Milk consumption in Illinois schools, 1954-1966

630.7
IfGb

no. 732
cop. 8

UNIVERSITY OF

ILLINOIS LIBRARY

AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

AGRICULTURE

IN ILLINOIS
SCHOOLS

1954-1966

By J. W. Gruebele

University of Illinois / College of Agriculture / Agricultural Experiment Station / Bulletin 732

CONTENTS

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY 4

Source of data 4

TWO TYPES OF FEDERAL PROGRAMS 4

National School Lunch Program 4

Special Milk Program 5

CHANGES IN CONSUMPTION OF SCHOOL MILK IN ILLINOIS... 7

Change in milk consumption by counties 7

Milk consumption in public schools, 1966 7

Change in milk consumption and level of participation
in Chicago, suburban Cook County, and downstate

Illinois from 1958-59 to 1965-66 7

Private and public school milk consumption 11

FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL MILK CONSUMPTION 11

School size 11

Type of program 13

Secondary and elementary schools 14

Income 15

Percent nonwhite population 16

Relationship between private and public school consumption. 16

Relationship of price to milk consumption 17

Availability of chocolate milk 19

Regression analysis 19

RESULTS OF THE SCHOOL SURVEY 21

Differences between high consumption

and low consumption schools 21

RECOMMENDATIONS 24

Initiate milk programs in schools 24

Reduce the price of milk 25

Increase container size 25

Use vending machines 26

Unite the effort 26

Introduce new products 27

Provide adequate finances 27

Urbana, Illinois June, 1968

Publications in the Bulletin series report the results of investigations made or sponsored
by the Experiment Station.

. 7

b
no. 132.

MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS, 1954-1966

By J. W. GRUEBELE, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Economics

SCHOOL MILK PROGRAMS have provided an important outlet for fluid
milk for the period 1954 through 1966. In 1966, 3.4 billion pounds
of milk equivalent was consumed through the National School Lunch
Program (NSLP) and the Special Milk Program (SMP) in the United
States. This represented almost 3 percent of total civilian disappearance
of dairy products. In addition, consumption of milk through the school
milk programs has increased dramatically. There was a 259 percent
increase in total pounds of milk equivalent consumed in schools from
1954 to 1966 under the federal milk programs. Moreover, the potential
milk consumption through these programs far exceeds the quantity of
milk that is presently consumed.

In Illinois an estimated 65 million pounds of fluid milk was con-
sumed in public schools in 1966. This represented an increase of almost
10 percent since 1959. However, maximum potential consumption of
milk through the school milk programs has not been achieved, least of
all in Chicago.

The importance of the school milk programs is further emphasized
by the well-known nutritional qualities of milk. Attaining the full
potential under these programs may be one of the most effective meth-
ods of bringing milk consumption of children nearer to levels prescribed
in nutritional standards. For example, in a USDA study, Wolgamot
and Fincher suggest that children should consume 3 to 4 half -pints of
milk daily per capita.1 Teenagers should drink 4 half-pints daily to
meet increased need for calcium, riboflavin, and other nutrients.2- 3
Furthermore, other studies have shown that half or more of surveyed
children were consuming less than nutritionists recommended.4' 5> 6

1 Wolgamot, Irene H., and Lillian J. Fincher, "Milk and Its Products,"
Facts for Consumer Education, USDA Information Bulletin 125, 1954.

* Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council Recommended
Dietary Allowance, National Academy of Sciences — National Research Council
Publication 302, 1954.

' Smith, Janice, "Calcium Needs for Teenage Boys," Nutrition News 10 (4) :
3, 1947.

4 Reynolds, M. S., et al., "Dietary Practices of Some Wisconsin School
Children," Journal of Home Economics, 40:131-2, 1948.

* Schwartz, Charles, "A Survey of Nutritional Habits of South Dakota School
Children," Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science, 27(10) :1 18-179,
1948.

*Le Bovit, Corrine, and Faith Clark, "Household Practices in the Use of
Milk and Butter," The Dairy Situation, Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA,
DS-243: 15-17, 1954.

4 BULLETIN NO. 732 [June,

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study are (1) to show the trend of milk con-
sumption under the two federal school programs in Illinois, (2) to
determine the reasons for variation in milk consumption among schools
and (3) to evaluate suggestions for increasing school milk consumption
in Illinois.

Source of data

Consumption data and other information were obtained for January,
1966 for each county in Illinois from the county superintendent of
schools. This information was used to estimate the number of quarts
served pupils in each reported school during the school year. Annual
consumption figures were computed on the basis of 180 school days.
Benchmark data were available for 1953-54, 1958-59, and 1962.

More detailed information was obtained through personal interviews
of principals from 18 public and 3 private schools in Chicago. Informa-
tion was collected on incomes, condition of housing, condition of school
buildings, percent of pupils participating in programs, attitudes of
principals, and milk consumption. The milk consumption data were
verified from reports received by the State Superintendent of Schools'
office.

TWO TYPES OF FEDERAL PROGRAMS

National School Lunch Program

One of the first assistance programs for school lunches was begun
in 1933. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation provided loans to
several communities in Missouri to pay labor costs of preparing and
serving school lunches.

In August, 1935, Public Law 320 made it possible for the federal
government to assist school lunch programs by donating products. In
1943, the Department of Agriculture announced that federal assistance
would be in the form of cash reimbursement.7

On June 4, 1946, the National School Lunch Act was passed autho-
rizing federal school lunch assistance in the form of a state grant-in-aid
program. The act provided for a continuance of food assistance in the
form of cash reimbursement for a portion of the food costs and distri-

7 USDA, A Brief History of the National School Lunch Program (mimeo),
Consumer and Marketing Service, revised October, 1965.

