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600062200G
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I
"-^Ov
MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS.
MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS,
BY
H. T. COLEBROOKE.
WITH
LIFE OF THE AUTHOR.
BT HIS SON,
SIR T. E. COLEBROOKE.
VOL. in.
LONDON:
TRUBNER & CO., 67 and 69, LUDQATE HILL.
1873. ^
All Bights reserved.
J2/^. e. 55
MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS,
BY
H. T. COLEBROOKE.
A NEW EDITION, WITH NOTES,
BY
E. B. COWELL,
rRurKStoa op KAirsKRiT ih thi vxivkksitt or oambeidqk.
IN TTVTO VOr.TJMES.
VOL. II.
LONDON:
TRUBNER & CO., 67 and 59, LUDGATE HILL,
1873.
All Bights reserved.
■imTFomD :
BTBPBUV AVniJI AXD tOXI, FIXXTXEB.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME IL
PAQB
I. On the Sanskrit and Prakrit Languages. [From the
Asiatic Eesearches, vol. yii. pp. 199-231.] .... 1
IL Preface to the Author's "Grammar of the Sanskrit
Language." 33
List of Sanskrit Grammars, with Commentaries, etc. . 38
III. Preface to the Anther's edition of the Amara Kosha . 46
lY. On Sanskrit and Prdkrit Poetry. [From the Asiatic
Besearches, vol. x. pp. 389-474.] 57
y. Introductory Eemarks, prefixed to the edition of the
HUopadeia published at Calcutta, 1804 147
YI. Enumeration of Indian Classes. [From the Asiatic
Besearohes, vol. v. pp. 63-67.] 167
YII. Observations on the Sect of Jains. [From the Asiatic
Researches, vol. ix. pp. 287-322.] 171
YIII. On the Origin and Peculiar Tenets of certain Muham-
madan Sects. [From the Asiatic Eesearches, vol. vii.
pp. 338-344.] - .... 202
IX. Translation of one of the Inscriptions on the Pillar at
Delhi, called the lAi of Ffruz Shdh. [From the
Asiatic Besearches, vol. vii. pp. 179-182.] .... 208
X. On Ancient Monuments, containing Sanskrit Inscrip-
tions. [From the Asiatic Eesearches, y^^* ^- PP*
398-444.] 213
vi CONTENTS.
PAOK
XI. InscriptioDB upon Bocks in Sonth Bih&r. [From the
Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. i.
pp. 201-206.] 256
XII. On three Grants of Land, inscribed on Copper, found at
Ujjayanf, and presented by Major James Tod to the
Eoyal Asiatic Society. [From the Transactions of
the Eoyal Asiatic Society, vol. i. pp. 230-239, and
462-466.] 263
XIII. On Inscriptions at Temples of the Jaina Sect in South
Bihdr. [From the Transactions of the Eoyal Asiatic
Society, vol. i. pp. 620-523.] 276
XIY. On the Indian and Arabian Divisions of the Zodiac.
[From the Asiatic Eesearches, vol. ix. pp. 323-376.] 281
XY. On the Notion of the Hindu Astronomers concerning
the Precession of the Equinoxes and Motions of the
Planets. [From the Asiatic Eesearches, vol. xii.
pp. 209-250.] 329
Appendix, containing a reply to Bentley's criticisms,
published in the Asiatic Journal for 1826 .... 366
XYI. Dissertation on the Algebra of the Hindus, with
Notes and Illustrations. [Prefixed to the Author's
''Algebra, jvith Arithmetic and Mensuration, from
the Sanskrit of Brahmagupta and Bhdskara" London,
1817.] 375
Additional Notes 481
Index 483
EERA.TA TO YOLTJME II.
Page 38, line 9, read pradfpoddyota.
43, line 7, read YaniSKyadana.
49, line 14, readJJtpalmL
50, last line, read Maitreya-rakshita.
58, line 3 infra, read SeshanigSL.
106, line 28, read Bhdmini-yilasa.
112, last line, read Aparavaktra. (N. B.)
139, line 19 (col. 2), read 6+4x5+L.
140, line 2 infra, r^oi^ Yiparfta-pathyd.
145, line 10 (col. 2), read Kirfta.
278, line 11, r^o^^ Ka^yapa.
312, lines 9, 16, read Vai^axdL,
315, line 26, read T^tika.
338, line 7 infra, read SisitdDanda.
360, line 12, read Jdtakdrnava.
In p. 183 note' should have heen inclosed in brackets [ ].
In pp. 284, 1. 16; 346, 1. 4 infr., and 348, 1. 6 infr., Mariehi
and Mdrkehi should have been corrected to Mdriehay as Colebrooke
himself wrote the title in p. 409, 1. 1.
Similarly in p. 298, 1. 23; p. 299, U. 9, 18; p. 301, 1. 27;
p. 302, 1. 7, Jyeshfha, Asbddhd, and Bhadrapada should be read,
instead of the wrongly retained readings of the original edition.
MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS.
I.
ON THE SANSKRIT AND PRi^KRIT LANGUAGES.
[_iyom the Astatic Researches^ vol. vii. pp. 199-231.
Calcutta^ 1801. 4to.]
[1] In a treatise on rhetoric, compiled for the use of M&nikja
Chandra, Rdjd of Tirabhukti or Tirhfit, a brief enumeration of
languages used by Hindu poets is quoted from two writers
on the art of poetry. The following is a literal translation of
both passages.
^' Sanskrita, Pr&krita, Pais&chi, and M&gadhi, are in short
the four paths of poetry. The gods, etc., speak Sanskrita ;
benevolent genii, Pr&krita ; wicked demons, Pais&chi ; and men
of low tribes and the rest, M&gadhi. But sages deem Sanskrita
the chief of these four languages. It is used three ways : in
prose, in verse, and in a mixture of both." ^
" Language, again, the virtuous have declared to be four-
fold, Sanskrita [or the polished dialect], Prdkrita [or the
vulgar dialect], Apabhransa [or jargon], and Misra [or
mixed]. Sanskrita is the speech of the celestials, framed in
grammatical institutes ; Prdkrita is similar to it, but manifold
as a provincial dialect, and otherwise ; and those languages,
which are ungrammatical, are spoken in their respective
districts.**'*
1 [I have not identified this passage.]
* [This passage occurs in the K&vykdarrfa of Daiidin, i. 32, 33, but apparently
with some variations in the Calcutta edition : " Language, again, men of reputa-
tion (drydh) declare to be fourfold, Sanskrit, Prfekrit, Apabhran/a, and Mi^ra.
The diviue language has been characterized by the great jishis as Sanskrit ; the
degrees of Pr&krit are various, as derived from Sanskrit {tadbhava)^ correspond-
ing with it {tatMma)^ and provincial {deiC)" — Vararuchi, the oldest IVkkrit
▼OL. lU. [E88AT8 U.] 1
4 ON THE SANSEEIT
gratuitous. In Sanskrit, as in every other known tongae,
grammarians have not invented etymology, but have only
contrived rules to teach what was already established by
approved practice.
There is one peculiarity of Sanskrit compositions which
may also have suggested the opinion that it could never be
a spoken language. I allude to what might be termed the
euphonical orthography of Sanskrit. It consists in extending
to syntax the rules for the permutation of letters in etymology.
Similar rules for avoiding incompatible sounds in compound
terms exist in all languages ; this is sometimes effected by a
deviation from orthography in the pronuncia[4]tion of words ;
sometimes by altering: one or more letters to make the spelling
correspond with the pronunciation. These rules have been
more profoundly investigated by Hindu grammarians than by
tliose of any other nation ; and tliey have completed a system
of orthography which may be justly termed euphonical.
They require all compound terms to be reduced to this
standard, and Sanskrit authors, it may be observed, delight
in compounds of inordinate length : the whole sentence, too,
or even whole periods, may, at the pleasure of the author, be
combined like the elements of a single word, and good writers
generally do so. In common speech this could never have
been practised. None but well-known compounds would be
used by any speaker who wished to be understood, and each
word would be distinctly articulated independently of the
terms which precede and follow it. Such, indeed, is the pre-
sent practice of those who still speak the Sanskrit language ;
and they deliver themselves with such fluency, as is sufficient
to prove that Sanskrit may have been spoken in former times
with as much facility as the contemporary dialects of the
Greek language, or the more modern dialects of the Arabic
tongue. I sliall take occasion again to allude to this topic,
after explaining at large what are, and by whom were com-
posed, those grammatical institutes, in which the Sanskrit
AND PRAKRIT LANGUAGES. 6
language is framed, according to the author above quoted ; or
by which (for the meaning is ill-conveyed by a literal trans-
lation) words are correctly formed and inflected.
P&nini, the father of Sanskrit grammar, lived in so remote
an age,^ that he ranks among those ancient sages whose
&bulous history occupies a conspicuous place in the Pur&nas, or
Indian theogonies.^ The name is a patro[5]nymic, indicating
his descent from Panin;^ but, according to the Paur&nika
legends, he was grandson of Devala, an inspired legislator.
Whatever may be the true history of Pfinini, to him the
Sutras, or succinct aphorisms of grammar, are attributed by
universal consent: his system is grounded on a profound
investigation of the analogies in both the regular and the
anomalous inflections of the Sanskrit lant^uaire. He has com-
bined those analogies in a very artificial manner ; and has thus
compressed a roost copious etymology into a very narrow
compass. His precepts are indeed numerous,* but they have
been framed with the utmost conciseness ; and this great
brevity is the result of very ingenious methods which have
been contrived for this end, and for the purpose of assisting
the student''s memory. In P&nini's system, the mutual re-
lation of all the parts marks that it must have been completed
by its author : it certainly bears internal evidence of its having
been accomplished by a single effort, and even the corrections
which are needed cannot be interwoven with the text. It
* [P&9iiii*8 date k still an unsettled question. It has been usually fixed, on
cofnfenedly uncertain grounds, about b.c. 350; but Prof. Goldstiicker, in his
I^lnmij his JPiaee in Sanskrit Literatursy maintains that be may e^en bare
preceded Buddha.]
* ETery Purfr^a treats of five subjects : the creation of the universe, its pro-
gress, and the renoration of worlds ; the genealogy of gods and heroes ; chrono-
logy, according to a fabulous system ; and heroic histoiy, containing the achieTe-
ments of demi-gods and heroes. Since each Pur&^a contains a cosmogony, with
mythological and heroic history, the worlts which bear that title may not inaptly
be compared to the Grecian theogonies.
, * [According to the Siddhdnta Kaumudi (i. 542), P&^i was the descendant of
P&^ina, who again was the descendant of Pai^n. His mother's name was D&kshi.
(See Bihfinit his Flaee in Sanskrit Lit, p. 211.}]
« Not fewer than 3996.
6 ON THE SAKSKBIT
must not he henoe inferred, that P&i^ini wae unaided by the
labours of earlier grammarians. In manj of his precepts he
cites the authority of his predecessors,^ sometimes for a
deviation from a general rule, often for a grammatical canon
which has universal cogency. He has even employed some
technical terms without defining them,* because, as his com-
mentators remark, those terms were already introduced by
earlier grammarians.' None of the [6] more ancient works,
however, seem to be now extant: being superseded by his,
they have probably been disused for ages, and are now perhaps
totally lost.*
A performance such as the P&niniya grammar must inevit-
ably contain many errors. The task of correcting its inaccura-
cies has been executed by Katy&yana,^ an inspired saint and
lawgiver, whose history, like that of all the Indian sages, is
involved in the impenetrable darkness of mythology. His
annotations, entitled Y&rtikas,® restrict those among the
P&niniya rules which are too vague, enlarge others which are
too limited, and mark numerous exceptions which had escaped
the notice of Pd^ini himself.
The amended rules of grammar have been formed into
memorial verses by Bliartrihari,^ whose metrical aphorisms,
entitled K&rik&, have almost equal authority with the precepts
1 S'&kalya, G&rgya, K&ifyapa, G&laya, S'fckat&yana, and others [viz. Apu'ali,
Ch&kraTarmai^a, Bh&radw&ja, Senaka. Spbo^&yana, and the so-called eastern and
northern grammarians].
' [See this point discussed in Pdninif hit Flac$ in S, L., pp. 162-168]
' In a few instances he qnotes former grammars to refate them.
^ Definitions of some technical terms, together with grammatical arioms, are
also cited from those ancient works in the commentaries on Pfii^ni. They are
inserted in a compilation entitled Paribhdthd, which will be subsequently noticed.
The yarious original authorities of Sanskrit grammar, as enumerated in a memo-
rial Terse, are eight in number, riz., Indra, Chandra, K&^akritsna, Apis'ali,
S'kkat&yana, Pknini, Amara, and Jinendra.
A This name likewise is a patronymic [riz. the descendant of Eati].
• [More properly vdriiikas, as derived from vritti, * a commentary.']
^ [Bhartfihari wrote the Yfckyapadiya, which is sometimes called the flarik&rikfc ;
but the K&rik&s quoted in the Mab^bbfishya are not by him. Prof. Goldstiicker
(/. e. pp. 93-105) considers that some of these are by K&ty&yana, others by
Patanjali himself, others by some third tathor.]
AND PEi^KRIT LANGUAGES. 7
of Panini and emendations of E&ty&yana. If the popular
traditions concerning Bhartrihari be well founded, he li^ed in
the century preceding the Christian era ; ^ for he is supposed
to be the same with the brother of Yikram&ditya, and the
period when this prince reigned at IJjjayini is determined by
the date of the Samvat era.
The studied brevity of the P&niniya Sutras renders [7]
theoDi in the highest degree obscure. Even with the knowledge
of the key to their interpretation, the student finds them am-
biguous. In the application of them when understood, he
discovers many seeming contradictions ; and, with every
exertion of practised memory, he must experience the utmost
difficulty in combining rules dispersed in apparent confusion
through different portions of P&nini's eight lectures. A com-
mentary was therefore indispensably requisite. Many were
composed by ancient grammarians to elucidate the text of
P&jgiini. A most copious one on the emendations of his rules
was compiled in very ancient times by an uncertain author.
This voluminous work, known by the title of Mah&bh­a,
or the great commentary, is ascribed to Patanjali, a iabulous
personage, to whom mythology has assigned the shape of a
serpent.' In this commentary almost every rule is examined
at great length. All possible interpretations are proposed:
and the true sense and import of the rule are deduced through
a tedious train of argument, in which all foreseen objections
are considered and refuted, and the wrong interpretations of
the text, with al] the arguments which can be invented to
sapport them, are obviated or exploded.
Voluminous as it is, the Mah&bh­a has not exhausted
the subject on which it treats. Its deficiencies have been
^ A beaatifal poem has been composed in his name, containing moral reflec-
tions, which the poet supposes him to make on the discorery of his wife's infidelity.
It consists of either thr^ or fonr S'atakas, or centuries of couplets.
' [Patanjali was one of the Eastern grammarians. Prof. Goldstiicker has shown
good reasons for belicTing that he wrote part of his commentary between 140 and
liO IX. (/. e. pp. 229-234).]
8 ON THE SAKSEBIT
sapplied by the annotations of modern grammarians. The
most celebrated among these scholiasts of the Bh­a is
Kaiyata, a learned Kashmirian. His annotations are almost
equally copious with the commentary itself. Yet they, too,
are loaded by numerous glosses ; among which the old and
new Vivaranas are most esteemed.
The difficulty of combining the dispersed rules of grammar,
to inflect any one verb or noun through all its variations,
renders further aid necessary. This seems to have [8] been
anciently afforded in vocabularies, one of which exhibited the
verbs classed in the order implied by the system of P&nini,
the other contained nouns arranged on a similar plan. Both
probably cited the precepts which must be remembered in
conjugating and declining each verb and noun. A catalogue
of verbs, classed in regular order, but with few references to
the rules of etymology, is extant, and is known by the title
Dhdtupdtha.^ It may be considered as an appendix to the
grammar of P&nini ; and so may his treatise on the pronun-
ciation of vocal sounds,' and the treatise of Y&ska on obsolete
words and acceptations peculiar to the Veda.' A numerous
class of derivative nouns, to which he has only alluded, have
been reduced to rule, under the head of Un&di, or the termi-
nation w, etc.;* and the precepts respecting the gender o^
nouns have been, in like manner, arranged in Sutras, which
are formed on the same principles with Panini''s rules, and
which are considered as almost equally ancient. Another
supplement to his granmiar is entitled Ganapd^ha, and con-
tains lists of words comprehended in various grammatical
rules, under the designation of some single word, with tho
term '^etc." annexed to it. These supplements are due to
^ [Edited by Prof. Westergaard in his Radices Lingua Sanserita^ 1841.]
' [For the tract on pronunciation called S'i]uh&, often called a Ved&nga, see
Professor Miiller's Ane, Samk, Lit.y p. 145.]
* [Y&ska was probably anterior to P&^ini ; his Nimkta has been edited by
Prof. Roth, Gbttingen, 1862.]
^ [The best edition of the Ui^&di Sdtras is that by Prof. Aufrecht, with Ujjwala-
datta's Commentary, London, 1859.]
AND PRAKRIT LANGUAGES. 9
yarious authors. The subject of gender alone has been treated
by more than one writer reputed to be inspired ; namely, by
K&ty&yana, Gobhila, and others.
These subsidiary parts of the P&niniya grammar do not
require a laboured commentary ; excepting only the catalogue
of verbs, which does need annotation ; and which is, in truth,
a proper groundwork for a complete review of all the rules of
etymology that are applicable to each verb.^ [9] The Vritti
Ny&sa, a very celebrated work, is, I believe, a commentary of
this sort.* It is mentioned by Maitreya Bakshita, the author
of the Dh&tu Pradipa, as the work chiefly consulted by him in
compiling his brief annotations on the Dh&tup&tha. A very
Tolominous commentary on the catalogue of verbs was com-
piled under the patronage of Siyana, minister of a chieftain
named Bukkar&ya, and is entitled M&dhaviya Yritti. It
thoroughly explains the signification and inflection of each
verb ; but at the same time enters largely into scholastic re-
finements on general grammar.
Such vast works as the Mah&bhdshya and its scholia, with
the voluminous annotations on the catalogue of verbs, are not
adapted for general instruction. A conciser commentary must
have been always requisite. The best that is now extant is
entitled the K&sikd Yritti, or commentary composed at Yardnasi.
The author, Jayaditya,' in a short preface explains his design :
^* to gather the essence of a science dispersed in the early com-
* The number of Terbal roots amounts to 1750 nearly; excluaiye of many
obfolete words omitted in the Dh&tap&^a, bat noticed in tbe SUtras as the roots
of certain deriTatiTCs. The cmde verbs, however, are more nnmeroos, because
nsny roota, containing the same radical letters, are variously conjugated in dif-
ferent senses. The whole number of crude verbs separately noticed in the cata-
logue exceeds three thousand. From each of these are deduced many compound
Tinbs, by prefixing one or more prepositions to the verbal root. Such compounds
often deviate very widely in their signification, and some even in tbeir infiections,
from the radical verb. The derivative verbs, again, are numerous; such as
eaoaals, firequentatives, etc. Hence it may be readily perceived how copious this
bfanch of grammar must be.
* I hare not yet had an opportunity of inspecting either this or its gloss. It
has been described to me as a commentary on tiie K£Ls'ik& Yritti. — [See p. [40].
* [He is also called Y&mana.]
10 ON THE SANSKRIT
mentarieSi in the Bh­a, in copious dictionaries of verbs
and of nouns, and in other works.*" He has well fulfilled the
task which he undertook. His gloss explains in perspicuous
language the meaning and application of each rule ; he adds
exam [10] pies, and quotes, in their proper places, the necessary
emendations from the Y&rttikas and Bh­a. Though he
never deviates into frivolous disquisitions nor into tedious
reasoning, but expounds the text as succinctly as could consist
with perspicuity, his work is nevertheless voluminous; and
yet, copious as it is, the commeDtaries on it, and the annota-
tions on its commentaries, are still more voluminous. Amongst
the most celebrated is the Padamanjari of Haradatta Misra,
a grammarian whose authority is respected almost equally with
that of the author on whose text he comments. The annota-
tors on this, again, are numerous ; but it would be useless to
insert a long list of their names, or of the titles of their works.
Excellent as the K&8ik& Y^itti undoubtedly is, it partakes
of the defects which have been imputed to P&nini's text.
Following the same order in which the original rules are
arranged, it is well adapted to assist the student in acquirin/s^
a critical knowledge of the Sanskrit tongue. But for one who
studies the rudiments of the language a different arrangement
is requisite, for the sake of bringing into one view the rules
which must be remembered in the inflections of one word, and
those which must be combined even for a single variation of a
single term. Such a grammar has been compiled within a few
centuries past by S4macbandra, an eminent grammarian. It
is entitled Prakriyd Kaumudi.^ The rules are Pdnini's, and
the explanation of them is abridged from the ancient commen-
taries ; but the arrangement is wholly different. It proceeds
from the elements of writing to definitions ; thence to ortho-
graphy : it afterwards exhibits the inflections of nouns accord-
ing to case, number, and gender ; notices the indeclinables ;
and proceeds to the uses of the cases. It subjoins the rules of
1 [See Prof. Aafrecbt's Bodleian Catalo^e, p. 350 b,]
AND PBAERIT LANGUAGES. H
apposition, by which compound terms are formed ; the ety-
mology of patronymics and other [11] derivatives from nouns ;
and the reduplication of particles, etc. In the second part it
treats of the conjugation of verbs arranged in ten classes ; to
these primitives succeed derivative verbs, formed from verbal
roots or from nouns. The rules concerning different voices
follow I they are succeeded by precepts regarding the use of
the tenses; and the work concludes with the etymology of
verbal nouns, gerunds, supines, and participles. A supple-
ment to it contains the anomalies of the dialect in which the
Yeda is composed.
The outline of Fdi^iini^s arrangement is simple ; but numer-
ous exceptions and frequent digressions have involved it in
much seeming confusion. The two first lectures (the first
section especially, which is in a manner the key of the whole
grammar) contain definitions ; in the three next are collected
the affixes, by which verbs and nouns are inflected. Those
which appertain to verbs opcupy the third lecture : the fourth
and iiflh contain such as are affixed to nouns. The remaining
three lectures treat of the changes which roots and affixes un-
dergo in special cases, or by general rules of orthography, and
which are all effected by the addition or by the substitution of
one or more elements.^ The apparent simplicity of the design
vanishes in the perplexity of the structure. The endless pur-
suit of exceptions and of limitations so disjoins the general pre-
cepts, that the reader cannot keep in view their intended con-
nexion and mutual relation. He wanders in an intricate maze,
and the clew of the labyrinth is continually slipping from his
hands.
The order in which B&machandra has delivered the rules of
grammar is certainly preferable ; but the Sutras of F&nini,
thus detached from their context, are wholly unin[12]telligible.
Without the commentator''s exposition, they are indeed what
Sir William Jones has somewhere termed them, '^ dark as the
^ Eren the expunging of a letter u considered as the substitation of a blank.
12 ON THE SANSKRIT
darkest oracle.'^ E^en with the aid of a comment, they can-
not be fully understood until they are perused with the proper
context. Notwithstanding this defect, Bhattoji Dikshita,^
who revised the Kaumudi, has for very substantial reasons
adhered to the P&i^niya Sutras. That able grammarian has
made some useftil changes in the arrangement of the Frakriy&;
he has amended the explanation of the rules, which was in
many places incorrect or imperfect ; he has remedied many
omissions, has enlarged the examples, and has noticed the
most important instances where the elder grammarians dis-
agree, or where classical poets have deviated from the strict
rules of grammar. This excellent work is entitled Siddh&nta
Ejiumudi. The author has very properly followed the example
of B&machandra, in excluding all rules that are peculiar to the
obsolete dialect of the Yeda, or which relate to accentuation ;
for this also belongs to the Yeda alone. He has collected
them in an appendix to the Siddh&nta Kaumudi ; and has
subjoined, in a second appendix, rules concerning the gender
of nouns. The other supplements of P&nini's grammar are
interwoven by this author with the body of his work.
The Hindus delight in scholastic disputation. Their gram-
marians indulge this propensity as much as their lawyers and
their sophists.* Bhattoji Dikshita has provided an ample
store of controversy in an argumentative commentary on his
own grammar. This work is entitled [13] Praudha Mano-
ram&. He also composed a very voluminous commentary on
the eight lectures of Panini, and gave it the title of Sabda
Kaustubha. The only portion of it I have yet seen reaches
no further than to the end of the first section of Pdnini's first
lecture. But this is so difi'usive, that, if the whole have been
executed on a similar plan, it must triple the ponderous volume
^ Deflcendantfl of Bhattoji in the fifth or sixth degree are, I am told, now living
at Benares. He must hare flonrished, then, between one and two centuries ago.
' Many separate treatises on different branches of general grammar are very
properly considered as appertaining to the science of logic.
AND PRAKRIT LAKGIJA6ES. 13
of the Mah&bh­a itself. I have reason, however, for
doubting that it was ever completed.
The commentaries on the Siddh&nta Kaumudi and Mano-
nun& are very numerous. The most celebrated shall be here
briefly noticed* 1. The Tattwa Bodhini expounds the
Siddh&nta: it is the work of Jn&nendra Saraswati, an ascetic, and
the pupil of y&manendra Sw&mi. 2. The Sabdendu ^khara
is another commentary on Bhattoji's grammar. It was com-
posed by a successor, if not a descendant, of that grammarian.
An abridgment of it, which is very generally studied, is the
work of N&gesa, son of Siva Bhatta and pupil of Hari Dikshita.
He was patronized, as appears from his pre&ce, by the pro-
prietor of Sringavera Pura.^ Though called an abridgment,
this Laghu ^bdendu is a voluminous performance. 3. The
Laghu ^bdaratna is a commentary on the Manoramd of
Bhattoji Dikshita, by the author's grandson, Hari Dikshita.
Thin work is not improperly termed an abridgment, since it is
short in comparison with most other commentaries on gram-
mar. A larger performance on the same topics, and with the
same title of Sabda Ratna, was composed by a professor of this
school. 4. B&la barman P&gondiya, who is either fourth or
fifth in succession from Bhattoji, as professor of grammar at
Benares, has written commentaries on the Eaustubha, ^bda
Batna, and [14] ^bdendu Sekhara. His father, Baidyandtha
Bhatta, largely annotated the Paribh&shendu Sekhara of
N&gesa Bhatta, which is an argumentative commentary on a
eoUection of grammatical axioms and definitions cited by the
glossarists of P&nini. This compilation, entitled Paribh&shd,
has also furnished the text for other controversial perform-
ances bearing similar titles.
While so many commentaries have been written on the
Siddh&nta Kaumudi, the Prakriya Kaumudi has not been
neglected. The scholiasts of this, too, are numerous. The
1 A town on the Ganges, marked Singhore, in Kennel's map. It is situated
above Il&h&b&d. [Cf. Bodleian Cat., p. 165.]
14 ON THE 8ANSKBIT
most known is Krishna Pandita ; and his work has been
abridged by his pupil Jayanta, who has given the title of
Tattwa Ghandra to a very excellent compendium.^ On the
other hand, Krishna Pandita has had the fate common to all
noted grammarians, since his woi^ has employed a host of
commentators who have largely commented on it.
The Kaumudis, independently even of their numerous com-
mentaries, have been found too vast and intricate for young
students. Abridgments of the Siddh&nta Kaumudi have been
therefore attempted by several authors with unequal degrees
of success. Of three such abridgments one only seems to
deserve present notice. It is the Madhya Kaumudi, and is
accompanied by a similar compendium of annotations, entitled
Madhya Manoram&. The name indicates, that it holds a
middle place between the diffuse original and the jejune ab-
stracts called Laghu Kaumudi, etc. It contains such of
P&nini's rules as are most universal, and adds to each a short
but perspicuous exposition. It omits only the least common
exceptions and limitations.
[15] When Sanskrit was the language of Indian courts,
and was cultivated not only by persons who devoted them-
selves to religion and literature, but also by princes, lawyers,
soldiers, physicians, and scribes (in short, by the first three
tribes, and by many classes included in the fourth), an easy
and popular ^ammar must have been needed by persons who
could not waste the best years of their lives in the study of
words. Such grammars must always have been in use ; those,
however, which are now studied are not, I believe, of very
ancient date. The most esteemed is the S&raswata, together
with its commentary named Ghandrikd. It seems to have
been formed on one of the Kaumudis, by translating P&nini^s
rules into language that is intelligible independently of the
^ Finished by him, as appears from a postscript to the book, in the year 1687
of the Samyat era. Though he studied at Benares, he appears to have been bom
on the banks of the Tapati, a river marked Taptee in Eennel'a map.
AND P&AKBIT LAKGIJAGES. 15
glo88, and withoat the necessitj of adverting to a different
context.
Another popular grammar, which is in high repnte in
Bengal, is entitled Mugdhabodha, and is accompanied by a
eommentary. It is the work of Yopadeva, and proceeds upon
a plan grounded on that of the Eaumudis ; but the author
has not been content to translate the rules of P&^ini and to
adopt his technical terms. He has, on the contrary, invented
new terms and contrived new abbreviations. The same author
likewise composed a metrical catalogue of verbs alphabetically
arranged. It is named Kavikalpadruma, and is intended as
a substitute for the Dh&tup&tha.
The chief inconvenience attending Vopadeva's innovation is,
that commentaries and scholia, written to elucidate poems and
works of science, must be often unintelligible to those who
have studied only his grammar, and that the writings of his
scholars must be equally incomprehensible (wherever a gram-
matical subject is noticed) to the students of the Pfininiya.
Accordingly the Pai^^dits of Bengal are cut off, in a manner,
from communication on grammatical topics with the learned of
other provinces in India. Even [16] etymological dictionaries,
lach as the commentaries on the metrical vocabularies, which I
ihall next proceed to mention, must be unintelligible to them.
It appears from the prefaces of many different grammatical
a
treatises, that works entitled Dh&tu and N&ma P&r&yana
vere formerly studied. They must have comprehended, as
tkeir title implies, "the whole of the verbs and nouns " apper-
^ing to the language ; and, since they are mentioned as
very voluminous, they must probably have contained references
^ all the rules applicable to every single verb and noun.
Baradatta's explanation of the title confirms this notion. But
1^ does not appear that any work is now extant under this
^tle. The Dh&tup&tha, with its commentaries, supplies the
placoof the Dhfitup&r&yana. A collection of dictionaries and
Vocabularies, in like manner, supplies the want of the N4ma-
16 ON THE SANSKETT
p&r&yana. These then may be noticed in this place as a
branch of grammar.
The best and most esteemed vocabulary is the AmaraKosha.
Even the bigotry of Ankara ^ch&rya spared this, when he
proscribed the other works of Amara Sinha.^ Like most other
Sanskrit dictionaries, it is [17] arranged in yerse to aid the
memory. Synonymous words are collected into one or more
verses, and placed in fifteen different chapters, which treat
of as many different subjects. The sixteenth contains a few
homonymous terms, arranged alphabetically, in the Indian
manner, by the final consonants. The seventeenth chapter
^ Amara Sinha was an eminent poet, and one of the nine gems (for so these
poets were called) who were the ornament of Vikram&ditya's Court. Unfortun-
ately he held the tenets of a heterodox sect, and his poems are said to hare
perished in the persecutions fomented by intolerant philosophers against the
persons and writings of both Jainas and Bauddhas. The persecution, instigated by
S'ankara and Udayana Ach&rya, was enforced, perhaps from political motives, by
princes of the Vaish^ya and S'aiva sects, who compelled the Bauddha monarchs to
retire from Hindust&n, and to content themselves with their dominions of Lftsa^a
and Bhota. It would be curious to investigate the date of this important revolution.
The present conjecture (for it is little more than mere conjecture) is partly
founded upon some acknowledgments made by Pandits, who confess that S'ankara
and Udayana persecuted the heterodox sects and proscribed their books; and
partly on the evidence of the engraved plate found at Mudgagiri, and of the
inscription on the pillar found at Bad&l (see As. Kes. vol. i. p. 123 and 138),
from which it appears that Devap&la Deva belonged to the sect of Buddha, and
that he reigned over Bengtil and Karn&t& as well as Lksa^ and Bho^a, and had
successfully invaded Kamboja, after traversing as a conqueror the Vindhya range
of mountains. His descendants, as far as the fourth generation, governed a no
less extensive empire ; as appears from the inscription on the pillar at Bad&l.
I must however acknowledge, that this last-mentioned inscription does not in-
dicate any attachment to the sect of Buddha. This may be accounted for. by
supposing that the worshippers of Kfishna and of R&ma, or whatever other sects
prevailed, were then as cordial to the followers of Buddha, as they now are
towards each other. The king and bis minister might belong to different sects.
Amara is mentioned in an inscription at Buddha Gay& as the founder of a
temple at that place. (As. Kes. vol. i. p. 284.) This circumstance may serve to
explain why his works have been proscribed with peculiar inveteracy, as it is
acknowledged by many Pandits that they have been. He was probably a zealous
sectarist.
This is, however, by no means certain : and Bh&nuji Dikshita, in his com-
mentary on the Amara Kosha, denies that there is any evidence to prove that the
author belonged to the sect of Jainas. [For the supposed date of Amara Sinha,
see Wilson's Essay s^ v. pp. 182-200 ; Gen. Cunningham's Report, B. A. S. J. vol.
xxxii. pp. vii-x. The fifth or sixth century a.d. seems the most probable date.]
AND PRAKKIT LANGUAGES. 17
ifl a pretty full catalogae of indeclinables, which European
philologists would call adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and
interjections, but which Sanskrit grammarians consider as in-
declinable nouns. The last chapter of the Amara Kosha is a
treatise on the gender of nouns. Another Yocabularj by the
same author is often cited by his commentators, under the
title of Amara M&1&.
Numerous commentaries have been written on the Amara
Kosha. The chief object of them is to explain the deriva-[18]
tions of the nouns and to supply the principal deficiencies of
the text. Sanskrit etymologists scarcely acknowledge a single
primitive amongst the nouns. When unable to trace an ety-
mology which may be consistent with the acceptation of the
word, they are content to derive it, according to grammatical
rules, from some root to which the word has no affinity in
sense. At other times they adopt &nciful etymologies from
Pur&nas or from Tantras : but, in general, the derivations are
accurate and instructive. The best known among these com-
mentaries of the Amara Kosha is the Pada Chandrikfi, corn-
pled from sixteen older commentaries by Yrihaspati, sumamed
llnkuta, or at full length R&ya Mukuta Mani.^ It appears
from the incidental mention of the years then expired of as-
tronomical eras, that Mukuta made this compilation in the
4532nd year of the Kali Yag, which corresponds with a.d.
1430. Achyuta Jallakf has abridged Mukuta'^s commentary,
but without acknowledgment; and has given the title of
Vyikhyi Pradipa to his compendium. On the other hand,
Bhinuji Dikshita has revised the same compilation, and has
Mrrected the numerous errors of Mukuta, who often derives
words from roots that are unknown to the language, or accord-
^ to rules which have no place in its grammar. Bh&nuji
"*8 greatly improved the plan of the work, by inserting from
other authorities the various acceptations of words exhibited
"y Amara in one or two senses only. This excellent compi-
lation is entitled Vy&khyd Sudhd.«
' [CC Wilaon, £$$ayi on 8an»k. Lit, iii. 204.] * [Cf. Wilson, ibid, pp. 204, 205.]
toL. m. [bssats n.] 1
18 ON THE SANSKRIT
The AmaraKosha, as has been already hinted, gives a very
incomplete list of words that have yarioos acceptations. This
defect is well supplied by the Medini, a dictionary so named
from its author, Medinikar.^ It contains words that bear
many senses, arranged in alphabetical order by the final con-
sonants ; and a list of homonymous indeclinables is subjoined
to it. A similar dictionary, compiled by [19] Maheswara and
entitled Yiswa Prak&sa, is much consulted, though it be very
defective, as has been justly remarked by Medinikar.' It
contains, however, a very useful appendix on words spelt more
than one way ; and another on letters which are liable to be
confounded, such as v and b; and another, again, on the gender
of nouns. These subjects are not separately treated by Medi-
nlkar ; but he has, on the other hand, specified the genders
with great care in the body of the work. The exact age of
the Medini is not certainly known; but it is older than
Mukuta^s compilation, since it is quoted by this author.
Amara's dictionary does not contain more than ten thousand
difierent words; yet the Sanskrit language is very copious.
The insertion of derivatives, that do not at all deviate fix)m
their regular and obvious import, has been very properly
deemed superfluous. Compound epithets, and other compound
terms, in which the Sanskrit language is peculiarly rich, are
likewise omitted ; excepting such as are especially appro-
priated, by a limited acceptation, either as titles of deities, or
as names of plants, animals, etc. In fact, compound terms
are formed at pleasure, according to the rules of grammar;
and must generally be interpreted in strict conformity with
those rules. Technical terms, too, are mostly excluded from
general dictionaries, and consigned to separate nomenclatures.
The Amara Kosha, then, is less defective than might be in-
ferred from the small number of words explained in it. Still,
however, it needs a supplement. The H&r&vali may be used
1 [Cf. Wilson, Eiaaya on Samk. Lit. iii. pp. 217, 221.]
» [Cf. WilBon, t*. p. 216.]
AND PRAKRIT LANGUAGES. ig
as such. It is a vocabulaiy of uncommon wordsj compiled by
Pumshottama, the author of an etymological work, and also
of a little collection of monograms, entitled Ek&kshara.^ His
Har&Tali was compiled by him under the patronage of Dhrita
Sinha. It is noticed by Medinikar, and seems to be likewise
anterior to the Viswa.
[203 The remaining deficiencies of the Amara Kosha are
supplied by consulting other dictionaries and Yocabularies ;
such as HalayudhaX Yfichaspati's, the Dharani Kosha, or
some other. Sanskrit dictionaries are indeed very numerous.
Purushottama and Medinikar name the Utpalini, ^abd&rnava,
and Sans&r&Yarta, as works consulted by them. Purushottama
adds the names of Y&chaspati, Vy&di, and Vikram&ditya; but
it is not quite clear whether he mentions them as the authors
and patrons of these, or of other dictionaries. Medinikar
adds a fourth vocabulary, called N&mam£I&, and with similar
obscurity subjoins the celebrated names of Bh&guri, Vararuchi,
S'fiswata, Bop&lita, and Rantideva. He then proceeds to enu-
merate the dictionaries of Amara, Subh&nga, Hal&yudha,
Gk)yardhana, Babhasa P&la, and the Ratna Kosha ; with the
Yocabularies of Rudra, Dhananj'aya, and Gangddhara ; as also
the Dharani Kosha, H&r&vali, Yrihad Amara, Trik&n4a besha,
and Batnam&l&.' Many of these are cited by the commen-
tators on Amara and by the scholiasts on different poems.
The following are also frequently cited; some as etymolo-
gists, the rest as lexicographers : Sw&mi, Durga, Sarvadhara,
y&mana, Chandra, and the authors of the Yaijayanti, N4-
manidh&na, Haima, Yrihat-nigbanti, etc. To this list might
be added the Anek&rtha Dhwani Manjari, N&n&rtha, and
other vocabularies of homonymous terms ; the Dwirukti, Bhu-
riprayoga Kosha, and other lists of words spelt fn more than
one way ; and the various Nighantis or nomenclatures, such
as the Dhanwantari Nighanta and Baja Nigha^ta, which con-
1 [Cf. WUson, EsMotft on Sansk. lit, iii. pp. 211, 212.]
> [Cf. Wilson, t*. pp. 217-220.]
20 ON THE SANSKBIT
tain lists of the materia medica; and the Nighai^ti of the
Yeda, which explains obsolete words and unosaal acceptations.^
[21] Before I proceed to mention other languages of India,
it may be proper to mention, that the school of Benares now
uses the Siddh&nta Kaamudi, and other works of Bhattoji, as
the same school formerly did the K&sik& Yritti. The Pra-
Lriyd Kaumudi, with its commentaries, maintains its ground
among the learned of Mithild or Tirhut. In both places,
however, and indeed throughout India, the Mah&bh­a con-
tinues to be the standard of Sanskrit grammar : it is therefore
studied by all who are ambitious of acquiring a critical know-
ledge of the language. The Harik&rik&, with its commentaries
by Hel&r&ja and Punjar&ja, was probably in use with a school
that once flourished at Ujjayini, but it does not seem to be
now generally studied in any part of India.
The second class of Indian languages comprehends the
written dialects which are now used in the intercourse of
civil life, and which are cultivated by lettered men. The
author of a passage already quoted includes all such dialects
under the general denomination of Pr&krit : but this term is
commonly restricted to one language, namely, to the Saraswati
b&la b&ni, or the speech of children on the banks of the Saras-
wati.* There is reason to believe that ten polished dialects
formerly prevailed in as many different civilized nations, who
occupied all the fertile provinces of Hindustan and the Dak-
hin.' Evident traces of thera still exist. They shall be
^ The Nirukti, as explained in Sir William Jones's treatise on the literature of
the Hindus, belongs to the same class, with the Nigha^ti of the Veda : and a
small TocHbulary under both these titles is commonly annexed to the Rigveda to
complete the set of Upavedas. There is, however, a much larger work entitled
Kirukti ; and the commentators of it are often cited upon topics of general gram-
mar. See the preceding vol. p. [26], [^Nighan^i and Nirukti are more corectiy
written Nighantu and Nirukta.'\
' The term will bear a different interpretation, but this seems to be the most
probable explanation of it. The other (youthful speech of Saraswati) is generally
received.
3 [The exact relation of the modem vernacular languages of Northern India to
Sanskrit and Pr&krit is a still unsettled question (cf. Dr. Muir's Satukrit Tests,
AND PRAKRIT LANGUAGES. 21
noticed in the order in which these Hinda nations are usually
enumerated.
[22] The S&raswata was a nation which occupied the banks
of the river Saraswatf. Br&hmai^as, who are still distin-
guished by the name of their nation, inhabit chiefly the
Panj&b or Panchanada, west of the river from which they
take their appellation. Their original language may have
once prevailed through the southern and western parts of
Hindust&n proper, and is probably the idiom to which the
name of Pr&krit is generally appropriated. This has been
more cultivated than any other among the dialects which will
be here enumerated, and it occupies a principal place in the
dialogue of niost dramas. Many beautiful poems composed
wholly in this language, or intermixed with stanzas of pure
Sanskrit, have perpetuated the memory of it, though perhaps
it have long ceased to be a vernacular tongue. Grammars have
been compiled for the purpose of teaching this language and
its prosody, and several treatises of rhetoric have been written
to illustrate its beauties. The Pr&krita Manoram& and
Pr&k|ita Pingala are instances of the one, and the Saraswati
KaQth&bharana of Bhojadeva, may be named as an example of
the other, although both Sanskrit and Pr&krit idioms furnish
the examples with which that author elucidates his precepts.
For the character of the Pr&krit language I must refer the
reader to Sir William Jones's remarks, in his preface to the
tiunslation of the Fatal Ring.
ToL tL 2nd ed. chap. i). Between these modem dialects and Sanskrit we can at any
nte trace fomr intermediate stages, though we cannot determine their relative anti-
qintj to each other. Thns we find in the Buddhist vaipulya HUrtu or * developed
i6tra8 ' of Nepal long passages in verse, called gdthtUf which are written in a
popularized Sanskrit, fhU of harharous inflections and corruptions, hut still re-
taiiiuig a very strong likeness to the original Then we have the language of
the rock inscriptions of the second and third centuries b.c.; and closely connected
with this, the P&li or M&gadhi of the sacred hooks of the Buddhists in Ceylon
ind Burmah. Here we find a pure Pr&krit type, not, as in the G&th&s, a
Wharous form of Sanskrit ; it has a regular grammar and a vast literature of its
own. Lastly we have the Pr&krit dialects of the grammarians and the dramas;
but none of these agree with the language of the inscriptions or with the P&li ;
and indeed they are undoubtedly of a more recent character.]
22 OK THE SANSKEIT
The K&njakubjas pessessed ^ great empire, the metropolis
of which was the ancient city of K&nyakubja or Eanoj. Theirs
seems to be the language which forms the groundwork of
modem Hindust&ni, and which is known by the appellation
of Hindi or Hindavi. Two dialects of it may be easily dis-
tinguished, one more refined, the other lees so. To this last
the name of Hindi is sometimes restricted, while the other is
often confounded with Pr&krit. Numerous poems ha¥e been
<somposed in both dialects,^ not only [23] before .the Hindust&ni
was ingrafted on the Hindi by a large intermixture of Persian,
but also in very modem times, by M uhammadan as well as
Hindu poets. Dohrds or detached couplets, and Kabits or
stanzas, in the Hindavi dialect, may be found among the
works of Musalm&n authors : it will be sufficient to instance
those of Malik Muhammad Jaisi, Muhammad Afzal, and
Amirkhin Anj&m. Most poems in this dialect are, however,
the exclusive production of Hindu poets.' On examining
them, the affinity of Hindi with the Sanskrit language is
peculiarly striking ; and no person acquainted with both can
hesitate in affirming that Hindi is chiefly borrowed from
Sanskrit. Many words, of which the etymology shows them
to be the purest Sanskrit, are received unaltered ; many more
undergo no change but that of making the final vowel silent ;
3, still greater number exhibits no other difference than what
arises from the uniform permutation of certain letters ; the
* [For further information respecting the different Hindi poets, see M. Garcin
de Tassy's Hittoire de la Zitt&ature Hindouie et Hindotutanie, The oldest is
Chand, who wrote his great epic, the Pfithwir^ja-Charitra, ahont 1200 a.d.]
' Among the most admiced specimens of Hindi poetry, the seven hundred
couplets of Bih&ri Ltd, and the amatory verses of Stlndar and of Matir&m, are
conspicuous. But their dialect Is not pure Hindavi, since they sometimes borrow
^m the Persian language. Stindar wrote his poems in the reign of Sh&hjahfm,
and seems to have been patronized by that prince, whom he praises in his preface.
Bih&rf L&l Nourished at the court of Ambher, towards the beginning of the six-
ieenth century of the Christian era. His poems were arranged in their present
order for the use of the unfortunate prince A^zam Sh&h, and the modem edition
iB therefore called A'zarosh&hL The old edition has been elegantly translated
into Sanskrit verse by Haripras&da PapdUta, under the patronage of Chet Sinh,
when B6j& of Benares.
AND FEAEEIT LANGUAGES. 23
rest, toOy with comparatively few exceptions, may be easily
traced to a Sanskrit origin. That this is the root from which
Hindi has sprang (not Hindi the dialect whence Sanskrit has
been refined) may be proved by etymology, the analogy of
which is lost in Hindi and preserved in Sanskrit. A few
examples will render this evident.
[24] Kfiyd signifies action, and karma act, both of which
are regularly derived fix)m the root kri ' to do.' They have
been adopted into Hindust&ni, with many other regular deri-
vatives of the same root (such, for example, as karana [con-
tracted into kamd] the act of doing ; kartd the agent; kdran
cause, or the means of doing ; kdrya [kdrj\ kdj^"] the thing to
be done, and the intent or purpose of the action). But I
select these two instances, because both words are adopted
into Hindust&ni in two several modes. Thus krid signifies
action, and kirid expresses one metaphorical sense of the same
Sanskrit word, viz. oath or ordeal. Again, kiridkaram signi-
fies funeral rites \ but kdm is the most usual form in which
the Sanskrit karma is exhibited in the Hindustdni ; and it
thus assames the same form with *d«», desire, a very different
word taken from the Sanskrit derivative of the root kam^ to
seek. Here then the Hindust&ni confounds two very difierent
words in one instance, and makes two words out of one in the
other instance.
Sat literally signifies existent : it is employed in the accepta-
tion of truth. Satya^ a regular derivative from it, signifies
true ; or, employed substantively, truth. The correspondent
Hindi word, sach^ is corrupted from the Sanskrit satya^ by
n^lecting the final vowel, by substituting y for y^ according to
the genius of the Hindavi dialect, and by transforming the
harsh combination tj into the softer sound of ch* Here then
is obviously traced the identity of the Hindustdni aach^ and
Beng&li shotyo, which are only the same Sanskrit word satya
variously pronounced.
Yuvan signifies young, and yauvana youth. The first
24 OK THE 8AKSKSIT
makes yuvd in the nominatiTe ease: this is adopted into
Hindost&ni with the nsual pennatation of ooneonants, and
hecomeB jubd, as yauvana is tranafonned into/t>ftaii. The same
word has been lees eorrapted in Persian and Latin, where it
stands juwdn and juvenis. In many inflections [25] the root
of f/uvan is contracted into yiin : the possessive case, for ex-
ample, forms in the three numbers, ^iuuUf pimoSf ffundm.
Here, then, we trace the origin of the Latin comparative
junior; and I cannot hesitate in referring to these Sanskrit
roots, the Wehh jevangk^ and Armoricanyoranifc, as well as the
Saxon i/eang^ and finally the English young. This analogy,
which seems evident through the medium of the Sanskrit
language, is wholly obscured in ECndustdni.
These examples might be easily multiplied, but unprofitably,
I fear; for, after proving that nine-tenths of the Hindi dialect
may be traced back to the Sanskrit idiom, there yet remains
the difficulty of accounting for the remaining tenth, which is
perhaps the basis of the Hindi language. Sir William Jones
thought it so ; and he thence inferred, that the pure Hindi
was primeval in Upper India, into which the Sanskrit was
introduced by conquerors from other kingdoms in some very
remote age.^ This opinion I do not mean to controvert. I
only contend, that where similar words are found in both
languages, the Hindi has borrowed from Sanskrit, rather than
the Sanskrit from Hindi. It may be remarked too, that in
most countries the progress has been troxxx languages rich in
inflections, to dialects simple in their structure. In modem
idioms, auxiliary verbs and appendant particles supply the
place of numerous inflections of the root : it may, for this
reason, be doubted, whether the present structure of the Hindi
tongue be not a modem refinement. But the question, which
has been here hinted rather than discussed, can be decided
only by a careful examination of the oldest compositions that
are now extant in the Hindi dialect. Until some person
> S«e Sir W. Jones's third anniyersary discourse.
AND FKAKBIT LANGUAGES. 25
execute this task, a doubt must remain, [26] whether the
groundwork of Hindi, and consequently of Hindust&ni, be
wholly distinct from that of Sanskrit.
On the subject of the modem dialect of Upper India, I with
pleasure refer to the works of a very ingenious member of this
society, Mr. Gilchrist, whose labours have now made it easy
to acqmre the knowledge of an elegant language, which is used
in every part of Hindust&n and the Dakhin, which is the com-
mon Tehide of colloquial intercourse among all well-educated
natives, and among the illiterate also, in many provinces of
India, and which is almost everywhere intelligible to some
among the inhabit^ants of every village. The dialects which
will be next noticed are of more limited use.
Gaura,^ or as it is commonly called Bengalah, or Beng&li,
is the language spoken in the provinces of which the ancient
dty of Ckrar was once the capital. It still prevails in all the
provinces of Bengal, excepting perhaps some frontier districts,
but is said to be spoken in its greatest purity in the eastern
parts only ; and, as there spoken, contains few words which
are not evidently derived from Sanskrit. This dialect has not
been neglected by learned men. Many Sanskrit poems have
been translated, and some original poems have been composed
m it :' learned Hindus in Bengal speak it almost exclusively ;
[27] verbal instruction in sciences is communicated through
this medium, and even public disputations are conducted in
this dialect. Instead of writing it in the Devandgari, as the
Pr&krit and Hindavi are written,^ the inhabitants of Bengal
* It ii neoeesarj to remark, that although Gaora [Gaii4a] ^ the name of
Sogal, yet the Br&hma^aa, who bear that appellation, are not inhabitants of
^^CBgal, but of Hindnst&n proper. They reside chiefly in the Sub& of Delhf,
^^ the Brfthma^aa of Bengal are ayowed colonists from Eanoj. It is difficult
to aooooat for this contradiction. The Gaura Br&hma^as allege a tradition, that
^ ancestors mii^^ated in the days of the P&^^yas, at the commencement of
^ present Kali Tuga. Though no plausible conjecture can be founded on this
^'^^n, yet I am induced to retract a conjecture formerly hazarded by me, that
"^ Gar of our maps was the original country of the Gaura priests.
' [On old Beng&li literature, see two artides in toIs. xiiL and xTii. of the Oal-
f^U Stvitw, The proTince is properly called Bangadet'a or B&ngal& (sometimes
^^&), and the language B&ngal& ; B&ng&lf only means a native of Bengal.]
' Pr&krit and Hindf books are commonly written in the Devanfrgarf ; but a
26 ON THE SANSKRIT
have adopted a pecaliar character, which is nothing else but
Deyan&gari, difformed for the sake of expeditions writing. -
Even the learned amongst them employ this character for the
Sanskrit langnage, the pronunciation of which, too, thej in
like manner degrade to the Beng&li standard. The labours of
Mr. Halhed and Mr. Forster have already rendered a know-
ledge of the Beng&Ii dialect accessible; and Mr. Forster*8
further exertions will still more fieusilitate the acquisition of a
language which cannot but be deemed greatly useful, since it
prevails throughout the richest and most valuable portion of
the British possessions in India.
Maithila, or Tirhutiya, is the language used in Mithil&
(that is, in the Sirk&r of Tirhut), and in some adjoining dis-
tricts, limited however by the rivers Eusi (Eausiki), and
Gkmdhak (Gandhaki), and by the mountains of Nep&l. It
has great affinity with Beng&li ; aud the character in which it
is written differs little from that which is employed throughout
Bengal. In Tirhut, too, the learned write Sanskrit in the
Tirhutiya character, and pronounce it after their own inelegant
manner. As the dialect of Mithild has no extensive use, and
does not appear to have been at [28] any time cultivated by
elegant poets, it is unnecessary to notice it further in this place.
Utkala, or Odradesa, is co-extensive with the Sub& of
Orissa, extending from Medinipur to M&nakapattaua, and
from the sea to Sammall-pur. The language of this province,
and the character in which it is written, are both called Uriya.
So far as a judgment can be formed from imperfect specimens
of this language, it contains many Sanskrit words variously
corrupted, with some Persian and Arabic terms borrowed
through the medium of Hindustdni, and with others of
corrupt writing, called N&gari, is used by Hindus in all common transactioiis
where Hindi is employed by them; and a still more corrupted one, wherein
Towels are for the most part omitted, is employed by bankers and others in mer-
cantile transactions. I must here confess that I can give no satisfactory e^lana-
tion of the term. The common etymology of Ndgari is unsatisfactory ; unless
Kagara be taken as the name of some particular place emphatically caUed the ctty^
AND PRAKBIT LANGUAGES. 27
doubtftil origin. The letters are evidently taken from the
Devanagari; and the Brdhmans of this province use the TJnya
character in writing the Sanskrit language. Its deviations
from the Devan&gari may be explained, from the practice of
writing on palm leaves with an iron style, or on paper with a
pen cut from a porcupine's quill. It differs in this respect
fit>m the hand-writing of northern tribes, and is analogous to
that of the southern inhabitants of the peninsula.
The five Hindu nations, whose peculiar dialects have been
thus briefly noticed, occupy the northern and eastern portions
of India; they are denominated the five Oaurs. The rest,
called the five Dr&virs, inhabit the southern and western parts
of the peninsula. Some Pai^dits, indeed, exclude Earn&ta,
and substitute E&smira; but others, with more propriety, omit
the K&shmirian tribe ; and, by adding the Kdnaras to the list
of Dr&virs, avoid the inconsistency of placing a northern tribe
among southern nations. There is reason, too, for doubting
whether E&smira be occupied by a distinct nation, and whether
the inhabitants of it be not rather a tribe of Kdnyakubjas.
Dr&vira^ is the country which terminates the peninsula of
India: its northern limits appear to lie between the twelfth
and thirteenth degrees of north latitude. The lan[29]guage
of the province is the T&mel, to which Europeans have given
the name of Malabar,' from Malay-w&r, a province of Dr&vira.
^ [Mahr&tt^ and Gajar&ti belong to the Sanskrit class of languages. Dr.
Otldwelly in his Drdvidian Comparative Gh^ammar, p. 27, would make nine
northern laognages, t>. Beng&li, Uriya, Hindf with its daughter Hindust&nf,
PtDJ&bi, Sindhi, Gujar&tf, Mahr&^tf, and the languages of Nep&l and E&shmlr.
The DriTi^ian branch consists of Tamil, Telngu, Eanarese, and Malayfrlam, the
language of Malabar (which is closely connected with Tamil). They all borrow
yugtif from Sanskrit in their Tocabulary, but they are essentially non-Sanskrit
in their grammatical structure and their most important roots, and belong to the
Turanian, not the Indo-European family. The dialects of most of the yarious
noiimtain-tribes in Central and South India, as the Gonds, Ehonds, etc., belong
to the same stock, and perhaps some of those in North India ; and hence it has
been supposed that these languages represent the language of the aboriginal
iohabitaittB of India previous to the immigration of the Sanskrit-speaking Aryan
tribes. See Dr. Caldwell's Drdvitfian Comp, Orammar.']
