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The Mill Bnd LnmtiBitinaD'^ ^ncce^^.

A TREATISE

Li'

HOW TO BE A SUCCESSFUL SAW AND PLANER
MAN, MILL BUILDING, ETC.

D THE SAWING OF VAU'ABl.K TIMBI
O ADVANTAGE- STACKING AND HOW TO TAKK
CARE OP LUMBHK.

LIGHTNING LUMBER CALCi
OTHER RULES. CARE C

Copyrighted 1890 by

J. H. MINER,
All rights reserved.

In entering this, my second edition on saws,
I shall not only treat more fully on hammering,
but on the care and management of all kinds of
saws. This contains no history of saws, but the
saw of to-day just as every user wants. Practical
millmen know that a saw fitted up for a certain
kind of wood, feed and speed will by no means
run at a Tnce versa from this.

In this work I shall show by illustrations, saws
adapted for every purpose. How to hammer,
grind and sharpen for hard, soft and frozen timber.

There is acknowledged to be a less standard
among millmen than any other business. Most
everyone has his peculiar way. This is true, es-
pecially with filers, and not one out of ten can take
right hold of a mill of a double or triple capac-
ity and go right ahead, simply because he is
clinging to the style of tooth condition of saw
that suited A's mill while B*s mill wants an en-
tirely diflFerent tooth, etc. I shall illustrate this
fully, and arranged in parts so that the reader may
readily apply his case. One-half of our present

mills would cut 25 per cent, more and better lum-
ber if their saw was in proper order. This is say-
ing nothing about the condition of machinery, &c.
This work will put a man right there, and will
prove of inestimable value to all who thoroughly
apply it.

My treatment on band saws will be found to
comprise all there is toward making a perfect saw,
treating fully on proper shaped teeth, how to
hammer fully, and the general care of such saws.
This is from the very best authority and builders
in the United States, and can be wholly relied
on. This work will be of interest to saw and
planing mill builders, treating on the most con-
venient plans illustrated, how to care for planers
and wood-working machinery, together with
valuable rules and suggestions about sawing choice
lumber, lightning calculations not found in any
other publication. Shingle saws are treated fully.
My instructions on same will save a man hundreds
of dollars annually. These will be proven as
facts by simply following instructions.

J. H. Miner.

SPECIAL NOTICE.

This work is compiled with the view of applying
itself readily to all millmen and lumbermen, rang-
ing from the amateur beginner to the expert. This
work is arranged in parts, one to three, in ham-
mering, filing and gumming, so that the reader
can readily apply himself. There are many works
out, not from a practical basis, that are of no value.
All that is asked is a careful study and application.

HAMMERING CIRCULAR SAWS.

FOR BEGINNERS, SHOWING HOW TO STRAIGHTEN

SAWS.

Part I.

This first lesson I shall confine myself to such
treatment as is best adapted to beginners, and as
he advances, the nearer the perfect saw will be
reached. The first requisite is tools. No man
can do anything without tools. A good workman
with poor tools can scarcely accomplish anything.

The accompanying engraving represents a
cheap, handy sawbench which ought to be in every
mill. While it is not all that might be desired as
a man advances, it is certainly what is necessary
for a beginner. The tools shown in cut are worth
about $10.00. The anvil A is set on an end of a
12x12 block, with a mortise to receive pin Z?,
which has a shoulder and reduced to 2", just the
size of hole in your saw. This pin is cut at a
slant directly at Z?, which allows the operator to
tilt or cant the saw in a horizontal position on an-

vil for hammering. E shows a key for tightening
saw H. B shows support for saw level with face of

anvil. A" shows an L attached to the anvil post at
right angle. C shows a screw which is run behind
the anvil. This screw is foi a support by which
a dished saw may be sprung straight before apply-
ing the straightedge. This is necessary, as any
saw dished if but a little, forms a part of sphere
and is full or high under the straightedge where-
ever it is applied. Now, it is very evident that the
saw is not sprung all over as it appears, although
four-fifths of the hammerers of to-day will begin on
such a saw by pounding all over or on straight seg-
ment lines from center to rim, all of which makes a
saw worse. By adding up all the good men, a fair

conception can be drawn from the number that is
left. The first thing is to get the saw in as near a
straight position as possible, then apply the
straightedge and it will tell the truth. As I will
treat briefly arid very plainly here, a beginner can
easily understand.

All saws that require hammering badly are
generally dished from the log, often caused by
blue spots or "bull's eyes.'' These places are
caused by excessive heat, and in one term are a
blister. If the stain of the blue yet remains on
saw, it can be located, and will show a very high
place on the log side. Hang saw on bench full
side out and set out screw C to saw. Then with
the left hand spring saw until it appears straight,
then apply say 20" straightedge in perpendicular
position with right hand, letting it extend down
to collar. I will add here that key E may put in
a horizontal position, instead as in cut. This will
allow straightedge to come down below the bearing
of the collars and will plainly show defects. A
good, open light (North or East) is best, with no
dark object in front of you. Mark with a piece of
chalk or hard bar soap all the highest places,
holding the straightedge perpendicular. After
going around the saw, take the straightedge and
apply it at right angles on all the marks you have
made, that is, directly across the former way. Now

if in this position you find any places that do not
show a lump, rub out the cross mark and make a
long mark in the direction of the straightest way
of the saw. This shows a twisted place, that is,
sprung more one way than the other. . Now take
the straightedge and apply it on the rim in a hor-
izontal position (level) as close as possible. In
this position you will find several high places,
showing to be higher directly on the extreme

^^. /

edge; for such places two or three straight parallel
marks are made, as shown at C, Fig. i, the

marks gradually diminishing at from 4" to
from the rim, as to the height of the twist. I
I shows about how the saw will appear after be
carefully tested with the straightedge. A series
marks are shown just outside of the collar. T
is where the saw was sprung from being dish
All dished saws are sprung near the collar, unl
they have one or more blue spots as shown at
Fig. 2.

Fin 2.

It will be necessary here to say a little m
about a dished saw. If a saw is dished and she

one or two blue spots in testing, often the removal
of such places will practically straighten the saw.
Fig. 2 shows the appearance of a dished saw. Fig.
3 shows the saw standing erect with straightedge
applied. At B it shows considerable high places;
in fact, the straightedge will show a high place in
any position. E shows the saw leaned as stated
until it appears straight to the sighting of the eye,
(this is accomplished with screw C on the bench).
The straightedge shows a low place at C where it
formerly showed a very high place, E shows it

Fig. 3.

sprung just outside of the collars, the marks in
Fig. I showing how it is laid off for straightening.
A shows considerable of a lump. This is a blue spot.

Often the removal of such places where there are
three of them, as in Fig. 3, will bring a dished
saw, as stated, nearly straight. So it is plainly
seen the necessityof getting the saw in the proper
position before applying the straightedge. (Many a
man has failed right here.)

The saw Fig. i is laid on the leather pad or
piece of pasteboard applied on the face of the anvil,
and may be secured by flaps extending down on
each side with a band over them ; this keeps it in
place. Now with a helper strike a blow on each
mark with the round peine, raising the hammer,
say 18" high, using a little exertion. If a thick
saw, a little heavier blow; if a thin one, the
weight of the hammer will almost do. Use the
long peine on the long marks and never across
them ; places that are very high require often two
or a half dozen blows, as the case of a blue spot.
After you have worked all the marks, stand the saw
on edge, bring it to a poise, and notice if it appears
yet full on this side. If so, hang it back on the
bench in the same position and examine the places
that showed to be the highest. They may appear
almost as high as ever, while the remainder of
the spots may be fairly level. Lay saw on pad
again and apply the same number of blows on
such places. Saw may now set a little the other
way, that is, dish a little to you. If so, this is all

right, as you will find high places on the other
side to bring it back. Reverse saw, but don't rub
out the marks. After marking all the high places
you find on this side, notice if any of the marks
correspond with those that you have just worked
on, if so, you have hit too heavy a blow. This is
the best way to govern the weight of your blows.
Nine-tenths of the saw hammerers strike too heavy,
• which eventually ruins a saw. Continue on both
sides of the saw, being careful to bring all the
twisted parts on the rim down level. If saw is
dished and is high outside of collar, as shown in
Fig. 2, E^ don't strike too heavy ; have the saw as
solid on pad as possible and strike several blows
in one place and much lighter; the reason of this is,
some men have no judgment about pounding,
and too much rebound — not solid — blows are liable
to produce fracture, especially in a saw that has
been badly dished several times. Some saws are
made harder in center, hence the caution to pre-
vent fracture. Treat the saw, say twice on each
side, leaving it leaning a trifle to the log when
standing erect on its edge or free on bench. Your
saw may not screw up true on the mandrel. If
not, it will invariably dish from the log, which in-
dicates that saw or collar is wrong. Take the saw
oflf and examine if you can't find a few small lumps
near the collar, as shown in Fig. i, and at E^ Fig. 2 ;

if so, remove them on the pad, noticing carefully
if they are a round or a long place. This you can
easily locate with the 12" straightedge applied at
right angles. Such places invariably run from
center to rim and from rim to center, as shown by
the long marks in Fig. i. After removing such
places saw may dish too much toward the log; turn
it around and examine between center and rim
and you can easily find two or three high places,
remove them, then your saw should screw up
right; if not, it is in the collar, which you can either
paper or turn oflF true, as treated further on. Your
saw may now be much truer but not running much
better. If it heats easily on the rim and has to be
run warm in the center, that is, out of the log, it
requires tensioning, which is fully treated in Part
II. It is sometimes necessary to tension a saw
the first thing. It is no common thing to find
saws too long on the rim, the rim being slack,
caused by heating and gumming. Now, if before
you attempt the treatment I have just given, your
saw should appear winding or twisting on the
rim to your eye, it is a sure indication of needing
tension. Again, a saw will often appear weak and
loose on the rim, the rim quivering easily while
the center does not, and by standing saw on edge
and giving it a light shake, the rim will quiver and
center remain very near still; again, pull the center

toward you if it don't spring much at the center,
and the rim bag back and forth, often springing
the opposite way, is a sure indication. Again, if
a saw appears a little winding and changes its
position when rolled on its edge occasionally, a
kind of jerk or quiver is noticed, which is another
indication. If a doubtful case, and saw don't
straighten easily, but seems very firm and all at
once changes its position all over is a sure indi-
cation. Be careful to study this thoroughly. It is
the best plan to open the saw on the anvil as
treated in Part II. Saws that require tensioning
are often run so long that they will assume a com-
plete wind. Such a saw will require to be heated
up in center by friction, or spoil one or two logs
in getting saw straight, as sawyers call it, saying
then, saw was all right.

Continuous use will put the best saw ever
made in this shape, no matter how careful the
sawyer is. Some cases have been two years with
thick saws while others will not run two months
on a small mill. This diflFerence I will treat
further on. Often a dished saw, after being
straightened, will appear flimsy on the rim and
discourage the operator. Remember that the
center of saw must appear and be a little looser
than the rim.

TENSIONING CIRCVhAR SAWS.

Part II.

Tensioning saws is that part of treatment that
necessitates stretching the metal. This is done
on the anvil. The condition of all circular saws
is that the metal must be equally strained or
stretched. All saws naturally get slack on the rim
that is longer, the metal expanding from heat gum-
ming and the action of centrifugal force as stated.
In all such cases the metal nearer the center must
be stretched, which makes it as large as the rim,
to use a common term. Often the center must be
much larger than the rim, so that the saw dishes
or sags back and forth at the center. This is in the
case of high speeded saws.

Fig. 3 shows how to lay oflF such a saw, which
was described in the clause of Part I. This cut
shows five lines drawn, which is done by striking
circles while saw is centered on the bench. A saw
will often require but three or four lines. Now take
the saw to the anvil, begin at the line nearest the
center and apply blows about 2" apart directly on
the line, having saw bedded very firm on anvil,
so that the blow will be solid. The best plan in
changing positions of saw is to tap the saw lightly

before applying the blow. If your saw is very
stiff it may require hammering on four lines, then
turn the saw around. Now, if 'your saw is not
rusty you can see a dull spot where each blow

A STIFF SAW.

was applied. Strike a blow directly on each spot,
the same blows on this side but not quite as heavy.
When operating on such a saw, it will often appear
as though it was getting worse, that is, where a
saw is so badly stretched on the rim as to form a
twist and appear firmer, not so limber, and when
passing from this stiff, twisted state it appears
quite limber and flimsy on the rim, but a contin-

nation of the blows soon removes this. The case
is often such before stretching the saw, that is,
where saws are 'just slack enough to not quite
twist and yet are sensitive and limber on the rim.
This kind of a saw is not as slack as the one just
described. I deem this explanation necessary, as
I have had saws myself that almost seemed to be
taking a backset, but soon came up. In this
treatment, Part II, I will not go into as much
detail about speed. If your saw is stiff and you
open it until it shows to spring a little with the
hand it will run 50 per cent, better than before.
After opening up the saw until the center is a
trifle the limberest, you can level up (straighten)
as described in Part I, on block or pad.

Fig. 4 shows a dished saw. This may be de-
scribed in two ways. A saw too open for its speed
will dish back and forth the same both ways.
Another form of dished saw is a new saw ordered
hammered for too high a speed. Saw may not
dish when screwed upon the mandrel, but a few
days run discloses the fact that the saw leans
from the log — is full on the log side. A description
of the latter is this: It will lean but one way.
Often if the saw is leaned to an angle of 45° the
center will drop through the other way. The
marks near the center of Fig. 4 at ^ show where
it is sprung, which is just outside of the collars, as

shown in Fig. 2 at Ey but not quite so close to the
collar, that is, not an abrupt place. It will show
light lumps often 6" from the collar. Straighten

Flff. 4.-A DISHED SAW.

this place on the pad and where saw is brought
true strike a line at A and go to the anvil and
stretch this part, striking very light with blows
about 4" apart. It is a very easy matter to do too
much of this, as the rim is many times larger than
the center. In all cases of tensioning as described
so far, is done regardless of lumps with the round
peine of the hammer. It is not always necessary

to stiffen a dished saw after straightening up. The
description just given is on a new saw too open and
dished, with but little use. Line A is to be ap-
plied to a saw that heats in the center and sags
back and forth equally both ways, runs in and out
of the cut, mostly out. Again, a saw that is dished
and does not require stiflFening, as line A^ is invar-
iably much harder to get back to its place, while
a saw that is too open in the center often requires
only a few light blows. This is the case with high
speeded saws, it taking but very little to change
them back and forth; but a stiflF saw requires much
more work.

It is hardly necessary to describe the many
fogy ways that there are for treating a saw. Will
say that many men attempt to hammer saws
directly to the reverse. My system has met with
such unprecedented success that I deem it not
necessary to enter into a volume on the many fogy
ways of hammering.

TENSIONING CIRCULAR SAWS TO SPEED
FOR THE AVERAGE MILL.

It is an impossibility to adopt a speed suitable
for all the variety of speeds at which saws are
run. I will give an approximate of the speed of
saws, which can be relied on with safety. This

approximation is as near as can be estimated. No
sawmaker has ever discovered any exact tension
for saws at a certain speed. I will estimate from
the standard speed of saws, which table is given
in this book. Saws for portable and light or
limited power do not require to be as open as
ample power at the same speed. For such mills
a lo gauge 48" saw may have the center to spring
just a trifle more than the center is ; if two gauges
heavier, it must be stiffer; the same with a heavier
gauge. A 52" may spring a little by pulling back
and forth with the hand ; heavier gauge may be
nearly stiff; 56" may sag a little heavier, gauge not
so much; 60" must just stand straight; 64" must
dish a little back and forth if power is good and
speed nearly up to the standard speed. High
tempered saws may not be quite so open. If
mandrel runs hot they require less tension. In
Part III this will be treated fully for higher speeds.
Fig. 5 shows how to distribute the tension
properly, that is, to have the tension properly
located. Without the knowledge of this no man
can master the saw. Lines i, 2 and 3 show
equally one-third of the saw from the radius. That
part marked 3 which is half way between center
and rim must be more open than any other part,
gradually diminishing as lines i and 2 are passed.
To illustrate a 60" saw, 30" to center for opening

saw, hammering should be done no closer than
lo" from the rim and lo" from the center, the re-
maining lo", which is 3, is to be hammered on.
This is with a saw with tension first property dis-
tributed. It is often that a saw is too tight on

Fiff. 5. -HOW TO DISTRIBUTE THE TENSION.

line 2 and too open on line i. This is done by
hammering too near the center, and results in the
meanest running saw under the sun. Again, I
have seen line i too tight and line 2 too open ; this
does not make as bad a running saw but is danger-
ous of fracture treated further on.

Fi«. 6.-8HOW8 A TWISTED SAW.

This saw has been partly treated, and will be
again treated in **unequal tension.'* Such saws
often bother good men and are very annoying.
The first thing to look into in such a saw is the
condition of its tension. As previously stated, if a
saw is long on the rim it will twist. This must
be guarded against. Saws are often jammed and
badly twisted, the strain coming against the blade
in a side-like way as when a saw runs out of the
log or badly jammed. Fig. 6 shows such a saw.
This saw is twisted at the rim and collars ; by
turning it around it will appear nearly or quite

Straight but when turned half around will show
very full. Such a saw is tested on the rim and
at center. C and D show two very high places
on the rim, with the straightedge applied in a hor-
izontal position ; but when turned at right angles
saw will show straight and often light under it.
A 30" straightedge is best to use in the perpen-
dicular position so as to reach close to the collar.
By tracing C and D the twist will be seen often
to run clear to the center, diminishing there.
In such cases it is not necessary' to straighten -or
hammer clear down to the center, begin at the
rim and you will find that one-third, or sometimes
one-fourth, of the way down will be necessary,
such places are sprung most directly on the edge
and require nearly all the straightening done on
the extreme edge with saw bedded firm on the
padded anvil. A and B show to be at right angles
to C and D, Very often such a saw will appear
full on one side, and at right angles full on the
other side. It is often necessary to go right down
to the eye of the saw. Such places are removed
with the long peine, always applying it on a line
with the straightest way of the saw. Sometimes
from the fogy way of hammering a saw in seg-
ments, causes it to spring on its quarters, appear-
ing as though it was slack on the rim ; when such
a saw won't yield to the opening in Fig. 3 it may

be considered a hard case and is fully treated in
"unequal tension.''

Fis. 7.-CHANGING A SAW FROM RIGHT TO LEFT

HAND.

This can easily be done with any saw. The
idea among millmen that this cannot be done is
erroneous. Fig. 7 shows how this can be done.
If saw is of one gauge taper about four blows on
line B will change it, striking on such lumps as
can be found, but little will change a saw. A
shows that a saw two gauges thicker at center
must be set back closer to the center. This is
done on the board side in changing a saw from

right to left hand. What is wanted is a saw per-
fectly flat on the log side or a little to the log.
Many saws will run the vice versa without ham-
mering.

HIGH SPBBDBD FAST FJEBD SA WS.

Part III.

High speeded saws require close and constant
attention. On the average mill a saw can be
hammered and will run for weeks and months
without re-hammering, while the high speeded
saw requires constant care, a little hammering every
day or so, and to accomplish this I have con-
structed a patent filing and hammering bench, by
which the operator can hammer his saw at will.
The special feature of this bench is in the pro-
vision of a tension gauge by which the unequal
tension of a high speeded saw can be accurately
attained.

IMPROVED TENSIONING BENCH.

This illustrates my liaiiiiiieriug bench suitable
fcr accurately correcting unequal tension in saws.

is also a good filing and jointing bench and
hould be in every mill. The screws shown in
[Qt are for springing the saw in a dished form for
festing unequal tension, the only correct way.
saw is centered on collar and mandrel A
(bown in place at B, When saw is centered and
fct out by screws, no pull of the hand or guess
'■work is relied upon, which is the only known
method. The saw can be revolved and the least
variatioa of light under tlie straightedge cai;

readily be detected, which closely locates unequal
tension, as treated on. No saw can be accurately
tested with the straightedge without first being
sprung straight. If leaned on the floor its posi-
tion has to be continually changed, which will de-
ceive. This bench can be built in mill. Tools as
shown in cut cost about $15.00. Anvil weighs
loolbs. and is suitable for both band and circular
hammering. Size of face 5x8 inches, 7^ inches
high. These tools are first-class in every respect.
The speed of saws given in this table is the
standard, but many saws are run much above

TABLE OF SPEED OF CIRCULAR SAWS.

vSIZK OF SAW.

RKV. PER MIN.

SIZK OF SAW.

RKV. PER MIN.

8 inches.

4,500

42 inches.

870

10 inches.

3,600

44 inches.

840

12 inches.

3,000

46 inches.

800

14 inches.

2,585

48 inches.

750

16 inches.

2,222

50 inches.

725

18 inches.

2,000

52 inches.

700

20 inches.

1,800

54 inches.

675

22 inches.

1.636

56 inches.

650

24 inches.

1,500

58 inches.

625

26 inches.

1,384

60 inches.

600

28 inches.

1.285

62 inches.

575

30 inches.

1,200

64 inches.

550

32 inches.

1,120

66 inches.

/ 545

34 inches.

1,050

68 inches.

529

36 inches.

1,000

70 inches.

514

38 inches.

950

72 inches.

500

40 inches.

900

this. This table gives a little over 9,000 feet rim
speed, while many saws are run as high as 14,000
feet rim speed. Saws running at the above speed
with ample power should be open, as follows : 50"

saw slightly open, center sagging both ways when
saw is leaned; 56" will dish a trifle; 60" will go
through with a jerk ; 64" will require considerable
pull, center going through with a '*thug." If
power is limited saws must not be so open. Saws
running as high as 12,000 feet speed, and above,
will require 3olbs. pull to set a 60" saw back and
forth. Experience will better demonstrate this.
There are so many conditions that no accurate rule
can be had. With my bench the dish of the saw
can be registered, thus the same saw can be kept
exactly to its speed. Saws one gauge thicker in
center do not require quite so much opening,
neither does a saw with few teeth. Inserted teeth
saws do not require as much opening as the solid
at the same speed.

HAMMERING SAWS, TENSIONING AND
CORRECTING UNEQUAL TENSION.

This may be termed the chief element in fitting
up thg perfect saw. It is first necessary to go into
a detailed explanation of what unequal tension is
and how saws are affected by tension in service.
Tension in a saw may be more commonly illus-
trated as temper in a cutting tool. Tension in
saws does not apply to temper, but to the condi-

tion under which the saw has to work. A saw at
a high speed is subject to an enormous amount of
centrifugal strain on the rim, which expands that
part ; and unless the center is stretched to compen-
sate this strain the saw cannot be run success-
fully. A low speeded saw is not affected as much
as the higher and does not require as much ten-
sion. In tensioning a saw as treated, is done by
stretching the steel. The great secret of this is
not in a uniformity of blows, as many think, but is
in having the saw of an equal opening at any one
corresponding point throughout the plate ; that is,
on a line of the circumference. The tension should
be precisely the same, and as the rim and center
is approached should diminish as hereinafter ex-
plained, gradually diminishing at that point where
action of centrifugal force ceases, which will be
fully explained by cuts.

The center of all saws should be stiff, ranging
from 6 to lo inches from the eye, according to size
and condition. The great secret conies in locating
unequal tension, that is, parts of the saw more
open or tighter than others, which is involyed in
unequal temper. It is a very common thing to
see saws opened to appear to proper speed (and
in reality are) and the saw won't run. Such a saw
may be one side open for a speed loo revolutions
* '^^her than its speed, while the opposite side may

have lOO revolutions lower speed than what the
saw was to run at, and yet this can't be detected in
the ordinary way by standing a saw on its edge,
the dish in a high speeded saw being too much for
guesswork. Now it will be readily understood
why such a saw can't make good lumber and hardly
cut a straight board, one side of the saw too large
the other side too small. ** A saw divided against
itself can't run." The large side that is open for
lOO higher than speed tends to dish, while the other
side tends to snake a reverse action on the rim.
Imagine this action on a saw running at a speed of
900 per minute. Could it hardly be expected that
such a saw would stay in the guide pins ? This
saw appeared perfect to the average man. What
gets a saw in that condition ? There are a dozen
reasons why a new saw, perfect, will soon get in
this shape, that is, with a tight side, among most
of the saw hammerers of to-day, by the prevailing
plan to always hammer a saw on the ^nvil for all
kinds of defects. Lumps or sprung places on the
rim never appear at any regular intervals or dis-
tances apart, but on the contrary, and show lumps
to be miscellaneous. Now, this miscellaneous
hammering brings about unequal tension ; not so
much the first hammering, but two or three such
hammerings bring about much unequal tension,
simply because lumps are not always unequal ten-

sion, and where a place is ** belted'' a series of blows,
it invariably turns out to be an unequal spot in
high speeded saws. If a man thoroughly under-
stands tension he can correct this ; but I have not
seen one man in twenty-five that hammered this
way that had a perfect running saw. Uniform
hammering is by no means advisable to a thorough
saw man, and yet it is the only safe way for begin-
ners. Hammering on the anvil for all defects I do
not advise. It is best to level up the saw on the
pad ; this puts it in a condition for determining the
unequal tension, otherwise it is difficult to test. All
practical hammerers know that strains or defects
near the rim of a saw are most prominent direct on
the edge of saw. Now, the hammering of the ex-
treme edge of a saw with the cross peine on anvil
will curl that part up and make it worse. A lesson
on saws may be taken from the tin and coppersmith.
Note how particular he is to remove lumps with
his wooden mallet. Why ? Because to stretch the
metal with hammer and anvil would get it in such
a shape by stretching it that he could 'never
straighten it. Precisely the same with the saw,
the saw being more dense only yields in the course
of frequent treatment. Saws are not sent out
needing hammer tension, as some are ready to
advocate. Hammering on the anvil, as the majority
of men do, tends to crystallize the plate, which by no

means is argument for any improvement. A saw
should -be hammered the quickest way and
accomplish good results. Saw hammering is
fatiguing and worrying, and when a man takes hold
of a saw and there is just enough to do to it to en-
courage him, it is much better than a half day's work
and then not be certain whether it is any better or
not. In testing a saw for unequal tension it should
be hung on the bench, jam nuts set up so as to just
leave free movement to saw. Now screws D D
are set out until saw dishes considerably ; revolve
saw and note the variation of saw under straight-
edge, marking the closest places and those that
stand off the farthest; take saw off and turn it around,
not disturbing screws D D \i avoidable. Mark all
the variations as before. You will notice that some
of the marks correspond ; if so, it is an indication of
unequal tension. That part that stood off the
farthest on both sides from the straightedge is a
loose place ; the place that stood the closest on both
sides was a tight place. Note the variation and
location of such places, not going closer to the rim
than one-third of the distance from rim to center
and about the same distance toward the center. Fig.
I shows how to remove such places, B showing the
loose place that stood the farthest from the gauge
on both sides. A is the tight place which stood
the closest to gauge, alike on both sides. A shows

the blows applied directly on the defect. B shows
that the rim has to be stretched to let the opening
out ; this equalizes the metal. A saw will often
show as many as two of such places as A and B ex-
tending nearer to rim and center. A saw, to be
equally tensioned, will stand oflFthe same way almost
to a fraction all around, provided saw is true,

which in all cases should be done on the pad before
testing for unequal tension. Some places are very
firm and require much more hammering than is
expected. The same amount should be done on
both sides ; if there showed to be a slight diflference

in the saw, then the heaviest blows on the fullest
side. This variation can be but little, otherwise it
will be a lump instead of unequal tension.

Fig. 2 shows how some attempt to remove such
a place as B in Fig. i. The saw is hammered all
over except that place, to equalize the tension.
Such work is never attended with good results,
because few saws are equally tempered, conse-
quently the milder places are opened more than

Fi«. 2.

the harder, so other unequal places are brought
about. I deem it necessary here to make such ex-
planation because to see it in but one light leaves

no conclusion that my method is any better than
others.

What is wanted in adjusting the tension of a
saw is to gauge only from rim to collar, that is, the
center. This is where its momentum begins and
is not affected here by speed, but should be left
stiff; that is, saw not opened clear down to the
center. In testing a saw clear across from edge to
edge, the drop is so much from the straightedge
that there is but little certainty in its distortion.
Unequal temper will cause a drop which will in-
dicate more irregularity than there is, thus deceiv-
ing a man. This is if saw is not gauged from the
center (or near there) the weight of saw will
deceive, and when testing across the center such a
place as B^ Fig. i, may be a soft place, it having
that appearance as it is a loose place. When this
place is adjusted from rim to center so that saw
stands off equally from straightedge, it would
not appear the same if the edges of saw were
supported and center sagged free, because place
B would sag more and would seem to be unequal
afterit had been adjusted as described. Because the
saw is softer at B does not say that it is on the
rim, so if rim is again stretched by testing with
center sagging, saw will not have a running tension
and will not run well. Tension must be corrected

in relation to the action of centrifugal force, then
a perfect saw will be the result.

Pig. 3 shows the action of centrifugal force and
how a saw should be adjusted. C shows that one-
third of the saw from the center should be left
stiff. D shows that the opening should begin at
line C and diminish after passing line B, A shows
how centrifugal force opens the rim and diminishes
at line B^ which is one-third of the diameter.

Pig. 4 shows different positions of saws. A
shows a saw too open near center, as shown at D,
B shows a saw properly opened, being equally one-
half way between center and rim. C shows saw
opened too near rim. E shows the saw with long

straightedge applied across it, being opened prop-
erly as at B. D shows a high speeded saw open
too near center, as at A, a low speed stiff saw will
stand off but little from the straightedge. In
adjusting the unequal tension of a saw, it is best
to have the saw open about to the speed at which

Ft^-H-

it is to run, because it will spring easier and show
up defects plainer. In tensioning saws, the best
plan with high speeded saws is'as follows : As all
saws grow large on the rim, such saws, when need-
ing more tension, should have the tight places in
the tension removed. This done will invariably
bring the tension up to its proper opening. To
illustrate this : A saw needing a little more
tension, by examining for unequal places one or

more firm places can be found. They may show
but very little. Now, such places removed may
make saw a little too open ; if so, examine for a
place a little loose, as B^ Fig. i, and remove it ;
then the saw will be perfect. This is why I say
that an expert hammerer will not hammer uniform-
ly, but as to the condition of the tension, unless
overhauling a saw or changing the speed consider-
ably.

It will be noticed in testing a saw for unequal
'tension on my patent bench, that a saw will stand
oflF farther for a soft place (alike on both sides of
the saw), and will stand closer to the straightedge
for a tight place. In a plainer term, loose places
appear as though the saw was thinner at that place,
tight places appearing thicker. This is when the
saw is tested from the concave side.

BROKEN SAWS.

WHAT BREAKS THEM AND HOW TO REPAIR.
ANOTHER FORM OF UNEQUAL TENSION.

Broken saws sometimes seem a mystery for the
cause ; but nine times out of ten there is a cause.
Fig. 5 shows a cracked saw — two cracks on the

rim. Seldom but one crack forms in the rim of a
saw as shown, which should have a three-eighths or

one-half hole drilled at the extremity to prevent
going any farther. Cut shows the neglect of drill-
ing when a crack appears. It takes but a short
w^hile to ruin, if not to burst, the saw. Cut shows
two holes ; that nearest the rim is counter sunk on
both sides to receive a soft iron rivet, copper will
do. It should be riveted tight and dressed down
smooth. Do not use hard metal, as it will spring
the crack open. Such places are invariably caused
from a distorted or unequal tension, treated farther

on. 5 shows a crack in the center. This is
caused by saw crowding out of log, or from jamming;
small collars are a frequent cause of broken
saws at the collar. This is a very important item
which seems to be entirely overlooked by manu-
facturers. Thin saws can be successfully run on
large collars. A 60" 8 gauge saw on a 5" collar
will not run as well as a 10 gauge 60" on an 8"
collar. This large collar theory will astound any
who will think for a minute how much stifFer a
saw is made by clamping only a fraction more of
the plate. No saw is as stiff standing on the floor
on edge as when screwed up on collars, and while
the difference is from 2 to 3" in size of saw, is but
a small item where a thin saw is necessary in
valuable timber.

Invariably the tension of a saw is extended too
close to the rim, as shown in Fig. 3, the dark lines
showing the tension. In locating the condition of
such a saw, it will stand off* from the straightedge
as at A^ Fig. 5, D being the center line which
should show the most opening at that point ; but
it would be noticed that the most opening is above
D and nearer the rim than center, line A showing
that the tension is not run to the extreme edge,
also shown by position of dark lines. A shows a
place ranging from 3 to 5" in from the rim, accord-
ing to size of saw. Great trouble is often ex-

perienced in cold climates from broken saws, which
could often be obviated. Cut-ofF saws often suffer
from fracture. Such saws should be stretched on
the rim, say hammer two or three times, beginning
directly at the throats of the teeth. This, of course,
will necessitate the opening of the center. All
such saws should be run as slack on the rim as
possible. They will-stand more abuse, which they

certainly get. The leaving of case-harden from
the emery wheel invariably will crack a saw.
While high speeded saws stand from the straight-
edge, as C, Fig. 4, it is a safe plan to open the rim
a little. Firecracks in tempering often cause saws
to crack. Defects that have never been discovered

in steel cause fracture. As small a thing as a
mark at the throat of tooth will sometimes cause a

fracture, to say nothing of the filing square corners,
etc., which should be guarded against, especially
in high speeds.

Fig. 8 shows the worst form of unequal tension
that can be in a saw, and is brought about, as may
be said, in a practical way. A saw can be in this
condition and show up to be equally tensioned
from the ordinary test, that is, no tight and loose
places, and not have a running tension. A shows
that the saw is too open near center, caused by
hammering down to the collar. This saw is illus-
trated at A^ Fig. 4, the straightedge showing the

most opening near the center. B^ Fig. 8, shows a
tight line in the saw near where it should be the
most open. To stand this saw on edge and give
it a shake with both hands it will be noticed that

UNEQUAL TENSION OF ANOTHER FORM.

CEIVINC SAW.

A DE-

line B remains the firmest part of the saw, the rim
quivering very similar to a saw that is too slack on
the rim. If my rule is followed by keeping a saw
the most open half way between center and rim,
no such trouble will be had. Such a saw as Fig.
8 wiH stand pretty close to the straightedge to
nearly half way from the rim ; this is when the saw

is dished. Such a saw is not so much aflFected
only in high speed. This saw will dish back and
forth with a jerk, and yet the rim is so slack that
saw will snake and not cut a straight line. I have
seen such a saw 66" run 6 inches out of its course
without heating but little, the rim being loose, the
center dished, allowing saw to almost cross the log.
Over one dozen saw hammerers tried to remedy
this saw only to make it worse, hammering first
the rim, then the center, omitting part B, Such
a saw wants close observation when shaken while
standing on edge. A high speeded saw in good
condition will shake more at the center from a
vibration. It is not expected for the rim to remain
still, as it will vibrate a little, but saw should sag
back and forth to within a few inches of the rim.
Such a saw is remedied by hammering on line B.
Fig. 9 represents a peculiar form of twisted saw
caused by unequal tension. This saw may be
termed sprung on the quarters. What gets a saw
in such a condition is hammering in segments from
rim to center, opening certain parts more than
others. Such a saw will appear as though it was
too slack on the rim ; but when treating the center
it gets no better. The cause of this is that there
are as many tight lines running from rim to center
as there are loose places, so the hammering that
expands the saw opens these loose lines as much

as the tight* ones are opened, so the saw in reality
is made no better. The only remedy for these tight

Fl«. 9.-ANOTHER FORM OF UNEQUAL TENSION.

A TWISTED SAW.

lines is to hammer from rim to center in the same
manner as has been done. This is the only way
to neutralize the tension. Such tight lines are
located by resting the saw with one edge on the
anvil while on the bench and spring the saw up
and down, noting the parts that are the stiffest,
marking them and moving saw to be certain that
such parts are the stiffest. Hammering with the

cross or long peine soon brings about such results.
Only reckless hammering can get a saw in that
shape.

There might be much more said about unequal
tension, but if these instructions are complied with
any saw may and can be made to run better. I
will say that such saws are often found where a
half dozen or so of traveling hammerers have been.
When a saw won't stiflFen (if too open) by stretch-
ing the rim there is this trouble. The same way
in the center of saw when saw does not appear to
improve in tension after much hammering. Keep
in mind that a loose saw on the rim often assumes
such shapes (winding), but when treated half dozen
lines in center a great change is noticed, while the
former will not improve.

BAND LOG SAWS.

It is not necessary here to enter into any dis-
cussion of the utility of the band saw for convert-
ing choice logs into lumber. They have come to
stay, and their introduction generally is only
limited to the skill to be had in their care and
operation. They are no more an experiment but
a success. Their capacity is only determined by
the skill in charge, viz.: the filer. Unprece-
dented results are almost daily heard of and their

capacity has never been reached. Some records
show a greater output in the same time than the
circular, showing as high as one hundred and fifty
thousand feet cut in eleven hours. The chief merit
of the band saw lies of course in its economy of
saw kerf — cutting out but one-eighth inch, against
the five-sixteenths inch of a circular. Another
advantage is its ability to saw wide boards or
plank from large logs. Every mill man knows
that this cannot be done with two circular saws
without the board showing more or less of an off-
set on its face, owing to the practical impossibility
of getting the saws to "track" in the same line.
There is no scoring the face of the log as with the
rear teeth of a circular saw. The cut as a rule is
smoother, and consequently there is less waste in
surfacing, so that lumber may be made nearer the
ultimate thickness than when sawed with a circu-
lar. These are considerations that directly affect
one's pocket-book, and if any doubt exists as to
their validity there are means at hand, happily,
that will enable every person to investigate for him-
self to his heart's content. There are nearly one
thousand band-mills in use in the United States
and Canada. There is a growing disposition ob-
served on the part of some users in favor of
wider saws than have hitherto been employed,
and I am inclined to join them in their belief. I

think that a blade ten inches wide at the beginning
and 14 or 15 gauge is bound to give satisfactory
results and run well for a long time. It can wear
down to six inches, or even less perhaps, without
seriously affecting its usefulness, but by having it
good width at the start its life is prolonged to just the
extent that the additional inch or two adds to the
circular. Hence, it is economy to have the saw
as wide as possible at the outset. In connection
with this point the query might naturally be pro-
pounded: If a ten inch blade is good, why is not
one twelve inches, or even wider, better? The
answer would be : For the reason that saw makers,
as a rule, are not in favor of anything wider than
ten inches, owing to the trouble they experience,
with the facilities at their present command, in
properly tempering blades of greater width. The
day may come when wider saws will be used, but
for the present ten inches is the limit for general
practice.

