GIFT OF
IV-
PETER PARLEY'S LITTLE LIBRARY.
This series of entertaining and useful Books is designed for Children.
They will be elegantly printed, and handsomely illustrated by Engra-
vings. They will consist either of Biographical Tales and Adventures,
of an authentic character, or lively and amusing descriptions and illus-
trations of the Arts of Life. They will be by different writers, but the
selection of the works, and the general superintendence of their publica-
tion, will be committed to the Author of Peter Parley's Tales. The
following are among the works which will belong to the series.
1. THE ADVENTURES OF CAPT. JAMES RILEY, IN
AFRICA.
2. THE STORY OF JOHN R. JEWETT, the Captive of Nootka
Sound.
3. THE SHIP, or entertaining descriptions of the Structure and Use
of a Ship, with Stories of Sea Adventures, and a History of the art of
Navigation.
4. THE STORY OF LA PEROUSE, and an account of the voy-
ages made to discover his fate.
5. THE FARM, or a new account of rural scenes, with the toils,
pleasures, and pursuits of Farming. By J. Taylor.
6. STORY OF ALEXANDER SELKIRK, who inhabited a soli,
tary island, alone, for several years.
7. THE MINE, an entertaining account of Mines and Minerals.
8. THE GARDEN, or the art of laying out and cultivating it.
i^=- These works are prepareji with the view of rendering them at-
tractive to children, and amusing to all classes of youthful readers ; at
the same time they are calculated to impart knowledge of a useful kind.
THE PARENT'S PRESENT, edited by the author of Peter Par-
ley's Tales.
f^* This work is very neatly printed, and is designed as a Christmas
or New Year's present, for parents to their children.
PETER PARLEY'S PICTURE BOOK, with 38 beautiful Engra-
vings.
PETER PARLEY'S SPELLING BOOK, with 175 Engravings.
PETER PARLEY'S BOOK OF FABLES, with fine Cuts.
PETER PARLEY'S EVERY DAY BOOK, 50 Engravings.
THE MINE;
OR
SKETCHES OF THE MINES OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
THE MODES OF WORKING THEM,
AND
THEIR VARIOUS PRODUCTIONS
BY THE REV. ISAAC TAYLOR,
AUTHOR OF • SCENES IN EUROPE. ASU, AFRICA. AND AMERICA,"
"THE SHIP," &c.
WITH SIXTEEN ENGRAVINGS.
ADAPTED TO THE READING OF AMERICAN YOUTH,
PHILADELPHIA
J. B. L I P P 1 1ST 0 0 T T & C O.
1861.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 18S4,
BY S. G. GOODRICH,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.
INTRODUCTION.
THE following work, it seems fair to apprise
our readers, was originally prepared in England,
and was designed for the children of that coun-
try. But, with some alterations, which I shall
make, it will be found equally adapted to chil-
dren, in the United States, and to them, in this
new dress, it is dedicated.
They will find it an interesting and instruc-
tive little volume. To heighten the interest of
the work, I shall add a chapter about the mines
which are found in various parts of the United
States.
From a perusal of the volume, they will be
led to regard the globe upon which we dwell,
with a deeper interest than perhaps they now
438849
6 INTRODUCTION.
do. They look, no doubt, with pleasuie upon
the fair and beautiful portions of the earth : —
they are delighted with the thousand beauties,
which often cluster in a single landscape: — its
herbs — its plants — its flowers and trees — its
winding streams — its bleating flocks — its tidy
cottages scattered here and there — all conspire
to fill the mind with pleasure, and to excite our
admiration of the goodness and wisdom of the
Author of our being.
But this little volume will convey another
lesson. It will carry its readers among the
more unsightly portions of the earth — lofty
mountains — deep precipices — caverns and ex-
cavations— grotesque and shapeless works — just
the portions of the globe, which, at first view,
would seem to be without interest or value.
Yet even these will be found to be full of the
riches and goodness of the Great Author of
INTRODUCTION. 7
nature. They are unsightly, but not " neglect-
ed spots." They contain articles important to
our comfort and happiness. We shall find salt,
and iron, and coal, with other minerals, without
which, the common business of civilized life
could not be conducted — to say nothing of vari-
ous medicines which administer to bur health,
dug from the bowels of the earth — nor of gold
and silver important to commercial intercourse —
nor of the diamond and other gems, which serve
to adorn and beautify our persons.
They will learn, moreover, something of the
process, by which the metals are separated
from their ore, and of the toil and labor of thou-
sands of our fellow-beings, doomed for life to
delve in mines hundreds of feet below the sur-
face of the earth — shut out from most of the
joys of society; forever excluded from the
light of day.
THE MINE
SALT.
CHESHIRE.*
" THIS is something like !" exclaimed James,
— " Oh ! this is quite a fairy palace ! We
seemed as if we were going out of the land of
the living all the while we were coming hither :
and now, surely, all I see is magic."
Mr. Thompson was well pleased to find his
* Cheshire is a county in the north-western part of England,
lying in part on the Irish sea. It is about fifty miles long and
twenty-five broad. Its capital is Chester, which lies on the river
Dee, seventeen miles south from Liverpool, and one hundred and
eighty-one north-west from London. Among other things, it
abounds in excellent salt. Cheshire is also celebrated for the
excellent quality of its cheese.
10 SALT MINES IN CHESHIRE.
son thus interested and delighted. He had been
at some trouble, and incurred some expense, to
gain this sight foi him. They were now in the
subterraneous regions of the salt mine, at North-
wich;* and he had taken care to have the
whole illuminated, according to a custom with
the miners, when company visit the mines, who
are willing to pay for this splendid exhibition.
Numbers of the workmen, with each a light in
his hand, had placed themselves in the various
niches and corners of the mine. As the mine
itself is a very large excavation, great pillars of
the salt rock are left at various intervals, fif-
teen, or even twenty -four feet in diameter, and
as many in height ; by which means, besides a
huge vaulted dome, a continuation of chambers,
halls, and passages, appeared in view. As the
* Northwich is situated at the union of the rivers Weaver and
Dan; eighteen miles east of Chester.
THE DESCENT. 11
salt is like a white semi-transparent rock, every
light glittered in a thousand places, exhibiting
a great variety and intermixture of splendid
colors: — such as one might suppose a vast
building would display, were the walls and
arches encrusted with diamonds.
As these excavations reach far under ground,
some of the candles were evidently at a great
distance, and gave the idea of an interminable
labyrinth of brilliant apartments; although
one vast amphitheatre, as the principal part,
chiefly caught their attention. Here the floor
was as level as any mason could have laid it ;
the sides rose to a cupola in the centre, sup-
ported by pillars, nearly pellucid, almost fifty
feet high.
This appeared the more astonishing to them,
because their descent had been rather gloomy ;
for they had been let down in a large tub,
12 ADMIRATION AND FEAR
through a sort of deep well, about a hundred
and fifty feet, and in rather an anxious mood.
For the tub was only a rough one, — the same
that is used by the miners for raising the lumps
of salt to the surface of the earth.
It was some time before the fascination of
the scene would allow the young philosopher
to ask a single question, or notice any of the
operations going on.
He began at last to inquire, with a whole
string of questions : " How deep are we in the
earth? — How far do these caverns reach? —
How much salt is obtained from hence every
year ?" &,c. — " It will take some time to answer
all those questions," said his father ; " which
can be done, too, more at our leisure, when we
get above ground again. Meanwhile, let us
observe some of their operations."
When the extra lights were extinguished,
OPERATIONS OF THE MINERS. 13
and only those remained which the workmen
needed for their convenience, the place looked
gloomy enough, especially after its recent bril-
liant appearance.
It was curious to wratch the miners in their
work, separating huge masses of the salt rock,
with pickaxes ; and then, with heavy hammers,
splitting them into smaller and more convenient
portions. In some places, they bored the rock,
and put into the deep hole, thus made, a quan-
tity of gunpowder : this being fired, an explo-
sion followed, wrhich usually separated several
great blocks of the salt : these, as before, were
broken, that they might be removed the more
easily. These lumps, being carried to the spot
under the mouth of the pit, were then drawn
up to the surface of the earth, in the very tub
in which James and his father had descended,
and by which they also returned.
14 DEPTH OF MINES.
" So, James, we are now above ground again.
If the landscape below is the most curious, yet,
upon the whole, the landscape above is the
most pleasant ; is it not 1"
" Yes, father ! I am glad I have seen th<
mine ; but I am very glad now of the fresh air ,
and the bright sun, and the smiling landscape,
with its variegated greens."
" And now, some of your questions may be
considered at leisure. You asked how deep
we were below the surface of the earth 1 The
roof of that grand cathedral, in which you were
so much delighted just now, is about a hundred
feet beneath us. But the depth of the several
mines varies much. The salt rock seems to lie
in vast beds, or strata. One of these had been
worked for more than a hundred years, when
another was discovered below it, but separated
by a bed of hardened clay, or soft stone, be-
NECESSITY OF PERSEVERANCE. 15
tween thirty and forty feet thick. This lower
stratum is said to be very pure."
"And how came they to find this, so deep
in the earth, father? Who told them it was
there V9
"It was found, as we say, by accident.
Persons were searching for coal, when they
came to a solid mass of salt ; which has been
to the proprietors an inexhaustible fund of
wealth. It is well those wrho were digging did
not say, * This is not coal, let us give over, and
try somewhere else.' It is well that, when
they had digged for some time, they did not
leave off in despair, and miss of this treasure.
How much may be missed sometimes for want
of perseverance ! — And how much has been lost,
through ignorance of the value of what has
been actually found! It is said, that the bed
of salt continues for a mile and a half, as mea-
16 SALT-WORKS IN CHESHIRE.
sured one way, almost east and west, and about
three quarters of a mile across it. The thick-,
ness of the stratum of salt is from sixty to
almost a hundred feet. Its upper parts are
about forty feet below the level of the sea, and
ninety feet below the surface on Which we
stand. The thickness of the lower bed of salt
has not been ascertained; but they have sunk
above forty feet into it, without finding its
bottom. In another place, three distinct beds
have been discovered : one of them, four feet
thick ; a second, twelve feet ; and the third has
been penetrated above seventy feet ; but as no
bottom has yet been found, we do not know
how much deeper it is.
"Salt is procured at several places here-
abouts. They are mostly adjacent to the river
Weever, which runs across Cheshire. The
principal works are at Namptwich, Middle-
SALT MINE AT NORTHWICH.
B
18 ROCK-SALT.
wich,* and Northwich : there are also some at
Winsford, and other places; making nearly a
dozen mines, now in full working.
"Although the mine, into which we descend-
ed, is one solid rock of salt, which may be dug
into, and brougat up in lumps; yet, in many
cases, the salt is found dissolved in springs of
water. This is called brine, and must be ren-
dered fit for use, by evaporating the water by
boiling. As the water vanishes in steam, the
salt crystallizes. Pumps of great power are in
use at these brine springs, for bringing up
the water from its deep caverns into large
reservoirs ; though some of these springs are
at no great depth.
"Indeed, the rock-salt itself is not fit for
the table, till it has been purified. This effect
* Namptwich lies on the Weever twenty miles south-east from
Chester. Middlewich is east of the latter place twenty-two miles.
PURIFICATION OP THE BRINE. 19
is produced by dissolving it in water, and then,
by heat, evaporating that water again, during
which operation the impurities rise as a scum
to the top, and are skimmed off. In order to
facilitate this process, coagulable matter, such
as eggs, &c. are mingled with the brine ; these
quickly rise to the top, in the form of a crust,
carrying every foulness up with them. Much
of this purification is done on the spot ; but
vast quantities of the pit salt are sent to Liver-
pool and Bristol, to be there refined. Much
is also sent, in its crude state, to the eastern
side of the kingdom, where are long establish-
ed salt-works, for supplying the adjacent coun-
try. It has been calculated that above fifty
thousand tons of salt are .extracted from the
mines hereabouts, every year, supplying not
only England, but also Ireland, the Baltic,
and so the north of Europe, with this necessary
20 SALT MONEY.
arthle. Large quantities also are annually sent
to the United States.
" Thus the proprietors gain money by it ;
but in some countries money is made of it.
It is thus precious in the central parts of
Africa. The salt is formed into round flat
cakes, which are stamped ; and these are taken
as'ready money, in all the adjacent districts."
" One would wonder how all the salt came
here," said James.
" True," replied the father : " men, who love
to account for every thing, have guessed about
it. Many have supposed that it has been
formed by gradual deposits from the sea.
Yet, if that were the case, how are we to ac-
count for it, when found, as it is in some places,
at considerable heights up mountains? In-
deed, I do not know that sea water, if left to
settle, will ever deposit its salt. Unless it
ORIGIN OP SALT. 21
were over-saturated with it, how could it let
it go, if heat were not applied to evaporate the
water? If this salt had ever floated in the
sea, it must, in its crystalization, have inclosed
in it fish, or shells, or marine plants, of some
sort; but we have no account of any such
matters being found among it ; yet its power
to preserve them, if once inclosed, cannot be
doubted.
" I am more inclined to suppose that masses
of salt, like the rocks which we see around our
coast, are part of the original creation, and
were intended for great usefulness in the eco-
nomy of our earthly habitation. Salt is ac-
ceptable to man in every climate, and to many
animals: sheep and horses are fond of it:
pigeons are kept to their dove-cotes, by a
lump of rock-salt being placed within their
reach. In all nations, man is fond of it, and
22 SALT HELD SACRED.
gives much to obtain it as a relish for his food.
In ancient times, it was the symbol of friend-
ship, and the test or bond of it. To have
eaten a man's salt, was sufficient to bind the
most furious passions. Thieves, who have
broken into a house, with a design to rob and
murder, on happening, accidentally, to taste
the owner's salt, as they were exploring his
premises, have been known immediately to
withdraw ; not daring to violate what they
were accustomed to consider as a binding
engagement to do him no injury.
"The manner in which salt is spread into
countries far from the sea, shews a kind provi-
sion for our wants ; and also militates against
the notion of such masses having been produced
from the saltness of the ocean. That it is found
in high situations, has been hinted already. In
Spain, near Cordova, is a hill, much higher than
SALT EXTENSIVELY DISSEMINATED. 23
St. Paul's cathedral, composed of salt through
its whole substance. Another, of equal size,
is found in India. The mines of Saltsburgh, in
Austria, are far above the level of the sea ; and
the short duration of the Deluge cannot ac-
count for such vast accumulations. Poland
has immense mines of it, as we shall presently
see. In the mountains of the Tyrol, it is found;
also in Russia, at the Betski mines, great
quantities are procured. In the southern parts
of Asia Minor, it is in such plenty, and so hard,
and the atmosphere is so dry, that it is used for
building. It abounds in the northern parts of
Libya; and is plentifully stored in the moun-
tains of Peru. So widely spread as it is, so
plenteously provided, it may fairly be supposed
to be intended for important purposes, by Him
wrho knew what the wants of man would be ;
and, indeed, what would be the occasions for
it, in the globe, as an habitation."
24 SALTNESS OF THE OCEAN.
" What, are these stores of salt of any use
to the globe itself?"
" Yes ; He who planned to give it so much
sea, knew, that by saltness only, could the
ocean be kept sweet. So far from supposing
that these masses of salt were abstracted from
the ocean, I think it" much more likely, that
the saltness of the ocean is occasioned by stores
of rock-salt at its bottom. We can trace these
beds of saline substance upon the land, but the
depths of the sea are hidden from us. There
is nothing irrational in the supposition, that
there may be also mountains and layers of salt
intermingled with the mountains of rock, which
form the bed of the sea. The continual agita-
tion of the waters by the tides, will occasion
a continual supply of the saline principle, if
that be needful. The saltness of the sea is
absolutely necessary, to preserve it from putre-
SALTNESS OF THE OCEAN 2&
faction. Accordingly, we find this saltness to be
greater under the equator, than near the poles.
At the equator, the great heat would tend more
powerfully to engender putrescency, and there
this grand preservative is most plenteously
provided."
SALT WORKS IN FRANCE.
SEA SALT.
"Axe is all the salt used by the nations of
the earth, obtained from a few salt mines 1"
"No. This is called rock-salt, or native
salt; but much is obtained from the sea, by
evaporation, which is termed bay-salt. In
maritime countries, where the sun is powerful,
this is the common mode by which salt is pro-
cured. In France, especially, there are several
salt-works of this kind, on the western coast,
or Bay of Biscay. On some flat part of the
coast, large but shallow pits are dug, gene-
rally of three depths, and communicating with
each other. Into the first, called the reservoir,
the sea water is admitted at high tide, and
penned in by means of floodgates. Being
28 METHOD OF OBTAINING SEA SALT.
thus confined in a very shallow pit, the heat
of the sun evaporates the watery parts rapidly.
The residuum is then let into the second, or
brine pond, which is shallower than the former,
and on which the sun has therefore more
power. The brine is afterwards let into the
third pit, called the salt pan, where the water
is not two inches deep. As the liquid evapo-
rates, the salt, which cannot fly off, is left as a
crust upon the sides of the pan ; this is gather-
ed up every day, and placed in heaps, which
are thatched over, to preserve them from the
weather. This work occupies from May to
August. If the season be favorable, the manu-
facturers can thus obtain from the sea, in two
or three weeks, salt enough for the whole
kingdom ; but they also make much more, and
export it to other nations.
" The heat of the sun under the torrid zone is
METHOD OF OBTAINING SEA SALT. 29
sufficient to evaporate pools of salt water; a
large quantity of salt is thus produced, and may
be easily collected. But the sun has scarcely
power enougMn England for this process : yet,
in Kent and Hampshire, thjre are pits of this
kind, in which the water is so far evaporated
by the sun, that a small degree of boiling finishes
the process, and produces the salt. The brine
is made during the hot months, and kept in
large cisterns, to be boiled at leisure. The
boiling is sometimes continued till the end of
the year."
SALT LAKES.
SOME inland lakes and morasses are impreg
nated with salt. A lake of this kind is found in
Southern Africa, at a distance from the sea,
and upon a height. The water which it re-
ceives during the rainy season, becomes strong-
ly impregnated with salt; in the succeeding
hot weather, this water is evaporated ; and the
salt is left at the bottom of the lake, two or
three feet in depth. In the island of Ison-
ming, near the coast of China, the earth is in
some places so full of salt, that the natives dig
it out, to the depth of a foot. This earth they
carry to their salt-works, where they soak it in
water in large shallow wooden vessels; and,
by afterwards boiling the water, they obtain
SAL1NA SALT-WORKS. 31
pure salt. In the western part of the State
of New York, at a great distance from the sea,
are numerous salt springs, some of them natural,
and others made by boring deep through earth
and rocks. The water thus obtained, is not so
salt as that of the ocean, yet it is sufficiently
strong to produce great quantities of salt, by
boiling and by evaporation in the sun.
The largest of these salt-works are at Salina,
near Onondaga lake. They consist of several
buildings, each containing eighteen or twenty
iron boilers, of one hundred and twenty gallons
capacity. These boilers are placed in two rows,
and form what is called a " block." They are
placed about three feet above the floor of the
building, and under them is a large furnace,
which is always heated to such a degree as to
keep the water boiling. Pine wood is used for
32 SALINA SALT-WORKS.
fuel, which creates a lively blaze, and is obtained
plentifully and cheap, in the neighborhood.
A large cistern, filled with water, is kept at
Dne end of the building, and the water is con-
veyed from this, through a hollow log, to the
boilers, as fast as it boils away. After boiling
for some time, there settles to the bottom a
substance consisting of several earthy com-
pounds. This is called " bittern," and is thrown
away as useless. The boiling being continued,
pure white salt forms in the boilers, which is
taken out and placed in a store room, ready for
barreling.
Near the Erie canal, are a great number of
vats, for evaporation of the water by heat of the
sun. These vats rest upon small posts, driven
into the ground. Some of these are six or seven
hundred feet in length. They are about eigh-
teen feet wide: They have coverings or roofs,
SAL1NA SALT-WORKS. 33
in case of rain, which pass on and off by rol-
lers.
Some of the vats are deeper than others, and
the deepest are first filled with water, from
reservoirs, at hand. Here the water stands for
some time, till it throws off a quantity of iron,
or coloring matter, which appears on the surface
in the shape of a pellicle, or thin skin.
After this, the water is passed through hollow
logs into the shallower vats, where it remains
exposed to the sun ; and, after a while, deposits
a quantity of sulphate and carbonate of lime.
The salt now begins to appear, and crystalize
on the surface. The water is drawn off again,
into the vats, in which the salt is deposited as
fast as the sun dries up the water. This is
done in a longer or shorter time, according to
the season, the dryness of the air, and the
strength of the wind. After all the salt has
3
34 SALINA SALT-WORKS
crystalized, it is shoveled into tubs, and drained
of what water remains in it. It is then convey-
ed in carts to the store-houses.
Here are also works for making salt by steam.
All the salt made by these methods, is very
pure and white. It is commonly packed in
barrels, containing five bushels, and is inspected
and branded by an officer of the government.
The quantity made here, is between one and
two million bushels annually.
SALT.
POLAND.
"BuT," said James, " what are the Polish salt
mines, of which I have heard such wonders 1"
" Several travellers have visited those mines,
and have given us accounts of them ; perhaps
the substance of their descriptions may afford
us instruction and amusement.
"The mines of Cracow, as they are fre-
quently called, though they are indeed between
six and eight miles from thence, are at a village
named Wielitska, situated on a ridge of hills,
adjoining the Carpathian mountains. The
mode of descent into the mine, at the principal
opening, is by means of hammocks, fastened
to a great rope, by which the loads of salt are
36 PERILOUS DESCENT INTO THE MINE.
drawn up. c We were let down gently/ says
Mr. Coxe, * without any apprehension of dan-
ger, although the depth was almost five hun-
dred feet ;' (one quarter as high again as St.