* A learned Br&hman of Dr&vira positiyely assures me, that the dialect of
Halabar. though confounded by Europeans with the T&mel, is different from it,
tad is not the language to which Europeans ha?e allotted that appellation.
28 OK THS SANSKRIT
They have similarlj corrapted the true name of the dialeet
into Tamal, Tamulic, and Tamolian,^ but the word, as pro-
nounced bj the natives^ is T&mUi, or T&makh; and this seems
to indicate a derivation from T&mra, or T£mraparn{, a riyw of
note which waters the southern M&thura, situated within the
limits of Dr&vira. The provincial dialect is written in a
character which is greatly corrupted from the parent Dev»-
n&gari, but which nevertheless is used by the Br&hmans of
Dr&vira in writing the Sanskrit language. After carefully
inspecting a grammar published by Mr. Drummond at Bom-
bay, and a dictionary by missionaries at Madras, I can
venture to pronounce that the T&mla contains many Sanskrit
words, either unaltered or little chauged, with others more
corrupted, and a still greater number of doubtful origin.
The Mah&r&shtra, or Mahr&tta, is the language of a nation
which has in the present century greatly enlarged its ancient
limits. If any inference may be drawn from the name of
the character in which the language is written, the country
occupied by this people was formerly called Muru;' for the
peculiar corruption of the Devandgari, [30] which is employed
by the Mah&r&shtras in common transactions, is denomin-
ated by them Mur. Their books, it must be remarked,
are commonly written in Devan&gari. The Mahratta nation
was formerly confined to a mountainous tract situated south
of the river Narmad&, and extending to the province of Kok&n.
Their language is now more widely spread, but is not yet
become the vernacular dialect of provinces situated far beyond
the ancient bounds of their country. Like other Indian
tongues, it contains much pure Sanskrit, and more corruptions
of that language, intermixed with words borrowed from Persian
^ The Romiflh and Protestant missionaries who have published dictionaries
and grammars of this dialect, refer to another language, which they denominate
Orandam and Orandonicum, It appears that Sanskrit is meant, and the term
thus corrupted by them is Grantham a volume or book. [The Grantha character
is used in Southern India for Sanskrit MSS.]
^ Mentioned in the royal grant preserved at a famous temple in Ear^fr^. See
As. Res. voL iii. p. 48. However, the Mahr&(^ themselves affirm, that the
ll6ra character was introduced amongst them from the island of Sil6n.
AND PRAKEIT LANGUAGES. 29
and Arabic, and with others derived from an unknown source.
K the bards of Muru were once famous, their supposed suc-
cessors, though less celebrated, are not less diligent. The
Hahr&ttas possess many poems in their own dialect, either
translated from the Sanskrit, or original compositions in honour
of Krishna, B&ma, and other deified heroes. Treatises in
prose, too, on subjects of logic and of philosophy, have been
composed in the Mahr&tta dialect.
Karn&tft> or K&nara, is the ancient language of Karn&taka,
a proTince which has given name to districts on both coasts
of the peninsula. This dialect still prevails in the inter-
mediate mountainous tract, but seems to be superseded by
other provincial tongues on the eastern coast. A peculiar
character formed from the Devan&gari, but, like the Tdmla,
much corrupted from it through the practice of writing on
palm leaves with an iron style, is called by the same name
with the language of Karn&tak. Br&hmans of this tribe have
issared me that the language bears the same affinity to
Sanskrit as other dialects of the Dakhin. I can affirm,
too, from their conversation, that the K&naras, like most
other southern tribes, have not followed the ill example of
Bengal and the provinces adjacent to it, in pro[31]nouncing
the Sanskrit language in the same inelegant manner with
thdr own provincial dialects.
Tailanga, Telingah, or Tilanga, is at once the name of a
nation, of its language, and of the character in which that
Ittguage is written. Though the province of Teling&na alone
retain the name in published maps of India, yet the adjacent
ponoees on either bank of the £j:ishn& and God&vari, and
those situated on the north-eastern coast of the peninsula,
ire undoubtedly comprehended within the ancient limits of
'lilanga, and are inhabited chiefly by people of this tribe.
The language, too, is widely spread : and many circumstances
JJiiicate that the Tailangas formerly occupied a very extensive
^t) in which they still constitute the principal part of the
/
/
30 OK THE 8AKSKBIT
popoktion. The chaneter in which they write ih^ own
language is taken fix>m DeTan&gaii, and Uie Tailanga Br&h-
mans employ it in writii^ the Sanskrit tongae, firom which
the Taiknga idiom is said to have borrowed more largely than
other dialects used in the south of India. This language
appears to have been cultivated by poets, if not by prose
writers ; for the Tailangas possess many compositions in their
own provincial dialect, some of which are said to record the
ancient history of the country.
The province of Guijara^ does not i^pear to have been
at any time much more extensive than the modem Ghiar&t,
although Br&hmai^aS) distinguished by the name of that
country, be now spread over the adjoining provinces on both
sides of the Narmada. This tribe uses a language denom-
inated from their own appellation, but very nearly allied to
the Hindi tongue, while the character in which it [32] is
written conforms almost exactly with vulgar N&gaH. Con-
sidering the situation of their country, and the analogy of
language and writing, I cannot hesitate in thinking that the
Ourjaras should be considered as the fifth northern nation of
India, and the Uriyas should be ranked among the tribes of
the Dakhin.
Brief and imperfect as is this account of the Pr&krits of
India, I must be still more concise in speaking of the lan-
guages denominated Magadhi and Apabhransa in the passages
quoted at the beginning of this essay. Under these names
are comprehended all those dialects which, together with the
Pr&krits above-noticed, are generally known by the common
appellation of Bh&sh&, or speech. This term, as employed by
all philologists, from P&nini down to the present professors
of grammar, does indeed signify the popular dialect of San-
skrit, in contradistinction to the obsolete dialect of the Veda ;
1 The limits of Gtirjara, as here indicated, are too narrow. It seems to hv
been co-extensive with the ancient, rather than the modem Guzr&i, and to ha^
nded the whole, or the greatest part of Kh&ndosh and M&lwa.
AND PRAKBIT LANGUAGES. 31
bat in ooinmon acceptatioi], Bh&kh£ (for so the word is pro-
nonnced on the banks of the Gtinges) denotes an j of the modem
▼emacular dialects of India, especially such as are corrupted
from the Sanskrit : these are very numerous. After excluding
mountaineers, who are probably aborigines of India, and whose
languages have certainly no affinity with Sanskrit, there yet
remain in the mountains and islands contiguous to India
many tribes that seem to be degenerate Hindus. They have
eertainly retained some traces of the language and writing
which their ancestors had been taught to employ.
Without passing the limits of Hindust&n, it would be easy
to collect a copious list of different dialects in the various
provinces which are inhabited by the ten principal Hindu
nations. The extensive region which is nearly defined by the
banks of the Saraswati and Ganga on the north, and which is
strictly limited by the shores of the [33] eastern and western
Beas towards the south, contains fifty-seven provinces accord-
ing to some lists, and eighty-four acc<»'ding to others. Each
of these provinces has its peculiar dialect, which appears,
liowever, in most instances, to be a variety only of some one
among the ten principal idioms. Thus Hindust&ni, which
seems to be the lineal descendant of the K&nyakubja, comprises
niunerous dialects, from the Urdu Zabdn, or language of the
royal camp and court, to the barbarous jargon which reciprocal
mistakes have introduced among European gentlemen and
their native servants. The same tongue, under its more ap-
propriate denomination of Hindi, comprehends many dialects
strictly local and provincial. They differ in the proportion
rf Arabic, Persian, and Sanskrit, either pure or slightly
Qorropted, which they contain ; and some shades of difference
^&y be also found in the pronunciation, and even in the basis
<>f each dialect.
Not being sufficiently conversant with all these idioms, I
•Wl only mention two, which are well known, because lyric
poets have employed them in songs that are still the delight
32 ON THE 8ANSKKIT AND PRAKBIT LANGUAGES.
of natives of all ranks. I allude to the Panj&bi and to the
Brij-bh&kh&. The first is the language of Panchanada, or
Panj&b, a province watered by the five celebrated rivers which
ML into the Sindhu. The songs entitled Ehe&ls and Tappas,
which are no doubt iamiliar to all who have a taste for the
vocal music of India, are composed almost exclusivelj in this
dialect ; as the Dhurpads and regular R&gs are Hindi ; and
Bekhtah,^ in the language of the court of Hindust&n.
The Brij-bh&kh&, or Vraja Bh&8h&, is the dialect supposed
to have been anciently spoken among the peasants [34] in the
neighbourhood of Mathur&. It derives its name from the
cow-pens (vrq^'a) and dairies in the forest of Yrindi, where
Kf ish^a was educated among the wives and daughters of the
cowherds. His amorous adventures with Br&dh& and the
Oopis furnish the subject of many favourite songs in this
dialect. It is still spoken with much purity throughout a
great part of the Antarbed or Do&b, and in some districts on
the opposite banks of the Yamun& and Gbmgi.
To these cursory observations might be fitly added a speci-
men of each language, and of the character in which it is
written, together with a list of the most common terms in the
various dialects of India, compared with words of similar
sound and import in the ancient languages of Europe. I
have, indeed, made collections for this purpose: but the in-
sertion of a copious list would exceed the limits of a desultoiy
essay. For this reason, and because the collection is yet
incomplete, I suppress it: and shall here close the present
essay abruptly, with the intention of resuming the subject,
should the further prosecution of these inquiries at any future
time enable me to furnish the information called for by this
Society, concerning the number of Hiudavi dialects, and the
countries where they are spoken.
^ The author of the Tazkirah Shua*r& Hind explains Rekhtah as Bigniiyiiig a
poetry composed in the language of the royal court of Hindust&n, but in the
style and metre of Pezsian poetry.
33
IL
PREFACE TO THE AUTHOR'S "GRAMMAR OF
THE SANSKRIT LANGUAGE/'
iCakndta, 1805. Folio.]
[35] Hatino acoepted an honourable nomination to the post
of Professor of the Sanskrit Language in the College of Fort
William, early after the foundation of that useful institution,
I felt it incumbent on me to furnish, through the press, the
means of studying a language, which it was my duty to make
known, but on which I had no intention of delivering oral
instmction*
Among other undertakings adapted to this purpose, the
publication of a Sanskrit Grammar was commenced, which
was first intended to be brief and elementary, but of which the
design has been enlarged in its progress. As the entire work
will exceed the bounds of a single volume, a convenient break
has been chosen to close the first, and a few remarks will be
now prefixed to it, since a considerable time may elapse before
the second volume be completed. I have the less scruple, in
paosing upon this work, to devote my attention to other
duties, because the deficient part of it may be supplied by the
grammars which Mr. Forster and Mr. Oarey will severally
Publish.
In the composition of this grammar, I have followed the
^T^tem taught by writers, whose works are considered by the
▼01. m. [BBflATt n.] 3
34 PREFAOE TO THE AUTHOR'S QBAMMAR
preyailing sects of Hindus to be sacred, and to form an appen-
dage of their scriptures. My reasons for preferring these to
the popular or profane treatises on Grammar, were stated in
an essay on the Sanskrit lan[36]guage inserted in the seventh
volume of the Asiatic Researches} I adhere to the opinion
there expressed. The sacred grammar has been more culti-
vated, its agreement with ancient writings and classical
authors has been more careftdly verified, than any other
grammar of the language : it is more usually cited, and more
generally understood : and, as finally corrected by a long train
of commentators, it is more acx;urate and complete.
The arrangement, indeed, is ill-adapted to facilitate study ;
both in the original work and in the numerous illustrations of
it. But I thought it practicable to frame a grammar upon
the same system, which should be easily intelligible to the
English student of Sanskrit. Without believing that I have
succeeded, I still think it to be practicable : and the difficulties
which may be experienced in the following pages will in
general be found owing merely to the want of examples ;
which have been omitted, under the apprehension of rendering
the work too voluminous.
An improvement which has been recently effected in the
types of the Ndgari character, by reducing their size, without
diminishing their distinctness, has removed the objection to
ample illustrations by examples : and, if this work should be
reprinted, examples of every rule will accordingly be inserted ;
and, at all events, they will be retained in the second volume
of this grammar.
On the same supposition of a new edition of this first volume,
I should be desirous of altering some of the terms adopted by
me in place of technical words in Sanskrit grammar. An
unwillingness to coin new words in English led me to use
some expressions, which are not sufficiently precise; others
were selected by me, not anticipating objections to their use,
' See page [15] of the present yolume.
OP THE SANSKEIT LANGUAGrE!. 35
"which have since occurred: and, in some instances, I have
inadvertentlj changed an appropriate term for one less suit-
able. The most material [87] intended changes are men-
tioned in the margin ;^ and the reader is requested to notice
them.
I shaUr be likewise glad to have an opportunity of inserting
the original rules of Sanskrit Grammar. They are usually
committed to memory by native students of the language ;
and are cited by Sanskrit authors, in words, and not by re-
ference to their place or their import. The knowledge of them
is, therefore, material to the student of Sanskrit : and they
are framed, like the aphorisms of other sciences among the
Hindus, with studied and ingenious brevity.
The author of these grammatical aphorisms is P&nini.
His rules, with the annotations of Kdtydyana entitled V&rt-
tikas, confirmed or corrected by Patanjali in the Mah&bhdshya,
constitute the standard of Sanskrit gram [38] mar. From the
three saints, as Hindu grammarians a£fect to call them, there
is no appeal. Other authorities may be admitted, where they
are silent : but a deviation even by a classical or an ancient
writer, from a rule in which they concur, is deemed either a
poetical licence or a privileged barbarism.
^ Letters, added by Sanskrit grammarians, as marks, but which are not
wimded, nor retained ut the inflections, are called by them Anubandha or It ;
n^Udi, in this grammar, has been translated mute; bat the circumstance of such
'vvvdi being accented, leads to the inconsistency of speaking of accented mute
^vdi. They would be better designated by the word indicatory,
A dm of deri?atiTe rerbs, which, in a former treatise I denominated FrequentO"
^**t>) bsB been here named InUnsives. On consideration, I revert to the flrst-
'■oitioiied term.
Under the head of tenses, I ha?e used the word Aorist to signify indefinite m
"9*^ to a species of time, instead of indefinite as to time in general ; the name
^•Smotf jNM< is not sufficiently descriptive of the import of the tense to which
^ Ittt been assigned ; and several others are open to similar remark : I wish
^Hcrefore to change the names of the tenses, according to the following scheme :
^ I'teae&t. 5. Aorist Ist (Imperative, etc.).
^ Preterite unperceived (Remote 6. Pridian past (Absolute past),
past). 7. Aorist 2nd (Imperative, etc.).
'• Criftine future (Absolute future). 8. Indefinite past (Aorist past).
^ Indefinite future (Aorist future). 9. Conditional (Conditional future).
36 PBEFACE TO THE AUTHOB'S ORAMMAE
The works of these sacred writers, with the notes of Eaiy-
jata on the Mah&bh­a, interpreted by his scholiasts, and
more especiallj the perpetual commentary of V&mana on
P&nini's aphorisms, under the title of E&8ik& Y|itti, eluci-
dated by the copious annotations of Haradatta Misra in the
Padamanjari, are the basis of the grammar here printed.
The Siddh&nta Elaumudi, and Manoram& of Bhatfoji, with
their commentaries, have been frequently consulted by me.
Much use has also been made of the Prakriy& Kaumudi, with
its commentaries, the Pras&da and Tattwa Chandra: and I
have continually referred to Maitreya, M&dhava, Yopadeva,
and the other interpreters of Sanskrit roots. A reader, who
may be desirous of verifying my authorities, should be ap-
prized, that the E&sik& Yfitti, Siddh&nta Kaumudi, and
M&dhaviya Yritti have been my chief guides : and that others,
besides the books enumerated, have been occasionally con-
sulted; as the G^^aratna Mahodadhi, the Yfitti Sangraha,
and the commentators of the Paribh&sh&s ; and sometimes,
though rarely, the popular grammars.
For the information of the Sanskrit student, a list of these
and other grammatical works will be subjoined, including
many treatises which have not been used for this grammar ;
but none, which I do not know to be extant; and few, of
which I do not actually possess complete copies. The list
might have been greatly enlarged by adding the names of
books quoted by undoubted authorities: and I shall only
remark, in regard to such works, that the earliest [39] gram-
marians are expressly stated by Yopadeva to have been
Indra, Chandra, K&sakritsna, j^pisali, b&kat&yana, P&nini,
Amara, and Jainendra. Among these P&nini remains; and
some of the others : perhaps all.
The authorities, which have been mentioned by me, as
generally followed in this grammar, differ materially in their
arrangement. I have been guided sometimes by one, some-
times by another, as seemed best adapted to the two objects
OP THE SANSKBIT LANGUAGE. 37
proposed, conciseness and perspicaitj. I am apprehensive,
that^ in the pursuit of both objects, one has frequently been
missed* It was, however, with the view of compressing much
grammatical information in a small compass, that paradigmas
have been multiplied, but exhibited in a succinct form ; and
that general rules only are usuaUj inserted in the text, while
exceptions and special rules are placed in the notes.
I have admitted no remarks on general grammar, though
suggested by the numerous peculiarities of Sanskrit. These,
with the observations which occur on a comparison of the
ancient language of India with those of Europe, are deferred
until the completion of the work.
In the mean time, one singularity of the Sanskrit language
may be noticed: its admitting both the ancient and the modem
systems of grammatical structure. It abounds in inflections
for cases and genders ; tenses and persons : and it also admits
a simple construction of indeclinable nouns with prepositions,
and of participles with auxiliary verbs.
This remark anticipates on a part of the grammar reserved
for the second volume, in which composition and syntax will
be explained, with other matters indicated in the note sub-
joined to the table of contents of the first volume.
38
LIST OF SANSKRIT GEAMMARS, WITH
COMMENTARIES, etc.
[40] Sittra by P^ini : rules of grammar in eight books entitled
Aihtddhydya ; comprising 3996 aphorisms.^
Vdrttika by K&ty&yana, amending or explaining Pd^ini's roles.
Mahdhhdshya by Patanjali, interpreting or correcting Kitydyana's
annotations.
Mahdhhdshya Pradipa by Kaiyyafa, annotating Batanjali's gloss.
Bhdshya Pradkpodyota by N^jf Bhatta, commenting on Eaiyya^a's
notes.
Bhdihya Pradipa Vwarana by Hwardnanda: another commentary
on Kaiyyata*8 notes.
Kdiikd Vfitii by Jay4ditya or Y&mana Jayfiditya: a perpetual
commentary on Pd^ini's rules.
Padamanjari by Haradatta Miira : an exposition of the last-men-
tioned work.
Nydsa or Kdiikd Vjritti Panjtkd by Jinendra : another exposition of
the same,' with explanatory notes by Eakshita.
Vfitti Sangraha by Ndgojf Bhafta: & concise commentary on P&i^ini.
Bhmhd Vfitti by Purushottama Deva : a commentary on Pdi^ini's
rules (omitting those which are peculiar to the dialect of the
Vedas), [41]
Bhdshd VfUtyartha Vivjritti by S]*i8htidhara; explaining Puru-
shottama's commentary.
S'ahda Kaustulha by Bhattojf Dikshita, consisting of scholia on
Pdnini (left incomplete by the author).
1 [Edited in Galoatta with a Comm., aj>. 1809, and Qgain by Bohtlingk,
Bonn, 1839.]
* I state this with some distrust, not haying yet seen the book. The Ky&sa \m
nniyeraaUy cited ; and the Bodhiny&sa is fi«qaently so. Yopadera's K&yya
K4madhena quotes the Ny&sa of Jinendra and that of Jinendra Buddhi. [CL
Plrof. Aufi:echt's BodU Cat., pp. 118a, 176a, 161^, 170a.]
LIST OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARS. 39
Prdbhd by Baidyaniitha P&yagimda, also named B^ambhatta ; a
commentary on the Sdbda KauHuhha.
Prakriyd JSTaumudi by Bdmachandra Achdrya : a grammar in whicb
Pacini's roles are used, but his arrangement changed.
I^asdda by Yiftbala Ach^a; a commentary on the Frakriyd
£aumudi.
Tattwa Chandra by Jayanta: another commentary on the same,
abridged from one by Krishna Pa^^^ta.
Siddhdnia Kaumudi by Bhattojf DIkshita: a grammar on the plan
of the IVakHyd ; but more correct and complete.^
Manoramd or JPraudha Manoramd by the same author; containing
notes on his own work.'
Tattwa Bodhini by Jndnendra Saraswati : a commentary on Bhatfoji's
Siddhdnia Eaumudi.^
Sdibdendu S'ekhara by Nage^a Bhaffa (same with Ndgojf Bhatfa) :
another commentary on the Siddhdnta Kaumudi}
Laghu Sahdendu S'ekhara : an abridgment of the last
Ckidasthimdld by Baidyan^tha Pdyagunda: a commentary on the
abridged gloss of Ndge^a.
^thdaratna by Hari Dfkshita : a commentary on BhatJoji's notes
on the Manoramd.
LagJm S'abdaratna : an abridgment of the same.
BUxa PtakdHkd by Baidyandtha Pdyagunda: an exposition of
Hari Dfkshita's commentary.
Madh^a JSTaumudi by Barada Bija: an abridgment of the Siddhdnta
KaumtulL There is also a Madhya Ma[42']noramd ; besides other
abridgments of the Siddhdnta itself, as the Laghu JSTaumudiy^ etc.
^9nbhdshd: maxims of interpretation firom ancient grammarians,
cited in the Vdrtiihas and Bhdshya, as rules for interpreting
P&^ini's Sittrat.
^cnbhdshd Ffitti by SIra Deva: a commentary on the cited maxims
of interpretation.
^ht Parihhdthd Vfitti by Bhdskara Bhafta : a succinct commen-
tary on the same.
^^hd9hdrtha Sangraha : another commentary on the same.
* [Mted in Calcutta, 1811, 1863, and 1870 ; in Bombay, 1866; and in Madras,
^^8.] s [Benares, 1868.] » [Benares, 1863.]
* [Benares, 1865.] » [Edited and translated by Ballantyne, 1849, 1867.]
40 I«IST OF SANSKRIT OEAMM ARS,
Chandrtkd by Swayamprakd^anda: interpreting the last-menticmed
commentary.
Panhhdihendu Sethara by "N&geitL Bhatfa: a brief exposition of the
same maxima.^
Paribhdshendu Sekhara EdUka by Baidyan&tha P&yagtmda, com-
menting the glofls of N^ige^.
Kdrikd: metrical roles of grammar, cited in the Mahdhhdihya^
EdUU Vritti, etc.
Vdkya Pradipm^ by Bhartphari : metrical maxims chiefly on the
philosophy of syntax. These are often cited under the name of
JETartkdrikd.
Vaiydkarana Bhushana by Ko^^^ Bhafta: on syntax and the
philosophy of grammatical structure.'
Bhiuhana Sdra Darpana by Hariballabha : a commentary on the
work last mentioned.
Vaiydkarana BhtUhana Sdra : an abridgment of the same work.
Zayhu Bhiishana Kdnti by Baidyan&tha P&yagunda: a commentary
on that abridgment.
Vaiydkarana Siddhdnta Mat^ihd by N^^a Bhatta: on syntax
and the philosophy of grammatical structure.
Laghu Vaiydkarana Siddhdnta ManjiUkd: an abridgment of the
same. [43]
Kald by Baidyandtha P4yagunda : a commentary on the last-men-
tioned abridgment.
Other treatises on construction logically considered, which
are very numerous, are omitted as belonging more properly to
the science of logic.
Oanapdfha : lists of words comprehended in rules of grammar, under
general classes.
Oanaratna Mahodadhi: a collection of such lists, with a commentary.
Bhdtupdfha by Pd^ini : the roots or themes systematically arranged,
with their indicatory letters and their interpretations.
Dhdtupradipa or Tantrapradlpa by Maitreya Rakshita: an illus-
tration of the list of roots, with examples of their inflections.
1 [Benares, 1864 ; also edited and tranfllated by Kielhom, Bombay, 1870.]
* [Or rather Vdkjfapadif/a.]
* [Printed with Hariballahha's Comm. at Benares, 1866. The BhiLthai^
Sdra wai printed at Calcutta, 1849.]
WITH COMMEirrAEIES, ETC. 41
MdiMj/a VfitU by Sfya^a Ach^ryB, in the name of Mddhava
ilfchiryB : a copious exposition of the roots with their deriyatives.^
The Bhatti Kdvya^ a poem describing the adventores of B&ma, may
be considered as a grammatical work, having been purposely
mitten for a practical instruction on grammar. It has several
eonimentarieB.*
The S\kih^ of P&nini and Nirukta of Y^ka, with the commentaries
on the Nighanta included in the last, are there omitted, as they
are of little use, except in the reading of the V$das, Treatises
on particular branches of etymology are also omitted, as not very
generally consulted. Such is the Yan Luganta ^iromani on the
Ibnoation of frequentative verbs.
Komerous other works, belcmging to this grammar, have not been
Mcertained to be extant, being at present known only through
^notations £rom them: as the Pdninkya Ifaia Darpana quoted in the
hmiia; and many others cited in the Mddhaviya Vjritti, [44]
The following belong to other Systems of Grammar.
^^wiM^i Pttj^ariyd by Anubhuti Swardpdchdrya : a grammar
founded on seven hundred rules or aphorisms, pretended to
hare been received by the author from the goddess Saraswatf.
This grammar is much used in Hindustan proper.^
A commentary on the same by Punjardja.
Another by Mahfbhatta.
^ttkiijiia Chandrikd : another commentary on the same grammar.
^A Chandrikd I another, in which Pdi^ini's aphorisms are also
exhibited.
A»iavydJbr0iM by Hemachandra or Hemasiiri. A Sanskrit gram-
mar is cited under this title, which is probably the same with
Hemacbandra's commentary on the Sahddnidd%atia^ entitled
^h VfiUi: comprised in eight books, including in the last
the anomalies of the Pr&krit language as derived from the
^aoabit (The Kdmadhenu cites a Sabddntddaana by Abhinava
[Wttterguid'f Badicet Lmgua Santerita, app.]
' [CslcQtta, 1S28, with two oommentarieB.]
I [On 8'ik8h& and 8'ikih&, cf. Miiller's Anc. Sanskrit Lit., p. 113.]
n^ baa been twice printed at Bombaji with a comm.]
42 UST OF SANSKRIT GRA¥MAM,
SSLkat^jana besides Hemasuri's work.) This grammar is used bj
the Jainas.
A commentary, without the author's name, is •«tu»rfl<i to Hem&'
Chandra's gnunmar.
JPrdkfita Ifanoramd: an abridged commentary on the PrdlpU
Chandrikd of Yaramchi; showing the anomalies of PhUoit
formed from Sanskrit.^
Kdtantra or KMpa : a grammar, of which the roles or aphorismi
are ascribed to the god Kum^. It is mnch osed in BengaL
Laurgoiinhi: a commentary on the above by Durgaainha; bot
stated in the introductory couplet to be the work of Sam
Yarman, who is accordingly cited in Yopadeya's KdwuMmu, [45]
Kdtantra Vfitti JVtd by Durgaainha : an exposition of the above-
mentioned commentary. (The Kdmadhenu quotes the Durga ^M
of Durgagupta, and the Kdtantra Vistdra of Yardham^Lna Miira.)
Kdtantra Faty'ikd by Trilochanaddsa ; a commentary on the same
grammar.
Kaldpa Tattwdrnava by Baghunandana Achdrya S^iroma^i: another
commentary on the same grammar.
Kdtantra Chandrikd : another commentary on the same.
Chaitrakufi by Yaramchi : another on the same.
Vydkhyd Sdra by Harir&ma Chakravartf : another commentary.
Vydhhyd Sdra by Eamaddsa : another, under the same title.
Other commentaries on the same grammar by Sushei^a Kayir&jaj
Eamdndtho, TJmdpati, Kulochandra, and Murari.
Kdtantra PariSishfa by S^ripatidatta : a supplement to the KdtofUrt^'
Pariiishfa Pralodha by Gopfnatha : a commentary on the above.
Pariiish(a Siddhdnta Ratndkara by S^ivardma Ghakravartf : anothe:
on the same.
Kdtantra Oana Dhdtu : the roots or themes systematically arrango^
for the Kdtantra.
Manor amd by Ramdnatha : a commentary on that list of verbs.
Many other treatises belong to this grammar; as the Kdtaniw
Shafkdraka by Rahasanondf,* the Kdtantra Unddi Vfitti "b
S^ivaddsa, the Kdtantra Chatushfaya Pradipa^ Kdtantra Dhdt^
yhoshd, Kdtantra S'ahda Mdld, etc.
1 [London, 1864.] * [Mahetfanandf F Ind. Off. Libr. MS.]
WITH COMMEirrABIES, ETC. 41
Mddhaviya Vfitii by S^yana Xch^iya, in the name of M&dhaTa
XcMrya : a copions exposition of the roots with their derivatiyes.^
The Bhaffi Edvya, a poem describing the adventures of B&ma, may
be considered as a grammatical work, having been purposely
written for a practical instruction on grammar. It has several
oommentanee.*
The S^ikshd^ of F^nini and Nirukta of Y^ka, with the commentaries
on the Nighanta included in the last, are there omitted, as they
are of little use, except in the reading of the VtdoB. Treatises
on particular branches of etymology are also omitted, as not very
generally consulted. Such is the Yan Luganta S'iromani on the
formation of frequentative verbs.
Numerous other works, belonging to this grammar, have not been
asoertained to be extant, being at present known only through
qxiotations from them: as the Pdniniga Ifaia Darpana quoted in the
IVaidda ; and many others cited in the Mddha/dya Vfitti. [44]
The following belong to other Systems of Grammar.
SdratwM Prahriyd by Anubhuti Swarup&ch^a: a grammar
founded on seven hundred rules or aphorisms, pretended to
have been received by the author from the goddess Saraswatf.
This grammar is much used in Hindustdn proper.^
A oommentary on the same by Punjardja.
Another by Mahfbhatta.
SiiihdiKta Chandrikd : another commentary on the same grammar.
Pada CJhimdrikd: another, in which P&Qini's aphorisms are also
exhibited.
JSkimavydkarana by Hemachandra or Hemasuri. A Sanskrit gram-
mar is cited under this title, which is probably the same with
Hemachandra's commentary on the Sabddnuidtafia^ entitled
Li^hu VfiUi; comprised in eight books, including in the last
^e anomalies of the Frdkrit language as derived from the
Sanskrit (The Kdmadhmu cites a Sabddnuidsana by Abhinava
ITestergaard's Badieet ZmffiuB Satuerita^ app.]
[Caleatta, 1828, with two commentaries.]
' [On S'ibh& and S'lkshk, cf. MiUler*8 Ane. Sanskrit Lit., p. 113.]
[Thii has been twice printed at Bombay, with a comm.]
44 I«IST OF fiAirSKRIT ORAMM AB8,
Eiwirahatya by EaUyadha: exhlbitmg in yene examples of the
most common yerlra.
A commentary on the same.
Supadma by Fadman^bha Datta : a grammar of Banakrit. It xi in
use in some parts of Bengal.
Supadma Makaranday or Jtakaranda: a commentary on the above,
by YiBhi^a Mi^ra.
Other commentaries by Tarions anthors: as Kandarpa Siddhiinta,
K&^f^wara, SHdhara Chakravartf, K&machandra, etc.
Supadma PariiUhta : a supplement to the grammar.
Supadma Dhdtupdtha by Fadmandbha Datta : a list of themes or
roots for the author's grammar^ called Supadma. The nme
author added other appendages to his grammar, yia., PaHUMkd
and Unddwritti.
Other treatises belong to this grammar; as the XdiUwarl OofMi, «id
its commentary by Bimakdnta.
Ratnamdld by Furushottama : a grammar used in KdmoHipa.
Druta Bodha by Bharatamalla : a grammar, with a commentary on it
by the same author. This and the following are not much in use»
Sudhdiubodha ^ by B&me^wara : another grammar with a commen-
tary by the author himself.
Harindmdmfita by Jfyaghosha Swdmi: another, with a commen-
tary. [48]
Chaiianydmfita : another, also accompanied by a commentary.
Kdrikdvalk by Biuna Nardya^a : a grammar in Terse.
Prabodha JPtakdia by Balar&ma Fanchdnana : a grammar.
Biipamdla by Yimala Saraswatf : another grammar.
Jndndmfita by KiiiiSwara : another.
ASubodha^ Zaghuhodha, Sighrabodhay Sdrdmftta, Divya^ PaddvaUk^
Ulkd : and many other grammars by yarious authors.
Besides Yararachi'^B Prdkrita Prakdh or Chandrikd, and
Bh&maha's commentary entitled Manoramd VriUi before
mentioned, other grammars of Pr&krit are known: as the
Prdkrita Kdmadhenu^ Prdkrita Lankeiu>ara, etc.
1 [S'addhfc., India Office libr. MS.]
WITH COMMENTABIES, ETC. 45
Authorities of Sanskrit grammar, cited in books which have
been used for the present yolame, bat not otherwise known,
nor in any manner ascertained to be now extant, have been
excluded from the foregoing list. Many of them could not be
confidently referred to any particular system of grammar;
and, in numerous instances, a doubt arises, whether the same
work be not quoted under different names, in di£ferent places :
sometimes, under the title of the book ; at other times, under
the designation of the author. A few of these names, which
occur most frequently, will be here enumerated, with a notice
of the authority by which they are quoted. .
Pl^pni himself names 6&kalya, G&rgya, K&syapa, O&lava,
XpiiiaH, 6&kat&yana, Bh&radw&ja, ^wal&yana,^ Sphot&yana,
md Ch&krayarma^a.
The Mddhaiviya Vritti quotes, among many other authors,
Chandra, ilfpisali, b&kat&yana, ilftreya, Dhanap&Ia, Kausika,
Pumshak&ra, Sudh&kara, [49] Madhusudana, Y&dava,
Bhiguri, Srfbhadra, j^iyadeya, H&madeya Misra, Deya,
Nandf, B&ma, Bhima, Bhoja, Hel&r&ja, Subhuti Chandra,
P&rna Chandra, Yajnan&r&yana, Kanwa, Sw&mi, Kesava
SHmi, 6iya Sw&mi, Dhdrta Sw&mi, Kshira Sw&mi (this last is
dted in the Prasdda as author of the Kahira Tarangini). The
Uidhaeiya likewise frequently cites the Tarangini, AbharanOg
B&dikdbharanay Samantd, Prakriyd Ratna and Pratipa.
The VdrtUkoM of Yy&ghra Bhdti and Yy&ghra P&da are
nie&tioned by many authors ; and so is the Dhdtu Pdrdt/ana.
Topadeva, in the Kdmadhenu, has quoted the Panjikd Pra^
<%» of Kusala (belonging perhaps to the grammar called
Kaiantra;) and the SaraawaU Kanthdhharana (ascribed by
*Niie to Bhoja Deva). The Prasdda often cites the Edmavyd'
tetma, and seems to name Yopadeva as the author of it.
The following are, among others, noticed in the Dhdtu
%iki of Durg&d&sa, viz. Bhattamalla, Govinda Bhatfa,
^orbhuja, Gadisinha, Govardhana, and Sara^adeya.
1 [ SenakaP ef. SU. r. 4, 112.]
46
III.
PREFACE TO THE AUTHOR'S EDITION OF THE
AMARA K0SHA.1
ICaktOta, 1808. 4to.]
[50] The compilation of a Sanskrit dictionary having been
undertaken early after the institution of the College of Fort
William, it was at the same time thought advisable to print,
in Sanskrit and English, the work which has been chosen for
the basis of that compilation, as well for the sake of exhibiting
an original authority to which reference will be frequently
necessary, as with the view of furnishing an useful vocabulary,
which might serve until an ampler dictionary could be pre-
pared and published.
The celebrated Amara Kosha, or Vocabulary of Sanskrit
by Amara Sinha, is, by the unanimous suffrage of the learned,
the best guide to the acceptations of nouns in Sanskrit. The
work of P&nini on etymology is rivalled by other grammars,
some of which have even obtained the preference in the opinion
of the learned of particular provinces ; but Amara's vocabu-
lary has prevailed wherever the Sanskrit language is cultivated,
and the numerous other vocabularies which remain, are con-
sulted only where Amara'^s is either silent or defective. It
has employed the industry of innumerable commentators,
while none of the others (with the single exception of Hema-
chandra'^s) have been interpreted even by one annotator. Such
decided preference for the Amara Kosha, and the consequent
frequency of quotations from it, determined the selection of
» [Cf. Wilflon's -EM»y«, vol. ▼. pp. 168-262, « Prefece to the Sans, Diet. 1819."]
PREFACE TO THE AMARA EOSHA. 47
this as the basis of an alphabetical dictionary, and sug-[51]
gested the expediency of also publishing the original text with
an English interpretation.
Like other vocabularies of Sanskrit, that of Amara is in
metre ; and a considerable degree of knowledge of the language
becomes requisite to discriminate the words from their inter-
pretations, and to separate them from contiguous terms which
affect their initials and finals. On this account, and to adapt
the work to the use of the English student, the words, of
which the sense is exhibited, are disjoined from their inter-
pretation (which is included between crotchets) ; and the close
of each word is marked by a roman letter over it indicating
the gender of the noun. Where a letter has been permuted
according to the Sanskrit system of orthography, a dot is
placed under the line, to intimate that a letter is there altered
or omitted; and a marginal note is added, exhibiting the
radical final of the noun, or its initial, in every instance where
either of them is so far disguised by permutation as not to be
easily recognized upon a slight knowledge of the rudiments of
the language, and of its orthography. An explanation in
English is given in the margin, and completed when necessary
St the foot of the page. The different interpretations proposed
by the several commentators, and the variations in orthogra-
phy remarked by them, are also specified in the same place.
According to the original plan of the present publication,
tbe yariations in the reading of the text (for which a careful
ooQation has been made of several copies and of numerous
commentaries) are noticed only where they affect the inter-
pretation of a word or its orthography. It was not at first
utoded to insert those differences which are remarked by
commentators upon other authority, and not upon the ground
of any variation in the text itself. However, the utility of
indicating such differences was afler [52] wards thought to
^witerbalance any inconvenience attending it; and after
>ome progress had been made at the press, this and other
48 FBEFAGE TO THE AXTTHOB'S EDITION
additions to the original design were admitted, which have
rendered a supplement necessary to supply omissions in the
first chapters, and complete the work upon an uniform plan.
To avoid too great an increase of the volume, the various
readings and interpretations are rather hinted than fully set
forth : it has been judged sufficient to state the result, as the
notes would have been too much lengthened, if the ground of
disagreement had been everywhere exhibited and explained.
For the same reason, authorities have not been cited by name.
The mention of the particukr commentator in each instance
would have enlarged the notes, with very little advantage, aa
the means of verifying authorities are as effectually furnished
by an enumeration of the works which have been employed
and consulted. They are as follows :
I. — The text of the Amara Kosha,
This vocabulary, comprised in three books, is frequently
cited under the title of Trik&^da,^ sometimes under the deno-
mination of Abhidh&na (nouns), from its subject; often under
that of Amara Kosha, from the name of the author. The
commentators are indeed unanimous in ascribing it to Amara
Sinha. He appears to have belonged to the sect of Buddha
(though this be denied by some of his scholiasts), and is re-
puted to have lived in the reign of Yikram&ditya ; and he
is expressly named among the [53] pmaments of the court
of R&J& Bhoja,' one of the many princes to whom that title
has been assigned. If this mention of him be accurate, he
must have lived not more than eight hundred years ago;
for a poem entitled Subh&shita Batna Sandoha, by a Jaina
author named Amitagati, is dated in the year 1050 from the
1 t.«. the Three Books. But that name properly appertains to a more ancient
Tocahulary, which is mentioned by the commentaries on the Amara Kosha, among
the works from which this is supposed to have been compiled.
* In the Bhoja Prabandha. [On this romance cf. Wilson, Euaya, vol. t.
pp. 168-177. Pro! Anfrecht, Bodl. Cat., p. 161, placea the author Ball&la at the
end of the sixteenth century.]
OF THB AMARA EOSHA. 49
death of Yikram&ditja, and in the reign of Munja, who was
nnde and predecessor of It&j& Bhoja. It, however, appears
inconsistent with the inscription at Buddha Gavd^ which is
dated in the year 1005 of the era of Yikram&ditya, and in
whioh mention is made of Amara Deva, probably the same
with the author of the vocabulary. From the frequent in-
stances of anachronism, both in sacred and profane story as
current among the Hindus, more confidence seems due to the
inscription than to any popular tales concerning R&j& Bhoja ;
and the Amara Kosha may be considered as at least nine
hundred years old, and possibly more ancient.'
It is intimated in the author's own preface that the work
was compiled from more ancient vocabularies : ^ his commen-
tators instance the Trik&nda,^ XJtp&lini, Rabhasa and K&tyd-
yana, as furnishing information on the nouns, and Yy&di and
Yararuchi on the genders. The last mentioned of these
aathors is reputed contemporary with Yikramaditya, and con-
sequently with Amara Sinha himself.
The copies of the orignal which have been employed in the
correction of the text, in the present publication, are,
1st. A transcript made for my use from an ancient cor-
rected copy in the Tirhutiya character, and collated by me
^th a copy in Devandgari, which had been carefully examined
by Sir William Jones. He had inserted in it [54] an English
interpretation, of whieh also I reserved a copy, and have
derived great assistance from it in the present publication.
2Qd. A transcript in Devan&gari character, with a commen-
tary and notes in the K&nara dialect. It contains numerous
passages, which are unnoticed in the most approved commen-
taries, and which are accordingly omitted in the present edition.
3rd. Another copy in the Devanagari character, with a
brief and imperfect interpretation in Hindi.
' [A«. Reaearcheg, i. 284.] « [Cf. p. [17], supra.]
' [Por S'ks'wata's Xdndrthakosha cf. Aufrecht's Bodi. Cat. p. 182.]
* See a preceding note.
VOL. UI. [BSSAY8 U.] 4
60 PREFACB TO THE AUTHOR'S EDITION
4th. A copy in the Bengal character, with marginal notes
explanatory of the text.
5th. A copy in duplicate, accompanied by a Sanskrit com-
mentary, which will be forthwith mentioned (that of B&m&s-
rama). It contains a few passages not noticed by most of the
commentators. They have been, howeyer, retained on the
authority of this scholiast. A like remark is applicable to
certain other passages expounded in some commentaries, but
not in others. All such have been retained, where the au-
thority itself has been deemed good.
6th. Recourse has been occasionally had to other copies
of the text in the possession of natives, whenever it has been
thought any ways requisite.
II. — Commentaries on the Amara Kasha.
1. At the head of the commentaries which have heen used,
must be placed that of R&ya Mukuta (or Yrihaspati, sumamed
B&ya Mukuta Mani). This work^ entitled Padachandrik&,
was compiled, as the author himself informs us, from sixteen
earlier commentaries, to many of which he repeatedly refers ;
especially those of Kshira Sw&mi, Subhuti, Hadda Chandra,
Kalinga, Kon[56]kata, Saryadhara, and the Yy&khy&mrita,
Tik&sarvaswa, etc.^
Its age is ascertained from the incidental mention of a date,
viz. 1353 S&ka, or 4532 of the Kali Yuga, corresponding to
A.D. 1431.
Though the derivations in Mukuta's commentary be often in-
accurate, and other errors also have been remarked by later com-
pilers, its authority is in general great ; and accordingly it has
been carefully consulted under every article of the present work.
2. Among the earlier commentaries named by R&ya Mu-
^ The following nomes may be selected from Muku^'s quotations, to complete
the number of sixteen: Mddhavi, Madhu Mddhavi, Sarvdnanda, AbhirunuUf
E&jadeya, Goyardhana, Dr&vidbi, Bhojarkja. But some of these appear to be
separate works, rather than commentaries on the Amara Kosha. Mukuta occt-
•ionally oitet the most celebrated grammarians, as Pfe^i, Jayfiiditya, Jinendra,
Maitrcya, Hakshita, Punishottama, M&dhaya, etc.
OF THE AMABA EOSHA. 51
kota, thai of Kshira Sw&mi is the only one, which has been
examined in the progress of this compilation. It is a work
of considerable merit; and is still in general use in some
provinces of India, although the interpretations not unfre-
quently di£fer from those commonly received.
3. The Yyakhydsudhi, a modem commentary by R4m&s-
rama or by Bh&nndikshita (for copies differ as to the name
of the author), is the work of a grammarian of the school of
Benares.^ He continually refers to R4ya Mukuta and to
Sw&mi ; and his work serves to confirm their scholia where
accurate, and to correct them where erroneous. It has been
consulted at every line.
4. The Vy&khy4 Pradipa, by Achyuta Up&dhydya, is a
eoncise and accurate exposition of the text ; but adds little to
the information furnished by the works above mentioned. It^
bas been, however, occasionally consulted.
In these four commentaries, the derivations are given [56]
according to Pa9.inL''s system. In others, which are next to be
enumerated, various popular grammars are followed for the
etymologies. But, as the derivations of the words are not
incladed in the plan of the present work, being reserved for a
place in the intended alphabetical dictionary of Sanskrit, those
commentaries have not been the less useful in regard to the
information which was sought in them.
5. The commentary of Bharata Malla (entitled Mugdha-
Whini) has been as regularly consulted as those of Mukuta
ttd Rim^rama. It is, indeed, a very excellent work; copious
and clear, and particularly full upon the variations of ortho-
graphy according to different readings or different authorities :
^e etymologies are given conformably with Vopadeva's system
^ grammar. The author flourished in the middle of last
eentwy.
6. The S&ra Sundari, by Mathuresa, has been much used.
I^ ia perspicuous and abounds in quotations from other com-
> [Cf. Prof. Aufrecht, Bodi. Cat. p. 182, a.]
52 PREFACE TO THE AUTHOR'S EDITION
mentaries^ and is therefore a copious source of ioformation on
the yarions interpretations and readings of the text. The
Supadma is the grammar followed in the derivations stated by
this commentator. Mathuresa is author likewise of a vocabu-
lary in verse, entitled l^abdaratn&vali, arranged in the same
order with the Amara Kosha, and which might serve there-
fore as a commentary on that work. It was compiled under
the patronage of a Musalm&n chieftain, Murchh& Eh&n, whose
name is prefixed to it. The author wrote not more than 150
years ago.^
7. The Pad&rtha Kauraadi, by N&r&yai^a Ghakravarti, is
another commentary of considerable merit, which has been
frequently consulted. The Kaldpa is the grammar followed
in the etymologies here exhibited.
[67] 8. A commentary by Ram&ndtha Vidyd Vdchaspati, en-
titled Trik&nda Yiveka, is peculiarly copious on the variations
of orthography, and is otherwise a work affording much useful
information.
9. Another commentary, which has been constantly em-
ployed, is that by Nflakantha. It is full and satisfactory
on most points for which reference is usually made to the
expositors of the Amara Kosha.
10. The commentary of Ramatarka Vdgisa has been uni-
formly consulted throughout the work. It was recommended
for its accuracy; but has furnished little information, being
busied chiefly with etymology. This, like the preceding,
follows the grammar entitled Kal&pa.
Other commentaries were also collected for occasional
reference in the progress of this work; but have not been
employed, being found to contain no information which was
not also furnished, and that more amply, by the scholiasts
above mentioned.
The list of them contained in the subjoined note may there-
fore suffice.*
1 His work contains the date 1588 S'&ka, or 1666.
^ Eaamudi by Nayan&HAnda ; Trikfri^i^a Chintkma^i by Baghnn&tba Cli&kra-
OF THE AMABA EOSHA. 53
111. — Sanskrit dictionaries and vocabularies by other authors.
Throoghoat the nameroas commentaries on the Amara
Eoaha, the text itself is corrected or confirmed, and the inter-
pretations and remarks of the commentators supported, by
reference to other Sanskrit yocabularies. They are often cited
by the scholiasts for the emendation of the text in [58] regard
to the gender of a noon, and not less ireqaently for a yariation
of orthography, or for a difference of interpretation. The
authority qnoted has been in general consulted, before any
use has been made of the quotations ; or, where the original
work cannot now be procured, the agreement of commentators
has been admitted as authenticating the passage. This has
been particularly attended to in the chapter containing
homonymous words, it having been judged useful to intro
daee into the notes of that chapter the numerous additional
acceptations stated in other dictionaries, and understood to
be alluded to in the Amara Kosha.
The dictionaries which have been consulted are, 1st. The
Hedini,^ an alphabetical dictionary of homonymous terms by
Medinikara.
2. The Yiswa Prak&sa by Maheswara Vaidya, a similar
dictionaiy, but less accurate and not so well arranged. It
is the ground-work of the MedinI, which is an improved and .
corrected work of great authority. Both are very frequently
cited by the commentators.
8. The Haima,' a dictionary by Hema Chandra, in two
l«ts; one containing aynon^ons words arranged in six
duipters ; ' the other containing homonymous terms in alpha-
betical order. Both are works of great excellence.
^^ ; both aooording to F&^ini's system of etymology. Vaisbamya Eaumudi
^ H&mapiBs&da Tark&laak&ni ; Pada Manjari by Lokanfctha; both following
f^ grammatical system of the Eal&pa. PradSpa Mai\jarS by R&m^rama, a
•^^nuie interpretation of the teit Yrihat Hiir&Tali by R&metf wara. Also com-
^|fi>Me8 by Kriahpadftsa, Triloohanadftsa, Sundiu'&Daiida, Vanadfyabhatta,
^^^tnfttha, Gopftla GhakrarartC, Ooyindtoanda, R&m&nanda, Bhol&n&tha, etc
^ [Edited by Soman&iha S'arman, Calcutta, 1868.]
* [Printed, Calcutta, 1808.] > [Edited by BtfhUingk and Rieu, 1847.]
54 PREFACE TO THE AUTHOR'S EDITION
4. The Abhidh&na Batnam&l&,^ a yocabalary by Hal&-
ytidha, in five chapters ; the last of which relates to words
having many acceptations. It is too concise for general use,
but is sometimes quoted.
5. The DhanuQif, a vocabulary of words bearing many
senses. It is less copious than the MedinI and Haima ; but
being frequently cited by commentators, has been necessarily
consulted.
6. The Trikfi9da Sesha, or supplement to the Amara Kosha,
by Purushottama Deva.
[59] 7. The Hdr&vali of the same author.
The last of these two supplements to Amara, being a col-
lection of uncommon words, has not been much employed for
the present publication. The other has been more used.
Both are of considerable authority.
The reader will find in the notes a list of other dictionaries
quoted by the commentators, but the quotations of which have
not been verified by reference to the originals, as these have
not been procurable.'
Works under the title of Varnadesand, Dwirupa, and
XJn&di, have indeed been procured ; but not the same with
the books cited, many difierent compilations being current
under those titles. The first relates to words, the ortho*
graphy of which is likely to be mistaken from a confusion
of similar letters ; the second exhibits words which are spelt
in more than one way ; the third relates to a certain class of
derivatives separately noticed by grammarians.
IV. — Grrammatical works.
Grammar is so intimately connected with the subject of
this publication, that it has been of course necessary to advert
to the works of grammarians. But as they are regularly
» [Edited by Prof. Aufrecht, 1861.]
' Amara Mdld, Amara Datta, S^abddrnava, S'&s'wata, Varnadeiand, Lwiripa^
Unddi Kosha, Ratna Koaha, Ratna Mdid^ Rantideva, Rudra, Vyii^, Rabhaaa,
Vop&lita, Bh&guri, Ajaya, V&chaBpati, T&rap&Ia, Anu^adatta. [Cf. Wilson,
JBs$ayt, Y. pp. 209-237.]
OF THE AMAEA KOSHA. 55
cited by the commentators, it is needless to name them as
aothorities, since nothing will be found to have been taken
from this source, which is not countenanced by some passage
in the commentaries on the Amara Kosha.
V. — Treatises on the roots of Sanskrit.
Verbs not being exhibited in the Amara Kosha, which is
a Tocabulary of nouns only, the treatises of Maitreya, [60]
Madhaya, and others, on the Sanskrit roots, though furnishing
important materials towards a complete dictionary of the
language, have been yery little employed in the present
work; and a particular reference to them was unnecessary,
as authority will be found in the commentaries on Amara,
for anything which may hare been taken from those treatises.
VI. — The Scholia of classic writings.
Fftssages fix)m the works of celebrated writers are cited by
tlie commentators on the Amara Kosha, and the scholiasts
of classic poems frequently quote dictionaries in support of
tbeir interpretation of difficult passages. In the compilation
of a copious Sanskrit dictionary ample use may be made of
the scholia. They haye been employed for the present pub-
lication so &r only as they are expressly cited by the principal
commentaries on the Amara Kosha itself.
Should the reader be desirous of verifying the authorities
^ which the interpretation and notes are grounded, he will
in general find the information sought by him in some one
of the ten commentaries of Amara, which have been before
named, and will rarely have occasion to proceed beyond those
which have been specified as the works regularly consulted.
In regard to plants and animals, and other objects of natural
^ry, noticed in different chapters of this vocabulary, and
<iBpedally in the 4th, 5th, and 9th chapters of the second
^h, it is proper to observe, that the ascertainment of them
generally depends on the correctness of the corresponding
^eniacolar names. The commentators seldom furnish any
56 PREFACE TO THE AUTflOB'S AICA&A KOSHA.
description or other means of ascertainment bteides the car-
rent denomination in a provincial hmgoage. A view of the
animal, or an examination of the plant, known [61] to the
▼ulgar under the denomination, enables a person conversant
with natoral history to determine its name according to the
received noroenclatare of European Botany and Zoology : but
neither my inquiries, nor those of other gentlemen, who have
liberally communicated the information collected by them,^
nor the previous researches of Sir William Jones, have yet
discovered all the plants and animals, of which the names are
mentioned by the commentators on the Amara Kosha; and
even in regard to those which have been seen by us, a sooroe
of error remains in the inaccuracy of the commentators them-
selves, as is proved by the circumstance of their firequent
disagreement. It must be therefore understood, that the cor-
respondence of the Sanskrit names with the generic and spedfic
names in natural history is in many instances doubtful. When
the uncertainty is great, it has usually been so expressed ; but
errors may exist where none have been apprehended.
It is necessary likewise to inform the reader, that many of
the plants, and some animals (especially fish), have not been
described in any work yet published. Of such, the names
have been taken from the manuscripts of Dr. Roxburgh and
Dr. F. Buchanan.
Having explained the plan and design of this edition of the
Amara Kosha, I have only further to state, that the delay
which has arisen since it was commenced (now more than five
years) has been partly occasioned by my distance from the
press (the work being prints by Mr. Carey at Serampoor),
and partly by avocations which have retarded the progress of
collating the different copies of the text and commentaries : a
task, the labour of which may be judged by those who have
been engaged in similar undertakings.
Calcutta, December, 1807.
^ DtB. Eoibuigh, F. Buchanan, and W. Hunter : and Mr. William Carey.
57
IV.
ON SANSKRIT AND PRifKRIT POETRY.^
[^lirom the Aiiatie BsteareheSf vol. z. pp. 389-474.
CaleuUa, 1808. 4to.]
[62] Thb design of the present essay is not an enumeration
of the poetical compositions current among the Hindus, nor an
examination of their poetiy by maxims of criticism recognized
in Europe, or by rules of composition taught in their own
treatises of rhetoric ; but to exhibit the laws of versification,
together with brief notices of the most celebrated poems in
which these have been exemplified.
An inquiry into the prosody of the ancient and learned
language of India will not be deemed an unnecessary intro-
duction to the extracts from the Indian poems, which may be
occasionally inserted in the supplementary yolumes of Asiatic
Researches; and our Transactions record more than one in-
stance of the aid which was derived fi'om a knowledge of
Sanskrit prosody, in deciphering passages rendered. obscure by
the obsoleteness of the character, or by the inaccuracy of the
tnoseripts.* It will be found similarly useful by every person
wlio studies that language, since manuscripts are in general
gioaly incorrect ; and a fiuniliarity with the metre will fre-
qoently assist the reader in restoring the text where it has
^ eorrupted. Even to those who are unacquainted with
^ language, a concise explanation of the Indian system of
P>t)8ody may be curious, since the artifice of its construction
. [^or a ftiU account of Sanakrit metre see Prof. Weber's two treatises in the
^^ Tolnme of the Inditehe Studim, The first treats of the Vedic metres, the
1^^ giTW the text of Pingala's Chhanda^-mltra with a perpetual commentary.