I shall not confine myself to any particular
make of mill. It may be said that all manufac-
turers have mills doing good work. What the
band-mill wants to-day is a perfect saw — a saw
that will stand up to the work and make even lum-
ber. One serious trouble in band-mills which the
makers have endeavored to overcome is the ** over-
throw " of the upper wheel, which is caused in

various ways, principally from the want of suf-
ficient motive power to maintain a uniform speed.
It prevails among many that as a band saw cuts
a much less kerf than the circular, less, or even
the same power, will operate the band. This is
not so. On the contrary, the band must have
more power behind it. Overthrow transmits the
slack side of the saw over to the cutting side, there-
by making dishing boards, especially in broad cuts,
where the power may vary. Such lumber does
not show this defect from its edges as the circular
does, but shows up in surfacing. Great stress is
put on the saw by this overthrow and tends to
crack the blade. Another cause of slight over-
throw and bad lumber is badly fitted and too many
teeth. The tension may be good, but if the
points of the teeth are not in good shape this re-
sistance, or stress, though of short duration, is
thrown upon the imperfect saw while passing
through knots, hard and tough parts of the log,
beyond the sawyer^s conception. Such is the case
with too little set, too heavy back set swaging,
which is hard on all kinds of saws which are less
delicate and more sensitive than the band. An-
other detriment to verticle saws is engaging the
ends of square cut logs, causing a sudden stress
and vibration imparted to the cutting edge. The
inclined mill overcomes this to a certain extent.

but is attended by disadvantages, in which the at-
traction of gravity is not overcome in the inclined
position of the wheel. The slightest defect in the
bearing on the balance of the wheel imparts a
wabbling tendency which seriously affects the run-
ning of the saw.

TEETH-THEIR DISTANCE FROM POINT
TO POINT. FILING AND SWACINC.

From the authority of the best manufacturers
and users, from seven-eighths to two inches is the
limit from point to point, governed by the kind of
wood and capacity of mill. It is a fact that the
band saw can have too many teeth, and when such
is the case is attended with serious results.

Teeth that are too close together have many
disadvantages — first, difficult of properly swaging,
more sharpening and a choking or packing of the
dust between saw and log, especially in dry and
hard wood ; more power is required and the saw
runs more or less warm on the tooth edge, which
causes it to snake. Teeth too close invariably
will not allow sufficient hook without too round
a back; while the back may clear freely, a
*'roman'' back will not stand the feed. What is
wanted in a band saw is as little friction on the
teeth (or tendency to shove the saw over) as pos-

sible. Many saws are ruined quickly in this way.
Too many teeth when in nice fix are not the best
for the saw, to say nothing of stub points, heavy
round corners, irregular set, etc. All this is a
detriment to the saw, and in hard, dry logs it is
no common thing to see a saw not take it. If
filers would file and keep the teeth in the right
shape, teeth 2" apart will work better, but not with
sharp corners filed in throat or too narrow a throat,
as will be treated further on.

FIfl:. I. -SHAPES OF TEETH, FILING AND SWAGING.

Fig. I shows various shaped teeth. It is an
extremely difficult matter to impress filers with the
importance of a perfect shaped tooth, that is, to
maintain it. It can be noticed among what may
be called good average filers that two saws fitted
up may appear precisely the same in appearance
as to finish of teeth, and yet one saw will cut just
twice the lumber that the other will. T]je expert

filer will very readily detect the saws. The prac-
tice among the best filers is to be confined to no
particular pitch of teeth, owing to the working
condition of the mill and the difference of timber.
Even the same kind of timber in different locali-
ties requires a slight variation, for only a limited
quantity of work from the saw can be had; but
where capacity with good sawing with care of
machinery is what is wanted, one-quarter pitch
to a tooth three-fourths of an inch long may be
considered the best tooth for soft wood. Tooth A^
Fig. I, is the best tooth. This shows a tooth one
and one-half inches from point to point. Hard
wood requires a shorter tooth and slightly less
pitch. Tooth B shows the average tooth among
mills. This tooth will pull very heavy and will
tend to crowd the back guide. C shows a tooth
with a sharp throat that is too slim. Such a tooth
may not crack the saw, but there is danger of it,
as shown in cut. The dust will pack as a wedge.
There not being suflScient clearance, teeth B and
C will pull very heavy and will dodge, from the
fact that the backs are too high, tooth is too thick.
A shows the best tooth for all kinds of sawing.
A cannot have as large a throat as B, but it does
not need it. If C had a straight back and round
throat, tooth would clear well. The tendency is
to hold the dust against the front of the tooth.

Unless the back is of proper shape, saw will not
stand up. The back of the tooth has more to do
with a nice cutting saw than the front. Many do
not believe this, but an experiment will demon-
strate it and costs nothing.

Tooth A cannot be used on saws of teeth too
close together, that is, saws of one and one-fourth
inches, and some are less from point to point. In
such cases it is best to run a little less pitch to
maintain as near a straight back as possible.
Such saws of course do not require as long a
tooth, they being closer together.

Tooth I is also a very good tooth and is much
easier kept up on an automatic sharpener. 2
shows the result of pointing up with the file
square corners, producing cracks. Tooth i will
do very well for light or limited power, as it will
cut lighter than A, Many band saws do not have
suflScient power. They require more power than
a circular. This is necessary in keeping up the
momentum of the wheels. If tooth i are as close
together as one and one-fourth inches, spring and
partly swaged set may be successfully used.

FILING AND SETTING BAND SAWS,

They should be full swaged set. For resaw-
ing, machinery and variety saws, they are sprung

set. D shows properly swaged and set. E shows
too heavy a swage — not too much set, but too
heavy and bulky a comer. Such a tooth will
pull very heavily and snake, especially in hard or
uneven grained logs. F shows tooth for hard
wood, which has less set and a heavier comer. If
a saw is true and well hammered very little set
can be used. Too much set is invariably used.
A true saw 15 gauge will run well with one-eighth
set, which is sufficient. A true saw with just the
proper set is easier kept up, the saw runs lighter
and keeps itself cleaner. 0:nly a close set can be
run in hard wood, especially if dry or of a brittle
nature.

Spring set teeth are not advisable on heavy
feed. It is often that saws have too many teeth
for power. In such cases the right kind of a
spring tooth, as at G^ will run much lighter and
will cut well under moderate feed, and will stand
crowding if teeth are not over one and one-fourth
inches apart. H shows a bad tooth that will not
run. The set will close and there is danger of its
springing into the work in tough knots. G is
sprung near the point, which alleviates friction.

With all the improved tools now to be had,
band saws can be kept up in the most approved *
manner. The automatic sharpener and swage are
indispensable, especially the former. There are

some good hand swages that work well. The
teeth should be sharpened to a 'fine edge. This
can be done on the automatic machine when there
are plenty of saws in stock. A saw will not work
well sharpened hurriedly on an automatic; neither
is it a good plan to point up with the file. Either
make a practice of it or not at all.

Considerable filing has to be done where gravel
and spikes come in contact with the saw. In
swaging it is best to use a special swage. There
are good automatic swages, but a good plan is to
have a hand swage. The park swage being about
the best in connection. The teeth should be
swaged as much as possible from the front of the
tooth. The teeth should be kept just the proper
shape ; then set the swage so as to draw out the
tooth, and by no means to upset or stub the point.
The points of the teeth should be kept uniform in
length. If an automatic sharpener is used, the
back edge of saw must be kept straight, or it
will be impossible to keep a nice, true running
edge.

The teeth of band saws should be sidedressed
to an even set, with a slight underfiling to relieve
friction, caused by a square set, as shown at E^
Fig. I. It must be borne in mind that the band
saw is very sensitive, and a more perfect saw in
every respect should be the aim of the filer. To

increase the feed, give a little more licx)k, but in
all cases the teeth must be nearer perfect. A saw
with badly fitted teeth may have too much hook,
while the same hook would not be suflScient if
point was in perfect shape.

HAMMERING BAND SAWS.

Hammering band saws requires great care and
precision. I shall not introduce any new method
from that in general use by practical filers. The
secret of success lies in the saw being properly
hammered. Band saws are hammered in a simi-
lar manner to the gang saw. The principal
feature is to prevent the saw from fracture and re-
tain its proper tension. This is accomplished by
not extending the tension to the extreme^ edge, as
will be further illustrated. The tension of a band
saw should be such that its central part will be
slacker, or longer, than the edges, so that the
edges of the saw will be the tightest and main-
tain its position on the wheel. The idea may be
explained in a simple manner as follows: Take
a piece of ribbon' or other similar substance, grasp
it in the center and draw tightly. It will be
noticed that both edges are rendered slack and is
easily vibrated. Then change the strain to the
edges and it will be readily seen that it is firm and

stiflF. Though simple, the principle is explained.
The central parts are hammered open, as shown
in Fig. I. A shows how the tensio"ti is applied,
hammering, as shown by the dotted marks, extend-
ing nearly but not to the extreme edge.

c--/^

Fi^

^^^^^^

In tensioning a band saw only a round face
hammer should be used, and it must be perfectly
smooth. Anvil should be heavy so that there will
be no rebound. The great trouble with most men
in hammering band saws is that entirely too heavy
blows are applied. This soon gets the saw lumpy
and requires from 25 to 50 per cent, more power
to pull it. All this comes directly on the saw.
Such saws require much more set, which makes

it liable to dodge or snake and liable to fracture.
A true saw with just the proper set will run much
truer and stand more feed. A good plan is to
have some oily waste on hand by which the saw
can be slightly oiled. This will prevent marring
the blade. A doghead hammer is best, of not
over four and one-half pounds weight, though a
balanced hammer maybe used, care'being exercised
that the blows are applied plumb. The idea of
applying glancing or angling blows to expand the
steel in but one direction is erroneous. B shows
the plan of stretching the edges of the saw when
the tension is too close to the edge, the blows being
applied close together directly to the edge. C
shows how the saw is supported in testing the
tension, 2 showing the straightedge as applied
while saw is in this position. It should show light
under the straightedge, say one-thirty-second of an
inch in an 8" saw. A convex straightedge is best, as
there is no guesswork as to the amount of open-
ing. D shows how the saw should sag when
properly tensioned, the saw resting close to the
straightedge, or nearly, at each edge. This shows
that the tension is not run too close to the edge. E
shows tension too close to edge, which will cause
saw to crack ; besides, such a saw almost continu-
ally requires hammering, as the least gumming
elongates the tooth edge. H shows a saw with

tension too far from the edge. Such a saw will not
run true and will snake, slipping on wheels and tend-
ing to run oflf, running unsteady. This saw is open in
the center, but the edges are slack, very similar to F,
which shows a saw tight in the center. This needs
no further explanation.

These defects are located with the saw in the
position of C, saw being lifted with the left hand,
straightedge applied with the right. A good north
or east light should be had. Many argue the
point that the tension must be run close to the
edge to produce good results. True, a saw will
run better, but this is nothing in comparison to
preventing a broken saw. Thereare exceptions, and
some saws have run remarkably with tension close
to edge; but by no means should this be practiced.
In narrow blades it is often extremely diffi-
cult to get a saw to run true. The bet-
ter plan which all saw manufacturers and
mill builders advocate is wider saws, some
mills using 12" saws to No. 14 gauge. Such
a saw properly fitted will stand more feed than
any circular. Wide saws have many advantages:
can be strained tighter, have more contact, and
can be made stiflfer, without the liability of break-
ing. Wide saws will not make or cut as dishing
as a narrower saw. Narrow saws tend too much

toward the principle of the narrower shop saw,
viz.: cutting an irregular course.

fv^'^

Fig. 2 shows a crooked back saw and how to
hammer it straight. A shows saw long on the
tooth edge. A saw tends to get in that condition.
Promiscuous hammering will get a saw in that con-
dition, which is explained farther on, which also
causes a saw to vibrate to and fro on the wheel.
This is a very serious defect in the way of making
a good running saw. Such places in spots in a
saw cause this vibration. If saw is elongated on
the tooth edge it will crowd hard against the back
guide, and often cannot be regulated by tilting the
upper wheel. A shows how to hammer the back
of saw, doing most of the work on the edge,
gradually diminishing to the teeth. Great care

must be exercised to have the tension right when
back is brought straight, otherwise much more
work is necessary. The back of saw should be a
trifle full. This will put most of the strain on the
front or tooth edge, making the saw much stiffer.
A perfectly true straightedge should be used, saw
lying flat on leveling table. The tooth edge seldom
needs opening, and when necessary should be done
the same as described on the back. In no case
should the saw be cut or marred on the extreme
edge, which crystallizes the steel. Cracks can
often be traced from such places. In fact, the
hammer should not show a print. Lightblows and
more of them are the life of the saw. In stretch-
ing a band saw, the same amount of work, as near
as possible, should be done on both sides, otherwise
the saw will not run so well, but will tend to leave
that side too much from the straightedge. Little
attention is paid to lumps in tensioning. If saw
is very lumpy or twisting it must be straightened
before a uniform tension can be determined.

STRAIGHTENING BAND SAWS.

This is done on a leveling table. The saw is
laid flat on the table and all lumps located with a
12" straightedge, applying it straight across, then
at diffierent angles, locating any twisted places that

may appear. Such places always start from the
edge and will be found the most prominent there.
Such places are located in the ordinary way by
applying the straightedge at right angles, applying
the blows with the straight peine parallel and in
the direction of the straightest way of the saw.

I ^

-f

W
I

^^^

F-ig. 3-

■\\\V^

Fig. 3 shows the application of blows in
straightening, A showing that most of the blows
are applied directly on the edge of the saw. Here
is a great mistake made by many, that is, not being
impressed that a saw springs more on the edges
than at center. Nine-tenths of the straightening
should be done on or near the edge. Band saws
spring more in the shape of a twist than in round
lumps, and when a saw shows to be crooked on
the edge the long peine hammer is always used,
and nine times out of ten the saw will be straight

and show but few lumps. If the round peine
hammer is used on the edge of the saw it cannot
be straightened without raising a lump on the
other side. The extreme edge of the saw will
tend to curl or lift up. When the straightedge
is applied parallel with the saw and a lump is
located, very often it will not show when applied
across the saw. Sometimes lumps are found in
the center that show the same in different posi-
tions of the straightedge. In such cases the round
peine hammer is used.

jff, Fig. 3, shows a bent saw, also shown at C
E shows a badly twisted or bent place. Saws are
sprung in this way by being thrown off the
wheels. When such places as E will not yield
readily under the hammer great care should be
taken not to fracture the saw. It should be sprung
down to a solid bearing on the block, that the blows
be applied as firm as possible. Such places may
be peined down if desired. Sometimes it is neces-
sary to heat the saw here. This is done by heat-
ing a heavy piece of iron or tongues and heating
that part to a dark red heat, which will allow the
saw to be bent back. This must be done while
the saw is hot. This draws the temper, but the
proper tension will not affect its running. Very
often such places have to be cut out and a piece

soldered in. This can easily be done with good
soldering tools.

The greatest detriment to the longevity of the
band saw is the steel crystallizing, and this is
brought about no quicker than with too much
hammering, not only too much hammering, but
such pounding as most men do. After a saw is
once got in good condition it requires but little
hammering to be kept up. The man who is con-
tinually belting away on a saw is not the man that
will succeed.

FRACTURED 8AW8.-UNEQUAL TENSION.

A glance into nearly every file room will dem-
onstrate that something is wrong from the
number of broken saws. Saws are fractured in
many ways, nearly if not all makes with excep-
tions. Some make saws that will run without
fracture if properly treated. Tension too close to
edge, too much tension, will tend to fracture.
Unequal tension is another cause. A place of no
more than 6" of unequal tension, that is, too close
to edge, will endanger a saw. A saw should have
precisely the same opening and the most directly
in the center, unless a narrow saw with broad face
crowning wheels, which is seldom the case ; but
when such is, the tension must be a trifle toward
the back from the center, so that the teeth will
clear the edge. Especially along the front and

back, the opening must be the same. The saw
crowding against back guide, glazing and often
case-hardening the back, where there is any trouble
of this kind, a piece of soft emery wheel should be
held against the back edge while saw is moving
slowly. This will produce a new surface and re-
lieves all such anticipations. Saw should run with
teeth as far over as possible, with back guides set
so that the set of the teeth cannot be backed on to
the wheel ; but a saw in good order will almost
keep its course on the wheels. It may be said that
it is of the utmost importance to keep the wheels
clean. This is a great annoyance in many mills,
especially with too many teeth and slow feed. A
fine powdered dust is cut which the teeth partly
carry around and deposit on the edge of the wheel.
This, of course, adds to the strain on the edge.
Saws often have the strain too much on the front
edge, especially where the back is kept convex, as
many do. Irregular motion is very hard on a saw.
As the saw enters the cut a slowing motion causes
considerable overthrow, especially with heavy up-
per wheels. It is a great mistake with many in
erecting band mills in not having ample power.
The calculation should be for twice the power that
the circular requires. In the first place it requires
as much power to keep the motion of the wheels
up as it does to drive the saw. An automatic^

closely regulated engine must be used for good
results. That checking of speed throws consider-
able strain on back or slack side of saw, which
results in fracture where there is any defect in
tension or on the edge of saw. This checking
motion makes very bad lumber, that is, bad places,
by the center being cut in a concave shape. As
stated, too sharp or narrow a gullet must not be
used, especially with a **roman" back tooth. A
straight, or as near so as can be, should be used,
and extra precaution taken that emery wheel does
not case-harden. Wheel should be kept free from
all glaze or greasy spots with a clean cutting
surface.

BRAZING BAND SAWS.

This is a very particular feature, and while it
is easily accomplished with the proper tools, many
filers are troubled about making a good job. One
important part is to get a good, smooth, even lap.
This allows the solder to be of uniform thickness,
which adheres better. The scarfing may be done
with a milling or grinding machine, or may be
scarfed with a file and scraper, being careful to get
it uniform. On 8" saws and above ^" lap is
plenty. Narrow saws require much less. Every
mill should have a good soldering outfit, which I
need not describe. Use silver solder, which can
be had for the express purpose and of any width,

which should be just the width of the lap. Clean
the laps and solder with chemical pure muriatic
acid ; place in position with the back edge perfectly
straight. Irons should be heated to a bright
cherry red in a clam charcoal fire and applied
quickly on the lap, clamped tightly, remaining
until saw has nearly cooled. Then remove and if
joint is sprung a little straighten it down before
saw gets entirely cold, as it will yield better and
not be as liable to affect the joint, care being used
not to strike too heavy and hammer the joint as
little as possible. File off any spurious solder and
make a smooth joint, and tension to the require-
ment. Some recommend pure silver filings 15
parts, pure white brass 5 parts, copper 2 parts,
place the powdered metal between the laps, then
with a blow pipe and powdered charcoal heat un-
til the metal fuses. This requires considerable
heat and is not generally used, unless among
narrow saws. Silver solder can be had from any
saw maker. If it is not good, braze will not take.
Apply irons immediately after applying acid.

NARROW BAND SAWS.

Such saws require but little tension aside from
keeping the edges straight. This is accomplished
by stretching the blade gently back to the teeth.
Round edge files should be used to guard against

cracks. Sufficient pitch should be given to pre-
vent saw pressing against stay pin. The wheels
should be kept clean and true. Great care should
be used in starting the saw, to not start it too
quick. Straightening such saws can be done while
it is on the wheel by slacking the saw, then with
a short straightedge mark all the defects, using a
light, straight, peine hammer against a smooth-
faced mallet. Defects can be easily located with
the eye by pressing saw back to a perpendicular.
The object of slacking the strain is to let such de-
fects show themselves. In tensioning or stretch-
ing the saw, it is best to remove it from the wheels
and use a long straightedge, making the back
perfectly straight. Then the saw will run steady.

SPEED OF BAND SAWS,

The speed of band log saws ranges from seven
to nine thousand feet per minute. Nine thousand
speed can easily be run if mill is well set, good
workmanship and wheels well balanced. The
latter is very important and requires the greatest
precision to get them in perfect running balance.
Power is another important item. With ample
power and close regulation a higher speed may be
attained ; but on the contrary, saws should not run
as high as eight thousand feet, and some even seven
thousand. The saw cannot do good work at too

70 .

slow a speed ; yet it is dangerous to the life of a
saw to run at a varying speed with limited power
and bad regulation. Small saws are run at an
average of four to six thousand feet, which greatly
depends on the condition of the saw and wheels.

FOUNDATION CARRIAGE AND TRACK.

The foundation of the band mill should be very
solid, built of brick and concrete, with a very
broad, deep base. The mill should not be set
directly on the mason work, but should have tim-
bers between. There are instances where band
mills would not run, being set directly on mason
work. This was due to a slight defect in the
balance of the wheels. The carriage and track
should be perfect, built independent of mill frame,
solid, level and perfectly straight. Steel turned
wheels are better than chilled. They run and
wear smoother. The carriage itself should be in
perfect line, with no end motion in bearings. This
calls for a good ofiFset device, which should be
under immediate control of setter.

SAWS ADAPTED TO MILLS OF SMALL CAPACITY.
FILING, SWAGING AND GUMMING.

Part I.

In all books published on filing saws, none have

been gotten up to be of practically any value to

the filer. They recommend a certain style tooth.

etc., as being universal, regardless of the capacity
of mill and kind of timber to be sawed ; conse-
quently when the filer or sawyer applies the tooth
or saw he is surprised at having worse results.
There is as much difference in a saw adapted to a
mill of five thousand feet capacity and one of fifty
thousand capacity as there is in the cutting of the
mills. Even saws of same size gauge and speed
do not require to be near alike in condition. This
I will plainly demonstrate. The reader who ap-
plies the style of tooth I recommend will be more
than surprised at results. A common fault is too
.many teeth. Mr. A. is having good success with
fifty teeth in his saw. Mr. B. is not doing well,
but, to improve matters, imitates Mr. A., gets a
saw with fifty teeth. His saw had thirty, the
proper number. To his great surprise, saw will
not go as well as the old one did. I mention this
as there are thousands of similar instances in the
mill business. Too many teeth consume nearly
fifty per cent, more power, besides making twenty
to thirty per cent, bad lumber, especially in hard
wood, which is enough to break any man. Saw
soon has to go to the repair shop, and all such de-
lays and expenses cut a man's pocket strings.
There is no reason why the small mill cannot saw
one thousand feet of lumber just as cheap as the
larger mills.

Fig. I shows a variety of teeth, showing shape
of teeth and manner of setting. Tooth A shows
the most economical tooth in the consumption of
power and saw plate. This tooth is adapted for
both hard and soft wood, the latter requiring a
little longer tooth. All saws will stand more feed
in soft wood. As an approximation, hard wood
teeth should be from one to one and a quarter
inches long, while soft wood may have a tooth one-
quarter inch longer — from three-quarter inch to
one and one-eighth inch gullet, or throat. Tooth
^ is a tooth that will run very well and is adapted

to frozen timber, being very stiflF. It is also a very
good hard wood tooth, though it has not quite
sufficient pitch for easy cutting, it having one-half
pitch while A has one-third. D shows the style
of tooth used by many in hard wood, which is not
a good tooth. The idea of throat room being the
consideration, the back is ** scooped " out. Only in
the softer logs will this tooth run to any degree of
satisfaction, and will not run at all in hard buts
or dry logs, the dust being cut so fine and of a
mealy nature passes the throat and packs between
the saw and log, heating the rim badly. The
reader can recall many such instances. Too many
teeth brings about precisely the same result. C
and F show teeth that may be found among some
mills, and need no discussion further than that the
result invariably is a cracked saw, as shown at E^
which is the result of filing square corners. A and
B are the teeth to be relied upon. If a burr gum-
mer is used the throats may be under cut, as at H,
Saws of small capacity should not have many
teeth. For hard wood sixteen teeth to every inch
of feed is plenty. If the filer swages well and has
no trouble in keeping the corner of teeth, twelve
teeth may be successfully used. Twelve teeth is
about right for soft wood. Very thin saws, ten
gauge, should have not less than sixteen teeth for
any wood. Such teeth must not have too large a

gullet for hard wood. Soft wood is all right with
larger throat. A saw for fifteen horse-power should
not have over twenty-four teeth, and thirty for a
twenty horse-power. For swaging and setting I
advocate generally the double spread set, as at
4. Some prefer such a tooth as 5 sprung and
partly swaged, but this style of tooth will not hold
good with the number of teeth that I recommend,
as it will require at least twenty teeth to every
inch of feed. In small mills where there are too
many teeth, changing from a double spread to a
spring tooth will help matters wonderfully. 6
shows a tooth that has a rounding corner. This
tooth will not run well and will call for more
power to drive it. It should be filed sharp with
outside corner a little longer, then swage a little.
Never attempt to swage a tooth that is very dull.
If your saw is disposed to crumble, file to almost an
edge, then it will swage without splitting, as
treated farther on. In gumming such saws great
care should be exercised not to heat the saw with
an emery wheel ; neither crowd a dull bit in a
burr gummer, as it will stretch the rim and soon
require hammering. The emery wheel is in most
general use and is the best. Do not attempt to
gum out too long or slim a tooth, as the saw will
be heated more or less, besides changing the ten-
sion so much that I have seen new saws require

hammering from one gumming, as already treated
in hammering. It is always safe to remove all
coloring where the wheel has worked. Not every
time is blue case-harden, but case-harden spots are
always blue ; hence the necessity of running the
wheel slowly and touching lightly, which will.
remove it all. This is understood where the wheel
has worked. Some are of the opinion that if the
saw is blued on the side of the tooth that it is case-
hardened at that place. No matter how hot the
saw should get, it cannot be case-hardened only
where the wheel cuts. The work should be done
uniformly, so that the saw will be in balance and
all the teeth of the same pitch. A true circle
should be struck at the required depth of tooth,
then strike another line as shown by lines i and
2, I being the line for light power. Then with a
straightedge mark the pitch as shown by the
straight lines, only mark to the depth of tooth.

There will be noticed but a slight difference
between A and B of Fig. 2 and of Fig. i. A
shows the proper tooth for mills ranging from ten
to twenty-five thousand feet capacity, which shows
one-half pitch. B shows too stifl a tooth, back
being too high, though it clears as shown. This
style of tooth is better adapted to frozen or hard
wood. It will not stand much feed on account of
its high back. Many men are of the opinion that

TEETH FOR MILLS OF MEDIUM CAPACITY.

Part II.

if the back clears well that is all-sufficient. This
can be worked on light power, but not successfully
on 3" to 4" feed. The tendency is to press against
or jamb the saw. A being a little stifFer, will
answer for hard wood. Such saws require from
forty-six to sixty teeth as to feed. C shows the
proper shape point with a good stout corner with
no shoulder for friction as at £*, which is a tooth
recommended by saw makers ; but it will not work
well after getting a little dull, as any one of ex-

perience' knows. It soon gets in the shape of F^
which needs no further explanation. As to the
width of set, I am inclined to run enough set.
Many are too close in this respect and lose twenty-
five per cent, of their power by friction, which
makes heat, which of course makes bad lumber.
Then for the saving of one sixty-fourth of an inch
do not ruin your saw. A seven gauge saw should
have five-sixteenth inch scant set and not over five-
sixteenth inch. Hard wood a little less. An eight
gauge should have nine thirty-second inch scant,
with good corners. An eight gauge will run very
well with one-quarter inch full; ten gauge one-
quarter scant. For gumming, refer to Part I.
The filing should be done perfectly square, back
and front. If saw will not run right from square
filing, line, and if necessary, then hammer it.

Fig. 3 shows the best tooth for our fastest mills.
D shows a tooth with one-third pitch from the
center, with a perfectly straight back. This tooth
should not be over one and one-eighth inch long.
Some might ask why is this tooth on the fastest
saw only of the same length of the slowest feed.
This is explained by the back being straight and
allowing the whole space from point to point to
chamber the dust. Saw with such a tooth is capa-
ble of standing eight up to ten and twelve inch
feed, which calls for one hundred teeth, about as

TEETH FOR MILLS OF LARGEST CAPACITY.

Part ni.
many as can be put in a sixty inch saw, which is
not quite up to the required number. Now, one
hundred teeth in a saw like A, Fig. i, would not
stand the feed, and if it did, the throat would be so
narrow that it would not chamber any dust. This
tooth often measures but two and one-fourth inches
from point to point, but will chamber a quantity of
dust. The short pitch is also necessary, as a fast
feed saw will not stand up well even with one-half
inch pitch, This tooth has all of its lesistance, or

Strain, directly on the front of tooth; then it is
plain that the tremendous speed of log onto saw
will not jainb or push against the saw, which
would bulge or dish the blade from guide to cen-
ter, which would throw the saw short out or in the
cut, as many fast saws are noticed to do. A shows
the proper tooth from a view of the swaging. B
shows too slender a corner, though precisely the
tooth 4, Fig I. This tooth will crumble, as the
action is to scrape instead of cutting. C shows a
heavy tooth which will run well for a while, but
will require more power, as there is considerable
friction. This represents the majority of work
from the swage bar. ^ is a tooth that can be had
with any of the standard lever or power swages.
This saw will require considerable power to
drive it, which is always, and should be, in large
mills. The automatic sharpener should be used,
or some of the good hand sharpeners, filing being
too great a task ; besides, precision is very neces-
sary. The changing of saws four to five times a
day causes the sawyer some trouble if they all do
not run nearly alike. . In many modern mills of
to-day, power and economy of saw plate is no item.
Such a tooth as C is necessary when but ten teeth,
and sometimes a less number, cut an inch of feed.
Ten inch feed with seventy teeth like C will do
good work.

ri^^ -f .

SWAGING 8AW8.-IM PROPER USE
OF THE SWAGE.

Fig. 4 represents various defective uses of the
upset, a swage in common use. Its use when
properly applied makes a good tooth for all small
and medium capacity saws. A shows a dull tooth,
which ought not to be, but should be filed to a
thin edge, then it will swage well. B shows the
result of swaging a dull or thick tooth. C shows
a reckless "dead'' blow. Often the corner will
not show its defect, but the first log sawed shows
a "washboard'' mark. D shows the result of too
heavy a blow on a partly sprung set. E shows a
tooth too thick to swage, with but little accom-
plished. Continual pounding on a tooth of this
kind crystallizes the steel. F shows upset not
properly set, leaning too much to the operator.
Such work often results in a broken point, as

shown, and keeps a saw continually out of round.
H shows how other teeth may be swaged, which
requires no further explanation. G shows exces-
sive blows on slim teeth, which puts a tooth in
very bad shape. The upset should be used lightly
with a clear ring from the hammer. A deadening
sound indicates defective work.

. The swage bar and hammer is a good swage
when in the hands of a good user. When an
automatic sharpener is used and a number of
saws to be kept up, an automatic hand or power
swage may be used. Such tools are good when
used right, and on the contrary they ruin a tooth.
No machine will do good work unless the filer
knows just what good work is. A mill man who
is not disposed to take hold of improvements needs
no automatic swage. Only the well-up filers make
a success of them.

This engraving illustrates various shapes of
teeth, showing economical and wasteful use of
saw plate. Fig. i shows the extreme waste, which
is a very slim tooth for hard wood. If this tooth
were fitted for soft wood it would stand the heavi-
est feed and not be a wasteful tooth, as its fast
cutting fully compensates. Such a tooth on a
small mill is wasteful and would not last half as
long as tooth 2. Notice that its depth from point
to throat is not more than half that of i. Its wear

is nearer on the periphery of the saw, and not to-
ward the center, as i. As shown, i chambers
'twice as much dust as 2. Fig. 3 shows a tooth
that will not chamber well. The irregular throat
prevents clear circulation. Fig. 4 shows another
wasteful tooth, good for nothing but as shown,
viz. : a broken saw. Fig. 5 shows a tooth with the
result of filing square corners. The tooth itself is
slightly modified from a perfect saw.

INSERTED TEETH 8AW9. THEIR UTILITY,
CARE AND MANAGEMENT.

The inserted tooth saw is the best saw in its
place. The question is, How is the mill-man to
know this ? Many men have failed in the busi-
ness when if they had had a good inserted tooth
saw would have made money. Then this subject
is a matter of interest, that is, for mills of small
capacity.

I will now explain the advantages of a good
inserted tooth saw. Some are not worth buying.
If the mill-man is sawyer, filer, engineer, yard
clerk, etc., the inserted tooth is much the best
saw. This is with a man who may understand
fairly well about gumming and filing. The prin-
cipal difference cqmes in the saving of time. If a
mill-man's time is worth more attending to cus-

tomers, belts, engine and machinery at odd times
than it is to be buying emery wheels and files,
losing time filing and gumming, to say nothing of
saw growing smaller and requiring hammering,
then there is no question about the inserted not
being the best saw. In small mills from four to eight
thousand capacity, I have noticed that the owner or
sawyer attended very nearly to all the machinery,
looking after the water. On the other hand, if mill
is to be run regular and the sawyer knows his busi-
ness, has an engineer, and has time to file his saw
and gum it, and does it right the solid saw may be
used ; but then there is an inclination to favor a
good inserted tooth unless mill goes above fifteen
thousand capacity. The great trouble about solid
tooth saws is as I have stated already. They get
too many teeth in them. It is a fact that with too
many teeth and light power the best man in the
world could not run a saw successfully, especially
in hard wood. The inserted tooth overcomes this
in that the makers do not and cannot put in so
many teeth. The inserted tooth requires less
hammering, which is an advantage to small mills,
and many inserted tooth saws are run one to two
years without re-gumming or hammering. The
same mill with the solid would stand a good chance
of having saw not only hammered several times,
but would probably have hammered into another

new saw. Why ? Because a man that cannot file
or swage a solid saw soon ruins it. With the in-
serted there is some retort, viz. : put in a set of sharp
teeth; hence a new saw every time. Inserted
teeth saws generally are not abused half as much
as the solid, and I have had many to ask why, in
the same hands, this is plainly seen. With the
solid saw running bad, what is done? Cannot
stop and file, as saw has just been filed and
swaged. That would not help the case. What
is done in many cases ? Saw is cooled off" with
water dashed on it, which only adds to its ruin.
The inserted is not treated so. Why ? Because
swager knows that it will run with sharp teeth,
and stops and puts them in. The filer might stop
and file the solid, but only to make it worse.
There are plenty of men running saws who know
practically nothing about them. This is not say-
ing anything against them, as it certainly could not
be expected that all men could be experts. The
inserted tooth for edger saws in large mills is be-
coming a favorite and gives good results, and
maintains another important item, viz. : attains
their size. Inserted teeth saws of reputable makes
maintain their tension for a long while because the
teeth and rings are milled to a gauge, the rim is
not stretched more in one place than another by
teeth not exactly the same size. If rivets or keys

are used a very light blow, giving all an equal
strain. Such saws are hammered as the solid, but
with less tension, as centrifugal force does not act
as much on them.

8HINQLE 8AW8. HOW TO FILE, GUM AND HAM-
MER. A GREAT 8AVING IN POWER AND
TIMBER DEMON8TRATED.

Shingle saws generally require but little tension-
ing. They often get "spalted,'' and in such cases
the rim can be brought true on the block without
removing from the collar, always applying the
straightedge on the upper side. It should then show
a high place to be on the collar side. Considerable
light will be seen under straightedge. For level-
ing the rim, use a short straightedge. Then use
a long one clear across the saw to see if center is a
little lower than the rim, say one thirty-second
inch for hand machines and single cutters; but
double cutters, or ** blockers," require the rim to be
about one-sixteenth higher than center. Straighten
the saw as previously treated on large circulars,
but using only a **tap" of a blow as compared to a
thicker saw, or you will make saw worse. Exam-
ine closely for short twisted places, as described,
and remove them with straight peine light ham-
mer. If saw, after truing the rim and the center,
should show to be a little higher, loosen the

screws on outer edge of collar and insert, say one
thickness of heavy writing paper, or more if neces-
sary, uniform around the collar and screw down
tightly. Should rim not revolve true, insert more
paper at lowest place, or withdraw some at the
highest place. What is wanted is a true rim,
which can be easily had after removing the crooks
or lumps between rim and collar. A shingle saw
is too delicate for any but a few to attempt to ham-
mer, because their heavy blows quickly get the
saw worse. While machine is running slowly, the
uneven places on the rim can be marked by hold-
ing a piece of chalk or end of broken file steady.
The short marks indicate generally a sprung place
which needs straightening ; the parts that are not
marked which show some distance require^paper-
ing. But little will raise the rim. If after getting
rim true it may be too high — that is, saw may run
up ,too much — if in a double cutter saw, and the
filing will not bring it right, the center screws
must be removed, and small segments of paper at
regular intervals inserted. Do not take saw oflF
collar unless compelled to, as you are liable to de-
stroy your former work by moving the paper. It
is not best to have a single cutting saw stand up
too high on rim, as they will cut uneven, running
up in hard blocks where the grain is not straight
and cutting thick shingles in very soft blocks.

Double block saws must be square with the
machine in every way, that is, parallel with the
ways. This can easily be done by measuring at
four equal points out from the center of saw. All
these points must measure the same, from saw to
planed ways. All such machines have ample pro-
vision in the arrangement of the boxes.