Paul's.) When they stepped out of their ham-
mocks, they were not at their journey's end ;
for they had yet to descend a slope, which in
some places was very broad ; in others, the
pathway was cut in the rock, into stairs, which
were rather slippery, but, being wide, and glit-
tering with the lights, which the visitors car-
ried, had the appearance of a grand staircase
in a palace. To some lower places, the de-
scent was by ladders. Every visitor carried a
light, as did each of the guides. The bril-
liance occasioned hereby was considerable and
peculiar. Mr. Wraxall describes one vast
chamber, in which, he says, ' a thousand peo-
ple might dine without inconvenience;' so
SUBTERRANEOUS RESIDENCES. 37
large, indeed, that the flambeaux hardly en-
abled him to discern the sides ; it seemed
without limits.
"When fairly descended into the mine, the
traveller finds an underground country. There
is no sun, nor sky ; but there are roads, with
horses and carriages travelling in them; with
multitudes of people, men, women, and chil-
dren ; many are oorn tnere, and pass in those
caverns great part of their lives. This is,
however, voluntary on their parts; for those
who choose to ascend in the intervals of labor,
are not denied the opportunity of breathing
the fresh air in the fields, and enjoying the
]ight of day. The horses, however, once taken
down, continue there, and never return to day-
light ; but are foddered and sleep in sheds cut
in the salt rock.
" Many of the chambers are very large, and
38 INTERIOR OF THE POLISH MINES.
supported by pillars cf salt, left for the purpose ;
some of them are thirty or forty, and some se-
venty or eighty feet in height, without any sup-
port except from the sides. The roads and gal-
leries branch out in many directions. In some
parts, they are very intricate ; so that persons,
whose light has been accidentally extinguished,
have perished, not being able to find their way
back again. The length already excavated
exceeds a mile, and the breadth is nearly half
as much. How much larger the stratum of
salt is, cannot be known: the depth already
dug is above seven hundred feet.
"Those who shew the mine, are careful to
point out to strangers thfe various elegant cha-
pels hewn in the solid salt rock. The altar-
piece, the ornaments, a large crucifix, and sta-
tues of the saints, are all cut out of the same
glittering material ; and, when illuminated for
LOT'S WIFE. 39
worship, have a splendid appearance. Mass
is said in them (for they are Roman Catholics)
on certain days in the year.
"One statue is appropriate at least: it is
a representation of Lot's wife, who was, you
know, turned into a pillar of salt ; and it has
been there so long, that most of the inhabit-
ants believe it to be the very mass of salt
formed on that occasion, writh herself in the
midst of it !
"It seems remarkable, that all these places,
though formed of salt, are very dry. There is
one rivulet of water running through the mine,
which is originally fresh, but becomes saltish,
by running in the channel which it has worn in
the salt rock. The rock is hewn with pick-
axes; much after the same manner as in the
English mines, in Cheshire.
"There are other mines also in the neigh
40 PRODUCT OP THE POLISH SALT MINES.
borhood, which have been wrought above six
hundred years ; yet the laborers have not
come to the extremity of the stratum of salt, in
any direction. Between four and five hundred
miners are employed in these wrorks ; and the
whole number of men engaged in them is about
seven hundred. Each continues at his work
for eight hours ; and then, if he chooses, rises
again to the surface. About six hundred thou-
sand quintals, or sixty million pounds of salt
have been annually raised from these mines.
"While Poland had a king, he derived a
considerable revenue from these mines ; it is
said nearly £100,000 sterling,* every year.
Since the partition of Poland by the neigh-
boring potentates, they belong to the Emperor
of Austria. His officers, however, have in their
avarice outwitted themselves ; for, supposing
* Nearly 450,000 dollars.
AVARICE DEFEATED. 41
Poland must have this salt at any rate, they
have raised the price of it exorbitantly. The
King of Prussia, seizing this opportunity to en-
rich his own subjects, imports great quantities
of salt from other countries, and sends it into
Poland, where it is sold at a cheaper rate than
that which is dug up in the immediate vicinity
of the consumers. The mines of Wielitska,
therefore, now only supply a small space of
country; and their productiveness in revenue
is much diminished."
" That serves the Emperor right, for his
covetousness," said James. — " Rather, perhaps,"
replied Mr. Thompson, " the Emperor himself
knows nothing about it. His ministers, or
commissioners, have thus cheated themselves :
it is a very common mistake."
D
ENGLISH MINES.
" How I should like to go abroad," said
James, " and see all the mines in foreign coun-
tries I"
" That would be rather a long business,"
said Mr. Thompson ; " it would exceed your
present holidays."
" Oh yes, father ! But I should like it, I am
sure. It would be so amusing, and so instruc-
tive !"
" Amusing came first, James, I believe, be-
cause it lies uppermost in your mind. If that
be your object, I should think enough might
be found in England to fill up your time, and
empty my pockets. Those are two bounda-
ries to our pursuits, which have a very power-
CURIOSITY ENHANCED BY DISTANCE. 43
ful influence in circumscribing our actual con-
duct ; and they should have their influence in
checking the wildness of our otherwise illimi-
table desires."
" Yes, father, I am sure I am very much
obliged to you for bringing me such a journey
as this ; and procuring me the sight of such
wonderful places. Only, I suppose, there are
more wonderful places still abroad ?"
" There are very wonderful places abroad,
no doubt ; but, why you should think they are
more wonderful than those in England, I do not
perceive. Though a mine be a little larger, or
a little deeper in one country than in another ;
yet the sight of one conveys as true an idea to
the mind, as to the real nature of that sort of
excavation, or that sort of mineral, as if you
had seen twenty. You have been actually
down into the salt mines at Northwich. The
44 ENGLISH MINES.
color, the brilliancy of the salt, the mode of
propping up the mine, the grandeur of the vast
cavern, and the hazards of descending into such
a place, and coming up again ; these and many
other particulars you know, and will probably
never forget."
" That I shall not, I am sure, father. How
I was astonished and surprised ! I never could
have fancied what such a place was, in a thou-
sand particulars, if I had not seen it myself."
" And did not that actual inspection enable
you to understand the accounts, which I com-
piled for you, of the Polish salt mines at Wie-
litska?"
" Oh yes, father, I was quite interested in
that account ; it was so curious ! And, as you
say, I understood it clearly, because I remem-
bered what I had seen."
" Now England can furnish us with speci-
EXCELLENCE OF ENGLISH MACHINERY. 45
mens of almost every sort of mine : and it has
some peculiar to itself. A person, whose pro-
fession was mineralogy, might find it worth
while to visit even the mines of Potosi and of
Kolyvan, though situated in different quarters
of the world : but our object is only to obtain
general knowledge, and, especially, to inform
your mind on a point of so much importance.
I am content to travel over England, therefore ;
it holds all we want."
" Yes, father : I do not wish, I am sure, to
drag you either to Potosi or to (what do you
call it ?) Kolyvan. I am very thankful for what
you are doing ; and very much interested in
what I am gaining."
" There is one particular, in which England
excels most countries ; that is, the machinery
by which these grand works are conducted.
The princely establishments of the various ma-
46 STEAM-ENGINES.
nufactures, or mine proprietors, would not be
found abroad. The scientific modes of opera-
tion, too, are much better understood and
practised with us. Not above two thirds of
the silver is obtained from the ore at Potosi,
because the work is performed in an ignorant
and slovenly manner. Then, the power of
machinery can nowhere be seen to so much
advantage as here. In Cornwall, there are
steam-engines in full work, each of a thousand
horse power, capable of raising fifty million
pounds of water through the space of a foot,
with only the expense in fuel of one bushel of
coals. Such is the mode by which the power
of these gigantic machines are estimated.
" We ought never to think of the vast trea-
sures which Divine Providence has concealed in
the bowels of the earth, without being reminded
of the wisdom of the adorable Creator. If mines
REMARKS. 47
of coal, salt, iron, and of minerals in general,
had been near the surface of the globe, what
an immense portion of it would have been ren-
dered unfit to produce either grass for cattle,
or grain for the nourishment of man."
DIAMONDS.
EAST INDIES.
"You know the fable of the cock, who
found a diamond necklace on a dunghill?"
" Yes, father ; and he wished it had been a
grain or twro of barley."
" Was he wise in that, James ; or ignorant
and silly?"
" I should have liked the diamond best.
How it would have sparkled on mother's bo-
som!"
" Why, yes, James, the grain or two of
barley would have been of no use to you. But
remember, I was not asking for your judgment,
or your wishes, in such a case ; but* rather
your opinion of chanticleer."
DIAMONDS. 49
"Then, I think," said James, "he was quite
In the right, to prefer somewhat which was
useful, to that which was merely ornamental,
however splendid."
" Keep that opinion in mind, James ; in
the course of your life, it may save you many
pounds. Yet, if nobody bought any thing but
what is absolutely useful, many of the finer arts
of life would be uncultivated, and the artists,
who excel in them, must starve. So, let the
dunghill cock look after barley ; neither he nor
his pullets would be happier, nor indeed finer,
for a diamond necklace. While, however,
these bright gems are prized for ornament, (as
that is the only use which can be made of them,)
we may as well go on with our mining, and
travel, by the help of books, into the countries
where diamonds are found."
4 E
50 DIAMONDS.
"Have we no diamond mines in England,
papa?"
" We have some very brilliant stones, in
several places ; but no true diamonds. The
Bristol stones, found about St. Vincent's rocks,*
are in high repute, and deservedly, for their
brilliancy. Cornish diamonds are also in
esteem."
"What! are real diamonds only found in
the East Indies?"
" For many ages, all our diamonds came
from the East ; and, of course, they were very
scarce. It was not till long after the dis-
covery of America, that diamonds were found
in Brazil. It has been remarked, that diamonds
are found only in the torrid zone ; and also
that the Brazil mines are at the same distance
* Rocks on each side of the river Avon, about three miles below
Bristol.
BEAUTY OF THE DIAMOND. 51
from the equator on its southern side, as those
of the East Indies are on its northern side.
"The beauty of the diamond is greatest
when you are unable to see it : that is, when
it is so perfectly pellucid and clear, that the
stone itself is not discerned, but only the bril-
liant ray of light, which its polished surface
reflects.
" It is compared to a drop of perfectly clear
spring water; and its denomination, when
brightest, is a diamond of the first water.
When compared to water by weight, the dia-
mond is found to be three and a half times
more heavy than the purest water.
" The diamond mines in the kingdom of
Golconda* have been long in the highest esteem.
* Golconda is a province of Hindoostan. It is now known by
the name of Hyderabad. Formerly the mines of Raolconda and
Coulour employed many thousand men, but now they have ceased
to be important, and hardly pay the expense of working them
52 RAOLCONDA MINE.
A principal mine is at Raolconda, five days'
journey from the city of Golconda : it was dis-
covered in the beginning of the seventeenth
century. The country is woody and rocky,
approaching the ranges of hills which run across
the province. In the crevices of the rocks,
is sometimes found a sort of vein of sand, not
more than an inch wide, and frequently not
above half that size ; so that the miners are
obliged to employ hooked irons, with which
they rake out the earth and sand ; and among
this loose stuff, the diamonds are found. They
wash it, therefore, with great care, securing
all the stones it contains. When the vein
ceases, they split the rock still farther, by fire,
and thus recover the vein, or find another ; for
the vein will run, sometimes, nearly a quarter
of a mile.
"The value of these gems being very great,
THE GREAT MOGUL'S DIAMOND. 53
and the secreting of them easy, the miners are
made to work quite naked. There are also
persons incessantly on the watch, to prevent
their concealing them. With all this vigilance,
however, they are sometimes deceived ; as the
miners frequently swallow them, and thus get
off with them without detection.
" The famous diamond, belonging to the
Great Mogul, was found in the neighborhood
of Gani, or Coulour, which is seven days' jour-
ney from Golconda. This mine was discovered,
about a hundred and fifty years ago, by a pea-
sant, who. was digging, and met with one dia-
mond of twenty-five carats weight.* That of the
* The value of diamonds is ascertained by their weight in carats,
and this value increases in a very high ratio, according to their
magnitude. For instance, a diamond weighing one carat might be
worth about £8 ; while another of five carats would be worth £200 ;
often carats, £800; and of twenty carats, £3,200.
A carat is equal to four jeweller's grains, seven grains of which
54 THE GREAT MOGUL'S DIAMOND.
Great Mogul weighed, before it was cut, almost
eight hundred carats. It is not common to find
are equal to six grains troy. To ascertain the value of wrought
diamonds, the weight must be doubled, about half being supposed
to be lost in the working. This sum must be multiplied into itself,
and the product by two. Thus, to find the value of a diamond of
20 carats, multiply 20 by two— the product is 40 — this multiplied by
itself, becomes 1600 — and this multiplied by two, gives £3,200.
In the possession of the Rajah of Mattan, in the island of Borneo,
is a large diamond, shaped like an egg, with an indented hollow
near the smaller end. It was found in that island about 80 years
ago. It is said to be of the finest water, and weighs 367 carats, or
more than two ounces and a quarter. Several years ago, the gover-
nor of Batavia, desirous of purchasing this gem, sent a Mr. Stewart
to the Rajah, authorizing him to offer for it 150,000 dollars, two
large brigs of war, with their guns and ammunition, together with
a certain number of great guns, and a quantity of powder and shot.
The Rajah, however, refused to deprive his family of so valuable
an hereditary possession 5 the Malays not only attaching to it the mi-
raculous power of curing all diseases, but also believing that the for-
tune of the family is sustained by its continuing in their possession.
The sceptre of the Emperor of Russia is adorned with an oriental
diamond about the size of a pigeon's egg, which weighs 195 carats.
This is said to have once been placed as the eye of an idol in Ser-
ingham, in the Carnatic. A grenadier, who had deserted from the
MINE AT GANI. 55
them above the weight of from ten to forty. The
earth hereabouts is of different colors, red,
French service in India, contrived to become one of the priests of
the idol, in the hope of being able to steal this eye, which at length
he effected, and escaped with it to Madras, where he sold it to the
captain of a ship, for a sum equal to £2,500 of British money. It was
afterwards transferred to a Jew for £1^000. Coming into the hands
of a Greek merchant, he offered it for sale at Amsterdam, in 1766 ;
and the Russian prince Orloff, bought it for the Empress Catharine
for about £90,000 sterling, and an annuity of £4,000 during the
life of the person who sold it.
The Pitt or regent diamond, which was set in the handle of the
sword of state of Buonaparte, is a brilliant of the most beautiful
kind, and weighs 136 3-4 carats. It was brought from India by
George Pitt, Esq. Governor of Bencoolen, in Sumatra, and was
sold by him for £130,000 to the Regent Duke of Orleans, who
placed it among the crown jewels of France.
The Pigot diamond, of 47 1-2 carats. This, which is an extremely
fine stone, was disposed of by lottery in 1800, for £22,000.
A large star and cross, worn on grand gala days by the Prince of
Brazil, as sovereign of the different orders of Portuguese orders of
knighthood, are each composed of a great number of magnificent
diamonds, set in gold. The centre diamond of the star is alone
valued at £80,000, and the whole of the star and cross are said to
be worth nearly four millions sterling.
56 MINE AT GANI.
green, and yellow ; and the diamonds are fre-
quently tinged with the sarne, which reduces
their splendor, and, of course, their estimation.
"The importance of this mine appears in
the number of persons employed in it, being
frequently as many as sixty thousand. Their
manner of operating is as follows : When, on
examining the ground, they find a spot, which, to
those accustomed to the search, appears likely
to afford diamonds, they begin, in some place
near at hand, to form a cistern or pool, with
clay ; into this the women and children bring
the earth, which the men have dug out of the
appointed spot. Here, with water, they loosen
the earth, breaking the clods, and permitting
When the diamond is rubbed, it will attract bits of straw, hairs,
feathers, and other small objects ; and if exposed to the rays of the
sun, and immediately taken into a dark place, will appear lumim us.
WillicVs Enc.
DIAMOND WASHING AT QOLCONDA.
58 MiNE AT GANT.
the ligter mud to run off. The plain, on which
they operate, is about five miles wide, with a
river on one side and mountains on the other.
When the miners come to water, they do not
dig any deeper. The stony substances, which
remain after the earthy particles are washed
away, are carefully sifted, and then examined
in a bright noonday light, which is reflected
by the diamonds, and aids the research. Those
who are accustomed to the business, are so ex-
pert that they can discover the diamonds by
the nice feeling of their fingers."
" Then diamonds are always found by dig-
ging 1" said James.
"Not so fast, James; the term Mine, in
most cases, seems to intimate a place under
ground ; but this is not the case at Gani, for
there, what is called a Mine, is of a quite dif-
ferent nature. Indeed, it is, of all diamond
PERSONS EMPLOYED. 59
mines, the mcst ancient. It is situate in the
province of Bengal, amongst the sands of the
river Goual, which runs into the Ganges.
Being near the city of Soumelpour, it is often
called by that name. From this spot, those
small but splendid brilliants, called sparks, are
procured. The violent rains, which increase
the torrents from the mountains, bring down
these precious gems. When these rains are pret-
ty well over, that is, about the month of Decem-
ber, or, possibly, not till January, if the waters
do not get clear, the operation of searching for
diamonds commences. Frequently, ten thou-
sands persons from the city and its neighbor-
hood assemble. To all ages and sexes, it is a
sort of harvest; for the children can help.
Those more accustomed to the search, examine
the sands of the river, tracing them up to the
mountains ; as it is near them that the larger
60 MODE OF SEARCH.
diamonds are usually found. When they come
to a place which they expect may be produc-
tive, they separate a portion of the sands, by
making a dam in the river, all around the
spot, with faggots, stones, and clay. After
emptying the water out of this inclosed por-
tion, so as to leave the sands dry, they dig to
the depth of half a yard, or more ; and carry
what is dug up to a sort of cistern, walled in
near at hand, as before. There they wash, and
examine it carefully; trusting chiefly to the
accuracy of their fingers, for discovering the
precious pebbles.
" The river Succudan, in the island of Borneo,
is said to abound in diamonds; but strangers
are not permitted to go thither. Now and then,
however, by great cunning and caution, some
very excellent stones have been obtained by
the Dutch, and sold at Batavia."
DIAMONDS.
BRAZIL.
" It wab not till 1 728, that the diamond was
discovered in the Brazils, in South America.
The manner of the discovery was thus : — The
negroes, who were condemned to search for
gold, often found, among the sand and gravel,
little bright stones, which, not being gold, they
threw away. Some of the miners preserved a
few of these stones, and shewed them to the
governor. As he had been in the East Indies,
he immediately suspected them to be diamonds,
and sent them to Europe, where, after being
cut and set, they proved to be diamonds of
very fine water, though not equal to those oi
•Golconda.
62 BRAZIL DIAMONDS.
"The place is called Cerro-do-Frio, and is
situated to the north of Villa Rica.* The coun-
try round about seems to be impregnated with
iron ores; and the earth, among which dia-
monds are found, is ferruginous to a conside-
rable degree. The miners come to this bed of
diamonds, as soon as they have removed the
common vegetable soil Connection with iron
ores seems to be general in all places where
diamonds are found.
" At the river Jigitonhonhaf is the most im-
portant of the Brazilian mines. The course of
* Villa Rica, to the north of which lies Cerro-do-Frio, is a con-
siderable city of Brazil, situated one hundred and fifty miles north
of Rio Janerio. It owes its origin to the rage for discovering
gold mines. It was begun in 1711. It now retains but little of its
former splendor, the mines in its neighborhood being much less
productive than formerly.
f This river runs north-east and flows into the Rio Grande, in
lat. 16°, 49'.
MODE OF SEARCH. 63
the river is impeded by the miners, by a bank,
raised by several thousand bags of sand. The
pools thus formed are then pumped dry ; the
mud of the river is washed away, and the earth,
in which they expect to find diamonds, is dug
out, and carried for washing and searching.
This is done with considerable care and regu-
larity. They erect a kind of shed, consisting
of upright posts, supporting a thatched roof,
to shelter the negroes while at work. This is
about a hundred feet long, and almost half as
wide. Through the middle of this shed, a cur-
rent of water is made to flow, for washing the
earth which they are about to search. On the
sides of the stream are several wooden troughs,
each about a yard wide ; and in every trough
is a negro slave, with a rake contrived for the
purpose. The earth to be examined is raked
into the trough, in the quantity of about half
64 FINDING A DIAMOND.
a bushel at a time ; and the water is suffered
to run into each trough in a gentle current.
Meanwhile, each negro, with his rake, spreads
the earth about under this stream of water. It
is raked again and again to the upper part of
the trough, that it may be thoroughly washed ;
which is known by the water running free from
earthy particles. This effect is produced in
about a quarter of an hour, if the whole be
kept in constant motion. What now remains
is a sort of gravel. The largest stones being
of no value, are thrown away ; it is only among
the smaller pebbles, that they are likely to find
diamonds. Three overseers, seated in chairs,
are appointed to watch the process, that the
negroes may not secrete any for their own
emolument.
"When a negro discovers a diamond, he
immediately stands upright and claps his
REWARDS TO THE SLAVES. 65
hands, to give notice to the overseers : he then,
holding it between his fore finger and thumb,
presents it to them, and they immediately put
it into a bowl of water, which is suspended from
the roof. At the close of each day's labor, the
bowl of diamonds is carried to the principal
agent, who weighs and counts them, and enters
in a book the weight and number of the day's
research."
"Poor negroes!" said James: "that is
slaving for others without hope for them-
selves!"
"Not quite so," said his father. "It some-
times happens that a negro finds a diamond of
larger size than usual ; one that weighs seven-
teen and a half carats ; and this is a happy day
for him. He is directly crowned with a wreath
of flowers, and led in gay procession to the
proper magistrate, who immediately pays his
5 F
66 SUBSTANCE OF THE DIAMOND.
owner the price of his liberty, and sets him
free. He also receives a present of new
clothes ; and may work on his own account, if
he pleases. Smaller diamonds may gain re-
wards, if they exceed certain fixed sizes. If a
negro is suspected to have swallowed one, he
is kept in close confinement till the fact can be
ascertained.
" When these treasures were first discover-
ed in Brazil, diamonds were obtained in great
plenty. The first fleet from thence brought so
large a number, that orders were sent over
from the Portuguese government, to decrease
the number of hands employed in searching for
them ; lest their abundance should make them
quite common things, and, by lowering the
price of those already brought over, spoil the
trade.