^ •!*) C. P. Brown's Sanakrit Froiody,]
' As. Bea., toL l p. 279; toI. n. p. 889.
58 ox SANSKRIT AND
is peculiar, and not [63] devoid of ingenuity ; and the prosody
of Sanskrit will be found to be richer than that of any other
known language, in variations of metre, regulated either by
quantity or by number of syllables, both with and without
rhyme, and subject to laws imposing in some instances rigid
restrictions^ in others allowing ample latitude. I am prompted
by these considerations to undertake the explanation of that
system, premising a few remarks on the original works in
which it is taught, and adding notices of the poems from
which examples are selected.
The rules of prosody are contained in Sdtras, or brief
aphorisms, the reputed author of which is Pingalanaga, a
fabulous being, represented by mythologists in the shape of a
serpent ; and the same who, under the title of Patanjali, is the
supposed author of the Mah&bh­a, or great commentary
on grammar, and also of the text of the Yoga Sastra ; ^ and to
whom likewise the text or the commentary of the Jyotisha
annexed to the Vedas ' appears to be attributed. The apho-
risms of Pingal&ch&rya, as he is sometimes called, on the
prosody of Sanskrit (exclusive of the rules in Pr&krit likewise
ascribed to him), are collected into eight books, the first of
which allots names, or rather literal marks, to feet consisting
of one, two, or three syllables. The second book teaches the
manner in which passages of the Vedas are measured. The
third explains the variations in the subdivision of the couplet
and stanza. The fourth treats of profane poetry, and especially
of verses, in which the number of syllables, or their quantity,
is not uniform. The fifth, sixth, and se[64]venth, exhibit
metres of that sort which has been called monoschematic, or
uniform, because the same feet recur invariably in the same
places. The eighth and last book serves as an appendix to the
1 Or S&nkhya system of philosophy, distmguished from that of Eapila. (See
Tol. i. p. [236], etc.)
' In the subscription to the only copy of this commentary which I hare
seen, it is ascribed to Seshan&ga ; but, in the body of the work, the commentator
calls himself Som&kara. [But cf. Weber, Transact, Berlin Academy , 1862. See
also euprd (old ed. vol. i. p. 106) ; Mailer, IVe/. Rig Veda, toI. iT. p. xxi]
PRAKRIT POETRY. 59
whole, and contains mles for computing all the possible com-
binations of long and short syllables in verses of any length.
This author cites earlier writers on prosody, whose works
appear to have been lost: such as Saitava, Kraushtika, Tandin,
and other ancient sages, Y&ska, K&syapa, etc.^
Pingala's text has been interpreted by yarious commen-
tators ; and, among others, by Hal&yudha Bhatta, author of
an excellent gloss entitled M^'ita Sanjivini.' It is the work
on which I have chiefly relied. A more modem commentaiyy
or rather a paraphrase in verse, by Nar&yana Bhatta T&ra,
under the title of Vrittokti Batna, presents the singularity of
being interpreted throughout in a double sense, by the author
himself, in a further gloss entitled Parikshd.
The Agni Pur&na is quoted for a complete system of
prosody,' founded apparently on Pingala's aphorisms; but
which serves to correct or to supply the text in many places ;
and which is accordingly used for that purpose by commen-
tators. Original treatises likewise have been composed by
various authors ;^ and, among others, by the [65] celebrated
poet K&lid&sa. In a short treatise entitled Sruta Bodha, this
poet teaches the laws of versification in the very metre to
which they relate ; and has thus united the example with the
^ [Profenor Weber giyes the aathors cited as Eraush^i, Y&Bka, T&^^ut*
Kfc^yipa, Saitaya, R&ta, and M&^dayya.]
* I po«eaB three copies of it, two of which are apparently ancient ; bat they
haT« no dates. [Cf. Ind, Studim, Tiii. pp. 1 92-202.]
' It is stated by the authors who quote it (N&r&yai^a Bhatta and others) to be
aa extraet from the Agni Pnr&^a ; bat I haye not been able to yerify its place
ntbtPnriqtfu [It is found in the Bodleian MS. See Aufrechfs Catalogue^
* Such are the Yimibh^sha^a, Yfitta Darpana, Yfitta Eaumudl, and Yritta
^^tn&kara, with the Chhando Manjari, Chhando M&rta^^ai Chhando M&1&,
^Sf^SB^ Kiyiti, [perhaps this should be Chhandoyichiti, see Kdvy{idariaj i. 12],
^^^liando Goyinda, and seyeral tracts under the title of Yritta-Mukt&yali, besides
^'"'tiieB indoded in works on other subjects. For example, Yar&bamihira's
^vtem of astrology, which contains a chapter on prosody [ch. 104, cf. Ind, Stud,
^ 203-6]. The Yritta Ratn&kara of Ked&ra Bhatta, with its commentaries by
^^iktia Bhatta, N6r&yaqia Bhatta, and Hari Bh&skara, has been the most con-
^^ for the present treatise. The Yfitta Darpa^a, which relates chiefly to
^'^t prosody, has been also much employed.
60 ON 8ANSKB1T AND
precept. The same mode has been also practised by many
other writers on prosody; and in particular, by Pingala's
commentator N&r&yaQa Bhatta; and by the iauthors of the
Yfitta Batn&kara and Vptta Darpa^a.
E&Iid&sa^s Sruta Bodha exhibits only the most common
sorts of metre, and is founded on Pingala^s Pr&krit roles of
prosody ; as has been remarked by one of the commentators^
on the Yritta Batn&kara.
The rules generally cited under the title of Pr&krit Pingala,
have been explained in a metrical paraphrase, teaching the
construction of each species of metre in a stanza of the same
measure, and subjoining select examples. This Pr&krit para-
phrase, entitled Pingala Yritti, is quoted under the name of
Hammira,' who is celebrated in more than one passage given
as examples of metre, and who probably patronized the author.
It has been imitated in a modem Sanskrit treatise on Pr&krit
prosody, entitled Yptta Mukt&vali ; ' and has been copiously
explained in a Sanskrit commentary named Pingala Prak&sa.^
Though relative to Pr&krit prosody, the rules are appli-
[66]cable, for the most part, to Sanskrit prosody also : since
the laws of versification in both languages are nearly the same.
The Pr&krit, here meant, is the language usually employed
under this name by dramatic writers; and not, in a more
general sense of the term, any regular provincial dialect
corrupted from Sanskrit. Hemachandra, in his grammar of
Pr&krit, declares it to be so called because it is derived from
Sanskrit.^
Accordingly his and other grammars of the language con-
sist of rules for the transformation of Sanskrit words into the
derivative tongue: and the specimens of it in the Indian
< DWiikara Bhatta.
* In the oommentary on the Yritiokti Ratna.
' The anthor, Dnrg&datta, waa patroniaed hj the Hindiipati princes of Bun-
delkhand. The examples, which like the text are Sanskrit in Prfrkrit measme,
are in praise of these diieftains. * By Yis'waratha.
* *^IYakfitiJ^ tamkfitam; tatrabhavam Utta dgatam v6 prdkfritamJ*
PKAKKIT POBTKY. 61
dnunas, as well as in the books of the Jains, exhibit few
words which may not be traced to a Sanskrit origin. This
is eqaall J tnie of the several dialects of Pr&krit : yiz. oaora-
seni or language of ^urasena,^ and M&gadhi or dialect of
Higadha ;' which according to grammarians, who give rules
for deducing the first firom Sanskrit, and the second from the
Snt,' or both from Sanskrit,* are dialects nearly allied to
Piikrit, and regulariy formed by permutations, for which the
nles are stated by them. The same may be said of the
Fais&chi as a language (and distinguished from the jargon or
gibberish which either dramatic writers, or actors exhibiting
their dramas, sometimes put into the mouths of demons) ; for
[67] the grammarians of Prakrit teach the manner of forming
the Pais&chi ^ from the dialect called oauraseni.^ That remark
may be also extended to Apabhransa, as a fixed language par-
takiog of Pr&krit and Sauraseni, but deducing many terms
immediately from the Sanskrit under rules of permutation
peculiar to itself.''
The affinity of these dialects of Pr&krit to the Sanskrit and
to each other is so great, that they reciprocally borrow, not-
withstanding their own particular rules, terms permuted in
the manner of other dialects, and even admit, without altera-
tion, words inflected according to the Sanskrit grammar.^
1 KoDdka Bhatta (on Mana 2. 19.) says, that S'urasena is the toimtry of
* Kika|a or Bih&r. Bat it does not appear^ that either this, or the preceding
^eet, is now spoken in the country from which it takes its name. Specimens of
^ are frequent in the Indian dramas.
' Varamchi, and his commentator Bh&maha.
* Hemachandra, who, after stating the special permutations of these dialects as
Paired from Sanskrit, obsenres in both places, that the rest of the permutations
««the nme with those of Pr&krit [Cf. Aufrecht, Bodl. Oat. pp. 179, 180.]
* Or knguage of the Pi^&ohas. *^Fiidehdndm bhdshd PaUdchi:* Bh&maha
wVttinichi.
* Vtnmehi and Hemachandra. The last-mentioned author notices a yariation
of ftii dialect under the name of ChiUik&paiif&chika, which differs very little from
^ proper Paiiichi.
^ It b taught under this name by Hemachandra, among other dialects of
"ibit But the name usually signifies ungrammatical language.
' Hemachandra ad finem.
62 ON SANSEBIT AND
They may be therefore considered as dialects of a single
language, the Pr&krit or derivative tongue; so termed with
reference to Sanskrit, from which it is derived.
Besides these cognate dialects, the dramatic writers intro-
duced other languages as spoken by diflferent persons of the
drama. Such, according to the enumeration in the S&hitya
Darpaigia,^ are the D&kshi^&tyi,' or language used iQ the south
of India ; the Dr&vidi, or dialect of the southern extremity
of the peninsula; the Avantik& (probably the language
of M&lav&) ;' the Ardha M&gadhi, [68] distinguished from
M&gadhi properly so called ; the 3&hl{kabh&sh& (perhaps the
language of Balkh in the Transoxana) ;* the Mah&r&shtri, or
dialect of the Marh&ttas ; the Pr&chyi, or language employed
in the east of India;' the Abhiri and Gh&^d&li, which, fi^om
their names, seem to be dialects used by herdsmen and by
persons of the lowest tribes ; the S&nkard (S&k&ri) and j^&barf,
concerning which nothing satisfactory can be at present sug*
gested ; and generally any provincial dialect.
It is not to be supposed that the Prdkrit rules of prosod;^,
as taught by Pingala, are suited to all these languages : but
it is probable that they were framed for the same dialect of
Prakrit, in which they are composed ; and they are applicable
to those cognate dialects, which differ much less from each
other (being very easily confounded), than they all do fix)m
Sanskrit, their acknowledged common parent. Generally
those rules may be considered applicable to all the languages
» Ch. 6. [p. 173, Bibl. Ind. ed.]
' Same with Vaidarbhi, according to the commentator of the S&hitya Darpa^t.
The country of Yidarbha is said to he the modem Berar proper.
^ Ayanti is another name of Ujjayani.
* B&hlika or Bahlika (for the word is spelt yariously) is a conntry famous for
the breed of horses. Amara, 2. 8. 45. It appears to be situated north of India,
being mentioned in enumerations of countries, with Tunishka, Khasa, K&i(min,
etc. (Hemachandra, 1. 4. 25. Trik&^da S'esha, 2. 1. 9.)
A The commentator on the S&hitya Darpa^a (R&ma Charai^a), interproti
Pr&chy&, by Gau4iy& ; meaning, no doubt, the language of Bengal. He wai
himself a natiye of this prorince ; and his work is modem, being dated S'l
1622 (A.D. 1700).
PRAKKIT POETEY. 63
omprehended under the designation of Prdkrit,^ as derivative
rom Sanskrit ; and certainly so to the vernacular tongues of
the ten nations of Hindus now inhabiting India. A writer
on Sanskrit prosody' pronounces the various kinds of metre to
be admissible in the provincial languages, and has [69] quoted
examples in those of Mah&r&shtra, Gurjara, and E&nyakubja.
The last mentioned, which is the same with the old Hindi, as
is demonstrated by this specimen of it, might furnish very
numerous instances ; especially the Hindi poetry of Kesava
Ddsa,' who has studiously employed a great variety of metre.
Some examples will accordingly be quoted from the most dis-
tinguished Hindi poets. The sacred books of the Sikhs, com-
posed in a Panj&bi dialect, which is undoubtedly derived from
the ancient S&raswata,* abound in specimens of such metre.
The language of Mithili, and its kindred tongue, which pre-
vails in Bengal, also supply proof of the aptitude of Sanskrit
prosody ; and the same is probably true of the other four
national languages.'
Pingala's rules of Sanskrit prosody are expressed with
singular brevity. The artifice by which this has been effected
is the use of single letters to denote the feet or the syllables.
Thus ly the initial of a word signifying short {laghu)^ indicates
A abort syllable : ^, for a similar reason^^ intends a long one.
The combinations of these two letters denote the several dis-
^Ibbles : Ig signifying an iambic ; gl a trochaeus or choreus ;
99 a spondee ; U a pyrrhichius. The letters m. y. r. «. t. j\
^ and II, mark all the trisyllabical feet, from three long
^'l^les to as many short. A Sanskrit verse is generally
Af. Bei. TiL p. 219. (Page [21], etc., of the present Tolume.)
A^^ftr&jBva Bhattfty in a commentary on the Yritta Batn&kara, written in
^^>at 1602 (A.i>. 1M6).
Contemporary with Jah&ng(r and Sh&h Jah&n.
The remaining S&raawtta Br&hmai^as inhabit chiefly the Panj&b.
Y^ *rhote of Dr&Ti4a, Kar^&taka, Telinga, and O^ra or Udiya. I omit Gan^a.
^^ Brthma^as bearing tiiia national designation are settled in the districta
*^^^^^ Delhi: bat, nnlen theirs be the language of Mathar&, it is not easy to
^^^^ to them a particalar national tongue.
^ BdBg the initial of ^Mfti, long.
64 OK SANSKRIT AND
«
scanoed by these last-mentioned feet, with the addition of
either a dissyllable or a mono[70]8yllable at the close of the
verse, if necessary. This may be rendered plain by an ex-
ample taken from the Ghreek and Latin prosody.
Scanned in the Indian manner, a phaleudan verse, instead
of a spondee, a dactyl and three trochees, would be measured
by a molossus, an anapsDst, an amphibrachys, and a trochee ;
expressed thus m. 8. j\ g, L A sapphic verse would be
similarly measured by a cretic, an antibacchius, an amphi-
brachys and a trochee; written r. t.j, g, I,
To avoid the too frequent use of uncommon terms, I shall,
in describing the different sorts of Sanskrit metre, occasionally
adopt a mode of stating the measure more consonant to the
Greek and Latin prosody, in which the iambic, trochee, and
spondee, dactyl, anapaest, and tribrachys, are the only fi»et
of two or three syllables which are commonly employed.
In Prakrit prosody the variety of feet is much greater: verses
being scanned by feet of different lengths, frt>m two rndtrat
(two short syllables or one long), to three, four, five, and even
six mdtrds or instants. These various descriptions of feet
have been classed, and denominated, by the writers on this
branch of prosody.
The verse, according to the Sanskrit system of prosody, is
the component part of a couplet, stanza, or strophe, commonly
named a iloha^ although this term be sometimes restricted
to one sort of metre, as will be subsequently shown on the
authority of K&liddsa. The stanza or strophe consists usually
of four verses denominated pddd; or, considered as a couplet,
it comprises two verses subdivided into pddas or measures.
Whether it be deemed a stanza or a couplet, its half, called
ardhailoka, contains usually two pddas ; and in general the
pauses of the sense correspond with the principal pauses of th
metre, which are accordingly indicated by lines of separation
at the [71] close of the iU>ka and of its hemistich. When th«
sense is suspended to the close of a second iloka^ the doubL
PBAERIT POETRY. 65
stanza \a denominated yugma\ while one, comprising a greater
number of measures, is termed kuldka. In common with
others, I have sometimes translated ihka by ^ yerse,*' or by
^^ couplet;^ but, in prosody, it can only be considered as a
stanza, though the pauses are not always yery perfectly marked
until the close of the first half: and, in conformity to the
Indian system, it is generally treated as a tetrastich, though
some kinds of regular metre haye uniform pauses, which might
permit a diyision of the stanza into eight, twelye, and eyen six-
teen yerses.
In Pr&krit prosody, a greater yariety is admitted in the
length of the stanza; some species of metre being restricted
to a true couplet, and others extended to stanzas of six and
eyen sixteen yerses : independently of pauses, which, being
usually marked by rhyme, would justify the further sub-
diyision of the stanza into as many yerses as there are pauses.
Eyen in Sanskrit prosody, instances occur of stanzas ayowedly
comprising a greater or a less number of yerses than four ; as
three, fiye, six, etc. But these are merely exceptions to the
general rule.
Concerning the length of the yowels in Sanskrit yerse, since
none are ambiguous, it is only necessary to remark, that the
comparatiye length of syllables is determined by the allotment
of one instant or mdtrd to a short syllable, and two to a long
ODe; that a naturally short vowel becomes long in prosody
^^^ it is followed by a double or conjunct consonant ; ^ and
^^% the last syllable of a yerse [72] is either long or short,
^^^^ording to the exigence of the metre,* whatever may be its
^tund length.
Or by the luual termed Anusw&ra, or the aspirate Yiaarga. By poetical licence,
^^^^el may be short before certain conjuncts (yiz., IV and \\ as also ^ and IIT).
^^ licence has been borrowed from Pr&krit prosody, by the ruler of which a
r^^*el IB allowed to be sometimes short before any conjunct, or before the nasal :
V^t instances of this licence occur in classical poems with only four conjuncts, as
^^^ mentioned ; and, even there, emendations of the text have been proposed by
^^"kics to render the Terse conformable to the general laws of prosody. (See rc-
^^^ in the Dnif ha^TTitti, on passages of M&gha's poem and of the Enm&ra.)
^ This role of prosody is applicable to any yerse of the tetrastich : but it is con-
TOL. m. [assATS n.] 5
66 ON SAN8KEIT AND
Sanskrit prosody admits two sorts of metre. One governed
by the number of syllables ; and which is mostly uniform or
monoschematic in profime poetry, but altogether arbitrary in
various metrical passages of the Yedas. The other is, in fiict,
measured by feet, like the hexameters of Greek and Latin:
but only one sort of this metre, which is denominated Jiiyk^
is acknowledged to be so regulated; while another sort is
governed by the number of syllabic instants or nkUrds*
I. — Qanachhandaa^ or metre regulated by feet,
Aryd or Qdthd.
The metre named IdjL, or in Prfikrit G&hi, from the
Sanskrit G&th&, is measured by feet denominated ganOj or
mdtrdgana^ which are equivalent to two long syllables or to
four short: it is described as a couplet, in which the first
verse contains seven and a half feet ; and the sixth foot must
consist of a long syllable between two short, or else of four
short ; while the odd feet (1st, 3rd, 5th, and 7th) must never
be amphibrachys.^ In the second verse of the [73] couplet,
the sixth foot (for here too it retains that name) consists of a
single short syllable. Consequently the proportion of syllabic
instants in the long and short verses is thirty to twenty-seven.'
The same metre has, with some propriety, been described as a
stanza of four verses : ' for it is subdivided by its pauses into
four pddas, which have the usual privilege of giving to the last
syllable, whether naturally long or short, the length required
by the metre. The pause is commonly restricted to the close
of the third foot, and the measure is in this case denominated
sidered by writers on rhetoric inelegant to use the priTilege in the nncTen Yerset ;
and they thiu restrict the rule to the close of the stansa and of its half, especially
in the more rigid species of regular metre.
^ If the rule be Tiolated, the metre is named Gurvi^S ; but this is reprobated
by writers on prosody.
s As. Bes., vol. iL, p. 390. 3 Vritta-mukt^yali.
PRA'KRIT POETEY. 67
Patliy& ; bat if tbe pause be placed otherwise in either Terse,
or in both of them, the metre is named Yipuld.
A particular sort of this measure, deduced from either
species above described, is called Ghapald; and the laws of
its construction require, that the second and fourth feet should
be amphibrachys, and that the first foot should be either a
spondee or an anapsBst, and the fifth a dactyl or a q>ondee.
The first yerse of the Qouplet, the second, or both, may be
constructed according to these rigid rules: hence three varieties
of this sort of metre.
The regular ICtj& consists of alternate long and short verses:
but, if the short verse precede the long one,^ the metre is called
TTdgitk If the couplet consist of two long verses, it is named
Giti: or of two short verses, Upagiti. Another sort of this
metre is named Kry&rgiti: it is constructed by completing
the eighth foot of the regular Xryk,^
This measure admits therefore of eighty principal variations,
deducible from the nine sorts above mentioned : for the pause
may be placed at the close of the third foot in either verse of
each couplet, in both, or in neither; and [74] either verse, both,
or neither, may be constructed according to the strict rules of
Uie Ghapalfi measure ; and the verse may consist of seven and
a half, or of eight feet ; and may be arranged in couplets con*
BiBting of verses alternately long and short, or alternately
short and long, or else uniformly long, or uniformly short.
The Jirji metre is very frequently employed by Indian
poets; but works of great length in this measure are not
oommon. It is oftener intermixed with verses of other kinds,
though instances do occur of its exclusive use : thus the first
sad fourth cantos, and most part of the second and third, in
tKe poem entitled Nalodaya, and the entire work of Govar-
dlMffla,* are in the Xtj& metre. And so is the brief text of the
^ It may be Taried by alternating a long and short Terse, or a short and a long
we» w by making both verses long.
' CoQsiiting of seven hundred (or with the introduction 755) stanzas of mis-
^^^^'i^v poetry ; and entitled, from the number of stanzas, Sapta-tfati.
68 ON SAKSEBIT AND
S&nkhya phUosophy of Eapila, as taught by fswara-lqriduiLa;^
and thje copious treatise of astronomy by Brahmagupta.^
The Nalodaya above mentioned, which is ascribed to the
celebrated poet E&lid&sa, is a poem in four cantos, comprising
220 couplets or stanzas,' on the adventures of Nala and
Damayantf : a story which is abeady known to the English
reader.* In this singular poem, rhyme and aUiteration are
eomlnned in the termination of the verses : for [75] the three
or four last syllables of each hemistich within the stanza are
the same in sound though different in sense. It is a series
of puns on a pathetic subject.
It is supposed to have been written in emulation of a short
poem (of twenty-two stanzas) similarly constructed, but with
less repetition of each rhymes and entitled, from the words ef
the challenge with which it concludes, Qhata-karpara.
" Thirsty and touching water to be sipped from the hoUov^
palms of my hands, I swear by the loves of sprightly damsel89
that I will carry water in a broken pitcher for any poet by
whom I am surpassed in rhymes."
However, the epic poem of M&gha, which will be mentioned
more particularly under the next head, contains a specimen
of similar alliteration and rhyme; the last fourteen stanzas
of the sixth canto (descriptive of the seasons) being constructed
^ Author of the E&rik& or metrical maxims of this philosophy. Sdtras, or
aphorisms in prose, which are ascribed to Kapila himself, are extant : but Hie
work of r^wara-kfishna is studied as the text of the S&nkhya (As. Bes., toL TiiL,
p. 466).
* Entitled Brahmasphuta-siddh&nta : other treatises, bearing the same or a
similar title, are works of different authors.
' Chiefly At}% with a few annpfostic stamtas (Totaka), and a still smaller
number of iambics and troehaics (Praraanf and Sam&nl). [Edited by Benary,
Berlin, 1830, and Yates, Calcutta, 1844.]
* Translated by Mr. Kindersley of Madras, from a tale in the proTindal lan-
guage. [I may add Dean Milman's poetical version.]
PRAKRIT FOBTRY. 69
with like terminations to each half of the stanza. Instances
will also be cited from Bh&ravi's poem hereafter noticed.
The foUowing example of a species of the Krjk metre is
taken from the pre&ce of the Nalodaya.
A'rgd^ti (8 feet).
AbK sa rdjd nite
Rdmikhyo, yo gatihparijdtUte,
yasya rardjd 'nite
ratndnijanah kuk dhar^dni He.
^The kii^ celebrated under the name of R4ma^ exists, who
is conversant with the supreme ways of moral conduct; in
wbose &mily, exempt from calamity and enriched with the
gems of the earth, dependents flourish."^ 1. 5.
The next is taken from DamayantiV lamentation on finding
herself deserted by her husband Nala. It is in the same
Bpecied of metre.
26. Tatra^ pade vydlindm,
atha vibhrdntam vane cha devyd^ *Undm
iaru^vrinde vydlhidm
tatin dadhdne, tayd 'spade vydlindm,
27. Vega-bald 'pdsitayd,
venydf Bhaimi yutd laldpd ''sitayd.
" Nripa I sa-kaldpd 'sitayd
hattod ^riny bdndhavdn kild 'pdai tayd,
28. 8a katham mdna-mndndm,
nydyapidf dcharaai sevyamdna-vandndm^
dhfita^slmd navandndm.
ddrdndm tydgam^ anupdmd ! ^namndndm,
^^i&ft-iija, by whose command the poem was composed. So the commen-
^**^ remark : bat it remains uncertain who he was, or where he reigned.
70
OK SANSEBTT AND
29. Para-kritam etat ttcenah [tu enah]
9marimi^ tan na wnrito 'si me tattwena^
doshnhsainetatwena
pradiuhaffe nd Hra tambhrame tat twena ! \twi^ ina /]"
[77]
'^ Then the princess wandered in the forest, an abode of
serpents, crowded with trees which resound with the sweet
buzz of bees, the resort of flocks of birds. With her dark
hair dishevelled through her haste, Bhaimi thus lamented:
^ King ! thou slayest foes, but defendest thy kindred, with
thy quiver and thy sword. Unrivalled in excellence and con-
versant with morality, how hast thou practised the desertion
of a wife proud but left helpless in a forest ; thus rendering
thyself the limit of praise ? But I consider this evil to be the
act of another, and do not charge thee with it : I do not blame
thee, my husband, as in fault for this terror.' " 3. 26-29.
In the passage here cited, some variations in the reading
and greater differences in the interpretation occur ; with which
it is, however, unnecessary to detain the reader. After con-
sulting several scholia, the interpretation which appeared pre-
ferable has been selected. The same mode will be followed
in subsequent quotations from other poems.
PKAKKIT POETRY. 71
[78] II. — Mdtrdchhandas^ or metre regulated by quantity.
1. Vaitdliya.
Another sort of metre, regulated by the proportion of tndUrds
or syllabic instants, is measured by the time of the syllables
exclusively ; without noticing, as in the ganachhandas^ the
namber of feet. It is therefore denominated mdtrdchhandaSy
md the chief metre of this kind is named Yait&liya. It is a
tetrastich, or strophe of four verses, the first and third con-
taining the time of fourteen short syllables, and the second
&nd fourth sixteen. The laws of its construction impose that
each verse shall end in a cretic and iambic, or else in a dactyl
and spondee,^ or by bacchius.' In regard to the remaining
moments, which are six in the odd verses, and eight in the
eyen verses of the strophe, it must be observed as a general
role, that neither the second and third, nor the fourth and
fifth moments should be combined in the same long syllable ;
nor, in the second and fourth verses, should the sixth mdtrd
be combined with the seventh. That general rule, however,
^ts of exceptions, and the name of the metre varies ac-
cordingly.'
Although the Vait&liya regularly consist of alternate [79]
short and long verses, it may be varied by making the stanza
eoQsist either of four short or four long verses, admitting at
the same time the exception just now hinted.^
^ This Tarietf of ihe metre is named ApatUiklu [Weber writes Apdtaiihd,']
' Thus sngmented, the measure is called Aupachhandasika. The whole of the
^euto of M6gha*8 epic poem hereafter mentioned is in this metre, and so is
^ fini half of the 18th canto in Bh&ran's Kir&t&rjnniya.
^ In the CTen Terses of the strophe, if the fourth and fifth moments be com-
biofldin one long syllable, contrary to the general rule above mentioned, the metre
i>BttMd Pr&chya-T|itti ; or, in the odd verses, if the second and third moments be
n eomhined, the metre is denominated Udlchya-Tritti : or the rule may be violated
in both instances at the same time, and the measure then takes the name of
PitT^tuka.
* A tetrastich, consisting of four short verses of the sort called Pravfittaka, is
Bttud Ch&mh&Bini : and one comprising four long verses of that description is
^<in^ Apar&ntikiu
72 ON 8ANSKBIT AND
The following is an example of a stanza composed in a
species of this metre :
Vaitdliya (Pravrittaka).
Idam, BharatO'Vania'bhibhritdmf
iriiyatdm^ truti-manorasdyanam,
pavitram, adhikam, iubhodayam,
Vydta^vaktra-kathiiam^ Pravrittakam.
*'*' Listen to this pure, auspicious, and pleasing history of the
kings of the race of Bharatai as uttered from the mouth of
Vyfaa.''
Here, as in most of the examples given by the commentator
HaUyudha, and by other writers on prosody, the name of the
metre occurs, but with a different acceptation. Where the
stanza has the appearance of being a quotation (as in the
present instance), it might be conjectured that the denominar
tion of the measure was originally assumed from the example ;
and this conjecture would appear probable, wherever the name
(as is frequently the case) has no radical meaning connected
with the subject of metre. But, in many instances, the radical
interpretation of the word is pertinent, and has obviouslj
suggested its application as a term of prosody ; and the stanza,
which is given as an example, must therefore have been pur-
posely con[80]8tructed to exhibit the metre by words in which
its denomination is included. This is confirmed by the cir-
cumstance of some of the words being incompatible with the
measure which they designate : and, in such cases, the author
apologizes on that ground for not exhibiting the name in the
example.
The Vaitdliya metre has been employed by some of the
most eminent poets ; for instance, in the epic poem of M&gha,
the sixteenth canto of which is chiefly in this measure, as the
PBAXBTT POSTBT. 73
twentieth ind last canto ib in tiiat spedes of it which is called
Aupachhandasika.
The work here mentioned is an epic poem, the subject of
which is the death of l^iinp&la slain in war by Krishna : it is
entitled 6isapdla*badha, but is usually cited under the name
rf its author, whose designation, with praises of his fitmily,
ippears in the concluding stanzas of the poem. Yet, if irar
iition may be trusted, M&gha, though expressly named as
the author, was the patron, not the poet* As the subject is
Woie, and even the unity of action well preserved, and the
style of the composition elevated, this poem is entitled to the
oime of epic.^ But the- Indian taste for descriptive poetry,
ud particularly for licentious description, has disfigured even
tbifl work, which is otherwise not undeserving of its high
npotition* The first two cantos and the last eight are suit-
able to the design of the poem ; but the intermediate ten,
deaeribing the journey of Krishna with a train of amorous
^aels, from Dw&rak& to Indraprastha, is misplaced, and in
more than one respect exceptionable.
The argument of the poem is as follows. In the first canto
Ifitada, commissioned by Indra, visits Krishna and incites
him to war with his cousin, but mortal enemy, Sisupala king
of the Ghedis. In the second, Kpsh^ consults with his
unde and brother, whether war should be [81] immediately
eommeDoed, or he should first assist Yudhishthira in complet-
ing a solemn sacrifice which had been appointed by him. The
^t of the consultation is in fitvour of the latter measure ;
^i accordingly, in the third canto, Kpshna departs for
^Qdhiahthira's capital. In the thirteenth he arrives and is
welcomed by the P&i^davas. In the following canto the
^fice is begun; and in the next, 6isup&la, impatient of
the ^Vine honours paid to Krishna, retires with his partisans
from the place of sacrifice. A negociation ensues, which is
[A tnditioiiAl Tene is current among the Pandits, Vpamd Kdliddsatya
JMrtwr trtlmgawrmvam, NaUhadh4 padMlUytm^ Mdghe sarUi trofo gw^h^l
74 OK 8AN8EBIT AKD
however ineffeotoal, and both armies prepare for action. Ti
occupies two cantos. In the eighteenth both armies issue
the field of battle, and the conflict commences. The bait
continaes in the next canto, which describes the discomfitu
and slaughter of l^isup&la^s army. In the last canto, tl
king, grown desperate, dares Kfish^ to the combat. The
engage, and in the Indian manner fight with supematur
weapons. Sisup&la assails his enemy with serpents, whic
the other destroys by means of eigantic cranes. The kii
a neptunian weapon. The combat is prolonged with oth<
miraculous arms, and finally Elfish^a slays bisup&la with s
arrow.
The following example is from a speech of Sisup&la^s an
bassador, in reply to a discourse of Sfityaki, brother <
Erishi;^ at an interview immediately preceding the battle.
[82] ftrft^^^n^RTWIT
PBAKBIT POBTRY. 75
*^A low man, poor in understanding, does not perceive his
own advantage : that he should not comprehend it when shown
by others, is surprising. The wise, of themselves, know the
abroach of danger, or they put trust in others : but a foolish
mao does not believe information without personal experience.
The proposal which I made to thee, EnshiOLa, was truly for thy
b6De£t: the generous are ready to advise even their enemies
l6Dt on their destruc[83]tion. Peace and war have been
offered at the same time by me ; judging their respective
advantages, thou wilt choose between them. Yet good advice
addressed to those whose understanding is astray, becomes
^ like the beams of the cold moon directed towards lakes
«ager for the warm rays of the sun." 16. 39 — 43.
Another passage of the same poem is here subjoined as
ft specimen of a different species of this metre. It is the
opening of the last canto, where l^isupfila, impatient of the
discomfiture of his troops and those of his allies, dares Krishigia
^ single combat.
Mukham ulUmta-tri^rekham uchchair
hhtdura-bhritrffuga-hhishanan dadhdndh^
Samitdv iti vikramdn amrishyan,
gatabhir, dhwata Chedirdd Murdrim.
^^ing his head, and with a countenance terrible by its
fked brow and wrinkled forehead, the king of the Ghedis,
76 OK SAKSEBIT Aim
impatient of the prowess thus displayed in battle, Ini
fear, and challenged the foe of Mora to the fight.^ 20.
A ftirther example of the same metre is the second
of the following extract from the Eir&t&ijoniya ^ of B!
The remaining stanzas exhibit yariety of measure, wi
instances of singular alliteration.
[84] The subject of that celebrated poem is Arjuna^s
ing celestial arms from l^iva, Indra, and the rest of the f
be employed against Duryodhana. It is by a rigid ohm
of severe austerities in the first instance, and afterwa
his prowess in a conflict with j^iva (in the disguise of a
taineer), that Aijuna prevails. This is the whole sul
the poem ; which is ranked with the Kum&ra and Ba
K&lid&sa» the Naishadhfya of i^riharsha, and M4gha'
poem, among the six excellent compositions in Sanskrit
sixth is the Meghadiita, also ascribed to Kflid&sa; t
account of its excellence, admitted among the great
(Mah&k&vya), notwithstanding its brevity.
^ Aijnna and the mountaineer. Kir&ta ii the name of a tribe of mov
considered as barbarians.
PKAKRIT POETKY. 77
[85] •l^lfil 4l^<|4J^<iaiil4
WBnfVw wfti ^snnft w^nft a ^o i
The stanzas, which contain alliteration, are here eopied in
Boman characters.
18. lAa duradhigamaih
kinchid evdgamaih
saiatam asutaram
varnayantyaniaram.
Amum atitnpinam
veda digvydpinam
purusham waparam
Padmayonih param,
20. Sulabhaih soda nayamtd '^yavatd
ntdhi^guhyakddhipa'ratnaih paratnaih
amund dhanaih kahitihhritd 'Mhritd
• • •
samaUtya bhdtijagati jagatL
**Then Aijuna, admiring the mountain in silent astonish-
■ttnt, was respectfully addressed by his conductor, Euvera^s
attendant : for even loquacity is becoming in its season.
''^This mountain with its snowy peaks rending the cloudy
^ in a thousand places, is, when viewed, able to remove at
<>nce the sins of man. An imperceptible something within it,
we wise ever demonstrate to exist by proofs difficultly appre-
hended. But Brahmd alone thoroughly knows this vast and
^^^^ficessible mountain, as he alone [86] knows the supreme soul.
^Hh its lakes overspread by the bloom of lotus, and over-
^l^owed by arbours of creeping plants whose foliage and
78 ON SANSKBIT AND
blossoms are enchanting, the pleasing scenery snbdaes the
hearts of women who maintained their steadiness of mind evoi
in the company of a lover. By this happy and well-goTemed
mountain, the earth, filled with gems of easy acquisition and
great excellence^ delightful to the god of riches, seems to
surpass both rival worlds/' ^ 5. 16—20.
2. Mdtrdsamaka.
The metre denominated M&trfisamaka consists of four verses,
each of which contains the quantity of sixteen short syllables ^
and in which the last syllable must be a long one ; and tho
ninth syllabic moment must be in general detached from the
eighth and tenth, and be exhibited of course by a short syl-
lable : if the twelfth be so likewise, the metre is distinguished
by another name ; or if the fifth and eighth remain short,
the denomination is again changed. The last sort of metre
is varied by deviating from the rule respecting the ninth
moment; and another variety exhibits the fifth, eighth, and
twelfth moments by short syllables.^ These five varieties of
the metre called M&tr&saroaka may be variously combined in
the same stanza ; and in that [87] case the measure is de-
nominated Pdddkulaka ; a name which is applied with greater
latitude in Pr&krit prosody, to denote a tetrastich wherein
each verse contains sixteen moments, without any other re-
striction as to the number and place of the long and short
syllables.
^ The first and fourth stanzas, in this quotation, are in the DrataTilAmbit^
metre, and the fifth in the Pramit(ik8har& ; which will be both noticed under i^
subsequent head. The third is an uncommon measure named Chandrikfc
Kshamk.
s The names of these four yarieties are 1st, y&nav&sik&, which exhibits til
ninth and twelfth moments by short syllables, and the fifteenth and sixteenth b»'
a long one : the rest being optional. 2ndly, Chitrk, exhibiting the fifth, eigh
and ninth, by short syllables, the fift^M^nth and sixteenth by a long one. Srdlr
Upachitr^, the fifth and eighth short; the ninth and tenth long; also the
and sixteenth long. 4thly, Yi^ioka, fifth, eighth, and twelfth short ; fifteenth
gixteenth long ; and the rest indeterminate. [Cf. Ind, Stud, yiii. 314-818.]
PKAKRIT POETET. 79
A poem inserted in the first volaroe of Asiatic Besearches ^
is a specimen of the varietj which this sort of metre admits.
In a collection of tales entitled Yet&la-panchayinsati, the
author, Sivadfisa^ has quoted several stanzas of that poem
intermixed with others, in which the measure is still more
varied: and I may here remark, that the introduction of
ihyme into Sanskrit verse is not peculiar to this anapeestic
metre : Jajadeva has adopted it with success in several other
sorts of lyric measure, and it is frequent in Sanskrit poetry
composed in any species of Pr&krit metre.
3. OUydryd.
Another species of metre regulated by quantity is named
6it7&ry&. Like the preceding, it is a tetrastich, in which
^h verse consists of sixteen mdtrds or moments, but all
pressed by short syllables. In other words the stanza con-
^ sixty-four short syllables distributed into four verses.
From the mixture of verses of this description with others
coDsisting exclusively of long syllables, arises another metre,
teijB^hed into two sorts, according as the first couplet in
the stanza consists of short syllables and the second of long ;
^i conversely, the first long and the second short.' The
6ity4iy& may be further varied by making the last syllable
<^each couplet long and all the rest short; at the '[88]
^e time reducing both couplets to twenty-nine moments ; or
^6 first only to that measure, and the second to thirty-one ;
^ the first couplet to thirty, while the second contains thirty-
two.'
' Tha mixed metre, in which one couplet of the stanza contains short syllables
ttd the other long, is termed S'ikh& or Ch6d&. If the first couplet contain the
^ lyUables, it is denominated Jyotis ; but it is called Saumy& or Anangakri^i,
^ the first oonplet consists of long syllables.
"^ metre, concerning which authorities disagree, is called Chii^ikfc or
^fiHkk; or, aceoiding to the Yritta-ratn&kara, Atiruchir&.
80 ON SANSKRIT AND
4. Prdkrit meamrei.
The foregoing are all comprehended under the general
designation of J&ti: and besides these, which are noticed ia
treatises on Sanskrit prosody^ other kinds belonging to the
class of metre regulated by quantity, are specified by wriften
on Pr&krit prosody. They enumerate no less than forty-two
kinds, some of which comprehend many species and yarietica.
The most remarkable, including some of those already de-
scribed as belonging to Sanskrit prosody, are the following, of
which instances are frequent in Pr&krit, and which are also
sometimes employed in Sanskrit poetry.
A stanza of four verses, containing alternately thirteen and
eleven moments (and scanned 6+4+3 and 6+4+1), is
named either Doh& ^ (S. Dwipath&) or . Soratth& (S. Saa-
r&shtra), according as the long verse precedes the short oae,
or the contrary. This metre, of which no less than twenty-
three species bear distinct names (from forty-eight short
syllables to twenty-three long and two short), is very com-
monly used in Hindi poetry. As an instance of it, the work
of Bih&ril&l may be mentioned, which consists of seven hundred
couplets {sat sat) all in this measure. It is a collection of
descriptive poetry ; of which Krishna, sporting with R&dUL
and the Gopis, is the hero. The following example is from
that celebrated author.
[89] ^wmnr 41m 111% ^parw h^^ri wr i
^jRBt ^*nf|^ 'f? ^TOT «i^i^ W^RT f*!^ W I
Makardkrita Oopdh ke
kundala jhalakata kdna^
Dhasyo manohiya gadha samara^
dyodhi lasata nisdna,
" The dolphin-shaped ring, which glitters in Gop&la's
may be taken for the symbol of Cupid suspended at the
while the god is lodged in his heart.'*
^ CorrnptlyDohra.
PKAKRIT POETBY. 81
To understand this stanza it must be remarked, that the
symbol of the Indian cupid is the aquatic animal named Ma-
Wa (which has in the Hindu zodiac the place of Capricorn).
It is here translated dolphin, without however supposing either
the deliverer of Arion, or any species of dolphin (as the term
is appropriated in systems of nataral history), to be meant.
The 0&th& or G&h& has been already noticed as a name of
the Kiji measure in Pr&krit prosody. Including under this
u a general designation the seven species of it, with all their
munerous varieties, it is no uncommon metre in Prdkrit poetry.
A collection of amatory verses ascribed to the famous monarch
otiiv&hana, comprising seven hundred stanzas,^ and purport-
ing to be a selection from many thousands by the same author,
is exclusively in metre of this kind. The introductory verse
intimates that
*' Seven hundred couplets (gdhds) are here selected out of
ten millions of elegant couplets composed by the poet Hdla.**^
H&la is a known title of S&livdhana, and is so explained
both here and in a subsequent passage by the [90] scholiast
Gangidhara Bhatta. It is not, however, probable, that he
really composed those verses: and it would be perhaps too
nneh to conjecture, that the true author of them was
pitiODized by that monarch, whose existence as an Indian
sorereign has been brought in doubt.
The metre called Mah&r&shtra (in Pr&krit Marahattd) is
a tetrastich, of which each verse contains twenty-nine mdtrds^
scttned by one foot of six, and five of four ; with a termi-
natbg trochee. It has pauses at the eighteenth and twenty-
ninth mdtrds. This measure is evidently denominated from
Ae country which gives name to the Marahatta nation : as
Mother species, before mentioned, takes its designation from
^T&shtra or Sorattha.' The circumstance is remarkable.
* Ftom iheir nnmbery entitled Sat SaV. [Prof. Weber edited and translated
^'wrtliilf the work in the Abhanglungen fur die Eunde det Morgmlandcs^ vol. t.]
' The peninnila, between the gnl& of Oambay and Cutch. The name remains,
TOL. m. [sesATB n.] 6
32 05 8AH SKBH iJID
Another tetnstioh, which it is reqnimte to notice
nominated Boli. Each yerae contains twenty-four i
and this species of metre admits twelve varieties, firom
four short syllables to eleren long and two short,
distinct names.
The Shatpadik& (Pr. Ohhappad) is a stanza of six
arranged in a tetrastich and couplet ; the first termed
and the second XJU&la. In the tetrastich, each Terse <
twentj-fonr moments (scanned 3 + five times 4+2,
6 + foar times 4+2) with a pause at the eleventh n
and each verse of the couplet contains twenty-eight m
with a pause at the fifteenth. The varieties are ex
numerous, according to the [91] number and the plaec
long and short syllables. No fewer than forty-five va
of the tetrastich, and seventy-one of the whole stana
separate names. They are distinguished by the nni
short and long syllables (fix>m 163 short to 70 long
short in the whole stanza, or from 96 short to 44 Ion
short in the tetrastich). The following example is ei
firom the Pingala Yptti.
Chhappdd or Shatpadikd.
Pindhdu didha sanndha; bdha uppara pdkhkhara da'i,
Bandhu samadL rana dhaldu. Sdmi Sammira badna i
Uduu naha; paha bhamdu; khagga riu sisa hijhdldu.
Pakhkhara pakhkhara, thelli pelH, pabbad appdrdu.
Hammlra kajja Jajjalla bhana, kohdnala mahu mahaja
Sulaidna sisa karabdla dat, tejji kakvara, dia chaldu.
'Pf^wRf T^ ^ro^ €Tf^ fwfH ^nrar wi[ i
but the boundaries of the proyince are more restricted than in ancient 1
still, howeyer, includes the remains of Erish^'s city of Dwlurk& ; the '
temple of Soman&tha, so frequently plundered by the Muhammadans
mountain of Giran&ra, held sacred by the Jainas no less than by the
of the Veda.
PRAKBIT POETRY. 83
^^ Wf ^ WW ^I'w f^ €Vir ff !BT*^ I
^1^^ M^^i %flr ^fli ^nnJ ^^Trc i
f^ift^ ii«f ^i^v ^nf litfnpr Tiir ^ WITS i
Jajjala, general of Hammira's forces, taking the field againat
the Mohammadan emperor, Bays vauntinglj :
**I pat on strong annoitr, placing barbs on my horse, and
taking leave of kinsmen^ I hasten to the war. Having re-
ceived the commands of mj master Hammira, I fly through
the sky; I porsoe the road; I flourish my scimitar on the
head of the be. Amid the bustle of horse [92] and foot I
leale mountains. In Hammira's cause, Jajjala declares, The
&e of wrath bums within me ; laying ray sword on the head
of the Sult&n, and abandoning this corporeal frame, I ascend
to heaven.**
The emperor, whose death was thus vainly promised to
Hammira by bis braggart general, must have been Sultdn
Mohammad Elhuni, with whom he is stated to have been
contemporary, and who reigned from a.d. 1325 to 1351.^
Hammira was sovereign of o&kambhaH, which, with un-
signed deference for the opinion of Captain Wilford on a
pognq^hical question, I still think to be S&mbher:^ and
fer this simple reason, that the culinary salt brought from
the bkes of S&mbher is named in Sanskrit 8'dkambhariya
'tMna, answering to the Hindi Sdmhher Idun. It is, how-
^ proper to remark, that maps exhibit a place of the name
of Sambhere between XJjjayani and Indor.
The Utkachhi is a stanza of six verses, each comprising
eleven moments (scanned 4+4+3). It admits eight species
^m sixty-six short syllables to twenty-eight long and ten
BhoH.
The Ea9dalik& is composed of one stanza of the metre
iiamed Boh&, followed by another in the measure called Bold :
^ Ai. Res. Tol iz., p. 192. ' As. Bes. vol. vii., p. 511.
84 OK SAKSKBTT AND
the entire stanza c«n8eq«ently oomprifee eight yenea. In
this species of metre, rhyme and alliteration are so appropriate
ornaments, that it admits the repetition of a complete hemi-
stich or even an entire verse: as in the following example
extracted from the Pingala-yritti.
KunddUkd or Kundatii.
• • • •
JDholld mdria Dhilli nuiAa, muchhta Mechha iartra,
Pura Jc^'aUd malla bara, chaTia bira Hammira.
[93] ChaTia bira Hammira^ pdd bhara meini kampai.
Diga maga naha andhdra dhdli 9(traha rahajhamptu.
Diga maga naha andhdra dnu. Khurasdnaka oUd
Daralif danuui vippakhkha : mdru Dhittk maha dhoUd.
1^ infr^ tlrfir ^ ^flrn ^ ?nJH i
5T W9m ^wwT ^'rfini 'ftr fftr i
^^ Having made the barbarians faint at the sound of tbi
drum beaten in the midst of Dhilli and preceded by Jiygibi
eminent above athletes, the h^o Hammira advances ; and li
the hero Hammira advances, the earth trembles under his feet
The cloud of dust, raised by the march of his multitudeSi
obscures the chariot of the sun. Darkness spreads with the
march of his multitudes. The hostages of the Khorasaniia
are slain ; the foe is slaughtered, and the drum is beat in the
midst of Dhilli."
A stanza of nine verses, composed of one of five with ft
tetrastich of the metre called Dohd subjoined to it, is de-
nominated Raddhi. Here the stanza of five contains three
verses of fifteen moments each, with two of twelve and eleven
interposed. The distribution of the feet, together with a
PRinOOT POETBY. 85
Ktrietion as ta the iermhiating one, varies in each verse t
nd a difference in the regulation of the feet gives rise to six
meties which have distinct appellations.
The Ghatushpadik& (Pr. Chaupaia or Chaup&i) is a stanza
of sixteen verses distributed into four tetrastichs, in which
each verse contains thirty moments (scanned seven [94} times
4+2), and terminated by a long syllable. This measure is of
▼ety fi:«qnent use in the poetry of the modem languages.
The Bim&ya^a of Tulasidasa, in seven cantos, a poem held in
giBat estimation by Hindus of the middle tribes, i& composed
diiefly in a similar metre under the same name (Ghaupdi),
^ containing the* same number of verses (sixteen) in the
stanza. It alternates with the Doh&, and very rarely gives
place in that poem to any other metre.
In this metre the stanza contains the greatest number of
verses of any admitted into Pr&krit prosody. The other
Measures regulated by quantity are tetrastichs, except the
^hatti and certain other couplets noticed at the foot of the
page ; ^ some of which might have been ranked with more
propriety under the next head of uniform metre.
One other measure which is placed in this class, but which
bekngs rather to another, remains ta be noticed. It is an
iiregalar stanza of four -verses, containing alternately seventeen
and eighteen ^llables, with no regulation of their length or of
the quantity of the verse or stanza. It is termed Gandha, or
in Pr&krit 6andh&]^a.
The rest of the Pr&krit metres may be sought in the synop-
tical tables subjoined to this essay.
The present may be a proper place for noticing a class of
' The 6ha^& and Gha^^finanda, consisting of two verses of thirty-one mdlrds
sadi. In the first species the pauses are after the tenth and eighteenth mdtrds;
a the otiier after the eleventh and eighteenth. There is also a slight difference
B Hie dirtrihution of the feet (7 times 4+3 short; and 6+3 times 3+5+6+3+3
iioirt). The Dwipadik& has in each verse twenty-eight mdtrdt (6+ five times
i-hl long). The S'ikhfc containing the like numher, the Ehanj& with forty-one
ndtrds to the verse, and the M&1& with forty|five, are couplets ; but the feet are
txieU J regulated.
86 ON 8AN8EBIT AKD
poetiy which has been even more cultivaUd in the Pr&krit
and provincial hingaages than in Sanskrit. I allude to the
erotic poetiy of the Hindu*.
[95] On iti general character I shall briefly obeenr^ thai it .
is firee from the grievous defects of the HincU poems compoeed
in the style and metre of Persian verse; but it wants elevation
ef sentiment and simplicity of diction. The passion, whieh
it pict«ires, is sensual, but the language refined, with some
tenderness in the expression and in the thoughts. AmoDg
the most celebrated poems in this class may be mentioiied the
Ghaura-panch&sikd, comprising fifty stanzas, by Chaara,^ and
Amaru-sataka, containing twice that number, by Amaru.'
The first is supposed to be uttered by the poet Chaurai who,
being detected in an intrigue with a king^s daughter, and
condemned to deaths triumphs in the recollection of his suc-
cessful love. The other, which is a collection of unoonneeted
stanzas on amatory topics, is reputed to be the work of the
great Sankara Ach&rya, composed by him in his youth, befim
he devoted himself to the study of theology.*
Some of the commentators on this poem have attempted
to explain it in a devout and mystical sense, on the same
principle upon which Jayadeva's lyric poems are interpreted
as bearing a religious meaning. The interpretation, however,
is too strained to be admitted ; and though Jayadeva's in-
tention may have been devout, and his meaning spiritual,
Amaru, or whoever was the true author of the work bearing
this name, is clearly the lover of an earthly mistress.
The most singular compositions in this class of poetry, and
for which chiefly a notice of it has been here introduced, are
those in which the subject is treated with the studied arrange-
1 [Edited with Schol. by Bohlen, 1883.] * [Often printed.]
' [In the legendary memoirs of 8'ankara, this singnltr episode in tlie gml
philosopher's life is represented as connected with his anstteoe«fhl oootett witk
Ma^ijbina Mis'ra's queen. In consequence of his defeat, he enters a dead king^s
body, and remains buried in the Measures of the harem until he is arraaed by
his disciples to a better consciousness. See Anandagiri, ch. 57-59.]
FRiCKBIT POBTRT. 87
ment and formal preeiskm of the sdiook. I shall instance
the Basamaojarf of Bh&nudatta Miira in Sanskrit, and the
woifca of Matir&ma and Sandara m Hindi. Here yarioas
desoriptions of lovers and niis[96]tre88e0 distinguished by
temper, age, and circumstances, are systematieaUy classed and
kgieallj defined, with the serionsness and elaborate precision
of scholastic writers. As ridicule was not intended, these
poems are not hnmotons bat trifling : and I should not have
dwelt on the subject, if their number, and the recurrence of
them in different languages of India, were not evidence that
the national taste is consulted in such compositions.
III. — Varna-rfitta : metre regulated by the number of syllables.
The next sort of metre is that which is measured by the
number of syllables ; it is denominated Aksharachhandas or
Yan^a-vritta^ in contradistinction to the preceding kinds
which are regulated by quantity ; and it may be subdivided
into three sorts, according as the verses composing the stanza
are all similar, or the alternate alike^ or all dissimilar.
This also is a stanza of four verses {pddas\ each containing
an equal number of syllables, the length of which is regulated
by special rules. The number of syllables varies from twenty-
four to a hundred and four, in each strophe : this is, from
nx to twenty-six in eaeh verse. There are indeed names
in Prikrit prosody for verses from one to five syllables,
and instances of Sanskrit verse containing a higher number
than above stated, viz. from twenty-seven to one less than
a thousand. But these constitute distinct classes of metre.
Between the limits first mentioned, twenty-one kinds receive
different appellations appropriate to the number of syllables
contained in the stanza.
Each kind comprehends a great variety of possible metres,
aeeording to the different modes in which long and short
syllables, as well as pauses, may be distributed; and [97]
88 ON 8AKSKEIT AND
sinoe the four qaarten of each stanza may be either all
or only the alternate rimilar, or all different, the ymatj of
possible metres is almost infinite. Pingala, howeyer, gives
directions for computing the number of species, and for finding
their places, or that of any single one, in a regular enumera-
tion of them ; or conversely, the metre of any species of whidi
the place is assigned: and rules have been given even for
calculating the space which would be requisite for writing
down all the various species.
In the first class or kind, wherein the verse consists of
six syllables, sixty-four combinations are computed on the
syllables of each verse ; 4096 ^ on those of the half stimxa ;
and 16,777,216' on the twenty-four syllables which con-
stitute the complete stanza of this class. In the last of
the twenty-one kinds, 67,108,864 combinations are com-
puted on twenty-six syllables within each verse; nearly
4,503,621,000,000,000, on fifty-two syllables; and more
than 20,282,388,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, on a hun-
dred and four syllables which form the stanza.'
The different sorts, which have been used by poets, are few
in comparison with the vast multitude of possible metres.
Still they are too numerous to be all described at full length.
I shall therefore select, as specimens, those sorts of metre
which are most frequently employed, or [98] which require
particular notice; referring for the rest to the subjoined
tables, in which the various kinds are succinctly exhibited by
single letters descriptive of feet scanned in the Indian and in
the Latin mode.
In the best Sanskrit poems, as those of E&lid&sa, Bh&ravi,
^ Vis, 64 unifonn and 4032 half equal.
' Fix. 64 uniform, 4032 half equal, and 16,773,120 unequal or diarimilar.