TENSIONING 8HINGI.E SAWS.

As stated, such saws require but little tension-
ing. Very high speeded large saws sometimes
require it. In such cases, saw must be taken oflF
the collar and stretched on anvil lightly inside of
screw holes. If saw is very stiflF and two lines do
not help it sufficiently, working on both sides of
saw, work on one line just outside of screws.
Where saw is bright the impression of the hammer
will show a dull spot on opposite side, which will
serve to apply the blows opposite each other ; but if
the saw is hit gently and a firm, solid blow, the saw
will not be sprung. High speeded shingle saws
require that the center be a little slack, but not to
sag or dish. A saw that requires tensioning will
flutter or clip shingles. If saw is suspected of
needing tension, speed it up a little higher for a
short duration, and if it clips and runs worse it is
a sure indication of requiring tension. The higher
speed expands the rim more, which of course
makes the saw run badly, clipping the point and
often cutting thick; but at same time, a saw too
open will generally run down and clip, but its work
will be more uniform. Such saws will heat near
the center, which only makes saw that much worse.

HAMMERING SHINGLE SAW COLLARS.

Collars often get sprung through carelessness,
the saw always getting it first. Excessive heat
sometimes springs a collar permanently. It is
not generally believed that a collar can be ham*
. mered. First apply the straightedge and locate
the low place on the edge. Now directly oppo-
site this place on the taper side of the collar, peine
it with a sharp ball peine hammer. This opens
the metal on this side, which concaves the oppo-
site side. Collar should be flat on anvil with
light blows, especially near edge, or it may be
broken. A blunt center punch would almost
answer for the purpose. There is no work at all
done on the flat side of collar. Many ** expert"
saw hammerers advocate this theory on saws and
**peck" a saw from the concave side, stretching
the steel which raises the metal lip — a nice way to
treat a saw with its surface all cut up, with lumps
as prominent as ever, with the tension so badly
deranged that saw won't run. No man who ham-
mers in this way ever knew, practically, what un-
equal tension was in any saw.

FILING AND GUMMING SHINGLE SAWS.

The shingle saw also gets its portion of bad
filing with badly shaped teeth. In many mills
there is a loss of 25 to 40 per cent, of power from
bad saws, and from 10 to 15 per cent, lost in saw
kerf. This may sound astonishing, but I will
demonstrate how 18 gauge saws can be more
successfully run than 15 gauge.

Fig. 3 shows three styles of hand feed teeth.
A dozen kinds might be illustrated, but A gives a
fair average. This tooth will pull 25 per cent,
heavier than B and will shove the operator 50 per
cent, harder, which of course is a friction on the
saw, losing power. C shows a tooth that might
be overdone, too deep and slim. This tooth will
snatch the block or spalt, and will not cut smooth
or even shingles ; will make waves, especially in a
hard block. Try tooth B and you will be con-
vinced and have something that will shove easy
and save your power.

Fig. 4 shows power feed teeth of shingle saws.
A is the proper tooth, -ff is a power consumer.
It will cut a fair shingle for a short while, then it
will be calling for all there is in the engine of
continually pulling belts in two. This tooth when
a little dull, say after one and one-half hours' run,
will make bad shingles. Such a tooth requires
unnecessary set. It might be called a fair average
tooth for many mills. C is a better tooth, as it is
not quite so thick and has a little more pitch. C
will tremble, which makes a rough shingle when
filer was particular in having an even set. It has
no free circulation for dust and will often jamb and
have to be cleaned. A is the tooth that can be
relied upon every time and in all kinds of timber.
It is short, has more dust room than B and C, and
will cut a smooth shingle. A will run with less
set than the latter. In gumming shingle saws
the back should be kept straight for power feed
and with less pitch. Hand feed will stand more
pitch with a little rounding back, as described.
Care must be taken not to case-harden or to leave
any on the teeth. It will strip your file and snap
teeth oflF when setting.

LINING SHINGLE 8AW8.

Double block saws are square, that is, of same
distance on each side from the bottom of planed
ways. Hand feed and rotary machine saws require
a trifle lead in the mandrel, also a little in the saw,
as indicated. Too much lead in the saw is bad in
cutting broad blocks. Narrow blocks do not show
it so much. For hand machines the same or a

Uttle more lead. Such saws may be flat. I have
$een them a little high in center do very good work.
Nothing like this would do in power machines
where they are crowded for all they are worth.

THIN 8AW8 AND HOW 80ME MILLS MAY SAVE
THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS ANNUALLY.

This is a fact which I can plainly demonstrate,
the satisfaction being got in testing it. Take the
average of saws run on Challenor's or Perkins'
double blockers. They are fourteen or fifteen
gauge with eighty and ninety teeth, filed about like
tooth B^ Fig. 4. Now, such machines will run
lighter, better, be lighter on belts and power, if a
seventeen gauge saw with one hundred and ten
teeth for 36" saws and one hundred and twenty
for 38" saws, filed like tooth A^ Fig. 4. The prin-
cipal feature comes in the saving of timber. This
may sound like folly, but ** figures won't lie."
Make the calculation a fourteen gauge saw will
not run with less than one-eighth inch set, with
but eighty to ninety teeth. Why? Because so
few corners to do the work they soon get dull, not
from cutting, but from friction. The standard
sixteen inch shingle measures precisely one-quar-
ter inch in center, saw kerf making three-eighths
inch. To make a shingle with blocks averaging
fifteen inches high, makes forty shingles. A sev-
enteen gauge saw will run with three thirty-
second inch scant set. This is giving within a
fraction as much set as the fourteen gauge. When
it will run with much less set in the same block,
this saw will make 44 shingles against 40, a saving

often per cent., which is ten thousand shingles
saved in a day's run of one hundred thousand.
To cut these figures in half makes a saving to mill
men of $io to $12 a day. The above is no experi-
ment. I can produce evidence that I have run
eighteen gauge saws on double cutters, making
first-class shingles, and nineteen gauge on rotary
cutters. Now, this is a consideration which should
interest any mill-man's pocket. Now understand
me that as I reduce the gauge of saw I add more
teeth, a seventeen gauge saw with eighty to ninety
teeth would not run at all. Why? The teeth
being so thin would spring, which could not be
helped. Thin saw condemned right there. I have
seen many men make similar changes for the
worse. There must not be less teeth than what I
have stated. Some may advocate more power,
which is not so. The thin saw calls for less power
and will stand up longer, which with a great gain
in shingles ought to be considered.

In many mills we see fifteen gauge seventy
and eighty teeth hand machine saws. What are
they doing? Changing saws six times a day for
forty thousand shingles. I once put an eighteen
gauge one hundred and twenty tooth saw beside
one of these saws. To the surprise of all except
myself, it ran lighter and stood up its quarter. A
shingle saw does not take wood as a board saw
and a great number of teeth will not cut a pow-
dered dust to heat the saw, but each tooth will cut
a shaving. More corners to resist the friction wear
make the saw stand up, if saws are filed as I rec-
ommend, no trouble will be had with running

thin saws. Apply my tooth to your present saws
and note resultSj which will indicate whether my
theory is right.

^i3^5

FILING AND SETTING SHINGLE SAW TEETH.

C shows edge view of tooth B in Fig, 4.
Notice how the corner is worn. This tooth will
require more power to drive it than B. While A
will yet run lighter ; will not make quite as smooth
a shingle as B^ but will cut true and even. D
shows a double spread. This tooth is advocated
by some. I do not recommend it unless on saws
of fifty to sixty teeth, as are occasionally found.
Shingle saw teeth must be swaged a little occasion-
ally and not when too dull. Some will ridicule
this idea. If they prefer jointing C down one-
eighth inch nearly and gum out again rather than
swage the point it is a good thing for saw-makers.

CUT-OFF SAWS.

Such saws generally receive but little attention
among saw, planing and shingle mills. As a re-
sult of this, there are many such saws broken.
The front of teeth should be filed perfectly square
unless teeth are very fine ; then a hand saw tooth
must be given.

I shows tooth in general use with teeth straight
to the center. I have seen such saws when dull
changed around to cut from the other side. This
tooth will not run with any satisfaction in a deep
cut, as the beveling front to tooth will pass the
dust jamb and heat the saw, especially in dry, hard
wood. A shows a much better tooth ; it having a
square throat, will carry its dust out freely. This
tooth has some pitch, as shown by dotted lines.
B is the tooth for all purposes, places and kinds of
wood. If the reade.r will only try it he will be
wonderfully convinced. This tooth possesses many
valuable points. First, it will run with less set,
cut smoother, twice as easy, and run as long again
without filing as tooth i. For mitre and angle
to the grain this tooth will do the work nicely.
For hard wood it must not be quite so slim.
There should be plenty of teeth in a cut-oflFsaw,
especially a swing saw. Too few teeth cause it to

jump, while plenty of teeth, say eighty to ninety
in a fast cutting thirty-six inch saw, cannot hardly
be made jump unless too little set. If ^ is a
stationary saw the front of tooth may line to center
of saw. The cut shows by dotted lines right pitch
for swing saw. If a small swing saw with teeth
one-half inch apart, square the front of teeth with
a one-quarter inch emery wheel and be convinced.
C is a man-killer. The arrow indicates the direc-
tion of motion. This shows a tooth with an ex-
treme bevel on front and will require considerable
power to drive it, and if a swing saw, there is
hardly any pulling it through at all.

The advantage of B is that it is especially
adapted for shingle blocks or heiavy, deep sawing.
D shows B reversed, filed square on back and
flemming on the front. This is about as bad a
tooth as I to pull. Try it by reversing tooth B^
which will demonstrate results. I don't advo-
cate new saws in this work, but a change in the
present forms of teeth. Many new saws have not
as good a tooth as is illustrated in Fig. 6.

BROKEN CUT-OFF SAWS.

This problem has given the saw-makers much
thought. All know that square corners or case-
hardened throats will crack a saw ; but to say
nothing of this, many saws crack even from back
of tooth instead of front. This indicates the ten-
sion too tight on rim ; but one says, ** Not so.
Saw is stiflF, and how can that be ? " Now, if your
saw is to run at high speed, first stretch the rim
close to the edge on say two lines, then saw will

be very loose or open on rim. Now open half way
between rim and center until saw is a little open,
then it will be safe. The checking in this case is
due to excessive centrifugal strain from high
speed. Such saws are tensioned as the circular
described previously. It is useless to explain the
many shaped teeth and their result. Filing sharp
corners invariably results in fracture in a high
speeded saw. Cut-off saws that get much abuse
should be a little slack on the rim. This allows
the saw, when jammed or bent, to yield more
readily, whereas a stiff saw would be more liable
to break. Swing saws in saw-mills get more or
less abuse and should have plenty of set.

DRAG SAWS.

Drag saws for fast cutting with fast motion
want peg teeth, square on both sides, and filed
like tooth ^4, Fig. 6. Slower motion saws in large
logs may have every fifth tooth a drag or raker.
They are hammered as crosscut saws are.

SMALL RIP AND VARIETY SAWS.

Saws used in furniture, sash, door and blind
factories and planing-mills often give a great deal
of trouble. Hammering such saws is precisely on
the principle already treated, with the exception
that small saws are kept stiff, with the exception
of high speeded resaws. When such saws require
tensioning in the ordinary manner, great care
should be exercised to strike very light blows.
Bench saws often show blue spots, which can be
easily straightened back on the block. If they
appear again, stretch the rim opposite such a place

gently on both sides of the saw. This may make
the rim too weak, causing it to heat and snake.
If so, the center, except the blue spot, should be
opened a little. The fence on such saws is often
wrong and extends over the edge of the saw, which
soon dishes the saw, and shows up one or more
blue spots. The back edge of gauge should stand
a trifle farther than the front edge from saw. If
the front side should be farthest, the work acts as a
wedge, pressing heavy against center of saw. In
testing a dished saw, the center should be pressed
down straight ; then it will show whether it is
sprung just outside of the collars, or on a line of

top of table. If saw gets too long on rim it will
snake and should have the same treatment as given
larger saws. Resaws, owing to their taper, are
very difEcult to get true. Some use graduated or
concave straightedges, which must be applied pre-
cisely the same way every time. If center can be
forced in while testing with straightedge will help
in locating lumps. They should be opened near

the center, owing to the friction that such saws
are exposed to, which is generally halfway between
center and rim. If such saws were ground concave
from rim to center they would run much better.
The present method they are convex and sometimes
straight. Small saws that are dished and many
taper resaws can be readily hammered by resting
saw on edge of rest, as shown in Fig. 4. With
straightedge in hand, with pressure downward to
bring saw straight, the lumps can easily be located.
If saw was badly dished and hus no blue spots it
will show a high ridge at A A^ which is just out-
side of collar or above table line. When saw is
pressed straight its true defect is located. The
filing of such saws is by far the most important.

Fi^, 7.

Fig. 7 shows various teeth for resaws, such as
are in general use. A^ B and C are resaw as well
a3 rip teeth. D shows a modified form, which
requires no explanation. A and C are considered
perfect teeth by the majority of filers. ^4 is a very
fair tooth. C is a bad tooth and will make a bad

100

running saw in hard wood. B is the best tooth
for resaws. If the reader has any trouble with
resaw and will apply tooth j5, set as at £", saw will
go if everything about the machine is near right.
To swage such teeth helps them ; in fact, all rip
saw teeth that are sufficiently spaced should be
swaged a little or they will become as F^ requiring
more power, hence more strain on saw, causing it
to dodge, saying nothing of such a tooth tending to
keep with the grain. Thin resaws can be easily run
by keeping the backs of teeth down. Few realize
the pressure against a saw with too high a back.
Straight back with short teeth is just what is
wanted. Resaws, as well as all others, can be
leaded a little with the file, but should not be
practiced longer than the first opportunity to
thoroughly line machine and straighten or tension
saw as needed. Give bench saws plenty of set
and pitch.

MISCBLLANBO VS.

HOT SAWS. WHAT HEATS A SAW ON THE RIM.

Mandrel out of line, with too much lead to
mandrel in saw, or filing:, unequal tension, caus-
ing a saw to run unsteady between guides. Too
many teeth is another serious cause ; having not
enough set ; too small a throat to chamber dust
and too high a back. Too much set will some-
times heat a saw on rim. Saw not open enough
for speed in its tension ; too open, or large, a
throat in sawing hard wood, which is the case
with many inserted toothed saws.

101

WHAT HEATS A SAW IN THE CENTER.

Teeth not having enough set ; saw too thick
in center; lined too much out of the log; back of
teeth too high will heat a saw in center as well as
rim ; too slow speed, causing saw to run from log
and heating center. A hot mandrel, though it
may not impart much heat to the saw, will cause
a new saw to run from the log and heat in center.
All this is based from a saw in good, that is,
hammered to proper speed. Carriage and track
out of line will heat a saw at center, the rim
accommodating the vibration when center cannot.
If track and carriage is not in perfect, run a little
end-play in mandrel. A saw with a blue spot or
full place near the eye will cause it to heat. A
saw badly out of round will heat on rim.

LINING SAW WITH THE CARRIAGE.

A perfect saw on a good mill requires but little
lead — just sufficient to clear the set in gigging.
The ordinary rule is to give a saw one-eighth inch
in twenty feet. The reader may plainly under-
stand this method of lining. First run back block
up to center of saw ; force all the end-play in man-
drel and carriage one way ; measure the distance
to saw; then back this block twenty feet, which is
in front of the saw; draw a fine line just one-
eighth closer to end of head block than the dis-
tance measured from saw ; now move mandrel
until line from center of saw will just touch or show
the same opening from rim to edge.

There are many reasons why this method is
not correct. First, few saws are true, and if not,

102

the measurement is not certain. Though every
saw-maker advocates this method, I will advance
a way which is not governed by the saw or from
any measurements from it. Run front block up
to the collar; saw being off, force the end motion
in carriage and mandrel apart; then measure pre-
cisely 2" from face of collar and make a fine mark
on face of head block, run the next block up and
measure just the same. Now move carriage until
both blocks will be about equally from the man-
drel ; remove saw guide, bore a 2" hole in a piece
of 1x3, three and one-half feet long or about ; bore
holes for lug pins, and screw it up tight on man-
drel ; drive a pointed nail through the end of piece
to just touch the line; then move mandrel one-
half over and measure the other side ; move man-
drel until the front edge shows a trifle closer to
line; if mandrel and saw are right, then it will
have the proper lead.

TRUING A SAW ON ITS MANDREL.

This I do not on general principles advocate,
as the hammer is the best-known method of truing
a saw. However, many may prefer this, having
not the time and tools to hammer with. Not one-
half of the saw mandrels are true. Then what
must be done with the new saw if it does not screw
up true?

Mr. J. E. Emerson recommends springing the
plate by pulling it over. I have straightened
slightly dished saws by pulling them over, having
first heated the saw by friction on the concave
side. A dished saw may be papered and brought

103

true and run just as well. If saw leans from the
log, put a ring of paper size of collar, one-half inch
wide, onto the fast collar, put saw on and add
several small rings to come just inside, or cut out
a nick for lug pins. If loose collar is much con-
caved it will require several pieces of heavy paper.
If saw is concave on log side reverse the paper.
Sometimes a crook can be brought in much better
shape by inserting segments of paper between saw
and collar opposite the full side of untrue place.
This can only be limited, but may be tested as
often as may be desired, when saw is dished and
an attempt is made to spring it straight. It should
be laid off so that all the pulls will be normal, or
miscellaneous pulling would spring the saw untrue.

TURNING UP SAW COLLAR.

This is something that every filer should un-
derstand. This can be done right in the mill
where it runs if a little precaution is taken. First
rig a perfectly steady iron rest, the top of which
should be to center (one-half way the collar) with
lug pins removed. Force all end motion one way
with a thrust, then with a diamond point and
square nose tool the operation is ready. The
tools should be made of not less than five-eighths
steel, with a long convenient handle, to hold per-
fectly steady. Run mandrel from sixty to seventy-
five turns per minute and scrape oflf the imperfec-
tions, but by no means gouge in or attempt to take
a cut. Scrape oflf and leave edge perfectly flat for
say five-eighths, then a slight concave. Care must
be used not to catch tool in pin holes directly at

104

the stem. Care should be exercised not to leave
it full. A very trifling thing will change a saw at
the collars. After collar is scraped perfectly true
put on the loose collar with face out; turn edge
perfectly flat, say three-quarters inch, just so the
remainder of the collar does not touch the saw and
does not show over one sixty-fourth of an inch.
Turn off* the collar until the nut interferes, then
the center should be scraped off". All loose motion
must be out of bearings or the tool will not work
well, but will chatter.

THE SAW MANDREL.

It is very essential that it be perfect. No saw
can be run successfully with an imperfect, out-of-
line mandrel. Where it is possible, three bearings
should be used ; and if pulley is overhung, the
belt should be run as slack as possible with a good
lap. Heavy mills are not built in this way. The
bearings should be long and be self-oiling ; but
this is not always the case, and the present man-
drel is what the reader should remedy. It should
be level, with pulleys well balanced. Often the
key will tilt a pulley and throw it out of balance.
If mandrel is set on two sharp straightedges and
leveled, its heavy side can be easily detected, and
should be counteracted by adding weight on the
light side. Long mandrels are objectionable and
require more power. Heat in a long mandrel will
make it longer and will throw the lead out of saw
if collars are on outer end, as they generally are.
Saw collars should be as large as possible. The
average collar is about five and one-half inches

105

when it should be six and one-half. A 64" saw
should have 7" collar, while a 5", as we sometimes
see, will not stiflFen such a saw to stand as much
as one-half the feed. This is a fact; besides,
small collars dish and are more liable to crack the
saw at center, just outside of collar. For satisfac-
tory results, driving belt and pulley should be as
large as possible. If saws had driving pulley
one-half their diameter and well balanced, there
would be no trouble with slipping belts, with
a twenty-five per cent, increase in the output of
the mill.

A HOT SAW MANDREL.

This is a great annoyance, delay and injury to
saws. There are numerous causes for a mandrel
to heat, to say nothing of the many times they heat
from unaccountable causes. Mandrels for log saws
are often heated from grit from the log. Boxes
should be protected in this way as much as possi-
ble. Cheap and dirty oil is another cause. Man-
drels that heat are often out of round a little, or
soon wear so. Steel is much better than iron and
will wear better, yet it will not remain so in wear-
ing. Common babbitt is another cause. Anything
used that will melt and fill the ladle is too often
used. Instead of ordering the very best metal,
heat to a low heat that will just pour, and with
mandrel and boxes warm a good job will be the
result. Then redlead the mandrel, place it back,
revolve it, then scrape until a perfect free fit is had
with ample oil flutes cut. A mandrel that heats
will be often improved by taking it up and scraping
boxes out clean. Changing the lead without loos-

106

ening up bolts often causes heat. The mandrel
should be level and in line. Hollow mandrels are
coming in use and are the best. A slow stream of
water can be fed onto the saw, which is not bad on
a saw. Care and good lubricants are about the
best remedies. A compound of plumbago and
sulphur in good oil, well mixed and applied, will
help. Clean tallow is good. A mixture of soda in
good oil has been known to stop mandrels when
all other remedies fail ; but the same application
will not work every time, and what cures at one
time seems to help but little at other times on the
same mandrel, showing the necessity of experiment-
ing until the right lubricants are used. New
boxes and mandrels often heat for a few days.
Heat in a mandrel has ruined many a new saw by
dishing it. Many mandrels heat continually, and
this is often omitted in ordering saws. Why?
Because the heat does not bother the old saw and
is not considered an item. I must say saw-makers
are not close enough in that respect. A springy
mandrel will heat. The majority of mandrels are
too small, and bearing next to saw should be
turned down nearly one-quarter inch. This re-
duces friction. The back end near drive pulley
should not be turned quite so much to prevent
springing. Any mandrel can stand to be one-
quarter inch less at bearings, which will help very
much. Too light and too tight a belt is another
great cause. Belt should be protected from dust,
so that an elastic or cohesive surface can be given
belt. A little castor-oil will stick well, but a very
little at a time should be used.

107

MILL BUILDLSGS.—BOW TO BUILD.

This is a ver>' important consideration with the
mill-man, especially with the successful man. No
man ever built a mill to his exact liking, there
being more or less changes necessary' to produce
more and cheaper lumber. No one man ever knew
all about building mills, but by ha\nng the opinions
of others a man is often led into convenient ideas.

SMALL AND PORTABLE MILLS.

Such mills should consist of a single circular,
if small timber, and a top saw if necessary, should
consist of swing cut-oflF saw and log turner. With
this machinery four men, outside of the sawyer,
can cut from four to five thousand feet of good
marketable lumber. Such mills should be set on
a hill-side, if possible, parallel with same, so that
logs can be received from the side of the mill and
dropped as near as possible to carriage. Engine
should be of high speed of a reputable make and
run with a governor, making the work lighter on
engine and machinery. A long, heavy saw man-
drel should be used with at least three bearings.
This gives space for stacking rough edge and
allows lumber truck or car to come right up to the
saw. The log turner can be driven from the saw
mandrel by a quarter twist belt. The swing cut-
oflf saw may be run from this shaft by extending
it, but it is preferable to drive it from engine shaft
and put it back from the saw at least five feet far-
ther than the longest stuflF that is to be sawed.

108

Then carriage is not shoving against it and break-
ing saws. With the sawyer's set lever, he and the
man who rolls down logs can easily turn logs; one
man behind the saw and one at the swing saw to
trim, cut up slabs and take out lumber. With
lumber car right up to saw, the man behind the
saw loads this car as the lumber comes from the
saw, the swing saw man cutting up the accumula-
tion of slabs, etc., collected while he was taking
car out. The track should be ironed and the car
light with large wheels. The mill should have
ample room. When edging up the rough edge
(which is done on the carriage), the log man helps,
and so everything progresses well for five thousand
feet per day. Without the swing saw, lumber goes
out in bad shape, not trimmed. An extra man is
required to cut up refuse. Many mills use no log
turner, necessitating an extra man, besides a de-
crease in the output of the mill. The sawdust
should be carried out on a conveyor, which can be
cheaply built from 4" to 6" cotton belting with
cleats on the outside every five feet, and run at
not over one hundred and fifty feet per minute.
Small mills usually use fire-box boilers, which will
not burn dust well; besides, the dust can be
handled much cheaper than slabs. In arranging
a mill of this kind for sawing long lengths all the
posts of the mill should be on the other side of
carriage, directly in center of mill, one being at the
end of mill, the other not near enough the sawyer
to interfere with turning logs. On these posts
should be a heavy cap, then projecting joists,
heavy enough not to sag. The posts on the out-

109

side of mill should be anchored, or set, deep in the
•ground, with joist well secure. This allows all
clear in front of carriage, with no posts or suspen-
sions. The posts and joists form a cross, the long
end of **T" receiving the outside posts set far
eiiough back that the suspended end will not sag.
This is by far the cheapest plan, as it requires nice
framing to put in a span, besides having to use
heavy timber. The utmost care should be exer-
cised to have good, solid foundations for machinery,
and put in perfect line. This is essential in
erecting any machinery.

MILLS OF MEDIUM CAPACITY.

Such mills may be set end to hill-side, es-
pecially if to cut bills on short notice, logs being
brought in on a car, the track can be extended,
allowing access to length and quality of logs on
either side car. Track should be lowered sufficient
to allow logs to roll on free. If logs are to be re-
ceived from water or from an incline, a **bull" rig
is necessary. But little space should be between
car and carriage, and this on some incline. All
the machinery except saws should be on the first
floor. In a mill of ten to fifteen thousand feet per
day a light four saw gang edger should be used
and set a good distance from the main saw, but
within two or three feet of main rolls. This allows
edging long stuff", and when edger should be idle
from any cause, some space is had for piling edg-
ing. Swing saw on main line rolls should be
directly opposite the discharge from the edger,
then the edgings and lumber to be trimmed can

110

be easily transferred. Lumber is received directly
from edger on car or trucks, as well as from main*
rolls. A slight incline should be on the other side
of rolls for bill stuflF. If straight boilers are used,
the furnace should be at front end, directly oppo-
site the saw, so that a conveyor can be used run-
ning directly over top of boilers and discharging
dust through iron spouts into furnace. Slabs may
be sold for wood or taken out on a light car to a
burner or in safe place to burn. In this mill seven
men besides the sawyer should cut ten to twelve
thousand feet per day. Two or three live rolls
can easily be U3ed, driven by a 4" belt with a
depth turned in the roller ; such rollers arranged
on a pivot frame drop down when not needed.
They are indispensable in getting out heavy tim-
ber with but few men. Such a mill, if on a port-
able order, need not have heavy upper framing,
but lighter, and built on the lower frame. If a
planer and dry-house are required and to be driven
from the same engine, would advise the planer
direct on ground floor ; if room under the mill, on
the same side of mill that landing or switch is.

Dry-house should be on the other side of mill
if convenient, and may be of the smoke-kiln style,
wh ch is cheap and not expensive to run, as the
surplus slabs will make the fuel. Lumber for
kiln should be taken on lumber trucks, while a
light car and track should lead from kiln to planer.
Every mill should have a dry-kiln and planer. The
kiln will dry the stock, be dressed and paid for
long before air drying sets in. Most every one is
familiar with the old style smoke-kiln. The lum-

Ill

ber is stacked some distance from the ground, with
'a long, deep trench under each pile for receiving
the fire. The portable roof and end being placed
in, a slow fire is kept up. A wire gauge or screen
is often stretched between fire and lumber to pre-
vent sparks from igniting. One man can take care
of one-half dozen of these kilns, which will dry
four to five thousand feet per day. The track to
planer should run parallel with kilns, which often
requires a turn-table before reaching planer con-
veniently. If mill is built on the ground, planer
may be set behind, the carriage track parallel with
same, with counter-shaft from engine overhead.
All planers should have a good exhaust fan for
conveying shavings either to furnace or to a
burner. It is the best plan to have planing-mill
separate, driven by separate engine; but there are
many small mills which cannot afford this extra
outlay for a small amount of dressing.

MODERN MILLS OF GREATER CAPACITY^

In building such mills, every precaution should
be taken for convenience and cheapness of manu-
facture. One defect or badly arranged machine or
part of machine will throw a fast mill out of ten
thousand feet per day.

The arrangement of boiler and engine need not
be discussed farther than that they should be de-
tached from the saw-mill, and in a fire-proof build-
ing; then the burning of the saw-mill will save
engine and boilers. Logs should be delivered to
mill by an endless chain with toothed dogs for
hauling up logs. • An endless cable with car may

112

be used with a friction grip. This allows car to
be moved at will, while cable runs continuously.
Automatic stops are often placed in log deck, by
which logs stop themselves; then with a steam
"wench" they are delivered to steam stop and
roller, from which the steam nigger places on the
carriage and is ready for sawing. Edger should
be placed a good distance from main saw and as
close to main rolls as possible, leaving about two
feet. Live rolls should be from seventy-five to one
hundred and fifty feet long, and in from two to
three sections, each section speeded faster nearer
end of run. Nothing but bill lumber should pass
edger. Everything, as near as possible, should go
through edger, then to trimmer, assorted and
carried to destination on conveyors or lumber
trucks. An edging cutter should be placed aft the
edger next to live rolls, delivering same into a
conveyor that should run the whole length under
the mill. This could deliver, if necessary, into a
cross conveyor to burner. In the second section
of live rolls should be a blind saw for cutting long
rough edges or sidings. This section should have
independent rolls, reversible, then the edger could
take care of all long or medium stuff". Sawdust
conveyors should run parallel with trimmer, taking
dust from same and from the edger, delivering in-
to burner or to conveyor to furnace. Conveyors
should be so arranged as to keep mill clean. This
is too often overlooked, and the result is, mill and
premises are soon blockaded with trash. For con-
venience and cheapness, everything should go di-
rectly out from main saw. Handling lumber side-

118

ways in a mill does not pay. Some mills are
arranged with a steam transfer to edger, edgers
being set far enough from main rolls that trimmer
may be placed between it and main rolls, with a
lumber conveyor running parallel with rolls. All
lumber from trimmer and main saws for stock or
kiln go out by this conveyor. Bill stuff is dumped
from rolls at the desired place by means of friction
canters. Bill lumber from edger instead of dump-
ing into conveyor is passed over to main rolls,
then out. This style of mill is coming into gene-
ral use, requiring but few men to handle an out-put
of seventy-five to one hundred thousand feet per
day of heavy lumber. Double circular and gang
mills have gang placed from fifty to seventy-five
feet from saws, with steam canters and transfers
by which every cant is placed direct on rolls in
front of gang without a hand touching it. These
remarks are to form but an idea of the arrangement
of mills. It will pay anyone contemplating erect-
ing a mill of expense and of modern capacity to
travel around and see what is going on. No two
mills can hardly be found built alike. Many good
mill-men pay their profits out in expensive manu-
facture. The idea is to arrange to save labor by
doing the work with good, well-arranged machin-
ery. Saw-mill machinery should be much heavier,
that is, of greater capacity than intended; then
breakdowns and worn-out machinery will be
avoided. Heavy shafting, with light, broad-faced,
well-balanced pulleys and heavy, broad belts
should be used, but not too long. If possible,
avoid tighteners. Good, broad belts, after stretch-

114

ing, will do their work without rattling tighteners
to sooner or later automatically shift belt and ruin
one edge. An erroneous idea among many is to
have heavy, large-diameter pulleys to deliver to
machines ** getting speed.*' This is a mistake.
The driving pulley should not be more than two-
thirds larger than driven, else there will be but
little belt contact. As stated, a high speed engine
(if not the Corliss type) should be used, and every
pulley from it to the machine be as light as possi-
ble. Belts in saw-mills suffer great abuse from
dust, it being almost impossible to prevent it.
Dust chafes the rubber from rubber belts, besides
causing them to slip. Endless leather belts are
preferable, but must be of an extra quality to give
satisfaction. Poor belting is the worst element to
a saw-mill. The successful mill-man, that is, he
who has started with little and come up to the
modern mill, spares no pains in selecting the very
best machinery of ample capacity, set on good
foundations, with heavy mill frame. Vibration to
machinery remains only a question of time to ruin
it. Any unbalanced pulley should at once be
balanced, or a new one replaced. True, smooth,
heavy and well-lined shafting, with bearings pro-
tected from dust, will run for years with but little
wear or attention, farther than prompt oiling.
Light shafting with unbalanced pulleys, narrow,
tight belts, are : First, hot bearings, shaft getting
out of line, eventually a broken shaft, to say
nothing of continual annoyance. Put in the best.

HOW TO SAW CHOICE LOGS TO BEST
ADVANTAGE.

WHAT CAUSES SPRINGY LUMBER.

Sawing a log to best advantage is a very important
item in any mill. More lumber is saved in this way
than in all the thin saw theories. Among fast mills
with small logs but little, if any, time can 1>e consumed
in setting, log quantity being the aim. In the average
and small mills much can be saved in quality and
quantity of lumber. It is no common thing to see
joists and square stuff badly sprung from defective
setting of the log. No log should be sawed directly
through the heart, as the lumber will spring. The
heart should be enclosed, which is done by sawing all
around it. The heart, or center, of no log looks well ;
so in sawing inch stuff the heart should be left as near
as possible in the center of a 2" or 3" piece, as neces-
sary, which encloses a defect in appearance. This is
the only way to saw oak. In sawing oak do not saw.
past the heart, as it will spring badly. Straight trees
in pine, hemlock and large cypress, spring but little,
unle.ss the heart is on one side of the center, and log
is oblong, not round. This indicates a leaning tree.
The underside will pinch a saw and spring badly.
This side al^yays shows a much coarser and darker
grain. The saw should cut parallel with such defects.

116

Fig. 8 shows reckless setting of a knotty log.
Almost every board will be more or less affected.
Had it been turned on carriage with knots parallel
with saw, lumber would have been fifty per cent, bet-
ter, as the center piece would have taken in the knots,
making one or two merchantable boards. Often clear
logs have but one or two knots, as at 8. Care should
be taken to set log right if clear lumber is worth any-
thing. 6 shows reckless setting against a defect,
nearly all the ten boards shown being defective.
Though if split but little, are defective for two feet,
which alone is a considerable loss in clear lumber, to
say nothing of the shake extending from end to end
as in many logs. 7 shows how log should have been
set. Oak logs should be sawed as soon as cut, or they
will check badly. Painting the ends with a heavy
coat of red or white lead will prevent season checks.
In white oak the best second growth timber, which is
decidedly the most valuable, is more susceptible of
checks and springings after being sawed, which in
small, young trees can hardl}' be avoided. Such lum-
ber must be put on sticks right SLway. If allowed to
season in a crooked state, only steaming will bring it
back. In sawing choice, broad lumber, it slu.uld be
all edged on the edger, the log set with its best sides
to come parallel with the saw, either from the first
sawing or after being turned down. If 7 was a clear
log for broad boards it should be set so as to saw it
parallel with the crack, sawing half way, then turning
to the knees and leaving a one or two inch piece, as
desired. 8 illustrates a log with considerable clear
lumber had it been sawed the other way, that is, paral-
lel with the knots. It is common to find one or two
large knots on large logs, especially near the top of
the tree. Pine and all its species have the knots ex-
tending clear to the heart; not bumps or snarls which

IIT

will be sawed out in one or two boards after the slab.
Such places must not be considered as knots. Knots
are where a limb was once, and can generally be easily
detected. Oak is of a different nature, and all defects
that show on outside generally get worse near the
center.

SAWING CROOKED LOGS.
It is not generally known that straight lumber can
be sawed from a crooked log : but it is a fact. Car-
penters often have much trouble with sprung scantling
and joists, due principally to defective or reckless set-
ting of crooked logs or logs from a leaning tree. The
latter are often straight logs but make springy lumber.

2
Ft«. 2.

No log is so crooked that it has not two sides much
straighter. If scantling are to be made from a crooked
log on an edger, it should be set on the carriage so
that the edger saws will take the stuff the straightest
way of the log, and not as shown at i, Fig. 2, which

118

shows the stuff cut the crooked way. 2 shows the
shape the scantling will assume in many cases. They
will " bow," pinching and heating the saws. A^ B
and C show considerable waste of timber. If log is to
be turned but once, and that to the knee, sawing half
way, it should be set with the bow, or belly, to the
saw or to the knee, which is about the only way a
crooked log could be set ; then the boards or scant-
ling, as may be, will come out straight sawed and not
spring from the edges. If scantling are to be cut on
the big saw, the same precaution is necessary. 3
shows what many mechanics have to do to straighten
studding and badly sprung joists and rafters to make
a neat job. It shows the concave side sawed into and
wedged open to straighten. The smaller the stuff is
cut from a crooked log, the more it is liable to spring.
Two or three by twelve and inch plank come out
generally straight ; but if calculated for resawing on
the edger into three, four or six-inch strips care
must be exercised as stated.

Fie:. 3.

Fig. 3. 5 shows a crooked log dimensioned on
the big saw for 4 or 6-inch stuff. This log shows to
be " fletched " or ripped precisely as at i in Fig. 2.
This log will pinch the saw badly and cause it to run
a little crooked ; but more often it is the timber sprung

before the saw gets through. A shows the first line
run true. The next line, between B and C, is badly
sprung, showing to be much wider at B and narrower
at C, with ends at D and E of proper width. All
sawyers have noticed in ripping a crooked log that
the second line is generally the worst, while the first
line pinches worse. As stated, a log from a leaning
tree can be easily detected, that is, when the heart is
much from the center. If deals are to be sawed for
the edger, the log should be set so that the stuff" will
be cut parallel with the oblong side of the log. In
other words, the heart should be set nearest the saw
or to the knee, sawing the deals off" while in this
position. If log is attempted to be ripped in this way
on big saw, the big side that shows the coarsest grain
will pinch badly. Some logs will pinch and lumber
be a little crooked when sawed by the above instruc-
tions, but seldom. The plan is laid down. Any man
can convince himself on but one crooked log.

