limber  when 
limbered  up.  The  beam  of  the  O.P.  gun- 
carriage  is  made  of  one  block,  or  of  two 
pieces  of  timber  tabled  together ;  under 
either  circumstances  it  is  termed  a  block- 
trail  carriage.  ( Vide  Block-trail.)  Since 
the  introduction  of  iron '  carriages  the 
block-trail  pattern  has  been  abandoned, 
and  the  bracket  carriage  is  now  the  service 
pattern.  The  trail  of  a  siege  bracket 
carriage  is  formed  by  the  extremities  of 
the  cheeks  which  rest  on  the  ground. 

Trail-handle  —  A  traversing  handle 
attached  to  the  trail  of  the  new  field 
guns  sent  to  India.  It  is  made  of  iron, 
T-shaped,  and  fixed  to  the  trail  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  can  be  laid  flat  on  it,  when 
not  required,  without  being  unshipped. 
This  handle  has  been  in  use  with  the 
late  Indian  artillery  batteries  for  many 
years  past. 

Trail-plate — The  ironwork  attached 
to  the  end  of  the  trail  which  includes 
the  trail-plate  eye.  This  eye  or  loop  is 


TEA 


437 


TEA 


fixed  in  the  N.P.  carriages,  and  forms  a 
part  of  the  trail-plate.  Swivel  loops 
were  formerly  used  in  the  Madras  car- 
riages, and  they  are  said  to  have  had 
this  advantage,  that,  if  the  gun  carriage 
upset,  it  did  not  entail  the  fall  of  the 
limber. 

Train — In  a  military  sense,  implies  the 
ordnance,  carriages,  ammunition,  and  in 
fact  all  the  apparatus  and  implements 
of  war  which  are  required  for  an  army 
in  the  field  (vide  Transport  of  Troops) ; 
hence  the  term  siege  train  (<?.  v.),  &c. 

The  term  train  is  also  used  in  mining 
to  express  the  powder  laid  by  the  miner 
for  some  distance  along  the  ground,  up 
to  the  charge,  and  by  which  means  the 
charge  is  ignited. 

Trainbands — A  body  of  men  which 
formerly  constituted  the  militia  of  London, 
and  from  which  the  3rd  (Buffs)  were 
raised.  (  Vide  Militia.) 

Trajectory— The  path  described  by  a 
projectile  in  the  air  or  in  vacuo.  The 
curve  described  in  passing  through  the 
atmosphere  is  due  to  three  forces — the 
force  of  projection,  gravity,  and  the  re- 
sistance of  the  air.  (  Vide  Appendix  F.) 
In  treating  on  the  subject  of  gunnery, 
an  important  point  arises,  as  shown  by 
Lieutenant  E.  Clayton,  R.A.,  in  his  prize 
essay,  viz.  the  relation  between  the 
weight  of  a  projectile  and  its  calibre,  as 
this  leads  on  to  the  subject  of  lowness 
of  trajectory,  in  which  he  shows  the 
advantages  of  it  in  the  flight  of  a  pro- 
jectile : — 

"  (1)  On  account  of  greater  accuracy. 

"  (2)  On  account  of  harder  hitting — 
for  lowness  of  trajectory  means  greater 
velocity,  and  consequently  more  energy 
in  the  shot. 

"  (3)  On  account  of  the  greater  dis- 
tance covered  effectively  by  the  pro- 
jectile— '  longueur  battue,'  as  the  French 
term  it ;  that  is  to  say,  a  projectile  with 
low  trajectory  passes  over  a  greater  dis- 
tance within  the  height  from  the  ground 
reached  by  the  objects  fired  at,  than  one 
with  a  high  trajectory." 

Transit — In  astronomy,  the  passage  of 
any  heavenly  body  over  a  larger  one, 
such  as  planets  over  the  sun.  The  ob- 
servation of  the  transit  of  Venus  (1874) 
will  be  familiar  to  most  readers,  England 
and  other  countries  combining  to  carry 


out  the  observations  in  distant  parts  of 
the  world. 

Transit  Instrument — An  instrument 
for  observing  the  time  of  passage  of  a 
celestial  object  across  the  meridian.  It 
consists  of  a  telescope  attached  to  a 
transverse  horizontal  axis,  the  ends  of 
which  are  directed  to  the  east  and  west 
points  of  the  horizon. 

Transmission  of  Intelligence,  vide 
Telegraphy. 

Transom — In  artillery,  a  stout  piece 
of  timber  or  beam  connecting  two  cor- 
responding parts  of  a  carriage.  Wooden 
siege  carriages,  formed  of  two  brackets, 
are  connected  together  by  three  tran- 
soms, but  the  length  of  the  transoms, 
which  regulates  the  width  of  the  car- 
riage, varies  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  gun. 

Transport  Carriages,  vide  Carts, 
Transport ;  Vehicles,  and  Wagon. 

Transport  of  Troops — As  the  name 
implies,  is  the  carriage  of  bodies  of  men, 
with  their  baggage  and  ammunition,  as 
well  as  all  war  material,  stores,  supplies, 
&c.,  from  one  country  to  another,  by 
land  or  by  sea. 

Colonel  Graham,  in  his  '  Art  of  War,' 
states  that,  "  to  organise  the  means  of 
transport  for  an  army  acting  at  a  Jong 
distance  from  its  principal  magazines,  in 
a  country  where  it  is  entirely  dependent 
on  its  own  supplies,  is  a  problem  difficult 
of  solution."  It  has  been  therefore  the 
constant  endeavour  of  military  adminis- 
trators and  departments  to  ensure  in 
time  of  peace  a  system  that  will  work 
well  on  the  declaration  of  war,  and  so 
avoid  confusion  when  troops  have  to  be 
sent  by  rail  or  by  any  other  means  into 
the  theatre  of  operations.  Particularly 
has  the  supply  branch  of  the  army  to  be 
attended  to,  with  all  its  requirements 
for  the  transport  of  food  and  ammunition 
from  the  base  of  operations  to  the 
magazines  formed  for  their  reception 
along  the  line  of  communication.  In  order 
therefore  to  facilitate  the  transport  of 
food,  wagons  and  military  carts  are  at- 
tached to  all  armies,  to  carry  food  from 
the  main  magazines  in  rear  of  the  army 
to  the  smaller  ones  some  days'  march 
ahead.  Carts  are  also  attached  to  each 
division,  carrying  a  certain  number  of 
days'  rations  for  men  and  cattle.  In  the 


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438 


TEA 


march  of  an  army,  two  considerations 
will  weigh  with  the  general  in  command 
in  the  transport  of  his  supplies  and 
stores  :  (1)  to  prevent  the  assembling  of 
carts  or  wagons  along  the  line  of  march  ; 
(2)  to  prevent  them  following  in  too 
close  promixity  in  rear  of  the  army,  and 
so  possibly  interfering  with  the  opera- 
tions of  the  war,  by  impeding  that  ra- 
pidity of  movement  which  is  essential  to 
success. 

Transport  may  be  obtained  by  four 
methods : — 

1.  By  water; 

2.  By  rail ; 

3.  By  wheel-carriage ; 

4.  By  pack  animals. 
Transport    by    water   is    the    easiest, 

cheapest,  and  best,  for  heavy  weights. 
England,  from  her  geographical  position, 
is  constantly  obliged  to  use  this  mode  of 
transport,  to  convey  troops  and  war 
material  to  India  and  her  colonies. 
Ships  specially  built  for  that  purpose, 
called  transports  (g.  t;.),  have  been  for 
some  years  past  used  to  convey  the 
relief  of  European  troops  between  home 
and  abroad.  In  an  enemy's  country, 
rivers  and  canals  are  also  available  for 
transport  purposes,  but  can  be  seldom 
used  up  to  the  front  of  positions.  The 
former  afford  an  easy  mode  for  the  trans- 
port of  stores,  particularly  when  steam 
can  be  used ;  the  latter  cannot  be  trusted, 
as  they  are  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  the 
locks  may  be  blown  up  and  the  water 
supply  at  the  head  can  be  cut  off.  The 
Germans,  during  the  war  of  1870-71, 
used  a  steam  flotilla  o"n  the  Rhine. 

Transport  by  rail  is  invaluable  within 
one's  own  territory,  but  in  an  enemy's 
country  no  dependence  can  be  placed 
upon  the  use  of  it,  as  the  enemy  can 
tear  up  the  lines  at  any  moment,  and 
thus  delay  the  advance  of  troops  and 
the  despatch  of  war  material  and  supplies 
until  they  can  be  repaired.  When,  however, 
railways  can  be  made  available,  as  was 
exemplified  during  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71,  when  the  Germans 
around  Paris  and  other  parts  of  France 
were  able  ^to  receive  supplies  from  Ger- 
many, their  advantages  are  untold. 
Transport  by  rail  demands,  on  account  of 
the  large  bodies  to  be  moved,  and  the 
celerity  of  the  trains,  complete  security 


'  and  great  regularity  in  all  the  operations 

that    precede   or   follow  the    movement. 

These  conditions  can  only  be  obtained  by 

an   exact   observation  of  the    rules    laid 

i  down  for  that  service.     (Vide  Railways.) 

Colonel  Hamley,  in  his  '  Operations  of 
j  War,'  gives  the  following  on  the  use  of 
railways  for  the  transport  of  troops  : — 

"  Whatever  advantages  good  roads  can 
confer  must  be  immensely  increased 
when  railways  are  employed.  In  using 
them,  the  first  step  must  be  the  collec- 
tion of  the  rolling  stock  on  the  required 
points  of  the  different  lines.  .  .  .  This 
preliminary  measure  accomplished,  the 
following  conditions  attach  to  the  con- 
veyance of  troops  of  all  arms  : — 

"  A  train  of  from  twenty-four  to 
thirty-four  carriages  of  all  kinds — pas- 
senger carriages,  cattle-trucks,  horse- 
boxes, and  break-vans — can  be  propelled 
by  one  engine;  and  a  speed  of  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  miles  an  hour, 
though  lower  than  what  is  attainable,  is 
considered  most  suitable  to  a  continuous 
movement,  by  lessening  the  risk  of 
breaking  down. 

"  An  ordinary  second  or  third  class 
carriage  holds  thirty-two  soldiers.  A 
horse-box  holds  three  horses,  and  a  cattle- 
truck  six  to  eight.  Taking  the  effective 
number  of  one  of  our  infantry  battalions 
at  1066  men  and  thirty-three  officers, 
the  battalion,  with  its  transport  and 
equipment,  including  fourteen  wagons 
and  sixty-five  horses,  can  be  conveyed  in 
two  trains. 

"  One  train  will  contain  a  squadron  of 
cavalry  of  120  horses,  and  four  trains 
the  regiment. 

"  Each  artillery  wagon,  or  gun,  with 
its  limber,  occupies  one  truck.  A  bat- 
tery of  horse  artillery,  or  a  field  battery, 
with  its  men,  horses,  and  equipment 
complete,  requires  two  trains,  of  from 
thirty-one  to  thirty-three  carriages  each. 

"A  battalion  of  infantry  standing 
ready  at  the  station,  and  properly 
practised,  embarks  in  a  few  minutes. 
Cavalry  require  twenty-five  minutes  to 
fill  a  train,  and  artillery  half  an  hour. 
If  all  embark  at  the  same  station,  only 
three  trains  could  be  despatched  in  an 
hour.  But  by  creating  temporary  plat- 
forms the  loading  can  take  place  simul- 
taneously. A  platform  300  feet  long 


TEA 


439 


TEA 


allows  all  the  carriages  of  a  train  to  be 
loaded  at  once — and  such  a  platform  can 
be  made  in  three  hours,  by  200  men,  out 
of  materials  always  at  hand  on  rail- 
ways. 

"  Under  such  circumstances,  it  has 
been  calculated  that  there  would  be  no  . 
difficulty  in  forwarding,  on  an  English  \ 
railway,  large  bodies  of  troops  at  the  ; 
rate  of  one  train  every  seven  and  a  half  • 
minutes,  or  eight  trains  per  hour — that  i 
being  the  shortest  interval  judged  safe  j 
on  such  occasions.  The  transport  of ; 
an  English  army  corps,  according  to  the  • 
latest  organisation,  might  therefore  be 
thus  calculated  in  round  numbers. 

"  An    English    division    requires    the 
following : — 

Infantry,  7  battalions     ..       ..   14  trains. 
Artillery,   2  batteries  and  am- 
munition column         ..       ..      6     „ 
Cavalry,  1  regiment        ..       ..      4     „ 
Staff,    engineers,    and  military 

police 2     „ 


26 


3  infantry  divisions         . .       . .  78  trains. 
1    cavalry    brigade     (3    regi- 
ments, 1  battery)        ..       ..14  „ 
Reserve    artillery  (6  batteries 

and  ammunition  column)   ..14  ,^ 

Engineers,  telegraph,  &c.        ..      4  „ 

Staff  and  military  police         . .      2  „ 

Field    hospital  and  ambulance    16  „ 

Control  and  supplies  for  3  days  16  „ 

144 

"  Supposing  the  carriages  collected 
and  the  platforms  made  for  embarking 
and  disembarking,  the  corps  could  be 
conveyed  sixty  miles  in  twenty-one 
hours  from  the  commencement  of  the 
movement.  This  amount  of  force  might 
be  despatched  on  our  chief  railways 
without  aid  from  return  carriages. 
Other  bodies  might  also  follow  to  the 
distance  named,  or  even  farther,  since 
the  carriages  would  return  in  time  to 
maintain  the  continuity  of  movement. 
But  if  the  distance  were  doubled,  the 
operation  must  be  interrupted. 

"  This  calculation  rests  on  data 
afforded  by  double  lines  conducting  a 
great  traffic,  and  possessing  the  maximum 


amount  of  officials,  servants,  and  rolling 
stock." 

Wheel  transport  is  the  most  economical 
of  all,  where  good  roads  can  be  found,  and 
more  advantageous  in  comparison  with 
pack  agency,  as  to  the  power  of  bring- 
ing up  stores.  A  horse  drags  five  times 
more  than  it  can  carry,  on  good  roads, 
and  therefore  a  great  deduction  can  be 
made  for  the  food  of  these  animals.  When 
bullocks  are  used  in  draught,  they  are 
found  to  pull  better  in  swampy  countries, 
and  have  more  endurance  than  any  other 
animals.  Camels  are  not  good  draught 
animals ;  moreover,  they  are  useless  in 
moist  or  swampy  ground. 

Pack  animals  require  more  men  to 
attend  on  them,  and  the  further  an 
army  gets  from  its  base  of  operations, 
the  less  these  animals  can  carry.  They 
cannot  be  unloaded  at  every  halt, 
whereas  wagon  or  cart  horses  can  rest 
on  a  halt,  however  short  it  may  be. 
Pack  animals,  though  more  difficult  to 
load  and  more  liable  to  sore  back 
and  to  strains,  are  found  useful  when 
armies  have  to  operate  in  countries 
where  no  roads  exist,  and  where  troops 
may  get  separated  from  their  wagons. 
In  defiles  the  breaking  down  of  a  wagon 
may  cause  serious  loss  of  time,  while  in 
cases  of  blocks  pack  animals  can  easily 
get  forward. 

Of  pack  animals,  the  following  are 
the  best  fitted  for  general  service : — 

1.  The   mule,  which   can  carry  from 
200  to  250  Ibs.  in  a  level  country,  and 
100  Ibs.,  including  pack,  in  a  hilly  country, 
as  in  Abyssinia. 

2.  Bullocks,  though  slow,  can  carry  in 
level  countries   200  Ibs.,  including  pack, 
and  have  proved  that  they  stand  fire  well. 

3.  Camels    can   carry    about   400  Ibs. 
and  walk  at  the  rate  of  2^  miles  an  hour. 

4.  Elephants  can  travel  at  the  rate  of 
3  to  3j  miles  an  hour,  and  carry  from  15 
to  20  cwt.  on  level  ground,  but  only  from 
10   to  12  cwt.  in  hilly  countries.     Ele- 
phants   can  drag   and    push   as  well  as 
carry,  and  are  invaluable  animals  when 
required  for  either  of  these  purposes. 

Every  army  has  a  separate  force 
organised  to  convey  by  land  stores,  am- 
munition, and  rations,  wherever  a  body 
of  troops  may  be  sent.  In  England  this 
forms  the  land  or  military  transport. 


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The  transport  is  one  of  the'  civil  depart- 
ments of  the  army,  and  is  a  subdivision 
of  the  control  department.  It  is  intended 
to  be  a  nucleus  of  a  system  of  transport  on 
a  large  scale  for  an  army  in  the  field.  In 
time  of  peace,  it  is  employed  in  the  con- 
veyance of  baggage  and  commissariat 
supplies  at  the  several  camps  and 
stations,  and  also  upon  the  public  works, 
arsenals,  &c.  Besides  the  army  transport, 
there  is  a  regimental  transport  for  the 
conveyance  of  the  camp  equipments,  light 
baggage,  and  regimental  ammunition. 

When  troops  move  by  laud,  the  amount 
of  transport  required  is  calculated  by 
weight ;  if  by  ship,  by  measurement.  It  is 
calculated  that  a  2-horse  wagon  can  draw 
800  Ibs. ;  a  4-horse  wagon  1800  Ibs. ;  and  a 
6-horse  wagon  (G.S.  new  pattern)  3300  Ibs. 

Transports  —  Government  vessels  for 
the  conveyance  of  troops.  The  approxi- 
mate amount  of  tonnage  required  for 
the  transport  of  troops  is  about  270 
tons  to  every  100  men.  ( Vide  Queen's 
Regulations  for  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions attending  the  transport  of  troops, 
horses,  &c.)  Under  the  head  of  Em- 
barkation will  be  found  information  on 
the  embarkation  of  a  battery  of  artillery. 
The  port  of  embarkation  and  debarkation 
for  the  relief  of  troops  is,  in  England, 
Portsmouth,  and  in  India,  Bombay. 

Travelling  Allowance — A  certain  sum 
of  money  granted  to  officers  and  military 
subordinates  travelling  on  duty.  It  is 
given  to  defray  the  expense  of  the  journey. 
The  scale  is  laid  down  in  army  circular 
dated  April  1,  ]  872. 

Traverse,  To  —  In  gunnery,  a  term 
used  when  directing  a  piece  of  ordnance 
either  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  posi- 
tion it  is  in.  In  field  pieces,  mounted 
on  carriages,  traversing  takes  place 
from  the  trail.  With  mortars,  it  is 
performed  by  handspikes  in  rear  and 
front  of  the  bed,  and  with  siege  guns 
by  the  application  of  handspikes  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  carriage.  The  Arm- 
strong gun  has  an  adjusting  wheel  screw 
which  enables  the  pointer  to  traverse 
the  gun  with  his  own  hand  and  with  the 
greatest  accuracy. 

Traverses — In  fortification,  are  por- 
tions of  parapet  thrown  across  the 
covered  way  on  the  prolongation  of  the 
faces  of  bastions  and  ravelins,  and  at  the 


entrance  of  the  re-entering  place  of  arms  ; 
passages  or  crochets  are  cut  into  the 
glacis,  to  enable  the  defender  to  circu- 
late round  the  traverses. 

Traversing  Handspike — For  travers- 
ing the  gun,  in  field  carriages,  it  is  in- 
serted into  the  handspike-ring  at  the  end 
of  the  trail,  when  in  action  ;  but  when  the 
gun  is  limbered  up,  it  is  strapped  on  the 
surface  of  the  trail.  There  is  also  a  spare 
handspike  carried  underneath  the  trail. 

Traversing  Platform,  vide  Platform, 
Gun. 

Treadle — A  lever  or  frame  connected 
by  a  rod  to  the  crank  of  a  foot  lathe,  to 
give  motion  to  the  crank  shaft ;  it  is 
pressed  down  by  the  left  foot  of  the 
turner,  and  raised  by  the  centrifugal 
force  of  the  fly-wheel  or  large  pulley 
which  is  fixed  on  the  shaft. 

Trench  Cart,  vide  Cart,  Trench. 
Trench  Cavalier  —  A  high  parapet 
raised  upon  the  glacis  for  giving  a  com- 
manding musketry  fire,  or  for  throwing 
hand  grenades  into  the  salient  places  of 
arms  previous  to  crowning  the  covered  way. 
This  must  be  commenced  by  single  saps. 
Trenches — In  offensive  works  and  bat- 
teries, it  is  necessary  on  many  occasions 
to  throw  up  a  parapet,  from  earth  ex- 
cavated in  rear  of  the  parapet ;  such  an 
excavation  is  termed  a  trench.  The  usual 
depth  of  trenches  is  3  feet.  Should  the 
nature  of  the  ground  be  such  as  not  to 
yield  sufficient  earth  for  the  parapet,  a 
small  ditch  must  be  made  in  front.  In 
a  siege,  the  approaches  made  by  the 
besiegers  are  termed  trenches,  which 
are  opened  at  varying  distances  from 
the  place,  depending  upon  circumstances. 
(Vide  Siege.) 

Trestle — A  piece  of  wood  or  metal 
supported  by  two  or  four  feet  joined 
diagonally ;  when  used  in  bridging,  a 
fifth  leg,  on  the  down  side  of  the  river, 
is  sometimes  added. 

Trestles,  five  in  number,  and  placed  at 
equal  intervals,  form  the  cradle  in  which 
fascines  are  made. 

Trestle  Bridge — A  bridge  supported 
on  trestles.  This  kind  of  bridge  is  very 
useful  in  establishing  communications 
across  shallow  rivers  with  sound  and 
hard  beds,  and  not  subject  to  sudden 
floods ;  it  can  be  readily  constructed  with 
any  kind  of  timber,  easily  placed  in 


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shallow  water ;  it  is  not,  however,  suit- 
able for  deep  muddy  rivers. 

Trestle  bridges  are  of  three  kinds,  the 
length  of  the  legs  depending  on  the 
depth  of  the  water.  They  are  described 
as  follows  : — 

"  Two-leg;jed  trestle. — Made  of  two  tran- 
soms, two  legs,  and  two  diagonals  lashed 
together  ;  it  is  used  for  streams  6  feet 
deep  and  running  with  a  velocity  of  5  feet 
per  second,  or  in  deeper  streams  if  the 
velocity  is  less,  and  is  suitable  for  any 
kind  of  hard  bottoms. 

"Four-legged  trestle.  — Made  of  one  tran- 
som, four  legs,  and  four  diagonals  lashed 
together.  Used  in  still  waters  where  a 
greater  length  of  leg  than  12  feet  is  not 
required,  or  in  running  streams  where 
the  water  is  not  more  than  3  feet  deep,  or 
the  velocity  greater  than  3  feet  per  second. 
Another  kind  of  four-legged  trestle 
bridge  can  be  made  in  the  same  manner, 
put  together  with  nails,  and  is  useful  for 
bridges  intended  to  stand  for  some  time, 
as  rope  lashings  soon  rot  under  water. 

"  Tripod  trestle. — Made  of  one  transom, 
six  legs  (three  on  each  side,  and  placed 
in  a  triangle  lashed  at  the  apex,  and  fixed 
together  at  the  basis  by  ledgers),  four 
cross-bearers  to  support  the  transom, 
and  four  stakes  to  support  the  bearers, 
the  whole  lashed  together.  This  kind  of 
bridge  is  particularly  useful  for  military 
purposes  ;  it  may  be  used  in  water  6  feet 
deep,  with  a  velocity  of  5  feet  per  second, 
and  in  streams  with  muddy  bottoms." 

Tret — An  allowance  of  4  Ibs.  in  every 
104  Ibs.  weight  of  goods,  to  compensate 
for  dust  or  any  foreign  matter  which 
may  intrude  itself  into  the  goods. 

Trews — The  name  given  to  the  panta- 
loons worn  by  the  soldiers  of  certain  High- 
land regiments.  They  are  made  of  various 
tartan  cloths.  The  regiments  which 
wear  the  kilt  do  not  wear  the  trews. 

Triangles — A  wooden  instrument  used 
at  one  time  in  the  army,  to  which 
soldiers  were  tied  when  sentenced  to  re- 
ceive corporal  punishment.  It  consisted 
of  three  poles  fastened  together  at  the 
top,  and  which  permitted  of  the  legs 
being  stretched  out  in  the  shape  of 
a  triangle.  In  each  leg  there  was  a 
spike  which  kept  it  firm  on  the  ground  ; 
an  iron  bar,  breast  high,  was  fastened 
across  one  side  of  the  triangle. 


Trigonometrical  Survey,  vide  Survey, 
To. 

Trigonometry — The  art  of  measuring 
triangles,  or  of  calculating  the  unknown 
sides  of  any  triangle.  It  is  either  plane 
or  spherical. 

Tringle — A  riband  or  piece  of  wood 
nailed  on  the  sides  of  a  traversing  plat- 
form, to  prevent  the  trucks  from  run- 
ning off  in  the  recoil. 

Trip,  Cavalry,  vide  Gabion. 

Tripod  Trestle  Bridge,  vide  Trestle 
Bridge. 

Trituration  —  Pulverising  the  ingre- 
dients of  gunpowder  or  any  other  powder. 

Troop — In  the  cavalry,  corresponds  to 
a  company  of  infantry,  but  is  of  less 
strength,  60  troopers  usually  composing 
a  troop  of  cavalry.  Two  troops  form  a 
squadron. 

The  term  troop  is  given  to  the  divisions 
of  the  royal  engineer  train. 

Trooper — The  name  given  either  to 
the  horse  of  a  cavalry  man  or  to  the 
cavalry  man  himself. 

Troops — Bodies  of  men  placed  under 
military  discipline. 

Trot — The  next  pace  of  a  horse  after 
the  walk.  It  is  about  7'5  miles  an 
hour,  or  a  mile  in  8  minutes.  A  good 
trotter  will  do  8J  miles  an  hour. 

Trough,  vide  Water  Troughs. 

Trough  for  Hale's  Rockets  — This 
machine  has  been  invented  for  firing 
Hale's  rockets.  It  is  made  of  plate- 
iron,  and  is  supported  on  two  short  legs 
in  rear  and  a  tripod  in  front.  On  the 
front  one  runs  a  gun-metal  ring,  con- 
nected by  two  bars  with  a  V  near  the 
front  of  the  trough ;  the  elevation  is 
given  by  sliding  the  ring  up  and  down 
the  front  leg  (which  is  graduated  to  the 
required  degree),  and  clamping  it.  There 
is  an  arrangement  at  the  rear  end  of  the 
trough  by  which  the  rockets  may  be 
fired  with  a  friction  tube. 

Trous-de-loup,  vide  Military  Pits. 

Truce— A  suspension  of  hostilities  for 
the  purpose  either  of  parleying,  burying 
the  dead  after  a  battle,  or  any  other  pur- 
pose thought  fit  by  the  commanders  of 
the  opposing  forces.  Such  a  truce  may 
be  termed  partial  or  temporary.  A  truce, 
or  general  armistice,  for  the  termination 
of  hostilities,  or  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing out  some  important  object  in  which 


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442 


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both  sides  are  interested — such  as  the  j 
armistice  offered  by  Germany  to  France  for 
25  days  to  carry  out  the  election  of  the 
constituent  assemblies,  but  which  was  re- 
fused by  France — requires  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  sovereign  power  or  generals 
having  full  power  to  execute. 

A  flag  of  truce  is  sometimes  sent  from 
the  enemy  when  he  has  anything  impor- 
tant to  communicate  ;  the  person  bearing 
it  is  to  be  treated  with  attention  and 
civility ;  but  as  communications  of  that 
nature  are  frequently  designed  for  the 
purpose  of  gaining  intelligence  and  of  re- 
connoitring the  army  and  its  outposts, 
the  most  strict  and  efficacious  means  are 
to  be  adopted  to  frustrate  such  intentions. 
Truck  Carriage — An  inferior  kind  of 
platform  wagon.  It  is  used  for  carrying 
ordnance  and  heavy  boxes  for  short  dis- 
tances ;  for  taking  guns  through  the 
passages  or  sally-ports  in  which  there 
are  no  short  turnings.  There  are  three 
sizes  of  truck  carriages,  large,  medium, 
and  small.  Guns  are  mounted  on  them 
and  lashed  in  the  same  manner  as  on 
sledges.  This  carriage  goes  under  another 
name  in  ordnance  nomenclature. 

Trucks — Small  iron  wheels  attached 
to  garrison  standing  carriages ;  wooden 
or  copper  ones  to  ship  carriages. 

Trumpet — A  wind  instrument,  made 
usually  of  brass,  and  used  by  the  cavalry 
and  artillery  for  sounding  the  various 
calls  of  these  regiments. 

Truncated  Cone — The  frustrum  of  a 

cone,  the  top  of  which   is  cut  off  by  a 

plane  parallel  to  its  base. 

Trunnion  Gauge,  vide  Gauge,  Trunnion. 

Trunnion  Holes — A  cavity  made  in  the 

upper  part  of  the  gun  carriage  brackets 

to  receive  the  trunnions.   Siege  carriages 

have  travelling  trunnion  holes  as  well  as 

tiring  holes. 

Trunnion  Sights— Sights  placed  on  the 
trunnions  of  rifled  guns  for  laying  the 
gun.  There  are  two  kinds  used  with 
B.L.R.  ordnance,  viz.  drop-sights  and 
screwed-in  sights.  The  drop-sight  consists 
of  a  gun-metal  socket,  collar,  and  pillar, 
and  a  steel  leaf.  The  screwed-in  sight 
is  made  of  steel,  and  is  screwed  into  the 
sides  of  the  trunnion  pieces,  with  the 
exception  of  those  for  the  40-pr.  (new 
pattern)  and  9-pr.  guns,  the  trunnion 
sights  of  which  are  made  of  gun-meta 


studs,  slipped  and  locked  into  sockets 
fitted  in  the  guns  for  their  reception,  and 
the  top  of  the  studs  are  not  finished 
until  after  they  are  fixed  on  the  gun. 

The  solid  steel  trunnion  sights  are 
ixed  or  removed  by  the  double-ended 
spanner  of  the  smith's  tools.  The  trun- 
nion sights  of  the  new  40-pr.  and  9-pr. 
s  can  be  removed  or  fixed  at  a 
moment's  notice  by  simply  raising  (the 
)rass  collar,  giving  the  sight  a  quarter 
turn  from  left  to  right  to  release  the 
stop  from  the  recess  in  the  bottom  of 
;he  socket,  and  lifting  it  out.  The  trun- 
nion sight  used  with  M.L.R.  guns  is  a 
drop-sight.  (  Vide  Sights.) 

Trunnion  Square  —  An  instrument 
used  for  ascertaining  the  position  of  the 
trunnions  in  relation  to  the  axis  of  the 
acre.  It  has  a  movable  wrench  and 
sliding  point. 

Trunnioning  Machine — A  turning 
lathe  in  which  the  trunnions  for  ord- 
nance are  turned.  The  piece  is  secured 
in  the  turning  lathe  by  two  centres  which 
are  made  to  press  against  the  extremities 
of  the  trunnions,  and  while  a  rotatory 
motion  is  communicated  to  the  gun  about 
the  axis  of  these  trunnions,  they  are 
turned  by  cutters  pressed  against  them. 

Trunnions — In  artillery,  two  solid  cy- 
lindrical pieces  of  metal  by  which  a  gun 
is  supported  on  its  carriage  in  the  trun- 
nion holes,  and  on  which  it  moves  as  on 
an  axis,  so  as  to  admit  of  any  required 
elevation  being  given  to  it.  Trunnions  of 
S.B.  guns  were  cast  at  one  time  with  their 
axis  a  little  below  the  axis  of  the  piece, 
and  at  right  angles  to  it,  but  more  com- 
monly with  their  axis  in  the  same  plane 
with  that  of  the  piece.  They  should  be 
of  equal  diameter,  and  about  one  calibre 
in  diameter  and  length.  In  all  rifled 
guns  and  in  howitzers,  the  axis  pf  the 
trunnions  passes  through  the  axis  of  the 
piece.  The  trunnions  of  a  mortar  are 
cast  on  to  the  breech,  this  being  a  con- 
venient position  as  regards  the  mounting 
of  the  mortar  on  its  bed  for  firing  at 
high  angles. 

Trussing — In  carpentry,  is  the  mode 
of  strengthening  any  beam  which  is  long 
in  proportion  to  its  breadth  and  thickness, 
and  which  is  incapable  of  supporting  much 
additional  load.  It  is  a  mode  adopted  in 
strengthening  the  girders  for  floors. 


TUB 


443 


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Tube,  Electric,  vide  Electric  Tube. 

Tubes,  vide  Friction  Tubes. 

Tucked-up — A  term  given  to  a  horse 
out  of  condition,  and  whose  flesh  has 
shrunk  away  from  his  flanks. 

Tugs — Straps  used  in  shaft  harness 
for  keeping  up  the  shafts. 

Tullub — An  Indian  term  signifying  a 
demand,  but  it  is  commonly  used  amongst 
the  natives  of  India  when  speaking  of 
their  monthly  pay. 

Tumbler — One  of  the  limbs  of  a  musket 
lock. 

Tumbrils — Covered  carts,  used  for  a 
variety  of  military  purposes. 

Turcos — Native  infantry  of  Algeria,  in 
the  pay  of  the  French  government,  and 
partly  officered  by  Frenchmen. 

Turkish.  Army — One  of  the  armies  of 
Europe. 

By  a  law  passed  in  1869,  the  military 
service  is  compulsory  for  all  Mussulmans 
of  the  empire,  and  is  carried  out  either  by 
recruiting  or  by  ballot.  By  subsequent 
regulations  issued  in  1871,  but  not  carried 
fully  into  effect,  the  length  of  service  is 
of  twenty  years'  duration,  viz.  4  in  the 
active  army  (nizam);  2  in  the  first 
reserve  (idatyal) ;  6  in  the  second  reserve 
(redif),  and  8  in  the  Landsturm  or  seden- 
tary troops  (hiyade). 

Turkey  has  a  population  of  33  million 
of  inhabitants  (without  counting  Rou- 
n lan in  and  Servia),  18  millions  of  which 
are  Mussulmans.  Of  these,  about  3 
millions  are  nomad  tribes  not  amenable 
to  the  conscription ;  another  million  is 
to  be  deducted  for  the  citizens  of  Con- 
stantinople and  other  cities  who  manage 
to  evade  it.  The  remaining  15  millions 
are  composed  of  non-Mussulmans — Chris- 
tians, Jews,  &c. — who  are  not  liable  to 
serve  in  the  army,  on  paying  a  contribu- 
tion, known  as  the  l&lel,  amounting  to 
about  Is.  2d.  per  head  of  population.  It 
leaves,  thus,  about  12  millions  to  bear 
the  whole  burden  of  the  conscription. 

The  Turkish  forces  are  divided  into 
the  regular  army,  irregular  and  auxiliary 
troops.  By  this  new  law  the  military 
forces  are  put  down  at  700,000  men,  the 
active  army  furnishing  150,000,  the  first 
reserve  70,000,  and  the  second  reserve 
and  the  Landsturm  420,000,  but,  owing  to 
the  defective  manner  of  calling  out  the 
annual  contingent,  nearly  three-eighths 


are    wanting    to    the    present     regular 
army. 

The  regular  army  is  divided  into  7 
corps,  comprising  7  regiments  of  the 
I  guards,  36  regiments  of  infantry  of  the 
line,  2  regiments  of  Bosnians,  1  regi- 
j  ment  from  the  Greek  frontier,  another 
from*  the  Servian  frontier,  3  regiments 
of  riflemen,  and  2  battalions  of  Herze- 
j  govinians.  Each  regiment  is  composed 
I  of  4  battalions  of  8  companies  each. 

The   cavalry    is   divided    into  7    regi- 
!  ments  of  the  guards,  17  regiments  of  the 
line,  besides  1  mounted  on  camels  and  2 
independent  squadrons. 

The  infantry  is  for  the  greater  part 
armed  with  Snider  and  Henry-Martini 
rifles ;  the  cavalry  with  revolvers  and 
Winchester  carbines. 

The  artillery  consists  of  6  regiments 
of  field  artillery  of  12  batteries  each 
(3  horse  and  9  field  batteries),  and  1  regi- 
ment of  reserve  artillery  of  3  batteries. 
Each  battery  has  6  guns,  giving  a  total 
of  450  guns.  There  are  besides  4  regi- 
ments of  fortress  artillery  and  2  regiments 
of  engineers.  The  guns  of  the  horse 
artillery  are  4-prs. ;  those  of  the  field 
batteries  6-prs.,  all  Krupp  breech-loaders. 
The  mountain  guns  are  Whitworths. 

The  irregular  troops  are  composed  of 
16  regiments  of  gendarmerie,  of  bashi- 
bazoucks,  of  volunteers  (spahis,  Bedouins), 
giving  a  total  of  nearly  87,000  men. 

The  auxiliary  troops  form  the  contin- 
gents supplied  by  Albania,  Bosnia,  Egypt, 
Tunis,  and  Tripoli. 

The  total  military  forces  of  Turkey 
exclusive  of  the  Landsturm  and  the 
guards,  were  estimated  as  follows  at  the 
end  of  1875  :— 

War  Peace 

footing.  footing. 

Infantry             ..  117,360  100,800 

Cavalry..          ..  22,416  17,280 

Field  artillery    ..  7,800  7,800 

Fortress  artillery  5,200  5,200 

Engineers           ..  1,600  1,600 

De tached  corps  ..  16,000  16,000 


Active  army..  170,376 

First  reserve  105,600 

Second  reserve  24,000 

Irregulars      ..  87,000 

Auxiliaries    . .  75,000 


148,680 


461, 976  men. 


TUR 


444 


TYL 


The  Commander-in-chief  is  the  sultan, 
and  his  deputy  the  grand  vizier.  All 
the  branches  of  military  administration 
are  concentrated  in  the  war  office  under 
a  general  military  council.  (  Vile  Appendix 
C.) 

Turk's-head  Brash — A  brush  made 
use  of  in  cleaning  the  bore  of  guns. 

Turner — -A  mechanic  whose  business 
is  to  shape  wood,  metal,  and  other  hard 
substances  into  round  or  oval  figures,  by 
means  of  a  machine  called  a  lathe. 

Turnery — The  art  of  forming  wood  or 
metal  into  a  cylindrical  or  other  shape  ; 
articles  turned  by  a  lathe.  In  turning, 
the  work  is  usually  put  into  the  lathe,  and 
made  to  revolve  with  a  circular  motion 
about  a  fixed  line  or  axis  ;  it  is  worked 
to  the  intended  form  by  means  of  edge- 
tools  presented  to  it,  and  held  down 
upon  a  fixed  rest.  The  projecting  parts 
of  the  work  are  thus  brought  up  against 
the  cutting  edge,  and  are  cut  off,  whereby 
the  outer  surface  is  so  reduced  as  to  be 
at  an  equal  distance  from  the  axis  of 
motion,  and  thus  it  presents  a  circular 
figure.  If  the  axis  be  made  movable 
during  the  revolution  of  the  work,  we 
may  have  oval  and  rose-engine  turning. 

Turning  Movement — The  movement 
of  an  army,  or  part  of  an  army,  for  the 
purpose  of  turning  or  out-flanking  one 
or  both  wings  of  the  enemy. 

Since  the  introduction  of  arms  of 
precision,  this  kind  of  manoauvre  has 
been  frequently  used,  as  it  is  impos- 
sible, without  great  slaughter,  for  an 
army  to  approach  certain  positions  under 
the  powerful  fire  of  the  new  breech- 
loading  rifles  and  ordnance.  Generals 
prefer  to  hazard  the  loss  of  their 
communications  to  the  certain  losses  of 
the  assault.  Turning  movements,  being 
performed  beyond  the  range  of  artillery, 
are  necessarily  very  extensive,  and  their 
general  use  is  not  so  much  to  attack 
the  enemy's  flank  as  to  draw  him  from 
a  position  impregnable  in  front,  by 
threatening  his  weak  side  or  his  rear. 
(  Vide  Flank  Movement.) 

Turning  Ordnance — An  operation  ap- 
plied to  all  ordnance,  and  performed  in  S.B. 
guns  at  the  time  the  piece  is  being  bored 
(vide  Boring  Machine),  cutting  instru- 
ments being  applied  to  the  exterior  of  the 
gun,  which  is  turned  down  to  the  proper 


size.  That  portion  of  the  gun  situated 
between  the  trunnions  cannot  be  so  re- 
moved ;  it  is  therefore  taken  off  in  a 
planing  machine,  in  which  the  piece  moves 
backward  and  forward  under  the  cutter. 
Such  portions  of  the  surface  as  cannot 
be  reached  by  these  two  machines  are 
removed  by  the  chisel.  With  rifled 
ordnance  built  up  according  to  the 
Woolwich  pattern,  the  operation  of  turn- 
ing is  applied  to  many  parts  of  the  gun, 
commencing  after  the  first  coil  has  been 
put  on. 

Turn-table — A  circular  plate  of  metal 
carrying  rails  of  the  same  gauge  and  on 
the  same  level  as  the  adjoining  rails. 
The  plate  is  movable  on  a  central  pivot, 
supported  underneath,  at  different  inter- 
vals, and  near  the  circumference,  by  small 
wheels.  It  is  placed  at  the  crossing  of 
one  or  more  lines  of  rail,  and  on  the 
engine  or  carriage  being  placed  upon  it, 
the  plate  is  moved  round  in  the  direction 
required.  Turn-tables  of  a  modified 
form  are  used  in  the  service  of  heavy  guns, 
such  as  the  10-inch,  11-inch,  and  12-inch 
guns,  and  perform  the  part  of  rotatory 
platforms. 

Turpentine,  vide  Spirit  of  Turpentine. 

Tutenag — An  alloy  of  8  parts  of  copper, 
3  of  nickel,  and  6J  of  zinc.  It  is  a  very 
hard,  fusible  alloy,  not  easily  rolled,  and 
is  best  adapted  for  casting.  It  sometimes 
contains  a  small  proportion  of  iron. 

Tuyere — A  blast  pipe. 

Twist — The  spiral  turn  given  to  the 
grooves  of  a  rifled  gun  round  the  inner 
surface  of  the  barrel.  (  Vide  Gaining 
Twist.) 

Twisting,  vide  Torsion. 

Two  Half-hitches  Knot — A  common 
knot  used  in  splicing  and  spar  lashing. 

Tyler's  Sheet  Iron  Gabion,  vide 
Gabion. 


UBI 


445 


UNI 


U. 


Ubique  (Latin  =  everywhere)  —  The 
motto  of  the  royal  artillery  and  royal 
engineer  regiments. 

Uohatius  Gun,  vide  Steel-bronze  Gun. 

Uhlan — A  lancer  of  the  German  army. 
This  is  said  to  be  a  Polish  word.  This 
class  of  cavalry  gained  a  name  for  the 
manner  in  which  it  carried  out  light 
cavalry  duties  during  the  war  of  1870-71. 

Ultimatum — In  diplomacy,  the  final 
condition  offered  by  one  government,  or 
its  representative,  for  the  settlement  of 
its  disputes  with  another,  or  in  the  case 
of  any  unusual  disturbance  or  loss  ex- 
perienced by  friendly  subjects  from  the 
riotous  conduct  of  the  inhabitants  of  a 
country.  Also  a  demand  made  for  repa- 
ration, which,  if  not  acceded  to  within  a 
certain  time,  necessitates  the  withdrawal 
of  the  ambassador,  and  a  declaration  of 
war  ensues. 

Unattached  List — In  the  British  army, 
officers  not  attached  to  regiments.  In 
India,  when  the  services  of  soldiers  in  the 
ranks  are  transferred  from  regimental 
to  staff*  employ,  their  names  are  placed 
on  a  separate  list  (the  unattached  list), 
which  removes  them  altogether  from 
their  regiments.  If,  for  any  reason,  a 
soldier  is  sent  back  to  his  regiment,  he 
resumes  the  rank  he  originally  held  in 
it,  unless  he  has  been  reduced  to  the 
ranks  by  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 
All  men  attached  to  the  ordnance  or 
commissariat  departments  in  that  country 
are  placed  on  the  unattached  list. 

Uncap,  To — The  act  of  taking  off  the 
cap  of  a  fuze.  In  Boxer's  fuze,  the  cap 
is  made  of  tinfoil,  covered  in  most  of  the 
M.L.  fuzes  by  a  copper  stripe  covering 
the  priming,  while  the  B.L.  fuzes  are 
protected  by  cardboard  and  copper  discs 
covering  the  escape  holes.  Underneath 
the  cap  is  a  small  disc  of  cardboard,  to 
which  a  piece  of  tape  is  attached ;  this 
tape  is  allowed,  when  the  cap  is  put  on, 


to  hang  outside  the  fuze,  having  a  knot 
at  the  end.  When  the  fuze  is  required 
to  be  used,  the  tape  is  taken  hold  of,  and 
with  a  slight  jerk  the  cap  is  freed  from  it. 

Unconditional  —  Surrendering  at  dis- 
cretion ;  not  limited  by  any  terms  or 
stipulations ;  hence  the  expression,  un- 
conditional surrender. 

Unconquered — Undefeated  ;  not  sub- 
dued, not  overcome. 

Undaunted — Kot  depressed  or  appalled 
by  fear  ;  valiant,  courageous. 

Under  —  In  subjection  to  ;  a  prefix 
used  with  certain  words,  which  renders 
them  self-explanatory. 

For  instance,  in  military  affairs,  under 
arms  means  that  a  regiment  or  body  of 
troops  is  assembled  fully  armed  and 
accoutred  on  parade. 

Under  cover. — Protected  from  the  fire 
of  the  enemy  by  natural  or  artificial 
means,  or,  indeed,  in  any  position  out  of 
danger. 

Under  fire. — To  be  in  action,  and  ex- 
posed to  the  enemy's  fire. 

Undermine,  To  —  To  dig  beneath  a 
wall  or  any  such  support,  with  the  view  to 
its  fall.  This  can  be  aided  by  gunpowder 
or  some  other  combustible. 

Undisciplined — As  applied  to  troops, 
not  perfect  in  exercise  or  manoeuvres. 

Unfix,  To— To  take  off.  The  word 
used  when  the  command  is  given  to  unfix 
bayonets,  on  receiving  which  the  soldier 
detaches  his  bayonet  from  the  musket 
and  returns  it  to  the  scabbard. 

Uniform — The  dress  of  an  officer  or 
soldier  on  or  off  parade  or  on  duty.  Captain 
Knowles,  in  his  'Handy  Dictionary  of 
Military  Terms,'  shows  that  the  dress  of 
a  soldier  is  so  called  because  all  men 
of  the  same  rank  and  performing  the 
same  duties  in  a  regiment  are  clothed 
in  a  uniform  manner.  It  appears 
that,  however  ancient  the  custom  of 
clothing  in  some  distinguishing  manner 
the  soldiers  of  nations  is  allowed  to  be, 
it  is  impossible  to  trace  the  first  adop- 
tion of  military  uniform  beyond  the 
eleventh  century. 

During  the  march  of  the  Crusaders 
to  Constantinople  and  into  Palestine,  the 
Western  nations  first  adopted  the  use  of 
rich  garments,  which  they  wore  over 
their  armour.  The  Saracens  also  wore 
tunics,  or  close  garments,  over  their 


UNI 


446 


USA 


armour,  of  plain  or  striped  stuff,  which 
custom  was  followed  by  the  Crusaders. 

Uniform  Twist — The  angle  of  twist  in 
the  bore  of  a  rifled  gun  ;  it  is  the  same 
or  uniform  throughout  the  length  of  the 
barrel.  (Vide  Gaining  Twist.) 

Uniformity — Resemblance  of  one  thing 
to  another ;  conformity  to  one  pattern, 
rule,  or  order.  The  term  as  applied  to 
gunpowder  is  well  known  to  all  manu- 
facturers of  that  compound,  uniformity 
of  manufacture  being  the  great  object  to 
attain.  Private  manufacturers  have  to 
take  as  their  standard  in  making  gun- 
powder on  contract  for  the  government 
that  which  is  made  at  the  Royal  Gun- 
powder Manufactory,  Waltham  Abbey, 
which  exhibits  great  uniformity  in  its 
strength,  &c.  and  therefore  forms  a  good 
sample  powder  to  follow. 

Union  Jack  —  The  national  flag  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  ancient 
English  flag  was  the  banner  of  St. 
George  ;  on  the  union  of  Scotland  with 
England,  the  banner  of  St.  Andrew  was 
added ;  and  on  the  union  with  Ireland, 
that  of  St.  Patrick — of  which  three 
the  union  jack  was  composed.  It  now 
consists  of  the  red  cross  of  St.  George, 
and  a  red  and  white  diagonal  cross,  the 
last  two  being  side  by  side.  The  whole 
is  oa  a  blue  gi-ound. 

Unit  (Latin,  unitas) — In  arithmetic, 
the  number  one.  Euclid  defines  number 
to  be  a  multitude  or  collection  of  units. 
In  military  organisation,  the  term  unit  is 
applied  to  that  single  portion  upon  which 
any  part  of  an  army,  regiment,  &c.  is 
formed.  Thus  a  company  is  the  unit  of 
a  regiment ;  a  battery,  that  of  a  brigade 
of  artillery. 

United  States  Army  —  By  the  first 
article  of  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States,  congress  was  empowered  to  raise 
and  support  an  army,  and  the  president 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief ;  but 
by  subsequent  acts,  the  number  of  land 
forces  constituting  the  standing  army  of 
the  United  States  was  strictly  limited, 
and  in  the  year  1875  it  was  enacted  that 
no  more  than  25,000  enlisted  men  should 
be  called  upon  to  serve  at  any  one  time. 

The  term  of  enlistment  is  5  years. 
The  army  is  composed  of  10  regiments 
of  cavalry,  consisting  each  of  12  squad- 
rons; 25  regiments  of  infantry,  of  10 


companies  each  ;  5  regiments  of  artillery, 
of  12  batteries  each,  and  1  battalion  of 
engineers  ;  2  regiments  of  cavalry  and 
2  of  infantry  are  composed  of  negroes, 
commanded  by  white  officers. 

The  territory  of  the  United  States  is 
divided  for  military  purposes  into  11 
departments,  and  these  are  grouped  into 
4  military  divisions. 

Besides  the  regular  army,  the  land 
force  of  America  consists  of  a  militia 
for  each  of  the  states  ;  it  is  composed  of 
all  men,  with  a  few  exemptions,  capable 
j  of  bearing  arms  from  the  age  of  18 
to  45. 

Universal  (Latin,  universalis,  belong- 
ing to  the  whole)  —  This  term,  in 
military  matters,  is  applied  to  certain 
stores  of  a  general  pattern,  such  as  the 
saddlery  and  harness  now  in  use  in  the 
army. 

Unlimber,  To  —  To  disconnect  the 
limber  from  the  gun  or  carriage.  It  is 
performed  with  light  field  carriages  by 
two  of  the  gunners,  sometimes  assisted 
by  a  third,  taking  hold  of  the  trail 
handles  and  lifting  the  trail  off  the  pin- 
tail hook. 

Unload,  To — The  opposite  of  loading ; 
in  a  musket  or  piece  of  ordnance,  to 
withdraw  the  charge. 

Unserviceable — The  term  is  applied  in 
military  affairs  to  all  stores  which  are 
no  longer  of  use,  being  either  obsolete  or 
worn  out. 

Unspike,  To — To  extract  a  spike  from 
a  gun ;  it  can  be  performed  by  one  of 
the  following  methods.  Lay  a  leader 
of  quick-match  along  the  bore,  and  fire 
a  full  charge  double-shotted ;  or  ram 
junk  wads  over  the  charge,  laying  quick- 
match  also  along  the  bore,  in  a  strip  of 
wood  with  a  groove  on  the  under  side. 
Or  take  out  some  of  the  metal  at  the 
upper  orifice  of  the  vent  by  pouring 
nitric  acid  into  the  groove  for  some; 
hours  before  firing.  If  by  this  latter 
method,  several  times  repeated,  the  action 
is  not  successful,  unscrew  the  vent  piece, 
or  drill  a  new  vent. 

Usages  of  War— Certain  practices  or 
customs  in  time  of  war  acknowledged  by 
all  civilised  nations,  although  not  speci- 
fied by  any  code  of  laws.  These  usages, 
or  rights  of  war,  have  been  gradually 
introduced  as  civilisation  progressed,  in 


VAC 


447 


VAL 


order  to  assuage  the  horrors  of  war ; 
some  have  changed  their  character,  new 
ones  have  sprung  up  as  they  were 
needed  ;  others  have  become  as  strong  as 
acts  of  parliament,  and  have  been  con- 
sidered as  binding  by  governments  and 
generals.  The  Geneva  Convention  (q.  v.) 
is  an  example  of  the  good  done  to  alle- 
viate the  horrors  of  war. 

Prisoners  of  war  (qr.  ».),  instead  of  being 
put  to  death,  or  sent  to  the  galleys  as 
slaves,  are  nowadays  treated  with  the 
greatest  humanity  possible,  their  ex- 
change having  become  almost  obligatory, 
and  quarter  is  granted  in  battle  whenever 
it  is  sought.  These  usages  are  also  pre- 
valent with  regard  to  the  capitulation  of 
fortified  places,  or  with  bodies  of  troops 
unable  to  defend  themselves  any  longer 
against  superior  forces.  Pillage,  also,  is 
considered  by  some  nations  as  unworthy 
of  a  civilised  and  well  disciplined  army, 
and  generals  enjoin  that  the  civil  and 
inoffensive  population  of  the  invaded 
country  and  their  private  property 
should  be  respected  under  penalty  of 
death.  Usages  of  war,  however,  depend 
entirely  on  circumstances,  and  on  the 
humanity  of  the  general  waging  war,  as 
no  general  is  bound  to  abide  by  them  if 
he  thinks  necessary  to  act  otherwise  in 
order  to  gain  success.  It  has  been  a  cus- 
tom prevalent  for  years  past  to  summon 
a  town  before  its  bombardment,  so  as  to 
enable  the  non-military  part  of  the  popu- 
lation to  withdraw;  but  a  general  can 
put  aside  this  custom — as  was  the  case 
with  Paris  during  the  war  of  1870-71, 
which  was  bombarded  without  any 
previous  warning — if  he  thinks  that,  by  so 
doing,  he  can  force  the  civil  part  of  the 
population  to  press  on  the  garrison  to 
capitulate,  or  he  can  starve  the  town  by 
keeping  within  it  as  many  mouths  as 
possible. 

The  immunity  of  private  property  on 
land  is  also  of  a  qualified  nature,  de- 
pending on  circumstances.  The  property 
of  the  government  of  the  vanquished 
state  belongs  to  the  victorious  army ; 
and  although  private  rights  are  said 
to  remain  unaffected  by  conquest, 
generals  have,  to  facilitate  military 
operations,  or  without  any  excuse,  laic 
waste  the  enemy's  territory  and  requi- 
sitioned money,  food,  &c.  for  the  suppon 


of  the  invading  army.  The  regular 
military  and  naval  forces  of  a  nation, 
or  others  called  out  by  government  for 
,he  defence  of  the  state,  are  entitled  to 
>e  considered  as  belligerents,  and  are 
ntitled  to  all  the  immunities  granted  by 
usages  of  war;  but  irregular  bands  of 
marauders  are  denied  these  rights,  are 
created  as  banditti,  and  shot  when  and 
wherever  found  in  arms.  The  rights  of 
have  been  extended  by  some  to  all 
persons  spontaneously  defending  them- 
selves and  their  property  in  case  of 
necessity  ;  but  this  distinction  is  generally 
observed  to  suit  the  belligerent's  pur- 
pose, for  all  private  citizens  taking  up 
arms,  although  in  obedience  to  proclama- 
tion, are  constantly  liable  to  be  treated 
as  marauders. 

The  non-compliance  with  these  usages 
leads  generally  to  reprisals,  the  worst 
form  of  warfare. 


V. 


Vacuum — Empty  space  from  which 
all  atmospheric  influence  has  been  with- 
drawn ;  thus,  the  air  exhausted  from 
under  a  receiver  by  an  air-pump  causes 
a  vacuum.  • 

Valise — A  cylindrical  case  covered 
with  cloth,  which  is  used  in  the  mounted 
branches  of  the  service  to  carry  the 
kit  of  the  soldier.  It  is  placed  behind 
the  cantle  of  a  mounted  man's  saddle. 
In  the  artillery  service,  it  contains 
the  driver's  kit.  There  is  a  valise, 
used  by  officers  on  service,  which,  when 
open,  forms  a  bed,  and  contains  the 
necessary  rough  outfit  for  the  field.  The 
total  weight  with  contents  is  about 
40  Ibs ;  when  packed,  it  is  13  inches  in 
diameter  and  28  inches  long. 

Valour  —  Bravery,     courage,      intre- 


VAL 


448 


VAR 


pidity.  It  is  thus  defined  by  James,  in 
his  '  Dictionary  '  : — •"  A  generous  quality, 
which,  far  from  assuming  brutality  and 
violence,  withholds  the  fury  of  the 
soldier,  protects  helpless  women,  inno- 
cent infants,  and  hoary  age.  Nothing 
which  is  incapable  of  resistance  can  ever 
be  the  object  whereon  true  valour  would 
exercise  its  prowess.  Courage  is  that 
grandeur  of  soul  which  prompts  us  to 
sacrifice  all  personal  advantages,  and 
even  the  preservation  of  our  beings,  to  a 
love  of  doing  our  duty.  The  exercise  of 
this  determined  courage  in  the  profession 
of  arms  is  called  raloui:  It  is  composed 
of  bravery,  reason,  and  force :  by  bra- 
very, we  understand  that  lively  ardour 
which  fires  us  for  the  combat ;  reason 
points  out  to  us  the  method  of  conduct- 
ing it  with  justice  and  prudence  ;  and 
force  is  necessary  for  the  execution.  It 
is  bravery  which  animates  the  heart, 
reason  springs  from  the  soul,  and  force 
depends  upon  the  body.  Without  bravery, 
we  fear  obstacles,  danger,  and  death  ; 
without  reason,  courage  would  have  no 
legitimate  view ;  and  without  force,  it 
would  be  useless :  these  three  qualities 
should  concur  to  form  true  military 
valour." 

The  work  quoted  from  enlarges  on  the 
subject  of  valour,  and  gives  the  thoughts 
of  past  writers  on  this  manly  quality, 


which,  though  interesting,  would  occupy 
more  space  than  can  be  given  in  this 
work. 

In  our  own  army,  repeated  acts  of 
valour  have  been  recorded,  with  which 
the  reader  of  military  history  is  doubt- 
less acquainted ;  and  such  is  the  appre- 
ciation of  bravery  by  both  sovereign  and 
country  that  the  decoration  of  the 
Victoria  Cross  has  been  specially  insti- 
tuted as  a  reward  tor  valour.. 

Valve  —  In  hydraulics,  &c.  a  lid  or 
cover  of  a  tube  or  vessel  which  is  so 
contrived  that  it  shall  open  by  excess  of 
pressure  in  only  one  direction,  to  permit 
a  fluid  or  gas  to  pass ;  as  soon  as  the 
excess  of  pressure  is  removed,  it  again 
closes  and  prevents  its  return. 

Vambrace  —  That  part  of  ancient 
armour  known  as  the  brassard ;  it  pro- 
tected the  arm  below  the  elbow. 

Van — The  front  of  an  army ;  the  first 
line,  vanguard.  The  troops  marching 
in  the  front  of  an  army. 

Vanguard — The  advanced  guard  (q.  c.) 
of  an  army. 

Varnish — A  solution  of  resin,  or  of  a 
gum  resin,  in  a  liquid,  which,  when 
spread  thinly  over  a  solid  surface,  evapo- 
rates, and  leaves  the  solid  in  the  form  of 
a  brilliant,  transparent  film.  The  prin- 
cipal substances  used  in  varnishes  are 
the  following  : — 


Solvents. 

Solids. 

Colours. 

Oil  of  nuts        

Amber           

Gamboge,  annatto. 

Oil  of  linseed    
Oil  of  turpentine 

Anime      }                        ('•  Dragon's    blood,    a    deep 
Copal        /                    "\        reddish-brown. 

Oil  of  rosemary 

Lac        

Aloes,  cochineal. 

Alcohol  ether   < 

Sandarac     "I 
Mastic         j 

Saffron,  indigo. 

Wood  naphtha,  or  pyro-    ( 
ligneous  ether    .  .       .  .  \ 

Dammer           | 
Common  resin  / 

Turmeric. 

The   resins,  or,  as    the  varnish  maker  j  resin  employed,  its  hardness,  toughness, 
calls    them,  gams,  may  be    used    either  )  and  permanence  of  colour.     The  follow- 


singly  or  combined,  and  the  same  remark 
applies  to  the  solvents.  One  of  the  most 
desirable  qualities  in  a  varnish  is  dura- 
bility, a  quality  which  depends  greatly 
on  the  comparative  insolubility  of  the 


ing  is  a  good  varnish  for  polished  iron- 
work, tools,  &c. : — 

Spirit  of  turpentine     . .  4  Ibs. 

Dammer  . .          . .  1  Ib. 

It  is  made  as  follows      Put  the  spirit 


VAT 


449 


VEH 


of  turpentine  into  a  large  bottle,  pound 
the  dammer  very  fine,  and  pour  it 
gradually  into  the  bottle,  keeping  the 
composition  at  intervals  well  stirred. 
When  all  the  dammer  is  well  mixed, 
place  the  bottle  in  the  sun  for  3  or  4 
hours,  and  when  thoroughly  amalga- 
mated, the  composition  is  fit  for  use. 
Apply  lightly  ;  the  varnish  quickly  dries, 
and  is  almost  imperceptible. 

To  keep  Rust  from  Iron. 
Pure  grease .  .  . .    6  Ibs. 

Rosin  ..  ..    2    „ 

Pound  the  rosin  fine,  boil  the  grease, 
and  after  skimming  it  from  any  impuri- 
ties, mix  the  rosin  well  with  it,  then 
cool  the  mixture,  and  apply  it  to  your 
iron  work. 

Vat — A  kind  of  cask  ;  a  vessel  or  cistern 
for  holding  fluids.  The  vessels  in  which 
hides  are  steeped  in  tan  are  called  vats. 

Vavasseur  Gun — A  steel  gun  invented 
by  Mr.  Vavasseur,  the  successor  of  the  late 
Captain  Blakeley,  R.A.  The  peculiarity  of 
this  gun  is  that  it  is  ribbed  and  not  grooved. 
It  is  described  as  "  constructed  with  a  steel 
tube,  but  the   body  is  likewise  of  steel, 
built  up.     The  gun  is,  therefore,  '  homo- 
geneous.'    So  far  as  this  property  goes, 
it  is  possessed  by  every  gun  which  has 
the  same  metal  throughout.     The  suita- 
bility of  the  metal  to  perform  the  duty 
required  of  it  is  another  question.     The 
inner  tube  of  the  Vavasseur  gun  is  in- 
closed,  from   breech  to  trunnions,   by   a 
long  jacket  of  steel,  shrunk  on,  and  con-  j 
stituting  a  continuous  reinforce.     This  is  j 
in  turn  reinforced  by  steel  bands  shrunk  ] 
on,  in  one  or  two  layers,  according  to  the 
calibre   of  the  piece.     The  chase  of  his 
large    guns    is    also    reinforced    in    like 
manner.    The  jacket  is  shrunk  on  lightly, 
the   outer   hoops   at    a  greater   tension.  | 
Captain  Simpson,  U.S.N.,  highly  approves  i 
of  the  Vavasseur  gun,  as  being  perfect  in  \ 
theory  and  successful  in  practice." 

From  the  experiments  carried  out  at  | 
Bourges  in  1873  under  a  special  com- 
mittee, the  result,  in  comparison  with 
the  Woolwich  gun  (a  9-pr.),  was  most 
satisfactory.  The  trial  was  made  under 
the  following  circumstances.  The  charge 
for  both  guns  was  the  same,  viz.  2  Ibs. 
The  shells  fired  by  the  Vavasseur  gun 
were  Woolwich  shells  altered  to  fit 


the  ribs  of  the  Vavasseur  gun,  which  was 
done  by  grooving  the  shells.  The  result 
was  that,  at  all  elevations  up  to  25°, 
the  range,  mean  difference  of  range,  mean 
reduced  deflection,  mean  variation  in 
height,  and  probable  number  of  shells 
per  1000  which  would  strike  a  target 
6-56  feet  high  and  of  unlimited  breadth, 
were  all  in  favour  of  the  Vavasseur  gun. 

The  alterations  made  in  the  Woolwich 
shell,  as  shown  above,  gave  it  an  in- 
creased range,  which  gradually  in- 
creased from  60  yards  at  5°  elevation 
to  207  yards  at  25°  elevation.  The 
initial  velocity  being  very  nearly  the 
same  in  both  guns,  the  increased  range- 
in  the  Vavasseur  gun  is  due  to  the  less 
resistance  of  the  air  to  the  motion  of  the 
projectiles,  which,  instead  of  having  pro- 
jecting studs,  have  grooves  sunk  in  them. 

On  comparing  the  practice  made  on 
other  points,  it  is  shown  in  the  report 
that  the  rib-rifled  gun,  while  maintaining 
its  superiority  as  regards  accuracy  in 
direction,  becomes  as  accurate  as  and 
even  slightly  more  so,  in  range  and  in 
height,  than  the  Woolwich  gun. 

Tlie  rib  system  is  therefore  stated  by 
the  committee  to  be  superior  to  the  groove 
system  from,  a  ballistic  point  of  view. 

Mr.  Vavasseur's  gun  factory  is  situated 
in  Southwark,  where  steel  and  other  guns 
are  manufactured. 

Vedette  (French,  from  Latin  video,  I 
see) — A  mounted  sentry  detached  from 
a  picket.  Vedettes  are  placed  about  100 
yards  in  advance  of  the  outposts  of  an 
army,  to  keep  constant  watch  over  the 
movements  of  the  enemy,  and  to  signal 
to  the  rear  on  the'  approach  of  danger. 
The  duties  of  vedettes  are  thus  de- 
scribed:— "The  vedettes  or  sentinels  on 
outposts  are  to  be  placed,  so  that  they 
can  best  observe  the  approach  of  the 
enemy,  and  communicate  by  signal  to 
their  respective  posts,  as  well  as  to  each 
other ;  at  night,  or  in  thick  weather,  they 
are  to  be  doubled." 

Vehicles — Under  this  head  are  classed 
the  carts  usually  used  in  the  transport 
of  stores,  &c.  on  service.  Country  carts 
or  wagons,  if  procurable,  form  good  car- 
riage, either  2- wheel  or  4-wheel.  The 
2-wheel  cart  is  much  recommended  for 
the  following  reasons  : — 

The  horses  are  nearer  the  load,  and 
2  u 


VEL 


450 


VEL 


therefore  the  draught  is  easier ;  by  the 
position  of  the  horses,  they  are  more 
under  control.  There  are  other  advan- 
tages in  this  nature  of  cart,  viz.  :  one 
kind  of  wheel ;  more  easily  extricated  in 
heavy  ground ;  carries  more  in  pro- 
portion ;  goes  over  more  ground.  There 
is  a  2-wheel  cart  in  the  service  known  as 
the  Maltese  cart  (q.  v.),  which  appears  to 
be  a  useful  kind  of  cart.  It  can  be  fitted 
in  various  ways,  and  can  be  drawn  by 
mules. 

A  4-wheel  cart  or  wagon  has  the 
following  advantage: — 

It  allows  a  more  mixed  description  of 
animals,  and  takes  up  less  room  on  co- 
lumn of  march.  Wheels  can  be  made 
of  the  same  size  (equirotal).  If  one  horse 
breaks  down,  the  other  three  can 
work. 

The  general  service  wagon  is  drawn 
by  four  horses,  and  has  equirotal  wheels. 
The  weight  of  the  present  wagon  is  16 
cwt.  A  new  pattern  has  been  intro- 
duced, weighing  23  cwt.  (  Vide  Wagon.) 

Velocity  (Latin,  velocitas,  speed) — The 
rate  of  motion  of  a  particle  at  any  instant, 
of  time  is  called  its  "  velocity  "  at  that 
instant.  The  velocity  of  a  particle  moving 
uniformly  is  measured  by  the  distance 
passed  over  in  any  assumed  unit  of  time  ; 
and  the  velocity  at  any  proposed  instant 
of  a  particle  in  variable  motion  is  mea- 
sured by  the  distance  which  would  be 
passed  over  in  an  unit  of  time,  if  the 
motion  from  that  instant  were  to  con- 
tinue uniform  during  the  unit  of  time. 

In  gunnery,  the  velocity  of  spherical 
and  elongated  projectiles  is  determined, 
nowadays,  with  instruments  termed 
chronographs  and  chronoscopes  (</.  c.), 
enabling  the  operator  to  calculate  the 
resistance  of  the  air  to  such  projectiles, 
either  at  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  or  at 
any  point  of  their  flight.  From  the 
observations  taken  with  these  beautiful 
instruments,  all  ballistic  problems  can  be 
solved.  With  Captain  A.  Noble's  chrono- 
graph, the  velocity  of  the  shot  along  the 
bore  of  a  gun  can  be  calculated  to  the 
millionth  part  of  a  second,  from  the  first 
moment  it  is  set  in  motion. 

The  following  is  the  description  of 
the  above  instrument : — "  It  consists  of  a 
number  of  wheels,  or  rather  disks,  re- 
volving at  a  high  speed  all  on  the  same 


axis,  and  these  wheels  are  covered  with 
|  a  coating  of  soot  or  lamp-black.  Con- 
j  nected  with  each  of  the  wheels,  which 
j  are,  say,  half  a  dozen  in  number,  is  an 
'.  insulated  wire,  and  these  wires  lead  to 
j  six  rings  inserted  in  the  tube  of  the  gun 
j  at  certain  .  intervals  or  stations.  The 
j  gun  is  loaded  in  the  ordinary  manner, 
and,  when  fired,  the  projectile  passes  on 
its  way  to  the  muzzle  through  these 
rings  one  after  the  other,  and  in  so  doing 
presses  them  down,  and  in  each  case  cuts 
through  the  electric  wires  with  which 
they  are  severally  connected.  If  we 
suppose  now  that  there  is  an  electric 
current  passing  along  these  wires  at  the 
time,  this  sudden  cutting  by  the  rings 
will  instantly  have  the  effect  of  sending 
an  electric  spark  along  the  wires  to  fall 
upon  the  rapidly  revolving  wheels,  the 
place  where  the  spark  touches  the  black- 
ened surface  being  shown  by  a  tiny  clean 
spot.  Thus,  if  we  stopped  the  apparatus, 
we  should  find  six  of  these  little  marks 
upon  the  six  different  wheels,  and  the 
intervals  between  the  spots  would  show 
the  interval  of  time  that  the  shot  was 
passing  from  one  station  to  another.  The 
determination  of  this  interval  is  merely 
a  matter  for  calculation,  but,  obviously, 
if  it  is  shown  that  the  shot  increases 
gradually  in  speed,  and  does  not  attain  its 
maximum  velocity  at  once,  then  there  has 
been  comparatively  little  strain  imposed 
upon  the  gun.  And  the  aim  of  those 
charged  with  the  care  of  the  bigWoolwich 
gun  is  to  secure  j  ust  this  result  by  choosing 
the  most  suitable  kind  of  gunpowder  for 
the  purpose." 

Lieutenant  H.  Watkin,  R.A.,  has  in- 
vented an  instrument  for  measuring 
minute  portions  of  time,  which  is  so 
highly  approved  of  that  it  will  pro- 
bably be  adopted  for  ascertaining  and 
recording  the  velocities  at  gunnery  expe- 
riments. The  following  is  a  description 
of  this  instrument.  "  It  consists  of  two 
upright  cylinders  of  brass  covered  with 
lamp-black.  Between  these  a  weight  is 
made  to  fall,  and  electric  currents  may 
pass  by  its  means  from  one  cylinder  to 
the  other.  The  shot  in  passing  through 
a  screen  breaks  the  circuit,  and  causes  a 
spark  to  pass  through  the  weight,  and 
burn  away  a  speck  of  the  lamp-black  on 
the  cylinder.  The  electric  current,  how- 


VEL 


451 


YEN 


ever,  is  immediately  re-established  by  an 
ingenious  arrangement,  and  the  shot,  in 
passing  a  second  screen,  or  any  number 
of  successive  screens,  repeats  the  process. 
The  distances  between  the  spots  of  the 
cylinder  are  read  oft'  on  a  scale,  and  give 
the  time  represented  to  the  nine-billionth 
part  of  a  second." 

Velocity,  Angular,  vide  Angular  Ve- 
locity. 

Velocity  of  Eotation,  vide  Rotation, 
Velocity  of. 

Velocity  of  Sound,  vide  Sound,  Velo- 
city of. 

Velocity  of  Water,  vide  River. 

Vent — A  small  channel  in  a  piece  of 
ordnance,  through  which  the  gun  is  fired 
by  means  of  priming  powder  or  a  fric- 
tion tube.  The  vent  in  S.B.  guns  is 
in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  piece,  but  slightly  inclined  to 
the  rear.  In  heavy  M.L.R.  guns,  it  is 
bored  vertically. 

A  vent  is  formed  by  drilling  a  channel, 
|  inch  in  diameter,  through  a  copper 
bush,  which  is  screwed  into  the  gun,  the 
copper  being  specially  hardened  for  rifled 
guns.  There  are  two  kinds  of  copper 
bushes  used,  viz.  the  through  vent,  and 
the  cone  vent.  The  through  vent  is  a 
cylinder  cut  with  a  screw  thread,  and 
having  a  square  head,  by  means  of  which 
the  bush  is  screwed  into  the  gun. 

A  cone  vent  is  of  the  same  shape  and 
size  as  a  through  vent,  except  near  the 
end  where  the  screw  thread  terminates, 
and  the  cylinder  merges  into  the  frus- 
trum  of  a  cone. 

When  a  gun  is  to  be  bushed  for  the 
first  time,  a  cone  vent  is  invariably  used, 
because  the  copper  will  be  denser  and 
tighter  at  the  bottom  of  the  vent  than 
would  be  the  case  with  a  bush  screwed 
all  the  way  down.  The  vent  in  heavy 
M.L.R.  guns  does  not  enter  near  the  end  of 
the  bore  as  in  S.B.  guns,  but  strikes  the 
cartridge  at  two-fifths  of  its  length  from 
the  bottom  of  the  bore,  for  it  has  been 
proved  by  experiments  that  by  igniting 
the  cartridge  at  this  point  the  maximum 
initial  velocity  is  obtained.  In  M.L.R. 
guns  under  the  64-pr.  it  strikes  the 
curve  at  the  bottom  of  the  bore. 

Vent,  Enlargement  of,  vide  Enlarge- 
ment of  the  Vent. 

Ventaille   (French,  avant-taille) — The 


name  given  by  the  Normans   to  all  de- 
fences for  the  face  aftbrdel  by  helmets. 

Ventilation  (Latin  ventilatio,  from 
ventus,  wind) — The  act  of  ventilating. 
This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  venti- 
lators which  admit  fresh  air  into 
buildings,  and  allow  the  escape  of  foul 
air.  This  subject  is  of  such  vast  impor- 
tance in  barracks,  hospitals,  and  maga- 
zines, that  various  means  are  used  to 
secure  the  admission  of  a  regulated  quan- 
tity of  fresh  air  into  a  closed  or  confined 
apartment,  and  the  expulsion  of  vitiated 
air.  It  is  well  known  that  the  atmo- 
sphere consists  of  three  principal  ingre- 
dients :  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbonic 
anhydride.  When  these  are  maintained 
in  their  proper  proportions,  the  atmo- 
sphere supports  or  sustains  life,  but 
when  there  is  an  excess  of  carbonic  an- 
hydride to  the  extent  of  1  per  cent.,  then 
it  is  incapable  of  sustaining  life  or  com- 
bustion ;  respiration  then  becomes  diffi- 
cult, and  death  ensues. 

It  is  further  known  that  in  the  act 
of  respiration  a  certain  portion  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  inhaled  is  converted 
into  carbonic  anhydride,  so  that  a  person 
sitting  in  or  occupying  an  apartment  for 
any  length  of  time  to  which  fresh  air  is 
not  admitted  would  deprive  the  room  of 
its  oxygen,  and  an  excess  of  carbonic  an- 
hydride would  ensue,  to  inhale  which,  as 
has  been  shown  above,  would  bring  death 
to  the  consumer.  The  object,  therefore, 
of  ventilation  is  to  permit  of  a  recurring 
stream  of  fresh  air  and  the  expulsion  of 
foul  air.  There  are  various  means  of 
bringing  this  about,  known  to  the 
engineer  and  builder.  In  barracks,  th>; 
means  adopted  to  introduce  fresh  air  is 
to  perforate  the  walls  or  place  air  brick  ^ 
in  them  ;  and  for  the  expulsion  of  the 
foul  air,  shafts  are  erected  in  the  form  of 
a  chimney  or  funnel.  Windows  also  act 
the  part  of  ventilators. 

In  building  barracks,  a  certain  amount 
of  air  space  is  provided  for  every  soldier, 
so  that  he  shall  have  pure  air  to  breathe 
in,  and  this  is  known  to  be  so  necessary 
for  the  health  of  the  soldier  thht  the  rule 
of  air  space  must  be  adhered  to  in  building 
his  barrack.  Hospitals  require  more  air 
space  than  ordinary  barracks,  and  in  a 
tropical  climate  still  larger  space.  Some 
estimates  have  been  framed,  as  much  as 
2  G  2 


YEN 


452 


VER 


20  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  for  the 
soldier  in  England,  and  double  this  for  the 
hospitals.  In  well  built  houses,  and  with 
few  inhabitants  in  them,  3£  cubic  feet 
of  air  per  minute  for  each  person  will  be 
sufficient. 

Ventilators  are  very  necessary  in 
powder  magazines  (7.  v.)  to  keep  them 
dry. 

Vent-server  —  An    article    used    for 
serving     the    vents    of     M.L.R.    guns, 
64-prs.  and  upwards,  in  lieu  of  serving  the 
vent   with    the    thumb.     It  is   made   of 
brass,  the   part    which    enters  the  vent  i 
being  encased  with  a  thick  conical  piece  ; 
of  leather.      A  lanyard  is  attached  to  it.  i 
Verbal  Orders — Orders  commonly  sent  ' 
on  the  field  of  battle  by  the  general  to  any 
officer  in  command  of  a  particular  portion 
of  the   army    with  whom  he  wishes  to 
communicate.    Such  orders  are  generally 
sent  through  an  aide-de-camp,  and  must 
be    considered     equally     binding     with 
written  ones. 

Verdict  —  The     opinion    or    decision 
arrived  at  by  the  members  of  a  court- 
martial  as  to  the  guilt  or  otherwise  of 
the  prisoner.  Known  as  the  finding  (q.  v.). 
Vernier — A  graduated  movable  index 
invented  by  Pierre  Vernier,  a  captain  in  ' 
the  French  army,  who  gave  a  description  , 
of  it  in  a  tract  published  at  Brussels  in  i 
1631  ;  it  is  used  for  measuring  minutely  | 
the  equidistant  divisions  of  a  graduated  j 
scale.     As   described    by    Mr.    Heather, 
in  his  '  Treatise  on  Mathematical  Instru- 
ments,' it  is  so  constructed  as  to  slide  | 
evenly  along  the  graduated  limb  of  an  in-  | 
strument,  and  permits  of  distances  being 
measured  or  observations  read  off  with 
remarkable  nicety.     In  the  vernier  scale,  . 
described  at  page   11   of  Mr.  Heather's 
work,  the  divisions  ou  the  lower  or  sub- 
sidiary scale    are   longer  than  those  on 
the    upper  or    primary   scale.      In   the 
vernier  described  below,  the  divisions  are 
usually  shorter  than  those  upon  the  limb 
to  which  it  is  attached,  the  length  of  the 
graduated    scale    of    the    vernier    being 
exactly  equal  to  the  length  of  a  certain 
number  (n  —  1)  of  the  divisions  upon  the 
limb,  and  the  number  (n)  of  divisions  upon 
the   vernier   being   one    more    than  the 
number  upon  the  same  length  of  the  limb. 
Let,    then,    L    represent    the    length 
of  a  division  upon  the  limb,  and  V,  the 


length    of    a    division    upon    the    ver- 
nier: 
so  that  (n  —  1)  L  =  n  V  ;  and  therefore 


or  the  defect  of  a  division  upon  the  vernier 
from  a  division  upon  the  limb  is  equal  to 
the  nth  part  of  a  division  upon  the  limb, 
n  being  the  number  of  divisions  upon  the 
vernier. 

Vertex — The  summit,  height ;  in  gun- 
nery the  culminating  point  of  a  shot's 
curve  or  trajectory. 

Vertical — Upright ;    perpendicular    t<> 
the  surface  of  the  earth  or  smooth  water. 
Vertical  Eprouvette,  vide  Eprouvette, 
Vertical. 

Vertical  Fire— The  fire  from  ordnance 
at  high  angles,  for  instance,  from  mortars, 
which  being  generally  fired  at  an  angle 
of  45°,  the  shells  are  observed  to  attain 
great  height  in  their  flight  and  to  descend 
at  considerable  angles.  Major  (now 
Lieutenant-Colonel)  Owen,  in  his  lectures 
on  artillery,  remarks  that  "the  fire  of 
shells  from  mortars  at  high  angles  of 
elevation  is  most  uncertain  as  regards 
accuracy ;  the  reasons  of  this  are  that 
the  shells,  having  comparatively  low 
velocities,  but  long  '  times  of  flight,"  are 
peculiarly  liable  to  considerable  deviations 
from  wind  and  other  disturbing  causes ; 
also  that  the  angles  of  descent  of  mortar 
shells,  fired  at  the  usual  angle  of  45°,  are 
so  great  that,  unless  the  object  be  of 
some  extent,  an  error  in  range  of  a  few 
yards  over  or  under  might  render  the 
shell  useless,  whereas,  when  a  projectile 
is  fired  at  a  low  angle  of  elevation,  so 
much  ground  is  covered  by  it,  before  and 
after  grazing,  that  a  few  yards  under  or 
over  would  not  probably  prevent  it 
striking  the  object.  The  very  greatest 
I  care  is  required  in  weighing  out  the 
;  charges,  for  if  this  is  performed  care- 
|  lessly,  considerable  differences  will  occur 
!  in  the  ranges.  In  vertical  fire,  as  the 
!  object  cannot  be  seen,  and  the  piece  is 
I  generally  short,  it  is  very  difficult  to  lay 
i  the  mortar  exactly  in  the  same  line  for  a 
number  of  rounds,  but  if  laying  could  be 
performed  with  the  greatest  accuracy, 
still  irregularities  would  always  occur  in 
practice  with  projectiles  fired  at  high 
angles  and  with  low  velocities." 


VEE 


453 


VIC 


The  following  general  rules  for  mortar 
practice  are  herewith  given  : — "Although 
it  will  be  found  in  practice  that  the  charges 
of  powder  for  similar  ranges  will  con- 
stantly differ,  owing  to  the  varying 
strength  of  the  powder,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  &c.,  the 
13-inch  mortar,  with  a  charge  of 
3  Ibs.  of  powder,  gives  a  range  of 
850  yards,  and  every  additional  £  Ib. 
increases  the  range  about  180  yards. 
The  10-inch  mortar,  with  half  the  charge 
of  the  13-inch,  will  give  about  the  same 
range.  The  8-inch  mortar,  with  about 
one-third  of  the  charge  of  the  13-inch, 
will  also  give  about  the  same  range. 
The  elevation  of  the  mortar  for  the 
above  must  be  45° ;  at  15°,  the  range  is 
rather  more  than  half  that  of  45° ;  at 
10°,  rather  less  than  half,  the  charges 
being  equal." 

Vertigo  —  Mad  staggers  ;  a  disease 
which  horses  occasionally  suffer  from. 

Veteran — An  old  soldier  ;  one  who  has 
been  invalided,  and  is  no  longer  fit  for 
active  dutv.  Veteran  rank  was  formerly 
conferred  on  warrant  officers  in  India, 
employed  in  the  ordnance  and  commis- 
sariat departments,  which  gave  them  the 
position  of  an  officer  in  the  army  with 
increased  pay.  Now,  honorary  rank  is 
granted  instead,  which  confers  the  position 
of  an  officer,  but  no  pay  ;  they  remain, 
however,  still  in  the  employment  of 
government,  until  invalided.  James  tells 
us  that  this  word  comes  from  the  Latin 
veteranus,  a  soldier  in  the  Roman  militia 
who  was  grown  old  in  the  service,  or 
who  had  made  a  certain  number  of 
campaigns,  and  on  that  account  was  en- 
titled to  certain  benefits  and  privileges. 

Veterinary  Art  (Latin,  veterinarius,  a 
cattle  doctor ;  from  veterinus,  a  beast  of 
burden) — In  Maunder's  'Treasury  of 
Science,'  the  definition  of  this  term  is 
described  as  follows  : — "A  modern  term 
for  what  was  formerly  called  farriery. 
It  comprehends  a  knowledge  of  the  ex- 
ternal form  as  well  as  the  internal 
structure  and  economy  of  the  horse  ;  and 
embraces  whatever  relates  to  the  diseases 
to  which  the  horse  is  liable  ;  with  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  principles 
and  practice  of  shoeing,  of  feeding,  exer- 
cising, &c.  that  noble  and  highly  useful 
animal." 


Veterinary  Department — One  of  the 
civil  departments  of  the  army.  It  is 
placed  under  the  charge  of  a  principal 
veterinary  surgeon,  who  is  responsible  for 
the  working  of  his  department.  It  is 
composed  of  staff  veterinary  surgeons, 
veterinary  surgeons  of  the  1st  class,  vete- 
rinary surgeons,  and  veterinary  surgeons 
on  probation.  (  Vide  Appendix  0.) 

Veterinary  Surgeon — An  officer  ap- 
pointed to  a  regiment  of  cavalry  and 
a  brigade  of  artillery;  he  has  the  super- 
vision of  all  the  horses,  and,  in  case  of 
sickness,  treats  them  medicinally.  He 
has  the  rank  of  lieutenant  on  joining 
the  service,  and  receives  10s.  a  day. 
With  length  of  service,  he  gets  increased 
pay  and  relative  rank,  and  after  25  years 
can  retire  on  half-pay. 

Vetterli  Rifle  —  A  magazine  rifle, 
adopted  by  the  Italian  and  Swiss  armies. 

The  barrel  is  of  puddled  steel,  with  a 
calibre  of  0'41  inch.  It  has  4  grooves, 
with  a  pitch  of  rifling  of  1  in  22.  The 
cartridge  is  a  bottle-necked  rim-fire 
cartridge,  of  small  capacity.  Its  length 
is  l-7  inch;  its  weight  is  479  grains; 
that  of  the  powder  charge  is  58'2  grains, 
and  that  of  the  bullet  341  grains.  (Vide 
Appendix  F.) 

Vibration — The  regular  reciprocating 
motion  of  a  body,  as  a  pendulum,  musical 
chord,  &c.  The  effect  of  the  accumulation 
of  vibratory  motion  is  displayed  in  the 
case  of  suspension  bridges,  some  of  which 
have  been  brought  down  by  the  steady 
marching  of  a  body  of  troops,  owing  to  the 
fact  of  the  steps  of  the  troops  synchronising 
with  the  oscillations  of  the  bridge.  Troops 
in  crossing  such  bridges,  or  bridges  made 
of  pontoons,  or  of  any  elastic  material, 
should  always  be  instructed  to  march  out 
of  step. 

Vice — A  tool  for  holding  any  article 
while  the  artificer  is  operating  upon  it, 
by  placing  it  between  two  jaws  or 
nippers,  and  screwing  them  towards 
each  other. 

Vice,  Hand — A  hand  instrument  which 

is    described   as    being   "used    for   filing 

small  articles,  a  greater  number  of  which 

are  more  conveniently  filed   whilst  they 

are  held  with  the  left  hand,  the  file  being 

then  managed  exclusively  with  the  right. 

I  This  enables  the  artisan  to  judge  more 

j  easily  of  the  position  of  the  file.    In  some 


VIC 


454 


VIS 


cases  a  piece  of  wood  called  a  filing  block 
is  fixed  in  the  table  or  tail  vice,  and 
.square,  round,  and  similar  pieces  are 
rested  in  one  of  several  notches  made  in 
the  block  with  a  triangular  file.  If  the 
works  are  rectangular,  or  have  flat  sur- 
faces, they  are  held  quite  at  rest ;  if  they 
are  circular,  they  are  continually  rotated." 

Viceroy — A  title  given  to  the  chief 
officer  of  a  dependency,  who  possesses 
delegated  powers  from  the  sovereign  to 
represent  the  supreme  authority,  such  as 
the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  the 
governor-general  of  India.  These  are  the 
only  two  appointments  under  the  British 
crown  bearing  this  title. 

Victoria  Cross — A  reward  "  for  valour." 
The  order  was  instituted  by  her  Majesty 
Queen  Victoria  in  1856,  and  is  bestowed 
upon  those  members  of  the  naval  and 
military  services,  and  to  non-military 
men  also,  who  perform  conspicuous  acts 
of  gallantry  on  service  in  the  field. 
It  consists  of  a  Maltese  cross  made  of 
bronze,  formed  from  the  cannon  captured 
at  Sebastopol,  with  the  royal  crest  in 
the  centre,  and  underneath  is  inscribed, 
"  For  valour."  It  is  worn  with  a  red 
ribbon  in  the  army,  and  blue  in  the  navy. 
The  order  is  open  to  all,  whatever  the 
rank,  and  however  short  the  term  of  ser- 
vice of  the  individual  may  be.  The  decora- 
tion carries  with  it  a  pension  of  £10  a  year. 

Victory — The  overthrow  or  defeat  of 
an  enemy ;  success  in  contest.  In  Brande 
and  Cox's  '  Dictionary,'  it  is  stated  that, 
in  Roman  mythology,  Victory  is  described 
as  a  goddess,  called  Varro,  the  daughter 
of  heaven  and  earth.  Her  altar  was 
preserved  in  the  Curia,  or  senate  house, 
of  Rome ;  and  its  destruction  was  the 
subject  of  one  of  the  latest  contests  be- 
tween Christians  and  pagans. 

Viewer — An  examiner  of  small-arms, 
or  stores  generally.  At  the  government 
establishments  at  Enfield  and  Birmingham, 
there  is  a  staff  of  viewers  for  the  purpose 
of  examining  small-arms  after  they  have 
been  manufactured.  In  the  Royal  Gun 
Factory  at  Woolwich,  there  are  also 
viewers  whose  duties  are  to  examine 
every  article  during  the  different  stages 
ot'  the  manufacture  of  a  gun,  to  ascer- 
tain that  the  gun  is  manufactured 
properly,  and  to  the  correct  dimensions. 
All  work  not  strictly  done  in  accordance 


with  the  working  drawing  is  brought  by 
the  viewer  to  the  notice  of  the  super- 
intendent. 

Vigilance  —  Watchfulness,  care,  cir- 
cumspection. A  general  in  command  of 
an  army  should  possess  all  these  qualities, 
and  be  ever  on  the  qui  vive  to  guard 
against  surprise.  Previous  training,  such 
as  constant  service  in  the  field  and  through 
the  different  stages  of  his  career,  will 
conduce  much  to  give  an  officer  in  com- 
mand that  vigilance  necessary  to  be 
possessed  by  the  leader  of  a  force. 

Vinegar  (French,  vinaigre,  literally 
sour  wine) — An  impure  form  of  acetic 
acid,  obtained  from  wine,  cider,  beer,  or 
other  liquors,  by  acetous  fermentation  ; 
also  from  wood,  by  destructive  distilla- 
tion. Vinegar  is  used  in  the  composition 
of  stars  for  signal  rockets. 

Vis  (Latin)  —Force. 

Vis  inertise  (Latin  =  inert  force) — The 
propensity  of  a  body  to  remain  in  its 
actual  condition,  whether  of  motion  or 
rest,  and  to  resist  change. 

Vis  viva  (Latin  =  living  force) — The  vis 
viva  of  a  body  is  its  mass  multiplied  by 
the  square  of  its  velocity  ;  "  work  "  or 
dynamical  effect  supposes  a  body  moved, 
and  a  resistance  overcome ;  and  either 
of  these  without  the  other  is  insufficient 
to  constitute  "  work."  The  "  work  " 
produced  by  a  pressure  moving  a  body 
through  a  certain  space  is  defined  to  be 
the  product  arising  from  multiplying  the 
pressure  by  the  space  through  which  this 
pressure  acts. 

The  following  on  the  subject  of  "  vis 
viva  "is  taken  from  the  report  of  Captain 
W.  Noble,  R.A.,  on  the  penetration  of 
armour  plates  : — "  The  '  vis  viva '  of  a 
body  in  motion  is  the  whole  mechanical 
effect  which  it  will  produce  in  being 
brought  to  a  state  of  rest,  without  regard 
to  the  time  occupied,  and  it  varies  as  the 
weight  of  the  body  multiplied  by  the 
square  of  its  velocity.  This  mechanical 
effect  or  '  work '  accumulated  in  the 
moving  body  is  represented  by  the 
weight  which  it  is  capable  of  raising  one 
foot  high,  and  is  equal  to  the  weight 
of  the  moving  body  multiplied  by  the 
square  of  its  velocity,  and  divided 

We* 
by  twice  the  force  of  gravity  or  . 