' A mode of calculating the poasihle rarieties of metre is also taught in (he
Lil&vati, a treatise of arithmetic and geometry, hy Bh&skara. This truly leaned
astronomer was also a poet, and his mathematical works are composed in highly
polished metre. If the reader figure to himself Euclid in Alcaic measure, Dio-
phantus in anapsests, or the Almagest rersified with all the rariety of Horatiin
metre, he will form an adequate notion of this incongruity.
PRAKBIT POETRY. 89
Driharaha, M&gha, etc., the poet usaally adheres to the same,
or at least to similar metre, throughout the whole of the
canto ; ^ excepting towards the close of it, where the metre is
usually changed in the last two or three stanzas, apparently
with the intention of rendering the conclusion more impressive.
Sometimes, indeed, the metre is more irregular, being changed
seyeral times within the same canto, or even altering with
every stanza.
The B&ghava-p&ndavfya, by Eavir&ja,' is an instance of a
complete poem, every canto of which exhibits variety of metre.
This extraordinary poem is composed with studied ambiguity ;
80 that it may, at the option of the reader, be interpreted as
relating the history of R&ma and other descendants of Dasa-
ratha, or that of Yudhishthira and other sons of P&^du. The
example of this singular style of composition had been set by
Subandhu in the story of V&savadatt&,' and B&^abhatta in
his unfinished work entitled E&dambarf;^ as is hinted by
Kavir&ja. Both these works, which, like the Dasakum&ra^
of Dandi, are prose compositions in poetical language, and
therefore reckoned among poems, do indeed exhibit continual
instances of terms and phrases employed in a double sense :
Imt not, like the B&ghava-p&^daviya, two distinct stories told
in the same words.
[99] The following passage will sufficiently explain the man-
ner in which the poem is composed. The first stanza is of the
niized sort of metre named Upaj&ti, which will be immediately
described ; the second is in one of the measures composing it,
^ed Upendravajra.
' ^riten on rhetoric (as the author of the S&hitja-darpa^a and others) lay it
wwn as a maxim, that the metre and style should in general be uniform in each
^to: bat they admit occasional deyiations in regard to the metre.
^ So tbe anthor has called himself. [Printed at Calcutta, 1854.]
' [Edited by Dr. HaU in the BibL Ind,]
* [Twiee printed at Oalcntta.]
' [Edited by Prof. Wilson, and seTeral times printed in Calcutta.]
90 ON 8AN8KBIT AND
iny PHI 4i^^i4*|4iivi:
60. Mdtuh iriyan iondadhad Indumafydh
ildghyaft iaratkdla ivodapanktek,
Asau^ prqfdpdkmadakshabhdtddf
Ajaaya ekakre manasah pramodam.
62. ViehUravirycuya divan gatasya
pituh sa r^yam pratipadya bdlye,
Purim Ayodhydm^ Dhriiardthtrabhadrdmy
Mhaaiiiobhdm iukham adhyuvdsa.
^* Haying the beaaty of his mother Indamati, and adminble
like the dewy season when it enjoys the beauty of the stan,
he (Dasaratha) made gbd the mind of Aja^ by hia skill i&
the protection of the people. Succeeding in youth to the
kingdom of his variously valiant &ther, who departed for
heaven, he dwelt happily in the [100] city of Ayodhyi,
which was adorned with elephants and upheld the prosperity
of his realm.''
Otherwise interpreted the same passage signifies,
^^ Having the beauty of his mother, and admirable like the
dewy season when it enjoys the beauty of the stars and of the
moon, he (P&ndu) made glad the heart of the unborn god by
his skill in the protection of creatures. Succeeding in youth
to the kingdom of his father Yichitravirya,* who departed for
^ Aja was fitther and Indumatf mother of Dai^aratha.
' YkhitraTirja waa husband of P&v^u'b mother.
FSAKRIT POSTRT. 91
btayen, he dwelt happily in thd peaoefal city of Hastinipnni
Mflpieiously inhabited by Dhfitar&shtra.^ 1. 50. uid 51.
To proceed witii the sabject. In general the different torts
of Terae which are contained in the enbjoined Synoptical table
of oniform metre, are used singly, and the stanza is con-
sequently regalar : but some of the species, differing little from
iaeh other, are intermixed. Thus the Indravajra, measured
ij a dactyl between two epitrites (third and second), and the
Jpendrayajra, which begins with dxiambos, may be mixed in
he same stanza. This sort of mixt metre (an example of
irhioh has been just now exhibited) is denominated Upajiti :
t of course admite fourteen Yariations ; ^ or, with the regular
itanzas, sixteen. The relief which it affords from the rigorous
laws of the uniform stanza, renders it a fitrourite metre with
the beet poets. It has been much employed by E&lid&sa, in
whose poem on the birth and mmriage of P&rvati, three out
of the seven cantos which compose it are in this metre ; as are
^ht out of nineteen in his heroic poem on the glory of the
nee of Baghu.
The last-mentioned work, which is entitled Baghuvansa,
[101] and is among the moat admired compositions in the
Sinskrit tongue, contains the history of B&ma and of his
predecessors and successors, from DiKpa father of Baghu, to
Agnivan;^ a slothful prince who was succeeded by his widow
and posthumous son. The first eight cantos relate chiefly to
Ba^u, with whose history that of his father Dilipa, and of
kb Sim Aja, is nearly connected. The next eight concern
B4ma, whose story is in like manner intimately connected
with that of his father Dasaratha and of his sons Eusa and
Lava. The three concluding cantos regard the descendants of
Kusa, firom Atithi to Agnivargia, both of whom are noticed at
considerable length ; each being the subject of a single canto,
in which their characters are strongly contrasted; while the in-
' They hare distinct names, which are enumerated in the Cbhandom&rtanda,
^ by the commentator on the Yritta-ratn&kara : as Ma^prabh&, K&ntimati, etc.
92 ON 8AN8KEIT AND
termediate princes, to the number of twenty, are crowded into
the intervening canto, which is little else than a dry genealogy.
The adventures of B&ma are too well known to require any
detailed notice in this place. The poet has selected the chief
circumstances of his story, and narrates them nearly as they
are told in the mythological poems and theogonies, but with
fiir greater poetical embellishments. Indeed, the general style
of the poems esteemed sacred (not excepting from this censure
the R&m&yana of V&lmiki,) is flat, diffuse, and no less de-
ficient in ornament than abundant in repetitions ; and it is for
this reason that examples have been selected, for the present
essay, exclusively from the celebrated profane poems. R&ma's
achievements have been sung by the pro&ne as frequently as
by the sacred poets. His story occupies a considerable place
in many of the Pur&ij^as, and is the sole object of V&lmiki's
poem, and of another entitled Adhy&tma-r&m&yana,^ which
is ascribed to Yy&sa. A fragment of a B&m&yana, attributed
to Baudh&yana, is current in the southern part of the Indian
peninsula; and the great [102] philosophical poem, usually
cited under the title of Yoga-v&sishtha,' is a part of a R4m&-
ya^a, comprising the education of the devout hero. Among
profane poems on the same subject, the Raghuvansa and
Bhattik&vya with the B&ghava-p&ndaviya before mentioned,
are the most esteemed in Sanskrit, as the R&m&ya^a of
Tulasid&sa and B&machandrik& of Kesavad&sa are in HindL
The minor poets, who have employed themselves on the same
topic, both in Sanskrit and in the Pr&krit and provincial
dialects, are by far too numerous to be here specified.
The other poem of K&lid&sa above mentioned, though
entitled Kum&ra-sambhava or orign of Kum&ra (who is
son of P&rvati), closes with Parvati's wedding. It has the
appearance of being incomplete ; and a tradition runs, that
1 [Printed in Bombay and Benares with a Comm.]
> [Printed in Bombay, 1865.]
PRAKBIT POETET. 93
it originally conaisted of twenty-two books.^ However, it
relates the birth of the goddess as daughter of mount Him&-
laya, and celebrates the religious austerities by which she
gained 6iva for her husband ; after Sandarpa, or Cupid, had
fiuled in inspiring Siva with a passion for her, and had perished
(for the time) by the fiery wrath of the god. The personages,
not excepting her father, the snowy mountain, are described
with human manners and the human form, ¥rith an exact
observance of Indian costume.
The following stanza from a poem in mixed language upon
the same subject (the birth of Kum&ra), is selected as a further
example of T7paj&ti metre, and as a specimen of the manner in
which Sanskrit and Pr&krit are sometimes intermixed. It is
quoted for that purpose in the Pingalavritti.
[103] Bdla^ kumdrah ; sa chha-munda-dhdri.
Updorhknd hamu ekka-ndri.
Ahar'fiiiam khdt visham bhikhdri.
»
CfaHr bhavitH kila kd hamdri.
Devi, grieving over her infant son Eum&ra or Skanda, says,
" The child is an in&nt, but he has six mouths [to be fed] :
I am a helpless, solitary female : night and day my mendicant
husband swallows poison: what resource is there, alas I for me?"
An instance of the same measure used in the Marahatta
(Mahir&shtra) language is quoted by the commentator on the
Vritta-ratn&kara. It appears, however, from the rhymes, that
the verse is there subdivided by a pause after the fifth syllable.
^ [The remaining books are generally considered spurious, though the eighth
ii ({noted with the author's name (iti Kdlidd$ahJ in the second book of the
SstJahiptasfrra, and without mentioning any name in the DaiTardpa It.
i 12, and S&hityadarpa^a, iiL \ 218, They haye been printed in Calcutta.]
94 ON 8ANSKBIT AND
The yariety of the Upajiti metre is increased bj the fiirther
mixture of two iorta of iambic meaeare named Yaniaetha ^ and
IndraTansi. The first li composed of a choriambos between
two diiambi ; in the second, the first dissyllable is a spondee
instead of an iambic. Instances of this mixt metre occur in
Y&lmiki^s B&m&yana,* in the 6ri Bh&gaTata>par&^a,' and
in a metaphysical and theolc^cal drama entitled Prabodha-
chandrodaya.^
The following example from the drama now mentioned
exhibits the combination of those four sorts of metre in a
single stanza.
4iMf<n ^jfwgft Oif^Mtii I
[104] im: f%T#^firf%l fttv^-
Vidyd'pr^bodhodayarjanma'bhimir^
VdrdnaH mukti'puri niratyayd
Atafi kutochchheda-vidhim tndhitsur
nivastum atrechhati nityam eva sah.
*' Yar&nasi, the indestructible city of eternal salvation, is
the native land of science and intellect : hence, one desirous of
observing the precepts by which a continuance of &mily is cut
off [and final beatitude obtained], is solicitous to dwell there
continually."
The same term (Upaj&ti), as descriptive of mixt metre, has
been also applied to the intermixture of two spondaic measures
named V&tormi and &&lin{ ; which are very similar, the first
having an anapscst, the other a erotic, between a dispondeus
» fWebcr writer VanrfaathL]
s In a passage of the Sundara-kfr^i^ * Book 10th.
* Among .the persons of this drama are the passions and vices (pride, anger,
avarice, etc.) with the virtues (as pity and patience), and other ahstract notioni»
some of which constitute very strange personifications. The author waa E|iih^
Pai>4ita. [This was edited hy Brockhaus, 1845, and anonymously translated into
Qerman hy Qoldstiicker. It was translated into English hy Taylor, 1812.]
PE/KXRIT P08TRY. 95
and second epHriini, with a pause at the fourth syllable.
Analogous to the first of these are the Bathoddhat& and
Svigati) measared by an anapeest preceded by two trochees,
and followed m the one by two iambics, and in the other by
m ionic. These and the preceding are metres in yery com-
mon use with the best poets ; and instances of them will occur
in subsequent extracts, chosen for the sake of other measures
lith which they are joined.
The several sorts of metre above described are, like the two
last, also employed separately: for instance, the .first cantos of
the Naishadhiya of ^riharsha, and Eir&t&rjuniya of Bhiravi,
^ well as that of the epic poem of M&gha, are in the iambic
i&easure called Yansastha ; which recurs again in other parts
^ the same poems : especially in the Kir&ta, of which four
i^ooks out of eighteen are in this measure.
The first of the works just now mentioned is a poem
[LOd] in twenty-two cantos/ on the marriage of Nala, king
of I^ishadha, and Damayanti, daughter of Bhima, king of
^idarbha. It is a favourite poem on a &vourite subject ; and
though confessedly not fi:«e fi*om faults, is by many esteemed
^e most beautiful composition in the Sanskrit language.' The
^i^rriage of Nala and Damayantf, his loss of his kingdom by
gaming, through the firaudulent devices of Kali disguised in the
human form, his desertion of his wife and his transformation,
W distresses, her discovery of him, and his restoration to his
pit>per form and to his throne, are related in another poem
^Ifeady noticed under the title of ISTalodaya. Their adven-
tures likewise constitute an episode of the Mah&bh&rata,' and
^ the subject of a novel in prose and verse, by Trivikrama-
bhatta, entitled Nalachampu^ or Damayanti-kath&. j^ri-
' [The former part waf edited with a modem Comm. in Calcutta, 1836, the
^ by Dr. Boer in the Bihl. Ind. with the Comm. of N&r&ya^.]
* [There if a ^ka cnrrent among the Pa^^its, Tdvad bhd Bhdraver bhdti ydvan
^^ku^a Hoda^ah, UdiU Na%$hadh$ kdvye kwa Mdghah kwa eha Bhdravi^,']
' From the 53rd to the 79th chapters of the Yana-parra.
* A eompontioD, in which prose and rerse are intermixed, is ealled Champ4.
96 ON SANSKRIT AND.
harsha's poem, though containing much beautifiil poettj
according to the Indian taste, is very barren of incident. It
brings the story no farther than the marriage of Nala and
Damayantiy and the description of their mutual affection and
happiness, which continues notwithstanding the macUnationB
of Kali. The romantic and interesting adventures subsequent
to the marriage, as told in the Nalodaya, are here wholly
omitted; while the poet, with a degree of licentiousness,
which is but too well accommodated to the taste of his
countrymen, indulges in glowing descriptions of sensual love.
The following example of Vansastha metre is from the
introduction of the Naishadhiya. To render the author's
meaning intelligible, it may be necessary to premise, that the
mere celebrating of Nala and Damayanti is reckoned [106]
sufficient to remove the taint of a sinful age, and is so declared^
in a passage of the Mah&bh&rata.
Vaniastha metre.
Patitram atrdtanuie jagad yuge,
smritdf raaa-kahdlanayeva yat-kathd
Katham na ed mad^giram, dvildm apu
swasevinim era, pavitrayishyatu
"How should a story, which being remembered, purifies
the world in the present age, as it were by an actual ablution,
fail of purifying my voice, however faulty, when employed on
this narration.^^ 1. 3.
In the following passage from Bh&ravi^s Kir&t&rjuniya, the
last stanza is an example of the M&lini metre, and the preced-
ing one of the Pushpit&gr& ; which will be noticed further on :::=:
PBIKRIT POETBT. 97
I the rest are in the Yaneastha measure. It is the dose
a reproachful speech of Draupadi to her eldest husband,
udhishdura, inciting him to break the compact with Dur-
odhana, by which the P&^dayas had engaged to remain
welre years in exile.
[107] ^ntUiRt "inrt iffnrt
vf^ ^srtf ^nw ^ Tj: i 8<> i
irift^ ^l^ff 'TOTO ftffllMlH I
98 ON SANSKBIT AND
[108] 5t:^RJ VTRVrt ^TB^rvn:
»^ ^^ f^ ________
^' I do not comprehend this thy prudence ; for opini
are indeed various : but anguish forces itself on my n
when considering thy extreme distress. Thou, who d
formerly repose on a costly couch, and wert wakened v
auspicious praise and song, now sleepest on the gro
strewed with pungent grass, and art roused from thy [1
slumbers by the dismal bowlings of shakals. Thy feet, wfa
resting on a footstool adorned with precious stones, v
tinged by the dust of the blossoms in the chaplets won
prostrate monarchs, now tread the wilderness, where the
of sharp grass are cropped by the teeth of stags.^ Thy ]
son, 0 king, which formerly gained beauty by feeding on
blessed remnant of the feast given to holy men, now wa
> [Mallin&tba explains mrigadwijdlimai^huku "whose tips tre croppe
the deer and cut by the ascetics."]
PKAKEIT POETEY. 99
Viih thy gloiy, while thoa feedest on the fruits of the forest.
*niat thou art reduced to this condition by the act of thy
enemies, hanows ap my soul. To the yaliant, whose courage
tt iiBflabdaed by the foe, misfortune is a triumph. Belin^
qmshing peace, O king, be active, and rouse thy energy for
tbe slaughter of thy foes. Placid saints, not kings, attain
perfection, disarming their enemies by patience. If persons
nieh as thee, whose honour is their wealth, who are leaders of
^e brave, submit to such insupportable disgrace, then is
magnanimity destroyed without resource. If, divested of
eourage, thou deem submission the means of lasting ease^
then quit thy bow, the symbol of a sovereign, and becoming a
l^ermit, feed here with oblations the purifying flame. Ad-
herence to the compact is not good for thee, valiant prince,
^hile thy foes compass thy disgrace ; for kings, ambitious of
^dory, scruple not the use of stratagem in treating with
^liemies. Thee, who by force of fate and time art now sunk
lu the deep ocean of calamity, dull with diminished splendour,
^^d slow to enterprise, may fortune again attend, as thou
*i«e8t like the sun with the new-bom day, dispelling hostile
Sl^m." 1.37-46.
To return to the enumeration of analogous sorts of metre.
A. true spondaic metre, named Vidyunmald, consisting of four
^ndees, with a pause in the middle of the verse, which
^rtoally divides the tetrastich into a stanza of eight, is often
^ed, as before observed, with the metre [110] termed
Wty&iy£, containing the same quantity in a greater number
tfsyllables.
Other measures, also containing the same quantity but in
* greater number of syllables, occur among the species of
VDifbnn metre. The subjoined note^ exhibits several species,
' SokiiuiTati or Champakam&l&, composed of alternate dactyls and spondees ;
Ibitt, meantred by three spondees with four short syllables before the last ;
AyaTi, eontainiog a spondee and dactyl, and an anapaest and spondee ; Bhrama-
llfilaitta, measored by two spondees, foar i^ort syllables and an anapsest :
Idoddhaiagati, composed of alternate amphibrachys and anapaests ; and several
9tha ^edea, aa KuramaTichitrfii, Mayignyanikara, KiKJimaladanti, Lalan&, etc.
100 OK SANSKRIT AND
in which the yerse is divided by the position of the pauses
into two parts equal in quantity, and some of them equal in
number of syllables. Further instances are also stated in the
notes, of metre containing the same quantity similarly redu-
cible to equal feet.^ Some of the species of metre which eon-
tain a greater number of syllables, are reducible, in confonnify
to the position of their pauses, to this class.'
All these yarietiee of metre have a great analogy to the
M&tr&samaka and other species before described, which similarly
contain the quantity of sixteen short syllables or eight long,
reducible to four equal feet.
Among the kinds of metre described at the foot of the pre-
ceding paragraphs, the Dodhaka, Totaka, and Pramit&kdiari
are the most common. A stanza in the anapeestic measure
named Framit&kshar&, in which each yerse exhibits allitera-
tion at its close, has been already quoted [111] from the fifth
canto of the Eir&t&rjuniya of Bh&ravi. The specimen of
anapeestic measure Totaka, which will be here cited from the
close of the Nalodaya, is a further instance of alliteration in-
troduced into every stanza of this singular poem.
Totaka.
M<44IM<44IM<4|IM<4(I I
Ari'Sanhaiir a^ya vaneahu iuchdm
padam dpadam dpad amd 'padamd.
Sukhadan cha yathaiva jandya Harim
yatam dyatamdya tarn dyata Md.
1 Dodhaka, composed of three dactyls and a spondee ; To^ka, containing four
anapaests; Pramit§ik8har§i, measured by three anapsests with an amphibnchn
for the second foot; M&1&, a species of Chandr&Tart&, and some others.
> Thus Matt&krid& combines two simple kinds, the VidyunmfJk and Chandrk^
vartk. So Kraanchapad& is composed of two species before mentioned, the
Champakam&l& and Mai^gui^a.
P&IKRIT POSTEY. 101
"The lackless and despondeDt crowd of his foes found in
tbe forests a oalamitons place of sorrow ; and prosperity was
oQDstant to him, who gave happiness to a sincerely affectionate
people, as she clings to Hari, who blesses the guileless." 4. 46.
It has been before said, that in several, sorts of metre, the
paoses would justify the division of the stanza into a greater
oomber of verses than four, and instances have been shown,
where either the number of syllables, or the quantity, would
be the same in each verse of a stanza of eight, twelve, or even
sixteen short verses. In the following species of metre, the
venes of the stanza, subdivided according to the pauses, are
onequaL
The dirdfilavikndita, a very common metre, of which
enmples occur in the former volumes of Asiatic Researches,^
is a tetrastich, in which the verse consists of [112] nineteen
syDsUes divided by the pause into portions of twelve and
leren syllables respectively. The following instance of this
metre is from the close of the first book of M&gha's epic
poem; where N&rada, having delivered a message from
Indn, inciting Epshiyia to war with ^isup&la, king of the
Chedis, departs, leaving the hero highly incensed against
kbBman and enemy.
ll^Wf*!^ f«l«ll^fM1J«IJ Jill ta %lf lrf?T
Om ityuktavato *tha idrngina^ Hi
vydhriiya vdehan^ nabhaa
Ttuminn utpatite purah aura^mundv
indo^ iriyam bibhrati,
oairindm aniiam vindia'piiunah,
kruddhasya Chaidyam prati
Vywnnim^ bhrukuti'Chhakna, vadane
ketui ehakdr' dspadam.
» Vol. i. p. 279.
102 OK SAKSKEIT AND
'' While the divine sage, having delivered this disconrse,
ascended the sky, bearing on his front the radiance of the
moon ; the hero, armed with a bow, uttered an expression of
assent ; and the frown, which found place on his brow wreak*
fnl against the prince of the Ghedis, was as a portent in the
heavens, foretokening destruction of his foes/' 1. 75.
The Mand&kr&nt&, which is the metre in which the Megha-
duta is composed, has pauses subdividing each verse of seven*
teen syllables into three portions, containing four, six, and
seven syllables respectively: viz. two spondees; two pyrrfaiehii
and an iambic ; a cretic, trochee, and spondee. The Hiarini
differs from the preceding in trans[113]posing the first ui<f
second portions of the verse, and making the third consist of
an anapsDst between two iambics. An instance of it will be
subsequently exhibited.
The example of the first-mentioned metre, here inserted, n
from the Meghaduta.^ This elegant little poem, attribated
as before observed to E&lid&sa, and comprising no more than
116 stanzas, supposes a Yaksha or attendant of En vera to
have been separated fix)m a beloved wife by an imprecation
of the god Kuvera, who was irritated by the negligence of
the attendant, in suffering the celestial garden to be trodden
down by Indra's elephant. The distracted demigod, banished
from heaven to the earth, where he takes his abode on a hill
on which R&ma once sojourned,' entreats a passing cloud
convey an affectionate message to his wife.
Manddkrdntd metre,
^ [Often printed in India ; also edited by Gildemeister, and by Wilaon with
a translation into English Terse.]
' Called R&magiri. [It is situated a little to the north of Nagpore.]
PRAKBIT POETET. 103
[Hi] 6. Jdtam vanie^ bhuvana'Vidite, pushkardvartakdndm,
Jdndmi iwdm, prairiti-purushan, kdmaripam, Maghonah.
Tend ^rthiitoan^ ttcayi, vidhirvaidd d&rabandhur, goto 'ham.
Tdehnd moghd varam adhigune, nddhame labdhakdmd.
^* Santaptdndn twam aai Saranan; tat^ payoda^ priydydfi
Bandeiam me hara, dhanapati-kradho'tnileshitasya.
Oantavyd te vasaiir Aldkd ndma yakaheiwardndmj
Vdhyodydfu^athita-Marti'iirai'Chawirikd-dhauta'harmyd.
^^ I know thee sprung from the celebrated race of diluvlan
^^^^"^dsy a minister of Indra, who dost assume any form at
I^^^msare: to thee I become an humble suitor, being separated
^^ the power of fate from m j beloved spouse : a request pre-
*^^"Ted in Tain to the noble is better than successful solicitation
^^ the Tile. Thou art the refuge to the inflamed : therefore
^^^ thou, O cloud, convey to my beloved a message from me
o am banished by the wrath of the god of riches. Thou
nst repair to Alak&, the abode of the lord of Yakshas, a
ce of which the walls are whitened by the moonbeams
m the crescent on the head of Siva, who seems fixed in the
%roTe without.**^ 6 and 7.
The l^ikharin(, also a common metre, distributes seventeen
syllables into portions of six and eleven : an iambic and two
spondees in the one, and a tribrachys, anapaost, dactyl, and
iambic in the other. This is the metre of the ^anda-lahari,^
a hymn of which Hankar&ch&rya is the reputed author, and
which is addressed to i^iv&, the ^akti or enei^y of ^iva or
Mah&deva. It comprises a hundred stanzas of orthodox
poetry held in great estimation by the devout followers of
^ [Often printed in India.]
104 OK 8AK8XBIT llTD
Bankara: the devoiional poetry of the Hmdua doet not usoallj
employ metre of so high an order.
Examples of this measure will be shown in a sabsequent
[116] extract from a work of a veiy different kind : a dramai
by Bhavabh^ti entitled M&Iati-m&dhara.
The M&lini, consisting of fifteen syllables, places two in-
brachys and a spondee in the one subdivided portion of tibe
yerse, and a cretio, trochee, and spondee, in the other. An
instance of it occurs in a former extract from the EJditi^
juniya. The following example of this metre is fixun the
drama above mentioned. The passage is descriptive of a
love-sick maid.
MdUtU metre.
Parimndiia^mrindli'mldnam angam ; pravrittih
Katham apt paritdra-prdrthandbhih hriydau.
Kalayati cha himdnior niehkalankasya lakahmim
Ahhinava'kari'danta'Chchheda'kdntah kapola^.
^^ Her person is weary like bruised threads of a lotus ;
scarcely can the earnest entreaties of her attendants incite
lier to any exertion ; her cheek, pale as new wrought ivory,
emulates the beauty of a spotless moon." 1. 22.
The Praharshim, containing thirteen syllables, separates
a molossus from two pyrrhichii, as many trochees, and a
spondee. An example of it will be shown in a subsequent
extract fit)m Bhavabhuti's drama.
The Iluchir&, with the same number of syllables, disjoins
two iambics frx)m two pyrrhichii, a trochee, and cretic. The
PRAKRIT FOETRT. IQg
opening stansa of the Bhattik&yya^ may serve as an in-
stance of this metre. The poem bearing that title is on the
sabjeot of the adventores of B&ma: it is comprised in
[116] twenty-two cantos. Being composed purposely for
ihe practical illnetration of grammar, it exhibits a studied
Twiety of diction, in which words anomalously inflected are
most frequent. The style, however, is neither obscure nor
inelegant; and the poem is reckoned among the classical
eompositions in the Sanskrit language. The author was
Bharti'ihari : not, as might be supposed from the name, the
eelebnted brother of Yikramdditya ; but a grammarian and
poet, who was son of Sridhara Sw&mi, as we are informed
by one of his scholiasts, Y idy&vinoda.'
JRuchird metre.
Ahhiin nripo, tnbudhO'Sakhah, parantapah,
S'rutdnwUo, Daiaratha iti/uddhrita^,
Gfunair varam, bhuvana'htta-chchhalena, yam
Sandtanah pitaram updgamat swat/am.
**He, whom the eternal chose for a father, that he might
benefit the world [in a human form], was a king, a friend of
tbegods, a discomfiter of foes, and versed in science : his name
^ Dasaratha. He was a prince eminent for his virtues." 1. 1.
' [Printed at Calcutta, in 1828, with the commentaries of Jayamangala and
BbntamaHika.]
* [Hie same account is given by the scholiast Bharatamallika ; but the more
Bmal account is that given by the scholiast Jayamangala, that its author was
Bhat^i, the son of S'ri-sw&min, who, as the last Terse of the poem in some copies
ftsteSy lived in Yallabhi during the reign of King S'rfdharasena, or (as the schol.
lasda) of Karendra, the son of S'ridhanu Lassen (Ind. Alt, iii. 613) places
)m TWgn AJi. 630-646.]
106 ON SANSKRIT AND
The Suyadan& distributes twenty syllables in three portions
of the verse : one containing two spondees and a bacchios ;
the second four short syllables and an anapeest ; the third a
spondee, pyrrhichius, and iambic. The Sragdhard, a Yerj
common metre, differs from it only in the third portion of
the verse, which contains a trochee, spondee, and [117]
bacchios : but here the number of syllables in every sub-
division is equal: m. seven. In all the other instances
above described, the subdivisions of the regular verses were
unequal.
The following sorts of metre, which are usually employed,
have no pauses but at the close of the verse. The Druta-
vilambita contains in each verse two anapeests preceded by
three short syllables and a long one, and followed by an
iambic. Instances of this measure have been already cited i
an extract from the Kir&t&ijuniya. The Sragvinf is measure<^
by a trochee, spondee, and iambic repeated ; as the Bhujangi^
pray&ta is by a similar repetition of an iambic, trochee, aiL<^
spondee. Both sorts of metre are of frequent occurrence fi.jD
classic poems.
The Yasantatilaka, which consists of a spondee, iambi^
tribrachys, dactyl, trochee, and spondee, is one of the metres
in most general use. It commonly occurs as a change from
other metre. But the whole fiflh canto of M&gha's poem ia
in this measure. The Ghaura-panch&sik&, a short poem
before described, is in the same metre, and so is a pathetic
elegy on the death of a beloved wife which occurs in the
Bh&mani-vil&sa,^ a collection of miscellaneous poetry by
Jagann&tha Pandita-r&ja. It begins thus :
Vasantattlaka.
1 [Printed in Galcatta, 1802. Prof. Anfrecht (Bodl. Cat. p. 130) fixM itt
date in the reign of the Emperor Akbar.]
PBAEBIT POBTBT. 107
^^ Since fate, alas ! is become adverse, and the gem of kin-
dred is departed towards heaven, to whom, 0 my soul, [118]
^t thou tell thy grief P and who will appease thy anguish
with refreshing words P ''
The following passage from some Hindi poem, is quoted
in N&r&yana Bhatta^s commentary on the Yritta-ratn&kara
u a specimen of this metre in the K&nyakubja dialect.
*^^%M VI ll ipt ¥^ W^
^ irtfir i;fi! ^ral^ iff wnr ^Vft I
KmidarpcHHipa jdba ten tumha Hnha, Erishna !
Lokqpakdma hama Mn, bahthpira, chhari.
Jau bhetikain viraha^ira nasdu meri.
Tain bhdnti diitipathai^ kahi bdta, Oapi}
^'^^ishqa, since thou didst assume the form of Cupid, I
We neglected worldly affairs, suffering much anxiety. Be-
b?e by thy presence the pain of separation which I endure.
Soeh was the message, with which the Gopi despatched her
^bissadress.^
lY. —Sloka or Vaktra.
The most common Sanskrit metre is the stanza of four
▼enes containing eight syllables each, and denominated ttom
th» name of the class, Anushtubh. Several species of it have
ken described. Two very simple kinds of it occur, consisting
of iambic, or trochaic feet exclusively:' [H^] ^^^ ^^^ ^^
' Short Towelt, when final, are bo faintly sonnded, that they are UBually omitted
a writing the proTincial langnagee of India in Roman character. Bat Uiey hare
beem hone prcwarred at tiie doee of words ; heing necessary, as in Sanskrit, for
csrreetly eihihiting the metre.
* The flret tenned Pram&^f, the other Sam&nL Considered as a species of
108 ON SANSKRIT AND
included in one general designation.^ Bat several analogous
species are comprehended under the denomination of Yaktra.
Here the laws of the metre, leaving only the first and eighth
syllables indeterminate, require either a baochias or an am^-
brachys' before the eighth syllable, and forbid an anapsest or
tribrachys after the first; as also in the second and jfouth
verses of the stanza, an amphimacer. A variety of this metro
introduces a tribrachys before the eighth syllable in the first
and third verses, and a bacchius in the second and fi^urtL'
And another sort,^ which admits five varieties, requires the
penultimate syllable to be short in the second and fourth
verses ; and introduces before the eighth syllable of the first
and third verses, a dactyl, anapeost, tribrachys, amphimacer,
or molossus.
The metre which is most in use, is one of the species now
described, in which the number of syllables is determinate
(m. eight), but the quantity variable. K&lid&sa appropriates
to this metre the term Sloka (abbreviated from Anushtubla^
Sloka) ; and directs, that the fifth syllable of each verse b^
short, the sixth long, and the seventh alternately long an^=
short. The mythological poems under the title of Pur&na^
and the metrical treatises on law and other sciences, ai^-«(
almost entirely composed in this easy verse ; with a sparim.|g'
intermixture of other analogous sorts, and with the still rarer
introduction of other kinds of metre. [120] The varieties of
the Anushtubh Sloka which most frequently occur, make the
fifth, sixth, and seventh syllables of the first and third versa
all long or all short ; or else the fifth long with the sixth and
seventh short. Thus varied, it is much used by the best
uniform metre, the first is also named Nagaswartipiii^i or Matallik&, and the
second is denominated MallikL There is also a regular measure which altenatei
trochees and iamhics, and is denominated M&i^avak&krl4& : and another, named
Chitrapad&, consisting of two dactyls and a spondee.
1 Vit4na,
' The metre is named Pathy& when an amphibrachys is introduced in ^
second and fourth yerses ; some say in the first and third.
' Obapal&. ^ yipul&.
PBiCKEIT POETRY. 109
poets. K&lid&sa has employed it in the second and sixth
cantos of his poem entitled Knmira-sambhavay and in the
fiist, fourth, and several others of the Baghuvansa. The
second and nineteenth cantos of M&gha's poem are in this
metre, and so is the eleventh of the Kir&t&ijnniya.
The examples here subjoined are from M&gha^s poem. One
pissage is part of a speech of Balar&ma to Krishna, urging
Urn to the immediate commencement of hostilities against
^up&Ia: the other is extracted from Uddhava's reply, dis-^
loading S^fish^a from instant war, and advising his previous
eompliance with Yudhishthira's invitation to assist at a
vAeam sacrifice which the king was on the point of celebrating
•i Indraprastha.
ffTTWipl vnn tf TTiT ^w^ ^ w. I
fii^TRRrfHfT^ t'RPJRt ^^ W. B 8$ B
^Rjfw: ^if^w ^Tnif ^?M^ B 88 B
110 ON 8AN8KBIT AHD
Balar&ma speaka. . ** A proved enemy, and a tried fnc
are mcMit to be rsgarded ; for they are known by their actio
otbefs, preioined to be so, from temper or aflinity, may
found in the end to be friend or foe. Peace may be mi
tained with a natural enemy, who confers benefits ; not wil
presumptive friend, who commits outrages; kindness or inji
is the proper test of both. The king of the CShedis
ofiended, O Hari, by the seizure of Rukmini ; for womas
the chief cause, that the tree of discord takes root. Wl
thou wert engaged in subduing the offspring of the earth
besieged this city, as darkness encircles the skirts of M
while the sun is remote. To hint, that he ravished [122]
wife of Yabhru is enough : the narration of crimes is too
gustfril. Thus aggrieved by thee, and having much injc
us, the son of Srutasravas is an enemy demonstrated by de
The man who is negligent, while an enraged foe medit
aggressions, sleeps in the wind with fire under his arm. 'W
forbearing man, who would cheerfully dissemble a slight
single injury, can patiently endure repeated wrongs?
other times, patience becomes a man ; and pudency, a worn
but valour befits the insulted warrior ; as modesty should
laid aside by a woman in the nuptial bed. Whoever 1
(may none so live!) tortured by the pain of insults from
enemy, would that he had never been bom, vainly giving
mother anguish. Dust, which, kicked by the foot of
traveller, rises and settles on his head, is less contempt
than the dastard, who is contented under wrongs.^ 2. 36—
Uddhava, in reply, addressed to Krishna :
FRAXEIT POBTET. HI
waft J4iH€iwW flro^ 'RfSpifTt i ^og n
fwt'trwv: iltiiHOfl*! inpTTfiifif 1
[123] ^Bfl^ inpfpriflr ^^ft^H^f^nr^^ I
**The jaat king and his kinsmen, reiving on thee for an
^B^iate capable of sustaining the heaviest burden, are willing
to undertake the task of a solemn sacrifice. Even to enemies,
who court them, the magnanimous show kindness ; as rivers
^DTey to the ocean the rival torrents from the mountains,
^olence, used against foes by the strong, is at length success-
"'i ; but friends, once offended, are not easily reconciled even
^J compliances. Thou thinkest, that the slaughter of the
^ will most gratify the inhabitants of heaven ; but far better
^ it to present offerings, which are desired by the deities who
(ieroar oblations. What the virtuous offer, under the name
of ambrosia, in flames, whose tongues are holy prayers, was
the splendid ornament of the ocean churned by the mountain
Mandara.^ The promise made by thee to thy father^s vener-
able sister, to forgive her son a hundred offences, should be
strictly observed. Let the intellect of a good man be sharp
without wounding; let his actions be vigorous, but concili-
1 [Bather 'prayen are the amfita, — the churned ocean \b rhetoric/]
llj} ON SAireKEIT AND
atory ; let his mind be warm, without infiamiiig : snd let his
word, when he speaks, be rigidly maintained. Before the
appointed hour, even thou art not able to destroy the tyrant,
on whom thyself conferred that boon ; no more than the son
can prematurely close the day, which he himself enlightens.''
2. 103—110.
[124] V. — Compound metre.
Instances of compound metre have been already exhibited
under the designation of XJpaj&ti, consisting of two kinds of
simple metre variously combined : two of these combinations
are repeated under the head of half equal metre, with the
contrasted metre of ^khy&naki and Yiparit&khy&naki. Other
species of metre belonging to this class are in use among
eminent poets: particularly the Pu8hpit&gr& and AparavaktHL^
In the first, both verses are terminated by two trochees and a
spondee, and begin with four short syllables, one verse intec
posing a pyrrhichius, and the other a dactyl. In the
species, both verses are terminated by three iambics,
begin like the preceding with four short syllables ; but a
verse interposes a single short syllable, and the other a troch
Examples of the first of these mixed measures are v^t*
common. One instance has been already exhibited in a qu(>t&
tion from the first canto of Bh&ravi^s poem of Arjuna and ibe
mountaineer. The whole tenth canto of the same poem, and
the seventh of M6gha's death of Sisup&la, are in this mir^
metre. The second is less common : but an instance occurs
in the eighteenth canto of the Kir&t&rjuniya.
The close of the ninth canto of K&Iid&sa's Raghuvansa,
exhibiting a variety of metre, in which two of the species now
mentioned are included, is here cited, for the sake of these
and other species which have been before described. The
subject is Dasaratha's hunt, in which he slew the hermit^s
son : a story well known to the readers of the B&m&yana.
1 [Apayaktra appean to be the more correct form.]
PBAKBIT FOETST.
113
^[^TT 'UPC ^'TJ^ ITtMt I ^8 I
*l*lU«l4J^l HMfVlllf f
[136] ^11% i}^3T4^1iir ff
hiHif^^:^
0 n
TOL. III. [bSSATS II.]
8
114 ON SANSKRIT AND
TTt ^TffT WW Win* Tinrn tji^-
[127] 'Vlll^t|4niq ^wfM ^*^
PEAKRIT POETRY. 115
^■» • ^^ ^■» ^> ^ ^
[128] ^rnt^nt ^^ijfMViMfj^fn.
*^Tha9 did the chase, like an artful mistress, allure the king,
forgetful of all other business, and leaving to his ministers
the burthen of the state, while his passion grew by indulgence.
^^The king, without his retinue, passed the night in some
sequestered spot, reposing on a bed of leaves and blossoms,
^nd enlightened by the flame of wild herbs. At dawn, being
awakened by the flapping of his elephant's ears in place of
the royal drums, he delighted in listening to the sweet and
auspicious tones of chirping birds.
*^ One day, pursuing an antelope, and outstripping his at-
^^ndants^ he arrived, with his horse foaming with fatigue, on
the banks of the Tamas&, a stream frequented by the devout.
'& its waters a deep sound, caused by the flailing of a vase,
^ mistaken by the king for the grumbling of an elephant,
and he directed an arrow towards the spot whence the sound
ptt)ceeded. By this forbidden act^ Dasaratha transgressed:
''^r even the wise, when blinded by passion, deviate into the
pathless waste. ' Ah father ! ' was the piteous cry which
•
^ed: and the king, anxious, sought its cause among the
'^. He found the vase, and near it a hermit's son pierced
V his arrow, and he stood amazed as if internally wounded.
The king, of glorious lineage, who had already alighted from
his horse, eagerly inquired the parentage of the youth ; who,
^ The royal and military tribe is prohibited from killing elephants unless in
bittle.
116 ON SANSKRIT AND
resting on the vase, with feeble accents said 'he was the
son of a hermit, but no priest.' Instructed by him, the king
conveyed the wounded youth to his blind parents: and to
them, as they approached [129] their only son, he related his
mistaken deed. The unhappy pair, lamenting, conjured the
king to draw the arrow from the breast of their wounded son.
The youth was dead. The aged hermit, ratifying his curse
with tears instead of water for a libation, pronounced this
imprecation on the king: 'In thy extreme age thou shidt
reach thy fated time, with grief like mine for a beloved son.'
While he spoke, as it were a serpent assailing first and then
discharging fatal venom,^ Kausalya^s lord,' conscious of the
first offence, addressed him thus : ^ Thy curse has fiiUen like
a boon on me, who have not seen the beauteous countenance
of offspring ; as fire, fed with fuel, fertilizes the soil which it
bums/ The king then said, ' For me, who merciless deserve
death at thy hands, what are thy commands?^ The holy
hermit asked fuel for the funeral pile; he and his wife resolving
to follow their son in death. The king, whose attendants
were now arrived, promptly fulfilled his command, and re-
mained dejected, bearing with him the hermit^s curse, a cause
of his future destruction, as the ocean embraces the devouring
fire. Again the king addressed him. 'Wise hermit! what
shall this shameless criminal, who deserves death from thee, now
perform P' He desired the funeral flame to be duly lighted:
and the king presented the fire for him, and his wife and son.
" The chief of the race of Raghu, attended by his army,
now returned to his palace, dejected, bearing in his mind the
heavy imprecation of the saint, as the ocean holds within itself
the fire of destruction." 9. 74—89.3
This extract exhibits, besides two stanzas of Pushpit^igr&*
^ [MalUn&tha explains it, '^like a serpent discharging his renom, haring been
first attacked (sc. by being trodden on)."] * [Rather **the lord of Kos'ak."]
3 [9. 69-82 in the Calcutta and Stenzler's edition. Neither has the two last
yerbcs, which seem evidently interpolated.] ^ 76 and 76,
PRAKBIT POETRY. 117
and as many of Sundarl metre,^ both belonging to the present
head, and one, of which an example was promised [130] in
this plaee,' seyeral others which have been before exemplified,'
and two which are less common.^
A singnlar species of variable metre is mentioned by writers
on prosody, who describe it as a stanza in which the verses
increase in arithmetical progression. In the instance exhibited
by them the four verses of the stanza increase regnlarly from
eight to twenty syllables. Yarieties of it are noticed in which
the progression is not regular, the short verse exchanging
places with the second, third, or fourth. The quantity of the
syllables is in general indeterminate ; but varieties are stated
in which the verse consists of short syllables, either ending or
beginning with a spondee, or both ending and beginning with
spondees.
A class of metre which admits an inordinate length of the
▼erae, is known under the general designation of Dandaka.
The verse may consist of any number of syllables, from twenty-
seven to nine hundred and ninety-nine ; and the specific name
▼aries accordingly.^ The construction of the metre requires
that the first six syllables be short, and the remainder of the
terse be composed of cretic feet ; or, instead of the cretic foot,
the baochius. These two kinds of metre are distinguished by
difierent names. A verse consisting of any number of anapeests
within the limitation above mentioned, is also comprehended
under this general designation ; as are verses of similar length
consisting exclusively of iambic or trochaic feet. They have
their peculiar denominations.
Examples of these extravagantly long verses are to be [131]
found in the works of the poet V&na. It is unnecessary to
1 77 and 79, most properly the last.
* Sw&gaU 78.
> Yaaantatilaka 81—87 and Upendrayajra 88. Hucbir& 89.
« Manjabh&shi^i 74 (P. T. D. 3 I.) and MattamaytSra 80 (2 S+T. I. D. S.)
* For example, Arna which comprises ten feet ; Arnava eleven ; Vydla
twelTe ; Jiinkta nineteen, etc
118 ON SANSKRIT AND
insert any specimen of them in this place, as an example will
occur in a subsequent quotation from Bbavabhiiti's drama.
That class of metre, which is termed half equal, because
the alternate verses are alike, comprises various sorts, which
appear to be compounded of two simple kinds with an appro-
priate number of syllables of a determinate quantity.
Another class, in which every verse of the stanza is different,
appears more complex. But, here also, the quantity as well
as the number of syllables being regulated, the stanza is in
fact composed of four kinds of uniform metre.
The most common metre of this class is that called TTdgati.
Here the number of syllables in each verse, as well as their
quantity, differs; the first verse comprising an anapaest, iambic,
tribrachys, and trochee ; the second, a tribrachys and anapaest
with two iambics ; the third, a trochee, tribrachys, and two
anapsDsts ; ^ and the fourth, an anapaest, iambic, and pyrriii-
chius with three iambics.
The twelfth canto of the Kir&t&rjuniya is in this metre ;
and so is the fifteenth canto of M&gha's epic poem. It begins
thus :
" But the king of the Chedis was impatient of the honours
which the son of P&ndu commanded to be shown in that
assembly to the foe of Madhu ; for the mind of the proud iB
envious of the prosperity of others."
[132] Other kinds of metre, in which every verse of the
stanza differs in the number and quantity of syllables, are
comprehended under the general name of 6&th& ; under which
also some writers on prosody * include any sort of metre not
described by Pingala, or not distinguished by a specific appel-
^ Or the third verse may consist of a trochee and dactyl, with two anapeests ;
or of two trochees, with two anapaests ; and the metre is denominated, in the
iii-st instance, Saurahhaka ; in the second, Laliid,
' Hal&yudha and N&r&yai^a-t&ra.
PRAKEIT POETEY. 119
lation. The same denomination is applicable also to stanzas
consistbg of any number of verses other than four.^ An
instance of a stanza of six verses has been remarked in the
Mahabh&rata, and another example occurs at the beginning of
H&gha's poem.'
^^
Dundhd'hritdtrndy Mm ayam divdkaro ?
Vidhiimchrochih^ Mm ayam hutdianah f
Oatan tiraichinam aniiru-sdratlieh.
m
Prasiddham iirdhwqfwalanam havirbhujah.
Patatyadho dhdma-viadri sarvatah
Kim etad ? itydkulam ikshitam janaih.
[133] N&rada descending from the heavens to visit Krishna,
is thus described :
^*4s this the sun self-parted into two orbsP Is it fire
sMning with light divested of smoke P The motion of the
lominary whose charioteer has no legs, is distinguished by its
curvature ; the ascent of fiame is a known property of fire.
I^iieo what is this, which descends diffusing light around?''
Thus was the sight contemplated with wonder by the people/''
Mdgha 1. 2.
' Dirfrkara on the Yyitta-ratn&kara.
' It if died bj DiT&kara Bhatta as an instance of a stanza of six. Yet the
sdtoliastB of the poem omit the two first verses and read the stanza as a tetrastich,
(hie commentator, however, does remark, that copies of the poem exhibit the
additional Tersee; and another commentator has joined them with two more
renef in a separate stanza.
120 ON SANSKRIT AND
VI. — Prose; and Verse mixed with Prase.
I follow the example of Sanskrit writers on prosody, in pro-
ceeding to notice the different species of prose. They dis-
criminate three, and even four sorts, under distinct names.
1st. Simple prose, admitting no compound terms. It is de-
nominated Muktaka. This is little used in polished compo-
sitions ; unless in the familiar dialogue of dramas. It must
undoubtedly have been the colloquial style at the period when
Sanakrit was a spoken language. 2nd. Prose, in which com-
pound terms are sparingly admitted. It is called Kulaka.
This and the preceding sort are by some considered as
varieties of a single species named Chungiiki. It is of course
a common style of composition; and when polished, is the
most elegant as it is the chastest. But it does not command
the admiration of Hindu readers. 3rd. Prose, abounding in
compound words. It bears the appellation of XJtkalik&-pr&ya.
Examples of it exhibit compounds of the most inordinate
length: and a single word exceeding a hundred syllables is
not unprecedented. This extravagant style of composition,
being suitable to the taste of the Indian learned, is common
in the most elaborate works of their favourite authors. 4th.
Prose, modulated so as frequently to exhibit portions of verse.
It is named Yrittagandhi. It will occur without study, and.
even [134] against design, in elevated compositions, and may
be expected in the works of the best writers.
Some of the most elegant and highly wrought works m
prose are reckoned among poems, as already intimated, in like
manner as the *' T^l^maque " of F^n^lon and " Tod Abels "
of Gessner. The most celebrated are the Y&savadatt& of
Subandhu, the Dasa-kumara of Dandi, and the K&dambari
of V4ga.i
^ [In p. 89 Colebrooke spells tbe name 6&1;^l. Dr. Hall, in the prefiEUM to
his edition of tbe y&BaTadatt&, has shown that Bd^a liyed at the Court of
Harshavardhana, King of Kanauj, whose history is partly giyen by the Chinese
trayeller Hiouen Thsang. He died a.d. 650. Some of the facts giren by
PRAKEIT POBTEY. 121
The first of these is a short .romance, of which the story
is aimply this.^ Kandarpaketu, a young and yaliant prince,
son of Chmt&ma^i kmg of Eusnmapura,' saw in a dream a
beaatifiil maiden, of whom he became desperately enamoured.
Impressed with the belief, that a person, such as seen by him
in his dream, had a real existence, he resolves to travel in
ieardi of her, and departs, attended only by his confidant
Makaranda. While reposing under a tree in a forest at the
foot of the Yindhya mountains, where they halted, Makaranda
oferbears two birds conversing, and firom their discourse he
leuns that the princess Y&savadattd, having rejected all the
Buton who had been assembled by the king her father for her
to make choice of a husband, had seen Kandarpaketu in a
dnam, in which she had even dreamt his name. Her con-
fi<la]it, Tam&lik&, sent by her in search of the prince, was
^▼ed in the same fi>re8t, and is discovered there by Maka-
luida. She delivers to the prince a letter from the princess,
wd conducts him to the king's palace. He obtains firom the
prinoess the avowal of her love ; and her confidant, Eal&vatf ,
^vesb to the prince the violence of her passion.
The lovers depart together : but, passing through the [135]
'oreet, he loses her in the night. After long and unsuccessful
Bcansh, in the course of which he reaches the shore of the sea,
the prince, grown desperate through grief, resolves on death.
But at the moment when he was about to cast himself into the
^ he hears a voice from heaven, which promises to him the
'^Teiy of his mistress, and indicates the means. After
^e time, Kandarpaketu finds a marble statue, the precise
't^omblance of Y&savadatt&. It proves to be her ; and she
^fntu Thstng liare been Oliutrated by Dr. Hall, from the Harsha-charitra,
*^ Bftpa wrote to celebrate hia patron's acbieTementa. The poet mentions
^ 'TteTidattfc ' in hia introduction, as also the Yrihatkathk. (Cf. also B. A. S.
'<«ii. 1862, pp. 1-18).]
' [For a fuller account of the plot, see Dr. Hall's introduction to his edition in
^BibUotiiecalndica.]
' Same with P&tab'pura or P&^liputra ; the ancient Palibothra, now Patna.
^ Ees., Tol. It., p. 11. [Kusumapura was the city of the heroine's father.]
122 ON SANSKEIT AND
quits her marble form and regains animation. She recounts
the circumstances under which she was transformed into stone.
Having thus fortunately recovered his beloved princess, the
prince proceeds to Iiis city, where they pass many years in
uninterrupted happiness.
This story, told in elegant language, and intermixed with
many flowery descriptions in a poetical style, is the Y4sa-
vadattd of Subandhu. There is an allusion, however, in
Bhavabhuti's drama,^ to another tale, of Y&savadatt&'s having
been promised by her father to the king Sanjaya, and giving
herself in marriage to XJdayana. I am unable to reconcile
this contradiction otherwise than by admitting an identity of
name and difference of story. But no other trace has been
yet found* of the story to which Bhavabhuti has alluded.
In the work above described, as in various compositions of
the same kind, the occasional introduction of a stanza, or ev^
several, either in the preface or in the body of the woric, does
not take them out of the class of prose. But other worits
exist, in which more frequent introduction of verse makes <f
these a class apart. It bears the name of Champu : and of
this kind is the Nala-champu of Trivikrama before mentioned..
This style of composition is not [136] without example in
European literature. The '^ Voyage de Bachaumont et de la
Ciiapelle,^ which is the most known, if not tlie first instance
of it in French, has found imitators in that and in other
languages. The Sanskrit inventor of it has been equally
fortunate; aud a numerous list may be collected of works
expressly entitled Champu.^
The Indian dramas are also instances of the mixture of
prose and verse; and, as already mentioned, they likewise
intermixed a variety of dialects. Our own language exhibits
^ M&lati M&dhava. Act 2nd. [*'V&8aTadatt& gave bereelf to XJdayana, although
8he hod been bestowed by her father on King Sanjaya."]
3 [The yersion giyen in the Eath&Barits&gara does not agree with BhaTabhdti's
allusion.]
3 As the Npsinha-champCi, Gangk-champCi, Vrind&vana-champ6y etc.
PKAKEIT POETRY. 123
too many instances of the first to render it necessary to cite
any example in explanation of the transition from verse to
prose. In regard to mixture of languages, the Italian theatre
presents instances quite parallel in the comedies of Angelo
Beolco snmamed Buzanti :^ with this difference, however, that
the dramas of Buzanti and his imitators are rustic farces,
while the Indian dramatists intermingle various dialects in
tlieir serious compositions.
Notwithstanding this defect, which may indeed be easily
removed by reading the Pr&krit speeches in a Sanskrit ver-
aon, the theatre of the Hindus is the most pleasing part of
their polite literature, and the best suited to the European
taste.' The reason probably is, that authors are restrained
more within the bounds of poetic probability when composing
for exhibition before an audience, than in writing for private
pemsal or even for public recital.
The S'akuntal& by K&lid&sa, which certainly is no un-
ia7oiind>le specimen of the Indian theatre, will sufficiently
JQstify what has been here asserted. I shall conclude this
<ssay with a ^short extract from Bhavabhuti's ^ unrivalled
<l^ma entitled M&lati-madhava; prefixing a concise argu-
ment of the play, the fable of which is of pure invention.
[137] * Bh&rivasu, minister of the king of Padm&vati, and
IWar&ta in the service of the king of Yidarbha, had agreed,
^hen their children were yet infants, to cement a long sub-
Qsting friendship, by the intermarriage of M&lati, daughter of
tbe first, with M&dhava, son of the latter. The king having
indicated an intention to propose a match between Bhurivasu''s
daoghter and his own favourite I^andana, who was both old
uid ugly, the minister is apprehensive of giving offence to the
bug by refusing the match; and the two friends concert a
' VTaiker'g Memoir on Italian Tragedy.
* [See Prof. Wilson's Select Speeimens of the Hindu Theatre, with the introduc-
toij treatifle on their dramatic system.]
* [BhsTabhtiti flourished at the court of Yas'oTarman, who reigned at Kanauj
about A.D. 720.]
124 ON SANSKRIT AND
plan with an old priesteis, who has their confidence, to throw
the young people in each other^s way, and to connive at a
stolen marriage. In porsnance of this scheme, M&dhava is
sent to finish his studies at the city of Padm&vati, under the
care of the old priestess E&mandakf. By her contrivance,
and with the aid of M&latf's foster sister Lavangik&« the
young people meet and become mutually enamoured. It is
at this period of the story, immediately after their first inter-
view, that the play opens. The first scene, which is between
the old priestess and her female pupil Avalokit&, in a verj
natural manner introduces an intimation of the previous
events, and prepares the appearance of other characters, and
particularly a former pupil of the same priestess named Saudi-
minf , who has now arrived at supernatural power by religious
austerities ; a circumstance which her successor Avalokiti has
learnt from Eapdlakundald, the female pupil of a tremendous
magician, Aghoraghai^ta, who frequents the temple of the
dreadful goddess near the cemetery of the city.