" It is very remarkable, that diamonds are of
SUBSTANCE OF THE DIAMOND. 67
the same substance as charcoal ; a fact which,
in the progress of your studies, you will be
made acquainted with. To many persons, it
must appear incredible, that the darkest and
the brightest substances in nature should be
so nearly allied."
TIN.
CORNWALL.
" WE have come over a rather dreary coun-
try," said James. "I do not much like those
barren moors of Cornwall* What a continual
up and down it was ! There seemed to be no
end to the hills ; and they were all so wild,
rugged, and bleak I"
"Every county in England has its specific
character. Many smiling vales there are, rich
in pasture and in grain ; and many woody hills,
* Cornwall, the most westerly county of England, and almost
an island, being surrounded on all sides by the sea, except towards
the east, where it is bounded by Devonshire, for the length of
forty-eight miles, from north to south. The general aspect of the
country is dreary and sterile, with occasional fertile valleys.
TIN MINES. 69
with their dense darkness or thin light foliage
waving beneath the blue sky, in the most pic-
turesque manner ; but in general, we must not
among such scenery expect to find mines
under ground. We are come in quest of sub-*
terraneous treasures ; and these bleak unsightly
moors promise well for our gratification."
JAMES. — "And how strong the wind was,
father! Yet I saw in some of the valleys
beautiful myrtles in full blossom; such as we
can hardly rear in our greenhouses."
"We are now near St. Austle: our imme-
diate object are the Tin Mines at Polgooth,
about two miles distant."
"What a number of mines is here!" said
James ; " if one may judge from the steam-
engines."
"Yes. There are between twenty and thirty
now in use. The descent into them is called
70 A SHAFT.— AN ADIT.
n shaft; and above fifty shafts may be counted ;
though they are not all worked at the present
day."
" What are those tall buildings for ? "
" Those are the engine houses. Water
is always very troublesome in these mines.
Sometimes, the workmen pierce a passage
from the bottom of the mine, sloping down-
wards, if in a mountain, to the level country,
to let the water off; this is called an adit, and
is the occasional work of many years. But,
frequently, the water is pumped out with
steam-engines, at great labor and expense."
The young traveller was surprised at seeing
so many heaps around every mining house ;
consisting of the ore as extracted, and thrown
together.
"Persons enter these mines, and come out
again, as in most other mines, by the same
A KIBBUT.— A LODE. 71
conveyance that is used to bring up the ore ;
here it is called a kibbut."
The passing down in one of these was
attended with a little anxiety. James almost
fainted away with apprehension; but soon
recovered himself, when, once at the bottom,
he felt his feet.
These kibbuts are raised and lowered by an
apparatus at the top ; consisting of either a
large winch, or a wheel and axle. In some
places there are ladders, with landing-places
at convenient distances.
They had come upon the „ principal vein, or
lode, as the miners call it ; and found it to be
two yards thick. " In many places, the vein is,
when first perceived, not above an inch thick,
sometimes not above half an inch ; but as the
miners follow it, it increases, and becomes
more valuable. Towards the east, it has two
72 BLASTING THE ROCK.
branches ; but it runs westward, seemingly, till
it comes to the sea, at last. The miners have
made their excavations to a full mile in length,
but have not yet come to the end of it. They
sometimes find pure lumps of metal, of twenty
pounds weight.
" They have to blast the solid rock with gun-
powder, in order to get at the ore conveniently.
Frequently, the vein ceases abruptly, as if it
had been suddenly snapped off; when this is
the case, experienced miners will soon discover
the disconnected part, and proceed again in
their lucrative excavations. The continuation
is usually found on one side, and at no great
distance from the fracture."
"And how deep in the earth are we now?"
said James to one of the miners.
"Oh, Meastur, summer about five score
fathom, or more, just here."
STEAM-ENGINE. 73
" Why, that is between six and seven hun-
dred feet 1 Eh ! it's almost like being buried
alive 1 And do you work here day and night 1
— You can't tell which it is here ? "
"No, Meastur, wre doesn't only work four
hours at once; and then belike another set
comes down."
On examining the steam-engine, they found
that every stroke drew up water thirty feet
deep in the piston, which was fifteen inches in
diameter ; so that the discharge was wonderful.
The expense of such establishments must be
very great ; but so are the profits. This mine
has, in some years, cleared twenty thousand
pounds.
EXPLANATION OP THE STEAM-ENGINE.
A. The furnace.
B. The water, which is kept boiling, to afford the
steam.
STEAM-ENGINE
ORE AT DOLGOOTH. 75
C. The pipe conveying the steam.
D. The cylinder, in which the piston works.
E. The piston, moving up and down in the cylinder.
F. That part of the pipe which lets the steam into
the cylinder, above the piston, when it is to be depressed.
G. That part of the pipe which lets the steam into the
cylinder, beneath the piston, when it is to be raised.
^ H. The huge beam, or lever, to which the piston com-
municates its motion.
I. The fly and wheels, by which the up and down
motion of the lever is made to become rotary.
Only such parts of the steam-engine are here repre-
sented, as may serve to shew the principle. The expan-
sion of the steam forces the piston up or down, as it
enters at the bottom or the top.
" At Dolgooth, the ore is found in a rich vein ;
but it is not always so. There are some, called
stream works, especially on St. Austle's Moor.
It should seem that all the streams, which run
from the adjacent hills and settle in this valley,
bring with them lumps of tin ore, larger or
76 STREAM WORKS AT PAR.
smaller, and have done so for ages. The soil,
also, brought down by the waters, has settled
in the valley, till it has accumulated to the
depth of from twelve to twenty feet. On dig-
ging into this artificial soil, several layers of
earth, clay, and gravel, are found ; then a stra-
tum of stones, which, being heaviest, have sunk
lowest, while the whole was moist and soft.
Beneath these successive layers are other
stones, which are the ores of tin; these are
easily known by their being very heavy ; some
are lumps, as big as one's fist ; some are almost
as small as fine sand. Below these, are solid
rocks ; in which is no tin. The tin obtained
from these stones is reckoned very pure, and
is in considerable plenty, having but a small
proDortion of refuse.
" These stream works extend to Par. There
the incumbent earth and sand form a stratum
STREAM-WORKS NEAR TRURO. 77
seventy feet deep. The miners bring streams
of water to act upon it, with considerable vio-
lence, in order to wash the sand away ; yet the
pebbles are left at the bottom of the several
channels.
"There are several mines of less conse-
quence, though well worth the working, as at
Gwennap, Illogan, Trevennen, &c. ; but seeing
one is essentially seeing all. These smaller
works employ from a hundred to a hundred
and fifty miners at each of them. One might
reckon up nearly two hundred of those smaller
concerns.
"The stream-works near Truro are said to
yield eight thousand pounds a year profit.
"These tin works are of different sorts,
according as the tin is found ; sometimes it is
obtained in the form of stones, very heavy, and
full of metal ; but more often the tin is mingled
78 MARKING AND ASSAYING.
with earthy matter, almost as hard as stone,
and of a bluish or grayish appearance.
" When the ore is brought up to the surface
of the earth, it is thrown into heaps Here
multitudes of the poor find employment in
breaking it \vith hammers. In this broken
state it is carried to the stamping-mill, where
it is pounded. In order to this, it is turned
into a sloping trough, and a small stream of
water assists it in sliding down into the case
wherein the lifters work. These are pieces
of timber, shod with large masses of iron:
they are raised and let fall again, by a water-
wheel. The ore is repeatedly washed before
it is brought for melting. When melted, it
runs into large oblong moulds, each of which
contains about three hundred weight of pure
tin. It must now be conveyed to some one
of the Stannary towns, to be marked and
BREAKING TIN ORE.
80 STANNARY LAWS.
assayed, or, as they call it there, coined. This
is done by officers appointed by the Duke of
Cornwall. They cut off a corner, and then
stamp it with the proper seal, and the name
of the melter. This gives assurance to the
purchaser that it is pure tin, and tells all whom
it may concern, that the duty has been paid.
The duty paid to the Duke is four shillings for
every hundred weight. The Prince of Wales
is Duke of Cornwall ; and his revenue, from
this source, has been calculated at thirty thou-
sand pounds a year.
" There are laws, called Stannary laws, by
which all these mines are regulated. Every
case relating to them must be tried before
their own courts, and cannot ie removed
elsewhere.
"If a person suspects tin may be found in
any certain spot of his own estate, he must
CAPTAIN OF THE MINE. 81
obtain leave of the lord, before he can work it.
If the spot be on some unoccupied moor, he
may bound it ; that is, make a pit at each of
the four corners of the plot. No one can then
operate on that piece of ground without leave
from him, as well as from the lord of the soil.
"The share which the lord of the soil
claims, called technically his dish, is about
one sixth or one eighth part, free of all
charges.
" The miners are not paid by the day, but
by a share of the produce. This makes them
careful to obtain all they can from the lode,
and in as little time as possible.
" The whole conduct of the mine, and of the
miner, is under one person called the Captain
of the Mine. Besides knowing the proper
methods of getting the ore out of the rock,
he must have some knowledge of Mechanics,
6
82 ANTIQUITY OP THE
Algebra, and Geometry. He would be es-
teemed unfit for his office, if he could not, at
any time, point out, upon the surface of the
earth, the spot exactly over where the miners
are operating ; so that if it should be necessary
to sink another shaft, he may conduct it per-
pendicularly down to the very spot where it
is wished for; though at a great depth in the
earth, and notwithstanding all the windings
of the mine below."
James was much surprised to find so much
knowledge, as, on several occasions, he met
with in persons whom, from their dress and
laborious occupation, he had supposed to be
very ignorant. He several times wished he
had his own geometrical problems more ready
for use.
" Now, father, when we have seen any En-
glish mine, you tell me about similar mines in
BRITISH TIN MINES. 83
other countries. Where are the other tin
mines 1"
" We shall not have much to say about tin
mines in other countries, James ; for there are
only three places in Europe, where tin has
been found : in Germany, in the mountains of
Saxony ; in Spain, near Portugal ; and, the
best of them all, those which we have now
seen in Cornwall. In some parts of Asia, and
in South America, it has been discovered ; but
not much of it has become an object of com-
merce, like ours."
"Some of the men said these mines had
been worked above two thousand years; is
that true, father?"
" It is very likely to be true, James : for the
Phoenicians are said to have traded hither for
tin, more than five hundred years before the
Christian aera. That is, in the reign of Zede-
34 BRITISH TIN MINES.
kiah, before the Jews were taken captive to
Babylon. If so, that is more than two thou-
sand three hundred years ago; and the man
may be right.
" Some tin has been found in the island of
JBanca, near Sumatra, of which the Dutch have
made their advantage. Some is found in the
province of Nanking, in China; but it cannot
be in any great quantity, because, every year,
the English export tin to China, to a con-
siderable amount, from these mines in Corn-
wall."
COPPER.
CORNWALL.
"What are those odd looking horses, father:
What are they loaded with ? And whither are
they going?"
" They are mules," said Mr. Thompson. "A
mule is an animal between a horse and an ass.
They are preferred, as being extremely sure-
footed. Each of them has, you see, a sort of
wooden saddle, on which is laid a couple of
dirty, dark looking sacks. These are filled
with copper ore, which is to be conveyed to
the sea- side, in order to be sent to Swansea,
in Wales, where it will be smelted, and cast
into moulds, ready for market.
TRAIN OP MULE6
OEK
DOLGOOTH COPPER MINE. 87
"Having seen the tin mines of Cornwall,"
continued the father, " we may as well look at
the copper mines, now ; for Cornwall is famous
for that valuable product, as well as for tin.
" Possibly the most important of these sub-
terraneous treasures is at Dolgooth. Here
again we meet with excavations a mile in
length.
"Beneath, the earth is scooped and hol-
lowed in every direction, almost like a honey-
comb, only with less regularity."
They had to descend above twelve hundred
feet to the bottom: and then might choose
almost any direction, which way soever they
might prefer to go.
"Many steam-engines are employed here:
some in bringing up the ore and the rub-
bish; and several in pumping out the water,
to drain the mines. Some of these are so
88 IMPORTANCE OF
large, as to be denominated of a thousand
horse power.
" Such expenses as are incurred by candles,
tools, and gunpowder, belong to the miners,
who provide for themselves. They are repaid
by a certain proportion of the copper raised
from the mine, when it is actually sold; so
that they are personally benefited by working
the mine well.
" We may judge of the importance of these
mines of copper, when we understand that the
persons in actual employ about them, of all
descriptions, aged and children, women and
men, are above sixteen hundred. The expens-
es are not less than fifteen or twenty thousand
pounds a year. But then the produce is pro-
portionably large, amounting, frequently, to be-
tween seventy and eighty thousand a year,
in money.
THE COPPER MINES. b9
" Perhaps we should not reckon much amiss,
were we to suppose one hundred thousand
persons employed in this one country, in
bringing these treasures from the bowels of the
earth."
"Do they ever find silver or gold in these
mines 1" inquired James.
" Yes, sometimes ; but not in any great
quantities. Grains of gold have been found,
like fine sand ; and small quantities of silver.
Although as much as was worth two thousand
pounds has been obtained near Gwinear, yet
the expenses of procuring it were so great,
that there was not profit to the proprie-
tors, sufficient to make it worth while to
work them. They have therefore been dis-
continued.
" Much lapis calaminaris is found, too, inter-
mingled ; this yields zinc. A mixture of copper
H
90 COMPOSITION OP BRASS.
and zinc makes brass ; as a mixture of copper
and tin forms bell-metal.
" We must not forget an ore called Mundic,
or, sometimes, Marcasite. This was long neg-
lected, as useless. Early in the last century,
Sir Gilbert Clark found out a method of pro-
ducing from it very fine copper, to the value
of nearly two hundred thousand pounds per
annum ; so well employed is scientific know-
ledge, and so prodigal are the ignorant! If
education cost much, yet it is a means to save
a great deal, by teaching us the value of many
things, which, through ignorance of their worth,
we might pass by, or throw away ; and giving
such general knowledge as enables a man to
take advantage of all that Providence brings
under his notice.
"Most of the Cornish mines are called
Wheels ; this, however, is riot the true spelling,
ADVANTAGES OF EDUCATION. 91
but Huel, an old Cornish word, signifying hole.
Their names are often whimsical; as that called
Dolgooth, was so named because the hole was
opened near the dwelling of an old woman
named Dorothy Koath, or Dol Koath; Huel
Providence, so named, perhaps piously, be-
cause it was accidentally discovered ; and Huel
Boys, because the lode was first noticed by
children.
"It was long supposed that tin was not
worth working, when more than three hundred
feet below the surface of the earth: but the
best mines now worked go much deeper ;
some even to nine hundred feet.
"The tin mines were wrought long before
those of copper were discovered. There was,
indeed, a stony substance, which the miner
found troublesome, and, thinking it useless, he
threw it away ; this was called poder ; and he
92 VALUE OF PODER.
even abandoned the mine, when this was too
plentiful. This arose from ignorance. About
the year 1735, a Mr. Coster, of Bristol, who
had better skill in mineralogy, observing the
heaps of this substance, which were thrown
away, engaged to take it out of their way, and
contracted for it at a low price. He soon
found how to extract copper from it ; and
made so much use of his better knowledge, as
to gain a fortune from what may be called the
refuse of their ignorance. Be careful how you
throw any thing away ; or, rather, endeavor to
gain knowledge, in every varied shape, that
you may not be liable to throw away any thing
which may be really valuable."
COPPER.
ANGLESEA.*
ALTHOUGH it was some time after their
leaving Cornwall, that they visited the famous
copper mines in the Parys Mountain, in Angle-
sea; yet it may be convenient to our readers, if
we put all of a sort together. We shall, there-
fore, proceed to relate what was found there
worthy of notice, and exhibit the nature and
importance of the mine.
* Anglesea is an island twenty-four miles long by seventeen
broad, situated in the Irish Sea, on the north-western coast of
"Wales. The Parys Mountain is nine miles in length, and half
as much in breadth, apparently wild, waste, and barren in the
extreme, but containing a bed of copper ore which is supposed
to be the largest in the world.
94 PARYS COPPER MINE.
In most mines, we have to descend deep
into the bowels of the earth, and traverse its
gloomy caverns by the flickering light of a
candle, or a link, which threatens every mo-
ment to leave us in darkness. The miners
work by a mere glimmer, and pass to and fro
almost in the dark. But the Parys Mountain
mine is quife different; it is open to daylight,
and permits the sun and the fresh breezes to
purify the atmosphere, and carry off the noxious
vapors. Not but the air is still very offensive,
in the direction of the wind especially, from
the suffocating fumes of copper, which arise on
all sides. The whole country around, for
miles, is desolate from the effects of these
exhalations.
The first sight of the hill is dreary enough ;
being an assemblage of enormous rocks, hide-
DISCOVERY OP THE MINE. 95
ously piled on each other, of the species called
quartz. On ascending towards the top, the
prospect opens of a huge bason, nearly half a
mile across, or a good mile in circumference.
Persons had been searching here for mineral
treasures for a long while, and at considerable
expense : they were on the point of giving up
the search as fruitless; when, unexpectedly,
in the year 1768, they met with a large mass
of copper ore. This gave them new spirit
for fresh exertions. The mines have been
wrought ever since, to great profit ; sometimes
fifteen hundred men have been employed in
them, who, with their families, may be reck-
oned as seven or eight thousand souls, whose
living entirely depends on this produce.
This hollow is, on one side, filled with
water ; over which, it is said, a bird is never
96 DRAWING UP THE ORE.
seen to fly. It is likely, that the fumes are so
offensive, that they are disgusted, and so kept
from danger.
"What a prospect!" said James; "what a
dreary prospect ! And see, father, what those
men are standing on! It is enough to make
one giddy to look at them."
" O ! I see ; they are standing on scaffold-
ings, projecting a great way from the tops of
the rock ; and there is a windlass at the end
of each, by which I suppose they draw up —
yes, there is one going — they draw up their
baskets, full of ore, from the bottom of the
pits.
"The rock is, first of all, split, by being
blasted with gunpowder, as in most mines. It
is said, that eight tons of gunpowder are thus
used in these mines, every year. The ore, so
obtained in large masses from the rock, is
PARYS MINES.— ANGLESEA COPPER.
98 OPERATIONS ON THE ORE.
broken with great hammers into smaller pieces,
before it is drawn up to the surface of the
earth."
The fumes most discernible were the sul-
phureous; for the ore is much loaded with
sulphur, and it is driven out by fire. Heaps
of copper ore were seen around, smoking and
fuming to the great annoyance of all who
travel that way.
The ore, when thus far purified, is sent to
places where coals are plentiful, in order to be
smelted, and run into moulds, fit for commerce.
In this state they are called cakes, and in some
places salmon.
" This is an amazing mass of metallic ore ;
perhaps there is not such another in the world.
It has been now worked upwards of sixty
years ; and seems likely to last a long time,
with an equally plentiful supply.
AN APPARENT TRANSMUTATION. 99
" In many places there are waters, in smaller
or larger pools, fully impregnated with particles
of pure copper ; indeed, the purest copper is
obtained from these waters."
James was eager to know how this was
done ; and was told that the water contained
a considerable portion of sulphuric acid, or
what he would call oil of vitriol, united with
copper; in other words, the water contained
a quantity of blue copperas, called by chemists
sulphate of copper. And farther, that a laborer,
once leaving his iron spade, accidentally, in
some water of this kind, found it, after a few
weeks, so covered with a coat of copper, that
he firmly believed the iron had been trans-
muted into copper.
"Now the process of obtaining the copper
from such water, is simply thus : the water is
pumped up into pits, made on purpose for
100 VIRGIN COPPER.
the operation. Then plates or pieces of iron
are thrown into them, and left for a time. The
acid, before alluded to, which had dissolved
the copper, and held it in solution, having a
stronger desire for iron, (a stronger affinity,
chemists call it,) seizes on that metal, and
lets go the infinitely small particles of copper,
which it contained, and they fasten themselves
on the iron ; so that the common people say,
and believe, the iron has been changed into
copper. By those who know better, these
pieces of iron are occasionally taken out of the
water, and carefully scraped, to get the copper
off them ; after which, they are again thrown
into the pits, till at length they dissolve, and
are held suspended in the water, while the
copper is precipitated or thrown to the bottom.
The mud is then raked out and put into a
furnace, to melt the copper and free it from the
ANNIVERSARY aE£EB3?A.TIQBT.- . , 101
sediment. Copper so procured is very fine,
and much purer than that which is obtained by
smelting. It is equal to what is called virgin
copper; a name given to lumps, or branches,
of pure, solid metal, which are now and then
found. Both sell at a higher price than
smelted copper.
" Although it is only about sixty years ago,
that we say this mass of copper ore was disco-
vered, we ought rather to call it a re-discovery,
as evident traces are met with continually, of
this mine having been worked many ages
before ; when all the knowledge in these mat-
ters amounted to heating the rocks violently
by fire, and then suddenly deluging them with
water; which occasioned them to crack, and
scale off, so as to enable the workmen to break
them in pieces, fit for smelting."
Had our travellers happened to come hither
102 M7i\E AT ECTON HILL.
in March, they would have found all parties in
high holy day mood ; for in that month the mine
was discovered; and the anniversary is kept
with great glee and joviality, down to the
present time.
Their attention was excited by noticing a
stratum of yellowish clay, which felt considera-
bly greasy to the touch. This appeared to be
very near the top, not a yard below the sur-
face. The stratum itself was indeed, in some
places, ten or twelve feet thick ; in others not
more than three feet. This, it seems, is well
stored with the ore of lead ; and this lead
has in.it a tolerable proportion of silver; as
much as four pounds of silver in a ton of
lead.
When they were at Ecton Hill, or Acton
Hill, in Derbyshire, they found another copper
mine, but of a peculiar kind, nothing like
WICKLOW AND NORWAY MINES. 103
it having been yet discovered in the whole
world. Other mines run to a great length,
or branch out in various directions ; but this
sinks down perpendicularly, widening as it
descends, continually, in the form of a cone.