19681 MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 5

bution of suitable foods acquired by the Department of Agriculture in
its purchase operations. The law also requires one half-pint of milk
with each lunch served.

The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is currently operated
under Public Law 396 and is a grant-in-aid program of federal assis-
tance to the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam,
American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands. Today, some 18 million
children in over 71,000 schools are participating in the program.

Special Milk Program

In 1954, legislation was passed that directed the Department of
Agriculture to operate the Special Milk Program (SMP).

In 1965, about 93,000 schools, camps, and child-care institutions
participated in this program. Almost 3 billion half -pints were consumed
under the program in 1965. 8 Over 32 million children drank milk daily
under the NSLP and SMP.

The authorized maximum rate of reimbursement is 4 cents per half-
pint for schools participating in both the NSLP and the SMP and 3
cents per half -pint for schools participating only in the SMP. Chocolate
as well as regular milk may be served under either program. The lunch
program compensates for only one half-pint per pupil per day, but
under the SMP there is no limit.

Table 1. — School Milk Consumption Under the National School Lunch

Program and Special Milk Program in the United States,

1954, 1958, 1962, and 1966

Year

NSLP

SMP

Total

1954..

893,000

(1,000 pounds)
49,000

942 000

1958

1,007,000

1,106,000

2,153,000

1962

1,305,000

1,450,000

2,755,000

1966

1,710,000

1,670,000

3,380,000

Milk consumption under the NSLP nearly doubled in the United
States between 1954 and 1966 (Table 1). Meantime milk consumption
under the SMP expanded to a volume approximately equal to that con-
sumed under the NSLP. In 1966 total consumption under the two pro-
grams was equivalent to about 3 percent of total fluid milk consumption.

'USDA, The Special Milk Program (mimeo), Consumer and Marketing Ser-
vice, November, 1965.

BULLETIN NO. 732

[June,

Average annual milk con-
sumption, quarts per pupil,
in Illinois public schools,
1965-66. (Fig. 1)

FOR STATE

Increase in milk consump-
tion, quarts annually per pu-
pil, in Illinois public schools,
1958-59 to 1965-66. (Fig. 2)

WEIGHTED AVERAGE

INCREASE

FOR STATE=+2.5 quarts

1968] MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 7

CHANGES IN CONSUMPTION OF SCHOOL MILK IN ILLINOIS

Change in milk consumption by counties

The over-all state average milk consumption in Illinois public
schools was 12.3 quarts per pupil in 1953-54. By 1958-59 consumption
had increased to 30.3 quarts per pupil annually, and by 1965-66 it had
increased to 32.8 quarts per pupil annually. Thus the consumption of
milk per pupil in Illinois public schools increased by 163 percent be-
tween 1953-54 and 1965-66.

In 1965-66, Henderson and Edwards Counties led all counties in
school milk consumption with an average of 76 quarts per pupil (Figure
1). Cook County had the lowest consumption with 21.4 quarts per
pupil.

Between 1958-59 and 1965-66, milk consumption increased in 90
counties, remained the same in 6, and decreased in 6 (Figure 2). The
weighted average over-all increase in milk consumption during that
period was 2.5 quarts annually per pupil. The increase was greatest in
Edwards County — 32 quarts per pupil annually.

Milk consumption in public schools, 1966

The over-all consumption per pupil annually in Illinois for 1965-66
was 32.8 quarts (Table 2). The consumption in public schools was
highest in downstate Illinois with 43 quarts per pupil annually. In
suburban Cook County the consumption in public schools was 27.9
quarts per pupil annually and for Chicago public schools the consump-
tion was 17.1 quarts per pupil annually.

Change in milk consumption and level of participation in Chicago/
suburban Cook County, and downstate Illinois from 1958-59 to 1965-66

Average consumption per pupil in Chicago public schools declined
3.4 quarts from 1958-59 to 1965-66, a decline of 17 percent. In down-
state Illinois during the same period school consumption increased by
7.4 quarts or 21 percent. The consumption per pupil in suburban Cook
County was virtually unchanged (Table 3).

In downstate Illinois the proportion of schools participating in both
programs increased from 51.3 percent in 1958-59 to 83.8 percent in
1965-66, and in Cook County it increased from 33.3 percent to 46.6 per-
cent during that period. In downstate Illinois the proportion of schools
with no programs decreased from 14.2 percent in 1958-59 to 2.7 percent
in 1965-66, while in Cook County for the same period it increased from
11.2 percent to 20.1 percent (Table 4).

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1968] MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS

Table 3. — Change From 1958-59 to 1965-66 in Milk Consumption
per Pupil in Illinois Public Schools

Half-pints
daily

Quarts
annually

Cook County schools
Chicago high schools

-.0850

-3.8

Chicago elementary schools

-.0643

-2.9

Chicago public schools

-.0762

-3 4

Suburban public schools

-.0004

W

All Cook County public schools

-.0614

-2 8

Downstate Illinois
Public schools

. ... + 1636

+7 4

All schools in Illinois
Public schools

+ 0549

+2 5

• Less than 1 quart.

Table 4. — Number and Proportion of Schools Participating

in the National School Lunch Program, Special Milk Program,

and Both Programs, 1958-59 and 1965-66, in Illinois

Public Schools

1958-59

1965-66

Number

Percent
of total

Number

Percent
of total

Cook County schools
NSLP only

9

0.8

54.8
33.3
11.2

1
385
541
233

0.1
33.2
46.6
20.1

SMPonly

632

Both programs

384

No program

129

Total

1,154

100.0

4.0

30.5
51.3
14.2

1,160

34
375
2,545
83

100.0

1.1
12.4
83.8
2.7

100.0

0.8
18.2
73.5

7.5

Downstate Illinois
NSLP only

120

SMPonly

911

Both programs ,

1,530

No program ,

425

Total . .