QUARTER-SAWING.

Quarter-sawing, which is sawing the log as near as
possible from bark to center, makes very valuable
lumber as a finish and in ornamental furniture and
cabinet work. The various kinds of oak, ash, g^m
and sycamore are the woods principally used. For
flooring pine is quarter-sawed, but in a different way
from the above woods. When this lumber is in
demand, an}^ class of mill in good order can reap the
benefits of their logs by quarter-sawing them. The
principal and only economical way is to first halve
the log, as shown in cut Fig. i at i . A light slab is
first taken off, as shown, that log may lay firm. Then
rip it near the center, laying piece A off on skidway.
Turn the half on the carriage down as at 2, quarter-
ing it and using a wedge at X, so that log will not

120

roll, unless an under-dog is used. It is not at all
necessary to use an under or duplex dog in cutting
quarter stuff. Two or three size long wedges slipped
in parallel with log, until firm to log and against
knee. Then insert dog at top and it is held more
firm than manj* of the awkward under-dogs will.
This half being quartered, place it on carriage as at 3,
sawing it up as shown. This is the only profitable
way to quarter-saw. Some recommend sawing into
eighths, which loses considerable time in turning and
placing the stuif on the carriage.

Fig. 5. 2 shows how to quarter-saw a defective
log — very olten a log with a large knot or other defect
on one side. This is shown in the cut, and shows how
the log is sawed until near the center, then the
quarters B and C are sawed as described. Line A,
cut 2, shows that several of the boards near center are
quarter-sawed and may be edged. Cut 3 shows
another way of quarter-sawing oak. especially if the
lumber from the side of log is in demand. For
other purposes fifty per cent, of this log will be
quarter-sawed ; and it is a good plan to saw oak in
this way. Log will cut much better, saw run truer,
and will turn out fifty per cent, more in quantity than
by halving and quartering the log. A mill must have
a gang-edger to saw through the log in this way.

QUARTER-SAWING FLOORING.

Quarter or edge grain flooring commands from $3
to $5 more per thousand than the ordinary " bastard "
sawed. Large mills have expensive machinery es-
pecially for this purpose. The log is slabbed, one or
two boards cut off, then a 4" piece. Log is then

122 ■

turned down as in Fig. 8, a slab, one or two boards as
shown, then another 4" piece. The log is again
turned as shown, leaving a certain dimension in cen-
ter which, if sawed into boards, will make several
pieces of flooring, as at A. The 4" pieces are trans-
ferred to a gang flooring machine. Small mills can as
profitably saw grain flooring as mills especially ar-
ranged for it. Many of these mills do not have a
planer; but the rough product, thoroughly dry, will
command good price in any market.

Fig. 3 shows how the log is sawed through and
through, then edged to suitable widths. The center
of log, where defective, can be made into strips six
inches wide and up, making good common stock.
Sawing in this way, the log is slabbed lightly, then
turned down and sawed as far past the center as pos-
sible. All that part near the center will be grain
sawed, while fully seventy-five per cent, of the log will
be suitable for quarter flooring, there being only a
board or two next to the slab that is "bastard" or
parallel to the grain.

There are many mills cutting the finest timber
there is into an inferior quality, when they can realize
from $1.50 to $3.00 more per thousand in the rough,
besides increasing capacity of mill fully twenty per
cent.

STACKING OR PILING VALUABLE LUMBER
TO PREVENT WARPING.

Any kind of lumber will warp if not stacked up.
The sooner this is done after it is sawed the better for
the lumber. Lumber sawed on a radius, as quarter
oak, etc., warps and shrinks less than when sawed
parallel to the heart. Quarter-sawed oak, green ash and
sycamore should be immediately piled. The founda-
tion of stack should be about eighteen inches high
and inclining about fifteen degrees, as shown in Fig. 9.

128

/>^ . 9-

C^J^

The sticks should be one inch square and very dry,
and sticked exactly as shown in cut, as any lumber
should be stacked. The space between boards should
be one inch or more for oak and stack not wide. The
sticks are placed directly at the end; this prevents
end checks, which are very destructive. Oak, gum,
etc., should be sticked every 24 inches. Sticks should
be directly over each other, or a little gaining as to
leaning of stack. Then lumber will not be sprung as
shown in Fig. 10, which is ruinous. Fig. 9 shows a
stack covered. By placing the sticks at end, rain can-
not wet and expose the ends as in Fig. 10. Fig. 10
shows a flat covering, which has no slant, doing but
little good. Sticks are not placed directly over each
other, which shows the result from springing. The
ends of lumber in Fig. 10 will check; being exposed,
will dry quicker. If the sticks are put directly at the
end, it is protected, besides having the weight of the
stack as a pressure, thus preventing check. Gum
should be sticked ever}^ 18", with g^eat care that sticks
are directly over each other or with the incline of the
stack as Fig. 9. Quartered lumber should be edged,
and as stated, put on sticks immediately.

124

I UMBER INSPECTION.

HOW TO GRADE AND CLASSIFY ALL KINDS
^ FOR MARKET.

Lumber is becoming too valuable to be sawed as
often termed "mill run" or "log through." The good
compensating for the bad, it not being considered that
the good is selling almost at the price of the merchant-
able, and that one good clear board is worth more than
a half dozen culls.

The most successful merchant is the man who has
his goods well classified, having the good and the bad
separate, and telling a man just what he is getting and
by paying more or less he can get an article in pro-
portion. The lumber business is conducted just that
way with the successful competitive lumberman. No
man can now embark in the business without sharp
competition. I will here give the lumber and inspec-
tion rules which are general throughout the country,
and can be relied on :

Inasmuch as no two pieces of lumber are exactly
alike, it is impossible to make an arbitrary rule which
will govern each and every piece

A board may be perfect in all respects for a certain
line of work, and still be imperfect for other uses
where some particular quality is necessary. There
are many considerations which enter into the proper
and judicious assorting and grading of lumber which
must be determined according to judgment and ex-
perience which the timber or the size is applicable,
without wasting more than one-half, are mi// cu//s.

Pieces of lumber that have augur-holes near the
end, should be measured for length between the holes,
and what is so measured to be classed in its proper
quality ; if any augur- holes in the center, as well as at
the ends, should go into cull to be measured full.

126

Merchantable includes only sound lumber, free
from rot, shake and unsound hearts ; hearts in nearly
all varieties of lumber are to be excluded from all
grades above culls.

When lumber is sold as merchantable, it must be
measured so as to make due allowance for defects.
The rule herein given as to width and thickness is
the standard width and thickness for merchantable
lumber of each grade. But when some slight devia-
tion, either in width or thickness, should occur by
accidental manufacture, so long as it will not hinder
the lumber from being used for the purpose for which
it is intended, such lumber should not be reduced in
grade on account of such .deviation.

The wider the board the more latitude is allowed
for defects. This remark applies generally to lengths,
widths and thicknesses, although, as a rule, unless a
board holds plumb to an intended thickness, it is
measured to the next standard below. In dimension
or bill stuff, such as joist, scantling or timber, a variance
in thickness is almost universally allowed by dealers
and consumers, although strict rules of inspection de-
mand full sizes in all respects.

Manufacture should be taken into consideration in
all qualities, and if badly manufactured, will reduce the
grade. This is an important item, and all lumber for
a competitive market should be especially well sawed.
Many men are for quantity ahead of quality. Many
mill-men receive a higher price than the market quo-
tation simply because they are particular as to well
sawing and grading. Remember, it takes good, that
is, well lined, plumb, well balanced machinery and a
perfect saw ; then quantity and quality come together.
The greatest drawback among small mills is for them
to realize that their machinery is not in good order.
They draw their observation from those who are no

126

better oflF than themselves. Another great drawback
is not adhering to the market inspection and grading.
Lumber should be sawed and classed just as the mar-
ket wants it, and not sending such stuff as suited a
particular party. Few mill-men know that any log
has from two to four (as the class may be) grades of
lumber. Often one or two boards will bring as much
as the whole log sawed into " merchantable *' or " mill
run." In many places the inspection and grading is
not so close as in the following; but it will be much
better to assume the higher degree of inspection, then
draw down to the requirements or such as the market
desires. In large competitive cities lumber must be
as required :

Inspectors of lumber are not manufacturers and
must measure and inspect lumber as they find it, of
full length and width (except as to wane, which must
be measured out or inspected in a lower grade), mak-
ing no allowance for the purpose of raising grade
unless so instructed by the buyer and seller.

In hardwood inspection the inspector is instructed
to use his best judgment, based upon the rules for his
guidance.

The standard knot shall not exceed i % inches in
diameter, and must be of a sound character.

Splits are always more or less damage to a piece
of lumber. An allowance must be made, either in
determining the quality or quantity, according to the
nature of the split. A split extending to exceed one
foot will reduce it to one grade lower.

All lumber should be sawed plump thickness.
Thin lumber is not considered marketable, and must
be reduced to the next standard thickness, or at least
one grade lower on account of thinness.

A cull which will not work one-half of its size
without waste, is a mill cull of no recognized value.

127

When lumber or timber does not come up to grade
or contract, it must be placed in the next lower grade
named.

Lumber sawed for specific purposes, such as axles,
bolsters, tongues, reaches, newels, balusters, squares,
etc., must be inspected with a view to the adaptability
of the piece for the intended use, as, in many ca^es, it
cannot be used for other purposes.

In inspecting the grade of firsts and seconds, an
undue predominance of seconds should always be
judiciously ascertained, as the purchaser is entitled
to the full average in grade, which must not comprise
more than 66^3 per cent, of seconds.

Standard lengths are always recognized as being
12, 14 and 16 feet. Shorter than 12 and longer than
16 feet does not come within the range of standard.
In black walnut and cherry an exception is made,
and 10 feet is recognized as a standard length.
Shorter or longer than standard lengths, in all
varieties of hardwood lumber, except in counter tops,
are to be reduced one grade lower, unless otherwise
agreed between buyer and seller.

Mixed lots, containing boards, planks, flooring,
bolsters, reaches, etc., shall be measured and inspected
according to the rules governing the measurement and
inspection of boards arid planks, unless otherwise
agreed between buyer and seller.

Flooring strips should be 4 and 6 inches in width ;
I and I !^^ inches in thickness. Other widths and
thicknesses shall be designated as special sizes. It
must have one face and two edges clear.

Common flooring strips shall be of the same size
and general character as clear, but may have two
small sound knots not exceeding three-fourths of an
inch in diameter, or a small amount of wane on one
edge which will not injure it for working to its full size.

126

Hickory should never be cut while the sap is rising,
as it is then liable to powder-post, and indications of
deterioration of this character should be carefully
scrutinized.

Newels from all kinds of timber must be clear and
free from heart, to square 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 inches
plump. The length must be 4 feet full or multiples
thereof.

Balusters and table legs shall be clear and square,
2x2, 2^x2^, 3x3 and 4x4, 32 inches long.

Newels, balusters and table legs not coming up to
the grade of clear shall be classed as cull.

Counter tops shall be 1 2 feet and over long, i , i ^
and I ^ inches thick, and must be strictly clear, not
less than 20 inches wide.

Clear lumber shall be 10 inches wide and over,
free from all defects of every kind or nature.

Bolsters must be 4 feet, 4 feet 6 inches, or multi-
ples thereof, in length, and the size must be 3x4,
3'^X4>^, 3>^x5 or 4x5 inches.

Reaches must be 2x4, or 2%yi^y2 inches, and the
lengths 8, 10, 12 and 16 feet.

Harrow timber must be 2^^x254 inches, and the
lengths 5, 10 and 14 feet.

Hickory axles must clear, and in lengths of 6 or
12 feet for sizes 3 ><x4'/^, 4x5' 4x6 and 4>^x6, and 7
or 14 feet for 5x6 and 5x7 on special order, cut from
sound, tough, butt logs.

Wagon tongues must be clear and straight, 2x4
at small end, and 4x4 at the butt end, or 23^x4)^ at
small end and ^^x^yi at butt ends, 12 feet long, from
tough, straight-grained timber.

Bolsters, reaches, harrow timber, hickory axles
and wagon tongues not up to the grade of clear will
be classed as cull.

Standard thickness shall be I, i''4, i>^, 2, 2>^, 3

129

and 4 inches, except poplar, which will allow ^ inch.
When lumber is sold on the market to be measured
merchantable, the inspector must measure full, except
in culls which are to be measured at one-half.

It is important that all lumber should be parallel
in width, square-edged, and with square ends. Taper-
ing lumber should be measured at the small end. Ordi-
nary season checks are not considered defects.

Squares shall be 4x4, 5x5, 6x6, 7x7 and 8x8 inches.

Stains, specks, hearts, shakes, rot, wormholes, etc.,
are considered serious defects, reducing lumber to
grades lower than firsts and seconds.

Log-run is always understood to be the unpicked
run of the logs — mill culls out.

SOUTHERN OR YELLOW PINE.

Inspection grades consist of firsts and seconds,
common and cull.

Firsts and seconds must be 8 inches wide and over
(except flooring), free from defects except narrow
bright sap on the face side, or two small sound knots
not over three-fourths of an inch in diameter.

Common shall include all lumber not up to the
grade of firsts and seconds, but free from shakes,
large knots, or unsound lumber.

Cull shall comprise all widths and sizes below the
description of common.

Firsts and seconds clear flooring and strips must
be free from all defects except bright sap, which is
allowable. Blue sap is excluded.

Common flooring and strips must be of the same
size and general character as firsts and seconds clear,
but may have two or three small sound* knots of not
more than three-fourths of an inch in diameter, or a
small wane on one edge which will not injure it for
working to its full size.

130

Step plank, firsts and seconds clear, must not be
less than 12 inches wide, 1% and 2 inches thick;
free from all defects on one side, except two inches of
bright sap.

Grain, riff, or edge sawed flooring is graded as fol-
lows : Clear and firsts.

Clear is 4 inches wide, free from all defects and
must show three-fourths inch edge grain; that is,
grain may vary to an angle of 45 degrees.

Firsts will admit of one or two small, sound knots,
no "bastard" grain, and one-half bright sap.

WHITE PINE.

First Clear shall be not less than twelve inches in
width, and no imperfections allowed unless fourteen
inches wide or upwards; will then allow imperfec-
tions equal to sap, one inch on one side, extending
the whole length of the piece, on pieces fourteen inches
wide and well manufactured, but the face side must
be perfect; as width increases wilJ allow larger im-
perfections in proportion to the width, but not im-
perfections enough to decrease the value below the
above described piece.

Clear or "uppers" are i, i^, 1% and 2 inches
thick.

Second Clear shall be not less than ten inches wide,
and perfect up to eleven inches in width ; will then
allow imperfections equal to sap, one inch on one side
of the whole length of the piece, if well manufac-
tured; as width increases will allow other or larger
imperfections in proportion to the width, but not im-
perfections enough to decrease the value below the
above described piece.

Third clear shall be not less than nine inches in
width, and perfect up to ten inches ; will then allow
imperfections equal to sap, one inch on one side of the

131

whole length of the piece if well manufactured. The
imperfections in this quality shall not exceed one hun-
dred per cent. dVer those allowed in second clear.

Select shall include all lumber of poorer quality than
third clear, the imperfections of which shall not exceed
one hundred per cent, over those allowed in third clear.

Clear Flooring shall be one inch thick, six inches
wide, and no imperfections.

Second Pine Flooring shall be in thickness and
width same as clear floorings and will allow of one
small knot or sap three quarters (^) of an inch on one
side, with clear face.

Common Flooring shall be of the width and thick-
ness of first and second clear flx)oring^ and may have
three small sound knots, with sap one inch on one side,
but if less than three knots then sap equal to two inches
on one side, and shall be free from rot, splits and
shakes.

Four-inch flooring strips, equal in quality to first
and second clear flooring, shall be classed as common
six-inch flooring.

Common Pine Lumber includes all boards, plank,
joists, scantling, timber, fencing and four-inch strips,
that are of a generally sound character, well manufac-
tured, and not included in the foregoing qualities.
Boards and planks should be square edged, full thick-
ness, and have no large loose knots or bad shakes.
In wide boards, twelve inches and over, will allow a
straight split one-sixth (^) the length of the piece,
when otherwise sound. Fencing should be of good,
sound character — pieces that will not break easily, six
inches wide and one inch thick. Scantling joists and
timber should not have imperfections that would
weaken the piece so that it cannot be used for substan-
tial building purposes; and uniform in width and thick-
ness. Lumber should be measured at the small end.

132

and, if much wane on the piece, reasonable allowance
made for it.

Norway pine lumber shall be classed as common
lumber.

Cargoes of piece stuflf or timber containing over
twenty-five per cent. Norway shall not be considered
standard, and all edge boards and inch lumber in cargoes
of piece stuflf, shall be subject to special agreement.

All badly stained white pine lumber that is other-
wise better than common, shall be inspected into a
lower grade than when bright and free from stain.

All Lumber described in the foregoing Rules of Inspec-
tion shall not be less than one inch in thickness and
not less than twelve feet long.

CULLS.

Any quality that be received in t^je foregoing of
even lengths of lo feet and upwards and so imperfect
as to be unfit for ordinary use without waste.

CYPRESS.

Boards and plank should be in lengths of 12, 14
and 16 feet; i, i^^4» i/^. 2, 2^,3, 3^ and 4 inches thick.
Is inspected the same as poplar.

Shakes and pecks are always a damage in cypress,
and should be closely scrutinized.

Strips must be 12, 14 and 16 feet long, i inch in
thickness, and 6 inches wide, unless otherwise ordered.
They are inspected firsts, seconds and culls. Firsts
must be strictl}' clear. Seconds will admit of one
small sound knot, or, in absence of knot, may be one-
half sap on the sap side. Culls — all unsound strips
available one-half

Cypress is daily becoming more popular, and is used
for a variety of purposes for both inside and outside
work. For house gutters and conductors it is the best
possible wood to be obtained, as water has but little

188

effect upon it, and it is equally as well adapted to
general outside finish, while not a few hav^used it for
interior molding, and also for flooring.

SKILL VERSUS SLIPSHOD METHODS OF

MANUFACTURE.

Manufacturers of hardwood for shipment to any of
the larger markets are engaged in a business which re-
quires an especial degree of skill and care to make it
successful. No slipshod haphazard methods will make
them any money. If mills are allowed to run as in-
competent or careless employees may be pleased to
guide them, the output cannot be expected to show
the best possible results that the quality of the raw
material will admit of producing. Poor work in the
mill, will, of necessity, turn out badly manufactured
lumber, and when the inspector comes to put his rule
upon it the effe<?t will be not at all to the shipper's liking.
Bad sawing has been responsible for more disputes
between sellers and buyers than has ever the natural
defects of the timber, and three-quarters of these
quarrels might have been avoided if the manufacturer
had exercised reasonable care in operating his mill.
It is proper to do all work well, simply because it is
right ; but there is a more practical reason for sawing
lumber just as nearly perfect as the mill can be made
to turn it out. It pays ; and it does not pay to do it
in any other way. It needs no argument to prove that
well-manufactured stock sells more readily and brings
a better price than stock that is uneven in width and
thickness. Any one who has ever put lumber on the
market ought to know this by experience, though the
quantity of stock that comes forward from the mills so
wretchedly cut as to be unfit for the uses to which it
should be best adapted, might warrant the belief that
mill men had no object in view save to slash up logs
without regard to what they make. Those who cut

134

lumber in this fashion rarely make any money out of
their work. They stand the losses, and their more
careful and capable competitors reap the rewards.
There is no part of the business that can be safely
left to take care of itself. Even after the lumber is
properly sawed and ready for market, the wise shipper
will have it loaded into cars under his own eye. Ex-
perienced dealers in hardwood say they can easily make
one car look twenty per cent, better than another, con-
taining precisely the same stock, and the same propor-
tion of grades, by the manner of loading it. A good
deal of lumber, sent into market to be sold, is bought
merely upon such an examination as the buyer can
make of it in the car. It is not difl&cult to so load it
that, with a good percentage of culls, it will appear to
be nearly all firsts and seconds, and not by any means
a hard matter, on the other hand, to ma^ke it look like
a cull carload all through. The larger mills have nearly
all these things reduced to a science, and the result is
that they usually make money. Smaller manufacturers
would do well to imitate them in this respect; it is
certainly more important, if anything, that they should
save every penny there is in their product, and make
every turn of their wheels count to its fullest extent
in swelling their credit entries to profit and loss.

COTTONWOOD.

GRADES — FIRSTS, SKCONDS AND CUI.I.S.

Firsts to be 8 inches and over in width.
8 to 1 1 inches wide shall be clear.
12 to 15 inches wide will admit one standard knot

showing only on one side.
16 to 20 inches wide will admit two standard knots
showing only on one side.
Live white sap allowed.
Seconds are to be 6 inches and over in width.

135

6 and 7 inches wide shall be clear.
8 to 12 inches wide will admit one standard knot.
13 to 15 inches wide will admit two standard knots.
16 to 20 inches wide will admit three standard knots

Live white sap allowed.

Culls include all lumber not equal to the grade of
seconds y one-half of each piece being merchantable.

Other than as above stated shall be classed as mill
culls.

THE CARE OF HARDWOOD LUMBER.

Every mill-man desires to obtain the highest market
price for the stock he manufactures, and yet lumber ar-
rives in market daily which does not command such
prices, not on account of its being poorly manu-
factured, but for the simple reason of its having been
badly piled.

The acids of hardwoods are strong, and when two
fresh-cut boards or planks are piled face to face, a
souring molding, or darkening process, begins at once.
This stain cannot be removed, and becomes intensified
by age.

First of all, paint the ends of logs with paint con-
taining one pound of salt to each gallon of paint. Pile
the lumber the same day it is sawed, placing the cross
sticks about two feet apart, and directly over each other.

It is the custom of many to use wide boards or
plank for cross sticks, one at each end and one in the
center of the pile. The result is that every board or
plank is stained, rotten, or doty at the point of contact
with these wide ratlines. Cross sticks should never
be more than 2 inches wide and thoroughly dry.

Another reason for the concessions in price is often
made on hardwoods when it reaches the market is
that in cross sticking lumber with wide long stock,
the same as that in the pile, it necessitates a pile to be
12, 14 or 16 feet wide. Such a pile cannot be well

136

ventilated ; as a consequence, much of the lumber in
the center becomes streaked and browned in the hot
months by the gaseous vapors which have evaporated
from the lumber during the day, and settled back upon
it during the night.

BLACK WALNUT.

The inspection grades shall consist of firsts and
seconds, common, and cull.

Firsts and seconds must be six inches wide and
over. At 8 inches one inch of sap or one standard
knot, and at lo inches two inches of sap or two
standard knots may be allowed. An allowance for
more defects of this character may be made in pro-
portion to increased width.

Common shall be 5 inches and over wide and shall
include all lumber not up to the grade of firsts and
seconds, but available full three-fourths of its size
without waste, free from hearts and unsound lumber.

Cull shall comprise all widths and sizes below the
description of common.

CHERRY.

The inspection grades shall consist of firsts and
seconds, common, and cull.

Firsts and seconds must be 6 inches wide and
over. At 8 inches may have one inch of sap or one
standard knot, and at 10 inches two inches of sap or
two standard knots. An allowance for more defects
of this character may be made in proportion to in-
creased width.

Common shall be 5 inches and over wide and shall
include all lumber not up to the grade of firsts and
seconds, but available full three-fourths of its size for
use without waste, free from hearts and unsound
lumber.

/ ■

187

Cull shall comprise all widths aud sizes below the

description of common.

NoTB — Gum spots are considered a serious defect aud
when their damage exceeds one-sixth of the size of the piece
shall reduce it to the grade of common. When their damage
exceeds one-third of the size of the piece, it shall be reduced
to cull.

BUTTERNUT AND CHESTNUT.

The inspection grades shall consist of firsts an4
seconds, common, and cull.

Firsts and seconds must be 6 inches wide and over,
At 8 inches may have one inch of sap or one standar4
knot, and at lo inches two inches of sap or two
standard knots. An allowance for more defects of
this character may be made in proportion to increased
width.

Common shall be 5 inches and over wide. At 6
inches one inch of sap or one standard knot, and at 8
inches two inches of sap or two standard knots may
be allowed. An allowance for more defects of this
character may be made in proportion to increased width.

Cull shall comprise all widths and sizes below the
description of common.

GUM.

The inspection grades shall consist of firsts and
seconds, common, and cull.

Firsts and seconds must be 6 inches wide and over.
At 8 inches one standard knot, and at 10 inches two
standard knots or one inch of bright sap may be
allowed. An allowance for more defects of this
character maybe made in proportion to increased width.

Common shall include all lumber available for use
full three-fourths of its size without waste, free from
hearts and unsound lumber. Clear sap may be in-
cluded in this grade.

Cull shall comprise all widths and sizes below the
description of common.

138
HARD AND SOFT MAPLE.

The inspection grades shall consist of firsts and
seconds, cottimon, and cull.

Firsts and seconds must be 5 inches wide and over
(except flooring). At 8 inches one, and at 10 inches
two standard knots may be allowed. An allowance
for more defects of this character may be made in
proportion to increased width.

Common shall be sound, 5 inches and over in
width, and may have defects not injuring it for ordi-
nary use without waste. At 6 inches one and at 8
inches two standard knots may be allowed. An al-
lowance for more defects of this character may be
made in proportion to increased width.

Cull shall comprise all widths and sizes below the
description of common.

BA88WOOD.

The inspection grades shall consist of firsts and
seconds, common, and cull.

Firsts and seconds must be 6^ inches wide and
over. At 8 inches one and at 10 inches two standard
knots may be allowed. An allowance for more de-
fects of this character may be made in proportion to
increased width. Bright sap is no defect.

Common shall include 5 inches and over wide.
At 6 inches one, and at 8 inches two standard knots
may be allowed. An allowance for more defects of
this character may be made in proportion to increased
width. Slightly discolored sap is allowed.

Cull shall\:omprise all widths and sizes below the
description or common.

BIRCH.

The inspection grades shall consist of firsts and
seconds, common, and cull; ~

Firsts and seconds must be 6 inches wide and over.

]8d

At 8 inches one and at lo inches two standard knots
may be allowed. An allowance for more defects of
this character may be made in proportion to increased
width. Bright sap is no defect.

Common shall be sound, 5 inches and over in
width, and may have defects not injuring it for
ordinary use without waste. At six inches one and
at 8 inches two standard knots may be allowed. An
allowance for more defects of this character may be
made in proportion to increased width.

Cull shall comprise all widths and sizes below the
description of common.

BEECH AND SYCAMORE.

The inspection grades shall consist of firsts and
seconds, common, and cull.

Firsts and seconds must be 6 inches wide and over.
At 8 inches one and at 10 inches two standard knots
may be allowed. An allowance for more defects of
this character may be made in proportion to increased
width.

Common shall be sound, 5 inches and over wide,
and may have defects not injuring it for ordinary use
without waste. At 6 inches one and at 8 inches two
standard knots may be allowed. An allowance for
more defects of this character may be made in propor-
tion to increased width.

Cull shall comprise all widths and sizes below the
description of common.

ELM.

The inspection grades shall consist of firsts and
seconds, common, and cull.

140

Commou shall include 5 inches and over wide. At
6 inches one and at 8 inches two standard knots may
be allowed. An allowance for more defects of this
character may be made in proportion to increased width.

ASH.

GRADES. — FIRSTS, SECONDS AND CULLS.

Firsts are to be 8 inches and over in width.
8 to 1 2 inches wide shall be clear.
13 to 15 inches wide will admit one standard knot,

showing only on one side.
16 to 20 inches wide will admit two standard knots,
showing only on one side.

Live white sap allowed.

Seconds are to be 6 inches and over in width.
6 and 7 inches wide shall be clear.
8 to 12 inches wide will admit one standard knot.

13 to 15 inches wide will admit two standard knots.
16 to 20 inches wide will admit three standard knots.

STRIPS.

4 to 5 inches wide shall be clear, or clear one side.

Heart, or doted, boards and plank will not be ad-
mitted in firsts and seconds.

Culls include all lumber not equal to the grade of
Seconds, one-half of each piece being merchantable.
Other than as above stated shall be classed as mill ctills.

ASH JOISTS.

4 in. X 4 in. to 10 in. x 10 in. square.

Firsts are to be 10 feet and upward in length, clear,
sound and free from all defects, and of full size when
seasoned.

Seconds are to be sound and free from hearts,
shakes, and checks.
10 and 12 feet lengths admit two standard knots.

14 and 16 feet lengths admit three standard knots.
Bright sap admitted. These defects are based on

141

6 in. X 6 in. joists, and are to bear the same ratio in
other sizes.

Culls include all joists not equal to the grade of
seconds, one-half of each piece being merchantable.

Other than above stated shall be classed as mill culls.

Note. — Ash flooring should be 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches wide,
with one face and two edges clear, i and \% inches thick, 12,
14 and 16 feet long. Common and cull strips have no value
in market.

Ash newe Is and balusters same as black walnut.

Like all hardwoods, ash must be well manufactured to
meet \anth ready sale at highest market prices. Wane and
taper are serious defects.

SECOND GROWTH ASH.

Sawed through and through, and rough edged,

shall be measured inside the wane, and in the center

of the piece.

OAK.-(Plain.]

GRADES. — FIRSTS, SECONDS AND CUI.LS.

Firsts are to be 8 inches and over in width.
8 to 1 2 inches wide shall be clear.
13 to 15 inches wide will admit one standard knot,

showing only on one side.
16 to 20 inches wide will admit two standard knots,
showing only on one side.

Live sap admitted on one side, not to exceed one-
tenth of the surface if without other defects. Worm
holes not admitted.

Seconds are to be 8 inches and over in width.
8 to 1 2 inches wide will admit one standard knot.
13 to 15 inches wide will admit two standard knots.
1 6 to 20 inches wide will admit three standard knots.

Live sap admitted on one side, not to exceed one-
fifth of the surface, if without other defects. Worm
holes are serious defects, and should cull any piece,
where enough appear to equal one or more standard
knots, according to the width of the piece.

142

Culls include all lumber not equal to the grade of
seconds, one half of each piece being merchantable.
Other than as above stated shall be classed as mill culls.

Oak sawed through and through, not edged, shall
be measured inside the wane, and tapering pieces are
to be measured in the center.

It is the nature of oak to crack in drying, not only
in the ends but on the face, and it should be the study
of the sharp-sighted mill-man to reduce that feature
to a minimum. First of all paint the ends of the logs,
put into every gallon of paint one-half pint of salt,
and when the lumber is sawed and ready to pile place
the sticks close together and directly over each other,
and, above all things, thoroughly protect the lumber
from the sun and rain. Heavy dews and occasional
rain-falls, followed by the rays of a burning sun, will
spoil the best of oak in a very short time; it^ therefore
pays to put a substantial covering over each pile.

Shippers should bear in mind that common or cull
oak is particularly unsaleable in any market. Only
good, sound stock is wanted.

EXPORT OAK.

Oak for export should be i inch, ij4, 2, 2%, 3, 4,
5 and 6 inches thick, 10 inches and over wide, 12, 14,
and 16 feet long. The more 14 and 16 feet the better,
but never less than one-third of each length. It must
be square edged and butted, parallel widths, plump
and even thickness and well manufactured, fre^ from
heart, checks, splits, large or loose knots, or worm
holes. This inspection is very comprehensive, and
will admit of no deviation. For instance, it says 10
inches and over wide — ^% inches will not do. It says
free from heart. Don't think because the plank is 6
inches thick, and the heart comes right in the center,
and won't show on either side that it will go, for it

143

won't. Follow strictly the rule, and you can find a
good market for all the export oak you want to cut.

QUARTERED OAK.

GRADES. — FIRSTS AND SECONDS.

Firsts are to be 6 inches and over in width.
6 to 9 inches wide shall be clear.
ID inches and over in width will admit one standard

knot, showing only on one side, or equal defect.
ID inches and over in width will admit two standard

knots, or equal defects.

STRIPS.

4 to 5 inches wide shall be clear, or clear one side.

Worm holes, in excess of the defects allowed for
knots, and stained or discolored wood, not admitted.

WARPAGn AND SHRINKAGE OF

I^UMBBR.

What causes lumber to warp in the many various
ways, yet remains to be solved. All kinds of lumber
in small dimensions will warp in seasoning if not
placed directly on sticks. This is the remedy, in short.
The unequal shrinkage of the grain has much to do
with crooked lumber. Lumber from crooked or lean-
ing trees will warp badly. Second growth timber is
very bad about warpage in seasoning. If one side of
a board is dried faster than the other, it will contract,
thus cupping or concaving that side. Lumber freshly
sawed will warp always from the heart. There seems
to be an unequal strain on the grain before it is cut.
Often a straight tree will turn out badly sprung tim-
ber. This can be noticed when the grain shows
irregularities, which show unequal istress. This is not
shown so plainly when first sawed, but if remaining

144

exposed for but a short while will warp and spring
badly. Natural' air drying is the best for oak, es-
pecially for a while, until partly seasoned. Oak and
other valuable timber should not be stacked up in
open air without a shed over it, which should be
elevated aiid protect the ends of lumber from damp-
ness. Narrow and open piles are what is wanted for
a free circulation of air. The hot rays of the sun bring
about an action that terminates in checked ends.
Artificial drying of oak by the many kiln processes is
not successful. Where the heat is normal and of a
low temperature, narrow stock may be successfully
dried from checking. The ends of such lumber should
,be painted with a thick coating of waterproof white or
fedlead paint. Broad boards should be cleated on
ends. Sticks should be not over three feet apart, with
weights on top course. Great care should be taken
not to have pile too wide and with one inch space
between boards.

WHEN TO CUT VALUABLE TIMBER. WHAT CAUSES
OAK AND OTHER WOODS TO BE BRASHY.

Porous timber, such as oak, ash and hickory, should
not be cut in the spring when the sap is up. The
pores of the wood are then open , the wood being in a
growing state, and when dr>^ remain so, which makes
it more brittle and less durable.

This is accounted for by the abstraction of all the
unctuous matter, which accounts for worms and other
insects. During the fall and winter months the grain
can be noticed as being less porous and containing
more of the vegetable oil essential to its toughness and
durability. This timber will dry much sooner when
cut in the winter months.

DRY ROT IN TIMBER.

Prof. Bidlake, of Rhode Island, makes the following
report on dr}^ rot :

140

No wood which is liable to damp, or has at any
time absorbed moisture and is in contact with stag-
nant air, so that the moisture cannot evaporate, can
be considered safe from the attacks of dry rot.

Any impervious substance applied to wood which
is not thoroughly dry tends to engender decay ; floor
covered with kamptuKcon and laid over brick arching
before the latter was dry ; cement dado to wood parti-
tion, the water expelled from dado in setting and
absorbed by the wood had no means of evaporation.

Wood work coated with a paint or tar before
thoroughly dry and well seasoned is liable to decay,
as the moisture is imprisoned.

Skirtings and wall paneling very subject to dry
rot, and especially window backs, for the space between
the woodwork and the wall is occupied by stagnant
air; the former absorbs moisture from the wall (es-
pecially if it has been fixed before the wall was dry
after building), and the paint or varnish prevents the
moisture from evaporating into the room. Skirting,
etc., thus form excellent channels for the spread of
the fungus. Plaster seems to be sufiiciently porous to
allow the evaporation of water through it ; hence,
probably the space between ceiling and floor is not so
frequently attacked, if also the floor boards do not fit
very accurately and no oil cloth covers the floor.

Plowed and tongued floors -are disadvantageous in
certain circumstances, as when placed over a space
occupied by damp air, as they allow no air to pass
between the boards and so dry them. Beams may
appear sound externally and be rotten within, for the
outside being in contact with the air, becomes drier
than the interior. It is well, therefore, to saw and
reverse all large scantling. The ends of all timber,
and especially of large beams, should be free, (for it is
through the ends that moisture chiefly evaporates).
They should on no account be imbedded in niortat.

146

' r

Inferior and ill-seasoned timber is evidentl}^ to be
avoided. Whatever insures dampness and lack of
evaporation is conducive to dry rot, that is to say,-
dampness arising from the soil; dampness arising
from walls, especially if the damp proof course has
been omitted ; dampness arising from the use of salt
sand; dampness arising from drying of mortar and
cement. Stagnation of air resulting from air grids
getting blocked with dirt or being purposely blocked
through ignorance. Stagnation may exist under a
floor, although there are grids in the opposite walls,
for it is diflGlcult to induce the air to move in a hori-
zontjal direction without some special means of suction.
Corners of stagnant air are to be guarded against.

Darkness assists the development of fungus ; what-
ever increases the temperature of the wood and stag-
nant air (within limit) also assists.

SEASONING.

After careful experiments made on behalf of the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, at Aurora,
111., regarding the natural seasoning of various woods,
it was concluded that oak began to season naturally
in March or April; that pine lost moisture within a
fortnight after its first exposure ; that ash and poplar
began the loss in April, and elm immediately on being
exposed in January. With the exception of elm the
seasoning of most woods ends with the summer
months. All woods take up slight moisture during
wet weather in fall and winter ; pine of small dimen-
sion, like inch flooring, will absorb moisture during
the wet months ; one season of average weather is
generally sufficient to season wood for purposes of

construction.

WEIGHT OF WOODS.

The following list, giving the weight of hardwood
per foot, board measure, has been prepared with great

147

care, and in the main is correct. Some allowance
must be made in the weight of fresh cut, as the same
wood differs some in weight when green, in different
localities :

Name of Wood. Green lbs. to i ft. Dry lbs. to i ft.