' The business of the play commences ; and M&dhava, his
companion Makaranda, and servant Kalahansa, appear upon
the scene. M&dhava relates the circumstances of the inter>
view with M&lati, and acknowledges himself deeply smitten.
His attendant produces a picture [138] which M&lati had
drawn of M&dhava, and which had come into his hands frooM.
one of her female attendants. In return M&dhava delineates
the likeness of M&lat( on the same tablet, and writes unddi*
it an impassioned stanza. It is restored ; and being in the
sequel brought back to Malati, their mutual passion, en-
couraged by their respective confidants, is naturally increased.
This incident furnishes matter for several scenes. Meantime^
the king had made the long-expected demand ; and the minister
has returned an answer that 'Hhe king may dispose of his
daughter as he pleases." The intelligence reaching the loven
throws them into despair. Another interview in a public
garden takes place by the contrivance of K&mandaki. At
PRAKRIT POETRY. 125
this moment a cry of terror announces that a tremendous tiger
hB issued from the temple of jSiva : an instant after, Nan-
daoft's youthful sister, Madayantik&, is reported to be in
imminent danger. Then M&dhava^s companion^ Makaranda,
is seen rushing to her rescue. He has killed the tiger. He
is himself wounded. This passes behind the scenes. Mada-
juiiki, sayed by the valour of Makaranda, appears on the
stage. The gallant youth is brought in insensible. By the
cue of the women he reyives : and Madayantik&, of course,
Uls in loye with her deliyerer. The preparations for M&lati'^s
wedding with Nandana are announced. The women are called
sway. M&dhaya in despair resolves to sell his living flesh
bt fi)od to the ghosts and malignant spirits, as his only
Rsonree to purchase the accomplishment of his wish. He
SMotdingly goes at night to the cemetery. Previous to his
appearance there, Kap&lakundald, in a short soliloquy, has
liinted the magician's design of offering a human sacrifice at
the shrine of the dreadful goddess, and selecting a beautiful
woman for the victim. M&dhava appears as a vendor of
human flesh ; offering, but in vain, [139] to the ghosts and
<)6mons the flesh off his limbs as the purchase of the accom-
plishment of his wish. He hears a cry of distress and thinks
he reeognizes the voice of M&lati. The scene opens, and
she is discovered dressed as a victim, and the magician and
Aoiceress preparing for the sacrifice. They proceed to their
dieadfnl preparatives. M&dhava rushes forward to her rescue:
she flies to his arms. Voices are heard as of persons in search
ofM&IatL M&dhava, placing her in safety, encounters the
nagidan. They quit the stage fighting. The event of the
combat is announced by the sorceress, who vows vengeance
against M&dhava for slaying the magician, her preceptor.'
The &ble of the play would have been perhaps more
pidieiously arranged if this very theatrical situation had been
miroduced nearer to the close of the drama. Bhavabhuti
^ placed it so early as the fifth act. The remaining five
(for the play is in ten acts) have less interest.
126 05 SANSEBIT AND
^ M&lati, who had been stolen by tlie magician, while asleep,
being now restored to her friends, the preparations for her
wedding with Nandana are eontinued. By contrivance of the
old priestess, who advieed that she should put on her wedding
dress at a particular temple, Makaranda assumes that dress,
and is carried in procession, in place of M&Iati, to the house
of Nandana. Disgusted with the masculine appearance of the
pretended bride, and offended by the rude reception given to
faim, Nandana, to have no further communication with his
bride, vows and consigns her to his sister'^s care. This, of
course, produces an interview between the lovers, in which
Makaranda discovers himself to his mistress, and she consents
to accompany him to the place of M&Iati's concealment. The
friends accordingly assemble at the [140] garden of the tem-
ple: but the sorceress, Eap&Iakundald, watches an opportunity
when M&lati is unprotected, and carries her off in a flying car^.
The distress of her lover and friends is well depicted : an<
when reduced to despair, being hopeless of recovering hei^_
they are happily relieved by the arrival of Saud&minf, th ^
former pupil of the priestess. She has rescued M&lati frorm
the hands of the sorceress, and now restores her to her despaii^r-
ing lover. The play concludes with a double wedding.'
From this sketch of the story it will be readily perceived,
that the subject is not ill suited to the stage: and rndki^mig
allowance for the belief of the Hindus in magic and super-
natural powers, attainable by worship of evil beings as well
as of beneficent deities, the story would not even carry the
appearance of improbability to an Indian audience. Setting*
aside this consideration, it is certainly conducted with art;
and notwithstanding some defects in the fable, the interest
upon the whole is not ill preserved. The incidents are
striking; the intrigue well managed. As to the style, it
is of the highest order of Sanskrit composition; and the
poetry, according to the Indian taste, is beautiful.
I shall now close this essay with the promised extract from
PRAKRIT POETRY.
127
the plftj here described. It contains an example, among other
kinds of metre, of the Dandaka or long stanza, and is selected
more on this account than as a fair specimen of the drama.
This disadvantage attends all the quotations of the present
essay. To which another may be added: that of a prose
translation, which neyer conveys a just notion of the original
Terse.
[141] Extract from Mdlati-rnddham. Act 5.
MMava etmiinuet to wander in the cemetery.
'^ Human flesh to be sold: un wounded, real flesh from the
members of a man. Take it. Take it." ^
*How rapidly the Pais&chas flee, quitting their terrific
foniis. Alas ! the weakness of these beings.'
Ei walks about,
*The road of this cemetery is involved in darkness. Here
is before me ^' the river that bounds it ; and tremendous is
the roaring of the stream, breaking away the bank, while its
waters are embarrassed among the fragments of skulls, and its
shores resound horribly with the howling of shakals and the
cry of owls screeching amidst the contiguous woods."*
^^kinithe teenet,
*Ah! unpi tying father, the person whom thou wouldst make
bstrument of conciliating the king's mind, now perishes.''
UAnH., listening tcith anxiety,"] "I hear a sound [142]
> A'l
S'&id6U.Tikrf4ita.
128 ON SANSKRIT AND
piercing as the eaglets orj, and penetrating my soul as m Toio
but too well known. My heart feels rent within me; nj
limbs fail ; I can scarcely stand. What means thisP^^
^^ That piteous sound issued from the temple of Sar&li
Is it not the resort of the wicked P a place for such deeds 7^
Be it what it may, I will look.''
ff0 walks round.
The scene opens; and discovers KopdUkwi^4'ald and Afhoraghm^fOf en§a§§d hk
worshipping the idol : and Mdlati dressed as a vietim,
Mal.] 'Ah unpitying father! the person whom thoa
wouldst make the instrument of conciliating the king's mind,
now perishes. Ah fond mother! thou too art slain by the
evil sport of fate. Ah venerable priestess! who lived but fer
M&lati, whose every effort was for my prosperity, thou hast
been taught by thy fondness a lasting [143] sorrow. Ah
gentle Lavangikd! I have been shown to thee but as in a
dream.' '
Madh.] * Surely it is she. Then I find her living.'
KapalakundalA tcarahipping the idol Kar£l&.] ' I bow t»
thee, divine Ch&mui;^d&.'
1 Mand&kr&nUL.
3 Vaktra.
fq^f I^Wcl ^ 4|||«l4|f«ISI«lt <!^f 1(H I
3 The Pr&krit original of this paasage, though prose, is too beaatiftil to be
omitted.
* TLk t&da nikkara^a ! eso d&^i i^enda-chitt&r&hobaara^an ja^o bibijjai. HI
amba si^ehamaa-hiae ! tumam pi hadCisi debba-dubbilaside^a. H& M&ladiiiia&-
jiTide, mama kall&^a-s&hanekka-suha-saala-bb&b&Fe, bha&Tadi! ohirana j&n&bid&B
dukkham sii^ehe^a. Rk pi'asahi LaTangi'c ! siTi^a-^rasara-metta-danBa^k
de sambuttl.'
PRAKRIT POETRY.
129
**I rerere thy sport, which delights the happy court of
SiTa, while the glohe of the earth, sinking under the weight
of thy stamping foot, depresses the shell of the tortoise and
shakes one portion of the universe, whence the ocean retires
within a deep ahyss that rivals hell/' ^
'^ May thy vehement dance contribute to our success and
Bstisfiiction ; amidst the praise of attendant spirits, astonished
Vy the loud laugh issuing from thy necklace of heads which
He animated by the immortalizing liquid that drops from the
noon in thy crest, fractured by the nails of the elephant's
bide round thy waist, swinging to the violence of thy gestures :
whSe mountains are overthrown by the jerk of thy arm,
terrible for the flashes of empoisoned flame which issue from
tbe expanded heads of hissing serpents closely entwined. The
t^ons of space meantime are contracted, as within a circle
nufflked by a flaming brand, by the roll[144]ing of thy head
terrific for the wide flame of thy eye red as raging fire. The
>tar8 are scattered by the flag that waves at the extremity of
the fast skeleton which thou bearest. And the three-eyed
S^ emits in the close embrace of Gauri, frightened by the
cries of ghosts and spirits triumphant." *
* S'faddUTikrIditt.
' The Qriginal itanza Ib in Da^^&ka metre, of the species denominated Prachita
^ Sinhafikr&nta. The Terse contains eighteen feet (2 Tr. 16 C.) or fifty-four
7^Mei,and the stanza comprises 216 syllables.
i^iMi^fit9^r^ia^4<ini4|flmn<^-
TOL. III. [B88AT8 n.]
9
130
ON SANSKBIT AND
They both bow be/on the idol.
Madh.] ' Ah I what neglect/
^^ The timid maid, clad as a victim in clothes and garlands
stained with a sangaine dye, and exposed to the view [145]
of these wicked and accnrseid magicians, like a &wn before
wolves, is in the jaws of death ; unhappy daughter of the
happy Bhurivasu. Alas I that such should be the relenden
course of fate." ^
Kapal.] '^ Now, pretty maid, think on him who was thy
beloved. Gruel death hastens towards thee.*^ '
MAiiATi.] 'Beloved M&dhava! remember me when I am
gone. That person is not dead who is cherished in the
memory of a lover.'
Kapal.] 'Ah! enamoured of M&dhava she will beeome
a fiuthful dove. However that be, no time should be lost.^
AoHOR. lifting the sward.'} ^' Divine Ch&mu^d& ! aooept this
victim vowed in prayer and now offered to thee.'' '
1 S'&rdaiayikri4ita.
IT f^rareHtTORVi^W' ^'^ t^: wnr : i
' Praharehi^i.
3 Praharshi^i.
^ wt w^^fii <iM* wtph: I
PRAKRIT POETRY. 131
[146] Madh. rushing forward^ raises Mdlati in his arms.']
Wicked magician ! thou art slain.'
Kapal.] ^ Avaant villain. Art thou not so P '
Mal.] *' Save me, prince ! ' She embraces Mddham.
Madh.] ^ Fear nothing. '* Thy friend is before thee, who
bmishing terror in the moment of death, has proved his
ifieetion by the efforts of despair. Cease thy trembling.
This wicked wretch shall soon feel the retribution of his
crime on his own head." ' ^
AoHOB.] * Ah ! who is he that dares to interrupt us P '
£apal.] ^ Venerable Sir ! he is her lover ; he is M&dhava,
son of K&mandaki''s friend, and a vendor of human flesh.'
Madh. in tearsJ] ^ How is this P auspicious maid ! '
Mal. mghing.] ^ I know not. Prince ! I was sleeping on the
terrace. I awoke here. But how came you in this place! '
Uadh. blushing.] ''Urged by the eager wish that I may
k Uessed with thy hand, I came to this abode of death to sell
myself to the ghosts. I heard thy weeping. I came hither."^
[147] Mal.] 'Alas! for my sake wert thou wandering re-
gardless of thyself ! '
Madh.] ' Indeed, it is an opportune chance.**
** Having happily saved my beloved from the sword of this
murderer, like the moon'^s orb from the mouth of devouring
» Haripi.
* Tasantatilaka.
132 OK SANSEBIT AND
B&hu, how is my mind distracted with donbt, melted with
pity, agitated with wonder, inflamed with anger, and boisiing
with joy." *
AoHOR.] ^ Ah ! thou Br&hman boy I ** Like a stag drawn
by pity for his doe, whom a tiger has seized, thou seekest ihy
own destmction, approaching me engaged in the worship of
this place of human sacrifice. Wretch! I [148] will first
gratify the great mother of beings with thy Uood flowing finm
a headless tnmk.^' ^ '
Madh.] ' Thou worst of sinful wretches ! ** How oooldst
thou attempt to depriye the triple world of its rarest gem, and
the universe of its greatest excellence, to bereaTe the people of
light, to drive the kindred to desperation, to humble love, to
make vision vain, and render the world a miserable waste !^^
*• Ah wicked wretch I *' Hast thou dared to lift a weapon
against that tender form, which even shrunk from the blow of
light blossoms thrown in merry mood by playful damsda,
1 S'kid<UaTikri4iU.
^fl^iU*!^ ^ ^WWT rt^iiwf wwrn^
S'&rdtOayikri^ita.
S'ikbari^i.
vi^^iJKfil ^PTHflr fwni '^^ftm: i
PBAKKIT POETEY. 133
This ann shall light on thy head like the sadden club of
Yama." * ^
AoHOB.] * Strike, villain ! Art thoa not sach P ^
Mal. to Madh.] *Be pacified, dear Mddhava! The [149]
erael man is desperate. Abstain from this needless hazard.*"
Kapal« to Aghob.] ^Yenerable Sir^ be on your guard.
Kill the wretch/
Madh. and Aohor., addressing the women.'] '^ Take courage.
The wretch is slain. Was it ever seen that the lion, whose
iharp fiuigs are fitted to lacerate the front of the elephant,
wiB foiled in fight with deer f *
A mia$ MUnd ike tentm. They litten,
*Ho! ye guards who seek M&ktl. The venerable and
Qoerring Kamandaki encourages Bhurivasu and instructs you
to beset the temple of Kar&l&. She says this strange and
^rrid deed can proceed from none but Aghoraghanta ; nor can
Uigfat else, but a sacrifice to Kar&l&, be conjectured.'*
Xapal.] * We are surrounded/
Aghor.] ' Now is the moment which calls for courage.'
Mal.] *Ohfether! Oh venerable mother ! '
Madh.] ^ Tis resolved. I will place M&lati in safety with
ixei Mends, and slay this wicked sorcerer.'
^ A Tery nnoommoii metre named Antatha or Narku^aka.
Tuantafcilaka.
134
ON 8ANSEEIT AND
Mddh, e9ndH§ti Mdlati to the other nde^ and rHurm Uwwdt Agk^raghttf^a,
Aghor.^] ^ Ah wretch I ^' My sword shall even now caU
thee to pieces, ringing against the joints of thj bones, [150""
passing with instantaneous rapidity through thy tough muscle^
and playing unresisted in thy flesh like moist clay .^ ^ '
Thi^JlglU, The mwm doHi.
^ [The Calcutta ed. gifes this q^eedi to both oomlMteiti amiltaiieoiialy.]
s S'ikharivi.
PBiCKBIT POBTBT. I35
SYNOPTICAL TABLES
OF
INDIAN PROSODY,
[151] Feet used in Sanskrit Prosody.
Trisyllabic.
Jf. M0L088X78. M.
r. ^ Baochivb. B.
JL — > Cbbticus or Amphdcacbr. C.
S, ^-^^^ — ANAPJB8TU8. A,
7*. ^^ Amtibacohius, Palimbacchxus, or Htpobacohius. H.
J. ^^ — ^^ Axphibracbts or Scouutf. Sc.
Bh, — -^ v-^ Dacttlus. D.
i\r. '^ '^ *-' Tbibkachts. Te.
Monosyllabic.
X.^ Brbtm. Bk. O, — LoxouB, L.
Feet used in Prdkrit Prosody.
1 k. One Mdtrd or KM, Sara : B&byis w Bb.
2 k. Two MdtnU ozKaUU,
Hdra : Loxous — L.
Supriya : Ptb&hichius or Pbeiambus. w «^ p.
8 k. Throe MdirtU or Kald$,
Tdla : Tbocilsus — ^ T.
Dhwaja : Iambxts ^-^ — I.
T6ndava : T&ibrachts ^^^^-^ Tb.
Saya : 4 k. Mdtrd$ or Kalda.
Karna : Spond^vs S.
Fayodhara : ScoLirs ^^ — --^ Sc.
Hatta : AjrAP.s«TU8 ^^^^ — A.
Chara^ : Dacttlus — w ^^ D.
Vipra : Pbocelbtsmaticus *^-^-^^^ Pa.
[152] Indrdaatta : 6 k. Five Mdtrda or Kalds,
Cbeticus C, Bacchius B., Pjeon PiB., etc.
Sartff'a : 6 k. Six Mdtrda or Kalda.
MoLossus M., etc.
136
ON SANSK&rr AND
Metre of the Vedaa; regulated by the number of ey Babies,
Seven chuees subdivided into eight orders.
CLASSES.
Twa-
Od^tri. UtMfih. tti&h. Vrihaii. Ilankti. fmiA. J§^.
Anh& 24
DtiTi I
cQ Amirf 16
S Prfrj&patyfc..... 8
g YiguB 6
^ S&man 12
^ieh 18
Br&hmi 86
28
2
14
12
7
14
21
42
82
8
18
16
8
16
24
48
86
4
12
20
9
18
27
64
40
6
11
24
10
20
80
60
44
6
10
28
11
22
88
66
it
7
9
IS
IS
u
n
Distribution of the Syllables in Triplets^ Teirastichs, etc
I. GAYATRr.
1. Trip§d 8x8=24
2. Chatashp&d 6x4=24
8. Pfcdanichiit » 7x8=21
4. Atipftdanichiit 6+8+7=21
6. NfcgC 9+9+6=24
6. Vkrfchi 6+9+9=24
7. Vwdhamtoi 6+7+8=21
8. Pratish^hk 8+7+6=21
9. Dwip&dvir&j 12+8=20
10. Trip&dTir&j 11x8=33
II. USHNIH.
1. Trip&d (12+8x2).
1. Kakubh 8+12+8 = 28
2. Fura Uaknih 12i-84-8 = 28
3. Parothnih 8+84-12 =28
2. Chatusbp&d 7x4 = 28
III. ANUSHTUBH.
1. Chatushpfrd 8x4=32
2. Tripad (8+12x2), rix. 12+8+12, or
12-1-124-8, or 8+12+12=32.
IV. VRIHAXr.
1. Chatoshp&d 9x4=36
2 8x24-10x2=86
3 8x3+12 =36
I, Pathyd 8+8+12+8 = 36
^ [I have here and elsewhere corrected
2. Nftmhudrh^ {ShnM§§ri9d^ «
UroferihMUy, 8+ 12+8-4^ -18.
3. Uparuhiddvrikati^ 8x8i-l2«M.
4. Fura9tdd^:TiKati,\2\%yiZm}IL
4. Mah&Tiihati (Satonihati), 12xS
=36.
[168] V. PANKTI.
1. Chatiuhp&d (12x2+8x2).
1. SaU]^"P 12+8+12+8=4^
or 8+12+8+12'
2. AtUdra-p 8+84-12i-12>
3. Prattdra-p, ... 12+12+8+8:
4. Vittdra-p, ... 8+12+12+8-
5. Sanstdra-p, ... 12+8+8+12 =
2. 1. Aktharapankti 6x4 =
2. Alpaiahpankti 6x2=
3. Padapankti 6y6 =
4 4+6+6x8 =
3. PathyCi 8x6= 4€
4. JagaU 8x6=49
VI. TRISHTUBH.
1. Jyotishmatl 1 11-8x4 b43
2. Jagati 12+8x4s44
PHmttd^yotiahmati 11 (IS)
+8x3.
Madhyd 8+8+11 (12) +8+8.
Cr;HimA^rfrf...8+8+84-8+ll (12).
the old nivjit,'] * [ — grM f\
PBAKRIT FOETBT.
K7
Deficient and exuberant Metre.
nmimtf s5-|-ax8, ex. (G&yatri) 54-6x3^23.
idiiuitf=6-fAx8.
i]uuiiadhy&B(Trip&d}s many -{-few -{-many, ex. 8-{-4-{-8.
]iiad]iy&=i(Trip6d)Bfew + many-ffew, ex. 8-|-10 + 8.
rit «a — 1, ex. (6&yatd) 24 — 1 ^28.
ij sa + 1, ex. (O&yatri) 24 + 1 r= 25.
=a— 2, ex. (G&yatri) 8 + 8 + 6s22.
ft] «a + 2, ex. (G&yatei) 8+8 + 10=26.1
anaqritta of Sanskrit Proiody^ and Mdtrdvritta ofPrdkrit
ProBody ; regulated by quantity.
yd or Gdtkd, Pr. OilAd.
27»57k.
■e: 30 k.«7ift. (6th » So. or
rw: 27k.»7ift.(6thBBB.}.
ne ends in L.
in Itt Terse before 7th ft. if
it if 6th ft. be Pe., then paoBe
ayllable.
in 2nd Terse before 6th ft. if Pb.
16 Species: Fathyd : Pause
ft(3-Hi«7ift.andl2+18+
s67k.). FflpM/tf; Pause placed
e. Hence Adivipuld, Antyavi"
[ UhhmyavipuUiy with 1st Terse,
)oth, irregolarly diTided by the
ChmpM Ist f. S. or A. 2nd So.
Ith Sc 6th S. or D. 6th Sc or
Oie short Terse Br.), 7th S. D.
Pb« Hence Mukhaehapaid^
uekapa/d and Mahdehapald,
,, 2nd or both Terses so con-
Therefore Aiyd + 3 Chapa-
thfd+Z rt>«/(/«= 16 species.*
ions : Atyd, 1st Terse 10,800.
e 6,400. Chapald Ist Terse 32,
el6.
In iVdib^'^ prosody, 27 species : from
27 L. + 3 B&. =30 sylL to 1 L. and 56
BR.8 56syIL
Specific varieties. KuUnd contain-
ing 1 So. Zulathd, 2 Sc. Veiyd, many
Sc. Jtaif4d, no Sc Ourvii^i, Sc. 1st, 3rd,
5th or 7th ft. Bat this is against mle :
which excludes amphibrachys from the
odd feet.
2. UdgUi or Figdthd, Tr. Vigdhd.
27 + 30=57 k.TiE. 12 + 16 + 12 +
18.
3. Upagiti^Vt, 6UA11. 27 + 27=64
k. Til. 12 + 16 + 12 + 16.
4. Qiti or Udg6ihd, Pr. Uggdhd,
30+30=60k.Tiz.l2+18+12+18.
6. Arydgiti or Khandhaka, Pr.
^^aiNfAa. 32+32=64 k.
8 ft. complete. 3+5=8 ft. and
12 + 20+12 + 20=64 k.
Species 16 {Fathydy etc.), Tariations
of each verse 10,800.
In Frdkrit prosody, 28 species from
28 L. and 8 Br. to 1 L. and 62 Bb.
6. Ohandrikd, Sangiti or Gdthini,
Pr. Gdhini, 30 + 32=62 k. Tiz. 12
+ 18 + 12 + 20.
lere be room to doubt whether the metre be reduced from the next above,
I from the next below, the first verse determines the question ; for it is
to the class to which the first Terse or pdda belongs. If this do not
tie metre is referred to that class, which is sacred to the deity, to whom
er is addressed. Should this also be insufficient, other rules of selection
n provided. Sometimes the metre is eked out by substituting iga or uva
iipondent Towels. This, in particular, appears to be practised in the
k. » [Cf. Ind. Stud. TiiL p. 297.]
138
OK SANSKBIT AND
7. Suglti, or ParigUi, Pr. SinkinU
82 + 30=x62k. Ti2. 12 + 20 + 12 +
18.
Alio
6. 54iff^^/i;32+29x=61k.
A'ry& (7| ft.) + L. in both yenes.
7. ^«^//i, 82 + 27=69 k.
+L. in first Terse only.
8. lV0^//i,3O + 29B59k.
+L. in second Terse only.
9. JnM^/^t,27+32=59k.
ReTerse of SngitL
10. Manjugiti, 29 + 80 »69 k.
Beverse of Prag:iti.
11. ri^t,29 + 29«68 k.
XJpaglti + L. in both Tcrset. ^
12. ChdrugHi, 29 + 82«6l k.
Berene of Sang(ti«
18. r«/£arl, 82 + 80 »62k.
A'ryftgiti — L. in last Terse.
14. Xo/ifi/, 30 + 82-i62k.
— L. in first Terse.
16. iVMN4Mfii,29 + 27«66k.
XJpagiti +L. in first Tone.
16. ChandHhi, 27 + 29 »66 k.
+ L. in last Terse.
All these kinds admit 16 spedc
aboTe : Tiz. JPathyd^ etc
[155] II. — Mdtrdvritta or Mdirdchhafidas, of Sanskrit
Prosody,
1. yAirALfTA, 66to68k.
1. ratM/l|fa, 14+16+ U+ 16
s60k.
End in C. + I.
Short syllables by pairs (oTen
Terses not to begin with 2 Tr.)
2. A'patdlikd, End in D. and 8.
8. Aupachhandaiika, 16 + 18 +
16 + 18 =68k. End in C. & B.
Each kind admits 8 yarieties of the
short Terse and 13 of the long;
from 3 long syll. to 6 short be-
ginning the one, and from 4
long syll. to 1 long and 6 short
in the other.
Also the following species under
each kind.
1. Dakshindntikdf begin with I.
Comprising 2 Tarieties of the
odd Terses.
I. I. (or Tk.) ; and 4 of the
CTen verses. I. B. (or P^b. 2nd
or 4th or 6 Bb.)
2. Udiehya-vfitti^ odd Terses be-
gin with I.
3. Frdchya-vfitti^ CTen Terses, C.
or Pas. 4.
4. Fravfittaka, the two preced-
ing combined.
6. Apardntikdf 16 x 4 = 64 k.
{Pfdeh,).
6. ChdruhdMini^ 14 x 4 « 66
{Udieh,),
2. MXtrXsamaxa, 16 (4x4)x4«64
Ends, or A. Begin S. A. D. or
h MdtrdtamakOy 2nd ft. 8. A c^^
D. 3rd ft. A.
2. r»/AMbi, 2nd 8e. or Pft. 8id
or D.
3. Vdnavdtikd^ 2nd S. A. or
drd Sc or Pk.
4. Chitrd, 2nd 8c. or Pe. 3rd
Sc. or Pb.
6. Upaehitrd, 2nd 8. A. or D. 8
S. or D.
6. Pdddkulahit the abore in
mixed.
The Ist species admits 24 Tariei
the 2Dd, 32 ; and the S ne:
each. The Tariations of
last species Tery numerous.
3. GfrrABTX or AehaladhrUi^ 15x4.
All short syllables.
4. Dwikhan^ikA * ; or Couplet
1. ^i;tAoorCAtt^,32BB.+16
Two species : Jyotis, 1st Tene
Bb. 2nd 16 L.
8at*myd or Anangakridd Ist
16 L. 2nd 32 Bu.
Also 1. S'ikhd 30 + 32 =62 k.
Ist Verse 28 Bm. + L. 2Bd
BB. + L.
4$
^ [In As. Bes. dwiHaff4oka,]
nAXRIT POETBT.
139
» Bb. + L. 2nd 28 Bb.
kd or Atiruehird 29 +29
k. 27 Bb. + L.
Also S. ChkUU 29 + 81 ^60 k.
Ist Yetse 27 Be. +L. 2iid29 Bb.
+ L.
[. — Mdtrdvritta of Prdkrit Prosody continued from
Table I.
i&, Vi.Ihhd, 13 + 11 +
k.
d Teree 6 + 4 + 3 ; eren
l + l.
n23L. + 2BB.to48BB.
1&, Pr. Ukkaehhd, 11x6
each, 4 + 4 + 3.
i66BR.to28L.+10BB.
>r L0I&, 24 X 4 = 96 k.
13. Usually end in L.
»m 12 L. to 24 Ba.
i, Pr. GandKd^, 17 + 18
70 Syll.
bpad& or ChatiiBhpadik&,
, Chdupdd, 30 X 4 X 4 =
ft. 4x7 + L.
and Ghatt&nanda, 31 x 2
•8 + 13=4 x7 + 3Bb.
13=6 + 3x3 + 5+4
Bb.
i& or Sha^padikk, Pr.
+ 56 = 152 k.
1 + 13 =6 + 4x4 + 2
im&la 28 (15 + 13) X 2
ies of the Tetrastich 45,
) 44 L. + 8 Bb, Varie-
)le stanza 71, from 70 L.
52 Bb.
k&, Pr. Pajjand, 16 x 4
Snd in Sc.
Athill&, Pr. Atild, 16x4
. End in P.
laka, Pr. Kulapdd, 16x4
X 2 + 2 L.
stanzaof nine = 116 k.yiz.
= 4ft. viz. 3+4+4+4.
5c. or Pb.
.=4ft. EndinPB.
3rd»15k. End in D.
4th = llk. sSft. SodinlB.
6th=15k.EndiQD.
6th to 9ih =Doh& as before.
Fire species.
19. Padm&Tatf, Pr. F&wnd^ 32 x 4
«=128k. 8 ft. noSc.
20. Kn^dalik^, Pr. Ku^f4alid, stanza
of eights 142 k.
Doh& + R0I& or Kfryya.
21. Gaga^&ngan&f 25x4«100k.20
syll. viz. 5 L. and 15 Bb. End in I.
22. Dwipadi or DwipadCi, 28x2^56
k. 6jft. Tii.6 + 4 + 5 + L.
23. Khanj&,41x2«82k.
10ft. viz. 9PB.+K.
24. S'ikh&,28x2a56k.
7 ft. Tiz. 6 Pb. + Sc. See Sanskrit
metre.
25. M&1&, 45x2=90 k.
lift. Tiz. 4x9 + C + S.
Also 25. Uklk 45 + 27*72 k.
1st verse as above, 2nd verse A'ryd,
26. ChtLdikalk, Pr. ChiOiald, 29x2
a58 k. Half the Doh& + 5.
27. Saur&sh^ Pr. Soraffha, 11 +
13 + 1] + 13=48 k.
Beverse of the Doh6.
28. H&kali, 14x4=56 k.
3^ ft. viz. 4x3 + L. (syll. 11 or 10). ft.
D. Pb. or A. sometimes S. Not end in
P. S.
29. Madhnbh&va, 8 x 4 = 32 k. 2 ft.
End in Sc.
30. Abhira, 11x4=44 k.
7 + Sc. or D. + 1. + Sc. or Sc. + Tb.
+ Sc.
[157] 31. Da94akala,32x4 = I28k.
4x4 + 6 + 2 + 8 or 10 + 8 + 14.
End in L.
140
ON SANSKRIT AND
82. Dlpaka,10x4s40k.
4 -|- 5 + Bb. UBiiAlly end in Sc
83. Bmhky»iolaL,VT.Sinhdlao,l6xA
B64k.
4 ft. A. or Pb. but end in A.
84. PlaTangmm&, Pr. Fisrangamdf
2lx4s84k.
6x3 + 1* Begin with L.
85. LU&f ati, 24 or leH X 4 =: 96 or
len, 6 ft. or leH : not end in A.
86. Harigit4, 28x4*112 k.
5 + 6 + 6x8-|-L. Should begin with
Pb. and end in S.
87. Tribhangl,82 x 4 » 128 k. 8 ft.
No Sc End in L.
88. Dnnnil& or Diinnilik&, 82 x 4
-128 k.
10 + 8 + 14. ft. 8.
89. Hln or Hiraka, 23x4=92 k.
4 ft. Ti2. 6 X 3 + 6. ft. 6 Bb. or 1 L.
witii 4 Bb. End in L.
40. Jaladhara or Jalahara^fc, 32 x 4
= 128 k.
PaoMB 10 + 8 + 6 -{- 8. ft. 8. Gene-
rally Pb. End in A.
41. Madanagiiha or Madanaharft,
40x4 = 160 k.
10 + 8 + 14 + 8=40.
42. Mah&rftahtra, Pr. Mmrmkm^
29x4«116k.
10 + 8+llor6+4x6 + L.+
Bb.
Alto the following kindi :
43. Bachir&, 80x4=120 k. 7^ ft.
end in L.
44. Kalik&, 14x4=66 k.
PanBet8 + 6.
45. yyanf^ 20x4*80 k.
4 ft. End in C. Paoae before the ImL
46. Chanrolm, 16 + 14 + 16 + 14 -
60 k. ft. A. or Pb.
47. Jhallanf^ 87x4 = 148 k.
7^ft.5x7 + L. Paniea 10 + 10 +
10 + 7.
48. Afh&4ha, 12+7 + 12 + 7=
88 k.
49. MUaTi, 16 + 12 + 16 + 12=
56 k.
Long rene 4 ft., short rene end in L.
50. Matt&, 20x4=80 k.
5 ft. no Sc.
51. Rasam6l&, 24x4 -06 k.
6ft.
52. Ayalambaka, 13x4=52.
3 ft. 4x2 + 5. EndinLw^
IV. — Metre regulated by number of syllables.
Vabtra, 8x4=82 syll
2 ft. between 2 syll. Tbe species
▼ary in the 2nd ft. or 3rd place.
1. Simple Vaktra,
L. or Ba. + M. etc. (except T&. and
A. and, in tbe even verse, C.) + B. +
L. or Ba. Therefore 1st, 4th and
8th syll. either long or short. 5th
short. 6th and 7th long. Either
2nd or 3rd long.
Variations of the 1st Terse, 24 ; of the
2nd, 20.
2. Pathyd,
1st Terse as aboTe ; 2nd with Sc. for
2nd ft. Hence 7th syll. short.
[158] 3. VipaHta-pa^hyd,
^ [The exact spelling of several
The precedkg transposed.
4. Chapald,
1st verse with Tb. for 2nd ft. Ther»»
fore 6th and 7th syll. short.
5. Vipuld,
2nd verse (some say 1st, others all]
with 7th syll. short Therefore 2iid
ft D. Sc. a. or Tb.
5 or 7 species : Bha-vipuid, Ist Tens,
(some say either) with D. for 2Bd ft.
£a»vipuldf with C. for 2nd ft. liih
vipuldy 2nd ft. Tb. Ih-vt>if/tf, 2Dd
ft. H. Ma-viptUd, 2nd ft. M. r«.
vipuld, 8 ft. B. Ja-vipuid, 2nd ft Sc
No instance occars with an anapceet for
the 2nd ft. or 3rd place,
of the above names is uncertain.]
PBAKRIT POETRY.
141
V. — Aksharaehhandas or Varnavritta. Metre regulated by
number and quantity.
Itipdmr mr mdform nutrt ; the stanza being composed of equal and similar verses,
Jirom 9ne to Jive syllables in the verse, or from four to twenty in the stanta.
I. TJkta or XJktha, 1x4=4.
1. 8*11, f. »L. 2 Mahi, /. »Bb.
II. AttuxtX, 2x4 = 8.
1. Stri, or K6ina, 2 ^.=8. 2. Batl
or Mahi, /. ^.=1. 3. S&m, y. /.=T.
4. Madhu, Pr. Mahm, 2 /. «P.
ni. HadktX, 8x4 = 12.
1. N&rf, or T&ll, m.=M. 2. 8'adi,
Pr. Sasi, y.=B. 8. Priyfe, Pr. Fid;
or Mfigi, r.sC 4. Bamavi or Ra-
11U19&, s. = A. 5. Panch&la, or P&noh&la,
tsH. 6. Mrigendra, Vt, Mainda, j»
sSo. 7.Maiidara,3A.=D. 8.EamaU,
or ITamalaj n. «Tb.
lY. Pratx8hthX, 4 x 4 = 16.
1. Eany&, or TSr^^, Pr. Tii^n^ m, g»
=2 8. 2. 6h&ii, or H6rik&, r. /.=2
T. 8. Nag&lik&, Lag&Ukfc, Nagfini, or
Nag&iiik&, Pr. Naydipd or Nagdi^,j. g,
=2 1. 4. Satf, n.^.=P. I.
V. 8upiuti8bthA, 6 x 4 = 20.
1. Panktd, Akiharapankti, or Hansa,
bh, 2 ^. =D. 8. 2. Sammoh&, m. 2 g,
=M. 8. 3. H&ritabandha, or H&rf, 2
g. I, 2 g. or t. 2g,mS, B. 4. Priy&, 2
/. r.=A. I. 6. Tamaka, Pr. Jamaka,
n. 2/.=P. Tb.
[159] lirom 8ix to twenty syllables in the Verse,
I. GATATBr, 6x4=24.
1. Taniiiiuidlij&, < y. = 8 P 8. 2.
VidjnBekhft, or 8'esha, Pr. Seed, 2 m
«&s3 S. 3. S'a£TadBD&, or Cba!ir&n8&,
•» y=2 P 8. 4. Varamati, t #=8 P I.
fi. Vanity, or Tilaka, Pr. BiUd, 2 #=
^ A. 6. Yodha, or Dwiyodhf, Pr.
^ijohA, 2 r=T 8 I. 7. ChatiiranB&,
^. Chattvaned, » y=2 P 8. 8. Man-
^li&na, or K&m&rat&ra, (half of the
^dranga), 2 < = 8 1 T. 9. 8'ankhan&ri,
^ir Somar&jfy (half of the Bhujangapra-
^dta), 2 y =1 T 8. 10. M&latf, Sam&-
latS, Yasanta, or K&minSk&nta, 2 /=
IPT. 11. I>ama]iaka,2n=8 P.
II. U8HNIH, 7x4=28.
1. Kufn6ralaUt&,(2 + 6)j#^=I +
Ta. S. 2. Madalekh&, m # ^=8 D 8.
8. Hansam&lfc, # r ^=ATS. 4. Ma-
(Qminatt, 2 » ^ =2 P A. 6. 8am&mk&,
'• 9 /=2 T C.» 6. 8nT&8a, n J 1=2
P D. 7. Karahaiich&, ns 1=2 P 8c.
8. 81rah&, Pr. Sisd, 2 m ^=2 8 M.
III. ANTJ8HTUBH, 8x4=32.
1. Chitrapad&, 2 bh. 2 g=2 J) &,
2. Vidyunm&l&, Vi, Bijjiimdld, (4 + 4t)
2in2^=28 + 2 8. 3. M&][iayaka, or
Ma9aYak&kri4&, (4 + 4t) bh, t I g^
T I + T I. 4. Hansamta, mn2g =
8 D B. 5. Pram&^k&, NagaswarCi-
pi^f, or Matallik&, j r I g=i I, 6.
8am&nik&, or Mallik&, r / ^ /=4 T.
7. Vitkna,^ < 2 ^ =2 I T 8. 8. Tungk,
2n2g=ZVS. 9. Eamala, 2 / n r=
2 P 2 I. 10. Hansapadl, 2 g m s =
2 8 T I. 11. M&tangU m 2 / m =
8 T I 8. 12. Bambh&, n I g m=2 P
2 8.
lY. YRIHATr, 9x4 = 36.
1. Halamukhi, (3 + 6},rn#=C + 2
P I. 2. Bhujagas'irfusrita, (7 + 2), 2
n m = 2P A + S. 3. Bhadrikft, r nr
= 2 T A I. 4. Mah&lakshmi, 3 r =
T 8 B I. 5. S&rangl, or S&mgf, ngs
= 2 P 8 A. 6. Pkvitra, Pr. Pdyittd,
m bh. 9 = 2 8 P A. 7. Eamal&, 2 ns
2 T C. ?]
142
ON SANSKRIT AND
k3 P A. 8. Bimbi, n a yaP. Ts.
T 8. 9. Tomara, a 2 j'-A I P T.
10. RQpam&li, r mi>x3 B M. 11.
Ma^^madh ja or Ma^ibandha, 3A. r « s
D 2 T I. 12. BhajaIlgafangatl^ tjr
-A 8 I.
V. PANKTI, 10x4=40.
S'uddhaTir&j, m t j g^Q T 3 I.
2. Payara, (6+6) m n y y=S D +
A & or mnjf = S D + AI. 3. Ma-
yAniMrivi, rjrg^iTS. 4. Matt&,
(4 + 6), m6A. #y«=2S + 2 PS. 6.
Uparthita, (2 + 8) t 2/^=8 + 2 A I.
6. BukmaTati or ChampakamM& (5 +
6}) M. m « y =D 8 + D 8. 7. Mano-
ram&fft r j g=^? 4 I. 8. Sanyukt4,
Pr. Sanjutd, t 2j y=P 2 T 2 I. 9.
S&rayati, 3 ^A.y = 2 D T I. 10. 8a-
aham&i ^ y 6A. y =8 A 8 A. 11. Am-
fitamall, or Amiitagati, Hjng=VA
P A. 12. Haiwl, (4+6), mbh.mg^
2 8 Tr. 8.* 13. Cb&mmakhi. ny bh. g
mV ASA. 14. Chandramukhi, t h
**.y«SP2A.
[160] VI. TRI8HTTJBH, 11x4=44.
1. Indravajra, 2 O* 2 y = 8 I D T S.
2. Upendravttjra,y O' 2 ^=2 I D T 8.
3. Upaj&ti, or A'khy&nakl, (14 species).
The tipo foregoing intermixed, 4. DO'
dhaka, Bandhu or Nfloswartipa, 3 bh,
2 ^ = 3 D 8. 6. S'&lini, (4 + 7t), »» 2
t 2 ^=2 8 + C T 8. 6. Vfetormi, (4
+ 7t), m *A. < 2 ^ =2 8 + A T 8. 7.
Bhramaravilasita, (4 + 7t)» »« bh. n I g
b2 8 + 2 P A. 8. Rathoddhat&, r n
r lg = 2T A21. 9. Swkgatfc, rn W.
2y = 2TAP8. 10. VfintJi or Vrittt,
(4 + 7t), 2 » # 2 g=Z PAS. 11.
8'yemk&, or S'reviki, rjrlg^iTC,
12. Sumukhl, (6 + 6t), fi 2y /^=P A
+ 2 A. 13. Bhadrik&, 2nr lg = 2 P
A 2 I. 14. Mauktikam&l&, 8'ri, Anu-
k6l& or Eudmaladanti, (5 + 6), bh. t n
2 y = 0 8 + 2 P a 15. Upa8thit&,
j i t 2 g^l Tr. 8 T 8. 16. Upa-
chitrfc or yise8hik&, 3 # / y=3 A I.
^[Zmf] »[=SAMP]
17. Eiipan]Bliajaiut&, 2fir2yB2PA
I 8. 18. AnaTaatfr, n ^ hk. 2 /-S
P 8 D 8. 19. Mo^naka, t 2jlg^%
3 A. 20. MUatiiii&l&, 8 m 2 y«4 8
M. 21. Damanaka, r w //*-i4 P A.
22. Mad&lld]Il^ ma j2g^^%T^
VII. JAOATr, 12x4 »48.
1. Vamfaatha or Van^aathaTila, j i
yr=2lT3l. 2. Indra▼a]ltff^ 2 0>
=8 IT 31. 3. Upaj&ti, tA« f«M>brv*
gating intermixed. 4. To^ka, 4 «ai4
A. 6. DmtaTilambita, n 2 bh. r^P I
2 A I. 6. S'rfputa or Pata, (8 + 4), 2
iiMy=3PS + TS. 7. Jaloddhata-
gati,(6 + 6),7#y#=IPI+IPL
8. Tata or Lalit4, 2mm r»3 P 2 S L
9. KuBumaTichitr&, (6 + 6), m y n y »
2 P 8 + 2 PS. 10. Chanchal&kshikI,
PraiiiiiditaTadan&, Mand&kini, Gaui
or Prabh&, (7 + 6), 2 » 2 r=2 P A +
B I. U. BbQJangaprayfcta, 4 y-I T
SITS. 12. Sra^n^ or Lakahmi-
dhara, 4 r=T 8 I T S I. 18. Pn-
mit&ksbar&, #y 2 «=A So. 2 A. 14.
E&ntotpi4& or Jaladharam&16, (4+8),
m bh. 9fM=2S + 2?2SorbA msm
= D3D28* 16. Vais'wadcTl, (6 ^- 7),
2 w 2 y = M 8 + T 8 B. 16. NaT*-
mUini, (8 + 4), nj bh, y =2 P 2 T+
PS. 17. CbandraTartma,(4 + 8{),rfi
M.«=2T+PDA. 18. Pnymminidfc*
ft ^A. y r = P I P 3 I. 19. Ma^im&li^
(6 + 6), «y/y = 8P8+SPS. 20.
Lalitk, t 6A./ r =8 I P 3 I. 21. Djj.
wall, 2 n bh. r = 3 P T 2 I. 22. M&-
lati or Varatanu, (6 + 7), n 2/ r=P A
+ A 2 I. 23. T&cnarasa or Lalitapada,
M 2 > y = 2 P 2 D 8. 24. Lala&ft,
(6 + 7)»A.m2« = D8 + DTIorM.
t n #=0 8 + 2 P A. 26. Dnitapada,
n bh, n y = P I 3 P 8. 26. Vidy&.
dhara, (4 + 8), 4m=2 8 + 4 S. 27.
Skranga, 4 / = 8 I T 8 I T. 28.
Mauktikad&ma, 4 i=I P T I P T.
29. Modaka, 4 M. = 4 D. 30. Ta-
ralanayani, 4 n=6 P.
•[nlgf] *[DSD2S1»]
FEAKEIT POETEY.
143
iTIJAGATr, 13 X 4=62.
inhi^i, (3-4-10) m njrg^H,
5. 2. Bii[161]diir&, or Atini-
.9)y3A,#yy«2I + 2PTC.
lyta, or M&7&, (4 + 9) m t
+ TIDS. 4. 6aiiri,2ii
TSB. 6. Manjabh&iiu^i,
y Snimndini, or Kanaka*
•#yy=Al + P8I. 6.
Kfhamfcy Utpalini, or Ku«
+ 6)2ii2<y=2PA + T8
ihama, ChitraTatt, or Sin.
• 2 t y»=P 2 T P D S. 8.
ATali,yifi2r^=:l2SGT
idralekh&, (6 + 7) ft « r y ^
2TM. 10. Vidyut, (6 + 7)
IPI + SIC. 11. Mngen-
n 2j r f^V A P2 T S.
^ 4 « ^ = 3 A P S. 13.
,or Kanda 4 y /»B ITS
Pankaj&Tali, or Pank&Tali,
»D 2 P 2 D. 16. Chsa^il,
4 P D S. 16. Prabb&yatl,
*.#yy-=SI + 2PTC.
'AKKARr, 14x4=56.
>&dh&,(6 + 9)m<»«2y=
AS. 2. Apar«LJit&, (7 + 7)
=2 PA + IAI or »nr»/y
A I. 3. Praliara9akalit&,
(7 + 7)2nM. » /y=2P
. 4. Yaaantatilaka, Sinhon-
aiahu^y Madhum&dhaTi, or
tbh,2j2ff=S IPIPT
6, or AloHu (7 + 7)m am
\ D S + SD S. 6. Indn-
Varasondarl, bh.j a n tf—
PS. 7.Nadl,(7 + 7)2«
PA + DTS. 8. Lakshmf,
y=S D8TDS. 9. Sn-
+ 6)4n2y=4P + 2PS.
ikshamfr, (4 + 10) or Kutflk,
)m»A.fiy2y=2S+3P
. Pramadii, njhh.jlg^l P
12. Manjtri, (6 + 9)»y#
2 T P T 8 I. 13. Kumkrf,
/W.y2y = 2P2TPTS.
ra,ifrjir/y=P2lP8l.
h4P8?] «[8PS
15. Yftsanti, m tnm2 ^=2 S D A 2
S. 16. N&ndfmukhi, (7 + 7) 2 » 2 <
2 y = 3 P S IT S. 17. Chakra, or
Cliakrap&ta,M. 3ii/y=T5PI. 18.
LUopayati, (4 + 10) 4.m 2 y =2 S + 5
8. 19. Natagad, 4 » 2 y=6 P + S.
20. Kopavati, hh,m at I y=D S D S
TI.
X. ATlS'AKKARr, 15x4=60.
1. Chandr&Yart&, (7 + 8t) 4 n «=2
P Tb. + P Tb. a. 2. M&1&, or Sraj,
(6 + 9)4« »=2Te. + 2Te. A. 8.
Ma^iguvanikara, (8 -|- 7) 4 n «=4 P +
2 P A. 4. M&lini, or N&ndimakhl, (8
+ 7) 2«m2y=3P S + CT8. 5.
Chandralekhk, (7 + 8) mrm 2y=2 S
B + S ITS. 6. K&makxl4&, LUa-
khela, or S&rangik& and Strangaka, 6
m=6 S M. 7. Prabhadraka, or Sa-
bhadraka and Sukesara, (7 + 8) n/ bh,
yr=2PC + P3I. 8.Elfe,(6 + lO)
#/ 2 « y =A I +4 1 T.i 9. Upamilini,
(8 + 7) 2 «<*A.r=3PT + SAI.»
10. Yipinatilaka, »#M2r=2PI Tb.
T S I. 11. Cbitr&, 8 m 2 y=8 SMI
T S. 12. Td^aka, or Cb&mara, (8 L
7BB.a23k.)=6TG. 1 3. Bbramar&-
Tali, 5 «=5 A. 14. Manahan8a,'[162] a
2/M.r=AIP2T2I. 15. S'arabha,
or S'aflrikal&, 4 n + «=6 P A. 16.
Kitfipida, M. j « n r =D I P I P 2 I.
17. Utsara, r n 2 bh. r=2 T 8 A I.
18. Hanaa, (8 + 7) n 2jry^2 P D 3
TS.
XI. ASHTI, 16x4=64.
I. Risbabbagajavilasita, or Oajata-
rangayilarita, (7 + 9) ^A. r 3 ny =D 2
T + 3PA. 2. VJu^ni,«y *A.>ry =
2P2TP2TS. 3. Cbitra, Cbitra-
sanga, Atisundara or Cbancbal& (doable
Samdnikd) rjrJrl^^ST. 4. Pan-
chacb&mara, N&r&cba, or Nar&cba,
(doable Framd^ik&),j r J r J g^%\ ,
5. Dhiralalita, ^A. rMrfty=D2TP
2 T A. 6. Kbagati, Nila, Lil&, or
A^wagati, 5 ^A. y =4 D T I. 7. Cha-
+ IAIP] s [ManohaniaP]
144
ON SANSKRIT AND
kite (8 + 8) bh,sm tng^J) A S + 8
DA. 8. MadaiiaUait6,(4 + 6 + 6)M
W.iii»i«^=:28 + 2PI + SPI. 9.
PraTaraUlite,ymM«r^>=I 2 8 2 P I
T S. 10. Oarn^arute, n J bh, jtg=
2P2TPTSL 11. S'aUa^ikhfc, (16
or S'\^^) 3A. r » 2 M.^«D 2 T 3 A
or D T+T P T + I A. 12. Vanyn-
Tatl, hh r y2 n y«D 2 T S 2 P A.
13. BrahraarApaka (doable Vidifui^
mdU) 6 m grxS 8. 14. Achaladh|iti,
or Gitydry^ 6 m /=8 P. 15. Pinani-
temb&, (4 + 6 + 7) m / y msf-2 8
+ D 8 + 8 D 8. 16. Taaraiiainattfc,
(6 + 11) 3A. 8 ifi«^s=D 8 + 38 D &
XII. ATYA8HTI, 17x4=68.
1. S'ikban'vi (6+U) ymn s bh, I y
»=I2 8 + 2PIDI. 2. Pnthwl,(8
+ 9)y#y»y/y = IP2l + TE.T8I.
3. Yaiiflapatrapatite, or Yani^apatra,
(10 + 7)M.r«W.»/^ = D2TA +
2PA. 4. Hariri, (6 + 4 + 7or4 + 6
+ 7)n#mr*/^=2PI + 2S + I A
I. 6. Mand&kr&iit&. (4 + 6 + 7)w^A.
n2/2^=2 S + 2PI + C T 8. 6.
Narkutaka, or Nardafaka (7 + 10), or
Ayitetha (17t), nj bh. 2 J /^ = Tr. 2 1
+ Te. T I A. 7. Kokilaka, (7 + 6 +
4tor8 + 6 + 4t)=TH.2l + PIP +
TI. 8. Hari, (6 + 4 + 7) 2 w mr# /
y = 3 P + 2 S + I A I. 9. K&ntfc, or
Kr&nt&, (4 + 6 + 7) y bh. n r*/^ = l
S + 2PI + IAI. 10. Chiiralekh&,
or Ati^ayani, (10 + 7) 2 9j bh.j2 ff =
2 A 2 I + Tr. T S. 11. M&l&dhara,
or Vanam&l&dharo, n 8 j » y I g-2V
2 I Tr. T S I. 12. mrinf, (4 + 6 +
1)mbh.n wy/^ = 2S + 2 P I + S
BI.
XIII. DHRITI. 18x4=72.
1. Kusumitalatfevellita, (5 + 6 + 7)
mtn 3y = MS + 2PI + CTS. 2.
Mah(im&lik&, N&r&cha, Lat&, Vana-
m&l&, (10 + 8t) 2 n 4 r=3 P T 8 +
I T S I. 3. Sudbk, (6 + 0 + 6) ym
n i t # = l2S + 2 P 1 + S PI. 4.
I[arii(^pluta, (8 + 6 + 5) m a2 ; bh. r
» [This should bcITSIT8I
B8T2I + AI + AI. 6.A^wigtti,
6 6A.«=6 D A. 6. Chitndekkl, (4 +
7 + 7) m 2 w 2 < m s S T + P Tb. 8 +
I T M. 7. BhiamanpacU, hh.r In
M.D2T8PA8. 8. S'AiddUiliti,
(12+6)m«y«<«B8D2TA + SP
L 9. 8'ftrd6k, (12+6) maj'trm
e8 D 2 T A+T 2 8. 10. Kenit,
(4 + 7 + 7)m&A.iiy2r«2S + 2PA
+ 81 C. 11. Naiidaiia,(U + 7) nj
M.y2r=2PTDI+2ia [168] 12.
CbitrttTftlfc, Chitralekhf^ (4 + 7 + 7) m
M.ii8y=28+2PA+CT8. It,
Chala, (4 + 7 + 7) M6A.fiy6A.re2S
+2 P A+I A L 14. VibadhapriTa,
(8+10t)r#2y6A.r-:2T2l + P2
T 2 I. 16. Manjira, 2 m 6A. m « m»
3 8 D 8 D 2 8. 16. Kri^&duuiidii, 6
y=I T P I T P I T P.i 17. Chtt-
cbari, r » 2y 6A. r «T D I D 2 T 2 L
XIV. ATIDHRITI, 19x4-76.
1. S'fcrdiilaTikTi^ite, or 8'ftrd6la,
(12 + 7)M#y«2<y»SD2TA+8
I C. 2. Megbarisphftijite, or Viimiti,
(6 + 6 + 7)ymii#2ry=l2 8+2P
I + C T 8. 2. Pancbach&mara, 2 w +
alternate y /» Tr. P 7 I. 4. Puahpa-
dfcma, (5 + 7 + 7)m<fi«2 r y =M S
+ 2PA + CTS. 6. Bimb&,(5 + 7
+ 7)m<«#2/y=MS + 2PA + HS
I. 6.Chh&yk,(6 + 6 + 7orl2+7)y
iii««6A. <y = l2S+2PI + D8I.
7. Makarandikt, (6 + 6 + 7)ymii#«
yy = I2S + 2PI+I AT. 8. Samn-
dratata, (8 + 4 + 7)y#y» t bh,g^U
2I + PI + SIA. 9. Sura8i^(7 + 7
+ 5) wr^A.wy «y = M T 8 + 2 PA
+ D I. 10. Mapimanjarf, y bh. ny 2 J
y = I S 2 P A 2 T 2 I. 11. Cbandra-
ni&lk, or Chandra, (10 + 9) 3 » j 2 n /
= 5 P + D 3 P. 12. Dhaval&nka, or
Dhavala, 6 « y = 8 P A. 13. Sambbu,*
(7+6 + 6J#/y6A.2my=A8A8A
3S.
XV. KRITI, 20x4 = 80.
1. Suvadanfe, (7 + 7 + 6) m r 6A. n
y M. /y = 2SB + 2 P A + 8 P I.
T S.] * [S'ambhu ?]
PBAKRIT POETRY.
145
»10T. 8. 8'obhft,(6+7+7)yM
2 M 2 ^ 2 f el 2 S -I- 2 P A + T S^ B.
4. Gitik§, or 6lt&, 9%j%Kr% Ig^K
IP2T2IAL
XVI. PRA£]^ni, 21^4-84.
1. Sragdbarft, (7 + 7 + 7} m r bh:
• SyB2SB+2P A + TSB. 2.