2 986

100.0

3.1
37.3
46.2
13.4

3,037

35
760
3,086
316

All schools
NSLP only

129

SMPonly

1 ,543

Both programs ,

1,914

No program

554

Total..

. 4.140

100.0

4.197

100.0

10

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19681 MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 11

Private and public school milk consumption

Chicago private schools serving milk showed higher milk consump-
tion per pupil than Chicago public schools serving milk (Table 5).
Forty-two percent of the private elementary schools in Chicago did not
have milk programs, while only 14 percent of the public schools did not
have milk programs. At the high school level, 78 percent of the private
schools in Chicago and only 2 percent of the public schools did not have
milk programs."

In suburban Cook County and downstate Illinois, milk consumption
in schools serving milk was higher in public than in private schools.
In suburban Cook County, a larger proportion of the public elementary
schools than of the private elementary schools had no milk programs.

FACTORS AFFECTING SCHOOL MILK CONSUMPTION

Previous studies have indicated that there are many factors that
affect the consumption of milk in schools. Some of the important fac-
tors include price of milk, school size, attitude of the principal and
school lunchroom personnel, availability of milk, type of milk served,
type of milk program, private school as compared to public school, and
secondary school as compared to elementary.

School size

One of the factors found to be of importance in several studies
was that of school size. In an earlier study by Jacobsen10 and in a North
Central Regional study,11 average milk consumption per pupil was
found to be generally less in large schools than in small schools. The
present study also indicates an inverse relationship between size and
consumption, except for schools with more than 1,750 pupils (Table 6).
Most of the schools with enrollments of over 1,750 were high schools
and the analysis will later indicate that Chicago high schools had a
higher rate of consumption than Chicago elementary schools. Results
for downstate Illinois were similar. Statistical tests showed a significant
relationship between enrollment and consumption for both Chicago and
downstate Illinois.

* Vocational high schools included.

** Jacobsen, R. E., The School Milk Program in Illinois, University of Illinois
Extension Service Circular 831, April, 1961.

u Williams, S. W., Quackenbush, G. G., Bartlett, R. W.f Baumer, E. R., and
Cook, H. L., Increasing Milk Consumption in Schools, Michigan State University
Agricultural Experiment Station Special Bulletin 403, August, 1955.

12 BULLETIN NO. 732 [June,

Table 6. — Relationship Between Enrollment and Average Consumption
per Pupil for Chicago and Downstate Public Schools, 1966

Chicago

Downstate Illinois

Enrollment
classification

Number of
schools

Quarts
annually
per pupil

Number of
schools

Quarts
annually
per pupil

0-249

25

30.9

22.1
20.0
16.3
16.6
16.2
13.6
17.6
24.0
19.0

1,516
905
326
102
29
22
14
9
31
2,954

53.0
44.1
40.4
43.1
40.8
40.4
37.0
36.7
40.7
44.3

250-499

59

500-749

.... 88

750-999

93

1,000-1,249

68

1,250-1,499

47

1,500-1,749

21

1,750-1,999

18

2,000 and over

46

Total or average

465

Table 7. — Average Prices Paid for Milk in Cents per Half-Pint in Public
and Private Schools of Various Sizes in Illinois, 1966

Enrollment
classification

Number of
schools

Average price
per half-pint

0-249

1,974

1.82

250-499

1,374

2.09

500-749

660

2.38

750-999

316

2.65

1,000-1,249

143

2.94

1,250-1,499

100

2.91

1,500-1,749

48

2.84

1,750-1,999

34

2.84

2,000 and over

103

2.71

Total or average

4,752

2.13

What are the reasons for the difference in consumption among dif-
ferent sized schools? One possibility is that there may also be an in-
verse relationship between school size and the proportion of the pupils
who stayed in school during the lunch hour. A North Central Regional
publication reported such an inverse relationship among schools in
Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin.12

A second reason why consumption in large schools is smaller than
in small schools is that large schools tend to charge a higher price
(Table 7). It will be shown later that there is a significant relationship
between price and consumption.

Other factors that may help to explain the lower consumption in
larger schools include: (1) a more impersonal relationship between
pupil and principal, (2) less flexibility in scheduling milk service, and

12 Williams and others, ibid., p. 29.

1968] MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 13

(3) more competition from soft drinks.18 Attitude of the principal and
school lunch personnel may have a significant influence on the participa-
tion in the school lunch and milk programs. As schools become larger,
the problems of administering school milk programs can be expected to
increase. Consequently, principals in large schools may be reluctant to
promote school milk programs. The importance of attitude will be dis-
cussed in a later section.

Consumption in Chicago public schools was 17.1 quarts per pupil
annually as compared to 43 quarts per pupil annually in downstate
Illinois (Table 2). One reason is that the average enrollment is higher
in Chicago schools than for downstate Illinois. The average enrollment
for public high schools in 1965-66 was 2,326 in Chicago as compared
with 507 in downstate Illinois and 1,992 in suburban Cook County. The
average enrollment for public elementary schools was 899 in Chicago,
292 downstate, and 464 in suburban Cook County.