It is situated near the river Dove, and was
discovered about the year 1740. Those who
first sought here for ore, spent thirteen thou-
sand pounds, without gaining any benefit.
They dug six hundred feet in depth, before
they came to the ore. Then they found a
rich supply ; and a supply which increases
as they descend. The works are four hun-
dred and fifty feet below the bed of the river.
It is the deepest mine in the British islands.
On the opposite side of the hill is an excellent
lead mine.
"Before we go absolutely abroad, we will
just step over to our sister isle. At Wicklow,
104 RORAAS COPPER MINE.
in Ireland, are copper mines ; those especially
at Cronebane, are considerable in their pro-
duce.
" Copper is obtained in this kingdom too,
by immersing iron in the water of the mines,
by which process the finest sort is procured.
"In the Wicklow lead mines, much silver
is found, to the amount of one part in thirty.
Lead ore is very frequently connected with
silver.
"Norway has mines of copper. That at
Roraas, in the province of Drontheim, was
discovered by a Laplander, travelling with
his reindeer, in 1644. In some years above
six hundred tons of copper have been drawn
from it; but some of the veins have, of
late years, become deteriorated in quality,
and diminished in quantity. Three hundred
thousand tons of charcoal are consumed an-
RORAAS COPPER MINE. 105
nually, in smelting the ore. The gang, or
workable part of the mountain, is four or
five feet thick; consisting of a gravelly soil,
loaded with the copper ore/5
COPPER.
SWEDEN.
" WE may take Mr. Coxe as our guide, in
exploring the copper mines of Fahlun,* in
Sweden. He traversed those northern regions
in the years 1784 and 1785. We find, by
his account, that the general appearance of
the country is desolate. We cannot have a
fine vegetable crop above, and a rich treasure
of minerals below, at the same place. Indeed,
the number of smoking furnaces, which poison
the atmosphere, are enough to impede vegeta-
* Fahlun is the capital of the province of Dalecarlia, and lies
one hundred miles N. N. W. from Stockholm.
FAHLUN COPPER MINES. 107
tion, and destroy the least appearance of even
a kindly soil.
" The copper mines at Fahlun are not only
the best in Sweden, but they are among the
best in the world. Swedish copper ranks high
in the market : all our manufacturers are aware
of its excellence.
"Fahlun is situated in a hilly country,
among dreary rocks, and also between two
lakes of considerable size.
"Very ancient records speak of this mine
as having been famous in remote ages ; so that
it is impossible now to relate the story of its
discovery.
"The mouth, or entrance, of the mine is
very large, perhaps a thousand or twrelve
hundred feet in width : it is a vast chasm
among the rocks, which is continually enlarging
as the parts around keep falling. The descent
108 APPEARANCE OF THE MINERS.
is rather hazardous, down several flights of
wooden stairs to the first gallery ; then it
becomes so easy, that, though it consists of
steps cut in the rock, the horses, who are used
to it, can pass up and down them, as they go
and come in bringing up the ore.
" The miners have no clothing on their
bodies, or arms; their naked appearance gives
a sort of awfulness to the scene, which is
heightened by the lights, which every one
carries about in his hand, consisting of small
slips of wood, made into a bundle, and lighted.
"The subterraneous galleries penetrate far
into the bowels of the earth; they are from
six to ten feet high, and of varying widths.
Measuring the chasm from top to bottom, we
find it above a thousand feet; and from the
entrance of the gallery to its lowest part,
it is seven hundred feet more. It is true.
PERILOUS DESCENT TO THE MINES. 109
there is a tolerably commodious staircase for
a long way; then we come to a deep pit,
into which the descent is by a wooden lad-
der ; after this there is an iron ladder, hanging
loose against the sides of the pit ; then a
wooden ladder again, reaching as far as one
can go ; as the bottom of the pit is full of
water. It takes up four hours to pay this
visit to the bottom of the mine : and the
coming up again, such a length of way, and
by such means, is peculiarly dangerous and
fatiguing.
" The modes of operating in this mine are
very similar to those in other mines. The
rock is blasted with gunpowder ; and the
dissevered masses are broken smaller with
hammers. The ore is roasted, in order to
'drive off the sulphur, and the rest is smelted
for sale. But this roasting and smelting are
110 SUPERIORITY OF SWEDISH COPPER.
repeated several times, in order to bring the
copper to that high state of purity for which
Swedish copper is in such great repute.
"Much copper is also obtained here, by
the now common process of steeping iron
in the waters of the mine.
"Twelve hundred workmen are usually
employed here ; one half of them as miners
in the bowels of the earth; the other half
in roasting, smelting, and other necessary
operations belonging to the concern.
"Copper melts very readily. It is drawn
out into fine wire. Screws, and nails, and
utensils for domestic purposes, are made of
it. The bottoms and sides of ships are co-
vered with it, to prevent their decaying, or
being injured by insects. Mixed in proper
quantities with zinc, it produces brass of a
beautiful color."
IRON
FOREST OF DEAN.*
have come some way through this
Forest of Dean," said James; "I think the
man was right, who said it was twenty miles
long; though the ostler said that was its
length formerly; and there is not so much
forest now as there used to be."
" In Queen Elizabeth's time, when the
Spanish Armada was sent over, the invaders
* This forest lies in the county of Gloucester, between the river
Severn and the county of Monmouth. It once contained thirty
thousand acres of land, with an abundance of fine timber. The
wood has been much diminished by the forges, which are em-
ployed in smelting the iron.
112 IMPORTANCE OF IRON.
were expressly commanded to destroy the
Forest of Dean, because the best oak for
our shipping grew there. However, Sir Fran-
cis Drake, and our brave admirals and sailors,
would not let them execute their orders; for
they defeated and dispersed their boasted
invincible fleet."
As it grew dusk, their attention was at-
tracted by symptoms of their approach to the
mining district ; the forges were blazing and
smoking on every side.
" Mines of iron are here, providentially,
accompanied by mines of coal ; these make
the former of double value, because the iron
ore can be smelted on the spot: indeed,
they are generally placed in the same neigh-
borhood.
" Iron is never found pure, as are sometimes
copper, silver, and even gold. It is, however,
SMELTING THE ORE. 113
plentifully dispersed about our globe, and is
one of its greatest natural gifts. Where there
is no iron, there cannot be efficient tools ; no
arts can be carried on to any great extent,
neither can the sciences exist, nor the cultiva-
tion of the mind take place. The use of iron
is the first step towards civilization, in all
countries. Where this is unknown, the peo-
ple are savages, and so they must remain.
" The rusty brown stones, which constitute
the ore of iron, do not seem to promise much
of value, either as to beauty or usefulness.
But man has found out the means of making
them of great importance, by drawing from
them that most useful substance, iron; and
again refining that into the most elegant
articles of steel.
"The brown stones must first be roasted;
this calcination brings them into a state which
8 K
114 THE SMELTING FURNACE.
renders their fusion a much easier and more
certain operation, by expelling the sulphur or
arsenic which abounds in the mineral state.
" It requires some instruction in the nature
of the smelting furnace, to understand the
process. The building, externally, represents
a huge cone of masonry ; for the weight to be
sustained, and the force of the fire to be
resisted, are both very great. Interiorly, this
cone forms a round cavity, narrowest at top;
the bottom of which holds the ore to be
smelted. Some notion may be formed of the
greatness of the operation, when we find this
hollow to be thirty feet in height, and twelve in
diameter at the widest part, or towards the
bottom ; the inside being somewhat of the
shape of an egg, with the largest end down-
wards. The very top, or mouth, is shaped
like a funnel, so that whatever is thrown in
THE BLAST FURNACE. 115
readily descends into the body of the furnace.
It is at this mouth that the laborers feed the
furnace ; by throwing in, alternately, baskets
of fuel, and baskets of ore. The whole height
of the furnace, with its fireplace, is above fifty
feet.
"In former times, the only fuel used was
charcoal; of which the consumption was so
great, that our forests, which were decreasing
very fast, could not supply the demand: in-
deed, the scarcity, and the increased price,
threatened to destroy the whole iron trade.
After many unsuccessful attempts, the ma-
nagers contrived to conduct the operation with
pitcoal. The difficulty was, to obtain a heat
sufficient for fusing the metal. Iron may be
easily made red-hot, but the heat must be
raised far beyond that, to melt it, so that it
may run into a mould. This effect is now
116 THE BLAST FURNACE.
produced by what is called a blast furnace,
a wonderful contrivance, which has given a
power of operation, and, of course, a value,
to our mines, of incalculable extent.
" We all know that the operation of a pair
of bellows will greatly increase the intensity
of a fire ; but what man, or set of men, could
blow such bellows as should be applied to so
great a mass of this ? For some time, huge
bellows were employed, of the usual shape,
and worked by a water wheel; but a much
more powerful blast is now obtained, by a
piston working in a cylinder, upon the prin-
ciple of a common pump, in which the rod,
with its bulby head, commonly called the
sucker, because it seems to suck up the water
from the well, is the piston ; and the tube in
which it works is the cylinder. The only
difference in effect, is, that the machine I am
THE BLAST FURNACE. 117
now speaking of, throws out air instead of
water. As the piston rises, a valve is opened,
through which the air rushes into the cylinder ;
and this air, by the descent of the piston,
which closes the valve, is forced into the
pipes, which convey it to the furnace. By
this means, when the piston is set in motion
by a steam-engine, the blast is almost incon-
ceivably increased in power, and the air is
driven into the furnace in a very condensed
state, which is a great advantage. The cylin-
der is eight feet in diameter, and eight feet
high; the stroke of the piston is seven feet.
But, as the orifices, or nose pipes, through
which all this mass of air is at every stroke
forced into the furnace, are only two or three
inches in diameter, the violence of the blast
may be supposed, though it can hardly be
described. Its effect, when driven into the
118 PIG IRON.
furnace, is wonderful; but it is not let in till
the matters in the furnace are as hot as
common fire can make them ; for till then it
would do more harm than good, by retarding
the operation. When this powerful blasting
begins, the roaring of the furnace becomes
tremendous ; the effect upon the metal is
irresistible; and it is continued for about two
hours.
EXPLANATION OF THE BLAST FURNACE.
A. The pumping cylinder, with its piston.
B. The regulating cylinder.
C. The pipe, for conveying'air to the furnace,
D. The furnace.
E. A man feeding the furnace.
" After the lava, or melted metal, has begun
to run for some little time, it is let out into
channels formed in sand, which lead it into
THE BLAST FURNACE.
120 WHITRIGS IRON MINES.
hollows, formed also in sand, in which it settles
and cools. It is then called pig iron.
" Iron ore is found in many parts of Britain ;
and as the nature of the mines, and other
operations by which the iron stone is reduced
to pure iron, are very similar, thay need not
be repeated at every mine.
"At Whitrigs, near Ulverstone, in Lanca-
shire, are iron mines, which have been wrought
four hundred years, and yet seem to be inex-
haustible. There are immense beds of ore,
from thirty to fifty feet thick, and from a hun-
dred to a hundred and twenty wide. The ore
is red and greasy ; those who are engaged
in the works shew the color on themselves
very powerfully. Sometimes, two , hundred
tons are raised in a week ; the metal produced
from it is more than half the weight. Here
the smelting is effected with charcoal; of
IRON MINES IN SCOTLAND. 121
which vast quantities are burned in the vici-
nity.
" There are mines of iron in Scotland ; and
much of the ore is smelted at the Carron*
founderies, where are twenty furnaces, which
consume two hundred tons of coal every
week. The place which, a few years ago,
was a wild heath, is now a considerable town ;
as two thousand workmen are employed at
the works. The machinery is of the most
excellent kind, and wonderful in its opera-
tions."
* Carron is situated twenty-six miles north-west of Edinburgh.
The carronade, a kind of short ship-gun, derives its name from
having been first made here
L
IRON.
RUSSIA.
"WE have great quantities of iron from
Russia. The principal mines are situated in
the Uralian mountains, which, towards the
northern part of the eastern border, separate
Russia from her Asiatic dominions.
" Here are above a hundred founderies ;
more than half of these are for iron, and the
remainder for copper. The peasants, as is
common in Russia, belong to the estate,
whether private persons own the land, or
the sovereign. Almost a hundred thousand
of them work in these mines, at the will
of their several lords.
RUSSIAN MINES. 123
"They raise, upon an average, nearly one
hundred thousand tons weight of iron annu-
ally; part of this descends, by the Wolga,
to the eastern provinces ; and the greater
part of it is towed, through rivers and canals,
to Petersburgh."
TRON.
SWEDEN.
" BY all the feelings which belong to liberty,
and associate with the name of Gustavus Vasa,
the deliverer of Sweden, we must pay a visit
to the mountains of Dalecarlia, where he was
hid so long, and whose hardy sons enabled
him to resist the tyrannical Danish King,
Christian II. Among those mountains, and
in those mines, he wrought as a common
laborer, till an opportunity occurred for his
declaring himself, and engaging the miners
on his side. The inhabitants of those dis-
tricts have a great veneration for his memory,
to this day/5
SWEDISH MINERS. 125
" I suppose," said James, " our visit, as
usual, is to be paid by means of your library,
while we sit by the fireside."
"It will be most convenient. We shall
employ several travellers ; we have only to
fancy, or, as children say, make believe, that
we have sent Messieurs So-and-so to gain
information, and to report to us.
" One of them says, the miners and black-
smiths of Sweden are well fed, and lodged
comfortably ; and he gives us such a picture,
uniting vigor, activity, and contentment, as
makes it pleasant to travel among their vil-
lages. When night comes on, the sensations
are different, and almost terrific. The din
of so many hammers at work all around,
and the streams of light, and flame, and
black smoke, issuing from so many forges,
powerfully impress the mind ; even the
126 MINE AT DANNEMORA.
clouds seem to be on fire, from the red ra-
diance.
"The most important of the iron mines is
at Darmemora,* which was discovered in
1488. The opening of the mine is of great
extent, in which, here and there, are twelve
pits; and down these the mining operations
are carried on. These pits are deep excava-
tions, like gravel pits, forming so many gulfs.
The descent into them is by means of baskets,
or buckets, each attached to a rope, which
passes over a pulley; much as if there were
a projection from the top of Salisbury steeple,
from which, in a basket, one could be let
down to the ground.
"One traveller, speaking of this descent,
saysv 'The inspector of the mines accompa-
nied me: I was accommodated with a chair;
* Dannemora is distant from Stockholm sixty miles, N. N. W.
DESCENT INTO THE IRON MINES OF DANNEMORA.
128 MODE OF DESCENT.
but he seated himself on the edge of the
bucket, extending his legs, in order to maintain
our equilibrium. He had a stick in his hand,
with which he occasionally pushed off from
the edges of the rock, when we were in
danger of striking against them. We were
above five minutes making this perilous jour-
ney. The depth thus descended was five
hundred, feet. While I was thus descending,
and hung in mid air, another bucket was
ascending. I was so giddy, that I did not
dare to look down; but as it passed us, I
observed three girls in it, or rather on it, as
they were each standing on the edge of the
bucket, with great unconcern, and knitting all
the while, quite at their ease. So much does
custom take away the sense of danger. When
I rose again, I closed my eyes, till I arrived
safe at the surface.5
DIMENSIONS OF THE PITS. 129
"The motion of these buckets, up and down,
is regulated by wheel-work, moved by horses.
"The water is drawn out of the mine by
pumps, kept in motion by a wheel of great
size, said to be above sixty feet in diameter.
It is then conveyed away by an aqueduct, a
mile and a half long.
"The length of these pits, adding them
together, is about eight hundred feet ; the
breadth varies from three to twelve ; the
depth has been ascertained in several parts
to be five hundred feet ; but that does not
reach the bottom in some places.
"This mine furnishes iron in high repute,
as being the finest in the world. It is chiefly
brought over to England, to supply the man-
ufactories of steel and fine goods.
"The ore is dug in summer, and laid in
heaps ; in winter, it is removed on sledges
9
130 SMELTING AND FORGING.
to the several forges. The richest ore yields
seventy per cent, of iron ; the poorer sort not
half so much.
"One of the principal forges is at Loefsta.
Here the numerous buildings, and the neat
brick cottages for the workmen, make a pleas-
ing appearance.
"Much as in other places, is the operation
of smelting performed. The ore is roasted,
then reduced to powder by the mills; it is
then melted, and, running into sand moulds, is
cast into huge lumps, each weighing above a
hundred weight. It is then heated and ham-
mered repeatedly, till it is shaped into bars,
from twelve to eighteen feet long, and from
one to eight inches broad. In this state it
comes to us.
"One remarkable particular, recorded by
another observer, is the manner of obtaining
MODE OF GETTING THE ORE. 131
the ore out of the rock ; it is not dug out, as
is commonly the case, but torn out by gun-
powder. This operation takes place every
day, at twelve o'clock, and is a most tremen-
dous business. The explosion reverberates
among the hollow windings of the mine,
like subterraneous thunders. The stones are
thrown up, as by a volcano, to a great height
in the air; and the concussion shakes the
earth all around.
" This traveller descended also into the
mine, by the same sort of dangerous convey-
ance, as the one to whom I have just alluded ;
and owns, that he shuddered, and half re-
pented his curiosity ; for, in him, it was nothing
better. He was nine minutes in a state of
suspension, before he reached the bottom.
The view of the mine, he describes as awfully
grand. Daylight was very faint at these
132 DANGEROUS EMPLOYMENT.
depths ; into many parts it could not pene-
trate, and they were obliged to use flambeaux.
Frames of wood were stretched from side
to side of the rock, in some places ; on
these, men were sitting astride, at great
heights, boring holes for the next blasting.
Should they lose their balance, they must
fall and be dashed to pieces.
" Though the weather was warm at the
surface of the earth, yet amid these dark
brown caves it was cold. In one of these
caverns considerably under the rock, was a
charcoal fire, around which were eight mise-
rable creatures, eating their meal and warm-
ing themselves. The warmth was a great
refreshment, for the way was strewed with
ice, almost every where in the mines.
" Some, who have been disinclined to the
airy voyage in the bucket, have descended,
BORING THE ROCK FOR BLASTING.
134 USES OF IRON.
in another part by ladders. These are crazy
things, and would be esteemed very dan-
gerous, except as compared with the rope.
They are also placed almost perpendicularly,
from one projection of the rock to another.
There is no small peril in this mode, as might
be supposed, if the descent were from the top
of St. Paul's ; which is about three-fourths of
the same depth.
"How necessary is iron to all our manu-
factures, and to the cultivation of our fields
and gardens ! It is drawn out into vecy fine
wire, and moulded into a variety of vessels
for domestic use. To convert it into steel, of
which our best cutlery is made, nothing more
is necessary than to heat good pure iron in
a proper furnace, with charcoal, or with any
substance capable of furnishing a sufficient
quantity of carbon, which is absorbed by the
FORMATION OF STEEL. 135
iron in the process. Of this steel are made
articles which admit of the most beautiful
polish. Iron is more affected by the magnet
than any other mineral; and thus it becomes
a sure guide to tbe mariner over the trackless
waters."
COAL.
NEWCASTLE.*
"CERTAINLY, now we are at Newcastle/'
said the father, " we must see how they make
coals."
" Make coals!" said James. "Nay, father,
they do not make coals, they dig them out of
the earth, out of deep pits."
" I suppose we shall see," was the answer.
Accordingly they made the intended visit.
* Newcastle, which is situated in the greatest coal district in the
world, is a seaport of England, capital of Northumberland, on the
north branch of the Tyne, ten miles from its mouth ; one hundred
miles south of Edinburgh, and two hundred and seventy north of
London.
BORING FOR COAL. 137
It happened, luckily, that a friend conducted
them to a spot, where they were that morning
going to bore for coal, in order to discover if a
new mine might be formed. The boring rods
are iron bars, each about an inch and a half
square, and from three to four feet long; the
end is formed into a screw, so that the bars
can be joined together, to any length that
may be needed. At the end of the first,
or lower bar, is a chisel, half a yard long, and
about two and a half inches wide ; and at the
end of the upper bar is an eye, or loop, of
iron, very strong, through which a long piece
of timber is put, by which to turn the borer
round.
James watched the operation, and saw that
the men lifted up the borer a little way in the
hole it had made, and then let it fall again,
taking care to turn it a little round as it fell.
M
138 BORING FOR COAL.
It is a tedious business, especially when the
stratum through which they are boring is very
hard, as a rock, for instance. The chisel soon
becomes blunted, and must be drawn out, to
be replaced by another. Indeed, they fre-
quently draw up the borer, and put down a
wimble, or sort of scoop, with which they bring
up the dust which the chisel has made; and
from this dust they can tell what sort of sub-
stances they are boring through.
When they find coal, their first concern is
to clear the water off; for all the joints and
separations of the stratum of coal, in general,
flow with water copiously. If the coal be so
situated, as to height in the hill, that a drain, or
level, can be led to it, this is the best way ;
unless the distance, or the hardness of the soil,
should make it too expensive. In that case, a
steam-engine is built, to pump the water out.
DRAINING A COAL MINE. 139
When this is resolved on, a pit, or well,
about six or eight feet in diameter, is sunk,
below the deepest part of the stratum of coal :
the water will naturally flow into this, i and
clear the mine, if pumped out as fast as it
flows in.
When the engine pit is prepared, so that
the water can be drawn off, they drive the
mine, as it is called, so as to come at the
coal.
We may here give the substance of James's
letter to his mother, sent off by post the
next day.
"DEAR MOTHER,
"Our journey into the pit, (we being re-
solved to see it,) was, at least to us, rather
adventurous. It will do better to read, than
to repeat ; as, by the fireside, you will not
be in danger, as we were.
140 A PERILOUS JOURNEY.
" When we came to the opening of the pit,
the first object which caught our attention was
the thump, thump, of an enormous steam-
engine, which was employed to pump up the
water out of the mine.