Ash 4>^ y/2

Apple 5 4

Beech 5 4^

Birch 4X 3>4

Basswood 3>^ 2X

Chestnut 3^ 3

Cherry 4 3X

Cottonwood 7)4 3

Cypress ^ 4 2}4

Cedar 4 3

Elm 4 3

Hickory 5 4)4

Holly 5'A 4>^2

Lignum Vitae 9 S^

Maple 5 4>^

Mahogany 5X • 4K

• Oak . . - 5>^ 4>4

Poplar 3X 2^

Rosewood 8 6^

Sycamore 5 4

Sweet Gum 3^ 2K

Walnut 4}4 3)4

White Pine 4 2%

Yellow Pine 4)4 3)i

HOW TO BE A SUCCESSFUL SAWYER.

It is not necessary for a sawyer to be a thorough
machinist or millwright, but must acquire sufficient
knowledge of machinery to keep a mill in good repair.
It is necessary to watch the vital parts that affect the
saw, engine and machinery, watching closely the small
details which avert accidents. .Saw and carriage, as
well as the mandrel, must be kept in line. Keep saw
round by jointing the teeth with a piece of grindstone,
fire-brick or broken emery-wheel. Do not saw in a
notch, but move sideways gently, or the corners will
be ground off too much. Do not joint a saw with a

bar of iron or file. The latter may be used if saw re-
volves very slowly. Keep the teeth of uniform length
and pitch, so that all will cut and saw remain in bal-
ance. No two mills will run alike, neither will two
new saws run alike on same mandrel. Then it is es-
pecially necessary to learn the so-called peculiarities
of a saw.

First, put the saw in good order by filing as directed
in this book. If saw does not screw up flat on log
side, either paper or hammer it ; when straight, line it
with the carriage and level the saw mandrel. Take
out all end play, and see that bearii|gs are a neat fit.
If saw crowds from the log, give it a little more lead.
If it heats in center it is because saw is too open for
speed, or is not properly lined. If it heats on the rim
the saw requires more tension. If it runs into the log
it will then heat because of too much lead, either in
saw, mandrel or filing. The lead in mandrel can be
changed but little ; neither can a saw be run with too
much pressure on guides. The filing may be changed
to lead the saw, the saw inclining always to the longest
side of the tooth. If saw heats on rim without run-
ning into the log, the bearing next to saw should be
tightened suflSciently to heat a little. Such a saw
needs tensioning as treated in hammering, it being too
stifi*. Care should be taken not to feed too fast
on the first side of a log, and not to take too heavy a
slab when log is squared up. A saw may run in too
much, especially after passing the heart. If engine
has ample power and will hold up, saw will do better
by giving it more feed. Invariably this will work.
Knotty, tough logs skould be sawed from the butt
end; otherwise the log will pinch the saw badly.
When a saw begins to heat in center it will lay over
and assume a deadening, rumbling noise against the
guide pins. In such cases do not crowd saw, or it will

]49

burn in blue spots ; better move the guide a littler

No saw should be run too long without filing.
The best saw in the world can soon be ruined by
running too long before filing. In filing from one
side of saw, be sure that teeth are square in front.
This is determined by a slight "queaking" noise to
file ; not a " chatter" by any means, neither a free cut.
If spring set is used, a little swaging must be done to
keep the extreme point the widest with a sharp cor-
ner to tooth. Double spread teeth should not have
needle or brier corners, neither a round, dull corner.
A sharp saw should not be crowded for the first few
lines, as its keen edge will be affected and crumble in
a hard or knotty log. If saw is not true, do not try
to close guides too much ; better let saw run free than
to have it whipping in the guides and heating. Use
plenty of set, which must be uniform. If saw is true,
runs true and has no lumps in it, a much less set
may be used. When a saw heats all over it is because
saw is dull or has not set enough. Because an 8"
gauge saw has one-quarter inch full set does not sa}^
that it will clear a full place in saw which heats and
gives trouble. Too much set will not do, especially
with too many teeth ; the dust being cut fine, throats
of teeth will not chamber it, thus heating the rim. A
saw that heats at rim and center has no lead in man-
drel and is held up too much with guide. Such a saw
will run in considerably at top of cut, yet heating in
center. This must be observed closely. Many men
do not take the time to even think what is the matter
with a saw, but keep moving guides, which only
changes saw to no better running.

Keep the following in view for attaining success :
First. — See that saw is all right and hangs right on
collar ; if not, make it as near so as possible.

Second. — File the saw in accordance with the way

150

it hangs on mandrel. No two saws screw up alike on
mandrel, and should they apparently do so, will not
run precisely alike. If saw leans a trifle from the log,
and time and circumstances will not admit truing it,
file it to lead a little into the log ; if saw leans or
dishes to the log, then move mandrel until saw will
run right ; but not too much, or center will heat.

Third. — In starting up a mill you are not familiar
with, do not rush on the start. Feed saw gently and
find its inclination, noting about the condition of its
tension, and if wavy on rim, that is, snakes, move saw
out a little with guides. If it leans too much from
log, the mandrel must be moved (if right) out a little
and saw filed a trifle into the log. . If possible, make
bearing next to saw run warm.

Fourth. — Notice carefully if saw inclines out of
log and whether it is heating at center or not, which
it will do if saw does not snake. A saw inclining out
of log will run out more as feed is increased and less
as decreased, but will not run out for a few feet and
then turn in again. In such cases saw is loose on rim
and not too open. All saws too open for speed will
heat in center, first being certain that mandrel is in
line.

Fifth. — See that carriage track is straight and prac-
tically level, both rails must exactly correspond,
otherwise it will run in a wind, which gives much
trouble in deep cuts by influencing saws. Carriage
must also have but little end play to bearings. This
allows a springy cant to heat saw in center by pulling
carriage closer to saw. See that driving belt runs
smooth. A thumping joint will affect a saw by im-
parting a vibration to mandrel, especially if too light
and springy.

Sixth. — Any saw will run better if a light spray of
water can be applied on the log side by a small jet

161

under control of sawyer. It acts as a lubricant, which,
as oil in a bearing, keeps it cool. The saw certainly
is exposed to considerable unavoidable friction. It is
not best to have a sluice of water applied to wet mill
and dampen dust so as to clog conveyor, but a gentle
spray that cannot be noticed will add a twenty per
cent, better running saw in hard or dry logs.

THM SAWYMRS' RULH.

HOW TO MAKE QUICK, ACCURATE CALCULATIONS
FOR WHAT 18 WANTED FROM THE LOC.

There are many sawyers, setters that are not quick
in their calculations, losing time and spoiling lumber.
No man can be quick calculating one piece at a time.
He must have it instantly in his head, that no time be
lost.

CALCULATING ON INCH STUFF.

Every five inches makes four boards on a saw cutting
one-quarter inch. Now, if one inch is to be left on
blocks, five, ten, fifteen and twenty inches, and so on,
will come out right. If cant is between these numbers,
say about eighteen inches, set at eighteen and three-
fourths, and so on. Now, if one or more two-
inch pieces are wanted, leave off one-fourth inch
for every two-inch piece wanted. If four two-inch
pieces are wanted, nineteen inches will come out right,
being one inch less than twenty inches. If two inches
is Jeft on headblocks calculate one-fourth less than a
multiple of five inches, in this way twelve inches,
eighteen and one-fourth and twenty-four and one-half
will come out right.

SAWING TWO-INCH STUFF.

For as many pieces as are wanted add one-fourth of
an inch for saw kerf as follows : If eight pieces are

152

wanted it makes sixteen inches, add seven-quarters,
makes seventeen and three-fourths inches. Correct.
Always calculate one-fourth of an inch less, as the
last line of the saw makes two pieces; If one or more
inch boards are wanted, add one-fourth of an inch to
calculation already made.

SAWING FIVE-EIGHTHS LUMBER.

Every three and one-half inches makes four five-
eighths boards. For seven, ten and one-half, fourteen,
seventeen and one-half, and so on, add two inches for last
piece on carriage. Three-quarter inch stuff sets at even
inches. Inch and a quarter lumber sets at one and
one-half, three inches making two boards.

FOR THIN SAWS.

Many mills use a ten gauge saw,cutting three-six-
teenths saw kerf. In such cases inch stuff may be set
at one and one-eighth, making inch stuff seven-eighths
inch full. If blocks set to sixteenths of inch, one-
sixteenth can be saved, which is one board gained in
sixteen cuts. Setting one-eighth inch less for inch
boards the calculation is the same as for two-inch stuff
as stated.

BAND SAW KERF.

One-eighth is allowed for saw kerf. Inch boards cal-
culate as follows : If cant is about eighteen inches
(no well-up sawyer can take time to be measuring with
his rule), twice eight being sixteen inches, now we
have seven-quarters to add, being seventeen and three-
fourths or add one board, making eighteen and seven-
eighths. It is necessary to first find out how many
boards make an even number, or as near that as pos-
sible : then double, or multiply this number according
to size of log.

158
SHORT METHOD OF CALCULATING LUMBER.

The rule for calculating lumber is to multiply the
thickness by the width in inches, then by the length
in feet, and divide by twelve. This is the only rule ;
but it can be greatly modified as follows : loo pieces
I X ID X 12 feet. Now we multiply lOO x lo, which
without figuring is i,ooo. Now to multiply by 12
makes 12,000. This divided by 12 makes even 1,000
feet.

The short method leaves the 12 out and says 10
times 100 is 1,000 feet of lumber — no figuring at all.
Any part of or factor of 1 2 may be left out and divided
by the remaining factors, as follows : 876 pieces 3x4
X 20 feet. Leave the figures 3 and 4 out, and twenty
times 876 is 17,520. Again: 56 pieces 4 x 8 x 18
feet. We leave the 4 out, then say 3 into 18 goes 6
times, 3 being the other factor of 12, as 3 and 4. Now
you have only 56, 8 and 3 to be multiplied together,
which makes the correct answer. If the whole were
to be multiplied together, then divided by 12, it would
take considerable time, which is more likely to result
in errors.

Where it is possible, leave out the following figures :
2, 3, 4, 6 and 12, but not any more than will make 12
when multiplied together, as 2 x 6 is 12, or, 3 x 4 is
12. If desired, any one of the above factors may be
left out separately, as follows : 125 pieces 6 x 16 x 22.
Leave out the 6 and divide the remainder by 2, the
other factor. This not only saves the time of
multiplying the 6 together but saves the division of 12.

LUMBER MEASURED BY CANCELLATION.-A
LIGHTNING METHOD.

Anyone that will familiarize himself with calculating
lumber by cancellation after my method has no use
for the many page calculators figured out in books.
Fractions are as readily calculated as whole numbers ;

154

and examples that would require one thousand figures
or more to work can be almost instantly cancelled,
with all fractional parts included, making the correct
answer. Not one man in one hundred can work the
following example correctly, which I show readily
cancels out. First some explanation of this is neces-
sary. Multiply the whole numbers by the fraction
below the line (the denominator), and add the fraction
above the line (the numerator) to the result, as in the
example below : 8^ multiplied together is V* , 7 times
8 being 56, adding the 2, making 58. Fractions in
the calculation of the size and number of feet have
their denominator placed on the left side of a ver-
tical line. This example is of a most difficult
type, and is beyond the range in lumber cal-
culations ; but it expresses the simpleness of the
method. What will y} pieces of 8f x 8f x 2 1^ feet long
cost at 1 2^ dollars per i ,000 feet ?

The sizes, number of pieces and lengths of the
lumber have their denominators placed on the left, as
stated. The price at which it is sold being placed on
the right, add 12, or the factors of 12, on the left side.
Answer, $11.60. By leaving the price of the lumber
out (/f) , we have 908 feet of lumber.

Explanation: 12 crosses 36 3 times ; 3 checks 3
on the left ; 5 checks 35 by 7 times ; 7 cancels 7 on
left ; 64 checks 64 on the left. We have only 4
on the left hand and 58 and 5 on right; 5 times
58 is 290, and 4 times 290 is $11.60. In the case
of the calculation of feet, only what figures
remain on the left hand side after cancellation are
divided into the numbers that remain on the right
after they are all multiplied together. How many feet
in 14 pieces 5^ x 8^ x 16 feet long? Answer, 833 feet.

In this example we use 3 and 4 as factors of 12.
In cancellation all numbers that will divide from both

165

sides without a fraction can be cancelled. The
ordinary method of calculating lumber is to multiply
the width and thickness together, then the length by
the number of pieces and divide this by 12, the
number of square inches in a foot of lumber.
The last example given is a fair specimen. Tapered
lumber has the two ends added together and
divided by two, then proceed. Anyone that once
adopts this mode of calculating lumber will never drop
it. Being simple, it insures correctness. Where the
piece is to be multiplied, put the denominator on right
and the whole number on left, and multiply it by the
result. Dressed lumber is calculated as rough, that
is, the size it was before being dressed.

HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY RUN A PLANER.

•

To manage such machinery and get out first-class
work requires great care and close judgment. A
planer should be set on a solid foundation with all fast
moving parts well balanced. In new machines, such
are well balanced. The cylinder and cutter-heads
being the most sensitive, they must run a neat fit in
bearings, with suflScient lining, so that caps will remain
firm and not jar or work loose. Every machine should
have a pair of proportionate balance scales for balanc-
ing knives. If these cannot be had, an ordinary pair
of balances will answer, care being taken to keep
knives of same width at each end ;• otherwise the
knives might weigh just the same amount and each
alternate end of two knives throw the cylinder out of
balance. The fraction of an ounce will greatly affect
a high-speeded machine. The bolts should all be the
same size. Often a miscellaneous lot of studs can be
found on a cylinder, which would throw machine out.
An unbalanced cylinder has many peculiarities about
it that affect the whole machine. Hot bearing and
rough lumber are the results. By placing cylinder on

156

two level straightedges it can be readily detected
whether in balance or not, the heavy side finding the
center of gravity very quickly. This should be done
with knives off. By grinding the bolts on heavy side,
a perfect balance can be had, always screwing it down
to where it is to run ; if not, it will deceive. Knives
out of balance wear the heavy side of journal flat, or
slightly so. In such cases it is very difficult to get
good work out of machine. I will add that before
placing cylinder on straightedges, bearing should be
calipered so the truest part will rest directly on
straightedge. Clean cylinder and pullies well of dust
and gum before testing.

Belts should be neatly spliced. A bulky fastening
makes waves at regular intervals, to say nothing of
such fastenings continually pulling loose and heating
bearings. The chip-breaker, pressure-bars and rollers
are vital parts. They must be set just right or the
end of board will be nicked. The pressure-bars just
behind the knives should be set as closely as possible,
or lumber will be wavy. Modern six and eight-roll
machines have very powerful feed and will feed under
heavy pressure ; but the lighter four-roll machines re-
quire continual attention in surfacing.

Dry and green lumber cannot be dressed well
together. The green stuff not being as firm, requires
more pressure and less pressure from pressure-bar.
The bar " shoe," or roller, in front of cylinder must be
set very closely so as to hold work down firm on bed
plate for smooth lumber. The pivoted bar is best, as
it readily accommodates itself to irregular thicknesses.
The pressure-bars fore and aft the cylinder must be
kept closely but so as to not interfere with feed. The
rollers and bed plate are ver}' essential parts. The
latter should be nearly on line with top of bottom
roller or a trifle lower. For g^een lumber, bottQm

157

rollers must be a little higher, otherwise work will not
feed. The boards should go end ta end through
machine.

^ The fence, or gauge, is another important feature,
and unless right, bad results will follow in matching.
It is best to have just as little lead as possible and use
a pressure- lever to hold crooked stuff up. The result
of too much lead is that the end of board jumps, or
rather, inclines, toward groove side as the end of
gauge is passed. This makes bad work. The cause
of this is that the stock is going through at a slight
angle and not square with rolls. The chip-breaker
should not be too tight. All this is governed by the
amount of pressure from pressure-bar and power of
feed rolls. Chip-breaker should be as close as possible
to cutter-head, that it may not " eat," or tear, the
work. Knives set too far out on cylinder will eat when
across the grain.

For fine, nice work one-eighth should be the pro-
jection from lip of head; three-sixteenths is about
right for ordinary work. Knives must be ground
true and not beveled off with a file. The proper angle
cannot be given, owing to class of work ; but would say
fifteen degrees is about right. A good knife will stand
more than this and do nice work ; but the majority
have hard and soft places, which, if too much angle,
will crumble or turn the edge. A slim bevel must be
set close to the lip (or chip-breaker, as termed) of the
cylinder, or it will eat in crossgrain work, as in curly
stock.

Side cutters often give much trouble, principall}^
from bits being out of balance or spindle not a neat
fit to head, throwing it out of balance. A journal
that heats and wears very fast under precaution is in-
variably because the head is out of balance and should
be taken out and balanced. No perceptible (or but

168

little) end play should be given. If too close, the
least heat will make spindles longer by expansion and
will heat much worse.

The question often arises, What causes a wave or
niche in the front end of board? There are several
direct causes. First, rollers and bed-plate are not in
line ; front pressure-bar not close enough ; bed-plate
too low or too high and not level; that is, parallel
with roller ; too low, so that stock will not rest on it
without pressure from pressure-bar. The result often
(with bar as tight as possible) is a niche in end of work.
This is caused by work not fitting firmly to bed-plate,
which causes lumber to give down when the second
pressure-bar takes it. This defect ranges from two to
four inches from end of board. This being remedied,
the rear end of board may nick. This is caused by
bed-plate not being high enough on front side, and
when pressure-roller leaves board, causes it to raise
slightly, thus making a bad end. As stated, the lower
rollers must be level and in line parallel to each other,
with bed-plate a trifle lower than rollers. If the board
is nicked at each or one end when pressure-bars were
down it is because it is not quite high enough. If
too high, the same result is had.

On lower cylinders, the rear bed-plate should be
one sixty-fourth inch lower, or in proportion to what
cut is taken. In setting the gauge (fence or lead), a
line is drawn clear through machine square with
rollers. Then set gauge so that front end will be one-
half inch farther from line than end near cylinder.
Rollers must be kept square and of same height.
An uneven pressure will tend work to run crooked.
Rollers must be kept free from gum. Gearing should
be well cared for, and where exposed should be oiled
on the teeth, and where fended may be oiled. The
mpdern machine with exhaust fan keeps shavings

159

out, and generally gearing is open. I^oose motion
should be avoided, and rollers kept clear. Cut gearing
is much better and runs more steady. No rough gear
can be perfect which causes unsteady feed with a jerk-
ing motion. This causes rough work. Only a close
application of thought and time will develop fine
results. The aim must be toward the sensitive parts,
and because a board will go through a machine do
not be content that it is in good order. Few men
have mastered the planer.

SPEED AND FEED OF PLANERS.

This is conditional. A true journal, well-balanced
cylinder, and heavy, well-set machine will do good
work at a speed of four thousand five hundred revo-
lutions, feeding seventy-five feet per minute. There
are many machines that feed one hundred feet and
do good work. On the other hand, a light machine
with unbalanced knives will not stand over two thou-
sand five hundred revolutions and a feed of thirty to
forty feet per minute. The limit may be said to be
left with the skill of operator, taking into considera-
tion the wear and condition of machine. All ma-
chines should be watched. Loose-threaded bolts
subjected to much jar or strain are liable to work
loose.

ON MATCHING.

A planer may surface well and do good work un-
til it comes to the matching of flooring and ceiling.
Side cutters must have but visible end motion ; other-
wise the irregularity of the grain will take up the
loose motion, making stuff that will not match in
places. I have seen two boards come out of a machine
perfect, and in less time than it takes to tell it two
more were tried that did not match. The pressure-
bars should press equally on the board, and not too

100

heavy next to the gauge, as it will climb off. Too
much lead, as stated, will cause trouble. The rear
guides have but little to do more than guide the
work. A well-lined, level machine does not depend
on the aft guides for good work. Feed rollers must
not be too tight on work. Dull and badly fitted
knives give much trouble, in that soft boards are cut
thinner than harder ones. Dull knives do not cut, but
knock it off. Dull knives often heat bearings.

SETTING KNIVES.

Put a couple strips on bed-plate lower cylinder
until they are firm ; turn cylinder until
knife will rest on strips, being certain that both
ends are down. Then tighten this knife cautiously.
Then with a pointer set to just touch this knife, and
all the remainder set to just the same feeling or hear-
ing. Some use a gauge set from the lip of cylinder,
which is not always perfect.

BABBITTING CYLINDER BEARINGS.

Many experts recommend a form or separate man-
drel to babbitt with. This is not necessary and is
not attended with good results, as it does not conform
to the wear of journals.

The theory is that heat from the metal elongates
that side and is liable to spring journals. This might
be adhered to if no precaution is taken, but a little
precaution overcomes this. By heating the cap of
box to nearly a red heat, laying it in place with man-
drel in position for babbitting; by moving it frequently,
the journal will be heated and allays all danger of
springing. This must be adhered to or there is lia-
bility of springing journal permanently. After metal
has cooled sufficiently, remove cylinder and scrape
boxes out, scraping the ** lip," and not the crown. By
screwing caps down to place, a pair of calipers will

Voui

161

sbow that from crown to crown is more than directly
where cap and box come together, which shows the
contraction of metal. About one-third of the bearing
should be nicely scraped, then place journal iu bearings
having a thin coat of redkad appUed. Now turn cyhn-
derafew times and carefully remove it. Thus the
high spot will plainly show and must be scraped
down. Alt this is necessary for good work and cool
journals from high-speeded machines. The same ap-
plies to the cutter-heads. If journals heat use plum-
bago, tallow and sulphur. Soda is good. All must
be prepared in good lubricating oil. Never use black
lil on a planer. Use lard or some other good thin
The gearing and feedworks are generally worn
t before the machine is for the want of proper oil-
ing.

BUILDING PLANING MILLS-HOW TO CONSTRUCT
FOR ECONOMICAL PLANING.

I It is not the actual expense of dressing that is the
■ item of cost in many planing-mills. It is in the hand-
ling of lumber both to and from the machines. There
is more money in planing than in sawing if mill and
machinery is constructed right.

If a dry kiln is u.sed it should be so set that the
lumber from kiln cars will stop within three feet of
.-machine, the feeder taking the stock direct from car.
I If there is any rejected stuff it is simply dumped off,
■' where it is laid aside until an accumulation for a sec-
ond grade. From the planer, lumber is placed on car
or trucks and carried to shed, car or wharf. If only
one machifie is used, a rack just aft the machine may
be employed, where the receiver can place the majority
of stock right into racks. Everj- machine should have
} an exhaust fan, well constructed, that is, well made,
Land set-up pipes. Resaw or siding machine, should

162

be set back of planer, and a little to one side, and
speeded to feed the same as the planer; then the re-
ceiver can feed the resaw, which product goes out as
stated. Conveniently and direct aft the planer, say
twenty feet, should be a neat-sawing cut-off saw with
a fine-toothed saw. All stock from planer that has a
defect that would condemn it or place it in a lower
grade can be trimmed to an even foot and go onto the
market and meet the most rigid inspection.

The table of this saw should be at least three inches
lower than planer, so that the next board or the third
board would not jam saw in case time was lost, saw,
when not in use, swinging back clear.

Rip saw should be between matcher and surfacer,
if two machines are used, and should be set as far
ahead as possible by using a long belt. This, as well
as all the machinery, is driven from line shaft running
across mill with planers almost directly under it, so
that slacking the tightener, machine stops without
diflficulty. Resaw and swing-saw must have a short
counter shaft, the latter driven by a miter friction. If
a moulder is to be used, it should be directly off the rip
saw table, as nearly all its work comes from irregular
widths in edging boards. The distance between saw
and moulder in this case would be about thirty feet.
Lumber to be received from the yard can come in on
as many tracks as desired, having a turn-table placing
everything direct to machine.

To illustrate : Many mills have no car track, using
teams and delivering stock not near enough but that
it requires the second handling. Too little attention
is paid to grading lumber, and the planer man has to
lose a part of the machine's time in assorting a part of
this. After going through machine it is rejected
either from the want of edging, trimming or redressing.
The culled lumber in front of planer soon accumulates

163

and has to be removed, in many cases restacked. The
culled stuff through planer is thrown down, walked
over, thrown aside, and sold for what it will go at. I
will add that a planing-mill with competition cannot
survive without close inspection, which must come
right from the saw-mill. Few mills have a standard
matching gauge, which all associations have adopted.
This is a good thing for the competent man, but very
seriously against the man that does not consider it.
Mr. A. gets a lot of flooring from Mr. B. He lacks a
little, and calls on Mr. C. for that size. He gets it and
finds that it will not match; returns it to Mr. C. Not
that it is not good, well-worked stuff, but it's not up to
the standard. Some do not adhere to a gauge of their
own, and soon have a mixture that the cheap man gets
lumped up for so much, which price may not exceed
the value of the rough stock before dressing. The south-
western yellow pine standard admits of the following
sizes without changing the tongue or groove : Three-
fourths, thirteen-sixteenths, seven-eighths, one, and one
and one-sixteenth inches. It is evident that stock that
will not full-dress any of the heavier sizes can be run
through the surfacer and brought to the next gauge
ceiling, three-eighths, one-half, nine-sixteenths, and
five-eighths inches, without changing tongue or groove.

J,OG SCALE.

ROUND LOOS REDUCEDTOIHCH-BOARD MEASURE

FROM VARIOUS RULES.
OOYLE RULE.-BOARD MEASURE.

I,:

UMBTE

"■ ""

ISO

1,.

AURTBSS. lOC

es.

ItIO

«6

600

1,.

DlAK

ETERB.

iDcbca

Ft.

T26

2160

SORiBHIR RULE.-BOARD MEASURE.

DIAMBTU8. Inclm.

Ft.

[,.

OtAUK

TERS.

nthes.

fl.

17 18

SB6

1ft.

a»

r,.

DIAH

"T''

Inch«

Ft.

7S2

R2&

801

Scrib

ner's

nd D

oyle's

rules

are

consi

iered

the

standard. Doyle's rule is used in Scribner's I,umber

and Log Book. I have measured large logs and find
that Doyle's rule will not hold out on logs over thirty-
six inches in diameter. Scribner's rule is the nearest
right. The latter is nearer right on small logs, while
Doyle does not give enough.

This table is computed for thin circular-saws that
effect a saving in saw kerf.

LOGS REDUCED TO INCH-BOARD MEASURE.

1=^

-a

J '1

21}

■a

S«

SO,

Bai

T1t]7B1

LOGS REDUCED TO INCH-BOARD MEASURE.

3'fc

ill

I'l

1 ,1

3!)

ill»

187

Band-saws save ten per cent, over the circular in
the amount of lumber turned out. The difference in
saw kerf being fifty per cent., by adding ten percent,
to log scale, the amount is had accurately.
TABLE
Showing the number of feet (board measure) con-
tained in a piece of joist, scantling or timber,
of the sizes given below.

w«

LI-IHTB

NT.:

7 OK

,BC*

KTU.

ci..Nr,T.«ei.B.

2.4

"is"

2x9

2x 8

2llU

2rf

£g

311

1.5

110

3ltl

«0

118

ill

100

14E

4x1

104

112

120

«6

12t

9tt

104

113

120

168

1T(

8x1

100

110

lao

LSO

140

150

22U

All

fl6

ll>9

120

132

168

266

270

117

139

I4B

22-

234

240

la)

133

147

17.1

187

281

144

160

176

208

224

lOxO

IfiO

167

183

260

37B

lUi

SlO

220

260

280

SOU

421

460

216

240

264

312

3i6

360

6ft

6UI

12»4

352

280

30B

420

6S8

8311

!4X4

229

294

3»

302

423

457

B86

711

738

BELTING— CARE OF.

HORSE-POWER AND HOW TO SELECT AN EXTRA
QUALITY.

The saw and planing-mills are very hard on belt-
ing, owing to dust collecting and the want of the proper
man^ement and care. Any belt taxed to Its capacity

168

cannot do good work unless its surface is kept a little
moist with a good belt dressing. Sawdust acts as small
rollers between belt and pulley. A rubber belt soon
wears the gum off. No pains should be spared to pro-
tect belts from dust. The time and power lost by
tight and slipping belts needs no comparison. Castor-
oil is about the best dressing that can be used on leather
and rubber belts, but very little at a time, just suffi-
cient to keep surface a little damp, but not a sticky
mass. Do not use rosin in connection, as it will soon
ruin your belt. A little powdered rosin on a dry belt
may be used in emergencies, but sparingly. There are
many belt *' grips " on the market, and but few of them
will preserve a belt. Tallow may be used sparingly
on well-scraped or cleaned leather belts. The base of
nearly all prepared compounds has more or less petro-
leum or hydrocarbon, which is very injurious to a belt.
The merit of belt dressing is not in its adhesiveness,
but in the preservation of the belt.

SELECTING BELTING.

We see many tables of testing belting, strained over
two pullies with weight applied. This is not what the
purchaser wants, nor has the time to do. The best
leather belting is made from the central part of the
hide and contains no flanky leather. Such belting
when in a coil will show normally the same thickness,
and not thick and thin parts. The best belting is
strictly short-lap. If time will permit, a small piece of
belt put in strong vinegar twenty-four hours will tell
its quality. If good leather it will maintain nearly its
thickness ; if not, it will swell and be a spongy mass,
which shows flanky leather. Rubber belting is not so
easily detected from appearance. There is more cheap,
worthless gum belting than leather. The best quality
vulcanized has a smooth metallic surface and shows no
small grainy or small indentations or irregularities on

160

the surface. Cheap belting shows irregularities in the
rubber when cut, which shows the composition used
to imitate the rubber, viz.: old leather charred and
ground up, mixed with sulphur, magnesia, black lead
and Parra rubber, which is much cheaper than the
Java. There are many more ingredients used that
make up an article fifty to seventy -five per cent, cheaper
than the genuine. Pure Java rubber shows no irregu-
larities, has not a dry crumbly appearance. Cheap rub-
ber belting will not stand much slipping or heat, as the
rubber will crumble and roll off. The inside of some
such belting contains a mixture of Cornwall or China
clay, and soon forms a dry, dusty mass which separates
the plies, and the belt is gone. I do not, on general
principles, advocate the stitched rubber belting. The
first and most serious objection is that more rubber
must be applied, which, if of a good quality, will tend
to fracture by showing small checks. A thin metallic
surface with good rubber between the plies knocks all
the patent stitched belting out. Genuine rubber belt-
ing is superior to leather in many ways. Seamless belt-
ing is the best if of the best quality.

FASTENING BELTS, LACING HOOKS AND RIVETING.

The manner of pulling belts together is badly
botched in many mills. A bad splice or fastening will
ruin the best belt made. High speed belts must have
a smooth, even-running joint ; otherwise the thump and
jar passing over pulleys will soon tear it apart, to say
nothing of hot bearings and wavy work from planing
machines. The following engravings show three styles
of lacing. There are many botch plans which it is not
necessary to mention. The idea prevails among many
that two or three lacings through one hole strengthen
the joint. This is a mistake. Such lacing will soon
tear out ; if not, the bulky lace wears in two, and that
is the end of the lace.

—i

Fig. I shows a good lace for rubber and leather
belts. The cut shows that lace is not crossed on either
side. Dotted Hues show lace on other side. A shows
a cross-stitch run across belt after lacing is finished.
This lace has no strain on it and is for preventing wear
on the lace that holds the belt. This lace is of but one
thickness, and if a good thin lace, well hammered after
lacing, it will run very smooth and will remain good
until belt requires taking up. Holes should be punched
three-fourths from center to center and one-half from
end of belt, second row one hole less and one-half from
first row.

Fig. 2 shows the best lace for all purposes. It is
termed the hinge lace, as it passes between end of belt,
s shown in cut. This is the only lace that will suc-
.(Kssfully hold cotten-woven and stitched gandy belting.
"The lace passes alternately between end of belt, thus
ibrming a clamp which prevents holes from ravelling
■and pulling out. This lace, as well as Fig. i, is started
" 1 the centre of belt, starting at ^, passing between
iCnds of belt, coming through at the letter^, and soon.
"When this side is finished, lace the other half then run
the cross-stitch A D, as shown. This lace I have
ffan for five years without replacing.

The main belting companies of Chicago say if belt-
iers would adopt my lace there would be but little com-
plaint and no more trouble in using cot ton -stitched
belting. The holes are punched as in Fig. i . using a
small punch and one-half to five-eighths inch good lac-
ing. With this lace a very small take-up can be made in
short belts. Only one row of holes may be cut out ;
K and by punching the same number back this lace. -n^S-X.

" pan " out, thus allowing as short as five^ighths inch I
taking out of a belt.

This cut shows the standard style of ordinary belt 1
lacings, being laced two thicknesses, and needs no fur-
ther explanation.

Bell hooks, as a general thing, are not the best for J
fastening belts. Covei's are the only hooks made that
are reliable. When properly used, they not only make
a good fastening but the equivalent to an endless belt.
Leather belts may be cemented if not saturated with
grease. The ends being neatly scarfed and a good belt
cement at hand, apply quickly, then put splice under
heavy pressure in a dry place. The ends of laps may
be pegged or tacked down until dry, then use a suffi-
cient number of small head rivets, which makes a
stronger joint.

NOTES ON BELTING.

Don't overtax belts by overloading them or by run-
ning them tighter than necessary.

The whole arranger' Hafting and pulleys

173

should be under the direction of a mechanical engineer,
or competent machinist. Destruction of machinery
and belts, together with unsatisfactory results in the
business, is a common experience which may, in most
cases, be traced to a want of knowledge and care in the
arrangement of the machinery, and in the width and
style of the belts bought, and in the manner of their
use, while the manufacturers of the ** outfit" are often
blamed for bad results which are caused by the faulty
management of the mill owner himself.

Having properly arranged the machinery for the
reception of the belts, the next thing to be determined
is the length and width of the belts.

When it is not convenient to measure with the tape-
line the length required, the following rule will be
found of ser\dce : Add the diameter of the two pulleys
together, divide the result by 2, and multiply the
quotient by 3^, then add this product to twice the dis-
tance between the centers of the shafts, and you have
the length required.

The width of belt needed depends on three condi-
tions : I. The tension of the belt. 2. The size of
the smaller pulley, and the proportion of the surface
touched by the belt. » 3. The speed of the belt.

The working adhesion of a belt to the pulley will
be in proportion both to the number of square inches
of belt contact with the surface of the pulley, and also
to the arc of the circumference or the pulley touched bj'^
the belt. This adhesion forms the basis of all right
calculation in ascertaining the width of belt necessary
to transmit a given horse-power.

In the location of shafts that are to be connected
with each other by belts, care should be taken to secure
a proper distance one from the other. It is not easy to
give a definite rule as to what this distance should be.
Circumstances generally have much to do with the

174

arrangement, and the engineer or machinist must use
his judgment, making all things conform, as far as may
be, to general principle$. This distance should be such
as to allow of a gentle sag to the belt when in motion.

A general rule may be stated thus : Where narrow
belts are to be run over small pulleys — 15 feet is a good
average — the belt having a sag of i >^ to 2 inches. For
larger belts, working on larger pulleys, a distance of 20
to 25 feet does well, with a sag of 2 >^ to 4 inches.
For main belts working on very large pulleys, the
distance should be 25 to 30 feet, the belts working well
with a sag of 4 to 5 inches.

If too great a distance is attempted, the weight of
the belt will produce a very heavy sag, drawing so hard
on the shaft as to produce great friction in the bear-
ings, while at the same time the belt will have an un-
steady flapping motion, which will destroy both the
belt and machinery.

If possible to avoid it, connected shafts should
never be placed one directly over the other, as in such
case the belt must be kept very tight to do the work.
For this purpose belts should be carefully selected of
well-stretched leather.

It is desirable that the angle of the belt with the
floor should not exceed 45°. It is also desirable to lo-
cate the shafting and machinery so that belts should
run off" from each shaft in opposite directions, as this
arrangement will relieve the bearings from the friction
that would result when the belts all pull one way on
the shaft.

The diameter of the pulley should be as large as
can be admitted, provided they will not produce a speed
of more than 3,750 feet of belt motion per minute.
Some authorities limit this speed to 3,000 feet.

The pulley should be a little wider than the belt
required for the work.

176

The motion of driving should run with and not
against the laps of the belts.

Tightening or guide pulleys should be applied to
the slack side of belts and near the smaller pulley.

Quick-motion belts should be made as straight and
as uniform in section and density as possible, and end-
less if practicable, that is, with permanent joints.

Belts which run loose, will, of course, last much
longer than those which must be drawn tightly to drive
— tightness being evidence of overwork and dispro-
portion.

Never add to the work of a belt so much as to over-
load it.

The transmitting power of a double belt is to that
of single belt as lo is to 7. In ordering pulleys, the
kind of belt to be used should always be specified.

The strongest part of belt leather is near the flesh
side, about one-third the way through, from that side.
It is, therefore, desirable to run the grain (hair) side
on the pulley, in order that the strongest part of the
belt may be subject to the least wear.

The flesh side is not liable to crack, as the grain
side will do when the belt is old, hence it is better to
crimp the grain than to stretch it.

Leather belts run with grain side to the pulley will
drive 30 per cent, more than if run with flesh side.
The belt, as well as the pulley, adheres best when smooth,
and the grain side adheres best because it is smoothest.

A belt adheres much better and is less liable to slip
when at a quick speed than at a low speed. Therefore
it is better to gear a mill with small pulleys and run
them at a high velocity than with large pulleys and to
run them slower. A mill thus geared costs less and
has a much neater appearance than with large, heavy
pulleys.

Belts should be kept clean and free from accumu-

176

lations of dust and grease, and particularly from con-
tact with lubricating oils, some of which permanently
injure leather.

Leather belts must be well protected against water,
and even moisture.

India rubber is the proper substance for belts ex-
posed to the weather, as it does not absorb moisture
and stretch and decay.

Belts should be kept soft and pliable.

TIGHT BELTS.

Clamps with powerful screws are often used to put
on belt with extreme tightness, and with most injuri-
ous strain upon the leather. They should be very ju-
diciously used for horizontal belts, which should be
allowed sufl&cient slackness to move with a loose, un-
dulating vibration on the returning side, as a test that
they have no more strain imposed than is necessary
simply to transmit the power.