Type of program

The type of program has been found in previous studies to affect
the average milk consumption. In general, schools that had both the
NSLP and the SMP had higher average milk consumption per pupil
than schools with just one of the milk programs. In downstate Illinois,
average consumption per pupil was 46.3 quarts annually in schools
participating in both programs, while it was 30.4 quarts and 25.3 quarts
in schools participating in the SMP only and in the NSLP only, respec-
tively in 1966 (Table 8). There was a similar relationship in Cook
County.

Statistical tests showed that there was a significant relationship be-
tween the type of milk program and consumption of milk. There was a
substantial difference in the proportion of schools participating in both
programs as between the public schools in Chicago, suburban Cook
County, and downstate Illinois (Table 8). In downstate Illinois 86
percent of the schools serving milk had both programs, in Chicago the
proportion was only 64 percent, and in suburban Cook County it was
53 percent. Why is there such a difference? One reason might be that
a greater proportion of schools in downstate Illinois are consolidated
schools and the distance to school might be so great that it is difficult
for children to go home for noon lunch. In Chicago and in suburban
Cook County, a larger proportion of children may be able to go home
for the noon lunch.14 Supervisory problems might be still another

u Williams and others, ibid., p. 31.

"The survey of 18 Chicago public schools indicated that in many of the
schools a large proportion of the pupils went home for lunch.

14 BULLETIN NO. 732 [June,

Table 8. — Average Volume of Milk Consumption by Public School Pupils

Under the Special Milk Program, National School Lunch Program,

or Both Programs, January, 1966

.

per pupil

Chicago

SMPonly

166

112,141

11.4

NSLP only

1

786

8.1

Both programs

298

387,203

21.2

Suburban Cook County

SMPonly

219

116,377

27.2

NSLP only

Both programs

243

177,659

4i.i

Totals for Cook County

SMPonly

385

228,518

19.4

NSLP only

1

786

8.1

Both programs

541

564,862

27.5

Downstate Illinois

SMPonly

.... 375

114,217

30.4

NSLP only

34

9,495

25.3

Both programs

2,545

886,026

46.3

All schools in Illinois

SMPonly

760

342,735

23.0

NSLP only

35

10,281

24.0

Both programs

3,086

1,450,888

39.0

reason. In the school survey in Chicago, many principals complained
about this problem. The larger size of the schools in Cook County may
be partly responsible for this because supervisory problems become
more difficult as the number of pupils in the school increases.

There were few schools in the northwest areas of Chicago that pro-
vided both programs. However, most of them had the SMP. The
average family income in this area of the city was higher than in other
areas. The attitude of some parents was that they didn't need the school
to feed their children. It is possible that similar attitudes might prevail
in suburban Cook County.

Secondary and elementary schools

The average consumption per pupil in all secondary schools with
both programs was 40.4 quarts annually as compared with 38.1 quarts
in elementary schools (Table 9). The differences between secondary
and elementary schools were even larger among schools that had only
the SMP.

In Chicago, consumption in secondary schools was higher than in
elementary schools, but in downstate Illinois consumption in elementary

19681 MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS IS

Table 9. — Average Milk Consumption in Secondary and Elementary
Public Schools, Illinois, 1966

Secondary

Elementary

Number of Quarts
schools per pupil

Number of Quarts
schools per pupil

Downstate Illinois

. 708

Both programs
43.9 1,837
47.5 178
26.0 241
40.4 2,256

Special Milk Program only
30.7 345
36.4 199
166
34.4 710

47.8
34.3
18.8
38.1

29.9
24.4
11.4
21.4

Suburban Cook County schools. . .
Chicago schools

. 65

57

All schools in Illinois

. 830

Downstate Illinois

30

Suburban Cook County schools. . .
Chicago schools

. 20
0

All schools in Illinois

50

schools was larger than for secondary schools. Statistical tests showed
these relationships to be significant. The reasons for the opposite
relationships in downstate Illinois and Chicago include:

1. Pupils attending secondary schools in Chicago tend to live fur-
ther from schools than pupils attending elementary schools. Thus, pupils
in secondary schools tend to remain at school for noon lunch while a
larger proportion of elementary pupils go home for lunch.

2. Many of the rural areas have consolidated school systems, in
which case a larger proportion of pupils attending elementary schools
would have to remain in school during the noon lunch.

3. It is likely that there is a greater prevalence of pop vending
machines in secondary schools than in elementary schools in both Chi-
cago and downstate Illinois.

Income

One might expect that income and consumption of milk in schools
would be positively related. In a study of the SMP and its effects on
consumption in St. Louis and Los Angeles schools, it was found that
milk consumption in elementary and junior high schools was lowest for
the low-income groups before initiation of the SMP. In addition, the
greatest consumption increases occurred in the low-income groups after
the SMP was initiated."

However, in Chicago schools consumption tended to be lower in
high-income than in low-income areas, but the relationship was not sig-

"USDA, The Special Milk Program — Its Effect on Consumption in St.
Louis and Los Angeles Schools, Marketing Research Report No. 209, January,
1958.