VIS 


455 


VOL 


Thus,  if  a  shot  of  165  Ibs.  weight  be 
moving  with  a  velocity  of  1470  feet  per 
second,  the  '  work  '  accumulated  in  it 
will  be  represented  by 

165  x  1470  X  1470, 
2  X  32-1908 

which  is  equal  to  5,536,040  Ibs.  or  2472 
tons. 

"  That  is  to  say,  the  force  stored  up  in 
this  shot  is  capable  of  lifting  a  weight 
of  2472  tons  one  foot  high." 

Visual  Signalling,  vide  Telegraphy. 

Volley — The  simultaneous  discharge  of 
a  number  of  small-arms,  corresponding 
with  a  salvo  of  artillery. 

Voltaic  Battery — The  combination  of 
a  number  of  cells,  each  of  which  generates 
a  certain  quantity  of  dynamic  or  voltaic 
electricity.  To  M.  Volta  is  due  the 
first  knowledge  of  the  powers  of  voltaic 
currents,  as  shown  by  him  in  the  couronnes 
de  tosses  and  the  voltaic  pile.  For 
mining  purposes  the  battery  devised  by 
Professor  Grove  is  the  most  suitable,  in 
which  the  metals  are  zinc  and  platinum 
— the  former  in  a  solution  of  diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  and  the  latter  in  pure 
nitric  acid,  the  liquids  being  separated  by 
a  porous  earthenware  cell.  (  Vide  Gal- 
vanism.) 

Voltigeurs— Formerly  a  French  corps 
of  light  infantry,  organised  by  the  first 
Napoleon.  They  differed  from  tirailleurs, 
as  they  moved  in  a  compact  body.  They 
were  selected  for  their  courage,  activity, 
and  small  stature.  Each  regiment  of  the 
regular  infantry  of  the  army  had  a 
company  of  voltigeurs  attached  to  it. 
On  nearing  the  enemy,  all  the  companies 
of  voltigeurs  united,  and  were  the  first  in 
the  fray.  There  is  no  such  body  of  men 
now  in  the  French  army. 

Volunteers — Men  who  voluntarily  come 
forward  to  serve  as  a  force  for  the  defence 
of  the  country.  In  Great  Britain,  the 
volunteers  consist  of  a  large  body  of  men, 
a  great  citizen  army,  which,  with  the 
militia  and  the  reserves,  form  part  of  the 
auxiliary  forces  of  the  country.  This 
force  gives  its  services  gratuitously,  as 
the  men  receive  no  pay,  as  long  as  it  is  not 
embodied ;  but  the  arms  are  supplied 
by  the  government,  and  a  small  sum  is 
voted  annually  by  parliament  to  defray 
the  necessary  expenses  of  the  clothing, 


&c.  of  the  various  corps  and  to  provide 
i  for  the  pay  of  the  staff. 

The  oldest  volunteer  corps  is  the 
Honourable  Artillery  Company.  It  was 
instituted  in  1485 ;  it  ceased,  however, 
to  exist  after  a  time,  and  was  revived  in 
1610.  In  the  civil  war  of  1641-8,  the 
company  took  the  side  of  the  parliament , 
and  greatly  contributed  towards  its 
success.  Although  still  called  artillery, 
it  comprises  artillery  (horse  and  field 
batteries)  and  cavalry. 

The  origin  of  the  volunteers  dates 
from  1793-4,  when  they  were  first 
enrolled  in  consequence  of  a  threatened 
invasion  from  France.  Between  1798 
and  1804,  this  force  numbered  410,000, 
of  which  70,000  were  Jrish.  After  this 
date,  as  the  immediate  danger  ceased,  the 
force  gradually  diminished.  The  volun- 
teer force  as  now  established  arose  in 
1858,  though  a  few  corps  were  raised 
previously.  In  1859, 150,000  men  orga- 
nised themselves  into  volunteer  corps  of 
riflemen.  In  the  following  year,  the 
government  gave  this  national  movement 
assistance  by  appointing  paid  adjutants 
and  drill  instructors,  and  by  the  esta- 
blishment of  a  staff  of  inspectors,  under 
the  control  of  an  inspector-general  of 
volunteers  (how  of  auxiliary  forces). 

The  regulations  appertaining  to  this 
force  are  contained  in  the  Volunteer  Acts 
of  1863,  subsequently  modified  in  1868 
and  1869,  and  in  the  Regulation  of  Forces 
Act  of  1871.  Volunteers  are  localised 
by  corps,  so  many  being  attached  to 
each  brigade  forming  the  subdistricts  of 
the  army.  According  to  the  regulations, 
when  sixty  men  can  be  got  together,  a 
company  may  be  formed,  which  is  entitled 
to.  a  captain  and  two  subaltern  officers. 
If  six  companies  can  be  raised,  they  con- 
stitute a  battalion  for  which  government 
provides  an  adjutant.  This  officer,  if  not 
commissioned  as  captain  in  the  regular 
army,  is  granted  the  temporary  rank  of 
captain.  When  there  are  a  number  of 
detached  companies  in  a  district,  they 
are  grouped  into  an  administrative 
battalion. 

Adjutants    and    sergeant    instructors 

are    at  all  times  subject  to   the  Mutiny 

j  Act ;  the  other  officers  and  the  men   of 

the  volunteer  forces  are  only  subject  to 

it  when  their  corps  is    embodied.      All 


VOL 


456 


VOL 


officers  are  appointed  by  the  crown, 
except  sub-lieutenants,  who  receive  their 
commissions  from  lords-lieutenant  of 
counties  ;  non-commissioned  officers  are 
appointed  by  the  officer  commanding. 
Every  volunteer  on  joining  must  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  must  be  of  the 
age  of  seventeen.  A  War  Office  circular 
lately  issued  directs  that  no  person  under 
5  feet  6  inches  in  height,  or  less  than  32 
inches  round  the  chest,  can  be  enrolled  in 
an  artillery  volunteer  corps,  and  no 
person  under  5  feet  3  inches  in  height, 
or  less  than  32  inches  round  the  chest, 
can  be  enrolled  in  other  volunteer  corps. 

Volunteers  are  not  enrolled  for  a  fixed 
time,  but  can  leave  on  giving  fourteen 
days'  notice.  They  are  classed  as  "  effi- 
cients "  and  "  non-efficients."  Efficients 
must  have  received  certificates  from  the 
commanding  officer  and  adjutant,  certi- 
fying that  they  have  acquired  a  know- 
ledge of  their  duties  and  attended  certain 
drills.  Efficients  receive  then  a  sum  of 
money  termed  "  capitation  grant,"  viz. 
oOs.  as  a  recruit  and  9s.  annually  after- 
wards. A  special  grant  of  £2  10s.  is  also 
allowed  to  every  officer  and  volunteer 
sergeant  who  holds  a  certificate  of  pro- 
ficiency, for  which  an  examination  has  to 
be  passed.  A  travelling  allowance  is 
granted  for  attendance  to  united  drills 
or  gun  practice. 

The  volunteer  force  cannot  be  employed 
to  put  down  civil  disturbances,  but  it 
may  be  called  out  by  parliament  with  the 
sanction  of  the  crown  to  serve  anywhere 
in  Great  Britain  whenever  the  country 
is  invaded,  or  when  an  invasion  is  appre- 
hended. The  volunteers  would  then  be 
mobilised  with  the  regular  army  and  the 
militia,  according  to  the  scheme  laid 
down  in  1876.  (Vide  Mobilisation). 

The  volunteer  force  is  divided  into 
light  horse,  artillery,  engineers,  mounted 
rifles,  and  rifle  corps  (infantry),  ranking 
among  themselves  in  the  order  given. 

There  are  5  troops  of  light  horse, 
furnishing  an  effective  of  365  officers  and 
men;  214  corps  of  artillery,  divided  into 
brigades,  with  a  total  strength  of  31,823 
efficient  men.  Every  year,  an  assembly 
of  artillery  volunteers  for  gun  practice, 
lasting  about  a  week,  is  held  at  Shoe- 
buryness. 

The  engineers  form  an  effective  force  of 


6295  men,  divided  into  21  corps.  The 
mounted  riflemen,  of  which  there  are  4 
corps,  give  a  total  effective  of  139  men; 
they  are  attached  to  the  administrative 
I  battalions  of  the  rifle  volunteers  of  their 
district.  These  are  divided  into  118  ad- 
ministrative battalions  and  97  detached 
corps.  (  Vide  Appendix  E.) 

There  is  besides  an  engineer  and  railway 

!  transport  volunteer  staff  corps,  composed 

j  of  engineers,  contractors,  &c.  and  formed 

!  for  the  working  of  railways  in  time  of 

war.     (  Vide  Railways.) 

The  infantry  is  armed  with  the  Snider- 
Enfield  rifle  and  the  artillery  with  the 
Snider  converted  carbine. 

In  order  to  promote  the  practice  of 
rifle  shooting  among  volunteers,  a  Na- 
tional Volunteer  Association  was  esta- 
blished in  1859  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Queen  and  the  Prince  Consort,  nearly 
every  county  possessing  rifle  corps 
responding  to  the  appeal  and  forming  a 
rifle  association.  Its  first  meeting  was 
held  at  Wimbledon  in  1860.  In  a  few 
years,  this  association  increased  in  im- 
i  portance,  and  the  number  of  prizes  distri- 
buted at  the  Wimbledon  meeting  rose 
i  from  67,  in  1860,  to  1694  in  1874, 
whilst  their  total  value  increased 
I  from  £2500  to  £12,987.  The  number 
of  these  associations,  attached  to  the 
national  one,  is  69  in  England  and 
Scotland,  2  in  Ireland,  and  31  in  the 
colonies.  The  total  number  of  subscribers 
was  3089  in  1874. 

Any  person  subscribing  a  guinea  a  year, 
or  compounding  for  life  by  paying  ten 
guineas,  can  become  a  member  of  the 
association.  The  rifle  associations  of 
the  different  counties  organise  each  year 
rifle  matches,  after  which  a  few  of 
their  members  are  appointed  to  take 
part,  under  certain  conditions,  in  the 
general  contest  of  the  national  asso- 
ciation. This  contest  takes  place  every 
year  on  the  plain  of  Wimbledon,  situated 
9  miles  from  London.  A  camp  is 
established  there,  where  detachments  of 
volunteers  spend  about  a  fortnight  under 
canvas. 

Volunteer  regiments  are  also  formed 
in  India  and  the  colonies.  (Vide  Army  List.) 

The  name  volunteer  is  given  to  officers 
and  soldiers  who,  when  called  upon  for 
any  specific  duty,  voluntarily  step  forth. 


vou 


457 


WAG 


Voucher — A  written  document  or 
proof  upon  which  any  account  of  public 
charge  is  established. 

Vulcanite — A  compound  consisting  of 
two  parts  of  caoutchouc  and  one  part  sul- 
phur, boiled  together  at  a  temperature  of 
200°  Fahr.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  water-hoses,  combs,  &c.,  and  being  a 
good  insulator,  is  considered  the  best 
material  for  the  covering  of  telegraph 
wires. 


W. 


Wad — In  artillery,  is  described  as  a 
solid  cylinder  of  tow,  or  a  circular  ring 
of  rope,  old  rope-yarn,  or  other  material. 
Wads  are  used  in  the  service  of  guns, 
smooth-bore  and  rifled,  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  shot  in  its  place, 
but  also  for  other  reasons,  as  shown  below. 
There  are  six  natures  of  wads,  viz.  junk, 
grummet,  papier-mache,  coal-dust,  wedge, 
and  Bolton's  wads.  Junk  wads  are  made 
of  oakum  beaten  into  a  solid  cylinder, 
and  woolded  over ;  they  are  of  similar 
diameter  to  the  bore  of  the  gun  for  which 
they  are  intended.  They  were  used  in 
firing  hot  shot,  and  are  now  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  tampeon  to  close  the 
muzzle  of  a  gun.  Grummet  wads  consist  of 
a  piece  of  rope  formed  like  a  ring,  the  ex- 
ternal diameter  being  equal  to  the  calibre 
of  the  gun.  They  are  used  when  firing  at 
angles  of  depression,  or  at  angles  of  eleva- 
tion less  than  3°,  to  place  over  the  shot, 
and  so  prevent  it  from  moving  out  of  the 
piece.  Papier-mache'  wads  are  used  for 
closing  the  fuze  holes  of  filled  common 
shells,  and  the  loading  holes  of  diaphragm 
shells.  Coal-dust  wads  are  made  of  serge, 
in  the  form  of  a  bag,  and  filled  with  coal 
dust ;  they  are  placed  inside  the  5-lb.  cart- 
ridges of  8-inch  guns  to  fill  up  the  chamber. 

For  rifled  M.L.  guns  of  the  heavier 
natures  a  wad  consisting  of  two  wooden 
wedges  connected  by  a  piece  of  cane  is 
used. 


The  object  of  using  this  wedge  wad  is 
to  keep  the  projectile  in  its  place,  as  it 
is  apt  to  move  forward  when  the  gun  is 
depressed. 

Bolton's  wads  are  made  of  75  per  cent, 
of  old  rags  and  25  per  cent,  of  tarred 
rope,  pulped  and  formed  in  a  mould,  and 
coated  with  waterproof  varnish  ;  they  are 
used  to  prevent  scoring  of  the  bore. 

The  wads  are  rammed  home  separately 
after  the  projectile. 

Gun  wads  are  stated  to  have  no  effect 
upon  the  velocity  of  the  ball,  neither  do 
they  serve  to  lessen  the  windage,  as  the 
inflamed  powder  is  found  to  escape  past 
them.  It  is  further  found  from  experi- 
ments that  the  grummet  wad  is  more 
efficient  than  one  of  junk,  both  in  pre- 
venting the  cartridge  from  shifting  its 
place  in  the  bore  of  chambered  ordnance, 
and  in  lessening  the  deviations  of  pro- 
jectiles. 

Wadhook  —  An  instrument  which 
forms  part  of  the  stores  attached  to  a 
battery,  and  used  for  searching  the  bores 
of  guns  and  withdrawing  from  them 
anything  that  would  impede  the  loading. 

Wadmiltilts — Strong  rough  woollen 
cloths,  used  principally  for  covering 
powder  barrels  and  protecting  ammuni- 
tion generally.  A  barrel  of  powder 
wrapped  in  a  wadmiltilt  is  safe  from  the 
explosion  of  two  similar  barrels  in  the 
open,  at  a  distance  of  10  feet,  but  it  is 
unsafe  when  not  so  wrapped  at  a  distance 
of  15  feet. 

Wager  of  Battle— An  ancient  mode  of 
settling  disputes  by  single  combat.  It 
took  place  in  cases,  whether  civil  or  mili- 
tary, the  defendant  challenging  and 
fighting  the  plaintiff,  if  so  inclined,  in 
order  to  prove  the  justice  of  his  cause. 

It  was  also  a  custom  in  affairs  of 
chivalry  and  honour. 

Wagon — A  carriage  on  four-wheels, 
drawn  by  horses,  and  used  for  the 
transport  of  heavy  goods.  The  following 
are  the  principal  wagons  found  in  the 
service,  the  uses  of  which  are  briefly  de- 
scribed as  follows : — 

Ambulance  vcagon  (q.  v.). — Used  for  the 
carriage  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

Ammunition  wagon.— In  the  artillery 
service,  a  carriage  with  limber  attached, 
which  accpmpanies  each  gun  of  a  movable 
battery.  It  contains  the  larger  proper- 


WAG 


458 


WAH 


tion  of  the  ammunition  of  the  battery. 
Light  field  batteries  have  one  wagon 
to  each  gun  on  the  peace  establishment, 
and  two  on  the  war  establishment,  which 
enables  a  battery  to  go  into  action  with 
a  good  supply  of  ammunition  per  gun. 

Baking  wagon.  —  A  wagon  in  which 
the  bread  of  the  troops  is  kneaded  along 
the  line  of  march  ;  it  carries  the  necessary 
dough  troughs  and  baking  implements. 

Boat  wagon. — Attached  to  the  pontoon 
trains,  for  the  transport  of  one  boat  and 
a  certain  portion  of  bridging  material. 

Bread  and  meat  wagon. — A  wagon  for 
holding  and  carrying  in  the  field  all  such 
supplies  as  give  the. name  to  this  nature 
of  carriage. 

Forge  wagon. — Composed  of  a  limber 
and  carriage ;  the  limber  is  the  universal 
limber,  but  has  one  long  box  instead  of 
two.  The  body  of  the  wagon  contains 
the  bellows  and  all  the  other  articles 
necessary  to  complete  the  forge.  One  is 
attached  to  each  battery  of  artillery ; 
two  to  each  mounted  troop  of  engineers, 
and  one  per  cavalry  regiment. 

General  service  wagon. — For  general  use 
with  a  siege  train ;  there  are  4  wagons  of 
this  nature,  2  without  and  2  with  springs. 
What  is  known  as  the  G.S.W.  mark  I. 
without  springs  has  equirotal  wheels,  fore 
and  hind.  It  carries  a  spare  wheel,  and 
has  fittings  to  transport  intrenching  tools; 
also,  when  required,  it  is  able  to  take  a 
field  forge.  It  has  a  long  body  covered 
with  waterproof  canvas  ;  it  is  capable  of 
carrying  1£  ton,  and  is  fitted  for  shaft 
or  pole  draught. 

Miner's  wagon. — Attached  to  the  engi- 
neer branch,  to  carry  mining  and  in- 
trenching tools. 

Office  wagon. — Belongs  to  the  engineer 
branch,  and  is  used  as  a  telegraph  office. 
It  may  be  used  also  as  an  office  wagon, 
printing  wagon,  lithographic  wagon,  or 
photographic  wagon. 

Platform  wagon  (q.  t>.). — A  wagon  used 
for  every  description  of  heavy  stores,  &c. 

Pontoon  wagon. — Carries  a  pontoon  and 
a  portion  of  the  bridging  material  on  the 
march.  (  Vide  Pontoon  Train.) 

E. A.  wagon. — Fitted  to  carry  a  spare 
wheel,  intrenching  tools,  carbines,  two 
swords,  stores,  and  a  drag  shoe  with 
chain  ;  it  has  certain  fittings  to  enable  it 
to  be  used  as  a  forge  wagon.  One  wagon 


is  attached  to  each  battery,  and  it  is  fitted 
for  either  single  or  double  draught. 

Rocket  wagon. — Intended  to  carry  Kale's 
rockets  ;  it  only  differs  from  the  ordinary 
field  ammunition  wagon,  in  the  boxes 
being  made  deep  enough  to  receive  25 
rockets  each. 

Siege  wagon  (7.  #.). — A  general  service 
wagon.  It  is  fitted  with  movable  trays, 
for  the  transport  of  shot  and  shell. 

Heavy  sling  wagon.  —  This  wagon  is 
used  in  the  artillery  service  for  trans- 
porting guns  from  12  to  23  tons  in 
weight.  It  is  similar  in  construction  to 
the  service  wagon,  but  is  made  of  African 
oak  scantling  of  much  larger  dimensions, 
and  is  fitted  with  breaks  similar  to  those 
on  the  12-ton  sling  wagon,  but  worked 
by  levers  and  eccentrics  ;  the  perch  is 
fitted  with  a  differential  block  and  chain  ; 
and  the  axletree  arms  are  special  for  the 
wheels.  The  12-ton  sling  wagon  is  made 
of  wrought  iron. 

Store  wayon. — Similar  to  the  miner's 
wagon.  It  has  a  movable  head  covered 
with  canvas.  It  is  issued  for  carrying 
stores  of  all  sorts,  intrenching  tools,  &c. 
of  a  siege  train. 

Trestle  wagon.  —  The  same  as  the 
pontoon  wagon ;  it  carries  part  of  the 
superstructure  of  the  bridge  without  a 
pontoon. 

Water  wagon. — Used  to  carry  water 
for  troops  on  the  march,  or  in  quarters. 
It  contains  a  barrel  for  holding  the 
water.  It  is  fitted  for  single,  double,  or 
pole  draught. 

Wire  wagon. — A  wagon  attached  to 
engineer  troops.  It  contains  the  wire 
and  all  other  articles  for  setting  up  a 
telegraph  line  along  the  line  of  march. 

Wahrendorff  Gun  —  A  two-grooved 
breech-loading  cannon  invented  in  1846 
by  Baron  Wahrendoff,  a  Swedish  noble- 
man. The  mechanical  contrivance  for 
securing  the  breech  is  very  superior  to 
the  rude  process  of  earlier  times,  but  it 
appears  doubtful  whether  the  mode  of 
closing  it  is  strong  enough  to  ensure 
safety  when  high  charges  are  used. 
Experiments  made  with  this  gun  at 
Shoeburyness  showed  that  it  was  capable 
of  long  range,  but  the  deflection  was  so 
great  and  variable  that  no  allowance 
could  be  made  for  it  in  laying  the  gun 
with  respect  to  the  object. 


WAI 


459 


WAR 


Wailing — A  mode  of  basket  work, 
pursued  in  forming  a  gabion,  and  in 
which  the  braid  or  plait  is  formed  with 
more  rods  than  two.  (  Vide  Brushwood.) 

Wallet — A  kind  of  bag,  introduced 
into  the  service  in  lieu  of  the  holster. 
Wallets  form  part  of  the  horse  furniture 
of  the  staff  and  regimental  staff  of  the 
army.  All  cavalry  regiments,  except  the 
household  cavalry,  use  them.  They  are 
made  of  brown  leather,  and  covered,  like 
holsters,  with  a  bear  skin. 

Wallets  have  also  been  introduced  into 
the  Indian  army. 

Wall-knot — A  knot  made  at  the  end 
of  the  lever  and  prypole  rope,  to  prevent 
it  from  being  drawn  through  the  hole  in 
the  lever. 

Wall-piece — An  enlarged  firelock  or 
fire-arm  mounted  on  a  swivel,  and  placed 
on  the  walls  of  a  fort  or  other  fortified 
work.  It  may  be  said  to  be  obsolete, 
though  sometimes  issued  in  India  to 
an  expedition  proceeding  on  service.  Wall- 
pieces  are  considered  to  be  useful,  after  the 
capture  of  a  native  fort,  to  strengthen  its 
defence.  At  the  late  siege  of  Strassburg, 
the  Germans  made  considerable  use  of 
this  nature  of  arm. 

Wall-plate — A  piece  of  timber  placed 
on  a  wall,  on  which  girders,  joists,  and 
other  timbers  rest. 

Walls,  Defence  of — The  means  adopted 
for  rendering  walls  protective,  whereby 
the  defenders  can  shelter  or  screen  them- 
selves from  the  fire  of  the  enemy. 

The  chief  method  of  putting  walls 
into  a  state  of  defence  is  by  means  of 
loopholes  formed  according  to  circum- 
stances, depending  on  the  heights  of  the 
walls.  In  works  on  the  construction  of 
military  posts,  it  is  suggested  that  loop- 
holes should  be  formed  on  the  tops  of 
walls  which  may  be  about  4  feet  high, 
with  sandbags,  blocks  of  wood,  stones,  or 
other  materials  at  hand.  If  the  walls  be 
too  high  to  fire  over,  small  banquettes 
should  be  made,  or  the  loopholes  may  be 
cut  down  into  the  top  part  of  the  wall. 
In  any  case,  small  ditches  should  be  dug 
on  the  enemy's  side  of  the  wall. 

Besides  the  ditch  outside,  when  walls 
are  7  or  8  feet  high,  one  in  the  rear 
should  be  dug  to  give  sufficient  cover  to 
the  defenders,  and  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  firing  over. 


With  lofty  walls,  two  tiers  of  fire  may 
be  obtained  by  forming  banquettes,  so  as 
to  enable  the  defenders  to  fire  over  the 
wall  or  through  loopholes  at  the  top,  and 
by  cutting  loopholes  for  the  lower  tier 
nearly  on  a  level  with  the  ground. 
Trenches  must  be  dug  in  rear  of  the 
walls  to  allow  of  the  defenders  using  the 
lower  loopholes  ;  but  on  no  account  must 
there,  in  this  case,  be  ditches  excavated 
in  front  of  the  walls,  unless  they  be  made 
deep  enough  to  prevent  an  enemy  stand- 
ing in  them  from  firing  through  the  loop- 
holes. 

With  low  walls  the  ditches  must  be 
formed  close  up,  and  the  earth  spread. 
Loopholes  should  always  be  at  least  6J 
feet  above  the  ground  or  bottom  of  the 
ditch  on  which  the  attackers  can  stand. 

The  proper  defence  of  walls  will  gene- 
rally suggest  itself  to  most  officers ;  the 
foregoing  merely  gives  an  outline  of  what 
ought  to  be  done. 

Walnut  (•lu'jlans  regid) — A  tree  indi- 
genous to  Persia.  It  has  long  been  in- 
troduced into  Great  Britain ;  it  is  a 
dark-coloured  and  close-grained  wood. 
It  is  largely  used  for  the  stocks  of  small- 
arms.  The  walnut  grows  also  in  the 
Himalayas  and  in  the  upper  provinces  of 
Burmah. 

War  (Anglo-Saxon,  trier) — A  contest 
carried  on  between  the  armed  forces  of 
two  states  or  nations,  after  every  endea- 
vour has  been  resorted  to,  by  one  side  or 
the  other,  and  often  by  friendly  powers, 
to  bring  about  a  reconciliation. 

Wars  are  either  international  or  civil ; 
aggressive  or  defensive.  An  international 
war  is  that  between  two  states  or  nations 
which  acknowledge,  by  the  law  of  nations, 
certain  rights  that  exist  towards  each 
other ;  when  a  third  power  joins  as  an 
ally,  it  becomes  a  war  of  intervention,  or 
auxiliary  war.  A  civil  war  is  carried  on 
between  parties  of  the  same  state ;  it  is 
either  legal  or  illegal,  political  or  religious. 
An  aggressive  war  takes  place  when  a 
nation,  on  some  imaginary  or  real  wrong, 
consideringits  honour  to  have  been  attacked 
by  a  neighbouring  nation,  begins  hostilities 
against  that  nation  when  at  peace  with  it ; 
defensive  war  is  the  opposite  to  that  of 
aggressive,  being  the  attitude  taken  up 
by  a  nation  to  repel  an  invasion  or  the 
attacks  of  an  enemy.  Wars  differ  ac- 


WAR 


460 


WAR 


cording  to  circumstances  and  objects ; 
international  wars  occur  generally  in 
consequence  of  disputes  about  territorial 
possessions,  material  interest,  acquisi- 
tion of  territory  (wars  of  conquest),  or 
for  supremacy  of  power  ;  civil  wars  on 
account  of  some  important  point  of  civil 
or  religious  liberty.  But  in  all  cases  j 
the  object  is  the  same :  to  weaken  and 
overthrow  the  opposing  party,  and  to 
force  it  to  submit  to  the  terms  of  the 
stronger. 

Before  hostilities  begin,  a  declaration 
of  war  is  made  by  the  aggressive  party,  i 
which  is  perfectly  free  to  choose  the  form 
in  which  it  will  announce  its  intentions,  i 
Formerly  it  was  proclaimed  by  a  herald 
being  sent  to  the  enemy,  who  in  a  formal 
manner  declared  war,  but  this  mode  has 
been  abandoned,  and  in  modern  times  a 
manifesto  is  published  by  the  aggressive 
nation  to  the  neutral  and  friendly 
powers,  declaring  the  reason  why  peace 
is  broken,  and  generally  stating  that, 
though  it  desires  to  remain  on  friendly 
terms,  it  is  forced  to  fight  against  its 
will. 

Permission  of  reprisals  (q.  v.)  follows 
the  issue  of  the  manifesto,  and  is  usually 
the  last  step  short  of  actual  hostilities 
and  preceding  them. 

Strategically  speaking,  a  war  is  either 
offensive  or  defensive,  depending  on  cir- 
cumstances. Colonel  Hamley,  in  his 
'  Operations  of  War,'  shows  that,  before 
the  commencement  of  hostilities,  a  belli- 
gerent government  which  knows  its  own 
resources,  and  should  know  those  of  its 
enemy,  must  decide  whether  its  army 
shall  make  or  await  the  attack.  Though 
circumstances  may  occur  to  cause  both 
armjes  to  advance  simultaneously  to  the 
region  or  frontier  which  separates  them, 
into  the  territory  occupied  by  the  adver- 
sary, it  is  more  usual  for  one  army  to 
stand  on  the  defensive  whilst  the  other 
commences  the  attack.  Offensive  warfare, 
therefore,  means  the  advance  of  an  enemy 
into  an  enemy's  territory,  and  defensive 
warfare  the  defiant  attitude  of  a  country 
about  to  be  invaded. 

In  assuming  the  initiative,  the  objective, 
that  is  the  object  to  be  gained  by  the 
campaign,  is  to  be  decided  upon  by  the 
invading  general.  The  end  generally 
aimed  at  is  to  occupy  the  enemy's  capital, 


as  it  paralyses  the  trade  of  the  country, 
and  forces  the  sovereign  and  government 
to  retire  to  a  place  of  safety,  and  often 
leads  the  enemy  to  come  to  terms,  thus 
saving  himself  from  complete  ruin.  The 
objective  having  been  decided  upon,  the 
theatre  of  war  must  be  selected. 

The  considerations  which  induce  a 
power  to  choose  a  certain  portion  of  the 
country  in  which  it  intends  to  operate 
may  be  political  or  geographical,  or  de- 
pendent on  the  relative  strength  of  the 
belligerents,  or  the  comparative  facilities 
for  mobilisation  and  concentration 
afforded  by  their  respective  systems  of 
organisation.  The  advantage  generally 
remains  with  the  army  possessing  what 
is  called  the  initiative,  that  is,  the  power 
one  army  has  of  compelling  its  adversary 
to  make  his  movements  dependent  on  its 
own ;  the  chances  are  then  in  favour  of 
the  assailant,  provided  the  campaign  is 
carried  on  in  a  country  suitable  for  mili- 
tary operations,  and  advantage  taken  of 
the  power  the  assailant  has  of  concen- 
trating his  forces. 

The  advantage  to  be  gained  in  stand- 
ing on  the  defensive  is  the  vast  area  an 
army  has  of  extending  itself;  it  can  thus 
be  more  easily  supplied ;  as  stores  can 
be  collected  at  any.  central  point,  instead 
of  upon  one  particular  focus.  The  roads 
and  railways  placed  in  the  rear,  being  in 
the  possession  of  the  defender,  enable  him 
to  bring  up  his  food,  ammunition,  &c.  with 
comparative  ease ;  and  in  case  of  his 
having  to  fall  back,  the  measure  is 
greatly  facilitated,  and  the  requirement 
of  transport  less  pressing,  as,  on  retiring, 
he  approaches  nearer  to  his  magazines 
and  his  sources  of  supplies.  But  these 
advantages  are  greatly  counterbalanced 
by  those  possessed  by  the  advancing 
army,  which  can  concentrate  behind  its 
frontier,  and  descend  on  any  point  of  the 
defender's  line,  the  defender's  movements 
being  thus,  from  that  moment,  dependent 
on  those  of  the  attacking  force.  The  de- 
fenders must  either  oppose  the  enemy  with 
small  numbers  at  first  or  lose  territory 
in  order  to  fall  back  and  concentrate. 
On  the  other  hand,  offensive  war  demands 
great  resources,  as  the  more  the  invader 
advances  into  the  enemy's  country,  the 
longer  and  more  exposed  to  attack  become 
his  lines  of  communication.  Under  these 


WAR 


461 


WAR 


circumstances,  it  must  not,  nevertheless, 
be  forgotten  that  an  army  acting  on 
the  defensive  is  not  to  be  supposed  as 
always  confining  its-elf  to  this  attitude. 
To  act  thus,  would  be  fatal  to  the  ulti- 
mate object  it  had  in  view.  When  an 
opportunity  is  offered,  every  endeavour 
should  be  made  to  take  the  offensive,  by 
placing  itself  in  such  a  position  as  to 
threaten  the  enemy's  rear,  cut  him  off 
from  his  base,  and  so  obstruct  his  com- 
munications that  his  magazines  will  be 
in  danger.  To  prevent  this,  the  invading 
force  will  have  to  weaken  its  main  army 
by  being  forced  to  detach  a  considerable 
part  of  it  to  protect  its  communications 
with  the  rear,  and  the  defensive  force 
may  then,  if  strong  enough,  harass  the 
enemy,  and  turn  its  position  of  defensive 
into  one  of  advantage. 

War,  notwithstanding  its  sad  and  dis- 
astrous effects,  is  an  event  that  a  nation 
must  always  be  prepared  to  face,  or  else 
allow  itself  to  be  wiped  out  of  the  roll  of 
nations.  History  admonishes  us  that,  as 
in  the  past,  mankind  has  ever  been  prone 
to  arms,  so  in  the  future  must  war  be  ex- 
pected, however  peacefully  disposed  the 
interests  of  nations  may  be.  It  behoves 
rulers  therefore  to  be  prepared  to  avenge 
insult,  and  to  repel  encroachment,  and  by 
an  attitude  of  strength  and  determination 
to  avert,  if  possible,  the  dread  necessity 
of  recourse  to  arms,  on  the  principle  of 
"  Si  vis  pacem,  para  bellum." 

This  preparedness  is  carried  out  by 
nations  in  keeping  up  large  armies 
ready  to  be  mobilised  within  a  few  days' 
notice.  To  be  always  in  this  state  of  pre- 
paration necessitates  in  time  of  peace  a 
constant  watchfulness  in  the  drill  of  the 
soldier,  in  the  use  of  his  arms,  and  in  that 
practical  knowledge  of  the  science^of  war 
so  nec.essary  when  the  day  of  trial  comes. 
It  cannot  therefore  be  too  often  im- 
pressed on  the  officers  of  our  army  that, 
if  they  wish  to  be  pre-eminent  in  their 
profession,  the  study  of  war  must  be  the 
occupation  of  their  lives.  The  perusal 
of  the  works  of  military  writers,  past 
and  present,  will  afford  such  information 
as  will  enable  them  to  become  proficient 
in  much  that  is  required  to  render  them 
capable  of  command  in  the  day  of  battle. 
The  study  of  the  war  of  1870-71  on 
the  continent  affords  many  lessons,  and 


much  information,  as  to  how  armies  may 
be  destroyed,  and  opportunities  lost,  by 
bad  generalship,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
how  success  may  be  ensured  when  troops 
are  properly  handled. 

The  subject  under  consideration  is 
one  of  such  magnitude  that  it  is  not 
possible  within  the  limits  of  this  work 
to  enter  into  a  description  of  the  various 
phases  of  war;  but  those  interested 
in  the  subject  are  referred  to  Colonel 
Macdougall's  'Theory  of  War,'  Colonel 
Hamley's  '  Operations  of  War,'  as  well  as 
to  the  late  Colonel  Chesney's  articles  in 
the  Edin'/urgh  Review,  published  in  1866, 
which  works,  with  many  others,  will 
give  a  close  insight  into  the  science  of 
war,  the  management  of  an  army,  and  the 
qualifications  required  of  the  general  in 
command  to  bring  a  campaign  to  a  suc- 
cesful  issue. 

War,  Council  of,  vide  Council  of  War. 

War  Office — The  head-quarters  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  War,  to  which  are 
attached  the  offices  of  the  three  great 
officers  of  the  army,  viz.  the  commander- 
in-chief,  surveyor-general  of  ordnance, 
and  the  financial  secretary.  These  offices 
are  respectively  organised  for — 

1.  Supervision,    recruiting,     training, 
discipline,  distribution,   and   command  of 
the  army ; 

2.  Supply  of  all  kinds,  transport,  and 
quarters ; 

3.  Pay  and  audit. 

This  distribution  is   carried   out  in  all 
subordinate  commands : 
Staff; 

Control  office ; 
Paymaster. 

Minor  departments. — Control  depart- 
ment of  War  Office,  record  register,  sta- 
tionery, solicitor,  and  library. 

Works  dicision. — Inspector-general  of 
fortifications,  barracks,  forts. 

Medical  division. — Director-general. 

War,  Prisoners  of,  vide  Prisoners  of 
War. 

War,  Science  of,  vide  Science  of  War. 

War-cries — Cries  of  mutual  recogni- 
tion and  encouragement  formerly  used  in 
battle,  each  nation,  tribe,  or  clan,  having 
its  own. 

"  The  war-cry,  cri  de  guerre  of  the 
French,  the  slogan  or  ensenzie  of  the 
Scotch,"  writes  Mrs.  Bury  Palliser,  in 


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462 


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her  book  on  '  Historic  Devices,  Badges, 
and  War-cries,'  "is  of  the  remotest  an- 
tiquity. 'The  sword  of  the  Lord  and 
of  Gideon  ' — the  battle-cry  of  the  Israel- 
ites when  engaging  the  hosts  of  Midian 
in  the  valley  of  Jezreel — is  perhaps  the 
earliest  record  of  the  use  of  the  war-cry. 

"  Each  nation  usually  invoked  its 
patron  saint;  but  in  war,  each  party  had 
its  separate  cry.  The  '  droit  de  banniere  ' 
and  the  'cryde  guerre'  were  conjointly  the 
attributes  of  nobility.  Of  Sir  Simon  de 
Felbridge,  for  instance,  it  is  said,  he  was 
a  gentleman  '  de  nom,  d'armes  et  de  cry.' 

" '  Percy  !  Percy  ! '  was  the  rallying- 
cry  of  Otterbourne ;  and  the  cry  of  '  A 
Warwick  !  a  Warwick  !'  decided  the  fate 
of  Banbury  Field. 

"So  widely  did  the  practice  prevail  in 
England  that,  in  1495,  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment was  passed  forbidding  all  these 
cries  as  productive  of  discord,  and  enjoin- 
ing all  noblemen  and  their  retainers 
thenceforth  to  call  on  'St.  George  and 
the  King.' " 

The  ancient  war-cry  of  the  kings  of 
England  was,  "  Montjoie,  Notre  Dame,  and 
St.  George ! "  that  of  the  French  was, 
"  Montjoye,  Saint-Denis  ! "  and  that  of  the 
Spaniards,  "  San  lago  ! " 

In  the  feuds  of  the  middle  ages,  each 
party  had  a  distinctive  war-  or  rallying- 
cry,  generally  the  name  of  the  family  or 
clan  ;  thus,  in  Scotland,  the  retainers  of 
the  houses  of  Douglas  and  Home  rushed 
into  the  battle  with  the  cry  of  "  A 
Douglas  !  a  Douglas  ! "  or  "  A  Home  ! 
a  Home!"  "Esperance,  Percy!"  was 
that  of  Hotspur  at  the  battle  of  Shrews- 
bury, and  "Set-on  !"  and  "Abo !"  of  Seton, 
Earl  of  Morton.  The  cries  of  "  Crom-a- 
boo  !  "  and  "  Butler-a-boo  ! "  were  from 
an  early  period  the  cries  of  the  Irish,  and 
were  especially  prohibited.  "  Laundaig 
Abo!"  "The  Bloody  Hand!"  "Strike  for 
O'Neil ! "  were  the  battle-cries  of  the 
wild  followers  of  Shan  O'Neil.  It  is 
stated  that  "  Dieu  et  mon  droit!"  was 
probably  a  war-cry  long  before  it  was 
adopted  as  a  royal  motto,  for  Richard  I. 
is  recorded  to  have  said.  "  Not  me  ;  but 
God  and  our  right  have  vanquished 
France  at  Gisors." 

"The  Puritans,"  writes  the  author 
quoted  above,  "  brought  in  Scripture 
words  ;  and  the  war-cry  of  the  tribes  who 


revolted  against  the  house  of  David,  "  To 
your  tents,  0  Israel !"  was  adopted  by  the 
republicans  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
At  the  battle  of  Hylton-on-the-Wear,  in 
1644,  the  field-word  of  the  Scots  was, 
"  The  Lord  of  Hosts  is  with  us !  "  that  of 
the  Marquis  of  Northampton,  "  Now  or 
never ! " 

Although  war-cries  have  come  into 
general  disuse  in  modern  times  among 
the  armies  of  civilised  nations,  they  have 
been  revived,  in  certain  circumstances, 
as  an  encouragement  in  battle.  The 
"Shoulder  to  shoulder,  Highlanders!"  is 
well  known  in  the  Highland  regiments; 
the  soldiers  of  Napoleon  were  accustomed 
to  charge  with  shouts  of  "  Vive  1'Em- 
pereur  ! "  or  later,  "  Vive  la  France  ! " 
"  Vaterland !  Vaterland !"  and  "  Hurrah !" 
could  be  heard  as  a  rallying-cry  of  the 
Germans  on  many  a  battle-field  during 
the  last  wars.  And  in  the  British 
army  the  war-cry  of  the  soldier  is 
"  Hurrah  !" 

Warrant — In  a  military  sense,  a  writ 
of  authority  inferior  to  a  commission ; 
also  a  document  under  the  sign  manual 
authorising  the  assembly  of  a  general 
court-martial. 

Warrant  Officers — Officers  who  are  not 
commissioned,  exercising  their  authority 
by  warrant  only.  There  are  several 
departmental  grades  of  warrant  officers 
in  the  Indian  army.  (  Vide  Conductors.) 
Wash  Leather,  vide  Chamois  Leather. 
Washer,  Drag — A  flat  iron  ring  on  the 
axle-arm  of  carriages,  having  an  iron 
loop  attached  to  it  for  the  purpose  of 
fastening  the  drag  rope  when  necessary ; 
hence  the  term  drag-waslter.  It  is 
placed  on  the  axle-arm  to  prevent  the 
wheel  or  nave  from  pressing  upon  the 
linch-pin. 

Waste  Weir — A  construction  made  to 
carry  off  the  waste  water  of  a  stream 
which  has  to  be  dammed  up.  Such  an 
arrangement  is  necessary,  for  if  the  water 
were  suffered  to  accumulate  and  flow 
freely  over  the  surface  of  an  earthen 
dam,  it  would  soon  wash  it  away.  A 
channel  for  a  waste  weir  should  be  cut 
through  the  solid  ground,  clear  of  the 
dam,  when  possible ;  if  not,  it  must  be 
formed  in  the  dam  itself. 

Watch — A  duty  performed  by  troops 
on  board  ship.  All  the  non-commis- 


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sioned  officers  and  men,  exclusive  of 
those  detailed  for  guard  duties,  are 
divided,  at  the  discretion  of  the  com- 
manding officer,  into  three  watches,  one 
of  which,  the  Queen's  Regulations  state, 
is  to  be  constantly  on  deck,  with  at  least 
one  subaltern  officer  in  charge,  when 
practicable.  In  fine  weather,  every  man 
not  employed  on  duty  below  is  to  be  on 
deck  during  the  day.  The  watches  go 
on  duty  for  12  hours,  and  are  relieved  at 
8  A.M.  and  8  P.M. 

Water  (symb.  HO;  equiv.  9;  spec, 
gray.  1) — An  element  which,  when  in  a 
state  of  purity,  is  a  clear,  colourless, 
transparent  liquid,  perfectly  neutral  in 
its  reaction,  and  devoid  of  taste  or  smell. 
When  exhibited  in  its  aeriform  state, 
water  contains  two  parts  of  hydrogen 
and  one  of  oxygen  gas,  and  when  united 
chemically  and  reduced  to  a  fluid  state, 
it  constitutes  what  is  known  as  water. 

Water  is(  obtained  from  two  sources  ; 
rivers,  and  wells  or  springs  ;  it  is  scarcely 
ever  found  pure,  every  kind  being  more 
or  less  impregnated  either  with  saline, 
earthy,  or  mineral  substances.  River 
water  is  the  safest  to  drink ;  spring 
water,  which  has  often  to  be  drawn  from 
some  depth,  may  contain  earthy  sub- 
stances according  to  the  soil  it  has  passed 
through  ;  it  may  be  hard  or  soft,  sweet 
or  brackish,  clear  or  turbid.  The  water  of 
some  rivers,  at  certain  times,  is  thick  or 
muddy  ;  shallow  well  water  is  seldom  in 
a  pure  state,  and  such  water  should 
always  be  rejected,  unless  it  has  been 
purified  by  artificial  means,  as  it  may 
contain  some  soluble  substance  deleterious 
to  the  system.  Marsh  water  is  most 
injurious. 

The  health  of  the  soldiers  and  that  of  the 
cattle  belonging  to  an  army  is  to  a  great 
extent  dependent  on  the  purity  of  this 
element,  as  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the 
injurious  effect  upon  the  health  produced 
by  drinking  impure  water.  It  produces 
dysentery  and  diarrhoea,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered to  be  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
those  fearful  diseases  which  have  devas- 
tated armies  in  many  wars. 

The  greatest  attention  should  be  paid, 
therefore,  to  the  supply  of  water  before 
selecting  positions  for  encampments, 
either  permanent  or  temporary  ;  wells 
have  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 


and  river  water  to  be  first  sought  for.  If 
troops  are  in  cantonments,  drinking  water 
should  be  filtered,  and,  if  not  pure,  it 
should  be  boiled  and  then  placed  in 
shallow  vessels  and  poured  from  a  height 
from  one  into  another.  In  India  great 
attention  is  paid  to  this  subject,  as  im- 
pure water  is  known  to  bring  on  cholera 
and  to  predispose  the  body  to  this  disease 
when  it  is  prevalent. 

Sir  G.Wolseley,  in  his  'Soldier's  Pocket- 
book,'  gives  the  following  as  the  quantity 
of  water  required  per  man  for  drinking 
and  cooking  purposes : — "  It  may  be  put 
down  at  6  pints  in  temperate  and  8  pints 
in  tropical  climates.  A  similar  amount 
will  just  allow  men  to  wash  their  bodies. 
In  stationary  camps,  however,  the  mini- 
mum daily  allowance  per  man  should  be  5 
gallons  for  all  purposes,  washing  clothes 
included.  Horses  not  doing  work  will 
thrive  well  on  6  gallons  a  day,  but  re- 
quire from  8  to  12  when  at  work,  accord- 
ing to  their  condition  and  the  nature  of 
the  work.  A  couple  of  gallons  extra 
should,  under  all  circumstances,  be 
allowed  for  washing  them.  Oxen  require 
about  6  or  7  gallons  daily." 

Water  Barrels — Barrels  used  for  the 
conveyance  of  water  in  camps  or  canton- 
ments where  carts  are  not  at  hand.  They 
are  slung  by  means  of  two  poles  about 
5  feet  long. 

Water  Engine,  vide  Fire-engine. 

Water  Shell— A  common  shell  filled 
with  water,  having  a  gun-metal  cylinder 
screwed  into  it,  containing  J  oz.  of  gun- 
cotton.  This  nature  of  shell,  which 
receives  its  name  from  being  filled  with 
water  instead  of  gunpowder,  is  the  in- 
vention of  Mr.  Abel,  F.R.S.  The  experi- 
ments carried  on  with  this  shell  by  the 
committee  on  explosives,  a  few  years  ago, 
proved  it  to  be  a  valuable  invention ;  and 
this  has  been  further  confirmed  in  the 
artillery  practice  at  Okehampton  (in 
August  1875).  The  shells  so  filled  and 
fired,  as  compared  with  gunpowder,  show 
a  preponderance  of  destructiveness,  the 
water  shell  bursting,  as  was  shown,  into 
300  fragments ;  whereas  the  same  shell 
filled  with  gunpowder  only  split  into  30 
pieces.  The  mode  of  bursting  this  shell 
is  by  means  of  a  detonator  consisting  of 
dry  gun-cotton  (wet,  it  appears,  will 
answer  as  well),  enveloping  a  small  cap 


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of    fulminate    of   mercury    inserted    in 
the   apex  of  the  fuze    hole,  in    addition 
to    the    ordinary    fuze.      The    theory   of 
the  employment  of  water  as  the  disruptive 
agent  of  shells  is  explained  in  a  recent 
number    of  the   Times  as  being  "  based 
upon  its  power  of  transmitting  the  force 
developed  by  a  sudden  explosion  of  deto- 
nation, thus  bringing  it  into  operation  at 
the  same  instant  upon  every  part  of  the 
walls  of  the    shell."     Mr.  Abel,  in    his 
paper  on  "  The  Recent  History  of  Explo- 
sive Agents,"  states   that,  in  the  course 
of  the  trials  made  by  him  on  the  subject 
of    bursting    shells    with    water,    "  the 
detonative  effect  produced  by  small  deto- 
nating charges  when  exploded   in  shells  ' 
which  were  filled  up  with   water  and  en- 
tirely closed  was  proportionate,  not  simply  I 
to  the   amount  of  explosive  agent  used, 
but  also   to  the   suddenness  of  the   con-  , 
cussion   imparted    to    the  water  by  the 
explosion.     Thus,  O25  oz.  of  compressed 
gun-cotton,  detonated    in    a    shell   filled  ( 
with  water,  broke  it  up  into  nearly  eight  | 
times  the  number  of  fragments  obtained 
by   exploding    a  shell  of  the   same  kind  '. 
full  of  gunpowder  (viz.  containing  13  oz.).  j 
When  picric  powder,  which  is  also  a  very  , 
violent  explosive  agent,  though  much  less 
sudden   in  its    action,  was  detonated  in 
one  of  these  shells  in  the  same   way  as  | 
the  small  charge  of  gun-cotton,  1  oz.  (or  ! 
an  amount  four  times  greater  than  that 
employed  by  the  latter  substance)  burst 
the  shell  into  about  the  same  number  of 
fragments  as  were  produced  by  the  13  oz.  ; 
of  gunpowder   (instead  of   about    eight 
times   the   number),  produced  by  means 
of  0'25   oz.   of   gun-cotton."     But  even  ; 
more  striking  results  have  been  obtained  . 
on  this  point.      "  Thus,  a   16-pr.    shell, 
filled  with  about  16   oz.   of  gunpowder,  , 
was    broken    by    the    explosion    of    the 
charge  into    29    fragments.      The  deto- 
nation of  \  oz.  of  gun-cotton  confined  in  ' 
a  shell  of  precisely  the  same  construction 
and  weight,  the  chamber  being  filled  up 
with    water,    burst    the   shell    into    121 
fragments,    which    were    violently    dis- 1 
persed.     A  corresponding  charge  of  gun-  , 
cotton,  confined  in  a  third  similar  shell, 
filled  up  with   water,  broke  it  into  300 
fragments,  and    in    addition    there  were 
2  Ibs.  1  oz.  of  the  shell,  almost  pulverised 
by  the  force  of  the  explosion,  brought  to 


bear  upon  the  metal  through  the  agency 
of  the  confined  water.  These  results  are 
quite  conclusive  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  action  of  the  water  shell  is 
brought  about,  and  show  that  only  such 
a  brisk  explosive  as  gun-cotton,  or  dis- 
ruptive agents  of  similar  character,  would 
be  useful  as  a  bursting  charge  for  the 
water  shell." 

Water  Troughs — Pieces  of  wood  or 
stone  hollowed  out  longitudinally  on  the 
upper  side  for  cattle  to  drink  from. 

Water,  Velocity  of,  vide  River. 

Water-deck — -A  water-proof  covering 
for  the  valise,  either  made  of  india-rubber 
or  fine  oil-cloth. 

Watering-place  —  Any  place  selected 
in  a  camp  from  which  the  supply  of 
water  is  obtained  either  for  drinking, 
cooking,  washing,  or  bathing  purposes. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised,  when 
the  supply  is  obtained  from  running 
streams,  that  the  water  for  the  washing 
supply  does  not  run  into  the  water  for 
drinking.  The  points  where  water  for 
drinking  and  cooking  is  drawn  from, 
and  those  where  horses  and  cattle  are 
taken  to  be  watered,  should  be  well 
marked  out,  the  latter  being  below  the 
former,  and  again  below  this  the  place 
where  washing  and  bathing  is  carried  on. 
When  there  is  scarcity  of  water,  sentries 
are  posted  over  the  wells  or  streams  from 
which  it  is  drawn. 

Waterproof  Paper — Paper  that  has 
been  impregnated  with  a  solution  of  bees- 
wax dissolved  in  rectified  coal-tar  naphtha, 
in  the  proportion  of  2  Ibs.  of  wax  to  1 
gallon  of  the  solvent.  This  has  been  pro- 
posed by  Mr.  Abel,  F.R.S. 

The  waterproof  bags  for  Snider-Enfield 
rifle  ammunition  are  formed  of  two 
sheets  of  paper  made  perfectly  water- 
proof by  an  even  intermediate  layer  of 
india-rubber.  This  paper  is  cut  to  the 
size  required,  and  the  ends  and  sides 
joined  by  coating  the  overlaps  of  f  inch 
with  india-rubber  cement,  which,  when 
dry,  are  pressed  together  with  an  elastic 
roller. 

The  india-rubber  solution  is  composed 
of— 

Naphtha   ..          ..         98  J  Ibs. 
India-rubber         ..          21  £    „ 
and  the  cost  of  making  1000  of  these  bags 
is  estimated  at  £1  Os.  2d. 


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Waterproofing  Composition  —  That 
known  as  Abel's  composition  is  used  for 
rendering  canvas  waterproof.  When 
ready  for  use,  it  is  laid  on  the  canvas  with 
a  hard  brush  and  then  worked  in  with  a 
hot  iron. 

Wave  Action — In  gunnery,  is  a  name 
applied  to  the  abnormally  high  pressures 
which  are  found  to  occur  in  a  gun  when 
very  large  charges  are  used  ;  they  appear 
to  be  local,  and  do  not  give  increased 
velocity  to  the  shot. 

Waver,  To — To  hesitate  before  the 
enemy  under  a  withering  fire;  to  be 
undecided  whether  to  go  on  or  retreat. 
This  feeling  may  be  brought  about  from 
panic  seizing  the  troops,  or  from  loose 
formation,  causing  the  order  of  the  march 
to  be  desultory.  It  occurs,  sometimes, 
from  the  officer  in  command  hesitating  as 
to  his  future  movements. 

Wax — An  organic  product  of  con- 
siderable importance  ;  it  is  obtained  from 
different  sources,  the  chief  of  which  is  the 
bee-hive,  where  it  is  used  by  the  bees  in 
the  formation  of  their  cells.  The  charac- 
teristic properties  of  good  wax  are  its 
roughness  when  chewed,  its  non-adherence 
to  the  teeth,  and  its  fragrant  honey-like 
smell.  The  substances  generally  used  to 
adulterate  wax  are^  resin,  tallow,  and 
earth.  The  latter  may  be  detected  by 
melting  the  wax,  when  the  earth  will 
subside  to  the  bottom  as  it  cools, 
and  may  be  removed  with  a  knife. 
Tallow  may  be  inferred  when  the  wax 
breaks  smooth,  and  adheres  to  the  teeth 
when  chewed,  also  by  the  absence  of  the 
honey-like  smell.  Resin  may  be  detected 
by  putting  small  pieces  of  wax  in  spirits 
of  wine ;  the  resin  will  be  dissolved, 
leaving  the  wax  uninjured. 

When  the  wax  has  served  its  purpose 
in  the  domestic  economy  of  the  hive,  it  is 
collected  for  manufacturing  purposes,  and 
goes  through  a  certain  refining  process 
before  it  is  taken  to  the  market.  Bees- 
wax is  now  largely  used  as  an  ingre- 
dient in  lubricating  cartridges,  and  under- 
goes the  following  examination  before  it 
is  employed  for  this  purpose  : — 

"  Examination  of  Bees-wax  for 
Cartridges. 

"  Press  a  small  fragment  of  wax  re- 
peatedly between  the  first  finger  and 


thumb,  so  as  to  spread  it  down  the  latter. 
The  wax  should  curl  away  from  the 
thumb  as  the  finger  descends.  If  it  cling* 
tightly  to  the  thumb,  and  becomes  very 
soft  and  smeary,  the  adulteration  with 
some  description  of  fat  is  indicated.  This 
test,  though  very  crude,  is  sufficiently 
good  to  serve  for  the  detection  of  any 
considerable  adulteration  of  this  kind. 
A  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  pressed  upon 
a  piece  of  the  wax  (with  a  knife  or  rod, 
but  not  with  the  finger),  which  is  thus 
heated  gently  on  a  metal  service,  until  it 
begins  to  melt  at  the  edges,  should  exhibit 
no  change  of  colour  to  red.  Several  frag- 
ments of  wax  are  placed  in  a  wide  test 
tube  and  gradually  heated  (the  tube  being 
moved  in  and  out  of  the  rlame)  until  per- 
fectly melted.  The  wax  in  this  state 
should  be  quite  clear  and  transparent, 
and  free  from  mechanical  impurities. 
The  heat  should  be  applied  to  the  wax 
until  the  portion  of  the  tube  containing 
it  can  no  longer  be  touched  by  the  finger 
(the  temperature  being  about  220°  Fahr.). 
If  it  has  then  exhibited  no  signs  of  froth- 
ing, it  is  free  from  water.  If  much  of 
the  latter  be  present,  the  wax  will  begin 
to  froth  even  before  it  is  completely 
melted,  and  as  the  heat  is  raised,  a  crack- 
ling noise  will  be  noticed.  Water  may  be 
expelled  from  wax  by  maintaining  the 
latter  at  a  temperature  of  from  200°  to 
220°  Fahr.  until  frothing  ceases." 

Weapon — Any  instrument  of  offence  or 
defence.  (  Vide  Offensive  Weapons.) 

Web — A  material  used  in  a  saddle.  It 
is  made  of  coarse  canvas  9  inches  X  3  inches, 
nailed  across  the  two  side  bars.  Its  use  is  to 
prevent  the  seat  of  the  saddle  from  being 
pushed  up  by  the  peg  on  which  it  hangs. 

Web  made  of  pure  hemp  is  used  for 
girths,  man  harness,  and  for  cartridge 
cartouches. 

Wedge — In  mechanics,  one  of  the  six 
mechanical  powers.  It  is  commonly  used 
for  separating  bodies  which  are  strongly 
bound  or  pressed  together,  such  as  for 
cleaving  timber,  in  which  case  it  is  xirged 
by  percussion.  It  is  also  used  sometimes 
for  raising  heavy  bodies. 

Wedge  Gun — A  gun  in  general  con- 
struction similar  to  the  B.L.R.  guns 
of  the  service,  and  rifled  on  the  same 
principle,  so  as  to  fire  a  lead-coated  shot, 
but  the  method  of  closing  the  breech  is 
2  H 


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466 


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different  from  that  of  the  screw  and  vent- 
piece  gun.  It  is  thus  explained  in  Lieute- 
nant-Colonel Owen's  'Modern  Artillery  ' : 
— "  In  the  wedge  and  stopper  gun  a  slot 
passes  through  the  breech  from  side  to 
side,  and  the  parts  which  close  the  bore 
are  therefore  inserted  or  withdrawn  at 
the  side  of  the  piece,  instead  of  at  the 
top;  by  this  arrangement  the  gun  may 
be  loaded  more  rapidly,  and  with  much 
less  labour,  and  the  detachment  is  less 
exposed  than  with  the  screw  and  vent- 
piece  gun." 

The  wedge  guns  of  Sir  W.  Armstrong's 
manufacture  (40-pr.  and  64-pr.)  were  in- 
troduced into  the  service  in  consequence 
of  the  objection  urged  against  his  breech- 
screw  guns. 

Weights  and  Measures,  vide  Appen- 
dix M. 

Weights  of  Animals — An  elephant 
(including  his  load  of  13  cwt.)  weighs 
72  cwt. ;  of  which  four-tenths  is  borne 
on  the  hind  legs. 

The  weight  of  an  elephant  in  draft 
may  be  taken  as  66  cwt. 

A  camel :  average  weight,  1 5  cwt. ; 
this  includes  the  load,  4J  cwt. 

Pack  bullock :  average  weight,  5  5 
cwt.,  which  includes  the  load,  1£  cwt. 

A  cavalry  horse  with  rider  weighs 
nbout  1400  Ibs.  This  is  allowing  18 
stone  for  the  rider. 

Welding — Is  described  as  "  the  art  of 
joining  together  two  pieces  of  iron  by 
means  of  heat.  In  technical  language, 
this  is  called  shutting  together  or  shutting 
up.  The  operation  bears  some  resemblance 
to  what  in  carpentry  is  called  scarfing ; 
but  in  smith's  work,  the  joints,  also  called 
scarfs,  do  not,  from  the  adhesive  nature  of 
the  iron  when  raised  to  the  proper  tem- 
perature, require  any  accessories  answer- 
ing to  the  glue,  bolts,  straps,  and  pins, 
used  for  joining  wooden  beams  and  girders. 
In  joining  two  cylindrical  ends,  the  scarfs 
required  for  the  shut  are  made  by  up- 
setting or  thickening  the  iron  by  first 
hammering  its  extremities ;  it  is  then 
rudely  tapered  off  to  the  form  of  a  flight 
of  steps,  and  the  sides  are  slightly 
bevelled  or  pointed.  The  two  extremities 
are  next  raised  to  the  welding  heat,  when 
a  little  sand  is  sprinkled  upon  each  ;  this 
fuses  and  spreads  into  a  kind  of  varnish, 
which  defends  the  hot  metal  from  the 


oxidising  influence  of  the  air.  The  proper 
heat  has   been  attained   when    the    iron 
begins  to  burn  away  with  vivid  sparks. 
Two  men  then  take  each  one  piece,  strike 
them  forcibly  across  the  anvil  to  detach 
any   loose   cinders,  place    them  in    their 
true  positions  for  the  joint,  when  they 
are  united  by  two  or  three  blows  of  the 
•  fireman's  hammer,  and  his  assistant  com- 
pletes and  finishes  off  the  work  with  a 
i  sledge  hammer.     The  end  is  next  jumped 
i  upon  the    anvil  and  struck  endway,  to 
!  prove  the  soundness  of  the  joint,  or  to 
enlarge  the  part,  should  it  have  become 
reduced  in  size  by  the  welding." 

A  method  is  stated  to  have  been  lately 
discovered  of  welding  steel  to  iron.  The 
two  surfaces  to  be  welded  are  slightly 
wetted,  and  powdered  with  a  mixture  of 
1  part  of  dried  borax,  1  part  of  fine  iron 
filings,  and  J  part  of  prussiate  of  potash. 
The  pieces  of  iron  and  steel  are  then 
tightly  bound  together,  either  with  iron 
i  wire  or  by  other  means,  when  all  that 
i  remains  to  be  done  to  make  a  perfect 
j  weld  is  to  beat  them  to  a  temperature  of 
from  350°  and  400°  heat  (Fahr.),  and 
subject  them  to  blows  from  a  steam- 
hammer  and  pass  them  between  rolls. 
This  process,  it  is  stated  in  the  weekly 
paper,  the  Iron,  has  been  carried  out  in 
experiments  only. 

Werder  Rifle — A  breech-loading  rifle, 
with  which  the  army  of  Bavaria  is  armed. 
It  is  the  invention  of  Herr  Werder. 

This  rifle  is  described  as  a  block  arm 
(arme  a  bloc),  that  is,  with  a  movable 
breech  worked  transversely  in  a  metallic 
box,  contained  in  the  wood  between  the 
stock  and  the  butt. 

The  barrel  is  of  puddled  steel,  with  a 
calibre  of  0-43  inch ;  its  length  is  2-91 
feet,  and  that  of  the  rifled  part  2'72  feet. 
The  whole  length  of  the  rifle  is  4-26  feet ; 
with  sword-bayonet,  6'16  feet. 

Its  weight  is  9*31  Ibs.;  with  sword- 
bayonet,  11-22  Ibs. 

-  It  has  4  grooves,  with  a  depth  of 
0'012  inch;  the  twist  of  rifling  is  1  in 
30  inches.  The  cartridge  is  made  of 
metal,  and  arranged  for  central  fire.  Its 
weight  is  555  grains  ;  that  of  the  powder- 
charge,  66  grains,  and  of  the  bullet,  338'9 
grains. 

The  cavalry  carbine  is  constructed  on 
the  same  principle. 


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467 


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Bavaria  is  on  the  point  of  adopting  the 
Mauser  rifle,  in  order  to  obtain  uniformity 
in  the  armament  of  the  whole  of  the 
German  army.  In  the  meantime  the 
Werder  rifle  has  been  converted  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  enable  it  to  fire  a  Mauser 
cartridge.  This  conversion  does  not  alter 
in  any  way  the  principle  on  which  it  is 
constructed,  the  charge  of  powder  alone 
being  changed  from  66  grains  to  77,  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Mauser  cartridge,  so  as 
to  increase  the  tension  of  the  trajectory 
and  the  range.  The  sight  is  graduated  to 
1312  yards.  (Vide  Appendix  F.). 

Werndl  Eifle — A  breech-loading  rifle, 
the  arm  of  the  Austrian  army.  The 
following  is  a  description  of  this  arm. 
The  barrel  is  of  puddled  steel,  with 
a  calibre  of  0-43  inch ;  its  length  is 
2'S  feet,  and  that  of  the  rifled  part 
2-2  feet.  The  whole  length  of  the  rifle 
is  4-16  feet. 

Its  weight  is  9-87  Ibs. ;  with  sword- 
bayonet,  11-22  Ibs. 

It  has  6  grooves,  with  a  depth  of 
0-0071  inch;  twist  of  rifling,  1  in  28 
inches.  The  cartridge  is  arranged  for 
central  fire ;  it  is  made  of  tombac  (an 
alloy  of  93  parts  of  copper  and  7  of  zinc). 
Its  length  is  2-38  inches ;  weight,  494 
grains ;  that  of  the  powder-charge,  62  i 
grains,  and  of  the  bullet,  321  grains. 

In  1874  a  committee  was  appointed  to  ! 
carry  out  experiments  in  order  to  increase  ' 
the  ballistic  powers  of  this  rifle.  It  was 
decided  to  adopt  a  new  cartridge,  which 
would  give  the  required  range  and  pene- 
tration. This  new  cartridge  holds  a 
powder-charge  weighing  76  grains,  and  a 
bullet  weighing  386  grains.  Notwith- 
standing the  increase  in  the  weight  of 
the  bullet,  the  initial  velocity  is  the  same 
as  in  the  former  cartridge.  A  new  cart- 
ridge has  been  also  adopted  for  the 
Werndl  carbine ;  the  bullet  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  infantry  rifle,  and  the  weight 
of  the  powder-charge  is  40  grains.  (Vide 
Appendix  F.) 

Wet  Ditch,  vide  Ditch. 

Wheel — A  circular  frame  of  wood,  iron, 
or  other  metal,  consisting  of  a  nave  or 
hob,  into  which  spokes  are  inserted, 
which  sustain  a  rim  or  felly ;  or  a  solid 
circular  piece  of  wood  or  metal,  the  whole 
turning  on  an  axle.  The  wheel  and 
axle  constitutes  one  of  the  mechanical 


powers.  The  following  explanation  of 
the  ''  object,"  or  "  mechanical  advantage," 
of  a  wheel  is  given  in  the  'Treatise  on 
Military  Carriages,'  by  Captain  Kemmis, 
R.A.  :— 

"  With  regard  to  the  object  of  a  wheel ; 
suppose  a  carriage  had  not  wheels,  and 
in  that  condition  was  dragged  over  the 
ground,  in  sliding  over  the  surface,  much 
friction  would  be  developed,  resisting  the 
motion.  Let  the  carriage  be  placed  upon 
wheels,  and  instead  of  the  development  of 
friction  between  the  ground  and  the 
carriage,  there  will  be  friction  of  the 
axle-trees  upon  the  pipe-boxes,  but  very 
different  to  what  it  was  before.  For  in 
the  first  case  it  was  between  surfaces  over 
one  of  which  there  can  be  little  or  no 
control,  namely,  the  ground,  while  in  the 
second  case  it  is  between  surfaces  which 
can  be  varied  and  made  such,  as  to  mate- 
rial, that  the  friction  may  be  a  minimum 
and  be  still  more  reduced  by  the  employ- 
ment of  grease.  Further,  the  friction 
acts  with  less  power  at  the  axle-tree,  in 
the  proportion  of  the  radius  of  the  axle- 
tree  to  that  of  the  wheel.  We  learn 
therefore  that  the  primary  object  of  a 
wheel  is  to  remove  the  sliding  friction, 
which  would  otherwise  take  place  be- 
tween the  carriage  and  the  ground,  to 
the  axle-tree  arms,  where  it  is  under  con- 
trol, and  where  it  presents  a  minimum 
resistance  to  motion." 

The  wheels  of  artillery  and  other  car- 
riages are  composed  of  three  independent 
parts,  viz.  the  nave,  spokes,  and  felloes, 
which,  when  put  together,  form  the 
wheel,  and,  when  so  placed,  are  kept 
together  by  an  iron  ring  or  tire.  The 
several  parts  of  the  wheel  are  formed 
either  by  hand  or  by  machinery.  The 
tire,  which,  as  explained,  forms  a  band 
round  the  circumference  of  the  wheel, 
is  made  of  wrought  iron  |  inch  thick, 
and  is  3  inches  in  breadth  in  field 
carriages ;  the  pipe  or  nave  box  is  a 
truncated  cone,  divided  internally  into 
three  parts,  the  centre  of  greater  diameter 
than  the  others,  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing grease.  Wheels  for  artillery  light  field 
carriages  are  all  of  one  diameter,  viz.  5 
feet ;  and  the  wheels  of  ordinary  heavy 
gun-carriages  are  the  same,  but  the  limber 
wheels  are  only  4£  feet.  For  carriage- 
intended  to  move  more  slowly,  such  as 
2  n  2 


WHE 


468 


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sling  wagons,  they  are  from  7  to  11  feet. 
All  gun-wheels  have  what  is  termed  a 
"  dish,"  which  is  the  required  angle  with 
the  nave  at  which  the  spokes  of  the  wheel 
are  fastened  or  driven  into  it.  By  inserting 
the  spokes  at  this  angle,  a  hollowness  is 
formed  in  the  wheel,  the  spokes  not  being 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  on  which  the 
wheel  stands,  but  having  a  slope  outwards 
to  the  nave.  The  object  of  the  spokes  being 
thus  placed  is  to  strengthen  the  wheel 
against  lateral  (side)  pressure,  the  spokes 
at  this  particular  angle  forming  so  many 
props,  meeting  and  counteracting  the 
lateral  pressure,  and  as  the  wheel  revolves, 
each  spoke  in  its  turn  receives  the  weight 
of  the  carriage  perpendicularly.  The 
Madras  gun-metal  nave,  somewhat  modi- 
fied, has  been  introduced  into  the  service 
for  some  years  past,  and  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  heading  Nave  for  a  de- 
•  scription  of  it. 

Wheels,  as  shown  in  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Owen's  '  Modern  Artillery,'  are  divided 
into  four  classes — siege,  field,  general 
service,  and  naval  wheels ;  and  though 
there  are  several  wheels  in  each  class, 
differing  in  weight  and  diameter,  all  in  a 
class  have  the  same  pipe-box,  and  will 
therefore  fit  on  the  same  axle-tree  arms. 

Wheel,  To — A  movement  commonly 
made  by  troops.  It  consists  in  moving, 
forward  or  backward,  round  some  given 
point,  called  the  pivot,  which  may  either 
be  a  standing  or  a  movable  pivot.  Books 
on  drill  explain  how  the  several  wheel- 
ings are  performed. 

Wheel  Transport,  vide  Transport  of 
Troops. 

Wheelbarrow — A  very  useful  hand 
carriage  for  carrying  small  loads  of 
earth,  &c.  It  is  supported  on  two  legs, 
and  has  a  small  wheel  in  front;  it  is 
pushed  by  one  man. 

A  large  number  of  wheelbarrows  are 
attached  to  an  engineer  or  artillery  train. 

Wheelers — The  shaft  horses  of  a  gun- 
carriage.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
mechanics  of  a  battery  engaged  in  setting 
up  the  wheels  of  the  gun-carriages. 

Wheel-lock — The  mechanism  formerly 
attached  to  a  musket ;  it  was  the  first 
invention  for  discharging  small-arms 
without  the  aid  of  a  piece  of  match.  It 
may  be  said  to  be  the  origin  of  our  flint- 
luck.  It  was  an  improvement  on  the 


matchlock  or  arquebus,  and  was  invented 
at  Niirnberg  in  1517. 

Whip — A  small  single  tackle  ;  a  whip 
upon  ichip  consists  of  two  movable  blocks, 
one  of  which  is  applied  to  and  acts  upon 
the  running  end  of  the  fall  of  the  other. 

Whip,  To — In  artillery  exercise,  to 
whip  a  rope  is  to  tie  a  piece  of  twine 
round  the  end  to  prevent  the  strands  being 
laid  open. 

Whitworth  Gun — A  gun  invented  by 
Mr.  Whitworth.  His  original  gun  was 
made  of  wrought  iron,  having  his  well- 
known  hexagonal  rifling.  From  accounts 
given  of  this  gun,  it  appears  to  have 
combined  durability  with  length  of  range, 
accuracy,  and  penetration.  Lieutenant 
Simpson,  U.S.N.,  in  his  work  on  '  Naval 
Gunnery,'  published  some  years  ago, 
describes  it  as  follows  : — 

"The  method  of  rifling  adopted  by 
Mr.  Whitworth  consists  in  making  the 
bore  'of  the  gun  of  a  hexagonal  spiral 
form,  by  which  rotation  is  impressed 
upon  the  projectile  by  effective  rifling 
surfaces  instead  of  by  spiral  grooves  and 
the  non-effective  lands  of  a  cylindrical 
bore.  The  projectiles  being  of  the  same 
hexagonal  form  externally  as  the  bore  is 
internally,  and  no  forcing  process  re- 
quired, metals  of  all  degrees  of  hardness 
may  be  employed.  This  simple  mechani- 
cal principle  admits  of  application  to 
fire-arms  of  every  description,  provided 
they  are  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist 
the  strain  put  upon  them  by  the  rifling 
principle. 

"Mr.  Whitworth  first  applied  his 
system  to  rifle  muskets,  and  with  such 
success  as,  in  all  the  comparisons  made 
between  it  and  the  Enfield  rifle,  to  excel 
the  latter  in  accuracy  and  penetration. 

"The  great  strain  put  upon  a  gun 
rifled  in  the  ordinary  manner,  at  the 
instant  of  discharge,  is  occasioned  by  the 
force  exerted  upon  the  projectile  to  over- 
come its  natural  vis  inertia,  together 
with  the  force  required  to  cause  the  soft 
metal,  of  which  the  projectile  is  formed, 
or  with  which  it  must  be  coated,  to  enter 
into  the  grooves  of  the  bore :  whereas  by 
the  system  of  rifling  by  surfaces,  and  not 
by  grooves,  the  projectile,  not  being 
forced  into  another  form,  is  more  easily 
set  in  motion. 

"  Mr.  Whitworth  entirely  eschews  the 


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469 


WIL 


method  of  giving  a  gaining  twist  to  the 
spiral  of  the  bore,  as  obviously  dangerous, 
by  causing  increasing  strains  upon  the 
gun  in  the  chase  and  at  the  muzzle,  just 
where  the  diminishing  thickness  of  metal 
in  the  gun  requires  relief;  and  to  which 
malformation  of  the  Lancaster  gun  may 
be  attributed  the  frequent  burstings  of 
that  gun  at  or  near  the  muzzle,  which 
occurred  in  numerous  experimental  trials, 
and  subsequently  happened  on  service  at 
the  attack  of  Sebastopol,  where,  on  one 
occasion,  the  whole  muzzle  of  a  gun  was 
blown  off  by  the  increasing  strains  thus 
put  on  it ;  having  got  rid  of  which  weak 
part,  the  gun  continued  to  be  used  with 
safety  and  effect  as  a  howitzer. 

"  The  ball  presents  many  surfaces  and 
points  calculated  to  interfere  with  its 
accuracy  of  flight  through  the  air  ;  it  is 
to  overcome  this  that  such  a  rapid  motion 
of  rotation  is  communicated  to  the  ball ; 
an  idea  of  the  rapidity  of  this  motion 
may  be  formed  by  noticing  the  measure 
of  twist  in  the  3-pr.,  the  piece  from  which 
the  most  wonderful  results  have  been 
obtained.  In  this  piece,  we  have  one 
turn  in  3  feet  4  inches,  and  as  the  piece 
itself  is  only  6  feet  in  length,  the  ball  is 
required  to  make  nearly  two  entire 
revolutions  before  leaving  the  bore  ;  in 
spite  of  the  great  strain  that  is  thus 
brought  upon  the  gun,  it  is  said  to  be 
rery  strong,  and  the  3-pr.  has  been  fired 
fifteen  hundred  times,  chiefly  at  high 
elevations,  without  the  gun  exhibiting 
any  injury  or  signs  of  wear. 

"  The  Whitworth  field  gun  is  a  breech- 
loading  piece ;  the  arrangement  by 
which  the  breech  is  closed  consists  of  a 
cap  screwed  on  externally ;  this  cap 
works  in  an  iron  hoop,  jointed  to  a  pro- 
jection at  the  side  of  the  breech,  and 
which,  when  returned  to  its  proper  place, 
is  screwed  externally  to  the  breech  piece. 
The  shot  is  first  put  into  the  gun  through 
the  breech,  then  the  powder  in  a  tin  case 
filling  exactly  into  the  hexagonal  bore 
of  the  gun,  having  a  lubricating  wad 
attached  to  the  forepart  of  it,  which  at 
each  discharge  sponges  out  the  gun,  the 
tin  case  remaining  in  the  chamber  ;  the 
door  is  then  closed,  when  the  cap-screw 
fits  on  to  its  place,  and  three  turns  of  the 
screw  handle  screw  it  on  to  the  piece.  The 
vent  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  breech  piece. 


"  The  Whitworth  guns  are  all  made  in 
masses  of  '  homogeneous  '  thin  iron,  and 
bored  out  of  the  solid.  The  large  guns  are 
strengthened  by  wrought-iron  hoops 
applied  by  hydraulic  pressure.  The  pro- 
jectiles are  simple,  uncoated,  hard  metal 
bolts  of  various  shapes,  according  to  the 
purpose  for  which  they  are  employed. 
They  are  all  made  by  self-acting  machi- 
nery, and  so  nicely  shaped  that  their 
bearing  surfaces  fit  with  the  utmost 
exactitude,  the  rifling  principle  being 
executed  by  the  machinery  in  the  work- 
shop, and  not  produced  by  the  explosion 
in  the  gun.  For  firing  through  soft 
substances  and  into  masonry,  tubular 
projectiles  are  employed ;  for  piercing 
thick  plates  of  wrought-iron,  flat-fronted 
projectiles,  made  of  homogeneous  iron, 
are  used.  For  ordinary  practice,  and 
where  length  of  range  is  important,  the 
fore  part  of  the  projectile  is  made  to  taper 
slightly,  the  front  being  rounded  off,  and 
the  rear  part  is  made  nearly  to  corre- 
spond with  the  fore  with  regard  to  the 
degree  of  taper,  but  its  end  is  flattened, 
and  sometimes  slightly  hollowed  out.  In 
the  Whitworth  gun,  projectiles  of  any 
length,  and  charges  of  powder  of  any 
amount,  may  be  employed.  It  is  said 
that  the  Whitworth  3-pr.  fired  off  ten 
shots,  placed  one  on  another ;  and  that  a" 
projectile  ten  diameters  in  length  was 
fired  from  a  howitzer  rifled  according  to 
the  Whitworth  system,  without  injury 
to  the  gun." 

Mr.  (now  Sir  J.)  Whitworth's  system  of 
rifling  is  applied  to  both  his  breech-  and 
muzzle-loading  guns.  His  mode  of  treat- 
ing steel  by  compression  renders  his  guns 
strong  and  enduring,  and  the  method  of 
closing  the  breech  appears  to  be  all  that 
could  be  desired. 

Wicket — A  small  door  in  the  gate  of  a 
fortified  place,  affording  a  free  passage  to 
and  fro,  without  opening  the  great  gate. 

Will — A  testament  of  any  individual, 
giving  instructions  as  to  the  disposal  of 
his  or  her  property  or  effects. 

Soldiers   making  their  wills  while    in 

hospital  should,  when  practicable,  get  the 

medical  officer  to  witness  their  signature, 

|  and  he  is  to  affix  a  declaration  to  such 

i  will,  stating  whether  the  parties  were  in 

a  fit  state  of  mind  at  the  time  to  execute 

the  same. 


WIN 


470 


WIT 


Wind  of  a  Shot — Wind  arising  from  a 
shot  passing  close  to  the  body,  causing  con- 
tusion, without  the  flesh  being  turned  or 
struck  ;  this  occurrence  has  led  to  many 
speculations  as  to  its  real  cause.  That 
such  contusions  do  take  place  is  un- 
doubted, but  whether  from  the  cause  ex- 
plained may  perhaps  be  disputed.  The 
true  explanation  of  the  cases  formerly 
attributed  to  the  wind  of  a  shot  appears 
to  rest,  according  to  recent  views,  in 
the  peculiar  direction  of  the  shot,  the 
degree  of  obliquity  with  which  the  missile 
impinges  on  the  elastic  skin,  together 
with  the  situation  of  the  structures 
injured  beneath  the  surface,  relatively 
to  the  weight  and  momentum  of  the  ball 
on  one  side,  and  hard  resisting  substances 
on  the  other.  See  Longmore's  article  on 
"  Gun-shot  Wounds  "  in  Holme's  '  System 
of  Surgery,'  vol.  ii.  pp.  18-20,  where  the 
subject  is  fully  discussed. 

Windage — In  artillery,  the  difference 
between  the  diameter  of  the  shot  and  that 
of  the  bore.  This  definition,  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Owen  says,  has  been  objected  to, 
and  he  defines  it  as  being  strictly  the 
difference  between  the  area  of  a  section 
of  the  bore  at  right  angles  to  its  axis 
and  the  area  of  a  great  circle  of  the  shot. 
The  windage  allowed  for  smooth-bore 
ordnance  in  the  British  service  is  •!  inch 
in  light  guns ;  -125  to  '233  inch  in 
heavy  guns ;  '08  inch  in  heavy  M.L.R. 
guns;  -16  inch  in  13-inch  and  10-inch 
mortars.  Windage  in  a  muzzle-load- 
ing gun  is  necessary — (1)  that  the  pro- 
jectile may  enter  the  piece  easily,  and 
that  the  service  of  the  gun  may  never 
be  interrupted  by  jamming;  (2)  to 
allow  of  the  expansion  of  the  shot  when 
heated ;  ( 3)  to  admit  of  the  use  of  a 
time  fuze,  which  is  ignited  by  the  flash 
of  discharge. 

Windgall — In  veterinary  practice,  an 
abnormal  enlargement  from  overwork  of 
the  little  sacs  containing  fluids,  destined 
to  lubricate  the  complicated  tendons  of  the 
leg.  It  was  so  called  from  a  former 
erroneous  notion  that  it  contained  air. 
Ilemedy,  in  bad  cases,  bandage  with 
ointment ;.  in  severe  cases,  fire.  This 
complaint  was  formerly  very  common 
from  bad  shoeing. 

Windlass — An  axle  or  roller  of  wood, 
square  at  each  end,  through  which  either 


cross-holes  are  pierced  for  handspikes,  or 
staves  are  fixed  crossways  to  turn  it 
round  ;  as  it  revolves,  it  draws  a  cord  or 
chain,  one  end  of  which  is  attached  to  a 
weight,  which  is  thus  raised  from  any 
depth. 

Windsor  Castle  — Among  the  forti- 
fied places  of  England  in  days  gone  by, 
Windsor  Castle  held  a  conspicuous  place. 
Before  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
Old  Windsor,  about  two  miles  distant 
from  the  site  of  the  present  castle,  was 
not  a  fortress,  but  a  palace  for  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  monarchies.  The  present  castle  is 
stated  to  have  been  built  by  William  I., 
and  to  have  been  regularly  fortified  by 
him.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  history 
of  the  existing  castle  begins  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.  Historians  have  dealt 
with  the  various  associations  of  the  spot. 
Her  Majesty  makes  it,  at  different  times, 
her  residence. 

Wing  Officer — An  officer  of  the  Indian 
army  attached  to  a  wing  of  a  native 
infantry  regiment.  On  the  reorganisation 
of  the  above  army,  after  the  Indian 
mutiny  (1857-58),  native  regiments  were 
divided  into  two  wings,  to  each  of  which 
a  wing  officer  was  appointed,  either  a  field 
officer  or  a  captain. 

Wings — The  two  flanks  or  extremes 
of  any  portion  of  an  a*rmy  or  any  body  of 
troops  on  the  right  and  the  left  of  the 
centre. 

The  term  wing  is  sometimes  used  to 
denote  the  branch  of  a  crown-work,  &c. 

Wire — A  metallic  substance  drawn  to 
an  even  thread.  It  is  produced  by 
passing  the  metal  through  draw-plates 
of  specific  sizes  until  it  attains  the  re- 
quisite thickness. 

Wire  Entanglement,  vide  Entangle- 
ment. 

Withes— Twisted  rods  for  securing  the 
web  of  a  gabion. 

Witnesses — Persons,  civil  or  military, 
who  are  summoned  before  a  court-martial 
by  the  judge  advocate-general  or  his 
deputy,  or  the  person  officiating  in  that 
capacity,  to  give  evidence  on  facts  with 
which  they  are  personally  acquainted 
from  having  been  present  and  having  wit- 
nessed the  circumstances  they  are  called 
upon  to  speak  to.  Witnesses  are  examined 
on  oath,  except  such  as  by  law  are  per- 
mitted to  make  a  solemn  affirmation. 


WOB 


471 


WOO 


The  following  is  extracted  trom  '  Ele- 
mentary Lectures  on  Military  Law,'  by 
Captain  Tulloch: — "A  witness  is  first 
examined  by  the  party  producing  him  ; 
this  examination  is  termed  the  examina- 
tion in  chief;  he  is  then  cross-examined 
by  the  adverse  party ;  he  may  then  be 
re-examined  on  such  fresh  matter  as  may 
have  been  elicited  by  the  cross-examina- 
tion, and  finally  the  court  puts  such 
questions  as  they  may  deem  expedient. 

"  In  the  examination  of  witnesses,  lead- 
ing questions,  viz.  questions  that  suggest 
their  own  answers,  are  inadmissible,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  questions  which  are 
purely  introductory. 

"  The  general  rule  is  that  a  witness 
can  only  be  examined  as  to  facts  which 
he  personally  recollects,  and  which  be- 
come known  to  him  by  the  evidence  of 
his  senses,  but  he  may  give  evidence  as 
to  his  belief  of  the  identity  of  a  person, 
or  as  to  handwriting  being  the  writing  of 
a  particular  individual,  although  he  will 
not  swear  positively  to  the  facts." 

In  the  above  work  will  be  found  a  de- 
tail of  the  position  of  witnesses,  and  what 
they  are  permitted  to  say  or  do  before  a 
court-martial. 

Wobbling — The  unsteady  motion  of 
an  elongated  projectile  through  the  air, 
caused  probably  by  uneven  resistance, 
due  to  a  certain  variable  motion  in  the 
axis  of  the  projectile. 

This  unsteadiness  may  be  caused  either 
by  insufficient  rotation  being  communi- 
cated in  the  bore  of  the  gun,  or  by  the 
subsequent  action  of  the  air,  the  pressure 
of  which  causes  an  instability  of  rotation, 
and  thus  an  irregularity  in  the  amount 
of  surface  which  the  projectile  presents 
to  the  air. 

Wooden  Bottoms,  vide  Sabot. 

Wooden  Horse,  Eiding  the,  vide  Riding 
the  Wooden  Horse. 

Woods — Any  place  planted  with  trees. 
Woods,  in  warfare,  are  very  advantageous 
as  points  cCappui;  the  glades  can  be 
made  use  of  to  assemble  troops,  and 
thus  conceal  their  movements  from  the 
enemy,  and  the  skirts  form  a  continuous 
line  of  shelter,  where  a  few  skirmishers 
can  easily  keep  a  larger  body  of  troops  in 
check.  (  Vide  Reconnaissance.) 

Woolding  or  Packing  Hitch — A  knot 
for  tightening  a  rope.  It  is  used  to 


secure  a  load  on  a  carriage,  so  firmly,  that 
it  may  travel  without  loosening.  A  stick, 
called  the  woolder,  is  used  in  the  opera- 
tion of  tightening  the  knot. 

Woolwich  —  A  town  situated  in  the 
county  of  Kent,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Thames.  It  is  the  seat  of  England's  great 
!  arsenal,  and  contains  within  it  the  only 
government  gun  factory  in  the  country  ; 
it  is  also  the  head-quarters  of  the  royal 
regiment  of  artillery.  Woolwich  forms 
the  8th  military  district,  and  has  no  other 
command  than  the  garrison  itself,  in- 
cluding the  arsenal  and  all  the  other  esta- 
blishments connected  with  that  arm  of 
the  service.  The  Woolwich  Arsenal  was 
formed  about  the  year  1720,  and  has 
grown  up  into  a  first-class  establishment, 
having  within  it  a  gun  foundry,  as  shown 
above,  in  which  all  guns  used  for  the 
armament  of  land  and  naval  artillery  are 
manufactured,  a  carriage  department,  a 
laboratory  for  experiments,  a  small-  arm 
factory,  a  factory  for  casting  shot  and 
shell ;  the  ordnance  select  committee 
carry  on  their  proceedings  there.  The 
gun  factory  is  capable  of  producing  guns 
in  weight  amounting  to  about  6000  tons 
per  annum,  of  various  calibres.  The 
number  of  workmen  (all  civilians)  for 
whom  employment  can  be  daily  found 
amounts  to  1600 ;  but  the  number  of  men 
actually  employed  depends  on  the  work  to 
be  done. 

The  time  required  for  the  manufacture 
of  wrought-iron  muzzle-loading  rifled 
guns  is  generally  one  week  for  each  inch 
of  calibre.  Thus  a  7-inch  gun  requires 
about  seven  weeks  to  manufacture  it  up 
to  proof.  The  12J-inch  38-ton  gun  and 
the  16-inch  81-ton  gun  are  exceptions  to 
this  rule,  and  require  longer  time  per  inch 
of  calibre.  A  single  gun,  however,  could 
not  be  made  in  the  time  named,  as  this 
rule  is  based  on  the  assumption  that  the 
guns  are  manufactured  in  numbers. 

The  different  departments  in  the  arse- 
nal are  each  presided  over  by  an  officer 
of  artillery,  assisted  by  officers  of  that 
branch  of  the  service,  under  the  surveyor- 
general  of  ordnance. 

Woolwich  is,  besides,  the  seat  of  the 
Royal  Military  Academy,  for  the  training 
of  officers  for  the  artillery  and  engineers, 
and  the  principal  centre  of  scientific  and 
practical  instruction  for  gunners. 


woo 


472 


WOR 


Woolwich  Gun — A  gun  rifled  on  the 
French  system,  with  this  modification, 
that  the  grooves  are  shallower,  and  have 
their  corners  rounded  off. 

The  present  7-,  9-,  10-,  11-,  12- and  121- 
inch  guns,  made  of  wrought- iron  coils 
with  steel  tubes,  are  rifled  after  this 
system,  with  three  or  more  grooves,  ac- 
cording to  the  calibre  of  the  piece ;  the 
practice  from  these  guns,  as  well  as  their 
endurance  and  penetration,  has  been  most 
satisfactory ;  the  7-inch  gun  especially 
being  a  great  success  as  regards  its 
shooting  qualities.  (  Vide  Appendix  B.) 

Woolwich  Infant — The  name  given  to 
the  M.L.R.  35-ton  and  38-ton  guns,  which 
form  part  of  the  armament  of  the  service, 
more  especially  for  the  navy. 

Experiments  with  the  35-ton  gun,  of 
12-inch  calibre,  as  tabulated  by  Captain 
Noble,  R.A.,  and  showing  the  capabilities 
of  this  gun  with  the  service  charge  of 
powder  (100  Ibs.  of  pebble  powder)  and  a 
700-lb.  shot,  are  herewith  given. 

With  the  ordinary  backing  of  hard 
wood,  added  to  the  thickness  of  the  iron 
target,  at  200  yards  range,  the  pro- 
jectile can  be  sent  through  15  inches  of 
iron  ;  at  500  yards,  through  14  inches  (the 
thickness  of  the  Devastation  turret);  at 
1700  yards,  through  12  inches  ;  at  2600 
yards,  through  11  inches;  at  4000  yards, 
through  9  inches,  and  at  4500  yards, 
through  8  inches.  Thus,  at  a  range  of 
over  3  miles,  a  shell  \  ton  in  weight  can 
be  made  to  pierce  the  sides  of  some  of 
the  heaviest  ironclads  in  the  navy.  The 
dimensions  of  this  gun  are  as  follows : — 
Length  ..  ..  15  feet  llf  inches 

Tons  cwt.  qrt. 

Average  weight   of  gun          34     15     0 
Preponderance       ..          ..       0       11 

Inches. 

Length  of  bore      ..          ..  162-5 

Length  of  rifling  ..          ..  135 

Calibre 12 

Rifling  (Woolwich),  No.  of 

grooves  ..  ..  ..  9 

Twist  increasing  from  0  at  breech  to   1 

turn  in  30  calibres  at  muzzle. 