" Near this was a circular hole, down which
we were to go ; so filled with smoke, that we
could discern nothing else; it seemed like a
descent into a vast chimney ; and that, too,
while they were busy cooking below.
" We were first desired to dress ourselves :
indeed, this seemed needful, unless we would
utterly spoil our clothes ; as to our faces, we
knew, by experience, they could be washed.
We put on, therefore, miners' jackets and trow-
sers, with caps over our heads ; and, thus ac-
coutred, we prepared for our suffocating jour-
ney. But how were we to descend? There
were no stairs ; but we found prepared, a log
DESCENT INTO A COAL MINE. 141
of wood, about three inches thick, and half a
yard long ; fastened by a rope at each end, so
as to swing horizontally. This sling, or horse,
as it is called, was slung by a hook to an iron
chain. Each of us, therefore, had to put one
leg through this loop, across the wooden bar,
and lay hold tight of the chain, by which all
was suspended; both of us went together.
We were then pushed from the firm ground,
and began swinging; and found ourselves
gently sinking, by the turning of the ma-
chinery, which went by horses. In about five
long minutes, for so they seemed to us, we
felt the ground again ; and got out, or off of
our — what shall we call it — a carriage?
"Feeling our feet again, we began to pe-
rambulate ; which we could do as easily as if
in our drawing-room. Not that our dresses,
142 INTERIOR OF A COAL MINE.
or our black faces, would have been at all
suitable for that. We seemed to be entering
a vast suite of black chambers, supported and
divided by regular pillars of immense size.
The roof seemed only about seven feet high,
and the chambers about twelve feet wide ;
but how far the stratum of coal reaches, they
cannot tell, — perhaps half under the county;
at least, so they hope, and so do we hope
too ; — for I don't know what London would
do for firing, if these coal-pits were to fail.
"Now for our ascent: — it was by the same
means as our descending. We were, how-
ever, surprised, when about half way up, to
hear a voice say, 'How do you do, gentlemen?'
We were so smothered in the smoke, that we
could see nobody; but we found it was a
common joke, for some of the men to begin
PROCESS OF WORKING. 143
descending, and thus meet and surprise the
half stupified travellers, in midway of their
swinging."
In working the mine, a common practice is,
to take away the stratum of coal only partially,
leaving huge pillars of it to support the roof.
When they have thus proceeded some way,
the miners come back and work out those
pillars ; which occasions the earth above to fall
in, and fill up the cavity. These pillars are
not left at random, but at regular intervals,
and are of regular shapes; from twelve to
eighteen feet thick. When they have wrought
out all the pillars that can be safely removed,
there will be left an eighth or more, of the
whole substance of the coal, which they dare
not touch.
In one place, they saw horses employed in
144 FEMALE COAL BEARERS.
drawing sledges, loaded with great baskets
filled with coal; five or six, and sometimes
eight hundred weight, are drawn out at a
time, by one horse, if the slope be not too
steep. A mine is formed on purpose, with
a gentle slope for them, where it can con-
veniently be done. But the surprise of the
party was not small, when, coming to a place
where no such slope could be made, they
found the poor horses let down to their work,
tied up in a net. Where the mine is not large
enough for horses to work, the coal is removed
by men, who drag about half the load of a
horse, on a low carriage of four wheels. In
some places, neither of these modes is pos-
sible ; so the coals are brought out by women,
called bearers, who carry them in baskets, on
their, heads ; the load is a hundred weight, and
often more. And this is done in places where
WOMEN BEARING COAL.
10
N
146 NEWCASTLE COAL MINES.
the ascent is so steep, that the carriage drawn
either by horses or men, could not be used
The coal is thus brought from the place where
it is dug out, to the bottom of the shaft, which
opens to the surface of the earth ; this is some-
times a very considerable distance. At the
shaft, the coals are put into baskets, fastened to
a rope, and drawn up by a sort of windlass,
called a gin, set in motion by horses, or by a
water-wheel, or by a steam-engine ; as may be
most convenient at each place. The depth of
some of the mines, below the surface, is often
seven or eight hundred feet.
When the coals have fairly arrived on the
surface of the earth, they are carried a small
distance from the mouth of the pit ; and sorted
into three heaps, according to their sizes.
There are between twenty and thirty coal
mines, in the neighborhood of Newcastle.
WAGON-WAYS AND RAIL-ROADS. 147
Some are within five miles of the river/and
some almost twenty miles distant. To cart
so heavy a substance all this distance, would
cost so much, that coals in London would
amount to double their present price. But
knowledge is fruitful in expedients. Wagon-
ways, or rail-roads, of iron, are constructed,
down wrhich the wagons roll with great ease ;
so that one horse will draw as much as ten on
a common road. A rail-road consists of two
shallow grooves of iron, well fastened on stone
work in the ground, upon which the wheels
of the carriage run ; or, sometimes, the rail-
way consists of an iron ridge, fastened as
before; and then the iron wheels of the car-
riage have each a shallow groove to work
upon it. The wagons are of a funnel shape;
and when one arrives at the wharf, a door
in the bottom is opened, which lets the coals
148 KEELS AND KEELMEN.
through, into the keel, or barge, which is
placed properly underneath.
The keel is a clumsy oval-shaped barge,
in which the coals are rowed down the river,
to the ships, which wait to receive them.
The keelmen are a numerous body, rough
and hardy ; not fewer than six thousand in
number. But it is calculated that almost
seventy thousand persons are employed by
these mines, in various ways ; and the ca-
pital by which the works are carried on,
amounts to more than three millions ster-
ling.
In one part of the mine, an accident had
recently happened, called a crash. The pil-
lars left to support the roof, being too slender,
had failed ; or else the floor of the mine was
too soft, and had suffered the pillars to sink
in; so that the roof fell in, with the whole
FOUL AIR IN MINES. 149
mass of earth above it. This sort of accident
seldom happens without giving notice, by pre-
vious cracks, and the falling of detached pieces
from the roof. In this case, the miners some-
times build up stone piers, to support the
roof, if a fall in that spot would greatly hin-
der the work ; otherwise they clear away
more of the coal pillars, and let it sink in
gently.
Many dreadful accidents arise from foul air,
of which there are two sorts : one, the black
damp, is of a suffocating nature ; the other
is inflammable, and, taking fire, explodes with
great violence, or, perhaps, sets on fire the
wrhole body of coal, so as to destroy the
mine. The workpeople take great care,
therefore, to bring a current of fresh air into
the mine, which carries off the foul gas, and
150 THE SAFETY LAMP.
prevents its accumulating to any dangerous
quantity.
A few years ago, a dreadful explosion oc-
curred at the Felling colliery, near Newcastle ;
and as these accidents are too sudden to allow
of escape, more than one hundred persons,
who were at work in the mine, perished in
an instant; and nearly five hundred widows
and children were plunged into distress and
destitution.
Philosophy has, in modern times, endea-
vored, with some success, to guard against
this calamity, so terrible and so irresistible.
Sir H. Davy has invented what is called a
safety lamp, for the use of men working in
the mines. It consists of a common lamp,
covered with a skreen of very fine wires,
woven very closely together. The light
THE SAFETY LAMP. 151
passes between the bars, in a sufficient degree
to assist the workmen ; but the foul air is so
dense, and, one might almost say, so ropy, that
it cannot pass between the wires to get at the
flame; and nothing short of actual contact
with the blaze will set it on fire.
COAL.
SUNDRIES.
ALTHOUGH Newcastle has long been the
grand source of supply of coals for London,
as well as for the eastern and a considerable
portion of the south coasts of the kingdom, yet
there are many other mines of this precious
substance.
It has been calculated, that as a mere com-
modity for sale, more value has been raised
from the coal mines, than from the silver mines
of Potosi, or the gold mines of Mexico. This
value becomes enhanced to the nation, in an
almost incalculable degree, by the use to which
ANNUAL SUPPLY OF COAL. 153
coal is put in manufactories. A hundred
pounds worth of coal employed in steam-
engines and iron forges, soon produces its
thousands in some useful or ornamental article.
The various fabrics thus brought to perfection,
from the huge anchor of a man of war, to the
delicate bobbinet-lace of a lady's fashionab1-
dress, with numerous et ceteras, are beyond
calculation. Were the coal mines to cease,
nine-tenths of the activities of the British
empire must cease also.
" One would think," said James, " that, so
much as they dig out every year, they must
soon come to the end of the mine ; and then,
what should we do for coal?"
" That may become a serious question, some
day," said Mr. Thompson. "Especially con-
sidering that they have been digging here four
hundred years ; and that they now excavate
154 BORROWSTOWNESS COAL MINE.
to the amount of one million eight hundred
thousand chaldrons every year, to supply
London only ; add to this what the eastern
and southern coasts of the kingdom consume,
and what is exported to foreign nations ; and
we shall make a total amount of two and a
half millions of chaldrons, dug out every year."
" I hope it will last my time !" said James.
" Posterity may thank you for such a selfish
wish ; but such privation need not be feared
yet. Newcastle and its neighborhood can
supply us for four hundred years more; and
there are many mines in other parts of the
kingdom, some of which have never been
worked, but which would become of value, if
our present means of supply should fail.
" One of the most remarkable mines of coal
was found in the parish of Borrowstowness, in
Scotland. This mine penetrated to a great
MINES FROM UNDER THE SEA. 155
extent under the sea. About the entrance,
which was situated half a mile from the beach,
an embankment was made, to keep off the
waters; and ships could lie close up to take
in the coal. Several springs of fresh water
oozed into the works ; but the water was
drawn off by an engine, moved by the tide.
For many years this was a profitable concern,
and brought great wealth to the Earl of Kin-
cardine, to whom it belonged. The end of it
was, however, very calamitous. An unusually
high tide overtopped the mounds around the
entrance ; the sea rushed in, filled the mine,
and drowned all who happened to be at work
in it at that moment. It has not been wrought
since.
" At Whitehaven, in Cumberland, is a mine
very similar ; as it runs under the sea to a
great distance. The works are sunk almost
156 CANNEL COAL.
eight hundred feet deep; and vessels ride at
anchor, over the heads of the miners.
" A peculiar sort of coal, called Cannel Coal
is found in Staffordshire, Cumberland, and
Lancashire. It is so hard that it will not only
admit of being turned in a lathe, to form boxes,
and ornamental articles, as inkstands, salt-
cellars, candlesticks, &c., but it will bear a
polish, and will not soil the most delicate
linen. It is, however, chiefly used for fuel ;
and it gives a remarkably clear flame, like a
candle ; whence its name, possibly : but it
must be sprinkled with water before it is
laid on the fire, otherwise, as soon as it gets
warm, it will crack and fly into the room, in
a multitude of small pieces. It is said, that
the chequered pavement of Litchfield cathedral
is laid with cannel coal for the black squares,
and alabaster for the white.
A CURIOUS DISCOVERY. 157
"Bovey Heath, in Devonshire, has a remark-
able species, which bears its name, Bovey Coal:
it has the appearance of having been originally
wood. A similar kind is also found in Scotland
and in Iceland.
" A curious discovery was made, some years
since, at Bally castle, in Ireland, of an ancient
coal mine. The colliers were carrying a new
adit, or roadway ; and meeting with a stratum
of rock, they bored through it. They then
perceived they were entering into a vast
cavern. As the opening made was as yet but
small, they caused a couple of boys to creep
through, with lights, to discover to what and
where they were come. These soon lost
themselves in the windings of the cavern.
The workmen then enlarged the hole, and,
going after them, perceived they had entered
a mine, which led them a long way, and
158 COLLIERIES AT DYSART.
i
branched off into many chambers, which had
been worked ages before, as no traditional
remembrance or history of any coal mine
there, was in existence. Pillars were left to
support the roof, much after the modern
custom. Some remains of tools and baskets
were found; but so decayed, that they crumb-
led to dust on being touched. That it was
long, long ago, since these chambers had been
worked, was evident, as stalactite pillars were
formed by the dripping of water through the
rock above ; some of them reaching to the
floor. Such pillars of such a size, could only
be formed during the lapse of many ages.
" In Scotland, there are many coal works.
" Near Dysart,* is a collection of collieries,
remarkable for having many of the beds of
* A seaport on the Frith of Forth, twelve miles north of
Edinburgh.
COLLIERIES AT DYSART. 159
coal on fire, which have been burning for two
centuries. At present the heat only warms
the earth, so as to prevent snow from lying
long on the surface ; but, in times past, there
was smoke by day, and flame by night, to a
very awful degree.
" A traveller who visited the Dysart mine,
writes thus: 'I have made a journey lately,
where there were no trees, no fields: there was
a river, indeed, beside us, but no fish ever
swam in it ; and in the air far around no bird
has ever been known to fly ! I have been in
the coal mines at Dysart. I repaired to the
inspector's house, and was dressed. Conceive
my slender body wrapped in a sailor's jacket
and trowsers, which had been made for a stout
man. I was crowned with an immense old
hat, which had an irresistible tendency to rest
upon my shoulders. After half an hour's
160 COLLIERIES AT DYSART.
walk in this fantastic attire, during which time
I afforded some merriment to the natives, we
reached the place of descent. It is a perpen-
dicular shaft, with a wooden partition in the
middle, reaching to the bottom. On one side
of this partition are placed short wrooden
ladders, in a zigzag direction, from top to
bottom of the pit.
"'Having each lighted his candle, we began
to descend, and were right glad, after some
fatigue, to find we had reached the bottom;
though we were still half a mile from the shaft
where the coals are taken up. My friend led
the way with a lantern ; and we soon began to
perceive that we had entered a spacious
gallery, the roof of which was about twelve
feet high. By the glimmer of our candles on
the right hand, the wall seemed to be solid;
but on the left now and then appeared a
MINES AT DYSART. 161
spacious gloomy cavern, which seemed to turn
at right angles to the route we were pursuing ;
but how far we could not tell, it was all
impenetrable darkness. We were then walk-
ing in what the miners call the level. On our
side, a river flowed, fed by streams from
various caverns, or sometimes by a waterfall,
where the roof had given way. Hitherto the
murmur of the stream had alone broken the
dreary stillness of these caverns, and the feeble
rays of our candles only made visible the dark-
ness which they could not dissipate. But now
other sounds and lights began to burst upon
us : a fire was seen blazing at a distance, and
a number of motley faces danced and gleamed
before us, like the figures of a magic lantern.
The clanking of chains and the trampling
of horses, were now distinctly heard; and a
hollow sound as of distant thunder grumbled
11 O
162 INTERIOR OF THE
through the subterranean vaults, as the loaded
baskets were dragged along.
"'We had now, in fact, arrived at the pit,
where the coals are raised by a steam-
engine. We had not yet travelled over half
our ground, but the remainder of the journey
was more expeditious. A train of empty
baskets was ready to move, in which we
made ourselves comfortable seats with straw.
Our horse was harnessed, our light adjusted,
and in a few minutes we started at the full
trot, to explore the yet unseen recesses of
this seemingly endless labyrinth. After tra-
velling another mile, we arrived at the place
where the men were at work. Here the air
was very close, from the smoke of their lamps ;
and we were glad to make our way back on
loaded baskets, though contrary to the laws
of these realms. We took no candles in
TREASURES OF THE EARTH. 163
returning, as a lamp is attached to each train
of baskets. By accident this only remaining
light went out about the middle of our journey,
and we were left in darkness, of which those
above ground can form no conception. Our
horse continued to canter along, as if nothing
had happened, at a rate which made it a little
difficult for me to keep my seat. In some
time, a twinkling lamp appeared at a distance,
on passing which, things went on as before.
The baskets we travelled in are set on wheels,
which move in a railway. The horses are in
excellent condition, and have good stables in
the mine. They never see the light of day
from the time they are first lowered down.
Our return need not be described any far-
ther/"
GOLD.
GOLD is one of the purest metals; and,
on that account, not liable to perish by rust,
or by fire. It is malleable, ductile, resplen-
dent, and the most weighty of them all: half
as heavy again as lead, and more than nine-
teen times the weight of water, bulk for
bulk.
Gold is found in primitive mountains, usu-
ally in slender veins, often penetrating the
hard rock itself. But it is more commonly ob-
tained in small grains, from alluvial soil, that
is, such as forms the beds of rivers, or the
sides of channels which have been created
by floods, and are frequently covered with
water. Many have supposed that these frag-
GOLD IN SANDS OP RIVERS. 165
ments are washed down from the adjoining
mountains ; and persons have frequently en-
deavored to trace them up to their supposed
original beds in the mountains, where they
hoped to find the parent vein, and become
rich at once : they have, however, been dis-
appointed. Nay, where the sands of the
rivers afford golden grains, these particles
have become more scarce as the searchers
approached nearer to the rocks from which
the streams have issued. The gold, indeed,
appears only here and there : it is not the
whole channel that affords the particles of
metal, but only some particular districts,
through which the stream passes.
The term "Mine," which seems to imply
some hollow, artificially excavated beneath the
mountain, must, in this instance, be transfer-
red to places where the miners merely dig
166 GOLD IN SANDS OF RIVERS.
up the surface of -the soil, and wash it, in
order to separate the precious grains from
the earth.
GOLD.
SUNDRIES.
THE most ancient gold mines, of which
we have any account, were in Spain, in the
northern provinces. Thither the Phoenicians
used to repair for the precious metal. The
Romans also, when they conquered Spain,
employed the native Spaniards to dig their
own mines for them; much as, in later times,
the Spaniards have forced the Indians of South
America to dig for their profit. The mines in
Spain consisted of veins of gold, running in
the rocks ; but they have been long neglected ;
indeed, ever since the discovery of America
has enabled the Spaniards to obtain gold in a
168 GOLD MINES IN HUNGARY.
more easy and plentiful manner. In the time
of Nero, fifty pounds of gold were obtained
daily from the mines of Dalmatia. It was
found on the surface of the ground. The
island of Thasos, in the JEgean Sea, also
yielded a considerable quantity. France has
never been famous for gold; yet some has
been found in a few of her rivers. At Gar-
dette, in the hard rock, were some veins of
native gold ; but not in sufficient quantity to
be worth the working.
A little is found in Mount Rosa, in Piedmont,
just enough to pay for obtaining it. We find
yet more among the craggy mountains in the
Tyrol.
Hungary has been much celebrated for its
mines, and not without reason. The modes
of operating, and the machinery, are not equal
to those in use in England ; but they are very
SCOTTISH GOLD MINES. 169
carefully wrought. It is supposed that nearly
six hundred thousand pounds, in gold, are
raised every year at Schemnitz and Cremnitz.
One third as much of silver, besides lead, is
drawn from thence. These are the only gold
mines in Europe, of any importance.
Sweden has some gold mines at Edelfors;
where native gold, in veins, traverses a rocky
mountain.
Russia has a mine at Voetsk, north of the
lake Onega ; but not in sufficient quantities to
be worth the working.
In Scotland, gold was found, ages ago
And in the reign of Elizabeth, considerable
quantities were collected between Leadhills
and Elvanfoot. The traces of the works then
carried on yet remain. The gold was found
immediately under the vegetable soil. Hither
a small stream of water was conducted, in
P
170 WICKLOW GOLD MINES.
order to wash away the light earth into pools,
or basins, dug on purpose; in this state of
loose mud, the heavier particles sank in the
pit, while the mere earth was carried off. All
those heavier matters which sank, were after-
wards well washed, and examined for the
grains of gold. Gold is still found in Scot-
land; but the increased expense of seeking
it, renders the search unprofitable. Some of
those who work in the adjacent lead mines,
amuse themselves in their spare time, and
now and then pick up a little.
Much was said, a few years ago, concerning
the mountains of Wicldow, in Ireland. There
some large lumps of gold were found, in a
sandy soil. Several were of an ounce weight
each, and one lump weighed twenty-two
ounces. This is said to be the largest mass
of native gold ever found, any where.
ASIATIC GOLD MINES. 171
We expect to find gold in Asia; especially
as all our histories of the earliest ages, even
long before Nebuchadnezzar's golden image,
ninety cubits in height, was erected, speak
of gold being in great plenty. Solomon made
it to abound so, that silver was little thought
of. Nay, as far back as the time of Moses,
and the erection of the tabernacle in the wil-
derness, we find it in plenty. The whole
continent of Asia seems to furnish it; from
Siberia to India, and from the western pro-
vinces to Japan. The mines of Beresof, in
Siberia, are still wrought; those of Tcherepa
Nafskoy are very rich in gold. In the south-
ern parts, as in India, many rivers furnish the
precious grains. A river in Lydia, called
Pactolus, which empties itself into the Archi-
pelago, was famous in ancient story for its
golden sands. The river runs by Sardis, and
172 AFRICAN GOLD MINES.
is said to have been the chief source of the
long famous riches of Croesus. In the east,
the islands of Japan, Vonnosa, Ceylon, and
most of the islands in the Eastern Sea, much
gold is found at the present day.
Africa has always been rich in gold. The
ancients had much from it. That Ophir, from
which Solomon received his supplies, is thought,
with great probability, to have been on the
eastern coast, somewhere about where Sofala
now stands. Gold is still an article of com-
merce with all the Cafilas which traverse its
dreary deserts. This is evidently the produce
of the rivers ; as it comes only in the shape of
dust, or very small grains. It is brought for
sale in quills of the ostrich and the vulture.
The centre of Africa has always been esteemed
rich in gold. Herodotus tells us, that the King
of Ethiopia brought to Cambyses all his pri-
AFRICAN GOLD MINES. 173
soners bound with chains of gold. That part
of Africa which lies more to the southward,
which we trade with on the western side, by
the ports of Guinea, Upper and Lower, pro-
duces much gold from its rivers, such as the
Senegal, the Gambia, and the Niger.
GOLD.
MEXICO.
AT the present day we turn our eyes to
the New World, in search of golden treasures.
Ever since the discovery of America, gold has
been the grand object of research with the
European settlers, and their descendants, in
the middle districts. That those regions
abounded in this splendid metal, we have
undeniable testimony to prove ; the quantity
discovered in use there, and the quantities
gained from thence every year, establish this
point beyond contradiction. It is said, that, in
gold and silver, America sends annually to
RICHES OF ANCIENT MEXICO. 175
Europe, twenty -four millions pounds sterling in
value.