16

BULLETIN NO. 732

[June,

Table 10. — Average Milk Consump-
tion for Chicago Public Schools by
Average Income in Districts, 1966

Table 11. — Average Milk Consump-
tion for Chicago Public Schools by
Percent Nonwhite Population in

A.VCTclC'C

x\V6r3.^[G

income,
schools
under
both pro-

Quarts
annu-
ally per
pupil

income,
schools
under
both pro-

Quarts
annu-
ally per
pupil

Percent
nonwhite
popula-
tion

Quarts
annu-
ally per
pupil

Percent
nonwhite
popula-
tion

Quarts
annu-
ally per
pupil

grams*

grams8

95.3

16.3

2.5

17.4

$3,984

23.4

$6,766

15.9

80.5

22.5

2.2

20.7

4,020

22.5

7,333

20.7

78.9

18.3

1.8

20.4

4,284

16.3

7,361

16.4

73.4

15.1

1.3

21.5

5,138

16.1

7,385

21.1

68.7

16.1

.8

16.4

5,323

18.3

7,513

18.2

54.4

23.4

.6

15.9

5,861

21.5

7,576

20.5

22.9

18.2

.4

21.1

6,156

15.1

7,638

17.4

17.6

19.9

.3

22.9

6,178

19.9

7,732

14.1

6.5

14.1

.1

20 5

6,286

20.4

7,827

17.4

6.0

19.4

.1

18.5

6,408

19.4

8,370

18.5

3.4

17.4

.1

9.2

6,696

22.9

8,415

9.2

» 1960 census.

nificant (Table 10). Average consumption per pupil in those areas
with an average income of $3,984 was 23.4 quarts annually. In those
areas with an average income of $8,415, average consumption was 9.2
quarts annually.

Percent nonwhite population

The relationship between nonwhite population and consumption
levels for Chicago school districts is presented in Table 11. The data
do not show a clear relationship between percent nonwhite population
and milk consumption per pupil. Statistical tests showed that there was
not a significant relationship between milk consumption and percent
nonwhite population.

Relationship between private and public school consumption

The consumption of milk was considerably higher in Chicago pri-
vate schools than in Chicago public schools in spite of the fact that a
larger proportion of public schools provided both programs than did
private schools (Table 12). Average consumption for private schools
with the SMP exceeded the average consumption in public schools with
both programs. Also the consumption for private schools with both pro-
grams was much higher than for public schools with both programs.
One reason for these differences is that greater individual attention
generally is provided in private schools than in public schools. Also,

19681 MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 17

Table 12. — Average Consumption of Milk in Private Schools as Compared
to Public Schools, by Type of Milk Program, 1965-66

Public schools Private schools

Chicago

SMPonly

166

11.4

164

23.5

NSLPonly

1

8.1

7

26.1

Both programs

298

21.2

56

36.1

Total or average

465

19.0

227

27.4

Suburban Cook County

SMPonly

219

27.2

186

27.4

NSLP only

1

29.7

Both programs

243

41.2

19

47.8

Total or average

462

35.6

206

29.1

Downstate Illinois

SMPonly

375

30.0

247

31.4

NSLP only

34

25.3

12

38.1

Both programs

2,545

46.3

179

45.6

Total or average

2,954

44.3

438

37.8

All schools

SMPonly

760

23.0

597

27.3

NSLPonly

35

24.0

20

32.7

Both programs

3,086

39.0

254

42.3

Total or average

3,881

35.9

871

31.8

pupils attending private schools tend to live farther away from their
schools than pupils attending public schools. As a result, it is likely
that a larger proportion of the children in private schools participate in
the NSLP. For the 18 public schools and 3 private schools surveyed
in Chicago, the proportion of children remaining for noon lunch was
higher for the private schools than for the public schools.

The difference between private and public school consumption is
much smaller in downstate Illinois and in suburban Cook County than
it is in Chicago (Table 12). The data show that average milk con-
sumption tended to be higher for public schools than for private schools
in downstate Illinois; however, this difference was not statistically sig-
nificant. But in Chicago, statistical tests showed that consumption of
milk in private schools was significantly higher than for public schools.

Relationship of price to milk consumption

One would expect an inverse relationship between price and average
milk consumption. Previous studies have shown that milk consumption
decreases as the price charged pupils increases.16-"

** Williams and others, op. cit., p. 36.

11 Cook, H. L. and Halvorson, H. W., Pupil Response to Experimental Pric-
ing of Milk, University of Wisconsin Research Bulletin No. 190, January, 1956.

18

BULLETIN NO. 732

[June,

Table 13. — Relationship Between Consumption of Milk and Price Charged
for Milk, Illinois Public Schools, 1966

Pupil price
per half-pint

Number of
schools

Enrollment

Quarts
annually
per pupil

All schools except Cook County

0 - .49

171

31,457

59.4

.5- .99

17

3,252

49.8

1.0-1.49

595

171,935

52.1

1.5-1.99

148

57,903

49.8

2.0-2.49

1,628

589,549

43.0

2.5-2.99

183

73,949

38.9

3 . 0 and over

212

81,693

31.9

Total or average

2,954

1,009,738

44.3

Suburban Cook County

0 - .49

15

6,078

32.8

.5- .99

1.0-1.49

7

3,557

25.3

1.5-1.99

34

50,330

49.0

2.0-2.49

252

154,167

36.7

2.5-2.99

53

21,251

28.7

3 . 0 and over

101

58,653

24.8

Total or average

462

294,036

35.6

Chicago

(all 3.0 and over)

465

500,130

19.0

All schools

0 - .49

186

37,535

55.1

.5- .99

17

3,252

49.8

1.0-1.49

602

175,492

51.5

1.5-1.99

182

108,233

49.5

2.0-2.49

1,880

743,716

41.7

2.5-2.99

236

95,200

36.6

3 . 0 and over

778

640,476

21.2

Total or average

3,881

1,803,904

35.9

The data obtained in the study also show that average consumption
decreased as price increased (Table 13). This was found to be sta-
tistically significant. This relationship provides a second reason for the
smaller milk consumption in Chicago schools than for downstate Illinois.
The average price paid by pupils for milk in Chicago is 3 cents per
half -pint for white milk and 4 cents for chocolate; in suburban Cook
County, 2.21 cents for both; and in downstate Illinois, 1.86 cents
for both.