The  guns  of  this  calibre  hitherto  made 
are  specially  for  sea  service,  and  are 
intended  for  turrets.  The  vent  enters 
the  bore  at  12  inches  from  the  bottom  of 
the  chamber,  forming  an  angle  of  45° 


with  the  vertical   plane  passing  through 
the  axis  of  the  piece. 

The  38-ton  gun  is  built  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  one  just  described ;  its 
calibre  is  12.^  inches;  charge, about  130  Ibs. 
of  either  pebble  powder  or  a  powder  made 
specially  for  a  gun  of  this  size ;  weight 
of  shot,  800  Ibs. ;  initial  velocity,  about 
1400  feet  per  second.  An  81-ton  gun  has 
also  lately  been  manufactured  and  sub- 
jected to  proof;  its  dimensions  are  as 
follows : — 


Length 

Length  of  bore 

Calibre 

Diameter  of  chamber 


27  feet. 
24     „ 

15  inches. 

16  , 


The  early  tests  with  this  gun  were 
with  charges  increasing  from  170  Ibs.  to 
over  300  Ibs.  The  weight  of  the  shot  used 
during  these  trials  varied  from  1254  Ibs. 
to  1466  Ibs.  The  gun  is  now  being  bored 
throughout  to  16  inches. 

The  energy  of  the  gun  was  ascertained 
to  be  fully  24,000  foot-tons,  and  the 
velocity  of  the  shot  was  over  1500  feet 
per  second.  It  is  capable  of  penetrating 
a  24-inch  iron  plate. 

Woordie-Major — The  native  adjutant 
of  an  Indian  irregular  cavalry  regiment- 
Work — The  work  performed  by  any 
force  is  measured  by  the  product  of  the 
force  into  the  space  through  which  it  is 
exerted.  In  England,  the  unit  of  work  is 
called  the  foot-pound,  and  is  that  which 
is  performed  in  raising  a  poundweight, 
in  opposition  to  gravity,  to  a  height  of 
1  foot.  The  work  required  to  raise  5  Ibs. 
to  a  height  of  10  feet,  therefore,  is  50 
foot-pounds.  (  Vide  Energy.) 

Work  Done — In  gunnery,  as  explained 
by  Captain  (now  General)  Boxer,  denotes 
a  certain  pressure  exerted  through  a 
certain  distance.  It  is  measured  by  the 
product  of  the  pressure,  and  the  distance 
through  which  this  pressure  acts ;  the 
element  time  does  not  necessarily  enter 
into  the  expression. 

Working  Parties — Men  told  off  from 
each  regiment,  when  necessary,  to  carry 
out  work  in  and  about  a  camp  as  may 
be  ordered  by  the  general  for  the  safety 
of  the  camp,  such  as  throwing  up  works, 
clearing  the  camp,  levelling  trees,  &c., 
indeed,  all  work  where  the  use  of  the 
spade  and  pickaxe  is  as  essential  as  that 


WOK 


473 


WUR 


of  the  rifle  and  bayonet.  Such  duties  do  not 
entitle  officers  or  men  to  working  pay  or 
any  other  remuneration.  The  Queen's 
Regulations,  however,  state  that  when 
men  are  employed  as  artificers  or  la- 
bourers on  permanent  military  works, 
public  roads,  &c.,  they  may  be  granted  a 
working  pay  in  addition  to  their  ordinary 
military  pay. 

Works — In  fortification,  all  work  done 
to  fortify  a  position,  or  for  the  attack  or 
defence  of  a  fortified  place. 

Works  are  either  permanent  or  field ; 
the  latter  are  enclosed  or  open,  according 
as  their  parapet  does  or  does  not  entirely 
surround  the  site  occupied.  Kedoubts 
and  forts  are  called  enclosed,  redans  and 
lunettes  open  works. 

Worship  —  The  act  of  paying  divine 
honour  to  the  Supreme  Being.  The  Ar- 
ticles of  War  enjoin  on  all  officers  and 
soldiers  the  necessity  of  attending  at 
divine  service,  according  to  the  persuasion 
of  each.  Without  just  impediment,  no 
officer  or  soldier  can  absent  himself  from 
the  place  appointed  for  the  assembling  of 
the  corps  to  which  he  belongs,  or,  when 
there,  behaving  himself  in  an  indecent  or 
irreverent  manner,  without  rendering 
himself  liable  to  be  tried  by  a  court- 
martial.  The  Queen's  Regulations  direct 
that  an  officer  is  to  march  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Presbyterian  soldiers  to 
church  when  their  number  shall  exceed 
20  ;  under  that  number,  the  men  will  be 
in  charge  of  a  sergeant.  The  officer  or 
sergeant  is  to  remain  with  his  men  during 
the  performance  of  the  service. 

Worsted — Defeated  ;  overthrown  ;  put 
to  the  rout. 

Wound,  A — The  breaking  of  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  parts  of  the  body.  Wounds 
are  caused  either  from  gun-shot,  bullets, 
or  from  arme  blanche;  some  are  of  a  simple 
nature,  and  are  termed  slight  wounds. 
Those  of  a  complicated  nature  are  termed 
bad  wounds,  and  men  so  wounded  are 
said  to  be  badly  wounded.  Some  wounds 
may  become  mortal ;  hence  the  term 
mortally  wounded,  that  is,  where  death  is 
inevitable.  A  record  of  a  soldier's  wounds 
is  to  be  inserted  in  his  discharge  certifi- 
cate, and  an  .entry  of  them  made  in  his 
pocket-ledger. 

Wounded — Such  officers  and  soldiers  of 
an  army  as  have  been  maimed  or  hurt  in 


action.  For  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
wounded,  vide  Ambulance ;  also,  Sick  and 
Wounded. 

Wrench — An  instrument  for  screwing 
or  unscrewing  iron  work.  The  general 
service  knock-up  wrench  consists  of  two 
claws  and  a  bar,  the  upper  one  formed 
in  one  piece  with  the  bar  and  the  lower 
one  sliding ;  the  latter  is  fixed  at  any 
required  distance  from  the  upper  by 
means  of  an  iron  wedge. 

Wrought  Iron — A  metal  obtained  from 
cast  iron  by  burning  out  the  impurities 
in  the  process  of  "  puddling  "  ;  by  rolling 
or  drawing  it  out  under  a  hammer,  it  is 
\  given  a  fibrous  structure,  the  fibre  run- 
ning along  the  bar  just  as  the  fibre  of 
wood  runs  along  the  stem  and  branches 
of  a  tree.  Wrought  iron  is  valuable  as  a 
gun  material,  on  account  of  its  compara- 
tively high  tenacity,  combined  with  its 
malleability  and  ductibility.  Should  the 
!  elastic  limit  be  exceeded  and  the  iron 
become  permanently  extended,  the  two 
latter  properties  come  into  play,  and  give 
a  large  margin  of  extension  before  the 
limit  of  tenacity  is  reached  and  the  metal 
breaks.  For  this  reason,  it  is  preferred  to 
steel  for  the  outer  coils  of  guns. 

Wurst  or  Car  Battery — A  kind  of 
carriage  used  by  the  French,  in  1791,  with 
the  view  of  improving  the  mobility  of  field 
batteries.  As  described  by  Captain  Hime, 
R.A.,  F.R.S.,  in  his  lecture  before  the  Royal 
Artillery  Institution  at  Woolwich,  the 
"  wurst "  was  a  two-wheeled  ammunition 
carriage  resembling  in  a  general  way  an 
Irish  jaunting-car  ;  the  gunners  sitting 
in  two  rows  facing  outwards,  with  the 
ammunition  between  them.  Besides  the 
danger  incurred  in  bringing  these  cars 
under  fire,  they  had  another  objection, 
that  of  constantly  upsetting  on  the 
slightest  inequality  of  ground  or  obstacle 
coming  in  the  way. 

Car  carriages  were  adopted  in  the 
English  artillery  in  1803,  but  after  a  few 
years  were  discarded.  Their  use  led  to 
the  introduction  of  a  better  sort  of  am- 
munition carriage,  the  want  of  such  being 
felt  by  the  officers  of  the  artillery. 

The  ammunition  carriage  thus  intro- 
duced was  on  four  wheels,  and  similar  to 
our  present  ammunition  wagon. 


YAH 


474 


YIE 


Y. 


Yard — A-  measure  of  3  feet.  The 
English  standard  yard  of  1760,  lodged  in 
the  custody  of  the  Clerk  of  the  House  of 
Commors,  is  made  the  standard  or  unit 
for  all  measures  of  extension  whatsoever, 
and  Jg  of  such  yard  =  1  inch. 

Yarn — Wool,  cotton,  flax,  &c.  spun 
into  thread.  It  is  used  sometimes  in 
binding  fascines.  Its  quality  is  expressed 
in  English  by  numbers  denoting  the  num- 
ber of  hanks  in  a  poundweight  (avoir- 
dupois); reckoning  the  length  of  the 
hank  of  cotton  yarn  at  84:0  yards,  or  7 
lengths  of  120  yards  each. 

Year,  Sidereal  —  The  time  occupied 
by  the  earth  in  moving  in  its  orbit,  or  ap- 
parently the  sun  in  the  ecliptic,  from  a 
determinate  point  in  relation  to  any  fixed 
star  to  the  same  point  again ;  it  consists 
of  365  days,  6  hours,  9  minutes,  12 
seconds. 

Year,  Solar  or  Tropical  —  The  time 
taken  by  the  earth  in  moving  in  its  orbit, 
or  apparently  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic, 
from  one  equinox  or  tropic  to  the  same 
again ;  it  consists  of  365  days,  5  hours, 
48  minutes,  49  seconds. 

Yeomen  of  the  Guard  —  Popularly 
known  as  the  Beef-eaters;  a  term  de- 
rived from  the  French  beuuffetier,  "  an 
officer  appointed  to  watch  the  buffet,  or 
sideboard,  partially  derived  from  the 
circumstance  that  some  of  them  origi- 
nally were  ranged  at  table  on  solemn 
festivals."  They  form  a  body  of  old  sol- 
diers, 100  strong,  employed  about  the 
person  of  the  sovereign  on  great  or  state 
occasions,  in  conjunction  with  the  gentle- 
men-at-arms. 

The  yeomen  of  the  guard  were  consti- 
tuted a  corps  in  1485  by  Henry  VII. ;  they 
wear  the  clothing  of  the  period  of  Henry 
VIII.  The  officers  of  the  corps  are  a 
captain  (ordinarily  a  peer),  a  lieutenant, 
an  ensign,  and  four  exons.  There  is  also 
a  "  clerk  of  the  cheque  and  adjutant." 


Yeomanry — The  collective  body  of 
yeomen  or  freeholders  possessing  land  of 
their  own.  The  yeomanry  owes  its  origin 
to  the  time  when,  during  the  revolutionary 
wars  of  France,  England  was  threatened 
with  an  invasion  from  that  country. 
It  comprised,  then,  infantry  as  well  as 
cavalry,  but  after  the  peace  of  1814  the 
infantry  portion  and  many  of  the  cavalry 
corps  were  disbanded.  What  is  now  known 
as  the  yeomanry  cavalry  of  Great  Britain 
is  chosen  from  among  the  gentlemen  and 
yeomen  of  each  county.  They  are  vo- 
lunteers, but  are  liable  to  be  called  out 
in  aid  of  the  civil  power.  They  receive 
an  allowance  of  £2  per  man  per  annum 
from  the  government  for  clothing ;  they 
are  provided  with  arms,  but  each  man 
has  to  feed  his  own  horse,  except  during 
the  annual  training  time,  when  he  re- 
ceives 2s.  a  day  for  forage  and  a  subsist- 
ence allowance  of  7s.  a  day.  In  case  of 
invasion,  or  a  threatening  of  invasion, 
they  would  have  to  assemble  for  actual 
]  service,  and  be  liable  to  be  sent  to  any 
part  of  Great  Britain,  and,  while  so 
embodied,  would  then  be  subject  to  the 
Articles  of  War. 

The  constitution  of  the  yeomanry  is 
regulated  by  44  George  III.  cap.  54  (Vo- 
lunteers Act  of  1804)  and  the  Yeomanry 
Regulations  of  1864. 

The  yeomanry  is  organised  into  local 
troops  ;  no  troop  to  consfst  of  less 
than  40  or  more  than  100  men  ;  regi- 
ments to  consist  of  4  to  8  troops.  The 
regular  army  provides  an  adjutant  for 
each  regiment  and  a  drill  sergeant  for 
each  troop.  The  troopers  are  not  enrolled 
for  a  certain  number  of  years,  but  are 
able  to  quit  at  any  time  on  14  days' 
notice.  In  many  regiments,  however, 
they  bind  themselves  to  serve  3  years, 
under  a  penalty  of  £5.  Each  yeoman  is 
required  to  attend,  yearly,  9  drills,  and 
recruits  12 drills;  they  then  receive  each 
day  2s.  per  man,  and  Is.  4d.  per  horse. 

They  assemble  on  permanent  pay  and 
duty  6  days  in  the  year,  and  receive  7s. 
a  day  to  cover  every  expense.  When  so 
assembled,  they  are  subject  to  the  Mu- 
tiny Act. 

The  yeomanry  form  42  corps  of  233 
troops ;  total  number  about  15,000.  (  Vide 
Appendix  F.) 

Yield,  To,  vide  Surrender,  To. 


YOK 


475 


ZON 


Yokes  —  Consist  of  two  wooden  bars, 
an  upper  and  lower  bar  connected  by 
two  iron  rods,  at  a  distance  equal  to  the 
depth  of  the  largest-sized  bullock's  neck, 
and  about  a  fourth  of  the  length  from 
each  extremity  of  the  bar.  Near  th« 
extremities  of  the  wooden  bars  are  two 
movable  iron  rods,  fastened  by  rings, 
which  can  be  disengaged  when  the  bullock 
is  being  put  to  or  yoked  in.  On  the 
upper  bar,  a  clip  band  and  swivel  are 
fastened  for  the  purpose  of  attaching  the 
yoke  to  the  pole.  Yokes  are  required  for 
bullock  draught,  and  are  used  either  for 
pole  or  trace.  The  clip  band  is  attached 
,vhen  used  as  a  pole  yoke. 

In  India,  bullock  draught  is  extensively 
used  in  all  departments  of  the  army. 

York's  School,  Duke  of,  vide  Schools, 
Military. 


Z. 


Zenith  —  That  point  in  the  heavens 
directly  over  our  heads.  The  zenith  to 
us  is  the  nadir  to  our  antipodes.  Circles 
drawn  through  the  zenith  and  nadir  of 
any  place,  cutting  the  horizon  at  right 
angles,  are  called  azimuth  or  vertical 
circles. 

Zero — The  point  on  a  scale  marked  0 
or  nothing.  In  the  graduation  of  a  ther- 
mometer, such  as  Reaumur's  and  the 
Centigrade,  the  zero  point  commences  at 
*he  freezing-point  of  water.  In  Fahren- 
ieit's  scale,  the  zero  is  placed  at  32°  below 
the  point  at  which  water  congeals,  being 
about  the  temperature  of  salt  and  snow. 
(  Vide  Thermometer.) 

Zigzags  —  In  fortification,  trenches 
pushed  on  during  a  siege  towards  the 
place  besieged.  The  trenches  are  con- 
structed in  a  zigzag  direction,  so  that, 
when  prolonged,  they  shall  fall  clearly 
without  all  the  defensive  works,  that  they 
may  not  be  enfiladed.  (  Vide  Approaches.) 

Zinc— This  metal,  in  commerce  fre- 
quently called  "  spelter,"  was  first  men- 
ioned  by  Paracelsus,  in  the  fifteenth"  cen- 


tury, under  the  name  of  zinetum.  It 
does  not  occur  in  the  native  state,  but  is 
obtained  from  its  ores,  which  are  chiefly 
the  sulphuret  and  carbonate  of  zinc.  It 
has  long  been  imported  into  India  from 
China.  The  name  tutenague,  by  which 
Chinese  zinc  was  known  in  commerce,  is 
evidently  derived  from  the  Tamil  word 
tutanagum,  and  it  was  at  one  time  called 
Indian  tin.  The  ores  of  zinc  were, 
no  doubt,  employed  by  the  ancients  in 
making  brass.  Zinc  (Zn  =  32)  is  found 
in  the  state  of  an  oxide,  but  principally 
as  a  sulphuret  (blende)  and  an  impure 
carbonate  (calamine).  From  both  ores 
it  is  converted  into  an  oxide  by  the  pro- 
cess of  roasting,  and  then  reduced  to  the 
metallic  form  by  the  aid  of  carbonaceous 
matter,  when  it  may  either  be  fused  or 
sublimed.  Until  purified  by  a  second 
distillation,  it  contains  as  impurities 
small  portions  of  other  metals,  as  iron, 
copper,  arsenic,  &c.  In  the  corrugation 
of  iron,  zinc  is  the  metal  used.  It  was 
also  used,  not  very  long  since,  as  an  alloy 
in  the  manufacture  of  shot  studs  for  the 
smaller  natures  of  projectiles. 

Zinc  Plates — Plates  of  metal  used  with 
Professor  Grove's  voltaic  battery,  in 
mining.  They  are  made  of  the  purest 
rolled  sheet  zinc,  and  then  coated  with 
quicksilver,  which  preserves  the  surface, 
in  a  great  measure,  from  being  destroyed 
by  the  action  of  the  sulphuric  acid  in 
which  the  plate  is  steeped. 

Zone — In  geography  and  natural  his- 
tory, a  band  or  strip  running  round  any 
object. 

As  applied  to  fortification,  the  zone  of 
defence  signifies  a  belt  of  ground  in  front 
of  the  general  contour  of  the  works 
within  effective  range  of  the  artillery  on 
the  ramparts.  Should  the  zone  of  de- 
fence be  wooded  and  inhabited,  one  of  the 
first  duties  of  the  defenders  would  be 
to  clear  it  of  all  trees,  houses,  &c.,  in 
one  word,  of  everything  that  may  impede 
the  fire  of  the  guns  or  be  made  use  of  by 
the  enemy  as  places  of  concealment. 

Zone  of  fire,  a  term  synonymous  with 
range  or  trajectory  (7.  •».);  the  dangerous 
zone  is  that,  space  of  ground  which  is 
rendered  so  to  troops  in  the  field  by  the 
projectiles  having  their  full  effect  upon 
them.  It  differs  in  small-arms,  and  de- 
pends in  guns  on  the  initial  velocity  aud 


476 


zou 


the  angle  of  elevation.  The  French  call 
zone  morte  the  space  of  ground  where 
the  projectile  has  lost  its  strength,  and  is 
spent. 

Zone  of  operations. — The  territory  that 
contains  the  lines  of  operation,  or  lines  on 
which  an  army  advances,  between  the 
base  and  the  objective. 

Zone  Energy — This  is  a  mode  of  ex- 
pression in  artillery  whereby  the  rela- 
tive power  of  different  guns  as  armour 
piercers  is  estimated,  viz.  by  the  number 
of  foot-tons  per  inch  of  the  shot's  cir- 
cumference. At  the  muzzle  of  each 
gun,  this  power  is  a  maximum,  but 
owing  to  the  resistance  of  the  air  it 


gradually    diminishes    during   the    shot's 
flight. 

Zouaves — A  body  of  troops  originally 
raised  in  Algeria,  and  composed  of  French- 
men and  Algerians  of  the  tribe  of  Kabyles 
in  certain  proportions,  and  officered  from 
both  races.  This  commingling  of  the  two 
races  was  found  not  to  answer,  and  gra- 
dually the  native  element  was  eliminated, 
and  the  force  of  zouaves  was  eventually 
nothing  more  than  Frenchmen  in  a  Moor- 
ish dress.  They  are  recruited  from  the 
veterans  of  the  ordinary  infantry  regi- 
ments, who  are  distinguished  for  their 
fine  physique,  tried  courage,  and  hardi- 
hood. (  Vide  French  Army.) 


ADDENDA. 


ABS 


ARM 


A. 

Absence — A  state  of  being  absent. 
Any  absence  from  duty  without  permis- 
sion for  a  period  not  exceeding  twenty- 
four  hours  is  punishable  ;  if  the  absence 
does  not  exceed  five  days,  the  soldier  sub- 
jects himself  on  his  return  to  duty  to 
deprivation  of  pay,  or  to  be  tried  by  court- 
martial.  After  that  time,  absence  is 
treated  as  desertion  and  punished  as  such. 

When  an  officer  or  soldier  absents  him- 
self, or,  in  other  words,  does  not  rejoin 
his  regiment  at  the  expiration  of  his 
leave,  he  is  reported  absent  without  leave. 
If  sickness  or  some  other  legitimate  cause 
has  prevented  him  from  rejoining,  he 
must  apply  for  an  extension  of  leave, 
through  the  channel  of  communication 
laid  down  in  the  regulations. 

Absentee — A  soldier  absent  from  any 
parade,  roll-call,  or  duty,  at  which  he 
ought  to  be  present. 

Allowance— Money  granted  in  addi- 
tion to  the  regular  pay  of  an  officer  or 
soldier  for  some  particular  purpose,  or 
to  a  regiment  to  meet  certain  expenses. 

For  instance,  what  is  termed  colonel's 
allowance  is  granted  to  general  officers  in 
the  British  army  when  selected  by  the 
commander-in-chief  to  fill  the  post  of 
"  colonel  of  a  regiment " ;  this  takes 
place  when  vacancies  by  death  occur. 
In  the  Indian  staff  corps,  the  colonel's 
allowance  is  granted  to  each  officer 
after  a  stated  period,  viz.  38  years' 
service,  provided  he  has  served  12  years 
in  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  (  Vide 
Oft-reckonings.) 

Lodging  allowance  is  granted  to  officers, 
non-commissioned  officers,  and  men,  when 
accommodation  cannot  be  provided  for 
them  in  barracks ;  it  includes  fuel  and 


light  allowance.  The  two  latter  allow- 
ances are  granted  to  officers,  irrespective 
of  lodging  allowance. 

Agreeably  to  a  late  warrant,  the  allow- 
ance granted  to  non-commissioned  officers 
has  been  fixed  as  follows  : — 


Class  I. 
„  II. 
,  III. 


Is.  9d.  a  day. 
Is.  Od.      „ 
Os.  Gd. 


A  non-commissioned  officer  on  the  mar- 
ried roll  continues  to  receive  lodging, 
fuel,  and  light  allowance  for  the  benefit 
of  his  wife  and  family  when  he  may  be 
in  hospital  or  temporarily  separated  from 
them,  on  service,  provided  no  married 
soldiers'  quarters  become  available  for 
their  use. 

Horse  allowance  is  granted  to  officers 
when  forage  has  not  been  issued  by  the 
commissariat. 

Contingent  allowance  is  granted  for 
any  particular  expenditure  permitted  by 
the  regulations. 

Servants'  allowance  is  given  to  certain 
officers  who  are  not  allowed  soldier 
servants. 

Field  allowance  is  passed  to  officers  to 
enable  them  to  provide  themselves  with 
baggage  animals  and  equipment  in  the 
field. 

The  term  allowance  is  also  applied  to 
the  amount  of  rations,  forage,  &c.  served 
out  periodically  to  any  one  man  or  to  a 
body  of  men.  (  Vide  Queen's  Allowance.) 

Army  List — A  monthly  publication 
issued  by  the  War  Office.  It  contains 
the  names  of  all  commissioned  officers  of 
the  army,  including  the  Indian  army, 
marines,  the  civil  departments,  the 
militia,  and  the  volunteers,  enumerated 
alphabetically  and  by  regiments  ;  it  gives 
also  a  list  of  all  officers  retired  on  full  and 
half-pay. 


BES 


478 


BUT 


Another  similar  work,  but  not  of  an 
official  character,  is  Hart's  'Army  List,' 
published  quarterly,  giving,  in  a  con- 
densed form,  the  same  information,  with 
the  addition  of  the  services  of  every 
officer. 


B. 


Besieging  Army — An  army  detached 
or  sent  for  the  direct  and  immediate 
purpose  of  laying  siege  to  a  town  or 
fortified  place,  in  order  to  capture  it  by 
the  regular  process  of  siege  works. 
(  Vide  Siege.) 

Blockading  Army — An  army,  either 
independent  or  auxiliary  to  a  besieging 
army,  which  is  employed  to  invest  a  town 
or  fortified  place,  in  order  to  intercept  all 
communication  from  without  and  to  re- 
duce it  by  famine. 

Breech  Action — The  mechanism  of 
breech-loading  rifles,  by  means  of  which 
the  rifle  is  loaded  and  fired. 

The  adoption  of  breech-loading  rifles 
gave  birth  to  different  systems  of  breech 
action,  differing  from  each  other,  or  simply 
improvements  on  the  former  systems, 
and  which  now  divide  these  arms  into 
two  kinds,  viz.  bolt  arms  (armes  a  verrou) 
and  block  arms  (armes  a  bloc).  In  the 
bolt  arms,  the  movable  breech  works  on 
the  axis  of  the  barrel,  and  shuts  by  means 
of  a  lever,  pushed  and  lowered.  Among 
the  best  known  rifles,  the  breech  of  which 
is  constructed  on  the  bolt  system,  are 
the  Beaumont,  the  Vetterli,  the  Gras, 
and  the  Mauser.  The  latter  is  the  last 
modification  of  the  bolt  system.  It  is 
"  a  self-cocking  arm,  with  four  mo- 
tions, open,  load,  close,  and  tire.  The 
opening  is  effected  by  raising  the  handle 
of  the  breech-bolt  to  a  vertical  position 
and  then  drawing  it  back.  This  com- 
presses the  spiral  main-spring  and 
cocks  the  arm.  The  breech-bolt  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  to  the  hinder  of 
which  the  firing-pin  is  attached,  while 
the  fore  part  contains  the  spiral  main- 
spring. These  parts  are  joined  by  two 
interlocking  cam  surfaces,  which  move 
on  each  other  when  the  bolt  is  turned 
round,  and  separate  the  parts  till  the 


firing-pin  end  is  caught  by  the  sear.  When 
the  bolt  is  turned  back  to  its  place,  the 
firing-pin  is  free  to  move  forward,  with- 
out any  resistance  from  the  cam  surfaces, 
whose  curves  are  now  opposite  to  each 
other,  and  can  enter  without  friction. 
A  movable  front  piece,  called  the  recoil- 
back,  moves  with  the  bolt,  but  does  not 
turn  with  it,  and  thus  serves  as  a  safe- 
guard against  accidental  discharge,  as 
the  pin  can  only  pass  through  it  when 
the  gun  is  cocked  and  the  bolt  fully 
home." 

In  the  block  arms,  the  movable  breech 
is  worked  ti-ansversely  in  a  metallic  box, 
contained  in  the  wood,  between  the  stock 
and  the  butt.  The  Peabody  is  the  original 
block  arm,  but  many  modifications  have 
been  made  in  that  system,  which  have 
given  birth  to  the  falling  block,  such  as 
in  the  Martini-Henry  (<?.  ».)  ;  the  segment 
block,  adopted  for  the  Remington,  the 
sliding  block  of  the  Westley-Richards,  and 
the  hinged  block  of  the  Springfield  and  of 
the  Werndl  (<?.  t?.).  (  Vide  Appendix  F.) 

Brittleness — In  metallurgy,  the  ten- 
dency of  certain  metals  to  break  more  or 
less  readily,  under  compression,  either 
gradually  or  suddenly.  Cast  iron  is 
brittle  ;  hence  its  unsuitableness  for  the 
heavy  guns  of  the  present  day. 

Broughs — Gang-boards  for  embarking 
horses ;  they  have  planked  sides  3  feet 
high. 

Bugle — A  wind  instrument  without 
keys.  It  is  made  of  copper,  and  used  in 
all  dismounted  regiments  to  sound  the 
calls,  whether  at  drill  or  in  cantonments. 
This  instrument,  known  by  the  name  of 
bugle-horn,  is  of  Saxon  origin. 

Bungalow  —  An  Indian  name  for  a 
house,  the  roof  of  which  is  covered  with 
thatch.  The  houses  so  built  form,  for 
the  most  part,  the  quarters  of  officer?  in 
a  cantonment.  They  are  of  different 
sizes,  and  vary  in  rent  to  accommodate 
the  means  of  the  smallest  paid  officer. 

Button  —  In  artillery,  the  projecting 
knob  behind  the  breech  of  a  gun ;  it  has 
generally  a  cylindrical  hole  through  it, 
called  the  "  breeching  loop." 


CAD 


479 


COM 


C. 


Cadence  (French) — The  number  of  steps 
soldiers  march  in  a  minute,  and  regulated 
by  precision.  (  Vide  Step.) 

Cannelure  (French)  —  Chamfering, 
channelling,  fluting. 

Cant  —  Phrases  made  use  of  by  a 
certain  class  of  people,  in  other  words 
slang.  James,  in  his  '  Military  Dic- 
tionary,' mentions  that  cant,  or  slang,  was 
very  common  formerly  amongst  the  sol- 
diery, and  it  prevailed  differently  in 
different  corps  amongst  the  men. 

Centralisation — In  military  affairs,  a 
system  of  organisation  or  of  administration 
by  means  of  which  all  matters  appertain- 
ing to  the  army  are  directed  by  one  centre. 
The  legitimate  application  of  the  term  is 
to  a  state  of  change  from  local  to  central 
management,  nd  therefore  the  opposite  of 
localisation.  This  system,  when  adopted 
in  the  administration  of  an  army,  is  very 
dangerous,  as  it  takes  away  the  indepen- 
dence of  action  of  the  different  officers 
under  the  commander-in-chief,  and  leads 
to  favouritism ;  and,  should  the  main- 
spring of  the  machine  break  down,  all  the 
works  come  to  a  standstill.  In  England, 
the  administrative  military  authority, 
although  centralised  in  the  crown,  has 
been  placed  under  the  control  of  parlia- 
ment, and  there  is  nothing  done  under  the 
orders  of  the  War  Office  for  which  the 
secretary  of  state  for  that  department 
may  not  at  any  time  be  called  to  account 
by  parliament. 

Chaplain-General — -As  the  name  im- 
plies, the  chief  of  the  military  chaplains. 
The  appointment  of  such  an  officer  was 
first  made  by  the  late  Duke  of  York  when 
commander-in-chief.  The  recommenda- 
tion of  chaplains  to  the  several  garrisons 
is  made  by  him  to  the  minister  of  war. 

Chatham — A  fortified  town  and  naval 
arsenal,  in  the  county  of  Kent,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Medway,  and  30 
miles  from  London.  Chatham  forms  the 
head-quarters  of  the  5th  military  district, 
comprising  Sheerness  and  Gravesend,  and 
would  in  case  of  mobilisation  of  the  army 
be  the  head-quarters  of  three  divisions 


(Chatham,  Sheerness,  and  Tilbury)  of  the 
garrison  troops.  The  lines  of  detached 
forts  connected  with  Chatham  constitute 
a  fortification  of  great  strength ;  they 
form  a  flank  defence  for  London  in  the 
event  of  an  invader  marching  on  the 
capital  from  the  south  coast. 

Chatham  is  the  head-quarters  of  the 
royal  regiments  of  engineers  and  marines. 
It  possesses  barracks  for  infantry,  marines, 
and  artillery ;  a  school  of  instruction  for 
the  engineers  (vide  Schools,  Military)  ;  an 
institution  (g.  u.),  and  a  library.  Every 
year,  practical  instruction  is  given 
in  engineering,  siege  operations,  torpe- 
does, &c. 

Clinching  —  A  method  of  fastening 
large  ropes  by  a  knot  and  seizings ;  it  is 
used  for  the  breeching  of  guns,  for 
attaching  the  standing  end  of  the  fall  to 
the  block  in  tackles,  &c. 

Colonial  Allowance  —  An  allowance 
granted  to  British  regiments  in  certain 
colonies  to  meet  the  extra  expenses  of 
foreign  service.  The  amount  varies  with 
the  colony  ;  in  some  it  is  half  as  much  more 
as  the  ordinary  pay,  in  others  it  is  more. 

The  names  of  the  colonies  at  which  a 
colonial  allowance  is  granted  are  the 
Mauritius,  Ceylon,  Straits,  China,  West 
Indies,  Africa,  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

No  such  allowance  is  granted  to  regi- 
ments in  Canada.  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  have  no  British  troops. 

The  only  advantage  enjoyed  by  troops 
in  the  Mediterranean  is  the  issue  of 
"  extra  rations."  Regiments  in  India  re- 
ceive Indian  pay. 

Commissariat  Department  —  While 
this  work  has  been  going  through  the 
press,  a  warrant  has  been  issued  by 
which  the  control  department  has  been 
abolished ;  and  all  its  branches,  except 
the  pay  sub-department,  have  been  re- 
classified  and  divided  into — 

a.  Commissariat  and  transport  depart- 
ment, 

6.  Ordnance  store  department, 
placed  under  the  direction  of  the  surveyor- 
general  of  ordnance. 

Its  organisation  is  laid  down  as 
follows : — 

"  I. — ORGANISATION. 
"  1.  All  officers  of  the  commissariat  and 
transport  department  and  of  the  ordnance 


COM 


480 


COM 


Commissary-general 


store  department  shall  hold  commissions 
from  us. 

"  2.  Officers  of  these  departments  shall 
be  the  officers  of  and  shall  command  our 
army  service  corps. 

"  II.— RANKS. 

"  3.  The  ranks  of  the  officers  of  the  re- 
spective departments  shall  be  as  follows : — 
Commissary-general ; 
Deputy  commissary-general ; 
Assistant  commissary-general ; 
Commissary ; 
Deputy  commissary ; 
Assistant  commissary ; 
Sub-assistant  commissary. 

"  Relative  Rank. 

"  4.  The  relative  rank  of  these  officers 
shall  be  as  follows  : — 

With  an  army  in 
the  field,  special ; 
Otherwise,  as  ma- 
jor-general ; 

Deputy    commissary-  \   .        ,       , 

J    ,  J     >  As  colonel : 

general         ..       ..) 

Assistant  commissary-  \  As   lieutenant-co- 
general         . .       . .  j       lonel ; 

Commissary     ..       ..      As  major; 

Deputy  commissary        As  captain  ; 

Assistant  commissary     As  lieutenant ; 

Sub-assistant      com-  1   . 

missary        ..       ..  j  As  sub-lieutenant ; 

and  such  relative  rank  shall  regulate 
their  quarters  and  military  allowances, 
including  pensions  for  wounds,  and  pen- 
sions and  allowances  to  their  wives  and 
families,  except  in  the  case  of  a  sub- 
assistant  commissary,  who  for  .these  pur- 
poses shall  rank  as  lieutenant. 

"  Appointment,  Promotion,  Retirement,  $c. 

"  5.  Appointments  to  the  commissariat 
and  transport  department  and  to  the 
ordnance  store  department  shall  be  con- 
ferred upon  such  officers,  non-commis- 
sioned officers,  and  civilians,  as  may  be 
recommended  to  us  by  our  secretary  of 
state. 

"  6.  Candidates  shall  be  subject  to  such 
educational  examination  as  our  secretary 
of  state  may  from  time  to  time  determine. 

"  7.  Sub-assistant  commissaries  shall  be 
liable  to  be  removed  from  our  service  for 
moral  or  physical  unfitness,  or  if  they 
fail  to  make  satisfactory  progress  in 


qualifying  themselves  for  permanent  ser- 
vice in  the  department. 

"  8.  Sub-assistant  commissaries,  after  2 
years'  satisfactory  service  as  such,  may 
receive  commissions  as  assistant  com- 
missaries. Those  officers  who  may  have 
been  appointed  from  our  army  shall 
resign  their  commissions  as  combatant 
officers  upon  receiving  commissions  as 
assistant  commissaries. 

"  9.  Service  as  sub-assistant  commissary 
shall  count  towards  retirement  from  the 
higher  ranks  of  the  respective  depart- 
ments. 

"  10.  The  periods  of  service  towards 
retirement  specified  in  article  17  shall 
be  applicable  to  officers  of  the  commis- 
sariat and  transport  department  or  of  the 
ordnance  store  department,  and  in  the  case 
of  officers  promoted  from  the  ranks  shall 
include  service  in  all  grades,  but  not  less 
than  one-half  of  such  periods  shall  consist 
of  service  as  a  commissioned  officer. 

"  11.  Officers  of  the  rank  of  deputy  or 
assistant  commissary  shall  be  selected  for 
the  appointments  of  adjutant  and  quarter- 
master in  our  army  service  corps. 

"  12.  Combatant  officers,  while  under 
probation,  may  at  any  time  be  ordered  to 
return  to  their  regiments. 

"  13.  An  officer  shall  be  eligible  for  pro- 
motion to  the  under-mentioned  ranks  if  he 
shall  have  served  on  full  pay  for  the  fol- 
lowing   periods,    dating  from    his    first 
entrance  into  our  service  : — 
"  To  the  rank  of  commissary-general,  13 
years,  of  which  at  least  3  shall  have 
been  as  deputy  commissary-general. 
"  To  the    rank    of  deputy  commissary- 
general,  10  years,  of  which  at  least 
3   (including    probationary    service) 
shall  have  been  as  assistant  commis- 
sary-general. 

"  14.  If,  during  active  service,  a  tem- 
porary augmentation  of  the  commissariat 
and  transport  department  or  of  the 
ordnance  store  department  shall  become 
necessary,  the  general  officer  commanding 
may  grant  to  officers  of  those  departments 
permission  to  hold  temporarily  the  higher 
rank  in  which  they  may  in  such  an 
emergency  be  called  upon  to  act,  or  may 
temporarily  appoint  combatant  officers, 
reporting  his  proceedings  for  the  approval 
of  our  secretary  of  state. 

"  15.  A  combatant  officer  so  appointed 


cox 


481 


CON 


shall  receive  the  pay  and  allowances  of  the 
departmental  rank  in  which  he  shall  be 
employed,  in  lieu  of  all  other  emoluments. 

"  16.  Officers  shall  be  allowed  to  count 
their  previous  departmental  or  combatant 
service  as  service  in  the  commissariat  and 
transport  department  or  in  the  ordnance 
store  department. 

"  17.  Officers  who  shall  have  completed 
a  total  full-pay  service  of  30  years,  in- 
cluding previous  departmental  or  com- 
batant service,  shall,  on  giving  six  months' 
notice,  have  an  unqualified  right  to  retire 
on  retired  pay.  It  shall,  however,  be 
competent  to  our  secretary  of  state  to 
place  officers  on  the  retired  list  after  a 
meritorious  service  of  20  years,  in- 
cluding departmental  or  combatant  ser- 
vice, if  by  reason  of  mental  or  bodily 
infirmity  of  a  permanent  nature  (to  be 
certified  by  a  medical  board),  contracted 
by  the  service,  they  shall  be  unfit  for 
further  duty ;  or  in  case  of  reduction  of 
establishment,  or  retirement  under  the 
provisions  of  articles  18  and  19. 

"  18.  The  retirement  of  officers  who  have 
attained  the  rank  of  assistant  commissary- 
general,  or  who  are  above  that  rank, 
shall  be  compulsory  at  the  age  of  60 
years. 

"  19.  The  retirement  of  officers  below 
the  rank  of  assistant  commissary-general 
shall  be  compulsory  at  the  age  of  55 
years."  (  Vide  Appendix  0.) 

Concave  Order  —  An  order  of  battle 
described  by  Colonel  Hamley,  in  his 
'  Operations  of  War,'  as  being  "  merely 
a  variety  of  the  enclosing  angle  [vide  Re- 
entering  Order  of  Battle],  or  rather  it 
generally  resolves  itself  into  the  order 
echeloned  on  both  wings.  To  await  in 
such  order  an  equal  enemy  formed  on  a 
straight  front,  would  be  to  offer  both 
Hanks  to  his  attacks.  In  assuming  it,  it 
would  be  indispensable,  therefore,  that 
the  flanks  were  rendered  perfectly  secure 
by  the  nature  of  the  ground.  In  such  a 
case  the  position  would  be  extremely 
difficult  to  assail,  whether  on  the  pro- , 
tected  flanks  or  the  retired  centre.  As 
an  adversary  would  scarcely  enter  such  a 
trap  with  his  eyes  open,  the  flanks  might  i 
be  connected  directly  by  a  thin  line  of 
troops  forming  an  apparent  or  false  front, 
and  veiling  the  real  centre  while  inviting 
the  attack." 


"  To  attempt  to  turn  an  enemy  on  both 
flanks,  refusing  the  centre,  would  pro- 
duce an  order  of  this  kind ;  if  attempted 
with  equal  numbers,  it  must  break  the 
continuity  of  the  line,  and  could  only  be 
justified  if  the  intervals  or  weak  portions 
were  rendered,  by  obstacles  or  fortifica- 
tions, strong  against  counter-attack." 

Concentration — Collection  into  a  nar- 
row space  round  a  centre.  In  strategy, 
the  collecting  on  a  certain  point  of  the 
different  bodies  forming  an  army,  to  meet 
the  enemy  with  the  greatest  number  of 
men  possible.  For  a  general  to  divide 
his  forces,  unless  for  special  purposes,  is 
to  court  defeat  in  detail.  An  instance  of 
this  is  afforded  by  the  war  of  1870-71, 
when  the  French,  divided  into  6  separate 
corps  d'armtfe,  incapable  of  supporting 
each  other,  were  defeated  piecemeal  by 
the  Germans,  who  had  concentrated  all 
their  forces  into  three  powerful  armies. 

Concentric — Having  a  common  centre. 
This  term  in  warfare  is  applied  to  a 
covering  army  operating  from  a  common 
centre  against  widely  separated  bodies  of 
the  enemy  advancing  towards  that  centre ; 
hence  it  becomes  a  concentric  army.  The 
invasion  by  the  enemy  may  take  place 
either  on  one  or  two  lines.  Colonel  Ham- 
ley,  in  his  '  Operations  of  War,'  shows 
the  steps  which  should  be  taken  by  a 
covering  army  against  one  or  two  lines  of 
invasion.  In  the  latter  case  he  thus 
writes : — "  To  operate  methodically,  and 
to  the  best  advantage,  the  covering  armv, 
if  assailed  on  two  lines,  should  place  on 
each  of  these  a  retarding  force  at  first, 
considering  these  as  wings,  while  the 
mass  in  reserve  is  held  ready  to  give  a 
preponderance  to  either  wing,  or  to  both 
in  succession.  In  all  Napoleon's  ope- 
rations against  a  divided  enemy  this 
principle  is  apparent." 

Convex  Order  —  An  order  of  battle ; 
another  variety  of  the  salient ;  but,  as 
Colonel  Hamley,  in  his  '  Operations  of 
War,'  remarks,  "it  may  be  said  that 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  the  convex 
order,  since  an  army  would  scarcely  draw 
up  on  an  arc,  and  that  what  is  meant  by 
the  expression  is,  generally,  an  order 
echeloned  on  the  centre,  or  some  other 
angular  form.  And  it  may  be  asked 
why,  being  generally  so  disadvantageous, 
it  is  ever  adopted.  The  answer  is  that 
2  I 


cov 


482 


GRA 


circumstances  sometimes  render  it  in- 
evitable ;  after  crossing  a  river  for  in- 
stance, on  an  enemy's  front,  it  is 
necessary  to  push  a  part  of  the  army 
forward  to  cover  the  passage,  and  other 
bodies  up  and  down  the  stream  to  pre- 
vent the  first  from  being  cut  from  the 
bridges.  .  .  .  Again,  a  rear  guard  cover- 
ing the  retreat  over  a  river  or  through  a 
defile  must  often  form  in  this  way.  The 
best  remedy  will  be  to  post  the  angle  of 
the  salient  strongly,  or,  if  possible,  fortify 
it  with  fieldworks  ;  and,  in  case  of  a  river, 
the  flanks  may  be  protected  by  batteries 
on  the  further  bank." 

Covering  Army — An  army  detached  to 
cover  a  retreating  force,  or  to  protect  the 
different  passes  which  lead  to  a  principal 
object  of  defence ;  it  is  then  stationary, 
encamped,  or  in  cantonments. 


D. 


Ductibility — In  metallurgy,  the  pro- 
perty of  permanently  extending  or  draw- 
ing out  by  traction,  as  in  wire-drawing. 
Such  metals  as  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
and  iron,  stand  at  the  head  of  the  list  of 
ductile  metals. 


E. 


Elasticity — In  metallurgy,  this  term 
applies  to  certain  metals  which  may  be 
elongated  by  tension,  pressure,  traction, 
flexion,  or  torsion,  without  remaining 
permanently  altered  on  the  removal  of 
the  strain.  The  elastic  limit  is  the  weight 
that  can  be  applied  to  a  bar  of  metal,  a 
square  inch  in  area,  without  permanently 
altering  its  form. 


F. 


Filter — An  apparatus,  generally  made 
of  casks,  for  purifying  water.  It  is  com- 
monly used  in  barracks  to  free  the 
water  of  all  extraneous  matter. 


In  India,  the  apparatus  is  very  simple ; 
it  consists  of  three  chatties  (earthen  ves- 
sels of  water)  placed  in  a  wooden  frame 
one  above  the  other.  The  two  top  chat- 
ties are  rilled  partially  with  sand  and 
charcoal,  and  have  a  small  hole  in  the 
bottom  of  each  to  enable  the  water  to 
percolate  through ;  the  bottom  chattie  is 
the  receiver  of  the  filtered  water. 

Furlough — Under  this  head,  in  the 
body  of  the  book,  it  has  been  omitted 
to  state  that,  since  the  Indian  furlough 
rules  of  1868,  new  rules  have  been 
issued,  known  as  the  rules  of  1871  and 
1876,  being  addenda  to  those  of  1868, 
whereby  an  officer  by  the  last  named 
rules  can  take  furlough  to  England 
after  5  years,  instead  of  8,  as  formerly, 
and  is  allowed  to  enjoy  3  consecutive 
years'  leave  in  England,  retaining  half 
Indian  pay  and  allowances,  the  rate 
of  exchange  being  regulated  by  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  India  ;  officers,  how- 
ever, who  elect  these  rules  cut  themselves 
out  of  the  chance  of  ever  getting  2s.  for 
the  rupee  when  in  England. 

It  is  optional  with  officers  to  take  the 
rules  of  1868  or  1876  ;  in  the  former 
case  they  would  be  paid  at  the  rate  of 
2s.  the  rupee,  provided  they  had  taken 
furlough  before  the  rules  of  1871  were 
issued. 


G. 


Gas  Checks — Wads  or  other  means 
used  to  stop  the  destructive  escape  of  gas 
over  M.L.R.  projectiles,  and  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  bore  from  "  scoring." 

Gras  Rifle— The  Chassepot  rifle,  modi- 
fied by  Major  Gras,  and  now  the  arm 
definitively  adopted  by  the  French  army. 

The  barrel  of  the  Chassepot  has  been 
retained  in  the  conversion,  keeping  the 
same  calibre  of  04:33  inch,  with  four 
grooves  from  right  to  left,  with  one  turn 
in  21£  inches.  But  in  the  new  barrel 
the  depth  of  the  grooves  is  slightly  dimi- 
nished, and  the  ledges  rounded  off.  The 
same  calibre  has  been  retained  in  order 
that  the  same  cartridge  may  be  used  in 
all  arms.  A  metallic  cartridge  has  been 


HEA 


483 


INV 


adopted,  in  lieu  of  the  "  self-consuming  " 
one  used  for  the  Chassepot ;  the  bullet 
is  of  compressed  lead,  consequently  the 
densest  and  most  homogeneous.  Its  dia- 
meter at  the  base  is  0-429  inch,  instead 
of  0-468  inch,  in  order  to  reduce,  within 
the  smallest  limits,  the  enormous  friction 
the  bullet  undergoes  in  the  barrel, 
which  considerably  diminishes  the  initial 
velocity.  Thus  the  bullet  of  the  Gras 
rifle,  being  smaller  than  the  bore,  is  forced 
by  depression,  whilst  in  the  Chassepot  it 
is  forced  longitudinally.  This  diminution 
of  friction,  combined  with  the  removal  of 
the  "  chambre  ardente,"  or  space  behind 
the  cartridge  in  the  old  rifle,  has  pro- 
duced this  effect,  and  the  initial  velocity, 
which  was  1365  feet  in  the  Chassepot,  has 
attained  1491  feet  in  the  new  arm.  The 
length  of  the  bullet  is  1-092  inch  instead 
of  0-995  inch  as  formerly,  that  is,  two  and 
a  half  calibres.  A  greased  wad  is  placed 
between  the  powder  and  the  bullet.  The 
bullet  is  covered  with  a  strip  of  paper,  in 
order  to  prevent  leading,  that  is,  deposits 
of  lead  in  the  grooves,  which  are  fatal 
to  accuracy. 

The  barrel  of  this  converted  weapon 
has  been  modified  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  enable  it  to  receive  the  new  cartridge  ; 
1st,  by  an  alteration  in  its  calibre ;  2nd, 
by  the  removal  of  the  tete  nubile,  or 
movable  head,  in  the  breech  mechanism, 
and  by  a  modification  of  the  cylinder, 
whereby  the  cartridge  fits  in  closely ; 
and,  lastly,  by  the  substitution  of  a 
striker  or  piston  for  the  needle,  and  by 
the  addition  of  a  stronger  spring  and  a 
cartridge  extractor.  The  breech  action 
remains,  as  before,  on  the  bolt  principle. 

The  conversion  of  the  Chassepot  to 
the  Gras  rifle  is  computed  to  cost  10 
francs  a  piece.  (  Vide  Appendix  F.) 


are  larger  men  than  they  used  to  be,  and 
do  not  take  Indian  duty,  whereas  the 
rest  of  the  British  cavalry  do. 


I. 


H. 


Heavy  Cavalry — In  the  body  of  the 
book  it  is  stated  that  what  are  termed 
the  heavies  form  a  body  of  7  regiments 
of  dragoon  guards.  This  is  a  mistake  ; 
they  formerly  did,  but  there  are  only  4 
regiments  now,  composed  of  the  4th  and 
5th  Dragoon  Guards,  the  Royals,  and  the 
Scots  Greys.  The  men  of  the  heavies 


Indicator  Ring — A  thin  narrow  ring 
of  wrought  iron,  fitted  on  the  breech- 
screw  of  a  B.L.  gun,  with  a  raised  line 
of  brass  on  it,  which  shows  by  its  coin- 
cidence with  a  similar  line  on  the  top 
end  of  the  breech-screw  whether  the  vent 
is  properly  screwed  up.  (Vide  Tappet 
Ring.) 

Interchangeable  —  The  meaning  of 
this  word  is  self-evident,  viz.  that  which 

I  may  be  given  and  taken  mutually.  In 
military  materiel,  the  term  is  used  to  e.\- 

|  press  that  an  article  which  suits  or  tits 
any  part  of  a  machine,  a  lock  of  a  gun, 
a  wheel,  &c.,  will  fit  corresponding  parts 
of  a  like  article  ;  and  thus  all  parts  of 
materiel  are  for  the  most  part  made  inter- 
changeable. 

Invalid  Establishment — An  establish- 
ment in  the  Indian  army  for  the  transfer 
of  officers  who  may  be  declared  to  be 
unfit  for  further  service.  It  consists  of — 

1.  The   Invalid   Battalion  :  for  officers 
who,   although    disqualified    for    further 
active  service,  are  still  equal  to  the  dis- 
charge of  garrison  duties. 

2.  The  Invalid  Pension  List :  for  officers 
disqualified    for    both  active   and  garri- 
son duties,  either  from   age,  wounds,  or 

j  decline  of  health.  They  are  transferred  to 
i  this  list,  as  stated  in  the  government 
order,  "  provided  their  conduct  and 
habits  are  such  as  not  to  affect  the 
character  of  that  institution,  which  is 
designed  as  an  honourable  retreat  to  the 
worn-out  or  disabled  but  deserving 
officers."  The  several  orders  issued  011 
the  subject  of  this  establishment  will  be 
found  iu  the  regulations  applicable  to  the 
European  officers  in  India,  part  in.,  by 
the  late  G.  E.  Cochrane,  assistant  military 
secretary,  India  Office,  and  in  the  orders 
issued  by  the  government  of  India. 


2  i  2 


KEC 


484 


MAN 


Keckle,  To — To  twine  a  small  rope 
round  a  cable  or  bolt  rope,  to  prevent 
injury  from  friction. 


L. 


Lines  of  Communication — Such  lines, 
or  means  of  communication,  as  a  general 
keeps  up  with  his  base  and  with  his  several 
corps  and  divisions. 

Localisation — The  act  of  establishing 
troops,  depots,  magazines,  &c.,  in  any 
appointed  place,  dividing  them  into  a 
number  of  small  centres  independent  of 
each  other.  In  case  of  mobilisation  of  an 
army,  each  appointed  town  forms  a  place 
of  rendezvous,  where  men  on  furlough 
and  those  belonging  to  the  reserve  meet  to 
obtain  their  arms  and  equipment,  and  to 
be  drilled  until  they  are  draughted  into 
the  regiments  in  the  field  or  join  the 
army  of  reserve. 

Lock — The  mechanism  of  a]  rifle  or 
pistol,  by  means  of  which  the  powder  is 
ignited  and  the  arm  fired. 

It  was  towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century  that  the  old  system  of  firing 
muskets  by  means  of  a  slow-match  was 
discarded  and  a  lock  adopted  ;  the  new 
arm  took  the  name  of  matchlock  (g.  i-.). 
This  again  was  replaced  by  the  wlieel- 
lock  (g.  v.),  introduced  atNurnberg  in  1517, 
and  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  flint- 
lock (q.  v.)  was  found  to  be  superior  to 
either.  This  lock  continued  in  general  use 
until  the  introduction  of  the  percussion- 
lock,  which  is  still  in  use  among  nations 
that  have  not  yet  adopted  breech-loading 
rifles.  The  principle  of  this  lock  is  the 
production  of  fire  by  the  falling  of  a 
h.immer  upon  a  cap  containing  detonat- 
ing powder,  the  explosion  of  which 
fires  the  charge  in  the  barrel  of  the 
gun.  This  hammer  is  set  in  motion  by 
means  of  a  trigger  in  conjunction  with  a 
spring. 


With  the  introduction  of  breech- 
oaders,  a  new  action  of  the  lock  was 
adopted ;  that  invented  for  the  original 
needle-gun  and  also  for  the  Chassepot  had 
the  hammer  replaced  by  a  direct-acting 
needle,  which  exploded  the  powder  by 
being  driven  into  a  percussion  cap  placed 
in  the  heart  of  the  cartridge  by  the 
action  of  a  spiral  spring  within  the 
breech-lock. 

A  metallic  cartridge  having  been 
adopted  for  all  breech-loading  rifles,  the 
needle  has  been  replaced  by  a  fire-pin  or 
piston,  which  is  driven  into  the  percus- 
sion cap,  placed  at  the  base  of  the  cart- 
ridge, as  shown  in  the  Martini-Henry 
rifle. 

Long  Service — The  maximum  period 
a  recruit  can  enlist  for  in  any  branch 
of  the  service,  viz.  for  12  years.  He 
may,  after  accomplishing  this  service,  re- 
enlist  for  a  further  period.  (T'»'<fe  Ap- 
pendix I.) 


Manganese-bronze— An  alloy  of  bronze 
and  manganese.  Manganese  is  one  of 
the  heavy  metals  of  which  iron  may  be 
taken  as  a  representative.  It  is  of 
greyish-white  colour,  and  so  hard  that 
it  can  scratch  glass  and  steel ;  it  is  only 
fused  at  white-heat.  It  has  Jong  been 
known  to  improve  the  quality  of  steel, 
and  is  used  in  the  Bessemer  process. 
Mixed  with  bronze,  according  to  a  pro- 
cess invented  by  Mr.  P.  M.  Parsons,  it 
forms  a  metal  capable  of  absorbing  the 
oxygen,  which  otherwise  would  attach 
itself  to  the  molecules  of  tin  and  copper, 
and  thus  gives  bronze  a  durability  it  did 
not  possess  when  used  alone.  Besides 
purifying  the  bronze  from  the  presence 
of  oxides,  the  manganese  unites  with  the 
metal,  and  affects  its  character  according 
to  the  degree  in  which  it  is  present. 
This  new  alloy  can  be  easily  forged,  and 
seems  to  give  industry  an  entirely  new 
metal. 

The  use  of  manganese-bronze  has  been 


MED 


485 


MED 


advocated  for  screw  propellers,  axle- 
boxes  of  locomotives,  high-pressure 
pumps,  and  for  armour  plates.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  probable  cost  of  this  alloy 
has  been  computed  to  be,  weight  for 
weight,  50  per  cent,  more  than  the 
present  rolled  iron  plates.  Whether  it 
can  be  introduced  for  the  manufacture 
of  guns  is  still  under  consideration. 

Medical  Department — While  this  work 
has  been  passing  through  the  press,  the 
terms  and  conditions  of  service  in  this 
department  have  been  altered.  By  a  new 
warrant,  officers  joining  the  medical 
department  are  to  be  governed  by  the 
following  rules  : — 

1.  Pay.     (  Vide  Appendix  0.) 

2.  The  pay  of  officers  shall  be  issued 
monthly  in  arrear. 

3.  The  relative  rank  of  the  officers  of 
the^  army  medical  department  shall  be 
as  follows : — 

i.  A  surgeon-general  shall  rank  as 
major-general,  according  to  the 
date  of  his  commission. 
ii.  A  deputy  surgeon-general  shall 
rank  as  colonel,  according  to  the 
date  of  his  commission. 

iii.  A  surgeon-major  shall  rank  as 
major,  according  to  the  date  of 
his  commission ;  after  20  years' 
full-pay  service  as  surgeon  and 
surgeon-major,  he  shall  rank  as 
lieutenant-colonel,  but  junior  of 
the  latter  rank. 

iv.  A  surgeon  shall  rank  as  lieutenant, 
according  to  the  date  of  his  com- 
mission ;  and,  after  6  years'  full- 
pay  service,  as  captain,  according 
to  the  date  of  the  completion  of 
such  service. 

4.  The  relative  rank  of  these  officers 
shall  regulate  choice  of  quarters,  rates  of 
lodging  money,  servants,  fuel  and  light, 
or   allowances    in  their  stead,  detention 
and  prize  money,  as  well  as  allowances 
granted  on  account  of  wounds  or  injuries 
received   in    action,    and    pensions    and 
allowances  to  widows  and  families. 

5.  Forage  shall  be  granted  to  officers 
of   the    army   medical    department    for 
such  number  of  horses  as  are  necessarily 
kept  by  them  for  duty. 

6.  Admission    to   the    army    medical 
department  shall  be    by  public  compe- 
tition. 


7.  Every  candidate  for  appointment  to 
the    army    medical     department     shall 
possess   two  diplomas  or  licences,  one  to 
practise  medicine  and  the  other  surgery 
in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  and  be  re- 
gistered under  the  Medical  Act  in   force 
at  the  time  of  his  appointment. 

8.  A  successful  candidate,  who,  having 
passed  through  a  course  of  instruction  at 
the  Army  Medical   School  at  Netley,  in 
military  medicine,  surgery,  hygiene,  and 
pathology,  shall  have  proved,  after  ex- 
amination, that  he  possesses  a  competent 
knowledge  of  those  subjects,  shall  receive 
a  commission  as  surgeon   for  a  limited 
period  of  10  years'  service  on   full  pay. 
From  the  date  of  joining  at  Netley  and 
up  to  that  of  passing  his  final  examina- 
tion,   a    candidate    shall    receive    5s.    a 
day. 

9.  On    the    completion   of    10  years' 
commissioned  service,  unless  the  surgeon 
be  specially  selected  for  further  employ- 
ment in  the  medical  department  of  our 
army,  or,  if  he  be  unwilling  to  continue 
to  serve  therein,  his  services  shall  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  he  shall  be  entitled  to 
receive  in   lieu  of  all  pension  or  retire- 
ment, pension  for  wounds  excepted,  the 
sum  of  £1000. 

10.  A  surgeon  of  less  than  10  years' 
service,    disqualified    for    duty    by    ill- 
health,  certified  by  a  board  of  medical 
officers  to  have  been  contracted  in  and  by 
the  service,  may,  at  the  discretion  of  our 
Secretary  of  State  for  War,  be  granted 
half-pay  at  a  rate  not  exceeding  8s.  a  day 
if  he  have  served  5  years  or  more,  or 
6s.  a  day  if  he  have  served  less  than  5 
years,    for    a   period    not    exceeding    6 
months  at  one  time. 

11.  At  the  expiration  of  that  period  of 
6  months,  if  the  surgeon  be  able   to  re- 
sume his  duties,  he  shall  be  entitled  to 
complete  his  term  of  10  years'  service. 
If  he  be  unable  to  resume  duty,  as  cer- 
tified by  a  board  of  medical  officers,  he 
shall  be  allowed,  if  he  have  not  served 
5   years,  a  further  period  of  6  months, 
without   half-pay ;  at  the  expiration  of 
which    period,  if  still  unable  to  resume 
duty,    his    services    shall    be    dispensed 
with. 

12.  If    the    surgeon    have    served    5 
years  on   full  pay,  and  be  unable  to  re- 
sume  duty   as    certified   by  a  board    of 


MED 


486 


MED 


medical  officers,  his  services  shall  be  dis- 
pense.!  with,  and   he   shall  be  entitled  to 


receive  in  lieu  of  all   further  pension  or  [  viz. : — 

If  he  shall  have  completed  9  years'  full-pay  service 


pay,    pension    for    wounds    excepted,    a 
gratuity   at  one  of  the  following   rates, 


13.  If  a  surgeon  be  unable  to  complete 
his    10    years'  service    from    any    cause 
other  than  wounds  or  ill-health,  certified 
by   a    board   of  medical  officers  to   have 
been  caused  in  and  by  the  service,  or  re- 
duction   of    establishment,    he    shall    be 
.•illowed   not  more   than  6  months'  leave 
without  pay,  after   which,   if  unable  to 
resume  duty,  his  services  shall  be  at  once 
dispensed    with,   and    he    shall  have   no 
further  claim  on  the  department. 

14.  If   the    services  of    an    officer  be 
temporarily    dispensed    with    in    conse- 
quence of  a  reduction  of  establishment,  | 
he  shall  be  granted  the  rates  of  half-pay 
fixed  by   article    10  until   there    be    an  ' 
opportunity  of  re-employing   him,  or,  if 
he   have  served  5  years,  he  may  retire 
from  the  service  with  a  gratuity  accord- 
ing to  the  rates  specified  in  article  12. 

15.  Every  year  it  shall  be   competent 
for  our  commander-in-chief,   on   the  re- 
commendation of  the  director-general  of 
the  army  medical  department,  to  select, 
with    the   approval   of  our  secretary  of  i 
state,  a  number  of  surgeons  not  exceed-  ; 
ing   six,   who    shall    be  retained  in  the 
service,    and     shall    be    promoted    after 
12  years'  service  on  full  pay  to  the  rank 
of  surgeon-major. 

16.  All   promotion  from  the  rank    of 
surgeon-major  to  that  of  deputy  surgeon- 
general,  and   from   the  rank  of    deputy 
surgeon-general    to    that     of     surgeon- 
general,  shall  be   given   for  ability  and 
merit    upon    the  selection  of    our  com- 
mander-in-chief, with    the    approval   of 
our  secretary  of  state ;  and  the  grounds 
of  such  selection  shall  be  stated  to  us  in 
writing,  and  recorded  in  the  department. 
In  all  such  cases   the  amount   of  foreign 
service  shall  be  expressly  stated. 

17.  A    medical    officer    retiring    after 
full-pay    service   of    25  years    and    up- 
wards   may,    if    recommended    for    the 
same   by  the  head   of  his   department, ' 


£800 
£700 
£600' 
£500 
£400 


receive  a  step  of  honorary  rank,  but 
without  any  consequent  increase  of  half- 
pay. 

18.  Good -service     pensions    shall    be 
awarded  to  the  most  meritorious  officers 
of  the  army  medical  department,   under 
such  regulations  as  shall  be  from  time  to 
time  determined  by  us,  with  the  advice 
of  our  secretary  of  state. 

19.  Six  of  the  most  meritorious  officers 
of    the  army  medical  department    shall 
be  named  our  honorary  physicians,  and 
six  our  honorary  surgeons. 

20.  Medical  officers  shall  have  a  right 
to    retire    on    half-pay   after    20    years' 
service.     Medical  officers  of  the  rank  of 
surgeon-major  or  surgeon  shall  be  placed 
on  the  retired  list  at  the  age  of  55,  and 
all  surgeons-general  and  deputy  surgeons- 
general  at  the  age  of  60  years. 

21.  Our  secretary  of  state  may,  when 
he    shall    deem    it    fit,    employ    medical 
officers    on    the    half-pay    list  in    special 
situations   at  such   rates  of  pay,  in  addi- 
tion to  half-pay,  as  he  shall  from  time  to 
time  determine  ;  but  such  officers  shall 
vacate  their  appointments   on    attaining 
the  age  of  65  years. 

22.  A    medical    officer    who,     having 
voluntarily     resigned     his     commission, 
has     subsequently    been     permitted     to 
re-enter   the   department    shall  not,  ex- 
cept   under   very   special   circumstances, 
to    be     approved    by    our    secretary    of 
state,   be  allowed  to  reckon  his  former 
service. 

Service  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa. 

23.  Service  of   medical    officers   upon 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  shall  be  volun- 
tary. 

24.  Each  year  or  portion   of  a  year 
shall  be  allowed  to  reckon  double  towards 
retirement  or  towards  the  gratuities  fixed 
by  articles  9   and   12,  but  not    towards 
increased   pay,  provided  that  the  officer 


MED 


487 


MET 


shall  serve  at  least  12  months  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa. 

25.  For  each  year's  service  on  the 
coast,  a  medical  officer  shall  be  entitled 
to  a  year's  leave  at  home,  and  for  every 
additional  period  beyond  a  year  he  shall 
have  an  equivalent  extension' of  leave. 

-6.  Officers  who  may  volunteer  for 
service  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  shall 
receive  double  pay  while  actually  serving 
on  the  coast. 


Non-effective  Pay. 

27.  A  medical  officer  of  more  than  10 
years'  service  placed  on  half-pay  by  re- 
duction of  establishment,  or,  on  the  report 
of  a  medical  board,  in  consequence  of 
wounds  or  ill-health  caused  in  and  by 
the  discharge  of  his  duties,  or  on  account 
of  age  (under  article  20),  shall  be  en- 
titled to  half-pay  in  accordance  with  the 
following  scale  : — 


Surgeon-general,  after  30  years'  service 
„     25 
„     20 

Deputy  surgeon-general,  after  30  years'  service     .. 
»  »  »     25  „ 

„     20 

Surgeon-major,  after  25  years' service 
,,     20 
„     15 
„     12 
Surgeon,  after  10  years'  service 


Daily 


1  17 

1  13 
1  10 
1  5 
1  2 
1  1 
1  0 
0  16 
0  13 
0  11 
0  10 


28.  The    rate  of  half-pay  awarded   to 
officers  retiring  for  their  own  convenience, 
after  20  years'  service  on  full  pay,  under 
article   20,  shall  not  exceed   one-half  of 
their  full  pay  at  the  time  of  retirement. 

29.  Every   medical    officer   who    shall 
retire  after  a  service  upon  full  pay  of  25 
years  shall  be  granted  a  rate  of  half-pay 
equal  to  seven-tenths  of  the  daily  pay  he 
may  have  been  in  receipt   of  when  thus 
retiring  on  half-pay,   provided    he   shall 
have  served  3  years  in  his  rank,  or  shall 
have  served  abroad  for   10  years  in  all 
ranks,  or  for  5  years  with  an  army   in 
the  field.     An  officer  of  25  years'  full- 
pay   service,  whose   service    falls  within 


officers  of  the  medical  department  of  our 
army  shall  be  subject  to  the  general  regu- 
lations for  the  departments  of  our  army. 

Medium  Cavalry  —  An  appellation 
given  to  some  of  the  regiments  of  the 
British  army  which  are  neither  heavy 
nor  light.  There  are  11  regiments  of 
medium  cavalry,  5  of  which  are  lancers 
(5th,  9th,  12th,  16th,  and  17th),  5 
dragoon  guards  (1st,  2nd,  3rd,  6th,  7th), 
and  one  (6th)  dragoons.  The  latter  ti 
regiments  wear  brass  helmets.  The 
average  weight  carried  by  the  horses  of 
the  medium  cavalry  is  about  18  stone 
10  Ibs. 

Metallic   Cartridge — A  cartridge   for 


neither  of  these  conditions,  shall  be  en-  j  breech-loading  rifles,  composed  of  a 
titled  to  only  seven-tenths  of  the  daily  !  cylindrical  case,  made  of  metal,  contain- 
pay  he  was  in  receipt  of  prior  to  his  last  j  ing  the  bullet,  the  charge,  and  the  per- 
promotion.  ',  cussion  cap. 

30.  A    medical    officer   of    20    years'        Metallic  cartridges  have  been  adopted 
full-pay  service,  placed    temporarily    on    as  possessing  better  qualities  than  the  so- 
half-pay  on  account    of  ill-health,  may,  !  called  "self-consuming"  cartridges.  They 
however,  be  allowed    to  retire   on   per- j  are  less  liable  to  damp,  as  the  mechanical 
manent  half-pay,  at  the   rates  fixed  by  ,  fastening  is  sufficiently  perfect  to  prevent 
article   27,  if  after  one  year  on  half-pay  j  the  penetration  of  air  and  water.     Miss- 
he   shall  be   reported  by  a  medical  board  j  fires   are  almost   unknown,   because  the 
to    be    permanently    unfit    for    further  j  cartridge,  resting  by  means  of  a  pad  on 
service.  j  the    hinder   part   of  the  barrel,  alwavs 

31.  In  all  matters  not  specially  pro-  '  presents  the  same  resistance  to  the  action 
vided  for  in  our    present    warrant,   the    of  the  piston  when  it  crushes  the  priming. 


MUS 


488 


PEN 


The  metallic  cartridge  presents  another 
great  advantage  ;  it  alone  secures  a  com- 
plete closing  of  the  breech,  as  the  gases 
in  escaping  find  no  other  issue  but  by 
the  barrel.  It  keeps,  besides,  all  dirt  in 
the  case,  and  consequently  the  chamber 
is  always  clean,  and  the  grease,  secluded 
from  the  contact  of  the  air,  does  not  get 
decomposed. 

One  of  the  disadvantages  of  this  cart- 
ridge is  its  weight ;  40  rounds  of  the 
Martini-Henry  cartridge  weigh  4  Ibs. 
6  oz.  The  adoption  of  a  cartridge  of  this 
nature  in  France  for  the  Gras  rifle,  in  lieu 
of  the  "  self-consuming  "  one  of  the  Chasse- 
pot,  will  increase  the  number  of  S.A.A. 
wagons  by  200  for  every  120,000  men. 

The  metal  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
metallic  cartridges  is  either  red  or  yellow 
copper,  brass  tinsel,  covered  with  cart- 
board,  or,  like  that  used  for  the  Werndl 
rifle,  tombac. 

Red  copper  is  generally  used,  as  it  is 
sufficiently  elastic  and  tenacious  by  itself  j 
to  expand  under  the  action  of  the  powder 
gas  to  cling  to  the  sides  of  the  chamber 
without  splitting ;  if  anything,  it  has  a 
tendency  rather  to  resume  its  first  shape 
after  exploding.  Yellow  copper  is  more 
brittle,  stift'er,  and  less  malleable,  but 
of  easier  manufacture.  Brass  has  been 
adopted  for  the  cartridge  of  the  Martini- 
Henry  rifle.  Cartridges  made  of  this  alloy, 
although  more  solid  than  the  "  self-con- 
suming "  cartridges,  and  less  liable  to 
spilting,  to  dirt,  and  to  miss  fire,  are  more 
expensive,  because  they  must  be  made  by 
hand,  and  each  round  fired  is  a  cartridge 
case  lost,  whilst  copper  cases  are  again 
available. 

Musketry  Drill  —  The  following  are 
the  new  musketry  drill  instructions, 
issued  with  a  view  to  improving  the 
system  of  training  and  developing  the 
shooting  powers  of  the  soldier  with  the 
Martini-Henry  rifle : — 

"The  targets  for  individual  practice 
are  to  have  circular  bull's-eyes  and 
centres,  and  the  number  of  points  to  be 
obtained  with  the  Martini-Henry  are  40 
in  each  class.  With  the  Snider,  the 
points  will  be  40  in  the  first  period,  30 
in  the  second,  and  25  in  the  third,  to 
qualify  for  marksmen.  Recruits  will 
not  in  future  perform  position  drill  in 
marching  order  or  with  fixed  bayonets. 


Ricochet  butts  are  to  be  abolished,  as  a 
ricochet  can  be  distinguished  in  the 
marker's  butt  by  the  sound  and  by  the 
mark  on  the  target,  and  the  marker  will 
be  held  responsible  for  the  proper  signal- 
ling. The  direction  of  misses  may  be 
shown  by  special  signal,  but  the  marker 
must  not  leave  his  butt  for  the  purpose. 
The  use  of  dummy  targets  to  indicate 
the  exact  position  of  hits  is  sanctioned. 
In  consequence  of  the  flat  trajectory  of 
the  new  service  arm,  judging  distance 
practice  will  commence  at  200  yards, 
and  prizes  will  be  issued  for  judging 
distance  independent  of  the  prizes  for 
good  shooting." 


Nip,  To — To  stop  ropes  with  a  gasket, 
or  with  several  turns  of  spun  yarn  round 
each,  and  the  ends  made  fast. 


0. 


Overhaul,  To — A  term  used  in  artil- 
lery appliances  in  "  overhauling "  a 
tackle,  that  is,  in  separating  the  blocks. 
This  should  invariably  be  done  from  the 
standing,  and  not  from  the  movable 
block. 


P. 


Parcel,  To — In  the  artillery  service,  as 
applied  to  a  rope,  is  to  put  round  it  canvas 
well  daubed  with  tar  and  bound  with 
spun  yarn  to  protect  it  from  chafing. 

Pedestals — Props  made  of  wood,  and 
used  for  the  support  of  stool  beds  of 
carriages  when  the  elevating  screws  are 
removed. 

Pension  —  Under  this  head,  in  the 
body  of  the  book,  it  has  been  omitted 
to  state  that,  in  the  pensions  awarded 
to  officers  after  certain  fixed  periods, 
furlough,  according  to  the  regulations, 
is  included  in  the  length  of  service 


PIA 


489 


SAN 


years 
service. 


to  be  performed  by  an  officer  to  entitle 
him  to  a  pension.  Thus,  an  officer, 
after  22  years'  service,  who  is  permitted 
under  the  regulations  of  1776  to  retire 
either  as  a  captain  or  whatever  his 
rank  may  be,  can  count  2  years  of  the 
above  period,  which  he  may  have  taken 
on  furlough,  as  service  towards  his  pen- 
sion to  complete  22  years. 

Captains  and  majors,  under  the  regu- 
lations of  1835-37,  must  have  served  20 
and  24  years  respectively  to  entitle  them 
to  pensions,  but  in  this  period  they  may 
take  2  years'  furlough  counting  as 
service  towards  their  pensions.  Likewise 
a  lieutenant-colonel,  in  his  service  of  28 
years,  may  take  out  of  this  3  years'  fur- 
lough counting  as  service  towards  pen- 
sion, and  a  colonel  4  years  in  32  years' 
service. 

The  scale  of  service  for  medical  and 
veterinary  surgeons  is  as  follows  : — 

Years.  Months. 

1  8     in  17  and  under  20 

2  —     „  20         „          25 

3  —     „  25         „          30 

4  —      „  30  years  and  upwards. 

Piasaba  Brushes — Gun  brushes  for  field 
M.L.R.  guns.  There  are  two  marks  laid 
down  in  the  '  Changes  of  War  Materiel.' 
Mark  I.  consists  of  an  elm  head  with 
piasaba  grass  glued  into  it,  fixed  upon  a 
stave ;  the  head  is  cylindrical,  and  the 
same  length  as  a  sponge-head.  Mark  II. 
is  similar,  except  that  it  is  stronger,  and 
has  the  tufts  of  grass  running  spirally 
instead  of  longitudinally. 

Pipe-box — This  nature  of  box,  which 
is  inserted  in  the  nave  of  a  gun  carriage 
wheel,  is  shown  in  the  body  of  the  book 
to  be  made  of  an  alloy  known  as  "  metal." 
Recent  orders  direct  it,  in  the  9-pr. 
and  ;16-pr.  M.L.R.  guns,  to  be  made  of 
phosphor-bronze. 

Place  d'Armes  (French) — Any  forti- 
fied town,  or  part  of  it,  which  forms  a 
place  of  rendezvous  for  troops,  &c. 

Preventer — An  additional  rope,  em- 
ployed, when  necessary,  to  support  or 
answer  the  purpose  of  another  when 
injured  or  subjected  to  too  great  a  strain. 

Prize  for  Shooting — A  reward  given  an- 
nually by  government  to  the  best  marks- 
men in  regiments.  Hitherto  the  reward 
has  been  confined  to  the  best  shots  with 


small-arms,  but  an  order  has  lately  been 
issued  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War, 
granting  an  annual  p  ize  competition  in 
the  regiment  of  royal  artillery.  The  pro- 
visions of  this  award  will  be  found  in  the 
army  circular  dated  June  1,  1876,  par. 
74. 


Banker — A  non-commissioned  officer 
who  rises  to  be  a  commissioned  officer. 

Raw  Hides — Hides  not  tanned.  They 
are  used  to  cover  the  revetments  of  em- 
brasures in  fieldworks.  The  hides  are 
doubled,  the  hair  inwards,  two  to  each 
cheek  of  the  embrasure,  and  fixed  by 
pickets  driven  through  them. 

Bising  from  the  Eanks — To  pass 
through  the  successive  stages  in  the 
ranks  until  a  non-commissioned  officer 
attains  the  rank  of  a  commissioned 
officer.  Each  non-commissioned  officer 
rising  from  the  ranks  receives,  on  getting 
his  commission,  a  grant  of  £150  in  the 
cavalry,  and  of  £100  in  the  infantry,  to 
enable  him  to  purchase  his  outfit. 


S. 


Sanitary  —  Having  reference  to 
measures  for  securing  health. 

Within  the  last  twenty  years,  increased 
means  have  been  adopted  to  reduce  the 
state  of  mortality  amongst  the  soldiery 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  During  the 
Crimean  War,  the  casualties  were  large 
at  first,  but  from  sanitary  measures 
being  taken,  the  number  of  deaths  per 
1000  men  was  greatly  reduced.  In  this 
country,  up  to  1853,  the  mortality  per 
1000  amongst  the  soldiery  was  17 '5, 
whereas  that  of  the  male  population  of 
England  amounted  to  19'2.  The  great 
mortality  was  in  those  days  amongst  the 
foot  guards,  and  appears  to  have  arisen 
in  a  great  measure  from  want  of  proper 
sanitary  arrangements.  But  a  great  im- 
provement of  late  years  has  taken  place 
in  the  health  of  the  soldier  ;  his  barracks 
are  better  ventilated,  his  comforts  and 
amusements  are  greater,  and  indeed  all  the 


SEL 


490 


TEO 


measures  ad  opted  to  keep  him  in  health  are 
more  numerous  than  they  formerly  were. 

In  1874  the  strength  of  the  army  m 
Great  Britain  was  about  90,000 ;  the 
average  rate  of  mortality  during  that 
year  was  8f  per  1000 ;  this  was  a  higher 
death  rate  than  in  1873,  which  is  ac- 
counted for  in  the  higher  death  rate 
among  the  general  population  in  1874. 

The  report  from  which  the  above  in- 
formation is  gained  observes  that  "  no 
doubt  the  rate  of  admission  and  death  in 
1874  was  also  somewhat  raised  by  the 
circumstance  that  many  invalids  from 
abroad,  instead  of  being  sent  to  Netley, 
joined  their  depots,  and  the  records  of 
their  admission  and  deiths  were  not 
always  kept  distinct  from  those  of  the 
other  soldiers." 

Self-consuming  Cartridge — The  ori- 
ginal cartridge  of  the  needle-gun  and  of 
the  Chassepot ;  it  is  made  of  a  linen  or 
silk  envelope,  and  the  explosive  composi- 
tion placed  in  the  centre  of  the  powder. 
Experience  has  shown  that  no  cartridge 
can  be  trusted  to  consume  entirely  in  the 
barrel,  under  all  circumstances,  as  the 
metal  conveys  the  heat  away  so  rapidly 
that  often  the  thin  paper  in  contact  with 
it  is  untouched  from  the  combustion  of 
the  powder.  This  cartridge  therefore 
leaves  in  the  chamber  a  mass  of  de'bri*, 
paper,  caoutchouc,  copper,  and  dirt.  In 
order  to  counteract  this,  the  chamber 
has  to  be  made  a  little  larger  than  is 
necessary ;  hence,  frequent  miss-fires. 
The  grease  with  which  the  cartridge  is 
covered  gets  decomposed,  and  remains  use- 
less, if  it  does  not  penetrate  through  the 
paper  and  attack  the  powder,  so  that 
after  twenty  rounds  the  dirt  in  the  rifle  is 
solidified,  accuracy  is  lost,  and  firing  is 
stopped  from  the  impossibility  of  loading. 
The  cartridge  is  besides  very  liable  to  get 
damp,  on  account  of  the  paste  it  contains, 
and  it  is  quickly  damaged  in  magazines. 

The  Chassepot  (as  modified  by  Major 
Gras)  and  the  German  needle-gun 
(Mauser)  now  fire  a  metallic  cartridge. 

Short  Service — A  period  of  6  years,  and 
not  less  than  3,  which  soldiers  must  serve 
under  the  colours.  (  Vide  Appendix  I.) 

By  a  recent  order  from  the  Horse 
Guards,  recruits  enlisting  for  short  service 
into  all  regiments  but  cavalry  may  do 
so  up  to  the  age  of  30. 


T. 


Torpedo — The  following  is  a  descrip- 
tion of  Professor  Abel's  mechanical  tor- 
pedo, or  exploder,  which  is  an  improve- 
ment on  the  torpedo  mentioned  in  the 
body  of  the  book.  It  is  composed  of 
a  plain  leaden  tube,  with  one  of  its 
ends  open,  containing  chlorate  of  potash 
and  sugar  in  equal  parts ;  this  tube  con- 
tains one  made  of  thin  glass  filled  with 
pure  sulphuric  acid;  the  whole  is  then 
corked  up.  The  leaden  tube  is  sur- 
rounded by,  but  not  in  contact  with, 
another  india-rubber  tube,  and  over  this 
again  are  placed  two  brass  tubes,  one  pass- 
ing at  the  top  of  the  apparatus  and  the 
other  under  the  bottom,  in  such  a  man- 
ner that,  when  struck,  they  prevent  the 
leaden  tube  from  bending  anywhere  but 
in  the  centre.  To  make  this  compara- 
tively safe  when  laying  down,  there  are 
three  iron  guards,  forming  another  tube 
around  the  aperture  of  the  apparatus  ; 
these  are  kept  there  by  means  of  a  cap 
on  the  top  of  the  exploder,  and  a  small 
slot  round  the  upper  part  of  the  screw, 
at  the  bottom,  so  that,  when  the  mine  is 
laid,  the  cap  can  be  removed  by  a  rope's 
end,  and  the  guards  fall  off. 

When  struck,  the  india-rubber  and 
the  leaden  tube  holding  the  composition 
bend,  and  by  so  doing  break  the  glass 
tube ;  the  sulphuric  acid  mixes  with  the 
chlorate  of  potash  and  sugar,  thus  caus- 
ing ignition.  The  case  containing  the 
explosive  matter  is  a  thin  iron  cask, 
moored  about  10  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  water. 

This  torpedo  exploder  is  screwed  into 
the  mine. 

Trooping  the  Colours  —  A  ceremony 
performed  by  troops  assembled  on  parade 
for  guard-mounting.  The  '  Field  Exer- 
cise and  Evolutions  of  Infantry,'  of  1874, 
gives  detailed  instructions  as  to  the  mode 
to  be  pursued  in  trooping  the  colours. 

The  origin  of  the  ceremony  does  not 
appear  to  be  clearly  known.  In  a  recent 
number  of  The  World  it  is  surmised  that 
the  trooping  of  the  colours  comes  to 
us  from  the  Germans,  and  is  symbolical 


VET 


491 


VET 


of  their  ceremonious  reception  by  a  force 
on  taking  the  field,  and  that  the  march- 
ing of  them  along  the  face  of  the  parade 
is   to  remind  every  individual  soldier  of1 
the  duty  he  owes  to  his  colours,  and  to 
demand    from    him    the    tacit    pledge  to  ! 
fulfil  that  patriotic  duty.     Another  ex-  i 
planation  is  given  in  the  same  paper  that 
the  ceremony  is  significant  of  the  formal 
housing  of  the  colours  after  having  been  in 
the  field ;  and  Grose,  on  '  Military  Antiqui- 
ties,' is  cited  to  the  following  effect : — 

"  The  captain  leading  them  (his  troops 
with  the  colours)  out  of  the  field,  and 
coming  near  to  the  place  intended  to 
lodge  his  colours,  converts  the  ranks  of 
musqueteers  of  both  divisions  to  the 
right  and  left  outwards  and  joins  them  ; 
and  being  so  fixed,  the  body  of  pikes 
stand  in  the  rear  and  the  ensign  at  the 
head  of  them,  the  captain  before  the 
colours  with  the  drum,  and  sergeants 
guarding  the  colours  on  each  side,  and  the 
lieutenant  behind  the  standard-bearer ; 
and  all  being  advanced  shall  troop  up 
with  the  colours  folded  to  his  lodgings  or 
quarters  ;  and  as  he  approacheth  thereto, 
he  shall,  with  a  bow  to  his  captain,  carry 
in  his  colours ;  then  the  word  shall  be 
given  to  all  the  musqueteers  to  make 
ready  ;  that  being  done,  they  shall  all 
present,  and  upon  the  beat  of  the  drum, 
or  other  word  of  command,  give  one  en- 
tire volley." 

In  this  may  be  traced  the  rudimentary 
idea  of  the  present  elaborate  ceremony  of 
trooping.  . 


V. 


Veterinary  Department — One  of  the 
civil  departments  of   the    army.     This 


department,  is  composed  of  a  principal 
veterinary  surgeon,  staff  veterinary  sur- 
geons, veterinary  surgeons  of  the  1st  class, 
and  veterinary  surgeons.  There  are  also 
veterinary  surgeons  on  probation. 

The  principal  veterinary  surgeon,  who 
is  stationed  at  Woolwich,  is  the  sole  ad- 
ministrative head  of  the  department. 
He  superintends  and  directs  the  profes- 
sional and  departmental  duties  of  the 
veterinary  surgeons  of  the  army  as 
circumstances  may  require ;  he  exercises 
general  control  over  all  stores  of  the 
department.  In  addition  to  enforcing 
obedience  to  regulations,  he  issues  such 
instructions  as  may  seem  necessary  to 
meet  specialities.  Candidates  for  the 
veterinary  department  have  to  pass  an 
examination  before  a  board  of  military 
veterinary  surgeons ;  if  qualified,  the 
successful  candidates  are  admitted  on 
probation.  After  5  years'  service  they 
must  pass  an  examination  to  be  eligible 
for  promotion  to  the  rank  of  veterinary 
of  the  1st  class,  and  after  15  years'  full- 
pay  service  in  that  rank  they  are  eligible 
for  promotion  to  that  of  staff  veterinary 
surgeon. 

The  senior  staff  veterinary  surgeon,  at 
a  station,  is  responsible  to  the  principal 
veterinary  surgeon  that  the  duties  of  the 
officers  under  his  control  are  properly 
carried  out.  All  returns  and  reports  are 
sent  to  the  staff  veterinary  surgeon,  who 
again  renders  the  necessary  returns,  &c. 
to  the  principal  veterinary  surgeon. 

Veterinary  surgeons  are  permitted  to 
retire  on  half-pay  after  25  years'  service. 
Veterinary  surgeons  and  surgeons  of  the 
1st  class  are  placed  on  the  retired  list  on 
attaining  the  age  of  55  years,  and  staff 
veterinary  surgeons  when  they  have 
attained  the  age  of  65  years.  (Vide 
Appendix  0.) 


APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX  A. 


I.— REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  ROYAL  MILITARY 
ACADEMY,  WOOLWICH. 

OBJECT  or  THE  ROYAL  MILITARY  ACADEMY. 

1.  The  Royal  Military  Academy  is  maintained  for  the  purpose  of  affording  a 
preparatory  education  to  candidates  for  the  royal  artillery  and  royal  engineers ; 
this  education  will  be  chiefly  technical,   and  will  in  no  obligatory  subject  b« 
carried  beyond  the  point  useful  to  both  corps  alike. 

REGULATIONS  FOE  ADMISSION,  &c. 

2.  Admission  to  the  Royal  Military  Academy  as  cadets  will  be  granted  to  the 
successful  candidates  at  an  open  competitive  examination.     The  examinations  will 
be  conducted  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners,  and  will  be  held  twice  a  year, 
namely  in  December  and  July. 

3.  Notice    will    be   given    from    time    to    time  of  the  day  and  place  of  the 
examinations,  and  of  the  vacancies  to  be  competed  for  at  each  examination. 

4.  The  limits  of  age  will  be  from   sixteen  to  eighteen,   the  candidates  being 
required   to  be  within  those  limits  on  the  1st  day  of  the  January  next  follow- 
ing   for    the    winter    examination,  and    on    the    1st    of    July    for   the    summer 
examination. 

5.  Candidates  for  admission  to  the  December  or  July  examination  must  send  to 
the  military   secretary,  not  less  than  one  month  before  the  1st  December  or  1st 
July  respectively,  an  application  to  be  examined,  accompanied  by  the  following 
papers : — (a)  An  extract  from  the  register  of  his  birth,  or,  in  default,  a  declaration 
made  by  one  of  his  parents  or  guardians  before  a  magistrate,  giving  his  exact  age. 
(6)  A  certificate  of  good  moral  character,  signed  by  a  clergyman  of  the  parish  in 
which  he  has  recently  resided,  or  by  the  tutor  or  head  of  the  school  or  college  at 
which  he  has  received  his  education  for  at  least  the  two  preceding  years,  or  som« 
other  satisfactory  proof  of  good  moral  character. 

6.  When  a  candidate  who  has  once  been  examined  applies  to  be  examined  again, 
he  will  only  be  required  to  forward  a  certificate  as  to  his  moral  character  for  the 
interval  between  the  two  examinations. 

7.  The  number  of  trials  allowed  will  not  exceed  three. 

8.  All  candidates  will  be  inspected  by  a  medical  board  ;  and   no  candidate  will 
be  allowed  to  proceed  to  examination  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners  unless 
certified  by  the  board  to  be  free  from  bodily  defects  or  ailments,  and  in  all  respects. 


494  APPENDIX  A. 


as  to  height  and  physical  qualities,  fit  for  her  Majesty's  service.  Cases  of 
exceptional  shortness  of  stature  will  be  referred  to  the  War  Office  for  special 
consideration. 

9.  A  candidate  will  be  required  to  satisfy  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners  in 
the  following    subjects: — (I)  Mathematics,  viz.  (a)  arithmetic,  and  the  use  of 
common  logarithms ;  (b)  algebra,  including  equations,   progressions,  permutations 
and  combinations,  and  the  binomial  theorem  ;  (c)  geometry,  up  to  the  standard  of 
the   sixth   book   of   Euclid  ;    (d)  plane   trigonometry,   including  the   solution  of 
triangles.     (2)  French,  German,  or  some  other  modern  language,  the  examination 
being  limited  to  translation  from  the  language   and  grammatical  questions,     (o) 
Writing  English  correctly  and  in  a  good  legible  hand,  from  dictation,  and  English 
composition.     (4)  The  elements  of  geometrical  drawing,  including  the  construc- 
tion of  plane  scales  and  the  use  of  simple  mathematical  instruments.     (5)  Geo- 
graphy.    A  thorough  knowledge  of  each  of  the  four  branches  of  mathematics  will 
be  required.     The  commissioners   may,  however,  if  they  think  fit,  dispense  with 
this  preliminary  examination,  except  as  regards  mathematics,  English  composition, 
and  geometrical  drawing,  in  the  case  of  any  candidate  who  has  satisfied  them  on  a 
previous  occasion. 

10.  No  marks  will  be  allotted  for  the  above  preliminary  examination  excep- 
ting for  mathematics  (2000),  for  English  composition  (500),  and  for  geometrical 
drawing  (300). 

11.  The  ''further  examination"  will  be  proceeded  with  immediately  on  the 
conclusion  of  the  "  preliminary  examination."     Candidates  who  fail  in  the  pre- 
liminary examination  will  be  informed  of  their  failure  as  soon  as  possible,  and  they 
will  then  be  released  from  farther  attendance. 

12    The  subjects  of  the  further  examination  and  the  maximum  number  of  marks 
obtainable  for  each  subject  will  be  as  follows : — 

Marks. 