On this subject the following from a New England
cotton mill engineer, of high reputation and large ex-
perience, is entitled to careful consideration :

" I believe that three-quarters of the trouble ex-
perienced in broken pullies, hot boxes, etc., can be
traced to the fault of tight belts. The enormous and
useless pressure thus put upon pulleys must in time
break them, if they are made in any reasonable pro-
portions, besides wearing out the whole outfit, and
causing heating and consequent destruction of the
bearings. If manufacturers realized how much this
fault of tight belts cost them, in running their mills,
probably they would * wake up.' "

HORSE-POWER OF BELTING.

To ascertain transmitting power, multiply the di-
ameter of driving pulley in inches by its number of
revolutions per minute and this product by width of

177

belt in inches ; divide this product by 3,300 for single
leather, four-ply rubber or four-ply cotton belting — or
by 2,100 for double leather, six-ply rubber or six-ply
cotton belting and the quotient will be the number of
horse-power that can be safely transmitted.

TO FIND THE LENGTH OF A BELT WHEN CLOSELY

ROLLED.

The sum of the diameter of the roll and the eye in
inches multiplied by the number of turns made by the
belt, and this product multiplied by the decimal, .1309,
will equal length of the belt in feet.

TO FIND THE APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF BELTS.

Multiply the length of the belt, in feet, by the width
in inches and divide the product by 13 for single, and
8 for double belt.

NOTES ON SHAFTING.

Shafting must not be too light, neither with bear-
ings too far apart. For small shafting, bearings should
be from six to seven feet apart ; and for shafting over
two and one-fourth inches, eight to nine feet, according
to amount of work and the pull of belts, which should
be in opposite directions as much as practicable.
Where belts pull one way friction is greater and will
pull shaft out of line. A smaller shaft with bearings
closer together will consume less power than a larger
with a longer swing and will develop same power.
A two-inch shaft with six feet between bearings will
give as much power as a two and one-half inch with
ten feet bearings, and consume much less power and
remain in better line. Do not use burnt or crooked
shafting because it is fifty per cent, cheaper than new.
It will consume the difference in power and loss of
time on every day's run. Buy only the new if a sav-
ing is to be effected.

8.1 S,?

,':;oi-

179

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O
p.

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r-l .-I rH r-l .-( C^ 0« CO CO "^ "^ to to CO O

180

PULLEYS.

Every pulley in a mill should be as light as pos-
sible, consistent with the necessary strength, and be
in perfect balance. Many of our millers patronize
near-by machine shops and foundries for all their work,
where they pay for it by the pound, and they generally
pay for more than they want, and get poorly balanced
and badly polished pulleys in the bargain. A number
of millers have been much irritated at the super-
fluous iron they havie paid for, and the poor workman-
ship displayed in ^t fitting. There are now a num-
ber of establishments in the country making a spe-
cialty of furnishing finely finished pulleys, light in
weight, perfect in balance, in either wood, steel,
wrought iron or cast-iron, and as their prices are as
low as any, it pays to use such pulleys in the fitting
of a mill. Makers of special machines, who attain a
reputation for their goods, and are careful to have
their machines the lightest running possible, fit them
with the lightest and best fitted pulleys. It would
pay to observe this in all pulleys and gears of a mill.
Power would be saved thereby and power costs money.

It is not policy to use heavy *' balance" pulleys on
shafting for a steady motion, as is often practiced.
The balance pulley will be found in the driving wheel
of engine, and from that every pulley should be as
light as possible and as near same size as possible for the
best results from belts and saving of power.

VALUABLE INFORMATION FOR MACHINISTS

AND MILL-MEN.

The following rule will prove of much value in
computing exact lengths, speed of pulleys and pe-
riphery speed of saws in feet per minute :

181

RULE TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES.

Multiply the diameter by 3. 141 6 and the product
will be the circumference.

Ciroumferenoe of Circles.

Oin.
ft. in.

1 in.

2 in.

Fi.

ft.

in.

ft. in.

3 1-7

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182

Rule to find the circumference of circles. — Continued.

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SHOKT RULK TO FIND THE AREA OF CIRCIyES. — Mul-
tiply j4 the circumference by the radius and the prod-
uct will be the area.

183

STRENGTH AND TENSION OF IRON.

The breaking strength of good American iron is
usually taken at 50,000 lbs. per square inch, with an
elongation of 15 per cent, before breaking. It should
not set under a strain of less than 25,000 lbs. The
proof strain is 20,000 lbs. per square inch, and beyond
this amount iron should never be strained in practice.

WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF SHORT-LINK IRON

CHAINS.

" Since each link consists of two thicknesses of bar,
it might be supposed that a chain would possess dou-
ble the strength of a single bar ; but the strength of
the bar becomes reduced about 3-10 by being formed
into links, so that the chain really has but about 7-10
of the strength of two bars. As a thick bar of iron
will not sustain as heavy a load in proportion as a
thinner one, so, of course, large chains are propor-
tionately weaker than smaller ones. In the following
table, 20 tons (gross) per square inch is assumed as
the average breaking strain of a single straight bar of
ordinary rolled iron i inch in diameter; 19 tons, from
I to 2 in. dia.; and 18 tons, from 2 to 3 in. dia. De-
ducting 3-10 from each of these, we have as the break-
ing strain of the two bars composing each link as fol-
lows : 14 tons per sq. inch, up to i inch in diameter ;
13.3 tons, from i to 2 in. and 12.6 tons, from 2 to 3 in.
diameter; and upon these assumptions the table is
based."

184

TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND STRENGTH OF SHORT-
LINK IRON OHAINS.

Diameter

Averag:e

Breaking:

Diameter

Average

Breaking

Weight per

Strain.

Weight per

Strain.

Iron

Foot.

Iron.

Foot.

Ins.

lybs.

lybS.

Ins.

I/bs.

lybs.

3-i6

.42

1,731

10.

49,280

.91

3,069

I-I6

1 1.3

52,790

5-1 6

1.22

4,794

12.5

59,226

1-5

6,922

3-16

14.

65,960

7-16

9,408

15.5

73,114

2.5

12,320

18.5

88,301

9-16

3.2

15,590

22.

105,280

4.1

19,219

25.5

123,514

II-I6

23,274

29.5

143,293

5.8

27,687

33-5

164,505

13-16

6.6

32,307

38.

187,152

7-7

37,632

48.5

224,448

15-16

8.9

43,277

60.

277,088

TABLE OF TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY WIRE

Showing necessary size and speed of wheels and
rope to obtain any desired amount of power, (Roeb-
ling.)

- - .-

_""

.r._.-

'^^. -

— 1

__-^r=

°s

"=£

C.5

^■2

= 3

■f

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3.3

ii.ie

5S.4

100

4.1

100

11.16

73.

320

120

11.16

87.6

140

5.8

140

11.16

102.2

7-18

6,»

11.10

75.5

100

7-16

8.6

100

11.18

94.4

120

7-16

10.3

120

11.16

113.3

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7-16

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156

11.16

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10.7

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100

13.4

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124.1

120

•A

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148,9

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18.7

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173.7

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21.1

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153.2

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300.

NOTES ON THE USES OP WIRE ROPE.-Rwbllng.

Two kinds of wire rope are manufactured. The
most pliable variety contains ig wires in the strand,
and is generally used for hoisting and running rope.

For safe working load, allow 1-5 of 1-7 of the ulti-
mate strength, according to speed, so as to get good
wear from the rope. Wire rope is as pliable as new

186

hemp rope of the same strength ; but the greater the
diameter of the sheaves the longer wire rope will last.

Experience has proved that the wear increases with
the speed. It is, therefore, t)etter to increase the load
than the speed. Wire rope must not be coiled or un-
coiled like hemp or manilla — all untwisting or kinking
must be avoided.

In no case should galvanized rope be used for run-
ning. One day's use scrapes oflf the zinc coating.

STRENGTH OF MANILLA AND HEMP ROPES.

**The strength of rope is very irregular, much
depending on the quality of the fibre used and the
soHdity in which the rope is put together. For
instance, 3^-inch circumference ^^-laid rope will
not measure over 3-inch circumference Aard-laid

• " Our tests of the various makes of rope from the
manilla fibre show about the following average
maximum strength :

3-inch cir. soft-laid, 7,300 lbs.

3-inch ** medium-laid, 8,000 "
3-inch " hard-laid, 9,000 "

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

First. Do not tax belts by overloading.

Second. Shafting and pulleys should be arranged
by a competent machinist or mechanical engineer.

Third. Rules for finding length of belt : " Add the
diameter of the two pulleys together, divide the result
by two and multiply the quotient by three and one-
seventh, then add this product to twice the distance
between the center of the shafts."

Fourth. In locating shafts, great care should be
taken to secure proper distance. Experts give the
following rules : First. — When narrow belts are to be
run over small pulleys, fifteen feet is good average,
the belt having a sag of one and one-half to two inches.

187

Second. — For longer belts working on larger pulleys,
a distance of twenty to twenty-five feet does well with
a sag of four or five inches.

Fifth. The angle of a belt with the floor should not
exceed forty-five degrees.

Sixth. The pulley should be a little wider than the
belt required for the work.

Seventh. The strongest part of belt leather is the
flesh side.

Eighth. Always run the grain (or hair) side on the
pulley. The grain side to pulley gives greater driv-
ing power, hugs the pulley closer, less liable to slip,
and will drive thirty per cent, more than flesh side.

Ninth. Keep your belts free from the accumula-
tion of dust or grease, or oil drippings. They will in-
jure the leather.

Tenth. Keep your belt soft and pliable by using
a good belt dressing.

Eleventh. Rule to find the horse-power that any
given width of double belt is easily capable of driving.

Multiply the number of square inches covered by
the belt on the driven pulley by one and one-half the
speed in feet per minute through which the belt moves,
and divide the product by 33,000, the quotient will be
the horse-power.

Twelfth. To find the width of belt for any given
horse-power : Multiply 33,000 by the horse-power re-
quired and divide the product first by the length in
inches covered by the belt on the driven pulley and
again by half the speed of the belt.

Thirteenth. Rule for piecing a belt when pulleys
are changed : One and one-half times the difference of
the diameter of the pulleys will give the required
piece.

Fourteenth. Tighteners. — The tightening pulley
is applied to belts for increasing their adhesion to

188

the pulleys, and as this is to fall first on the smaller
pulley it is usual to place them on the slack side of
the belt, nearer this pulley, in order to increase adhe-
sion as well as the area of contact. It also increases
the friction of driving in proportion to the thrusting
of the same from the line of its natural curvature.

Fifteenth. Rules for calculating the speed of pul-
leys :

Problem i . — The diameter of the driver and driven
being given to find the number of revolutions of the
driven, Rule : Multiply the diameter of the driver by
its number of revolutions, and divide the product by
the diameter of the driven ; the quotient will be the
number of revolutions.

Problem 2. — The diameter and revolutions of the
driver being given to find the diameter of the driven,
that shall make any g:iven number of revolutions in
the same time, Rule: Multiply the diameter of the
driver by its number of revolutions and divide the
product by the number of revolutions of the driven ;
the quotient will be the diameter.

Problem 3. — To find the size of the driver. Rule:
Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of
revolutions you wish to make and divide the product
by the revolutions of the driver ; the quotient will be
the size of the driver.

RULES FOR ENGINEERS AND FIREMEN ON THE
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM BOILERS.

The care of steam boilers, and the qualifications of
engineers in the management of same, has resulted in
a general movement in several States towards requir-
ing engineers to prove themselves competent before
being put in charge of steam boilers, and it originates
from a desire to grapple with an evil which is a con-
tinual source of danger to the people. If steam users

189

could be trusted to employ only competent attendants
to their boilers, there would be no necessity for the
law infringing their personal liberty so far as to say
who shall not be left in charge ; but unfortunately
many steam users are extremely reckless in this mat-
ter, as numerous fatal explosions have testified.

The laws that require the examination and license
of persons who act as engineers, are enacted for the
protection of life and property, from loss or damage,
by the explosion of boilers or tanks under pressure.
Hence it follows that the law-makers had no intent to
provide that the license should be evidence of the skill
of the holder as an engineer ; that is a matter that only
concerns his employer. The State deals only with
that which threatens the safety of persons or commu-
nities. The license is only evidence that the person
to whom it is issued can care for and run safely a steam
boiler. That is as far as the State can go without in-
terfering with the rights of individuals. It is no affair
of the State, does not concern it to know or certify that
a man can adjust or set valves, can take down or erect
an engine, produce power with the least consumption
of fuel, or be able to use the indicator intelligently ;
these are all matters that concern only the steam user.
But when the use and safety of a boiler is considered,
the State has the undoubted right to say that the per-
son who is to take charge of this dangerous device
shall possess sufl5cient skill and experience to insure
safety for operators in the mill, also for citizens living
in the vicinity. It follows, then, that the examination
for license can only refer to the boiler and the appli-
ances that will insure its safety.

Every engineer and fireman ought to know per-
fectly well, without the necessity of any elaborate cal-
culations or theorizing, what results will ensue should
he overload his steam engine, his boiler, or any of the

190

machinery under his charge, and he would not be
compelled to call in the services of some expert en-
gineer to tell him clearly and concisely what would
occur under such conditions. He would know that in
the vast majority of cases he would be subjecting him-
self to the possibility — in fact, high probability — of a
speedy break-down, and, before that event actually
transpired, to endless trouble of every description, all
the result of poor judgment, or unfortunate necessity,
which led him to work his boiler, engine or machinery
up to double, or perhaps treble, what it was intended
for.

Every applicant for an engineer's license should be
prepared to answer all questions that will show that
he is mentally well equipped to provide against possi-
ble disaster. He should be well skilled in the con-
struction, care and manipulation of pumps, injectors,
inspirators, all the devices by which the boiler is sup-
plied with water. He should be familiar with the use
of the gauges in use for determining pressure of steam,
or the quantity of water in the boiler. The safety-
valve should be under his care, always ready to per-
form its functions. Then he should have some idea of
the difference between fibrous and crystallized iron ;
should be able to tell when a boiler had become weak,
needed repairs and have the courage to say so, and refuse
to fire it. He should have skill sufl5cient to enable him
to frequently inspect the boiler, and determine if the
factor of safety is enough to insure absolute safety.
He should be able to take such care of the boiler that large
or dangerous deposits of scale or mud are not possible ;
also, should know what to do when '' priming" or " foam-
ing" is evident. He should inform himself as to the
effects of corrosion, internal scale and deposits, improper
setting, impeded circulation and improper steam and
water connections.

191

HINTS TO ENGINEERS.

There are engineers and engineers — one may be
dear at $i8 per week, another cheap at $25 per week.
This point will be bevSt appreciated by those who are
most conversant with the subject. Having spent
thousands of dollars in buildings, and fitting up a mill
or factory with modern machinery adapted to your
business, is it good management to intrust its care to
the cheapest engineer you can obtain ?

Instances of this kind are of almost daily occur-
rence ; many result very disastrously. Most of them
are such expensive experiments that they are never
repeated by the same party. Within certain well-de-
fined limits the best is the cheapest. Don't let a few
dollars prevent your employing the most competent
man, one who, knowing his ability and experience,
may seem to you to be too high priced.

We are often reminded that all things constructed
by human hands are imperfect ; those imperfections in-
crease with age and use. It would effect an impor-
tant saving in repairs, with greatly increased efficiency
and durability of machinery and tools, if regular days —
if possible, twice in each year, the time regulated by
the dull season of the particular business in which you
are engaged, when the machinery should be stopped
and needful repairs, alterations and improvements be
made.

There may be, perhaps, many engineers who do
not desire any information on the care of boilers, while
others are only too glad to receive it. The former
might decline to gratify the less experienced by im-
parting knowledge for the benefit of others, and some
refrain from asking questions for fear of showing their
inexperience. Such considerations should not weigh
where men desire to advance themselves.

A poorly constructed boiler in charge of an intelli-

192

gent engineer is safer with eighty pounds of steam
than a well-constructed boiler in the hands of a reck-
less and ignorant man is with forty pounds !

Many defects in boilers can be attributed to the
want of care on the part of the engineer.

A boiler should be washed at least once a month,
removing all hand-hole and man-hole plates, freeing
the legs of dirt and sediment, being particular about the
back leg, if the boiler is of the locomotive style ; should
there be no hand-hole, then have one put in as soon
as possible. Examine the boiler inside, and be sure
that no braces are out of place and no pins backed out.
Take the grate bars out and paint the legs with red-
lead and oil ; this will prevent scales or dirt from form-
ing on the outside.

All water used for wetting ashes, also the leader
from gauge-cocks dripping in ash-pan, has a tendency
to weaken the legs by corrosion to a great extent.

Before letting cold water in after blowing out a
boiler, allow two hours, at least, for a contraction to
take place slowly.

In replacing the hand-hole plates be sure the gas-
kets are properly fitted, cutting off all overhanging
edges; also whitelead the plate so the gasket will hold
to it. This will prevent the use of new gaskets every
time the plates are taken out.

In setting up the plate, use an ordinary screw-
wrench, and see that the crow-feet do not bring up
on the plate. A six-foot wrench will not make the
plate tight if not properly replaced.

Never foroe fires in getting up steam from cold water.

Slow fires are best.

Do not make a race between fire and iron to see
which is the most durable.

A good en^neer will not brag on getting up steam
from cold water in twenty minutes.

193

Remember ! the steam boiler is a good servant in
the hands of an intelligent master.

Do not condemn any appliance introduced osten-
sibly for the purpose of securing economy or safety
without giving it a fair trial, as some of the most valu-
able inventions now in use were ridiculed and rejected
when first introduced. Many excellent " devices"
have been condemned by those having the care of them,
and replaced by others at great expense to the owners
of boilers and engines.

Donotdiscountenanceanydevice, invention, adjunct
or arrangement that will lessen your labor, induce
economy, and at the same time give a guarantee of
safety. Give everything placed in your charge by
your employer a fair, impartial trial.

Do not allow the boiler-head to become filthy or
the gauge-cocks to leak and become covered with mud
and the salts resulting from impurities in the water,
as this would furnish strong evidence of slovenliness.

Do not let anything connected with the boiler in
your charge run from bad to worse, with the idea that
at some certain time you will have a general over-
hauling and repairing, because an accident may occur
at any moment, involving serious loss of life and prop-
erty.

Do not neglect to have the boiler insured when
practicable, as insurance is generally accompanied by
intelligent inspection, which furnishes a guarantee of
safety to the engineer, owner or steam user.

Do not reject the advice or suggestions of intelli-
gent boiler inspectors, as their experience enables them
to discriminate in cases which never come under the
observation of persons of a different calling or pursuit.

194

THE FOLLOWING RULES FOR ENGINEERS AND FIRE-
MEN HAVE BEEN ADOPTED BY THE HARTFORD
STEAM BOILER INSPECTION AND INSUR-
ANCE COMPANY.

1. Condition of Water. — The first duty of an
engineer when he enters his boiler-room in the morn-
ing is to ascertain how many gauges of water there
are in his boilers. Never unbank nor replenish the fires
until this is done. Accidents have occurred, and many
boilers have been entirely ruined from neglect of this
precaution.

2. Low Watek. — In case of low water, immedi-
ately cover the fires with ashes, or, if no ashes are at
hand, use fresh coal. Don't turn on the feed under
any circumstances, nor tamper with, or open the safety-
valve. Let the steam outlets remain as they are.

3. In Cases of Foaming.— Close throttle, and
keep closed long enough to show true level of water.
If that level is sufficiently high, feeding and blowing
will usually suffice to correct the evil. In cases of vio-
lent foaming, caused by dirty water, or change from
salt to fresh, or vice versa, in addition to the action
above stated, check draft and cover fires with fresh
coal.

4. Leaks. — When leaks are discovered they
should be repaired as soon as possible.

5. Blowing Off. — Blow down, under a pressure
not exceeding 10 pounds. Where surface blow-cocks
are used, they should be often opened for a few mo-
ments at a time. The blow-ofi"- valve should be opened
wide once a day, oftener if the water contains much sedi-
ment. The time required to open wide and close the
valve is long enough.

6. Filling up the Boiler. — After blowing down
allow the boiler to become coolh^ior^ filling again. Cold
water, pumped into hot boilers, is very injurious from
sudden contraction.

195

7- Exterior of B011.ER. — Care should be taken
that no water comes in contact with the exterior of the
boiler, either from leaky joints or other causes.

8. Removing Deposit and Sediment. — In tubular
boilers the hand-holes should be often opened, and all
collections removed from over the fire. Also, when
boilers are fed in front and blown off through the same
pipe, the collection of mud or sediment in the rear
end should be often removed.

9. Safety- Vai^ves. — Raise the safety-valves cau-
tiously and frequently, as they are liable to become
fast in their seats, and useless for the purpose intended.

10. Safety-Valves and Pressure- Gauge. —
Should the gauge at any time indicate the limit of pres-
sure allowed, see that the safety-valves are blowing off.

1 1 . Gauge-Cocks. Glass Gauge. — Keep gauge-
cocks clear and in constant use. Glass gauges should
not be relied on altogether.

12. Blisters. — When a blister appears there
must be no delay in having it carefully examined, and
trimmed or patched as the case may require.

13. Clean Sheets. — Particular care should be
taken to keep sheets and parts of boilers exposed to
the fire perfectly clean, also all tubes, flues and con-
nections well swept. This is particularly necessary
where wood or soft coal is used for fuel.

14. General Care of Boilers and Connec-
tions. — Under all circumstances keep the gauges,
cocks, etc., clean and in good order, and things gener-
ally in and about the engine and boiler-room in a neat
condition.

The foregoing Rules and Hints to Engineers should
be referred to daily.

By their careful observance, economy of fuel and
the durability and safety of the boiler are attained.
Through their neglect, waste, frequent and expensl^^

196

repairs and danger are the certain results. These con-
siderations are important, and should not be lost sight
of. Boilers are expensive to buy and run, and it would
seem natural that owners should strive by proper care
to make the other expenses attending their use as
small as possible. That this in too many instances is
not done is very evident, and those at fault pay well
for their neglect. There is another important fact to
be considered, however, and that is, that want of care
is the cause of explosion. There is no mystery about
it, and no man has the right to imperil the lives and
property of others by his carelessness. In running
steam boilers it would be well to

Remejnber that it is no excuse for an engineer or
fireman not to improve himself in the duties of his
calling, because his present situation is not agreeable
or his pay not remunerative, or his employer does not
treat him kindly. Such circumstances should stimu-
late him in his efforts to acquire knowledge, instead of
causing him to become a laggard, as his opportunity
will undoubtedly come, and how can he expect to make
a better change, or get a better position unless he pre-
pares himself beforehand to fill it, and also to

Remember that it is absurd for an engineer or fire-
man to expect to fill a good position, command good
wages, and secure the confidence and respect of his
employers, unless he can show that he has made the
object of his calling the subject of investigation and
study. There are thousands who are always ready
and willing to fill good positions, if they could be only
accorded a short time to prepare themselves, which of
course would be impracticable and unreasonable.

With a knowledge of the foregoing requisites for
the safety of steam boilers an engineer should be fa-
miliar, and examiners will do well to see that those
who procure license to care for boilers, have the knowl-

197

edge to exercise that care, with every assurance of
safety for those whose business or necessities require
them to work, dwell or visit in the vicinity of these
dangerous store-houses of potential energy.

TESTING STEAM BOILERS.

Every steam boiler, for whatever purpose employed,
ought to be opened, cleaned, thoroughly examined and
tested at least once a year. The sound test is the most
reliable in cases where it can be applied as the eye
and the ear can be employed to discover the character
and occasion of those defects, which the sound of the
hammer, when brought in contact with the material,
discloses. The hydraulic test can be employed in cases
where it would be impossible to attempt the sound test,
and is of great value when intelligently applied ; but
its application should be under the control of intelli-
gent persons, as a reckless use of the hydraulic test
may result in injury to the boiler, as it doubtless has
ruined a good many.

EXTERNAL CORROSION.

All boilers should be arched over, allowing at least
fifteen to twenty inches space between the boiler and
brick-work. This will protect them from any external
corrosion from valves, flange joints qr any other leak-
age over the boiler, and any leaks from the shell of the
boiler can be seen by looking under the arch. The
arching will have a great tendency to dry the steam.
No ashes or lime should be kept next the boiler,
where the water from leakages from steam pipes would
fall on it and form a lye which would corrode the iron.

SCALE AND CORROSION IN BOILERS.

We find that there are very few steam users, or even
those placed in charge of the steam boiler, as engineer,
who fully understands the great danger of running
steam boilers without proper care. In our experience

198

as boiler inspectors, we have very frequently found
boilers in which the iron had wasted away two-thirds
of its original thickness from corrosion, and even the
rivet-heads in whole seams had disappeared, leaving
no margin of safety. In most cases this danger is not
seen, even in a close inspection of the boilers, unless
th^ engineer or inspector understands his business
thoroughly, as the iron is covered by a crust or scale,
probably of sufficient thickness to cause a weakness of
the iron plate, even if it was not affected otherwise.
This agent of destruction in a boiler, called corrosion,
inN^ariably eats away the iron more rapidly when cov-
ered over by a non-conducting boiler scale. If no scale
existed the action of the water would come in direct
contact with the iron, and would, to some extent, pre-
vent the corrosive action.

Almost ever>- engineer has his own remedy for
boiler scale ; among which may be mentioned slippery-
elm, flax-seed, bass-wood, oak blocks, witch-hazel, coal-
oil, buckwheat. Indian meal, saw-dust, molasses, gal-
\-anic batteries and boiler fluids.

But an article manufactured by G. W. Lord, Phil-
adelphia. Pa„ known as Lord's Boiler Compound, ap-
pears to be the only chemical preparation in use, at
the present day. that will prevent the formation of
scale, or xx»t. soften and remove it after it has been
formed, in any class of boilers, without more or less
injurv' to the iron, as it neutralizes the action of the
natural cher.::oa' salts which form the basis of all scale

We also f.r.d :h:s article unanimously endorsed by
authors of mechauioal books, enkr^ner^r^ in charge of
works, practical chemists and nten having large capi-
tal in\-estevt in stean: boilers, as a remecy :or corrosion,
snoh as rittir.g ai:i \\-asting o: iron, which causes so
ziinv exr^lotsions. And w>e mnst bear in mind Uiat

199

this trouble, at least, cannot possibly be overcome by
any mechanical means.

DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP PUMPS.

Never use pipes of a smaller size than given in the
tables ; when long pipes are used, it is necessary to in-
crease the diameter to allow for the increased friction,
especially in regard to suction pipes. »

Use as few turns and angles on pipes as possible,
and run every pipe in as direct a line as practicable.
Bends, returns and angles increase friction more rap-
idly than length of pipe.

See to it that the pump has a full supply of water.

In pumping very hot water, always flood your pump
by placing it so that it will be supplied from a head.

A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 8^ pounds,
and contains 231 cubic inches. 1

A cubic foot of water weighs 62^ pounds, and con-
tains 1,728 cubic inches, or jyi gallons.

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capac-
ity four times.

Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square
of the velocity. \

Each nominal horse-power of boilers requires 30
to 35 pounds of water per hour.

To find the area of a piston, square the diameter
and multiply by .7854.

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of
a column of water, multiply the height of the column
in feet by .434.

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons, mul-
tiply the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches
will give the total number of cubic inches ; divide this
amount by 231 (which is the cubical contents of a gal-
lon in inches), and product is the capacity in gallons.

Ordinary speed to run pumps is 100 feet of piston
per minute.

200

To find quantity of water elevated in one minute
running at loo feet of piston per minute, square the
diameter of water cylinder in inches and multiply by
4. Example : Capacity of a five-inch cylinder is de-
sired. The square of the diameter (5 inches) is 25,
which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, which is gallons per
minute (approximately).

To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water
to a given height, multiply the total weight of column
of water in pounds by the velocity per minute in feet,
and divide the product by 33,000 (an allowance of
twenty-five per cent, should be added for friction, etc.).

INSTRUCTIONS TO ENGINEERS.

Getting up Steam. — Before lighting the fire in the
morning, raise your safety valve, brushing away all
the ashes and dust which may impair its free action,
and if it leaks steam grind it on its seat with fine em-
ery or grindstone grit. Valves with vibratory stems
are safer than those with rigid stems, as they are not
so liable to bind by the lever and weight getting out
of true. To guard against loss by leakage and evapo-
ration, leave the water up to the third gauge at night
and keep it up to the second gauge during working
hours. Clean all ashes and cinders from the furnace
and ash-pit, and spread a layer of two or three inches
of coal over the grate bars ; pile on plenty of shavings
over the coal, with dry sawdust, split wood, etc., then
start your fire. Keep the fire even and regular over
the grate-bars, about 5 inches thick with soft coal, and
about 3 inches with anthracite, and always avoid ex-
cessive firing. Moderate charges or firings at intervals
of 15 to 20 minutes give the best results. In getting
up steam from cold water the fire should be raised
gradually, to avoid damaging the boiler by unequal
expansion of the iron. Do not keep the damper and
furnace door open at the same time, as the extreme

* 201

draught expels the heat from the furnace into the
chimney, and the cold air entering through the door
induces a damaging contraction of the boiler plates
wherever it strikes. The current of air enters the
ash-pit with a velocity of 12 feet per second, and every
100 lbs. of coal requires about 15.525 cubic feet for its
combustion. With wood for fuel, the area of grate
surface should be 1.25 to 1.4 that for coal. Volume of
furnace for coal burning should be from 2.75 to 3 cubic
feet for every square foot of its grate surface, for wood
4.6 to 5 cubic feet. The use of the pyrometer has sat-
isfactorily established the following facts : ist. That
the admission of a certain quantity of air behind the
bridge develops a greater amount of heat for raising
steam by assisting combustion and consuming the
smoke, the existence of smoke being always a sure
sign of waste. 2. A regular continuous supply of air
to the furnace increases its heating powers 33/^ per
cent. 3. The supply of air may enter behind the
bridge, through the bars, or through the furnace doors,
as long as it is properly regulated. 4. The supply of
air may vary with the nature of the fuel ; light burn-
ing coal requiring less air than caking coal, because
the latter becomes a compact mass in the furnace, ex-
cluding the air from the bars, while the latter is the
reverse. 5. For perfect combustion a high tempera-
ture is necessary. In all cases see that the bars are
well covered and the fuel kept from caking. Knock
away the clinkers as soon as formed, keeping the
spaces open between the bars. Regulate the supply
of air either by the dampers, ash-pit, furnace doors or by
an orifice behind the bridge. A jet of steam from a
pipe placed across the top of, and inside the door, will
greatly assist in consuming the smoke and intensifying
the heat, by yielding up its oxygen and hydrogen.
If steam commences to blow off at the safety-valve

202 •

while the engine is at rest, start your pump or injector
to create a circulation, cover or bank your fire with a
charge of ashes or fresh coal to absorb the heat, and
allow the steam to have free egress through the safety-
valve. If by neglect the water gets very low, and the
boiler dangerously hot, the fire should either be drawn
or drenched with water. Should the fire be very hot
and the water supply temporarily cut off, stop the en-
gine and cover the fire quite thickly with fresh ftiel to
absorb the heat, keeping the usual allowance of water
in the boiler until the supply is renewed. Boilers
should be blown out every two or three weeks, or as
often as mud appears in the water, but never until
after the fire has been drawn at least one hour, and
the damper closed, otherwise the empty boiler might
be damaged by the heat. Never fill a hot boiler with
cold water, as the sudden contraction many times re-
peated will eventually cause it to leak. Never blow
out a boiler with a higher pressure than 50 lbs. to the
square inch, as steam at a high pressure indicates a
high temperature in the iron, which under careftd
management should be always let down gradually.
Previous to filling a boiler, raise the valve to permit
the free egress of the air which might otherwise do
manifold damage.

Use every possible* precaution against using foul
water, as it induces foaming in the boiler ; soapy or
oily substances and an insufiiciency of steam room
have a like effect, causing the boiler to bum on the
spots where the water is lifted from it, and the glass
gauges to indicate falsely, besides damaging the cylin-
der by priming, carrying mud, grit, water and slush
into it through the pipe, and rendering the cylinder-
heads liable to be knocked out. Steam from pure wa-
ter at 212° Fahr. supports a 30-inch column of mer-
cury. Steam from sea, or impure water at the same
temperature, will support only 22 inches.

203

Pure soft water derived from lakes and large streams,
rain-water from cisterns, reservoirs, etc., and springs
outside of limestone districts ^ is the best for steam pur-
poses. Water from wells and spifngs in limestone dis-
tricts and small streams hold in solution large quan-
tities of chloride of sodium, carbonate of lime, sulphate
of lime, etc., besides quantities of vegetable matter in
suspension. The carbonic acid in the water, which
holds the carbonate of lime, etc., in solution, being
driven off by boiling, the latter is precipitated and forms
an incrustation which adheres with obstinate tenacity
toithe boiler-plates. By continual accretion the deposit
of scale becomes thicker and thicker, and being a non-
conductor of heat it requires 60 per cent, more fuel
to raise the water to any given temperature when the
scale is % of an inch thick ; the conducting power of
scale compared with that of iron being as i to 37.
The red scale formed from water impregnated with salts
of iron, derived from percolation through iron ore, is
still more destructive to steam boilers, and in no way
can the evil be completely averted except by the use
of chemicals, which will neutralize the different corro-
sive impurities of water.

In tubular boilers, the hand-hole should be opened
frequently and all sediment removed from over the
fire ; keep the sheets, flues, tubes, gauge-cocks, glass
gauges and connections well swept and perfectly clean,
and the boiler and engine-room in neat condition.
Keep a sharp lookout for leaks, and repair them if
possible without delay, and allow no water to come in
contact with the exterior of the boiler under any cir-
cumstances. Examine and repair every blister as soon
as it appears, and make frequent and thorough exami-
nations of the boiler with a small steel hammer.

In case of foaming, close the throttle, and keep

204

closed long enough to show true level of water. If
the water level is right, feeding and blowing will gen-
erally stop the trouble. With muddy water it is a
safe rule to blow out 6 or 8 inches every day. If foam-
ing is violent from dirty water, or change from salt to
fresh, or from fresh to salt, in addition to following the
above directions, check draught and cover the fire with
ashes or fresh fuel.

Great watchfulness is necessary when steam is
raised, the safety-valve fixed, the fire strong and the
engine at rest. In every case there is a rapid and dan-
gerous absorption of heat, the temperature, latent and
sensible heat included, often rising to 1200° Fahr.
Frequently it is but the work of an instant to convert
the latent into sensible heat, thus generating an irresist-
ible force which bursts the boiler and destroys life and
property. The destruction generally coming at the
moment of starting the engine, the opening of the
valve inducing a commotion in the water, which flashes
into steam the instant it touches the heated plates.
Steam has been known to rise from a pressure of 32
lbs. to the square inch to 90 lbs. to the square inch,
in the short space of seven minutes, with the engine at
rest. It ought to quicken the vigilance of every en-
gineer to know that the explosive energy in each and
every cubic foot of water in his boiler at 60 lbs. pres-
sure, is equal to that contained in i lb. of gunpowder.

From avaricious motives it has become quite com-
mon to discharge, or to decline to employ, qualified
and careful engineers. Incompetent men are employed
because their labor costs a few dollars less than that
of the former. This is too much of a bad thing to
pass over without notice. Employ good skilful men
in the management of steam power, or employ none at
all, and pay them decent wages. If an oversight takes
place, and the best and most careful men are liable to

205

•

make mistakes, never scold, reprimand or exact ser-
vice during dangerous emergencies, as in the event of
lost water in the boiler. In no case risk life, limb or
property, and do not let the consideration of saving a
few dollars debar you from securing intelligent assist-
ants. The Turkish mode of driving business on a late
occasion was to discharge the English engineers who
brought out the war vessels which were built in Eng-
land, and supply the vacancies by installing cheap,
green hands. After getting up steam the new " Chief'
proceeded to start the engines. A lift at a crank pro-
duced no results, a pull at a lever was equally useless.
At length the illustrious official espied a bright brass
cock, and thinking he had got hold of a sure thing
this time, proceeded to give it a twist, when he was
suddenly saluted with a jet of steam full in the face,
which swept the " engineer" and his assistants out of
the engine-room, into the fire-room down-stairs. So
much for cheap labor and the consequent results.

PREVENTION OF BOILER SCALE.

The scale in boilers is formed from impurities of
the water, and if pure water only is fed into the boiler,
no scale is formed. This being settled beyond doubt,
many methods have been proposed to purify the feed
water in a rapid and cheap manner. To prevent scale
by the use of calcium hydrate and soda, F. Scheukel
employs one or more tanks, according to the supply
needed for the works, in which the water from the
river is purified, and another tank for the purified feed-
water. As purifying tanks he uses four iron boxes (or
cylinders of old steam boilers), not over 5 feet high,
which have an outlet cock about 6 inches above the
bottom. They are heated by steam to 60° at least, and
are preferable surrounded by some non-conducting
material. Besides, they are furnished with a stirring
arrangement, preferable a Koerting steam-jet stirrer.