Consumption of milk in Chicago schools declined from 20.5 quarts
per pupil in 1958-59 to 17.1 quarts in 1965-66. One reason for this
decline is that the price of milk increased 33 percent between 1958-59
and 1965-66. In 1959, the price of milk to pupils in Chicago was 2 cents
per half-pint for white milk and 3 cents for chocolate.

19681 MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 19

Table 14. — Comparison of School Milk Consumption for Schools Serving

Both Chocolate and White Milk as Compared to Schools Serving

White Milk Only, 1966

Number of
schools

Enrollment

Quarts
annually
per pupil

Schools serving chocolate and white milk

Chicago schools 565 563,299 20.3

Suburban Cook County schools 1 72 , 748 39.5

All counties except Cook County 2,363 756,383 46.5

All schools in Illinois 3,181 1,492,430 35.8

Schools serving white milk only

Chicago schools 127 62,491 23.6

Suburban Cook County schools 415 222 , 109 29 . 6

All counties except Cook County 1,029 392,623 37.7

All schools in Illinois 1,550 677,223 33.8

Availability of chocolate milk

One would expect that school milk consumption would be greater if
both chocolate and white milk were available than if white milk only
is available. A Wisconsin study18 indicated that, from the results of
their experiment, combined sale of chocolate and white milk probably
enhances consumption. It is reasonable to expect higher consumption
when both flavors are available because some pupils will be more likely
to take milk if chocolate is available, too.

The consumption of milk in downstate Illinois was 46.5 quarts per
pupil annually in schools serving chocolate and white and 37.7 for
schools serving white only (Table 14). Similar results were shown
for suburban Cook County. But in Chicago, the average consumption
for schools serving both flavors was smaller than for schools serving
white milk only. There is no apparent reason for this result. Statistical
tests showed that in cases where chocolate milk was served, the con-
sumption was significantly higher in downstate Illinois. There was no
significant difference for Chicago schools.

Regression analysis

The purpose of this section of the bulletin is to determine which
measurable factors are associated with variations in school milk con-
sumption. The economic model appropriate for this analysis is:

" Cook, H. L. and Halvorson, H. W., op. cit., p. 2.

20 BULLETIN NO. 732 [June,

Qd = f (Pm, I, T, S, NW, C, K, H, P)

where Qd is quantity of milk, Pm is price of milk, I is income, T is
tastes and preferences, S is size of school, NW is percent nonwhite
population, C is availability of chocolate milk, K is kind of milk pro-
gram, H is secondary schools, and P is private schools.

The following statistical model was utilized to ascertain which
factors were associated with variation in school milk consumption:

Y! = a -t-thXi + b2X2 + b3X3 + b4X4 + b5X5
+ b6X6 + b7X7 + b8X8 + b9X9 + u

where Y is the consumption of milk in quarts annually per pupil, a is
the intercept, Xx is private schools, X2 is secondary schools, X3 is size
of school, X4 is price of milk to pupils per half pint, X5 is average
family income, X6 is percent nonwhite population, X7 is schools with
both programs, X8 is schools with lunch only, and X9 is schools serving
chocolate and white milk. Variables X1} X2, X7, X8, and X9 are dummy
variables; because each had only two categories, values of 0 or 1 were
assigned. For example, for variable X1? if the school was a private
school then variable Xi was assigned a value of 1; if it was a public
school, variable Xi was assigned a value of 0.

In this model it was assumed that the relationship between consump-
tion and the independent variables of enrollment, cost, income, and per-
cent nonwhite population was not affected by the zero-one variables.
Additional assumptions include the ones usually made in multiple re-
gression analyses.

Separate regression analyses were made for Chicago and downstate
Illinois. The number of schools included were 691 in Chicago and
3,392 in downstate Illinois. The results indicate that all of the regres-
sion coefficients except income, percent nonwhite population, and choco-
late milk were significant at the 95 percent confidence level in Chicago.19
In downstate Illinois only the regression coefficients of private versus
public and of income were not significant.

How are these regression coefficients interpreted? The regression
coefficient for milk price was —6.24 in Chicago schools (Table 15),
which means that as the price of milk increased by 1 cent per half-pint
the consumption of milk decreased by 6.24 quarts per pupil annually,
holding constant all other variables included in the analysis.

19 Significance at the 95 percent level means that any regression coefficient
divided by its standard error ^ 1.96 is significantly different from 0 at the 95
percent confidence level. This means that in only 5 out of 100 cases would you
find a computed value greater than 1.96, due to chance alone.

19681 MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 21

Table 15. — Regression Coefficient for Variables Affecting Milk Consump-
tion in Schools for Chicago and Downstate Illinois

Independent
variables

Regression coefficient

b/Sbf

Chicago

Downstate

Chicago

Downstate

Secondary

13 108

(Quarts)
- 2.27 7.33*
1.31 6.09*
- .008 -8.19*
- 6.64 -7.49*
- .0007 -1.76
- .187 -1.41
12.53 8.06*
-10.10 -2.73*
6.22 1.29

- 2.68*
1.18
- 8.29*
-12.82*
- .93
- 2.18*
11.87*
- 3.11*
7.73*

Private

9 058

Enrollment

. - 0068

Price

— 6 244

Income. . . .

0011

Percent nonwhite population . .
Both programs

. - .0334
9 38

Lunch

— 13 35

Chocolate

2 23

t b represents the regression coefficient Sb represents its standard error.
* Significant at the 95 percent confidence level.

RESULTS OF THE SCHOOL SURVEY

To find other factors that might help to explain variation in school
milk consumption, eighteen public schools and three private schools
were interviewed.