(1)  Mathematics,*  viz.  further  questions  and  problems  on  the  subjects 

of  the  qualifying  examination,  and  the  elements  of  the  follow- 
ing subjects:  theory  of  equations  ;  analytical  geometry  ;  conic 
sections ;  solid  geometry ;  differential  and  integral  calculus ; 
statics;  and  dynamics  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  4000 

(2)  English :    English  literature,  limited  to  specified    authors ;    and 

English  history,  limited  to  certain  fixed  periods ;  the  authors 

and  periods  being  notified  beforehand     ..  ..  ..  ..    |2000 

VT>  Classics   viz     /  Latin  200° 

,ics,  viz.   |  Greek  20QO 

(4)  French,  the  examination  to  be  partly  colloquial     ..  ..  ..      2000 

(5)  German,  the  examination  to  be  partly  colloquial  ..  ..  ..      2000 

(6)  Any  one  of  the  following  languages  at  the  option  of  the  candidate, 

viz.   Italian,   Russian,  Spanish,  or  Hindostanee ;  the  examina- 
tion to  be  partly  colloquial          ..  ..  ..  ...         ..      2000 

§(7)  Experimental  sciences,  viz.  (a)  chemistry  and  heat ;  or  (6)  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism     ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..      2000 

(8)  General  and  physical  geography  and  geology          ..  ..  ..      2000 

(9)  Drawing,  free-hand  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..      1000 

Ot'  these  nine  subjects,  candidates  will  not  be  allowed  to  take  up  more  than  four, 
exclusive   of  drawing.      N.B. — In  all  the   subjects,  great    importance    will    be 
attached  to  accuracy  in  numerical  results. 

13.  A  certain  number  will  be  deducted  from  the  marks  gained  by  a  candidate 


*  See  Detailed  Syllabos,  par.  14. 

f  Including  500  allotted  to  English  composition  in  the  preliminary  examination. 
J  Classics  are  divided  into  two  sections,   Latin  and  Greek,   either  or  both  of  which  the 
candidate  may  take  up  as  one  subject. 
$  Subjects  (a)  and  (,b)  are  alternative ;  a  candidate  will  not  be  allowed  to  taki  up  both. 


APPENDIX  A.  495 


in  each  subject,  except  mathematics;  and  the  remainders  will  be  added  to  the 
marks  gained  by  the  candidate  in  the  preliminary  examination  in  mathematics, 
English  composition,  and  geometrical  drawing  The  resulting  total  will  determine 
the  candidate's  place  in  the  competitive  list ;  the  successful  candidates  being  those 
who  stand  first  on  the  list  up  to  the  number  of  vacancies  competed  for. 

OPTIONAL  EXAMINATION  IN  MATHEMATICS. — DETAILED  SYLLABUS. 

14.  Further  questions  and  problems  on  the  subjects  of  the  qualifying  examina- 
tion.    Theory  of  equations :   first  principles.     Analytical  geometry  :  problems  on 
straight  line  and  circle.     Conic  sections  :  elementary  properties,  with  easy  problems, 
both  on  the  analytical  and  geometrical  methods.     Solid  geometry:  first  principles, 
with   easy  exercises.     Differential   calculus.      Differentiation   of  functions  of  one 
independent  variable.    Taylor's  and  Maclaurin's  theorems  ;  applications.     Maxima 
and  minima  of  functions  of  one  independent  variable.     Method  of  infinitesimals : 
first  principles,  with  easy  applications.     Tangents  and  normals  to  curves.     Points 
of  inflexion.     Curvature  of  curves.     Involutes   and   evolutes.     Integral  calculus. 
Elementary   integrations.       Integration   considered   as  summation.     Rectification 
and  quadrature  of  plane  curves.     Statics:  equilibrium  of  forces  and  couples  in 
one  plane.    Friction  :  centre  of  gravity  ;  mechanical  powers.    Problems  on  elemen- 
tary btatics  :  the  graphical  or  geometrical  method  of  treating  such  problems  should 
be  studied  as  well  as  the  analytical.     No  applications  of  the  differential  calculus  to 
statics  will  be  required.      Dynamics  :  elementary   principles  ;  projectiles  ;  motion 
of   a  heavy  particle  on  a  smooth  curve;    centrifugal    force;    simple    pendulum. 
Problems  and  exercises.      No  applications  of  the   differential    calculus    will    be 
required. 

TERMS  OF  PAYMENT. 

15.  The  terms  of  payment  for  cadets  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy  are  regu- 
lated by  the  following  articles  of  her  Majesty's  warrant  of  the  '27th  December 
1870  for  the  pay  and  promotion  of  the  army  : — 

Payment  for  cadet. — The  payment  to  be  contributed  on  behalf  of  a  cadet  shall 

be  as  follows,  and  shall  be  paid  half-yearly  in  advance : — 

Annually. 
£ 

Queen's  cadets  (if  any)     . .  . .  . .  . .          . .          . .  . .          . .   A'j/. 

For  the  son  of  an  officer  of  the  army  or  navy  who  has  died  in  the  service, 
and  whose  family  is  left  in  pecuniary  distress  (subject  to  the  approval  of 
our  secretary  of  state)  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  20 

For  the  son  of  an  officer  below  the  rank  of  colonel  or  regimental  field  officer 
in  the  army,  and  captain  or  commander  in  the  navy,  or  of  an  instructor  at 
the  Royal  Military  Academy,  or  Royal  Military  College,  or  Staff  College  ..  40 

For  the  son  of  a  colonel  or  regimental  field  officer  in  the  army,  or  of  a 
captain  or  commander  in  the  navy,  or  of  a  professor  at  the  Royal  Military 
Academy,  or  Royal  Military  College,  or  Staff  College  . .  . .  60 

For  the  son  of  a  general  officer  who  is  not  colonel  of  a  regiment,  or  of  a  vice- 
or  rear-admiral ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ••  ••  ••  ..70 

For  the  son  of  an  admiral  or  of  a  general  officer  who  is  colonel  of  a  regiment 
or  in  receipt  of  Indian  colonel's  allowances  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..80 

For  the  son  of  a  private  gentleman         ..  ..  ..  ..  ..          ..    125 

Scale  of  payment,  how  computed. — In  determining  the  rate  of  payment — 

a.  A  general  officer  on  the  half-pay  of  his  last  regimental  commission  shall 

pay  in  accordance  with  such  regimental  rank. 
k.  Officers    who   have    sold   their   commissions   shall    be   regarded   as   private 

gentlemen. 


496  APPENDIX  A. 


c.  Officers  on  retired  full  or  half-pay  after  25  years'  service,  or   officers   of  less 

than  25  years'  service,  if  placed  on  half-pay  by  reduction  of  establishment, 
or  on  account  of  ill-health,  shall  pay  in  accordance  with  their  last  sub- 
stantive regimental  rank.  The  cases  of  officers  voluntarily  retiring  to  half- 
pay  before  completing  25  years'  service  shall  be  specially  considered. 

d.  Officers  of  the  departments  of  the  army  and  navy  according  to  their  relative 
rank,   of  the  permanent   staff  of   the  militia,  adjutants  of   the  volunteer 
force,  as  well  as  Indian  military  and  naval  officers,  shall   be  treated  on  the 
same  terms  as  military  or  naval  officers. 

e.  The  sons  of  deceased   officers  shall  be  contributed  for  in  accordance  with  the 
foregoing  regulations  in  regard  to  the  rank  or  classification  of  their  fathers. 

Sickness  and  rustication. — If,  a  cadet  be  absent  a  whole  term  in  consequence  of 
sickness  or  rustication,  a  payment  of  £10  shall  be  required  for  the  privilege  of  his 
name  being  kept  on  the  rolls  of  the  establishment,  and  for  a  vacancy  being 
guaranteed  at  the  commencement  of  the  next  term. 

Orphans. — In  the  case  of  a  cadet  who  is  an  orphan,  whose  annual  contribution 
is  only  £20,  the  amount  to  be  paid  when  absence  extends  over  a  whole  term  shall 
be  determined  by  the  secretary  of  state. 

Sickness. — If  a  cadet  be  absent  from  sickness  during  a  portion  of  the  term,  his 
pay  shall  continue  to  be  issued  and  credited  to  his  account,  but  no  refund  of  the 
contribution  shall  be  permitted. 

Rustication. — If  a  cadet  be  rusticated  or  removed  during  a  term,  his  daily  pay 
shall  cease  from  the  date  on  which  he  is  sent  away,  and  the  contribution  made  for 
the  half-year  shall  be  forfeited. 

Pay  of  cadet. — The  pay  of  a  cadet  shall  be  3s.  a  day.  It  is  issued  to  cover  the 
expenses  of  regimental  clothing,  messing,  washing,  and  other  contingencies.  All 
other  necessary  expenses  of  this  nature,  as  well  as  weekly  pocket  money,  postage 
of  letters,  bootmakers'  and  tailors'  bills  for  repairs,  &c.,  which  cannot  be  covered 
by  his  pay,  shall  be  chargeable  to  his  parent  or  guardian  in  addition  to  the  regu- 
lated contribution. 

Extra  payments  for  cadets. — Each  cadet  on  first  joining  shall  be  required  to 
pay,  in  addition  to  the  regulated  contribution,  a  sum  of  £25  to  cover  the  expenses 
of  uniform,  books,  &c.,  and  to  bring  with  him  the  articles  of  clothing  of  which 
he  will  receive  notice,  and  which  must  afterwards  be  kept  up  at  his  own  expense. 
He  shall  also  be  required  to  pay  the  regulated  contribution  in  advance,  for  each 
half-year  of  the  time  during  which  he  remains  under  instruction,  and  a  deposit  of 
£5  on  account,  for  contingent  expenses,  which  latter  sum  he  shall  be  required  to 
make  up  on  returning  to  the  Royal  Military  Academy  after  each  vacation,  to  cover 
any  expense  that  may  be  incurred  on  his  account  during  the  ensuing  half-year. 

GOVERNMENT  AND  ORGANISATION. 

16.  The  Field  Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief  will  be  the  president  of  the  Royal 
Military  Academy. 

17.  An  independent  inspection  by  a  board  of  visitors,  appointed  by  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  War,  and  reporting  to  him,  will  be  made  once  a  year.     Such  visitors 
will  not  be  a  permanent  body,  but  will  not  be  all  changed  at  the  same  time.    The 
report  of  this  board  will  be  presented  to  parliament. 

18.  The  academy  will  be  under  the   control  of  a  governor,   a  military  man, 
selected  with  special  reference  to  his  qualifications  for  superintending  both  instruc- 
tion and  discipline,  and  appointed  by  and  responsible  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
War,  through  the  Field  Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief. 

19.  The  governor,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  will  have  local  rank  superior  to  that 
of  any  of  the  officers  employed  under  him. 

20.  The  tenure  of  the  appointment  is  regulated  by  the  following  article  of  the 
royal  warrant  of  the  27th  December  1870 : — The  appointment  of  governor  of 


APPENDIX  A.  497 


the  Royal  Military  Academy  ....  shall  be  for  seven  years,  with  power  of 
re-appointment ;  but  shall  in  all  cases  terminate  after  fourteen  years,  or  at  the 
age  of  sixty. 

21.  The  governor,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War,  will  have 
the  power  of  appointing  and  removing  the  professors  and  instructors. 

22.  The  organisation  will  be  on  a  military  basis. 

2,3.  The  governor  will  be  solely  responsible  for  discipline  and  for  the  general 
superintendence  of  the  studies. 

24.  He  will  be  assisted  in  the  arrangement  of  the  studies  by  the  academy  board, 
composed   of  the  professors  or  senior  instructors  of  the  different  branches.     The 
head  of  each  branch  will  have  the  general  power  of  supervision  and  inspection 
over  the  studies  of  his  department,  with  the  duty  of  reporting  on  them  to  the 
governor. 

25.  The  governor  will  from  time  to  time  assemble  and  confer  with  all  the  pro- 
fessors and  instructors  of  each  separate  branch  on  matters  relating  to  it. 

26.  The  governor  will  be  assisted  by  a  staff  officer,  not  under  the  rank  of  captain, 
who  will  be  secretary  and  treasurer,  and  have  charge  of  -the  records,  correspond- 
ence and  accounts  of  the  establishment,  and  make  all  local  payments  connected 
therewith,  and  receive  the  contributions  for  the  cadets.     This  appointment  will  be 
for  seven  years,  with  power  of  re-appointment. 

27.  The  cadets  will   form  one  company  under  a  captain,  assisted  by  four  lieu- 
tenants, charged  with  the  discipline  out  of  studies  and  the  drill,  one  of  whom  will 
be  adjutant  and  quartermaster. 

28.  The  professors  and  instructors  may  be  either  military  men  or  civilians. 

29.  The  professors  and  instructors  will  have  certain  limited  powers  of  punish- 
ment, within  and  without  the  halls  of  study,  at  the  discretion  of  the  governor,  to 
whom  they  will  report  all  punishments  which  they  may  inflict. 

30.  The  chaplain  will  be  specially  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  will 
give  instruction  in  classics. 

31.  The  tenure  of  office  of  the  professors  and  instructors  is  regulated  by  the 
following  article  of  the  royal  warrant  of  27th  December  1870 : — The  professors 
and  instructors  at  our  Royal  Military  Academy  shall  be  appointed  for  six  years, 
with  power  of  re-appointment.     Their  term  of  office  shall  not  continue  after  the 
age  of  fifty-five,  unless  an  extension  be  specially  recommended  by  the  governor  and 
approved  by  our  Secretary  of  State. 

32.  No  professor  or  instructor  will  be  permitted  to  give  private  instruction  to 
a  cadet,  either  during  the  vacation  or  at  any  other  time,  or  be  allowed  to  prepare 
candidates  for  admission  to  the  academy. 

33.  The  governor  will  have  the  absolute  power  of  rustication  and  removal,  and 
also  of  sentencing  a  cadet  for  misconduct  to  lose  places  in  the  list  of  successful 
candidates  for  commissions;  when  expulsion  is  necessary,  the  case  will  be  referred 
to  the  Secretary  of  State  through  the  Field  Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief. 

34.  The  name  of  any  cadet  expelled  for  misconduct  will  be  recorded  in  the  office 
of  the  Field  Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief,  and  will  be  made  known  to  the  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India,  in  order  to  prevent 
his  being  admitted  into  her  Majesty's  naval,  military,  or  Indian  service. 

35.  A  sword  will   be   given  at  each  final  examination  as  a  special  reward  for 
excellence  in  conduct. 

36.  The  governor  will  cause  registers  to  be  kept  of  all  serious  punishments 
awarded,  and  of  the  offences  which  have  caused  them. 

37.  He  will  inspect  accounts  of  every  description  connected  with  the  academy, 
and  certify  those  which  require  it. 


2  K 


498  APPENDIX  A. 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

38.  The  length  of  the  course  of  instruction  will  be  two  years  and  a  half. 

39.  If  any  cadet  fail  to  come  up  to  the  required  standard  at  two  examinations, 
or  be  found  unable  to  qualify  in  his  studies  for  a  commission  within  three  years, 
to  be  counted  from  the  commencement  of  the  term  in  which  he  first  joins,  or  to 
acquire   a  sufficient  proficiency  in  military  exercises,  he  will  be  removed.     No 
extension  of  the  above  period  of  three  years  will  be  granted  on  account  of  absence 
from  any  cause  excepting  illness.    Cases  of  protracted  absence  on  account  of  illness 
will  be  specially   referred  for  decision  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War  through 
the  Field  Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief. 

40.  The  following  subjects  will  form  the  course  of   obligatory  studies: — (1) 
Mathematics,  including  a  thorough  knowledge  of  plane  trigonometry  ;  practical 
mechanics,  with  the  application  of  mathematics  to  machinery.     (2)   fortification, 
field  and  permanent ;  such  a  course   as  is  suitable  to  cadets  qualifying  for  the 
artillery,  and  the  requisite  amount  of  geometrical  drawing.     (3)  Artillery ;    such 
a  course  as  is  suitable  to  cadets  qualifying  for  the  engineers.    (4)  Military  drawing, 
with  field  sketching  and  reconnaissance.     (5)  Military  history  and  geography.  (6) 
French    or   German,    at    the   student's   choice.      (7)  Elementary    chemistry    and 
physics.     (8)  Drills  and  exercises. 

41.  In  addition  to  the  obligatory  course,  every  cadet  will  be  allowed,  at  his 
option,  to  take  up  certain  voluntary  subjects,   viz. : — (1)  Higher  mathematics. 
(2)  Higher  portions  of  fortification.     (3)  Any  of  the  following   languages: — Ger- 
man or  French,  Italian,  Russian,  Spanish,  or   Hindostanee.     (4)  Freehand,  figure, 
and   landscape  drawing.      (5)  Higher  chemistry.      (6)    Latin    and    (7)    Greek ; 
instruction  in  these  subjects  to  be  given  by  the  chaplain. 

42.  Marks  will   be   assigned   to   the  obligatory  subjects  of  instruction   in   the 
following  proportions  : — Mathematics  and  mechanics,  7  ;  fortification,  7  ;  artillery, 
5;  military  drawing  and  reconnaissance,  6  ;  military  history,  &c.,  3;  one  modern 
language,  French  or  German,  2  ;  elementary  chemistry  and  physics,  '2  ;  drills  and 
exercises — manual,  platoon,  and  company  drill,  £  ;  gymnastics,  | ;  riding  and  sword 
exercises,  5  ;  artillery,  2  ;  total  3£. 

43.  The  voluntary  subjects  shall  be  valued  as  follows  : — Higher  mathematics,  5  ; 
higher  fortification,  3  ;    Latin,  2 ;    Greek,  2  ;    any  of  the  following  languages — 
French  or  German,  Italian,  Russian,  Spanish,  or  Hindostanee,  2  ;  freehand,  figure, 
and  landscape  drawing,  2  ;  higher  chemistry,  2. 

44.  No  obligatory  subject  shall  gain  a   cadet  any  marks  unless  he  obtain  a 
minimum  of  one-half  marks  in  it. 

45.  No  cadet  will  be  ensured  a  commission  unless  he  qualify  by  obtaining  at 
least  one-half  marks  in  the  obligatory  course  in  mathematics  and  mechanics,  forti- 
fication, and  artillery,  and  one-half  of  the  total   aggregate  of  the  marks  allotted 
to  all  the  obligatory  subjects. 

46.  No  voluntary  subject  shall  gain  a  cadet  any  marks  unless  he  obtain  a  mini- 
mum of  at  least  one-third  of  the  marks  assigned  to  that  portion  of  it  in  which  he 
is  examined.     The  marks  gained  in  the  voluntary  subjects  will  be  added  to  those 
obtained  in  the  obligatory  subjects  to  make  a  second  total,  according  to   which 
cadets  shall  be  finally  placed. 

47.  The  periodical  examinations  will  be  entirely  conducted  by  examiners  in- 
dependent of  the  academy,  the  whole  of  the  marks  except  those  reserved  for  note- 
books and  drawing  being  allotted  according  to  their  results. 

STAFF  OF  THE  ESTABLISHMENT. 

48.  The  following  will  be  the  staff  of  the  establishment : — Governor,  secretary 
and  treasurer,  captain  commanding  company,  3  lieutenants,  adjutant  and  quarter- 
master, medical  officer,  chaplain,  4  professors  and  instructors  of  mathematics  and 


APPENDIX  A.  409 


mechanics,  4  professors  and  instructors  of  fortification  and  geometrical  drawing, 
2  professors  and  instructors  of  artillery,  4  professors  and  instructors  of  military 
drawing,  &c.,  and  professor  and  instructor  of  military  history  and  geography,  2 
professors  and  instructors  of  French  and  German,  1  professor  and  instructor  of 
figure  and  landscape  drawing,  and  1  professor  and  instructor  of  chemistry. 

49.  The    pay  and  allowances  of  the  officers  are   regulated   by  the    following 
articles  of  her  Majesty's  warrant  of  the  27th  December  1870 : — The  pay  of  the 
officers  of  our  Royal  Military  Academy  shall  be  as  follows: — 

Governor,  £1500  yearly,  inclusive  of  all  allowances  except  quarters,  and  in 
addition  to  his  unattached  pay  as  a  general  officer  or  his  pay  as  colonel  commandant 
i if  royal  artillery  or  royal  engineers,  in  the  event  of  his  holding  such  rank; 
secretary  and  treasurer,  not  of  lower  rank  than  captain,  £400  yearly,  inclusive  of 
all  allowances  except  quarters,  and  in  addition  to  regimental  pay ;  captain  of 
company,  12s.  daily,  and  regimental  pay  (also  forage  allowance  for  one  horse, 
quarters,  fuel,  and  light,  and  2  soldier  servants) ;  lieutenants,  each  4s.  daily,  and 
regimental  pay  (also  quarters,  fuel,  and  light,  and  1  soldier  servant);  adjutant 
and  quartermaster,  5s.  daily,  and  regimental  pay  as  lieutenant  (also  quarters, 
fuel,  and  light,  forage  allowance  for  1  horse,  and  2  soldier  servants) ;  surgeon, 
according  to  his  rank  in  the  army  medical  department  ;  chaplain  and  classical  in- 
structor, £400  yearly,  and  quarters,  fuel,  and  light ;  professor  of  mathematics,  if 
a  civilian,  £550  to  £700  yearly,  by  a  triennial  increase  of  £50 ;  professor  of 
mathematics,  if  an  officer,  £550  yearly,  without  increase  ;  instructors  of  mathe- 
matics, if  civilians,  £350  to  £500  each  yearly,  by  a  triennial  increase  of  £50 ; 
instructors  of  mathematics,  if  officers,  £450  yearly,  without  increase  ;  professor  of 
fortification,  £550  yearly  ;  instructors  of  fortification  and  geometrical  drawing, 
each,  £450  ;  professor  of  artillery,  £550 ;  instructors  of  artillery,  £450  ;  professor 
of  military  drawing,  £550  ;  instructors  of  military  drawing,  each,  £450  ;  professor 
of  military  history,  £500  ;  professor  of  French,  £350 ;  professor  of  German,  £350  ; 
professor  of  landscape  drawing,  £350 ;  professor  of  chemistry,  £400. 

The  above  scale  of  pay  (and  allowances)  shall  include  all  remuneration  of  every 
kind  except  any  additional  pay,  beyond  his  ordinary  regimental  pay,  to  which  an 
officer  may  be  entitled  by  brevet  rank  or  as  a  reward  for  distinguished  service  in 
the  field,  and  no  person  hereafter  to  be  appointed  to  any  of  the  above  appointments 
shall  be  entitled  to  pension  or  superannuation  allowance  for  services  in  such 
appointment. 

50.  The  appointments  of  military  professors  and  instructors  are  open  to  officers 
of  all  ranks. 

51.  No  person  whatever  belonging  to  the  Royal  Military  Academy  is  to  receive  a 
present  from  any  cadet,  or  from  the  relations  or  friends  of  any  cadet. 

52.  Commissions  as  lieutenants  in  the  royal  artillery  or  royal  engineers  will  be 
conferred  upon  candidates  who  qualify  in  accordance  with  pars.  39  to  45. 

53.  The  commissions  of  such  lieutenants  as  are  recommended  by  the  governor  of 
the  academy,  and  afterwards  pass  through  their  practical  course  at  Woolwich  and 
Chatham  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  will  be  antedated  6  months. 


II.— REGULATIONS    RESPECTING    EXAMINATIONS    FOR    FIRST 

APPOINTMENTS  TO  THE  ARMY. 
FIRST  APPOINTMENTS  TO  CAVALRY  AND  INFANTRY. 

1.  The  examinations  will  be  conducted  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners,  and 
will  take  place  twice  a  year,  in  the  months  of  December  and  July. 

2.  Notice  will  be  given  from  time  to  time  of  the  day  and   place  of  the  ex- 
aminations. 

3.  The  number  of  trials  allowed  will  not  exceed  three. 

4.  All  candidates  will  be  inspected  by  a  medical  board,  and  no  candidate  will   be 

2  K  2 


500  APPENDIX  A. 


allowed  to  proceed  to  examination  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners  unless  cer- 
tified by  the  board  to  be  free  from  any  bodily  defects  or  ailments,  and  in  all  respects, 
as  to  height  and  physical  qualities,  fit  for  her  Majesty's  service.  Cases  of  ex- 
ceptional shortness  of  stature  will  be  referred  to  the  War  Office  for  special 
consideration. 

5.  The  limits  of  age  for  candidates  for  admission  by  competition.  Queen's  cadets. 
Queen's  honorary  cadets,  Indian  cadets,  and  pages  of  honour,  will  be  from  17  to  20  ; 
for  students  of  the  universities^  who  shall  have  passed  the  interim  examination  as 
specified  in  par.  24,  from  17  to  21  ;  for  graduates  of  the  universities  who 
shall  have  passed  the  examination  for  the  degree  of  B.A.  or  M.A.,  from  17  to  22  ; 
and  for  lieutenant  from  the  militia,  from  19  to  22.  Officers  who  entered  the 
militia  between  the  16th  of  February  and  the  1st  of  November  1871,  inclusive, 
may  be  admitted  up  to  the  age  of  23. 

•6.  Candidates  who  desire  to  compete  for  commissions  in  West  India  regiments 
may  be  admitted  up  to  the  age  of  24. 

7.  Candidates  must  be  within  the   prescribed  limits  of  age  on  the  following 
date  : — Candidates  for  admission  by  competition.  Queen's  cadets.  Queen's  honorary 
cadets,  Indian  cadets,  and  pages  of  honour,  on  the  1st  of  January  next  following 
the  winter  examination,  and  on  the  1st  of  July  for  the  Midsummer  examination. 
Graduates  and  students  from  the  universities,  on  the  date  of  passing  the  university 
examination,  as  specified  in  par.  24.     Lieutenants  from  the  militia,  on  the   1st   of 
May  of  the  year  in  which  they  are  recommended  for  a  commission  in  the  army. 

8.  Notice  will  be  given,  from  time  to  time,  of  the  number  of  sub-lieutenancies 
open  to  general  competition  at  each  periodical  examination. 

9.  A  candidate  for  admission  by  competition  at  the  December  or  July  examina- 
tions must  send  to  the  military  secretary,  not  less  than  one  month  before  the  1st 
of  December  or  the  1st  of  July  respectively,  an  application  to  be  examined,  accom- 
panied by  the  following  papers  : — 

(a)  An  extract  from  the  register  of  birth ;  or,  in  default,  a  declaration  made 
by  one  of  his  parents  or  guardians  before  a  magistrate,  giving  his  exact  age. 

(6)  A  certificate  of  good  moral  character,  signed  by  a  clergyman  of  the  parish 
in  which  he  has  recently  resided,  or  by  the  tutor  or  head  of  the  school  or  college 
at  which  he  has  received  his  education,  for  at  least  the  two  preceding  years,  or 
some  other  satisfactory  proof  of  good  moral  character. 

10.  A  candidate  who  has  once  been  examined  will  only  be  required,  when  he 
applies  to  be  examined  again,  to  forward  a  certificate  of  good  moral  character  for 
the  interval  between  the  two  examinations. 

11.  All  candidates  will  be  required  to  satisfy  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners  in 
the  following  subjects  : — 

(1)  Mathematics — viz.  (a)  arithmetic,  including  vulgar  and  decimal  fractions, 
proportion,   and  simple  interest ;  (6)  geometry,  not  beyond  the  standards  of  the 
first  book  of  Euclid. 

(2)  French,  German,  or  some  other  modern  language,   the  examination   being 
limited  to  a  translation  from  the  language,  and  grammatical  questions. 

(3)  Writing  English  correctly,  and  in  a  good  legible  hand,  from  dictation. 

(4)  The  elements  of  geometrical  drawing,  including  the  construction  of  scales, 
and  the  use  of  simple  mathematical  questions. 

(5)  Geography. 

12.  No  marks  will  be  allotted  for  the  above  preliminary  examination  except  for 
geometrical  drawing,  the  maximum  number  for  which  will  be  300. 

The  preliminary  examination  will  be  dispensed  with  in  all  other  subjects  in  the 
case  of  candidates  who  have  passed  it  at  the  previous  examinations. 

13.  The  further  examination  will  be  proceeded  with  immediately  on  the  con- 
clusion of  the  preliminary  examination.    Candidates  who  fail   in  the  preliminary 
examination  will  be  informed  of  their  failure  as  soon  as  possible,  and  they  will  then 
be  released  from  further  attendance. 


APPENDIX  A.  501 

14.  The  subjects  of  the  further  examination  and  the  maximum  number  of  marks 
obtainable  for  each  subject  will  be  as  follows : — 

(1)  Mathematics — viz.  algebra,  up  to  and  including  quadratic   equations  ;  the 
theory  and  use  of  logarithms,  geometry,  plane  trigonometry,  and  mensuration — 
3000  marks. 

(2)  English  composition,  tested  by  the  power  of  writing  an  essay,  a  letter,  or 
precis;  English  literature,  limited  to  specified  authors;  and  English  history,  limited  to 
certain  fixed  periods,  the  authors  and  periods  being  notified  beforehand — 3000  marks. 

(3)  Latin— 3000  marks. 

(4)  Greek— 3000  marks. 

(o)  French,  the  examination  to  be  partly  colloquial — 2000  marks. 

(6 )  German,  the  examination  to  be  partly  colloquial — 2000  marks. 

(7)  Experimental  sciences — viz.*  (a)  chemistry  and  heat,  or  (6)  electricity  and 
magnetism — 2000  marks. 

(8)  General  and  physical  geography  and  geology — 2000  marks. 

(9)  Drawing,  freehand — 1000  marks. 

Of  these  nine  subjects,  candidates  will  not  be  allowed  to  take  up  more  than  four, 
nor  less  than  two,  exclusive  of  drawing. 

15.  In  order  to  secure  a  proper  proficiency  in  all  the  subjects  taken  up  by  a 
candidate,  a  certain  number  will  be  deducted  from  the  marks  gained  by  the  can- 
didate in  each  subject. 

16.  The  following  will  be  the  mode  of  selecting  the  successful  candidates  at  the 
open  competitive  examination.     After  the  proper  deduction  (in  accordance  with 
par.  15)  has  been  made  from  the   number  of  marks  gained  by  each   candidate 
in  the  several  subjects  in  which  he  has  been  examined,  the  remainders  will  be 
summed  up,  and  the  marks  gained  by  the  candidate  in  geometrical  drawing  at  the 
preliminary  examination  will  be  added  thereto.    The  resulting  total  will  determine 
the  place  of  the  candidate  in  the  competition  list,  the  successful  candidates  being 
those  who  stand  at  the  head  of  the  list  up  to  the  number  of  vacancies  competed  for. 

17.  Queen's   cadets  are  sons  of  officers   of  the  army,   royal  navy,  and   royal 
marines,  who  have  fallen  in  action,  or  died  of  wounds  received  in  action,  or  of 
disease  contracted  on  service  abroad,  and  who  have  left  their  families  in  reduced 
circumstances.    They  are  appointed  by  the  secretary  of  state  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  Commander-in-Chief  or  the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

18.  Honorary  Queen's  cadets  are  sons  of  officers  of  the  army,  royal  navy,  and 
royal  marines,  who  were  killed  in  action,  or  who  have  died  of  wounds  received  in 
action  within  6  months  of  such  wounds  having  been  received,  or  of  illness  brought 
on  by  fatigue,  privation,  or  exposure  incident  to  active  operations  in  the  field  before 
an  enemy,  within  6  months  after  their  having  been  first  certified  to  be  ill.     (See 
art.  5  of  the  royal  warrant  of  the  27th  of  November   1873,  clause   151,   Army 
Circulars,  1873.) 

19.  Applications  for  Queen's  cadetships  should  be  addressed  to  the  military  secre- 
tary if  the  candidate  is  the  son  of  an  officer  of  the  army,  or  to  the  secretary  of  the 
Admiralty  if  the  candidate  is  the  son  of  an  officer  of  the  royal  navy  or  royal  marines. 

20.  Indian  cadets  are  the  sons  of  persons  who  have  served  in  India  in  the  military 
or  civil  service  of  her  Majesty  or  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  are  nominated  by 
the  Secretary  of  State  f  >r  India  in  Council,  under  the  provisions  of  21  and  22  Viet, 
cap.  106,  and  23  and  24  Viet.  cap.  100.    Applications  for  Indian  cadetships  should 
be  addressed  to  the  military  secretary,  India  Office. 

21.  A  Queen's  cadet,  honorary  Queen's  cadet,  Indian  cadet,  or  page  of  honour 
must  send  the  papers   mentioned  in  pars.  9  and   10  to  the  military  secretary 
immediately  on  receiving  any  order  from  him  so  to  do. 

22.  In  accordance  with  art.  1  of  the  royal   warrant  of  the  30th  of  October 
1871,  Queen's  cadets,  honorary  Queen's  cadets,  Indian  cadets,  and  pages  of  honour 
will  be  required  to  pass  a  qualifying  entrance  examination  only — i.e.  after  having 


*  Subj  'cts  (a)  and  (6)  are  alternative;  a  candidate  will  net  be  allowed  to  take  up  both. 


502  APPENDIX  A. 


passed  the  preliminary  examination  under  par.  11,  to  obtain  under  pars.  14  and  15 
such  an  aggregate  of  marks  as  may  indicate  in  the  judgment  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commissioners  a  competent  amount  of  general  proficiency. 

2o.  Candidates  who  can  produce  a  university  certificate,  as  prescribed  in  para- 
graph 24,  will  be  exempted  from  the  qualifying  entrance  examination  described  in 
the  preceding  paragraph. 

24.  A  graduate  or  student  of  one  of  the  universities  hereinafter  specified  who  is 
a  candidate  for  the  commission  of  sub-lieutenant  must  send  an  application  to  the 
military  secretary  not  later  than  the  31st  of  May  or  the  31st  of  October  next  fol- 
lowing the  date  of  his  university  qualification,   with  a   view  to  his  appointment 
under    the    provisions    of  par.    25.     The    application    must    be    accompanied  by 
papers  («)   and  (6)    described    in  par.    9,  and  by   a  certificate  from   the   proper 
authority  that  he  has  taken  his  degree  in  arts,  or  has  passed  the  university  exam- 
ination specified  below : — 

Ox  ford — Moderations. 

Cambridge — The  previous  examination. 

Ihiblin — The  final  examination  of  the  senior  freshman  year. 

Durham — The  first  year's  examination. 

Queen's  University,  Ireland — The  first  university  examination  in  arts  or  in 
engineering. 

Scotch  universities. — The  examination  for  candidates  for  the  army. 

London  University — The  first  examination  for  the  degrees  of  B.A.,  LL.B.,  B.Sc. 
or  M.B. 

25.  Notice  will  be  given,  from  time  to  time,  of  the  number  of  vacancies  which 
will   be   allotted   half-yearly  to   university  candidates.     In  case   there  should  be 
more  candidates  than  vacancies,  the   required  number  will   be  selected   by  com- 
petition among  the  said  candidates  at  the  ensuing  July  or   December  examination. 
The  successful  candidates  must  then  be  prepared  to  accept  commissions  in  the 
course  of  the  following  6  months,  otherwise  their  claims  will  lapse. 

26.  Notice  will  be  given,  from  time   to  time,  to  officers   commanding  militia 
regiments  whenever  they  will  be  permitted  to  recommend  a  lieutenant  for  a  com- 
mission in  the  army ;  probably  one  in  each  year  for  a  battalion  of  10   companies 
and  for  other  battalions  in  proportion. 

27.  Before  a  lieutenant  of  militia  can  be  granted  a  commission  as  a  lieutenant 
in  the  army,  he  will  be  required  (a)  to  have  served  two  annual  trainings  with  his 
militia  regiment ;  (6)  to  pass   the  qualifying  examination  described  in  par.   22, 
or  to  produce  a  university  certificate  as  prescribed   in   par.   24 ;  (c)  to  produce 
a  certificate  from  a  board  of  examination  that  he  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the    following    subjects*: — The   first    two  parts  of  the   field   exercise    of   the 
infantry  and  the  command  of  a  company  in  battalion.     Rifle  drill  and  practice; 
and  the  theoretical  principles   of  musketry  as  defined  in  the  authorised  book  of 
instruction.     The  duty  of  regimental   orderly    officers,    of  officers    commanding 
guards,  and  of  subaltern  officers  of  guards  under  officers  of  superior  rank,  and  the 
mode  of  marching  reliefs  and  posting  sentries.     Those  parts  of  the  Queen's  Regu- 
lations and  Orders  for  the  Army  which  relate  to  the  duties  and  conduct  of  a  subaltern 
officer ;  and  the  Mutiny  Act  and  Articles  of  War,  so  far  as  is  necessary  for  the  per- 
formance of  the  duties  of  a  member  of  a  court-martial.     The  regulations  for  the 
army  in  regard  to  the  pay  and  messing  of  the  troops,  the  supply  of  clothing  and 
necessaries,  and  all  details  regarding  the  mode  of  carrying  the  various  articles  of 
the  soldiers'  kit,  arms,  accoutrements,  and  ammunition,     (d)  To  be  recommended 
by  his  commanding   officer,   the   recommendation  being  confirmed  by  the  officer 
commanding  the  subdistrict,  and  the  general  officer  commanding  the  district. 

28.  Lieutenants  of  militia  recommended  under  par.  26,   who  are  within    the 

*  When  an  officer  has  within  two  years  obtained  a  certificate  of  qualification  in  drill  from  a 
school  of  instruction  or  from  a  board  of  officers,  he  will  be  examined  only  in  such  of  the 
required  subjects  as  he  has  i.ot  already  passed  in. 


APPENDIX  A.  503 


limits  of  age  prescribed  in  par.  5,  will  be  examined  by  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
missioners (par.  27),  (6)  in  October  of  each  year.  Notification  of  such  exami- 
nation will  be  made  by  the  military  secretary.  Candidates  who  fail  in  this 
examination  will  be  allowed  two  other  trials  at  the  next  ensuing  examinations  for 
first  appointments. 


III.— REGULATIONS    FOR    THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    THE    ROYAL 
MILITARY  COLLEGE  AT  SANDHURST. 

1.  The    Royal  Military  College   is  maintained  for  the  purpose  of  affording  a 
special    military  education  to  sub-lieutenants  of  cavalry   and  infantry  recently 
appointed,    and    to   successful  candidates    in   the    competitive    examinations    for 
commissions. 

2.  The  number  of  sub-lieutenants  admitted  to  the  college   will  vary  according 
to  the  requirements  of  the  service. 

3.  The  dates  of  admission  will  be  the  10th  of  February  and  10th  of  September 
in  each  year. 

4.  The  college  terms  will  be — («)  from  the  10th  of  February  to   the  30th  of 
July,  with  suspension  of  study  during  a  fortnight  at  Easter;  (6)  from  the  10th  of 
September  to  the  loth  of  December.     The  intermediate  periods  will  constitute  the 
vacations. 

5.  The  Commander-in-Chief  will  be  the  president  of  the  Royal  Military  College. 

6.  The  college  will  be  under  the  command   of  a  governor,  who  will  be  solely 
responsible  for  discipline  and  for  the  general  superintendence  of  the  studies. 

7.  He  will  be  assisted  in  the  arrangement  of  the  studies  by  a  board,  composed 
of  the  professors  or  senior  instructors  of  the  different  branches.     The  head  of  each 
branch  will  have  the  general  power  of  supervision  and  inspection  over  the  studies 
in  his  department,  with  the  duty  of  reporting  on  them  to  the  governor. 

8.  The  governor  will  be  assisted  by  a  staff  officer,  who  will  be  responsible  in 
his  temporary  absence  for  the  charge  of  the  establishment.     This  officer  will  have 
the  custody  of  the  records  and  the  correspondence  of  the  college,  and  will  give  the 
governor  such  assistance  as  he  may  require. 

9.  The  quartermaster  will  perform  the  duties  of  acting  commissary. 

10.  The  sub-lieutenants,  being  commissioned  officers,  are  under  the  Mutiny  Act 
and  Articles  of  War,  and  must  conform  to  her  Majesty's  regulations  in  all  respects. 
While  resident  at  the  college,  they  will  be  subject  to  such  rules  and  regulations  as 
are,  or  may  be  from  time  to  time,  established  for  the  maintenance  of  good  order 
and  discipline. 

11.  The  governor  will  have  the  power  of  removing  for  a  period  not  beyond  the 
corresponding  period  in  the  next  term  any  sub-lieutenant  guilty  of  insubordinate 
or  ungentlemanlike  conduct,  or  of  repeated  acts  of  irregularity,  and  will  report 
the  circumstances  to  his  Royal  Highness  the  Field  Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief. 

12.  Sub-lieutenants  reported  for  habitual  inattention  to  their  studies,  or  failing 
to  pass  satisfactorily  through  the  probationary  examination  at  the  end  of  their 
first  term,  will  be  specially  brought  under  the  notice  of  his  Royal  Highness,  with  a 
view  to  their  cases  being  considered  as  to  the  necessity  of  removal  from  the  college. 

13.  In  cases  requiring  more  serious  notice,  a  student,  if  commissioned,  will  be 
liable,  on  the  report  of  the  governor  to  his  Royal  Highness,  to  be  removed  from 
the  service,  or,  if  not  commissioned,  to  be   removed  from  the  list  of  candidates 
awaiting  their  commissions. 

14-.  Sub-lieutenants  who  misconduct  themselves  during  their  residence  at  the 
college  will  be  liable  to  the  forfeiture  of  the  antedate  to  which  they  would  other- 
wise be  entitled  in  accordance  with  par.  28.  They  will  also,  if  temporarily 
removed  from  the  college  for  misconduct,  be  liable,  under  the  provisions  of  the 
royal  warrant  of  the  15th  of  February  1875,  to  the  forfeiture  of  pay  for  such 
period  as  the  secretary  of  state  may  direct. 


504  APPENDIX  A. 


15.  The  sub-lieutenants  will  be  distributed  in  divisions  of  not  less  than  25,  each 
division  being  under  the  immediate  charge  of  one  of  the  professors  or   instructors 
selected  by  the  governor. 

16.  The  officers  of  divisions  will  be  the  channel  of  communication  on  all  subjects 
between  the  sub-lieutenants  and  the  governor.     They  will  mess  with  their  divi- 
sions, and  will  exercise  a  general  superintendence  over  them,  for  which   they  will 
be  responsible  to  the  governor. 

17.  During  the  hours  of  study  the  sub-lieutenants  will  be  under  the  charge  of 
the   professors  and    instructors,  to  whose  orders  they   will  be  required  to  pay 
implicit  obedience. 

18.  Sub-lieutenants  will  salute  the  governor  and  assistant  to  the   governor  on 
all  occasions,  whether  in  or  out  of  uniform,  and  the  professors  and  instructors 
when  on  duty,  on  parade,  or  when  under  instruction. 

1 9.  The  sub-lieutenants  will  be  required  to  appear  at   all  times  in  uniform, 
except  when  on  leave  of  absence,  or  otherwise  exempted  by  the  governor. 

20.  The  study  undress  may  be  worn  at  all  times  when  sub-lieutenants  are  under 
instruction,  with  the  exception  of  riding  or  parade,  when  they  will   wear  their 
undress  uniform.     The  forage  cap  will  be  worn  with  the  study  undress. 

21.  The  course  of  instruction  for  each  sub-lieutenant  will  last  during  two  terms. 
The  following  will  be  the  subjects  of  study  : — (a)  Queen's  Regulations  and  Orders 
for    the  Army,  regimental  interior  economy,  accounts,  and  correspondence ;    (6) 
military  law  ;  (c)  the  elements  of  tactics  ;  (d)  field  fortification,  and  the  elements 
of  permanent   fortification ;  (e)  military  topography  and   reconnaissance  ;    (/)  in- 
fantry and  field  artillery  drill,  riding,  and  gymnastics. 

22.  At  the  end  of  the  course  the  sub-lieutenants  will   be   required  to   pass  an 
examination  in  the  field  and  on  paper,  and  those  who  pass  the  examination  will  be 
gazetted  to  regiments  in  which  there  may  be  vacancies  for  sub-lieutenants,  with  a 
view  to  their  completing  the  period  of  service  required  before  they  can  be  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant. 

23.  On  the  pass  list  of  the  examination  prescribed  in  the  foregoing  paragraph, 
sub-lieutenants  will  be  placed  in  one  of  three  classes,  according  to  their  proficiency, 
as  shown  at  the  examination. 

24.  The  examination  will-  be  qualifying,  not  competitive,  and  the  candidates  will 
be  arranged  alphabetically  in  each  class. 

25.  The  standard  of  qualification  for  the  respective  classes  will  be  decided  upon 
from  time  to  time  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War,  and  announced  to  the  sub- 
lieutenants at  the  commencement  of  their  course. 

26.  Marks  will  be  allotted  to  the  subjects  in  the  following  proportions : — Queen's 
Regulations,  &c.,  1 J  ;    military  law,  2  ;  elements  of  tactics,  3  ;    fortification,  3  ; 
military  topography  and  reconnaissance,  3. 

27.  In  tactics,  fortification,  and  military  topography  and  reconnaissance,  one- 
fourth  of  the  marks  will  be  reserved  for  notes  and  drawings  done  during  the  course. 

28.  In  accordance  with  the  power  vested   in  the   secretary   of  state  by  art.   3 
of  the  royal  warrant  of  the  30th  October  1871,  he  has  decided  that  the  lieutenants' 
commissions  of  officers  who  pass  in  the   1st    class  will   be  antedated  two  years  : 
and  those  of  officers  who  pass  in  the  2nd  class,  12  months.     No  antedate  will  be 
granted  to  officers  who  pass  in  the  third  class. 

29.  Every  antedate  will  date  back  from  two  years  subsequent   to  the  date  of 
the  original  commission  as  sub-lieutenant.     No  commission  as  lieutenant  will  be 
granted  until  the  officer  has  served  two  years  as  sub-lieutenant. 

30.  Under  the  provisions  of  that  portion  of  art.  3   of  the   royal  warrant  of 
the  30th  of  October  1871,  which  is  amended  by  the  royal  warrant  of  the  30th  of 
January  1875,  sub-lieutenants  may  be  removed  from  the  service  if  they   fail  to 
pass  the  examination  at  the  Royal  Military  College  within  two  years  from  the  date 
of  their  commissions  as  sub-lieutenants.     They  will  be  allowed  to  be  re-examined 
once,  at  the  Military  College,  provided  two  years  from  the  date  of  their  commis- 
sions as  sub-lieutenants  shall,  not  have  expired. 


APPENDIX  A.  505 


31.  In  order  to  ensure  due  diligence  during  the  whole  period  of  residence,  there 
will  be  a  probationary  examination  at  the  end  of  the  first  term  in  the  work  of  the 
term.     No  sub-lieutenant  will  be  permitted  to  reside  for  more  than  one  year  at 
the  college,  except  in  cases  of  protracted  illness,  or  long  absence  from  any  unavoid- 
able cause,  or  his  being  prevented   from  unavoidable  cause  from   undergoing  the 
final  examination. 

32.  The  mess  rooms,  ante-rooms,  and  quarters  of  the  sub-lieutenants  are  furnished 
in  all  essentials  by  the  government ;  plate,  linen,  and   china,  and  every  article  of 
mess  equipment,  are  supplied  by  the  government,  and   no  contributions  on   those 
accounts  will  be  required  from  sub-lieutenants. 

33.  The  messes  will  be  conducted  in  every  respect  like  a  regimental  mess,  with 
.strict  regard  to  economy. 

34.  All  unmarried  officers  of  the  college  will  be  required  to  mess  with  the  sub- 
lieutenants.    Those  officers  who  are  married  will  mess  with  the  sub-lieutenants  if 
required  to  do  so  by  the  governor. 

35.  Sub-lieutenants  will  provide  themselves,  before  they  join  the  college,  with 
the  prescribed  uniform,  and  with   the  books  and   instruments  required  for  their 
instruction. 

36.  Sub-lieutenants  will  pay  for  their  messing  and  washing.     The  amount  due 
from  each  officer  for  his  messing  and  washing  will  be  paid  by  him  monthly  to  the 
paymaster  of  the  college. 

37.  All  sub-lieutenants  will  be  required  to  contribute  a  certain  sum  monthly  to 
meet  the  expenses  of  a  special  laundry  which  has  been  found  to  be  requisite. 

38.  No  person  whatever  belonging  to  the  Royal  Military  College  will   receive  a 
present  from   any  sub-lieutenant,  or  from  the  relations  or  friends  of  any  sub- 
lieutenant.* 


IV.— EXAMINATION  OF  OFFICERS  FOR  PROMOTION  TO  THE  RANK 
OF  MAJOR. 

Each  candidate  for  promotion  to  the  rank  of  major  will  in  future  be  supplied 
with  a  contoured  map,  or  sketch  of  ground  similar  to  those  used  for  the  war  game, 
upon  which  he  will  be  required  to  delineate  and  explain  the  disposition  of  a  com- 
bined force  of  the  "three  arms"  under  given  conditions — 1st,  as  an  advance  or 
rear  guard  ;  2nd,  on  outposts;  3rd,  for  the  attack  or  defence  of  a  small  chosen 
position.  The  examining  board  will  be  required  to  test  the  candidate's  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  combined  movements,  supply  of  ammunition,  food,  forage,  &c., 
and  system  of  regimental  orderly-room  work  and  correspondence  by  means  of  a 
viva  voce  examination.  A  set  of  questions  on  elementary  tactics,  as  specified  in 
the  Sandhurst  course,  will  be  given.  These  questions,  which  are  to  be  answered 
in  writing,  will  not  turn  on  knowledge  of  dates  or  details,  but  will  be  calculated 
to  enable  the  candidate  to  show  that  he  has  studied  some  of  the  standard  works  on 
tatics,  i-elating  to  the  attack  and  defence  of  positions,  and  to  advanced  and  rear  guards 
and  outposts.  These  questions  will  be  supplied  by  the  director-general  of  military 
education,  to  whom  the  answers  will  be  transmitted  for  examination.  In  order  to 
pass  this  part  of  the  examination,  the  candidate  must  know  thoroughly  how  to  read 
a  military  map  or  plan.  The  following  works  may  prove  useful  to  officers  pre- 
paring themselves  for  examination,  in  doing  which  they  can  also  have  the  occa- 
sional assistance  of  the  garrison  instructors  in  the  afternoon  : — Hamley's  '  Opera- 
tions of  War,'  Clery's  '  Minor  Tactics '  (Sandhurst  text-book),  Home's  '  Precis 
of  Tactics,'  Boughey's  '  Elements  of  Military  Administration,'  Simmons  on 
'  Courts-martial,'  and  '  Soldier's  Pocket-book.' 

*  Since  the  above  rules  came  into  force,  another  change  in  the  admission  of  candidates  for  the 
army  is  about  to  take  place.  It  is  intended  from  January  1,  1877,  to  send  cadets  jfor  the  line 
and  cavalry  to  Sandhurst,  after  passing  their  preliminary  examination  before  the  Civil  Service 
Commissioners,  to  study  at  that  college  for  their  commissions,  similar  to  what  was  formerly  the 
custom.  The  rules  on  the  subject  have  not  yet  been  issued. 


50G  APPENDIX  A. 


V.— ROYAL  WARRANT  RELATIVE  TO  SUB-LIEUTENANTS. 

Sub-lieutenants  shall  be  removed  from  our  army  for  moral  or  physical  unfitness. 
They  shall,  except  in  the  case  of  non-commissioned  officers  promoted  to  be  sub- 
lieutenants, be  required  to  pass  the  examination  for  the  rank  of  lieutenant  pre- 
scribed by  the  standing  regulations  for  the  promotion  of  sub-lieutenants  in  our 
infantry  and  cavalry  of  the  line  within  two  years  from  the  date  of  their  commissions, 
and  the  professional  examination  for  the  rank  within  the  year  next  following, 
failing  to  do  which  they  shall  be  removed  from  our  service.  Sub-lieutenants  who 
shall  twice  fail  to  pass  the  examination  prescribed  by  the  aforesaid  standing  regu- 
lations may  at  once  be  removed  from  our  service,  notwithstanding  that  two  years 
from  the  date  of  their  appointment  as  sub-lieutenants  shall  not  have  expired.  If 
appointed  to  regiments  serving  in  India,  the  professional  examination  shall  be  passed 
within  the  first  vear  from  the  date  of  their  commissions,  and  the  examination  pre- 
scribed by  the  standing  regulations  for  the  promotion  of  sub-lieutenants  in  our 
cavalry  and  infantry  of  the  line  within  the  two  years  next  following,  subject  to 
the  like  removal. 


VI.— FIRST  APPOINTMENTS  TO  THE  ARMY. 

1.  On  the  conclusion  of  a  competitive  examination,  such  successful  candidates 
only  shall  be  appointed  to  sub-lieutenancies  as  the  requirements  of  the  service  at 
home  and  abroad  may  warrant. 

2.  Such  successful  candidates  as  cannot  receive  commissions  as  sub-lieutenants 
immediately  shall  undergo  a  course  of  instruction  as  students  until  such  time  as 
vacancies  may  occur  to  which  they  can  be  appointed  as  sub-lieutenants. 

3.  Sub-lieutenants,   in  order   to  qualify  for   the   rank   of  lieutenant,  shall  be 
required  to  serve  satisfactorily  with  one  of  our  regiments  for  such  period  as  shall 
from  time  to  time  be  determined  by  our  secretary  of  state,  and  either  before  or 
after  such  service  (except  in  the  case  of  non-commissioned  officers  promoted  to  be 
sub-lieutenants)  shall  go  through  such  a  course   of  study  and   pass  such  a  pro- 
fessional examination  as  may  be  fixed  from  time  to  time. 


VII.— FORM  OF  DECLARATION  TO  BE  SIGNED  BY  OFFICERS  APPLYING 
FOR  EXCHANGE  AND  ON  PROMOTION. 

The  following  is  the  declaration,  on  applying  to  exchange,  to  be  made  by  the 
receiver : — 

"  I,  A.  B.,  hereby  solemnly  declare,  on  my  honour  as  an  officer  and  a  gentleman, 
that  the  proposed  exchange  with  C.  D.  does  not  originate  in  any  cause  affecting 
my  honour  or  my  character  or  professional  efficiency ;  that  it  is  my  b&na  fide 
intention  to  join  immediately  and  do  duty  with  the  corps  to  which  I  propose  to 
exchange  for  at  least  a  period  of  12  months;  and  I  further  declare  that  none  of 
the  officers  belonging  to  my  present  regiment,  or  to  the  regiment  to  which  I  pro- 
pose to  exchange,  except  C.  D.,  have  paid  or  promised  to  pay  any  money  or  money's 
worth  to  me,  or,  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge  and  belief,  to  any  person  on  my 
behalf  or  in  my  interest,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  consideration  of  the  proposed 
exchange ;  and  I  promise  honourably  and  unreservedly  not  to  receive  or  in  any 
manner  recognise  any  such  payment  on  account  of  such  exchange,  either  now  or 
hereafter." 

The  declaration  for  the  payer  on  applying  to  exchange  contains  similar  clauses. 
The  declaration  on  promotion  is  as  follows : — 

"  I,  A.  B.,  hereby  declare,  on  my  honour  as  an  officer  and  a  gentleman,  that  I 
have  not,  nor  to  the  best  of  my  belief  has  any  person  on  my  behalf  or  in  my 


APPENDIX  A.  507 

interest,  directly  or  indirectly,  paid  or  transferred,  or  agreed  to  pay  or  transfer, 
any  sum  of  money,  valuable  security,  or  other  thing  in  respect  ot  my  promotion 

to  the  rank  of ,  or,  since  the  1st  of  November  1871,  in  respect  of  my  steps  in 

the  regiment  leading  to  such  promotion;  and  I  promise  honourably  and  un- 
reservedly not  to  make,  or  cause  to  be  made,  in  any  way  hereafter  any  such 
payment  or  transfer  in  respect  of  such  promotion." 


VIII.— STAFF  COLLEGE. 

I.  The  Staff  College   is  open  to  officers  of  all  arms  of  the  service,  and  shall 
consist  of  40  students  ;  admission  to  the  college  being  determined  by  a  competitive 
examination.     Only  one  officer  at  a  time  can  belong  to  the  college  from  a  battalion 
of  infantry,  or  a  regiment  of  cavalry,  and  only  ten  officers  at  a  time  from  the  two 
corps  of  royal  artillery  and  royal  engineers,  but,  so  far  as  the   exigencies  of  the. 
service   shall   permit,   there   will   be   no   limitation  to  the   numbers  allowed   to 
compete  for  admission.     Every  application  to  study  at  the  Staff  College  must  be 
made  whilst  the  officer  making  it  is  present  and  serving  with  his  regiment,  through 
the  commanding  officer.     No  application  from  an  officer  on  leave  will  be  enter- 
tained, and  officers  are  not  to  be  granted  leave  to  be  absent  from  their  regiments 
or  depots  with  the  view  of  preparing  themselves  to  compete  for  admission  to  the 
Staff  College. 

II.  Twenty  vacancies  will  be  offered  for  competition  annually,  three  of  which 
may  be  filled  by  officers  of  the  royal  artillery  and  two  by  officers  of  the  royal 
engineers,  provided   they  are  among  the  twenty  candidates  highest  on  the  list. 
The  principle  under  which  officers  are  allowed  to  enter  the  Staff  College  being 
that  of  pure  competition,  it  follows  that  candidates  who  may  be  found  qualified 
at   any  examination,  but  who,  from  want  of  a  sufficient  number  of  vacancies, 
cannot    then    be    admitted,    will   not    have    any   claim  to    subsequent  admission 
without  undergoing  another  competitive  examination. 

III.  No  payment  is  required  from  students  to  the  funds  of  the  college,  beyond 
an  entrance  fee  of  £3  from  an  unmarried  and  £1  10s.  from  a  married  officer,  as  a 
contribution  to  the  college  mess  funds  in  addition  to  the  regulated  quarterly 
subscription ;  and  an  entrance  subscription  of  £3  3s.  to  the  college  library. 

IV.  The  qualifications  requisite  for  admission  are — 

(a)  A  service  of  not  less  than  five  years,  previous  to  examination,  exclusive  of 

leave  of  absence.* 
(6)  A  certificate  from  his  commanding  officer,  that  the  candidate  is  in  every 

respect  a  thoroughly  good  regimental  officer. 

(c)  A  report  on  the  following  questions,  to  be  confidentially  answered  by  a 
board,  consisting  of  the  commanding  officer  and  the  two  next  senior 
officers  of  the  candidate's  regiment,t  viz. : — 

Is    his    conduct    marked    by    steadiness   and    prudence,   and    is    he 

temperate  in  his  habits  ? 
Is  he  extravagant  in  his  mode  of  living  ? 

Does  he  display  zeal,  activity,  intelligence,  and  discretion,   in    the 
performance  of  his  duties,  and  does  he  appear  to  take  an  interest 
in  his  profession  ? 
Report  any  other  characteristic  of  the  officer  which  renders  him 

suited  or  otherwise  for  the  duties  of  a  staff  officer. 
Is  his  disposition  such  as  would  enable  him  to  perform  those  duties 
with  tact  and  discrimination,  and  in  a  manner  calculated  to  ensure 


*  This  is  not  to  apply  to  the  usual  leave  of  absence  annually  granted  to  officers  on  home 
service. 

f  Officers  on  half-pay  whose  regiments  have  been  disbanded  are,  If  possible,  to  obtain 
answers  to  these  questions  from  the  three  senior  officers  under  whom  they  have  most  recently 
served. 


508  APPENDIX  A. 


their  being  cheerfully  carried  out  by  those  to  whom  orders  would 
be  conveyed  by  him ;  or  are  his  manners  and  temper  objection- 
able, and  likely  to  cause  him  to  disagree  with  those  with  whom  he 
might  be  associated  or  be  brought  in  contact? 
Is  he  active  and  energetic  in  his  habits  ? 

Is  he  a  good  (fair  or  indifferent)  rider,  and  is  he  short-sighted  ? 
(J)  A  certificate  that  the  candidate,  if  not  a  captain,  has  passed  the  examina- 
tion for  a  troop  or  company. 

(e)  A  medical  certificate  of  good  health  and  fitness  for  the  active  duties  of  the 
staff. 

V.  Every  application  to  study  at  the  Staff  College  must  be  made   through  his 
commanding  officer,  whilst  the  officer  is  present  and  serving  with  his  regiment. 
No  application  from  an  officer  on  leave  will  be  entertained. 

VI.  Every  candidate,  before   being  admitted  to  the  entrance  examination,  will, 
•if  practicable,  be  attached  for  a  month  to  the  staff  of  a  general  officer  commanding 

a  brigade  or  division,  who  at  the  expiration  of  this  period  will  report  confidentially 
upon  the  candidate's  general  fitness  for  staff  employment,  and  especially  upon  his 
aptitude  for  business  and  for  conducting  official  correspondence. 

VII.  The  competitive  examination  for  entrance  to  the  Staff  College  comprises 
the  following  subjects,  the  relative  value  of  each  at  the  examination  being  shown 
by  the  number  of  marks  attached  to  it: — 

Marks. 
Mathematics,    limited    to    arithmetic,    algebra,    geometry,!      «„„ 

plane  trigonometry,  and  elementary  mechanics       . .  j 

Military  history  and  geography  ..  ..  ..  ..      900 

French 300 

German 300 

Hindustani  300 

Fortification        ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..      600 

Military  drawing  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..      300 

Geology,  exclusive  of  mineralogy          ..  ..  ..  ..      300 

Chemistry,  heat,  electricity,  and  magnetism    ..  ..  ..      300 

A  qualification  will  be  exacted  from  every  candidate  in — 

1.  Mathematics.     400  marks  will  be  allotted  to  arithmetic,  the   first  four 

books  of  Euclid,  and  algebra  as  far  as  simple  equations  inclusive  ;  and  of 
this  number,  at  least  250  must  be  obtained  for  qualification. 

2.  Either   French,  German,  or  Hindustani.     The  qualifying  minimum  is,  in 

French,  150  marks;  in  German  or  Hindustani,  100  marks. 

3.  Elementary  field  fortification.      One-third  of  150  marks,  to  be  assigned 

to  a  simple  paper,  will  be  required  as  the  qualification  in  this  subject. 

VIII.  The  remaining  subjects,  as  well  as  the  higher  portions  of  mathematics, 
may  be  taken  up  or  not,  at  the  option  of  the  candidate,  the  marks  gained  therein 
and"  in  the  obligatory  subjects,  after  deducting  60  from  the  marks  gained  in  each 
voluntary  subject,   being  reckoned   in  determining  his   position    in    the   list  of 
competitors. 

IX.  In  regard  to  military  history,  early  notice  will  on  each  occasion  be  given  of 
the    special    campaigns    on    which   questions    will    be    set    at  the  next    ensuing 
examination. 

X.  The  examination  of  officers  serving  in  the  United  Kingdom,  for  entrance  to 
the  Staff  College,  is  held  in  London,  about  the  month  of  June,  under  the  direction 
of  the  director-general  of  military  education.     (See  par.  xxix.) 

XI.  In  the   case  of  officers  serving  abroad,  the  examination  is  conducted  by 
means  of  the  same  printed  questions  as  are  set  for  the  examination  of  candidates 
in  London.     These  questions  are  to  be  answered  in  writing  in  the  presence  of  a 
board  of  officers,  which  will  be  appointed  by  the  general  officer  in  command,  and 
which   will  certify  that  the  candidate  has  obtained  no  assistance  from  books,  or 
help  of  any  kind  in  the  examination.     (See  par.  xxx.) 


APPENDIX  A.  509 

XII.  Notice  will  be  given  of  each  examination,  and  detailed  instructions  for  the 
guidance  of  candidates  will  be  published  annually  in  the  General  Orders  of  the 
Army.     Candidates  are  recommended  to  obtain  the  reports  of  the  past  examina- 
tions for  admission,  with  copies  of  the   examination  papers,  published  by  Taylor 
and  Francis,  Red  Lion  Court,  Fleet  Street. 

XIII.  The  college  course  of  study  commences  annually  on  or  about  the  1st  of 
February.     The  transmission  of  the  printed  examination  papers  to  stations  abroad 
is  so  arranged  that  the  examinations  may  be  held  simultaneously,  and  the  merits 
of  the  candidates  decided   upon  in  time  to  admit  of  those  who  are  successful 
joining  the  Stan0  College  by  the  1st  February  next  ensuing. 

XIV.  A  synopsis  of  the  course  of  study  will  be   forwarded   to  any  officer  on 
application  to  the  director-general  of  military  education,  War  Office. 

XV.  The  following  are  the  subjects  of  instruction  at  the  Statf  College,  viz.  : — 

OBLIGATORY. 

1.  Mathematics  (first  year  only). 

2.  Fortification  and  field  engineering. 

3.  Artillery. 

4.  Topographical  drawing,  military  surveying  and  sketching,  and  road  making. 

5.  Reconnaissance. 

6.  Military  art,  history,  and  geography. 

7.  Military  administration  and  law. 

8.  French,  or  German,  or  Hindustani. 

9.  Riding. 

N.B. — Instruction  in  mathematics  is  limited  to  the  first  year,  and  will  comprise 
mensuration,  the  mode  of  determining  heights  and  distances  by  ground  problems, 
and  by  the  ordinary  trigonometrical  calculations  with  the  aid  of  logarithms,  the 
use  of  the  sextant,  and  elementary  mechanics. 

VOLUNTARY. 

1.  The  two  languages  not  selected  as  obligatory. 

2.  Geology,  exclusive  of  mineralogy. 

3.  Experimental  sciences. 

4.  Photography. 

5.  Military  telegraphy. 

Officers  desirous  of  showing  their  proficiency  in  any  or  all  of  the  above  subjects, 
as  well  as  in  other  modern  languages  not  taught  at  the  college,  and  in  landscape 
drawing,  may  be  examined  therein,  nnd  a  special  report  of  their  qualifications  in 
each  subject  will  be  made  to  the  Field  Marshal  Commauding-in-Chief,  provided 
they  obtain  three-fifths  of  the  maximum  allotted  to  that  subject ;  but  they  will 
not  be  allowed  to  count  any  marks  thus  gained  at  the  final  examination. 

XVI.  The    course   of  study  occupies   two   years,  which    period  is  not  to    be 
exceeded  except  in  case  of  illness,  and  then  only  with  the  sanction  of  the  Field 
Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief.     The  commandant,  in  arranging  the  details  of  the 
course    of  instruction,    will   be    assisted    by    a    college    board    composed   of  the 
professors. 

XVII.  The  yearly  course  is  divided  into  two  terms,  viz.  from  the  1st  February 
to  the  15th  July,  and  from  the  1st  September  to  the  15th  December,  the  inter- 
vening periods  constituting  the  vacations. 

XVIII.  Confidential  reports  as  to  the  character  and  abilities  of  every  officer  at 
the  college,  and  his  qualifications  for  staff  employment,  will  be  forwarded  at  the 
end  of  every  term  by  the  commandant  to  the  Field   Marshal  Commanding-in- 
Chief.  and  any  student  who  is  reported  unlikely  to  make   an  efficient  staff  officer 
will  be  required  to  leave  the  college.     Examinations  are  held  at  the  end  of  every 
half-year;  the  summer  examinations  being  conducted    by  the  professors  of  the 


510  APPENDIX  A. 


college,  and  the  winter  examinations  by  examiners  independent  of  the  establish- 
ment. 

XIX.  The  examination  at  the  end  of  the  second  term  is  probationary,  and  any 
student  will  be  required  to  withdraw  from  the  college  who  shall  fail  to  obtain 
the  minimum  aggregate  of  marks.     The  marks  gained  at  this  examination  will 
not  be  carried  on  to  the  credit  of  students  at  the  final  examination,  except  those 
gained  in  mathematics, 

The  subjects  of  the  probationary  examination,  with  the  proportions  of  credits 
attached,  will  be  as  follows : — : 

1.  Mathematics       ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..3 

2.  Fortification       ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..3 

3.  Military  history  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..3 

4.  Topographical  drawing,  military  surveying,  and  sketching  ..      2| 

5.  Military  administration  . .  . .  . .  . .  3 

6.  French,  German,  or  Hindustani  ..  ..  ..  ..2 

The  minimum   aggregate  required  for  pass  at  the  probationary  examination  is 
.'55.     The  counting  minimum  in  each  subject  is  '4. 

XX.  Should,  moreover,  any  marked  case  of  deficiency  or  neglect  be  brought 
under   the  notice   of    the  director-general   of   military  education,  at    any  half- 
yearly  examination,  or  at  any  other  period,  the  student  so  reported  will  be  liable 
to  removal. 

FINAL  EXAMINATION. 

XXI.  At  the  end  of  the  second  year  a   final  examination  will  be   held   for  the 
purpose  of  testing  the  general  proficiency  of  the  students  in  the  obligatory  sub- 
jects of  the  college  course,  as  well   as   the  qualifications  of  other  officers  who, 
iinder  art.  xxv.,  may  be  admitted  to  the  examination. 

Credit  will  be  given  to  each   subject  at  the  final  examination  in  the  following 
proportions : — 

1.  Fortifications,  field  engineering,  and  artillery  ..  ..6 

2.  Military  drawing  and  surveying,  &c.  ..  ..  2J 

3.  Reconnaissance  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  4| 

4.  Military  art,  history,  and  geography  ..  ..  ..6 

r  (Military  administration  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..      4 

\Militarylaw ' 2 

6.  French,  German,  or  Hindustani          ..  ..  ..  ..4 

7.  Mathematics    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..3* 

XXII.  In  the   examination  in  modern  languages  great  stress  will  be   laid  on 
original  composition,  and  on  colloquial  knowledge. 

XXIII.  For  qualification  the  students  will  be  required   to  obtain  '55  on  the 
aggregate  allotted  to  the  seven  obligatory  subjects  mentioned  in  art.  xxi.,  the 
counting  minimum  in  each  subject  being  '4.     For  "  honours  "  they  must  gain  '8  on 
that    aggregate  of  marks.     For  "  special  mention "  in  any  subject  -9  must  be 
obtained. 

XXIV.  After  the  final  examination  the  director-general  of  military  education 
will  draw  up  and  submit  to  the  Field  Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief  a  list  of  the 
passed  candidates,  arranged  in   the   order  of  seniority  of  their  regiments,  distin- 
guishing those  who  have  gained  "  honours." 

XXV.  Officers  of  all  branches  of  the  service  shall  be  allowed  to  pass  the  final 
examination  at  the  Staff"  College  (subject  to  the   following  restrictions),  without 
having  gone  through  the  course  of  instruction  at  the  college.     Candidates  pre- 
senting themselves  for  the   final   examination  without  having   gone  through  the 


*  Marks  brought  forward  from  the  probationary  examination. 


APPENDIX  A.  511 


course  of  instruction  must  have  a  previous  service  of  seven  years,  and  similar 
qualifications  in  other  respects  to  those  exacted  (in  art.  iv.)  from  candidates  for 
admission  to  the  Staft'  College. 

Previous  to  the  time  appointed  for  the  final  examination,  they  must  reside  at 
the  college  for  such  a  period  in  the  months  of  October  and  November,  as  may  be 
necessary  to  allow  of  their  taking  part  in  the  examination  in  reconnaissance,  and 
of  their  being  tested  under  the  direction  of  the  commandant  in  the  practical  sub- 
jects of  instruction  at  the  college. 

They  must  also  pass  the  qualifying  examination  in  mathematics  prescribed  in 
art.  vii.  They  will  also  be  tested  in  riding. 

XXVI.  Officers  who  have  passed  their  final   examination  at   the  Staff  College 
will  either — 

1.  Be  attached  for  three  months,  during  the  following  summer  drill  season, 

to  the  staff  of  a  general  officer  at  some  camp  where  all  the  three  arms 
of  the  service  are  present.  During  this  period  they  shall  be  regularly 
employed  as  acting  staff  officers,  and  shall  be  required  to  make  them- 
selves acquainted  with  the  organisation  of  the  several  arms,  and  with 
the  combined  movements  of  troops.  At  the  end  of  three  months  a  con- 
fidential report  shall  be  forwarded  by  the  general  officer,  stating 
minutely  their  abilities,  the  manner  in  which  they  have  performed  their 
duties,  and  the  department  of  the  staff  for  which  they  appear  to  be 
most  fit ;  or — 

2.  Be  attached,  during  the  following  summer  drill   season,  to  other  arms  of 

the  service,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  instruction  in  those  duties 
and  field  movements  which  are  not  common  to  their  own.  Certificates 
of  their  efficiency  therein  will  be  forwarded  to  the  adjutant-general 
by  the  officers  commanding  the  corps  to  which  they  have  been 
attached. 

Officers  of  cavalry  and  infantry  will  attend  at  Woolwich,  or  such 
other  station  as  may  be  named,  for  instruction  in  artillery  for  a  period 
of  two  months. 

Officers  of  cavalry  will  be  attached  to  infantry  for  two  months. 

Officers  of  artillery,  horse  artillery  excepted,  will  be  attached  to 
cavalry  for  one  month,  and  officers  of  engineers  and  infantry  for  two 
months. 

Officers  of  artillery  and  engineers  will  not  be  required  to  be  attached 
to  infantry. 

XXVII.  Candidates  who  shall  have  proved  their  fitness  for  employment  in  the 
topographical  department  of  the  War  Office,  by  a  superior  knowledge  of  French 
and    German,   as   well    as    of  topography,  will   be    named    in  the  report  of  the 
director-general  of  military  education    as    qualified    for    employment    in    that 
department. 

XXVIII.  Officers   who   fail  either  at  the  probationary  examination,  or  at  the 
final  examination,  whether  they  have  or  have  not  gone  through   the  course  of  in- 
struction at  the  college,  will  not  be  allowed  to  present  themselves  again,  either 
for  admission  to  the  college  or  at  the  final  examination  under  art.  xxv. 

HOME  STATIONS. 

XXIX.  Officers  serving  in  the  United  Kingdom  who  are  desirous  of  entering  the 
Staff  College  must,  before  a  date  which  will  be  made  known,  inform  their  com- 
manding officers,  by  whom  the  certificates  from  (a)  to  (e),  par.  iv.,  will  be  prepared 
and  forwarded  through  the   usual  channel  to  the  adjutant-general  of  the  forces. 
General  officers,  in  transmitting  these  applications,  will  record  their  opinions  as  to 
the  fitness  or  otherwise  of  the  applicants  for  staff  work,  should  they  be  able  to  do 
so  from  their  personal  knowledge  of  them. 


512  APPENDIX  A. 


If  these  certificates  are  satisfactory,  orders  will  be  issued  for  carrying  out  the 
test  prescribed  in  par.  vi. 

General  officers  will  report  not  later  than  20th  May  upon  the  candidates  then 
attached  to  their  staff;  after  which  date  the  officers,  if  approved,  will  receive,  from 
the  director-general  of  military  education,  the  rules  to  be  observed  at  their 
examination. 

The  examination  will  take  place  in  London  on  a  date  which  will  be  made 
known  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners. 

FOREIGN  STATIONS. 

XXX.  General  officers  commanding  abroad   will  issue  their  own  local  orders 
specifying  the  date  up  to  which  applications  will  be  received  by  them  from  officers 
wishing  to  be  examined.     Care  should  be  taken  that  sufficient  time  is  allowed  for 
the  qualification  described  in   par.   vi.   to  be  obtained,   so  that   all  the  necessary 
papers  and  certificates  may   be  received   at   the  Horse  Guards   on  or  before  the 
1st  May. 

General  officers,  in  forwarding  these  applications,  will  carry  out  the  instruc- 
tions laid  down  in  par.  xxix. 

The  examination  papers  will  be  sent  out  for  those  officers  only  whose  applications 
shall  have  been  thus  received. 

XXXI.  The  examination  will  commence  on  the  8th  June,  or  as  soon  after  that 
date  as  the  examination  papers  shall  be  received  from  the   director-general    of 
military  education  ;  but  no  examination  can  be  allowed  to  commence   after  the 
30th  June. 

A  board  of  officers  will  be  appointed  at  the  most  convenient  station  of  the 
district,  by  the  general  officer  in  command,  and  will  consist  of  three  officers ;  one  of 
them  to  be,  when  practicable,  a  staff'  officer,  having  the  rank  of  field  officer,  and 
the  other  two,  if  possible,  not  under  the  rank  of  captain.  One  of  these  officers 
will  belong  to  one  of  the  scientific  corps,  where  any  such  officer  can  be  obtained. 

The  questions  are  to  be  answered  in  the  presence  of  the  board. 

The  board  will  give  to  each  candidate  a  number,  which  he  will  affix  to  each  of 
his  examination  papers,  instead  of  his  name.  He  will  retain  the  same  number 
throughout  the  examination. 

The  board  will  give  to  each  candidate  a  paper  of  the  printed  examination 
question  on  each  subject,  at  the  time  specified  for  the  examination  in  that 
subject. 

The  candidates  will  write  their  answers  to  the  questions  in  the  presence  of  the 
board,  and  their  papers,  together  with  the  printed  examination  questions,  will  be 
collected  at  the  hour  appointed,  and  made  up  into  a  packet,  which  will  be  sealed 
before  being  taken  from  the  examination  room. 

The  board  will,  immediately  on  the  conclusion  of  the  examination,  forward  the 
papers  of  the  candidates  to  the  general  officer  commanding,  for  transmission  to 
the  director-general  of  military  education,  accompanied  by  a  certificate  that  the 
candidates  obtained  no  assistance  from  books,  or  help  of  any  kind,  in  their  exam- 
ination. The  board  will,  at  the  same  time,  forward  the  names  of  the  candidates, 
corresponding  with  their  index  numbers  in  the  examination,  in  a  separate  envelope, 
for  transmission  to  the  director-general  of  military  education. 

XXXII.  The  following  will  be  the  order  of  the  examination  : — 

1st  day : 

Military  drawing      . .           . .  . .  . .  . .  3  hours. 

Hindustani    ..           ..           ..  ..  ..  ..  3  „ 

2nd  day : 

Fortification — (Obligatory)  ..  ..  ..  1^  „ 

„               (Voluntary) — 1st  paper  ..  ..  ..      1J  „ 

„                  (Ditto)  2nd  paper 3  „ 


APPENDIX  A.  513 


3rd  day  : 

Mathematics— (Obligatory)— 1st  paper    ..          ..  Shouts 

,.  (Ditto)          2nd  paper   .. 

4th  day  : 

Mathematics — (Voluntary) — 1st  paper     ..  3 

„  (Ditto)          2nd  paper    .. 

5th  day  : 

Military  history  and  geography — 1st  paper          ..  3 

6th  day:        "  ^  »*" 

French 

Chemistrv 
7th  day : 

German         ......  3 

Geology         "          "     3     " 

XXXIII.  The  examination  in  military  history  and  geography  will  comprise  the 
following  subjects,  as  stated  in  G.O.  70  of  1874,  viz. : — 

a.   The  campaign  of  1809  in  Germany. 

Candidates  will  be  expected  to  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  geography  of 
the  country. 

6.  1 he  general  principles  of  war.  Text-books:  Jomini,  'L'Art  de  la  Guerre;' 
Hamley,  '  Operations  of  War.' 

XXXIV.  There  will  be,  in  all  cases,  an  interval  of  not  less  than  one  hour 
between  the  two  periods  of  examination  on  each  day. 

The  papers  will  be  collected  at  the  appointed  hours  by  a  member  of  the  board. 
Any  candidate  however,  who  may  have  finished  his  examination  paper  on  any  subject 
before  the  hour  named,  may  deliver  it  into  the  hands  of  a  member  of  the  board. 

Paper,  pens,  and  ink  will  be  provided,  but  candidates  should  bring  their  writing 
and  drawing  materials,  instruments,  &c.,  and  also  the  tables  of  logarithms  they  are 
in  the  habit  of  using.  No  other  books  or  notes  of  any  description  will  be  allowed 
to  be  used. 

No  communication  whatever  will  be  allowed  between  the  candidates  at  the 
examination. 

XXXV.  General  officers  commanding  at  foreign  stations  will  place  no  restrictions 
upon  officers  competing,  further  than  the  exigencies  of  the  service  may  absolutely 
require.     It  will  be  understood  that  the  rule  by  which  only  one  officer  can  be 
spared  from  a  battalion  at  a  time,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  at  the  Staff  College, 
does  not  apply  to  candidates  from  battalions  which  have  officers  now  at  the  college, 
but  whose  course  of  study  will  terminate  in  the  following  December. 

XXXVI.  General  officers  commanding  at  foreign  stations  will  select  the  hours 
for  the  examination  which  are  best  suited  to  the  climate  and  circumstances 
country,  taking  care,  however,  to  conform  strictly  to  the  number  and  distribution 
of  the  hours,  as  detailed  in  the  foregoing  regulations. 

XXXVII.  On  the  completion  of  the  examinations,  general  officers  comma 
will  transmit  the  candidates'  papers  to  the  director-general  of  military  education, 
War  Office,  Pall  Mall,  with  the  least  possible  delay,  in  order  to  enable  offic 
distant  stations  who  may  be  successful  in  the  competition,  to  join  the  college 

in  the  following  February.     They  will  at  the  same  time  forward  1 
general  a  return  of  the  .officers  examined. 

XXXVIII.  Officers  serving  abroad,  who  may  be  successful  candid 
allowed  passage  home,  on  joining  the  Staff  College. 

XXXIX.  The  names  and  examination  numbers  of  the  candidates  who  are  i 
cessful  in  the  competition,  as  well  as  of  those  who  prove  themselves  Vf^  b" 
for  whom  there  are  no  vacancies,  and  the  examination  numbers  alone  of  c 

who  fail,  will  be  published  immediately  after  the  reports  of  the  eiammers 


514  APPENDIX  A. 


been  received  by  the  director-general  of  military  education,  with  the  total  number 
of  marks  gained  by  each  candidate,  and  his  place  on  the  list. 

XL  Candidates  are  recommended  to  obtain  the  reports  of  past  examinations  for 
admission,  with  copies  of  the  examination  papers,  published  by  Messrs.  Taylor  and 
Francis,  Red  Lion  Court,  Fleet  Street,  London. 


IX  —  REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  ENTRY  AND  EXAMINATIONS  OF 
CANDIDATES  FOR  COMMISSIONS  IN  THE  ROYAL  MARINE 
ARTILLERY  AND  LIGHT  INFANTRY. 

ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE. 

I.  A  limited  number  of  candidates  will  be  nominated  to  compete  for  admission 
into    the    Royal    Naval  College,  Greenwich,  as   probationary  lieutenants  in   the 

royal  marines. 

II.  The  examination  will  be  conducted  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners,  and 
will  be  held  once  a  year,  commencing  on  the  second  Wednesday  in  August. 

III.  No  candidate  will  be  eligible  who  is  under  16  J  or  above  18  years  of  age  on 
the  1st  of  October  following  the  examination. 

IV.  Public  notice  will  be  given  in  May  of  each  year  of  the  number  of  vacancies, 
and  of  the  number  of  candidates  to  be  nominated  to  compete  for  them. 

V.  A  candidate  who  qualifies,  but  is  not  successful  in  the  competition,  will  be 
allowed  to  compete  again  at  the  next  examination  if  not  over  age ;  but  a  candidate 
who  fails  to  qualify  will  not  be  admitted  to  compete  again  ;  and  no  candidate  will 
be  allowed  to  compete  more  than  twice. 

VI.  Every  candidate  will  be  required  to  be  at  least  5  feet  5  inches  in  height 
and  to  pass  the  medical  examination  according  to  the  prescribed  regulation,  under 
the  direction  of  the  medical  director-general  of  the  navy.     He  must  be   in  good 
health,  and  free  from  any  physical  defect  of  body,  impediment  of  speech,  defect  of 
sio-ht  or  hearing,  and  also  from  any  predisposition  to  constitutional  or  hereditary 
disease,  or  weakness  of  any  kind,  and  must  be  in  all  respects  well  developed,   and 
active  in  proportion  to  his  age.     Any  candidate  rejected  at  the  medical  examina- 
tion will,  subject  to  the  approval  of    the  board,   be  finally  excluded   from  the 
royal  marines. 

VII.  Each  candidate,  before  the  examination,  will  be   required  to  produce  the 
following  certificates,  viz.  : — (1)  A  registrar's  certificate  of  birth,*  or  declaration 
thereof  made  before  a  magistrate.     (2)  A  certificate  of  good  conduct  for  the  two 
years  previous  from  the  masters  of  the  schools  at  which  he  may  have  been  edu- 
cated ;  or,  if  educated  at  home,  from  his  tutors,  or  the  clergyman  of  the   parish 
in  which  he  has  resided  for  that  period.     (3)  A  certificate   of  good  health   and 
physical  development  from  the  medical  director-general.    (4)  A  certificate  of  height. 

VIII.  A  candidate  will  be  required  to  pass  a  preliminary  examination  in  the 
following  subjects,  the  maximum  number  of  marks  obtainable  for  each  being  as 
stated : — 

1.  Writing  English  from  dictation  correctly  in  a  good  legible      Marks. 

hand.     No  marks  allowed. 

2.  Arithmetic          30° 

3.  Algebra  (including  quadratic  equations  and  the  three   pro- 

gressions)        .. •;          50° 

4.  Geometry  (up  to  the  standard  of  the  sixth  book  of  Euclid  s 

Elements)         ••  -.600 

5.  Plane  trigonometry  (including  definitions,  fundamental  for- 

mulae, and  the  solution  of  plane  triangles) 

2000 
*  A  certificate  of  baptism  -will  not  be  accepted 


APPENDIX  A.  515 


on  and   the  maximum   of  marks 

1.  Applied  mathematics  (viz.  elementary  statics,  dynamics,  and 
hydrostatics)    .. 

2.  Physics  (viz.  sound,  light,  heat,  magnetism,  'and  electricity) 

3.  Chemistry 

4.  Latin 

5.  Greek 

6.  English  language  and  composition       ..          .] 

7.  History,  ancient  and  modern,  with  geography 

8.  French    .. 

9.  German,  Spanish,  or  Italian 

10.  Drawing  |  J^nd     ..  ..  '.'.          '.'.          '.'.          " 

8   |  Geometrical 

9900 

XI.  A  candidate  may  be  examined  in  as  many  of  the  above  subjects  as  he  chooses. 
A  certain  number,  corresponding  to  a  merely  elementary  knowledge,  will  be  de- 
ducted from  the  marks  gained  by  a  candidate  in  each  subject,  except  drawing  and 
applied  mathematics. 

XII.  To  qualify,  a  candidate  must  pass  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commissioners    in    the    subjects    specified   in   par.  viii.,  and  in  two  at  least  of 
the  subjects  of  the  further  examination.    He  must  also  obtain  such  an  aggregate 
of  marks  as  shall  indicate,  in  the  judgment  of  the  commissioners,  a  competent 
amount  of  general  proficiency. 

XIII.  The    successful  candidates  will   be  appointed  lieutenants  on  probation. 
They  will  proceed  to  the  Royal  Naval  College  at  Greenwich  at  the  commencement 
of  the  session  following  the  examination,  viz.  on  the  1st  of  October. 

XIV.  At  the  end  of  the  first  session  they  will  be  examined,  and  commissions  in 
the  light  infantry  will  be  granted  to  all  who  shall  pass  a  satisfactory  examination. 
The  dates  of  the  commissions  so  granted  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  marks 
obtained.    Those  who  do  not  pass  satisfactorily  will  be  finally  excluded  from  the 
royal  marines. 

XV.  From  those  who  pass  highest  at  this  examination,  officers  will  be  selected 
to  qualify  themselves  to  fill  vacancies  in  the  royal  marine  artillery. 

XVI.  The  officers  thus  selected  will  remain  at  the  college  a  second  session,  at 
the  end  of  which  they  will  be  examined,  and,  if  they  pass  satisfactorily,  will 
receive  commissions  in  the  artillery. 

XVII.  Officers  who  fail  to  obtain  commissions  ia  the  artillery  may  retain  their 
rank  as  lieutenants  in  the  light  infantry. 

XVIII.  Artillery    and    infantry   officers   will   be   posted   on  the   list  of  their 
respective   corps  in   the  order  in  which    they  pass   their   final  examination   at 
Greenwich. 

XIX.  Officers  of  the  royal  marines  on  probation  will  receive  5s.  3d.  a  day. 
Those  who  are  permitted  to  remain  a  second  session  to  qualify  for  the  artillery 
will  be  allowed  Is.  6d.  a  day  mess  allowance  during  that  session. 

XX.  Officers,  on  passing  out,  will  join  their  respective  divisions,  and   be  in- 
structed in  their  drill  and  military  duties  for  service  ashore  and  afloat. 

XXI.  Each  successful  candidate  at  the  examination  for  entry  must  deposit  the 
sum  of  £80  with  the  accountant-general  of  the  navy  before  he  can  be  appointed 

2  L  2 


516  APPENDIX  A. 


lieutenant  on  probation  for  the  royal  marines,  to  provide  for  his  equipment  at  the 
Royal  Naval  College  and  on  joining  his  division. 

XXII.  The  uniform  for  officers  on  probation  will  be  blue  patrol  jacket,  blue 
working  jacket,  mess  jacket,  undress  trowsers,  sword,  and  forage  cap. 


X.— AUXILIARY    FORCES. 

APPOINTMENTS  OF  LIEUTENANTS  OF  MILITIA  TO  COMMISSIONS  IN  THE 
REGULAR  ARMY. 

1.  The    officers  commanding   certain    militia  regiments  will    be    permitted  to 
recommend  one  or  more  lieutenants   of  their   regiments  (having   reference  to  the 
orders  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  on  this  head)  for  commissions  in  the  army,  and 
others  one  lieutenant. 

2.  They  will  report  to  the  military  secretary,  through  the  officer  commanding 
the  subdistrict  and  the  general  officer  commanding  the  district,  before  the  1st  of 
April,  whether  they  will  be   prepared  to  recommend  a  candidate  or  candidates,  as 
the  case  may  be,  for  such  commissions  or  not. 

o.  If  no  intimation  be  received  prior  to  or  on  that  date,  it  will  be  taken  for 
granted  that  the  commanding  officer  has  no  candidate  to  recommend,  and  the 
commission  will  be  offered  to  the  regiment  next  on  the  roster,  which  is  not 
included  in  the  number  detailed  for  commissions  during  .the  present  year. 

4.  The  arrangements  for  granting  commissions  in  the  regular  forces  to  militia 
regiments  being  based  on  the  system  of  giving  one  commission  for  each  company  in 
every  10  years,  regiments  consisting  of  more  than  10  companies  will  occasionally 
receive  two  commissions  in  a  year,  and  regiments  below  that  strength  will  in  some 
years  get  no  commission. 

o.  When  questions  of  priority  arise,  the  seniority  of  a  regiment  of  militia  will 
be  determined  by  its  numerical  sequence,  or,  in  the  event  of  a  regiment  not  having 
a  number,  by  its  alphabetical  order. 

6.  A  lieutenant  of  militia  recommended  for  a  commission  in  the  army  must 
be  within  the  ages  of  19  and  22  on  a  certain  date,  which  will  be  promulgated  by 
the   Commander-in-Chief ;  but  a   lieutenant  who   entered  the  militia  between  the 
16th  of  February  and  1st  of  November  1871  will   be  eligible  for  a   commission 
until  he  attains  the  age  of  23  years. 

7.  Before   a  lieutenant  of  militia  can  be   granted  a  commission  as  lieutenant 
in  the  army,  he  will  be  required — (a)  To  have  served  two  annual  trainings.    (6)  To 
obtain  a   certificate  (W.  0.  Form   1672)  from  a  board  of  examination  that  he  is 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  following  subjects: — (l)The  first  two  parts  of  the 
'  Field  Exercises  of  the  Infantry '  and  the  command  of  a  company  in  battalion. 
(2)- Rifle  drill  and  practice,  and  the  theoretical  principles  of  musketry,  as  defined 
in  the  authorised  book  of  instruction.    (3)  The  duties  of  regimental  orderly  officers, 
of  officers  commanding  guards,  and  of  subaltern  officers  of  guards  under  officers  of 
superior  rank,  and  the  mode  of  marching  reliefs,  and  posting  sentries.     (4)  Those 
portions  of  the  Queen's  Regulations  and  Orders  for  the  Army  which  relate  to  the 
duties  and  conduct  of  a  subaltern  officer,  and  the  Mutiny  Act  and  Articles  of  War 
so  far  as  is  necessary  for  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  a  member  of  a  court- 
martial.   (5)  The  regulations  for  the  army  in  regard  to  the  pay  and  messing  of  the 
troops,  the  supply  of  clothing  and  necessaries,  and  all  details  regarding  the  mode 
of  carrying  the   various  articles  of  the  soldier's  kit,  arms,  accoutrements,   and 
ammunition,     (c)  To  be   recommended  by  his    commanding   officer,   the   recom- 
mendation being  confirmed  by  the  officer  commanding  the    subdistrict  and  the 
general  officer  commanding  the  district  (in  the  case  of  the  Channel  Islands  militia 
the  recommendation  must  be  confirmed  by  the  lieutenant-governor),     (rf)  To  have 


APPENDIX  A.  51 


passed   the   examination   prescribed  to   be  passed  before   the  Civil  Sen-ice  Com- 
missioners, or  to  produce  an  university  certificate  as  prescribed  by  regulation. 

8.  The  examination   for  the   certificate  (W.  0.  Form  1672)  will,  as  a  general 
rule,  be  held  during   the  training;  and  in  applying  for  the  assembly  of  the  board 
of  officers  for  this  purpose,  the   commanding  officer  of  the  militia  regiment  will 
state  that  the  officer  on  whose  behalf  he  applies  has  been  nominated  by  him,  and 
is  qualified  as  regards  age  and  service. 