When Cortez landed in Mexico, the most
costly presents were made him by the natives,
in the hope of civilly prevailing with him to
depart ; but the value of these presents deter-
mined him to stay in a country where such
magnificent commodities could be procured.
Among them, were two large plates ; one of
massive gold, representing the sun, and one
of solid silver, for the moon ; besides boxes
filled with grains of virgin gold, just as they
were obtained from the rivers. Even the
governors of the provinces made him presents
of immense value, in gold; which, though
known to be in high esteem, was in that
country plentiful.
The description of Mexico itself, its palaces,
and its temples, evinces the great abundance
176 UNCERTAINTY OF GOLD MINES.
of gold, in the massy ornaments of that metal,
which glittered on every side.
When Cortez retreated from Mexico, he left
behind him, above what the soldiers could
carry away, gold, &c. to the value of two
hundred thousand pounds ; and in stripping the
slain after the battle of Otumba, his soldiers
gained an almost equal value.
As gold was their principal object, they,
soon after gaining the country, searched for
the mines themselves, and forcibly obliged
the natives to dig in them. It is calculated
that forty thousand of them are still kept to
this labor, in New Spain only.
The principal mines are situated inland, far
from the sea ; in the provinces of Zacatecas,
New Biscay, and Mexico Proper. But the
veins of gold are small, and the produce
uncertain. It has been observed, that gold
VARIOUS STATES OF GOLD ORE. 177
mines have generally ruined those who en-
gaged with them ; although the purifying of
the ore is not so expensive as that of other
metals. This happens, because the veins are
very apt to fail. For a while, the vein will be
full and rich, and then it is lost on a sudden :
when, indeed, a vein can be traced to its end,
the miners frequently find what is called the
purse of the mine, or such a considerable
quantity as at once makes the fortune of the
adventurer.
These mines are not wrought at the public
expense; but any man, who suspects gold in
any place, may obtain a grant of the land ;
only stipulating to begin working within a
certain time.
The gold here, as in other parts of the world,
is found in two different states ; either within
the rock in veins ; or scattered in morsels, in
12
178 OPERATIONS TO OBTAIN GOLD.
the sands of rivers. When obtained from the
rocks, which must be burst asunder to get at
it, it is sometimes found in lumps, or masses,
of pure metal, called native gold; but, more
frequently, it exists in a mineralized state,
mingled with other substances, as earth, stone,
sulphur, &LC. In this state it would not be
recognised by an ignorant person ; for it
is red, white, black, as may happen, and
shews none of its brilliancy or metallic cha-
racter.
When gold is found in this state of mixture,
the ore is broken in pieces, in a mill, consisting
of an upright, circular stone, which turns on its
axis, while it traverses a circular trough ; such
as is employed in grinding bark, in England.
When thus broken, some of the refuse is easily'
separated from it. To the remaining mass, a
considerable quantity of quicksilver is added;
BREAKING GOLD ORE IN MEXICO.
180 OPERATIONS TO OBTAIN GOLD.
which, having a strong attraction for gold,
fastens upon every particle of it, and draws
it away from whatever it had been attached to.
When the gold is thus amalgamated with
the quicksilver, a full stream of water is let
into the vessel, which carries with it the lighter
matters, earth, &,c., and leaves at the bottom
the heavy metal : the amalgam, thus cleansed,
is squeezed in a cloth ; much of the quicksilver
is thus forced out, and the remainder is driven
off by fire, which leaves the gold pure.
When the miners suspect gold to be in the
bed of a river, they turn the stream away from
those spots in which they conceive it may lie.
Then they loosen the bottom of the river, by
digging ; and in this loosened state the soil is
easily washed off by the current, which is let
in suddenly for the purpose ; and a stiff earth
remains in which the gold is concealed. The
GOLD WASHING IN MEXICO.
182 OPERATIONS TO OBTAIN GOLD.
waters are again turned off, and the workmen
dig up this earth, which they carry away to the
lavaderos, or washing places. Here it is kept
continually stirred with iron hooks and rakes,
while water, rushing in, carries away the earthy
matter ; and the gold, from its weight, falls to
the bottom. Still it is mingled with a black
heavy sand, which hides the gold, unless there
be a few lumps larger than the general size ;
and to get rid of this sand, it is put in succes-
sive portions into a shallow dish, deepest in
the middle, and filled up with water. With
their spread fingers, they whirl the whole
round and round ; so that the water and sand
pass over the edges of the dish, and the pure
grains of gold remain in the central hollow.
This gold is obtained without the aid of quick-
silver or fire.
GOLD.
PERU.
IF we pass to South America, we may con-
template the conquests of Pizarro; and we
shall find a great display of its golden trea-
sures. When he first seized the too credulous
Atahualpa, after murdering thousands of the
unresisting Peruvians, the spoil taken from the
slain amounted to such a mass of wealth, as
made the Spaniards almost frantic with joy.
The captive monarch, finding that gold was
their grand object, hoped to gain his liberty
by offering an immense ransom. The room
in which he was confined measured twenty-
184 RICHES OP ANCIENT PERU.
two feet in length, and sixteen in breadth;
and Atahualpa offered to fill it with golden
vessels as high as a man could reach. His
offer being accepted, he sent messages through
all his dominions ; and from the palaces of his
nobles, and the temples of their gods, came
the golden vessels, in obedience to his orders.
After one fifth had been deducted for the use
of the King of Spain, the value which Pizarro
immediately shared among his partj^ amounted
in value to three hundred and twenty-six thou-
sand six hundred pounds sterling. But though
this perfidious Spaniard had obtained the sti-
pulated ransom, he refused to liberate the cap-
tive monarch. *
When he took possession of Cuzco, the
booty he found there greatly exceeded in
value what be had forced from Atahualpa.
MINES NEAR LIMA. 185
Plates of gold and silver covered the walls
of the temples, and the shrines of the ido-
latrous worship.
The gold mines of Peru are situated chiefly
in the northern provinces, almost in the neigh-
borhood of Lima. These mines tempted many
to devote their whole strength to them. But
this mode of advancing their wealth came into
disrepute, from the circumstance, that although
a few large fortunes had been realized, yet the
great proportion of persons engaging in them
had spent their property, and were reduced to
great indigence. Indeed, to prevent their be-
ing abandoned, the government was obliged to
remit the fifth which had been previously
claimed; and be content with a twentieth
of the metal extracted.
In the more northern provinces of South
America, much gold is found. In the province
Q
186 GOLD FROM ALLUVIAL SOILS.
of New Granada, near Santa-Fe-de-Bogota, it
is obtained from alluvial soils, and cleansed by
simple washing. It is found in considerable
plenty near Pampeluna, where a single laborer
has sometimes found as much as was worth
two hundred pounds, in a day. One lump of
virgin gold was brought from Santa Fe, worth
almost right hundred pounds sterling.
GOLD.
BRAZIL.
BUT the greatest quantity of gold brought
into the market, in the present day, comes
from Brazil. The discovery was made by a
party of soldiers, who were sent into the
inland provinces to quell an insurrection, and
found among the natives some fish-hooks made
of gold; on inquiry, they were informed that
the gold was brought down from the mountains
by the floods, when the torrents came rushing
into the valleys. This was enough to instigate
a diligent search. It is true, only a few veins
of gold were discovered ; but the quantities of
grains found after the floods, exceeded belief.
188 GOLD BROUGHT PROM BRAZIL.
This searching for gold is now the employment
of negroes, who have this privilege, that if any
one brings the quantity required of him, his
master cannot demand of him any more.
Should he find more, therefore, it becomes
his own property ; and, if he can save enough
of it, he may purchase his freedom.
The registers of the fleets shew, that in
about sixty years after the discovery of the
gold mines of Brazil, the value of bullion
brought to Europe, amounted to upwards of
one hundred millions sterling. It is seventy
years since that calculation was made; how
much more must have been brought in that
time ! *
It is affirmed, that a single grain of gold can
be beaten out, or spread into a leaf of fifty
square inches ; and that this leaf may be rea-
dily divided into five hundred thousand parts,
DUCTILITY OP GOLD. 189
visible to the naked eye. It is asserted, also,
that one grain of this metal, as thin as that
with which artists gild what is called gold lace,
would cover a surface of nearly sixty square
inches. And again, that a grain of gold may
be stretched in such a manner as to cover
more than sixty-three yards of silver wire.
Indeed, the ductility of this metal is almost
incvedible.
HUALPA DISCOVERING THE SILVER MINE OF POTOSI.
SILVER.
POTOSI.
"Now we are in South America, we may
as well notice the silver mines of that country.
We can leap over the Andes easily, as we sit
here, and come at once to Potosi."
JAMES. — "I think, I remember something
about Potosi."
" Well, let us hear all you can recollect."
"Why, I think, an Indian, — what was his
name? — O Hualpa, — was scampering up the
side of a mountain, after some wild animal or
other : finding it had jumped up a steep place
quicker than he could, and determining to
follow it, he laid hold of a branch oi a .shrub,
192 HUALPA THE INDIAN.
to assist him in climbing. But instead of
assisting him, it broke off in his hand, or rather
it was torn up, root and all, out of the earth.
He was, however, repaid for his disappoint-
ment, by the sight of something bright in the
hole which the plant had come from. He soon
discovered this to be a lump of silver; and
he found several small bits sticking about the
roots. These he picked off carefully, — that
he took up lovingly, — and home he went
joyfully ! Right glad was he to have found
such a treasure."
"What, then, did he keep it all to him-
self?"
"No, father. It would have been better
for him, if he had. He returned to his mine,
whenever he wanted cash ; and by that means
grew so much better in his circumstances,
that his neighbors wondered at it. One of
POTOSI SILVER MINE. 193
these was his particular friend : so, whether
to stop his inquiries, or to give him a share,
I do not know ; but he told him of his dis-
covery, and shewed him the place ; and they
both helped themselves as they happened to
want."
" Well ; but as there was enough for both,
was it not better to let his friend have a
share?"
"Yes, I suppose so, if he could have been
sure of his friend. But some disagreement
between, them arose, because Hualpa would
not tell how he purified it ; then this un-
worthy friend went and told the whole to a
Spaniard. The mine was soon taken posses-
sion of, and the poor Indians got no more.
The mine, indeed, yielded a great deal; but
the Spaniards took it all. This was in 1545."
13 K
194 POPULATION OF POTOSI.
"And does that same mine continue to
yield silver still?" said James.
" Its productiveness was soon put to the
trial ; for a town was built at the foot of the
mountain ; ten thousand Spaniards settled
there, to gain the silver; and sixty thousand
poor Indians were forced to go thither, to
dig out the ore for them. This mine is still
worked, as are several others, in the adjacent
mountains. The country around is barren,
as is usually the case where there are metallic
treasures underneath. The inhabitants of Po-
tosi are obliged to procure nearly the whole
of their provisions from the neighboring pro-
vinces.
"This mine is in a mountain by itself, like
a sugar-loaf in shape. The city of Potosi,
although at the foot of the mountain, is not
IGNORANCE OF THE MINERS. 195
in a valley, but high up in the Andes, whose
white tops, covered with snow, glitter at a
few miles' distance. It is now a large city,
containing a hundred thousand inhabitants,
including slaves. It does not belong to the
western or Peruvian coast, but to the eastern
side of South America, being in the govern-
ment of La Plata.
"The mountain itself is about eighteen
miles in circumference, at bottom. The
miners do not proceed in any regular or
scientific manner, but they get as much sil-
ver as they can obtain easily; none of them
have penetrated above seventy yards into it,
though there are more than three hundred
pits ; but they content themselves with scoop-
ing out the mere surface of the hill. An old
conduit, which, a hundred years ago, led into
196 IGNORANCE OF THE MINERS.
several mines, is now filled with water, there
not being any sufficient machinery to clear it
off. The mountain itself seems to be a mass
of clayey slate, yellowish and hard. Although
it has produced so much since it was opened,
yet it yields only about six or eight ounces of
silver in five thousand pounds weight of the
ore. All the processes for roasting, amalga-
mating, or refining the ore, are conducted in a
slovenly manner, by persons ignorant of all
scientific modes of operation. They mingle
quicksilver, to extract the metal, as is done
with gold ; but they do not get half the silver
out again ; and the waste of quicksilver is
enormous. All the tools, too, with which the
poor Indians work, are heavy and unsuitable.
" Some German miners have been over
there lately, who are shewing them how to
MINE OF LAYCACOTA. 197
conduct the works in a better manner. If
proper improvements be made, the produce
may become at least double in its value.
" We may mention too the mine of Lay-
cacota, which was discovered in 1660, near
the town of Puna. Here the virgin silver was
in such abundance, that it was cut out with a
chisel. The proprietor of the mine, with
a liberality rather uncommon, permitted his
countrymen, who came from Europe to seek
their fortunes, to work in it a certain number
of days, and take all away they could thus
dig out, without weighing or examination.
This generosity brought plenty of visitors,
who soon began quarrelling with each other
about their shares. Disagreements about such
valuable spoils brought on blows ; they armed
themselves, in order to repress their neighbors
avarice; and, in the end, the good-natured
198 MINES IN PERU.
Salcedo, the original proprietor, was himself
hanged as the author of those tumults; al-
though he had endeavored all he could to
prevent them.
"Peru is said Jo contain sixty-nine mines
of gold, and seven hundred and eighty-four
mines of silver ; all of which are wrought
more or less."
SILVER.
MEXICO.
THERE are silver mines in Mexico, as
well as mines of gold. Indeed, silver, al-
though the second in rank, is first in im-
portance in a commercial point of view, on
account of the much greater quantity obtained
from the mines.
Silver, as is the case indeed with most other
metals, is found in a variety of different ores.
It is sometimes pure, or in veins which pene-
trate every crevice of the stony rock to which
it adheres; but, more frequently, it is mixed
with other matters, which must be separated
from it ; so that its first appearance varies
200 MINES IN MEXICO.
much, as it is ash-colored, reddish, bluish,
often black, and sometimes in pointed forms,
like crystals.
The manner of refining it differs but little
from the processes used with gold; except
that none is obtained by mere washing, though
it is cleared from earthy particles with water.
The workmen depend chiefly upon amalgamat-
ing it with quicksilver : but in this case there
is more difficulty than with the gold; as the
silver clings more powerfully to the mineral
substances with which it is united, and the
process requires more labor and care.
The mines of Spanish America are wrought
by private adventurers, who are. encouraged
to the work by grants of the land to those
who suppose they have made a discovery, and
are willing to seek wealth in this mode ; the
governor of the province only binding them
MINES IN MEXICO. 201
to begin in a stipulated time, and insuring one
fifth of the produce to the King. There are
always persons bold enough for such an under-
taking, as it is easy to make the experiment;
and, now and then, vast fortunes are realized
by such speculations. Indeed, so fascinated
are the Spaniards, who go over from Europe,
by this silver dream, that they neglect that
more certain produce, which the surface of the
earth yields to the labors of the agriculturist.
SILVER.
NORWAY.
A SILVER mine of much celebrity is found
in Norway, at Kongsberg, in the province of
Aggerhuys, not a great way from Christiana,
the principal seaport of that country. Kongs-
berg, which has the river Lowe running
through it, may contain about six thousand
inhabitants, of which number the miners
make nearly half : the mines are about two
miles from the town. There are almost forty
mines in work ; and the principal one is called
Segen-Gottes. This is nearly seven hundred
feet in perpendicular depth below the surface
MINES OP KONGSBERG. 203
of the earth. In many parts of the descent, a
staircase is cut in the solid rock. The mouths
of the mines are made very wide. Working
the mine is very laborious, on account of the
hardness of the rock ; but the miners are not
much troubled with water to flood the works,
which is a great advantage.
Pounding the ore is one sort of process
in use here, as in most places. It is also
smelted with lead, to separate it from extra-
neous matters.
Pure silver is sometimes found in feathery
clusters, or foliage ; but chiefly in small grains.
Once, indeed, a large mass was found, valued
at six hundred pounds, as pure silver. This,
as a great curiosity, is preserved in the King
of Denmark's cabinet, at Copenhagen.
The expenses of working this mine amount
to as much as the silver is worth, when
204 "OLD G-OD'S BLESSING."
brought to market; so that the government,
at whose expense it is conducted, gains little
by it. The chief use of it is, to find employ-
ment for some thousands of poor people, who
otherwise could have no means of mainte-
nance; and to bring a quantity of specie into
circulation, as that, though very necessary, is
a very scarce commodity; commerce being
carried on chiefly by paper notes.
The mine was discovered in 1623; a town
was immediately built, and a colony of German
miners was sent thither. There are twelve
veins and forty shafts. Some gold has been
found here among the silver.
One of these mines is called " Old God's
Blessing ;" this is still very rich. With some
anxiety, the traveller descends above a thou-
sand feet deep into the earth. When he
arrives there, he finds a space cleared out,
"OLD GOD'S BLESSING." 205
of several hundred fathoms in extent. In
this gloomy cavern, he sees fires blazing all
around him, in thirty or forty different places ;
these fires are kept up, in order to soften the
rock, and make the work easier to the miners.
The swarming of hundreds of miners, black-
ened with the smoke, passing about on every
side, adds to the awfulness of the scene, and
helps to give it so much the more resemblance
to what imagination had formed of the infernal
regions. This becomes heightened, when a
mine is sprung, to blast the rock with gunpow-
der; as then several hoarse voices cry out,
" Take care of your lives !"
SILVER.
SWEDEN.
IF we pass into Sweden, in search of silver,
we must stop at Saalberg, near the town of
Sala, in Westermannia. This is the only one
rich enough to be worthy of our notice ; and
this is so ancient, that no records tell us of its
discovery. The depth of the mine is almost
a thousand feet ; there are some landing places,
so that the miners do not descend the whole
depth at once ; which is, to our apprehension,
so much the better, because they are let
up and down in baskets in two considerable
lengths of the descent, though they have
ladders in a few places.
THE SCORIA REFINED. 207
The inside of this mine is very grand; the
roof looks like that of some old Gothic cathe-
dral, supported by slender pillars of ore, left in
regular order. The brilliant masses, glittering
all around, arouse our admiration. The ore
seldom yields above four pounds of silver
in the hundred weight, and requires much
trouble to obtain it.
In times past, the scoria was thrown away ;
but a German has discovered a method of
extracting silver from that which was once
thought to be rubbish. How frequently do
we see the improvidence of the ignorant,
while the man of knowledge is ready to
turn almost every thing to account.
SILVER.
RUSSIA.
RUSSIA has some silver mines ; those at
Kolyvan are the most important. These are
far off, in Siberia, in mountains adjacent to
Chinese Tartary. They were discovered by
Akinsi Nikitich Demidoff, For some years, he
gave out that they were copper mines, and
worked them on his own account. Being
afraid, however, of being discovered and pu-
nished, (because all gold and silver mines
belong to the crown,) he himself gave in an
account of them to the Empress Elizabeth,
who of course seized upon them, as her own
property. There is but little wood near
PRODUCE OF THE KOLYVAN MINES. 209
the spot ; therefore, smelting works have
been erected at Novopaulofsk and Susunsk,
in the neighborhood of forests, whither the
ore is transmitted, to be smelted and pu-
rified.
These mines may be called the Potosi of
Russia. They produce nearly ten thousand
pounds of silver annually. When this silver
comes to Petersburgh, it is smelted again,
in the imperial laboratory ; and it yields three
per cent, of gold. So that in the annual pro-
duce of silver, there are twelve or fourteen
hundred pounds of pure gold.
The mines of Kolyvan employ nearly forty
thousand persons, (without reckoning the pea-
sants of the adjoining districts, who pay their
poll-tax in wood and charcoal,) in bringing
these materials to the place, and in trans-
14 s
210 MINES OF NERTCHINSK.
porting the ore to the smelting towns. A
mint is established at Susunsk, where the
coinage of the copper obtained from the
same mine is performed. The silver pro-
duced here is conveyed to Petersburgh on
large sledges, a number of which, under con-
voy, reach that capital twice in the year.
Still more to the eastward, in the province
of Dauria, the south-easternmost part of Sibe-
ria, between the rivers Shilka and Argoon, are
the mines of Nertchinsk : these were opened
in 1704. The annual quantity of silver pro-
duced on an average, is about sixteen thousand
pounds ; besides gold amounting to five hun-
dred pounds, which is obtained from it when
refined a second time at Petersburgh.
Silver constitutes a large portion of the
money of all civilized nations. But, when
MINES OF NERTCHINSK. 211
used in coin or plate, it is usually mingled
or alloyed with a small quantity of copper.
If kept in proper condition, it has a lustre
of great beauty.
LEAD.
DERBYSHIKu;.
THE county of Derby abounds in wonders,
especially about the Peak. Curiosity, rational
curiosity, may have a feast, whatever be the
peculiar taste of the party. Pleasure and
amusement are all that some pursue ; and
if these can be made subservient to the
attainment of rational knowledge, it is well.
Some of the curiosities are in situations cal-
culated to alarm the visitor; we can hardly
recommend the young and the feeble to en-
counter the hardships and danger necessary
to the sight of them. It is well for such, that
travellers of more strength of constitution, and
MAM TOR. 213
firmness of nerve, have been there before
them.
Mam Tor, or the Shivering Mountain, af-
forded our inquirers much amusement ; as
did several others of these wonders of nature.
But the present object of our inquiry is, the
nature and appearance of mines.
Mam Tor is seen at a distance, towering
above its neighboring mountains, and rising
to the height of thirteen hundred feet above
the valley.
Now near the bottom of Mam Tor, is a very
ancient and a very curious lead mine. It
seems to have been wrought at least as far
back as the time of the Saxons, for it bears the
name of Odin: yet it affords to the present
day employment to a tolerable number of
people.
There are two levels, as they are called:
214 SINGULAR PROPERTY OP THE ORE.
the upper one is a passage for carts, by which
the ore is brought out of the mine ; the lower
level is a water drain, to keep the mine in a
proper state for working. These levels pene-
trate above a mile into the interior of the
mountain, running horizontally.