206

The pure water tank is placed on a level below the
purifying tank, so that the purified water can flow di-
rectly into it from the purifying tanks, without the use
of a pump. The water in the purifying tanks is heated
as much as possible and the required quantity of thin
milk of lime added and stirred ; this quantity being
either calculated after the analysis of water or ascer-
tained by experiment. Only so much lime is to be
added that red litmus paper dipped into the water,
after 15 to 20 seconds begins to turn blue. Then the
calculated quantity of pure (96 to 98 per cent.) soda
dissolved in hot water is added, stirred, and the water
allowed to settle. In 20 to 30 minutes the precipitate
formed is thrown down in large flakes and the per-
fectly clear water is drawn off" into the feed^water tank.
With ammonium oxalate it must not give any turbidity;
and if another sample taken becomes turbid on the ad-
dition of calcium chloride, too much soda has been
used. The advantages of this method of purifying the
feed-water are : That the boiler requires no cleaning
for a whole season ; that the iron of the boiler-walls is
not attacked ; that the water does not froth and stop
up the gauge-cocks, etc ; that the steam is free from
acid ; that steam is easier generated and thereby fuel
is saved ; that no breaking out of scale is required, its
cost saved and the interruption of work caused there-
by is avoided; that, finally, the method is comparatively
inexpensive.

The purification of water by milk of lime and soda
is known, but as regards the practical application, the
above communication is valuable. The'Tharm Central-
halle," however, remarks that soda is not the cheapest
purifier for all calcareous water, but for such as con-
tain considerable proportions of calcium nitrate;
besides gypsum, barium chloride would be cheaper to
employ.

207

ON THE FORM, STRENGTH, ETC., OF STEAM

BOILERS.

Regarding the y^r^w of boilers it is now an ascer-
tained fact that the maximum strength is obtained by
adopting the cylindrical or circular form, the haycock,
hemispherical, and wagon-shaped boilers, so general
at one time, have now deservedly gone almost out of
use. Good boiler plate is capable of withstanding a
tensile strain of 50,000 lbs., or 60,000 lbs., on every
square inch of section; but it will only bear a third of this
strain without permanent derangement of structure,
and 40,000 lbs., or 30,000 lbs., even, upon the square
inch, is a preferable proportion. It has been found
that the tenacity of boiler-plate increases with the
temperature up to 570°, at which point the tenacity
commences to diminish. At 32° cohesive force of a
square inch of section was 56,000 lbs.; at 570° it was
66,500 lbs.; at 720°, 55,000 lbs.; at 1050°, 32,000 lbs.;
at 1240°, 22,000 lbs.; and at 1317°, 9,000 lbs. Strips of
iron, when cut in the direction of the fibre, were found
by experiment to be 6 per cent, stronger than when
cut across the grain. The strength of riveted joints
has also been demonstrated by tearing them directly
asunder. In two different kinds of joints, double and
single riveted, the strength was found to be, in the
ratio of the plate, as the numbers 100, 70 and 56.
Assuming the strength of the plate to be - - 100
The strength of a double riveted joint would
be, after allowing for the adhesion of the surfaces

of the plate 70

And the strength of a single riveted joint - - 56
These figures, representing the relative strengths
of plates and joints in vessels required to be steam and
water tight, may be safely relied on as perfectly cor-
rect. The accidental overheating of a boiler has been
found to reduce the ultimate or maximum strength of

208

the plates from 65,000 to 45,000 lbs. per square inch
of section. Every description of boiler used in manu-
factories or on board of steamers should be constructed
to a bursting pressure of 400 to 500 lbs. on the square
inch ; and locomotive boilers, which are subject to much
harder duty, to a bursting pressure of 600 to 700 lbs. Such
boilers are usually worked at 90 to 1 10 lbs., on the inch,
but are frequently worked up to a pressure of 120, and,
when rising steep grades sometimes even as high as
200 lbs., to the square inch. In a boiler subject to such
an enormous working pressure, it requires the utmost
care and attention on the part of the engineer to satisfy
himself that the flat surfaces of the fire box are ca-
pable of resisting that pressure, and that every part of
the boiler is so nearly balanced in its powers of re-
sistance as that, when one part is at the point of
rupture, every other part is at the point of yielding to
the same uniform force : for we find that, taking a lo-
comotive boiler of the usual size, even with a pressure
of 100 lbs., on the square inch, it retains an expanding
force within its interior of nearly 60,000 tons, which is
rather increased than diminished at a high speed. To
show the strain upon a high-pressure boiler, 30 feet
long, 6 feet diameter, having two centre flues, each 2
feet 3 inches diameter, working at a pressure of 50 lbs.,
on the square inch, we have only to multiply the num-
ber of the square feet of surface, 1030, exposed to pres-
sure, by 321, and we have the force of 3319 tons, which
such a boiler has to sustain. To go farther, and esti-
mate the pressure at 450 lbs., on the square inch, which
a well-constructed boiler of this size will bear before it
bursts, and we have the enormous force of 29,871, or
nearly 30,000 tons, bottled up within a cylinder 30
feet long and 6 feet diameter. Boilers in actual use
should be tested at least once a year, b}- forcing water
into them bj- the hand-feed pump, until the safety-valve

209

is lifted, which should be loaded with at least twice the
working pressure for the occasion. If a boiler will
not stand this pressure it is not safe, and either its
strength should be increased or the working pressure
should be diminished. Internal flues, such as contain
the furnace in the interior of the boiler, should be kept
as near as possible to the cylindrical form ; and, as
wrought iron will yield to a force tending to crush it
about one-half of what would tear it asunder, the flues
should in no case exceed one-half the diameter of the
boiler, with the same thickness of plates they may be
considered equally safe with the other parts. The force
of compression being so different from that of tension,
greater safety would be ensured if the diameter of the
internal flues were in the ratio i to 2>^ instead of i to
3 of the diameter of the boiler. As regards the relative
size and strength of flues, it may be stated that a cir-
cular flue 1 8 inches in diameter will resist double the
pressure of one 3 feet in diameter. Mill owners, with
plenty of room and a limited experience with steam
power, would do well to dispense with boilers contain-
ing many flues, the expense is greater and the dura-
bility less than where there is one or two only. The
foam caused by a large number of flues is apt to deceive
an inexperienced engineer, causing him to believe that
there is plenty of water in the boiler when he tries the
gauge cock, when there is but very little, often causing
an explosion. Some mill-owners insert a fusible plug
in the crown of the furnace to indicate danger from low
water. As common lead melts at 620°, a rivet of this
metal i inch in diameter, inserted immediately over
the fire place, will give due notice, so that relief may
be obtained before the internal pressure of the steam
exceeds that of the resisting power of the heated plates.
In France, an extensive use is made of fusible metal
plates, generally covered by a perforated metallic disc.

210

which protects the alloy of Which the plate is composed,
and allows it to ooze through as soon as the steam has
attained the temperature necessary to insure the fusion
of the plate, which varies from 280° to 350°. The
reader will find a number of such alloys under the
tabular view of alloys and their melting heats, further
on. Another method is the bursting plate, fixed in a
frame and attached to some convenient part of the up-
per side of the boiler, of such thickness and ductility
as to cause rupture when the pressure exceeds that on
the safety valve. But, beyond all question, constant
use should be made on all boilers of a good and reliable
system of steam gauges, glass tubes, gauge cocks,
safety valves, etc. By means of the glass tubes affixed
to the fronts of the boilers, the height of the water
within the boiler is indicated at once, for the water will
stand at the same height in the tube that it stands in
the boiler, communication being established with the
water below and the steam above, by means of stop
cocks.

When dry steam is an object, the use of the steam
dome on boilers is strongly recommended ; opinions
are divided as to the real value of mud drums, some
reason strongly in their favor while others discard
them entirely ; but there can be no question as to the
true economy of heating the feed water previous to
emission into the boiler; it should always be done
when practicable to do so, by means of some one of
the many contrivances for that purpose which are now
in the market. Regarding the power of boilers, it may
be stated that a boiler 30 feet long and 3 feet in diam-
eter, will afford 30x3x3.14x2 — 141.30 square feet of
surface, or steam for 14 hors^-power, if 10 feet are
assumed for one horse-power. Two short boilers are
preferable to one long one, on account of having more
fire surface, — it being always necessary to have as
much fire surface as possible to make the best use of

211

the fuel — as the hotter the surface is kept, the less
fuel it takes to do the same amount of work. When
there is a large furnace it gives the fireman a better
chance to keep the steam regular, for when clearing
out one part of the furnace, he can keep a hot fire in
the other. For each horse-power of the engine there
ought to be at least one square foot of grate, and three
feet would be better. In setting a boiler, arrangement
should be made to carry on combustion with the
greatest possible heat. This requires good non-con-
ductors of heat, such as brick, with which to surround
the fire. If these bricks are of a white color, the com-
bustion is more perfect than if of a dark color. The
roof, as well as the sides of the furnace, should be of
white fire-brick. The bars of the furnace should be
1 8 or 20 inches below the boiler or crown of the fur-
nace. They should slope downward toward the back
part, about half an inch to the foot. A crack in a
boiler plate may be closed by boring holes in the
direction of the crack and inserting rivets with large
heads, so as to cover up the imperfection. If the top
of the furnace be bent down, from the boiler having
been accidentally allowed to get short of water, it may
be set up again by a screw-jack, a fire of wood having
been previously made beneath the injured plate ; but
it will in general be nearly as expeditious a course to
remove the plate and introduce a new one, and the re-
sult will be more satisfactory. There is one object
that requires very particular attention, and which must
be of a certain size to produce the best effect, and that
is the flue leading from the boiler to the chimney, as
well as the size and elevation of the chimney itself.
Every chimney should be built several/ feet above the
mill house, so that there is no obstructibn to break the
air from the top of the chimney. In England a factory
chimney suitable for a 20 horse-power boiler is com-
monly made about 20 inches square inside, and 80 1^^

212

high and these dimensions are correct for consumption
of 15 lbs. coal per horse-power per hour, a common
consumption for factory engines. In the dominion of
Canada and the United States, chimneys of sheet iron,
from 30 to 50 feet high, are in quite common use by
owners of saw, and other mills, and they seem to
answer every requirement.

DON'T DO THESE THINGS.

Don't open a cock or a valve under pressure, and
let steam into cold pipes suddenly. If you do there
will be a bill of repairs to pay, to say nothing of the
liability of killing or maiming someone for life. A
man was employed in a brewery cleaning barrels with
steam from the boiler. He opened the globe valve
suddenly and blew up the barrel, losing one arm by
his imprudence.

Don't suppose that a safety valve is going to think
for itself, and don't fancy it is all right because it was
tried last month, or last year, perhaps. Try the safety
valve daily, and examine it, so as to be sure that the
stem is not bent, or that the weight has not been
shifted by accident or design.

Don't omit to keep the water gauge in good order,
and be sure that the openings into the boiler, both
steam and water, are not stopped up partially by scale
or something lodged in them. Where the openings
are of different sizes the water level will not show
properly. Test the gauge by the gauge cocks, and be
sure that it is right.

Don't suppose that the boiler is all right internally
because it has never blown up yet. Get into it, and
see whether it is or not. The man-hole plate ought to
come off every week, and the engineer should satisfy
himself by inspection that the braces are all right.

213

Don't forget that the blow cock is a thief which is
very apt to run away with a great deal of coal unless
it is tight. It should not leak a drop.

Don*t be too liberal with oil or fat in the cylinder.
Some men are constantly slushing the cylinder with
grease, unider the impression that it makes the engine
run easier. After one or two revolutions all the grease
that does not cover the rolls of the cylinder is carried
out with the exhaust and scattered over the surround-
ing country. On a wooden roof this invites fire, and
on a metal roof it soon causes leak by corrosion, for
fatty acids are the most active of corrosiye agents.
Use sight feed cups in preference to any other agents;
they not only save attendance, but they feed oil as it
is needed — drop by drop.

Do not start up an engine in the morning under
full head, or you will have a cylinder head or some
joints blown out.

WCICHT OF wnoucHT moN.

Thkk-

Sq.FL

F£

Rd. B.r

Thjck-

Sq. Ft.

WeiKkt

BTS,,

inchcii.

Poonds

pQUPds

IllcbM,

Pound.

PODDds

Poandi.

1.263

.0033

.0026

37.89

2.960

2.325

2.o:!6

.1)132

.0104

40.42

3.368

2.645

3.789

.029S

.0233

42.&4

3.803

2.986

3.052

.0526

.0414

45.47

4.263

3.S48

6.315

.0823

.0646

48.00

4.750

3.730

7.578

.1184

.0930

60.52

5.L63

4.13S

8.841

.1612

.1266

53.05

5.802

4.667

10.10

.2105

.1653

55.57

6.368

5.001

11.37

.2665

.2093

68.10

6.960

5.466

12.63

.3290

.2583

60.63

7.578

6.652

13.89

.3980

.3126

65.68

8.893

6.985

15.16

.4736

.3720

70.73

10.31

8.101

Ki.42

.5.558

.4365

76.78

11.84

9.300

17.68

.'H46

.5063

80.83

13.47

10.58

18.95

.7400

.5813

85.89

15 21

11.95

20,21

.8420

.6613

90.04

17.06

13.39

22.73

1.066

.8370

9.i.09

19.00

14.92

26.26

1.316

1.033

101.0

21.06

16.63

27.79

1.592

1.250

106.1

23.21

18.23

30.31

1.895

1.488

111.2

25.47

20.01

32.84

2.223

1.746

116.2

27.84

21.87

30..17

2.579

2.025

121.3

30.31

23.81

Flat bars may be estimated by dividing the size by
a square number ; as, one-quarter inch by one inch.
One-fourth that of one inch square.

To Test Qualitvof Iron. — If fracture gives long
.silky fibres of leaden-grey hue, fibres cohering and
twisting together before breaking, may be considered
a tough, soft iron. A medium, even grain mixed with
fibres a good sign. A short, blackish fibre indicates
badly refined iron. A very fine grain denotes a hard,
steely iron, apt to be cold-short, hard to work with the
file. Coarse grain with brilliant crystallized fracture,
yellow or brown spots, denotes a (^///ir iron, cold-short,
■^'Orking easily when heated ; welds easily. Cracks

tht edge of bars, sign of hot, short iron. Good

215

iron is readily heated soft, under the hammer, and
throws out but few sparks.

All iron contains more or less carbon — the hardest
the most.

Note on Forcings. — Iron, while heating, if ex-
posed to air, will oxidize ; while at white heat, if in
contact with coal, will carbonize, or become steely.
Iron should be heated as rapidly as possible.

Simple Method of Testing the Quality of
Steel. — Good steel, in its soft state, has a curved
fracture and uniform gray luster ; in its hard state, a
dull, silvery, uniform white. Cracks, threads, or spark-
ling particles denote bad quality.

Good steel will not bear a white heat without fall-
ing to pieces, and will crumble under the hammer at
a bright, red heat, while at a middling heat it may be
drawn out under the hammer to a fine point. Care
should be taken that before attempting to draw it out
to a point, the fracture is not concave, and should it
be so, the end should be filed to an obtuse point before
operating. Steel should be drawn out to a fine point
and plunged into cold water; the fractured point should
scratch glass.

To test its toughness, place a fragment on a block
of cast-iron ; if good, it may be driven by the blow of
a hammer into the cast-iron ; if poor, it will crush
under the blow.

Nitric acid will produce a black spot on steel ; the
darker the spot the harder the steel. Iron, on the
contrary, remains bright if touched with nitric acid.

216

TEMPERING STEEL.

Color.

Light

straw
Dark

straw
Brown

yellow
Dark
purple

Purpose.

Turning tools

for metal.
Wood tools,
taps & dies.
Hatchets,
Chip'g chis.

I Springs,

etc.

}
}

Tem.

Fah.
430°

470°

500°

550°

Alloy whose fusing^
point is same
temperature.

Tin Lead.
I to iji

I to 2}4

I to 4^

I to 12

Horse-power of Boilers. — With good natural
draft, flue boilers should have about 10 square feet of
heating surface for the evaporation of i cubic foot of
water per hour ; and this evaporation per hour may be
taken to represent i horse-power.

The coal required to effect this evaporation will
generally be about 8 pounds, and the grate surface
provided for the combustion of this amount of coal per
hour should be about half a square foot. Therefore,
for each horse-power that a flue boiler is expected to
develop economically, the following will be required :
10 square feet of heating surface.
J4 square foot of grate surface.
I cubic foot of water per hour.
8 lbs. of good coal per hour.

Tubular boilers should have 13 square feet of heat-
ing surface for each horse-power.

Boilers may be made to do more than double this
amount of work by the use of a forced draft, but at a
great waste of fuel, and increased danger, which should
be avoided as far as possible.

The strength of cylinder boilers is directly as their
thickness, and inversely as their diameter. That is,
if one of two boilers which have the same diameter is
twice as thick as the other, it is twice as strong. And

217

if one of two boilers, made of the same thickness, is
twice the diameter of the other, it is only half as strong.
1'able Giving Horsb-Powbr op Boilers the Foi.i,ow-

ing sizes.

Uh meter

Length

DiflDKte

Heating

Pal"'

Number

Surface.

IdrJics.

Tubes,

Square ft

Pressure,

■M

^70

1602

100

1472

i»8

112

1496

112

1400

1200

1148

1076

11)

1088

1020

962

884

951

900

736

832

780

728

676

624

683

684

642

600

565

513

542

495

^38-

608

476

441

408

390

46>

365

45 ,

320

45 \
45 ^

285

"•

24i

218

COMPARATIVE VALUE OP DIPPERENT KINDS OP

WOOD FOR FUEL.

The following table shows the weight of one cord
of various kinds of wood, dry, and their relative values
for fuel, red oak being taken as the standard :

KIND OF WOOD.

Red Oak,

Shell-bark Hickory, .
Chestnut White Oak,

White Oak,

White Ash,

White Beech,

Black Walnut,

Black Birch,

Yellow Oak,

Hard Maple,

White Elm,

Large Magnolia,

Soft Maple,

Soft Yellow Pine, . . . .

Sycamore,

Chestnut

White Birch,

Jersey Pine,

Pitch Pine

White Pine,

wciKni oi one
Cord in
pounds.

Relative mlue
for Fuel.

3,254

1.00

4,469

1.45

3,965

1.25

3,821

1.17

8,450

1.12

3,236

.9^

3,044

.91

3,116

2,919

2,878

2,692

.84

2,704

.81

2,668

.78

2,463

.78

2,391

.75

2,333

.75

2,369

.70

2,137

.70

1,904

.62

1,868

.61

Notes on Packing. — In packing :ods use only
the best packing, consisting of rubber elastic packing,
soapstone, asbestos. Hemp or lamp-wi/k well tallowed
makes a good packing. Many practice the plan of cut-
ting up strips of old rubber belting &r packing. Such
stuff will ruin machinery. The xabber consists of
substitutes that stand no heat and crumble or parch,
heating and cutting the rod. Renove all old packing
from stuflSng boxes and do not se'up new packing too
tight.

Joints should be packed eitler with wire gauge,
packing gum, sheet copper or i lead joint. The latter

219

is necessary in connecting boilers and engine together
where a close, flat fit cannot always be had. In such
cases it is best to cut a ring from a piece of rubber belt-
ing exact size of pipe inside, about one-half wide;
place this ring in the centre of joint, measuring equally
from edge of flange, then tighten suflSciently to be cer-
tain that it forms an air-tight joint ; then plaster out-
side of flanges with stiff clay, or tie a strap tightly
around, leaving a hole for pouring metal ; then plaster
the outside and a neat joint will be run. Pour lead
and tighten bolts as steam rises and you have a joint
that can be relied upon. Steam drums that are bolted
instead of riveted must have such joints.

Joints that must be broken often should be of sheet
copper, which can be broken as often as desired and
will maintain a good joint.

Man-heads to boilers often give much trouble, ow-
ing to irregularities. By using a lead ring, a good joint
is had and may be broken as often as desired, but should
be well tallowed. Hemp plaited, well white-leaded,
will answer for a short while, but must be replaced
when broken if very old.

Fii^ES AND Their Use. — To choose a flat file, turn
its edge upward and look along it, selecting one which
has an even sweep from end to end, and having no flat
places or hollows. To choose a half-round file, turn
the edge upward, look along it and select that which
has an even sweep and no flat or hollow places on the
half-round side, even though it be hollow in the length
of the flat side.

In draw-filing, take short, quick strokes, which
will prevent the file from pinning and scratching. lyong
strokes, no matter how long the work may be, are
useless save to make scratches. Remember it is less
the number of strokes given the file than the weight
placed upon it that is effective ; therefore, when using
a rough file, stand suflSciently away from the work to

220

bring the weight of the body upon the forward stroke.
New files should be used at first upon broad surfaces,
since narrow edges are apt to break the teeth if they
have the fibrous edges oinwom.

For brass work use the file on a broad surface until
its teeth are dulled, then make two or three strokes of
the file under a heavy pressure upon the edge of a
piece of sheet iron, which will break off the dulled
edges of the teeth, and leave a new fibrous edge for
brass work.

Use bastard-cut files to take off a quantity of metal
of ordinary hardness ; second-cut in fitting, and also
to file unusually hard metal ; smoothing to finish in
final adjustment or preparatory to applying emery
cloth ; dead smooth, to finish very fine work ; float file
on lathe work.

To prevent files from pinning, and hence from
scratching, properly clean them, and then chalk them
well.

To Test Hard and Soft Water. — Dissolve a little
good soap in alcohol and let a few drops fall into a
glass of water. If the water is hard it will turn milky;
if soft, it will not.

Ingenious Way of Cooi^ing a Journai.. — Quite
an ingenious way of cooling a journal that cannot be
stopped is to hang a short endless belt on the shaft
next to the box and let the lower part of it run in cold
water. The turning of the shaft carries the belt slowly
around, bringing fresh cold water continually in con-
tact with the heated shaft, and without spilling or
spattering a drop of water.

Cement for Iron that wili. resist Hammer
Blows. — ^The following mixture has been used with
the greatest possible success for the cementing of iron
railing tops, iron gratings to stoves, etc., in fact, with
such effect as to resist the blows of a sledge hammer.

221

This mixture is composed of equal parts of sulphur
and whitelead, with about one-sixth proportion of
borax, the three being thoroughly incorporated to-
gether, so as to form one homogeneous mass. When
the application is to be made of this composition, it is
wet with strong sulphuric acid, and a thin layer of it
is placed between the two pieces of iron, these being
at once pressed together. In five days it will be per-
fectly dry, all traces of the cement having vanished,
and the work having every appearance of welding.

To Make a Cheap Telephone.— To make a ser-
viceable telephone from one house to another only re-
quires enough wire and two cigar boxes. First, select
your boxes, and make a hole half an inch in diameter
in the centre of the bottom of each, and then place one
in each of the houses )rou wish to connect ; then get
five pounds of common iron stove-pipe wire, make a
loop in one end and put it through the hole in your
cigar box and fasten it with a nail ; then draw it tight
to the other box, supporting it when necessary with a
stout cord.

You can easily run your line into the house by bor-
ing a hole through the glass. Support your boxes with
slats nailed across the window and your. telephone is
complete. The writer has one that is two hundred
yards long, and cost forty-five cents, that will carry
music when the organ is plajdng thirty feet away in
another room.

Showing the number of days from a given day

in any month to the same day in

any other month.

1 .^

■g

J
£

366

120

161

181

212

243

273

30J

334

365

59
31

120

150

I8t

212

242

273

303

306

337

365

92,122

153

184

214

246

275

276

30H

,(34

306

i'22

153

183

214

244

246
214

276

304
273

335
304

365

fil

123

153

185

214

334

365

122

153

184

215

243

274

304

123

153

1^4

212

243

273

304I334

165

Rept8iuber_

153

181

212

242

273303

334

365

123
~B2

161

120

182
151

312

243 273
Jl«!242

304

335

365

273

304

334

365

December

121

151

82 212

243

274

304

335

J65

EXAMPLE.

To find the number of days from June i6tli to Oc-
tober i6th:—

In the left-hand column find June, Run your eye
along to the right until it reaches the column headed
October at the top. At the intersection of the two col-
umns you will find the answer, 122 days.

Short Methodof Calculating Interest. — Rule
— Multiply the principal by the number of days and
divide by 6. Point off three figures, and you have the

223

interest at 6 per cent, in dollars, cents and mills. Then
to obtain the interest at any other per cent., divide the
result obtained at 6 per cent, by 6, which will give the
interest at i per cent. Multiply the interest at i per
cent, by the rate desired, and you have the answer.

KXAMPLB.
Find the interest of |2i6 for 124 days, at 5 per cent.

|2l6

124

864

432
216

6) 26784 ,

6) $4,464 Interest on $216 for 124 days at 6 per cent.

.744 Interest on $216 for 124 days at i per cent

I3.720 Interest on $216 for 124 days at 5 per cent.

When fractions occur in dividing it is usual to ig-
nore them, as the result in such cases, while not abso-
lutely accurate to the fraction of a mill, is near enough
for all practical purposes.

The person who masters this simple rule thoroughly
has no occasion to resort to interest tables for the cal-
culation of interest.

PRACTICAL RECEIPTS FOR MACHINISTS AND

MILLMEN.

Anti-friction Metal. — Copper, 4 lbs.; regulus of
antimony, 8 lbs., Banca tin, 96 lbs. 2 Grain zinc, ^%
lbs.; purified zinc, 7^ lbs.; antimony, i lb. 3. Zinc,
17 parts; copper, i part; antimony, lyi parts. This
possesses unsurpassable anti-friction qualities, and does
not require the protection of outer castings of a harder
metal. 4. Block tin, 8 lbs.; antimony, 2 lbs.; copper.

224

I lb. If the metal be too hard, it may be softened by
adding some lead. 5. The best alloy for journal boxes
is composed of copper, 24 lbs.; tin, 24 lbs., and anti-
mony, 8 lbs. Melt the copper first, then add the tin,
and lastly the antimony. It should be first run into
ingots, then melted, and cast in the form required for
the boxes. 6. Melt in a crucible i j^ lbs. of copper,
and, while the copper is melting, melt in a ladle 25
lbs. of tin and 3 of antimony, nearly red hot, pour the
two together, and stir until nearly cool. This makes
the finest kind of lining metal. 7. Very cheap, Lead
100 lbs.; antimony, 15 lbs. This costs about 10 cents
per lb. 8. For Bearings to stcstain great weights. —
Copper, I lb.; zinc, J4 oz.; tin, 2j^ oz. 9. Hard bear-
ings for machinery. — Copper, i lb.; tin, 2 ozs. 10.
Very Hard ditto. — Copper, i lb.; tin, 2% ozs. 11. Lin-
ing Metal for boxes of Railway Cars. — Mix tin, 24 lbs.;
copper 4 lbs.; antimony, 8 lbs.; (for a hardening) then
add tin 72 lbs. 12. Li7iing Metal of Locomotives^ Axle
trees. — Copper, 86.03.; tin, 13.97. 13. Another, French.
— Copper, 82 parts ; tin, 10 parts ; zinc, 8 parts. 14.
Another, [Stephenson' s^. — Copper, 79 parts; tin, 8 parts;
zinc, 5 parts ; lead, 8 parts. 15. Another {Belgian). —
Copper, 89.02, parts; tin, 2.44 parts; zinc, 7.76 parts;
iron, 0.78. 16. Another {English). — Copper, 73.96 parts;
tin, 9.49 parts ; zinc, 9.03 parts ; lead, 7.09 parts ; iron,
0.43 parts. 17. Another. — Copper, 90.06 parts; tin, 3.56
parts; zinc, 6.38. oi Nickel Anti-friction Metcil. — A late
improvement in the manufacture of anti-friction metal
is the introduction of a small percentage of nickel into
either of the above, or any other anti-friction composi-
tion.

Brazing Cast-iron. — There are two ways of join-
ing cast-iron. i. Fit the broken pieces exactly together
in moulding sand and pour melted iron over the parts
to be joined. When cold, chip oflf the superfluous metal
and you will have a joint scarcely to be detected. 2.

225

Well tin the parts to be joined, fit together in sand as
above, and pour melted brass over them.

To Bend Glass Tubes. — Hold the tube in the up-
per part of the flame of a spirit-lamp, revolving it
slowly between the fingers ; when red hot it may be
easily bent into any desired shape. To soften large
tubes a lamp with a double current of air should be
used, as it gives a much stronger heat than the simple
lamp.

Tempering Points of Tools. — After being tem-
pered the volume of the tool is slightly increased, and
consequently its specific gravity is decreased. As the
expansion, or increase, of volume is so very slight, it
is quite immaterial which is plunged into the liquid
first ; however, every moment the edge is kept out it
is cooling, and the tempering may be rendered defec-
tive thereby. Mercury tempers the hardest, then water,
then salt water, then oil of various kinds — as whale oil.
As oil cools the metal more slowly, it is not tempered
so hard but the tenacity is increased.

The United States Government Tempering
Secret. — The following process and mixtures, patented
by Garman and Siegfried, and owned by the Steel Re-
fining and Tempering Co., of Boston, Mass., cost the
U. S. Government $10,000 for the right of using in
their shops, and is said to impart extraordinary hard-
ness and durability to the poorest kinds of steel. Seig-
fried*s specification reads as follows : '' I first heat the
steel to a cherry red in a clean smith's fire, and then
cover the steel with chloride of sodium (common salt),
purifying the fire also by throwing in salt. I work the
steel in this condition, and while subjected to this treat-
ment, until it is brought into nearly its finished form.
I then substitute for the salt a compound composed of
the following ingredients, and in about the following
proportions : One part by weight of each of the follo'w-

226

ing substances : chloride of sodium (salt), sulphate of
copper, sal-ammoniac, and sal-soda, together with ^
part by weight of pure nitrate of potassa (salt-petre),
said ingredients being pulverized and mixed ; I alter-
nately heat the steel and treat it by covering with this
mixture and hammering it until it is thoroughly re-
fined and brought into its finished form. 1 then return
it to the fire and heat it slowly to a cherry red, and
then plunge it into a bath composed of the following
ingredients, in substantially the following proportions
for the required quantity : Of rain water, i gal.; alum,
sal-soda, sulphate of copper, of each 1% ozs.; of nitrate
of potassa (salt-petre), i oz., and of chloride of sotdium
(salt), 6 ozs. These quantities and proportions are
stated as being what I regard as practically the best, but
it is manifest that they may be slightly changed with-
out departing from the principles of my invention.*'

Cement to Mend Leaky Boilers. — Powdered
litharge, 2 parts ; very fine sand, 2 parts ; slaked quick
lime, I part. Mix all together. To use, mix the proper
quantity with boiled linseed oil and apply quick. It
gets hard very soon.

Strong Cement for St^am Joints. — Whitelead
ground in oil, 10 parts ; black oxide of manganese, 3
parts; litharge, i part. Reduce to the proper consist-
ency with boiled linseed oil and apply.

Cement for Holes or Cracks. — Redlead ground
in oil, 6 parts ; whitelead, 3 parts ; oxide of manganese,
2 parts ; silicate of soda, i part ; litharge, J^ part, all
mixed and used as putty.

Rust Joint, Quick Setting. — Sal ammoniac pul-
verized, I lb.; flour of sulphur, 2 lbs.; iron borings, 80
lbs. ; mix to a paste with water in quantities as required
for immediate use.

Quick Setting Joins Better Than the Last,
BUT Requires More Time to Set. — Sal ammonia, 2
lbs.; sulphur, i lb.; iron filings, 206 lbs.

227

Air ANt) Water-tight Cement for Casks and
Cisterns. — Melted glue, 8 parts ; linseed oil, 4 parts ;
boiled into a varnish with litharge ; hardens in 48 hours.

Marine Gi^ue. — India rubber, i part; coal tar, 12
parts ; heat gently, mix, and add 20 parts of powdered
shellac, pour out to cool ; when used, heat to about 250°.

Another Ditto. — Glue, 12 parts; water, sufificient
to dissolve, add yellow resin, 3 parts, melt, then add
turpentine, 4 parts ; mix thoroughly together.

Cement for External Use. — Ashes, 2 parts;
clay, 3 parts ; sand, i part; mi^ with a little oil, very
durable.

Cement to Resist Red Heat and Boiling Wa-
ter. — To 4 or 5 parts of clay, thoroughly dried and
pulverized, add 2 parts of fine iron filings free from
oxide, I part of peroxyde of manganese, i part of com-
mon salt, and j^ part of borax. Mingle thoroughly,
render as fine as possible, then reduce to thick paste
with the necessary quantity of water, mixing well, use
immediately, and apply heat, gradually increasing
almost to a white heat.

Cement to Join Sections of Cast-Iron Wheels,
ETC. — Make a paste of pure oxide of lead, litharge and
concentrated glycerine. Unrivalled for fastening stone
to stone or iron to iron.

Varnish for Boilers. — Asphaltum dissolved in
turpentine.

Soft Cement for Steam-boilers, Steam-pipes,
ETC. — Red or whitelead, in oil, 4 parts; iron borings 2
to 3 parts.

Hard Cement. — Iron borings in salt water and a
small quantity of sal ammoniac with fresh water.

Gasfitters' Cement. — Mix together resin, 4^
parts, wax, i part, and Venetian red, 3 parts.

Plumbers' Cement. — Black resin, i part; brick
dust, 2 parts ; well incorporated by a melting heat.

228

Coppersmiths' Cement. — Boiled linseed oil and
redlead mixed together into a putty, are often used by
coppersmiths and engineers to secure joints ; the wash-
ers of leather or cloth are smeared with this mixture
in a pasty state.

Compositions to Fill Holes in Castings.—
Mix I part, of borax in solution with 4 parts dry clay.
Another, — Pulverized binoxide of manganese, mixed
with a strong solution of silicate of soda (water clay)
to form a thick paste.

Cast-iron Cement. — Clean borings or turnings of
cast-iron, 16 parts; sal ammoniac, 2 parts; flour of sul-
phur, I part ; mix them well together in a mortar, and
keep them dry. When required for use, take of the
mixture, i part ; clean borings, 20 parts; mix thoroughly,
and add a suflScient quantity of water. A little grind-
stone dust added improves the cement.

Cement for Steam-pipe Joints, etc.,with Faced
Flanges. — Whitelead, mixed, 2 parts; redlead, dry,
I part ; grind, or otherwise mix them to a consistence
of thin putty ; apply interposed layers with i or 2 thick-
nesses of canvas or gauze wire, as the necessity of the
case may be.

Cement for Joints of Iron Pipes or Holes in
Castings. — Take of iron borings, coarsely powdered,
5 lbs.; of powdered sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; of sulphur, i
oz., and water suflScient to moisten it. This composi-
tion hardens rapidly, but, if time can be allowed, it
sets more firmly without the sulphur. Use as soon as
mixed, and ram tightly into the joints or holes.

Best Cement for Aquaria. — One part, by meas-
ure, say a gill, of litharge ; i gill of plaster of Paris; i
gill of drj', white sand ; \ a gill of finely powdered resin.
Sift and keep corked tight until required for use, when
it is to be made into a putt>' by mixing in boiled oil
(linseed) with a little patent drier added. Never use it
after it has been mixed (that is, with the oil) over fif-

229

teen hours. This cement can be used for marine as
well as fresh water aquaria, as it resists the action of
salt water. The tank can be used immediately, but it
is best to give it three or four hours to dry.

Another. — Mix equal quantities of any whitelead
and redlead to a paste with mastic varnish and use as
soon as mixed.

Cement forBel,ting. — Wdferproof— Dissolve gutta
percha in bisulphide of carbon to the consistence of
molasses, slice down and thin the ends to be united,
warm the parts and apply the cement, then hammer
lightly on a smooth anvil, or submit the parts to heavy
pressure.

To Repair IvEakages in Fire Engine Hose. —
Pass a round bar of iron into the hose under the leak,
then rivet on a patch of leather, previously coated with
marine glue.

To Repair Rubber Hose. — Cut the hose apart
where it is defective ; obtain from any gasfitter a piece
of iron pipe 2 or 3 inches long, twist the hose over it
until the ends meet, wrap with strong twine, well
waxed, and it will last a long time.

PoRTABi^E Glue for Draughtsmen. — Glue, 5
ozs.; sugar, 2 ozs.; water, 8 ozs. ; melt in a water bath,
cast it in molds. For use, dissolve in warm water.

Cementing Emery to Wood. — Melt together
equal parts of shellac, white resin and carbolic acid in
crystals ; add the last after the others are melted.

To Coat Iron with Emery. — Give the iron a
good coat of oil and whitelead ; when this gets hdrd
and dry, apply a mixture of glue and emery.

To Clean Cotton Waste. — Pack the waste in a
tin cylinder with a perforated false bottom and tube
with stop-cock at bottom. Pour on the waste bisul-
phide of carbon sufificient to cover, and allow to soak
a few minutes ; then add more bisulphide, and so on
for a time or two, and then squeeze out. By sli3a?^\&

230

distillation the whole of the bisulphide, or nearly all,
can easily be recovered and so be used over again.
This will free the cotton completely from grease.

French Putty. — Seven pounds linseed oil and 4
lbs. brown umber are boiled for two hours, and 62
grammes wax stirred in. After removal from the fire
S/4 lbs. fine chalk and 11 lbs. whitelead are added and
thoroughly incorporated ; said to be very hard and per-
manent.

To Mknd Cracked Cast-Iron Vessels. — Drill a
hole at each extreme end of the crack, to prevent its
further extension, plug rivet the holes with copper,
and, with fine iron filings saturated with urine, caulk
the crack. Four parts of pulverized clay and one part
of iron filings made into a paste with boiling linseed oil
and applied hot is a good cement for the same purpose.

To Prevent Iron Rusting. — Give it a coat of
linseed oil and whiting, mixed together in the form of
a paste. It is easily removed and will preserve iron
from rusting for years.

Glue for Labelling on Metals. — Boiling
water, i qt. ; pulverized borax, 2 ozs. ; gum shellac, 4
ozs. Boil till dissolved. Used for attaching labels to
metals, or it will do to write inscriptions with, and
dust or dab on a little bronze powder over it, varnish-
ing over the bronze.

Cement for Petroleum Lamps. — Boil 3 parts of
resin with i part of caustic soda and 5 of water. The
composition is then mixed with half its -weight of
plaster of Paris, and sets firmly in J^ to J^ of an hour.
It is of great adhesive power, not permeable to petro-
leum, a low conductor of heat, and but superficially at-
tacked by hot water.