9.  The  proceedings  of  the  board  of  examination  will  be  transmitted  to  the  general 
officer  commanding  the  district  for  approval,  together  with  the  certificate  (W.  0. 
Form  1672),  if  granted  by  the  board.     In  the  event  of  the  regiment  training  out 
of  its  district,  or  of  the  board  of  examination,  for  some  other  reasons,  being  held 
out  of  it,  the  general  officer  concerned  will  transmit  the  proceedings  of  the  board 
to  the   general  officer    commanding  the  district  to  which  the  militia  regiment 
belongs.     If  the  certificate  be  approved,  the  general  officer  commanding  will  notify 
the  same  to  the  officer  commanding  the  subdistrict,  who  will  call  upon  the  officer 
commanding  the  militia  regiment  to  forward  his  recommendation  of  the  candidate. 
If  the  officer  does  not  obtain  the  certificate,  the  proceedings  will  be  forwarded  by 
the  general  officer  commanding  in  question  to  the  adjutant-general. 

10.  The  recommendation  will  be  forwarded  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  1st 
of  May  in  the  case  of  officers  who  have  already  served  two  trainings,  and  in  other 
cases  immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  annual  training  through  the  officer 
commanding   the  subdistrict.     It  will  be   accompanied  by  (a)  a  certificate  that,  x 
as  required   by  par.  7  (a),  the  officer    has    served  two   trainings ;    (6)  an  extract 
from  the  register  of  the  officer's  birth,  or,  in  default,  a  declaration  made  by  one 
of  his  parents  or  guardians  before  a  magistrate,  giving  his  exact  age  (a  certificate 
of  baptism  cannot  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  a  certificate  of  birth) ;  (c)  the  certificate 
referred  to,  in  the  case  of  an  officer  exempted  from  examination  before  the  Civil 
Service  Commissioners  in  virtue  of  an  university  qualification. 

11.  The  general  officer  commanding   the   district,    on  receipt  of  this  recom- 
mendation,  will   attach    the    proceedings    of  the   board    and    the  certificate  (c) 
(W.  0.  Form  1672),  referred  to  in  par.  9,  and  forward  the  whole  of  the  documents, 
with  his  report  of  the  case,  to  the  military  secretary. 

12.  When  an  officer  has  within  two  years  obtained  a  certificate  of  qualification 
in  drill  at  a  school  of  instruction  or  from  a  board  of  officers,  he  will  be  examined 
for  a  certificate  (W.  0.  Form  1672)  only  in  the  additional  subjects  in  which  he 
lias  not  already  passed.     In  this  case  the  board,  in  granting  their  certificate,  will 
quote  and  annex  the  certificate  previously  obtained  by  the  candidate. 

13.  The  examinations  of  lieutenants  "of   militia  recommended  for  army  com- 
missions during  the  present  year  will  take  place  before  the  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sioners at   the  University  of  London,   Burlington  Gardens,  when  directed  by  the 
Commander-in- Chief,  and  arrangements  will  be  made  for  the  medical  examination 
at  the  time. 

14.  No  candidate   will  be  allowed  to  appear  for  examination  before  the  C: 
Service  Commissioners  until  he  has  been  examined  by  a  medical  board  as  to  his 
fitness  in  respect  of  height  and  physical  qualifications  for  her  Majesty's  service. 

15.  An  officer  who  fails  in  his  first  examination  will  be  allowed  two  furth. 
trials  at  the  two  next  ensuing  periodical  examinations  for  entrance  to  the  army. 
An  officer  who  finally  fails  to  pass  at  these  examinations  will  not  be  permitt 

be  nominated  for  a  commission  in  any  subsequent  year. 

16.  An  officer  serving  in  the  militia  may  compete  for  an  army  commission. 
he  is  successful,  and  is  gazetted  to  a  regiment,  he  cannot  afterwards 
mended  as  a  militia  officer. 

17.  The  circumstance  of  a  lieutenant  of  militia  having  been  an  unsucc 
candidate  at  the  competitive  examinations  for  commissions  in  tl 


518  APPENDIX  A. 


to  pass  the  qualifying  examination  prescribed,  but  the  Civil  Service  Commissioner* 
may,  if  they  think  fit,  dispense  with  such  qualifying  examination  in  the  case  of  any 
candidate  who,  at  a  previous  competitive  examination,  has  shown  that  he  possesses 
the  necessary  qualifications. 

18.  Officers  commanding  militia  regiments  are  requested  to  draw  the  attention 
of  subalterns  to  the  revised  regulations  respecting  the  "  instruction  of  sub- 
lieutenants of  the  regular  forces  and  their  examination  for  promotion,"  contained 
in  General  Order  46  of  1874,  in  order  that  subalterns  desirous  of  entering  the 
army  may  be  fully  aware  of  the  position  in  which  they  may  stand,  with  reference 
to  sub-lieutenants  who  obtain  their  commissions  in  the  army  by  open  competition, 
and  who  have  in  certain  cases  an  antedate  given  to  their  commissions  as  lieu- 
tenants. 


XI.— VOLUNTEERS. 
"  EFFICIENT." 

A  volunteer  shall  be  entitled  to  be  deemed  an  efficient  volunteer  if  he  obtain* 
a  certificate  certifying  that  he  has  fulfilled  the  requirements  and  possesses  the 
qualifications  stated  upon  such  form  of  certificate,  and  not  otherwise.  Every  such 
certificate  shall  be  granted  as  soon  as  may  be  after  the  31st  day  of  October  in 
every  year,  and  shall  bear  date  the  1st  day  of  November,  and  shall  be  evidence  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  volunteer  to  whom  it  is  granted  during  the  year  ending 
the  31st  day  of  October  next  following  its  date.  Every  volunteer  fulfilling  the 
requirements  and  possessing  the  qualifications  aforesaid  shall  be  entitled  to  receive 
such  a  certificate  of  efficiency.  But  no  volunteer  who  is  absent  from  the  annual 
inspection  of  his  corps,  unless  so  absent  with  the  leave  of  his  commanding  officer 
or  through  sickness,  duly  certified,  shall  be  entitled  to  such  certificate.  In  the 
course  of  each  year  ending  the  31st  day  of  October,  the  adjutant  of  each  corps  or1 
administrative  regiment  shall  select  from  time  to  time  such  volunteers  as  in  his 
opinion  have  fulfilled  the  requirements  and  possess  the  qualifications  aforesaid,  and 
submit  their  names  to  the  commanding  officer  of  their  corps  with  a  view  to  their  1 
obtaining  certificates  of  efficiency.  If  the  adjutant  refuses  to  recommend  any  volun- 
teer for  a  certificate,  and  the  volunteer  considers  himself  aggrieved  thereby,  the< 
volunteer  may  appeal  to  the  commanding  officer  of  his  corps.  If  the  commanding 
officer  concurs  in  the  adjutant's  recommendation  or  refusal  to  recommend,  he  shall 
either  sign  the  certificate  or  else  approve  the  withholding  of  it,  as  the  case  may  be  ; 
but  if  he  differs  from  the  opinion  of  the  adjutant,  he  shall  refer  the  matter  to  the 
officer  appointed  by  one  of  her  Majesty's  principal  secretaries  of  state  to  act  in 
that  behalf,  whose  decision  shall  be  final,  and  who  shall  sign  the  certificate  if  he' 
think  it  ought  to  be  granted,  instead  of  its  being  signed  by  the  commanding 
officer  and  adjutant.  When  a  corps  is  by  its  own  default  not  inspected  during  the 
year,  or  when  the  officer  inspecting  a  volunteer  corps  at  the  annual  inspection 
ra  any  year  reports  that  the  corps  is  not  proficient  in  drill  and  instruction  to 
his  satisfaction,  then,  notwithstanding  anything  hereinbefore  provided,  one  of  her 
Majesty's  principal  secretaries  of  state  shall  have  power  to  direct  the  with- 
holding of  certificates  of  efficiency  at  the  end  of  that  year  from  all  volunteers 
belonging  to  the  corps.  The  inspecting  officer  at  the  annual  inspection  in  any 
year  shall  have  power  to  direct  the  withholding  of  a  certificate  for  or  in  respect 
of  any  volunteer  in  any  case  in  which  he  considers  it  proper  to  do  so,  on  account  of 
the  want  of  proficiency  in  drill  or  instruction  of  that  volunteer,  or  on  account 
of  his  sword,  carbine,  or  rifle,  as  the  case  may  be,  being  in  bad  order  or  con- 
dition. If  in  any  one  year  a  volunteer  is  resident  during  the  drill  season  of  his 
corps  at  a  greater  distance  than  10  miles  from  its  head -quarters,  he  may  (with 
the  written  consent  of  both  commanding  officers)  be  attached  for  drill  purposes 
to  another  corps.  In  such  case  all  his  drills  for  efficiency,  including  attendance 


APPENDIX  A.  519 


at  inspection,  must  be  performed  with  that  corps,  but  he  must  wear  the  uniform 
of  his  own  corps.  The  term  "  recruit  "  used  upon  the  form  of  certificate  means 
a  volunteer  who  has  never  served  for  at  least  six  months  in  her  Majesty's  regular 
forces,  or  served  and  attended  training  in  a  regiment  of  militia,  or  who  has  never 
been  returned  as  an  efficient  in  an  annual  return  of  a  volunteer  corps. 

UNIFORM. 

The  question  of  the  assimilation  of  uniform  in  the  volunteer  force,  which  has 
been  frequently  raised  during  the  past  few  years,  has  received  increased  attention 
since  the  various  administrative  battalions  and  corps  of  rifle  volunteers  have 
formed  part  of  the  brigades  of  the  infantry  subdistricts,  and  it  is  satisfactory 
to  observe  that  decided  action  has  been  taken  in  the  matter  by  the  War  Office 
authorities,  and  that  the  new  regulations  respecting  the  clothing  of  the  force 
have  met  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War.  The  regulations 
on  the  subject,  which,  as  far  as  regards  officers,  have  received  an  addition  within 
the  past  few  days,  state  that  any  applications  from  corps  or  battalions  to  change 
the  colour  of  the  uniform  to  that  of  the  line  battalions  of  the  brigade  to  which 
they  belong  will  be  favourably  considered  ;  so  that  in  any  changes  which  may  be 
made,  scarlet,  no  doubt,  will  take  the  place  of  the  grey,  green,  or  black.  At  the 
same  time,  it  is  distinctly  stated  that  no  corps  will  be  "  compelled  "  to  adopt  a 
uniform  of  a  different  colour  from  that  now  worn,  except  in  the  case  of  those 
administrative  regiments  in  which  the  several  corps  are  not  clothed  alike.  Where 
a  difference  exists  in  the  clothing  or  appointments  of  the  corps  composing  an 
administrative  regiment,  the  commanding  officer  will  have  to  submit  to  the 
secretary  of  state,  through  the  general  officer  commanding  the  district,  the  patterns 
he  proposes  to  adopt  for  the  regiment,  all  the  corps  of  which  will  be  required 
to  conform  to  the  approved  patterns  before  the  1st  of  April  1879.  With  the 
exception  of  this  change,  "  no  alteration  of  the  colour  of  the  uniform  of  a  volunteer 
corps  will  be  permitted,  except  for  the  purpose  of  assimilation  to  one  of  the  line 
regiments  of  its  subdistrict  brigade."  In  the  event  of  any  corps  of  light  horse 
or  mounted  rifle  volunteers  applying  for  authority  to  change  its  uniform,  scarlet 
will  be  the  colour  authorised,  and,  in  order  that  the  several  arms  of  the  force  may 
be  distinguished  from  corresponding  arms  of  the  regular  army  and  militia,  the 
following  rules  will  be  observed  : — 

"  Artillery  volunters  will  wear  red,  and  engineer  volunteers  white,  cord.  Artil- 
lery volunteers  will  also  wear  a  red,  and  engineer  volunteers  a  white  band  and 
button  on  the  forage  cap.  Any  change  rendered  necessary  by  this  regulation  will 
be  carried  out  before  the  1st  of  April  1879.  All  regiments  clothed  in  green  will 
wear  on  the  sleeve  a  light  green  scroll,  and  those  clothed  in  blue  a  scarlet  scroll 
Regiments  clothed  in  scarlet  will  wear  a  scroll  of  the  colour  of  their  facings, 
unless  the  facings  should  be  scarlet,  in  which  case  a  dark  blue  or  black  scroll  will 
be  worn.  This  scroll,  which  will  be  of  flat  braid,  in  the  form  of  an  Austrian  knot, 
must  be  adopted  before  the  1st  of  April  1875.  Respecting  officers,  those  in  rifle 
regiments  clothed  in  scarlet,  grey,  or  green,  will  wear  the  pattern  of  cord  and 
braid  on  the  sleeve  of  rifle  regiments  of  the  regular  forces:— For  scarlet  uniforms, 
silver  cord  and  braid ;  for  grey,  cord  and  braid  of  silver ;  and  for  green,  black 
cord,  with  light  green  edging.  Officers  will  also  wear  gold  in  the  badges  of  rank 
on  the  collar  where  silver  is  worn  by  the  officers  of  the  regular  forces.  The  other 
principal  regulations  are  as  follows : — 

"  It  is  desirable  that  all  regiments  clothed  in  green  should  adopt  green  facings 
of  the  same  shade  as  their  uniform.  In  rifle  volunteer  corps  wearing  the  busby, 
the  feathers  or  horsehair  on  the  lower  part  of  the  plume  will  be  of  light  green 
when  corps  are  clothed  in  green,  and  of  the  colour  of  the  facings  when  corps  are 
clothed  in  scarlet  or  grey.  Volunteers  will  wear  on  their  shoulder-straps  the 
initials  of  their  county  and  the  number  of  their  corps  in  the  county,  and  il  they 
belon^  to  a  corps  in  an  administrative  regiment,  the  number  also  of  their  brigade 


520  APPENDIX  A. 


or  battalion.  Light  horse,  artillery,  engineers,  and  mounted  rifle  volunteers  will 
also  wear  letters  denoting  the  branches  of  the  service  to  which  they  respectively 
belong.  The  stars  to  be  worn  by  proficient  sergeants  will  be  similar  to  those  worn 
in  the  badges  for  sood  shooting,  but  of  1 J  inch  instead  of  £  inch  diameter.  The 
star  worn  by  a  volunteer  who  has  been  five  times  returned  as  efficient  will  be  of 
rive  points.  It  is  desirable  that  corps  clothed  in  blue  or  scarlet  should  wear 
white  belts,  expense  pouches  white,  large  pouches  black ;  corps  clothed  in  green, 
black  belts  and  pouches ;  and  those  in  grey,  black  or  brown  belts  and  pouches. 
In  the  event  of  changes  of  uniform,  accoutrements  will  only  be  authorised  in 
accordance  with  the  preceding  paragraph,  and  any  new  corps  raised,  unless  forming 
part  of  an  administrative  regiment  otherwise  accoutred,  will  strictly  conform  to 
the  provisions  of  that  paragraph.  Officers  will  wear  cross-belts  and  pouches.  The 
int'antry  sash  will  not  be  worn  by  officers  or  sergeants.  Neither  gold  lace  nor 
brass  ornaments  are  to  be  worn  by  volunteer  corps.  The  distinctions  in  uniform 
and  appointments  which  are  prescribed  in  the  regular  service  and  militia  to  denote 
the  rank  of  the  wearer  should  be  strictly  observed  by  volunteers  of  the  various 
grades  as  far  as  they  are  applicable  to  the  volunteer  force.  In  this  respect  the 
dress  regulations  for  the  army  are  to  be  taken  as  a  guide.  Corps  will  not  adopt 
any  undress  without  authority.  No  change  whatever  (either  as  regards  alteration 
or  addition)  will  be  made  without  authority  obtained  from  the  secretary  of  state, 
through  the  general  officer  commanding  the  district." 

Some  of  the  regulations  enumerated  above  will  take  effect  in  1876,  others 
again  as  late  as  1879. 

APPOINTMENT  OF  ADJUTANTS. 

The  following  circular  in  relation  to  the  appointment  of  adjutants  to  volunteer 
corps  has  been  issued  from  the  War  Office  : — 

"  In  the  event  of  an  adjutancy  becoming  vacant,  either  by  death  or  retirement, 
the  commanding  officer  of  the  administrative  regiment  or  corps  of  volunteers  in 
which  the  vacancy  has  occurred,  if  he  should  have  any  very  special  reason  for 
wishing  to  obtain  the  services  of  any  particular  officer  to  succeed  to  the  appoint- 
ment, will  make  his  application  through  the  proper  channel  to  the  adjutant- 
general.  In  the  case  of  a  retirement,  the  application  will  not  be  made  until  the 
retirement  shall  have  been  notified  in  the  London  Gazette.  The  commanding  officer 
will  state,  in  his  application,  the  exceptional  qualification  which,  in  his  opinion, 
renders  it  desirable  that  the  officer  referred  to  should  be  appointed  in  preference  to 
any  other  candidate  who  may  in  other  respects  be  equally  eligible.  The  secretary 
of  state  disapproves  commanding  officers  of  volunteers  communicating  direct  with 
commanding  or  other  officers  of  the  army,  with  a  view  of  finding  suitable  candi- 
dates. They  should  clearly  understand  that  the  selection  of  officers  for  appoint- 
ment as  adjutants  does  not  rest  with  commanding  officers  of  volunteers,  who 
should  not  make  any  recommendation  on  the  subject,  except  under  the  special 
circumstances  above  detailed." 


APPEND] X  B. 


522 


APPENDIX  B. 


LIST  OF  SERVICE  ORDNANCE 


ORDNANCE. 

S 

2 

"8 

NATUBB  OF  ORDNANCE. 

-s 

4 

i 

V 

a 

3 

5 

"5 

.i 

"3 

c 

1 

t~ 

i 

I 

* 

* 

0 

0 

'   7-in  { 
40-pr  | 

L.S.  k  S.S. 
L.S. 
L.S.  &  S.S. 
L.S.  &  S.S. 

tons  cwt.  Ibs. 
0      82      0 
0       72       0 
0      35       0 
d      32       0 

ft.     in. 
10    0 
9  10 
10     1 
10     0 

a  o'fc 

i 

L.S.                   0       16       0 

8     0 

HP 

20-pr  \ 

S.S.                   0       15       0 

5     6-125 

£•  §.S 

( 

S.S. 

0       13       0 

5     6-125 

DH  —  i 

12-pr. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

080 

6     0 

9-pr. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

060 

5     2 

6-pr. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

030 

5    0-125 

f  Bronze,  ?-pr.          ..             II. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

0         0  200 

3     0 

,  «     (  80-pr.J     (68-pr.)         I. 

L.S. 

500 

10    0 

Q 

5§  -U4-Dr+(  (8'in') 
31    I"4     r-+l(32-pr.) 

I. 

S.S. 
L.S. 

0       71       0 
0      58      0 

9     0 
9     6 

i  ' 

}$    -in.f 

I. 

S.S. 

80         0       0 

26     9 

£ 

(  12-5-in.      .. 

I. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

38         0       0 

18     9-5 

12-in  i 

It. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 
L.S.  &  S.S. 

35         0       0 
35         0       0 

15  11-75 
14     3-5 

11-in  

II. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

26         0       0 

14     2 

10-  in  $ 

II. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

18         0       0 

14     2-75 

9-in  

V. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

12         0       0 

12     3 

8-in  

III. 

S.S. 

900 

11     4-5 

i  to 

-i 

(       III. 

L.S. 

700 

11     9-5 

|j' 

fl    ' 

7-in  <{ 

HI. 
I. 

S.S. 
S.S. 

6       10       0 
0       90       0 

10     6 
10     4-5 

** 

64-pr.J        .. 

III. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

0       64       0 

9     3-5 

40-pr  

I. 

L.S. 

0       34       0 

8     0 

40-pr  

II. 

L.S. 

0       35       0 

9     6-75 

25-pr  

I. 

L.S. 

0       18       0 

7  10-5 

16-pr  

I. 

L.S. 

0       12       0 

6     2-45 

j* 
9-pr  < 

i&n. 
if. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 
S.S. 
L.S. 

080 
060 
060 

5     8-5 
4  10 
5  11 

Steel       7-pr  [      ™. 

L.S. 
L.S.  &  S.S. 

0        0  150 
0        0  200 

2    2-5 
3     2-9 

Howitzer,  6'3-in.  .  . 

i. 

L.S. 

0       18       0 

4     6 

„          8-in. 

i. 

L.S. 

0       46       0 

5     1-125 

»       „         10-in.f    .. 

i. 

L.S. 

600 

6     5-5 

p  tr            (0-45 

Nil. 

L.S.  &  S.S. 

0         3  108 

4  11-41 

^lo-est 

S.S. 

0        7     35 

5     2-5 

*  Has  an  inner  barrel  of  coiled  wrought  Iron.  J  .Take  32-pr.  S.B.  ammunition. 

t  Not  yet  in  the  service,  but  likely  to  be  soon  introduced. 
!    }  The  length  of  rifling  in  B.L.  guns  includes  that  in  the  shot  chamber. 


APPENDIX  B. 


523 


AND  AM  MUNITION, 


ORDNANCE. 

Bore. 

i 

Rifling. 

1 

i 

a  i 

a 

S          i 

fa 

^ 

1 

V     '          ft 

g 

£3 

CO 

a 

2    ;      ^* 

y 

3i 

1 

c 

1 

o  '     ,3 
'     i 

is 

S 

H 

in. 

7 

ft.    in. 
8    3-5 

cwt.  qrs.  Ibs. 
6     3  16 

,     in. 
76      83-125 

Poly  grooved 

U.        1  in  37  calfl. 

7 

8     1-5 

7     3  27     ' 

76      82-875 

n 

„         1  in  37     „ 

4-75 

8  10-375 

5     1  19 

56     92-5 

„ 

,         1  in  36t    „ 

4-75 

8  10-375 

430- 

56      92-5 

„ 

,         1  in  36t    „ 

3-75 

7     0 

2     0  11     ! 

44 

71-625 

„ 

,         1  in  38     „ 

3-75 

4     6-125 

120 

44 

42-75 

„ 

,         1  in  38     „ 

3-75 
3 

4     6-125 
5     1-375 

1     1  24 
133 

44      42-75 
38  '  52-5 

" 

,         1  in  38      „ 
1  in  38      „ 

Q 

4     4-5 

0     2  26 

38  1  45-5 

„ 

„        1  in  38     „ 

2-5 

4     5 

0     1  27 

32  \  45-625 

„                   i)         i  m  30     » 

3 

2     8-15          0     1   17 

3      29-15 

French           j    U.       1  in  20  cals. 

6-3 
6-3 
6-3 

9     5-25 
8     7-27 
9     0-45 

934 
6     1  14 
600 

3    106-25 
3  i  96-27 
3    101-45 

Woolwich 
Plain  groove 

„         1  in  40      „ 
„         1  in  40     „ 
„         1  in  40     „ 

12-6 
12 
12 
11 
10 
9 
8 
7 
7 
7 

24     0 
16     6 
13    6-5 
12     1 
12     1 
12     1-5 
10     5 
9  10 
10     6 
9     3 
9     3 

Nil. 
120 
600 
200 
100 
300 
3    3  16 
232 
330 
225 

11 
9 
9 
9 
9 
1 
6 

3 

170-5 
135 
127 
119 
318 
104 
99-5 
110-6 
95-5 
95-5 

Woolwich 

I.    0  to  1  in  35  cals. 
„     0  to  1  in  35      „ 
1  in  100  to  1  in  50 
0  to  1  in  35 
1  in  100  to  1  in  40 
0  to  1  in  45 
0  to  1  in  40 
U.         1  in  35  cals 
„          1  in  35     „ 
„          1  in  35     „ 

6'3       8     1-5 
4-75      7     1-5 

2     2  18 
010 

1     3 

90-5 
72-5 

Plain  groove       :     U.        1  in  40  cals. 
Woolwich             ,.        1  «n  35     » 

1   in  35 

4-75      8     8-5 

0     0  26 

3 

90-5 

1  in  35     „ 

4 
3-6 

7     4 
5     8-4 

0     0  10 
0     0  10 

:   3 

,     3 

78 
58-04 

French,  modified 

1  in  30     „ 
1  in  30     .. 

3 

5    3-5 

007 

i     3 

" 

,         1  in  30     „ 

3 

4     5 

0     1     It 

3 

49-3 

" 

„         1  in  30     „ 

3 
3 

6     6 
2     0 

0     0  10 
003 

3 
3 

22 

French 

„         1  in  20      „ 
„         1  in  20      „ 

3 

3     0 

005 

3 

34 

" 

Not  settled. 

6-3 

8 

3     9 
4    0 

Nil. 
200 

4 

35-5 

Woolwich 

U.       I  in  16  cals. 
„         1  in  13     „ 

10            50 
0-45      2     7-95 

Nil. 
0     1     7 

'/ 
7 

28-79 

Henry,  10  barrels 

„         1  in  22  ins. 

0-65      1     9 

•• 

11  I 

>om  the  Koyal  Artillery 

r~77.           Woolwich                  W  Calibre  not  yet  settled, 
aneeable  s  on  i  account  of  a  slight  difference  in  sighting  for 

L.S.  and  S.S. 


524 


APPENDIX  B. 


LIST  OF  SERVICE  ORDNANCE 


CARRIAGES. 

PLATFORMS. 

-3   . 

. 

Garrison,  Wrought-iron, 
with  Hydraulic  Buffer. 

CHARGE. 

[Si§ 

2  ^  <*i 

C  32 

Sw  § 

Pebble. 

.NATURE  OF  ORDNANCE. 

£f;^Q 

IS 

||s 

Dwarf. 

•sl 

3  „  g 

ta 

te 

|s 

§ 
O 

A. 

D. 

c. 

s 

1 

7-in  I 

2     16 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

cwt. 

Ibs.  oz. 

I 

2     16 

•iO-pr  { 

2     16 
2     16 

•• 

f  j:  y  * 

| 

2     16 

P-S  £        ' 

20-pr  < 

2     16 

., 

S,  o-j? 

1 

2     16 

HM  — 

12-pr  

2     16 

.  . 

9-pr  

2     16 

1    6-pr  

2     16 

Bronze,  7-pr  

3      0 

,  *   f  80-pr.J    (68-pr^ 

0     19 

"*  ^  \  c         +  f   (8-in,  ) 

2     16 

a 

o--  f  "    Pr'+  \(32-pr.> 

2     16 

'.'.     \     .. 

M 

fa  • 

.,,    _jn  , 

» 

12-5-in. 

119 

155 

\\ 

12-in  [ 

1     25 
0     30 

100-25 
67 

iio 

139-25 

142F 

137-5 

lid    0 
85     0 

11-in  

2     26 

67 

110 

139-25 

142F 

137-5 

85    0 

10-in  \j/ 

1     10 

I.  51-25,  II.  67 

95-5B 

134-25 

141 

140-5 

70    0 

9-in  

0     44 

42-25 

69-5 

97 

103-25 

110 

50     0 

, 

S-in  

0     28 

42-75 

60  slide 

35     0 

i  bo 

«  c 

aod 

7-in  '. 

3       0 
3       0 

27-25 
31-25 

52i 
42  slide 

77 

80-75 

80-25 

|   30     0 

11' 

o.2  ' 

I 

0     44 

24-25 

36i  „ 

64-pr.J 

2     50 

33  (siege) 

40-pr  

1     20 

27-75  (siege) 

.. 

40-pr  

1     20 

30  -75  (siege) 

25-pr  

0     53 

14-75  (field) 

16-pr  

1     50 

I.  13-25,  11.  12-75 

.  , 

,. 

.  , 

M 

1     30 

I.  12-25.  11.  11 

.  . 

.. 

.  . 

.   9-pr  "i 

1     30 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

1 

1     30 

.  , 

f  f 

Steel     7-pr  { 
Howitzer,  6-3-in.  .. 

3       0 
3       0 

2-73  (mountain) 
3-12  (mountain) 
31  (siege) 

" 

„           8-in. 

Variable. 

42  •  75  (siege) 

x       „         10-in.f  .. 

„ 

63-75  (garrison) 

.. 

.. 

96 

.. 

Galling  gun{°;«t 

Vertical. 

" 

*  " 

*  Has  an  inner  barrel  of  coiled  wrought  iron,     f  Not  yet  in  the  service,  but  likely  to  be  soon  introduced. 
**  Silk  cloth  cartridge.  ft  R.F.G.  may  be  used  to  replace  F.G.  }}  Calibre  not  yet  settled. 

6  For  sea  service  only.  B  Mark  II.  106*.  F  Approximate. 

E  There  is  also  a  12-lb.  charge  for  exceptional  use  under  certain  circumstances  with  mark  III.  64-pr. 


APPENDIX  B. 


525 


AND  AMMUNITION — continued. 


SHELL. 

CHARGE. 

Empty. 

Bursting 
Charge. 

Pebble. 

E.L.G.J+ 

ft! 

•a 

0 

1 

. 

g  bb 

t*  to 

§ 

•o  — 

c  = 

g 

+1 

"3 

c 

0   > 

i 

o™ 

0   3 

f>2 

a 

3 

$ 

0 

1 

B 

_». 

^ 

(—  •  yft 

"^  t/^ 

OJ  j/S 

s 

3 

—2 

& 

0 

& 

fa 

w 

K 

6 

I 

£ 

$ 

a 

cc 

6 

1 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz 

Ibs.     oz. 
11       0 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 
7    0 

Ibs.  oz 
(83    01 
,98     OJ 

Ibs.   oz 

Ibs.  oz 

Ibs.  oz. 
98    9* 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 
/  6    8 
:  7  10 

1!  >-  .  OZ. 

10      0 

7    0 

98     0 

98     9* 

7  10 

5       0 

3    0 

37  14 

38     9*      39     0 

2     4 

5       0 

3    0 

37  14 

38     9*      39     0 

2     4 

.. 

2       8 

1     8 

20     8 

19  10* 

1     2 

2       8 

1     8 

20     8 

19  10* 

1     2 

2       8 

1     8 

20     8 

19  10* 

1     2 

1       8 

1     0 

10  12 

10     8f 

10  11 

0     8 

1       2 

1     0 

8     2* 

8     3| 

8  11 

0     6 

.. 

0     12 

0  10 

5     7 

0       8  E.G.    0     4l"G|| 

D6   15i 

11     2f      .. 

7     8t     0     6*   0    15 

10       0 

**5     0 

71     1 

77     6 

8  13 

8       0 

6    0 

**5     0 

56  14 

66    0 

7     2 

8       0 

6     0 

**5     0 

56  14 

66    0 

7     2 

.. 

790    8 

85    0 

575     3 

688     5 

0610     6 

40    0 

55    0 

67     0 

50       0 

459     6 

586     4 

6494  13 

37  12 

60     0      70     0 

50       0 

506     4 

526     4 

6529  10 

29  12 

44     0 

60     0 

40       0 

377  12 

391     4 

6403     0 

20     4 

43     0 

30       0 

15    0 

230     9 

242  14 

6254     0 

19     0 

.  t 

30     0 

20       0 

12     0 

166     0 

174  12 

6179     0 

14     8 

•• 

22     0 

14       0 

10     0 

107   14 

145     5 

112  2 

0115  10 

8  12 

10     12 

.. 

14       0          10     0 

107  14 

145     6 

0115  10 

8  12 

10     12 

•  • 

10       OB 
7       0 

8     0 

**5     0 

56  14 
35     9* 

•• 

66     0 
39     5* 

7     2 
2    8 

7      0 

35     9* 

.  . 

.. 

39     5* 

2    8 

23     3* 

.  . 

25     0 

1  12 

3       0 

1      12 

**l     8 
«*1     0, 
**1     0 

15     1 
8     9* 
8     9* 

•• 

17  13 
9  12 
9  12 

1     2 
0     7* 

0     7* 

1      12 
0       6 
ffO     12  F.G. 

0     4FG|| 
0     4FG|| 

"1     0 

•••   i 

8     9* 
)6   15$ 
36   15i 

11     2f 

.. 

9  12 
7     6* 
7    8* 

0     7J 
0     6* 
0     6* 

0   'l5 
0     15 

*  * 

lOlb.,  sib.,  2*lb. 

..     1 

66     0 

•• 

•• 

14     8 

.. 

85  gr.  R.F.G.2 

.. 

270            „ 

J  Take32.pr  S.B.amffiunition 
LG 


1   in  ffarrison  scrvic6  for  ftll  full  ch&rg(?6  of  R.M.L, 
up  to  80-pr.  inclusive  (7-pr.  excepted). 


526 


APPENDIX  B. 


LIST  OF  SERVICE  ORDNANCE 


SHELL. 

FUZES. 

Bursting  Charge. 

Percussion. 

NATURE  OF  ORDNANCE. 

8 

|q 

"c  — 

fa.« 

a 

S  g 

£• 

q 

*3  *^ 

c  o 

~ 

(£  " 

.ss 

S         i    ^''•h 

*** 

0 

2 

M 

*J                  ^ 

o 

g 

Si                 K 

«     ;   « 

mi 

Ibs.  oz.  Ibs.  oz.  gr.  ibs.  oz. 
7-in                   (       •'        320.. 
'     \       ..         320.. 

C.  seg.            .  .         C.  seg. 
C.  seg.            .  .         C.  seg. 

40-pr                   (       ••         0     13      0      0     3 
'     1       ..         0     13      0,     0    3 

C.  seg.  sh. 
C.  seg.  sh. 

C.  seg. 
C.  seg. 

j:  y& 

{0       0  700 
0      0  700 
..         0      0  700 

C.  seg. 
Seg. 
Seg. 

c! 

C. 

12-pr  .  .         0       0  550 

0     Of 

Sh.           C.  seg. 

9-pr  

0       0  300      0     Oi 

Sh.           C.  seg. 

^   6-pr  

00  200        .. 

i     Seg. 

Bronze.  'i-pr-  ..     ..             .. 

0     Oi 

C.  sh. 

*    i   80-pr.J    (68-pr.)       .  .               .  . 

0    9 

C.  sh. 

c! 

•g  g  J             .  i  (s-in.  i      .  .      '         .  . 

0     9 

C.  sh. 

c. 

a 

a 

Q-l           •:fl(32-pr.)       .. 

0     :) 

C.  sh. 

c. 

g' 

,66     -in.t    .. 

« 

12'5-in. 

11  12 

12  in                     /      9   14 

1   15 

c! 

\,   14     0 

1   15 

c. 

ll-in  

6     7 

1  12 

c. 

10-in  ^      6  14 

1     9 

c. 

9-in  58 

1     5 

. 

c. 

8-in  

4     8 

1     0 

c. 

i  tc 

"3.S 

11 

fg< 

7-in  \ 

2     8 

0  12 
0  12 

'.'. 

C.D. 

c.'b. 

' 

" 

64-pr.J 

.  , 

0     9 

c.  sb.     ; 

c. 

40-pr. 

.  . 

0     5 

C.  sh. 

c. 

40-pr. 

0    6 

C.  sh. 

.c. 

25-pr. 

.. 

0     3 

C.  sh. 

16-pr. 

0    1* 

C.  sh. 

9-pr.          ..] 

•• 

0     Of 
0    Oi 

C.  sh. 
C.  sh. 

•• 

\                        \ 

.. 

0    0} 

C.  sh. 

Steel      7-pr  { 

" 

0     Oi 
0    Oi 

C.  sh. 
C.  sh. 

•• 

Howitzer,  6-  3-in.  .. 

.  , 

,  . 

„           8-in.      .. 

.  . 

., 

c! 

V      „         10-in.f    -. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

Catling  gun^.'gj. 

" 

•  Has  an  inner  barrel  of  coiled  wrought  iron. 

t  Not  yet  in  the  service,  but  likely  to  be  soon  Introduced. 

I  Take  32-pr.  S.B.  ammunition.  $$  Calibre  not  yet  settled. 

$  These  guns  are  not  interchangeable,  on  account  of  the  slight  difference  in  sighting  for  L.S.  and  S.S. 


APPENDIX  B. 


527 


AND  AMMUNITION — continued. 


FUZES. 

SHOT. 

Time. 

Metal. 

Wood,  Boxer. 

2 

a 

bC 

I 

3 

CD 

o 

OB 

3                                  "3 

o                          c 

"g 

§ 

ii 

C 

^                                         r§ 

I 

| 

1 

t 

11 

§ 

« 

6 

0 

1 

C.  seg.               C.  seg. 

Ibs.  oz.           Ibs.  oz. 
69    0 

Ibs.  oz. 

C.  seg.               C.  seg. 

69     0 

C.  seg.              C.  seg.  sh. 

31     8 

40  13+ 

C.  seg.    i         C.  seg.  sh. 

31     8 

40  13+ 

20     54              20     9± 

Seg. 
Seg. 
Seg. 
Seg. 
Seg. 

c'. 

C. 

c. 

Sh. 

Sh. 

Sh. 
Sh. 

20     5* 
20     5i 
11     8 
9     0 
5     9 

20     9^ 
20     9+ 
11     7 
8  13 
6    2 

D. 

D.  C.  sh. 

Sh. 

6     4 

C.  sh. 

Sh. 

50     8+ 

C.  sh. 

Sh. 

50     8+ 

C.  sh. 

Sh. 

50     8+ 

esii. 

246     0 

esh. 

246     0 

<f>596     4 

esh. 

., 

200     0 

eSh. 

•• 

143     0 

107    0 

<6400     0 
<f>244  12 

esh! 

74    0 

0176     2 

.. 

ec. 

SC.  sh.  dble. 

69    0 

4,113     3 

•• 

ec. 

eC.  sh.  dble. 

69    0 

•• 

C.  sh. 

Sh. 

50     8* 

*  " 

C.  sh. 

Sb. 

38     6 

*  * 

C.  sh. 

Sb. 

38     6 

C.  sh. 

Sh. 

24    4 

C.  sh. 

Sh. 

15     3 

C.  sh. 
C.  sb. 

Sh. 
Sh. 

9  13+ 

9  13| 

i). 

D. 

C.  sh. 
D.  C.  sh. 
D.  C.  8h. 

Sh. 
Sb. 
Sh. 

9  13* 
6     4 
6     4 

.. 

c! 

c! 

74'  0 

*  * 

480  gre. 

•• 

3  oz.  4  drs. 

l\^t!^^  2lb,  lOoz.  and  lib.  100, 

!},  May  be  used  as  shell,  their  capacity being  7 i  Ibs.,  ^"j^*^^  sh.  Shrapnel. 

respectively.  C.  Common.  u- "° 


528 


APPENDIX  B. 


LIST  OF  SERVICE  ORDNANCK 


ORDNANCE. 

NATURE  OF  ORDNANCE. 

1 

JZ 

i 

(12  pr  
1  9-pr  

L.S. 
L.S. 

cwt. 
18 
13* 

ft.    in. 
6    6 
5  11-4 

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1                          ( 

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•Bronze  ]  Howitzers 

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1  Mr.rt.sirK        /54-in.  royal 
.  ivioruirs   .»   <  ..,  .      n    •*_ 
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t 

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I 

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f  10-in  
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100 

4     5 

Mortars  .. 

•  •     I 
10-in  ( 

L.S. 

S.S. 
L.S. 

36- 

52: 

18- 

:-  « 

3     3-65 
3  10 
2     5 

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L.S. 

9+ 

2     1-23 

*  Dundas'.  f  Millar's.  J  Blomefield's.  $  Monk's.  |{  Bored  up. 

•  The  maximum  charge  to  be  used  when  firing  carcasses  from  the  13-inch  S.S.  mortar  is  to  be 
16  Ibs.,  and  from  the  10-inch  gun  8  Ibs. 

N.B. — 100-pr.  wrought-iron  guns  are  in  the  service  for  coastguard  and  training  ships. 


APPENDIX  B. 


529 


AND  AMMUNITION — continued. 


OUDNANCE. 

BALLS. 

•3" 

CHARGE. 

Bore. 

B 

•C 
B 
O 

•o 
c 

3 
O 

O 

a 
_tp 

1 

Exercising  and 
Saluting. 

J5 

1 

t/3 
1 

K 
1 

CO 

1 

J5    . 

K 

in. 
4-623 
4-2 
3'668 
2:913 
2-913 

ft.    in. 
6    24 
5     7-74 
4     9-47 
3  10 
2  10 

cwt. 
2'3 
1-5 
0-75 

Ibs.    oz. 

Ibs.   oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 
9     8 

Ibs.  oz. 
3    0 
1     8 
1     0 
0  12 
0  10 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 
4      0 
2       8 
1       8 
0     12 
0     10 

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4'58 
4-52 

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4     7-15 
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1     8-86 

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•• 

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9     8 

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3  11| 
3     7i 

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26  12 
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" 

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8     9-27 
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7     9J 

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6-2 
6-7 

53     0 
53     0 
105     0 
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8     0 
6     0 
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18      0 
16      0 
12*  0 
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10       0 
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8     5'75 
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**  This  mortar  was  introduced  in  1857,  but  exists  only  as  a  g1^^^6  manutacture- 
TO^naturefinarked  with  °  are  only'retained  in  the  service  until  replaced  by  rifled^guns. 

530 


APPENDIX  B. 


LIST  OF  SERVICE  ORDNANCE 


SHELL. 

Empty. 

Bursting 

NATURE  OF  ORDNANCE. 

a 

o 

G 

,  B-3 
a  tec 

3 

§ 
G 

ill 

1 
o 

t/2 

i 

1 

a"£-3 
X 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz.     Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 

drs. 

12-pr  

8     9 

10     3 

0    7 

24 

9-pr  

7  12* 

18 

Guns 

6-pr  

•• 

5     0 

10 

3-pr  

32-pr  

22     5 

28     3 

1     5 

50 

/Bronze  • 

Howitzers   ^   ;;    ;; 

16  12 
8     9 

21     0 
10     3 

1     0 

0     7 

40 
24 

(  4f-in  

8     9 

10     3 

0    7 

24 

ATortara        /5*'in-  r°yal 

Mortars.,  {^  Coehorn 

16    3 
8     5 

•• 

(68-pr  

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2    9 

Carronades  <*£P*  
idi-pr  

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1     0 

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.. 

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2    9 

80 

M 

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60    5 

.  . 

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80 

a 

10-in  

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80 

H 

8-in  < 

47     4 

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2     9 

80 

S 

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2     9 

80 

v; 

42-pr.°  .  . 

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29  11 

37  14 
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1  12 
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60 
60 

22     5 

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50 

22     5 

28     3 

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1     5 

50 

22     5 

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Guns      .  .  < 

32-pr  ( 

22     5 

28     3 

22     6 

1     5 

60 

Cast- 
^  iron 

22     5 
22     5 

23     3 
28     3 

22     6 

1     5 
1     5 

50 
50 

22     5 

28     3 

1     5 

50 

22     5 

28     3 

22     6 

1     5 

50 

22     5 

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1     5 

50 

24-pr  < 

16  12 

16  12 
16  12 

21     0 
21     0 
21     0 

1     0 

1     0 
1     0 

40 

40 
40 

18-pr  | 

12  10 
12  10 

15  15 
15  15 

•• 

0  12 
0  12 

30 
30 

12-pr  

8    9 

10     3 

0     7 

24 

i  9-pr  

.. 

7  12* 

18 

Howitzers 

}  10-in 

79    4 
47     4 

60    5 

6  12 
2     9 

80 

,  8-in  

Mortars  .  . 

i3.in.  ::  T 

10-in  | 

.  . 

195     3 
195     3 
195     3 
87     2 
87     2 

,  f 

8-in  

46     1 

**  This  mortar  was  introduced  in  1857,  but  exists  only  as  a  pattern  for  future  manufacture. 

C.  Common.  N.  Naval.  Sb.  Shrapnel. 

N.B.  100-pr.  wrought-iron  guns  are  in  the  service  for  coastguard  and  training  ships. 


APPENDIX  B. 


531 


AND  AMMUNITION — continued. 


SHELL. 

SHOT. 

Charge. 

Fuzes  for 

Metal,  Percussion 
Pettman. 

Time,  Wood,  Boxer. 

Mortar. 

"a 
<a 

gs 
ij 

•el 

o  > 

Common. 

'  Di&- 

phragm, 
Shrapnel. 

Mortar.     M.L.O. 

1 

| 

si 
IJ 
tt 

,3 

1   1 

! 

Ibs.  oz 

Ibs.  oz 

C. 

C. 

Sh, 
Sh. 
Sh. 

Ibs.  oz. 
16  154 
13    9 
8     6 
4     7 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 
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6    3 

1     0 

C. 

c. 
c. 
c. 

C. 
C. 
C. 
C. 

Sh. 
Sh. 
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13  13 
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" 

3    H 

Sh 

— 

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c. 

C. 
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i 
i 
i 
i 
i 
i 

1t  Common  fuze  can  be  used  when  time  of  flight  does  not  exceed  10". 
ff  The  weight  of  shot  for  bronze  guns  includes  the  riveted  bottoms. 
Those  natures  marked  with  °  are  only  retained  in  the  service  until  replaced  by  rifled  cm)?. 

2  M  2 


532 


APPENDIX  B. 


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o  o  o  o  o 

CM  -rf<  CO  00  O 
CM  CM  CM  <N  CO 

CM  TJ<  CO  OO  O 

CO  CO  CO   CO   •* 

APPENDIX    B. 


533 


111 

c  co  o  oo  m  t>  co 

CO  00  OO  O  CO 

l>  C^  CO  O  t~ 

l>  00  O  CO  OO 

c 

S           03 

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~  0  rt 

"3  to 

0    S 

§  m  co  co  co  CM  oo 

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00  00  00  I^  t> 

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H3 

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^ 

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If 

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j 

Ci  00  OO  rH  00 
O3   in   rH   00   •* 

co  CD  co  in  m 

• 

O  O3  rH  TJH  O  CD 
•  CM  C~  T^  CD  t>  CO 
43  -*  CO  CO  CO  CM  CM 
rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

CM   rH   rH  rH   O 
rH   rH  rH   rH  rH 

in  in  t*  o  ^ 
t-  m  co  CM  o 
o  o  o  o  o 

rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

o  oo  co  m  m 

..1 

y 

I 

1    ^0  0  0  0  0  0 

•o      o  o  o  o  o 

t*>        CM  ^  CO  00  O 
rH 

O  O  O  O  O 
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CM  •*  CD  OO  O 
CM  CM  CM  CM  CO 

o  o  o  o  o 

CM  •*  CD  00  O 
CO  CO  CO  CO  "^ 

APPENDIX  B. 


TABLE  OF 


Name  of  Fuze. 

Length  of 
Composition. 

Inches. 

Time  of 

Burning. 

Seconds. 

Shells  used  with 

R.M.L. 

5-second  M.L  

i             2            \ 

I  Mealed  powder/ 

5 

I  Shrapnel  up  to  80-pr.  inclusive,  •> 
I    and  7  -pr.  star  shell      ..         ../ 

IAll  Shrapnel  shell,  common  shell] 

2 

10 

up  to  80-pr.  inclusive,  and  7-pr.  1 

double  shell,  also  7-in.  common  ( 

and  double,  S.S.           .  .        .  .  ) 

20    „          „             

4 

20 

f7-pr.    double   shell,   and  7-inch) 

(.    common,  S.S  j 

Petttnan's  gen.  service  percussion 

(Common    from  40-pr.    upwards,} 
\    and  7-inch  double  shell          .  .  / 

K.L.  percussion       

rCommon  and  Shrapnel  up  to  80-pr.  } 
\    inclusive            / 

R.B.L. 

5-second  B.L  

(             2            \ 

1  Mealed  powder  / 

5 

Shrapnel  for  12-  and  9-pr. 

1  Common,  segment,  or  Shrapnel! 

9 

2 

10 

for  7  -Inch  64-  and  40-pr.  ;  com-l 

mon  for  20-pr.  S.S.  ;  Shrapnel  [ 

for  12-  and  9-pr.         ..          ..) 

20     „           „               

4 

20 

(7-inch,  64-  and  40-pr.   segment! 
<    and  common,  and  20  pr.  S.S.V 
(    common  .  .  | 

Pettman's  gen.  service  percussion 

(Common  or  segment  for  7-inch,i 
<     64-  and  40-pr.,  and  20-pr.  S.S.V 
1    common     .  .        .  .               .  .  | 

K.L.  percussion 

" 

•• 

(Common,  7-inch,  64-  and  40-pr.i 
<     segment,    7-inch    and    40-prA 
(    Shrapnel,  64-,  40-,  12-  and  9-pr.| 

B.L.  plain  percussion 

fCommon  or  segment  for  20-,  12-,l 
1    9-and6-pr  ] 

S.B. 

Time,  diaphragm,  Shrapnel 

1 

5 

All  diaphragm    .. 

Time,  common         

2 

10 

All  S.B.  common  } 

9-second  M.L  

2 

10 

Naval 

4 

20 

Do  

Mortar,  large           

6 

30 

13-,  10-  and  8-inch  mortar  shells 

24-  and  12-pr.  common,  when  fired} 

from  54-  and  4f-inch  mortars,! 

„       small  J        

5 

15 

at  times  of  flight  over  7  seconds) 

with  5^-and  10_  seconds  with! 

4f-inch            .  .'       .  .        .  .  J 

Pettman's  land  service  percussion 

•• 

fAll  S.B.   shells  having  a  x  om 
1    the  plug          / 

„         general  service      „ 

•• 

Naval        

*  In  hundreds  of  yards  in  each  case.  These  rules  are  not  in  every  case  suitable  for  very  short  ranges 

f  The  numbers  on  all  fuzes,  excepting  mortar  and  5-second  fuzes  for  R.O.,  denote  -{-seconds ;  in 
the  mortar  fuzes,  if  the  figures  be  multiplied  by  10,  the  same  remark  will  apply;  in  the  5-second 
fuzes  the  whole  number  denote  ^-seconds,  the  decimals  ^-seconds. 

J  This  fuze  must  be  packed  when  used  with  the  4|-inch  shell. 

j  Including  24-  and  12-pr.  common  shells,  when  fired  from  the  bronze  mortars,  and  the  time  ol 
flight  does  not  exceed  10  seconds. 


APPENDIX  B. 


535 


SERVICE  FUZES. 


Gauge  of  Fuze 
hole. 

•• 

.    Other  Natures  that  the  Fuze 
can  be  used  with  on 
an  Emergency. 

—  _ 
Approximate  Rules 
for  obtaining  Length 
of  Fuze  in  i-seconds 
for  a  given  Range.f 

•  .  
REMAKES. 

ORDNANCE. 

General  service 

|  (All  M.L.  shells  of  G.S.  gauge  ) 
<     when  time  of  flight  does' 
(    not  exceed  5  seconds      .  .  j 

(Divide  range  by  2,*] 
<     and  If  over  1000 
(    addl.                    I 

Painted)  M.L.    TIMR    FUZES 

red.            ABE  NOT  AT  PRE- 

SENT   USED    WITH 

Do. 

Do.,  do.,  9  seconds 

Divide  range  by  2,* 

COMMON         SHELL 

and  add  — 

FIBED               FBOM 

Up  to  1000    ..     1 

WOOLWICH  GUNS 

Do. 

Do.,  except  Shrapnel 

1000  to  2000    .  .     2 
J2000  to  3000    .  .     3 

OF  7  IN.    AND   DP- 
WAKDS,     IN     THE 

Do. 

)     L.S.  || 

"  * 

The   R.L.   percussion    fuze 

Do 

mark  II.  Is  suited  for  all 

.. 

B.L.  guns  and  all  R.M.L. 

guns  up  to  the  80-pr.  The 

ORDNANCE. 

mark  I.  is  suited  to  the  7- 
and  9-pr.  R.M.L.  only. 

General  service 

(All  shells  of  G.S.  gauge,  when  )Divide  range  by  2»1 
<     time  of  flight  does  not  ex-   1    and  if  over  1000  I 
(    ceed  5  seconds       .  .         .  .    (     add  1       .  .         .  .  j 

Painted  red. 

Do. 

Do.,  do.,  9  seconds    .. 

Divide  range  by  2,* 

and  add  — 

Dp  to  1000    .  .     1 

Do. 

Do.,  except  Shrapnel 

1000  to  2000    ..     2 
2000  to  3000    .  .     3 

Do. 

Field  service 

ORDNANCE. 

Common 

(Any  S.B.  common  shell,  if) 
<     time  of  flight  does  not  ex-> 
(    ceed  5  seconds      .  .        .  .  j 

Subtract  8  from  the 
range.* 

Do. 

'Subtract  &  from  the 

.    range.* 

General  service 

Do. 

(24-  and  12  pr.  common  shell, 

Do. 

when    fired    from    bronze 

1     mortars  and  time  of  flight 

[    exceeds  10  seconds. 

Mortar 

Add  17  to  range*  .. 

For  ranges  below  750  yards, 
double  the  range  plus  10. 

Common    .  . 

Any  S.B.  common  shell     .  . 

Add  14  to  range.* 

Do. 

General  service 

||  Mark  I.  M.L.  fuze  is  not  to  be  used  with  field  guns,  as  the  priming  does  not  always  ignite  with 
small  charges. 

N.S. — All  the  rifled  ordnance  time  fuzes  can  be  used  as  percussion,  against  earthworhs,  thips,  &c. 

Gun-cotton  priming  should  be  used  with  fuzes  for  high-angle  firing  when  small  charges  are  used. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  "common"  and  "naval"  shell,  for  S.B.  ordnance,  are  distinct 
projectiles. 


536 


O 


P-I 


APPENDIX  C. 

i 

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Garrison 
and 
Reserves. 

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APPENDIX   D. 


538 


APPENDIX  D. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  COLUMNS 


Ladder  Party. 

Storming 

gj 

1 

0) 

i 

H 

0 

Advance. 

PLACK  ASD  DATE. 

=> 
§ 

| 

s 

w 

"o 

"3 

£ 

M 

C 

>~ 

§         b 

>> 

o 

a 

'£ 

_c 

S 

a     i     -g 

c 

c 

a 

a 

I 

3 
fc 

I    ! 

c 

"c 

Bergen-op-Zoom,  Sept  16,  1747 

600 

400 

Schweiduitz,  Sept.  30,  1761     .  . 

4 

each  of 

62 

25 

140 

•• 

3200 

Badajoz  (Fort  Picurina),  10  P.M.I 
March  25,  1812       \ 

1 
2 
3 

12 
12 

Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 

12 
12 
Yes. 

" 

•• 

ioo 

Badajoz  —  the  castle          .  . 

1 

" 

18 

20 

•• 

•• 

•• 

La  Trinidad  Bastion  

2 

Yes. 

22 

12 

500 

Ma.  Maria  Bastion    

3 

100 

22 

12 

..     | 

.. 

500 

St.  Roque    

4 

200 

•• 

•• 

•  • 

•  • 

.. 

200 

St.  Vicente,  10  P.M.  April  6,  1812 

5 

•  • 

.. 

12 

.. 

.. 

.. 

1 

Yes. 

*• 

Yes. 

.. 

Burgos    (St.    Michael's    Horn- 
work),  8  P.M.,  Sept.  19,  1812  ' 

2 

150  < 

•• 

Yes. 

•• 

•• 

•• 

•• 

3 

Yes. 

.. 

•  • 

.. 

.. 

Burgos,  Sept.  22,  1812      .  .     .  .  { 

1 
2 

200 

6 
6 

..     !       30 

•• 

20 

1 

100 

12 

20 

..      i     120 

400 

2 

100 

12 

20 

120 

400 

Sebastopol,  June  18,  1855.  .     .  . 

3 

4 

100 

12 

106 

20 
Yes. 

120 
1  batt. 

•• 

400 
4500 

5 

64 

8000 

6 

82 

•  •            .  • 

•  mf 

5700 

f 

1 

200 

40 

21         320 

•• 

1000 

Sebastopol,  Sept.  8,  1855  .  .     .  .  J 

j 

2 

.. 

60 

Yes. 

30          180 

60 

5000 

3 

90 

.. 

60 

4500 

I 

4 

4800     ! 

*  From  '  Instructions  in  Military  Engineering,'  Chatham,  1870. 
These  cases  have  not  been  selected  owing  to  their  being  the  best  examples,  but  simply 


APPENDIX  D. 


539 


OF  ASSAULT,  ETC.  IN  CERTAIN  INSTANCES.* 


Party. 

REMARKS. 

Main  Body  or 

Working 
Party. 

Supports. 

£ 

r~ 

i 

E 

q 

"a 

<& 

'•g 

i 

c 

& 

« 

* 

K 

m 

O 

6  batta. 

20 

24 

300 

Succeeded  ;  the  garrison  was  900. 

2600 

,, 

Succeeded,  with  a 

loss  of  about    1400  men  ; 

garrison  was  3200  strong. 

{Successful,  with  loss  to  English  of  19  officers 

200 

•  •  1 

and  300  men 

iilled  and  wounded.     The 

100 

•  •    f 

3  batts. 

Yes. 

French  garrison  mustered  nearly  300  men, 

100 

••   } 

of  whom  3  ofl 

cers  and  men  were   taken 

prisoners. 

3rd  div. 

20 

,. 

Though  only  3  laddered 

were  placed,  the  esca-  A    false   attack   also 

lade  succeeded,  o 

wing      made  on  the  tSte-de- 

to  the  number  of  men      pont.     The  French 

employed. 

garrison  consisted  of 

Rest,  4th  div. 
Rest,  It.  div. 

20 
20 

1000 
1000 

::} 

(Repulsed   'at    breach.  f    157      officers     and 
i     The  advance  carried      3921     men.       The 
I    sacks  of  hay.                 English      captured 

the  place,  with  loss 

of  317  officers  and 

5th  div. 

9  9 

Escalade  succeeded  ;  es-      3344  men. 

carp  was  31^  feet. 

•• 

•• 

Ladders  raised;   troops  ,-    Ush  captnred  the 
would  not  assault.             h8ornwork  with  loss 
Unsuccessful;      troops       of  21   officerg    and 

opened    fire    at    ?20       399     men.        The 
yards  while  advancing       Frmch  lost  6  offl. 

to  assault. 

cers  and  137  men. 

Successful. 

*  * 

Failed  miserably,  owing  to 

the  mode  of  formation  of 

180 
1  batt. 

Yes 

Repulsed. 
Checked  at  once. 

the  assaulting  columns  ; 
too  few    men  employed, 

'  ' 

and  they  were  composed 

of  detachments. 

800 
800 
800 

•• 

16 
16 
16 

400 
400 
400 

}  These  were  the  "English  columns  ;  60  men 
with   wool  bags  accompanied  each  ladder 
party.    The  assault  failed. 

1400  1 

10,000 

.. 

These  were  the  French  columns.    The  assault 

j 

failed. 

1500 

20 

3000 

200 

English  column  ;  the  3rd  div.  as  a  further  re- 
serve ;  the  escalade  was  successful,  but  the 
reserves  were  not  brought  up,  and  the  troops 

were  driven  out  again. 

4500 
4000 
4800 

Yes.l 
Yes  A 
Yes.) 

18,000 

(30 

80 

\These  were  the  French  columns  ;   the  Mala- 
f    koff  was  taken,  and  Sebastopol  fell. 

because  the  known  details  respecting  them  are  more  ample  than  in  most  other  cases. 


5iO 


APPENDIX  E. 


APPENDIX    E. 


I.— TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  THE  BRITISH  ARMY. 
Estimates  1876-77. 


A.  REGULAR  ARMY.                            Officers. 

Men. 

Total. 

Horses. 

1.  General  Staff         !          91 

90 

181 

- 

2.  Cavalry:  — 
Guards,  3  regiments          .  .         .  .         .  .         .  .             81 
Line,  28  regiments            .  .         .  .         .  .         .  .            792 

1,221 
15,181 

1,302 
15,973 

825 
10,781 

2.  Cavalry      873 

16,402 

17,275* 

11,606 

3.  Artillery:  — 
Horse  artillery,  6  brigades           229 
Riding  establishment                   .  .         .  .         .  .               7 
Field  artillery,  12  brigades          ..         ..         ..           576 
Garrison  artillery,  13  brigades    .  .         .  .         .  .           491 
Coast  artillery,  1  brigade      ....         .  .         .  .             26 
(2  batteries  of  horse  artillery    ,.| 
Depot  brigade  <  3  batteries  of  field  artillery     .  .  >           49 
(1  batteries  of  garrison  artillery  ) 
District  staff           71 

5,179 
218 
11,271 
13,319 
1,159 

1,897 
428 

5,408 
225 
11,847 
13,810 
1,185 

1,946 
499 

4,308 
144 
18,474 

438 

3.  Artillery     1,449 

33,471 

34,920f 

13,364 

4.  Engineers:  — 
Sappers  and  miners,  40  companies       .  .         .  .           821 
Train,  3  troops       '            3 

4,167 
719 

4,988 
722 

422 

4.  Engineers  824 

4,886 

5.710J 

422 

5.  Infantry:  — 
Guards,  7  battalions          240 

5,710 
99,628 

5,950 
103,396 

— 

Rifles,  8  battalions            '        224 
Brigade  depots        ;        892 

6,000 
8,970 

6,224 
9,862 

— 

5.  Infantry    5,124 

120,309 

125,432} 

- 

6.  Civil  Departments  :  — 

Armv  sprvirp  norns     P2  transP°rt  companies  \              - 
Army  service  corps  ..|u  supply  ^p^g  _  J 

Army  hospital  corps         .  .         .  .         .  .         .  .             24 

3,006 
1,550 

3,014 

1,574 
201 

1,095 

78 

561 

Commissariat  and  ordnance  store  departments          448 
Miscellaneous        ..        ..        112 

550 

448 
662 

— 

6.  Civil  Departments           1,432 

5,106 

6,538 

1,095 

*  Including   4,330  serving  in  India, 
t         „         12,233       „  „ 

j          »  435         ..  » 

6         „          45,851 


Total,  62,849  all  ranks  of  the  regular  army  serving  in  India. 


APPENDIX  E. 


541 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  THE  BRITISH  ARMY — continued. 
Estimates  1876-77. 


7.  Colonial  Corps:  — 
West  India  regiments  (2)            
Royal  Malta  Fencible  Artillery  
Lascars  (Hong-  Kong  and  Ceylon)  

1.  Colonial  Corps     

8.  Reserve  of  the  Regular  Army  (including  en- 
rolled pensioners)  :  — 
Class  I.         .  .         .  .         

Officers.  '     Men. 

Total. 

Horses. 

102 
22 

1,730 
349 

278 

1,832 
371 
278 

- 

124         2,357 

2,481 

- 

10,000 
21,000 

10,000 
21,000 

- 

Class  II.       .  .  '       

31,000 

31,000 

— 

A.  REGULAR  ARMY         

B.  AUXILIARY  FORCES. 

1.  reomanry,  40  regiments  
2.  Militia  :  — 
Artillery,  29  regiments     
Infantry,  131  battalions   

2.  Militia       
3.   Volunteers:  — 

223,538 

26,487 

804 
]     3497  { 

14,274 

16,422 
119,700 

15,078 
J139.619 

16,000 
800 

4301 

150,396     |  154,697 

16,800 

Separate  numbers 
are  not  given. 

31,823 
3661 
139J 
6,296 
128,669 
1,458 

1,500 
530 

100 
800 
270 

p      ,      /Light  horse,  4  regiments       .  .        .  .  1 
'auJ   (Mounted  rifles,  4  regiments              .  .  1 

Permanent  staff     > 

168,751 

3,200 

B.  AUXILIARY  FORCES     
A.  ACTIVE  ARMY  

•• 

•• 

323,448 
223,538 

20,000 
26,487* 

•• 

546,986 

46,487 

Exclusive  of  officers'  horses. 


542 


APPENDIX  E. 


II.—  STRENGTH  OF  AN  ARMY  CORPS  IN  THE  BRITISH  SERVICE. 

Officers. 

1  = 

1 

G  *J 

l-o 
19 

(3   an 

o  *- 

All 
Ranks. 

Horses. 

Guns. 

.0 

O  J3 

V    0 

a 

as 

p 

Staff  and  Departments. 

Array  corps 

19              88 

1,722 

1,829 

625 

— 

3  divisions 

30            159 

915 

1,104 

750 

— 

1  cavalry  brigade        

3              17 

113 

133 

115 

— 

6  infantry  brigades 

18            138 

1,074 

1,230 

972 

— 

Total  staff  

70           402               3,824 

4,296 

2,462 

- 

472 

Infantry. 

588 

ea 

22,386 

23,037 

1,218 



651 

Cavalry. 

3  regiments   attached  one    to  each 

division 

81 

12 

1,866 

1,959 

1,845 

— 

1  brigade  (3  regiments) 

81 

12 

1,866 

1,959 

1,845 

— 

Total  cavalry 

162 

• 

24 

• 

3,732 

3,918 

3,690 

- 

186 

Artillery. 

Regimental  staff 

4 

2 

6 

11 

_ 

TT                |  1   battery,  attached  to 
Ai»,S       cavalry  brigade       .. 
artillery  |  3  balteri^s  in6reserve  .  . 

5 
15 

2 
6 

172 
516 

179 
537 

179 
537 

6 
18 

p.  ,  ,           19  batteries,  attached  to 

45 

18 

1,641 

1,704 

1,303 

54 

artillery  |  2  Batteries  jn  reserve.  . 

10 

4 

382 

396 

308 

12 

3   infantry     and    artillery     reserve 

ammunition  columns 

12 

6 

618 

636 

759 

— 

1  army  corps  ammunition  reserve 

12 

6 

516 

534 

549 

— 

Total  artillery 

103 

*     i   —  . 

42 

- 

3,847 

3,992 

3,651 

90 

145 

Engineers. 

3  companies,  attached  one  to  each 

division         

15 

558 

573 

138 

— 

Regimental  staff         
1  company,  and  field  park,  in  re- 

2 

3 

5 

—  . 

serve  

6 

209 

215 

91 

— 

1  troop  pontoon  train 

6 

3 

313 

322 

246 

— 

i  telegraph  troop       

3 

3 

143 

149 

102 

— 

Total  engineers 

32 

'      i 

6 

• 

1,223 

1,262 

532 

- 

38 

Military  Police. 

3  troops,  attached  one  to  each  divi- 

sion      

6 

219 

225 

195 

— 

1  troop  attached  to  head-quarters  .  . 

2 

73 

75 

65 

— 

Grand  total  of  army  corps 

963 

' 

537 

- 

35,304 

36,805 

11,863 

90 

APPENDIX  E. 


543 


III.— DETAIL  OF  AN  ARMY  CORPS. 


Ed 

c  3 

rf 

Horses. 

£ 
I 

on-commiss 
)fficers  and 

£ 

1 

i 

c 

3 

4 

3 

tab 

§ 

i 

^ 

o 

zw 

Q 

H 

0 

0 

5 

& 

£ 

Staff. 

Staff  of  army  corps 

23 

15 

38 

._, 

77 

77 

Commissariat  department  at- 

tached to  head-quarters  .  . 

5 

16 

13 

34 

26 

11 

37 

A  Brigade  of  Cavalry. 

28 

31   |     13 

72 

26 

88 

114 

Staff    

3 

1 

4 

11 

11 

1  battery  horse  artillery 

7 

102 

70 

179 

6 

in 

77 

179 

3  regiments 

93 

1,800 

66 

1,959 

132 

1,713 

1,845 

Medical  department 

12 

54 

29 

95 

58 

12 

70 

Veterinary          „     .  . 

2 

3 

5 

4 

4 

Chaplain's            „     .. 

1 

.. 

1 

1 

1 

Commissariat      ,  

2 

13 

13 

28 

26 

3 

29 

1st  Division. 

120 

1,973 

178 

2,271 

6 

318 

1,821 

2,139 

Staff    

15 

8 

23 

39 

39 

1st  brigade    g^j^  ;  ] 

3 

93 

1 
3,126 

72 

4 

3,291 

144 

11 

30 

11 

74 

2nd  brigade    {^ttaiions  '.  '. 

3 

93 

1 

3,126 

72 

4 

3,291 

144 

11 
30 

111 

174 

1  regiment  of  cavalry 

31 

600 

22 

653 

44 

571 

615 

1  battalion  of  rifles 

31 

1,042 

24 

1,097 

48 

10 

58 

3  field  batteries     (*  ifr^'r  '  ' 

7 
14 

103 

236 

62 
146 

172 
396 

6 
12 

98 
248 

30 
60 

128 
308 

1  infantry   and  artillery  re- 

serve ammunition  column 

6 

85 

121 

212 

1230 

23 

253 

1  company  royal  engineeers 

5 

170 

16 

191 

.. 

32 

14 

46 

1  troop  military  police 

2 

73 

75 

.. 

65 

65 

*Medical  department 

80 

354 

166 

600 

332 

44 

376 

Veterinary          „     .  . 

2 

20 

22 

4 

4 

Chaplain's           „     .  . 

3 

3 

3 

it 

3 

fCommissariat    ,  

9 

58 

55 

122 

114 

16 

130 

2nd  Division. 

397 

9,003 

756 

10,156 

18 

1,434 

961 

2,395 

Staff    .. 

15 

8 

23 

39 

39 

3 

1 

4 

|| 

H 

1st  brigade     {3  b°tteiions  '  ' 

93 

3,126 

72 

3,291 

144 

30 

174 

O 

1 

4 

11 

11 

2nd  brigade    JL  ,    t/  '..        " 

93 

3,126 

72 

3,291 

144 

30 

174 

1  regiment  of  cavalry 
1  battalion  of  rifle's 

31 
31 

600 
1,042 

22 
24 

653 

1,097 

44 

48 

571 
10 

615 
58 

3  field  batteries     {*  ?;pr-  '  ' 
l^  lo-pr. 

1 
14 

103 

236 

62 
146 

172 
396 

*6 
12 

98 
248 

30 
60 

128 
308 

1  infantry  and  artillery  re- 
serve ammunition  column 

6 

85 

121 

215 

230 

23 

253 

1  company  royal  engineers 
1  troop  military  police 
*Medical  department          .. 

5 
2 
80 

170 
73 
354 

16 

166 

191 
75 

600 

32 
332 

14 
65 
44 

46 
65 
376 

Veterinary          ,  

2 

20 

.. 

22 

65 

4 

Chaplain's           ,  
fCommissariat    „     .  . 

3 
9 

58 

55 

3 

122 

114 

4 
3 

3 
130 

397 

9,003 

756 

10,156 

13 

1,434 

961 

2,395 

*  Includes  brigade  medical  department. 


•J-  Includes  brigade  commissariat  department. 


APPENDIX  F. 


APPENDIX 

I.— BREECH-LOADING  RIFLES  ADOPTED 


Class.* 

Power. 

Name. 

Weight 

Length 

Calibre  of  Rifle. 

~|^ 

-  -s- 

Bayonet. 

H.B.u    .. 

Austria 

Werndl  

Ibs. 
11-22 

Ibs. 
9-87 

ft. 
5-70 

ft. 
4-16 

in. 
0-43 

W.A.     .  . 

Bavaria 

Werder 

11-22 

9-31 

5-83 

4-26 

0-43 

H.B.o     .  . 
W.A..     .. 

Belgium  
Denmark 

Albini 
Remington 

10-14 
9-08 

.. 

" 

0-43 
0-45 

W.A.     .  . 

England  

Martini-Henry  .  . 

10-25 

8-75 

5-75 

4-12 

0-45 

H.B.s     .. 

„       ..        ..   1-g 

Enfleld,  long     .  . 

9-85 

8-92 

5-96 

4-5 

0-577 

„         •- 

c 

i 

•  •    f  8  1 

„       short    .  . 

Artillery  carbine 
Cavalry        „ 

Lancaster      „ 
Gras 

10-5 
9-18 

9-75 
10-26 

8-75 

7-45 
6-64 

8-10 
8-9 

5-94 

5-27 

5-25 
6-09 

4-04 

3-35 
3-07 

5-95-j 
4-25 

0-577 

0-677 

0-577 
0-5771 
to    I 
0-593J 
0'43 

B.A.       .. 

"       "        "      "H 

'a 

France    

„ 

Germany 

Mauser 

11-22 

10-5 

5-70 

4-16 

0-43 

H.B.S    .  . 

Holland  

Beaumont 

10-42 

9-60 

6 

4-33 

0-43 

M  

Italy       

Vetterli  .. 

.. 

6-61 

.. 

.. 

0-41 

W.A.     .  . 
H.B.O     .  . 
W.A.     .. 
M  

Norway  and  Sweden   .  . 
Russia    
Spain      
Switzerland 

Remington 
Berdan 
Remington 
Vetterli  .. 

9-08 

8-48 
9-08 
6-61 

•• 

0-45 
0-42 
0-45 
0-41 

W.A.     .. 

Turkey  

Martini-Henry  .  . 

8-75 

4-12 

0-45 

REVOLVERS 

Revolvers 
Pistols  .. 

^England  < 

(Adams    .  .        .  . 
{Colt 

(Deane 

(Cavalry  10-inch.. 
1      „       8-inch.. 

•• 

2-45 
2-60 
2-40 

3-12 
2-64 

" 

1-05 
1-14 
1-67 

1-16 

0-443 
0-358 
0-434 

0-577 

0-577 

*  B.A.  bolt  action ;  W.A.  wedge  action ;  H.B.s,  u,  or  o,  hinged  block,  turning 
t  It  is  probable  that  the  commissariat  and  royal  artillery  will  shortly  be  supplied 
%  Chassepot  carbine  has  been  retained  for  the  cavalry.  Weight,  with  bayonet, 


APPENDIX  F. 


545 


F. 


BY  THE  POWERS  OF  EUROPE. 


Bullet. 

Cartridge. 

' 

^' 

-A  

•N                   O 

'o 

1 

REMARKS. 

<u 

*j 

a 

o3 

«j 

0 

O 

£ 

"So 

M 

bo 

Jjj 

4£j 

'3 

q 

OS 

a 

a 

J3 

^ 

"jj 

H 

in. 

grs. 

in. 

grs. 

grs. 

0-41 

386 
338  •< 

385  -f 

•86 
•97 

76 

77 
77 

494 
555 

617 

6 
4 

4 

1  in  28 
1  in  30 
1  in  22 

New  Pattern  (1876). 
The  Bavarian  army  will  be  eventu- 
l    ally  armed  with  the  Mauser  rifle. 

385  -J 

•96 

77 

563               7 

1  in  30 

0-45 

410 

1-27 

80 

756               7 

1  in  22 

(Guards  and   infantry  of  the    line; 
<     royal  engineers  ;  1st  and  2nd  W.  I. 

(    regiments. 

'  0-573 

480 

1-04 

70 

817                3            1  in  78 

fMilitia,  volunteer  corps,  and    some 

0-573 

0-573 
0-573 

480 

480 
480 

1-04 

1-04 
1-04 

70 

70 
70 

817 

705 
705 

5 
5 

1  in  48 

1  in  48 
1  in  48 

I    N.  I.  regiments,  India, 
f  Roj  al  marine  artillery  ;  sergeants  o 
I    militia  and  volunteer  corps. 
fRoyal       artillery,       commissariat, 
1     militia  and  volunteer  artillery,  f 
Cavalry  regiments,  except  lancers. 

0-573 
0-429 

480 
385 

1-04 
1-09 

70 
81 

705 

Oval  bore 

4 

Variable 
1  in  21* 

(Royal  engineers,  until  very  lately. 
<     They  have  now  been  supplied  with 
(    the  Martini-Henry. 
Chassepot  converted^ 

0-429 
0-429 

385 
385 

77 
66 

648 

4 

4 

1  in  22 

1  in  30 

f  Jager  and  pioneer  rifles,  carbines,  an< 
I    wall  guns,  same  calibre. 
Introduced  in  1S70. 

0-42 

316 

1-02 

58 

550 

4            1  in  39 

fCan  be  used  as  a  single  or  magazine 
I     rifle. 

385-8 

•96 

77 

563               7           1  in  30 

370 

78 

385-8 

•96 

77 

563 

7           1  in  30 

0-42 

316 

1-02 

58 

550 

4 

1  in  39 

1  Although  adopted  by   Turkey,  few 

0-45 

410 

1-27 

80- 

756 

7 

1  in  22 

regiments  are  in  possession  of  this 
rifle;  others  are  armed  with  the 

Snider,  long  and  short. 

AND   PISTOLS, 

13 

5 

1  in  24 

13 

7 

L  in  36 

15 

3 

L  in  20 

0-568 

390 

•568 

27 

303 

5 

I  In  48    ( 

Lancer    regiments    and    troop    ser- 
geant-majors of  cavalry. 

0-568 

390 

•568 

27       303 

5 

1 

in  48 

Ditto  in  India. 

on  an  axis  at  the  side,  under,  or  over ;  M.  magazine  gun. 

with  the  Martini-Henry  rifle. 

8-5  Ibs.,  without,  7-71 ;  length,  with  bayonet,  5-09  ft-et,  without,  3-15. 


546 


APPENDIX  F. 


ll    lf!|I  !  I 


s 

1  -iji  i 

^  m-i^  I^  c  i  *  e»  £  S  «5  ^•1S5_§<M'«     5     3  £•?  *>     g 

_-s*'3'/!S53-gj=3cl,  >>.s  -3  <~  s>  •—    "3  '«     3     -  =»  s  §    ^= 

' 


Weight  o 
Scabbard. 


"-IpHO 


f 


£>§ 

*•& 


£2° 


II 

I"! 


ST    S 


--!—  IM 


^      —         c-1 


""  o5          "* 

Sb     g 


33 


lij 

.5    3 


!, 

'S"'3'g     g 

0-o      M 


APPENDIX  F. 


547 


III.— TRAJECTORY  OF  THE  MARTINI-HENRY  RIFLE. 


Distance. 

Culminating 
Point,  or  the 
Greatest 
Height  of  the 
Trajectory, 
about 

First  Catch. 

Margin  for 

First  Graze. 

Cavalry. 

Infantry. 

Cavalry. 

Infantry. 

yds. 

ft. 

yds. 

yds. 

yds. 

yds. 

yds. 

100 

4i 

Throughout 

205 

200 

5 

Throughout 

285 

300 

6*         { 

Through- 
out 

)       205     { 

Through- 
out 

|       155 

360 

400 

9* 

285 

345 

170 

105 

450 

500 

12* 

410 

455 

130 

85 

540 

600 

16* 

530 

565 

100 

65 

630 

700                        20J 

645 

670 

80 

55 

725 

800                        26| 

750 

775 

70 

40 

820 

IV.— TRAJECTORY  OF  THE  SNIDER-ENFIELD  RIFLE. 


fjj 

First  Catch. 

Margin  for 

Distances.     '-5  ^  •g  •§ 
.c  Jj  _a>.£, 

| 

f 

>> 

O 

REMARKS. 

—  oW'-' 

f 

§ 

oS 

_ 

£ 

0 

6 

| 

6 

c 

£ 

yds. 

ft. 

yds.  ]  yds. 

yds. 

yds. 

yds. 

100 

4* 

'  Throu 

ghout 

180' 

200 

5 

Throughout 

280 

The    calculated    height    for 
cavalry   is    8*   feet,    that  for 

300 

7      { 

Thro'-1}  220(  Tbr°'' 
out     1         1     out 

j  135 

355 

infantry  6  feet. 
The  rifle  4*  feet  above  the 

400 

11 

300 

350 

140 

90 

440 

ground,    at   distances    to    300 
yards;    beyond  that    distance, 

500 

15 

420 

465 

100 

55 

520 

3  feet  above  the  ground. 
The  object  hit  3  feet  above 

600 

23 

570 

585 

45 

30 

615 

the  ground  at  each  distance. 
The    culminating    point    is 

700 

32 

670 

685 

40 

25 

710 

between  *  and   §  of  the  dis- 
tance. 

800 

44 

780 

790 

30 

20 

810. 

'  _        •  — . 

N.B.— The  first  catch  and  first  graze  are  given  in  divisions  of  5  yards  to  assist  the 
memory,  hence  are  only  approximations. 


543  APPENDIX  G. 


APPENDIX  G. 


INSTRUCTIONS  AS  TO  THE  APPLICATION  OF  LIGHTNING  CONDUCTORS 
FOR  THE  PROTECTION  OF  POWDER  MAGAZINES  AND  OTHER 
BUILDINGS. 

I.  The  principles  on  which  buildings  should  be  protected  against  lightning  are 
set  forth  in  papers  drawn  up  by  the  late  Sir  William  Snow  Harris,  F.R.S.     These 
principles  are  still  generally  held  to  be  sound,  and  should  be  carefully  considered 
with  reference  to  any  system  of  lightning  conductors.      In  consequence,  however, 
of  the   progress  of  electrical  science,   some    modifications   are  necessary  in   the 
application  of  these  principles. 

•2.  In  considering  the  application  of  conductors  for  the  protection  of  buildings, 
it  should  be  understood  that  the  terminating  plane  of  the  action  of  lightning  is 
sometimes  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where,  from  the  presence  of 
moisture,  the  earth  forms  a  good  medium  for  the  diffusion  of  electricity. 

o.  Light,  dry  soil,  such  as  shingle  and  sand,  or  even  ordinary  vegetable  soils 
when  in  a  dry  condition,  may,  for  the  present  purpose,  be  regarded  ill  most  cases 
as  non-conducting  matter  resting  upon  the  electric  surface  of  the  earth. 

4.  Lightning  conductors  should  therefore  invariably  be  continued  through  these 
intervening  substances  into  soil  which  is  permanently  damp. 

5.  Underground  magazines  are   usually  in  dry  soil,  or  soil   rendered   dry  by 
careful  drainage. 

6.  When  large  quantities  of  explosives  are  stored  in  underground  magazines, 
such  as  the  main  magazine  of  a  fort,  they  should  be  fitted  with  lightning  con- 
ductors on  the  same  principles  as  ordinary  magazines  above  ground.     The  same 
rule  holds  good  as  regards  underground  magazines  situated  on  prominent  points, 
the  top  of  a  hill  for  example,  under  which  circumstances  like  precautions  should 
be  taken. 

7.  Small  expense  magazines  underground  need  not,  as  a  rule,  be  provided  with 
lightning  conductors. 

8.  Casemated  batteries  of  modern  construction,  in  which  the  magazines  are 
distributed  throughout   the    basement  story,   must   be  provided   with   lightning 
conductors. 

9.  The  arrangements  will  vary  with  the  plan  and  extent  of  the  work  ;  but  it 
will  generally  be  convenient  to  have  one  or  two  horizontal  conductors  on  the  parapet 
or   terreplein,  extending  from  end   to  end  of  the   battery,  attached  to  vertical 
conductors   connected  with    the  earth.     The   flagstaff  should  have  a  conductor, 
terminating  in  the  truck,  or  a  point  above  the  truck,  and  in  large  works  several 
points,  projecting  5  feet  above  the  top  of  the  building,  must  be  provided.     Iron 
verandahs  and  iron  railings  form  good  conductors  when  they  are  properly  con- 
nected with  the  earth. 

10.  An  iron  building  is  of  itself  a  good  conductor,  but  when  it  is  covered  with 
non-conducting   substances,  such    as   asphalte   and    concrete,   it    is  necessary  to 
provide  rods  or  points  projecting  above  the  asphalte,  and  in  all  cases  there  must 
be  a  proper  connection  with  the  earth.     Iron  shields  in  casemated  works  must  be 
placed  in  connection  .with  the  conductors ;  this  may  be  effected  through  the  iron 
racers  in  their  rear,  or  by  means  of  horizontal  bands,  extending  from  one  shield 
to  another,  externally. 

II.  Copper  is  recommended  by  the  late  Sir  William  Snow  Harris  as  the  best 


APPENDIX  G.  540 


material  for  lightning  conductors.     It  possesses  great  conductivity,  is  not  liable  to 
corrosion,  and  is  very  durable. 

12.  Where,  however,  conductors  are  exposed  to  mechanical  injury  or  are  liable 
to  be  stolen,  and   where  attendant  circumstances  are  not  such   as  to  promote 
corrosion,  iron    may  be    employed,   using   proportionately   larger   dimensions   to 
provide  for  its  smaller  conductivity,  which  is  only  about  one-fifth  that  of  copper. 

13.  Copper  lightning  conductors  should  be  of  the  following  dimensions:  rods, 
2  inch  in  diameter,  tubes  |  inch  in  diameter  and  |  inch  thick,   or  bands  l^  inch 
wide  and  |  inch  thick. 

14.  Iron  lightning  conductors  should  be  either  solid  rods  1  inch  in  diameter,  or 
bands  2  inches  wide  and  g  inch  thick. 

15.  In  deciding  upon  the  metal   to  be   employed   in   any  system  of  lightning 
conductors,  the  relative  qualities  of  the  two  metals,  copper  and  iron,  must  be 
weighed  in  connection  with  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  case.     Copper 
possesses  higher  conductivity,  and  is  less  liable  to  injury  from  corrosion,  but  it  is 
very  much  more  expensive,  more  liable  to  mechanical  injury,  and  more  likely  to 
be  stolen.     Its  fusing  temperature  (1994°  Fahrenheit)  is  much  lower  than  that 
of  iron. 

16.  The  fusing  temperature  of  iron  is  2786°  Fahrenheit.     In  this  respect  it  has 
a  marked  advantage  over  copper,  but  it  readily  becomes  rusty,  and  when  rusted 
its   electrical    resistance    is  immensely  increased.      Roughly  speaking,  an   equal 
amount  of  conducting  power  may  be  obtained  in   iron  and  copper  for  the  same 
cost,  the   number  of  conductors   purchaseable  for  the  same  price  in  the  former 
being  far  in  excess  of  those  in  the  latter  metal,  and  in  suitable  positions  the  more 
numerous  conductors  would,  no  doubt,  provide  perfectly  efficient  protection. 

17.  In  applying  lightning  conductors,  the  expansion  and  contraction   of  the 
metal  must  be  provided  for,  especially  at  points  where  two  lengths  of  metal  are 
joined  together. 

18.  This  may  be  done  by  introducing  suitable  bends,  at  intervals,  in  long  lines 
of  horizontal  conductor. 

19.  In  vertical  lines,  and  in  some  cases  in  horizontal  lines,  the  effect  of  expan- 
sion and  contraction  may  be  sufficiently  provided  against  by  giving  freedom  to 
slip  through  the  bearing  collars. 

20.  Soldered  or  welded  joints  are  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  they  should  be 
employed  where  practicable. 

21.  The  joints  hitherto  used  in  the    royal  engineer  department,    under  the 
recommendation   of  the  late  Sir   William   Snow  Harris,  should  be  adopted  for 
copper  conductors  where  soldered  joints  cannot  be  employed. 

22.  Soldered  or  welded  joints  should  be  employed  in  all  positions  where  the 
brush  or  discharge,  which  might  occur  with  unsoldered  joints,  would  be  liable  to 
ignite  dust  or  any  inflammable  substance. 

23.  Iron  rods  may  be    welded  or  connected  by  joints  similar  to  those  recom- 
mended for  copper  conductors,  or  by  screw  junctions  such  as  are  used  in  forming 
the  connections  of  gas-pipes,  the  end  of  the  rod  inserted  into  the  socket  being 
equal  in  length  at  least  to  its  diameter,  but  no  white-lead,  which  is  a  bad  con- 
ductor of  electricity,  should  be  made  use  of  in  the  joints. 

24.  Flat  iron  ba'nds,  where  welding  is  not  considered  advisable,  may  be  con- 
nected by  rivets  or  screws  working  in  slots  to  allow  for  expansion  and  contraction ; 
each  of  the  surfaces  in  contact  should  be  of  at  least  six  times  the  sectional  area 
of  the  band. 

25.  Copper  bands  should  be  connected  by  rivets  or  screws  working  in  slots,  and 
with  similar  precautions  as  to  the  area  of  the  surfaces  in  contact.     Joints  between 
different  metals  may  be  soldered,  screwed,  or  riveted,  the  extent  of  the  surfaces 
in  contact  being  regulated  by  the  dimensions  of  the  metal  possessing  the  least 
conducting  power.  °In  all  cases  of   contact   between   two   metals,  precautions 
should  be  taken    to    prevent    access   of  moisture,    which  would    induce    local 
galvanic  action  with  its  attendant  metallic  decomposition. 


550  APPENDIX  G. 


26.  It  is  not  possible   to  assign  the  precise  limits  of  the  protecting  power  of 
conductors.     The  French  philosophers  formerly  considered  that  they  afforded  pro- 
tection over  a  circle  whose  radius  was  equal  to  twice  their  height ;  but  in  England 
the  limit  is  usually  considered  the  radius  of  their  height  from  the  ground.     This 
may  be  sufficiently  correct  for  all  practical  purposes  ;  but  such  a  radius  of  pro- 
tection cannot  always  be  relied  upon. 

27.  Conductors  of  themselves  have  no  attraction  for   lightning,   which  seeks 
them  only  on  account  of  the  facility  they  afford  for  the  combination  of  the  opposed 
states  of  the  electricity  of  the  clouds  and  of  the  earth  beneath  them,  separated 
by  the  atmosphere,  which  is  a  bad  conductor.     A  lightning  conductor,  buildings, 
trees,   or    any    object    on    the  surface    of    the  earth,  is    only   to  be  regarded  as 
diminishing  the  resistance  due  to  the  air.     When  an  electrified  cloud  is  passing 
over  the  earth,  and  its  potential  is  just  counteracted  by  the  resistance  of  the  air,  a 
body,  however  small,  which  reduces  this  resistance,  will  cause  a  discharge.     Even 
a  change  in  the  nature  of  the  soil  over  which  the  cloud  is  passing  may  have  this 
effect,  and  it  is  very  frequently  produced  by  a  fall  of  rain. 

28.  From  this  we  may  conclude  that  the  angle  of  a  building  which  a  thunder- 
cloud approaches  may  receive  the  discharge,  while  another  but  more  distant  angle 
is    provided    with    a    conductor;    and    that,   for  important    buildings  containing 
explosive  materials,  every  prominent  elevated  part  ought  to  be  provided  with  a 
lightning  conductor. 

29.  For  a  building  of  uniform  height,  a  solid  rod,  pointed  and  rising  not  less 
than  5  feet  above  it,  should  be  provided  at  each  end,  and  at  intervals  of  about 
15  yards  along  its  length.     When  the  rod  is  of  iron,  its  point  should  be  gilt. 

30.  Small  simple  buildings,  not  exceeding  20  feet  in  length,  may  be  protected 
by  one  vertical  conductor  at  the  end,  the  point  rising  not  less   than  5   feet  above 
the  ridge  of  the  roof;  a  horizontal  conductor  should  be  provided  on  the  ridge. 

31.  A  building  from  20  feet  to  40  feet  long  should  be  protected  by  one  vertical 
conductor  in  the  centre  of  its  length,  with  a  horizontal  conductor  on  tiie  ridge. 

32.  A  building  exceeding  40  feet  in  length  should  have  two,  and  if  exceeding 
100  feet  in  length,  three  conductors. 

33.  Larger  and  more  complicated  buildings  should  be  protected  upon  similar 
principles. 

34.  A  fork,  or  brush  of  three  or  four  points  instead  of  one,  has  been  recom- 
mended for  the  top  of  a  lightning  conductor,  the  practical  value  of  this  arrangement 
is  not  apparent  unless  the  points  are  widely  separated  ;  but  for  a  single  rod  on  a  pro- 
minent point,  this  construction  may  be  adopted.     All  parts  of  buildings  which  are 
of  marked  elevation  and  prominence  should  be  fitted  with  a  lightning  conductor. 

35.  Where  several  lightning  conductors  are  used  in  a  single  building,  they 
should  be  connected  horizontally.     Such  connection  may  be  conveniently  effected 
along  the  ridge  oreaves.     When  the  ridge  covering  or  eaves  gutters  are  of  metal, 
they  should  invariably  be  connected  with  the  system.    All  metal  surfaces,  whether 
lead,  copper,  or  iron,  in  ridges,  roofs,  gutters,  or  coverings  to  doors  or  windows, 
shall  be  connected  with  the  conducting  system. 

36.  The  relative  conductivity  of  the  ordinary  metals  used  in  building  is  given 
by  the  late  Sir  William  Snow  Harris,  as  follows : — 

Lead.  Tin.  Iron.  Zinc.  Copper. 

1  2  2J  4  12 

Lead,  on  account  of  its  low  conducting  power,  cannot  be  altogether  depended  on, 
and  this  must  be  carefully  considered  in  connecting  the  lead,  used  in  a  building,  to 
the  system. 

37.  Long  lengths  of  horizontal  conductor,  without  sufficient  intermediate  earth 
connections,  must  be  avoided.     Should  there  be  any  failure  of  continuity  in  such  a 
conductor  without  intermediate  earth  connections,  the  current  might  leave  the 
conductor  and  pass  to   earth  by  the  most  favourable  course,  and  this  would   be 
attended  with  danger.     Sharp  angles  in  conductors  are  objectionable. 


APPENDIX  G.  551 


38.  Good  earth  connections  are  most  important.     Any  fault  in  the  earth  con- 
nection itself  manifestly  impairs  efficiency,  and  a  very  bad  earth  connection  is  a 
source  of  absolute  danger.     Lightning  conductors  should,  where  practicable,  be 
led  into  springs  or  wells  of  water,  or  into  ground  which  is  permanently  wet.    The 
sea  or  any  large  body  of  water,  except  a  watertight  tank,  forms  an  excellent 
earth  connection.     Shingle,  dry  sand,  or  ordinary  vegetable  mould  in  a  dry  con- 
dition, are  not  efficient  connections,  and  lightning  conductors  should  invariably  be 
led  through  these  into  ground  that  is  permanently  damp.     Several  earth  connec- 
tions should  always  be  provided  in  all  large  systems  of  lightning  conductors,  so 
that,  should  one  be  defective,  the  discharge  may  be  effected  through  the  others. 