BiliLuildhi, Sazisf, Siddhaka, S'atfm-
ana, or Dfarita/ii, n J hKlJ r«2 P
TD 1 + 2 A 2 I. 8. N«aito,3A. r
2ii2jyr=D2T8P2D8.
lYII. A'K^m, 22x4=88.
I. Bhidnka, (10 + 12) hh.r nrn
r»i|sD2T A + I Te. 2T A. 2.
Ih&l, or Ldit&, 7 3A. y«6 DTI.
IHibi(,(8 + 14)2m2 y4ii2^tr4
8+6 P 8.
XVm. VIXRITI, 28x4=92.
1. Atfwdalitt, or Adritanajft, (11 +
l2)ji>M.yM.y*A./^=2PTDI
+ 1 Ti. T D I. 2. Matt6kri4&, or
T^tTibaBa, (8 + 15) 2 m Mn/y=<
^H^PA. 3. Snndari, (7 + 6 +
10) %$hh.8i2 J^A P 8 + 2 P S +
2 D.^ 4. M&latfy or Madamatt&, 7 bh.
2 ^=7 D 8. 6. Chitrapada, 7 bh, I g
=7DI.. 6.Mallikft,7y/^=IPTI
P T I P T I A.
ZIX. 8 ANERITI, 24x4=96.
1. TanwJ, (6 + 7 + 12 or 12 + 12).
dA. ^ ft « 2 M. ft y =D 8 4- 2 P A-f- 2
D2P8. 2. Di]rmil&, 8 #=8 A. 3.
Eirita, 8 bh, =8 D. 4. J&nakf, 8 r =
T 8 I T 8 I T 8 I T 8 I. 6. M&.
dhanki, 7yy = IPTIPTIPTI
PS.
[164] XX. ATIXRITI, 26x4 = 100.
1. Kraunchapadfi, (64-6 + 84-7)
bh. m s bh, A n g = J) S + D 8 +
4 P + 2 P A. 2. S'ambhu, Smg =
11 8 M.
XXI. CrrXRITI, 26x4=104.
1. BhQJangayijriinbhita, (8 + 11 +
7)2m<3fir#/y=4 8 + 4 PA +
lAI. 2. ApaY&ha, (9 + 6 + 6 + 6)
fn6f»#2^=SD2P + 3P+3P +
A. 8. 3. Oauii, 8 m 2 ^ = 13 S.
Ihm 27 to 999 syllabka in the verse.
I)aI9au^7x4 =108to 999x4 =3996.
1. Cha94ftT|iBh(ipray&ta, 2 m 7 r=2
2. haduta, 2 fi 8 etc r.
ipeciei from 9 to 333 feet, yiz.
^ A19&, 2 A 8 r. 3rd Ar^ara, 2 ft
9 f. 4th YyiOa, 2 fi 10 r. 6th Ji-
"^2«llretc
Or 3.Prachita,2ft 7 etc.y =2 Tr. 7etc.B.
4. Mattam&taDgalil&kara, 9 etc. r = 9
etc. C.
6. 8inhaTikr&nta, 2 fi 10 etc. r.
6. KusumastaYaka, 9 etc. #=9 etc. A.
7. Anangasfekhara, iglgetc. = l5 etc. I .
8. A^okamanjari, rj etc. = 16 etc. T.
Also QihtRA, 2 ^ 8 ft #=S 12 P A.
^^-^Ealf equal Metre; the stanza being composed 0/ equal and
iimilar couplets; but the couplets, 0/ dissimilar verses.
lUpachitra,(r7payd/»+7Vimara«a) 2. Dn]tamadby&, {Dodhaka + Id-
l^Toie 3 « /y =3 A I. 2nd3 6A. fMra$a), 1st 3 &A. 2 ^=3 D 8. 2nd
2f*3PS. ft2yy=2P2D S.
^ [There saems some eribr here.]
TQL. m. [XMATB II.]
10
146
ON 8ANSKBIT AND PMKETT POETRT.
3. YegaTati, (Upaehitra — ^penult
BK.inlttTene). ltt8«y82APS.
2adZhh. 2^<=8DS.
4. Bbadrayir&j (species of Aup^
ehhafukuika), Itt t J r ^ r::B V 2 T S.
2ndm«y2^sS D 2 T 8.
5. Ketmnatf, Itittjaff^A I Tk. 8.
2nd bh.rn2 g^T, 2 I Tb. 8.
6. A'khy&iuki(C^j<f/tyiz. alternate
Indravttjra and Upendravttjra ; some
say one Terse IndravqfrOf tiiree Upm'
draffofra), 1st (and 8rd) 2 t J 2 g=S
I D T 8. 2nd (and 4th,8ome say Srd)
jtj+2ff = 2ljyTB.
7. Viparlt&khy&naki {ths convene of
thspreecdmg), Isty tj2 ^«2 I D T 8.
2nd20'2y«8IDT8.
8. Hari^aplntk (DrtUavilatnbitm —
one syllable), 1st 3 « /^e3 A I. 2nd n
2*A.r=PI2AI.
9. Apararaktra (species o
or Bhadrikd -f Mdkuq, Ist
a2PA2I. 2ndii2yr«
10. Pi]shpit&gr& (species
Aupaehhandanka)^ 1st 2 n
2T8. 2ndn2yr^=2P
11. Tayamati, Ist rj rj-
j rjr g^b I B.
12. S'ikii&, 1st 28 / gn
2nd30/y=7TR,PI.i
18. Ehanjk, 1st 80 I g^
2nd28/^=7TR.I.»
14. LaHt6, 1st r « / ^a
2nd«My^=ATR. 2L
16. EaamndS {Bhadrikd
ek0ldktkikd), ItSt 2 n r I
3 1. 2nd2»2re3PT8
16. Manjasaorabba (Jf<^
jubhdthiif(), 1st w 2 yr»2
2nd#y#y^=AIP8I.
YII. — Unequal Metre; the etanzas being compaed of d
verses.
1. Udgat&,lstTerBeffy«/=AITK.
T. 2nd » sjg^Tsu A 2 I. Srd bh. n
>/^=TTr.2A. 4th»y#yy = AI
P3I.
2 Tarieties: viz. Saumbhaka, Srd Terse,
r » M. ^=T O 2 A.* Lalita, 3rd Terse
2fi2# = 2TB. 2 A.
2. XJpastbitapracbnpita, 1st yerse m
8j M. 2 ^ = S D 2 T D S. 2nd # nj r
^=A2P2TS. 3rd2«# = 3PA.
4tb Z nj y^b P D S. 2 varieties:
viz. Vardhamdna, Srd verse 2 nt2 n t
«S P A 3 P A ; S'uddhavirdln'kabhoy
8rd verse tjr^B A 2 I.
8. Padacbatnriirdbwa, in<
aritbmetical progression firoi
syll. viz. Ist verse 8 ; 2nd 12
4tb 20.
6 species : viz, Apida^ End i
Br. Pratydpida^ Begin with
and end witb S. Mat\faH^ i
Ist and 2nd verses transpose
+ 16 + 20. Zavali^ Isl
transposed 16 + 12 + ^ +
fitadhdrd, Ist and 4th trai
+ 12 + 16 + 8.
VIII, — Supplement^ under the denomination of 06
1. Stanzas comprising four unequal
verses, constituting a metre not de-
scribed by writers on prosody.
2. Stanzas comprising more or fewer
verses than four; viz. three, five, six, etc.
3. Any metre not specific
gala.
4. Metre not specified by
on prosody.
1 [= 9 Tb. I, and 9 Tr. P I ?] « [= 9 Tb. P 1. and S
' [TDIAP]
147
V.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS,.
PREFIXED Ta THB EbITIOK OF THE HlTOPADE^A,
Pabliflhed at Calcutta, 1804. 4 to.
[l6o] To promote and facilitate the study of the ancient
^d learned language of India, in the College of Fort William,
'^ has been judged requisite to print a few short and easy com-
P^itions in the original Sanskrit. The first work chosen for
^hie purpose, and inserted in the present volume, under its title
^f Hitopadesa, or * Salutary Instruction,' had been translated
*^y Mr. Wilkins, and by the late Sir William Jones, as the
^xt of a very ancient collection of apologues, familiarly known,
'i^ the numerous versions of it, under the name of ' Fables of
I^ilpay.^ The great advantage, which may be derived by
indents, from consulting correct translations, at their first
^^uaintance with Sanskrit literature, has indicated this work
^a the fittest for selection ; although it be not strictly the
original text, from which those beautiful and celebrated
apologues were transferred into the languages of Persia, and
of the West.
In the concluding line of the poetical preface to the
Hitopadesa, it is expressly declared to have been drawn
from the Panchatantra and other writings.^ The book, thus
'Mentioned as the chief source, from which that collection of
' [For a fiiU accoont of the Panchatantra and the literature connected with it
^ ^f. Benfey's Introduction to his translation, Leipzig, 1859. Cf. also the
^^l^tical account of the Panchatantra, in Prof.. Wikion's Essay $^ toI. iy., pp.
^"^» ^th pp. 139-144. A large part of the apologues appears to he of Buddhist
148 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
fables was taken, is divided into five chapters, as its name
imports : it consists, like the Hitopadesa, of apologues, recited
by a learned Brdhman named Vishnu-sarman, for the instmo-
tion of his pupils, the sons of an Indian [167] monarch ; but
it contains a s;reater variety of fiibles, and a more copiooa
dialogue, than the work, which has been chiefly compiled from
it; and, on comparison with the Persian translations now
extant, it is found to agree with them more nearly, than thai
compilation, both in the order and the manner in which the
tales are related.
To compare them, it has been first necessary to exclude aU
the additions, which have been made by translators. Thm
have been explained by Abu'lfazl, with the history of the
publication itself, in the pre&ce to his own version, entided
'lyari-danish ; and by Husain W&'iz, in the introduction (o
the Anwdri Suhaili.
They recite from Abu*lmdla's* preface to his translation of
the Ealilah wa Dirnnah, that Barzuyah, an eminent vA
learned physician, being purposely sent into Hindust&n hj
Nushirvdn, king of Persia, brought a transcript of this with
other books, which were preserved among the best guarded
treasures of the kin^s of India : and it was immediatelv trans-
lated into Pahlavi, for the gratification of the Persian monardi,
under the superintendence of his minister Buzurchumihr.
From this version in Pahlavi, by Buzurchumihr, or by
Bai-ziiyah (and which is said to have borne the title of
Huniavun-uamah, Jdwiddn-khirad, and testament of Ht
shank), the book was translated into the Arabic language by
Imam Abulliasau 'Abdullah Benu'l Mukaffa^ in obedience to
the commands of Abii'lja'far Mansiir, second khaUf of the
house of 'Abb4s. From Arabic, it was restored into Persian,
by direction of Abiil Hasan Nasru'ddin Ahmad, a prince of
the race of Sdman ; and was clothed in verse by the poet
Hudaki, for Sult&n Malimud Sabaktagin. It was again
1 [Abfi'l Ma'ali ?]
TO THE HITOPADES'A. X49
ranslated into prose, from the Arabic of ^Abdu'Uah, by desire
f Abdlinuzafiar Bahr&m Sh&h/ son of Sult&n Mas'ud, a
le[168]soendant of Snltdn Mahmud of Ghaznin; and this
version, the author of which was Abu'lmala Nasrullah, is the
ame which has been since current under the title of Kalilah
ra Dimoal^. It underwent a revision, and received the em-
tdlishment of flowery language from Husain W&'iz K&shaffs
A the suggestion of Amir Shaikh Ahmad, sumamed Suhaili>
t chieftain commanding under Sult&n Husain Mirz&, of the
loose of Tumdr ; and this highly polished version is named
rom the author's patron Anw&ri Suhaili. It was lastly
"evised, and put into plainer, but elegant language, by
kbdifvl, in obedience to the orders of the Emperor Akbar.
This amended translation comprises sixteen chapters ; ten
»f which, as Abd'lfazl states in his preface, were taken from
he Hindi original entitled Karatak and Damanak ; and six
rere added by Buzurchumihr, namely, the four last, contain-
Dg stories recited by the Br&hman Bidp&i, in answer to the
[oestions of the King D&bishlim ; and the two first, consisting
f a pre&oe by Buzurchumihr, with an introduction by
kttsdyah. Both these introductory chapters had been omitted
y Hi^aain W&'iz, as foreign to the original work : but he
ubetituted a different beginning, and made other additions)^
ome of which are indicated by him, and the rest are pointed
lut by Abdl&zl ; who has nevertheless retained them, as
appendages not devoid of use, and therefore admissible in a
imposition intended solely to convey moral instruction. The
whole of the dramatic part, including all the dialogue between
D&bishlim, king of India, and Bidp&i or Pilp&i, a Br&hman of
Sarandip, as well as the finding of Hushank's legacy (from
both which the work itself has derived two of the names, by
^hichit has been most frequently distinguish ed), appears to have
Wn added by the translators, although the appellations of the
^ng, and of [169] the philosopher, are stated to be of Indian
^ [Farishta calls him Mu'izz-ud-dia Bahr&m Sh&h.]
150 INTBODUCTORT REMAEKS
origin.^ For Abu'*lfazl has inserted the story at the close
the second chapter ; after expressly declaring, in one pla
that the substance of the work begins with the third ; and
another, that the two first were added by the author of i
Pahlavi translation.
Setting apart then the dramatic introduction, in whidi t
Persian differs from both the Panchatantra and the Hitopadei
and beginning the comparison from the tliird chapter of tl
Kalilah wa Dimnah, it is found, that the &ble of the ox ' u
lion, with all the subsequent dialogue between the sfaakii
Karataka and Damanaka, constituting the first chapter of tb
Panchatantra, corresponds with the Persian imitation ; exo^
ing, however, a few transpositions, and the omission of son
apologues, as well as the insertion of others.
Thus the &ble of ^ The Ape and the Garpenter^s Wedge
which is first in both works^ is immediately followed, in tl
Panchatantra, by that of * The Shakal and the Drum '; bi
the Persian translators have here introduced a diffwa
apologue. They have placed the story of * The Thief and tl
Mendicant,' with others included in it, immediately aft
[170] that of ' The Fox and the Drum' ; but the Panchatanfe
interposes another tale, the omission of which, however, ii
duces no imputation on the good taste of the translatoi
They have next substituted two fables (' The Sparrow, tl
Hawk, and the Sea," and * The Reformed Tyrant,') for
story of a wheelwright's marria<j;e with a king's daughter.
The next three fables are alike in the Sanskrit and Persiai
1 Husain Wa'iz and AbA^fazl explain Bidp&i, as equiyalent to the Persian id
Haklm-nUhrbdn ; and, according to the ingenious conjecture of Sir Willii
Jones, that appellation is corrupted from the Sanskrit Vaidyo'priya, The Dii
of DabishUm, interpreted Ttidshdh-buzurgy or great King, has not ao itrikiog
resemblance to any Sanskrit term of the same signification. Filpdi appean to
Persian ; and in some copies of the Anw&ri Suhaili (for the passage is wanting
others), it is mentioned to have been translated from the Hindi Hawtipdt; whie
in Sanskrit, bears the same meaning, riz. elephant's foot.
' The Persian n^me, Shanzabah (for so the word should be read, and not,
written in many copies^ Shutarbah), is evidently formed on the Sanskrit nime fi
this ox, Sanjivaka,
TO THE HITOPADES'A. 151
bat two, which follow (viz. ^ The Louse and the Bug,^ and
* The Blue Shakal,') are omitted by the translators ; who have
erinced their judgment in the rejection of the first.
The &ble of * The Three Fish ' is placed next by the Per-
sian authors, and is followed by five others, which do not
occur in the Panchatantra. These are succeeded by three
more, which are placed by the Sanskrit author immediately
after the fable of ' The Blue Shakal/ and before that of ' The
Three Fish/
Here the Panchatantra introduces a story of an elephant,
whose death was procured though the means of a gad-fly, by
birds whom he had aggrieved. But it has been omitted in
the Persian, and so has the next &ble, of ^ The Lion and the
Leopard/
The remaining apologues, belonging to the first chapter, are
alike in both works ; excepting that of ^ The Gardener, the Bear,
sod the Fly/ which is inserted last but one, in the Persian
translation ; but which does not occur in the Panchatantra.
Many of these fables are also found in the Hitopadesa, but
arranged in quite a different order, being interspersed with
others, through the three last chapters of that compilation.
Without further particularizing the variations of the Per-
nan firom the Sanskrit, it may be sufficient to say, that the
five chapters of the Panchatantra agree, in the subject, and in
the general arrangement of the fables, with the third, fiflh,
*Uh, seventh, eighth, and ninth chapters of the 'Iy&ri-[171]
finish ; and that more than half of the fables, contained in
^^^ part of the Persian work, which purports to have beeu
^^^ved from the Indian text, corresponds exactly to similar
Apologues in the Sanskrit. In most instances of omission, a
^^^^son may be easily conjectured for the rejection of the
^^^nal stories : and those, which have been substituted for
^Wem, as well as the few contained in the remaining chapters,
^^Wch are not avowedly additional, may have been taken by
^Vie first translator, either firom other Indian works, (for
152 INTBODUCTOBT BEMABKS
Barzuyah is stated to have brought more than one book from
Hindust&n,) or, though not acknowledged by him, may hare
been drawn from different sources. It probably was more his
design to present to the King of Persia a pleasing collection of
apologues, than a strictly fistithfiil translation of a single
Indian work.
This collection of fieibles has been translated more frequently,
and into a greater variety of languages, than any other com-
position not sacred ; and, although the earliest paraphrase, in
Fahlavi, be now lost, its Arabic version is extant, or lately
was so ; ^ and may be easily verified through the translations
made into more than one language, upon the Arabic text.
It is unnecessary to speak of another Arabic version, said to
have been taken from the original text of a pretended king
of India named Isara, three hundred years before the time of
Alexander ; or to mention that made from the testament oi
Hushank (entitled J&wid&n-khirad), by Hasan, son of
Minister of al M&mun, the seventh khaltf of the 'Abb&si
dynasty. For both these pretended versions are probably tha
same with 'Abdu llah'^s, but erroneously ascribed to othei
authors.
From his Arabic text, a Greek translation, entitled Ste-
phanites and Ichnelates, was completed, seven hundred years
ago, by Sinieo Sethus, for the Emperor Alexius [172] Comnenus.
One in Syriac, under the title of Galaileg and Damnag, is pro-
bably taken from the Arabic, though purporting to be derived
immediately from the Indian text.' The Turkish versiona
(for there are more than one) have been derived mediately or
immediately from the Arabic ; and several Latin and Italian
translations have been drawn from the Greek of Sethus ; not
to mention another Latin one from the Hebrew, nor the
1 [This was edited by De Sacy in 1816. Its title is the Ealilah wa Dinmah oft*
•Abdullah ben ul Mukaffa*.]
^ [A M S. of this translation from the Pahlavi was found in 1870 by Dr. Soci"^
in the episcopal library at M&ridln.]
TO THE HITOPADES'A. 153
€rennan and Spanish Tensions from the Latin and the Italian.
All these, as well as the French translations of Gaulmin, David
Said, Oalland and Gardonne, from the Persian Ealilah wa
Dimnah, and from the Turkish Humdyun-n&mah and
Anw&ri Sohaili, as also the English version from the French,
Appear to have been compared with considerable attention by
varioos persons : but, excepting two unfaithful imitations in
Latin and Italian, the general correspondence of the rest seems
to be acknowledged.^
We may conclude, therefore, that the Persian Kalflah wa
Dimnah, and 'ly&ri-d&nish, exhibit a sufficiently exact repre-
lentation of the Arabic translation from the Pahlavf ; and
tbat, after rejecting avowed additions, we ought to find there
a near resemblance to the Indian original. From a careful
collation of both Sanskrit works with the genuine parts of the
Persian translation, it is evident, as has been already shown,
that the Panchatantra corresponds best with them : and there
can be little hesitation in pronouncing this to be the original
text of the work, which was procured from India by Nushirv&n
more than twelve hundred years ago.
[178] This &ct is not without importance in the general
liistory of Indian literature ; since it may serve to establish
the greater antiquity of authors who are quoted in the Pancha-
tantra ; and amongst others, that of the celebrated astrologer
Tar&ha Mihira, who is cited by name in one passage of the
fiiBt chapter.'
The Hitopadesa, containing nearly the same fables told
more concisely and in a different order, has been translated
^ See Bibliotheca Gneoa of Fabricius, toI. yL p. 460, and yol. x. p. 324 ;
^blioth^ne Orientale of D'Herbelot, pp. 118, 206, 245, 399, and 456 ; Works
^f Sir W. JoneSy toI. tL p. 4; and As. Bob. toI. i. p. 429 ; also Wilkins's Heeto-
Indies, preface, p. xiii.
* [Tlie Tarions MSS., however, so continually differ, by the alterations and
^^ditions of sncceaiye transcribers, that we can feel no confidencjB in the minuter
^^tails of our present text. The MSS. of the Arabic yersion differ in the same
'^ay, see Benfej, pp. 6-8.]
154 INTBODUCTORT REMARKS
into Persian, in comparatively recent times, by Manlav
T^ju'ddin, who entitled it Mufiurihu'lkulub ; and who doe
not appear, from his preface, to have been aware, that th<
work, translated by him, was any way connected with the
Kalilah wa Dimnah.
This, as well as the Hindi version of it, by Mir Bahidv
'All, which has been printed for the use of the College of Fori
William, and which is entitled Akhl&ki Hindi, mayaffittd
some help to a student, reading the Hitopadesa, for his fint
exercise in the Sanskrit language. He will find still mon
effectual assistance in the English translations by Sir Williim
Jones and Mr. Wilkins : and, for this advantage, no lees thtt
for its easy style, the Hitopadesa has the first place in tb
present collection of Sanskrit works.
The second place in it has been allotted to a short stoTj in
verse, which is abridged from a celebrated poem of DaQdTii
This distinguished poet, famous above all other Indian baidi
for the sweetness of his language, and therefore ranked hj
K&Iid£sa himself (if tradition may be credited) next to tbe
fathers of Indian poetry, Y&Imiki and Yy&sa, composed «
pleasing story in harmonious verse,^ under the title of Dasa-
kum&ra-charita, or * Adventures of the Ten Youths.' It is
divided into two parts : the first comprising five chapters, sod
ending with the marriage of the principal hero ; the other con*
taining, through eight [174] more chapters, the adventures of
the same prince and his nine companions.^ The first part has
been abridged by more than one author ; among others, by
Yindyaka in about two hundred couplets collected into three
sections ; and by Apyayya, in as many sections, and nearly the
same number of couplets. This abridgment, being compoeed
in easy, correct, and smooth language, is preferable to the
other, and has been selected for its merits in those respects;
» Cf. p. [134].
' [For fuller details see Professor Wilson's Introductioa to his edition, and B*
Analysis, Essays, iy., pp. 160-289.]
TO THE HITOPADES'A. 155
be story be told with too great conciseness to preserve
erest.
ning the author of this epitome, or argument, of
poem, no information has been yet obtained. He
self a counsellor and minister, and was probably in
ce of some Hindu E&j&.^
resent volume ends with three Satakas or centuries
3 by Bhartrihari. They were recommended for
partly by their prevailing moral tendency, though
sages be far from unexceptionable ; and partly as a
len of polished Sanskrit verse. The poetical beauties,
B most admired by the Hindu learned, and which are
1 by their writers on rhetoric, are scattered in these
of Bhartrihari, with a more sparing hand than in
he laboured performances of Indian poets : and, from
e, his poetry is less obscure than theirs.
Satakas are ascribed by the unanimous consent of
ed, to Bhartrihari, the brother of Yikram&ditya. He
be reputed author of a grammatical treatise. It is
perhaps it might be said probable, that these may
1 composed by a different person in his name. But it
rom the first couplet of the Niti-sataka, that they
)n written either in the real, or in the assumed
of Bhartri[175]hari, since that couplet alludes to
stance conspicuous in the traditional story of his life,
.uthentic history of Bhartrihari is too intimately
¥ith that of ancient India, and involves questions of
; intricacy, to be stated, or discussed, in this preface,
ns only to say a few words respecting the present
r the three works which have been hero mentioned,
ditor, Mr. Carey, undertook the publication, on a
a has usually been placed in the reign of Bhoja of Dh&r& or soon
but Prof. Weber, Ind, Sireifenj 1. 312, thinks that his style shows
t ha?e preceded B&i^ and consequently he may bave lived in the 6th
le also often speaks of Buddhists, and mentions the Muhammadans
« traden, not conquerors.]
156 INTRODirOTOBT REMABKS TO THB HITOPADES'iL.
suggestion firom the Gooncil of the College of Fort Willia
and under the patronage of Goyemment. He has, at t
same time, risked a larger edition than was required for t
College, in the expectation of encouragementi from the publi<
In printing the Hitopadesa, six manuscript copies were o
lated. They were found to differ much, in the quotation
whole passages, as well as in the reading of single wor
Either the reading most suitable to the context, or that whi
was found in the greatest number of copies, has heeia selecte
according as circumstances have dictated the propriefy i
following one rule or the other.
The abridgment of the Dasa Kum&ra has been printe
from a single copj: and the Satakas of Bhart|ihari, fim
three manuscripts; every one of which was incomplete: bv
the deficiencies did not occur in the same places.
With the laiM^ ^taka, the style of which is, in gBum
less clear than that of the preceding, the scholia have bei
printed. They will serve to make the reader aoquainti
with the manner of Sanskrit commentators : and owing
the peculiar difficulties of the language, the student w
find it long necessary, and always usefiil, to consult tl
commentaries, while perusing Sanskrit compositions. 1
[176] lessen one of those difficulties, which arises from tl
frequent permutation of letters at the beginning and close
words, the editor has marked, by a dot under the sylkU
places where the elision of a letter is found, or any other pe
mutation, that is not obvious.
In this first attempt to employ the press in multiplvil
copies of Sanskrit books with the Devan&gari character, it wi
be no matter of surprise, nor any cause of imputation on tl
editor's diligence, that the table of corrections should be Urg
The whole volume has been been carefully examined by sever
Pandits ; and there is reason to believe, that no error of ooi
sequence can have escaped their notice.
Calcutta, 11 th September, 1804.
157
VI.
ENUMERATION OF INDIAN CLASSES.^
[From the Anatie JResearcheSf vol. v. pp. 53-67.
Calcutta^ 1798. 4to.]
177] Thb permanent separation of classes, with hereditary
essions assigned to each, is among the most remarkable
itntions of India ; and, though now less rigidly maintained
i heretofore, most still engage attention. On the subject
he mixed classes, Sanskrit authorities, in some instances,
igree : classes mentioned by one, are omitted by another ;
texts differ on the professions assigned to some tribes. A
iparison of several authorities, with a few observations on
subdivifflons of classes, may tend to elucidate this subject,
irhich there is some intricacy.
One of the authorities I shall use is the J&tim&l&, or Gar-
id of Glasses; an extract from the Kudra-y&mala-tantra,
ich in some instances corresponds better with uss^e, and
eived opinions, than the ordinances of Manu, and the great
arma-pur&na.' On more important ^ints its authority
Id not be compai^ed with the Dharmas&stra ; but, on the
ject of classes, it may be admitted ; for the Tantras form a
[For farther details on the subject of the diyiBions of casts in the North-west
ndia, see Sir H. M. Elliof s Eaeet of the N, W, ProvineeSf yd. i.]
The teEEfer ere eiied in the Yiy&d&rpaya-setn, from the Yfihad-dhanna-pn-
I. This name I therefore retain ; although I cannot learn that such a /mrd^a
(ts, or to what treatise the quotation refers under that name. See toI. i. p.
3] of the present wofk.
168 ENUMERATION OP
branch of literature highly esteemed, though at present mudi
neglected.^ Their fabulous origin derives [178] them from
revelations of Siva to P&rvati, confirmed by Yishnu, and
therefore called Agama, from the initials of three words in a
verse of the Todala-tantra.
*' Coming from the mouth of 6iva, heard by the moantain-
bom goddess, admitted by the son of Yasudeva, it is thenoe
called Agama/'
Thirty-six are mentioned for the number of mixed classes;
but, according to some opinions, that number includes the
fourth original tribe, or all the original tribes, according to
other authorities : yet the text quoted fix)m the great Dhamu-
pur&na, in the digest of which a version was translated by
Mr. Halhed, names thirty-nine mixed classes; and the J&ti-.
m&l& gives distinct names for a greater number.
On the four original tribes it may suffice, in this place,
to quote the J&tim&l&, where the distinction of Br&hnuu^
according to the ten countries to which their ancestors be-
lono:ed, is noticed : that distinction is still maintained.
^^ In the first creation by Brahmd, Br&hmanas proceeded,
with the Veda, from the mouth of Brahm&. From his amu
Kshatriyas sprung ; so from his thigh, Yaisyas : from his foot
budras were produced : all with their females.
" The Lord of creation viewing them said, * What shall be
your occupations?' They replied, 'We are not our own
masters, 0 God ! command us what to undertake.'
'' Viewing and comparing their labours, he made the firsts
tribe superior over the rest. As the first had great inclination^
for the divine sciences, {Brdhma-veda,) therefore he waitf
Br&hmana. The protector from ill {kshayate) was Kshatriyas
Him whose profession {veia) consists in commerce, whic^^
promotes the success of wars, for the protection of himse^
and of mankind, and in husbandry, and attendance on catt^B.
he called Vaisya. The other should voluntarily serve
^ See Tol. i. p. [199] of the present work.
INDIAN CLASSES. 159
three tribes, and therefore [179] he became a Sudra: he
should humble himself at their feet.^
And in another place :
** A chief of the twice-born tribe was brought by Vishnu's
eagle from S&ka-dwipa: thus have 6&ka-dwipa Br&hmanas
become known in Jambu-dwipa.
'^In Jambu-dwipa, Br&hmanas are reckoned tenfold; S&ra-
swata, Kanjakubja, Oauda, Maithila, XJtkala, Dr&yida, Ma-
h&r&shtra, Tailanga, Onjjara, and E&smira, residing in the
serend countries whence they are named.^
*^ Their sons and grandsons are considered as E&nyakubja
priests, and so forth. Their posterity, descending from Manu,
also inhabit the southern regions: others reside in Anga,
Banga, and Ealinga ; some in E&mardpa and Odra. Others
are inhabitants of Sumbhadesa : and twice-born men, brought
bj former princes, have been established in B&da, M&gadha,
Tarendra, Ghola, Swarnagr&ma, China, Kula, l^ka, and
Barbara." »
> These wTenl countries are, S&raswata, probably the region watered by the
lirer Scnmtty, at it is marked in maps ; unless it be a part of Bengal, named from
the branch of the Bh&girathi, which is distingnished by this appellation ; E&nya-
knbja or Kanoj ; Gan^Ay probably the western 6&r, and not the Gaur of Bengal ; ^
IfiUiila;, or Tirabhnkti, cormpted into Tirhut ; Utkala, said to be situated near
tibe celebrated temple of Jagann&tha ; Dr&Ti^ pronounced Dr&vira, possibly the
eoMitry described by that name, as a maritime region south of Ean^&t^^ (As.
Sea. ToL ii p. 117) ; Mah&r&shtra, or Mahr&tta; Telinga, or Teling&na; Gujjara,
or Gnzrat; K&tfmlra, or Cashmir.
1 Angm includes Bh&galpur. Banga, or Bengal proper, is a part only of the
Siba. Yarendra, the tract of inundation north of the Ganges, is a part of the
praent IQU of B&jash&hL Kalinga is watered by the God&yari (As. Res. toI.
in. p. 48). Kfrmartipa, an ancient empire, is become a prorince of As&m. O^a
1 ttderrtand to be Oriasa Proper. R&^ (if that be the true reading) is well
^Bovn as the eountry west of the Bh&girathi. M&gadha, or Magadha, is Bih&r
^^Rfper. Chola is part of Birbh(!im. Another region of this name is mentioned
^ the Asiatic Besearches, toI. iii. p. 48. Swarnagr&ma, vulgarly Sunargau,'
> teated east of Dacca. China is a portion of the present Chinese empire. On
^ rest I can offer no conjecture. S'&ka and Barbara, here mentioned, must
^er from the Dwipa, and the region situated between the EusTa and S'ankha
Mpas.
^ [8c« note 1 at page S5 of the present rolame.]
* [Tb« DrsTidas or Driridai ar« ondonbtedly the inhabitants of the Tamil ooontry. In
'^'Ukzit the eoontry is generally spoken of by the name of its people in the plural.]
* [Sonlfiiu It is eommonlj written Soonargong, see Hamilton's EindotUm, toI. i. p. 187.]
160 EKITMEBAtlON OF
[180] I shall proceed, without further pre&ce, to enumerate
the principal mixed classes, which hare sprung from inter-
marriages of the original tribes.
1. Mdrdh&bhishikta, from a Br&hma^a by a girl of the
ELshatriya class; his duty is the teaching of military eterdses.
The same origin is ascribed in the great Dharina-purAjp to
the Kumbhak&ra,^ or potter, and Tantrav&ya,' or weaver : but
the Tantrav&ya, according to the J&tim&l^ sprung from tivo
mixed classes ; for he was begotten by a man of the Ma^i^
bandha on a woman of the Manik4ra tribe.
2. Ambashtha, or Vaidya,' whose profession is the scienoe
of medicine, was bom of a Yaisya woman, by a man of tbe
sacerdotal class. The same origin is given by the Dharma-
pur&na to the Kansak&ra,^ or brazier, and to the l^khakln,'
or worker in shells. These again are stated, in the ianira, »
springing from the intermarriages of mixed classes ; the Kaoa-
k&ra from the T&mrakuta and the j^khak&ra, also named
§ankhad&raka, from the R&japutra and G&ndhika : for Rijt-
putra not only denotes Eshatriyas as sons of kings, but is also
the name of a mixed class, and of a tribe of &bulous origin.
Budra-yaniala-tantra : '' The origin of R&japutras is from
the Yaisya on the daughter of an Ambashtha. Again,
thousands of others sprung from the foreheads of cows kept to
supply oblations.''
3. Nish&da, or P&rasava, whose profession is catching fish,
was bom of a ^udra woman by a man of a sacerdotal cla8&.
The name is given to the issue of a legal marriage [181^
between a Dr&hmana and a woman of the §udra tribe. iWi
should seem that the issue of other legal marriages in different
ranks were described by the names of mixed classes springingB
from intercourse between the several tribes. This, howevei^
is liable to some question ; and since such marriages are corrt
1 Vulgarly, Kura&r. * Vulgarly, TknU.
' Vulgarly, Baidya. « Vulgarly, KaMr& [K&Mtftri].
• Vulgarly, Sakhera [Sfrnkhfrri].
nmiAK ojLSSss. I6i
red as illegal in the present age, it is not material to pnrsue
inquiry.
.oeording to the Dharma-por&na, from the same origin
I the Nish&da springs the Yar&jiYi, or astrologer. In the
ra that origin is given to the Brdhma-sudra, whose pro*
on is to make chairs or stools used on some religious
sions. Under the name of Yar&jivi^ is described a class
sging from the Gopa and Tantrav&ya, and employed in
[rating betel. The profession of astrology, or, at least,
of making almanacks, is assigned, in the tantra^ to de-
led Br&hma^as.
Br&hmanas, foiling from their tribe, became kinsmen of
twice-born class : to them is assigned the profession of
rtuning the lunar and solar days."
M&hishya is a son of a Eshatriya by a woman of the
iya tribe. His profession is music, astronomy, and at-
ance on cattle.
ITgra was bom of a S'iidra woman by a man of the mili-
claas. His profession, according to Manu, is killing or
ining soch animals as live in holes : but, according to the
ray he is an encomiast or bard. The s^me origin is
ibnted to the N&pita' or barber; and to the Maudaka, or
ectioner. In the tantra^ the N&pita is said to be bom of
UYeri^a woman by a man of the Pattik&ra class.'
. Karana,^ from a Yaisya, by a woman of the S udra [182]
ly is an attendant on princes, or secretary. The appella-
of E&yastha' is in general considered as synonymous
. Earana; and accordingly the Earana tribe commonly
mes the name of E&yastha : but the K&yasthas of Bengal
) pretensions to be considered as true S udras, which the
milk seems to authorize ; for the origin of the K&yastha
lere mentioned, before the subject of mixed tribes is intro-
)d, immediately after describing the Gopa as a tme S'udra.
Vulgarly, Baraiya [B&rui.] ' Vulgarly, N&ya or N&i.
[Or rather ^ by a KaTerin man of a Pa^tik&ri woman."]
Vulgarly, Earaigi. » Vulgarly, K&it.
TOL. tll. [SSSATS II.] 11
162 BXUHEKATION OF
One, named Bhutidatta, was noticed for his domestic aesi-
duity ; ^ therefore the rank of E&yastha was by Brahma^iui
assigned to him. From him sprang three sons, Ghitr&ngada,
Chitrasena, and Ghitragupta: they were employed in atten-
dance on princes.
The Dharma-pur&na assigns the same origin to the
T&mbuli, or betel-seller, and to the Tanlika,' or areca-seOer,
as to the Eara^a.
The six before enumerated are begotten in the direct order
of the classes. Six are begotten in the inverse order.
7. Suta, begotten by a Kshatriya on a woman of the priestlj
class. His occupation is managing horses and driving can.
The same origin is given, in the purdna^ to the M&l&k&ra* or
florist; but he sprung from the Karmak&ra and Tailika clanes,
if the authority of the tantra prevails.
8. M&gadha, bom of a Kshatriya girl, by a man of tbe
commercial class, has, according to the idstr^ the profession
of travelling with merchandize ; but, according to the puriM
and tantra^ is an encomiast. From parents of those [18S]
classes sprung the Gopa,^ if the purdna may be believed ; bnt
the tantra describes the 6opa as a true S udra, and names
Gopajivi,^ a mixed class, using the same profession, and spring-
ing from the Tantravdya and M&nibandha tribes.
9 and 10. Yaideha and Ayogava. The occupation of the
first, born of a Brdhmani by a man of the commercial class,
is waiting on women : the second, born of a Yaisya woman by
a man of the servile class, has the profession of a carpenter.
11. Kshattri, or Kshattd, sprung from a servile man by ^
woman of tlie military class, is employed in killing and con.-
fining 8uch animals as live in holes. The same origin ifi
ascribed by the purdna to the Karmak&ra, or smith, and DiaM,
or mariner. The one is mentioned in the tantra without
^ Literally, Staying at home, {kdye sanathitah,) whence the ctymologj of
K&yasthn. * [Tkmbfilika P]
5 MWi. * Gop. » Goari&-Gop.
INDIAN CLASSES. 163
pecifying the classes from which he sprang ; and the other
las a different origin, according to the idstra and tantra.
All aothorities concar in deriving the Ch&nd&la from a
>'udra father and Br&hmani mother. His profession is carry-
Qg oat corpses, and executing criminals ; and officiating in
)ther abject employments for the pablic service.
A third set of Indian classes originate from the inter-
narriages of the first and second set : a few only have been
lamed by Mana ; and, excepting the Abhira, or milkman,
;hey are not noticed by the other authorities to which I refer.
Bat ihepurdna names other classes of this set.
A fourth set is derived from intercourse between the several
dasses of the second : of these also few have been named by
Ifanu ; and one only of the fifth set, springing from inter-
inarriage» of the second and third ; and [184] another of the
sixth set, derived from intercourse between classes of the
second and fourth. Manu adds to these tribes four sons of
outcasts.
The iantra enumerates many other classes, which must be
placed in lower sets/ and ascribes a different origin to some of
the tribes in the third and fourth sets. To pursue a verbose
comparison would be tedious, and of little use ; perhaps, of
iK>ne; for I suspect that their origin is fanciful; and, except
the mixed classes named by Manu, that the rest are terms
fi>r professions rather thati tribes ; and they should be con-
Bidered as denoting companies of artisans, rather than distinct
f^s. The mode in which Amara Sinha mentions the mixed
cbsses and the professions of artisans, seems to support this
cwjjecture.
However, the J&tim&ld expressly stales the number of
fcrty-two mixed classes, springing from the intercourse of a
^ [The asterisk which appears at this place in the London edition had no note
^(iiTespoQding to it at the foot of the page. The note in the Asiatic Researches is
•follows: ** See the annexed rule, formed by our late venerable President." Sir
w. Jones's mle waf, however, omitted in the printing.]
164 ENUMEEATION OF
man of inferior with a woman of soperior class. Thoagb, like
other mixed classes, they are included under the general de-
nomination of S'udra, they are considered as most abject, and
most of them now experience the same contemptuoos treat-
ment as the abject mixed classes mentioned by Mann.
According to the Rudra-y&mala, the domestic priests of
twenty of these tribes are degraded. ^^Avoid,^ says die
iantra^ *•*• the touch of the Gh&i;^d&la, and other abject classes ;
and of those who eat the flesh of kine, often utter forbidden
words, and perform none of the prescribed ceremonies \ thej
are called Mlechha, and going to the region of Yavana, have
been named Y&vanas.
^' These seven, the Bajaka, Karmak&ra, Nata, Barods^
Kaivarta, and Medabhilla,^ are the last tribes. WhoefW
associates with them undoubtedly falls from his class ; wIkh
ever bathes or drinks in wells or pools which they have caused
to be made, must be purified by the five [185] production! of
kine ; whoever approaches their women, is doubtless degraded
from his rank.
''.For women of the Nata and Kap&la classes, for prostitutes,
and for women of the Rajaka and N&pita tribes, a man should
willingly make oblations, but by no means dally with them.*^
I may here remark, that, according to the Kudra-y&maU,
the Nata and Nataka are distinct ; but the professions are not
discriminated in that tantra. If their distinct occupations, as
dancers and actors, are accurately applied, dramas are of very
early date.
The Pundraka and Pattasutrak&ra, or feeder of silk-worms,^
and silk-twister, deserve notice ; for it has been said, that sill^
was the produce of China solely until the reign of the
Emperor Justinian, and that the laws of China jealous!
guarded the exclusive production. The frequent mention
silk in the most ancient Sanskrit books would not fiilly dm^
prove that opinion ; but the mention of an Indian class, wh<
1 [Rather the Meda and the Bhiila^ see St. Fetersb. Diot., sab. t.]
IKDIAK CLASSES. 265
006apftti<m it 18 to attend silk-worms, may be admitted as
proo^ if the antiqnity of the tatUra be not questioned. I am
informed, that the tantras collectively are noticed in very
incient oompositions ; bat, as they are very numerous, they
most have been composed at different periods ; and the tantra
which I quote might be thought comparatively modem.
However, it may be presumed that the Hudra-y&mala is
among the most authentic^ and, by a natural inference, among
the rooet ancient ; since it is named in the Durg&-mahattwa
where the principal tangos are enumerated.^
[186] In the comparative tables to which I have referred,
the classes are named, with their origin, and the particular
profeasions assigned to them. How far every person is bound,
by original institutions, to adhere rigidly to the profession of
his dasB, may merit some inquiry. Lawyers have largely
discussed the texts of Uw concerning this subject, and some
diffisrence of opinion occurs in their writings. This, however,
is not Uie place for entering into such disquisitions. I shall
therefore briefly state what appears to be the best established
opinioii, as deduced from the texts of Manu, and other legal
The regular means of subsistence for a Br&hmana, are
assisting to sacrifice, teaching the Yedas, and receiving gifts ;
ibr a Kshatriya, bearing arms ; for a Yaisya, merchandize,
attending on cattle, and agriculture; for a S'udra, servile atten-
^iaiice on the higher classes. The most commendable are,
i^a^ieetively for the four classes, teaching the Yeda, defending
^ Thus enamerated, ** Efdl-t>intra, Mii94Ainfd&, T&r&, Nirr&va-tantra, 8arT»-
Hrup [P]y Bim-tantra, ling&rchiuia, Bhdta-tantra, Uddetfana and E&lik&-kalpa,
^UiraTt-tiiitra, and BhairaTi-kalpa, To^ala, M&tribbedanaka, M&y&-tantra,
^Irca'waim, Yitfwas&ra, Samayk-tantni, Brahma-y&mala-tantra, Rudra-y&mala-
^^Utra, S'anka-y&mala-tantra, G&yatil-tantra, E&lik&kula-sanraswa, Eul&rpava,
^Qgini-tantra, and the Tantra Mahishamardini. These are here universally
Wiowiiy O Bhairari, greatest of souls ! And many are the tantras uttered by
^ambho.** [For some account of the Tantra literature, see Wilson's Essays on
^4« Baigion of the Eindus, vol. i. pp. 247-262, and Aufrecht's Bodl. Cat. pp.
^S — 110. I hare corrected Singdrehana to L%n§&rcJtana,'\
166 ENUMERATION OF
the people, commerce, or keeping herds or flocks, and serri
attendance on learned and yirtaoos priests.
A Br&hmai^a, unable to subsist by his own duties, may lii
bj those of a soldier : if he cannot get a subsistence by eith
of these employments, he may apply to tillage, and attendaoi
on cattle, or gain a competence by traffic, avoiding certs'
commodities. A Ejshatriya, in distress, may subsist byi
these means ; but he must not have recourse to the highe
functions. In seasons of distress, a further latitude is gife
The practice of medicine, and other learned professions, ptin
ing and other arts, work for wages, menial service, alms, ai
usury, are among the [187] modes of subsistence allowed
the Br&hma|;La and Eshatriya. A Yaisya, unable to subii
by his own duties, may descend to the servile acts of a S'&db
And a S udra, not finding employment by waiting on men
the higher classes, may subsist by handicrafts; prindpa
following those mechanical occupations, as joinery a
masonry; and practical arts, as painting and writing;
following of which he may serve men of superior classes ; ai
although a man of a lower tribe is in general restricted fir
the acts of a higher class, the S'udra is expressly permitted
become a trader or a husbandman.
Besides the particular occupations assigned to each of I
mixed classes, they have the alternative of following tl
profession which regularly belongs to the class from wh
they derive their origin on the mother's side : those, at lei
have such an option, who are bom in the direct order of t
tribes, as the Murdhdbhishikta, Ambashtha, and others. 1
mixed classes are also permitted to subsist by any of the dot
of a S'udra ; that is, by a menial service, by handicrafts,
commerce, or by agriculture.
Hence it appears that almost every occupation, thoo
regularly it be the profession of a particular class, is open
most other tribes; and that the limitations, far from be
rigorous, do, in fact, reserve only one peculiar profession, tl
INDIAN GLASSES 167
be Br&hmana, which consists in teaching the Veda, and
iaiing at religions ceremonies.
he classes are sufficiently nuroeroos ; but the subdivisions
hem have further multiplied distinctions to an endless
»ty. The subordinate distinctions may be best exemplified
1 the Br&hma^a and K&yastha, because some of the appel-
08, by which the different races are distinguished, will be
liar to many readers.
tie Br&hmai^ of Bengal are descended from five priests,
ed from K&nyakubja, by Adiswara,^ king of [188] Gauda,
is said to have reigned about nine hundred years after
Bt. These were Bhafta N&r&yai^a, of the family of
lila, a son of Easyapa; Daksha, also a descendant of
rapa ; Vedagarva,' of the &mily of Yatsa ; Chandra, of
amily of Savangia, a son of Kasyapa ; and Sri Harsha,
leendant of Bharadw&ja.'
rom these ancestors have branched no fewer than a hun-
and fifty-six families, of which the precedence was fixed
iall&Ia-sena^ who reigned in the eleventh century of the
itian era. One hundred of these families settled in
ndra, and fifty-six in B.&dh&. They are now dispersed
ighout Bengal, but retain the family distinctions fixed
all&la-flena. They are denominated from the families to
lie name ii commonly written A'di/6ra or Adisnr. Bkhd Eajendral&la Mitra
I foUowing remarks in his paper '* On a Land Grant of Mahendrap&la Deva,*'
B.A.8. Jonm. 1864 : — '' The Enlina E&yasthas have carefully preserved
vnealogy. They hold periodical meetings {ekajdyia), at which all the family
I or gka^aki assemble, and record the names of every successive generation.
tt meeting of this kind was held several years ago at the house of B&ja
jLfcnta Deva, when the names of the 24th generation of Kullnas were duly
^d. The writer of this note is himself one of the 24th in descent from K&li-
liitra. In some families the 26th, the 27th, and even the 28th descent,
ilready appeared, but nowhere later/' He takes the average at 27 genera-
ind fixes the date of the first advent of the Kfryasthas into Bengal in 964
Lassen thinks that A'diif6ra was a contemporary of S'rf Harsha, Or
tya, of Eanauj (a.d. 619-650).
Tedagarbha Y\
ff. Pertsch, Kihitiiavanidvalieharita^ pp. 2, 49. According to the
ities there quoted, Yedagarbha was of the S&var^a-gotra, and Chh&nda^a
f the y&tsa. Cf. also Grill's pref. to his ed. of the Ve^i-samh&ra.]
168 ENUMBaATION OF
which their five progenitors belonged, and are still conBideroc
as K&nyakubja Br&hma^as.
At the period when these priests were invited by the king
of Gaada, some S&raswata Br&hmanas, and a few Vaidikafl^
resided in Bengal. Of the Br&hma^as of S&raswata, none
are now found in Bengal ; but five &milies of Yaidikas wn
extant, and are admitted to intermarry with the Br&hmaQas
ofRddhL
Among the Br&hma^as of Y&rendra, eight fitmilies him
pre-eminence, and eight hold the second rank.^ Among [18J]
those of R&dh&, six hold the first rank.* The distinctivQ ^
pellations of the several families are borne by those of the
first rank ; but in most of the other femilies they are diBosed;
and iarman^ or iarmd^ the addition common to the whole tribe
of Br&hmanas, is assumed. For this practice, the priests of
Bengal are censured by the Br&hmanas of Mithili, and other
countries, where that title is only used on important occasion,
and in religious ceremonies.
In Mithil& the additions are fewer, though distinct fikmilies
are more numerous ; no more than three surnames are in nse
in that district, fh^l^i^u:^ Misra, and Ojh& ; each appropriaUd
to many families.
^ YjLbbndra BbXhma^as.
KuLfNA 8.
Maitra. BhimOy ox Kdli, Rudra^Vdgliu S^nyttminiy m 8iai4^
XdAari [Lahi^i]. Bhdduru Sadhu-Vugiti, Bhmdara lVk\ikd»i^\
The last was admitted by election of the other seveiL
8'uddua-s'rotrita. 8.
Kabhta-s'rotbita 84.
The names of these 92 families seldom occur in common interconne.
* Ri^HfTA BeXhmanas.
KulIna 6.
Mukhuti, vulgarly, Mukhufja* Odnguiu Kd^f^UU,
Ghoshdia, Band^agaii^ CktufvU,
Tulgarly, BanojL* Tolgarlj, CSUifk*
S'rotrita 60.
The names of these 60 families seldom occur in common interooom.
• [These aaiiiM are properly Jiiakhop6dk$fAifa, BandgopMky^m^ aod Ckm/tUfSAftf^)
INDIAN GLA8SE8. 169
The Edyasthas of Bengal claim descent from five K&yasthas
wlio attended the priests inrited fix)m K&nyakubja.^ Their
desGendaots branched into eighty-three &roilies ; and their
preoedenoe was fixed by Uie same prince Ball&la-sena, who
also adjusted the fiimily rank of other classes.
In Banga and Dakshina B&dh&, three families of K&yasthas
have pre-eminence ; eight hold the second rank.' The [190]
Kdyasthas of inferior rank generally assume the addition of
Bisa^ common to the tribe of S'udras, in the same manner as
other classes have similar titles common to the whole tribe.
The regular addition to the name of a Ejshatriya is Yarman ;
to tliat of a Yaisya, Gupta ; but the general title of Deva is
commonly assumed ; and, with a feminine termination, is also
borne by women of other tribes.'
^ [Their names were Makaranda Ohosba^ Datfaratha Basu, K&lid&sa Mitra,
Dtaaratlta or Yirft^ Gnha, and Pnnuhottama Datta. The first three acknow-
ledged serrioe to the Brahroans, and their descendants were therefore ranked as
JtwdiMM (noble). The Kolfnas and the Sanmaulikas intermarry. But the inferior
fimiilies, the Maolikas (more commonly called B&h&ture from the
li wofd for 72), may not intermarry with their superiors.]
* KXtabthas of Dakshina RI^hX and Bamoa.
KulIna 3.
OkaAm Vmu, ynlg. Bote. Mitra,
Sammaulika 8.
Ik, JDdtttL Earn, Fdlita.
8tnm, Sinha, J)6m. Ouha,
Mauuka 72.
^^uJUut, Oai^ Bttda. Huhin, Ndga, Bhadra,
^M4i. Fm, Rudra. Fdla, Aditya. Chandra,
^dmfo^ or Awn. ^mih, etc,
€}hdkiy§te,
*X1m others are omitted for the sake of brevity ; their names seldom occur in
^^^"Simion interoonrse.
^ [In Bengal the next difisions below the Brahmans are the Baidyas or medical,
^|*M the K&yasthas or writer cast, — then come the nine divisions called the
^^ibs S'&k, Le, the Oopa or cowherd, the M&ll or gardener, the Tail! or oilman,
"^Hq Tsntif or weaver, the Modaka or confectioner, the Yaraji or betel-cultivator,
'^^c Kal&la or potter, the Karmak&ra or smith, and the N&pita or barber. Below
^^€ie are the low casts from whom a Brahman cannot accept water, such as the
0&i4hika or spice-seller, S'ankhak&ra or worker in shells, Eaivartaka or fisher-
*»4n, Banvarpaba^ij or goldsmith, etc. ; some of the richest families in Calcutta,
'^'ho have been bankers for more than a century, belong to the Sauvar^aba^ij
Lower than all are the Bediyfrs, Poms, Hfcjis, etc.]
170 ENUMEEATION OF INDIAN CLASSES.
The distinotions of &mili6s are important in regulating
marriages. Genealogy is made a particular study ; a
greatest attention is given to regulate the alliance aocorc
established ruleS| particularly in the first marriage <
eldest son. The principal points to be observed are,
marry within the prohibited degrees ; nor in a family 1
by its name to be of the same primitive stock ; nor in
inferior rank ; nor even in an inferior branch of an equa
for within some &milies gradations are established,
among the Kulina of the K&yasthas, the rank has
counted from thirteen degrees ; and in every generatii
long as the marriage has been properly assorted, one •
has been added to the rank. But, should a marriage ti
tracted in a &mily of a lower degree, an entire forfeit
such rank would be incurred.
171
VII.
RVATIONS ON THE SECT OF JAINS.^
n the Asiatic Renearehes^ toI. ix. pp. 287-322.
Calcutta, 1807. 4to.]
^B information collected by Major Mackenzie, con-
*e]igious sect hitherto so imperfectly known as that of
, and which has been even confounded with one more
and more widely spread (the sect of Buddha), may
) ground of further researches, from which an exact
of the tenets and practice of a very remarkable
people may be ultimately expected. "Wliat Major
has communicated to the Society, comes from a
mtic source; the declarations of two principal priests
nas themselves. It is supported by similar infor-
'ocured from a like source, by Dr. F. Buchanan,
i journey in Mysore, in the year following the re-
: Seringapatam. Having the permission of Dr.
to use the extracts, which I had his leave to make
journal kept by him during that journey, I have
1 the preceding article, the information received by
priests of the Jaina sect.'
abled to corroborate both statements, from conver-
\i Jaina priests, and from books in my possession,
authors of the Jaina persuasion. Some of those
ere procured for me at Benares; others were ob-
Sflsay on the Jainas in vol. i.]
[ackenzie's paper is found in As. Retearehfs^ vol. ix. pp. 244-278,
;t from Dr. Buchanan's Journal, pp. 279-286.
172 OBSERVATIONS ON
tained from the present Jagat Set, at Murshid&b&d, who,
having changed his religion, to adopt the wor[192]8hip oi
Vishnu, forwarded to me, at my request, sach books of hit
former faith as were yet within his reach.
It appears, from the concorrent result of all Uie inqniriei
which have been made, that the Jainas constitute a sect of
Hindus, differing, indeed, from the rest in some very im*
portant tenets ; but following, in other respects, a simihr
practice, and maintaining like opinions and observances.