For Lute, or cement for closing joints of appa-
ratus, mix Paris plaster with water to a soft paste, and
apply it at once. It bears nearly a red heat. To ren-
der it impervious, rub it over with wax and oil.

281

Roman Cement. — Slaked lime, i bush.; green cop-
peras, 2>% lbs. ; fine gravel sand, % bush. Dissolve
the copperas in hot water, and mix all together to the
proper consistency for use ; use the day it is mixed
and keep stirring it with a stick while in use.

ViCAT's Hydraui^ic Cement is prepared by stir-
ring into water a mixture of 4 parts chalk and i part
clay ; mix with a vertical wheel in a circular trough,
letting it run out in a large receiver. A deposit soon
takes place which is formed into small bricks, which
after being dried in the sun, are moderately calcined.
It enlarges about f when mixed with water.

Glue to Resist Moisture. —Glue, 5 parts; resin,
4 parts; red ochre, 2 parts; mix with the smallest pos-
sible quantity of water.

Cement to Fasten Leather on Top Rollers.
— Gum Arabic, 2^ ozs.; isinglass 2% ozs. ; dissolve
each separately in water and mix.

Parchment Glue. — Parchment shavings, i lb ;
water, 6 qts. Boil till dissolved, strain and evaporate
to right consistence.

To Attach Glass or Metal Letters to Plate
Glass. — Copal varnish, 15 parts; drying oil, 5 parts;
turpentine, 3 parts ; oil of turpentine, 2 parts ; lique-
fied glue, 5 parts. Melt in a water bath and add 10
parts of slaked lime.

Turners' Cement. — Beeswax, i oz.; resin, % oz.;
pitch, % oz. ; melt, and stir in fine brickdust.

Bank Note Glue. — Dissolve i lb. of fine glue or
gelatine in water; evaporate it till most of the water
is expelled ; add ]4 lb. of brown sugar, and pour it
into moulds.

Cement for Electrical Machines and Gal-
vanic Troughs. — Melt together 5 lbs. of resin and i
lb. of beeswax, and stir in i lb. of red ochre (highly
dried and still warm) and 4 oz. of plaster of Paris,
continuing the heat a little above 212°, and stitrvoL^

232 N

constantly till all frothing ceases, or (^for troughs)
rosin, 6 lbs. ; dried red ochre, i lb. ; calcined plaster of
Paris, j^ lb. ; linseed oil, ^ lb.

Architectural Cement — i. Reduce paper to a
smooth paste by boiling it in water; then add an equal
weight of sifted v/hiting and good size ; boil to a prop-
er consistence. 2. Paper paste and size, equal parts;
finely powdered plaster of Paris to make it of a proper
consistence. Use it as soon as mixed. Can be used
in making architectural busts, statues, columns, etc.
It is light, receives a good polish, but will not stand
water.

Alabaster Cement — i. Finely powdered plaster
of Paris, made into a paste with water. 2. Melt yellow
rosin, or equal parts yellow rosin and beeswax, then
stir in half as much finely powdered plaster of Paris.
The first is used to join and fit together pieces of ala-
baster or marble, or to mend broken plaster figures.
The second is to join alabaster, marble, and other
similar substances that will bear being heated.

French Cement for Rooms. — A coat of oxide cJf
zinc, mixed with size, made up like a wash, is first laid
on the wall, ceiling, or wainscot, and over that a coat
of chloride of zinc applied, prepared in the same way
as the first wash. The oxide and chloride efiect an
immediate combination, and form a kind of cement,
smooth and polished as glass, and said to be superior
to plaster of Paris for coating the walls of rooms.

Cement* for Cloth or IvEATher. — ^Take ale, i
pt. ; best Russia isinglass, 2 ozs. ; put them into a
common glue kettle and boil until the isinglass is dis-
solved ; then add 4 ozs. of the best common glue, and
dissolve it with the other ; then slowly add i ^ ozs. of
boiled linseed oil, stirring all the time while adding,
and until well mixed. When cold it appears like In-
dia rubber. To use, dissolve what you need in a suit-
able quantity of ale to have the consistence of thick

233

glue. It is applicable for earthenware, china, glass, or
leather ; for harness, belts for machinery, cloth belts
for cracker machines for bakers, etc. If for leather,
shave off as if for sewing, apply the cement with a
brush while hot, laying a weight to keep the joint
firmly pressed for 6 to lo hours, or over night.

Cutlers' Ckment. — Black rosin, 4 lbs. ; beeswax,
I lb. ; melt together and add i lb. finely powdered and
dried brickdust. Used for fastening knives and forks
in their handles when they become loosened by use.

Cement for Fastening Fibrous Materials to
Metals. — This can be effected by dissolving glue in
vinegar by heat and adding one-third of its volume of
white pine pitch, also hot.

Good Paste that will Keep a Year. — Dis-
solve a teaspoonful of alum in a quart of warm water.
When cold, stir in as much flour as will bring it to the
consistence of cream, being particular to break up all
the lumps ; next, place it on the fire and allow it to
cook gently for a few minutes, stirring well mean-
while ; add 2 teaspoonfuls of corrosive sublimate, a
few drops of carbolic acid, and a teaspoonful of oil of
rosemary, or cloves, or lavender, or any oth^r essen-
tial oil, stirring in well. This paste will keep for any
length of time in prime condition.

Mucilage. — Put 3 ozs. of gum arabic in an earth-
en-ware vessel containing J^ pt. of cold water. If the
liquid is occasionally stirred, the gum in 24 hours will
be dissolved and ready for use.

Cement to Fasten Rubber to Wood or Metal.
— Soak pulverized gum shellac in 10 times its weight
of ammonia ; in 3 or 4 weeks a slimy mass is obtained
which will become liquid without the use of hot water ;
this softens the rubber, and becomes, after volatiliza-
tion of the ammonia, hard and impermeable to gases
and fluids whenever it is used on rubber connected to
wood or metal, as in steam, or other apparat\i*s.

284

IMPERISHABI.B Putty. — I^inseed oil, 7 lbs. ; brown
umber, 4 lbs. ; boil together two hours ; stir in 2 oz.
beeswax, remove from the fire, and mix in 5^^ lbs.
chalk and 1 1 lbs. white lead, mixing thoroughly.

Chbap G01.D Varnish for Ornamentai, Tin-
Ware. — Turpentine varnish, 2 gals.; turpentine, i
gal. ; asphaltum, i gill ; umber, 8 oz. ; yellow aniline,
4 oz. ; gamboge, i lb. Boil and mix for 10 hours.

SoldeAs, 32 KINDS. — I. Plumbers' Solder. — I^ead, 2
parts; tin, i part. 2. TinmerCs Solder, — Lead, i part;
tin, I part. Zinc Solder, — Tin, i part ; lead, i to 2
parts. 4. Pewter Solder, — I^ead, i part; bismuth, i
to 2 parts. 5. Spelter Solder, — Equal parts copper and
zinc. 6. Pewterers' soft Solder, — Bismuth, 2 ; lead, 4;
tin, 3 parts. 7. Another, — Bismuth, i ; lead, i ; tin, 2
parts. 8. Another pewter Solder, — Tin, 2 parts ; lead,
I part. 9. — Glazier's Solder, — Tin, 3 parts ; lead, i
part. 10. Solder for Copper, — Copper, 10 parts ; zinc,
9 parts. II. Yellow Solder Jor Brass or Copper, — Cop-
per, 32 lbs. ; zinc, 29 lbs. ; tin, i lb. 12. Bra^s Solder,
— Copper, 61.25 parts; zinc, 38.75 parts. 13. Bra^s
Solder Yellow and easily Jusible, — Copper 45 ; zinc, 55
parts. 14. Brass Solder y white, — Copper, 57.41 parts;
tin, 14.60 parts ; zinc, 27.99 parts. 15. Another Solder
for Copper, — Tin, 2 parts ; lead, i part. When the
copper is thick, heat it by a naked fire ; if thin, use a
tinned copper tool. Use muriate or chloride of zinc,
as a flux. The same solder will be for irony cast-iron
or steel; if the pieces are thick, heat by a naked fire,
or immerse in the solder. 16. Blaxk Solder, — Copper,
2; zinc, 3; tin, 2 parts. 17. Another, — Sheet brass,
20 lbs. ; tin, 6 lbs.; zinc, i lb. 18. Cold Brazing with-
out Fire or Lamp. — Fluoric acid, i oz. ; oxy muriatic
acid, I oz. ; mix in a lead bottle. Put a chalk mark
each side where you want to braze. This mixture will
keep about six months in one bottle. 19. Cold Solder-
ing without Fire or Lamp, — Bismuth, % oz. ; quick-

235

silver, % oz.; block tin filings, i oz.; spirits salts, i
oz. ; all mixed together. 20. To Solder Iron to Steel
or either to Brass, — ^Tin, 3 parts; copper, 39^ parts;
zinc, 7^ parts. When applied in a molten state it
will firmly unite metals first named to each other.
21. Plumbers' Solder. — Bismuth, i ; lead, 5; tin, 3 parts;
is a first class composition. 22. White Solder for raised
Britannia Ware, — Tin, 100 lbs.; hardening, 8 lbs.; anti-
mony, 8 lbs. 23. Hardening for Britannia,— {^o be
mixed separately from the other ingredients). Copper,
2 lbs, ; tin, i lb. 24. Best soft Solder for cas^t Britannia
Ware, — Tin, 8 lbs.; lead, 5 lbs. 25. Bismuth Solder, —
Tin, i; lead, 3; bismuth, 3 parts. 26. Solder for
Brass that Tvill Stand Hammering, — Brass, 78.26 parts;
zinc, 17.41 parts; silver, 4.33 parts; add a little chloride
of potassium to your borax for a flux. 27. Solder for
Steel Joints, — Silver, 19 parts; copper, i part; brass,

2 parts. Melt all together. 28. Hard Solder, Copper,

3 parts ; zinc, i part. Melt together. 29. Solder for
Brass. — Copper, 3 parts; zinc, i part; with borax.

30. Solder for Copper, — Brass, 6 parts; zinc, i part;
tin, I part ; melt all together well, and pour out to cool.

31. Solder for Platina. — Gold with borax. ^2, Solder
for Iron. — The best solder for iron is good tough brass
with a little borax.

N. B. In soldering, the surfaces to be joined are
made perfectly clean and smooth, and then covered
with sal ammoniac, resin or other flux, the solder is
then applied, being melted on and smoothed over by
a tinned soldering iron.

Soldering Fluid. — Take 2 oz. muriatic acid; add
zinc till bubbles cease to rise; add % teaspoonful of
sal ammoniac.

Black Varnish for Coal Buckets. — Asphaltum,
I lb. ; lampblack, ^ lb. ; resin, }i lb. ; spirits of tur-
pentine, I qt. Dissolve the asphaltum and resin in
the turpentine, then rub up the lampblack wU.\\. Vvas^fc^

oil, only sufficient to form a paste, and mix with the
others. Apply with a brush.

SIZES OF TIN.WARE OF DIFFERENT KINDS.

{For Diamilirs, &e., ofCirclrs sie Tabitt) .

of bM

of top!

HeiK'l

■'4

inchu

Is
1

Inche.

Sf^

:—i \ 5;;

PJOT

r._.-.| ji.

6 qtfl

' ::::::;

PIE Pimfl

SHALL WiBH Bowl

Mine Stiuihbh,..

"■.■'.V.T.". M qi».
>" <i"

^«

?«

Mbasl'rbs for DruggiBls, Beer

IS:

. gal.

1 V £

Tin Cans -
Gallons.

-Size of Sheet, for from i to 100

15 " 30tiy4S " I

This includes all the laps, seams, etc., which will
be found sufficiently correct for all practical purposes.

237

Patent I^UBRiCATiNG Oii..-^ Water, i gal.; clean
tallow, 3 lbs.; palm oil, lo lbs.; common soda, ^ lb.
Heat the mixture to about 210° Fahr.; stir well until
it cools down to 70° Fahr., when it is fit for use.

To RENDER Wood Indestructible. — Robbins'
Process, The apparatus used consists of a retort or
still, which can be made of any size or form, in which
resin, coal tar, or other oleaginous substances, together
with water, are placed in order to subject them to the
heat. Fire being applied beneath the retort contain-
ing the coal tar, etc., oleaginous vapor commences to
rise, and passes out through a connecting pipe into a
large iron tank or chamber (which can also be built
of any size), containing the timber, etc., to be operated
upon. The heat acts at once upon the wood, causing
the sap to flow from every pore, which, rising in the
form of steam, condenses on the body of the chamber,
and discharges through an escape pipe in the lower
part. In this process a temperature of 212° to 250°
Fahr. is sufficient to remove the surface moisture from
the wood ; but after this the temperature should be
raised to 300° or more, in order to completely saturate
and permeate the body of the wood with the antiseptic
vapors and heavier products of the distillation. The
hot vapor coagulates the albumen of the wood, and
opens the pores, so that]a large portion of the oily prod-
uct or creosote is admitted ; the contraction resulting
from the cooling process hermetically seals them, and
decay seems to be almost impossible. There is a man-
hole in the retort, used to change or clean out the con-
tents ; and the wood chamber is furnished with doors
made perfectly tight. The whole operation is com-
pleted in less than one hour, rendering the wood proof
against rot, parasites, and the attacks of the Teredo
navilis or naval worm. German Ston^ Coating for
Wood. — Chalk, 40 parts ; resin, 50 parts ; linseed oil, 4
parts ; melt together. To this add one part of oxide.

of copper, afterwards i part of solphiiric acid ; add this
last careficdly ; apply with a brush.

ORILUMQ AMD BORING HOLES III CLASS AMD

To DRILL Hardened Steel. — Cover your steel
with melted beeswax, when coated and cold, make a
hole in the wax with a fine pointed nee<fle or other
article the size of hole you require, put a drop of strong
nitric acid upon it, after an hour rinse off, and apply
again ; it will gradually eat through.

Boring a Hole with a Boring Tool. — In boring
a hole with a boring tool, it is usually necessary to
drill the hole first, and too much care cannot be taken
in finishing. An iron gauge should be made first ; it
is usually made of a piece of sheet iron or wire. The
hole should then be drilled smaller than the size de-
sired, and then bored to the required size, and it is im-
possible to bore a hole perfect without taking two or
three light chips, mere scrapings with which to finish.
Holes, in this way, may be bored as nicely as they can
be reamed.

Boring Holes with Boring Arbor. — A boring
arbor is a shaft with a set in it, for the purpose of
boring holes of great length, and is designed to be used
in a lathe. In doing this properly, you must first see
if your lathe is set straight ; if not, adjust it. Having
done this, put the piece of work to be bored in the car-
riage of your lathe, pass your arbor through the hole
to be bored, and put it on the centres of your lathe.
Having done this, adjust your work true to the posi-
tion desired by measuring from the point of the tool,
continually turning round the arbor from side to side
of the piece to be bored, while you are bolting it to the
carriage, and measure until it is perfectly true. Hav-
ing done this, bore the hole, and take for the last chip
only a hundredth of an inch. This makes a true and

239

smooth hole. It is impossible to make a hole true with
any kind of a tool when you are cutting a large chip,
for the tool springs so that no dependence can be
placed upon it.

To MAKE A Boring Arbor and Tool that will
NOT Chatter. — Boring tools, when used in small
arbors, are always liable to chatter and make a rough
hole. To prevent this, the tool should be turned in a
lathe, while in its position in the arbor, upon the circle
of the size of the hole to be bored, and the bearing
lengthwise of the arbor, should be only as wide as the
feed of the lathe ; for if the bearing of a tool is on
the face, the more it will chatter.

Writing Inscriptions on Metals. — Take % lb.
of nitric acid and i oz. of muriatic acid. Mix, shake
well together, and it is ready for use. Cover the place
you wish to mark with melted beeswax ; when cold,
write your inscription plainly in the wax clear to the
metal with a sharp instrument ; then apply the mixed
acids with a feather, carefully filling each letter. I^et
it remain from i to lo minutes, according to appear-
ance desired ; then throw on water, which stops the
process, and remove the wax.

Drilling Cast-iron. — Carbolic acid will increase
cutting thirty per cent.

Drilling Glass. — Spirits of turpentine will en-
able a hole to be drilled in glass. Drill must be very
hard and used with little pressure. Another way is to
smear a coating of beeswax about one-eighth inch
thick, remove the size of hole wanted and pour in a
drop of melted lead. The hole will instantly drop out.

To^Cement Brass on Glass. — For cementing
brass on glass the following receipt is recommended
by Puscher: "Take resin soap, made by boiling i part
of caustic soda, 3 parts of colophonium (resin) in 5
parts of water, and kneading into it half the quantity
of plaster of Paris. This cement is useful for fasteQissL"^

240

the brass top on glass lamps, as it is very strong, is not
acted upon by petroleum, bears heat very well, and
hardens in one-half or three-quarters of an hour. By
substituting zinct white, whitelead, or air slacked lime
for plaster of Paris, it hardens more slowly. Water at-
tacks only the surface of this cement.

To Count thk Revolutions of a Shaft. — Sev-
eral rough-and-ready methods of ascertaining the num-
ber of revolutions of a shaft are known to engineers,
but the following one, suggested in the "Manufacturer
and Builder,*' by M. C. Meigs, of Washington, is so
simple, ingenious, and, when carefully conducted, so
accurate, that we are sure its reproduction here will
interest our mechanical readers.

A lead pencil is tied fast to the end of the shaft
whose revolutions are to be counted, in such a manner
that it shall describe a circle of convenient size for ob-
servation. If, now, a piece of paper be held lightly
against the pencil, the motion of the pencil will de-
scribe a circle on it. If, however, the paper be moved
backward and forward while the contact with the pencil
is maintained, the pencil will describe a series of loops
intersecting each other. By timing the period of con-
tact, and then counting the number of loops recorded
on the paper, the number of the revolutions of the shaft
will be given with close approximation to the truth.

Calculating Speed of a Shaft by Cancella-
tion .^The general rule for obtaining the speed of any
shaft that is driven by a series of pulleys or gears from
a shaft of known speed, is to multiply the known speed
by the diameter of all the drivers, and divide this prod-
uct by the product of all the diameters of the driven,
and the quotient will be the speed of the last shaft.
The quickest and easiest way to perform this operation
is to "put it in the form of a long fraction, with the drivers
for a numerator and the driven for a denominator, and
then shorten the work by cancellation. Thus, if we

241

had a shaft with a speed of i8o revolutions on which
was a 48 in. pulley driving an 18 in. pulley, and on the
shaft with this was a 32 in. pulley driving on to a 10
in. pulley, we would place the fraction in this form :

180 X 48 X 32

= i»536 Rev.

18 X 10
The 18 and 10 in the denominator will cancel the
180 and leave only the product of 48x32 = 1,536. The
slip of the belt would, in ordinary conditions, leave the
speed 1,500 revolutions. In the case of gears it is sim-
pler to use the number of teeth instead of the diame-
ters.

242

TABLE FOR CALCULATING HOR8E-POWER OF

ENGINES.

It will be seen that the horse-power at any speed
of piston can be had, while the ordinary rule is com-
puted from a given speed and steam pressure-

The following table of horse-power constants will
be found convenient in figuring the power of engines
with cylinders of from four inches in diameter to sixty
inches in diameter for one hundred feet of piston
speed a minute and one pound mean effective pressure.
To figure the horse-power multiply the constant in the
right hand column by the number of feet the piston
travels per minute, will give the horse-power constant
for the number of feet traveled, then multiply by the
pounds of mean effective pressure. The quotient will
be the indicated horse-power of the engine :

*^ ri

'd OS

*s fl

TS Oj

"v. a

'O ctf

O.J5

.rH

o.s

0) U

^ u

!2^ 4>

4-* dJ •

CO V «

Diam
cylin
inchc

ill M 9

a a^

CO Q.S

S2S

S&.2

4 ,

•038

.68475

5950

4>^

.048

.77075

6.432

.06

.85650

6.94

5>^

.072

•95175

7.462

.8550

1.15175

8.006

^yi

.10225

1.37050

8.566

.11650

1.60875

.13350

1.86550

.152

2.142

^yi

.172

2.436

.19250

2.746

.238

3.084

.288

3.436

•34150

3.808

.402

4.198

.466

4.606

.53275

5036

.609

5.482

248

Indicated horse-power for each pound average
pressure on a square inch, with different diameters of
cylinder, and one hundred feet of piston speed.

Engine Foundations. — ^There is not a detail in
engine construction and operation that merits greater
consideration, or is of greater importance to the suc-
cessful working of an engine than the foundation upon ■
which it stands, and too much care cannot be accorded it,
that it shall have ample spread, stiffness, unity and
adaptability to the movements and operation of the
parts which it supports. It should be so bonded and
tied that unequal settlement shall not take place, and
the height, weight and base should be of such propor-
tion that when the engine is in full operation there
shall be no swaying or twisting of the parts, no heat-
ing of the journals, no springing or tremor of the bed
arising for an unsuccessful transmission of the strains.
The higher the speed and revolution the stiffer and
more solid should be the foundation, and the greater
the base contact with the supporting earth. A good
foundation will often decrease the defects of a poor bed,
provided, of course, that such engine bed be properly
and thoroughly bolted to its foundation. When prop-
erly constructed and tied together the engine bed and
its foundation should be portions of one complete
whole, inseparable and undisturbed in their relation-
ship by the movements of the engine parts while at
their hardest work.

A good bottom of concrete of smooth upper sur-
face laid upon a rock or solid earth bottom, upon
which the main structure of brick is laid close and
jointed with first quality of cement, and the whole cap-
ped with one or more large blocks of stone jointed and
placed to suit the engine bed, and to distribute the
weight over as great an area as possible, constitutes the
best foundation. Where bricks are scarce the founda-

244

tion above the concrete may be all of stone, and the
larger the stone the better.

Ordinary rubble work is not to be relied upon, the
only capacity for retaining and uniting the structures
as a whole being contained in the cement. The irreg-
ular shape of the stones forming the rubble masonry
present, through their lack of contact with each other,
rather a precarious and unreliable bond, and the ce-
ment is too thinly laid to fix them permanently in their
position, in spite of the thrust and twist of engine
operation. It is far better to mould a complete founda-
tion of concrete, capping it, if possible, with the thick,
solid blocks already mentioned in connection with the
brick foundation. The foundation completed and
thoroughly set, the engine frame or bed may be placed
in position and lined up, and the joints filled and
packed with melted stdphur.

The actual nature of the soil or bottom upon which
the engine and foundation is to rest, whether it be wet,
soft and elastic, whether it be dry, sandy and solid, or
whether it be a rock bottom, to which the bed might
be immediately fastened with a mere leveling founda-
tion between, determines the nature, extent and scope
of the foundation, while the size, weight and power of
the engine determines its weight and bulk to prevent
vibration or tremor.

How TO Make a Pulley. — Many saw-mills are
very inconveniently located for access to foundry or
supply dealer ; besides, just what you want is seldom
in stock.

Pulleys up to thirty-six inches and over can be
easily made of two pieces of seasoned lumber, the
width being one-half the size of pulley, the thickness
being the width of face wanted. Cut each to a half
circle and with two bolts, one on each side of shaft,
cut the center so that it will lack one inch, or about

245

that, of coming together, care being taken to cut cen-
ter square and true, or pulley will not run true. Then
turn the rim off with a good rest, and you have a good,
well-balanced pulley, and being split can be put up
anywhere. For pulleys over six inches face two pieces
spiked or bolted together across the grain, and for
heavy service from four to six bolts should be used.
The face of pulley after being turned off true can be
covered with leather. I have used 16x36 pulley made
in this way. For extra heavy service, the split can be
set with key seat in shaft and babbitt metal run in so
as to cover bolts. This forms a key that iron would
do no good. The metal intersecting the bolts makes
a "grip" that's almost impossible to slip.

For E very-day use in the Engine-room. — The
average weight of anthracite coal is 93.5 pounds per
cubic foot.

Coke (loose) weighs 23 to 32 pounds per cubic foot.

Bituminous coal weighs, per heaped bushel, loose,
75 pounds ; one ton occupies 48 cubic feet.

Cast-iron weighs per cubic inch, .7604 pounds ; in
round numbers, one-fourth of a pound to the cubic
inch.

Cast-iron will expand and contract between the
extreme ranges of temperature in this country with
a force equal to 4^^ tons per square inch of surface
exposed.

Wrought iron expands and contracts between ex-
treme ranges of temperature equal to nine to one per
square inch of section.

One gallon, U. S. standard, contains 231 cubic
inches; weight of water in same, 8331 ; one cubic
foot contains 7.4805 gallons of water.

The velocity of steam, of atmospheric pressure,
flowing into a vacuum is 1,660 feet per second; into
air, 650 feet per second.

246

To find the pressure in square inches of a column
of water, multiply the height of the column in feet
by 434.

The proper safe-working load for wire rope is as
follows: One-half inch in diameter, i,ooo pounds;
five-eighths inch, 1,500 pounds; three-fourths inch,
3)500 pounds; one inch, 6,000 pounds. This is for
19 wires to the strand, hemp centers.

To find the diameter when the circumference is
known, multiply the circumference by 3,183.

To find the area of a triangle, multiply the base
by one-half of the height.

No. I wire gauge sheet-iron weighs 12^ pounds
per square foot; No. 2 iron, 12 pounds; No. 3 iron, 11
pounds; No. 4 iron, 10 pounds; No. 5 iron, 9 pounds;
No. 6 iron, S}( pounds; No. 7 iron, y}4 pounds; No.
8 iron, 7 pounds.

To find the lap required on a slide valve to cut oflF
steam at three-fourths stroke, multiply the stroke of
the valve in inches by .250; the product is the. lap in
terms of the stroke. To cut off at two-thirds stroke,
multiply by .289, lead not considered.

HOW TO SUCCEED IN LUMBER BUSINESS.

Run your mill for all it is worth. Keep machinery,
belts, etc., in order, and do not stop a minute, if possi-
ble. " Time is money," especially when a lot of men
are waiting for a small belt to be laced which the fore-
man should have done the night before.

The mill-man never succeeds who leaves his mill
with the whistle sound, unless he has a good, trusty
foreman. No business figures out so nice a profit as
the lumber business ; and how many do we see suc-
ceed.

Discard old, womout, second-hand machinery.
There is good second-hand machinery on the market.

247

but be a judge and know the reputation of those from
whom you buy.

Have your foreman (if yourself) at, the mill thirty
minutes before starting up, he first seeing that there will
be a good head of steam and plenty of water See
that all parts of the machinery are well oiled' saws
changed or sharpened. Have engine running at full
speed at the sound of the whistle and all hands ready.
A thousand feet of lumber will be cut before the
incompetent foreman has the mill started. At noon
the foreman's duty is to examine all belts and machin-
ery, and repair those that show weakness. Do not
take the chances, and probably stop one half hour,
to say nothing of some being hurt by broken belt, it
having wound around shaft, resulting in a damage of
fifty dollars and a stop of a day or so to replace shaft.
This may be to the extreme, but such cases have hap-
pened.

The dutiful foreman makes his regular rounds.
His ear is familiar with the right hum, and detects
the least defect. When mill shuts down at night that
part is repaired, if it takes one-half the. night. This
constitutes successful milling, and allows saw-milling
to work to figures.

If you have a good foreman, keep him. They
are the scarcest of all skill. He will save his wages
alone in the prevention of breakdowns and being equal
to the emergency in an accident by having every-
thing in its place and knowing where and just what
he can substitute. [Not what he wants, as that calls
for a machine shop order and a lay-up of the mill.]

248

SUPPI^EMBNT TO BAND-SAWS.

Well knowing that fracture is the principal evil in
the band-saw and about the only draw-back toward its
perfection, I have made it a particular study and ex-
perimented with diflferent shaped teeth, and I find that
this has considerable]to do with the saw cracking.

The very best steel should be used if a saw is made
to last any length of time. Good steel possesses more
carbon, which makes it tougher, so that such a saw re-
quires but little temper above the natural steel. Com-
mon steel is nearer like iron and has to be tempered much
higher, which the steel will not stand, bending and
straightening as fast as a band-saw travels.

Band-saws require a special kind of steel. Often
low-tempered saws of a fine quality steel soon crack.
Since the tooth edge of a saw cracks much quicker, it
is evident there is something wrong, and that is, the
saw does not bend normally but bends at the extrem-
ity of the throat of teeth. This bending in the same
place, especially if reduced to a slim, narrow space,
is bound to produce a crack. This is overcome by
slightly changing the edge of emery-wheel so that this
extremity of gullet is changed, which produces a new
bending place, thus relieving the steel at that particu-
lar place. Thick, heavy teeth tend to make this bend-
ing more acute, as shown at J^ of this engraving ; also
at^.

Ay B and C show teeth with square corners. Only
B produces a crack from this. A and G do not have
the comer at the extremity ; therefore saw will not
crack there, but as shown at the bottom of throat. D
shows a very good tooth, which by dressing the edge
of wheel can be changed similar to E, which changes
the bending as indicated by the cracks. F and G are
bad forms. H and K are good shaped teeth for

249

a band-saw. The bending strain is not confined to so
short a space and is easily changed, as there is a slight
difference between the teeth. Tooth 2 shows the bend-
ing strain at 3 and 4. If such a shape could be con-
veniently kept with plenty of hook, such a saw would

last well. Some filers run almost a straight tooth.
This wears the saw almost square across and keeps
bending almost in the same place. Plenty of hook wears
the tooth back, which changes that weak place. Some

250

Saw makers and filers contend that a saw to open in
center will crack in center. This cannot be tinless
in broad saws where the edges are slack. Saws crack
from two causes. Too much tension from its strain
and the bending over the wheels. A saw may be
open but little and crack. This is from the tension
being run too close to the edge. This is caused by the
miscellaneous use of the hammer on the anvil, that is,
removing high places and lumps near the edge.

The opening should be confined to within one to
one and one-half inches of the edge according to
width of saw. Straighten on a firm wooden slab or
block. It takes lighter blows, does not distort the
tension nor produce sharp lumps. In straightening
the edge, watch that the drop is right and not to near
edge.

Thk success of thk BiCND SAW lies prin-
cipally in a well fitted tooth, which can not be
studied to closely. Most saws have too many
teeth. Fewer teeth, short and shaped as 2, will ac-
complish better results in every way. A short tooth
will not tremble. Teeth that tremble loose their
corners, and cut irregular waves in lumber. 15 gauge
saw should have teeth 1^ apart, 14 gauge i^ apart ;
this is based on good swaying and filing. Tooth E.
is much longer than 2, but has not the dust room. The
shorter the tooth and straighter the throat the longer
the saw will last. Saws should be matched closely.
A crack at first is very short, but grows unless punched,
which should be deeply done with a center punch on
both sides. A crack }4 inch long amounts to but
little if punched. It soon extends an inch and the
life of the saw is gone.

What good fusing WII.1. do. — Will let a saw
run with less strain on the wheels. Does not
require so much tension in saw. Saw will not

251

dodge at the head of the cut, nor " snake " around
a knot or tough place. Will stand more feed without
shoving back on wheels. All this adds to the life of
the saw.

Poor fiung. — Saw will snake, necessitating more
strain and tension, which will crack it. Will slip on the
wheels and will heat.

Give saw plenty of set; a band saw cannot run
with limited set. Saw will drive back by being
clamped as it passes through the cut, having the mo-
tion of the carriage acting against it.

CrackKd saws. — By examining a crack it will show
to have begun at the extremity of the gullet which is the
point of the bending and strain of the cut. Tooth 2 shows
the strain distributed at 3 and 4, which will be more neu-
tral if slightly full as shown. A straight space will be
slightly weaker as at H, which by no means is a bad
tooth. Close teeth cannot be cut out as 2. They should
be i^ inches apart and more on a 14 gauge saw.
Owing to emery wheel passing quickly over throat of
teeth, extra precaution should be used. Use only the
best wheels. '

Facts worthy of notice about making a good
BRAZE. — Be sure that saw is no thicker at laps, or braze
will soon give away. Have saw clamped and irons
hot (to a good cherry red), apply acid between laps,
leaving the upper lap so as to spring up and down a
little. Apply solder and dilute again with acid that
the laps and solder be well covered. Apply irons
quickly, clamp instantly and you will have a good braze.
Both laps and solder must be absolutely clean, not a
touch of the finger. Use charcoal for heating irons,
which must be a trifle wider than the lap and square
to hold suflficient heat. All solder is not alike and a
good quality is often hard to get. Some will melt at
a cherry while another may require a bright cherry «

252

Some solder will not adhere if irons are only a trifle too
hot. Good quality will stand more heat and will not
go to dross. I mention this because I had trouble
with different grades of solder.

I mention the precaution from the fact that the
instructions laid down by sawmakers helps a filer but
little in this delicate work

J. H. Miner.

263

CONTENTS.

Part I.

Page.

Hammering circular saws 6

Hammering bench 7

A saw dished from the log 8

Laying oif a saw 9

Position of a dished saw 10

Taking out a blue spot 11

A twisted saw being too slack on rim ,. 14-15

Part II.

Tensioning circular saws 16

A stiflfsaw 17

A dished saw too open for speed 18-20

Tensioning a saw to suit the average mill 20-22

Where to open a saw 22

A twisted saw (unequal tension) ". 23

Changing a saw from right to left hand 25

Part III.

High speed and fast feed saws 26

Improved tensioning bench 27

Table of speed of saws 28

Tensioning and correcting unequal tension 29

Locating unequal tension 30-34

A tight and loose place 34-35

Gauging unequal tension 36

Action of centrifugal force 37

The drop from straight edge 88

Broken saws and what breaks them 39-44

Unequal tension." A deceiving saw 44-45

Unequal tension. A twisted saw 45-47

Band log saws ^ 47-51

Filing and swaging 51

Shape of teeth (See supplement) 52

Filing and setting 54-57

Hammering band saws 57

264

PAGB.

Tension — the drop from the straight edge 58-60

Hammering the edges straight 61

Straightening 62-65

Fractured saws, unequal tension (see supplement) 65-67

Brazing band saws 67-68

Speed of handsaws 69-70

Carriage and track 70

The latest authority on the fracture of band saws,

shape of teeth, hammering, etc., will be

found in supplement.

Part I.

Circular saws adapted to mills of small capacity,

filing, swagingand gumming 70-72

Right shaped tooth for hard and soft wood 72-76

Part II.

Teeth suited for mills of medium capacity 76-77

Part III.

Teeth for modern mills of largest capacity 78-79

Swaging saws. Improper use of the swage 80-81

Various shaped throats 82

Inserted teeth saws 83

Their advantage over the solid :.... 84-86

Shingle saws 86-87

Hammering 87-88

Tensioning 88

Hammering the collars 89

Filing and gumming 89

Various shapes of teeth 90

Lining shingle saws 91

Thin saws — a great saving demonstrated 92-94

Filing and setting with right shape tooth 94

Cutoif saws 94-96

Broke cut oif saws 96-97

Drag saws 97

Small rip and variety saws 97-98

Straightening and tensioning 98

Proper shape of teeth 99-100

265

Page.

Saws heating on rim 100

Saws heatingin center ; 101

Lining Saw 101-102

Truing a saw on mandrel 102-103

Turning up saw collars 103-104

Care of saw mandrel 104-105

A hot mandrel 105-106

MILL BUILDING.

Small and portable mills 107-109

Mills of medium capacity 109-111

Modern mills 111-114

Sawing logs to best advantage .:.. 115

Sowing crooked logs so as to make straight lum-
ber 117-119

Quarter sawing 119-121

Quarter sawing flooring 121-122

Piling lumber to prevent warping 122-123

Grading and classifying all kinds of lumber

for market 124-133

Slipshod methods of manufacturing lumber 133-134

Care of hard wood lumber 135-143

Warpage and shrinkage of lumber 143-144

When to cut valuable timber 144

Dry-rot in timber 144-146

Seasoning and weight of woods 146-147

How to be a successful sawyer 147-151

Calculating a log for sawing 151-152

Short method of calculating lumber by can-
celation 153-155

How to successfully run a planer 155-158

What causes wavy work 158

Speed and feed 159

Matching 159-160

Setting knives 160

Babbitting cylinder 160-161

Building a planing-mill, how to arrange 161-163

Log tables, various rules 164-166

256

PAGE.

Table board measure 167

Care of belting 167-168

Selecting 168-169

Belt fasteners and lacing 169-172

Notes on belting 172-176

Horse-power of belting 176-177

Length of, and weight of belting. 177

Notes on shafting 177

Table of transmission 178-179

Pulleys 180

Circumference of circles 181-182

Strength and tension of iron 183

Weight and strength of chains 183-184

Transmission of power by wire rope 185

Strength of ropes 186

Practical considerations on belts and pulleys 186-188

Precaution to Engineers and Firemen 188-190

Hints to Engineers 191-193

Rules adopted by The Hartford Steam Boiler In-
spection and Insurance Company 194-197

Testing steam boilers 197

Scale and corrosion 197-199

Setting up pumps 199-200

Getting up steam on boilers. Precaution 200-205

Preventing boiler scale 205-207

Form and strength of boilers 207-212

Things that must not be done 212-213

Weight of wrought-iron 214

Quality of iron and steel 214-215

Tempering steel 216

Table of horse-power of boilers 217

Value of different woods for fuel 218

For every-day reference, receipts, etc 218-223

Practical receipts for Machinists and Mill men,

solders, cements, glue, etc. of all kinds 223

To render wood indestructable 237

Drilling and boring holes in glass and metal 238-240

207

PAGE.

Counting the speed of a shaft 240

Speed of shaft by cancelation 240-241

Table of horse-power of engines 242

Engine foundations 243-245

For every-day use in the engine room 245-246

How to suceed in the lumber business 246-247

Supplement to band-saws, cracked saws, good and

bad filing, brazing, etc 248

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