39.  Conductors  should  be   led    into  moist  ground,  by  means  of  a  trench  or 
trenches  extending  to  a  depth  of  at  least  18  inches  below  the  surface,  and  in 
which  a  length  of  not  less  than  30  feet  of  metal  should  be  in  actual  contact  with 
moist  earth. 

40.  Where  practicable,  it  is  desirable  to  lead  a  flow  of  water,  from  the  down 
pipes  from  the  roof,  over  the  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lightning  conductors 
and  earth  connections. 

41.  Where  a  lightning  conductor  terminates  in  rocky,  or  more  or  less  dry  soil, 
special  precautions  are  necessary  ;  it  should  be  led  into  a  trench,  so  disposed  as  to 
obtain  all  the  moisture  possible  from  the  ground.     These  trenches  should  extend 
from  its  foot  to  distances  of  from   10  to  40  yards,  according  to  the  amount  of 
moisture. 

42.  The  connections  in  the  trenches  may  be  of  railway  or  other  old  iron  formed 
into  a  continuous  metallic  surface,  the  trenches  being  filled  up  with  cinders  or 
coal  ashes,  and  the  water  from  the  down  pipes  being  led  over  them  as  already 
recommended.    Water-pipes  form  excellent  earth  connections,  but  gas-pipes  should 
never  be  used  for  this  purpose,  instances  having  occurred  where  a  heavy  lightning 
discharge  has  damaged  the  gas-pipes  and  lit  the  gas.* 

43.  Lightning  conductors  should  be  frequently  inspected,  to  ascertain  that  they 
are  in  perfect  condition  and  properly  connected  with  the  earth.     Particular  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  the  joints,  especially  when  they  connect  different  metals. 

44.  The  state  of  the  conductors  should  be  noticed  in  the  inspectional  reports,  in 
which   the  efficiency  or  otherwise  of  all  joints  and  earth  connections,  and  the 
extent  of  oxidation  of  iron  conductors  should  be  distinctly  specified.     It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  in  the  case  of  an  iron  rod  or  band,  the  metallic  portion  only 
can  be  looked  upon  as  efficient,  oxide  of  iron  being  a  very  inferior  conductor. 

45.  In  order  to  obviate  the  ill-effects  of  rust,  iron  employed  in  the  construction 
of  lightning  conductors  should  be  galvanised. 

46.  When  galvanised  iron  is  used,  particular  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  coating  of  zinc  covers   the   conductor  thickly  and  effectively ;  damp  would 
produce  galvanic  action,  and  the  zinc  in  the  vicinity  of  the  smallest  exposed  iron 
surface  would  be  quickly  decomposed. 

47.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  bring  the  zinc  coating  in  contact  with  other 
metals,  and  especially  with  copper,  every  precaution  should  be  adopted  to  exclude 
moisture,  for  the  above  reason. 

FEED.  E.  CHAPMAN, 

Inspector-General  of  Fortification?. 
WAR  OFFICE, 

April  6,  1875. 

The  appendices  and  plates  mentioned  in  the  original  instructions  have  been 
omitted. 

*  A  remarkable  accidf  nt  of  this  nature  occurred  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in  the  summer  of 
1871  durine  a  heavy  thunderstorm;  the  electric  discharge,  in  traversing  the  gas-pipes  of  the  old 
Provincial  Buildings  lused  a  portlim  which  was  composed  of  white  metal  composition,  near  the 
metre  In  the  basement,  and  lit  the  gas,  by  which  the  buildings  were  nearly  set  on  fire. 


552 


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554  APPENDIX  I. 


II.— ENLISTMENT,  RE-ENGAGEMENT,  AND  EXTENSION  OF  ARMY 
SERVICE. 

CONDITIONS  OP  SERVICE. 

2.  Recruits  may  be  enlisted  for  long  or  short  service  in  such  proportions  as  may 
from  time  to  time  be  directed  by  the  adjutant-general  for — 

j  Long  service — i.e.  for  12  years'  army  service;  or, 

I.  Cavalry     ..  ..    <  Short   service — i.e.    for    8    years'    army    service     and 

I     4  years'  reserve  service. 

I  Long  service — i.e.  for  12  years'  army  service  ;  or, 
Short  service — i.e.    for  8    years'   army  service    and  4 
years'  reserve  service. 
Long  service — i.e.  for  12  years'  army  service ;  or, 


III.   Engineers 


Short  service — i.e.    for   8  years'    army  service  and   4 


years  reserve  service. 

Long  service — i.e.  for  12  years'  army  service ;  or, 
IV.  Infantry    ..  ..    ^  Short  service — i.e.    for    G    years'     army    service    and 

6  years'  reserve  service. 

Long  service — i.e.  for  12  years'  army  service;  or, 
V.  Army  service  corps    •{  Short   service — i.e.    for    6    years'    army    service    and 

6  years'  reserve  service. 
VI.  Army  hospital  corps      Long  service — i.e.  for  12  years'  army  service. 
VII.  Colonial  corps        ..      Long  service — i.e.  for  12  years'  army  service. 

3.  Within  such  limits  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  prescribed,  soldiers  may,  on 
the  recommendation  of  their  commanding  officers,  and  with  their  own  free  assent, 
after  3  years'  army  service,  pass  to  the  reserve  and  complete  in  that  force  the 
unexpired  portion  of  their  engagement. 

4.  Until  further  orders,  recruits  may  be  enlisted  for  one  or  other  of  the  several 
regiments,  brigades,  or  corps  specified  below : — (a)  cavalry  and  infantry  regiments 
of  household  troops ;  (6)  the  royal  regiment  of  artillery ;  (c)  the  corps  of  royal 
engineers  ;  (d)  cavalry  regiments  ;  (e)  infantry  brigades  of  subdistricts ;  (/)  army 
service  corps  ;  (</)  army  hospital  corps ;  (/i)  colonial  regiments. 

5.  Recruits  enlisted  at  the  head-quarters  of  an  infantry  regiment  must  be  enlisted 
for  the  subdistrict  brigade  to  which  the  regiment  belongs,  and  they  will  be  liable 
to  serve  with  either  of  the  line  battalions  which  compose  the  brigade  ;  they  cannot 
be  transferred  to  serve  in  any  other  brigade  without  their  own'  consent. 

6.  Recruits   who  are    enlisted  in  a  subdistrict  may  enlist  either  (a)  for  the 
brigade  of  the  subdistrict  in  which  they  engage  ;  (6)  for  a  brigade  belonging  to 
any  other  subdistrict  for  which  recruiting  is  open ;  (c)  for  any  other  corps  for 
which  recruiting  is  open. 

7.  Recruits,  if  they  wish  it,  may  also  enlist  for  general  service,  in  which  case 
they  will  be  posted  to  any  infantry  brigade,  cavalry  regiment,  or  corps  of  the  arm 
of  the  service  for  which  they  enlist. 

8.  Recruits  enlisted  under  the  above  conditions,  when  once  posted  to  an  infantiy 
brigade,  cavalry  regiment,  or  corps,  will   not  subsequently  be  liable  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  any  other  brigade,  regiment,  or  corps,  without  their  own  consent,  except 
in  the  cases  provided   for  by  the  7th  and  llth  sections  of  the  Army  Enlistment 
Act,  1870  ;  but  this  regulation  will  not  apply  to  men  enlisted  for  general  service 
as  schoolmasters  in  the  corps  of  armourers,  for  the  School  of  Musketry,  or  for  the 
band  of  the  Royal  Military  College. 

9.  Any  soldier  who,  having  enlisted  subsequent  to  the  Army  Enlistment  Act 
of  1870,  shall  have  completed  11  years'  army  service,  or  9  years  in  certain  cases, 


APPENDIX  I.  555 


when  ordered  for  foreign  service,  may,  with  the  consent  of  his  commanding  officer 
or  other  competent  military  authority,  be  re-engaged  for  such  a  period  as  shall 
complete  21  years  in  her  Majesty's  service. 

18.  Soldiers  enlisted  for  short  service  who  are  non-commissioned  officers,  mu- 
sicians, artificers,  or  men  likely  to  make  good  non-commissioned  officers,  may  at 
any  time  after  the  expiration  of  the  first  3  years'  service  in  the  army,  if  specially 
recommended,  extend  their  army  service  to  complete  12  years'  service  with  the 
colours. 


III.— CHANGE  IN  THE  MUTINY  ACT  RELATING  TO  THE  ENROLMENT  OF 
MEN  IN  THE  ARMY  RESERVE. 

Any  man  hereafter  enrolled  in  the  army  reserve,  or  any  man  who  now  being 
enrolled  therein  shall  so  consent,  shall  be  at  all  times  during  and  in  respect  of 
such  period  of  enrolment  subject  to  this  act  to  the  extent  and  in  the  manner 
following,  that  is  to  say :  for  any  wilful  neglect  or  disobedience  by  him  of  an 
order  or  regulation  made  by  the  secretary  of  state,  under  the  provisions  of  any 
act  then  in  force  for  the  government  or  regulation  of  the  army  reserve,  he  may 
be  tried  and  punished  by  court-martial  as  if  he  were  a  soldier  serving  with  a 
regiment,  or,  at  the  discretion  of  the  military  authorities,  may  be  brought  before 
a  justice  acting  for  the  county  district,  city,  borough,  or  place,  where  he  may  come 
or  be,  and  by  such  justice  may  be  sentenced  to  imprisonment  with  hard  labour 
for  a  period  not  exceeding  three  months ;  proof  of  the  delivery  of  a  notice  issued 
by  the  military  authorities  at  the  then  last  registered  place  of  abode  of  any  man 
enrolled  in  the  army  reserve,  or  of  the  posting  of  a  letter  addressed  to  him  at 
such  place,  shall  in  all  cases,  in  the  absence  of  proof  to  the  contrary,  be  deemed 
to  be  sufficient  evidence,  whether  before  a  court-martial  or  before  a  justice,  that 
such  notice  was  brought  to  his  knowledge.  Any  man  hereafter  enrolled  in  the 
army  reserve,  or  any  man  who  now  being  enrolled  therein  shall  so  consent,  who 
shall  without  reasonable  cause  absent  himself  on  two  occasions  when  by  the  acts 
governing  such  force  or  the  regulations  made  or  to  be  made  by  virtue  thereof,  he 
is  duly  ordered  to  be  present  at  any  place  for  the  receipt  of  pay  he  shall  be  deemed 
a  deserter :  provided  that  nothing  contained  in  this  section  shall  be  deemed  to 
affect  any  liability  to  which  a  man  enrolled  in  the  army  reserve  may  be  at  the 
time  subject  under  the  provisions  of  any  other  section  of  this  act,  or  of  any  other 
act  for  the  time  being  in  force,  or  of  any  orders  or  regulations  made  in  pur- 
suance therof:  provided  also  that  nothing  in  the  15th  section  of  the  Army  Enlist- 
ment Act,  3870,  shall  be  deemed  to  affect  the  validity  of  any  order  of  the 
secretary  of  state  for  the  enrolment,  re-enrolment,  or  prolongation  of  the  service, 
with  their  own  consent,  of  men  in  the  army  reserve  at  any  age,  and  the  proviso  of 
such  section  is  hereby  repealed.  Section  21  of  the  Army  Enlistment  Act,  1870, 
is  hereby  repealed  so  far  as  the  same  repeals  section  8  of  the  Reserve  Force  Act, 
1867. 


556  'APPENDIX  J. 


APPENDIX    J. 


I.— GRATUITIES  TO  SOLDIERS  ON  DISCHARGE. 

1.  The    general    fund   which     has    been   formed  from   the   fines  inflicted   upon 
soldiers  for  the  crime  of  drunkenness  is  appropriated   to  the  purpose  of  granting 
gratuities  to  well-conducted  non-commissioned  officers  and  men  on  discharge  from 
the  army. 

2.  The  scale  of  gratuities  will  be  regulated  annually  according  to  the  state  of 
the  general  fund,  and  will  be  notified  to  the  army  from  time  to  time. 

3.  From  the  1st  January  1874,  the  issue  of  the  gratuities  will  be  regulated  by 
the  following  rules,   except  that,  in  colonial  corps,  the   rates  of  gratuity  will  be 
only  half  those  fixed  for  the  army  generally. 

4.  Every  soldier  who    shall  be  discharged  otherwise  than  for  misconduct  will 
be  paid,  at  the  time  of  his  discharge,  a  gratuity  calculated  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
shillings  for  each  good-conduct  badge  then  in  his  possession  ;  provided  that  the 
total  sum  of  £3  shall  not  be  exceeded,  except  in  the  case  of  a  soldier  who  may  not, 
for    the    10  years    previous    to   his   discharge,    have  been   recorded  as   guilty  of 
drunkenness.     In  such  case  the  limit  will  be  extended  to  £4  if  the  soldier  shall 
be  in  possession  of  four  good-conduct  badges,  and  to  £5   if   he  shall  be  in  pos- 
session of  five  good-conduct  badges. 

5.  In   the  case  of    a    sergeant  the  amount  issuable  will  be  calculated  on  the 
number  of  badges  to  which  his  services  and  conduct   would  have  entitled  him, 
had  he  been  a  private  soldier  at  the  time  of  his  discharge,  subject  to  the  above 
limits.     The  charge  will  be  vouched  by  a  certified  record  of  service. 

6.  Men  transferred  from  the  line  to  the  Ist-class  army  reserve,   to  complete 
their  term  of  service,  will  receive  at  the  time  of  such  transfer  such  gratuities 
from  the  fund  as  they  would  have  received  had  they  been  discharged  in   lieu  of 
being  transferred. 

7.  Such  men,  if  allowed  to  rejoin  the  colours,  will  not  be  required  to  refund 
any  portion  of  the  amount    so  received.     They  will   be  paid  on  final  discharge 
from  the  army  a  gratuity,  at  the  rates  specified  above,  for  any  badge  or  badges 
they  may  have   become  possessed  of  over  and  above  those  they  had  when  trans- 
ferred to  the  army  reserve. 

8.  Non-commissioned  officers  detached  from  regiments  of  the  line  or  other  corps 
of  the  army,  for  service  with  the  auxiliary  forces,  will  not  be  entitled  to  receive 
these  gratuities  until  they  are  finally  discharged  from  the  army. 


II.— GRATUITIES. 

Instructions  with  respect  to  the  royal  warrant  of  the  14th  August  1875, 
regulating  good-conduct  medals  and  gratuities,  have  been  issued  by  the  Com- 
mander-in-Chief.  It  is  explained  that  that  royal  warrant  is  so  far  retrospective 
that  all  non-commissioned  officers  and  men  who  had  fulfilled  the  prescribed 
conditions,  and  who  were  serving  on,  or  subsequent  to,  the  1st  April  last,  are 
eligible  to  be  recommended  for  the  medal  and  gratuity  of  £5,  without  regard  to 
the  year  in  which  they  may  have  qualified.  Applications,  with  the  prescribed 


APPENDIX  J.  557 


documents  appended  thereto,  for  medals  with  gratuity,  are  to  be  sent  quarterly, 
viz.  on  the  1st  April,  1st  July,  1st  October,  and  1st  January,  to  the  adjutant- 
general  of  the  forces,  by  commanding  officers.  The  applications  are  to  be  enclosed 
in  one  covering  letter,  in  the  margin  of  which  should  appear  the  names  of  the 
soldiers  recommended.  Pars.  2  and  3,  sect.  21,  of  the  Queen's  Regulations  and 
Orders  for  the  Army  are  accordingly  modified.  Sergeants  and  corporals  who 
have  been  awarded  medals  under  the  old  regulations,  with  partial  gratuity,  or 
the  medal  without  gratuity,  will  receive  or  have  the  gratuity  already  awarded 
made  up  to  £15,  and  £10,  as  the  case  may  be,  provided  that,  when  recommended 
for  the  distinction,  they  had  qualified  for  a  sergeant's  or  corporal's  full  gratuity. 
Privates  awarded  medals  without  gratuity  will  be  allowed  £5  each.  The  names 
of  these  non-commissioned  officers  and  men  need  not  be  again  submitted  by  com- 
manding officers,  as  the  records  at  the  Horse  Guards  will  be  sufficient  to  guide 
the  issue  of  the  gratuities  to  them  on  discharge  from  the  service.  In  future  the 
names  of  non-commissioned  officers  and  men  receiving  the  good-conduct  medal 
will  be  published  in  general  orders. 


III.— PENSIONS  AND  GRATUITIES  TO  THE  PERMANENT  STAFF  OF  THE 
YEOMANRY  AND  VOLUNTEERS. 

1.  PENSIONS. 

1.  Pensions  at  the  rate  of  5d.  a  day  shall  be  granted  to  non-commissioned  officers 
and  trumpeters  who  shall  have  faithfully  served  for  20  years  on  the  permanent 
staff  of  any  regiment  of  yeomanry  cavalry,  and  to  sergeant  instructors  who  shall 
have  similarly  served  on  the  permanent  staff  of  any  administrative  regiment  or 
corps  of  the  volunteer  force   of  Great   Britain,  and  who  shall  be  discharged  on 
account  of  age  or  infirmity. 

2.  Such   service  shall  be  exclusive  of  any  period  which  the  non-commissioned 
officer  or  trumpeter  of  yeomanry,  or  the  sergeant-instructor  of  volunteers,  may  be 
entitled  to  reckon  towards  pension  on  discharge  from  the  regular  forces  or  towards 
increase  of  line  pension,  under  the  provisions  of  art.  1134  of  the  warrant  of  the 
27th   December  1870,  or  on  account   of  which  he*  may  already  have  been  granted 
a  gratuity. 

2.  GRATUITIES. 

3.  A  non-commissioned  officer  or  trumpeter  on  the  permanent  staff  of  a  regiment 
of  yeomanry  cavalry,  or  a  sergeant  instructor    of  volunteers,  who  may  become 
medically   unfit  for  further  service,  shall  upon  discharge  receive  a  gratuity  as 
follows : — 

(a)  For    a   service    of  not  less  than  7   years  on  the  permanent  staff,    90 

days'  pay. 
(6)  For  a  service  of  14  years  and  upwards  on  the  permanent  staff,   180 

days'  pay. 

4.  Such  service  shall  be  exclusive   of  any  period  which  the  non-commissioned 
officer  or  trumpeter  of  yeomanry  cavalry,  or  the  sergeant  instructor  of  volunteers, 
may  be  entitled  to  reckon  towards  pension  or  discharge  from  the  regular  forces, 
or  towards  increase  of  line  pension,  under  the    provisions  of  art.   1134  of  the 
warrant  of  the  27th  December  1870. 


.558  APPENDIX  K. 


APPENDIX    K. 


I.— REGULATIONS  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN  THE  EMPLOYMENT  OF  LAMPS  FOR 
LIGHTING  MAGAZINES,  AMMUNITION  STORES,  LABORATORIES, 
AND  THEIR  PASSAGES. 

1.  On  no  account  will  any  but  the  authorised  lamps  be  used  for  the  purpose  of 
lighting  magazines,  ammunition  stores,  laboratories,  and  their  passages. 

2.  Such  lamps  only  will  be  lighted    from    time    to    time  as    the  officer  com- 
manding may  direct. 

3.  A  magazine  copper  lantern  will  be  used  for  the  inspection  of  the  ammunition 
stores  and  underground  passages. 

4.  One  or  more  men,  as  may  be  required,  will  be  specially  detailed  as  "lamp- 
men  "  for  each  work  to   attend  to  all  the  lighting  arrangements  and  stores  con- 
nected therewith. 

5.  As  all  passage  and  wall  lamps   required  for  lighting  the  am  munition   stores 
can  be  placed  in  position   from  the  "  light "  passages,  the   lampmen  will  on  no 
account    pass    beyond    the   junction   of  the    "light"  passages  with   the    general 
passages. 

6.  When  it   is  impossible  to  clean  the  glass  of  the  light  recess  from  the  lamp 
passage,  such  glass  must  be  cleaned  by  one  of  the  magazine  men  from  the  inside. 
This  in  some  cases  may  necessitate  the  unscrewing  and  removing  the  frame ;  if  so. 
care  will  be  taken  that  it  is  properly  replaced.     This  operation  should  be  effected 
in  the  presence  of  the  officer  or  non-commissioned  officer  in  charge. 

7.  All  lamps,  when  not  in  use,  will  be  kept  in  the  lamp  room. 

8.  A  copy  of  these  instructions  attached  to  a  board  will  be  hung  up  in  each 
lamp  room.     Copies  for  this  purpose,  printed  on  foolscap  paper,  can  be  obtained 
on  demand. 

9.  Should  any  special  instructions  be  required  in  any  particular  work  for  the 
guidance  of  the  lampmen  in  the  managemeut  of  any  peculiar  lamp  recesses,  they 
should  be  added  in  manuscript. 


II.— GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  GUIDANCE  OF  THE  ROYAL  ARTIL- 
LERY IN  CHARGE  OF  MAGAZINES  OR  AMMUNITION  STORES. 

1.  No  one  will  pass  the  barrier  at  the  entrance  of  a  magazine  or  ammunition 
store  except  in  the  presence  of  the  officer,   master  gunner,   or  non-commissioned 
officer  in  local   charge   of  the  building,  who  will  be  responsible  that  all  persons 
entering  comply  with   the  necessary  precautions,  and  that  they  have  no  articles 
of  a  combustible  nature  in  their  possession. 

2.  All  persons  employed  in  magazines,   cartridge   stores,    and    in  shell  stores 
when  connected  with  cartridge  stores,  will,  before  entering  the  same,  change  their 
own  clothes  and  boots  for  magazine  clothing  and  slippers.     This  will  be  effected 
in  the  place  appointed  for  shifting,  where  the  boots  and  clothing  taken  off  will 
be  deposited. 

3.  Smoking  is  strictly  prohibited  near  any  magazine  or  ammunition  store,  and 


APPENDIX  K.  559 

any  soldier  entering  them  with  a  pipe  or  lucifer  match    in  his  possession   will 
be  made  a  prisoner. 

4.  Only  the  hand  magazine   lantern  will  be  used  within  the  magazine  or  ammu- 
nition stores,  and  then  only  in  the  presence  of  the  person  in  actual  charge. 

5.  Laboratory   operations  will  not  be  cirried  on  in  any  magazine,   cartridge, 
or  shell  store,  or   in  any  of  the   passages  connected  therewith,  but  only  in  the 
building,    or    tent,    specially    provided    for    the    purpose   (vide    Regulations    for 
Laboratories). 

6.  Every  favourable  opportunity  will  be  taken  for  airing  the  magazines  on  the 
principles  given  in  the  memorandum  under  the  head  of  Powder  Magazine.    Common 
thermometers  will  be  issued  to  all  magazines  containing  100  barrels  and  upwards 
of  loose  powder. 

7.  Magazines  will  never  be  left  open  unguarded,  and  sentries  will  be  particularly 
attentive  to  the  earliest  appearance  of  a  storm,  however  distant ;  and  upon  hearing 
thunder,  or  seeing  a  flash  of  lightning,  they    will  give  the  necessary  notice,  iu 
order  that  the  doors  and  ventilators  may  be  immediately  closed. 

8.  The  floor  of  a  magazine  or  ammunition  store  will  be  kept  scrupulously  clean 
an  i  free  from  loose   grains  of  powder.     The  passages  will  be  covered  with  hides, 
\\-admiltilts,  or  hair-cloths,  when  powder  in  bulk  is  being  moved ;  these  coverings 
should  be  frequently  lifted  and  dusted. 

9.  Barrels,  cylinders,  and  cases  will  be  placed  so  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely 
round    them.      They    should    be    at    least    6    inches    from    the   masonry    of    the 
building. 

10.  No    packing  or  shifting  of  cartridges,    or   issue  of  powder  from  cases  or 
barrels,  will  be  permitted  within  the  block  containing  the  magazine  or  cartridge 
stores.     These  operations  will  only  be  carried  on  in  the  laboratory. 

11.  No  friction,  detonating  or  common  tubes,  fuzes,  quick  or  slow  match,  signal 
lights,  rockets  or  primers,  will  be  kept  in  any  magazine  or  cartridge  store,  or 
admitted  within  the  enclosure  of  a  magazine  where  gunpowder  alone  is  stored. 
Tubes  and  fuzes  may  be  kept  in  the  shell  stores. 

12.  Small-arm  ammunition,  which  contains  its  own  means  of  ignition,  will  not 
be  stowed  in  the  same  chamber  of  a  magazine  with  gunpowder,  whether  the  latter 
is  loose  or  in  filled  cartridges. 

13.  Oiled  rags,  cotton  waste,  oakum,  or  cloths  for  cleaning  are  not  to  be  kept 
in  magazines,  ammunition  stores,  or  their  passages. 

14.  All  boxes,  cases,  and  barrels  placed  in  magazines  or  ammunition  stores  will 
be   labelled,   and  no  empty  boxes,  cases,  or  barrels  will  be  allowed  to  remain  in 
them.     Barrels  containing  powder  will  never  be  rolled  along  the  floors  of  maga- 
zines or  passages,  but  will  be  carefully  transported  from  one  place  to  another. 

15.  Officers,  master  gunners,  and  non-commissoned  officers  in  charge,  will  at  all 
times  be  particularly  careful  with  everything  in  or  about  the  magazines,  and  will 
take  immediate  notice  of  any  irregularity  they  may  observe.     They  will  also  be 
very  prompt  in  reporting  any  defects  or  repairs  necessary  either  to  the  interior  or 
exterior  of  the  buildings. 

16.  An  inventory  board,  showing  the  contents  of  the  magazine  or  ammunition 
store,  will  be  hung"  up  in  the  lobby  or  passage  leading' thereto. 

17.  The  keys  of  the  magazines  and  ammunition  stores  will  be  labelled,  and,  when 
not  in  use,  deposited  in  a  secure  place. 

18.  A  copy  of  these  instructions  attached  to  a  board  will  be  hung  up  on  the 
inside  of  outer  doors  and  on  the  wall  of  the  entrance  to  the  magazines.     Copies 
for  this  purpose,  printed  on  foolscap  paper,  can  be  obtained  on  demand. 

19.  W.  0.    Form   939  (Standing  Orders  for  Artillery   Magazines,  dated  Horse 
Guards,  1st  December  1865)  has  been  cancelled. 


560  APPENDIX  L. 


APPENDIX    L. 


MEDALS. 

1.  Military  decorations  and  medals  are  to  be  worn  with  the  tunic  only,  and  on 
the  left  breast.     They  are  to  be  worn  in  a  straight  horizontal  line,  suspended  from 
a  single  bar,  of  which   the  buckle  is   not  to  be  seen.     The  riband  is  not  to  exceed 
1  inch  in  length,  unless  the  number  of  clasps  requires  it  to  be  longer.    When  the 
decorations  and  medals  cannot,  on  account  of  the  number,  be  suspended  from  the 
bar  so  as  to  be  fully  seen,  they  are  to  overlap.     They  are  to  be  worn  over  the  sash 
aud  under  the  pouch-belt. 

2.  Military  medals  will  be  worn  in  the  order  of  the  dates  of  the  campaigns  for 
which  they  have  been   conferred  ;    the  first  decoration  or   medal  obtained  being 
placed  farthest  from  the  left  shoulder. 

The  following  is  the  order  of  arrangement : — 


1.  English  decorations. 

2.  English  medals. 


3.  Foreign  decorations. 

4.  Foreign  medals. 


3.  Military  medals   granted   to  non-commissioned  officers    and  men  may  also  be 
worn  as  indicated    in   the   foregoing  paragraphs,   or  they  may  be  stitched,  in   a 
straight  horizontal  line,  on  the  tunic.     In  undress  uniform  the  ribands  only  are 
to  be  worn  by  soldiers.    They  should  be  stitched  on  the  jacket,  and  must  be  J  inch 
in  length. 

4.  The  rules   contained   in  pars.  5  and  6,  sect.    12,  of  the  Queen's  Regulations 
and  Orders  for  the  Army  remain  unaltered,  except  that  the  miniature  orders  and 
medals  worn  by  officers  must  be  suspended  from  a  bar,  as  in  the  case  of  military 
decorations  and  medals. 

5.  The  bar  for  the  suspension  of  decorations  and  medals  is   in  all  cases  to   be 
provided  at  the  expense  of  the  wearer.     It  may  be  of  any  metal  or  material,  and 
of  any  pattern  consistent  with  the  above  instructions,  provided  the  bar  and  the 
buckle  are  wholly  concealed  by  the  ribands. 

6.  Medals  awarded  by  a  society  for  bravery  in  saving  human  life  are,  if  specially 
authorised,  to  be  worn  on  the  right  breast. 


The  following  rules   to  govern  the  wearing  of  medals  and   decorations  will  in 
future  be  strictly  adhered  to  by  all  branches  of  the  auxiliary  forces : — 

1.  Medals  and  decorations  given  by  the  Queen  or  by  a   foreign  sovereign,  the 
acceptance  of  which  has  been  sanctioned  by  her  Majesty,  will  be  worn  on  the  left 
breast.     Medals   awarded  by  a  society  for  bravery  in  saving  human  life  will  be 
worn  on  the  right  breast.     No  other  medals  or  decorations  will  be  worn  by  the 
militia,  yeomanry,  or  volunteer  forces  in  uniform. 

2.  No  decoration  or  medal  given  by  a  foreign  sovereign  may  be  worn  unless  her 
Majesty's   permission  to   accept  and  wear  it  has  been   granted.     The  regulations 
regarding  foreign  orders  and   medals   issued  by  the  Foreign  Office  will  be  strictly 
adhered  to. 


APPENDIX  M.  561 


APPENDIX    M. 


I.— STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  HER 

COLONIES. 


THE  IMPERIAL  MEASURES,  INTRODUCED  JANUARY  1,  1862. 
Avoirdupois  or  Commercial  Weight. 

0-10831  cubic  inch  of  pure  water,  at  62°  Fahren-  Mark, 

heit,  or  27'34375  grains  troy         ..  ..  ..  =  1  dram,  dr. 

16  drams         ..           ..           ..           ..  ..  . .  =  1  ounce,  oz. 

16  ounces        ..           ..           ..           ..  ..  ..  =  1  pound,  Ib. 

14  pounds        ..           ..           ..           ..  ..  ..  =  1  stone,  si. 

'2  stones,  or  28  pounds         ..           ..  ..  . .  =  1  quarter,  qr. 

4  quarters,  or  112  pounds  ..           ..  ..  ..  =  1  hundredweight,     cwt. 

20  hundredweights,  or  2240  pounds  ..  . .  =  1  ton,                            T. 

Note. — The  stone  is  principally  used  in  weighing  hay,  straw,  and  live  cattle, 
and  commonly  called  jockey  weight. 

Troy  Weight. 

Is  used  in  weighing  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones,  and  also  in  estimating  the 
results  of  philosophical  experiments.     Small-arm  cartridges  are  also  weighed  by 
troy  weight. 
1-901306  cubic  inch  of  pure  water,  at  62°   Fahren-  Mark. 

heit . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .    =  480  grains,  gr. 

24  grains         ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..    =  1  pennyweight,        da>t. 

20  pennyweights         ..  ..  ..  ..  . .    =  1  ounce,  oz. 

12  ounces        ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..    =  1  pound,  lit. 

Note. — Avoirdupois  Ibs.  x  1'21528  =    troy  Ibs. 
„  oz.  x     '9115    =      „     oz. 

Troy         Ibs.  x     '823      =  avoirdupois  Ibs. 
,,  oz.  x  I'l  =          „  oz. 

„  grs.  X     -03657  =  „  drs. 

Lineal  Measures,  or  Measures  of  Length. 

7-92  inches         =1  link. 

12          „  =1  foot. 

3  feet      . .      '    . .          . .          . .          . .          . .    =  1  yard. 

6     „        ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..    =  1  fathom. 

16 J   „    or  5£  yards          ..  ..  ..  --    =  1  rod,  pole,  or  perch. 

792  inches     '         ) 

66  feet ..  >=  1  chain. 

22  yards,  or  4  poles         . .  . .  . .          . .  J 

220  yards  . .  •         . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  | 

40,  poles,  or         . .  . .  . .  . .  >  =  1  furlong. 

10  chains  ..  ..  ..  ..  .. ) 

2  o 


562  APPENDIX  M. 


5280  feet 
1760  yards 
320  poles 


=  1  statute  mile. 


80  chains,  or 

8  furlongs 

6082-6  feet,  or         ..}       ,          ..     ,      ., 

.-.A0r.  ,         \  }=  1  nautical  mile. 

2027-5  yards  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..) 

Square  or  Superficial  Measures. 
144  square  inches  ..  ..  ..  , .    =  1  square  foot. 

9  ,,       feet     ...  ..  ..  ..  . .    =  1       „      yard. 

272J     „       feet,  or  1 

OAt  j  >  =  1  pole  or  perch. 

30£     „       yards  ..  ..  ..  ..  f 

40  poles    . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .    =  1  rood. 

4840  square  vards,  or  ..  ) 

> —  1  acre 
10       „       chains  ..  ..  ..  ../ 

040  acres  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .    =  1  square  mile. 

Cubic  Measures,  or  Measures  of  Solidity  and  Capacity. 

1728  cubic  inches  ..  ..  .  ..  ..  =       1  cubic  foot. 

27     „       feet =       1      „     yard. 

5     ,,      feet  ..  ..  ..  ..  . .  =       1  barrel  bulk  of  shipping. 

42     „      feet  ..  ..  ..  ..  . .  =       1  ton  of  shipping. 

A  load  of  unhewn  timber  ..  ..  ..  ..  =  40  cubic  feet. 

„          squared  „  . .  . .  . .  . ,  =  50         „ 

A  cord  of  wood  ,.  =128 


II.— FOREIGN  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

AUSTRIA. 
Money. 

Florin,  or  Gulden,  of  100  Neukreuzer  ..          ..  =  about   2s. 

Golden  crown  of  8  florins   ..  ..  ..  ..  =       „     15s.  lid. 

The  chief  medium  of  exchange  is  a  paper  currency  consisting  of  banknotes 
from  1000  florins  down  to  1  florin. 

Weights  and  Measures. 

Centner  =  100  Pfund      ..          ..          ..    =  123 £  Ibs.  avoirdupois. 

Eimer  ..          ..          ..          ..          ..=  14*94  wine  gallons. 

Joch  ..          ..          ..          ..          . .    =     1 '43  acre. 

Metze  ..           ..           ..           ..           . .    =     1*7  imperial  bushel. 

Klafter =67  cubic  feet. 

.   .       ,    .  (8297  yards,  or  about 

Meile  =  24,000  Austrian  feet      ..  . .    =  <      43-1 

DENMARK. 
Money. 

By  a  law  which  came  into  force  on  January  1875,  the  decimal  currency  was 
introduced  in  Denmark,  the  unit  being  the  krona  (crown).  The  krona  is 
generally  accounted  of  one-half  the  value  of  the  old  unit  currency,  of  which  it 
took  the  place,  the  rigsdaler. 

Krona  =  100  ore  =  Is.  IJd.  or  about  18  kroner  to  £1  sterling. 


APPENDIX  M. 


563 


Weights  and  Measures. 

Lod        ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  =  227  grains  troy. 

Pound   ..  ..  ..  ..  . .  =  1 '102  avoirdupois. 

Ship  last  ..  ..  ..  . .  =  2  tons. 

Tonde,  for  grain  and  salt  . .  . .  =3*8  imperial  bushels. 

„      for  coal  ..  ..  . .  =  4*7                „ 

Foot     ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  =  1'03  foot. 

Viertel  ,.  ..  ..  ..  =  1'7  imperial  gallon. 

FRANCE. 
Money. 

Franc  of  100  centimes  =  lOd. 
Measures  of  Length. 


Systematic  Names. 

French  Value. 

English  Value. 

Myriametre    .  . 

..    10,000  metres 

6-2138  miles. 

Kilometre 

..      1,000      „ 

1093  -633  (§  mile.) 

Decametre 

10      „ 

10-93633  yards. 

Metre 

(  Fundamental     unit    ofl        ( 
"\   weights  and  measures  */    "\ 

1-094  yard,  3-281  feet, 
or39-372  inches. 

Decimetre 

•^  metre 

3-9372  inches. 

Centimetre    .. 

100     » 

0-3937  inch. 

Millimetre     .. 

..         TOOO     »            ..              .. 

0-03937  „ 

Superficial  Measures. 

Hectare 

..    10,000  square  metres 

2-4711  acres. 

Are    .. 

100             „ 

0-09884  rood. 

Centiare 

1              „ 

1  •  19603  square  yard. 

Measures  of  Capacity. 

Kilolitre 

i  1  cubic  metre,  or  1000  cubic} 
'  '  \          decimetres         .  .           .  .  / 

220-096        gallons. 

Hectolitre 

..    100  cubic  decimetres 

22-00967         „ 

Decalitre 

..      10 

2-200967       „ 

Litre 

1  cubic  decimetre             .  .  < 

0-220097  gallon  or 

I 

1*7607       pint. 

Decilitre 

TO                 » 

0-17608       „ 

Measures  of  Solidity. 

Ste're 

1  cubic  metre 

35-316    cubic  feet. 

Decistere 

••          TO             „ 

3-53166       „ 

Weights. 

Millier 

J  1000    kilogrammes,     or     11 
'  '  \         French  ton       .  .           .  .  / 

19-7    cwt. 

Quintal 

100  kilogrammes  .. 

1  •  97  cwt. 

Kilogramme 

flOOO  grammes,  weight  of  1) 
'  '  \         cubic  de'cimetre  of  water/ 

2-26793  Ib.  troy,  or 
2-2046  Ibs.  avoirdupois. 

Hectogramme 

100  grammes        ..           ..| 

3*2  oz.  troy,  or 
3  oz.  3  "53  •drs.  avoirdupois. 

Decagramme 

1A                                         (       5'75  drs.  avoirdupois,  or 
"                          "\  154-328  grains  troy. 

*  The  ten-millionth  part  of  the  spherical  distance  of  the  Pole  from  the  Equator;  it  was 
ascertained  by  measuring  an  arc  of  the  meridian  between  the  parallels  of  Dunkirk  arid 
Barcelona.  • 

2  0  2 


564  APPENDIX  M. 


Systematic  Names. 

French  Value. 

English  Value. 

Gramme 

(Weight  of  cubic  centimetre'l 
"\     of  water               .  .           .  .  / 

15  '433  grains  troy,  or 
0'564  dr.  avoirdupois. 

Decigramme 

-^  gramme 

;;{ 

1  '  5433  grain  troy,  or 
0*0564  dr.  avoirdupois. 

Centigramme 

T55           " 

0-15433  grain  trov. 

Milligramme 

1 

TOO!!         " 

0-01544         „ 

Conversion  of  Equivalent  Measures. 

English  to  French.  French  to  English. 

Inches      ..  .,    x     -0254    =  metres    ..       x  39 "371       =  inches. 

Feet         ..  ..     X     -30477=       „         ..      X     3-2809    =  feet. 

Yards       ..  ..X     -91438=       ,.  ..X     1 '09364  =  yards. 

Miles       ..  ..x  1-6093     =  kilometres      x       '62138  =  miles. 

Acres       ..  ..    X     -40467  =  hectares          X     2-4712     =  acres, 

imperial  gallons       x  4'54339  =  litres         ..     x       -2201     =  gallons. 
Cubic  inches        ..    X     -01639=         „          ..    x  61-028       =  cubic  inches. 
Bushels  ..  ..X     '36347  =  hectolitres      X     2 •  751 25  =  bushels. 

Quarters  ..    x  2 '9077     =  „  X       '3439     =  quarters. 

Troy  grains  ..  x  "06479  =  grammes  X  15*434  =  troy  grains. 
Troy  pounds  ..  x  '3732  =  kilogrammes  X  2*6795  =  troy  pounds. 
Avoirdupois  pounds  x  '4535  =  „  x  2*2048  =  avoirdupois 

pounds. 
BELGIUM. — Same  as  France. , 

GERMANY. 
Money. 

Thaler  of  30  Groschen  =  3s. 

Gulden,  or  florin,  of  60  Kreuzer       ..  ..  ..  =  Is.  8d. 

Mark  Current  of  Liibeck       .,  ..  ..  ..  =  Is.  3d. 

Mark  Banco  of  Hamburg       . .  . .  . .  . .  =  Is.  6d. 

Reichsthaler  of  Bremen         ..  ..  ..  ..  =  3s.  4d. 

New  Coin  (1872). 

Mark  of  100  Pfennig  =     Is. 

Crown  of  10  Mark  (gold) =  10s. 

Double  crown,  20  Mark        =  20s. 

Weights  and  Measures. 
French  metrical  system  introduced  in  January  1872. 

ITALY. 

French  metrical   system  introduced  for  money,  weights,  and   measures;  the 
lira  being  equal  to  1  franc. 

HOLLAND.    ' 

Money. 

Guilder  or  florin  of  100  cents  =  Is.  8d. 
Holland  adopted  the  French  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  in  1820. 

PORTUGAL. 

Money. 

Milreis,  or  100  reis  =  52|d.,  or  about  4J  milreis  to  £1  sterling. 
The  French  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures  adopted  in  1860. 


APPENDIX  M. 


565 


RUSSIA. 

Money. 

Silver  rouble  of  100  copecks  =  3s.  3d. 


Weights  and  Measures. 


Berkowitz 

Pood  .. 

Chetvert 

Oxhuft 

Anker 

Vedro 

Arsheen 

Dessialine 

Ship  last 

Pound 

Pool  (40  pounds) 

63  poods 

Tchetvert 

100  tchetverts 

1  Verst 


Real  =  100  centimes 
Peseta  =  4  reales  .. 
Escudo  =10  reales.. 


SPAIN. 

Money. 


=  360  Ibs.  avoirdupois. 

=    36  „ 

=       5 '77  imperial  bushels. 

=    58 '5  wine  gallons. 

=      9-75 

=       2 '75  imperial  gallons. 

=  58  inches. 

=      2-702  acres. 

=  2  tons. 

=      0-9  Ib. 

=  36  Ibs. 

=  1  ton. 

=       0'7  imperial  quarter. 

=  70  quarters. 

=  3500  feet. 


=  about  100  to  £1  sterling. 

=     „         25 
=  10 


Weights  and  Measures. 
French  metric  system  introduced  in  1859. 


Krona  or  riksdaler 


Skalpund 
Fot    .. 
Kanna 
Mil 


Speciedaler 

Fund 
Fod    .. 
Kande 
Miil 


SWEDEN. 
Money. 

..          ..    =  100  ore  =  Is.  l§d. 
Weights  and  Measures. 

.  ..    =  100  ort  =    0  •  937  Ibs.  avoirdupois. 

.  ..    =  10  turn  =11*7  inches. 

.  ..    =  100  kubiktum  =    4'6  pints. 

=  360  ref  =    6  '64  miles. 

NORWAY. 
Money. 
..      =  400  ore  =  120  shillig  =  4s.  6d. 

Weights  and  Measures. 

..          ..    =  128  kventin  =    1  •  1  Ib  avoirdupois. 
..  ..    =  12  tommer    =  12  '02  inches. 

.  .  .    =  2  pod  =    3  •  3  pints. 

=  2000  rode     =    7  '01  miles. 


SWITZERLAND. 

French  metric  system  of  money,  weights,  and  measures. 


566  APPENDIX  N. 


TURKEY. 
Money. 

Lira,  or  gold  medjidie        ..  ..  ..  . .  —  18s.  0'64d. 

Piastre,  100  to  the  lira =  2'16d. 

,,        or  becklik,  105  to  the  lira  ..  ..  =  2'06d. 

,,        or  copper,  110  to  the  lira  ..  . .  =  l'97d. 

Weights  and  Measures. 
Oke        ..  ..  ..    =  100  drams  =  2 '83  Ibs.  avoirdupois. 

Almud  ..  ..  ..    =  1'51  gallon. 

Killow =0-912  bushel. 

Cantar  ..  ..  ..    =  44  okes    =  125  Ibs.  avoirdupois. 

Tcheke =  180  okes  =  511-38  Ibs. 

Kilo =  20  okes    =  0'  36  quarter. 

816  kilos          ..  -.    =100  quarters. 

Andanze  (cloth)  ..    =27  inches. 

Archin  (land)  . .    =  30     „ 

Donum  (land)  . ,  ..    =  40  square  paces. 


APPENDIX    N. 


PASSAGE  WARRANT. 

1.  The  weight  of  personal  baggage  to  be  ordinarily  conveyed  at  the  public 
expense,  by  land  or  sea,  at  home  or  abroad,  except  when  on  service  in  the  field, 
shall  be  regulated  by  the  following  scales  : — 

OFFICERS. 

Staff  and  Departmental  Rank  or  Relative  Army  Rank. 

Cwt. 
General          . .  . .  . .  . .  40 

Lieutenant-general   ..  ..  ..  ..36 

Major-general  ..          ..          ..          ..36 

Brigadier-general      . .  . .  . .  30 

Colonel  30 

Lieutenant-colonel    ..          ..          ..          ..20 

Major  18 

Captain          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..12 

Lieutenant     ..          ..          ..          ..          ..12 

Sub-lieutenant  ..  ..          ..  ..12 

Regimental  Rank  or  Relative  Army  Rank. 

Cwt. 

Colonel          25 

Lieutenant-colonel    ..  ..  ..  ..18 

Major  ..  ..  .<  ..  ..15 

Captain          ..  ..  ..  ..  ..10 

Lieutenant    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..        9 

Sub-lieutenant  ..        9 


APPENDIX  N.  567 


2.  Officers  of  our  royal  engineers,  and  medical  officers,  shall  be  permitted  to 
carry  2  cwt.,  and  superintending  schoolmasters  1  cwt.  in  addition  to  the  weight 
allowed  by  art.  1. 

•i.  All  mounted  officers,  when  proceeding  by  water,  shall  be  entitled  to  an 
additional  allowance  for  horse  equipment  of — 

2  cwt.  for  one  horse,  and  1  cwt.  for  each  additional  horse,  for  which 
forage  at  the  public  expense  is  provided. 

4.  When  proceeding  by  sea,  if  their  passage  is  provided  at  the  public  expense, 
the    families   of  officers   shall   be  allowed   to  embark   with   them    the  following 
additional  weight  of  baggage: — 

Cwt. 

Each  officer's  wife,  together  with  his  children  under  14  years  of  age      6 
Each  son  exceeding  14  and  under  16  years  of  age      ..  ..  ..       J 

Each  unmarried  daughter  exceeding  14  years  of  age  ..  ..       5 

5.  Officers  who  entered  our  late  store  service  before  the  1st  January  1857,  and 
officers  who   held   the   appointment  of  barrack-master    before    the  7th  February 
1860,  shall  be  allowed  to  have  their  furniture  conveyed  according  to  the  following 
scale  : — 

Limit  of  Weight 
Rank  or  Appointment.  Allowed. 

Cwt. 

For  an  officer  above  the  relative  army  rank  of  captain,  an 
allowance  not  exceeding  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..60 

For  his  wife 20 

For  his  children        . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  20 

For  an  officer  of  the  relative  rank  of  captain,  an  allowance 
not  exceeding         ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..40 

For  his  wife  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..15 

For  his  children        ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..15 

For  an  officer  of  the  relative  rank  of  subaltern,  an  allow- 
ance not  exceeding  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..30 

For  his  wife..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..10 

For  his  children        ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..10 

In  addition  to  the  quantity  of  baggage  allowed  to  each  such  officer  according  to 
his  rank  by  art.  1,  he  shall  be  allowed : — 

Cwt. 

For  his  wife  and  such  of  his  children  as  may  be  under   14 
years  of  age   . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .        6 

For  each  son  exceeding  14  and  under  18  years  of  age  ..        £ 

For  each  unmarried  daughter  exceeding  14  years  of  age      . .        5 

t>.  The  weight  of  baggage  prescribed  by  the  scale  laid  down  in  art.  1,  for 
which  officers  shall  be  allowed  the  cost  of  carriage,  when  travelling  upon  the 
public  service,  shall  be  inclusive  of  the  quantity  carried  free  by  railway  or  other 
conveyance. 

7.  Officers  travelling  on  the  public  service  at  home,  when  not  required  to  take 
their  heavy  baggage,  shall  only  be  allowed  conveyance  for  1  cwt.,  which  quantity 
is  carried  free  of  charge  by  railway  companies. 

8.  At  foreign  stations  the  quantity  of  baggage,  not  exceeding  that  prescribed 
by  arts.  1   and  2,  which   officers  proceeding   on  temporary  duty  may  take   with 
them  shall  be  regulated  by  the  general  or  other  officer  commanding,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  the  service  at  the  station. 


APPENDIX  N. 


9.  Officers,  while  on  leave  from  one  station,  when  ordered  to  rejoin  at  another, 
shall,  if  they  have  left  their  heavy  baggage  at   the  one  station,  be  allowed    the 
cost  of  its  transport   to   the  station  at  which  they  are  ordered  to  rejoin  ;  but  no 
compensation  shall  be  granted  for  damage  to,  or  loss  of,  baggage  so  conveyed. 

NON-COMMISSIONED  OFFICERS  AND  MEN. 

10.  The   weight    of   personal    baggage   to  be   conveyed    for    non-commissioned 
officers  and  men  of  our  army  and  its  departments,  under  the  conditions  contained 
in  art.  1,  shall  be  as  follows  : — 

Class  I. 

Staff"  and  departmental          . .  . .    2  cwt.  each,  and  1  cwt.  additional  if  married. 

Regimental,  or  attached  to  regiments  2  cwt.  each,  married  or  unmarried. 

Classes  If.  and  III. 

Staff  and  departmental         ..          ..    1  cwt.  each,  and  1  cwt.  additional  if  married. 
Regimental    . .  . .  . .  . .    £  cwt.  each,  and  1  cwt.  additional  if  married. 

For  each  family  on  married  establishment  of  rank  and  file,  1  cwt. 
Schoolmasters  and  schoolmistresses  1  cwt.  each  additional  for  books. 

11.  The  weights  specified  in  art.  10  shall  be  conveyed  at  home  irrespective  of 
the  56  Ibs.  carried  free  for  each  passenger  by  a  railway  company. 

STORES. 

12.  The  weight  of  stores   to  be  conveyed  for  the  different  corps  in  the  service 
shall  be  as  follows  : — 

For  a  Regiment  of  Cavalry  and  Infantry. 

Cwt. 
Quartermaster  (including  signal  ling  (  Actual  weight. 

stores  and  artificers'  tools)          . .  \     2     For  books. 
Paymaster    . .          . .          . .          . .       5     or  8  if  attestations  are  con- 
veyed. 
Orderly  room  . .  . .  . .        8 

Hospital        ..          ..          ..          ..18     When  necessarily  conveyed. 

Armourer     ..  ..  ..  ..        2 

Shoemaker    ..  ..  ..  ..        2 

Band  -       ..      12 

Recreation  room       ..  ..          ..        5 

Officers'  mess  . .  . .  50 

Sergeants' mess        ..          ..          ..     15 

School  ..          ..          ..          ..       4 

Special  to  Cavalry. 

Cwt. 
Riding-master          ..          ..          ..        1 

Saddler,    farrier,    and     saddle-tree 

maker       ..          ..          ..          ..        1     Each. 

Arm-chests..          ..          ..          ..      12     Each  troop,  and  1^  cwt. 

additional  for  every  10 
men  over  60  per  troop. 


APPENDIX  N. 


569 


Quartermaster 
Paymaster    .. 

Riding-master 
Orderly  room 
Armourer 
Shoemaker    .. 
Hospital 

Arm-chests  .. 

Officers'  mess 
Sergeants'  mess 


Special  to  Infantry. 
Cwt. 

18  Each  company,  and  1£  cwt. 
additional  for  every  10 
men  over  60  per  com- 
pany. 

Eoyal  Artillery. 

Cwt. 

(          Actual  weight. 
"\     2     For  books. 

5     or  8  if  attestations  are  con- 
veyed. 
1 

8  For  each  brigade. 
2  1 

,,    >For  head-quarters. 

5     For  each  battery,  when 
necessarily  conveyed. 
Same  as  for  cavalry  and 
infantry. 

9  For  each  battery. 
3 


Royal  Engineers  and  Army  Service  Corps. — For  each  Troop  or  Company. 

Cwt. 
Quartermaster,    viz.    spare     neces-) 

saries,  deserters'  kits,  &c/  . .  /         Actual  WelSht' 

Hospital        . .  . .  . .  . .  Actual  weight  when  neces- 

sarily conveyed. 
For  arm-chests,  accoutrement  chests, 

stationery  chest,  &c.        ..  ..      18     And  1£  cwt.  additional  for 

every   10   men  over   60 
per  troop  or  company. 


TRAVELLING  EXPENSES. — MARRIED  ESTABLISHMENT. 

13.  Free  conveyance  shall  in  future  be  provided  at  the  regulated  rates  for  the 
families  of  all  soldiers  on  the  married  establishment. 


570 


APPENDIX  O. 


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572 


APPENDIX  0. 


II.— TABLE  OF  SALARIES  ALLOWED  FOR  STAFF  OFFICERS  AND 

DEPARTMENTS  OF  THE  SEVERAL  PRESIDENCIES  IN  INDIA. 

{The  chief  departments  alone  have  been  inserted.) 


MILITARY   SECRETARIATS. 

K. 

Secretary  to  government  of  India,  military  department 
„                       „                 Madras,  military  department 

3500 
2500 

\  Consolidated. 

„                       „                Bombay,  military  department 

2500 

1 

Deputy  secretary  to  government  of  India,  military  department 

1000 

„             „                     „                 Madras,  military  department 

800 

With  staff 

„             „                     „                 Bombay,  military  department    .  . 

800 

First    assistant  secretary   to  government  of  India,  military  depart- 

700 

pay  ot  rank. 

Other  assistant  secretaries,  military  department             

500 

ADJUTANT-GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT. 

3000 

2200 

1 

2200 

>  Consolidated. 

1000 

1 

,,               „              „      Madras    .  . 

800 

„              „             „      Bombay 

800 

First  assistant  adjutant-general  at  army  bead-quarters,  Bengal 

600 

Assistant  adjutant-general  at  army  head-quarters,  Madras 

600 

With  staff 

,.                       „                                       „                Bombay.. 

600 

corps 

„                       „                                       „                Bengal   .. 

500 

pay  of  r,mk. 

Deputy  assistant  adjutant-general  at  army  bead-quarters,  Bengal 

500 

Deputy  adjutant-general,  R.  A.,  in  India  .. 

800 

Assistant  adjutant-general  (for  musketry) 

600 

QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT. 

Quartermaster-general,  Bengal 

2500 

2200 

1 

2200 

>  Consolidated. 

Deputy  quartermaster-general,  Bengal      

1000 

1 

„                          „                   Madras     .  . 

800 

„                          „                   Bombay    

800 

With  staff 

First,  assistant  quartermaster-general,  Bengal 
Assistant  quartermasters-general  (all  presidencies)        

600 
500 

corps 
pay  of  rank. 

Deputy  assistant  quartermasters-general  (all  presidencies) 

400 

JUDGE  ADVOCATE-GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT. 

Deputy  judge  advocate-general,  Bengal 

2400 
1200 

Consolidated. 

„           „                  „             Madras     

1000 

iWith  staff 

„           „                  „             Bombay  

1000 

corps 

„            „      advocates  of  divisions  (all  presidencies) 

500 

pay  of  rank. 

DIVISIONAL  STAFF. 

General  officers  commanding  divisions 

3500 

Consolidated. 

j  With  staff 

Assistant  adjutants-general  of  divisions    .  .        .  .        .  .        .  . 

enn 

OUU 

<        corps 

{  pay  of  rank. 

BRIGADE   STAFF. 

Brigadier-general,  1st  class  (all  presidencies)       

1400 

i  With  staff 

„               2nd  class  (all  presidencies) 
Brigade  majors  (all  presidencies)     . 

1200      ; 

[•      corps 

rviv  nf  rftnb- 

CHIEF   AND   DISTRICT   INSPECTORS   OF   MUSKETRY. 


Chief  inspi 

>ctor  of  n 

msketry,  Bengal         

600 

1   With  staff 

„ 

„         Madras         

400 

>      corps 

» 

„         Bombay        

400 

|  pay  of  rank. 

I>istrict  inspectors  of  musketry  (all  presidencies)          

300 

|        With 
<   regimental 

(  pay  of  rank. 

*  At  Madras  and  Hyderabad  the  brigade  majors  receive  500  rupees. 


APPENDIX  O. 


573 


TABLE  OF  SALARIES  ALLOWED  FOR  STAFF  OFFICERS  AND  DEPARTMENTS 

OF   THE   SEVERAL   PRESIDENCIES   IN   INDIA — Continued. 


ACCOUNT   BRANCH,   MILITARY   DEPARTMENT. 

K. 

Accountant-general 

2250 

Deputy  accountant-general 

1500 

Controller  of  military  accounts,  Bengal     .  . 

2500 

Consolidated. 

„                            „                   Madras    .  .         .  .         

2200 

„                          „                  Bombay  

2200 

1st  examiner,  pay  department,  Bengal      ..         ..         

800 

2nd  examiner,  pay  department,  Bengal 

600 

Examiner,  pay  department,   Madras 

800 

„                          „            Bombay 

800 

„          commissariat  accounts,  Bengal 

1000 

„                     „                  „        Madras 

900 

„                     „                  „        Bombay 

900 

ordnance  accounts  (all  presidencies)             

500 

With  staff 

PAY    DEPARTMENT. 

corps 
pay  of  rank. 

Presidency  paymaster,  Bengal 

800 

,,                     „        Madras 

700 

„                    .,        Bombay 

700 

Paymaster  of  circles  (all  presidencies)      

600 

Superintendent  of  family  payments  and  pensions,  Madras 

600 

1  )eputy  paymasters,  Bengal 

300 

Pension  paymaster,  Bombay 

350 

„             „            out-stations 

250 

With  regi- 

Assistants, pay  department,  Bengal,  at  the  presidency 

200} 

mental  or 

„                     „               out-stations  

150) 

I   staff  corps 

[  pay  of  rank. 

COMMISSARIAT   DEPARTMENT. 

Commissary-general,  Bengal 

„               „       Madras 

2500 

1 

,,               „       Bombay 

2200 

\  Consolidated. 

Deputy  commissaries-general,  Bengal       

2200 
1000 

1 

„                        „                    Madras      .  .         .  .         

900 

„                        „                    Bombay 

900 

Assistant  commissaries-general,  1st  cl  iss  (all  presidencies)     .  . 

800 

„                      „                       2nd  class  (all  presidencies) 
Deputy  assistant  commissaries-general,  1st  class 

600 
500 

With  staff 
corps 

„             „                          „                 2nd  class           

400 

pay  of  rank. 

Sub-assistant  commissaries-general,  1st  class      

300 

„                              „                 2nd  class 

200 

„                              „                 3rd  class 

100 

STUD  DEPARTMENT. 

Superintendent  of  studs,  Bengal 

1  fiflfi 

Deputy  superintendent  of  studs,  Bengal   
Remount  agent,  Madras        

iUUU 

700 
Tfln 

With  staff 

Assistants,  1st  class  studs,  Bengal   

JUU 

400 

corps 

„           2nd  class  studs,  Bengal  

300 

pay  of  rank. 

Sub-assistants,  2nd  class  studs,  Bengal       

200 

Doing  duty  officers      

100 

With  pay  and 

allowances  of 
(        rank. 

CLOTHING    DEPARTMENT. 

Superintendent  and  agent  for  army  clothing,  Bengal     

1000 

With  staff 

»                      .,                      „                 Madras 
..                     »                     ,.                Bombay 

700 
700 

>        corps 
pay  of  rank. 

574 


APPENDIX  O. 


TABLE  OF  SALARIES  ALLOWED  FOR  STAFF  OFFICERS  AND  DEPARTMENTS 

OF    THE    SEVERAL   PRESIDENCIES    IN    INDIA  Continued. 

PERSONAL   STAFF.                                                             K 

Military  secretary  and  aide-de-camp  to  the  governor-general  .  . 

1500 

„                                  „            to  the  governor,  Madras 

1000 

„                                  „                              „        Bombay          .  .        1000 
Military  secretary  to  the  commander-in-chief  in  India              .  .         .  .        1500 

Consolidated. 

„                                         „                       Madras          .  .         .  .        1000 

„                                       „                      Bombay        ..        ..       1000 

Aides-de-camp  to  the  governor-general,  each        .  .         .  .         .  .         .  .         300 

„           to  the  governor,  Madras     .  .         .  .         .  .         .  .         .  .         300 

„                              „        Bombay    300 

Aides-de-camp  to  the  commander-in-chief  in  India,  each          ..         ..          250 

„                                         „                    Madras,  each     .  .         .  .         250 

With  staff 

„                                         „                     Bombay,  each 

250 

corps 

Interpreter  to  the  commander-in-chief  in  India  .  . 

450 

pay  of  rank. 

„                                         „             Madras  and  Bombay 

350 

Private  secretary  and  aide-de-camp  to  a  lieutenant-governor 

350 

Aide-de-camp  to  lieutenant-governor 

250 

,,            to  general  officers  commanding  divisions 

250 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Military  secretary  to  government,  Punjab 
Staff  officer,  Punjab  Frontier  Force 

700 
500 

(With  staff 

Military  storekeeper,  Bengal 

400 
400 

corps 
pay  of  rank. 

Secretary  and  examiner  in  Hindustani  in  Madras 

(    Withregi- 

Commandant  convalescent  depots,  1st  class* 

200) 

1     mental  or 

„                     „               „      2nd  Class*                  

100  M    staff  corps 

1  (  pay  of  rank. 

Station  staff  officers,  1st  class  (including  all  office  charges)     .  . 

150     }    With  staff 

„         ,,          „       2nd  class  (including  all  office  charges) 

100 

(corps  pay  and 

„         „          „       3rd  class  (including  all  office  charges)     .  . 

50 

|  allowances  of 

„         „          „       at  very  small  stations 

25' 

I        rank. 

NATIVE    CAVALRY    REGIMENTS,    ALL    PRESIDENCIES. 

700 

2nd  in  command  and  squadron  officer 

300 

2nd  squadron  officer 

210 

With  staff 

3rd         „              „       

180 

corps 

adjutant 

250 

150 

p  y         n  . 

2nd        „               „      

150 

NATIVE    INFANTRY    REGIMENTS,    ALL    PRESIDENCIES. 

600 

2nd  in  command  and  wing  officer 

270 

Wing  officer 

230 

With  staff 

Adjutant 

200 

corps 

Quartermaster 

150 

pay  of  rank. 

1st  wing  subaltern 

100 

2nd     „                          

100 

*  These  appointments  are  usually  held  by  British  officers. 


APPENDIX  O. 


575 


III.— ENGLISH  FURLOUGH  PAY. 
STAFF  CORPS. 


1     0     0 

Major 

0  16     0 

0  10     6 

Lieutenant 

066 

INDIAN  ARMY. 

Cavalry. 

Infantry. 

Artillery 
and  En- 

gineers. 

£ 

Si 

d. 

£ 

K. 

d. 

£   s.    d. 

General 
Lieutenant-general 
Major-general 

1   Not    being  regimental    colonels,  or 
j         in  receipt  of  colonel's  allowance 

^ 

1 

18 
12 
5 

0 
6 
0 

1 
1 
1 

18 
12 
3 

0 

6 

0 

1  18     0 
1  12     6 
130 

General  officers,  being 
regimental   colonels, 
Colonels,  regimental 

1   In  addition  to  colonel's  allowance,  if  ' 
r                   entitled  thereto 

1 

12 

8 

1 

6 

0 

1     5     0 

Lieutenant  colonel 

j  1 

8 

0 

1 

ii 

0100 

Major 

0 

1ft 

3 

0  16 

f*0  15     0 
Ul  fO  14     6 

Captain 

!  0 

14 

7      0 

10 

6{toio   o 

Lieutenant 

0 

ft 

0      0 

6 

6      0     6  10 

„           on  second  lieutenant's  pay        .  .         

:  0     5     7 

Cornet  or  ensign 

0. 

8 

0      0 

5 

3            — 

Colonel's  allowance   when  issued  with  staff  corps  pay  out  of  India 
or  English  furlough  pay — all  branches  . . 

*  Engineers.  t  Artillery. 


Per  annum,  £668  12    5 


BRITISH  MEDICAL  SERVICE. — ENGLISH  FURLOUGH  PAY. 


Surgeon-general 

After  25  years'  service 
t,      30  „ 

„      35  „ 

Deputy  surgeon-general 
After  25  years'  service 
„     30  „ 

,     35 


Daily. 
£  s.  d. 
200 
250 
270 
2  10  0 
1  10  0 
1  12  0 
1  15  0 


1  17    0 


Surgeon-major 
After  15  years'  service  . 
„      20  „ 

„      25  „ 

Surgeon,  on  appointment , 
After  5  years'  service    . 
„    10  „ 

„    15 


Daily. 
£  s.  d. 
0  17  6 
100 
140 
170 
0  10  6 
0  12  6 
0  15  0 
0  17  6 


INDIAN  MEDICAL  OFFICERS. — ENGLISH  FURLOUGH  PAY. 


-«> 

"M 

£ 

| 

E 

> 

V 

ig£ 

0s- 

gg   . 

gg^ 

3  g  ^ 

cS  C     • 

*  °  >, 

RANK. 

o  8(5 

•a  8(5 

o  8(2 

10    SpH 

N  g£ 

o  8(5 

«  S(5 

S  J(X 

"  >  '""rf 

t>   —  ' 

^     ^.    r~t 

1—1    >  -^ 

1—1   t>  —  ' 

C  53 

^_  >  -— 

u.   >  •— 

|l£ 

|l£ 

|S£ 

|ll 

IIS 

IIS 

|IS 

I*6 

£    s. 

£    s. 

£    s. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

Surgeon-general         
Deputy  surgeon  -general 
Surgeon-major           
Surgeon           

2     5 
1   14 

2     5 
1  10 
1     5 

2     0* 

1     8* 
1     2 

18     0 

15    0* 

13    0 

11     6 

10     0 

Or  on  promotion  should  these  periods  of  service  not  be  already  com 


pleted. 


576 


APPENDIX  O. 


VETERINARY  SURGEONS. — ENGLISH  FURLOUGH  PAY. 


ge   . 

2 

gc   . 

£ 

g  e   . 

§a 

Ifl 

i 

>H    °    >> 

>H    °    >> 

®  o  ^ 

>^  °  ^> 

RANK. 

\n  £"d 

o  8(5 

8(5 

,nS(S 

«>- 

N  >  s 

"  5  — 

^    >  — 

fa  >  —  • 

£ccft< 

|d£  'life 

£$£ 

•Sjgg 

•< 

•"! 

•5 

<j 

•4 

o 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

Staff  veterinary  surgeons 
Veterinary  surgeons,  1st  class 
Veterinary  surgeons       .  .        .  .        

23     0 
20     0 
14     0 

22     0   |21     0 
17     0    15     6 
14     0   14     0 

14     6 
13     0 

12     9 
11     6 

10     0 

IV.—PAY  OF  LIEUTENANTS  AND  SUB-LIEUTENANTS  OF  THE  BRITISH 

ARMY. 

REGIMENTAL  PAT  AND  ALLOWANCES  FOR  ANT  MONTH. 


RANK. 

Royal 
Horse 
Artillery. 

Field  aud 
Garrison 
Artillery. 

British 

Cavalry. 

British 
Infantry. 

Royal 
Engineers. 

Lieutenant 

R.      A.     P.       E.       A.     P. 
250  10     4      213     5     0 

R.     A.    P. 
250  10     4 

R.     A.     P.         R.     A.     P. 
202  12     5      213     5     0 

after  3  years'  service 

in  that  rank 

305     4     0      265  12    0 

305     4     0 

256  10     0      265  12     0 

Sub-lieutenant 

~         ' 

250  10     4 

202  12     5   : 

In  addition  to  the  above  rates  of  pay  and  allowances,  horse  allowance  will  be  passed  at  60  rupees 
per  mensem  in  the  horse  artillery  and  cavalry,  and  at  30  rupees  per  mensem  in  field  artillery 
batteries. 

When,  however,  subalterns  of  the  British  army  serving  in  India  are  not  in  receipt  of  any 
Indian  allowances,  they  will  be  entitled  to  the  following  rates  of  pay,  being  the  equivalent  of  the 
rates  prescribed  in  the  royal  warrant  dated  28th  December  1871,  converted  into  Indian  currency 
at  the  exchange  of  two  shillings  halfpenny  the  rupee : — 


RANK. 

REGIMENTAL  PAT  FOR  ANT  MONTH. 

Royal 
Horse 
Artillery. 

Field  and 
Garrison 
Artillery. 

British 
Cavalry. 

British 
Infantry. 

Royal 
Engineers.  • 

Lieutenant          
„         after  3  years'  service 
in  that  rank 
after  10  years'  service 
In  that  rank 
Sub-lieutenant    

R.     A.    P. 
127   15     4 

146     9     6 
161     8     0 

R.     A.    P. 

83    3    9 
101  13  11 

116  12     4 

R.  A.  P. 

119  4  3 
134  2  9 

134     2    9 
78     4    3 

R.     A.    P. 

78     4     3 

96  14    5 

111  13    0 

78    4    3 

R.     A.     P. 
83    3     9 

101  13  11 

116  12     4 

APPENDIX  O. 


577 


V.— TABLE  SHOWING  THE  PAY  OF  OFFICERS,  NON-COMMISSIONED 
OFFICERS,  AND  MEN,  IN  THE  BRITISH  ARMY. 

STAFF. 

£  s.  d. 

General  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  Daily  pay  5  13  9 

Lieutenant-general         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..  „  3    15    10 

Major-general                  ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..  „  1     17     11 

Brigadier-general  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  „  1  18  6 

Colonel  on  the  staff „  129 

Adjutant- or  quartermaster-general „  1  17  11 

Deputy  „  , „  0  19  0 

Assistant                  „                  „         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  „  0143 

Deputy  assistant  adjutant-  or  quartermaster-j 

general,  brigade-major,  assistant  military  > „  096 

secretary,  or  aide-de-camp  . .         . .         . . ) 

Head-quarters  staff  receive  higher  pay  in  addition  to  their  pay  or  half-pay  of  their  regi- 
mental commissions.    Staff  officers  receive  also  allowances  for  horses. 


REGIMENTAL  OFFICERS. 


RANK. 

hold 
Cavalry. 

Foot 
Guards. 

Infantry. 

Cavalry. 

Artillery. 

Engi- 
neers. 

General  officer  or  colo-j 
nel  of  a  regiment,  or  >  Annual 
colonel-commandant  | 

£2800  | 

£2000  or 
£2200 

]  £1000 

£1350. 

£994 

£990 

General  officer  not  a  colonel  „ 

£450 

£450 

£450 

£450 

£450 

£450 

£   a.   d. 

£  s.    d. 

£   s.    d. 

£   s.   d. 

£   s.   d. 

£   8.    d. 

Colonel  Daily 

— 

— 

— 

— 

160 

160 

Lieutenant-colonel     .  .        „ 

192 

169 

0  17     0      130 

0  17  11      0  17  11 

Major    .  .         .  .         .  .         .. 

1     4     5 

130 

o  16   a 

»  19     3      0  16     0      0  16     0 

Captain            .  .         .  .        „         0  15     1 

ft  15     6 

0  11     7 

8  14     7 

ft  11     0 

0  11     0 

Lieutenant       ..         ..        „        0  10    4     0    7    4 

0     6     & 

090 

0     6  10      0    6  10 

Sub-lieutenant           ..        „         080056 

053 

080 

057      057 

COMMISSARIAT  AND  TRANSPORT  DEPARTMENT,  AND  ORDNANCE  STORE 
DEPARTMENT. 


Retired  Pay. 

RANK. 

On 

Appoint- 
ment. 

After  5 
Years  in 
the  Rank. 

" 

Half-pay. 

After  30 
Years' 
Service. 

After  20, 
but  under 
30  Years' 

Sen-ice. 

£    s.    d. 

£    8.    d. 

£    s.    d. 

£    s.    d.      £    s.    d. 

Commissary-general 

300 

300 

1  10     0 

200        200 

Deputy-commissary  general 

200        240 

110 

1  13    0 

1     5    0 

Assistant  commissary-general 

1     4     0 

190 

0  13    6 

100 

0  15    0 

Commissary 

0  18     6 

120 

0  10     0 

0  16     8 

0  14     0 

Deputy  commissary 

0  11     6 

0  14     0 

070 

0  11     8 

096 

Assistant  commissary 

090 

— 

046 

078 

060 

Sub-assistant  commissary,  p<iy  sub-)      ARC 

department            /     ' 

Paymaster      100 

126 

0  12     6 

100 

050 

Deputy  paymaster    0  14     0        0  16    6 

083 

0  14     0 

0  10     U 

Assistant  paymaster            ..         ..        u!06           —        |053i090'076 

2  p 


578 


APPENDIX  O. 


Q  UARTERM  ASTERS. 


o> 

cf 

"2   5*^ 

.if™  s 

-22      13 

"-•a.a1 

RANK. 

• 

15  tfil 

c 

•o 

A 

~t^ 

O-^2 

•.     ^ 

c 

<3 

? 

3 

£    «    =3 

"Si 

5 

a 

S 

HSa 

w 

s.    d.        s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

Quartermaster  on  first  appointment     .  . 

82        10     2   j       82 

12     6 

9     6 

9     8 

After  10  years'  service  in  the  rank,  or} 

after   15  3rears'  service  as  a  cominls-l 
sioned  or  non-commissioned   officer,  j 

10     2        12     2 

10     2 

13    2 

11     0 

11     2 

including  5  years  as  quartermaster  .  .  ) 

After  15  years'  service  in  the  rank,  orl 

after  20  years'  'service  as  a  cominis-l 
sioned  or   non-commissioned  officer,  f 

11     8        13     8        11     8 

13     8 

11     8 

11     8 

including  10  years  as  quartermaster    J 

After  32  years'  service  in  the  army,j 
including  12  years  as  quartermaster   ) 

13     2        15     2        13     2 

15     2 

13     2 

13     2 

MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT. 


| 

2          e 

3 

2 

03 

£ 
.    g 

5 

.£  g     '    ^i  g 

>•  g 

^  8 

RANK. 

<§« 

•»'S       s'E 

S  & 

0   >• 

8| 

4" 

3  oo 

o^  rA 

| 

0s0 

| 

Surgeon-general 

£    s.    d. 
200 

£   s.    d. 

£    s.    d.    £    s.    d. 
—           250 

£    s.    d. 
270 

£    s.    d. 
2  10     0 

Deputy  surgeon-general           ..      1  10    0\ 
Surgeon-major     .  .         .  .         .  .      1     0    0  ' 

*1     5     0 

~ 

1   12     0 

1   15     0 

1  17     0 

Surgeon     .  . 

£250  a  year. 

0  17     6 

— 

— 

Charge  Pay. — The  principal  medical  officer  of  an  army  in  the  field  consisting  of  10,000 
mm  and  upwards,  £1  daily;  of  5000  and  upwards,  15s.  daily;  of  less  than  50UO,  10s.  daily. 
The  principal  officer  of  a  colony,  where  the  number  of  commissioned  officers  and  enlisted  men 
is  1500  and  upwards,  5s.  daily. 


VETERINARY  DEPARTMENT. 


^j 

'•I 

§ 

£ 

£              £ 

c 

05 

05 

OS 

S. 

§ 

£    1? 

jJJ          ^ 

»^ 

RANK. 

sl 

Ǥ*" 

<=  oi 

0    g^ 

§  §~ 

S  o- 

o 

«         ? 

^    "3 

t.     13 

t<         3 

& 

S         3 

«    fa    i   .g     fa 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

<              < 

£    s.    d. 

£   s.    d. 

£    s.    d. 

£    s.    d. 

£   s.    d.    £   s.    d. 

Principal  veterinary  surgeon  .  . 

— 

— 

100 

— 

—              — 

Staff  veterinary  surgeon 

1     1     0 

— 

— 

— 

120      130 

Veterinary  surgeon,  1st  class  .  . 

0  12     6 

-;- 

0  14    6 

0  13    6 

0  17     0 

100 

Veterinary  surgeon 

0  10     0 

0  11     6 

0  13    0 

0   14     0 

0  IS     0 

0  17     6 

APPENDIX  O. 


579 


EDUCATIONAL  DEPARTMENT. 

Inspector  of  army  schools  (in  addition  to  11s.  8d.  per  diem  half  pay),  Annual  £600. 

Sub-inspector  of  army  schools . .         . .         . .    Daily  10s. 

First-class  schoolmaster     . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  „         6s.  9d. 

„  „  if  re-enlisted ,        7s.  9d. 

Second-class        „  . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  „        5s.  3d. 

„  if  re-enlisted „        6s.  3d. 

Trained  schoolmaster,  on  appointment*  . .         . .         . .  „        3s.  lid. 

Increased  by  6d.  a  day  for  every  3  years'  service  as  schoolmaster 

until  it  shall  reach  a  maximum  of ..         ..      „        6s.  lid. 

First-class  schoolmistress  . .         . .         Annual  £44. 

Second-class         „  . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  „         £36. 

Third-class          „  . .         . .         „        £30. 

*  Rates  increased  by  an  addition  of  2d.  a  day  after  2  years'  service  in  that  rank. 


PAYMASTER  DEPARTMENT. 


RANK. 

If  not  holding 
the  Rank  of 
Captain  when 
appointed 

If  holding  the 
Rank  of  Captain 
when  appointed. 

£      s. 

d. 

£      s.      d. 

On  first  appointment 

0     12 

6 

0     15       0 

After  5  years'  service  as  paymaster 

0     15 

0 

0      17       6 

After  15  years'  service  as  commissioned  or  non-commis-1 

sioned  officer,  of  which  at  least   10  years  shall  have> 

0     15 

0 

— 

been  as  commissioned  officer  on  full  pay    j 

After  10  years'  service  as  paymaster 

0     17 

6 

100 

After  20  years'  service  as  commissioned  officer,  of  which  \ 

at  least  10  years  shall  have  been  as  a  commissioned  officer! 

01  T 

on  full  pay,  including  not  less  than  5  years  as  paymaster  | 

1  1 

After  15  years'  service  as  paymaster 

1       0 

0 

126 

After  20  years'  service  as  a  commissioned  officer  on  fulll 

pay,  including  not  less  than  10  years  as  paymaster        .  ./ 

1       0 

U 

After  25  years'  service  as  a  commissioned  and  non-com-j 

missioned  officer,  of  which  at  least  15  years  shall  havel        , 

A 

been   as  a  commissioned  officer  on  full  pay,  including?! 

not  less  than  10  years  as  paymaster  .  .  j  j 

After  20  years'  service  as  paymaster 

1       2 

6 

150 

After  25  years'  service  as  a  commissioned.  officer  on  fulh        . 

g 

pay,  including  not  less  than  15  years  as  paymaster        .  ./  j 

After  30  years'   service  as  commissioned  or  non-commis-j 

missioned  officer,  of  which  at  least  20  years  shall  havel        j      2 

m 

been  as  a  commissioned  officer  on  full  pay,  including  | 

not  less  than  15  years  as  paymaster           j 

CHAPLAIN'S  DEPARTMENT. 


Chaplain-general 

Chaplains  of  1st  class. . 
„  2nd  class 

„  3rd  class 

4th  class 


Annual  1000    0 

Daily          1    0 

0  17 

0  15 


d. 

0 

0    Rising  to  1 

6  „ 

0 


£    s.    d. 


0  12    6 


APPENDIX  O. 


Ill 

3;  N     i    1*1  M  i™!"  r  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1 

*If 

•o             ^-^                                           "** 

rfl  '  '  |5    1       III      M^^^^  lrt  M"  M  1  1  M  M 

•  f    £ 

I    1 

m  i  '  <  '  '  '  c  *^«  'i  '  'i*«  '  c  '5s 

!ll!l 

"1                             1                III             1          "                i-lrt|~            1            1      I  M     |     |      1     1     | 

2".I  o 

-^                                 ^^                                                                              _ 

,^00                   O         O^-j-jHr-irtt^^—  i         IMO^CSC5(NOCC^TJ<OO 

O*O                            O 

S   |Js 

""                                                                                ""                      -C~<3. 

£  s-3 

'         IM         CqC'^<0 

g 
5i          -5 

„.«'««  c,  1Lo,Mf,c,^^^lLoLll,a|ll|i 

a"!    .• 

-(.-*.                      -». 

1   I 

(       0 

,.„.  «  „   i  C2-II""-1  '  "«"*!!  CI.-1  2 

f  * 

4\  " 

»«'M«      n         '«««««««--.  '    'rt0  lrt  1.  lw  M   N   1 

ill 

* 

v    o 

rf^°*  °  i  '  ii  s«««  '  sr  '  c  °«rr  c«r  >  '  « 

.  .  .  ^~~                   « 

to                                                                                       >n 

fc  _                  •y-y                                                          fc 

::::*!:::  11  1  

§53                               fe    Til 

M 
S 

M 

§"8    '    £"'S-|s"    '•2T3'S.2    '                   "  S  *    '  t-"?-?,  2r  "fc  t. 

°     :  s  a  <«  o  ••s°2p?  '.  •  •  .0  :o.S  •  eg  6  c1!  fe  I  fes 
f       f  "sgsl    6I|S           |    s'|    3l1!|l8ji 

*       *         * 

APPENDIX  P. 


581 


APPENDIX    P. 


I.— TABLE  SHOWING   THE   POWER    OF   PENETRATION   OF   BOTH    FIELD 
AND  HEAVY  ARTILLERY  UP  TO  THE  7-INCH  RIFLED  GUN. 


N 

ATURE   OF   GUN. 

Mean  Penetration  of  Shell 
at  1060  yards. 

Extreme 
Penetra- 
tion of 
Shot  or 
Shell. 

Thickness 
of  Parapet 
in  Feet  to 
be  used  for 
Cover. 

REMABKS. 

Into  a  Natural  Butt. 

Made 
Earth 
(Clay)  well 
rammed. 

Natural 
Concrete. 

Sand, 
Clay,  &c. 

INewliaven  experi- 
ments, 1863. 

'  7-in.  B.L.R.  gun 
70-pr.       ,          „ 
40-pr.       ,          „ 
20-pr.        ,          „ 
12-pr.        ,           „ 
10-in.    S  B.    gun 
8-in.        ,          „ 
6S-pr.        ,          „ 
132-pr.        ,          „ 
24-pr.        ,          „ 
1  8-pr.        ,          „ 
12-pr.        ,          „ 
9-pr.        ,          „ 
6-pr.        ,          „ 

ft.  in. 
7    9 
6    4 
6     1 

3  10 
3     6 
4     0 
2     8 

ft.     in, 
12    11 

7"  o 

3      2 

7"  6 
5      8 

ft.     in. 
18       3 
14       3 
11       8 
10       3 
4       0 
11       0 
11       5 
14     10 
9       5 

ft.     in. 

21      11 
17      0 
16      4 
13      3 

12      0 
]2      9 
21       6 
14       0 

ft. 
25  to  30 
25  to  30 
18  to  25 
15  to  18 
6  to  9 
15  to  18 
15  to  18 
25  to  30 
18  to  25 

18  to  25 

12  to  15 
9  to  12 
6  to  9 

|  Corresponding 
<  gun  at  present 
[  is  the  64-pr. 

|          From  12  to  15  feet  into  earth 

From  8J  to  10  feet 
From  6J  to    7  feet 
From  3i  to   4  feet 

12- 

10- 

q- 

8- 

7. 

Nature  of  M.L.R.  Gun. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

Maximum   penetration  j  Ti'       ivor       "  '    

15 
10 

14 

9 

12 

8 

11 

7 

7 
5 

Thickness  of  single  plate  of  iron,  just  able  to  keep  out  the  pro-\ 
jectile        / 

in. 
15 

in. 
14 

in. 

11 

in. 
10 

in. 
5 

II.— TABLE  SHOWING  THE  POWER  OF  PENETRATION  OF  THE  SNIDER- 
ENFIELD  AND  MARTINI-HENRY  RIFLES. 


Snider-Enfield 


Martini-Henry 


19  inches  of  light  and  sandy  earth  1 

8       ;;         solid  oak  Lt  20  yards. 

12        „         fir 

Wrought-iron  plate  -261  inch  thick  at  100  yards. 
4£  inches  of  oak  at  50  yards. 
12       „         fir  at  100     „ 

3  „          fir  balks  dry  and  1  wet  at  100  yards. 

4  thicknesses  of  3-inch  rope  at  350    „ 
A  gabion  filled  with  clay-earth  at  25    „ 
A  sap-roller  at                                               25    „ 
A  sandbag  at  100    „ 
Wrought-iron  plate  -261  inch  thick  at  200    „ 

„  „      -312  „  25     „ 

Earthen  parapet  21  inches  thick  at  10    „ 


LONDON : 

FEINTED   BY   WILLIAM   CLOWES   AND    SONS, 
8TAMFOKD   STREET   AND   CHARINa   CROSS. 


SUPPLEMENT 


GIVING  CERTAIN  ADDITIONS  AND   CORRECTIONS 
FROM  1877  UP  TO  THE  END  OF  1881. 


ACA 


A.C.  means  Army  Circular. 
R.W.  means  Royal  Warrant. 


AEM 


Academy,  Royal  Military,  Woolwich 
— Appendix  A,  par.  5  :  For  December  1 
read  "October  15."  and  for  July  1  read 
"May  15."  Sect.  2.  par.  49,  should 
read  as  follows  : — "  The  rates  of  pay  (and 
allowances)  laid  down  for  all  officers 
appointed  to  our  Royal  Military  Academy 
subsequent  to  the  7th  May,  1874,  shall 
include  all  remuneration  of  every  kind 
except  any  additional  pay  to  which  an 
officer  may  be  entitled  as  a  reward  for 
distinguished  service  in  the  field,  and  no 
person  so  appointed  shall  be  entitled  to 
pension  or  superannuation  allowances 
for  services  in  such  appointment." 

Acquittance  Roll  —  The  document 
bearing  this  name  has  been  discontinued 
for  some  time  past  in  the  army,  and 
another  form  of  certificate  has  been 
adopted  for  obtaining  the  soldier's  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  pay,  &c. 

Active  List — Means  officers  on  full  or 
half-pay,  liable  for  active  service.  Per- 
manent half-pay  is  no  longer  permitted. 

Adjutant — The  office  to  be  held  by  a 
Captain  or  Junior  Major  of  a  territorial 
regiment  for  a  term  of  five  years  under 
the  circumstances  mentioned  in  the 
Revised  Army  Regulations  of  1881, 
Vol.  1. 

Aide-de-Camp — If  not  passed  the  Staff 
College,  must  have  passed  the  examina- 
tion for  promotion  to  the  rank  of  Captain, 
and  will  further  be  required  to  pass  an 


examination  in  foreign  languages.     Vide 
Queen's  Regulations. 

Air-space — In  the  formation  of  car- 
tridges for  heavy  guns,  the  term  air- 
space is  applied  to  the  space  given 
between  the  outer  and  inner  cloth  of 
the  cartridge ;  by  which  arrangement 
the  pressure  on  the  powder-chamber  is 
greatly  relieved.  The  same  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  outer  and  inner  skin  of  an 
iron-plated  target  or  vessel. 

Alarm  Post — Insert  in  page  8  of  the 
Dictionary,  line  13  from  top  of  right- 
hand  column, after  word  "off,"  "in  some 
central  position." 

Ambulance  —  Vide  Dictionary.  In 
most  of  the  large  towns  in  England,  as 
well  as  in  other  needed  localities,  such  as 
dockyards  and  arsenals,  an  ambulance 
society  has  been  formed  to  give  assistance 
to  people  who  have  met  with  accidents 
and  who  are  unable  in  consequence  to 
help  themselves. 

Appointments,  First,  to  the  Army,  ride 
Royal  Warrant  relating  to  Pay  and  Pro- 
motion, Part  1  (Army  Regulations,  Vol.  1). 
Army  Hospital  Corps  —  The  regu- 
lations for  this  corps  will  be  found  in 
A.C.  February  1878. 

Armour  Plating — Considerably  in- 
creased in  thickness  since  the  article  in 
the  Dictionary  on  this  subject  was  writ- 
ten. In  some  of  the  ships  of  the  British 
Navy  a  thickness  of  from  18  to  24  inches 
is  given.  One  or  more  iron-clads  in  the 
Italian  Navy  have  27J  inches. 


ARM 


ART 


Army  Reserve — Page  19  of  Diction- 
ary, 10th  line  from  top  of  page,  right- 
hand  column,  for  "six"  read  "seven." 
As  stated  in  the  Revised  Army  Regula- 
tions, 1881,  a  port  ion  of  the  soldiers  on  home 
service,  after  completing  three  years'  col- 
our service,  will  be  allowed  and  encouraged 
to  pass  into  the  Reserve  for  nine  years'  Re- 
serve service  ;  on  or  before  completing  this 
service,  power  will  be  taken  to  enable 
men  of  the  Army  Reserve  to  enter  volun- 
tarily on  a  further  period  of  four  years 
in  the  Reserve.  They  will  form  a  second 
Reserve.  The  number  of  men  from  time  to 
time  which  shall  form  the  1st  class  of 
the  Army  Reserve  will  depend  upon  the 
provision  made  by  Parliament. 

Army  Service  Corps — A  change  has 
taken  place  in  the  designation  of  this 
corps  since  the  Dictionary  was  published. 
The  companies  of  the  corps  employed  on 
commissariat  or  transport  duties  are  now 
styled  "  The  Commissariat  and  Transport 
Corps,"  and  those  engaged  on  ordnance 
duties  "  The  Ordnance  Store  Corps." 

Army  Signalling — There  are  two 
schools  for  teaching  this  important  sub- 
ject, at  Aldershot  and  Chatham.  The 
Inspector  resides  at  the  latter  place,  and 
after  his  inspections  reports  to  the  general 
officer  commanding. 

Artillery,  Eoyal — Consists  of  21 4  Bat- 
teries, Horse,  Field,  and  Garrison,  which 
includes  the  depot  batteries.  The  num- 
ber of  guns  composing  a  horse  or  field 
battery  consists  of  6  guns. 

The  reorganisation  of  this  regiment 
as  at  present  constituted  took  place 
in  1877.  The  regiment  consists  now 
of  3  brigades  of  horse  artillery,  desig- 
nated A,  B,  and  C  respectively.  Each 
brigade  has  its  head-quarters  and  6 
batteries  at  home,  and  the  remaining  5 
batteries  of  each  brigade  in  India.  The 
present  depot  batteries,  numbering  422 
men  of  all  ranks,  are  divided  and  at- 
tached to  the  head-quarters  of  the 
brigades  at  home,  making  the  strength 
of  each  about  970  of  all  ranks,  instead 
of  830  as  hitherto.  The  batteries  of  each 
brigade  serving  in  India  amount  to  about 
821  of  all  ranks,  showing  a  very  slight 
reduction — altogether  in  the  brigade 
staft' — upon  the  present  establishment, 
and  making  the  total  strength  of  the 
royal  horse  artillery  in  India  2462. 


The  field  and  garrison  batteries  consist 
now  of  11  brigades,  of  which  6 — the  1st  to 
the  6th — are  field,  and  the  remaining  5 — 
the  7th  to  the  llth — garrisonartillery.  The 
head-quarters  of  each  brigade  always 
remains  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the 
existing  depot  brigade,  numbering  1946 
of  all  ranks,  is  distributed  between  the 
home  or  head-quarters  division  of  the 
newly-formed  brigades.  As  regards  each 
of  the  field  brigades,  8  batteries,  7  service 
and  1  depot  remain  at  home,  the  aggre- 
gate strength  being  1306,  while  7  bat- 
teries remain  in  India,  at  an  aggregate 
strength  of  1145,  except  in  the  case  of 
the  new  3rd  brigade,  which  has  8  bat- 
teries at  a  strength  of  1308  on  the  Indian 
establishment.  The  strength  of  the  field 
artillery  in  India  has  been  reduced  by  11 
batteries.  The  reduction  of  the  total 
strength  of  the  field  and  garrison  artil- 
lery in  India  only  affects  the  brigade 
staff. 

Respecting  the  5  newly-formed  brigades 
of  garrison  artillery,  the  head-quarters 
and  home  establishment  of  each  are  alike, 
consisting  of  7  service  batteries,  of  a 
strength  of  994,  and  a  depot  battery  of 
229,  making  the  total  numbers  at  home 
1223.  But  the  arrangement  for  the 
foreign  establishment  varies  somewhat  in 
each  case. 

Since  the  insertion  of  the  foregoing  a 
new  organisation  has  taken  place, 
which  consolidates  in  two  brigades  the 
existing  three  brigades  of  Royal  Horse 
Artillery,  condenses  the  six  brigades 
of  field  artillery  into  four,  and  makes 
the  present  five  garrison  brigades  into 
one  comprehensive  brigade  with  11 
divisions.  To  effect  these  changes  the 
following  redistribution  of  the  batteries 
has  taken  place : — 


ROYAL  HORSE  ARTILLERT. 