The ore is of the sort called galena, having
a fine polish, almost equal to a mirror; it is
here known by the name of slickenside. One
of its great peculiarities is its aptitude to ex-
plode : when a sharp iron wedge is driven into
it, it begins to crackle ; and in a few minutes
it will burst and fly to pieces, as if it had been
blasted with gunpowder. The miners must
hastily get out of its reach, or they may suffer
for their temerity.
In the mines at Eyam, in this neighborhood,
a violent explosion of this nature took place in
the year 1738. Then the surprising quantity
SINGULAR PROPERTY OF THE ORE. 215
of seven or eight hundred weight of mineral
matter was thrown out at one explosion. The
concussion was so great, that the upper surface
of the ground was seen to shake, as if an
earthquake had happened.
LEAD.
STAFFORDSHIRE.
ONE lead mine is called the Staffordshire
Speedwell, the entering into which is amusing.
" We put ourselves under the guidance of
the manager, who conducted us, through an
opening, down above one hundred steps,
formed almost perpendicularly. At the bot-
tom of this descent was a river, and a boat
ready for us, with a boatman in it. Several
lighted candles were prepared, and each of us
<ook one. The river, and the boat, and the
rough boatman, thus in the lower regions, put
us in mind of the ancient heathen fable of the
river Styx, and Charon, the ferryman. The
"SPEEDWELL" LEAD MINE. 217
boat was presently pushed off; the man giving
it an impetus by the help of sticks stuck in the
rock, five or six feet asunder. We were thus
shoved along for some considerable distance.
Strange were the sensations occasioned by
our thus swimming along in the bowels of
the mountain. The scene was certainly sub-
lime and awful.
"While on our subterraneous voyage, we
were surprised by the sound of a sweet voice,
which had almost a magical effect, as it lost
itself among the arches of the cavern's roof.
We approached nearer to it as we went on,
and found a fine little fellow, of about twelve
years old, placed in a small niche of the rock,
soothing himself in his monotonous labor, by
singing. His business was to work a pair of
bellows, which, by a long pipe, conveyed fre?h
air to the deepest recesses of the mine. He
T
218 CONVEYANCE OF FRESH AIR.
had to keep at his station for eight hours,
working and singing. We passed in this
manner almost half a mile; and at the end
of our voyage, found the miners at their work.
"There are several veins of lead among
these rocks. The rocks are first split by
gunpowder; and the broken masses are then
cleared away.
"When we came to the extremity of the
mine, where the men were at work, we found
the benefit of the little songster's labors, in
sending a supply of fresh air. The air in such
a long cavern becomes thick, and damp, and
would be very dangerous to the miners; but
this constant renewal of it by a pure stream
from the open atmosphere, keeps it whole-
some."
Mines of lead exist in many other parts
of England, as Cornwall, Staffordshire, &c.
LEAD MINES IN SCOTLAND. 219
There are also lead mines in Scotland,
which are productive and lucrative.
There is, however, so much similarity in
them, that the description already given may
well suffice for all. .
LEAD.
SIBERIA.
AT Nertchinsk, in the south-eastern part
of Siberia, are mines belonging to Russia.
They have been spoken of as producing
silver; but have much better right to be
noticed for their greater productiveness in
lead. Silver and lead are often found min-
gled together; but the ores are very poor in
silver, and rich in lead. The silver is taken
to Petersburgh, to be refined; but many
million hundred weight of lead are left on the
spot, after the silver has been extracted.
About five or six thousand hundred weight
of this is taken to Kolyvan, to have the
MINES AT NERTCHINSK. 221
remaining silver separated, at the founderies:
but the expense of carriage prevents the bulk
of this lead being transported into the heart
of the empire, and there is an absolute pro-
hibition against its being sent to China; so
it remains useless.
The persons employed in these mines,
amount in number to almost fifteen thousand.
Nearly two thousand are free colonists ; more
than one thousand are convicts, condemned
to this work ; nearly twelve thousand are
peasants of the country round about; em-
ployed especially in cutting wood, and in
making and carrying charcoal. These last
also cultivate more or less ground, and - find
a ready sale for the produce at the foun-
deries.
Lead is exceedingly useful for pipes, and
for a variety of purposes, as it is easily
222 UTILITY OF LEAD.
melted. It is used also as a covering for pub-
lic buildings ; and sometimes, though rarely,
as ballast for ships, on account of its weight
It is eleven times heavier than water.
QUICKSILVER.
PERU.
QUICKSILVER, or, as in mineralogy it is
called, Mercury, is of great use in extracting
other metals from their ores, as well as very
serviceable in itself. It has a great affinity to
gold, and a still greater to silver : without the
aid of this mineral, it would not be easy to
obtain those more precious commodities. The
silver mines of Potosi would have been almost
useless, had not a mine of quicksilver been
discovered in the same country.
This mine is situated at Guanza Velica ; it
has been worked almost three hundred years,
224 MODE OF OBTAINING QUICKSILVER.
and does not seem to diminish in its produc-
tiveness.
When a visitor gets fairly into the mine,
he finds a subterraneous city, with broad
streets, open squares, and a chapel, in which
the mysteries of the Romish religion are per-
formed, especially upon high days. Thou-
sands of flambeaux are kept continually
burning, to give light to these otherwise
gloomy regions, into which the sun has never
darted a ray.
The ore in which the quicksilver is con-
tained is earthy, of a whitish red color, looking
like burned brick. This is pounded small. It
is then put into a kiln, somewhat in shape like
an oven ; the bottom consists of an iron grat-
ing, covered with earth. Under this a gentle
heat is kept up, with an herb which grows in
SUBLIMING THE MERCURY. 225
that part of the country ; and, from its being
deemed the most suitable fuel for this busi-
ness, the cutting of it for other purposes is
prohibited, for sixty miles around. The heat
thus communicated to the pounded ore, sub-
limes the mercury ; that is, makes it rise with
the smoke, which can only pass off through a
very small hole, connected with a number of
retorts, or earthern vessels with long necks,
each having a little water in its lower part.
The water condenses the smoke, and the
small globules of quicksilver which had come
with it, fall to the bottoms of the retorts,
where it is easily gathered together, into one
mass.
This mine is not wrought by the govern-
ment, but by private persons ; who are, how-
ever, hindered from gaining such profits as
might be expected, because they are obliged
15
226 MISERY OF THE MINERS.
to sell the whole produce to the King, at a
stated price. Besides which, when the go-
vernment has obtained all that is wanted for
the mines, the work is suspended.
There is no mineral product so noxious to
those who procure it, as quicksilver. The
miners suffer dreadfully from tremors, lan-
guors, and convulsions. The native Indians
are obliged to labor in this dangerous occu-
pation ; and these poor victims of avarice and
oppression work naked, in the bowels of the
earth, where it is exceedingly cold. It is
true, their services are, nominally, for only
six months ; though they are often kept lon-
ger. But many do not live to, see the end
of this period, short as it may appear; and
such as survive it, are reduced to so lan-
guid a state, that they seldom return to
their homes and connections, but settle in
MISERY OF THE MINERS. 227
the neighborhood of the mine, and become
slaves for the remainder of their miserable
lives.
QUICKSILVER.
IDRIA.
THERE is also in Europe a mine of quick-
silver, of considerable importance ; it is situated
at Idria, in Carniola, and belongs to the Empe-
ror of Austria. We may take our account
of it from a traveller, who visited the place.
"Persons condemned for certain crimes are
sent to labor in these mines ; which is a state
of prolonged sufferings, containing many daily
deaths in one. They labor in darkness, or,
at least, far from the light of the sun, toiling
out a miserable life, under the whips of hard-
hearted taskmasters. The entrance is in the
DESCRIPTION OP THE MINE. 229
side of the mountain, at a hole about fifteen
feet wide.
" The conveyance to the mine below is in a
bucket, to a depth of more than six hundred
feet. The opening widens as you descend ;
but becomes more and more gloomy as you
leave the light. After a pretty long swing in
this manner, you touch the bottom ; but the
ground on which you tread sounds hollow.
The sounds of your own feet echo among the
gloomy caverns, like thunder. Feeble lamps
are placed here and there, just sufficient to
guide the workmen. But a person just de-
scended from the surface, is not able to see
any thing, not even the persons who come
to conduct him about the place.
"The inhabitants of these gloomy regions
are more gloomy still, not only from the squalid
230 CONVICT MINERS.
wretchedness of their appearance, but from
the misery which their whole countenance
exhibits. They would look pale as spectres,
but for the blackness which they contract in
the operations of the mine. Those who are
condemned hither, are malefactors ; their phy-
siognomies may therefore be expected to be
unpleasing, as exhibiting their vices strongly
depicted. Added to this, dejection and ex-
haustion mark them. They soon lose their
appetite; and the most robust constitutions sel-
dom last above a couple of years ; then death
closes their melancholy sufferings, as to this
world.
" These mines are among the greatest curio-
sities in the country; they wrere first disco-
vered in 1497. It would take several hours to
go through all the passages, which have been
scooped out in the interior of the mountain.
VIRGIN MERCURY. 231
Two of the shafts, named from saints, are the
principal openings.
"The quantity of mercury cleansed from
the ore may amount annually to about two
thousand six hundred quintals. But much is
caught as it oozes out of the crevices of the
mine ; this is called virgin mercury, and may
amount to a hundred quintals, each quintal
being about a hundred weight."
QUICKSILVER.
SPAIN.
IN the province of La Mancha, in Spain,
famous for the exploits of Don Quixote, and
near the town of Almaden, are some mines
of quicksilver, of considerable importance,
especially to the Spaniards.
From them they obtain mercury in great
quantities, by which they work their American
mines of gold and silver : it is found in a hill
of sandstone. The two principal veins are
situated near together; and there is a third
about five miles distant. They are worked
on behalf of the King. An accident hap-
pened, in 1784, which let the water into
CINNABAR. 233
the mines, and flooded them, so as to put
a total stop to the works ; and Spain was
obliged to obtain quicksilver from the Austrian
mines, for six years, at the rate of three
hundred tons weight annually.
The mercury is here found, partly in a
native state; they have only to catch it, and
carefully gather the drops.
But it is chiefly obtained in the form of
cinnabar, which is a common ore of mercury;
it seems to be mercury petrified and fixed
with sulphur, from which it is freed by heat.
One pound of cinnabar will frequently yield
fourteen ounces of mercury, though sometimes
not above ten. These mines of Almaden pro-
duce cinnabar of the richest quality.
Mines of cinnabar exist in other parts of
Spain ; one near Alicant, and another near
Valencia; but they are not wrought. Near
U
234 FROZEN QUICKSILVER.
the latter place, too, virgin mercury is found,
in a bed of ash colored clay.
Though quicksilver is always in a fluid state
in our country, it is not unfreqently frozen in
Russia, and in other cold climates. It is the
principal metal used in manufacturing a very
common, but very useful article — the looking-
glass.
SUNDRIES.
ALTHOUGH the principal mines and mineral
substances have been thus fully noticed, yet it
may be proper to say, there are many other
mines, whence these commodities are ob-
tained; but the description of them would
be so similar to those already given, that
it would be impossible to avoid tedious repeti-
tions. All that is needful for the amusement
and instruction of the young, has been here
selected.
It may, however, be proper to name a few
other substances, such as are of frequent
occurrence, in order to render this volume
worthy of its pretensions.
236 SULPHUR.— BLACKLE AD.
SULPHUR is a substance of extreme utility,
in arts, manufactures, and medicine. It is
found native, in nodules, in layers, or in crys-
tals. Considerable mines of it are met with
in Hungary, Poland, Spain, Switzerland, and
Sicily.
It is also sublimed by volcanoes, and is
collected from among the lava; in Italy, near
Vesuvius ; also near JEtna, in Sicily ; near
Mount Hecla, in Iceland; and in several of
the West-India islands. It is most commonly
sold in the form of a yellow powder ; but often
in solid pieces, when it is called brimstone;
and is an important branch of commerce,
wherever it is found in any quantity. It is
used in bleaching and dyeing, in the manu-
facture of gunpowder, and in medicine.
PLUMBAGO, commonly called blacklead, of
which pencils are made, so excellent for draw-
FULLERS' EARTH. 237
ing, is a very peculiar mineral. It is found
in several countries, but best of all in Eng-
land. A considerable mine of it is in Cum-
berland, at Borrowdale, where it is found in
detached masses. This mine is opened but
once in seven years ; and after a certain quan-
tity has been taken out, it is carefully shut up
again.
For usefulness we may mention FULLERS'
EARTH. It is to this substance that England
owes much of the superiority of her woollen
fabrics. Nothing else so well absorbs all the
greasiness which attaches to wool, either in its
natural state, or in the manufactimng of it. A
soft smooth pliancy is hereby given to our
woollen draperies. A similar earth is found in
Sweden, Saxony, and France; but the best,
beyond compare, is in England, especially in
238 FULLERS' EARTH.
Hampshire, where there is a large and valua-
ble bed.
Many ores of other metallic substances are
found along with the principal ores, of which
we have already treated : but, whatever might
be their importance in a system of mineralogy,
there is not sufficient difference in their situa-
tions in the interior of the earth, to warrant a
specific description here.
MINES IN THE UNITED STATES.
IN our introduction to this little volume,
we proposed to insert, in the course of the
work, a chapter on the most important mine-
rals found in the United States. This we
shall do in this place.
Although the United States cannot boast
of her diamonds, nor her mines of silver, cop-
per, quicksilver, or tin, yet she abounds in
those articles most necessary to the comfort
of man, salt, coal, and iron. Gold, also, is
found in some parts of the country. Besides
which, we have lead in great abundance,
and localities of zinc, manganese, and other
minerals. As yet, the country has been but
240 SALT.
partially explored. The future will probably
disclose inexhaustible mineral treasures.
Of mineral salt, we have no mines com-
parable to those of Cheshire, in England, or
Wielitska, in Poland. Yet it can scarcely be
doubted that salt will ultimately be found in
abundance in our western country, in many
places of which specimens of crystalized salt
have been discovered. In the territory of
Arkansaw is a prairie, which is covered for
many miles with pure white crystalized salt,
from four to six inches deep. At present,
the states on the seaboard are chiefly sup-
plied with salt from foreign countries. The
western, and a part of the middle .states, obtain
much of their salt from salt springs, which
abound in various parts. The most noted of
these springs are those of Onondaga, near
the lake of that name, in New-York. Salt
SALT WORKS OF SALINA. 241
works are established in several places in the
ticinity. The most noted are those of Salina.
The works principally used in the manufacture
of salt are denominated blocks, solar works,
and steam works. The blocks are constructed
with boilers, containing from eighty to a hun-
dred gallons each. In these boilers the brine
is boiled away. The solar works consist of
wooden vats, resting upon small posts driven
into the ground. The width of the vats is
eighteen inches — depth from six to fifteen
inches, and length from eighty to six hundred
and forty feet. In these the brine is eva-
porated by means of the sun. The solar
establishments at Syracuse occupy one hun-
dred and ten acres. The aggregate length
of the vats is thirteen miles, and their surface
one million two hundred and fifty thousand
square feet. The steam wrorks are similar in
16 v
242 SALT SPRINGS.
their construction to the blocks. The quantity
of salt made in 1832, was one million six hun-
dred and fifty two thousand nine hundred and
eighty-five bushels. This is packed in barrels
of five bushels each.
In the western part of Pennsylvania, also,
are large manufactures of salt from springs.
The principal salt works are on the Cone-
maugh, a stream running into the Alleghany.
The water is obtained by boring. The
strongest water is found four hundred or five
hundred feet below the surface. The salt
manufactured in this vicinity has, in some
years, amounted to three hundred thousand
bushels.
Considerable salt is made near Pittsburg,
from a fountain obtained by boring two hun-
dred and seventy feet. About twenty-five
thousand bushels are here manufactured.
COAL. 243
I shall next speak of coal Beds of fine
coal have been already found in various parts
of the United States. There exist, doubtless,
inexhaustible quantities of it, which future in-
vestigations will disclose. Extensive beds
have been opened in Rhode Island, but since
the more valuable mines of Pennsylvania have
been discovered, those of the former state
have been in less estimation.
In no part of the world is anthracite, or
stone coal, more abundant than in Pennsylva-
nia. Ages probably cannot exhaust it, as it
seems to spread over very extensive tracts
of country. It abounds in the Wyoming and
Lackawanna valley, between the Blue Ridge
and the Susquehanna. Extensive veins range
from the Lehigh to the Susquehanna, cross-
ing the headwaters of the Schuylkill and
Swatara about ten miles north-west of the
244 COAL.
Blue Ridge. It is abundant near the Susque-
hanna and Lackawanna, but in no part is it
so plentiful as at Maunch Chunk, (or Bear
mountain,) a village on the Lehigh, which is
itself a branch of the Susquehanna. Our little
readers must take a map of the United States,
and look out these places upon it. This will
serve to fasten the subject in their memories.
The coal lies in beds, and not, as commonly,
in veins. These beds are of various thick-
nesses, from a foot to twenty-seven feet. Few
are wrought unless they are six feet thick.
In the western parts of Pennsylvania, ano-
ther kind of coal called bitumen, or pitchy coal,
abounds. It is found near the rivers Cone-
maugh, Alleghany, Monongahela, and Ohio.
The veins are generally narrow, rarely above
six feet in width. The coal is abundant, and
of excellent quality, near Pittsburg.
LEAD. — IRON. — COPPER. 245
The United States are rich in ores of lead.
But I shall not detain my readers longer than
to tell them of the mines of Missouri, which
are some of the most extensive and richest in
the world. The district in which these mines
exist, and over which they spread, is one hun-
dred miles in length, and forty in width. It
lies north of Missouri river, in the county of
Washington, and the neighborhood. In 1828
there were about fifty mines, or diggings, in
operation, which produce annually three mil-
lion pounds of lead.
IRON. It would be quite a task to enume-
rate the various ores of iron which are found,
or where they are worked, in the United
States. Every state has an abundance, and
the quantity annually extracted might be in-
creased many fold.
COPPER, likewise, no doubt exists in abun-
246 COPPER. --GOLD.
dance among us, although, as yet, we have not
been very successful in finding it in any exten-
sive beds. During the revolutionary war, the
Lodi copper mine, as it is called, on the Pas-
saic river, in New -Jersey, was worked by the
British. Since that, a new vein of ore has
been discovered, producing masses which have
yielded seventy-eight per cent, of the metal.
Small quantities of silver are contained among
the copper.
Copper is thought to exist abundantly in
some of the north-western states. On the
banks of the Onontagon, a stream falling into
lake Superior, large masses of native copper
have been discovered, one of which weighed
two thousand two hundred pounds.
GOLD. The first notice of gold of the
United States, on the records of the mint,
was in 1814. From that year to 1823, the
GOLD. 247
amount annually coined did not exceed two
thousand five hundred dollars. In later years,
gold mines have been discovered in Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
Those of North Carolina are the most impor-
tant. The region containing the gold em-
braces, in this latter state, an extent of one
thousand square miles, and reaches from Vir-
ginia, across the centre of the state, to South
Carolina; continuing through the latter state,
and Georgia, into Alabama. In some parts,
the gold is obtained by mining, and in others
by washing the sand and gravel. The veins
of ore are sometimes several feet in width, and
sometimes only a few inches. The mines are
not sunk very deep, but the horizontal galle-
ries are extensive. There are a great number
of mills for grinding the ore, driven by steam
and water. The mines in this state occupy
248 PURE GOLD.
above twenty thousand men. Those em-
ployed in washing collect the soil in deep gul-
lies and beds of what appear to have been
rivers and creeks. Here the gold occurs pure,
and in small particles, seldom exceeding in
size the head of a pin. Sometimes much
larger pieces are found, and in a single instance
a lump was obtained, weighing in its crude
state, twenty-eight pounds avoirdupois. The
amount annually furnished by the mines, is
estimated at two million five hundred thou-
sand dollars. Most of this is sent to Europe.
The greater part of the laborers are foreigners,
who come from almost every quarter of the
world; there are thirteen different languages
spoken at the mines.
THE MINE.
BEAUTEOUS is the landscape, as, from any
gentle eminence, we cast our eyes over hill
and dale, dark woods, and golden harvest
fields ; the meandering river or the close glen.
Nay, the wide sea, monotonous as it is, fills
the mind with sublime delight ; we linger at
the prospect, and are almost unwilling to
return to the gay meadow, the close hop-
ground, or the harvest home.
It was not long, we may suppose, before
man perceived, that, besides the immense and
richly valuable products of the surface, there
were treasures also in the bowels of the earth :
for, so early as long before the general deluge,
250 ANTIQUITY OP MINING.
we find metallurgy was, to some efficient de-
gree, understood. Tubalcain, the son of La-
mech, was an instructer of every artificer in
brass and iron, Gen. iv. 22.
That the ancients understood, in some tole-
rable degree, the art of mining, is evident
from the metals with which they were fami-
liar. And, though gold might be obtained,
as it is most frequently now, from the sands
of rivers, yet copper for brass, (if their brass
were not really copper itself,) must have been
dug from the interior of the earth.
The Phoenicians, we know, traded for tin,
even as far as Cornwall; where they either
found or established regular mines.
The Romans found gold mines in Spain, and
obliged the natives to dig out the precious
metal for their tyrannical masters.
In modern times, mining is not only a con-
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 251
stant operation, but, by the joint assistance of
geometry, mechanics, and chemistry, it is car-
ried on in a higher degree as to science, and
upon a wider scale as to commerce, than ever
was possible to the ancients.
In order to conceive accurately of a mine,
one should be aware of the general structure
of the shell of our terraqueous globe ; for it is
only a little way into the shell, that man has
ever been able to penetrate. The deepest
mines are not so deep in proportion, as if
the paper of a twelve inch globe were to
be excavated and undermined by some mi-
nute insect.
Since philosophic men have given due con-
sideration to the structure of the earth, so as
to form geology into a science, it is perceived
that the surface, if it may be so called, to as
great a depth as man* has been able to pene-
252 MINERALOGICAL STRATA.
trate, is composed of layers, or strata, of dif-
ferent substances, placed one over another.