The essential character of the Hindu institutions is the
distribution of the people into four great tribes. This is ood-
sidered by themselves to be the marked point which separates
them from Mlechhas or Barbarians. The Jainas, it is fbond,
admit the same division into four tribes, and perform like
religious ceremonies, termed sanskdras^ from the birth of t
male to his marriage. They observe similar fasts, and pn^
tise, still more strictly, the received maxims for refrainin);
frt)m injury to any sentient being. They appear to recogniie
as subordinate deities, some, if not all, of the gods of the
prevailing sects ; but do not worship, in particular, the five
principal gods of those sects ; or any one of them by pre-
ference ; nor address prayers, or perform sacrifice, to the son,
or to fire : and they differ from the rest of the Hindus, in
assigning the highest place to certain deified saints, who,
according to their creed, have successively become superior
gods. Another point in which they materially disagree is the
rejection of the Vedas, the divine authority of which they
deny ; condemning, at the same time, the practice of sacrifices,
and the other ceremonies which tlie followers of the Veto
perform, to obtain specific promised consequences in this
world or in the next.
In this respect the Jainas resemble the Bauddhas or Sas-
gatas, who equally deny the divine authority of the Vedas;
and who similarly worship certain pre-eminent saints, admit-
ting likewise, as subordinate deities, nearly [193] the wboie
THE JAINS. 173
Jitheon of the orthodox Hindus. They differ, indeed, in
g»rd to the history of the personages whom they have
»fied ; and it may be hence concluded, that they have had
stinct founders ; but the original notion seems to have
ien the same. In &ct, this remarkable tenet, from which
le Jainas and Bauddhas derive their most conspicuous pecu-
irities, is not entirely unknown to the orthodox Hindus,
he followers of the Vedas, according to the theology which
explained in the Yed&nta, considering the human soul as a
^rtion of the divine and universal mind, believe that it is
poble of perfect union with the divine essence: and the
iters on the Ved£nta not only affirm, that this union and
BDtity are attained through a knowledge of God, as by them
Dght ; but have hinted, that by such means the particular
al becomes God, even to the actual attainment of supremacy.^
So &r the followers of *the Yedas do not virtually disagree
[ih the Jainas and Bauddhas. But they have not, like those
icts, framed a mythology upon the supposed history of the
ensons who have successively attained divinity; nor have
iiey taken these for the objects of national worship. All
kree sects agree in their belief of transmigration. But the
fainas are distinguished from the rest by tlieir admission of
10 opinions, as they themselves affirm, which are not founded
n perception, or on proof drawn from that, or from testimony.'
It does not, however, appear, that they really withhold
elief from pretended revelations: and the doctrines which
karaeterize the sect are not confined to a single tenet ; but
>Tm an assemblage of mythological and metaphysical ideas
:»und among other sects, joined to many visionary and fan-
4Utie notions of their own.
[194] Their belief in the eternity of matter, and perpetuity
rf the world, is common to the Sdnkhya philosophy, from
* Vfibad dn^jiika npanishad.
* [M&dhaYa makes them hold (like the Buddhists) only two pram&i^s, per-
^^Noa and inference.^
174 OBSERTATIONS ON
which it was, perhaps, immediately taken. Their descriptioi
of the world has much analogy to that which is given ii
the Pur&nas, or Indian theogonies : but the scheme has beei
rendered still more eztravagant. Their precaution to avok
injuring any being is a practice inculcated in the orthodoi
religion, but which has been carried by them to a Indierou
extreme.^
In their notions of the soul, and of its union with the bodj,
and of retribution for good and evil, some analogy is likewise
observable. The Jainas conceive the soul (jiva) to have boa
eternally united to a very subtil material body, or rather tc
two such bodies, one of which is invariable, and consists (if)
rightly apprehend their metaphysical notions) of the powen
of the mind ; the other is variable, and is composed of iti
passions and affections (this, at least, is what I undentaar
them to mean by the taijasa and kdrmana iariraa). Tb
soul, so embodied, becomes, in its successive transmigratioiu
united with a grosser body denominated auddrika^^ which n
tains a definite form, as man and other mundane beings ; ori
is joined with a purer essence, varying in its appearance a
pleasure, as the gods and genii. This last is termed taikdrtk
They distinguish a fifth sort of body, under the name o
dhdrika, which they explain as a minute form, issuing fitw
the head of a meditative sage, to consult an omniscient ssiDt
and returning with the desired information to the peFBOi
whence that form issued, or rather from which it wa
elongated; for they suppose the communication not to hsv^
been interrupted.
[195] The soul is never completely separated from matter
until it obtain a final release from corporeal sufferance, b}
deification, through a perfect disengagement from goodao<i
evil, in the person of a beatified saint. Intermediately ii
^ Jaina priests usually bear a broom adapts to sweep insects out of their vi/i
lest tbey should tread on the minutest being.
» [Audarika?]
THE JAINS. 175
oeiyes retribntion for the benefits or injuries ascribable to it
its actoal or precedent state, according to a strict principle
: retaliation, receiving pleasure or pain from the same
idividual, who, in a present or former state, was either
snefited or aggrieved.
Major Mackenzie's information confirms that which I had
iso received, concerning the distribution of these sectaries
ito clergy and laitj. In Hindust&n the Jainas are usually
i&ed Syauras ^ ; but distinguish themselves into or&vakas and
^atifl* The laity (termed S'r&vaka) includes persons of
iriooB tribes, as, indeed, is the case with Hindus of other
ets : but, on this side of India, the Jainas are mostly of the
GUBja class.' The orthodox Hindus have a secular, as well
a regular, clergy : a Br&hmana, following the practice of
ficiating at the ceremonies of his religion, without quitting
le order of a householder, may be considered as belonging
the secular clergy ; one who follows a worldly profession
hat of husbandry, for example) appertains to the laity ; and
> do people of other tribes : but persons, who have passed
ito the several orders of devotion, may be reckoned to consti-
ute the regular clergy. The Jainas have, in like manner,
^ests who have entered into an order of devotion ; and also
employ Br&hmai^as at their ceremonies ; and, for want of
Biahma^as of their own fiuth, they even have recourse to the
leeular clergy of the orthodox sect. This subject is sufficiently
plained by Major Mackenzie [196] and Dr. Buchanan ; I
hall, however, add, for the sake of a subsequent remark, that
be Jainas apply the terms Yati and S'ramana (in Pr&krit and
3indi written Sama^) to a person who has devoted himself
^ religious contemplation and austerity ; and the sect of
Buddha uses the word S'ramana for the same meaning. It
^s^Qot be doubted^ that the Sommonacodom of Siam is merely
* [Icoording to Shakespear aeicfxi.]
^ I undentand that their Yaii^ya class includes eighty- four tribes: of whom
^ most common are those denominated Osw&l, Agarw&l, Pariw&r, and Ehan-
176 OBSERVATIONS ON
a comiption of the words S'rama^a Gautama, the holj Chn-
tania or Buddha.^
Having been here led to a comparison of the Indian mk
which follow the precepts of the Vedas with those iriiiflii
reject their authority, I judge it necessary to notice anopinioi,
which has been advanced, on the relative antiquity of thon
religions ; and especially the asserted priority of the BauddlM
before the Br&hmanas.
In the first place, it may be proper to remark, thai tb
earliest accounts of India, by the Oreeks who visited tin
country, describe its inhabitants as distributed into sepanti
tribes.* Consequently a sect, which, like the modem Bauddhiii
has no distinction of cast, could not haye been then the moit
prevalent in India.
If is indeed possible that the followers of Buddha may, lib
the Jainas, have retained the distribution into four tribes, n
long as they continued in Hindust&n. But in that case, tliaj
must have been a sect of Hindus ; and the question, whidi ii
most ancient, the Br&hmana or the Bauddha, becomes s
solecism.
If it be admitted that the Bauddhae are originally a sect of
Hindus, it may be next questioned whether that, or any of tin
religious systems now established, be the most [197J andent.
I have, on a former occasion,' indicated the notions whieh I
entertain on this point. According to the hypothesis whidi I
then hinted, the earliest Indian sect of which we have vaj
present distinct knowledge, is that of the foUowers of tb
practical Vedas, who worshipped the sun, fire, and the A*
ments ; and who believed the efficacy of sacrifices, for tb
accomplishment of present and of future purposes. It may b
supposed that the refined doctrine of the Yedantis, or followoi
* See A8. Res. vol. vii. p. 416.
' Seven tribes are enumerated : but it is not difficult to reooneQe tin ^
tributions which are stated by Arrian and Strabo, with the present diitrilwitia
into four classes.
' As. Res. vol. viiL p. 474. (vol. i. p. 110, 111 [old. ed.], of the preeent irak.)
JHE JAINS. 177
leolc^eal and argumentatiye part of the YedaSi is of
): and it does not seem improbable that the sects of
of Buddha are still more modem. But I apprehend
YaishQavas, meaning particularly the worshippers of
d of Kpsh^a,^ may be subsequent to those sects, and
S^ivas also are of more recent date.
I it as an hypothesis, because I am not at present able
rt the whole of this position on grounds which may
aite satisfi^tory to others ; nor by evidence which
[rely convince them. Some arguments will, [198]
be advanced, to show that the supposition is not
a.
Dg sought history of E&shmir,' which in the original
was present to the Emperor Akbar, as related by
zl in the i^yini Akbari,' and of which a Persian
m exists, more ample than. Abu'l-FazUs brief abstract,
at length recovered in the original language.^ A
ount of this book will be hereafter submitted to the
aaation of a remark contained in a former essay (vol. i. p. [110, etc.]
snt work), I take this occasion of adding, that the mere mention of
Krishna, in a passage of the Yedas, without any indication of peculiar
ronld not authorize a presumption against the genuineness of that
my hypothesis ; nor, admitting its authenticity, fiimish an argument
t spteuL I suppose both heroes to have been known characters in
lions hj^ry ; but conjecture that, on the same basis, new fables have
acted, eleTatiug those personages to the rank of gods. On this sup-
I simple mention of them in genuine portions of the Yedas, particularly
•i of it which is entitled Br&hma^a, would not appear surprising.
f Elishiui, son of Devaki, is actually named in the Chh£uidogya
towards the close of the 3rd chapter, [iii. 17. 6.]) as haying received
information from Ghora, a descendant of Angiras. This passage,
escaped my notice, was indicated to me by Mr. Speke from the Per-
son of the Upanishad. [Cf. Bumouf, Introd. p. 136, where he thinks
rlier Bnddhi&t Stftras neyer allude to Epsh^a. The name occurs,
the *deTeloped Sutras' of Kep&l, as e,ff, Lalita-ristara, p. 148. 17.]
l&jatarHngini was analyzed by Wilson in Atiatic Reuarchety vol. xt.,
ted by Troyer for the Oriental Translation Society. The Sanskrit
nted at Calcutta in 1835.]
p. 178.
)y which I possess belonged to a Br&hraa^a, who died some months
in Calcutta. I obtained it from his heirs.
L [B88AY8 U.] 12
178 0B8EKVATI0N8 ON
Society : the present occasion for the mention of it, is a puBigo
which was cited by Dr. Buchanan,^ from the English inunda-
tion of the i^yini Akbari, for an import which is not suppoitad
by the Persian or Sanskrit text.
The author, after briefly noticing the colony established in
K&shmir by Sjisyapa, and hinting a succession of kings to tk
time of the Kurus and P&j^davas, opens his detailed histoij,
and list of princes, with Gonarda, a contemporary of
Yudhishthira. He describes Asoka (who was twelfth in
succession from Gonarda), and his son Jaloka, and grandMii
D&modara, as deyout worshippers of S'iya; and Jaloka, ia
particular, as a conqueror of the Mlechhas, or barbaiiam.
D&modara, according to this history, was succeeded by three
kin^ of the race of Turushka ; and they were followed hj i
Bodhisattwa, who wrested the empire from them by the aid of
S'akyasinha, and introduced the religion of Buddha into
K&shmir. He reigned a hundred years ; and the not
sovereign was Abhimanyu, who destroyed the Bauddhas, anl
re-established the doctrines of the Nila-puiii^t. This aecowil
is so far [199] fi^m proving the priority of the Bauddhas, tbt
it directly avers the contrary.
From the legendary tales concerning the last Buddha, m-
rent in all the countries, in which his sect now flourishes;' and
upon the authority of a life of Buddha in the Sanskrit ItD-
guage, under the title of Lalita-pur&na, which was procured bf
Major Knox, during his public mission in Nep&l, it can be
affirmed, that the story of Gautama Buddha has been od-
grafted on the heroic history of the lunar and solar races,
received by the orthodox Hindus ; an evident sign that his
sect is subsequent to that in which this &bulous histoiy ie
original.'
* As. Res. Tol. Ti. p. 165.
' Tacbard, Voyage de Siam, Lalonbdrs, Royaume de Siam,
3 [This probably alludes to the legend given from P&li sources by FanibSll '^
Ind. Stud. T. 412-428, and from Tibetan sources by Csoma de Eordsi, J.A.8.B^
ii. 389. The S'&kya royal family of Kapilayastu is there traced np to Ikihv&kA
THE JAIKS. 179
The same remark is applicable to the Jainaa, with whom
B legendary story of their saints also seems to be engrafted
the paurdnie tales of the orthodox sect. Sufficient in-
saiion of this will appear, in the passages which will be
bsaqnently cited firom the writings of the Jainas.
Considerable weight might be allowed to an argument de-
loed from the aggrarated extravagance of the fictions
mitted by the sects of Jina and Buddha. The mythology
the oiikodoK Hindus, their present chronology adapted to
tronomical periods, their legendary taies, their mystical
egorieo, are abundantly extrayagant. But the Jainas and
uiddhas surpass them in monstrous exaggerations of the
ne kind. In this rivalship of absurd fiction it would not
unreasonable to pronounce that to be most modem which
0 outgone the rest.
The greater antiquity of the religion of the Yedas is also
odered probable, from the preralence of a similar worship of
0 msn and of fire in ancient Persia. Nothing forbids the
ppoation thai a religious worship, which was there es-
Wshed in times of antiquity, may hare also existed [200]
om a remote period in the country between the Ganges and
le Indus.
The testimony of the Greeks preponderates greatly for the
iity prevalence of the sect, from which the present orthodox
BBndus are deriyed. Arrian, having said that the Brachmanes
vera the sages or learned among the Indians,^ mentions them
uiier the latter designation ((ro^tcrrol) as a distinct tribe,
^whieh, though inferior to the others in number, is superior
in rank and estimation : bound to no bodily work, nor con-
^ ^ loltr race. The Lalita-Tistara has a curious passage, where the
^^^^iuMttwas ooniult as to which familj S'&kya-muni is to be bom in. They
"iMeaiTelj reject as unworthy the royal families of the Magadhas, the Kotfalas,
^VitHU (of Kaotf&mbi), the republic of Yais'&li, the Pradvotanas (of Ujjayini),
**A Ibe royal families of Mathur&f Hastin6pura aiid M ithil& ; and they
^'^'tniQy select the S'&kyas of Eapiluvastu.}
Ksi TMT Bfaxfidntw ot 8^ o-o^iorol rois ^lySo7s tlviy, k. r. X. Exp. Al. tL 16.
180 OBSEBYATIONS ON
tributing anything from labour to the public use ; in Bhort,
no duty is imposed on that tribe, but that of sacrificing to the
gods, for the common benefit of the Indians ; and, when any
one celebrates a private sacrifice^ a person of that class beoomeB
his guide ; as if the sacrifices would not else be acceptable t9
tl^e gods/ ^
Here, as well as in the sequel of the passage, the priests tf
a religion consonant to the Yedas, are well described: and
what is said, is suitable to them ; but to no other sect, wbieh
b known to have at any time prevailed in India.
A similar description is more succinctly giyen by Stnb,
*' It is said, that the Indian multitude is divided into sem
classes ; and that the philosophers are first in rank, but ftwot
in number. They are employed, respectively, for printo
benefit, by those who are sacrifidng or worshipping, etc/'
In another place he states, on the authority of MegasUifioes,
^ Two classes of philosophers or priests ; the Brachmanes aad
Oermanes : ' but the Brachmanes are best [201] esteemed,
because they are most consistent in their doctrine/^ The
author then proceeds to describe their manners and opinions:
the whole passage is highly deserving of attention, and will be
found, on consideration, to be more suitable to the orthodox
Hindus, than to the Bauddhas or Jainas : particularly towtids
the close of his account of the Brachmanes, where he sajBi
^ In many things they agree with the Greeks ; for they affinn,
that the world was produced and is perishable ; and that it i<
spherical : that God, governing it as well as framing it, per-
vades the whole : that the principles of all things are various;
but water is the principle of the construction of the world :
* H9y4fi7}vrat ol irdyrts *lyio\ 4s iwrh, /ucUtoTa ytytdr iy fi\y oinoiffuf ol IfifiM^^
^i, K. T. A. Arrian, Indie, c. 11.
' ♦i]<rl 89) rh rw¥ 'IvZtitv irXriOos tU hrrh fi4(ni itpprjirBai, ical wp^mn f^ r^**
^i\o(r6^ovs litvai^ k, r. X. Strab. xv. c. 1. (p. 703, ed. Casaab.)
' [These arc probably the S'ramai^B, or Brahmanical ascetics.]
* "AAXtjv 8i Zudptffiy woiurai wtpl r&v <pi\o<r6^¥f 96o y4trri ^cC^'iewr,
fiiy BpaxjMyas fcoAci, rohs 8i Ttpfiayas, k, t. X. Strab. zy. c. 1. p. 712.
THE JAINS. 181
b, berides the four elements, there is a fifth nature, whence
Ten and the stars ; that the earth is placed in the centre of
Such and many other things are affirmed of reproduction,
of the soul. Like Plato, they devise hhlea concerning
immortality of the soul, and the judgment in the infernal
ons ; and other similar notions-r These things are said of
Braehrattnes.^
itrabo flotices likewise another order of people opposed
bhe Brachmanes, and called Pramnsar^ he characterizes
n as ' contentious callers, who ridiculed the Brachmanes,
dieir study of physiology and astronomy/ '
^hflostratus, in the life of Apollonius, speaks of the Brach-
les as worshipping the sun. ^ By day they pray to the
respecting the seasons, which he governs, that he would
I them in due time ; and that India might thrive : and, in
ereiiing, they intreat the solar [202] ray not to be im-
ent of night, and to remain as conducted from them.'^
*liny and Solinus ^ also describe the Gymnosophists con-
plating the sun : and Hierocles, as cited by Stephanus of
antium,^ expressly declares the Brachmanes to be particu-
f devoted to the sun.
lis worship, which distinguishes the orthodox Hindus,
I not seem to have been at any time practised by the rival
s of Jina and Buddha.
Porphyrins, treating of a class of religious men, among the
ians, whom the Greeks were accustomed to call Gymno-
bists, mentions two orders of them ; one, the Brachmanes ;
other, the Samanaeans : *' the Brachmanes receive religious
iwledge, like the priesthood, in right of birth; but the
[WDion {Ab, JResearehet, toI. xrii, p. 279) dfirives this name from Pr&-
dkt, a foUower of the Ny&ja school, bat this is very doabtfal.]
f iA«0'^ovf Tc Toif Bf>ax/ia<riy iLtrrtHiatpovirrcu Updfxyas ipiariKois rivas Koi
fKTuto6s. K, r. X. Strab. 1. c. p. 718, 719.
Mc6^ illkipOM fiiy oIp Vi>aov Mp rStv itpAp^ k, r. X. lib. iii. cap. 4.
Plin., lib. Tii. c. 2. Solin. i. 62.
Tb hpaxpJamv ^v\0¥ avZpAv <pi\o(r6<pwiff koI 0co7f (plXxv^ riXiip 8i fidXiffra
»9imiUvmp, Stephan. de Urbibtu, ad tocctn Brachmaues.
182 OBSEBYATIONS ON
Samaneeans are select, and consist of persons choosing to pro-
secute divine studies.' He adds, on the authority of Bm>
desanes, that *' all the Brachmanes are of one race ; tot thej
are all descended from one father and one mother. Bat the
Samanasans are not of their race ; being selected from the whole
nation of Indians, as before mentioned. The Brachman is sub-
ject to no domination, and contributes nothing to others.^ ^
In this passage, the Brachman, as an hereditary ^rdorrf
priesthood, is contrasted with another religious order; towUdi
persons of various tribes were admissible : and the^amanasiWi
who are obviously the same with the Oermanes of Stnbo^
were doubtless Sanny&sis ; but may have be[203]lopged to
any of the sects of Hindus. The name seems to bear soM
affinity to the Sramai^, or ascetics of the Jainas and Bauddhn
Clemens Alexandrinus does indeed hint, that all the Bndh
manes revered their wise men as deities ; * and in another
place, he describes them as worshipping Hercules and Fan.'
But the following passage from Clemens is most in point
Having said, that philosophy flourished anciently among thfl
barbarians, and afterwards was introduced among the Greeks,
he instances the prophets of the Egyptians, the Chaldeee ol
the Assyrians ; the Druids of the Gauls (Galatae) ; the Simir
nseans of the Bactrians; the philosophers of the Celts; the
Magi of the Persians ; the Gymnosopbists of tiie Indians: vii
proceeds thus : — ' They are of two kinds, some called Sar-
^ Porph. de Abstinentiay lib. iv. [This qaotation, from BaFdesanes* Iniun,'^
the fullest classical account of the Buddhists. He dividea the Indian Theologi
into Brahmans and SamansBans, and then describes the latter at some length.
Amongst -other things he says that the novice must shave his bodj, adiypt i
peculiar dress, and give up his property, as well as abandon his famfly. H*^
iiTcd outside the city in houses of royal foundation ; they prayed and took thtf
meals at the sound of a bell, and were not allowed to marry or hold property.
Each of these particulars may be illustrated from Mr. Hardy's .Ea*<fr»ijr«Mr«*«*'"»
and there cannot be a doubt that the Samanaei are Buddhist asceticfl, see LtfND.
hid. Alt., vol. ii., p. 700; Muller's Introd. to Budd/taghosha'a jPiraHOtff'
lii., cxxxiii. Samana is the PUi form of the older S'ramana.'\
' Kal fioi doKovffiif, etc. Strom, lib. i. c. 15. p. 130, ed. Sylb.
• Strom, lib. iii. c. 7. p. 194, ed. S}lb.
THE JAINS. 183
lanee, others Brachmanes. Among the Sarmanes, those
fled Allobii ^ neither inhabit towns, nor hare houses ; they
re dad with the bark of trees,* and eat acorns, and drink
Iter with their hands. They know not marriage, nor pro*
wtion of children ; like those now called Encratetai (chaste)
bere are likewise, among the Indians, persons obeying the
oeeepts of Batta, whom they worship as a god, on account of
B extreme renerableness.^'
Here, to my apprehension, the followers of Buddha are [204]
Murly distinguished from the Brachmanes and Sarmanes.^
lie latter, called Germanes by Strabo, and SamansBans by
>rphyriu8, are the ascetics of a different religion ; and may
kTe belonged to the sect of Jina, or to another. The Brach-
■nes are apparently those who are described by Philostratus
id Hierocles, as worshipping the sun ; and, by Strabo and by
irian, as performing sacrifices for the common benefit of the
ition, as well as for individuals. The religion which they
raetised was so &r conformable with the precepts of the
edas : and their doctrine and observances, their manners and
Nnioiis, as noticed by the authors above cited, agree with no
her religious institutions known in India, but the orthodox
St. In short, the Br&hmai;^ are distinctly mentioned by
reek authors as the first of the tribes or castes, into which
e Indian nation was then, as now, divided. They are
preesly discriminated from the sect of Buddha by one
cient author, and from the Sarmanes, or SamansBans,
seetics of various tribes) by others. They are described by
^ Same with the Hylobii of Strabo.
* The bark dress indicates Brahmanical ascetics, cf. Moillerf ib. p. lii.
' Arrrhp9^ro6Tmy rh y4ros ol fiir JUipfidtftu ain&p, ol 9h Bpax/Aoyoi icaXoifiwot,
1 Tifir lapficafmv ol AXX6fiu>i 'irpoirayop€v6fA€yoif oi^c ir6\tts olicoSo'iy, o0rc
riyms #xov<''0'9 ZMpmv Hi ikib^i4innnnat ^Xoiots, koI hcp6lipva ertrovmcUf iccil 08»f>
uf X*9^^ vlrowrtp* oh ydficw^ oh muSovoitor lacurtyf Sxnrtp ol vw ^'ErfKpa-nfroX
ikt6fUP0i, tUrl 8^ tSp ly9&w ol ro7s Bo^rra irti06fi€voi waparyydXfieuriy* tv 9i
t^pfioXilw trtfuf^TtfTos fflf Bthtf rrrifi'fiKatri, Strom, lib. L c. 15. p. 113, ed. Sylb.
* The passage has been interpreted differently ; as if Clemens said, that the
^Mii were those who worshipped Bntta. (See Moreri, Art. Saman^ens,) The
:it IB ambiguous.
184 OBSERYATIOlfS ON
more than one authority, as worshipping the sua, as per
forming sacrifices, and as denying the eternity of the wM
and maintaining other tenets incompatible with the ani^ositioi
that the sects of Buddha or Jina could be meant. TM
manners and doctrine, as described by these authors, are qmti
conformable with the notions and practice of the orthodn
Hindus. It may therefore be confidently inferred, that tin
followers of the Vedas flourished in India when it m
yisited by the Greeks under Alexander : and continued k
flourish from the time of Megasthenes, who described themii
the fourth century before Christ, to that of Porphyrins, ik
speaks of [205] them, on later authority, in the third ceotn]
after Ghrist.
I have thus stated, as briefly as the nature of the soigici
permitted, a few of the fiftcts and reasons by which the opiiaoa
that the religion and institutions of the orthodox Hindus iii
more modem than the doctrines of Jina and of Buddha, nuf
as I think, be successfully resisted. I have not nndertakea i
formal refutation of it, and have, therefore, passed unnotisid
objections which are founded on misapprehension.
It is only necessary to remark, that the past prevaleiice c
either of those sects in particular places, with its subseqaas
persecution there by the worshippers of Siva, or of Yishjj^ii, i
no proof of its general priority. Hindust&n proper was th
early seat of the Hindu religion, and the acknowledged endl
of both the sects in question. They were foreigners in tb
Peninsula of India ; and admitting, as a Act (what need not
however, be conceded), that the orthodox Hindus had notbcei
previously settled in the Kar^&taka and other districts in
which the Jainas or the Bauddhas have flourished, it cannot
be thence concluded that the followers of the Vedas did noi
precede them in other provinces.
It may be proper to add, that the establishment of fU-
ticular sects among the Hindus who acknowledge the Yeta
does not afi*ect the general question of relative antiquity. Tk
THE JAIK8. 180
b1 doetrines introdueed by S'ankaii-ch&rya, by B&m&nuja,
If MidhsY&ch&rja,^ and of course the origin of the sects
li reeeiye those doctrines may be referred, with precision,
e periods when their anthers lired : but the religion in
h they are sectaries, has undoubtedly a much earlier origin.
» revert to the immediate object of these obsenrations,
li 18 that of explaining and supporting the information
] communicated by Major Mackenzie : I shall, for that
Me, state the substance of a few passages from a work of
. authority among the Jainas, entitled Kalpa-stitra, and
a Tocabulary of the Sanskrit language by an author of
ainasect.
le Abhidh&na-chint&mani, a Tocabulary of synonymous
ii by Hemachandri-ch&rya, is divided into six chapters
dbs), the contents of which are thus stated in the author's
ee. *• The superior deities (Devadhideyas) are noticed in
iiBt chapter ; the gods (Deyas) in the second ; men in the
. ; bdngs furnished with one or more senses in the fourth ;
ofemal regions in the fifth ; and terms of general use in
ixth.' ' The earth,' observes this author, * water, fire,
md trees, have a single organ or sense {indriya) ; worms,
spiders, and the like, have two, three, or four senses ;
lants, peacocks, fish, and other beings moving on the
L, in the sky or in water, are furnished with five senses :
10 are gods and men, and the inhabitants of hell.'
le first chapter begins with the synonyma of a Jina or
>d saint : among which the most common are Arhat,
iwara, Tirthaukara or Tirthakara: others, m. Jina,
iijna, and Bhagavat, occur also in the dictionary of Amara
nns for a Jina or Buddha ; but it is deserving of remark,
neither Buddha, nor Sugata is stated by Hemachandra
ig these synonyma. In the subsequent chapter, how-
, on the subject of inferior gods, after noticing the gods of
EUiher Madhw&ch&rya, who founded the sect of the M&dhw&ch6ri8, see
n*8 £t§ayt, Tol. i., pp. 139-160, and Sarvadariana^tangraha^ pp. 61-73.]
186 OBSERYATIONS ON
Hindu mythology (Indra and the rest, inclading Brahini,
etc.), he states the synonjma of a Baddha, Sngata, or
Bodhisattwa ; and afterwards specifies seren anch, m,
Yipasyi, 6ikhi, Yiswanna, Kukuchhanda, K&nchana, and
K&syapa,^ expressly [307] mentioning as the seventh Bnddh^
S'&kyasinha, also named Sarv&rthasiddha, son of S addhodaat
and M&y&, a kinsman of the son, from the race of Ghrataouk
In the first chapter, after stating the general terms for s
Jina or Arhat, the author proceeds to enumerate twenty-four
Arhats, who have appeared in the present Ayasarpi^i age:
and afterwards observes, that excepting Munisuvrata and
Nemi, who sprung from the race of Hari, the remainiiig
twenty-two Jinas were bom in the line of Ikshw&ku.* Tfci
finthers and mothers of the several Jinas are then mentioiMl;
their attendants ; their standards or characteristics ; and the
complexions with which they are figured or described.
The author next enumerates twenty-four Jinas who bait
appeared in the past Utsarpini period ; and twenty-four otbeif
who will appear in the future age: and, through the remaioder
of the first book, explains terms relative to the Jaina religion.
The names of the Jinas are specified in Major Mackenzie*!
communication.' Wherever those names agree with Hemir
chandra'^s enumeration, I have added no remark ; but where i
difierence occurs I have noticed it, adding in the margin the
name exhibited in the Sanskrit text.
I shall here subjoin the information gathered frx>m Hemi-
chandra's vocabulary, and from the Kalpa-sutra and other
authorities, relative to the Jinas belonging to the preecnt
period. They appear to be the deified saints, who are now
^ Two of these names occur in Captain Mabony*8 and Mr. JoinTille** liiti^
five Buddhas. As. Res. toI. vii. p. 32 and 414. [Bohtlingk and Risa fd
Yi^wabhO and Krakuchhanda.]
* I understand that the Jainas have a mythological poem entitled HarinD^
pur&i;^ different from the Harivansa of the orthodox. Their Ikshwfckii, I^
wise, is a different person; and the name is said to be a title of their fint/iA*t
Rishabha-deva. [Cf. Wilson's Mackenzie Catal. i. p. 163.]
' [In the Asiatic Researches, toI. ix. p. 244, etc.]
THE JAINS. 187
wonhipped by the Jaina sect. They are all figured in the
same contemplatiye posture, with little yaria[208]tion in their
appearance, besides a difference of complexion : but the sereral
Jinas have distinguishing marks or characteristic signs, which
SIB usually engrayed on the pedestals of their images, to dis-
criminate them.
1. ^ishabha, or Yrishabha, of the race of Ikshw&ku, was
>oxi of N&bhi by Marudeyi: he is figured of a yellow or golden
complexion ; and has a bull for his characteristic. His stature,
^ is pretended, was 500 poles (dhanw) ; and the duration of
^lis life, 8,400,000 great years (piirm varsha) , According to
the Kalpa-siitra, as interpreted by the commentator, he was
^Hum at Kosali or Ayodhyd (whence he is named Kausalika),
^4>ward8 the latter part of the third age. He was the first
^ing, first anchoret, and first saint ; and is therefore entitled
3^rathama BAj&, Prathama Bhiksh&kara, Prathama Jina, and
Trathama Tirthankara. At the time of his inauguration as
long, his age was 2,000,000 years. He reigned 6,300,000
yetn ; and then resigned his empire to his sons : and haying
^ployed 100,000 years in passing through the seyeral stages
tf austerity and sanctity, departed fix)m this world on the
summit of a mountain, named Asht&pada. The date of his
apotheosis was 3 years and 8} months before the end of the
third age, at the precise interyal of one whole age before the
deification of the last Jina.
2. Ajita was son of Jitasatru by Yijayd : of the same race
'^^th the first Jina, and represented as of the like complexion ;
^^^th an elephant for his distinguishing mark. His stature
'^'as 450 poles ; and his life extended to 7,200,000 great years.
Kis deification took place in the fourth age, when fifty lakshas
^fkror^ of oceans of years had elapsed out of the tenth kror of
The diririoiifl of time hare been noticed by Major Mackenzie, As. Res. vol.
'^ p. 257, and will be farther explained.
188 OBSERYATIOirS ON
[209] 3. Sambhaya was son of JiUri by Send : of the nn
race and complexion with the preceding ; distingaished hj
hone ; his stature was 400 poles ; he liyed 6,000,000 yein
and he was deified 30 bMuu of krors of sdffartm after A
second Jina.
4. Abhinandana was son of Sambara by Siddh&rdi4: h
has an ape for his peculiar sign. His stature was 300 pides
and his life reached to 6,000,000 years. His apotheosis im
later by 10 lakshas of krora of sdgaras than the foregoing.
5. Sumati was son of Megha by Mangali : he has a cuki
for his characteristic. His life endured 4,000,000 yean, ad
his deification was nine lakihaa of krora of sdgaraa after ih
fourth Jina.
6. Padmaprabha was son of S'ridhara by Susimi; oftti
same race with the preceding, but described of a red eod^
plexion. He has a lotas for his mark : and lived 8,000,001
yean, being 200 poles in stature. He was deified 90,001
krora o(adgaraa after the fifth Jina.
7. Sup&rSwa was son of Pratishtha by Prithwf; of tli
same line with the foregoing, but represents
with a golden complexion ; his sign is the figur
called Swastika. He lived 2,000,000 yein
and was deified 9,000 krora of adgaraamim
quent to the sixth Jina.
8. Ghandraprabha was son of Mah£sena by Lakshnui^i
of the same race with the last, but figured with a fair com
plexion : his sign is the moon : his stature was 150 poles, lOC
he lived 1,000,000 yeare ; and his apotheosis took phM^e 9iK
krora of adgaraa later than the seventh Jina.
9. Pushpadanta, also named Suvidhi, was son of Sopi^
by R&m& : of the same line with the preceding, [210] vi
described of a similar complexion : his mark is a maiiiv
monster (makara) : his stature was 100 poles, and the dnfl
tion of his life 200,000 vears. He was deified 90 krora
adgaraa af^er the eighth Jina.
THE JAINS. 189
10. I^iiala was son of Dridharatha by Nandd : of the same
race, and represented with a golden complexion
his characteristic is the mark called S'rivatsa. His
stature was 90 poles ; and his life 100,000 great
years ; his deification dates 9 krors of adgaras
later than the preceding.
11. S'reyto (S'reyas) or S'rey&nsa, was son of Vishnu by
Yish^d; of the same race, and with a similar complexion;
IiaiiDg a rhinoceros for his sign. He was 80 poles in stature,
and lived 8,400,000 common years. His apotheosis took
place more than 100 adgaras of years before the close of the
fourth age.
12. y&suptijya was son of Yasupiiijya by Jay&: of the
same race, and represented with a red complexion, haying a
buflUo for his mark; and he was 70 poles high, lived
7,200,000 years, and was deified later by 54 adgaras than the
deventh Jina.
13. Vimala was son of Eritavarman by S'y&m&; of the
same race : described of a golden complexion, having a boar
ibr his characteristic ; he was 60 poles high, lived 6,000,000
years, and was deified 30 sdgaras later than the twelfth Jina.
14. Ananta, also named Anantajit, was son of Sinhasena
by Suyas&h. He has a falcon for his sign ; his stature was 50
poles, the duration of his life 3,000,000 years, and his
apotheosis 9 sdgaras afler the preceding.
15. Dharma was son of Bh&nu by Suvrat& ; characterized
l>y the thunderbolt : he was 45 poles in stature, and lived
X,00O»0OO years: he was deified 4 adgaras later than the
iEiffegoing.
[211] 16. S'&nti was son of Yiswasena by Achird, having
an antelope for his sign; he was 40 poles high, lived 100,000
jears, and was deified 2 sdgaras subsequent to the last men-
tbned.^
17. Eunthu was son of Sura, by Sri ; he has a goat for his
^ The life of thiB Jina is the subject of a separate work entitled S'&nti-pur&na.
190
OBSSRYATIONS OK
mark; his height was 35 poles, and his life 95,000 yeait.
His apotheosis is dated in the last pafya of the fourth age.
18. Ara was son of Sadarsana by Deyi : charaeteruEed bjr
the figure called Nand&varta :
1
/
his stature was 30 poles, his life 84,000 years, and his deifi*
cation 1000 hroT% of years before the next Jina.
19. Malli was son of Kumbha by Prabh&yati ; of the wsa
race ¥rith the preceding; and represented of a blue complexion;
haying a jar for his characteristic ; he was 25 poles high, and
liyed 55,000 years ; and was deified 6,584,000 yean beftif
the close of the fourth age.
20. Munisuvrata, also named Suvrata, or Muni, was son of
Sumitra by Padm&, sprung from the race called Harivansa;
represented with a black complexion, having a tortoise for hifl
sign : his height was 20 poles, and his life extended to 30,000
years. His apotheosis is dated 1,184,000 years before the
end of the fourth age.
[212] 21. Nimi was son of Vijaya by Vipr& ; of the nee
of Ikshw&ku : figured with a golden complexion ; having for
his mark a blue water-lily {nUotpala) ; his stature was IS
poles; his life 10,000 years; and his deification took place
584,000 years before the expiration of the fourth age.
22. Nemi, also called Arishtanemi, was son of the kin
Samudrajaya by S'ivd ; of the line denominated HarivaDsa
described as of a black complexion, having a conch for
sign. According to the Kalpa-sutra, he was bom at Sori,
pura ; and, when 300 years of age, entered on the practice
THE JAIX8. 191
terity. He employed 700 yean in pMsmg tluoiigli the
)nl stages of sanctity ; and, haring attained tlie age of
0 years, departed from this world ai IJjjjinta, whidi is
Tibed as the peak of a mountain, the same, aeeording to
commentator, with Giran&ra.^ The date of this event is
K)0 years before the close of the fourth age.
3. P&rswa (or P&rswan&tha) was son of the king Aswasena
V4m&, or B&m&deyi; of the race of 1kahw4kn; figured
1 a blue complexion, having a serpent for his ehaiacteristie.
life of this celebrated Jina» who was perhaps the real
der of the sect, is the subject of a poem entitled P&rswa-
A-charitra. According to the Kalpa-sutra, he was bom
oijL&rasi,^ and commenced his series of religious austerities
hirty years of age; and having completed them in 70
8, and having consequently attained the age of 100 years,
led on Mount Sammeya or Samet.' This ha^ened pre-
Y [213] 250 years before the apotheosis of the next Jina :
I stated by the author of the Kalpa-siitra ai 1230 years
« the date of that book.
l« Yardham&na, also named Yira, Mah&vira, etc., and
amed Gharama-tirthakrit, or last of the Jinas : emphati-
'called S'ramais^La, or the saint. He is reckoned son of
hirtha by Trisali; and is described <tf a golden com-
ion, having a lion for his symboL
he subject of the Kalpa-sutra, before cited, is the life and
itations of this Jina.^ I shall here state an abstract of his
oiy as there given, premising that the work, like other
poos books of the Jainas, is composed in the Pr&krit called
;adhi ; and that the Sanskrit hmguage is used by the Jainas
'. vndentaad this to be a momttun atnatod in the wot of India ; and mneh
d bj pilgrims. [It is in the peninsula of Kattiwar.]
9id6pur&, in the snbnrbs of Benares, is erteemed hoi j, as the place of his
amet-Ahaim, called in Major Bennel's map Panonaot, is situated among
318 between Bib&r and BengaL Its holiness is great in the estimation of
ttnss : and it is said to be Tisited by pilgrims from the remotest proTinces of
« [Translated bj Sterenton, 1S48].
192 OBSEBYATIONS ON
for translations, or for commentaries, on account of the great
obscurity of the Prdkrit tongue.^
According to this authority, the last Tirthankara, quittiog
the state of a deity, and reUnquishing the longevity of a god,
to obtain immortality as a saint, was incarnate towardfl ilie
close of the fourth age (now past), when 75 years and 8|
months of it remained. He was at first conceired by Deri-
nand&, wife of Bishabhadatta, a Br&hma^a inhabiting Br&h-
manakunda-gr&ma, a city of Bh&rata-varsha, in Jambu-dwipL
The conception was announced to her by [214] dreaoML
Indra,' or S akra, who is the presiding deity on the south of
Meru, and abides in the first range of celestial regions, called
Saudharma, being apprised of Mahfivira^s incarnation, |Ht>-
strated himself, and worshipped the future saint; but reflecting
that no great personage was ever bom in an indigent and
mendicant &mily, as that of a Br&hma^a, Indra commanded
his chief attendant Harii^aigumeshi, to remove the fetus from
the womb of Devdnandi to that of Trisali, wife of Siddh&rUi%
a prince of the race of Ikshw&ku, and of the E&syapa fiunily.
This was accordingly executed ; and the new conception was
announced to Trisald by dreams ; which were expounded by
soothsayers, as foreboding the birth of a future Jina. In doe
time, he was born ; and his birth celebrated with great re-
joicings.
His fatlicr gave him the name of Yardham&na. But he is
also known by two other names, S'ramana and MahafiAi
His father has similarly three appellations, Siddh&rtha,
Srey&nsa, and Yasaswi; and his mother likewise has three
* This Pr&krit, which does not differ much from the lanpfuage introdaeedfcj
dramatic poets into their writings, and assi^sned hy them to the female penont
in th(;ir dramas, is formtnl from Sanskrit. I once conjectured it to hare be*
formerly the colloquial dialect of the Skraswata Brfihraans [page [21] of tbepnMBt
Tolume] ; but this conjecture has not been confirm e<i by further researchei. *
believe it to be the same language with the P&li of Ceylon. [Cf. Weber, frH*
nient drr Bhaffavatl.]
' The Jainas admit numerous Indras ; but some of the attributes, stilad lA
this place by the Kalpa-sCitra, belong to the Indra of the Indian mythology.
THE JAINS. 193
titles, Trisala, Yidehadinnfi, and Pritik&rini. His paternal
uncle was Sopdrswa, his elder brother, Nandivardhana, his
nster (mother of Jamali) Sudarsand. His wife was Yasodd,
by whom he had a daughter (who became wife of Jam&li),
named Ano]j& and Priyadarsan&. His grand-daughter was
eilled deshavatf and Yasovati.
His &ther and mother died when he was twenty-eight years
of age; and he afterwards continued two years with his elder
l»other : after the second year he renounced worldly pursuits,
tnd departed, amidst the applauses of gods and men, to practise
nsterities. The progress of his [215] devout exercises, and
of his attainment of divine knowledge, is related at great
leDgtL Finally^ he became an Arhat, or Jina, being worthy
ofnniversal adoration, and having subdued all passions;^ being
likewise omniscient and all-seeing: and thus, at the age of
86Tenty-two years, he became exempt from all pain for ever.
This event is stated to have happened at the court of king
Haitip&la^ in the city of P&w&puri or P&p&puri ;^ and is dated
^ltt«e years and eight and a half months before the close of
Ae fourth age, (called Duhkhamd-mkhamd) in the great period
i^ed avaaarpini. The author of the Kalpa-sutra mentions,
•
^ 8e?eral places, that when he wrote, 980 years had elapsed
^ee this apotheosis.' According to tradition, the death of
^^^ last Jina happened more than two thousand four hundred
years since ; and the Ealpa-stitra appears, therefore, to have
^^^en composed about fifteen hundred years ago.^
^ So tiie eommentator expoundB both terms.
^ Netr Bfjagriha, in Bib&r. It is accordingly a place of sanctity. Other
*^^ plaeei, whieh hare been mentioned to me, are Champ&puri, near Bh&galp6r,
^^baadriTAti diitant ten miles from Benares, and the ancient city Hastin&pura in
-^industin: alio 8'atmnjaya, said to be situated in the west of India. [Steyenson
^^■mbet it as ** 94 miles from Bbownag:ur in Gnzerat."]
' SsTnspawa bbagavan Mah&birassa j&ya dul^kha hi^assa nava b&sa say&in
oiknnt6in dasamaasaya b&sa sayassa ayam asi ime sambachhare k&le gachhai.
**Kbe hundred years haye passed since the adorable Mah&bfra became exempt
froQ pain ; and of the tenth century of years, eighty are the time which is now
•l«pied.**
* The mott ancient copy in my possession, and the oldest one which I have
"^ is dated in 1614 Samvat : it is nearly 250 years old.
TOL. in. [■88AT8 U.] 13
194 OBSERVATIONS ON
The several Jinas are described as attended by nnmeroas
followers, distributed into classes, under a few chief disdples,
entitled G^nadharas, or Ghm&dhipas. The last Jina had nine
such classes of followers, under eleven disciples ; Indrabhuti,
Agnibhuti, V&yubhtiti, Yyakta, Sudharm&, Manditapntia,
Mauryaputra, Akamplta, [216] Achalabhr&t&, Mevfaya,'
Prabh&sa. Nine of these disciples died with Mah&vira; aod
two of them, Indrabhuti and Sudhann&, survived him, and
subsequently attained beatitude. The Ejklpa-siitra adds, that
all ascetics, or candidates for holiness, were pupils in ra^
cession from Sudharmd, none of the others having left
successors. The author then proceeds to trace the succession
from Sudharmd to the different idkhdSy or orders of priests,
many of which appear still to exist. This ennmentioD
disproves the list communicated to Major Mackenzie by the
head priest of Belligola.
The ages and periods which have been more than ones
alluded to in the foregoing account of the Jainas, are brisf^
explained in Hemachandra*s vocabulary. In the seeond
chapter, which relates to the heavens and the gods, etc., the
author, speaking of time, observes, that it is distinguished
into Avasarpini and Utsarpini^ adding that the whole
period is completed by twenty kotis of kotk of sdgarat; or
2,000,000,000,000,000 oceans of years. I do not find that
he anywhere explains the space of time denominated sdgara^
or ocean. But I understand it to be an extravagant estimate
of the time, which would elapse, before a vast cavity filledL
with chopped hairs could be emptied, at the rate of onepieeeO'
hair in a century: the time requisite to empty such a carit^
measured by a yojana every way, is a palya;^ and that
peated ten kotis of kotis of times,' is a sdgara.
Each of the periods above mentioned is stated by He
* [Hemachandra and As. Res toI. ix. read Metdrya.']
* [Of. Hemachandra'B Abhidhdna 132, and p. 304. Other authoritiei
different statement, see Wilson, Essuys, i. 309.]
* 1,000,000,000,000,000 |Nr/ya«= one tdgaroy ox adgoropama.
THE JAINS. 195
u comprising six ara$ ; the names and duration of
fp^e with the information communicated to Major
ae. In the <Mie, or the declining period, they pass
treme felicity (ekdnta mkha\ through [217] inter-
gradations, to extreme misery (ekdnta duhkha). In
)r, or rising period, they ascend, in the same order,
sery to felicity. During the three first ages of one
mortals lived for one, two^ or three palyaB; their
ras one, two, or three leagues (gavy&tis); and they
i on the firuit of miraculous trees; which yielded
oosly food, apparel, ornaments, garlands, habitation,
light, musical instruments, and household utensils,
^urth age, men lived ten millions of years ; and their
7BS 500 poles {dhanusy : in the fifth age, the life of
hundred years : and the limit of his stature, seven
in the sixth, he is reduced to sixteen years, and the
* one cubit. In the next period, this succession of
dversed, and afterwards they recommence as before.
we cannot but observe, that the Jainas are still more
ant in their inventions than the prevailing sects of
absurd as these are in their fables.
third chapter, Hemachandra, having stated the terms
mount and tributary princes, mentions the twelve
urtis, and adds the patronymics and origin of them,
is sumamed Arshabhi, or son of Rishabha ; Maghavan
f Yijaya; and Sanatkum&ra, of Aswasena. S&nti,
and Ara are the Jinas so named. Sagara is de-
\a son of Sumitra ; Subhtima is entitled Kfirtavirya ;
9 said to be son of Padmottara ; Harishena of Hari ;
Yijaya ; Brahmadatta of Brahma ; and all are de-
have sprung from the race of Ikshw&ku.
} follows, which, like the preceding, agrees nearly with
mation communicated to Major Mackenzie. It con-
nine persons, entitled Ydsudevas, and Erishnas.
iprishtha is mentioned with the patronymic Pr&j&-
igg OBSERVATIONS ON
patya; Dwiprishtha is said to faa^e ^ning from [218]
Brahma ; Swayambhii is expresedj called a son of Budra; and
Purushottamai of Soma, or the moon. Punubasinha is 81l^
named ^f!, or son of ^iya ; FurushapnQdarika is said (o
have sprung from Mahfisiras. Datta is termed son of
Agnisinha ; Nir&yana has the patronymic D&aarathi (wiiich
belong to R&machandra) : and Ejrishna is described as sprang
from Yasudeva.
Nine other persons are next mentioned, under the desigDa-
tion of Sukla-balas, viz. 1. Achala, 2, Yijaya^ 3. Bhadia, 4.
Suprabha, 5. Sudarsana, 6. i^anda, 7. Nandana, 8. Padma,
9« R&ma.
They are followed by a list of nine foes of YishigLU: it oor-
responds nearly with one of the lists noticed by Major
Mackenzie, viz. 1. Aswagriva, 2. T&raka, 3. Meraka, i
Madhu, 5. Nisumbha, 6. BaU, 7. Prahl&da. 8. The king of
Lanka (R&vana). 9. The king of Magadha (Jar&sandha).
It is observed, that, with the Jinas, these complete the num-
ber of sixty-three eminent personages, viz. 24 Jinas, 12 Chak-
ravartis, 9 Y&sudevas, 9 Baladevas, and 9 Pratiy&sudevas.
It appears from the information procured by Major Mac-
kenzie, that all these appertain to the heroic history of the Jaina
writers. Most of them are also well known to the orthodox
Hindus, and are the principal personages in the Pur&nas.
Hcniachandra subsequently notices many names of princes,
fomiliarto the Hindus of other sects. He begins with Prithu
son of Vena, whom he terras the first king : and goes on to
M&ndh4t&, Harischandra, Bharata son of Dushyanta, etc.
Towards the end of his enumeration of conspicuous princes, he
mentions Karna, king of Champd and Anga ; H41a or
&4Iivahana ; and Kumd[219]rap&la, sumamed Chaulukya, »
royal saint, who seems, from the title of Param&rhata, to hate
been a Jaina, and apparently the only one in that enumeration.
In a subsequent part of the same chapter, Hemachandrai
(who was himself a theologian of his sect, and author of hymn*
THE JAINS. 197
) mentiosB and dificriininate& the various sects ; viz.
fttas, or Jainas ;. 2ndl j, Sangatas, or Baaddhas ; and,
Ix philosophical schools, viz. 1st. Naiy&yika; 2nd.
rd. K&pila or Sfinkhya; 4th. Vaiseshika;« 6th. V&r-
» or N&stika; and 6th. Gh&rv&ka, or Lok&yatika.
last are reputed atheistical, as denying a future state
>Tidence. If those be omitted, and the two Mim&ns&s
we have the six schemes of philosophy familiar to
m circle of the sciences.
»arth chapter of Hemachandra's vocabulary relates to
1 animals. Here the author mentions the distinctions
ies which appear to be adopted by the Jainas; viz. the
[varaha) named Bharata, Air&vata, and Yideha, to
adds Euru ; noticing also other distinctions familiar
[indus of other sects, but explaining some of them
f to the ideas of the Jainas. * Arydvarta,' he observes,
native land of Jinas, Ghakris, and Ardhachakris,
between the Yindhya and Himadri mountains.' This
x>nfines the theatre of Jaiua history, religious and
ithin the limits of Hindust&n proper,
sage in Bh&skara's treatise on the sphere will suggest
observations concerning the opinions of the Jainas on
ions of the earth. Having noticed, for the purpose of
; it, a notion maintained by the [220} Bauddhas
ome of the commentators, as usual among orthodox
confound with the Jainas,) respecting the descent or
e earth in space, he says,^ ^ The naked sectaries and
affirm, that two suns, two moons, and two sets of
>ear alternately : against them I allege this reasoning-
urd is the notion which you have formed of duplicate
ons, and stars ;. when you see the revolution of the
aentary on these hymns is dated in SVls 1214 (a.d. 1292) ; Imt how
!r Hemachandra lived, is not yet ascertained. [Cf. Wilson, Essayty
24.] « [Or Aulukya, cf. Sarvm Lari. 8. p. 103.]
y&ya, { 3, t. 8 and 10. * Ursa minor.
198 OBSERVATIONS ON
The commentators^ agree that the Jwias are here meant:
and one of them remarks, that they are described as 'naked
sectaries, etc/ because the class ef Dtgambaras is a principal
one among these people.
It is true that the Jainas de entertain the pr^ostenNU
notion here attributed to them : and it is also tme, that tbe
Digarabaras, among the Jainas, are distinguished fix>m tbe
SukUmbaras, not merely by the white dress of the one, and
the nakedness (or else the tawny ajpparel) of the other; but
also by some particular tenets and diversity of doctrina.
However, both -concur in the same ideas regarding tiie earth
and planets, which shall be forthwith stalted, from the autkoritj
of Jaina books; after remarking, by the way, that ascetics of
the orthodox sect, in the last stage «f exaltation, when thej
become Paramahansa, also disuse clothing.
The world, which, according to the Jainas, is eternal, ifl
figured by them as a spindle resting ^n half of another; or,
as they describe it, three cups, of which the lowest is tnyerted;
and the uppermost meets at its circumference the middle one.
They also represent the world by comparison to a woman
with her arms akimbo.' Her waist, or accord[221]ing to the
description first mentioned, the meeting of the lower cups,
is the earth. The spindle above, answering to the superior
portion of the woman'^s person, is the abode of the gods ; and
the inferior part of the figure comprehends the infernal regions.
The earth, which they suppose to be a flat surface, is bounded
by a circle, of which the diameter is one rqfu,^ The lower
spindle comprises seven tiers of inferior earths or hells, at th^
distance of a rq;u from each other, and its base is measured
by seven rq/u8. These seven hells are Ratna-prabhd, &irkara —
prabhd, B&luk&-prabha, Panka-prabhd, Dhuma-prabhi, Tamftv
^ Laksbmid&sa, MimWwara, and the V&san&bh­a.
' The Sangraha^-xatna and Lokan&b-stitra, both in Pr&krit, are the aathc^
ities here used.
3 This is explained to be a measure of space, through which the godi are
to travel in six months, at the rate of 2,057,152 yojana$ (of 2000 kro$a each,^
the twinkling of an ejc.
THE JAINS. 199
nhli&, Tamatama-prabhi.^ The upper spindle is also seven
ifua high; and its greatest breadth is five rqfus. Its summit,
hieh ifl 4,5009000 ytganas wide, is the abode of the deified
lints : beneath that are five Yim&nas, or abodes of gods : of
Ueh the centre one is named Sarvirthasiddha : it is encom-
issed by the regions Apar&jita, Jayanta, Yaijayanta, and
Ijaya. Next, at the distance of one rq/u from the summit,
How nine tiers of worlds, representing a necklace (jgraiveyaka)^
id inhabited by gods, denominated, from their conceited pre-
naions to supremacy, Ahamindra. These nine regions are,
ditya, Pritinkara, Somanasa, Sumanasa, Suvis&Ia, Sarva-
»bhadra, Manorama^ Supravaddha, and Sadarsana.
Under these regions are twelve (the Digambaras say sixteen)
Jier regions, in eight tiers, fi*om one to five rajm above the
irth. They are filled with Yim&nas, or abodes of various
lasses of gods, called by the general name of Kalpav&sis.
!hese worlds, reckoning from that nearest the earth, are,
«adhama' and fs&na; Sanatkum&ra and [222] Mahendra;
iiahma ; L&ntaka ; 6ukra ; Sahasrdra ; ^ata and Pr&nata ;
Cra^a and Achyuta.
The sect of Jina distinguish four classes of deities, the
um&nikas, Bhuvanapatis, Jyotishis,^ and Vyantaras. The
«i eomprises eight orders of demigods or spirits, admitted by
le Hindus in general, as the Bdkshasas, Pis&chas, Einnaras,
kc, supposed to range over the earth. The preceding class
Jyotishis) comprehends five orders of luminaries; suns,
noons, planets, constellations, and stars, of which more here-
hfter. The Yaim&nikas belong to the various Yim&nas, in
'he twelve regions, or worlds, inhabited by gods. The class
)f Bhuvanapati includes ten orders, entitled Asurakum&ra,
Vigakum&ra, etc. ; each governed by two Indras. All these
t>ds are mortal, except, perhaps, the luminaries.