A  Brigade  of  13  batteries  (A  to  N),  made 
up  of  the  existing  A  Brigade,  and  F,  A, 
G,  and  E  Batteries  of  C  Brigade. 

B  Brigade  of  13  batteries  (A  to  N),  made 
up  of  existing  B  Brigade  and  the  re- 
maining batteries  of  C  Brigade. 

Depot  Batteries. — A  to  be  retained ;  B  to 
be  reduced  ;  C  to  become  B. 


AKT 


ART 


FIEI  D  ARTILLERY  !  acUutant-general  to  service  batteries  at 

j  home  for  further  instruction.    No  recruit 

1st  Brigade  of  24  batteries  (A  to  X),  made  |  is  to  be  retained  in  the  depot,  under  any 
up  of  the  present  1st  Brigade,  and  j  pretence  whatever,  longer  than  is  neces- 
parts  of  the  3rd,  5th,  and  6th  Brigades,  j  sary  for  his  preliminary  drills.  On  leav- 
2ud  Brigade  of  19  batteries  (A  to  S),  of  ing  the  depots  for  the  service  batteries, 
present  2nd  Brigade  (less  one  battery),  [  the  recruits  will  be  instructed  in  the 
and  parts  of  3rd,  5th,  and  6th  Brigades.  \  more  advanced  drills  and  exercises, 
3rd  Brigade  of  18  batteries  (A  to  R),  of  j  mounted  and  dismounted,  and  the  men 


parts  of  3rd,  4th,  and  5th  Brigades. 
4th  Brigade  of  18  batteries  (A  to  R),  of 
10  batteries  of  present  :4th  Brigade, 
one  of  2nd,  two  of  3rd,  four  of  5th,  and 
one  of  6th  Brigades. 

GARRISON  ARTILLERY  BRIGADE. 

Northern  Division. — Nine  batteries    and  I 

depot,  made  up  of  parts  of  2nd,  7th, 

8th,  and  9th  Brigades. 
Lancashire  Division. — Eight  batteries  and 

depot,  mad«  up  of  5th,  7th,  9th,  10th, 

and  llth  Brigades. 
Eastern    Division. —  Nine    batteries   and 

depot,  parts  of  6th,  7th,  8th,  9th,  and 

llth  Brigades. 
Cinque    Ports    Division. — Nine    batteries 


will  be  posted  to  batteries  in  such  num- 
bers as  to  admit  of  squads  being  formed 
for  this  purpose.  All  batteries  of  horse 
and  field  artillery  not  belonging  to  the 
first  army  corps,  and  all  batteries  of 
garrison  artillery  at  home  are  to  train 
recruits  and  supply  drafts  for  the  batteries 
of  their  respective  branches  and  divisions 
serving  abroad. 

In  the  above  reorganisation  it  is  ordered 
that  brigade  commands  are  to  be  abolished, 
and  the  staff  of  existing  brigades  converted 
into  district  staff.  The  order  further 
states  that  the  only  office  to  be  maintained 
will  be  the  district  officer,  under  the 
charge  of  the  brigade  major  or  the 
adjutant  of  the  district.  A  number  of 


and  depot,  parts  of  7th,  8th,  9th,  10th,  lieutenant-colonels  in  the  army  districts 
and  llth  Brigades.  at  home  and  in  the  colonies  will  exercise 

London  Division. — Eight  batteries  and  '  the  power  of  commanding  officers.  These 
depot,  parts  of  1st,  8th,  9th,  10th,  and  ;  lieutenant-colonels  will  each  be  assisted  by 
llth  Brigades.  i  an  acting  adjutant  and  a  permanent 

Southern  Division. — Nine  batteries  and  clerk.  In  the  horse  and  field  artillery 
depot,  parts  of  7th,  8th,  10th,  and  llth  j  the  acting  adjutants  will  be  borne  on  the 


Brigades. 
Western    Division. — Nine    batteries   and 

depot,  parts  of  7th,  8th,  9th,  and  10th 

Brigades. 
Scottish    Division. — Nine   batteries    and 

depot,  parts  of  4th,  7th,  9th,  10th,  and 

llth  Brigades. 
Welsh    Division. —  Eight    batteries    and 


establishment  of  a  battery  serving  in  the 
district ;  in  the  garrison  artillery  they 
will  be  in  excess  of  the  battery  establish- 
ments. Their  nominations  will  rest  with 
the  lieutenant-colonels  commanding,  but 
are  to  be  submitted  to  head-quarters  for 
approval.  w  Lieutenant-colonels  in^excess 
of  the  commands  will  be  attached  to  a 


depot,  parts  of  8th,  9th,  10th,  and  llth  |  regimental  division  or  district.  The  duties 


Brigades. 
North  Irish  Division. — Nine  batteries  and 

depot,  parts  of  3rd,  7th,  8th,  9th,  lUth 

and  llth  Brigades. 
South  Irish  Division. — Nine  batteries  and 

depot,  parts  of  8th,  9th,  10th,  and  llth 

Brigades. 

The  depots  allotted  to  each  territorial 
division  of  artillery  are  to  receive  all 
artillery  recruits,  except  those  enlisted  at 
the  head-quarters  of  a  battery  belonging 
to  the  district,  clothe  and  instruct  them 
in  preliminary  drills,  after  which  they 


of  colonels  on  the  staff  and  other  officers 
commanding  districts  have  already  been 
laid  down.  The  lieutenant-colonel  for 
auxiliary  artillery  in  the  several  districts, 
with  the  exception  of  Woolwich,  will,  in 
addition  to  his  present  duties,  be  charged 
with  the  command  of  the  artillery  depot 
of  the  territorial  division  in  which  he  is 
serving,  and  will  exercise  all  the  powers 
of  a  commanding  officer.  He  will  conduct 
the  whole  of  the  recruiting  duties  for  the 
Royal  Artillery  in  the  area  allotted  to 
him,  and  will  have  the  assistance  of  the 


will   be   posted   under  orderr  from  the  i  adjutant    and    permanent   staff    of  the 

B  2 


BAL 


BOR 


militia  artillery  brigade  at  the  head- 
quarters of  his  division.  Quartermasters 
not  attached  to  artillery  depots  are  to  be 
employed  with  the  barrack  and  conserv- 
ancy duties  of  the  stations  to  which  they 
are  appointed,  and  upon  any  other  duties 
of  their  department  that  the  officer  com- 
manding may  direct.  The  promotion  of 
non-commissioned  officers  up  to  and  in- 
clusive of  the  rank  of  sergeant  will  be 
carried  out  in  each  battery,  but  to 
battery  staff-sergeants  throughout  the 
same  brigade  serving  in  a  district,  and  to 
the  higher  grades  by  selection,  to  be  made 
at  the  office  of  his  Royal  Highness. 

The    above   organisation    takes   place 
from  the  1st  April,  1882. 


B. 


Balloon  Captive. — This  balloon  is  de- 
scribed in  the  body  of  the  Dictionary.  It 
is  likely  to  be  used  in  all  future  military 
expeditions,  a  method  of  producing  hydro- 
gen gas  by  means  of  iron  filings  immersed 
in  diluted  sulphuric  acid  having  been 
tried  successfully  at  Woolwich,  rendering 
the  manufacture  of  gas  in  the  field  no 
longer  an  impossible  operation. 

Band — Officers  below  the  rank  of 
Captain  in  the  Army,  except  in  the  Royal 
Artillery  and  Royal  Engineers,  will  not 
be  required  to  sxibscribe  to  the  regimen- 
tal Band.  Vide  Queen's  Regulations, 
1881. 

Bank  of  a  Eiver — The  high  or  low 
ground  on  either  side  of  the  channel  or 
bed  in  which  the  water  of  a  river  flows. 
It  is  designated  the  right  or  left  bank, 
the  former  being  on  the  right  hand  away 
from  its  source,  looking  towards  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  the  latter  on  the  left 
hand. 

Barrel,  Gun  —  The  barrel  of  the 
Martini-Henry  rifle  is  made  of  steel. 

Base  of  Operations,  vide  A.C.  June 
1878,  in  which  the  regulations  to  be 


observed  by  an  army  in  the  field  for 
keeping  up  its  communications  will  be 
found. 

Battery,  Voltaic— The  battery  com- 
monly used  for  telegraph  equipment  is 
Le  Clanche's  10-cell. 

Bayonet — The  Martini-Henry  blade  is 
22|-inch  long ;  it  is  equilateral,  and  has 
no  outward  cant  when  fixed  on  the  rifle. 
Weight  of  bayonet,  with  locking  ring  and 
screw  complete,  24  oz. 

The  dimensions  of  the  saw-backed 
sword-bayonet  are  as  follows  : — 

Length  of  bayonet     ...  24|  inches. 

„  blade         ...  20|     „ 

Width  of  blade 1  inch. 

Weight  of  bayonet  ...  1  Ib.  9J  oz. 
Weight  of  scabbard, 

with  springs          ...  7  3  oz. 

Billet — Under  this  head  in  the  body  of 
the  Dictionary,  page  40,  line  13  from  top 
of  page,  left-hand  column,  for  "  Wd.  " 
read  "Is.  1  \d."  and  insert,  "Where  no  hot 
meal  is  furnished,  payment  will  be  4d. 
per  diem."  An  officer  pays  2s.  per  night 
for  his  lodging,  and  finds  himself  in  food. 
For  offences  in  relation  to  billeting,  vide 
Army  Act,  1881,  Part  1. 

Bivouac — Under  this  head  in  the  Dic- 
tionary the  advantages  of  bivouacs  are 
given,  but  the  disadvantages  are  not 
shown.  General  Lewal  of  the  French 
Army,  in  his  work  '  La  Tactique  de  Sta- 
tionnement '  says — "  As  regards  bivouacs, 
their  advantages  are  well  known,  while 
they  present  more  serious  inconveniences 
than  are  generally  admitted.  Men  and 
horses  sleep  but  little,  and  are  unable  to 
repose  themselves  properly ;  they  feed 
badly  and  contract  disease."  Notwith- 
standing what  General  Lewal  points  out, 
circumstances  will  occur  at  times  on  ser- 
vice which  necessitate  the  bivouacking  of 
an  army  or  force  of  any  kind. 

Blocks — Made  of  wood,  and  also  of 
malleable  iron,  for  military  purposes. 
They  are  used  of  the  latter  material  for 
the  loading  tackle  of  heavy  rifled 
guns. 

Bothway  Blocks — 18-inch,  15-inch, 
12-inch,  10-inch,  9-inch,  and  8-inch,  are 
found  in  use  in  the  artillery  service. 

Bore — To  facilitate  loading,  the  muzzle 
of  all  rifled  ordnance  of  10-inch  calibre 
and  upwards  is  slightly  enlarged. 


BOU 


CAR 


Bounty — When  recruiting  given  only 
to  the  bringing  or  recruiting  party  at 
rates  stated  in  the  new  warrant,  dated 
1st  July,  1881. 

Brigade  Depot — As  shown  in  A.C. 
May  1,  1877,  the  command  of  a  brigade 
depot,  in  the  absence  of  the  commanding 
officer,  will  revert  to  the  general  officer 
commanding,  upon  whom  will  devolve 
the  responsibility  of  the  general  duties  of 
the  sub-district.  The  regimental  duties 
of  the  depot  will  be  carried  on  by  the 
senior  officer  present ;  but  all  correspond- 
ence on  general  subjects  will  be  noted 
and  passed  on  by  him  to  the  general 
officer  commanding  the  district  for  dis- 
posal. 

Brigade  Major — Consequent  on  the 
reorganisation  of  the  Koyal  Artillery, 
brigade-majors  of  artillery  have  been 
added  to  staff-establishments  as  follows: 
viz.,  to  the  northern  district,  south- 
eastern district,  southern  district,  western 
district,  Dublin  district,  Cork  district, 
Gibraltar,  and  Malta.  An  officer  under 
the  rank  of  Captain  is  not  eligible  to  hold 
the  post  of  Brigade-Major  in  the  army. 

Brigadier  General — The  rank  is  local 
or  temporary  only. 

British  Army — Para  5  under  this 
head  in  the  Dictionary  has  been  modified, 
and  all  regiments  are  now  linked.  Ex- 
punge 8th  para,  giving  the  strength  of 
the  artillery  in  1876.  10th  para  of  this 
article  has  been  modified,  the  numbers 
fluctuating  from  year  to  year. 

Busby — Superseded  by  the  helmet. 


C. 

Cadets,  vide  royal  warrant,  dated  May 
1,  1877,  for  the  rules  appertaining  to 
Queen's  cadets  and  honorary  Queen's 


cadets ;  also  clause  90,  A.C.  of  May  1, 
1878,  and  Revised  Army  Regulations, 
vol.  i.,  1881. 

Carbines — The  Martini-Henry  carbine 
has  been  issued  to  all  troops  of  the  regular 
service,  who  by  the  regulations  are  armed 
with  this  nature  of  weapon. 

Carriage,  Moncrieff — A  carriage  of 
this  nature  has  been  adopted  for  the 
9-inch  rifled  gun  of  9  tons.  It  differs 
somewhat  from  the  carriage  approved  of 
for  the  7-inch  gun. 

Carrier-Pigeon — Considerable  infor- 
mation is  given  in  the  body  of  the  Dic- 
tionary on  the  subject  of  Carrier-Pigeons  ; 
but  the  following  will,  doubtless,  be  con- 
sidered interesting,  taken  from  the  Broad 
Arrow.  "  How  to  transmit  information 
from  without  to  within  a  beleaguered 
fortress  is  a  problem,  the  satisfactory 
solution  of  which  has  yet  to  be  worked 
out.  During  the  investment  of  Paris  by 
the  Germans  in  1870-71,  the  pigeon- 
post,  as  is  well  known,  was  found  to  be 
the  best  means  available,  and  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  siege  these  aerial  mes- 
sengers were  largely  employed.  The 
despatches  to  be  carried  by  them  were 
reduced  by  photography  to  the  smallest 
possible  dimensions,  fastened  under  the 
wings  of  the  pigeons  and  conveyed  by 
them  over  the  investing  lines  into  the 
capital,  where  they  were  again  enlarged 
and  transcribed.  The  success  which  at- 
tended these  proceedings  has  naturally 
caused  attention  to  be  turned  to  the 
possibility  of  employing  this  means  of 
communication  on  a  more  extended  scale 
in  future  wars.  In  the  French  Estimates 
for  next  year  a  considerable  sum  is  pro- 
vided for  the  purpose  of  breeding  pigeons 
for  military  purposes,  and  in  Germany 
also  the  breeding  of  carrier-pigeons  has 
been  largely  developed.  A  Baden  paper 
gives  some  interesting  details  of  trials 
which  have  been  recently  made  at  Stras- 
burg.  A  hundred  and  thirty  pigeons 
taken  from  this  latter  town  were  liberated 
at  Heidelberg,  and  the  swiftest  of  the 
birds  reached  Strasburg  again  in  one 
hour  and  a  quarter ;  having  down  during 
that  time  nearly  eighty  miles.  Another 
covey  was  set  loose  at  Adelsheim,  and 
reached  Strasburg  in  two  hours,  having 
traversed  rather  more  than  a  hundred 
miles.  A  third  batch  of  123  birds,  set 


CAR 


free  nt  Carlsruhe,  arrived  in  Strasburg 
in  a  few  minutes  over  the  hour — the  dis- 
tance between  the  two  places  being  about 
fifty  miles.  Only  a  very  few  of  the  birds 
failed  to  return  to  their  home,  the  total 
loss  during  the  trials  we  have  described 
amounting  to  less  than  two  per  cent,  of 
the  pigeons  employed." 

Cartridges,  Gun — Cartridges  made  of 
silk  cloth  have  superseded  serge  cloth, 
except  for  the  7-pr.  rifled  M.L.  gun. 

Castrametation,  vide  Revised  Regula- 
tions for  encampments,  1877. 

Casual — A  term  used  in  musketry  in- 
struction, and  applied  to  a  soldier  who, 
for  some  reason  or  another,  is  unable  to 
finish  the  musketry  course  with  his  own 
company. 

Chaco — Superseded  in  the  British  army 
by  the  helmet. 

Chamber  of  a  Gun — Enlarging  the 
powder-chamber  of  a  rifled  gun  has  been 
attended  with  great  advantage,  adding 
to  the  initial  velocity  and  range  of  the 
gun,  by  admitting  of  greater  capacity  for 
an  increased  charge  of  powder,  and  greater 
space  for  the  development  of  the  charge, 
thereby  reducing  the  strain  on  the 
gun. 

Clarkson's  Material — This  material  is 
used  for  making  cartridge  cases  for 
M.  L.  R.  heavy  guns ;  it  consists  of  can- 
vas on  the  inner  side,  a  layer  of  cork 
glued  over  it  by  india-rubber  cement,  and 
then  in  the  same  manner  the  cork  covered 
with  canvas,  and  this  again  with  leather. 
The  india-rubber  cement  is  made  by  dis- 
solving india-rubber  in  naphtha  in  the 
proportion  of  1  Ib.  of  the  former  to 
1  gallon  of  the  latter;  two  coats  are 
laid  on  between  the  services  to  be 
cemented.  (  Treatise  on  Field  Carriages  by 
Captain  W.  Kemmis,  B.A.) 

Coast  Brigade,  Royal  Artillery,  vide 
royal  warrant  of  August  13, 1877,  for  the 
latest  orders  regulating  the  organisation 
of  this  branch  of  the  service. 

College,  Military,  Kingston — The  fol- 
lowing are  the  regulations  under  which 
the  periodical  examinations  at  the  new 
Military  College,  Kingston,  Canada,  are 
held  :— 

The  period  of  four  years'  instruction 
at  the  Military  College  will  be  divided 
into  eight  terms. 

The  terms  will  extend  from  about  3rd 


February  to  20th  June,  and  from  about 
the  10th"  September  to  2nd  February. 

There  will  be  eight  classes  :  cadets  on 
joining  at  the  Military  College  will  be 
i  placed  in  the  eighth  class,  and  must  rise 
I  into  the  third  class  in  order  to  complete 
j  the  several  subjects  of  the  obligatory  or 
qualifying  course. 

Cadets  who  have  passed  out  of  the 
i  third  class  into  second  and  first  classes 
will  devote  their  time  to  such  voluntary 
subjects  as  they  may  select,  in  addition 
to  any  uncompleted  obligatory  subjects 
studied  in  the  second  and  first  classes. 

To  qualify  for  class  promotion  at  the 
final  examination,  a  cadet  must  obtain 
one-half  the  marks  allotted  to  the  obliga- 
tory sections  of  the  course  in  the  follow- 
ing subjects,  viz.  : — 

Mathematics,  fortification,  artillery, 
military  history  and  administration,  mili- 
tary drawing  and  drills,  and  one-half  of 
the  total  aggregate  of  the  marks  allotted 
to  all  the  obligatory  subjects. 

No  obligatory  subject  shall  gain  a 
cadet  any  marks  unless  he  obtain  half 
marks  in  that  subject. 

No  section  of  a  voluntary  subject  shall 
gain  a  cadet  any  marks  unless  he  obtains 
one-third  marks  in  that  section. 

No  voluntary  section  of  a  subject  of 
instruction  shall  be  commenced  by,  or 
gain  any  marks  for,  a  cadet  until  the 
obligatory  sections  of  that  subject  have 
been  completed. 

A  cadet,  although  he  may  have  com- 
pleted the  obligatory  and  commenced  the 
voluntary  sections  of  any  subject,  will 
be  examined  with  his  class  at  the  end  of 
each  term  in  the  obligatory  sections  of 
that  subject. 

Examinations  for  class  promotion  will 
be  held  at  the  end  of  each  term.  Any 
cadet  who  fails  to  qualify  at  the  end  of 
the  fourth,  and  has  also  failed  at  any 
previous  term,  or  who  fails  at  the  end  of 
both  fifth  and  sixth  terms,  will  be  re- 
moved from  the  college.  Such  removal, 
or  failure  to  qualify  at  the  final  examina- 
tion, will  render  a  cadet  ineligible  for  a 
commission  in  the  Militia,  or  to  be  quali- 
fied to  profit  by  his  having  been  admitted 
to  the  Military  College  for  consideration 
for  employment  in  the  public  service. 

Quarterly  examinations  will  also  be 
held,  the  marks  obtained  at  which  will 


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be  amalgamated  with  those  awarded  at 
the  half-yearly  examinations. 

The  proportion  of  marks  assigned  to 
each  of  the  quarterly  examinations  in 
any  class  will  be  about  one-eighth  of  the 
total  allotted  for  that  class. 

Marks  will  also  be  assigned  for  notes, 
recitations,  and  drawings  executed  by 
any  class.  Those  for  notes  and  recita- 
tions will  be  about  one-eighth  of  the  total 
allotted  for  that  class.  Each  drawing 
will  have  a.  specific  maximum  value 
attached  to  it. 

College,  Eoyal  Military — The  follow- 
ing regulations  respecting  examinations 
for  admission  to  the  Royal  Military  Col- 
lege, and  for  first  appointments  therefrom 
to  the  army  have  been  approved  by  the 
Field-Marshal  commanding-in-chief. 

I.   OBJECT   OF  THE   ROYAL  MILITARY 
COLLEGE. 

1.  The  Royal  Military  College  is  main- 
tained   for   the    purpose   of  affording    a 
special   military  education  to  candidates 
for  commissions  in  the  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry. 

2.  Candidates  for  first  appointments  to 
the    army    will,  with    the    exception    of 
lieutenants  of  militia,  and  non-commis- 
sioned officers  recommended  for  promo- 
tion,   be    required    in    future    to    pass 
through  a  course  of  instruction  as  cadets 
at  the  Royal  Military  College. 

II.  REGULATIONS  FOR  ADMISSION. 
1.  General  Instructions. 

3.  Admission    to  the    Royal    Military 
College    as    cadets    will    be    granted — 
(<i)  To  a  successful  candidate  at  a  competi- 
tive examination  in  general  subjects  to 
be  held  under  such  regulations  as  may  be 
issued  from  time  to  time.     (6)  To  a  gra- 
duate in  arts  at  the  universities  of  Ox- 
ford, Cambridge,  Durham,  London,  Dub- 
lin, Edinburgh,  St.   Andrew's,   Glasgow, 
Aberdeen,  and    the    Queen's    University, 
Ireland,  or  to  a  student  who  has  passed 
Moderations    at    Oxford,    the    Previous 
Examination    at    Cambridge,    the    final 
examination  of  the  senior  freshman  year 
at  Dublin,   the  first  year's  examination 
at  Durham,  the  first  university  examina- 


tion in  arts  or  in  engineering  at  Queen's 
University,  Ireland,  the  examination  for 
candidates  for  the  army  at  Scotch  uni- 
versities, and  the  first  examination  for 
the  degrees  of  B.A.,  LL.B.,  B.Sc.,  or  M.B., 
at  London  University ;  subject  in  each 
case  to  the  competitive  examination  pre- 
scribed by  par.  22.  (c)  To  cadets  styled 
Queen's  cadets,  honorary  Queen's  cadets, 
Indian  cadets,  and  to  pages  of  honour. 

4.  The  number  of  cadets  admitted  to 
the  college  will  vary,  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  service. 

5.  The  dates  of  admission  will  be  the 
February   10  ahd    September   1  in   each 
year. 

6.  The  examination  of  candidates  for 
admission  to  the  Royal  Military  College 
as  cadets  will  be  conducted  by  the  Civil 
Service    Commissioners,    and    will    take 
place   twice   a   year,  in  the   months  of 
December  and  July. 

7.  Notice  will   be   given  from  time  to 
time  of  the  day  and  place  of  the  examina- 
tions, and  of  the  number  of  vacancies  open 
to  competition  at  each  periodical  exami- 
nation. 

8.  The  number  of  trials  allowed  will 
not  exceed  two  in  the  case  of  university 
candidates,  and  three   in   that  of  other 
candidates. 

9.  All  candidates  will  be  inspected  by 
a  medical  board ;  and  no  candidate  will 
be  considered   eligible  for  a  commission 
unless  certified   by  the  board  to  be  free 
from  any  bodily  defects  or  ailments,  and 
in  all  respects,  as  to  height  and  physical 
qualities,  fit   for   her  Majesty's  service. 
Cases  of  exceptional  shortness  of  stature 
will  be  referred   to  the  War  Office  for 
special  consideration. 

10.  The  limits  of  age  for  candidates 
for  admission  to  the  Royal  Military  Col- 
lege by  competition,  for  Queen's  cadets, 
Queen's  honorary  cadets,  Indian   cadets, 
and  pages  of  honour,  will  be  from  17  to 
20  ;  for  students  of  the  universities  who 
shall   have  passed  the  interim  examina- 
tion as  specified  in  par.  3  (6),  from  17  to 
21 ;  and  for  graduates  of  the  universities 
who  shall  have  passed  the  examination 
for  the  degree  of  B.A.  or  M.A.,  from  IT 
to  22. 

11.  Competitors  who  desire  to  obtain 
commissions   in  West    Indian    regiments 
may  be  admitted  up  to  the  age  of  24. 


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This  extension  of  the  limit  of  age  will  not 
apply  to  university  candidates. 

12.  Candidates    must    be    within    the 
prescribed  limits  of  age  on  the  following 
dates  : — Candidates  for  admission  by  com- 
petition, Queen's  cadets,  Queen's  honorary 
cadets,  Indian  cadets,  and  pages  of  honour, 
on  January  1  next  following  the  winter 
examination,  and  on  July  1  for  the  mid- 
summer   examination.       Graduates    and 
students  from  the  universities,  as  specified 
in  par.  21. 

2.  Examination  of  Candidates  for  Admis- 
sion by  Open  Competition. 

13.  A  candidate  for  admission  by  com- 
petition   at    the    December    or  July  ex- 
amination,  must   send   to   the   Military 
Secretary,  not  later  than  October  15  or 
May  15,  respectively,  an  application  to 
be  examined,  accompanied  by  the  follow- 
ing papers : — (a)    An  extract    from   the 
register   of  his   birth ;    or,  in  default,  a 
declaration  made  by  one  of  his  parents  or 
guardians  before  a  magistrate,  giving  his 
exact  age.    (6)  A  certificate  of  good  moral 
character,  signed  by  the  tutors  or  heads 
of  the  schools  or  colleges  at  which   he 
has    received    his    education    from    his 
twelfth  year  to  the  date  of  application, 
or  some  other  satisfactory  proof  of  good 
moral  character. 

14.  When  a  candidate  who  has  once 
been  examined   applies    to   be  examined 
again,  he  will  only  be  required   to  for- 
ward a  certificate  as  to  his  moral  charac- 
ter  for  the   interval  between   the   two 
examinations. 

15.  A  candidate  will  be  required   to 
satisfy  the  Civil   Service  Commissioners 
in  the  following  subjects  : — (1)   Mathe- 
matics,   viz.    (a)    arithmetic,    including 
vulgar  and  decimal  fractions,  proportion, 
and  simple  interest ;  (6)  geometry,  not 
beyond  the  standard  of  the  first  book  of 
Euclid.      (2)    French,  German,  or  some 
other  modern  language ;  the  examination 
being  limited  to  a  translation  from  the 
language,    and    grammatical    questions. 
(3)  Writing  English  correctly,  and  in  a 
good  legible  hand,  from  dictation.     (4) 
The  elements  of  geometrical   drawing ; 
including  the  construction  of  scales,  and 
the   use  of  simple  mathematical  instru- 
ments.    (5)  Geography. 

16.  No  marks  will  be  allotted  for  the 


above  preliminary  examination,  excepting 
for  geometrical  drawing,  the  maximum 
number  for  which  will  be  300.  The 
preliminary  examination  will  be  dispensed 
with  in  the  case  of  candidates  who  have 
passed  it  at  previous  examinations,  but 
they  may  again  take  up  geometrical 
drawing  if  they  wish  to  obtain  marks  in 
that  subject. 

17.  The  "further    examination"  will 
be  proceeded   with  immediately   on    the 
conclusion    of  the   "  preliminary  exami- 
nation."    Candidates  who  fail  in  the  pre- 
liminary examination   will  be    informed 
of  their   failure   as  soon  as  possible,  and 
they  will  then  be  released  from  further 
attendance. 

18.  The  subjects  of  the  further  exami- 
nation,   and   the   maximum   number    of 
marks  obtainable  for  each  subject,  will  be 
as  follows  : —  Marks. 

(1)  Mathematics,  viz.  algebra,  up 

to  and  including  quadratic 
equations ;  the  theory  and 
use  of  logarithms,  geometry, 
plane  trigonometry,  and 
mensuration 3000 

(2)  English   composition,  tested 
by    the    power    of  writing 
an  essay,  letter,  or  precis ; 
English    literature,    limited 
to    specified    authors  ;    and 
English  history,  limited  to 
certain  fixed    periods  ;    the 
authors  and   periods   being 
notified  beforehand  .      .      .     3000 

(3)  Latin 3000 

(4)  Greek 2000 

(5)  French,  the  examination  to  be 

partly  colloquial      .      .      .     2000 

(6)  German,  the  examination  to 

be  partly  colloquial       .      .     2000 
*(7)  Experimental  sciences,  viz. — 
(a)  chemistry  and   heat,  or 
(6)  electricity     and     mag- 
netism      2000 

(8)  General    and    physical    geo- 

graphy, and  geology      .      .     2000 

(9)  Drawing,  free-hand   .      .      .     JOOO 

Of  these  nine  subjects,  candidates  will  not 
be  allowed  to  take  up  more  than  four 
nor  less  than  two,  exclusive  of  drawing. 

19.  In  order  to  secure  a  proper  pro- 


*  Snttfects  (a)  and   (6)  are   alternative ;  a 
candidate  will  not  be  allowed  to  take  up  both. 


COL 


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ficiency  in  all  the  subjects  taken  up  by 
a  candidate,  a  certain  number  will  be 
deducted  from  the  marks  gained  by  the 
candidate  in  each  subject. 

20.  The  following  will  be  the  mode  of 
selecting  the  successful  candidates  at  the 
open  competitive  examination.  After  the 
proper    deduction   (in    accordance   with 
par.  19)  has  been  made  from  the  number 
of  marks  gained  by  each  candidate  in  the 
several  subjects  in  which  he  has  been  ex- 
amined, the  remainders  will  be  summed 
up,   and  the  marks  gained  by  the  can- 
didate,  in    geometrical    drawing,  at  the 
preliminary  examination  will    be   added 
thereto.     The  resulting  total  will  deter- 
mine the    place  of  the  candidate  in  the 
competitive  list ;    the   successful    candi- 
dates being  those  who  stand  at  the  head 
of  the  list  up  to  the  number  of  cadetships 
competed  for. 

3.  Examination  of  University  Candidates. 

21.  A  graduate  or  student  of  one  of 
the  universities  specified  in  par.  3,  who, 
having  obtained  his  university  qualifica- 
tion while  within  the  maximum  limit  of 
age   specified   in    par.  10,  is  desirous  of 
becoming  a  candidate  for  a  cadetship  at 
the  Royal  Military  College,  must  send  an 
application  to  the   Military  Secretary  in 
the  month  of  May  or  October,  with    a 
view  to  his  appointment  under  the  provi- 
sions of  par.  22  ;  but  no  such  application 
can  be  admitted  before  the  candidate  has 
actually  attained  the  age  of  seventeen, 
nor  later  than    May  31   or  October    31 
next   following  the  date  of  his  attaining 
the  maximum  limit  of  age  prescribed  for 
graduates  and   students,  respectively,  in 
par.   10.      The  application  must   be  ac- 
companied by  papers  (a)  and  (6)  described 
in  par.  13,  and  by  a  certificate  from  the 
proper  authority  that  he   has  taken  his 
degree  in  arts,  or  has  passed  the  univer- 
sity examination  specified  in  par  (3)  (6). 

22.  Notice  will  be  given,  from  time  to 
time,  of  the  number  of  cadetships  which 
will  be  allotted  half-yearly  to  university 
candidates.      In    case    there    should    be 
more    candidates     than    vacancies,     the 
required    number    will    be    selected    by 
competition  among  the  said  candidates  at 
the  ensuing  July  or  December  examina- 
tion, but  without  a  preliminary  examina- 


tion, except  in  geometrical  drawing, 
which  is  obligatory.  University  candi- 
dates who  may  have  been  unsuccessful 
at  their  first  examination  will  be  allowed 
a  second  opportunity  of  competing,  pro- 
vided that  "  students  "  shall  not  have 
exceeded  their  twenty-second  year,  and 
that  "graduates"  shall  not  have  ex- 
ceeded their  twenty-third  year,  at  the 
time  of  such  second  examination.  These 
limits  of  age  will  be  ruled  by  July  1  for 
the  summer,  and  by  the  January  1  for 
the  winter  examinations. 

4.  Examination   of    Queen's  and  Indian 
Cadets,  and  Pages  of  Honour. 

23.  Queen's  cadets  are  sons  of  officers 
of  the    army,    Royal    JSavy,  and    Royal 
Marines,  who  have  fallen    in  action,  or 
died  of  wounds  received  in  action,  or  of 
disease  contracted  on  service  abroad,  and 
who  have  left  their  families  in  reduced 
circumstances.      They  are  appointed  by 
the  Secretary  of  State  on  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  Commander-in-Chief  or  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  ,  \ 

24.  Honorary  Queen's  cadets  are  son? 
of  officers  of  the  army,  or  Royal  Navy, 
and  Royal  Marines,  who  were  killed  in 
action,   or  who  had  died  of  wounds  re- 
ceived   in    action  within   six  months   of 
such  wounds  having  been  received,  or  of 
illness  brought  on   by  fatigue,  privation, 
or  exposure  incident  to  active  operations 
in  the  field  before  an  enemy,  within  six 
months    after    their    having    been    first 
certified   to  be  ill.     (See  art.  5  of  the 
royal   warrant   of  November   27,    1873, 
clause  151,  A.C.  1873.) 

25.  Applications  for  Queen's  Cadetships 
and  honorary  Queen's  cadetships  should 
be  addressed  to  the  Military  Secretary, 
if  the  candidate  is  the  son  of  an  officer  of 
the    army,   or  to    the  Secretary    of  the 
Admiralty,  if  the  candidate  is  the  son  of  an 
officer  of  the  Royal  Navy  or  Royal  Marines. 

26.  Indian  cadets  are  the  sons  of  per- 
sons  who  have    served  in  India   in    the 
military  or  civil  service  of  her  Majesty, 
or  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  are 
nominated  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
India  in  Council,  under  the  provisions  of 
21  and  22   Viet.   c.   106,  and  23  and  24 
Viet.    c.   100.      Applications    for   Indian 
cadetships    should    be    addressed    to   the 
Military  Secretary,  India  Office. 


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27.  A  Queen's  cadet,  honorary  Queen's 
cadet,  Indian  cadet,  or   page  of  honour, 
when  ready  for  examination,  will  apply 
in  the  manner  directed  by  par.  13  or  14. 

28.  Queen's   cadets,  honorary  Queen's 
cadets,    Indian     cadets,    and     pages    of 
honour,  before  admission   to    the    Royal 
Military  College,  will  be  required  to  pass 
a-  qualifying  entrance  examination  only 
— i.e.  after  having  passed  the  preliminary 
examination    under    par.    15,    they  must 
obtain  under    par.   18  and    19    such    an 
aggregate    of    marks    as    may    indicate, 
in   the   judgment    of  the    Civil    Service 
Commissioners,   a  competent  amount   of 
general  proficiency. 

29.  A  Queen's  cadet,  honorary  Queen's 
cadet,  Indian  cadet,  or   page  of  honour, 
who  can  produce  a  university  certificate, 
as  prescribed  in  par.  3  (6),  will  be  exempt- 
ed from  the  qualifying  entrance  examina- 
tion described  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

III.  TERMS  OF  PAYMENT. 

30.  The  terms  of  payment  for  cadets 
of  the  Royal  Military  College  are  regu- 
lated   by  the    following    articles  of  the 
royal    warrant    of     October    30,    1876 
(clause   161,  A.C.   1876).     The  payment 
to  be  contributed  on  behalf  of  a  cadet  at 
our  Royal   Military  College  shall  be  as 
follows : — 

Annuity. 

Queen's  cadets    ......     Nil. 

For  an  'Indian  cadet.  By  special 
arrangement  with  the  India 
Office 

For  the  son  of  an  officer  of  the  army 
or  navy  who  has  died  in  the  ser- 
vice, and  whose  family  is  left  in 
pecuniary  distress  (subject  to 
the  approval  of  our  Secretary  of 
State) £20 

For  the  son  of  an  officer  below  the 
rank  of  colonel  or  regimental  field 
officer  in  the  army  and  captain  or 
commander  in  the  Navy,  or  of  an 
instructor  at  the  Royal  Military 
Academy  or  Royal  Military  Col" 
lege  or  Staff  College  ....  40 

For  the  son  of  a  colonel  or  regi- 
mental field  officer  in  the  army, 
or  of  a  captain  or  commander  in 
the  Navy,  or  of  a  professor  at 
the  Royal  Military  Academy  or 
Royal  Military  College  or  Staff 


Annuity. 
College £60 

For  the  son  of  a  general  officer  who 
is  not  colonel  of  a  regiment,  or 
of  a  vice-  or  rear-admiral  .  .  70 

For  the  son  of  an  admiral,  or  of  a 
general  officer  who  is  colonel  of  a 
regiment  or  in  receipt  of  Indian 
colonel's  allowances  ....  80 

For  the  son  of  a  private  gentle- 
man   125 

In  determining  the  rate  of  payment — • 
:  (a)  A  general  officer  on  the  half-pay  of 
his  last  regimental  commission  shall  pay 
•  in  accordance  with  such  regimental  rank. 
(6)  Officers    who    have    sold    their  com- 
missions   shall    be    regarded    as    private 
gentlemen,    (c)  Officers  on  retired  full  or 
half-pay  after  twenty-five  years'  service, 
or  officers  of  less  than  twenty-five  years' 
service  if  placed  on  half-pay  by  reduction 
of  establishment,  or  on  account    of  ill- 
;  health,    shall    pay    in    accordance    with 
their  last  substantive    regimental   rank. 
The  cases  of  officers  voluntarily  retiring 
to    half-pay   before    completing    twenty- 
five  years'  service  shall  be  specially  con- 
sidered,   (d)  Officers  of  the  departments 
of  our  army  and  navy,  according  to  their 
relative  rank,  of  the  permanent  staff  of 
the   militia,   adjutants  of  the  volunteer 
force,  as  well  as  officers  of  our   Indian 
military  and  naval  forces,  shall  be  treated 
on  the  same  terms  as  military  or  naval 
officers,     (e)  The  sons  of  deceased  officers 
shall   be   contributed   for  in   accordance 
with  the  foregoing  regulations  in  regard  to 
!  the  rank  or  classification  of  their  fathers. 
(/)  Any   change   which  may  take    place 
(  by  promotion  or  retirement  in  the  rank 
i  of  the  father  of  a  cadet  shall  be  notified 
'  to    our    Commander-in-Chief,    and    the 
contribution  paid  to  the  college  on  ac- 
count  of  such  cadet  shall   be    regulated 
accordingly.       If  a   cadet    be    absent    a 
whole  term  in  consequence  of  sickne.-s  or 
rustication,  a  payment  of  £10   shall   be 
required   for   the  privilege  of  his    name 
being  kept  on  the  rolls  of  the  establish- 
ment, and  for  a  vacancy  being  kept  open 
!  at  the  commencement  of  next  term.     lu 
i  the  case  of  a  cadet   who   is  an    orphan, 
[  whose  annual  contribution  is  only  £20, 
1  the    amount    to    be    paid    when   absence 
i  extends   over    a    whole    term   shall    be 


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determined    by  our    Secretary  of  State.  I  for    War   through    the    Commander-in- 


The  pay  of  a  cadet  shall  be  3s.  a  day. 
It  is  issued  to  cover  the  expenses  of  regi- 
mental clothing,  messing,  washing,  and 
other  contingencies.  All  other  necessary 


Chief. 

34.  He  will  be  assisted  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  studies  by  a  board,  composed 
of  the  commandant  and  the  professors 


expenses  which  cannot  be  covered  by  his  or  senior  instructors  of  the  different 
pay  shall  be  chargeable  to  his  parent  or  \  branches.  The  head  of  each  branch  will 
guardian  in  addition  to  the  regulated  |  have  the  general  power  of  supervision 

and  inspection  over  the  studies  in  his  de- 


contribution.  If  a  cadet  be  absent  from 
sickness  during  a  portion  of  the  term  his 
pay  shall  continue  to  be  issued  and  credited 
to  his  account ;  but  no  refund  of  the 
contribution  shall  be  permitted.  If  a 
cadet  be  rusticated  or  removed  during  a 
term,  his  daily  pay  shall  cease  from  the 
date  on  which  he  is  sent  away,  and  the 
contribution  made  for  the  half-year  shall 


be  forfeited.  Each  cadet  other  than  a 
Queen's  or  Indian  cadet,  on  first  joining,  I  require 
shall  be  required  to  pay,  in  addition  to 
the  regulated  contribution,  a  sum  of  £25 
to  cover  the  expense  for  uniform,  books, 
&c.,  and  to  bring  with  him  the  articles 


partment,  with  the  duty  of  reporting  on 
them  to  the  governor. 

35.  The  governor  will  be  assisted  by  a 
staff  officer,  who  will  be  responsible  in 
his  temporary  absence  for  the  charge  of 
the  establishment.  This  officer  will  have 
the  custody  of  the  records  and  corre- 
spondence of  the  college,  and  will  give  the 
governor  such  assistance  as  he  may 


of  clothing  of  which  he  will  receive 
notice,  and  which  must  afterwards  be 
kept  up  at  his  own  expense.  He  shall 
also  be  required  to  pay  the  regulated 


V.  DISCIPLINE. 
36.  The  cadets  will  be  subject  to  such 


rules  and  regulations  as  are,  or  may  be, 
from  time  to  time  established  for  the 
maintenance  of  good  order  and  discipline. 
37.  The  governor  will  have  the  power 


contribution   in  advance^   for    each  half-    ot'  rustication  and  removal  from  the  col- 
vear  of  the   time   during    which   he   re-  I  le§e>  reporting  the  circumstances  to  the 


.mng 

mains  under  instruction  ;  and  a  deposit 
of  £5  on  account,  for  contingent  ex- 
penses, whieh  latter  sum  he  shall  be 
required  to  make  up  on  returning  to  the 
Royal  Military  College  after  each  vaca- 
tion, to  cover  any  expense  that  may  be 
incurred  on  his  account  during  the  ensu- 
ing half-year. 

Revised    army    regulations    for    1881 
show  a  change  in  the  terms  of  payment. 

IV.  GOVERNMENT  AND  ORGANISATION. 

31.  The  Commander-in-Chief  will  be 
the  president  of  the  Royal  Military  Col- 
lege. 

32.  An   independent    inspection   by   a 
board  of  visitors,  appointed  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  War,  and  reporting  to 
him.  will  be  made  once   a  year.     Such 
visitors  will  not  be  a  permanent  body,  but 
will  not  all  be  changed  at  the  same  time. 
The  report  of  this  board  will  be  presented 
to  Parliament. 

33.  The   college   will   be    under    the 
control    of    a    governor,    appointed    by 


Commander-in-Chief. 

38.  In  cases  requiring  more   serious 
notice  cadets  will  be  liable,  on  the  report 
of  the  governor  to  the    Commander-in- 
Chief,   to  be  removed    from    the   list  of 
candidates  for  commissions. 

39.  The    name    of  any    cadet  expelled 
for    misconduct     will     be    recorded     in 
the   department   of  the   Commander-in- 
Chief,  and  will   be  made  known  to  the 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  to  the 
Secretary    of  State    for   India,   in  order 
to    prevent    his     being     admitted     into 
her  Majesty's  naval,  military,  or  Indian 
service. 

40.  The  cadets  will  be  distributed  in 
divisions   of  not    less   than    twenty-five, 
each  division  being  under  the  immediate 
charge  of  one  of  the  professors  or  instruc- 
tors selected  by  the  governor. 

41.  The  officers  of  divisions  will  be  the 
channel  of  communication  on  all  subjects 
between   the    cadets   and    the    governor. 
They  will  reside  in  the  college,  and  will 
exercise  a  strict  superintendence  over  their 
divisions,  for  which  they  will  be  respon- 


and  responsible  to  the  Secretary  of  State    sible   to   the  governor.      They  and   the 


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unmarried   officers   will   mess   with   the 
cadets. 

42.  During  the  hours    of  study    the 
cadets  will  be  under  the   charge  of  the 
professors    and     instructors,    to     whose 
orders  they  will  be  required   to   pay  im- 
plicit obedience. 

43.  The  cadets  will  salute  all  officers, 
professors,  and  instructors,  belonging  to 
the  college,   whether   in   or  out    of   the 
uniform,  and  all  other  officers  when  in 
uniform. 

44.  The  professors  and  instructors  will 
have   certain  limited  powers   of  punish- 
ment,  within  and  without  the    halls  of 
study,  at  the  discretion  of  the  governor, 
to  whom  they  will  report  all  punishments 
which  they  may  inflict. 

45.  No  professor  or  instructor  will  be 
permitted  to  give  private  instruction  to 
a  cadet,  either  during    the  vacation    or 
at  any  other   time ;    or    be    allowed    to 
prepare  candidates  for  admission  to  the 
college. 

46.  The   cadets   will   be    required  to 
appear  at  all  times  in  uniform,   except 
when  on  leave  of  absence,  or  when  other- 
wise exempted  by  the  governor. 

47.  The   study  undress  may  be   worn 
at  all  times  when  cadets  are  under  in- 
struction, with  the  exception  of  riding  or 
parade,  when  they  will  wear  their  uni- 
form.   The  forage  cap  will  be  worn  with 
the  study  undress. 

VI.  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

48.  Candidates  for  first  appointments 
in  the  army   who  are  successful   in  the 
examinations   specified   in   the  foregoing 
regulations  will  join  the  Royal   Military 
College   as   cadets   for  one  year,   to   be 
divided  into  two  terms,  during  which  the 
course  of  instruction  will  last.    The  col- 
lege terms  will  be — (a)   From  February 
10  to  July  15,  with  suspension  of  study 
during  a  fortnight  at  Easter.     (6)  From 
September  1  to  December  20.    The  inter- 
mediate periods  will  constitute  the  vaca- 
tions. 

49.  The  following  subjects  will   form 
the  ordinary  course  of  obligatory  studios 
— (a)  Queen's  regulations  and  orders  for 
the  army ;  regimental  interior  economy, 
accounts,  and  correspondence.     (6)  Mili- 
tary law.     (c)  The  elements   of  tactics. 
(d)  Field  fortification,  and  the  elements 


of  permanent  fortification,  (e)  Military 
topography,  and  reconnaisance.  (f)  In- 
fantry and  field  artillery  drill,  riding, 
and  gymnastics. 

VII.  EXAMINATIONS  FOR  COMMISSIONS. 

50.  At    the   end   of    the   course,   the 
cadets  will  be  required  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation  in   the   field  and    on    paper,    and 
those  who  pass  a   satisfactory  examina- 
tion, will,  as  provided  in  the  royal  warrant 
of  October  30,  1876   (clause  161,  A.  C. 
1876),   become    entitled    to    commissions 
in  the  army    as    second    lieutenant,   and 
will  be  gazetted  to  regiments  in  the  order 
in  which  they  pass. 

51.  Marks  will  be  allotted  to  the  obli- 
gatory  subjects    in    the  following  pro- 
portions : — Queen's  regulations,  &c.,  1£  ; 
military  law,  2  ;  elements  of  tactics,  'A  ; 
fortification,  3  ;  military  topography  and 
reconnaissance,  3  ;  drill,  gymnastics,  and 
riding  (one  each),  3. 

52.  In  tactics,  fortification,  and  military 
topography      and     reconnaissance,    one- 
fourth  of  the  marks  will  be  reserved  for 
notes  and  drawings  during  the  course. 

53.  The  standard  of  qualification  for  a 
commission    will    be   decided  upon    from 
time  to  time   by  the  Secretary  of  State 
for  War,  and  announced  to  the  cadets  at 
the  commencement  of  the  course. 

54.  In   order  to  ensure  due  diligence 
during   the   whole   period    of  residence, 
there  will,  at  the  end  of  the  first  term, 
be   a    probationary    examination    in    the 
work  of  that  term.     A  cadet  failing  to 
pass    satisfactorily   through    the    proba- 
tionary   examination  at  the  end   of  his 
first  term,  will  lose  a  term  and  not  get 
class  promotion.     No  cadet  will  be  per- 
mitted to  reside  for  more  than  one  year 
at  the  college,  except  in  cases  of  failure 
at    the    probationary    examination,    pro- 
tracted illness,  or  long  absence  from  any 
unavoidable   cause,  or  of  his  being  pre- 
vented by  unavoidable  cause  from  under- 
going the  final   examination.     In    these 
cases  an  extra  term  will,  if  specially  re- 
commended by  the  governor,  be  allowed. 

VIII.  INTERIOR  ECONOMY,  MESSING,  &c. 

55.  The  dining  halls,  halls  of  study, 
reading  and  recreation  rooms,  and  quar- 


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ters  of  the  cadets  will  be  furnished  in  all 
essentials  by  the  Government. 

IX.  GENERAL  REGULATIONS. 

56.  A  cadet  will  be  removed  from  the 
Royal    Military    College    for    moral    or 
physical  unfitness. 

57.  A    cadet    who    fails    to    pass    the 
examination    at    the    end  of  his   second 
term  of  residence  will  not  be  permitted 
to  return  to  the  Royal  Military  College, 
but    will  be  allowed  to  be  re-examined 
once  at  the  next  ensuing  examination. 

58.  A    failure  at  this  re-examination 
will   disqualify  a  cadet  for  a  commission 
in  the  army,  and   his  name  will  be   at 
once  removed  from  the  list. 

59.  No    person    whatever    belonging 
to    the    Royal    Military    College    is    to 
receive    a    present    from    any    cadet,    or 
friends  of  any  cadet. 

Colour  Service — Means  service  in  the 
ranks  from  the  date  of  enlistment  up  to 
removal  into  the  reserve. 

Commissariat — The  Revised  Army 
Regulations  of  1881  bring  in  new  rules 
affecting  this  department  which  cancel 
those  issued  in  1876. 

Commissariat  Department,  vide  Re- 
vised Army  Regulations,  1881,  for  the 
latest  rules  on  the  subject. 

Commissions — The  following  regula- 
tions under  which  commissions  in  the 
Army  may  be  obtained  by  subaltern 
officers  of  Militia  are  herewith  given. 
They  are  issued  with  A.  C.,  1st  January, 
1881. 

1.  GENERAL  CONDITIONS. 

1.  Commissions  in  the  army  will  be 
granted  to   subalterns   of    militia  regi- 
ments (Artillery,  Engineers,  or  Infantry) 
who  are  successful  candidates  at  a  com- 
petitive examination  in  military  subjects, 
and  who  fulfil  the  conditions  hereinafter 
prescribed    as    to    age,    medical    fitness^ 
service  in  militia,  and  passing  a  literary 
examination. 

2.  TRAINING,  &c.,  IN  MILITIA. 

2.  A   candidate   will   be   required  to 
have  served  two  annual  trainings,  each 
training  to  be  in  a  distinct  year,  and  to 
have  passed  the  examination  and  obtained 


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the  certificate,  Army  Form  No.  E  527 
(late  W.  0.  Form  748),  required  of  a 
subaltern  officer  previous  to  the  end  of 
the  second  training  after  his  appoint- 
ment. The  certificate  must  be  obtained 
and  the  second  training  must  have  been 
actually  completed  before  the  date  named 
in  paragraph  17  for  sending  in  the 
application  for  permission  to  compete. 

3.  LITERARY  EXAMINATION. 

3.  A  candidate  for  competition  must 
also,  subject  to  the  exception  stated  in 
paragraph  12,  have  previously  passed  a 
literary    examination    before    the    Civil 
Service  Commissioners,  under  the  follow- 
ing rules : — 

4.  Examinations  before  the  Civil  Ser- 
vice Commissioners  will  be  held  twice 
a   year,   in   the   months   of    April   and 
October.    A  fee  of  II.  will  be  required 
from   every  candidate    admitted   to   an 
examination. 

5.  A  militia  subaltern  officer  who  is 
desirous  of  attending  one  of  these  exami- 
nations must  apply  accordingly    to  his 
commanding  officer,  at  such  a  date  as 
will    allow    of    the  commanding   officer 
forwarding  the  application  to  the  Mili- 
tary Secretary  not  later  than  the  15th 
February  or  15th  August,  for  the  April 
and   October  examinations  respectively. 
The    commanding  officer  in  forwarding 
the    application   will   certify   that    the 
candidate  is,  having  regard  to  the  maxi- 
mum  limit  laid  down  in  paragraph  14, 
eligible  in  point  of  age,  and  that  he  will 
be  prepared,  when  necessary,  to  recom- 
mend him  in  the  manner  prescribed  in 
paragraph   16.      Not  more  than   three 
trials   at    these    examinations    will    be 
allowed. 

6.  Each  of    these    examinations    will 
consist  of  a  "  preliminary  "  and  a  "  fur- 
ther "  examination,  the  latter  of  which 
will  be  proceeded  with  immediately  on 
the  conclusion  of  the  former. 

7.  A  candidate  will  be  required  at  the 
preliminary  examination  to  satisfy  the 
Civil     Service    Commissioners    in,   the 
following  subjects: — 

(1.)  Mathematics, — viz.  (a)  arithmetic, 
including  vulgar  and  decimal  frac- 
tions, proportion,  and  simple  interest ; 
(6)  Euclid,  Book  I. 


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14 


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(2.)  French,  German,  or  some  other  mod- 
ern language  ;    the  examination  being 
limited  to  translation   from   the  lan- 
guage, and  grammatical  questions. 
(3.)  Writing  English  correctly,  and  in  a 

good  legible  hand,  from  dictation. 
(4.)  The  elements  of  geometrical  draw- 
ing ;    including    the    construction   of 
scales,  and  the  use  of  simple  mathe- 
matical instruments. 
(5.)  Geography. 

No  marks  will  be  allotted  for  the  above 
preliminary  examination,  excepting  for 
geometrical  drawing,  the  maximum  num- 
ber for  which  will  be  300. 

8.  The  preliminary  examination   may 
be  dispensed  with  in  the  case  of  candi- 
dates   who    have    passed    any    previous 
examination   before    the    Civil    Service 
Commissioners  in  the  same  subjects,  but 
it  will  be  necessary  for  such  candidates  to 
attend  again  for  examination  in  geomet- 
rical drawing  if  they  wish  to  obtain  in 
that  subject    marks    which   will    count 
towards  their  aggregate  in  the  further 
examination.      Candidates  will  also    be 
exempted  from  the  "preliminary"  ex- 
amination, in  all  subjects  except  geomet- 
rical drawing,  if  they  can  produce  (1)  a 
certificate  of  having  passed  responsions 
at  Oxford,  or  (2)  the  matriculation  ex- 
amination of  the   London  -University,  or 
(3)  the  certificate    of   the   Oxford    and 
Cambridge  Schools  Examination  Board, 
provided  it  embraces  mathematics  ;  if  it 
does  not  include  that  subject,  they  will  be 
required  also  to  undergo  an  examination 
therein.      Candidates    who  fail    in   the 
preliminary    examination    will    be    in- 
formed   of    their    failure    as    soon    as 
possible,  and  they  will  then  be  released 
from  further  attendance. 

9.  The'  subjects  of  the  further  exami- 
nation and  maximum  number  of  marks 
obtainable   for  each  subject  will  be   as 

follows : — 

Marks. 

(1)  Mathematics — viz.,  algebra  up 
to  and  including  quadratic  equa- 
tions ;    the    theory    and    use    of 
logarithms ;    Euclid,  books  I.  to 
IV.  and  VI. ;  plane  trigonometry ; 

and  mensuration       .          .          .   3000 

(2)  English  composition,  tested  by 
the   power  of  writing  an  essay, 
letter,  or  precis ;  English  litera- 


Marks  . 

ture,  limited  to  specified  authors, 
and  English  history,  limited  to 
certain  fixed  periods  ;  the  authors 
and  periods  being  notified  before- 
hand   3000 

(3)  Latin  ....   3000 

(4)  Greek  ....   2000 

(5)  French  ;  the  examination  to  be 
partly  colloquial       .          .          .   2000 

(6)  German  ;  the  examination  to  be 
partly  colloquial       .          .          .   2000 

*(7)  Experimental  sciences  —  viz., 
(a)  chemistry  and  heat ;  or  (6) 
electricity  and  magnetism  .  2000 

(8)  General   and   physical    geogra- 
phy and  geology       .          .          .   2000 

(9)  Drawing  (freehand)         .          .    1000 

(10)  „       (geometrical)  .          .     300 

Of  these  ten  subjects  candidates  will 
not  be  allowed  to  take  up  more  than  four 
nor  less  than  two,  exclusive  of  freehand 
drawing  and  geometrical  drawing. 

10.  In  order  to  secure  a   proper  pro- 
ficiency in  all  the  subjects  taken  up  by  a 
candidate,  a  certain  number  will  be  de- 
ducted from  the  marks  gained  by  him  in 
each  subject  except  geometrical  drawing. 

11.  To  pass  this  examination  a  candi- 
date must  obtain,  in  the  subjects  which 
he  takes  up,  such  an  aggregate  total   of 
marks  as  may,  after  the  deduction  above 
mentioned,  indicate  in  the  judgment  of 
the  Civil  Service  Commissioners  a  com- 
petent amount  of  general  proficiency. 

12.  A  candidate  will  be  exempted  from 
the  "  further "    examination   if   he    has 
previously  passed  an  examination  before 
the  Civil  Service  Commissioners   in  the 
same  subjects.     A  candidate  will  also  be 
exempted  from  all  examinations,  except 
in  geometrical  drawing,  if  he  can  produce 
a  certificate  from  the  proper  university 
authority  that  he  has  either  (a)  taken  his 
degree  in  arts,  or  has  passed  the  exami- 
nation for  the  degree  of  B.A.  or  M.A.  at 
one  of  the  following  universities,  viz. : — 

Oxford.  St.  Andrew's. 

Cambridge.  Glasgow. 

Durham.  Aberdeen. 

London.  The  Queen's  University, 

Dublin.  Ireland. 

Edinburgh. 

*  Subjects  (a)  and  (b)  are  alternative ;    a 
candidate  will  not  be  allowed  to  take  up  both. 


COM 


15 


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or  (&)  passed  one  of  the  university  exami- 
nations specified  below,  viz. : — 
Oxford,  "moderations." 
Cambridge,  "  the  previous  examination." 
Dublin,  "  the    final    examination    of  the 
senior  freshman   year,"  or,  "  the   final 
examination  of  the  School  of  Engineer- 
ing." 

Durham,  "  the  first  year's  examination." 

Queen's   University,   Ireland,  "  the    first 

university  examination    in  arts  or  in 

engineering." 

Scotch    Universities,    "the    examination 

for  candidates  for  the  army." 
London  University,  the  "  first  examina- 
tion "  for  the  degrees  of  B.A.,  LL.B., 
B.Sc.,  or  M.B. 

or  (c)  passed  some  other  test  which  is 
accepted  by  the  university  as  exempting 
from  the  above  examinations. 

13.  A  candidate  producing  a  certificate 
under  paragraph  12  will  be  required  to 
attend  one  of  the   examinations  referred 
to    in    paragraph   4   for  the  purpose    of 
passing    an   examination   in   geometrical 
drawing.     Permission  to  be  obtained  as 
in  paragraph  5. 

4.  COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATION  IN 
MILITARY  SUBJECTS. 

14.  Any  subaltern  officer  of  a  militia 
regiment    who   may  wish    to    become    a 
candidate   for  an  army  commission  will 
be  allowed  to  compete,  provided  that  he 
is  recommended  by  his  commanding  officer, 
and  is  qualified  under  sections  2  and  3  of 
these  regulations,  and  provided  that  he  is 
within  the  ages  of  19  and  22  on  the  1st 
of  January   immediately    preceding    the 
competitive  military  examination  which 
he  may  be  allowed  to  attend. 

15.  These     competitive    examinations 
will  be  held  twice  a  year,  in  the  months 
of  March  and  September,  before  boards  of 
officers  appointed  for  the  purpose  at  the 
several  stations  named  below.     They  will 
be  held  under  the  direction  of  the   Di- 
rector-General of  Military  Education,  and 
due  notice  will  be  given  of  the  days  on 
which  the  examination  will  be  held. 

England.  Scotland.  Ireland. 

Colchester.       Edinburgh.       Dublin. 
Aldershot.  Belfast. 

Devonport.  Cork. 

Dover. 
Portsmouth. 
York. 


16.  The   application  of  a  militia  sub- 
altern officer  to  be  admitted  to  the  com- 
petitive   military   examination    will    be 
submitted  through  the  officer  commanding 
his  regiment,  who  will  state  whether  he 
can  recommend  the  officer  as  a  fit  and 
proper  person   for   a    commission   in  th« 
army  ;  and  in  forwarding  the  same,  the 
officer  commanding  the  sub-district  and 
the  general  officer  commanding  the  dis- 
trict will  also  state  their  opinion  of  the 
candidate.     In  the   event   of  the  officer 
commanding  the  regiment  being  unable 
to  recommend  the  candidate,  the  special 
reasons  will  be  stated. 

17.  The  application  must  be  forwarded 
to  the  Military  Secretary,  Horse  Guards, 
War  Office,  prior  to  the   1st  January  and 
1st  July,  respectively,  after  which  dates 
no  application  will    be    entertained,  and 
should  be  accompanied  by — 

(a)  Certificate  of  birth,  or,  in  default,  a 
declaration  made  by  one  of  the  candi- 
date's parents  or  guardians  before  a 
magistrate,  giving  his  exact  age.  A 
certificate  of  baptism  cannot  be  ac- 
cepted in  lieu  of  a  certificate  of  birth. 

(6)  Certificate  of  having  served  two 
annual  trainings  (each  training  in  -a 
distinct  year).  (See  paragraph  2.) 

(c)  The  certificate,  Army  Form  No.  E  527 
(late   W.O.   Form   748),  showing   also 
the  date  on  which  the  finding  of  the 
board    which    granted    the    certificate 
was  approved. 

(d)  A  certificate  from  the  Civil  Service 
Commissioners  that  the  candidate  has 
passed   the    examination    described    in 
paragraph  9  ;    or,  an  university  certi- 
ficate as  prescribed   in   paragraph  12, 
together  with   a  certificate    from   the 
Civil  Service  Commissioners  that  the 
candidate  has  qualified  in  geometrical 
drawing. 

(<?)  The  candidate's  address,  and  an  inti- 
mation as  to  which  of  the  stations 
named  in  paragraph  15  he  wishes  to 
attend  at  for  examination. 

18.  After  the  receipt  of  the  application 
and  documents  referred  to  in  paragraph 
17,  instructions  will  be  issued  in  due  time 
to  the  candidate  as  to  the  place  and  time 
at  which  he  will  be  required  to  present 
himself    for    the    competitive    military 
examination.      After   these    instruction* 
have  been  issued  no  change  in  the  station 
for  examination  will  be  permitted. 


COM 


16 


COR 


19.  Subject  to  the   rule  as  to  age   in 
paragraph  14,  candidates  will  be  allowed 
three    trials    only.      Unsuccessful    candi- 
dates who  wish  to  compete   again   musl 
apply  for  permission  through  their  com- 
manding  officer,   stating   any   change   in 
their  address  or  in  the  station  at  which 
they  wish  to  be  examined,  but  the  other 
certificates  need  not  be  repeated. 

20.  All  candidates  will  be  inspected  by 
a  medical  board  immediately  before  the 
competitive  examination  ;  and  no  candi- 
date   will    be    considered    eligible    for    a 
commission  unless  certified  by  the  board 
to  be  free  from  any  bodily  defects  or  ail- 
ments, and  in  all  respects,  as  to  height 
and  physical  qualities,  fit  for  Her  Majesty's 
service. 

21.  The  subjects  of  the  competitive  ex- 
amination and  the  maximum  marks  obtain- 
able in  each  subject  will  be  as  follows:  — 

1.  The  elements  of  field  fortification  600 

2.  Military  topography  .          .    600 

3.  The  elements  of  tactics      .          .   600 

4.  Military  law.          .          .          .      600 

22.  In  addition   to    obtaining  a  suffi- 
ciently high  place  in  the  order  of  merit, 
a  candidate  will  be  required  to  obtain  in 
any  case  '25  of  the  marks  in  each  subject, 
and  -5  of  the  aggregate. 

23.  The  scope  will  be  that  embraced 
by  the  synopsis  of  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion (in  the  subjects   specified   in   para- 
graph 21)  at  the  Royal  Military  College. 
There  will,  however,  be  no  practical  out- 
of-door  examination  in  any  subject.     The 
text  books  will  be  those  in  use  at  the 
time  at  the  Royal  Military  College,  which, 
for  the  present,  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  elements  of  [Philips'   Course    of 

field    fortifica-  <   Artillery  and  For- 
tion       .          .  I   tification. 

["Paterson's  Notes  on 

2.  Military     topo-l   Military     Survey- 

graphy  .  j   ing  and  Reconnais- 


3.  The  elements  of  j  £!eld  , 

tactics  .          .    ClerJr  s  Mmor  Tac- 
(    tics. 

(Army      Act,     July 
1881. 
Queen's  Regulations. 
•  Elements  of  Military 
j    Administrationand 
I  Law  (Boughey). 


24.  Until    further    notice,    60    army 
commissions  will   be  allotted  to  the  suc- 
cessful competitors  at  each  of  the  half- 
yearly  competitive  examinations. 

25.  The  names  of  the  successful  com- 
petitors  will    be    published    in   order  of 
merit,  and  each   competitor  will   be  in- 
formed of  his   place  on  the  list,  and  the 
credits  obtained  by  him  in  each  subject. 

26.  The  principle  under  which  these 
commissions   are    offered    being   that    of 
pure  competition,  it  follows  that  candi- 
dates who,  from  their  position  on  the  list, 
are  not  successful  in  obtaining  a  commis- 
sion, will  not  have  any  subsequent  claim 
thereto,  without  undergoing  another  com- 
petitive examination. 

Compulsory  Eetirement — Compulsory 
retirement  means  the  limit  of  age  in 
every  rank  at  which  an  officer  is  now 
required  to  retire  from  the  Army.  A 
Lieutenant  or  Captain  who  does  not  re- 
ceive half-pay  promotion  (except  in  the 
Engineers)  at  40  ;  a  Majer  at  48  ;  a  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel at  55 ;  a  Colonel  at  55  ; 
a  Major-General  at  62 ;  a  Lieutenant- 
General  at  67  ;  or  a  General  at  67,  are 
compulsorily  retired.  In  addition  to 
compulsory  retirement  for  age,  continu- 
ous non-employment  will  also  involve 
compulsory  retirement. 

Confidential  Reports,  vide  Queen's 
Regulations,  1881. 

Corps — Means,  according  to  the  Army 
Act,  1881,  and  in  the  case  of  H.M.'s  regular 
forces,  any  such  military  body,  whether 
known  as  a  territorial  regiment,  or  by 
any  different  name,  as  may  be  from  time 
to  time  declared  by  Royal  Warrant  to 
be  a  corps  for  the  purpose  of  the  Act, 
and  in  a  body  formed  by  Her  Majesty, 
and  either  consisting  of  associated  batta- 
lions of  the  regular  and  auxiliary  forces, 
or  consisting  wholly  of  a  battalion  or 
battalions  of  the  regular  forces,  and  in 
either  case  with  or  without  the  whole  or 
any  part  of  the  permanent  staff  of  any 
of  the  auxiliary  forces  not  included  in 
such  military  body.  The  application  of 
the  term  is  further  explained  in  the 
Act  referred  to. 

Corps  d'Armee — Under  the  head 
"Army,"  a  corps  d'arme'e  is  explained.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Revised  Army  Regulations, 
L881,  a  corps  d'armee,  for  service  abroad, 
will  always  be  kept  ready  of  the  follow- 
ing strength :  12  battalions  of  Infantry 


COR 


17 


ENL 


at  home,  6  battalions  in  the  Mediter 
ranean,  3  battalions  of  Guards,  6  re°- 
meats  of  Cavalry,  and  17  batteries  "o 
Horse  and  Field  Artillery. 

Corps  of  Commissionaires— Its  rank 
are  not  confined  to  military  pensioner 
alone,  but  all  who  have  completed  thei 
engagements  with  credit  in  any  branch 
of  her  Majesty's  naval  or  military 
service  are  eligible  for  admission. 

Court-Martial  —  Add  in  Dictionary 
under  head  of  court-martial,  summary 
court-mtirtutl,  which  is  now  introduced 
in  lieu  of  field-general  courts-martial, 
and  may  consist  of  three,  or  even  two 
officers,  if  the  former  number  be  not 
available  ;  but  no  sentence  of  death  can 
be  carried  out  without  approval  of  the 
General  commanding.  The  constitution  of 
courts-martial  has  been  greatly  changed 
of  late.  Vide  Army  Regulations 

Court-Martial,  Field-General  —  Con- 
stituted for  the  trial  of  an  offender  in  any 
detachment  or  portion  of  troops  in  any 
country  beyond  the  seas,  where,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  convening  officer,  the 
offence  to  be  tried  is  not  practicable  by 
an  ordinary  court-martial.  Such  court- 
martial  shall  consist  of  not  less  than 
three  officers. 

Curved  or  Indirect  Fire,  as  defined 
by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  War 
Office  in  1877  to  consider  the  meaning 
of  certain  artillery  terms,  means  "  fire 
from  guns  with  reduced  charges,  and 
from  howitzers  and  mortars  at  all  angles 
of  elevation  not  exceeding  15°." 


Discharge— Besides  the  different  cir- 
cumstances mentioned  in  the  Dictionary 
under  the  head  "Discharge,"  under 
which  the  discharge  of  a  soldier  may  be 
granted,  there  is  that  of  a  recruit,  "who 
may  claim  the  same  within  three  months 
of  enlistment  on  the  payment  of  £10. 
Vide  Queen's  Regulations,"  1881. 


E. 


D. 

Defaulter  Book— Queen's  Regulations 
for  1881  give  in  extenso  the  mode  of 
keeping  this  book. 

Deferred  Pay,  vide  Pay  deferred. 

Derrick— For  large  ordnance  of  9-inch 
calibre  and  upwards  a  movable  derrick 
is  attached  to  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  for 
the  purpose  of  lifting  the  charge.  The 
derrick  is  made  of  bronze. 

Direct  Fire— Means  fire  from  guns 
with  service  charges  at  all  angles  of 
elevation  up  to  15°. 


Enemy — This  expression  includes  all 
armed  mutineers,  armed  rebels,  armed 
rioters,  and  pirates. 

Engineers—  Vide  Revised  Army  Regu- 
ations,  1881,  for  the  changes  which  have 
seen  lately  introduced  into  this  regiment 
md  department.  The  organization  of  the 
•egiment  is  by  companies,  not  by  batta- 
lons  as  shewn  in  the  Dictionary.  There 
re  now  43  companies,  2  troops,  and 
epot  troops. 

Enlistment— The  term  of  service  for 
11  arms    is    as  follows  : — long    service, 
e.    12    years    Army    service,    or    short 
ervice  for  6  years  ;    7  years  Army  ser- 
ice     and     5    years     Reserve     service, 
rhich  will  be    converted    into    8    years 
ervice  with  the  colours,  and  4  years  Re- 
serve   service,    if    the    period   of   Army 
service  expires  while  the  man  is  serving 
abroad.     All  enlistment  will  be  for  short 
service,    with    some    exceptions  —  vide 
Queen's  Regulations,  1881. 

Enlist,  To— In  the  body  of  the  Dic- 
tionary the  meaning  of  this  term  is  given 
According  to  the  Revised  Army  Regula- 
tion of  1881 ;  except  in  the  case  of  bovs 
under  sixteen  years  of  age,  no  recruit 
will  be  enlisted  who  has  not  completed 
nineteen  years,  or  attained  the  physical 
equivalent  of  that  age. 

No  soldier  will  be  sent  to  India  or  the 
tropics  under  twenty  years  of  age,  or 
with  less  than  a  year's  service. 

In  place  of  the  various  terms  of  colour 
service  and  reserve  service  for  which 
soldiers  now  enlist  in  the  several  arms 
enlistment  will  be  uniform  for  seven 
years  with  the  colours,  and  five  years  in 
reserve.  The  only  exception  will  be  the 
Household  Cavalry,  who  will  be  enlisted 
for  twelve  years  with  the  colours,  and 
c 


EME 


18 


FUZ 


artificers  and  boys  for  all  arms.  In  the 
case  of  soldiers  serving  in  India,  service 
will  be  extended  to  eight  years,  and  else- 
where abroad  it  may  be  so  extended. 

Emergency,  National — Means  when 
England  is  invaded,  or  the  state  of  the 
country  is  such  as  to  require  an  increase 
of  officers,  then  retired  officers,  or  those 
who  have  commuted,  will  be  re-called  to 
serve. 

Establishment — According  to  A.  C. 
Clause  55,  of  1881,  all  Infantry  regiments 
placed  under  orders  for  service  abroad,  will 
have  their  establishments  increased  by  4 
lieutenants ;  those  having  an  establishment 
of  800  rank  and  file,  or  upwards,  being 
also  increased  by  eight  sergeants. 

This  term  is  further  explained  in 
the  body  of  the  Dictionary ;  it  is  also 
applied  to  the  strength  of  the  regular 
army  as  made  up  yearly.  A  detail  show- 
ing the  strength  of  regiments  at  home 
and  abroad  and  of  the  disembodied  militia 
will  be  found  in  the  army  circulars. 

Exchanges,  vide  Queen's  Regulations, 
1881. 

Examination  of  Ordnance. — The  40- 
pr.  and  smaller  guns,  whether  breech- 
loading  or  muzzle-loading,  are  to  be  ex- 
amined after  every  150  rounds. 


F. 


Field  Day — When  troops  move  out 
for  instruction  in  field  exercises  and  evolu- 
tions, this  is  termed  a  field  day. 

Field  Officer  in  Brigade  Waiting— 
The  officer  so  styled  is  an  officer  of  the 
Guards.  He  is  an  important  personage, 
and  if  his  duties  are  more  courtly  than 
military,  they  are  none  the  less  distinctly 
limited  and  defined.  The  office  belongs 
to  the  ten  field  officers  of  the  brigade, 
who  act  in  turn  for  a  month  at  a  time. 
The  Field  Officer  in  Brigade  Waiting  is 
attached  to  the  Court,  and  is  in  official 
communication  with  the  Lord  Chamber- 
lain. It  is  his  duty  to  attend  the  Queen 


upon  certain  state  and  semi-state  occa- 
sions, and  he  has  a  place  assigned  to  him 
at  all  balls,  concerts,  and  other  entertain- 
ments, and  in  processions  his  position  is 
"  close  to  the  hind  wheel  of  the  royal 
carriage."  At  drawing-rooms  and  levees 
the  Field  Officer  in  Brigade  Waiting 
"  will  have,"  say  the  rules,  "  an  audience 
of  Her  Majesty  to  deliver  th«  state  of 
the  brigade  and  receive  the  parole  of  the 
day,"  a  privilege  which,  though  very 
formal,  is  certainly  honourably  special. 
Practically  speaking,  the  Field  Officer  in 
Brigade  Waiting  is  a  kind  of  extra 
equerry  to  the  sovereign,  and  his  special 
duty  is  to  look  after  the  guards  of  honour 
which  are  called  out  to  attend  royalty 
upon  state  occasions.  He  has  an  adju- 
tant in  waiting  attached  to  him  to  carry 
out  his  orders,  whose  position  is  also 
clearly  defined — the  adjutant's  place 
being  in  the  hall  and  lobby,  while  his 
superior  officer  is  in  the  ballroom  or 
royal  box,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Flag  Stations — Stations  of  the  Army 
at  which  the  national  flag  (Union  Jack) 
is  permitted  to  be  hoisted  daily  or  on 
privileged  days. 

Forage  Cap — A  new  forage  cap  has 
been  introduced  for  the  cavalry ;  each 
class — dragoons,  hussars,  and  lancers — 
having  a  distinctive  badge. 

Forage  Cap  (Glengarry) — In  march- 
ing order  to  be  kept  in  the  valise. 

French  Rifled  Gun — Steel  guns  now 
form  the  light  ordnance  in  the  French 
service. 

Furlough — On  this  subject  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Queen's  Regulations,  1881, 
in  which  he  will  find  information  on  all 
points  relating  to  H.M.'s  forces. 

Fuze — A  time  fuze,  wood  Boxer,  M.L. 
15-second,  has  been  introduced  into  the 
service,  which  is  intended  to  supersede 
the  5-  and  9-second  fuzes. 

Fnzes  —  The  ordinary  metal  with 
which  the  fuzes  used  in  the  base  of  the 
Palliser  shell  is  made  being  found  too 
soft,  steel  fuzes  have  been  substituted, 
together  with  some  of  "  hard  metal.'' 
The  latest  fuzes  are  constructed  on  the 
"  delayed  action  "  principle  lately  intro- 
duced, causing  the  shell  to  explode  4 
seconds  after  impact,  and  some  highly 
sensitive  fuzes  for  high  ang;le  fire  have 
been  forwarded  for  use.  The  result  of 


GAR 


19 


GRA 


experiments  with    these    new  fuzes    has 
been  highly  satisfactory. 


Q. 


Garrison— Under  this  head  in  the  Dic- 
tionary, substitute  for  151  line  battalions, 
3  regiments  of  Guards  of  2  battalions 
each,  and  71  regiments  of  2  battalions 
(linked).  In  this  number  is  included 
the  Rifle  Brigade,  which  has  a  greater 
number  of  battalions— vide  Army  List 

Gas-check— Used  with  Palliser  pro- 
jectiles and  common  shells  for  12-5-inch, 
12-inch,  11-inch,  10-inch,  9-inch  rifled 
ALL.  guns,  and  other  smaller  natures 
of  projectiles.  Gas-checks  are  found  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  gas  and  to  operate 
most  beneficially  in  extending  the  range 
and  in  centring  the  projectile,  and  thus 
preventing  any  great  deviation  in  flight. 
Further,  they  enable  the  projectile  to 
rotate  without  the  aid  of  studs.  They 
are  made  of  copper  and  attached  to  the 
base  of  the  projectile. 

Geneva  Convention— The  Turks  use 
the  red  crescent  as  a  distinctive  mark, 
instead  of  the  red  cross  as  in  European 
armies. 

Ghurrie — This  name,  besides  the  defi- 
nition given  of  it  in  the  Dictionary,  is 
also  given  to  the  keeps  or  small  citadels 
built  for  the  protection  of  Indian  native 
villages.  The  walls  are  made  of  unctuous 
clay,  oily  straw  called  koodrau,  linseed 
and  gall  nuts.  Such  mud  walls  resist 
ram,  and  in  the  days  of  smooth-bore 
artillery,  resisted  the  penetration  of  shot 
to  some  extent. 

Ginjal — An  Indian  term  for  a  long 
matchlock.  Ginjals  are  of  various  calibres, 
and  are  used  as  wall-pieces  by  the  natives 
of  India  :  they  are  commonly  fixed  like 
swivels,  and  carry  iron  balls  not  exceed- 
ing a  pound  in  weight ;  in  the  field  they 
are  sometimes  fixed  on  the  saddles  of 
camels. 

Good-Conduct  Pay— Page  167  left- 
hand  column,  19th  line  from  bottom  of 
page,  strike  out  "  corporal."  G.  C.  pay 


will  not  in  the  future  be  given  to  second 
corporals,  bombardiers,  or  artificers  with 
the  rank   of  corporal,  except   to   those 
whose  present  pay,  including  G.  C.  P 
exceeds  new  rates.     The  recent  orders  on 
G.  C.  badges  and  pay  will  be  found  in 
the  Revised  Army  Regulations  for  1881. 
Gratuities— Appendix   J   of  the   Dic- 
tionary gives  the  gratuities  to  soldiers  on 
discharge.     Later  rules  have  since  been 
issued,  and  two  new  paragraphs  added 
rendering  the  following  corrections  and 
insertions  necessary:    Page   556   of  the 
Dictionary,  par.  4,  2nd  line,  for  « twenty" 
read    "ten."     Line  4,   for   "£3"   read 
"  £1  10s.";  line  6,  for  "£4"  read  "£2  "  • 
line  7,  for  "£5  "  read  "  £2  10s."  Par.  5,' 
1st  line,  after  "sergeant  "  insert,  "  which 
term    includes  sergeants-major,  and    all 
other^grades  of  sergeants." 

9.  The  gratuities  issued  in  accordance 
with  these  regulations  will  be  charged  in 
the    accounts   of   the   accountant    from 
whom  the  soldier  may    be  drawing  his 
pay  at  the  time  of  discharge.   The  soldier 
will  sign  a  receipt  for  the  gratuity  ;  and 
m  each  case  in  which  the  sum  of  £2  or 
£2  10s.  js  awarded,  the  charge  will  be 
further  vouched  by  a  certificate  of  the 
officer  commanding  that  the  soldier  has 
not  been  recorded  as  guilty  of  drunken- 
ness during   the    10   years  immediately 
preceding  his  discharge.     In  the  case  of 
a  non-commissioned  officer  referred  to  in 
par.    8,    the    certificate    for   the    period 
during  which  he  has  been  detached  to  the 
auxiliary   forces    will  be    signed  by  the 
adjutant  and  countersigned  by  the  com- 
manding officer  of  the  regiment  or  corps 
with  which  he  has  been  serving. 

10.  In  the  case  of  a  soldier  dyincr  in 
the  service,  his  estate  will  receive  credit 
for  such  amount  of  gratuity  as  he  would 
have  been  entitled  to  had  he  been  dis- 
charged from  the  army  on  the  day 
previous  to  the  date  of  his  death.  These 
gratuities  will  be  charged  in  the  regi- 
mental pay  list  on  the  same  form  or 
voucher  as  those  issued  to  men  on  dis- 
charge, vouched  by  a  reference  to  the 
non-effective  account  in  which  the  credit 


is  given 

11.  Clause  12,  A.C.  1875;  clause  114, 
A.C.   1874,    so   far   as  it  relates    to    the 
gratuities  from  the  general   fund  formed 
from  the  fines  for  drunkenness ;  clause  3 
C  2 


GYM 


20 


A.C.  1875  ;  and  clause  17,  A.C.  1876,  are 
hereby  cancelled. 

The  attention  of  the  Military  reader  is 
especially  called  to  clause  189  of  A.C.  of 
November  1878  on  the  subject  of  the 
gratuity  to  men  specially  extending  their 
service. 

Gymnasium — A  place  where  athletic 
exercises  are  performed.  A  school  of  in- 
struction in  gymnastics  is  formed  at 
Aldershot,  where  officers  and  men  desir- 
ous of  being  instructed  and  becoming 
instructors  in  their  regiments,  are  sent. 
Queen's  Regulations  give  all  information 
on  the  subject. 


Half-pay — For  the  conditions  and 
rates  accorded  to  half-pay,  vide  royal 
warrant  of  1st  July,  1881.  Half-pay  is 
limited  to  officers  on  the  active  list. 

Havresack — Future  issues  of  havre- 
sacks  for  ritle  regiments  will  be  black 
instead  of  green. 

Helmet — It  is  shown  in  the  body  of 
the  Dictionary  that  helmets  are  only 
worn  partially  in  the  army.  A  new 
helmet  has  now  however  been  introduced 
for  the  whole  army.  It  is  made  of  felt, 
with  a  brass  spike  or  knob  on  the  top. 
For  Indian  service  a  wicker  helmet  has 
been  found  more  suited  to  the  climate. 

Horse — Para.  2  right-hand  column, 
page  191,  of  the  Dictionary,  read  "horses 
will  be  purchased  at  such  rates  as  shall 
from  time  to  time  be  determined  and 
sanctioned  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
War." 

Hospital,  Military — Regulations  rela- 
tive to  station  hospitals  will  be  found  in 
A.C.  February  1878. 

Hospital,  Permanent — The  latest  in- 
structions o~n  the  subject  of  permanent 
hospitals,  state  that  the  minimum  space 
to  be  allowed  to  each  bed  is  1200  cubic 
feet  at  home  and  in  temperate  climates, 
and  1500  cubic  feet  may  be  specially  au- 
thorised at  stations  in  tropical  climates. 
In  detached  wooden  houses  in  temperate 
climates,  the  minimum  of  space  will  be 
(>00  cubic  feet  for  each  bed. 


I. 


Infantry — Under  this  head  in  the  Dic- 
tionary, expunge  at  page  200,  16th  line 
from  top  of  page,  left-hand  column,  "The 
majority  "  to  the  end  of  the  sentence, 
and  add,  "  All  regiments  are  now  linked, 
and  include  2  or  more  militia  battalions, 
designated  the  3rd,  4th,  and  succeeding 
battalions,  though  in  many  cases  at 
present,  only  1  battalion,  the  3rd,  has 
been  formed. 

Iron  Rations — This  term  is  applied  to 
the  supplies  taken  and  carried  by  the 
troops  themselves  on  service  beyond  the 
sea,  when  detached  from  their  transport. 
The  ordinary  iron  rations  for  two  days 
should  be  2  Ibs.  preserved  meat  and  2  Ibs. 
biscuits,  supplemented  in  such  manner  as 
circumstances  admit. 


J. 


Jury. — A  number  of  freeholders  or 
householders,  selected  in  the  manner 
prescribed  by  law,  who  are  impanelled 
and  sworn  to  inquire  into  and  try  any 
matter  of  fact. 

Officers  as  well  as  soldiers  are  exempted 
from  serving  on  juries  ;  but  if  summoned 
must  attend  and  explain  that  they  are 
not  amenable  to  serve. 


K. 

Kneller  Hall — A  school  of  music 
maintained  by  the  Government  for  the 
purpose  of  training  N.  C.  O.s  and  privates 
as  bandmasters  and  bandsmen. 


Ladders,  Esoalading — The  new  pattern 
is  made  in  8  J-foot  lengths.  It  is  intended 
to  be  used  for  escalading  heights  not  ex- 
ceeding 16  feet,  and  also  as  an  ordinary 
ladder  in  greater  lengths  for  the  demoli- 
tion of  houses,  the  construction  of  light 
temporary  bridges,  &c. 

Lancers — The   numbers   of  the   regi- 
ments  comprising  the    Lancers   are    the 
5th,  9th,  12th,  16th,  and  17th.    Carbine 
are   now    issued    to    Lancer    regiments ; 
also    a    double-barrelled    breech-loadint 


LAX 


21 


MAR 


pistol  in  place  of  the    weapon  hitherto 
in  use. 

Lance -Sergeants  and  Corporals— Add 
at  the  end  of  the  sentence  of  this  term 
in  the  Dictionary,  "  They  are  designated 
during  the  time  they  are  acting  in  this 
position  :  provisional  lance-sergeants  and 
corporals." 

Lasso  —  The  new  lasso  equipment 
having  been  issued  for  the  use  of  the 
cavalry  regiments  at  home,  the  whole  of 
the  duty  non-commissioned  officers  and 
six  men  per  troop  are  to  be  instructed  in 
its  use,  and  should  a  man  become  in- 
effective, by  promotion  or  otherwise,  for 
this  duty,  he  is  to  be  replaced  by  another 
man.  The  lasso  is  to  be  carried  by  the 
horses  which  have  been  trained  to  the  use 
of  it.  One  lasso,  30  feet  in  length,  will 
be  supplied  to  each  troop  of  cavalry,  in 
exchange  for  one  of  the  20  feet  lassoes 
now  in  possession. 

Lieutenant — The  commission  of  lieu- 
tenant is  now  granted  to  all  officers  enter- 
ing the  army,  militia,  or  volunteers. 

Lieutenant-Colonel  —  Appointed  as 
such  to  the  cavalry  or  infantry,  shall  be 
placed  on  half-pay  after  the  periods  of 
full-pay  service  stated  below,  reckoned 
from  the  date  on  which  he  was  appointed 
to  serve  in  the  regimental  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel— 

(a)  If  appointed  before  the  1st  July, 
1881,  after  five  years  ;  unless  he  pre- 
fer to  vacate  his  appointment  after 
four  years,  in  which  case  he  shall  be 
eligible  for  retirement  on  a  colonel's  j 
pension. 

(6)  If  appointed  on  or  after  the  1st  i 
July,  1881,  after  six  years'  service 
as  lieutenant-colonel,  or  after  less  ; 
than  six  years,  if  four  years'  service  i 
shall  have  been  completed  in  com-  : 
mand  of  his  regiment. 

For   the   rules    appertaining    to    the  ] 
promotion,  &c.,    of    field    officers,    vide 
Revised  Army  Regulations. 

Line    of   Communication  —  For    the 
organisation  of  the  line  of  communications  '• 
of  an  army  in  the  field,  vide  A.C.  of  June 
1878. 

Litters — A  pair  weighs  3  qrs.  22  Ibs. 


Major — Vide  Revised  Army  Regula- 
tions for  1881. 

Marines,  Royal — The  following  re- 
vised regulations  for  admission  to  the 
Royal  Marine  Artillery  have  been  issued 
by  the  Admiralty  : — 

1.  Admission  to  the  Royal  Marine  Ar- 
tillery as  probationary  lieutenants  will 
be  granted  to  the  successful  candidates 
in  order  of  merit  (according  to  the 
number  of  vacancies)  at  the  open  com- 
petitive examinations  for  admission  to  the 
Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich. 
The  examinations  will  be  conducted  by 
the  Civil  Service  Commissioners,  and  will 
be  held  twice  a  year,  namely,  in  July  and 
December. 

Candidates  who  have  received  permis- 
sion from  the  Horse  Guards  to  attend,  the 
examination,  and  who  are  desirous  of 
obtaining  an  appointment  in  the  Royal 
Marine  Artillery,  should  send  in  their 
names  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty, 
to  whom  all  inquiries  on  the  subject 
should  be  addressed. 

2.  The  limits  of  age  will  be  from  six- 
teen to    eighteen,    the   candidates  being 
required  to  be  within  those  limits  on  the 
1st  day  of  the  January  next   following 
for  the  winter  examination,  and  on  the 
1st  July   for  the    summer  examination. 
They  must  be  oft.  Sin.  in  height. 

3.  The   successful  candidates    will    be 
appointed  lieutenants  on  probation.    They 
will  proceed  to  the  Royal  Naval  College, 
Greenwich,  on  October  1,  and  after  the 
Easter  vacation. 

4.  Two  examinations  of  probationary 
lieutenants   will   be    held    m   each    year 
at  the  Royal  Xaval  College,  Greenwich. 
Those  who  pass  a  satisfactory  examina- 
tion at  the  end  of  the  first  session  after 
entry    will   remain   at   the    College    for 
another  session,  at  the  end  of  which  they 
will  be  again  examined,  and,  if  they  pass 
satisfactorily,  will  receive  commissions  in 
the  Royal  Marine  Artillery,  in  order  of 
merit,  bearing  date  from  the  time  they 
receive  their  probationary  appointments. 


MAR 


22 


MAR 


5.  Probationary    lieutenants    who    do 
not  pass    a   satisfactory   examination  at 
the  end  of  the  first  session   after  entry 
will  be  finally  excluded  from  the  Royal 
Marines.     Those  who,  after  passing  the 
first  examination,  finally  fail  to  qualify 
for    the    Royal    Marine    Artillery,    may 
receive  commissions  in  the  Royal  Marine 
Light  Infantry,  bearing  the  same  date  as 
the    infantry    officers    who    passed    the 
army  examination  at  the  same  time,  but 
be  posted  below  them. 

6.  Artillery  officers  will  be  posted  on 
the  list  of  their  corps  in  the  order  in 
which  they  pass  their  final  examination 
at  Greenwich. 

7.  Officers  of  the  Royal  Marine  Artil- 
lery on  probation  will  receive  5s.  3d.  a 
day.     Those  who  are  permitted  to  remain 
after    the  first  session  will  be   allowed 
Is.  Gd.   a  day  mess  allowance  until  the 
expiration    of  their  period  of  study   at 
Greenwich. 

8.  Officers,   on   passing   out,    will   be 
attached  to  H.M.S.  Excellent  for  a  course 
of  gunnery  and  torpedo   instruction,  on 
the  conclusion  of  which  they  will  join 
headquarters,  and  be  instructed  in  their 
drill    and    military    duties    for   service 
a-hore  and  afloat. 

9.  Each    successful   candidate   at   the 
examination  for  entry,  must  deposit  the 
sum  of  £80  with  the  Accountant-General 
of  the  Navy  before  he  can  be  appointed 
lieutenant   on    probation    for  the   Royal 
Marine  Artillery,  to  provide  for  his  equip- 
ment at  the  Royal  Naval  College,  and  on 
joining  his  division. 

10.  The  uniform  of  officers  on  proba- 
tion  will    be    blue   patrol-jacket,   blue 
working-jacket,    blue    mess-jacket,   and 
scarlet  waistcoat,  undress  trowsers,  sword, 
sword-belt,  and  forage-cap. 

LIGHT  INFANTRY. 