Each stratum is distinct, as well from those
above, as from those below it. These different
strata consist of mould, sand, clay, marl, chalk,
stones, rocks, &c. In general, the heaviest
lie lowest, as if the whole had been once
mixed together with some liquid, and the
ingredients had settled by their specific gra-
vities ; yet sometimes; lighter strata are found
far beneath the heaviest.
They do not appear in any settled order,
as in the list of terms just given; but are
found, some in one country, and others, of
quite different characters, in other parts ;
evidently proving that the structure of our
earth has suffered by some overpowering
force, which has disjoined and dislocated the
various strata; turning them from their hori-
STRATA OF THE SHELL OF THE EARTH.
254 FISSURES IN THE EARTH.
zontal position, throwing some into a slanting
direction, or making them J«/>, as geologists
call it, and casting up others out of their
primitive place. To the universal deluge,
when "the fountains of the great deep were
broken up," is this disjunction of the sup-
posed original uniformity of the terrene sur-
face generally attributed.
These convulsions and dislocations have
occasioned many cracks and fissures in a
vertical direction, more or less wide, and
more or less deep. It is usually in such
fissures, among the rocky strata, by miners
called lodes, that metallic mines are found.
It is also most common that these mines are
situated in mountains ; at least, when so situ-
ated, they are most easily come at by man's
feeble powers.
The inside of these fissures is commonly
METALLIC VEINS. 255
coated with a sort of rind, crystalline and
earthy, which is called the capel, or wall.
This seems to originate from the moisture
oozing through the stratum, and coagulating
on the mineral substances. Yet these regu-
lar walls are seldom found but at some
fathoms' depth.
Veins of metallic ore are often found in
lodes, not an inch wide. Yet these, if fol-
lowed, frequently become very rich, and re-
ward the miner's fatigue and expense, in
clearing his way ; although, at first, it migjit
be very unprofitable.
That there must be considerable danger in
digging thus deep into the recesses of the
earth, may easily be supposed. One would
think man was never intended to run long
passages into the ground, like a mole. Yet
the substances found there are not useful to
256 FOUL AIR OF MI.NES
any but to him ; and some of them, as coal
and salt, not to mention iron, are of prime
necessity; he would be uncomfortable without
them, especially in climates far removed from
the equator.
Descending deep into a mine, generally
gives the sensation of chill; sometimes there
is absolute ice : but on passing into still
greater depths, the earth seems to become
warmer, so that in some places the miners
can scarcely bear any clothing.
JTie want of pure atmospheric air, in those
far distant corners of the mine, is a great in-
convenience, and tends to destroy life. Air
is sometimes conveyed by a pipe, the mouth
of which is on the surface, and set open
towards the wind; or by bellows in a simi-
lar way.
But the impurities which load the air in
METALLIC VAPORS. 257
those deep recesses are among the most dan-
gerous of the circumstances which the miner
has to guard against.
The vapors arising from many of the metals
are very injurious to health ; the pale and sal-
low complexion of most miners indicates this.
Coal mines are not, in general, so noxious
as those of tin; those of copper are still
worse ; but the most detrimental to health
are the mines of quicksilver. This injurious
substance insinuates itself into the very flesh
and bones of the miners ; carries off many
quickly, or fills the hospitals with cases of
extreme debility and suffering. As cinnabar,
vitriol, bitumen, and arsenic, are most com-
monly found mingled in these mines, it may
rvell be supposed that the effluvia from these
substances must be extremely injurious. Fre-
quently, these vapors are perceived by a
17 w
"258 THE CHOKE-DAMP.
fragrant smell, resembling the scent of pea
blossoms; this name is, therefore, applied to
it, and by it the miners have warning to
escape for their lives. Such as are caught
by it swoon away; and, if removed to fresh
air, only revive under great agonies.
Carbonic acid gas, called by miners the
choke-damp, is found abundantly in most places
that have been long shut up ; such as cellars,
wells, and especially mines. This cannot be
breathed without instantaneous suffocation.
Even vats in breweries are liable to it; and
the loss of many lives has been the conse-
quence. Charcoal fires emit it ; as many
have found, who have slept in rooms which
have been aired with that material.
This damp, or fixed air, is very heavy, and
sinks to the bottom of every reservoir wherein
it exists. In a coal mine, in Scotland, some
THE FIRE-DAMP. 259
*•
miners accidentally broke a hole into an old
mine which had been long shut up ; they soon
perceived their danger, and escaped with the
utmost expedition. The next day, eight of
them went to continue their work, without
any expectation of danger. They had, how-
ever, scarcely got to the bottom of the
stairs, which led to their scene of opera-
tion, than they all dropped down dead, as
if they had been shot. The wife of one of
them, on being told her husband had been
suffocated, in her anxiety, ventured down to
discern where he lay. She saw he was near-
est to the stairs of any of them ; and, wish-
ing to rescue him, if possible, she stooped to
take hold of him ; but the damp seized her
instantly, and she fell dead by his side.
The fire-damp, or hydrogen gas, is lighter
than the atmosphere, and always rises to
260 . THE FIRE-DAMP.
the roof of the mine. If it gain access to a
candle, it instantly ignites, with a loud and
very violent explosion. Persons involved in
it, are scorched more or Jess. The violence
of the explosion is such, that persons who
happen to be in its way in the mine, are
blown out of it, to some distance ; nor can
the strongest and heaviest machinery resist
its force. No smell is perceived before it
catches fire; but a strong scent of sulphur
follows. The color of the flame is bluish, or
greenish ; and it is very brilliant. It is suc-
ceeded by a dark vapor, or smoke. These
damps begin to arise about May, and continue
during the summer, at uncertain intervals.
In mines liable to the fire-damp, one mode
of prevention is, never to bring the flame of a
candle into them. In order, therefore, to ob-
tain light without flame, with great ingenuity,
SIR H. DAVY'S LAMP. 261
a large wheel is constructed, having its edge
stuck full of flints ; in their way, a number
of steels are placed, so that, as it revolves,
a continued stream of sparks is produced;
by which glimmering light, the miners are
able to carry on their operations. Sparks
will not set this vapor on fire. Lately, in-
deed, Sir H. Davy has invented a lamp,
which promises to afford great security. It
has been found that the dense vapor cannot
penetrate between the narrow crevices of a
fine wire gauze : this is, therefore, formed
into a lantern, and gives safety.
That mode of safety which consists in hav-
ing a stream of sparks instead of a flame,
would be of no use in some cases ; where a
spark would set the whole on fire. The
workmen in such mines are so much afraid
of this, that they take all the nails out of
262 BEGINNINGS OP MINING.
their shoes, lest some spark might be acci-
dentally generated.
The history of mining also affords melan-
choly instances of mischief done by the falling
in of the earth above; when it has not been
well supported. This may sometimes be
guarded against by thick planks, supported as
a ceiling, upon props.
Again, floods of water sometimes burst in
upon the men, and drown them ; perhaps,
also, drown the mine itself, so that it cannot
be used any more.
That men should think of digging into the
earth for such minerals,, seems somewhat sin-
gular: yet, possibly, accident, under the gui-
dance of Divine Providence, might occasion at
least the first endeavor of this nature. An-
cient stories tell us, that some Spanish shep-
herds having set fijre to a wood, the confla-
IMPROVEMENTS IN MINING. 263
gration heated the soil so much, as to melt
the silver under it, and make it run into a
mass. Sometimes the sea has washed away
the earthy parts of the shore, so as to throw
daylight upon these treasures.
When men once became acquainted with
these important mineral productions, they
would naturally look again, and hunt in every
place where there could be any hope of find-
ing them. And, as they became better ac-
quainted with the principles of chemistry, they
became more adroit in turning to account all
they found, and all they suspected to be of
value. There is a sagacity, obtained only by
being long accustomed to the practice, which
enables some to say, with tolerable certainty,
where the precious productions may be sought.
Certain metals are usually found in such or
264 IMPROVEMENTS IN MINING.
such kinds of soil, and never in others ; which
experience establishes as a rule.
The vicinity of copper ore is frequently as-
certained by the harsh taste of the waters
which flow near them. Or, if a piece of
polished iron be immersed, where the parti-
cles of copper are floating, they will affix
themselves to it decidedly. Or, a piece of
tallow, put in, will in a short time become
green.
Sometimes, in driving an adit, or road, from
the lower grounds, to let off water from the
mines, lodes are met with much more valuable
than the one intended to be relieved.
THE MINERAL CABINET.
WHEN "Yes," and "No," and "O dear,
how pretty I" are all the effect produced by
instruction, there is reason to fear that the
labor and expense bestowed upon the lesson
is nearly lost. It may, indeed, happen, that
the memory may be roused, years afterwards,
to recollect circumstances, facts, and reason-
ings, which occurred in childhood; although,
apparently, they did not then make the deep
:mpression wished for by the anxious tutor.
When, however, we see the pupil's own
mind roused to action, and that he is diligently
employing himself in some project, or some
operation, suggested by the instruction re-
X 265
266 THE MINERAL CABINET.
ceived, and of a nature to clear the subject
up to his own mind, or to fasten it well in
his memory, we are sure he has received
benefit.
It was, therefore, with considerable pleasure
that Mr. Thompson, some time after their
return, was introduced by James into his own
study, (a closet a few feet square only,) to in-
spect a mineralogical cabinet, which he had
constructed. It was about two feet high, and
about twelve inches wide; its depth was one
inch and a half. James had been accustomed
to operate for himself; he could handle the
saw and the plane adroitly, and make a joint
with considerable neatness. The framework
was mahogany. At the top was a pediment,
in which was written MINERALOGY; beneath,
were four compartments of bottles, answering
to the four classes into which mineral substan-
THE MINERAL CABINET. 267
ces are conveniently divided ; as Earth and
Stones, — Salts, — Combustibles, — and Metallic
Ores. Each of these formed a row, whether
consisting of many or fewer names ; except
that the last class, being more numerous,
filled up three rows.
He had procured a sufficient number of
wide-mouth square vials, all of a size, in which
he proposed to keep his specimens. Some
minerals he had procured; but to fill all the
bottles would be a work of time ; and some
he had but small hope of obtaining.
To give, however, as much completeness as
he could to his cabinet, he had labelled each
compartment, and also each vial. The advan-
tages of vials were many ; as each subject
could be distinctly seen, without danger of
being lost or spoiled by incautious handling.
268 THE MINERAL CABINET.
Uniformity and neatness were hereby secured,
as well as conveniency of inspection.
He had drawn up a written list of these, lest
any of them should be disarranged; and, in
order to make himself perfect in this classi-
fication, he would sometimes take all the bot-
tles out of their places, and intermingle them
upon the table, enjoining himself, as a task,
to put each of them in its proper compart-
ment, and in its individual place. He had
attained to so much expertness, that he al-
ready could do this without making many
mistakes.
At a small price, and with little exertion,
any one may thus obtain a general acquaint-
ance with the wonderful productions found in
the interior of the earth ; a sort of knowledge
highly useful to many persons, and gratifying
THE MINERAL CABINET. 269
to every intelligent mind, even If no absolute
necessity for it should occur.
As his father expressed himself much
pleased with this display of his knowledge
and ingenuity, James took courage to de-
velop a plan much more complete, which
he had in his intention ; it was, to have,
not a single bottle to each genus, but a
drawer, containing as many bottles as there
were important specimens in each genus.
This might be attained by only giving depth
to his cabinet. At present, he contented
himself with having a large label pasted on
the hinder part of each vial, on which was
written a list of the various specimens most
commonly named, belonging to that genus.
Thus, on the genus Silica, or Quartz, was
this list : Garnet, Ruby, Topaz, Emerald,
Rock Crystal, Flint, Pumice, Feldspar. . In
270 THE MINERAL CABINET.
this first clasS, are many names; each be-
longs indeed to a family, and under each
are many specimens ; but to enlarge it thus,
can only belong to a scientific mineralogist.
For general knowledge, it is quite sufficient
to select the most important specimens ; or
such as are most likely to be mentioned in
conversation, or in books of travels.
He had, also, an alphabetical list of the
names, with a reference to the class ; and a
short account of the qualities, localities, and
uses of each.
We have given a representation of James's
mineralogical cabinet, thinking some of our
young readers might wish to make one like
it. And, in order that the labels may be
clearly understood, we give copies of them.
The terms which follow each, express those
specimens which are most commonly known,
THE MINERAL CABINET. 271
or are in more general use. These names
were inscribed on a larger label, behind the
bottle to which it belonged.
Thus his mineralogical scheme was kept
complete by the labels, even should he nfever
be able to obtain half the specimens ; and
some of them, it was pretty certain, he would
never possess: diamond and zircon for in-
stance.
272
CLASS I.— EARTHS AND STONES.
1. Barytes .... Heavy Spar.
2. Strontian . . . Strontites Celestine.
3. Calcareus, or Lime. Chalk, Limestone, Marl, Fluor, Gyp-
sum.
4. Magnesia . . . Magnesia, Fullers' Earth, Serpentine,
Talc.
5. Alumina, or Argil. Clay, Tripoli, Slate, Mica, Basalt,
Umber.
6. Yttria.
7. Glucina.
8. Zirconia . . . Hyacinth.
9. Agustina.
10. Silica, or Quartz . Garnet, Ruby, Topaz, Emerald, Rock
Crystal, Flint, Pumice, Feldspar.
CLASS II. — SALTS.
1. Carbonates . . . Native Soda, Native Magnesia.
2. Sulphates . . . Native Vitriol, Alum, Epsom Salts.
3. Phosphates . . . Animal Earth.
4. Fluates . . . Cryolite.
5. Borates . . . Borax.
G. Arseniates . Salt of Arsenic.
7. Nitrates . . Native Nitre, Saltpetre.
273
8. Alumines . . . Pure Clay, Base of Alum.
9. Muriates . . . Rock Salt, Sea Salt, Sal Ammoniac
10. Acetites .... Verdigris, Sugar of Lead.
CLASS III. — COMBUSTIBLES.
1. Sulphur Native Sulphur.
2. Carbon Diamond, Mineral Charcoal.
3. Bitumen Petroleum, Mineral Pitch.
4. Coal Jet, Cannel Coal, Common Coal
5. Amber Common Amber.
CLASS IV. — METALLIC ORES.
1. Gold. 12. Bismuth.
2 Platina. 13. Tellurium.
3. Silver. 14. Arsenic.
4. Mercury. 15. Cobalt.
5. Copper. 16. Manganese.
6. Iron. 17. Tungsten.
7. Tin. 18. Molybdenum.
8. Lead. 19. Uranium.
9. Nickel. 20. Titanium.
10. Zinc. 21. Chromium.
11. Antimony. 22. ColumbiuiDu
18
INDEX.
Page.
Accidents in Mining . 262
Air, Fresh . . 218
Foul . . 149, 256
Inflammable . 149
Amalgamation . .180
Ancient Coal Mine . 157
- Gold Mines . 167
Anglesea Mines . 9
Antiquity of Mining . 25
Atahualpa . . 183
B.
BeresofMine . . 171
Black Damp . . 149
Black Lead . . 236
Blast Furnace 116
Blasting Mines . 96, 131
Bogota ... 186
Boring for Coal . .137
Borrowstoness . 154
Bovey Coal . . 157
Brass, Composition of 90
Brazil Diamonds . 66
-Gold . . 187
Bristol Stones . . 50
C.
Cabinet of Minerals . 265
Cannel Coal * . . 156
Capel of Lodes . . 255
Captain of a Mine . 81
Carbonic Acid Gas . 258
Carron Founderies . 121
Cerro do Frio . . 62
Charon 216
INDEX.
275
Choke Damp .
Chemistry .
Cheshire, Salt Mines in
Qrilf \\T/-ii*lf ta -ir\
Page.
258
263
9
16
233
90
152
152
154
80
85
93
85
102
104
122
106
102
100
68
175
148
172
13C
Page.
Davy's Safety Lamp 150, 261
Derbyshire, Lead Mines
in . . . .212
Descending into a Mine
of Coal . 141
Copper 108
Cinnabar
Clark, Sir Gilbert
Coal . . 136,
Trnn 1 °7 1 91
Rnlt 19 °tfi
Silver °04
London annuallv
Coining Tin
Copper
Diamond Mine at Borneo 60
in Brazil 61
nt frim' ^^
Cornwall
Diamonds ... 48
w^a^hins* of 60
Roraas
Copper in Russia
Sweden
Dip of the Strata . 254
Dolgooth Copper Mines 87
DolKoath . . 91
Draining a Mine . 139
Dress for a Mine . 140
Dysart Coal Mine . 158
E.
Earth, Structure ; * tjie 251
Fcton-hiil Mii^c 10£
F^e^ors Mi»o 16P
Cornwall Mines
Cortez
Crash
Croesus
D.
Dannemora Mine
276
INDEX.
Education, Advantages of 91
important
English Mines
Explosion of Coal
— Galena
. ' Gas
F.
Fahlum Copper Mine
Female Coal Bearers
Finding Salt Mines
— Copper
Gold . 1
Fire-damp
Fixed Air .
Forest of Dean, Iron,
Foul Air . . 1
Fullers' Earth .
Fumes, dangerous,
98, 1
G.
Galena
Gani Mine
Golconda
Gold
in Africa
Page.
Pa*e.
>of 91
Gold in Asia
171
. 207
Brazil
187
44
i^niTi tvi 1 1
RQ
. 149
V^UIUL WctJU •
o&
168
P14.
T*.rtlr.«^
£»J-TC
260
xreidnci
XVLexico • •
Prrn
1fi*3
Rrntlinrl
JLOO
170
. 106
OL/UlldllU. • •
Spain .
j. t-\j
167
144
Guanza Velica Mine .
223
• 15
95
H.
64, 177
Horses let down
144
259
Hualpa
190
. 258
Huels
91
HI
Hungary Mines
168
19, 256
Hydrogen Gas
259
. 237
I.
36, 140
Idria ....
228
Ignorance, Loss .by,
91, 92,
207
. 214
Improvements in Mining
263
55
Inflammable Air
149
51,61
Iron ....
111
164
in Russia
122
- 172
Scotland
121
277
Page,
Iron in Sweden . . 124
its Value to Man 113
J.
Jigitonhonha Mine . 62
K.
Keel .... 148
Kibbuts 71
Kolyvan Mines . . 208
Kimgsberg Mines . 202
L.
Lackawana Coal . 243
Lavaderos . . .182
Laycacota Mine . 197
Lead . . 104,212.
Lehigh Coal . . 243
Letter . . .139
Litchfield Cathedral 156
Lode .... 71
Lot's Wife . 39
M.
Metallic Vapors .
Mines, History of
-Depth of .
Description of
Dangers in .
Dolgooth .
Dysart .
Forest of Dean
Guanza Velica
Idria
Kolyvan .
Laycacota
Mam-Tor
Mexico
Nertchinsk
Northwich
Norway .
Parys Mountain
Potosi .
United States
Whitri°rs
Mam-Tor
Mercury
213
223
Mines under the Sea
Mineral Cabinet .
Mineralogical Strata .
Minerals, Indications of
Miners, Operations of
Page.
. 257
250
. 14
251
257
75,87
161
111
223
228
. 208
197
. 213
174, 199
210, 220
10
202
93
190
239
120
155
265
252
264
13
278
INDEX.
Page.
Mules, Droves of . . 85
Mundic ... 90
N.
Nertchinsk . 210, 220
Newcastle . . . 13b
Northwich . . 10
Norway Mines . 104, 202
Noxiousness of Quicksil-
ver .. . . 229
Number of Miners in
Cornwall . •«• 88
O.
Ocean, saltness of, , 24
" Old God's Blessing" 204
Ore, roasting of,
109, 113, 130, 225
of Copper . . 93
-Lead . . 212
- Quicksilver . 223
Tin . 68
P.
Pactolus River
Parys Mountain
Pea Blossom
171
93
257
Page.
Peru ... 223
Pennsylvania Coal . 243
Phoenicians trading for
Tin . . . .83
Pig Iron ... 120
Pittsburg . . .244
Plumbago . . 236
Poder .... 91
Potosi ... 190
Purifying . . .225
Q.
Quantities of Coals sent
to London . . 154
Quicksilver 223, 232
R.
Rail-roads . . .147
R,aolconda . 52
Retorts .* . . 225
Rhode-Island Coal . 243
Roasting Ore
109, 113, 130, 225
Rock Salt ... 18
Roraas Mine . . 104
Russian Mines 122, SOS, 220
INDEX. 279
Page.
Pago.
S
Silver, Nertchinsk 210,
220
Saalberg
206
Norway
202
Safety Lamp . 150,
261
Potosi
191
St. Austle .
75
Sweden
206
Salt
9
Slave freed
65
finding of
15
Smelting Furnace
114
formed into Money
20
Spanish Mines .
232
purifying of
18
" Speedwell" Mine
216
a Bond of Amity
22
Staffordshire, Lead Mines
Origin of
21
in
216
Chapels of
38
Stamping Mills
78
Springs
18
Steam Engine
73
from the Sea ,
26
Stream of Sparks
261
Cordova . ,
22
Stream "Works
76
Northwich .
10
Structure of the Earth
251
- Roland .
35
Sulphur
236
Wielitska
35
Sundries .
235
Salt Lakes
30
Swedish Mines 106,124,
206
Springs ,
240
Syracuse .
241
Salt-works of Salina .
241
Saltness of the Sea .
24
T.
Scottish Gold Mines .
169
Tin ....
68
Schuylkill Coal
243
Temperature of a Mine
256
Sea Salt
26
Silver, Finding of .
192
V.
Kolyvan
208
Virgin Copper
100
• Mexico .
199
-Voetsk
169
280
INDEX
U.
Uralian Mountains
United States, Mines in
W.
Washing Diamonds
Gold .
Tin Ore
Page.
Page.
Whitehaven
155
122
Wicklow Mines
. 103, 170
239
Wielitska
35
63
180
78
Women Coal Bearers . 144
Z.
Zinc 89
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