None of the schools interviewed had milk vending machines. All
public schools charged 3 cents for white milk and 4 cents for chocolate.
All of the schools charged the same price for the second carton of milk
as for the first carton; all were satisfied with the services provided by
milk dealers; all offered a course in nutrition; and all were satisfied with
the promotional work carried out by the Dairy Council or Milk Foun-
dation.

Of the 18 public schools interviewed, three had average annual milk
consumption of less than 10 quarts per pupil, four averaged from 10 to
15 quarts annually, six averaged from 15 to 25 quarts annually, and
five averaged over 25 quarts annually per pupil. Milk consumption in
all three of the private schools exceeded 25 quarts per pupil annually.

The relationships between various factors and milk consumption
were similar to the results discussed earlier (Table 16). For the public
schools there appeared to be an inverse relationship between enrollment
and consumption; there was no apparent relationship between income
and consumption. In general schools participating in both programs had
higher levels of milk consumption.

Differences between high consumption and low consumption schools

One characteristic of schools with high consumption is that they
have both the SMP and the NSLP. All schools in the survey with con-

22

BULLETIN NO. 732

[June,

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19681 MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 23

sumption of over 15 quarts per pupil annually participated in both pro-
grams (Table 16).

The public schools in the survey that did not participate in the
NSLP were located in the higher income areas.20 In two of these
schools, the principals indicated that mothers felt too proud to have the
school provide milk or lunch for their children and that the children's
nutritional needs were being adequately met in the home.21 Two of the
private schools did not have the SMP; milk consumption for these
schools was lower than for the private school that had both programs.

A second characteristic of schools with high milk consumption is
that participation in the school lunch program is high. For example, 90-
95 percent of the pupils in one of the high schools participated in the
lunch program. In the second high school, 50 percent of the pupils
participated in the lunch program, but a large percentage carried
lunches and purchased milk. The average consumption in these high
schools was 27.0 and 27.9 quarts annually per pupil, well above the
average for the surveyed public schools. In addition, private school
pupil participation in the NSLP ranged from 80 to 100 percent. The
average consumption for the three private schools was greater than that
for the public schools interviewed. Contrariwise, those schools with an
average consumption of less than 15 quarts per pupil annually had 10
percent or less of their pupils participating in the NSLP. Two schools
showed rather large percentages for pupils carrying their own lunch;
however, neither of these schools had a NSLP.

A third and probably one of the most important factors was the at-
titude toward the milk programs by the principals of the schools. All
those schools with an average consumption of more than 20 quarts per
pupil annually had good to excellent attitudes toward the milk programs.
For example, one of the public school principals indicated he would like
to double the participation in the school lunch program but that facili-
ties were limited. He believed that children must be well fed to be re-
ceptive. He stated that by midafternoon some children became quite
restless because they had eaten inadequate lunches. On the other hand,
among schools offering both programs, it was found that in those where
the consumption of milk was low, the attitude of the principals also
tended to be somewhat indifferent.

A fourth factor affecting the amount of milk consumed is whether
the school is a private school or a public school. Consumption in the

" Family income of over $7,500 per year.

" One principal indicated that parents view the milk programs as "govern-
ment hand-outs" and therefore do not want to be associated with the programs.

24 BULLETIN NO. 732 [June,

private school with both programs was 168 quarts per pupil annually.
Consumption in the two other private schools was somewhat lower be-
cause neither had the SMP, but milk consumption in these schools was
still significantly higher than for most of the public schools included in
the survey. One of the apparent reasons for higher milk consumption
in private schools is that more personal attention is given to pupils and
their nutritional needs in those schools than in public schools. Parents
expect more personal attention for their children because they generally
have to pay tuition. In the school where milk consumption was 168
quarts per pupil annually, the principal indicated that the pupils are
required to remain in school during the noon hour. Attention to the
pupils was emphasized in another way in the school where the average
consumption of milk was 33.5 quarts per pupil annually. This partic-
ular school was a Catholic elementary school with an enrollment of 480
pupils. If the children were unable to pay for their lunches, the cost
was paid by a special fund donated by the nuns in the school. Another
reason for higher milk consumption in private schools is that children
attending such schools tend to live farther away than children attending
public schools.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The foregoing description and analysis suggests several ways by
which consumption might be increased. These and several additional
ways will be discussed in this section:

• Initiate milk programs in schools without federal milk programs

• Reduce the price of milk

• Increase container size

• Use vending machines

• Unite the effort between welfare organizations and school officials

• Introduce new products

• Provide adequate funds

Initiate milk programs in schools

A substantial number of schools in Illinois still do not serve milk.
Three percent of the public schools in downstate Illinois, 13 percent of
the public schools in Chicago, and 26 percent of the public schools in
suburban Cook County do not participate in either the NSLP or the
SMP. Among private schools 12 percent in downstate Illinois, 49 per-
cent in Chicago, and 23 percent in suburban Cook County did not par-
ticipate in either the NSLP or the SMP. Assuming average milk con-

19681 MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 25

sumption, the total milk consumption in Chicago could increase by
4,165,667 quarts on an annual basis if all schools served milk. If all
schools served milk, annual consumption in suburban Cook County
would increase by 4,576,928 quarts and in downstate Illinois by 2,100,823
quarts. For the entire state, consumption would increase by 15 percent
if all schools not now serving milk would initiate milk programs, assum-
ing average consumption.

Also, not all schools serving milk participate in both the NSLP and
the SMP. For the state as a whole, 18 percent of the schools partici-
pate in just the SMP and 0.84 percent participate just in the NSLP.