1.  Admissions  to  the  Royal  Marine 
Light  Infantry  will  be  granted  to  the 
successful  candidates,  in  order  of  merit 
(according  to  the  number  of  vacancies) 
at  the  open  competitive  examinations  for 
admission  to  the  Royal  Military  College 
at  Sandhurst. 

The  examinations  will  be  conducted  _ 
the  Civil  Service  Commissioners,  anc 
will  take  place  twice  a  year,  in  th 
months  of  July  and  December. 


Candidates  who  have  received  permis- 
ion  from  the  Horse  Guards  to  attend 
he  examination,  and  who  are  desirous  of 
(btaining  an  appointment  in  the  Royal 

Marine  Light  Infantry,  should  send  (in 
heir  names  to  the  secretary  to  the 

Admiralty,  to  whom  all  inquiries  on  the 
ubject  should  be  addressed. 

Age,  4'C. 

2.  The  limits  of  age  for  candidates  for 
admission  by  competition  will   be  from 
seventeen  to  twenty  ;  for  students  of  the 
universities,  who  shall  have  passed   the 

nterim  examination,  from  seventeen  to 
;wenty-one  ;  for  graduates  of  the  univer- 
sities who  shall  have  passed  the  examina- 
tion for  the  degree  of  B.A.  or  M.A.,  from 
seventeen  to  twenty-two  ;  and  for  lieu- 
tenants from  the  militia,  who  are  eligible 
for  commissions  in  the  army  as  lieu- 
tenants, and  are  recommended  by  the 
Horse  Guards,  from  nineteen  to  twenty- 
two.  They  must  be  5  feet  5  inches  in 
leight. 

3.  Candidates  must  be  within  the  pre- 
scribed  limits  of  age    on    the    following 
dates :  —  Candidates    for    admission    by 
competition  on  January  1  next  following 
the  winter  examination,  and  on  July  1 
for  the  midsummer  examination.     Lieu- 
tenants from  the  militia  on  May  1  of  the 
year  in  which  they  are  recommended  for 
a  commission. 

4.  The   successful   candidates   will  be 
appointed  lieutenants  in  the  Royal  Marine 
Light  Infantry,  and  will  be  posted  on  the 
list  of  their  corps  in  the  order  in  which 
they   passed   their   examination.      They 
will   join    their   respective    divisions    at 
once,  and  be  instructed  in  their  drill  and 
military  duties   for  service   ashore   and 
afloat.     They  will  also  undergo  a  course 
of  garrison  or  military  instruction. 

5.  Each   successful   candidate   at   the 
examination  for  entry  must  deposit  the 
sum     of     £80    with     the    Accountant- 
General  of  the  Navy   before  he   can  be 
appointed  lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Marine 
Light  Infantry,  to  provide  for  his  equip- 
ment on  joining  his  division. 

Harried  Boll  —  Explained  in  Dic- 
tionary, but  the  following  regula- 
tions for  soldiers  on  the  married  establish- 
ment and  their  families  were  issued  in 
A.C.  December  1876,  and  since  then 


MAR 


MAR 


further  regulations  have  been  issued  in 

'    the   rank  of  ser- 

A.C.  April    1877    and    June    1877,   as 

geant    in    army 

shown  in  the  circulars  alluded  to. 

(6)  3  out  of  4  or  5, 

establishments. 

REGULATIONS    FOR  SOLDIERS  ON    THE 

4     „      6  or  7, 

1  hese  propor- 

MARRIED ESTABLISHMENT  AND  THEIR 

5     .,      8  or  9, 

tions,   in   regard 

FAMILIES.  —  Clause  165. 

6    „    10  (and/ 

to    each     troop, 

.     ,  i             •  ' 

battery,  or  com- 

1. The  service  of  the  larger  proportion 
of  the  soldiers  in  the  army  having  been 
reduced  to  six  years,  they  become  under 
par.  5  of  the   Married  Soldiers'  Regula- 

in tne  same 
proportion 
for  any  high- 
er numbers) 

pany,     will      be 
calculated    upon 
the        establish- 
ment,   and    not 

tions  (clause  53,  A.C.  1871),  ineligible  to 

upon  the  actual 

have  their  names  placed  on  the   married 

V    strength. 

roll.     The  following  regulation  readjust- 

(c) Four    per     cent,     of     trumpeters, 

ing  the  numbers  to  be  borne  in  future  on 

drummers,  and    rank    and    file,  to 

the  married    establishment    will    be    ac- 

be calculated  upon   the  establish- 

cordingly substituted  for  par.   1,  clause 

ment  of  the  corps. 

53,  A.C.  1871. 

2.  To  these  rules  there  are  the  follow- 

1.  Establishment. 

1.  The    married  establishment  of  the 
non-commissioned  officers  and  men  of  our 
army    and    its    departments    serving   at 
home  and  abroad  (India  excepted)  will  be 
composed  as  follows,  and  will  be  desig- 
nated the  "  Married  Roll "  : — 
(a)  All    non-commissioned  officers    and 
others  included  in  class  1  of  the 
royal  warrant  of   November   26, 
1875  (clause  161,  A.C.  1875),  and 
also  those  included  in  class  2  of 
the  same  warrant,  with  the  excep- 
tion   of    the    troop,    battery,    or 
company  sergeants,  of  whom  only 
the  proportion  specified  in  (6)  will 
be  borne  on  the  married  roll. 

Troop  corporal- 


majors,     troop 

sergeant-  majors, 

battery  sergeant- 

majors,     battery 

quarter  -  master- 

(6)  3  out  of  4  or  5, 

sergeants,  colour- 

4     „     6  or  7, 

sergeants,     com- 

5    „     8  or  9, 

pany      sergeant- 

6     „    10  (and 

majors,        troop 

in  the  same 

staff  -  sergeants, 

proportion 

Royal     Engineer 

for  any  high- 

train,   sergeants 

er  numbers) 

of    each     troop, 

battery,  or  com- 

pany,    corporals 

in  the  household 

cavalry,  and  non- 

commi  ssioned 

^     officers     holding 

ing  exceptions  : — 

(a)  [Cancelled.] 

(6)  In  the  Royal  Engineers,  the  calcu- 
lation under  par.  1  (6)  will  be 
made  upon  the  establishment  of 
the  whole  corps. 

(c)  In  the    supply    and  ordnance  store 

branches  of  the  Army  Service 
Corps,  the  calculation  will  be 
made  upon  the  whole  establish- 
ment of  these  branches  separately, 
and  not  upon  the  establishment  of 
each  company. 

(d)  The    married    roll    of    the    coast 

brigade  will  be  50  per  cent,  of  its 
establishment. 

3.  The  reduction  in  the  present  numr 
bers  of  the  married  roll  will  be  effected 
by    absorbing    every    alternate    vacancy 
until  the  establishment  is  in  accordance 
with  the  amended  scale. 

4.  At    home   stations    the    following 
daily  ration  allowances  will  be  issued  to 
families  on  the  married  roll,  when  the 
troops  are  compulsorily  and  necessarily 
separated    from    them    on   duty,    except 
when   employed    on    the  recruiting  ser- 
vice : — 

To  each  wife,  in  lieu  of  a  half- 
ration  3d. 

To   each   child  under  fourteen 
years    of  age,  in   lieu   of  a 
quarter- ration      ....      IJd. 
Such  ration  allowances,  however,  will 
not  be  issued  to  the  families  of  lunatic 
soldiers,  or  of  soldiers  in  hospital,  or  of 
soldiers  employed  as  officers'  servants. 
5.  The  allowances  granted  by  par.  4 


MAU 


MIL 


will  not  be  issued  unless  the  period  of 
separation  exceeds  four  days.  When  the 
period  exceeds  this  limit,  the  issue  will 
be  made,  but  only  from  the  fifth  day  in- 
clusive. 

li.  Pars.  1  and  47,  clause  53,  A.C. 
1871 ;  clause  102,  A.C.  1871  ;  and  clause 
49,  1876,  are  hereby  cancelled. 

A.C.  April,  1877. 

1.  The  reduction  in  the  present  num- 
bers of  the  married  roll  of  regiments 
required  by  par.  3,  clause  165,  A.C. 
1876,  will  not  commence  until  all  who 
were  married  with  leave,  prior  to 
December  1,  1876,  have  been  absorbed 
into  vacancies  or  been  disqualified  for 
the  married  establishment. 

•2.  A  report  will  be  made  by  every 
corps  to  the  War  Office  showing  in  detail 
the  number  of  men  who  were  married 
with  leave  before  the  above  date,  and 
who  are  awaiting  absorption  in  the 
married  establishment. 

3.  The   married   establishment  of  the 
Household  Cavalry   and   Army  Hospital 
Corps  will  form  an  exception  to  par.  1  (c) 
of  clause  165,  A.C.   1876,  and  will,  as 
heretofore,  be  7  per  cent,  of  trumpeters, 
drummers,  and  rank  and  file,  calculated 
upon  the  establishment  of  the  corps. 

4.  The  four  senior  collarmakers   and 
four  senior  wheelers  in   each   brigade  of 
Royal    Artillery   [horse    and    field]   will 
be  eligible  for  the  married  roll  after  five 
years'  service   in   their  respective  ranks. 
Par.  5,  clause   53,  A.C.   1871,  will    be 
amended  accordingly. 

A.C.  June,  1877. 

1.  In  the  Royal  Artillery  the  calcula- 
tion of  the  numbers  on  the  married  roll 
under    par.    1    (c)   of  clause    165,   A.C. 
1876,  will,  for  the  future,  be  made  on 
the   establishment  of  each   battery,  and 
the  roll  will  be  kept  by  battery  instead 
of  by  brigade. 

2.  Par.  2  (a)  of  clause  165,  A.C.  1876, 
is  hereby  cancelled. 

The  married  establishments  of  the 
West  India  regiments  and  Royal  Malta 
Fencible  Artillery  will  form  an  exception 
to  par.  1  (c)  of  clause  165,  A.C.  1876, 
and  will  be  7  per  cent,  of  the  trumpeters, 
drummers,  and  rank  and  file,  calculated 


upon  the  respective  establishments  of 
those  corps,  and  the  same  with  the 
mounted  military  police. 

Mauser  Rifle — Forms  the  arm  of 
the  whole  German  army,  both  rifle 
and  carbine  ;  the  latter  to  the  cavalry. 

Medal,  Humane — Granted  by  the  Hu- 
mane Society  for  saving  life.  These 
medals  are  permitted  to  be  worn  by 
officers  in  uniform.  The  medal  is  directed 
to  be  worn  on  the  left  breast. 

Medical  Department — Vide  Revised 
Army  Regulations,  1881,  vol.  i. 

Mess  Allowance — The  latest  orders 
on  the  subject  will  be  found  in  A.C.  for 
November,  1878,  clause  184. 

Military  Decorations  —  Means  any 
medal,  class,  good-conduct  badge,  or 
decoration. 

Military  Reward — Means  any  gratu- 
ity or  annuity  for  long  service  or  good- 
conduct  ;  it  also  includes  any  good-con- 
duct pay,  or  pension,  or  any  other  mili- 
tary pecuniary  reward. 

Vi  lift  ft  —  The  Queen's  Regulations 
should  be  consulted  as  regards  the  or- 
ganisation of  this  service,  certain  changes 
having  taken  place  since  the  insertion  of 
the  subject  in  the  Dictionary. 

Militia  Recruits — With  reference  to 
the  recruiting  for  the  militia,  it  appears 
that  the  War  Office  authorities  have 
rei-ently  decided  that  the  recruiting 
arrangements  in  militia  regiments  are  to 
be  regulated  by  officers  commanding  the 
sub-districts.  The  recruiting-sergeants, 
if  possible,  whenever  necessary,  are  to 
reside  about  stations,  and  will  be  occa- 
sionally visited  by  the  adjutants  of  their 
respective  corps,  under  the  authority  of 
the  officer  commanding  the  sub-district. 
The  recruits  thus  raised  for  militia 
regiments  will  be  examined  by  an  army 
medical  officer  wherever  available  near 
the  place  of  enlistment ;  when  not  avail- 
able, the  examination  will  be  made  by 
the  militia  medical  officer,  or  the  nearest 
civil  practitioner  who  is  registered  for 
the  examination  of  recruits,  preference 
being  given  to  the  former  when  equally 
accessible.  Routes,  when  necessary,  will 
be  issued  by  officers  commanding  the  sub- 
district.  It  is,  however,  unnecessary  to 
issue  routes  when  the  party  returns  the 
same  day ;  should  it,  on  the  other  hand, 
remain  out  for  one  night  or  more,  a  route 


MOD 


25 


MOD 


will,  of  course,  be   necessary  for  it  to 
obtain  billets. 

Model — With  the  view  of  illustrating 
what  Lieutenant-Colonel  Brackenbury, 
R.A.,  brought  forward  some  little  time 
since  on  the  subject  of  minor  tactics,  it  is 
thought  desirable  to  insert  in  this  Supple- 
ment the  excellent  method  of  studying 
minor  tactics,  which  Captain  Wilkinson 
Shaw,  102nd  Fusiliers,  has  introduced  at 
Aldershot  by  means  of  modelled  ground. 
The  following  is  the  description  of  his 
model  as  taken  from  the  Times : — "  A 
large  model  of  ground,  22  feet  in  length 
by  15  feet  in  width,  has  been  constructed, 
standing  about  the  height  of  a  table  from 
the  floor  of  the  lecture-room.  The  scale 
is  20  yards  to  an  inch,  or  88  inches  to 
the  mile,  the  vertical  heights  being 
exaggerated  as  1£  to  1.  The  ground  is 
mostly  ideal,  but  so  designed  as  to  present 
the  varied  kinds  of  country  of  ordinary 
English  type  necessary  to  illustrate  the 
secondary  operations  of  war.  The  model 
being  to  scale,  3  miles  long  by  2  miles 
wide,  it  follows  that  6  square  miles 
of  ground  are  shown  thereon.  The 
difficulty  of  getting  to  the  centre  of  a 
large  model  for  purposes  of  painting, 
cleaning  and  repairing,  has  been  met  by 
a  special  arrangement  of  the  framework, 
the  centre  portion  of  which  is  stationary, 
the  remainder,  divided  into  four  wings, 
two  at  each  side  of  the  centre  frame, 
opening  out  to  an  angle  sufficient  to  admit 
a  person  between  any  two  portions  as 
required.  The  wings,  which  are  15  feet 
(the  width  of  the  model)  long,  by  4  feet 
wide,  are  pivoted  at  one  end,  and  move 
out  on  iron  racers  something  after 
the  manner  of  a  traversing  platform. 
There  are  thus  four  sections  across 
the  length  of  the  model,  but  when 
closed  up  the  wings  fit  exactly  so  that 
no  division  in  the  ground  is  perceptible. 
The  surface  of  the  model  is  formed  of  a 
mixture  of  three  parts  of  lime  to  two 
parts  of  sand  and  two  and  a  half  parts 
of  plaster  of  Paris,  spread  nearly  £  inch 
thick,  over  a  substratum  of  damp  sand 
beaten  down  hard  and  modelled  to  the 
desired  contours  of  the  ground.  The 
surface  composition  sets,  so  far,  in  about 
three  days  as  to  enable  the  final  model- 
ling of  details  to  be  effected,  and  the 
elevations  of  hedges,  trees,  &c.  to  be 


fixed,  by  letting   them  in   a  portion  of 
their  height.    When  the  surface  has  quite 
dried  out,  in  about  a  week's  time,  it  'is 
sized  with  two  coats  of  thin  glue,  and  is 
then  ready  for  painting.    It  requires  two 
or  three   coats  of  oil  paint,  the  colours 
being  light  green   for  fields  and  downs, 
dark  brown  for  ploughed  fields,  the  sur- 
face   being    previously  spored    in   drills, 
various  shades  of  green  for  trees,  light 
brown   for  roads,  very  bright    shade    of 
purple   for  heather,   and  light  blue  for 
water.      Finally,  the   houses,  which   are 
cut  out  in  soft  wood,  and  painted  red  and 
slate    colour,    are    fixed   on  with  strong 
glue.    The  blocks  representing  troops  are 
cast  in  lead,  and  fairly   to  scale  so  far 
as    frontage   and  depth  go.      Individual 
scouts,  sentries,  or  vedettes  are  exagge- 
rated in  size,  so   as   to  be  seen  on  the 
model  without  difficulty.     Guns  are  only 
to  scale  so  far  as  their  total  length  when, 
limbered  up  is  concerned.     Small  parties 
of  cavalry,  not  to  scale  as  regards  depth, 
have  also  been  added  as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience.   Vertical  heights  are,  of  course, 
exaggerated ;     and     the     blocks,    while 
coloured   red  or  blue   on  the  upper  sur- 
face, to  distinguish  the  troops  of  one  side 
from  the  other  as  in  the  war  game,  are 
painted  white  at  the  sides,  so  as  to  show 
out  clearly  wherever  placed,  on  the  green, 
heather,  and  brown  tints  of  the  modelled 
ground.      The  lecturer  and  his  assistants 
move   the  blocks   on    the  model,  as  re- 
quired,   by    means    of    bamboo   rods   or 
pointers  with    a   magnetic    tip,  a  small 
piece-  of  soft    iron    being  let   into   each 
block  to  facilitate  this  arrangement.     As 
a  general  rule,  therefore,  the  model  does 
not    require    to    be    opened    out   during 
demonstrations,  but  should   the  lecturer 
for   any  special   purpose  wish  to   enter 
between  the  wings  he  can  easily  do  so. 
By  means  of  a    model    of  ground  con- 
structed on   these   principles,  studies  in 
the  minor  operations  of  war  can  be  il- 
lustrated  with    a   minuteness    of  detail 
hitherto  not  much  practised  in  our  ser- 
vice.   In  the  case,  for  example,  of  a  small 
reconnoitring    party,    it    is    possible    to 
show  the  exact  position  and  route    fol- 
lowed by  each  man.     The  exercises  given 
in  a  course  of  study  will  be  very  elemen- 
tary  at    first,    but    will    gradually    be 
increased  in  importance,  so  as  to  finally 


MOU 


26 


MUS 


illustrate  the  tactical  movements  of  small 
forces  of  the  three  arms  combined,  under 
varying  conditions.  Sometimes  the 
troops  of  one  side  only  will  be  shown,  at 
others  opposing  forces  will  be  allowed  to 
come  in  contact.  The  object  of  such 
studies  will  be  to  accustom  the  student 
to  the  position  of  leading  small  bodies  of 
troops,  and  to  force  him  to  make  up  his 
mind  as  to  a  course  of  action  under  given 
conditions ;  and  more  than  this,  it  will 
practise  the  commander  in  the  art  of 
carrying  out  his  own  designs  when  once 
he  has  determined  upon  them.  In  other 
words,  he  will  learn  not  only  what  to  do, 
but  how  to  do  it.  Having  gone  through 
a  course  on  this  system  it  is  confidently 
expected  that  the  officer  or  non-commis- 
sioned officer  will  be  enabled  to  profit  by 
subsequent  exercises  in  the  field,  to  a 
degree  that  he  would  not  otherwise  have 
done." 

Mountain  Artillery — To  be  added  to 
the  list  of  M.  T.  guns  is  the  screw 
gun,  which  takes  in  two,  being  fastened 


I  together  by  a  screw,  hence  its  name. 
The  screw  battery  did  excellent  service 
in  the  last  Afghan  war,  and  was  easy  to 
carry,  from  being  in  two  pieces. 

Musketry  Regulations — The  following 
are  the  musketry  regulations,  which 
became  also  applicable  to  the  volunteer 
force : — 

I.  With    a    view    of    improving    the 
system  of  musketry  training  in  the  army, 
and  of  developing  the  shooting  powers  of 
the  soldier  with  the  Martini-Henry  rifle, 
the   following  alterations  in  the  course 
hitherto  prescribed  for  the  drilled  soldier 
and  recruit  have  been  approved. 

II.  The  number  of  targets  to  be  fired 
at  by  the  several   classes    in   individual 
practice,  the  size  of  the  bull's-eye   and 
centre,  which  are  to  be  circular  in  form, 
the  distances  to  be  fired  at,  the  position 
and  number  of  rounds  at  a  distance,  and 
the  number  of  points  to  be  obtained  to 
pass   from  one  class  to  another,  and  to 
qualify   as   a    marksman,   are    to    be    as 
follows : — 


DRILLED  SOLDIERS. 


Points  to  be     • 

Number 

obtained  in  each  Class 

Period  and 

Position. 

of  Hounda 

with  the 

Distance. 

Martini. 

Henry. 

«*-"{$!}  

(Standing 
\Kneeling 

10) 
ID/ 

40 

40 

2nd  period  {;;«}     

Any 

(I0\ 

\10/ 

40 

SO 

3rd  period,j7001 
1st  class  (800/      

Any 

<M 

\10/ 

40* 

25* 

*  To  qualify  as  marksmen. 


III.  The   targets  for  volley  and  inde- 
pendent firing  will  remain  as  at  present. 

IV.  The    target    for  skirmishing    will 
be  2  feet  high  and  6  feet  broad,  with 
a  black  mark  in  the  centre  2  feet  square. 

V.  The  targets  to  be  fired  at  by  the 
recruit    will    be    the    same    as    for   the 
drilled  soldier ;  but  the  number  of  rounds 
at  a  distance,  the  distances  to  be  fired  at, 
and  the  number  of  points  to  be  obtained 
in  each  class,  will  remain  as  at  present 
laid  down  for  each  rifle. 


VI.  Recruits  will  not  in  future   per- 
form position  drill  in  "marching  order" 
or  with  "  fixed  bayonets." 

VII.  The  number  of  points  fixed  as  the 
value  of  the  hits   in  each  class,  and   in 
the  volley,  independent  and  skirmishing 

j  practices,  w  ill  remain  as  at  present. 

VIII.  Ricochet  butts  are    to  be  abo- 
lished.     A    "  ricochet "    can    be    distin- 
guished  in  the   marker's   butt   by    the 
sound    it    makes  when    passing   through 
the  air,  and  by  the  mark  made  on  the 


MUS 


27 


MUS 


target.  The  "  marker "  will  there- 
fore, in  future,  be  held  responsible 
that  all  ricochets  are  signalled  in  the 
usual  way  with  the  red  or  "  danger " 
flag. 

IX.  The  direction  of  misses  may  be 
shown  by  special  signal,  instructions  for 
which  will  shortly  be  published,  and 
printed  in  a  separate  sheet  for  insertion 
in  the  Rifle  Exercises  and  Musketry  In- 
struction; and  commanding  officers  will 
be  held  responsible  that  these  instruc- 
tions are  strictly  adhered  to,  more  espe- 


cially as  to  the  marker  not  leaving  his 
butt  for  this  purpose. 

X.  The  use  of  dummy  targets,  whereon 
to  indicate  the  exact  position  of  the  hits 
on  the  target,  is  also  sanctioned.     The 
instructions  in  connection  therewith  are 
embodied  in  those  for  signalling  misses. 

XI.  In    consequence    of  the    flat   tra- 
jectory   of    the     Martini  -  Henry    rifle, 
judging  distance  practice  for  the  drilled 
soldier  will  commence  at  200  yards,  and 
the  following  changes  in  the  practice  will 
take  place : — 


Period. 


Distance. 


1st  period,  3rd)  (Between  200  and) 
class  ..  ../i\  500  yards  ../ 

2nd  period,)  (Between  500  and) 
2nd  class  ../ \900yards  ..  / 

3rd  period,  1st)  (Betwe'en  200  andi 
class  ..  ../\  900  yards  ../ 


32 


Value  of  Answer. 


si!1 


;f Within  15  yards,  2  points;)1 

|\   within  30  yards,  1  point ../      10 

!  |  Within    30  yards,  2  points ;) 

l\    within  40  yards,  1  point ../      10 

;JFour    distances     at     least   to  be 

j\  over  500  yards. 


XII.  No  classification  will  take  place 
until  the  end  of  the  2nd  period. 

These  alterations  will  take  effect  from 
the  commencement  of  the  annual  course 
for  1876-77,  and  the  Rifle  Exercises  and 
Musketry  Instructions  will  be  altered  in 
accordance  therewith. 


DIAGRAMS. 

600     „ 

Bull's-eye 
Centre    .  . 
Outer 

Two  Targets. 

1  foot  diameter. 
9  feet  diameter. 
Remainder  of  target. 

300  yards 
350      „ 
400      „ 
450      „ 

Third  Class. 

200  yards, 
300       „ 

Drilled  Soldiers, 
standing)    10  rounds  at  each 
kneeling)           distance. 

Bull's-eye 
Centre 
Outer 

Recruits. 

100  yards, 
150      „ 
200       „ 
250       „ 

standing) 
„       1  5  rounds  at   each 
„       i           distance. 

5)              ) 

700  yards 
800       „ 

Three  Targets. 

Bull's-eye       .      .     2  feet  diameter. 
Centre  .      .     4  feet  diameter. 

Outer  .      .     Remainder  of  target. 

Second  Class. 
Drilled  Soldiers. 

500  yards  \  10  rounds  at  each  distance ; 
any  position. 

Recruits, 
kneeling) 

„        I  5  rounds  at  each 
„        I          distance. 
»        / 
Four  Targets. 

3  feet  diameter. 

5  feet  diameter. 

.     Remainder  of  target. 

First  Class. 
Drilled  Soldiers. 

>10  rounds  at  each  distance  ; 
any  position. 


NON 


28 


PAS 


Recruits. 
500  yards} 

550     „     I  5  rouuds   at  each  distance ; 
600     „     |  any  position. 

650     „     J 

One  Target. 

Black    mark   across   the   centre    2    feet 
square. 

Skirmishing. 

Drilled  Soldier  and  Recruit. 

10  rounds  advancing  and  retiring  between 

400  and  '200  yards ;  any  position. 


K. 

Non-Commissioned  Officer — Includes 
an  acting  X.  C.  0.,  an  army  school- 
master, and  a  warrant  officer,  not  holding 
an  honorary  commission. 


;o  a  garrison  appointment  which  necessi- 
;ates  a  horse  being  kept  up.  Riding 
masters  of  artillery  will  only  be  allowed 
£100.  A  schoolmaster  promoted  to  be 
sub-inspector  of  army  schools  is  allowed 
£100  in  aid  of  his  outfit. 


0. 

Officer — Beside  the  definition  given  in 
the  Dictionary  under  this  head,  there 
should  be  added  "a  person  whether 
retired  or  not,  who,  by  virtue  of  his 
commission  or  otherwise,  is  legally  en- 
titled to  the  style  and  rank  of  an  officer 
of  H.M.'s  forces,  or  of  any  arm,  branch,  or 
part  thereof."  Warrant  and  other  officers 
holding  honorary  commissions,  are  offi- 
cers within  the  meaning  of  the  Army 
Act  of  1881. 

Ordnance  Select  Committee — Has  been 
replaced  by  district  committees  on  all 
subjects  of  importance,  such  as  "  explo- 
sives," "heavy  guns,"  "proportions  oi 
ordnance,"  "  wads  or  gas  checks,"  &c. 

Outfit  Allowance  —  A  non-commis- 
sioned officer  granted  a  commission  on 
appointment  to  a  horse  brigade  of  the 
Koyal  Artillery  is  allowed  the  same  out- 
fit allowance  as  a  cavalry  non-commis- 
sioned officer  granted  a  commission,  viz. 
£150.  The  allowance  is  also  applicable 


P. 

Palliasse — A  soldier's  canvas  mat- 
trass.  When  required  for  use,  it  is  filled 
from  one  end  and  is  fit  ted  with  a  flap,  which 
forms  a  double  border,  and  with  eight 
tying  strings  to  secure  the  straw  from 
coming  out. 

Passage  Warrant — The  provisions  of 
this  warrant,  which  is  inserted  under  the 
head  of  Appendix  N.  in  the  Dictionary, 
have  been  somewhat  amended,  and  will  be 
found  in  A.C.  of  November,  1878,  clause 
185.  Army  Regulations  also  give 
instructions  on  the  subject. 

The  weight  of  baggage  allowed  by  the 
new  regulations  is  the  same  as  in  the 
appendix  for  staff  and  departmental  as 
well  as  for  regimental  officers,  but  the 
following  proviso  is  made: — "  Upon  em- 
barkation for  India  the  allowance  of 
baggage  of  colonels  and  lieutenant-colonels 
will  be  reduced  by  2  cwt.,  and  that  of 
majors  by  1  cwt." 

The  quantity  of  baggage  allowed  for 
officers  includes  the  following  estimated 
weight  of  furniture  : — 

STAFF.  Cwt. 

Colonel  and  lieutenant-colonel  10 

Major     8 

Junior  ranks 5 

REGIMENTAL. 

Colonel 10 

Lieutenant-colonel  and  major  8 

Junior  ranks 5 

In  those  cases  in  which  particular 
reasons  may  render  the  conveyance  of  an 
officer's  furniture  unnecessary,  the  weight 
of  baggage  for  which  he  will  be  allowed 
conveyance  will  be  reduced  accordingly. 

Par.  5  in  the  new  regulations  is  not 
included  in  Appendix  N.  It  is  as  follows : 


PAY 


29 


PEN 


The  officer  commanding  a  battalion  of 
the  foot  guards,  if  a  Held  officer,  will  be 
permitted  to  carry  the  weight  allowed 
for  a  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  line  regiment, 
and  the  captains,  if  lieutenant-colonels, 
the  weight  allowed  for  a  major  of  the 
Hue. 

To  par.  2  of  the  appendix  should  be 
added  after  •'  medical  officers "  and 
"  chaplains  to  the  forces  " ;  and  after 
"  2  cwt."  next  line,  "  veterinary  sur- 
geons and  sub-inspectors  of  schools"; 
'•  and  superintending  schoolmaster  "  ex- 
punged. 

To  par.  11  after  the  word  "company," 
"  but  soldiers  moving  in  this  country, 
though  allowed  the  benefit  of  this  addi- 
tional baggage,  will  have  no  claim  to  its 
conveyance  at  the  public  expense  when 
other  means  of  transport  are  employed." 
(For  the  rest  of  the  regulations,  vide 
warrant.) 

Pay,  Deferred — To  be  £3  per  annum  in- 
stead of  2d.  per  diem.  Interests  on  sums 
accrued  no  longer  allowed.  Deferred  pay 
granted  to  sergeants  during  the  second 
period  of  engagement,  subsequent  to  the 
1st  July,  1881,  instead  of  ceasing,  as  now, 
at  the  completion  of  twelve  years'  ser- 
vice. For  information  on  the  subject  of 
the  above  nature  of  pay,  vide  Revised 
Army  Regulations  for  1881,  from  Article 
642-653. 

Pebble  Powder — Since  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  first  pebble  powder  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  article  as  originally  manu- 
factured has  taken  place.  The  new 
powder  contains  slightly  different  condi- 
tions in  regard  to  analytical,  hygrometric, 
and  velocity  tests ;  and  also  as  to  the 
size,  shape,  and  density  of  grain.  In 
shape  the  lumps  are  cubical,  with  rounded 
edges,  and  number  about  8  to  the  Ib.  It 
is  designated  P2 ;  density  1'75.  It  is 
used  with  heavy  rifled  ordnance.  Experi- 
ments have  been  made  lately  with  a 
powder  known  as  "  prism,"  which  have 
shown  that  it  is  admirably  adapted  for 
increasing  the  penetrating  power  of  cer- 
tain of  the  heavier  guns,  and  it  has  been 
resolved  to  apply  it  to  that  purpose.  The 
new  gunpowder  consists  of  hexagonal 
prisms,  nearly  lin.  high  by  a  little  more 
than  1  l-3in.  across,  or  specifically 
0-976in.  high  and  l-367in.  diameter  over 
the  angles,  each  prism  having  a  circular 


axial  perforation  0'394in.  in  diameter,  the 
object  of  the  perforation  being  to  admit 
the  whole  of  the  powder  to  be  exposed  to 
the  flame,  and  thus  ensure  perfect  and 
equal  combustion. 

Pension — For  the  pensions  and  classi- 
fication of  pensions  of  N.C.O.  and  men  of 
the  army,  vide  warrants  September  6, 
1876,  October  1,  1876,  and  clause  114  of 
A.C.  August  1,  1877,  also  Revised  Army 
Regulations,  1881,  vol.  1. 

Pension,  Indian — The  following  arc 
the  latest  pension  rules  for  the  Indian 
Army,  and  which  took  effect  from  July 
1,  1881.  The  Gazette  of  India  states 
that,  for  the  purpose  of  these  pension 
rules,  which  will  be  known  as  those  of 
1881,  officers  will  be  divided  into  four 
classes,  viz. : — 

I.  Officers  who  entered  the  Staff  Corps 
prior  to  or  on  Sept.  12,  1866. 

II.  Officers  of  the  late  Indian  Cavalry 
and    Infantry  who    have  not  joined  the 
Staff  Corps,  commonly  known  as  officers 
of  the  Local  Service. 

III.  Officers  on  the  General  List,  who 
entered  the  service  under  "new  conditions 
of  appointment,"  and  who  have  not  sub- 
sequently joined  the  Staff  Corps. 

IV.  Officers    who    have    entered    the 
Staff  Corps  since  Sept.  12,  1866. 

3.  The  pensions  for  Classes  I.  and  1L 
will  be — 

After  20  years' service     £288  pension. 
„     24  „  420         „ 

„     28  „  571 

„     32  „  783 

4.  The  existing  regulation  which  gives 
to  these  classes  certain  rates  of  pension 
after  35  years'  and  38  years'  service  will 
thus  become  inoperative. 

5.  The  conditions  of  retirement  offered 
in  G.G.O.  No.  1  of  Jan.  1,  1881,  will  not 
be  renewed. 

6.  The  pensions  for  officers  in  Classes 
III.  and  IV.  will  be- 
After  20  years'  service     £250  pension. 

„     24  r,  365         „ 

„     28  „  500         „ 

n     32  „  700 

„     38  „  (as  now)  750         „ 

7.  Furlough  service    for  pension  will 
continue  to  be  governed  by  the  furlough 
regulations  under  which  each  officer  may 
be  serving. 

8.  The  senior  officers  of  Classes  III.  and 


PEN 


30 


PRO 


IV.  will  succeed  to  colonel's  allowances 
as  soon  as  they  have  completed  twelve 
years  as  substantive  lieut.-colonel,  until 
the  number  of  officers  in  receipt  of  the 
allowances  is  equal  to  one-thirtieth  of  the 
whole  of  the  officers  in  their  respective 
lists  in  each  Presidency, and  thenceforward 
the  number  of  colonel's  allowances  then 
enjoyed  by  officers  of  that  class  shall  be 
considered  as  the  fixed  establishment  to 
which  officers  are  to  succeed  by  seniority 
as  vacancies  arise.  For  the  purposes  of 
this  scheme  all  the  officers  of  Class  III.  of 
all  three  Presidencies  will  be  placed  on 
one  list.  The  establishment  will  be 
ascertained  by  the  number  of  officers 
remaining  on  that  amalgamated  list  on 
the  day  the  senior  officer  completes  12 
years'  service  as  substantive  lieut.-colonel. 

9.  No    colonel's    allowances    will    be 
granted  to  any  officer  joining  the  Staff 
Corps  as  a  probationer  after  July  1,  1881. 

10.  Pension    regulations    for    officers 
entering   the   Staff  Corps   henceforward 
will  be  notified  hereafter. 

11.  Officers  will  be  allowed  to  com- 
mute a  portion,  not  exceeding  one-third, 
of  their  pensions,  and  this  commutation 
may  take   place   at   any  time,  and   not 
merely  on  retirement. 

12.  In  every  case  the  capitalised  sum 
will  be  payable  in  rupees  in  India,  the 
sterling    sum    being    converted    at   the 
official  rate  of  exchange  for  the  year  in 
which  the  payment  is  made. 

13.  Full  power  is  reserved  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  for  India  to  temporarily 
suspend  or  limit  retirement,  whenever  it 
may  appear  to  him  necessary  in  the  in- 
terests of  the  public  service  to  do  so. 


VETERINARY  DEPARTMENT. 

Under  the  authority  of  the  Secretary 
of  State  for  India,  H.E.  the  Governor- 
General  in  Council  is  pleased  to  notify 
that  the  following  will  be  the  scale  of 
pensions  for  the  officers  of  the  Indian 
Veterinary  Department : — 
After  25  years'  service,  including 

3  years'  furlough  or  leave  of 
absence        ....  £350 

After  30  years'  service,  including 

4  years'  furlough  or  leave  of 
absence       ....     450 


2.  The  commutation  of  a  portion  of 
the  pension  not  exceeding  one-third,  as 
sanctioned  for  combatant  officers,  will  be 
allowed    under    the    same    conditions    to 
officers    of  the  Veterinary    Department, 
such  commutation  being  allowed  to  take 
place  at  any  time,  and  not  merely  on  re- 
tirement. 

3.  In  every  case  the  capitalised   sum 
will  be  payable   in  rupees  in  India,  the 
sterling    sum    being    converted    at    the 
official  rate  of  exchange  for  the  year  in 
which  the  payment  is  made. 

4.  The  new  scale  of  pensions  will  have 
effect  from  July  1,  1881. 

Pensions — To  be  granted  to  all  soldiers 
in  the  British  Army  who  have  served  for 
twenty-one  years  from  date  of  enlist- 
ment. 

Pipe-box — Phosphor-bronze  is  used  for 
the  pipe-boxes  of  siege  and  field  wheels 
which  have  had  hitherto  pipes  of  ordi- 
nary bronze. 

Pistols— With  reference  to  G.  0.  16, 
of  1877,  on  the  subject  of  revolver 
pistols,  it  is  to  be  understood  that, 
although  Adams'  revolver  is  the  service 
pattern,  officers  who  may  provide  them- 
selves with  revolvers  of  other  makers 
will  be  in  a  position  to  obtain  service 
ammunition  from  the  stores  of  an  army 
in  the  field,  as  well  as  those  who  procure 
Adams'  revolver,  provided  the  pistols  are 
suitable  for  the  0-45  inch  calibre  service 
cartridge.  Adams'  revolver  pistol  is 
supplied  to  cavalry  in  place  of  the  M.L. 
rifled  pistol. 

Police,  Military  —  Mounted  police 
employed  at  the  various  stations  are  not 
in  future  to  be  borne  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  cavalry  regiments  from 
which  they  are  drawn,  but  will  be 
formed  into  a  separate  corps,  which  will 
be  referred  to  in  all  official  documents  as 
the  corps  of  mounted  police.  The  corps 
numbers  8  non-commissioned  officers  and 
67  men. 

Pontoon  Boat — The  present  pontoon 
boat  has  undergone  certain  modifications 
in  the  mode  of  construction  and  fitment. 
Vide  list  of  changes  in  war  materiel, 
June,  1877. 

Promotion — For  the  rules  which  regu- 
late the  promotion  of  officers,  .tide 
Revised  Army  Regulations  for  1881. 

Promotion,  Army,  vide  royal  warrant, 


RAN 


31 


ROC 


August  13,  1877,  and  clause  53,  A.C. 
April  1,  J878,  also  royal  warrant,  1st 
July,  1881. 


E. 

Range-finder — An  instrument  bearin 
this  name  has  been  introduced  into  th 
service  for  elevated  batteries,  as  well  a 
for  field  guns. 

Bank,  Honorary  —  Granted  whilst 
serving,  to  a  lieut.-colonel,  or  major,  or 
captain,  after  a  certain  period  of  service 
in  each  grade,  viz. :  to  the  former  after 
twenty-five  years'  service,  and  twenty 
years  to  the  latter  and  to  surgeons  on  re- 
tirement. This  rule  applies  to  all  com- 
missioned officers  in  the  army,  royal 
navy,  royal  marines,  and  the  auxiliary 


forces. 
Rations— The 


war    ration   has   been 


slightly  altered  to  what  is  laid  down  in 
the  Dictionary.  In  the  event  of  spirits 
being  issued  |  gill  is  the  quantity.  The 
scale  of  rations  at  home  and  at  foreign 
stations  differs  also  slightly. 

Re-engagement— Explained  in  Dic- 
tionary, but  the  terms  have  been  altered. 
The  present  Army  Act  reads  thus: 
"  Subject  to  any  general  or  special  regula- 
tions from  time  to  time  made  by  a  Secretary 
of  State,  a  soldier  of  the  regular  forces  of 
an  army  service,  and  within  three  years 
of  the  completion  of  his  original  term  of 
enlistment,  may,  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  commanding  officer,  and  with  the 
approval  of  the  competent  military 
authority.be  re-engaged  for  such  further 
period  of  army  service  as  will  make  up  a 
total  continuous  period  of  twenty-one 
years  of  army  service,  reckoned  from  the 
date  of  his  attestation,  and  inclusive  of 
any  period  previously  served  in  the  re- 
serve." The  above  is  subject  to  certain 
instructions,  as  shewn  in  the  Queen's 
Regulations. 

Re-engagement  of  Soldiers  — Men 
who  have  been  discharged  from  the  army, 
may  be  permitted  to  re-enlist  up  to  the 


age  of  28  under  certain  circumstances,  as 
shewn  in  Queen's  Regulations. 

Regiment,  Infantry — Consists  under 
the  new  Army  Regulations  of  four  batta- 
lions—two of  the  line  and  two  militia. 
In  many  of  the  new  territorial  regi- 
ments, the  fourth  battalion  has  not  yet 
been  raised.  Rifle  regiments  have  more 
than  four  battalions. 

Regimental — Means  connected  with 
a  corps,  or  with  any  battalion,  or  other 
sub-division  of  a  corps. 

Reserve  Forces — Means  the  army  re- 
serve force  and  the  militia  reserve  force  as 
established  under  the  Reserve  Force  Act, 
1867. 

Reserve,  Supplemental — Men  enrolled 
in  the  1st  class  of  the  army  reserve, 
under  the  condition  that  they  are  not  to 
be  called  out  for  permanent  service,  until 
;he  whole  of  the  remainder  of  the  said 
1st  class  have  been  called  out  for  per- 


nanent  service. 


war- 


Retirement,   Army,   vMe    royal    „„,. 
ant,  August  13,  1877  ;  clause  171,  A.C 
November    1,    1877;     clause    53,    AC 
April  1,  1878,  and   Revised  Army  Regu- 
itions  1881.     Vol.  1. 

Revolvers,  vide  pistols.  The  charge  is 
3  grains  of  Adams'  pistol  powder. 

Rifling — The  polygrooved  system  is 
gaining  its  way  in  the  opinion  of  artil- 
erists  for  ordnance. 

Rocket,  War,  Hale,  24-pr.— A  new 
pattern  rocket  of  this  nature  was  intro- 
duced shortly  after  the  Dictionary  was 
published.  It  differs  from  the  previous 
pattern  as  follows,  viz.:— "The  iron  case 
is  cylindrical  without  any  corrugations  • 
it  is  fixed  to  the  head  and  base  piece  by 
stronger  rivets  and  screws,  of  which 
there  are  ten  of  each  instead  of  eight ; 
the  interior,  instead  of  being-  painted  is 
roughened,  and  then  lined  with  a  case 
made  of  four  turns  of  brown  paper  and 
one  turn  of  calico  coated  with  shellac. 
The  lining  is  tightly  pressed  in  and  bur- 
nished before  filling  in  the  composition. 
The  paper  discs  over  the  vents  are  dis- 
continued, and  the  interior  of  the  rocket 
is  protected  by  a  piece  of  painted  canvas 
covered  over  the  whole  of  the  tail-piece. 
This  canvas  is  secured  by  a  wrapping  of 
twine  round  the  base  end  of  the  rocket  • 
the  end  of  the  tail-piece  is  previously 
covered  by  a  piece  of  leather  to  prevent 


SAL 


32 


SCO 


the  sharp  edges  cutting  through  the 
canvas  cover." 

N.B. — "The  twine  must  be  cut,  anc 
the  canvas  and  leather  removed  before 
tiring. 

It  differs  from  the  previous  pattern 
in  the  following  particulars,  viz. : — 

The  head  is  made  of  ebonite  instead  ol 
wood. 

The  primer  is  fitted  with  two  wires  ol 
platinum,  28  W.G.,  instead  of  copper, 
24  W.G.,  and  the  ends  of  the  wires  are 
flush  with  the  sulphur  pillar,  and  are 
connected  by  a  streak  ot  black  lead. 

The  conducting  wires  are  insulated 
with  vulcanised  india-rubber  instead  ol 
gutta-percha. 

The  tin  tube  is  1'35  inch  in  length, 
instead  of  !•?  inch. 

It  is  painted  similarly  to  Mark  I.,  vide 
changes  in  war  materiel,  but  may  be 
distinguished  from  it  by  having  a  shorter 
tin  tube,  and  by  the  conducting  wires 
being  covered  with  india-rubber." 


8. 

Salute — Her  Majesty  the  Queen  as 
Empress  of  India  is  saluted  in  India  with 
101  guns;  the  viceroy  and  governor- 
general  of  India  with  31  guns. 

Salutes — To  be  given  by  soldiers  to 
officers  of  the  civil  department  of  the 
army. 

Scouts — In  a  memorandum  on  "  drill  " 
issued  to  the  army  a  few  years  ago, 
the  duties  of  scout*  or  scouting  are  ex- 
plained as  follows  : — 

"  A  distinction  must  be  drawn  between 
scouting  to  report  on  ground  and  scout- 
ing for  information.  In  scouting  for 
information,  a  fourth  of  the  scouts  usually 
sent  out  would,  as  a  rule,  suffice,  if  they 
knew  their  work.  In  open  ground  they 
may  be  as  much  as  1,000  yards  apart. 
When  scouts  come  to  open  ground  they 
should  push  forward  rapidly  to  the  front, 
and  widely  to  the  Hanks  until  touch  is 
gained  of  the  enemy.  The  parties  im- 


mediately furnishing  the  scouts  should 
follow  the  latter  at  supporting^  distance. 
When  the  enemy's  scouts  are  .met  with, 
they  must  be  driven  in,  if  possible,  with 
a  view  to  seeing  what  is  going  on  behind 
them.  This  would  be  done  either  by 
reinforcing  the  line  of  scouts  by  the 
party  in  support,  or  by  breaking  through 
some  part  of  the  enemy's  line  with  this 
party  united,  and  attacking  the  enemy's 
support  at  once.  If  the  enemy's  scouting 
party  is  in  superior  force,  then  the  scouts 
would,  if  possible,  hold  their  ground, 
to  continue  watching  the  enemy's  move- 
ments, and  prevent  him  from  discovering 
the  force  and  movements  on  their  own 
side.  If  pressed  back,  they  should  retire 
slowly,  until  their  own  infantry  arrives 
within  range  of  the  enemy's  scouts, 
when,  their  work  being  now  over,  they 
should,  at  once,  rapidly  clear  the  front 
all  together.  The  business  of  the  scout- 
ing party  being  to  obtain  and  send  back 
information,  an  immediate  report  should 
be  despatched  on  coming  in  contact  with 
the  enemy.  Frequent  reports  of  any 
changes  in  the  enemy's  force  and  move- 
ments should  follow  as  long  a»  scouts 
remain  out.  The  officer  in  command  of 
the  scouting  party  is  responsible  for  the 
correctness  of  the  reports  sent  back. 
Each  report  should,  therefore,  contain 
not  only  the  fact  of  the  enemy  being  in 
front,  but  as  much  information  as  can  be 
ascertained  as  to  his  different  arms, 
strength  of  force,  and  general  direction 
of  his  movements.  Scouts  should  be  sent 
out  in  pairs,  so  that  the  enemy  may  be 
still  watched  while  one  man  brings  back 
information.  Before  sending  out  his 
scouts  the  commander  of  the  party- 
should  give  clear  instructions  to  each 
scout  as  to  what  he  should  report,  and 
where  he  should  bring  his  report  to. 

In  like  manner,  a  clear  understanding 
should  exist  between  the  commander  of 
the  scouting  party  and  the  commander 
of  the  whole  force  (when  the  force  is 
small,  as  here  supposed)  as  to  the  exact 
point  to  where  reports  from  the  front* 
should  be  sent ;  and  if  the  commander 
should  have  to  leave  this  locality,  a  staff 
or  other  officer  should  be  posted"  there  to 
receive  these  reports  and  forward  them 
at  once.  These  latter  points  are  of  ex- 
reme  importance,  as  messengers  from 


SEC 


33 


SOL 


the  front  are  constantly  seen  galloping 
in  the  wildest  way  over  the  field  in 
quest  of  a  commander  without  any  clue 
to  his  whereabouts.  Much  time  (of  ex- 
treme importance  at  this  stage,  when 
information  is  so  essential)  is  hereby  lost, 
and  horses  are  unnecessarily  overworked. 
As  a  general  rule,  when  two  opposing 
lines  of  scouts  approach  each  other,  that 
side  which  can  show  the  strongest  party 
in  immediate  support,  can  claim  that  the 
other  side  fall  back.  If  the  parties  in 
immediate  support  on  each  side  are  equal, 
both  are  entitled  to  hold  their  ground. 
If  the  superiority  on  one  side  be  not 
equal  to  two  to  one,  then  the  weaker 
side  may  fall  back  at  a  walk.  If  equal 
to  two  to  one,  the  weaker  side  must  fall 
back  at  a  trot.  This  matter  of  scouting 
is  one  that  requires  close  supervision,  as, 
if  badly  performed,  it  is  worse  than  use- 
less, for  it  does  harm  in  proportion  to 
the  false  sense  of  security  it  affords  the 
main  body.  In  most  parts  of  Great 
Britain,  nearly  every  road  is,  from  the 
nature  of  the  adjoining  country,  itself  a 
defile  ;  and  all  cultivated  grounds  abound 
in  plantations.  Practice  in  the  defence 
and  attack  of  defiles  and  small  woods 
would,  therefore,  seem  a  very  useful 
exercise  for  our  troops." 

Seconded — Defined  in  the  Dictionary, 
but  since  then  the  rules  on  the  subject 
have  undergone  a  change.  As  stated  in 
the  Revised  Army  Regulations  an  officer 
will  be  seconded : — (1)  On  joining  the 
Advanced  Class  of  officers  of  the  Royal 
Artillery.  (2)  On  being  appointed  to  the 
General,  Personal,  or  Educational  Staff, 
or  to  an  adjutantcy  in  the  Auxiliary 
Forces  (other  than  the  infantry  militia.) 

He  may  also  under  other  circumstances 
be  seconded. 

An  officer  after  he  has  been  seconded 
for  five  years  in  a  civil  situation,  shall, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of 
State,  have  this  limit  extended  for  a 
further  period  of  five  years. —  Vide  R.W., 
1st  July,  1881. 

Servant's  Allowance  to  Military 
Officers,  vide  A.C.  of  November  1878, 
clause  183. 

Service  Abroad— In  the  future  the 
tour  nominally  of  a  regiment  will  com- 
prise about  sixteen  years.  Officers  and 
men  will,  however,  not  be  actually  more 


than  eight  years  in  India,  being  mainly 
relieved  by  drafts. 

Siege  Train — On  the  subject  of  artil- 
lery trains,  light  and  heavy,  the  following 
has  been  decided  upon  : — "  For  adminis- 
trative purposes  the  train  will  be  formed 
into  units,  some  of  light  and  others  of 
heavy  rifled  artillery.  Each  unit  of  the 
light  siege  train  will  comprise  30 
guns,  viz.  ten  40-prs.,  ten  25-prs., 
and  ten  6'3-inch  howitzers.  Each  unit  of 
heavy  siege  train  will  also  consist  of  30 
guns,  of  which  number  14  will  be  8- 
inch  howitzers,  and  the  remaining  16 
40-pr.  and  64-pr.  guns — 8  of  each  nature. 
With  each  of  the  above  units  will  be 
associated  six  7-pr.  field-guns  of  200 
Ibs.  (the  lightest  guns  in  the  service 
being  intended  as  mountain  train 
guns),  and  300  24-pr.  Hale's  rockets. 
Mortars,  which  have  become  almost  prac- 
tically obsolete,  have  been  superseded  in 
the  siege  train  equipment  by  rifled 
howitzers." 

Sling  Bridge — This  nature  of  bridge, 
known  as  the  "  single  sling  bridge,"  was 
formerly  called  the  "  single  truss  bridge." 

Solar  Telegraphy,  vide  Heliostat,  in 
the  Dictionary.  The  following  interesting 
subject  on  solar  telegraphy,  taken  from 
the  Times  a  few  years  ago,  is  herewith 
reprinted : — 

"  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation 
that  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  brilliantly 
reflected  to  enormous  distances  from 
glass  buildings  or  from  polished  surfaces. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  Crystal  Palace  as 
a  familiar  illustration ; ,  the  sun's  rays, 
falling  upon  the  ridged  roof  at  a  suitable 
angle,  are  reflected  many  miles  away,  and 
are  clearly  visible  even  when  the  building 
is  only  dimly  discernible  through  miles 
of  intervening  smoky  atmosphere.  Con- 
sidering this,  it  might  appear  somewhat 
remarkable  that  advantage  has  not  been 
taken  of  the  circumstance  to  found  a 
system  of  telegraphy  thereon.  Not  that 
such  a  system  could  always  be  relied 
upon  for  use  in  this  and  other  climates 
where  sunlight  is  capricious.  But  in 
countries  where  sunshine  is  not  so  fitful 
such  a  system  would  serve  the  most  use- 
ful purposes.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
rays  of  the  sun  have  been  utilised  for 
signalling  purposes  at  intervals  for  cen- 
turies past.  The  fleet  of  Alexander  the 
D 


SOL 


34 


SOL 


<5reat  is  said  to  have  been  guided  along 
the  Persian  Gulf  by  mirrors  on  his  return 
from  invading  India.  On  the  North 
American  prairies,  too,  the  Indians  still 
•carry  on  signalling  by  means  of  sun- 
flashes,  and  a  similar  method  was  adopted 
toy  the  Russians  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol. 
But  the  principle  appears  never  to  have 
ibeen  reduced  to  a  system ;  arbitrary 
:sia;ns  have  been  and  still  are  used;  and 
mo  attempt  seems  to  have  been  hitherto 
made  to  >work  out  a  perfect  code  of  signals 
and  to  devise  an  instrument  or  apparatus 
which  shall  represent  them. 

Sun-flashing  has,  however,  been  of  es- 
sential service  rn  our  Ordnance  Survey, 
although  ieven  there  it  was  only  made  to 
convey  very  limited  information  —  to 
signal  only,  in  fact,  a»d  not  to  converse. 
Towards  the  cJose  -of  the  last  century 
General  Hoy  was  engaged  in  connecting 
the  meridians  of  Paris  -and  Greenwich, 
and  he  employed  sun^flashing  in  his 
operations.  Later  on,  in  the  early  years 
of  our  Trigonometrical  Survey,  Bengal 
lights  or  Argand  lamps  were  burned  at 
night  on  the  distant  points  the  bearings 
of  which  it  was  desired  to  take.  But 
this  gave  a  very  limited  range  and 
involved  other  practical  difficulties,  which 
led  to  the  invention  by  Captain  Drum- 
mond,  R.E.,  of  the  light  which  bears  his 
name.  This  enabled  ranges  of  from  30 
to  40  miles  to  be  obtained,  but  even 
these  distances  were  soon  exceeded  when, 
in  1822,  Colonel  Colby,  R.E.,  who  was 
then  in  charge  of  the  survey,  designed  an 
apparatus  for  signalling  by  dashing  the 
sun's  rays,  which  proved  very  successful. 
Subsequently  Captain  Drummond  im- 
proved upon  Colonel  Colby's  instrument 
by  the  invention  known  as  the  heliostat, 
which  was  an  instrument  consisting  of 
an  Adjustable  mirror  as  a  reflector,  worked 
in  connection  with  a  combination  of  tele- 
scopes. This  apparatus,  at  first  somewhat 
complex,  was  afterwards  greatly  sim- 
plified. Professor  Gauss,  who  was  at 
this  time  conducting  the  survey  of 
Hanover,  also  introduced  a  similar  in- 
strument, which  proved  of  great  service 
in  facilitating  the  work.  The  heliostat 
is  now  a  recognised  adjunct  of  all  trigo- 
nometrical surveys,  and  by  its  aid 
triangles  having  sides  over  100  miles  in 
length  have  been  formed  even  in  Great 


Britain — notably  that  formed  by  Sea  Fell 
in  Cumberland,  Slieve  Donard  in  Ireland, 
and  Snowdon  in  Wales,  the  sides  of  which 
are  respectively  111,  108,  and  102  miles 
in  length. 

But  the  heliostat  does  no  more  than 
permit  of  an  arbitrary  set  of  signals  being 
exchanged ;  it  does  not  allow  a  conversa- 
tion to  be  carried  on.  To  bring  the  beams 
of  the  sun  into  subjection  in  this  respect, 
and  to  utilise  them  as  a  means  of  freely 
interchanging  ideas,  was  left  for  Mr. 
Henry  C.  Mance,  of  the  Government 
Persian  Gulf  Telegraph  Department,  to 
accomplish.  This  he  has  succeeded  in 
effecting  by  means  of  a  very  simple 
apparatus,  which  is  known  as  the  Mance 
Heliograph,  or  sun-telegraph,  the  con- 
struction of  which  we  have  lately  had  an 
opportunity  of  examining  at  the  chambers 
of  Mr.  S.  Goode,  5,  Gray's-inn  Square, 
that  gentleman  representing  Mr.  Mance 
in  this  country.  The  heliograph  consists 
in  the  first  place  of  a  light  tripod  stand 
about  4  ft.  long  when  folded  up  for  trans- 
port. On  this  tripod  is  screwed  a  circular 
mirror,  varying  in  diameter  according  to 
the  purpose  for  which  the  instrument  is 
designed  ;  that  is,  whether  for  field  or 
fixed  observations.  If  for  the  former 
purpose,  the  mirror  is  about  4  in.  in 
diameter ;  while  if  for  the  latter,  it  is 
about  9  inches.  The  mirror  is  hung  in  a 
frame  so  as  to  revolve  about  a  horizontal 
axis,  and  it  is  adjusted  to  the  required 
angle  of  incidence  with  the  sun  by  means 
of  a  telescopic  connecting-rod  having  a 
screw  adjustment,  the  top  end  being  at- 
tached to  the  upper  edge  of  the  mirror  at 
the  back.  The  horizontal  circular  tra- 
verse of  the  instrument  is  obtained  by 
means  of  a  tangent  screw  gearing  into  a 
small  horizontal  worm-wheel,  with  the 
centre  of  which  the  mirror  is  connected. 
Bymeans  of  the  tangent  screw  and  the  ver- 
tical screwed  rod  the  rays  of  the  sun  can 
be  made  to  fall  upon  any  given  point 
with  the  utmost  precision.  The  vertical 
rod  behind  the  mirror  is  pivoted  at  the 
bottom  to  a  lever,  the  fulcrum  of  which 
is  on  the  horizontal  worm-wheel,  the 
lever  constantly  pressing  against  the 
lower  end  of  the  rod  by  m'eans  of  a  spring 
which  is  placed  under  it.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  when  the  rod  is  depressed  it 
will  depress  the  top  edge  of  the  mirror 


SOL 


35 


SOL 


and  draw  it  slightly  backwards,  the 
bottom  edge  being  at  the  same  time 
slightly  raised  and  thrown  forwards.  In 
adjusting  the  instrument  to  commence 
signalling  the  rays  are  directed  to  a 
point  slightly  below  the  distant  observer's 
level,  but  upon  depressing  the  connecting 
rod — for  which  purpose  there  is  a  small 
finger-piece  attached  to  it — the  flash  is 
raised  to  the  level  of  the  observer,  and  he 
sees  it.  If,  now,  the  lengths  of  these 
flashes  be  varied  and  grouped,  they  can 
be  made  to  represent  letters,  and  so  words 
composing  messages  can  be  spelt  out. 
This  is  precisely  what  Mr.  Mance  has 
done,  and  by  adopting  the  Morse  system 
of  dashes  and  dots  he  is  able  on  a  fine  day 
to  make  himself  understood  by  an  ob- 
server many  miles  off  as  easily  as  one 
electric  telegraph  operator  makes  himself 
intelligible  to  another. 

In  adjusting  the  instrument  for  use  a 
light  wooden  rod  having  two  brass  sliding 
sights  upon  it  is  employed.  This  is  set 
up  in  the  ground  in  front  of  the  instru- 
ment, and  the  operator  looks  through  a 
small  space  in  the  centre  of  the  mirror, 
from  which  the  quicksilver  has  been  re- 
moved, towards  the  station  with  which 
he  desires  to  communicate.  The  upper 
sight  on  the  rod  is  then  moved  vertically 
until  the  centre  of  the  mirror,  the  sight, 
and  the  distant  station  are  truly  aligned. 
Hence  when  the  flash  from  the  mirror  is 
directed  on  to  the  sight  it  is  in  true  line 
with  the  distant  station,  and  can  be  seen 
by  the  observer  there.  This  will,  of 
course,  be  whenever  the  angle  of  the 
mirror  is  raised ;  when  depressed,  or  in 
its  normal  position,  the  flash  rests  upon  a 
cross-piece  on  the  rod,  and,  according  as 
the  sun's  horizontal  and  vertical  motions 
cause  the  flash  to  deviate  from  the  true 
line,  the  signaller  is  able  to  see  and  to 
correct  the  error  by  means  of  the  adjust- 
ments on  the  instrument.  The  observer 
at  the  distant  station  having  seen  the 
bright  star-like  appearances,  sets  his  in- 
strument to  the  point  at  which  they 
appear  and  acknowledges  the  fact,  and 
the  parties  being  thus  placed  in  commu- 
nication, the  interchange  of  messages 
proceeds  upon  the  system  we  have  men- 
tioned— namely,  the  Morse  alphabet. 

There  are  other  details  to  which  it  is 
not  necessary  to  refer  here,  further  than 


to  observe  that  they  consist  in  arrange- 
ments for  signalling  with  the  sun  behind 
the  apparatus  by  means  of  a  reflector ; 
for  signalling  at  night,  and  for  signalling 
either  from  fixed  or  variable  positions.  It 
is,  however,  an  important  fact  that  the 
apparatus  has  been  in  use  for  some  time 
in  India,  where  its  working  has  been 
attended  with  every  success,  the  range  of 
the  signals  being  very  great  and  their  in- 
telligibility absolute.  Official  reports  are 
very  explicit  in  both  these  respects,  and 
fully  establish  the  capabilities  of  the 
heliograph.  They  state  that  the  signals 
given  are  perfectly  clear  and  satisfactory, 
and  that  they  can  be  easily  read  in 
ordinary  weather  without  telescopes  up 
to  50  miles.  Captain  Collette,  D.A.Q.M.G., 
certifies  that  under  favourable  conditions 
messages  can  be  signalled  up  to  80  or 
even  100  miles  without  recourse  being 
had  to  telescopes.  The  heliograph  has 
the  recommendations  of  economy  iu  first 
cost  and  portability,  as  it  weighs  com- 
plete about  5  11).,  and  packs  up  into  a 
very  small  compass. 

Subsequently  to  examining  into  the 
construction  of  the  heliograph  we  were 
afforded  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  its 
practical  working  by  Mr.  Goode.  Taking 
advantage  of  the  sunshine  on  Monday 
afternoon,  Mr.  Goode  stationed  himself  on 
the  dome  of  St.  Paul's,  having  previously 
despatched  an  electric  telegraph  operator 
to  the  Crystal  Palace,  where  he  stationed 
himself  with  a  heliograph  in  the  gallery 
of  the  North  Tower.  Mr.  Goode  had  a 
telegraphic  operator  with  him,  and  there 
was  also  present  Mr.  Sanders,  of  the 
Eastern  Telegraph  Company,  who  are  ar- 
ranging for  the  application  of  the  system 
from  Gibraltar  across  the  Straits  to 
Ceuta,  in  Morocco,  thus  bringing  that 
country  into  telegraphic  communication 
with  Europe.  The  weather  was  not  very 
propitious,  the  sky  being  at  times  over- 
cast, while  during  the  operations  a  heavy 
storm-cloud  was  observed  to  drift  over 
Sydenham.  The  two  operators,  more- 
over, had  not  previously  seen  the  appa- 
ratus and  made  no  arrangement  previously 
to  setting  to  work  as  to  their  course  of 
procedure.  Nevertheless,  the  instruments 
were  duly  sighted,  and  a  series  of  brilliant 
flashes  of  light  from  the  Palace  tower 
indicated  that  those  from  St.  Paul's  had 
D  2 


SOL 


36 


STU 


been  seen.  Signals  in  long  and  short 
flashes  were  freely  interchanged  as  the 
intervals  of  sunshine  permitted,  but  for 
reasons  stated  conversation  was  not 
entered  upon.  In  other  words,  the 
operators  signalled  rapidly  and  readily, 
but  they  did  not  talk,  as  they  might 
have  done  by  preconcerted  arrangement. 
Sufficient,  however,  was  effected  to  de- 
monstrate that,  given  an  unclouded  sun, 
the  heliograph  is  a  very  efficient  tele- 
graphic instrument. 

The  uses  to  which  the  heliograph  may 
be  applied  are  very  numerous,  although 
it  is  not  pretended  that  they  are  number- 
less. In  military  operations  especially  it 
would  prove  invaluable;  if,  for  instance, 
the  system  had  been  in  use  by  the  French 
army  during  the  siege  of  Metz,  Marshal 
Bazaine  could  have  communicated  with 
the  forces  which  were  operating  for  his 
relief  without  hindrance,  and  in  all  pro- 
bability France  would  not  have  expe- 
rienced the  disaster  of  Sedan.  Looking 
at  our  Indian  possessions,  should  another 
mutiny  occur  there,  lines  of  telegraph 
wires  would,  of  course,  be  cut  and  rail- 
ways destroyed.  At  such  a  juncture  the 
heliograph  would  prove  invaluable  by 
maintaining  communication  between  dis- 
tant points.  By  its  means,  too,  a  detached 
force  operating  in  hill  districts  could  be 
connected  with  the  main  body  of  troops, 
or  two  forces  like  Wolseley's  and  Glover's 
in  the  late  Ashantee  war  could  be  thus 
united  and  enabled  to  operate  in  concert. 
For  reconnoitring,  flanking  and  reconais- 
sance  parties  also  it  would  prove  highly 
advantageous ;  it  would  not  matter,  so 
far  as  the  operations  were  concerned,  if  a 
reconnaissance  party  were  captured,  be- 
cause, unless  surprised,  they  would  have 
previously  flashed  their  information  back 
to  the  main  army.  It  is  not  intended 
that  the  heliograph  should  supersede 
flag-signalling,  although  in  many  cases  it 
might  be  used  with  advantage  in  the 
place  of  flags,  which  are  invisible  at  long 
ranges  unless  they  can  be  displayed  on 
the  horizon.  In  fact,  just  at  the  point 
where  flags  fail  the  heliograph  becomes 
useful. 

The  applications  of  the  heliograph  to 
civil  purposes  are  not  less  numerous  than 
those  to  military  use.  It  would  serve  as 
a  substitute  for  wires  in  countries  where 


the  electric  telegraph  would  not  pay,  and 
where  trunk  lines  existed  they  could  be 
fed  by  the  heliograph,  which  would  effect 
communication  with  the  outlying  dis- 
tricts. It  could  be  used  for  temporary 
purposes  on  special  occasions  inland,  while 
there  are  countries  on  the  coasts  of  which 
it  might  be  substituted  for  expensive  sub- 
marine cables.  In  the  event,  too,  of  short 
submarine  cables  failing,  as  they  often 
do,  it  could  be  used  for  maintaining  com- 
munication, provided  the  weather  per- 
mitted. In  short,  the  heliograph  would 
appear  to  be  an  admirable  adjunct  to  the 
electric  telegraph  in  all  countries,  while 
in  some  it  would  supersede  it  with  ad- 
vantage. It  is,  as  we  have  previously 
observed,  already  in  use  in  India,  and  we 
are  informed  that  our  own  Government, 
as  well  as  several  foreign  Powers  are 
investigating  its  merits  with  a  view  to 
its  adoption."  During  the  late  campaign 
in  Afghanistan,  Solar  Telegraphy  was 
much  resorted  to,  and  its  use  proved 
invaluable. 

Soldier  —  This  expression  does  not 
include  an  officer  as  defined  by  the  Army 
Act  of  1881,  but,  with  the  modifications 
in  the  Act,  contained  in  relation  to  war- 
rant and  non-commissioned  officers,  does 
include  a  warrant  officer  not  having  an 
honorary  commission,  and  a  non-com- 
missioned officer,  and  every  person 
subject  to  military  law,  during  the  time 
that  he  is  so  subject. 

Staff — A  change  has  been  made  in 
the  regulations  as  regards  staff  employ- 
ment, whereby  officers  of  regiments  on 
the  home  establishment  are  permitted  to 
take  up  staff  appointments  in  India  and 
in  the  colonies,  and  in  the  case  of  regi- 
ments returning  home  from  abroad  to 
retain  their  appointments  during  the 
regulated  period,  if  seconded  or  permitted 
to  retain  the  appointment  by  special 
authority. 

Stock — Government  property,  such  as 
stores,  composing  the  contents  of  an 
arsenal  or  any  other  department.  A 
combatant  officer  appointed  to  "  take 
stock,"  either  at  home  or  abroad,  is  en- 
titled to  receive  extra  pay  of  5s.  a 
day. 

Studs — Under  this  head  in  the  Diction- 
ary it  is  shewn  that  studs  are  fastened  to 
most  projectiles  in  the  service,  and  the 


STB 


37 


TRE 


reason  for  so  doing  is  given  ;  but  there  is  j 
a  very  general  impression  among  artil- 
lerists that  studs  are  not  necessary  to  I 
rotate  the  projectile,  as  this  can  be ! 
obtained  now  by  discs  of  soft  metal  ! 
attached  to  the  rear  of  the  shot,  in  other  j 
words,  a  gas  check,  which,  by  expanding 
so  as  to  fit  the  bore  and  fill  up  the 
grooves,  not  only  prevents  the  escape  of : 
gas,  but  gives  the  projectile  the  necessary  j 
rotation  on  its  axis.  The  form  of  the 
rifling  and  number  of  grooves  has  yet  to 
be  decided,  but  practically  studs  are 
condemned,  and  the  gas  check  eventually 
will  be  alone  relied  on  to  spin  the  shot, 
with  the  possible  addition  of  a  band  of 
soft  metal,  such  as  copper,  round  the 
head  and  tail  of  the  projectile  to  centre 
it  steadily.  To  carry  out  the  change, 
the  twist  of  the  gun  must  be  an  increas- 
ing one.  The  Italian  100-ton  gun  fires  a 
perfectly  smooth  shot,  the  necessary  rota- 
tory motion  being  imparted  to  it  by  a 
disc  of  copper  fastened  to  its  base,  which, 
being  expanded  by  the  force  of  the  dis- 
charge, is  set  up  into  the  grooves,  which 
are  many  in  number  and  of  shallow 
depth.  In  the  experiments  made  at 
Woolwich,  the  gas  check,  which  is  now 
attached  to  all  projectiles,  was  made  with 
the  view  of  preventing  an  escape  of  pow- 
der gas  over  the  shot,  not  to  perform  the 
double  duty  of  preventing  the  escape  of 
the  powder  gas  and  also  of  rotating  the 
shot ;  but  doubtless,  in  the  future,  advan- 
tage will  be  taken  to  combine  both,  and 
thus  eventually  to  get  rid  of  the  studs, 
the  disadvantages  of  which  are  apparent 
in  the  "  wabbling  "  of  the  shot  owing  to 
the  imperfect  fit,  in  weakening  the  pro- 
jectile, and  to  some  extent  impairing  its 
power  of  penetration. 

Stretcher— Weight,  1  qr.  3  Ibs. 

Sub-Lieutenant — This  rank  is  abolished 
in  the  line,  militia  and  volunteer  service, 
and    lieutenant  substituted    in  all  fresh  • 
appointments  to  the  army. 

Summary  Court-Martial — When  a  per-  j 
son  subject  to    military  law  and  being  , 
on  active  service  with  any  body  of  force  j 
is  charged  with  an  offence,  a  summary 
court-martial    may    be    convened,    and  | 
shall    have    jurisdiction    to    try    such  ; 
offence,  if  the  officer  convening  the  court- 
is  of   opinion  that    an    ordinary    court 
martial   cannot,   having   due    regard   to 


the  public  service,  be  convened  to  try 
such  offence. 

Supernumerary — Substitute  as  follows 
in  lieu  of  what  is  stated  in  Dictionary. — 
An  officer  shall  be  retained  as  a  supernu- 
merary on  the  strength  of  the  regiment 
or  corps : — 

(a)  In  case  of  a  reduction  in  the  esta- 
blishment or  corps,  when  his  retention 
is  authorised  by  the  Secretary  of  State 
for  War. 

(6)  While  waiting  a  vacancy  after  re- 
tiring from  the  Seconded  List. 


T. 


Telegraphy — Under  this  head  in  the 
Dictionary  omit  3rd  line  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  subject  "  telegraphic ";  4th 
line  for  "  two  "  read  "  three  ";  5th  line 
erase  "  and,"  and  after  "  telegraph " 
insert  "  and  by  mounted  orderlies." 

Territorial — Literally,  pertaining  to 
territory  or  land.  The  name  is  now  ap- 
plied to  the  linked  regiments  of  the 
British  Army,  composed  of  the  line 
and  militia,  and  taking  their  desig- 
nation from  the  counties  in  which  the 
line  regiments  to  some  extent  recruit, 
and  militia  regiments  are  raised.  A  ter- 
ritorial regiment  is  made  up,  as  a  rule, 
of  2  battalions  of  the  line,  and  the  same 
number  of  militia  battalions. 

Training — Commonly  used  to  express 
the  instruction  and  drill  imparted  periodi- 
cally in  militia  regiments  to  officers  and 
men.  Young  officers  qualifying  for  the 
line  have  to  pass  two  trainings  before 
they  are  permitted  to  join  a  regiment  of 
the  line,  and  then  only  if  they  have 
passed  the  qualifying  examination — vide 
A.  C.  1st  January,  1881,  inserted  under 
the  head  of  "Commissions." 

Trestle — What  is  known  as  the  Alder- 
shot  pattern  is  designed  to  pack  into  a 
pontoon  waggon. 


YEN 


38 


VOL 


V. 


Vent  Server — Used  with  the  under- 
mentioned natures  of  ordnance  : — 

"  All  rifled  M.L.  guns  and  howitzers, 
from  25  pr.  gun,  inclusive,  upwards." 


"  All  smooth-bore  garrison  ordnance." 
Veterinary  Department — A  new  royal 
warrant  having  reference  to  this  depart- 
ment, altering  the  terms  and  conditions 
of  service,  will  be  found  in  A.C.  May 
1878,  clause  88.  Vide  also  Queen's  Regu- 
lations. 

Volunteers —  Vide  Dictionary  —  Re- 
vised Regulations  for  this  force  have  been 
approved. 


3PUJ3LISHKD    BY 

WILLIAM  CLOWES  &  SONS,  LIMITED, 

13,  OHAKfflG  CEOSS,  LONDON,  S.W. 


An  Arrangement  of  Battalion  Drill,  for  the  Use  of  Officers  attached  to  the 
School  of  Instruction  for  Officers  of  the  Auxiliary  and  Reserve  Forces,  Wellington  Barracks. 
By  Lieut.-C«l.  H.  STBACEY,  late  Commandant  of  the  School.  Is.  \  post-free,  2s.  id. 

Method  of  Instructing  a  Company  Practically  on  Parade  in  Company 

I  IKII. i.  ON  THK  SYSTEM  LAID  DOWN  IN  THE  '  FIELD  EXERCISE,'  1877 ;  adopted,  for  the  sake  of 
uniformity,  at  the  School  of  instruction  at  the  Wellington  Barracks  for  OfficiTS  of  the  Auxi- 
liary and  Reserve  Forces.  By  Lieut.  F.  C.  RICABDO,  Grenadier  Guards,  Adjutant  of  the 
School.  Fourth  Edition.  1*. ;  post-free,  Is.  Id. 


BY  T.  CAMPBELL-COPELAND. 

The  Color  Serjeant's  Pocket-Book.  Cloth,  Is.  6d. ;  post-free,  Is.  8d.  Cloth, 
gilt,  with  pencil,  2x.  6d. ;  post-free,  2*.  8d. 

"  A  marvellous  compendium  of  useful  farts  and  figures." 

"  Every  officer  and  non-commissioned  officer  in  the  British  Army  should  possess  one  of 
these  extremely  useful  books." 

The  Army  Sheet  Almanac  for  1882.     Is. ;  post-free,  Is.  Id. 

Useful  for  all  Mess  Rooms,  and  of  especial  value  to  Officers  and  Senior  Non-Commissioned 
Officers  having  separate  quarters.  The  "  Diary  and  Reminder,"  if  regularly  kept,  will  serve 
as  a  record  of  duties  and  engagements,  Committees  to  be  attended,  &c.,  &c,  A  detail  of  the 
Regular  Forces,  giving  Strengths,  Stations,  Honours,  and  Devices,  corrected  to  date  of  issue, 
occupies  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Almanac. 

The  Color  Serjeant's  Ledger.     5s.;  post-free,  5s.  &d. 

To  those  who  understand  the  nature  of  a  Pay-Serjeant's  work  the  utility  of  a  book  ready 
ruled,  and  prepared  with  headings  for  most  of  the  different  forms  in  use,  will  be  apparent.  A 
great  deal  of  time,  trouble,  and  annoyance  will  be  saved  by  using  the  Ledger,  as  all  other  books 
of  record  may  be  dispensed  with  as  superfluous.  It  may  also  be  replaced  whenever  necessary. 


LIEUT.  CHAS.  SLACK'S  WORKS. 

Tactical  Blocks  (now  ready),  for  practising  all  the  Movements  and  Combinations 
of  the  Three  Arms.  Consist  of  a  Battalion  of  Six  Companies,  One  Squadron,  Four  Guns, 
with  Brigade  Staff,  Section  of  Engineers,  Supply,  Ambulance,  &c.  Each  Company,  Troop, 
and  Division  of  Guns  complete,  with  Officers  and  Serjeants.  Arranged  for  use  on  any  Large 
Scale  Map  for  Practising  Tactics.  Price,  in  Box  complete,  22*. 

Handbook  of  Company  Drill.  Also  of  Extended  Order,  Advancing  by  Rushes, 
Formation  of  Advanced  and  Rear  Guards,  Guard  and  Sentry  Duties,  Infantry  Sword  Kxer- 
cise,  &c.  Illustrated  by  60  Plates,  which  show  every  movement  in  Company  Drill,  with  the 
Positions  of  the  Officers,  Serjeants,  and  Rank  and  File.  19th  Edition,  i'ost-free,  1*.  Id. 

Handbook  of  Battalion  Drill,  Extended  Order  for  Attack,  Inspections,  Encamp- 
ments, Field  Firing,  and  Army  Signalling.    70  Plates.     10th  Edition.    Post-free,  2».  Id. 
(Bound  with  '  Handbook  of  Company  Drill,'  in  one  vol.,  post-free,  2*.  Sd.) 

Handbook  of  Brigade  Drill,  Inspections,  Reviews,  and  Attack  Formations. 

40  Plates,  with  Formation  of  Double  Companies  for  Marching  Past.    Post-free,  3s.  Id. 

(Bound  with  'Handbooks  of  Company  and  Battalion  Drill,'  in  one  vol.,  5».  8d. 

Catechism  of  Company  Drill.  Squad  Drill,  Payment  of  Troops,  Musketry 
Instruction,  Guards  and  Sentries,  with  Detail  of  Officers'  Field  Kit  and  Equipment,  Syllabus 
of  Examinations  for  Lieutenants.  8th  Edition.  Illustrated.  Post-free,  Is.  Id. 

Catechism  of  Battalion  Drill,  Brigade  Drill,  Reviews,  Infantry  Outposts,  Queen's 
Regulations,  Regimental  Duties,  Military  Law,  Tactics,  Reconnaissance,  Transport  of  Troops 
by  Railway,  &c.    Syllabus  for  Captains  and  Majors.    Illustrated.    Post-free,  2*.  7d. 
(Bound  with  '  Catechism  of  Company  Drill,'  in  one  vol.,  post-free,  3s.  2d.) 

Handbook  of  Infantry  Drill.  Handbooks  and  Catechisms.  One  vol.,  post  free, 
7s.  lOd. 

LONDON  :  WILLIAM  CLOWES  &  SONS,  LIMITED,  13,  CHARING  CROSS,  S.W. 


THE 

NEW    DRILL    MODEL   APPARATUS, 

AWARDED    THE    PRIZE    MEDAL 

AT 

THE  PARIS  EXHIBITION,  1875. 


WM.  CLOWES  &  SONS,  LIMITED,  desire  to  call  the  special  attention 
of  Commanding  Officers  and  others  to  their 

NEW  DRILL  MODEL  APPARATUS, 

(PATENTED), 

FOR  CAVALET  AND  INFANTRY  DRILLS, 

RECENTLY   INVENTED   BY 

CAPTAIN  E.  PODMORE  CLARK, 

INSTRUCTOR  OP  MUSKETRY,  HEREFORDSHIRE  MILITIA,  AND  LATE  LIEUT.   62ND  REGIMENT. 


fFHIS  Apparatus,  which  has  received  the  highest  commendation  from  H.R.H.  the  Field- 
-*-  Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief,  and  from  the  Heads  of  Departments  at  the  War 
Office,  offers  peculiar  facilities  for  giving  practical  instruction  in  Cavalry  and  Infantry 
Drills.  The  positions  of  Officers,  Markers,  etc.,  in  all  movements  are  clearly  defined.  The 
ranks  can  be  simultaneously  turned  in  any  direction. 

The  MODEL  is  so  perfect  in  all  its  details  that  it  should  readily  find  a  place  at  the 
Head-Quarters  of  every  Regiment,  where  it  would  prove  invaluable,  whether  as  a  means 
of  instruction,  or  of  illustrating  lectures,  or  conducting  examinations  in  connection  with 
the  "  Field  Exercise  and  Evolutions  of  Infantry." 

WM.  CLOWES  AND  SONS,  LIMITED,  will  be  happy  to  show  the  Apparatus  to  any  officer 
who  may  care  to  inspect  it,  at  their  PUBLISHING  OFFICE,  13,  CHARING  CROSS,  S.W. 

CAVALRY  APPARATUS  (consisting  of  Eight  Troops,  with  full  complement 

of  Officers,  &c.) £10  10  0 

INFANTRY  APPARATUS  (consisting  of  a  Battalion  of  Six  Companies,  with 

mounted  and  other  Officers,  Colour  Party,  Band,  Pioneers,  &c.)  . .  . .  550 

Each  Packed  in  a  well-arranged  Box,  with  lock  and  key,  complete. 
"  There  can  be  no  doubt  about  its  use  to  Officers." — Times. 

•'/.'  ::/.«'!  ll  ..wnw  1    V.O-/U  •'• 


MILITARY  WORKS 


PUBLISHED  BY 

WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS, 

Inny  iprtntcrg  atrtf  ipuiltefjntf, 

13  on^_s-ii>ra-  CIR/OSS,  LoisrzDoisr,  s.w. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY. 

The  Artillerist's   Manual   and  British  Soldier's  Compendium. 

By  Major  F.  A.  GRIFFITHS,  R.F.P.,  Royal  Artillery.  Eleventh  Edition.  Wholly  revised 
and  re-written.  Edited  by  Major  L.  GRIFFITHS,  R.A.,  and  Capt.  F.  DDNCAN,  R.A.  5*.; 
post-free,  5s.  id. 

ROYAL  ARTILLERY  REGIMENTAL  ORDER,  JUNE  1874. 

"  The  attention  of  Commanding  Officers  is  drawn  to  the  New  Edition  of  '  The  Artillerist's 
Manual,'  recently  published,  and  H.R.H.  the  Field-Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief  recommends 
that  each  non-commissioned  officer  in  the  regiment  should  provide  himself  with  a  work  con- 
taining so  much  useful  and  valuable  information  connected  with  the  Artillery  Service." 

The  Artillerist's  Handbook  of  Reference :  Alphabetically  arranged 
in  the  form  of  Questions  and  Answers  on  Artillery,  Military  Law,  Interior  Economy,  and 
Miscellaneous  Subjects.  A  Guide  to  the  Examinations  for  Promotion,  and  a  Handbook  of 
Reference  for  the  use  of  the  Royal  and  Reserve  Artillery.  By  Lieut.  GEOKGE  WILL,  R.A., 
and  Lieut.  J.  C.  DALTON,  R.A.  Cloth,  7s.  6d. ;  post-free,  7s.  lid. 

Handbook  of  Artillery  for  the  Auxiliary  Artillery.  By  Major 
M.  F.  DOWNES,  R.A.,  Instructor  of  Gunnery.  2s.  6d. ;  post-free,  2s.  Id. 

Range  Finding   for   the   Service    of  Artillery.     With   Plates.    By 

Major  J.  R.  CAMPBELL,  Capt.  and  Hon.  Major  Hants  Artillery  Militia.  Revised  Edition, 
is.  6d. ;  post-free,  Is.  Id. 

The  Rifle  Shot's  Manual  of  Target  Shooting  with  the  Snider 

AND  MILITARY  SMALL-BORE.  By  a  Shooting  Man.   Cloth,  Is.  6d. ;  post-free,  1«.  Id. 

A  New  System  of  Sword  Exercise  for  Infantry.  By  RICHARD  F. 
BURTON,  Author  of  '  A  System  of  Bayonet  Exercise.'  Crown  8vo.,  cloth,  3s. ;  post-free, 
3s.  2d. 

Duties  of  Officers  and  Markers  in  Company  and  Battalion  Drill. 

Together  with  the  Movements  of  the  Colour  Party.  By  Capt.  W.  D.  MALTON,  Author  of 
•  A  Key  to  the  Field  Exercise,'  &c.  Cloth,  2s.  6d. ;  post-free,  2s.  ad. 

Brigade  Drill.     In  Accordance  with  the    "  Field  Exerfcise  and 
EVOLUTIONS  OF  INFANTRY."     Together  with  FORMATIONS  FOB  ATTACK,   1876. 
By  Capt.  W.  D.  MALTON.    Cloth,  2s.  6d. ;  post-free,  2s.  Id. 
%*  These  two  Manuals  will  form  most  useful  companions  to  the  New  Drill  Model  Apparatus. 

First  Hints  on  Rifle  Shooting.  By  A.  P.  HUMPHRY,  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  Queen's  Prizeman,  1871.  Cloth,  is. ;  post-free,  Is.  Id. 

Cavalry  Sword  Exercise.  Instructions  for  the  Sword,  Carbine,  Pistol, 
and  Lance  Exercise ;  together  with  Field  Gun  Drill  for  the  Use  of  the  Cavalry,  1871.  1*. ; 
post-free,  Is.  id. 

Instructions  in  the  Duties  of  Cavalry  Reconnoitring  an  Enemy ; 

MARCHhS;  OUTPOSTS.&c.   Fortheuseof  Auxiliary  Cavalry.    Is.  6d.  ;  post-free,  Is. 8d. 

Movements  of  Cavalry.  Provisionally  approved  for  Cavalry  at  Aldershot. 
is. ;  post-free,  is.  2d. 

Regulations  for  the  Instruction  and  Movements  of  Cavalry,  1876. 

Svo.,  4s.  6d.  ;  post-free,  5s. 

Piquet  Duties.  Compiled  and  arranged  with  Four  Practices  for  Instruction 
Drill.  By  Lieut,  and  Adjt.  W.  F.  VETCH,  102nd  R.  Madras  Fusiliers.  6d.;  post-free,  7d. 

Examination  Papers  set  at  the  Open  Competitions  for  Admission 

TO  ROYAL  MILITARY  ACADEMY,  WOOLWICH,  and  for  First  Appointments  to 
the  Army,  Dec.  1875  ;  with  Regulations  and  Tables  of  Mark?.  Is.  6d. ;  post-free,  Is.  8d. 


Published  by   WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS,  13  Charing  Cross,  S.W. 

LIEUT.   CHAS.  SLACK'S  WORKS. 

Catechism  of  Company  Drill.  Also  of  Skirmishing,  Battalion  Drill. 
Musketry  Instruction,  Guards,  &c.  Illustrated.  By  Lieut.  CHAS.  SLACK.  Cloth,  Is. ;  post- 
free,  Is.  Id.  Contains  Questions  and  Answers  in  all  the  Movements  in  Company  Drill. 

Handbook  of  Company  Drill.  Also  of  Guards,  Sentries,  &c.  Illustrated 
by  67  Plates.  Cloth,  Is. ;  post-free,  Is.  Id.  Twelfth  Edition.  The  Plates  show  every 
Movement  in  Company  Drill,  and  the  Positions  of  the  Guides  and  Markers. 

Handbook  of  Battalion  Drill.  Also  of  Inspections,  Reviews,  and  Shelter- 
Trench  Exercise.  Illustrated  by  71  Plates.  Cloth,  2s.;  post-free,  2s.  Id.  The  Plates  show 
all  the  Movements  in  Battalion  Drill,  with  the  Positions  of  the  Officers  and  Sergeants. 

Handbook  of  Brigade  Drill.  Also  of  Inspections,  Reviews,  and  the  New 
Drill  and  Tactics,  including  Formations  for  Attack.  Illustrated  by  42  Plate?.  Cloth,  3*.; 
post-free,  3s.  Id.  Plates  and  details  oi  the  New  Drill  as  at  present  practised. 

Handbook    of  Company   and   Battalion  Drill.     136  Plates.    Cloth, 

2s.  6d. ;  post-free,  2s.  8d. 

Handbook  of  Company,  Battalion,  and  Brigade  Drill.     178  Plates. 

Cloth,  5s. ;  post-free,  5s.  2d. 

Manual  of  Skirmishing.  Illustrated  by  25  Plates,  including  Skirmishers, 
Advancing  by  Rushes,  Skirmishing  in  Successive  Reinforcements,  Outpost  Duties,  German 
System  of  Attack,  Army  Signalling,  &c.  Cloth,  is. ;  post-free,  Is.  Id. 

Company  Drill  Blocks.  By  Lieut.  CHAS.  SLACK.  This  is  an  arrangement 
composed  of  forty  small  blocks  to  represent  a  company,  and  is  intended  to  facilitate  the 
acquiring,  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  a  complete  knowledge  ot  Squad,  Company,  and 
Ski-mishing  Drill.  The  blocks  comprise  the  full  complement  of  Officers  and  Sergeants  of 
a  Company,  and  may  be  moved  collectively  as  when  wheeling  into  line,  or  separately  if 
required  as  skirmishers.  The  arrangement  may  be  termed  a  companion  to  the  •  Handbook 
of  Company  Prill.'  The  blocks  may  also  be  used  to  represent  the  movements  of  a 
Battalion  or  Brigade.  Price,  with  Key  ('  Handbook  of  Company  Drill'),  4s.  6d. 

THE  NEW  DEILL  MODEL  APPARATUS,  awarded  the  Prize  Medal 
at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1875. 

WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS  desire  to  call  the  special  attention  of  Commanding  Officers 
and  others  to  their 

NEW    DRILL    MODEL  APPARATUS 

(PATENTED), 

FOR  CAVALRY  AND  INFANTRY  DRILLS, 

Recently  Invented  by  CAPTAIN  E.  PODMORE  CLARK,  Instructor  of  Musketry,  Herefordshire 
Militia,  and  late  Lieut.  62nd  Regiment. 

This  Apparatus,  which  has  received  the  highest  commendation  from  H.R.H.  the  Field- 
Marshal  Commanding-in-Chief,  and  from  the  Heads  of  Departments  at  the  War  Office,  offers 
peculiar  facilities  for  giving  practical  instruction  in  Cavalry  and  Infantry  Drills.  The  positions 
of  Officers,  Markers,  &c.,  in  ail  movements  are  clearly  denned.  The  ranks  can  be  simultaneously 
turned  in  any  direction. 

The  MODEL  is  so  perfect  in  all  its  details  that  it  should  readily.find  a  place  at  the  Head- 
quarters of  every  Regiment,  where  it  would  prove  Invaluable,  whether  as  a  means  of  instruction, 
or  of  illustrating  lectures,  or  conducting  examinations  in  connection  with  the  "  Field  Exercise 
and  Evolutions  of  Infantry." 

WILLIAM  CLOWKS  AND  SONS  will  be  happy  to  show  the  Apparatus  to  any  Officer  who  may 
care  to  inspect  it,  at  their  Publishing  Office,  13  CHARING  CROSS,  S.W". 

CAVALRY   APPARATUS  (consisting  o£  Eight  Troops,  with  full  complement  of 

Officers.  &c.) £10  10    0 

INFANTRY   APPARATUS  (consisting  of  a  Battalion    of  Six  Companies,  with 

mounted  and  other  Officers,  Colour  Party,  Band,  Pioneers,  &c.) 660 

Each  Packed  in  a  well-arranged  Box,  with  lock  and  key,  complete. 
"There  can  be  no  doubt  about  its  use  to  Officers  of  Volunteers." — Times. 


LONDON : 

WILLIAM  CLOWES  &  SONS,  ARMY  PEINTERS  AND  PUBLISHERS, 
13  CHARING  CROSS,  S.W. 


University  of  California 

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405  Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 

Return  this  material  to  the  library 

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