Reduce the price of milk

This and other studies have shown that price and school milk con-
sumption are inversely related. Thus one way to increase school milk
consumption is to reduce the price charged. Milk consumption in
Chicago schools might be increased significantly if it were possible to
reduce the price charged pupils for milk. Annual milk consumption in
Chicago public schools has averaged only 17.1 quarts per pupil as com-
pared to 43 quarts per pupil in downstate Illinois.

Increase container size

One of the possible ways of reducing the milk price to pupils is to
increase the container size from one-half pint to one-third quart
without increasing the charge per serving. In 1954, the one-third quart
container was introduced in a number of schools in suburban Cook
County and two schools in Chicago.22 The price charged for milk was
not increased even though the container size was increased. By the
end of a three-month period, consumption of milk in one high school
increased 46 percent, in a suburban high school 50 percent, and in some
other schools by 30 to 40 percent.23

These increases in consumption resulted from both the increase in
the size of container and the decrease in the price of milk on a half-
pint equivalent basis. An increase in consumption would be expected
even if the price of milk was not reduced. Presumably, a child who
normally consumes a half-pint of milk with his noon lunch would now
consume a third-quart of milk. The child would be consuming 33
percent more milk with his lunch under the one-third quart program
than under the one-half pint program.

* Mecs, Carl Fred, The Historical Development of the Cooperative Agricul-
tural Extension Service in Cook County, Illinois, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Uni-
versity of Chicago, pp. 189-192, December, 1959.

* Ibid.

26 BULLETIN NO. 732 [June,

The question arises whether the higher milk consumption would be
maintained over a period of several years. Consumption in schools
serving one-third quart containers was compared to that in schools
serving one-half pint containers in suburban Cook County. The results
indicate that the average consumption in the 10 schools serving one-
third quarts was 44.1 quarts per pupil annually as compared to 34.1
quarts for the remaining schools in suburban Cook County, or 29 per-
cent higher for schools serving milk in one-third quart containers. The
consumption for schools serving milk in the entire state averaged 35.9.

Use vending machines

Vending machines have been utilized to increase milk consumption.
Milk vending machines are especially adaptable to large schools because
a certain volume is required to break even. One advantage of vending
machines is that cold milk is readily accessible to pupils throughout
the day.

In a West Virginia study, automatic and semi-automatic vending
machines were installed in five schools in 1956.24 The price charged for
homogenized milk was 3 cents per half-pint in most schools. The dif-
ference between the pupil payment and the wholesale price was paid to
schools through the SMP. The total sales in the five schools increased
26 percent after the vending machines were installed, while school atten-
dance increased only 7 percent. Similar results were obtained in other
studies. 25> *6

Unite the effort

Another method that might be used to increase school milk con-
sumption would be to have welfare organizations and school officials
unite their efforts to improve the diet of children from poverty-stricken
families. This could be accomplished by taking a portion of the wel-
fare check and paying it to the school to provide meals for the child
through a school lunch program. For 29 cents a well-balanced meal
could be provided for the underprivileged children. The principals
who were surveyed indicated that many of the children from families
supported by welfare spend their lunch money for snacks of low food
value.

"Clarke, James H., Meyers, M., and Hunter, J. Scott, A Marketwide Eval-
uation in Berkeley County, West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 429, June, 1959.

25 Brown, E. Evan, Selling Milk by Automatic Vending Machines, South
Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 435, June, 1956.

2'Sykes, J. G., Milk Vending in Vermont, Vermont Agricultural Extension
Station Bulletin No. 592, June, 1956.

19681 MILK CONSUMPTION IN ILLINOIS SCHOOLS 27

Introduce new products

Previous studies have shown that milk consumption was directly
related to new products.*7 In the present study, consumption in schools
serving chocolate milk in downstate Illinois was significantly higher
than in schools serving white milk only. The availability of flavors
other than chocolate might also increase consumption of milk.

Participation in the NSLP could also be improved by providing for
more variation in the menu. Several principals indicated that participa-
tion in this program would be enhanced if hot dogs, hamburgers, and
french fries were made available on occasion.

Provide adequate finances

One special problem schools have faced is that federally appropri-
ated funds have often been depleted before the end of the fiscal year.
In such cases the schools have to finance the lunch or milk program.
One source of funds to carry the schools through such periods is the
one cent per half -pint profit margin under the SMP that schools
may make to meet various expenses associated with the school lunch
or milk programs. During the fiscal year 1966-67, the reimbursement
rate in the SMP was cut by 10 percent in Cook County from Septem-
ber, 1966 through January, 1967 because of the expectation that feder-
ally appropriated funds would not be sufficient to reimburse schools at
the full rate for the entire year.

For the fiscal year 1966-67, schools participating in the NSLP were
not reimbursed for May and June, and in April they received one-half
their normal reimbursement. If the schools' accumulated distribution
funds were inadequate, then they had to appropriate funds elsewhere.
This has discouraged some schools from continuing the milk programs
in their schools.

One aspect of the milk programs that has discouraged pupil partici-
pation has been that many times refunds have not been made to pupils
who were absent due to illness or for other reasons.

From a welfare standpoint, in Chicago especially, an increase in the
consumption of milk would improve the welfare of many children with-
out reducing the welfare of others materially. The annual consumption
per pupil in public schools in downstate Illinois was 44 quarts. If
Chicago school consumption could be increased to this level, the total
volume of milk consumption would increase from approximately 12,-
900,000 quarts to 27,540,000 quarts annually, an increase of 14,640,000
quarts or 113 percent.

" Sykcs, J. G., ibid., pp. 1-12.

5 M— 6-68—

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA

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BULLETIN. URBANA
7321968

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