The earth consists of numerous distinct continents, in con-
dutric circles, separated by seas forming rings between them.
[Tama^^^hd^ and Mahdiamah-prabhd ?] > [Saudharma f] ^ [Ji/otishkat ?]
200 OBSERVATIONS ON
The first circle is Jambu-dwfpa, with the mountain Sudarsa
Meru in the centre. It is encompassed by a ring containing
the salt ocean; beyond which is the zone, named Dh&tnki-
dwipa ; similarly surrounded by a black ocean.^ This again is
encircled by Pushkara-dwipa ; of which only the first half is
accessible to mankind : being separated from the remoter half
by an impassable range of mountains, denominated Mino-
shottara-parvata. Dh&tuk(-dw(pa contains two mountains,
similar to Sumeru, named Vijanga and Achala ; and Pusbkara
contains two others, called Mandird and Vidyunm&li.
The diameter of Jambu-dwipa being 100,000 great yq/anat*
if the 190th part be taken, or 526j^y we have the breadth of
Bharata-varsha, which occupies the southern segment of the
circle. Air&vata is a similar northern seg[22d]ment. A band
(33648-,^ yojanas wide) across the circle, with Sudarsa-meni in
the middle of it, is Yideha-varsha, divided by Mem (or by
four peaks like elephants'* teeth, at the four comers of that
vast mountain) into east and west Videha. These three
regions, Bharata, Air&vata, and Yideha, are inhabited by men
who practise religious duties. They are denominated Xa^
niabhumi, and appear to be furnished with distinct sets of
Tfrthankaras, or saints entitled Jina. The intermediate
regions north and south of Meru are bounded by four chains
of mountains ; and intersected by two others : in such a
manner, that the ranges of mountains, and the intermediate
valleys, increase in breadth progressively. Thus Hima?at is
twice as broad as Bharata-varsha (or 1052-|-|) ; the valley
beyond it is double its breadth (2105w) ; the mountain
Mah&hiniavat is twice as much (421011^) ; its valley is again
y
double (8421yV) ; &nd the mountain Nishadha has twice that
7
breadth (16842 -^). The valleys between these mountains, and
between similar ranges reckoned from Air&vata (m. Sikhari,
Rukmi, and Nila) are inhabited by giants (Yugala), and are
denominated Bhogabhumi. From either extremity of the two
^ [KUodadhi.] * Each great yojana contains 2000 ho9.
THE JAINS. 201
B8 of mountains named Himavat and ^ikhari, a pair of
3 project over the sea ; each divided into seven countries
minated Antara-dwipas. There are consequently fifty-
ach : which are called Subhogabhumi, being the abode of
loers. None of these regions suffer a period ical destruction ;
>t Bharata and Air&vata, which are depopulated, and again
led at the close of the great periods before mentioned.
e come now to the immediate purpose for which these
»ns of the Jainas have been here explained. They con-
the setting and rising of stars and planets to be caused
le mountain Sumeru : and suppose three times [224] the
d of a planet's appearance to be requisite for it to pass
i Sumeru, and return to the place whence it emeiges. Ac-
Dgly they allot two suns, as many moons, and an equal
>er of each planet, star, and constellation, to Jambu-dwipa ;
magine that these appear, on alternate days, south and
I of Meru. They similarly allot twice that number to
lalt ocean ; six times as many to Dh&tuki-dwipa ; 21
I as many, or 42 of each, to the K&lodadhi ; and 72 of
to Fushkara-dwipa.
is this notion, applied to the earth which we inhabit, that
kara refutes. His argument is thus explained by his
lentators.
'he star close to the north pole, with those near it to the
and west, form a constellation figured by the Indian
Qomers as a fish. In the beginning of the night (sup-
g the sun to be near Bbarani or Mushka), the fish's tail is
:da the west, and his head towards the east ; but at the
of the night, the fish's tail having made a half re volution,
rards the east, and his head towards the west ; and since
tun, when rising and setting, is in a line with the fish'^s
:here is but one sun ; not two.' This explanation is given
[uniswara and Lakshmid^a. But the Y&sand-bh­a
ses the fish ; placing his head towards the west at sun-
rhen the sun is near Bharani.
202
VIII.
ON THE ORIGIN AND PECULIAR TENETS OF
CERTAIN MUHAMMAD AN SECTS.
[From the AtUiic R$Mareh$9^ voL yii. pp. 338 — 344.
CiOeuUa, 1801. 4to.]
[225] Thb Bohrahs/ nnmeroas in the proyinoeB of the
Indian peninsula, bat found also in most of the great eities of
Hindustan, are conspicuous by their peculiar customs ; sadi,
for example^ as that of wearing at their orisons an appropriate
dress, which they daily wash with their own hands. Thair
disposition for trade to the exclusion of every other mode of
livelihood, and the government of their tribe by a hierardif,
are farther peculiarities, which have rendered them an objeet
of inquiry, as a singular sect.
Researches made by myself, among others, were long
unsuccessful. My informers confounded this tribe with the
Isma'iliyahs, with the ^Ali-il&hiyahs, and even with the un-
chaste sect of Cliar&gh-kush. Concerning their origin, the
information received was equally erroneous with that regarding
their tenets. But at length a learned Sayyid referred me to
the Maj&Iisu'lmdminin composed by NuruUah of Shiistar, ft
zealous Shfah, who suffered for his religious opinions in the
reign of Jah&ugir. In the passage, which will be forthwith
cited from that work, the Bohrahs are described by the author
as natives of Gujr&t, converted to the Muhammadan religion
about three hundred years before his time, or five centuries ago.
» [Cf. Sir H. M. EUiof i Raeet of N. W. JProrincet of India, Tol. i. p. 4S, an^
Sir J. Malcolm*! Otntral India, toI. ii. p. 111.]
OK CERTAIN MUHAMMABAK SECTS, sra 203
To that passage I shall subjoin extracts from the same
226] work, eontaining an account of similar tribes, with some
r which the Bohraha may, perhaps, have been sometimes
Mufoonded. Concemmg the Isma'iliyahs, for whom thej
aye been actually mistaken, it must be remembered, that
hese form a sect of Shfahs, who take their distinctive appella-
ion from Ismtfil, eldest son and nominated successor of Imam
Ta'&r, sumamed S&dik. They consider Ismtfd as the true
leir of the Im&mat, and do not acknowledge the legal suc-
«88ion of his brother Miisa^ and of the five last Im&ms. This
leet flourished under the Egyptian dynasty of khcUkfs founded
>y Mohammad Mahdi, who olaimed descent from the Im&m
haniil himself. It was also conspicuous under a dynasty of
princes of this sect, the first of whom, Hasan Sabb&h, founded
a principality in Ir&k.^ The sect may still exist in Syria ;
bat it does not seem to be at present known in the Indian
pntion of Asia.
The 'Ali-il4hiyahs, on the contrary, are become numerous
a India. This sect is mentioned by the author of the
)abist^ as prevalent in his time, only at XJzbil, or Azb&l,
a the mountainous tract near Khat&. It now prevails*
(Oeoiding to information which I have received, in a part of
h6 dominions of Naw&b Niz&mu*l-mulk. The singular tenets
if diis heretical sect are thus stated by Mohsin F&ni. '' The
Ali-il&hiyahs hold, that celestial spirits, which cannot other-
irise be known to mankind, have frequently appeared in pal-
pable shapes. Gh>d himself has been manifested in the human
form, but especially in the person of 'Ali Murtaza*, whose
inuige, being that of * All Ullah, or 'Ali God, these sectaries
deem it lawful to worship. They believe in the metem-
1 See the J>abi$tdn of Mti11& Mobsin F&nl; and D*Herbelot*8 Bibliothique
OrimtaU. If the industriotis Bohrahs and the remorseless *' assassins" bad
iitUy arisen oat of the same sect, it would be a new tBci in the history of the
tinman mind. [For the history of the Isma'diyah, see Jourdain's paper on Mirk-
tiond, Noticet et Extraits det MSS. ix. pp. 143-183; Yon Hammer, Gesch. der
At$tunnm; De Frem^ry, Joum, Atiatiquey 1854, 1856.]
201 ON THE ORIGIN AND PECULIAR TENBTS
psychosis ; and, like [227] others who maintain that doctrine,
abstain from fleshmeat. They imagine, that 'Ali Mortaza',
when he quitted this earth, returned to the sun, which is the
same with himself ; and hence they call the 8un*Ali TJUah.
This sect does not admit the authenticity of the Kor&n, as it is
now extant : some pretending, that it is a forgery of Abdbakr's,
'Omar's, and'Othm&n^s; others condemning it simply becaose
it was edited by the last-mentioned khaUf. The members of
this sect appear to vary in regard to some points of doctrine;
but the leading and universal tenet of this sect is, that in
every age of the world, Gt>d is manifested in the persons of
prophets and of saints ; for instance, he was Adam, and aft^
wards Ahmad and 'All : and in like manner these sectaries
believe in the transmigration of Ood into the persons of tiie
Im&ms. Some of them affirm, that the manifestation of the
divine being, in this age of the world, was 'All Ullah ; and
after him, his glorious posterity : and they consider Mohammad
as a prophet sent by*Ali Ullah. When God, say they, pe^
ceived Muhammad's insufficiency, he himself assumed the
human form for the purpose of assisting the prophet.*"^
It does not appear frcnn any satisfactory information, that
the Bohrahs agree with either of these sects, in deifying 'Alit
or in contesting the legal succession of the six last Imams.
On the contrary, the tribe is acknowledged to consist of
orthodox Sunnis, and of true ShCahs ; but mostly of the last-
mentioned sect. These and other known circumstances cor-
roborate the following account of that tribe, as given by
Nurullah of Shdstar, in the work before mentioned.
^' The Bohrahs are a tribe of the faithful, which is settlec^
chiefly at Ahmadab&d and its environs. Their salvation i^
[228] the bosom of religion took place about three hundreC^
years ago, at the call of a virtuous and learned man, whos^
name was MuUd 'Ali, and whose tomb is still seen at the cit^
of Kambdyat.
* See the Dabittdn, from which this account is abstracted. [Shea and
transl. vol. ii.]
OF CERTAIN MUHAMMABAN SECTS. 205
"The oonveraioii of this people was thus conducted by him :
J the inhabitants of Gnjr&t were pagans, and were guided by
1 1^ priest, a recreant, in whom they had a great confi-
oce, and whose disciples they were ; the missionary judged
expedient, first to offer himself as a pupil to the priest ; and
At convincing him by irrefragable proois, and making him
rticipate in the declaration of faith, then to undertake the
Dfersion of others. He accordingly passed some years in
tendance on that priest, learnt his language, studied his
ences, and became conversant with his books. By degrees
opened the articles of the faith to the enlightened priest,
dpersuadedhim to become Musulm&n. Some of his people
inged their rdigion in concert with their old instructor.
16 circumstance of the priest's conversion being made known
the principal minister of the king of that country, he visited
e priest, adopted habits of obedience towards him, and
came a Muslim. But for a long time, the minister, the
test, and the rest of the converts, dissembled their £uth, and
ight to keep it concealed, through dread of the king.
'^At length the intelligence of the minister's conversion
lefaed the monarch. One day he repaired to his house, and,
iding him in the humble posture of prayer, was incensed against
m. The minister knew the motive of the king^s visit, and
iTceived that his anger arose from the suspicion that he was
diiDg prayers and performing adoration. With presence of
bd, inspired by divine providence, he immediately pretended
M his prostrations were occasioned by the sight of a serpent,
Uch appeared in the comer of the room, and against which
> was [229] employing incantations. The king cast his eyes
wards the comer of the apartment, and it so happened that
ere he saw a serpent ; the minister'^s excuse appeared
^ble, and the king's suspicions were lulled.
'^ Afler a time, the king himself secretly became a convert
the Musulm&n faith ; but dissembled the state of his mind,
* reasons of State. Yet, at the point of death, he ordered.
206 0^ ^HE ORIGIN AND PECULIAB TENETS
by his will, that bis corpse should not be burnt, aocording to
the customs of the pagans.
'' Subsequently to his decease, when Sultan Za&r, one of the
trusty nobles of Sult&n Fir6z Sh&h, soyereign of Dehli, con-
quered the province of Gujr&t; some learned men, who
accompanied him, used arguments to make the people embnee
the faith, according to the doctrines of such as leTore the
traditions.^ Hence it happened, that some of the tribe of
Bohrahs became members of the sect of the Sunnat.
^' The party which retains the Im&m(yah tenets eompK-
hends nearly two thousand &milies. They always have a
pious learned man amongst them, who expounds cases of liw
according to the doctrines of the Im&mfyahs. Most of them
subsist by commerce and mechanical trades; as is indieited
by the name of Bohrah, which signifies merchant, in the
dialect of Gujr&t. They transmit the fifth part of their gains
to the Sayyids of Madinah ; and pay their regular eleemoiy-
nary contributions to the chief of their learned, who distiibotes
the alms among the poor of the sect. These people, great and
small, are honest, pious, and temperate. They always suffer
much persecution (for the crime of bearing affection towards
the holy family) from the wicked murderers,* who are invested
with public authority ; and they are ever involved in the
difiSculties of concealment.
[230] " The Sadikiyahs' are a tribe of the faithful in Hindus-
tan; pious men, and disciples of Sayyid Kabiru'ddin, who de-
rived his descent from Ismiil, sou of Im&m Ja'far. This tribe
is denominated Sadikiyahs, by reason of the sincere [^Bodik] call
of that Sayyid. Although that appellation have, according to
received notions, a seeming relation to Abubakr, whose pa^
tisans gave him this title ; yet it is probable that the se^
assumed that appellation for the sake of concealment. Ho^'
ever, no advantage ever accrues to them from it. On the ccf^
^ The SonnSs, or orthodox sect. * The orthodox.
3 [These are not the S&dikSjahs of the J)aiutdnJ]
OF CERTAIN HT7HAMMADAN SECTS. 207
tnuy, the arrogaut inhabitants of Hind, who are Hinduis,
being retainers of the son of the impious Hind,^ have dis-
ooTered their attachment to the sect of Shf ahs, and haye
revived against them the calamnies which five hundred years
before they broached against the IsmsC iliyahs. They mali-
doosly chaige them with impiety; such, indeed, is their
ancient practice. They violate justice, and labour to extirpate
this harmless tribe. In short, they cast the stone of
calumny on the roof of the name and reputation of this
wretched people, and have no fear of God, nor awe of his
Prophet.'
*^ In short, nearly thirty thousand persons of this sect are
settled in provinces of Hindust&n, such as Multdn, L&hor,
Pehli, and Gujr&t. Most of them subsist by commerce.
They pay the fifth part of their gains to the descendants of
Sajryid Kabir, who are their priests ; and both preceptor and
papil, priests and laymen, all are zealous Shfahs. Ood avert
e?il firom them, and make the wiles of their foes recoil !
**The Haz&rahs of £&bul are an innumerable tribe, who
teAde in £&bul, Ghaznin, and Kandah&r. Many of them
[231] are Sh!*ahs, and adherents of the holy family. At
present, among the chiefs of the Shfahs, is Mirzd Sh&dm&n,
^th whom the &ithful are well pleased, and of whose incur-
sions the Kh&rijis ' of K&bul and Ghaznin bitterly complain.
'*The Baluch of Sind ; many of these are devoted Shi*ahs.
They call themselves, and are called by all the faithful, 'Ali^s
friends. Sayyid B&ju of Bokh&rd exerted himself in the
guidance of this tribe ; his descendants remain among them,
and are occupied with the concerns of the sect/^
I Metniog Hindi the mother of Mo'&wiyah.
' The aathor proceeds in a strain of invectiye against the Snnnis ; especially
tgUMt MnUii 'Abdullah of L&hor, who bore the title of the Makhdiimu'l-mulk.
Tim, being snperflnoiu, is here omitted.
' The word is here used as a term of reproach ; for its origin, as the appellation
of t sect, see D*Herbelot*s Bibliothkque Oriental,
208
IX.
TRANSLATION OF ONE OF THE INSCRIPTIO
ON THE PILLAR AT DELEf, CALLED Tl
L^T OF FfRirZ Stt^H.
[From ihe Atiatic S«$»areht*, vol. ▼!!. pp. 179 — 182.
Calcutta, 1801. 4to.]
[232] Sanskrit iNscRipnoir.'
^I'r?! ^wo %^m ^^ SM ijrtwfV ^pfii in<i<^i^4i
j^ ^nfi! ^TrfTRfiT^Ri: ^i4i*{0*jMn!: ^H^ifti^if^^ifi
finrot ^hTTTOT'rninr: i
[233] lffhiTitfl[?^ft^g H^ 5rf?r5 ^TO^ 11^
T'Rnf i^iflMc! «cii«q^ TWRR I
^ See Plate i. [The plates are omitted in this edition.]
TBAKSLATION OF AN INSCKIPTION, etc. 209
Samvat 1220 vaiidkha sudi 15 idkambhari hhiipati hrimad
vella detdtrnqfa Mmad risala devaaya.
A'midhydd dhimddrer virachita*p{jaya8 Urtharydtrd-pra^
uingdd udgriveshu prahartd nryfoiiahu vinamai-kandhareshu
frasannak
\rydcartam yathdrtham punar apikritavdn mlechchhavichchh"
dandbhir devah idkambhatindro jagati v\^ayate viealah
lahonipdlah.
3riie aanqnrati hdht^'dta-tilakah Ukambhari-'bhupatih irimad
igrahorr^a esha vyayi santdntydn dtmanafi
mndbhih karadam vyadAdyi himavad-vindhydrUardlam bhuvah
ttha^swUcarandya mdatu bhavatdm udyogaiunyam manah.
dmbho ndma ripu^priyd-nayanayoh pratyarthi-dantdntare
watyakahdni trindni vaibhava'tnilat-kdahtam yaias tdvakam
mirgo loka^viruddha eva vyanah iunyam mano tidwishdm
irhnad vigraha-rdjadeva bhavatah prapte praydnoisave.
LUd^mandira-wdareshu bhamiu mcdnteahu vdmabhruvdm
234] kdrUndn nanu rigraha kahiiipate nydyyai cha vdsaa
ava
ankd vd puruahottamasya bhavato ndsty eva tdrdn nidher
\irmathydpahr%ta'inyafi kimu bhavdn krode na nidrdyitafi.
Samvat iri vikramdditya 1220 vaiidkha sudi 15 gurau
ikhitam idam
yratyaksham gauddnwaya-kdyoBtha-mdhava'putra-inpatind
%tra %amaye mahd'tnantri rqfaputra irimallahhampdlah.
Verbal Translation.
"In the year 1220, on the 15th day of the bright half of
B mouth Vais&kha, [this monument] of the fortunate Yisala
TOL. UI. [B88JLT8 H.] 14
210 TRANSLATION OF AN INSCEIPnON
Deva, son of the fortunate Yella Deva,^ King of SIkan
bhari.
'^ As iar as Vindhya,' as £Bkr as Him&dri,' haying achievi
conquest in the course of trayelling to holy places ; resentfi
to haughty kings, and indulgent to those whose necks ai
humbled ; making Xry&varta' once more what its nam
signifies, by causing the barbarians to be exterminated
Yisala Deya, supreme ruler of S&kambhari,' and soyereign o
the earth, is yictorious in the world.
^'This conqueror, the fortunate Yigraha B&ja,^ king ol
[235] o&kambhari, most eminent of the tribe which spnui;
from the arms^ [of Brahm&], now addresses his own deseen-
dants : ' By us the region of the earth between Himayst and
Yindhya has been made tributary ; let not your minds be ?oid
of exertion to subdue the remainder.'
''Tears are eyident in the eyes of thy enemy's consort;
blades of grass are perceiyed between thy adyersary^s teeth;*
thy fame is predominant throughout space ; the minds of thy
foes are yoid [of hope] ; their route is the desert where m^
are hindered from passing ; 0 Yigraha B&ja Deya, in th<
jubilee occasioned by thy march.
" May thy abode, 0 Yigraha, soyereign of the earth, b
fixed, as in reason it ought, in the bosoms (akin to ib
^ Colonel Poller's transcript exhibited Amilla ; the present copy may be lei
either Avella or Vella.
' The Yindhya bills form the range which passes through the proTinoei
Bih&r, Ben&res, etc. liim&dri, the mountain of snow, (called Himarat in ft
next Tcrse,) is the Imaus and Emodos of ancient geographers. A'ry&rarta ogi
fies the land of virtue, or ** inhabited by respectable men." See Mana,du
V. 22.
' S'&kambbarl is the modem S'&mbhar, famous for its salt lakes. It is litii^'
at the distance of about thirty miles west of Jeypilr.
^ Whether Yigraha R&ja and Yisala Dcva be names of the same person, or
different princes, it is impossible to determine from the tenor of the inscripfci
without other information.
^ The transcript of the inscription exhibits vdhamdna-tUakaK, as it wis fl
read in the former fac-simile : Sarvoru Trivedi advises me to read it bdJkti^
tilakah^ and I accede to his emendation. [See the note in the following psge-j
* This alludes to the Indian custom of biting a blade of grass as a tokeB
submiifiion, and of asking quarter.
t
ON THE PILLAR AT DELHr. 211
miDflion of dalliance) of the women with beautifal eyebrows,
wlio were married to thy enemies. There is no doubt of thy
kmg the highest of embodied sools.^ Didst thou not sleep in
tbe Iiq) (^ j^y whom thoa didst seize from the ocean, having
ebnnieditP'
^ In the year from the fortunate Yikram&ditya 1220,' on
Thursday the 15th day of the bright half of the month [236]
Yaimdia, this was written in the presence of ^ . . • .
by ^pati, the son of M&hava, a £&yastha
of I &mily in Gauda : at this time the fortunate Lakshana-
pib, a B&japutra, is prime minister.
"§iya the terrible, and the universal monarch.'^
There are on the same page, some short inscriptions, which
I eannot decipher. One of them, however, is partly legible,
and appears to be in the Hindust&ni language. It contains
name of Sult&n Ibrfihim, and wishes him a long life.
Note to the preceding Trjinslation.
[From the AtuUie Eeiearehes, vol. ix. p. 445. Calcutta, 1807. 4to.]
A passage in the preface of the Samgadhara-paddhati, and
another in the body of that work, which were first indicated
(7 Capt. Wilford,^ show that a term contained in the inscrip-
tion on the column at Delhi, for which I proposed to substi-
^^ with the advice of the Pandit who assisted me, the
* SaiToni expUuna this yery obsonre passage otherwise : '' there is (1.^. there
"^dQld be) no doubt or hesitatioii in the mind of thee, who art the highest of
oibodied aonla (Pumshottama)."
' hmiihottama is a title of Yishpo. With reference to this term, the author
^ the inscription asks, '*Art thou not Vishnu himself? Art thou not be who»
*Kpt in the arms of Lakshmf P " The legend of the churning of the ocean is well
* In the present copy the date is very distinct^ and proves to be 1220 ; not 123^
** wu suspected by Sir William Jones.
* This part of the inscription is not legible.
* Ai. Res., ToL ix. p. 189.
212 TRANSLATION OF AN INSCRIPTION, wc.
word ' bdhujdia ^ as a conjectural emendation, mmt be read
* ehdhumdna,^ or ' chdhatfdna ; ' being the name of the tribe to
which the prince, there mentioned, belonged, and whidi is
well known at this day under the appellation of Ohaoh&n. In
the preiace, bamgadhara deecribes himself as second in de-
scent from Baghadeva, a priest attending on Hammiia, King of
^ikambhari, of the tribe of Ohauh&n, Ch4hav&ny or B41ia-
y&na (for the name is varioasly spelt in different oc^as)^
The work itself is a compilation of miscellaneous poetry [237^
arranged under distinct heads ; and one chapter (the 73rd) is
devoted to the admission of stanzas concerning indiyidoal
princes. Among them two stanzas occur, which are there
cited as an inscription on a royal column of stone, erected as s
sacrificial pillar ; ^ and which, on comparison, are found to be
the same with the first two of the stanzas, on the pillar at
Delhi. Several copies of the Simgadhara-paddhati have beea
collated, in all of which the term in question is wiittea
B&huvina. Comparing this with the prefiioe of the suie
compilation, and with the inscription itself, we may be alloweA-
to conjecture that Ch&huv&na is the correct reading: th
N&gari letters if and ^ being very liable to be confounded.*
' [For an account of the S^dmgadharapaddhati^ aee Prof. Aufirechfs
Catalogu€y p. 122. In the Bodleian MS., and in two of the India Office
^ISS., the name of the trihe is written Chdhuvdna, in two it is written BdhMi^
Vdhuvdna.]
213
X.
ANCIENT MONUMENTS, CONTAINING
SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS.
Pxx>m the AMatic ReseareheSf vol. ix. pp. 398 — 444.
CalctUtay 1807. 4to.]
Ik the scarcity of authentic materials for the ancient,
Q Ibr the modem, history of the Hinclu race, im-
I 10 justly attached to all genuine monuments, and
y inscriptions on stone and metal, which are ooca-
disooyered through various accidents. If these be
' preserved and diligently examined, and the &ct8
led from them be judiciously employed towards eluci-
he scattered information which can be yet collected
) remains of Indian literature, a satisfactory progress
finally made in investigating the history of the
That the dynasties of princes who have reigned
mt in India, or the line of chieftains who have ruled
*ticular tracts, will be verified ; or that the events of
the effects of policy, during a series of ages, will be
d; is an expectation which I neither entertain, nor
esicite. But the state of manners, and the prevalence
mlar doctrines, at different periods, may be deduced
[iligent perusal of the writings of authors, whose age
ained ; and the contrast of different results, for various
ant periods, may furnish a distinct outline of the pro-
opinions. A brief history of the nation itself, rather
214 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
than of its government, will be thus sketched ; but if unable
to revive the memory of great political events, we may at
least be content to know what has been the state of arts, of
sciences, of manners, in remote ages, among this very ancient
and early civilized people ; and to learn what has been the
suc[239] cession of doctrines, religious and philosophical, which
have prevailed in a nation ingenious yet prone to superstition.
Unfortunately, writers have seldom given the dates of their
compositions ; and the Hindu's love of iable, and distaste for
sober narrative, have been as unfriendly to the biography of
authors, as to the history of princes. The lives of few cele-
brated persons have been written ; and those which have been
composed exhibit the same fondness for improbable fiction
which pervades the mythological works of the Hindus. The
age of an author must be, therefore, sought from circumstances
mentioned in his writings : and none more frequently affords
the desired information than the author^s notice of his patron;
who generally is either the sovereign of the country, or some
person standing in such relation to the court, as gives occamon
to mention the name of the reigning prince. Thus every
ancient monument which fixes the date of a reign, or de-
termines the period of a particular dynasty, tends to the ascar —
tainment of the atje of writers who flourished in that reisn o"^
under that dynasty : and conversely, wherever dates can
with confidence, deduced immediately from an author's wor!
these may furnish historical information, and assist the e
planation of ancient monuments.
On this account the preservation and study of old inscri
tions may be earnestly recommended. It is not on a first -*
cursory examination, that the utility of any particular mon "
nieiit for the illustration of the civil or literary history of L-1
country can be certainly determined. Even those whicL -
first sight appear uninteresting, may be afterwards found t^
bear strongly on an important point. Instances might be
brought from the few inscriptions which have been alrearf/
CONTAINING SANSKBTT INSCEIPTIONS. 215
>lished. But it is not my present purpose to enter on an
minaiion of published monuments, but to urge the com-
nication of every inscription [240] which may be hereafter
ooTered; at the same time that I lay before the Society
^ies and translations of those which have been recently
nmunicated from various parts of India.
[t is a subject for regret, that the originals, of which versions
re before been made public, are not deposited where they
ght be accessible to persons engaged in researches into
lian literature and antiquities : but much more so, that
dent monument49, which there is reason to consider as im-
rtant, have been removed to Europe before they had been
fidently examined, or before they were accurately copied
1 translated. I may specify, with particular regret, the
\ie of copper found at Benares, and noticed by Capt. Wilford
the ninth volume of Astatic Researches (p. 108) ; and still
>re a plate which has been mentioned to me by a learned
n^dit (who assured me that he was employed in deciphering
1,^ and which appears, from a copy in his possession, to have
ntained a grant of land by the celebrated Jayachandra,
ben a young prince associated to the empire of his father ;
>m this information it seems to have been particularly
loable, on account of the genealogy comprised in it.
Translations might indeed be made from the Pandit's copy
the last-mentioned plate, and from one taken by a learned
bive in Capt. Wilford's service, from the plate discovered at
nares. But my experience of the necessity of collating the
pies made by the best Pandits, from inscriptions in ancient
unusual character, discourages me from placing implicit
nfidence in their transcripts ; and the originals are at present
tyond reach of [241] reference, having been conveyed to Europe
' be there buried in some public museum or private collection.
^ SaiTora TriTedS ; the same who assisted me in deciphering the copy of an
Bcription on Firiiz Sh&h's pillar at Delhi. As. lies. tuI. vii. p. 180. [Pages
)^212 of the present Tolame.J
216 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
The only amends, which could be now made for the remoisl
of those interesting monuments, would be the publicatioft a(
copies correctly made in fec-simile. From snch transeriptii,
provided they be executed with great care, the text raayk
deciphered and translated. An exact copy of the Saudofif
inscription on the stone at Cintra in Portugal, enabled Mr
Wilkins to ascertain the date and scope of that inscription ; as
well as the names, which it contains.^ Similar copies of oAei
inscriptions would, in like manner, furnish Oriental scholar
with the means of ascertaining their purport ; and the publics
tion of fac-similes may, for this purpose, be recommended I
those who are in possession of the originals.
I now proceed to describe, and, so &r as I hare succeedc
in deciphering them, to explain, the several inscriptions €
ancient monuments in stone and copper, which have bee
lately presented to the Asiatic Society.
I. Inscription on a Plate of Copper found in the District of
Tipura.
Towards the end of 1803, a plate of copper was discovered
in digging earth for the repair of the highway through the
Manamati hills in the district of Tipura. It was carried tc
Mr. Eliot, magistrate of the district ; and by him communi-
cated to the Asiatic Society. On examination, it has beex
found to contain an inscription declaratory of a grant of land
dated near 600 years ago.
The plate measures eleven inches in height and nine ii
breadth, and is engraved on one surface only. The side
[242] have a gentle curvature ; and, at top, is an abrupt bend
allowing room to a figure coarsely delineated, and apparentl;
intended to represent a temple. The character agrees near!;
with that now in use in Bengal : but some of the letters bea
a closer resemblance to the writing: of Tirhut.*
o
' Murphy's TraveU in Portugal, p. 277.
2 There is reason to suppose the writing, as well as the language, of Beiig«l» fc
CONTAINIKG 8AKSKEIT INSCKIPTIOXS.
217
The following is an exact copy of the inacripiion in N^ri
ifltten, as deciphered by the aid of seyeral Pai^^dits. A
literal tranelation is subjoined ; and a fius-simile of the
original is exhibited in the annexed plate.^
I ^ I
[243]
^ otigiiudly the same with the Tirhfitiya : altered, in course of time, since the
l^^^)ition which has been the consequence of a colony of K&nyalnibja Br&hmans
^ing in Bengal.
[The plates are omitted in this edition.]
' [-imd?]
218 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
[244] irf^l^ppfff^ ^BRPfW ^^RTTT-
^
Translation.
1. *' In that ' eminent and spotless family, was bom, an
ornament of the learned, renowned throughout the world, en-
dowed with science, and practising good deeds, the celebrated,
happy, and venerable Hedi ; ^ in whose pure mind, virtue ever
ranges, like a swan in the limpid lake.
2. " From him sprung the happy chief of ministers, who
exhibits the joys of unsullied glory ; a spotless moon among
mortals, and at sight of whom the hare-spotted lumiuary*
^ [In the plate two letters seem to intervene between gatyd and tula.]
^ This use of the pronoun indicates the conspicuousness of the object ; u if
sufficiently known without further designation.
3 Here, as well as with the subsequent names, the particle eva u subjoiiud
without changing the preceding vowel. This is contrary to the rales of the
language, and emendations have been accordingly proposed : but I shall not dis-
turb the text.
* The moon is named S'aiTin, from a funcicd resemblance of its spots to a leveret
Pai^4^te> to whom I showed maps of the moon, copied from Hevelius and Bicciolitfi
fixed upon the Loca Paludosa and Mons Porphyrites, or Eeplerus and AristsrchoSi
for the spots, which, they think, exhibit the similitude of a hare.
CONTAININO SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS. 219
)I)ears swoln [with envy], and distempered with alternate
crease and wane.
[245] 3. "That venerable officer,^ ever relying on holy vir-
es,' is eminently conversant with well-guided morals, and
Dspicuoas for the observance of practical duties.
4. "Himself an ocean of generosity and meditation, yet
irsting to taste, by practice of austerity, that which alone
ifines the fleeting thoughts;' sympathizing with other living
ings, an unrivalled theatre of virtue, practising good deeds,
d, in private, only a contemplative saint, this auspicious
la^ alone rose, as a luminary of joy above the earth.
5. *' Superior to the world was the delight of this pre-emi-
iut sovereign of the earth, the happy Ra^banka-malla,
iiose officer^ he was ; for the deity who has a hundred eyes ^
obecured, even in his own abode, by the dazzling glories
' that [monarch], which traverse the three worlds, in all
J^ions.
6. "May the twenty drams ^ of land, in the village of
^khanda, granted to him by that generous prince, continue
long as sun and moon endure, yielding the ample [246]
i*vest of unsullied praise ; for it is land secure from invasion,
ightfiily like a pleasant painting, and appears like a crest in
assemblage of cities.
^ " This land, with definite boundaries, has been given by
The term is Aiwanibandhika, which the Pa^^itB are disposed to explain as
\tjing '* a general oommanding cayalry/' Other interpretations may be sug-
id : the word is an unosual one.
This, as indeed the whole of the Terse, is obscure, and admits of yarious
pretations. In this place, more than one reading has been proposed.
Here again the sense is obscure ; and more than one reading may be proposed.
praise is evidently grounded on the union of practical virtues with religious
MDplation.
Atfwanibandhika. ^ Indra.
A. measure of land, still used in the eastern parts of Bengal, originally as
ti as might be sown with one dro^^ of seed : for a droifa is a measure of
dty. (As. Bes., vol. y. p. 96.) The drotutf vulgarly called dim, varies in
rent districts. It may, however, be reckoned nearly equivalent to eight
(u, or two acres and two-thirds.
220 OX ANCIENT MONUMENTS
the liberal prince himael^ the range of wkaee glory tharcim
extends, as is fit, in all directions. ^
8. ^' 0 future kings ; understand this inscription on dOffK^ \
by which that ofBcer^ humbly now solicita you: this hwl
should be preserved ; nor is the permanenoe of the reahn eoa-
sistent with the sGghtest injury : a shame on ararice ! Thai ;
land is, as it were, a widow, the soTereign of which is dcqM \
[for his coyetousness].
9. '* Although this excellence of the descendants [of tbk ',
prince] whieh is guarded by their natural yirtues, be sof* .
ciently apparent, yet does Medinf, urged by the multitude d
the good qualities of that unsullied race, thus make it knowi.'
''Years expired of the 6aka king 1141;' dated in tin
seventeenth year of Ra^abanka-malla, l^mat Harikila-deni^
or expressed in numerals, Samvat,^ 17 ; on the 26th of thi
Sun^s being in the balance."
[247] II. Inscription on a Plate of Copper found in the DisM ■.
of Ghrakhpur, \
A plate of copper, containing an inscription in the Sanskrit
language, declaratory of a grant of land, but without date, was
lately found in the district of Gorakhpur, near the river cdM
the little Grandhak. It was brought to Mr. John Ahmntj,
magistrate of the district, and by him communicated to Captain
Wilford, who has presented it to the Asiatic Society.
The plate, which is 16| inches long, and 12^ broad, is en-
graved on one face only. The lines, of which there are 24, ran
1 Atfwanibandhika.
* This inscription appears not to be a grant by the sorereigii ; bat a nenMnu
of the grant recorded by the possessor, who must have been the heir of the gnuidtt
and who seems to acknowledge in this place the liberality of the grtBtor's A^
cessors continuing the land to him.
' Corresponding to ▲.d. 1219.
^ This prince is probably a different person from the grantor named in ^
fifth Terse.
* Here Samvat is used for the year of the king*s reign. See remarks, towirii
the close of this paper, on an inscription found at Amg^hhi in Dinfcjpur.
COirrAINIHG SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS. 221
tngih cff the plate ; and on the left side is a curvature,
h a Bemioireular appendage is riveted, containing a
on representing the impression of a seal. The figure
mp^eci, but seems to be intended for some animal.
the plate itself, Captain Wilford communicated a
it0 contents as deciphered by a Pandit in his service,
folly comparing it with the original^ I found all the
passages, as well as the names, correctly given : a few
ns, which this comparison showed to be necessary,
m made with the concuirence of several Pandits from
who assisted me in collating it. I preferred the aid
[its of that province, because the peculiarities of the
re where they differ widely, as they do m many in-
from common Devanfigari, make a nearer approach
^rfaiitfya letters than to any othei* now in use. The.
scription is indeed remarkable for the uncommon form
)nsonants, and the very unusual manner in which the
ire marked. On this account an exact copy of the
in fac-simile will be subjoined ; ^ as well as a correct
anscript in modem Devan&gari letters. The following
15 as literal as the difference of idiom permits.
Translation.
*^ Salutation to the Gt)d, who is manifested in various
s, from earth to the performer of a sacrifice,' who is
niversal soul, to be apprehended only by contempla-
of saints ; and who pervades all.
'* Salutation to the unborn Grod,' who makes the
d's production, its continuance, and ultimate destruc-
; and the recollection of whom serves as a vessel of
sport across the ocean of mundane ills.
*^ Salutation be to the husband of Lakshmi ; to him
ate m. [omitted in this edition].
manifested in eight material forms : viz. Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether,
16 Moon, and the person who performs a sacrifice.
ik the creator, himself not created, and therefore termed nnhom.
222 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
who Topoiai OS OuAb » on a conch ; to him wlio i^
yirii^n extracting the thorns of the three worlds ; to him
who appears in every shape.^
4. '' Salntation be to the blessed foot of P&nrati,* which
destroyed the demon Mahisha, by whom all had be»xi
oyercome ; and which gives felicity to the world.
5. '^ Surrounded by groves of lofty canes,' inaccessible
through the range of edifices on the hill'^s summit ; encom-
passed by a deep ditch, in which fountains spring ; secure
by impassable defence from dread of foes, a [249] royal
6. abode there is named Yijayapura,^ which is situated on
the declivity of the northern mountain, where the pain of
regret is unknown, and every gratification is found.
7. ^^ There reigned the fortunate Dharm&ditya, like
another Bodhisattwa, a mighty and prosperous prinee.
whose glory spread over the four seas. His son was
8. Jay&ditya,^ adorable like the moon, the fortune of the
world, like the tree which bears every desired fruit, «d
satisfying thirst like a deep lake ; humble, though a king;
9. though young, prudent and averse from amorous passion;
though liberally bestowing all, yet ever receiving the besi
result of all.
10. '^ His minister, learned, intelligent, and vanqaisher
^ Visbpu, who reposes on the serpent Ananta or S'esha ; and who has btflo
incarnate in various shapes, to relieve the world from oppressors.
' Bhav&ni or Durg^ slew Mahish&sura. The legend is well known.
3 Bamboos {Bambusa arundinacea and other species).
* The place here described may be Vijey-pur, on the northern declinty of th«
Vindhya hills, a few miles from the temple of Yindhy&-y&sini near Minfcpor o&
the Ganges. It is the ancient residence of a family, which claims descent £roa
the former sovereigns of Benares; and is still the abode of the head of that family*
But the terms of the text, Uttaragiri-katake, rather seem to signify * dediTity of
the northern mountain,' than * northern declivity of the mountain;* and that inter-
pretation points to the range of snowy mountains, instead of Vindhya, whidi ii
reckoned a tropical range.
^ The name of Jay&ditya is known as the patron of certain anthon vIm
flourished at Kke^i ; and who are considered as ancient writers. He is meniiQiud
in the title of the V&mana-k&s'ik&, and even termed the author of that grammitieil
work. I shall not undertake to determine whether thia be the same person.
CONTAINING SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS. 223
of foes, the son of a mighty chieftain and counsellor
Sritakirti, was the fortunate Mad&Ii,^ [250] whose pleasing
L. counsels obtained a ready hearing, and who was by nature
eager for the reduction of enemies.*
12. **The Tillage of Dummadum&,' obtained by him
finom the royal fiivour, and rich in tillage, dwellings, and
cattle, has been assigned by him to Durgd.^
13. " The opulence of the good, who put their trust in
the great, is, indeed, beneficial to others : the clouds gather
water from the sea, and shower it down on the growing crop.
4. Rare indeed are those liberal persons, who distinguish not
between their own dependents and straogers : how many
are the all-productiye trees even in the celestial grove P'
15. *^Do not imagine, father,^ that, in the sinful age, a
general equality prevails : ths sovereign defends the earth,
6. but a weak individual guards not even his house.'^ Birth
and death, success and misfortune, are perpetually passing :
why not, therefore, protect another^s glory like one^s own P
1 Hie names, being uneommon, are, in this instance, doubtful. S'rimad&li is
letrly gi^en as the name of the minister : and either the whole of it may be his
§■0 ; or it may be reaohod into S'rimat Ali, or into S'ri Mad&li. The latter is
MHt agreeable to the prerailing practice of prefixing S'ri to a proper name. In
us inacripftion, the aofpieious syllable ia prefixed to the names of the two kings
rst nsentioaed; but ia not added to the names of the writers of it, who are noticed
nnorda the doae. (t. 20 and 22.)
Kplakirti may signify ' of established fSune : ' but, if taken as an epithet, it
•Tea no other term which can be assumed as the name of the minister's father.
' The text exhibits Frakfitiparabaddkakektho, Though a very unsatisfactory
iading, it ia here preserred, and has been translated in the most probable sense
hieh I am able to luggest for it. [Should it not be prakritiparabaddhakaksho ?"]
* A Tillage of this name is situated in the district of AUah&b&d, within twenty
dlea of Bijeypur on the Ganges. But the name is not uncommon : and may
dong to aome place nearer to the northern mountains.
* Jay&ditya's minister, Mad&li, appears to have assigned this village for general
writable uaea, by consecrating it to the goddess Durgli. Such at least seem to
e the moat consistent reading and interpretation of the text
* India's garden called Nandana; in which five celestial trees are placed, termed
lalpadmma, P6rij&ta, etc. The Kalpadruma yields, as its fruit, everything
hi^ is desired.
* [Tdia may also mean * son,' as addressing a future generation.]
^ The intention of this and the following lines is to deprecate the resumption
f the grant.
224 OK ANCIENT M0NUMSNT8
17. He, who bestows fertile land [251] furnished vii
the means of agriculture, mounts a celestial Tehicle, aa
18. ascends to heayen, gladdening his progenitors. But hi
who foolishly resumes land allotted to gods or priesti
assuredly causes his ancestors to &11 to hell, even thong
they had preyiously attained heaven.
19. ^* Sprung from a yery pure race, respectful towan
gods, priests, spiritual parents, and the king, a genera
20. founder of temples, who has dug many ponds ; by t
tenderness of his disposition an image of Sugata,^ a tream
of virtues, with subdued organs, wise, and averse from uj
pleasing discourse: such was the E&yastha Nigadatti
21. By him was composed with great devoutness, this pnia
of the minister; in apt measure and pleasing verse
elegant ' and apposite*
22. " The last three verses were written by his youngc
brother Yidy&datta ; for he himself was fearful of pre
claiming his own virtues.
23. '' Bich and fertile is the village, obtained throng
[252] the king^s favour as an endowment for subsistene
and still more productive is this other village for virtad
men." '
^ From this compariBon to Sugata or Buddha, as well as a prenous eomptcitf
to a Bodhisattwa, it may he inferred that the aathor, if not himself a foUoires
the sect of Buddha, was at least more amicahly disposed (owarda that sect ill
modem orthodox Hindus appear to be.
It is hardly necessary to inform the reader, that the last Buddha waa oonspiciMt
for his tender, compassionate disposition. The mythology of the sect of Boddb
peoples heaven with Bodhisattwas; and, from this class of beings, the Buddha
are selected. Gautama Buddha was a Bodhisattwa under the name of S'wetaketi
before he was incarnate as Siddh&rtha, son of S'uddhodana.
^ The text exhibits Sur^-k|ita^obh& ; which must be amended by reidiof
either Swar^ or Suvar^a. The last is preferable as giving the moft tome
metre : either way the meaning is rendered * elegant as gold,' or * by well sdeettf
words : ' for stwarna or »wan^ signifies gold; and may be resolved into twowwii
»u * well,* and varna or arna a * letter ' or * syllable.'
' The last line is very obscure. If it have been rightly deciphered and expUiaed
it may allude to some other grant held by the R&j&'s minister, for his own mb
sistence.
CONTAININQ SANSKRIT INSCBIFTI0N8.
225
nwrraw
1^ T^ 5^lMt<: g^«^<i^«i«iif<«: II ^ «
Twrft ^ t'rfWt ^TTft vtrt ^rttH'lit^ I
H^inft'ft ii^M^Hi *]i)flM<*n^: « Q. II
iw irftw: ^irrJf Tr^prrtt nif*if^flKiftT: i
4iT^^m ^|Tf?f: inppft^iif^rTO'ra*. ii 90 «
•ni«i^wnM«ii<Hi ^prra unitm^^i 11 9^ 11
wft ff ^RTt f^njfir: MOMa^*! *itM*iiP&i«i 1
wr^^T^TO ^ ^wr^: ij^rra ^^r^f^ b 9? 11
^m^*iPifi3(m: ^Rft ftrrwr'l^ ^fir Mi^<i«i
▼OL. in. [bsaats u.]
15
226
ON ANCIENT MONUMSNTB
^rf?[ %^ M<4\m ISTftWf WTV ¥WI^ I S^l
[254] w9(fH ni4ii«iiM* t*i^ ^ WKT^^nrrti I S'^ I
ftfinwi^ ft^» irroft WR^ it^ I Ro I
^iHhwt t^iRrfif^ fiwr^^f ^J*^ I ^^ I
III. Inscription on three PUites of Brass found at Chitradur^*
A grant of land, engraved on three plates of brass, whict
were found at Chitradurg in the year 1800, and a foe-simile of
a similar grant found at the same place, have been present^
by Major C. Mackenzie to the Asiatic Society.
[255] The plates, which appear to be very similar in both
grants, may be described from that, of which the original has
been received. They are nearly seven inches wide and M
many high, but sunnounted by an arch of two inches in
height. The two exterior plates have been engraved on the
inner side only : the middle one is so on both foces. At the
coNTAnror* sanskeit inscriptions. 227
! a rim, half a line thick, by which the inscription is
1 from being effaoed by the rubbing of the plates. They
Id together by a brass ring, on which is a seal of the
letal representing a boar. The- engraved siu&ces haye-
ppearance of having been once gilt.
language is Sanskrit, excepting the description of the
which is in the K&nara dialect. The whole inscription
evanigari characters: but some of the letters are formed
)xy unusual manner. It contains a grant by the king
y&nagar (pronounced Bij£nagar), formerly the capital
rndtaka : and is dated little more than four hundred
tgo. Grants, by kings of this dynasty, are not uncom-
1 the Dakhin ; and may be of use in determining the
»f their several reigns. These princes were enlightened
! of science ; especially Harihara and Bukkardya, sons
jama the foimder of the dynasty.
>r Mackenzie forwarded a translation of this inscription
by his interpreter Kavelly Boria. The original is, in
nstances, read di£ferently by the Pandits whom I have
ed : not, however, making any change in the purport,
any material passage. The following translation is
oable to their interpretation : and the copy, which is
led, exhibits the text as read by them.
[256] TaANSLATioir.
L. *' Salutation to Ganesa. I bow to Sambhu, graced
h the beautiful moon crowning his lofty head; him-
r the pillar, which upholds the origin of the three
rlds.^ May he, whose head is like an elephant's, the
U or Mah&deya, ii figured with the mooB as a creit. According to my-
he npholds the creator.
tad the two following stanzas, seem to he the same which are found, hut
rent order, at the heg^inning of the inscription on the plates preserved at
le of Eonjereram (As. Res., yoI. iiL p. 39) ; with some difference, how-
the reading and interpretation.
228 ox ANCIENT MONUMENTS
son of Hara,^ the caoBO of unintemipted anpremacj, tb
giver of boons, and the luminary which dispell darimesB^
3. preserve as. May the ausjHcious primeval boar/ by whonc
closely embraced, the earth exults, grant us vast prospoit]
4. '* The ambrosial moon, brother of the goddess Rami
is the offspring of the milky ocean,^ having a oommo
origin with the gem Kaustubha, the all-productive tic
5. and the ever-beneficent cow. In the lunar race was boi
a king named Yadu,^ by a descendant of whom [Epshna
6. son of Yasudeva, the earth has been protected. In hi
line arose a king named San[257]gama,* who abounded ii
weighty virtues, and shunned the society of the wicked.
7. "This king had [five] sons, Harihara, Kampi,
Bukkar&ya who was sovereign of the earth,'' M&rapa aod
Mudgapa.
8. " Among these five graceful princes, the most ode-
brated was Bukka, sovereign of the earth, conspicuoiu foi
9. valour, as Arjuna among the P&ndavas. Therefore, did
Bukkar&ya, fierce in battle, become a fortunate prince,
applying]; his left shoulder^ to uphold the burden of the
mighty elephants posted at the quarters of the worid
^ Gane^a, fibred with an elephant's head, reckoned son of Han or ICah&defi
and of his wife P&rvat(.
' The original is here inaccurate : it exhibits Tara* tlvra timira ftAirp; vhid
mcamt nothing, and in which a syllable is deficient for the metre. In tlie £k
simile of another grant, the same passage is correctly written, Vmrudat ikf
tiniira mihiro.
* The incarnation of Vishnu, as a boar, who upheld the earth tubmeiged b]
the ix-uuu, is well known to all who are conversant with Indian mythology.
* The story of the churning of the ocean is familiar to every one.
^ Yudu, the celebrated ancestor of Krishi;ia, was of the lunar race.
* The pretensions of Sungama to be descended from the lunar line of Kshstnjif
or ('hamlruvun/ls arc here asserted.
^ The names of three of these princes, as well as of their father, oocor is tbe
writings of Miiidhuva-&ch&r)'a, and of his brother Sfrya^a-ichftiyi, who vcn
priests and counsellors of those monarchs.
Ilurihora K&ja, and Hukkana R&ja or Bukkar&ya, are named in Hldhiit'>
coiunit-utar}' on the Vedus, and Eampa is mentioned in his grammatical woikk
*> The text appears to exhibit the negative of dakshina 'right'
At the eight principal points of the compass, elephant! uphold the woiii
CONTAINING SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS. 229
^. When his airny^ in warlike array, performed evolutions on
the frontier of his dominions, the Turushkas felt tbeir
months parched; the Konkana, terrified, apprehended
impending death ; the Andhras fled, in consternation, to
the caverns ; the Gurjaras trembled ; the K&mbojas lost
their firmness ; and the Kalingas were quickly discomfited \
[258] 11. *^He was a conspicuous monarch, splendid,
and a supreme ruler of kings, but acting towards disobedient
2. prinees, as the king of birds towards serpents : embraced
by the concubines of kings, destroying hostile chiefs, de-
fending the heroes of Hindu-r&ya, endowed with know-
ledge and other qualities.'
13. " By that victorious king was Vidyd-nagari made a
permanent metropolis ; a fortunate city, which is adapted
to promote universal conquest.'
14. *' Gkiurdmbikd became his queen ; a princess re-
spectable for her virtues; as Bamd the beloved wife of
^* Krishna ; as Gauri, of ^iva ; as ^hi, of Indra ; as
S. Saraswatiy of Brahmd ; as Chh&yd, of Surya.* By the
^ Thii Terse is extremely inaccurate in the original : it has been corrected with
^ aid of the fius-simile of another grant before mentioned. It begins, Tasyoddh-
^ pttddhe yuddha rang$j which is nnmeaning and contains too many syllables
r t^ metre. It should be, as in the other inscription, Yasyodyad yuddha range.
syUable is wanting in Tunuhkdh^ written Tuahkdh. Two were deficient in
hifm hhara bharitah, expressed Bkava bkaritah. Both inscriptions write Kdm-
uffdJ^ for Kdmbofa/^, In one, Sapari is erroneously put for Sapadi,
AU the names of nations, which occur in this place, have been repeatedly ex-
' Theee stanzas are yery obscure : and I am not confident that they arc rightly
inslated. HindtL-r&3ra seems to be similar to the Hinddpati of Bundelkhand :
r ao the gOTemment of that country was denominated under the chiefs, who
il«d it in the last and in the preceding century.
The stanzas appear to be similar to two in the grant prcserred at Eonjeyeram :
Is. 26th and 26th. (As. Res., yol. iii. p. 47.) But there is some difference in
seding as well as interpretation.
' Vidy&-nagar( signifies the city of science. Farishtah was mistaken, when he
(firmed, that it was founded by B&j& Ball&l-deo and named after his son Bij&-
ky. (Scott's History of JDekhan, Intr. p. xL) It is belieyed to haye been
ffonded by the two brothers Harihara and Bukkar&ya.
' The godi and goddesses, to whom this happy couple is here compared, sre
nentioiied in the text by titles, some of which are uncommon ; and haye been
230 ON INCIENT MONX7MENT8
charms of her graceful gaiety, [259] she obseored
Tilottamd ; ^ hy her happy fidelity to her hnshand, she
excited the enyy of Anasdyd.'
17. '' This liberal prince, pre-eminent among kings,
begot, on that divine princess,' a son named Harihan:
18. who is become a protector ef the good and poniahir of
the wicked ; who has obtained his wish, with the wise:
who is enviable, and is devoted to the god Harihara.
19. " The tree of virtue thrives by water poured witk
his donations ; ^ while he shines vrith the splendid gk>ij<if
sixteen kinds of gift.^
20. '' In the year 1317 ; « and, of the eyelet DhiU; ii
the month of Magha, and light fortnii^t; on the day of
21. full moon ; under the asterism sacred to the Pitris (Maghi);
on Sunday ; upon the bank of the river Tungabhadiit
22. which is adorned by the mountain Hemakuta ; in thepn-
33. sence of the auspicious deity, Yirdp&ksha ; '' the valiant
Harihara,^ revered among [260] mortals, liberal in his
34. gifls of land, and especially attentive to venerable priests,
22. has graciously given, with gold and with a libation of water,
23. to the auspicious descendant of Bharadw&ja and follower
of the Rigveda, the wise Vishnudikshita PattabardW, son
24. of y achaspati surnaraed Bhila ; and to the learned
therefore changed, in the translation, to others more generally known. Bami »
probably intended for R&dh& as a representatire of Lakshroi.
In the original, Saraswati is called Vπ but the fac^simile of the other is*
scription exhibits Sivitrf. S'aehi is, in the original, erroneously written S'achi;
Aud/dma occurs at the beginning of the verse for ndma,
* Tilottamk is the name of a nymph celebrated for her beauty.
' AnasCiy& is wife of Atri, and distinguished for conjugal affection. Thenivs
signifies unenvious.
^ The princess is here termed Gauri, which is a title of P&rratf ; and ^^
conveys an allusion to her own name Gaur&mbik&.
* iSoleran donations are ratified by pouring water into the hand of the dontf"
^ Sixteen meritorious gifts are enumerated in treatises on donation.
* Corresponding to a.d. 1395.
7 A title of S'iva.
* The difi'erence of idiom makes it necessary to transpose, in the truaWn'i
some of the verses of the original.
COKTAININQ SAKSEHIT INSORIPTIONS. 231
mtadikshita son of B&mabhatta, a descendant of
lishtha and follower of Apastamba's Yajarveda, inhabi-
; of Ruchangi (a place known to have been yisited by
P&ndayas), the fertile and all-productive village of
ienahaUi, also named Hariharapura, situated in the
st of Bhilichedra, east of the village called Arisiker,
,h of Gandikehalli, west of Pallavakatd, and north
Bhddihalli, a place to be honoured hj all ; marked on
four sides by distinct boundaries; together with its
sores, and hidden deposits, its stones, and everything
ch it does or may contain ; abounding with objects
sing to the eye ; fit to be enjoyed by two persons ;
^ with elegant trees ; furnished with wells, cisterns,
is and banks ; to be successively possessed by the
I, grandsons and other descendants [of the grantees], as
; as the sun and moon endure, subject to be mortgaged,
, or any way disposed of; a village visited by assiduous
gentle priests and attendants, and by various wise
^ns, who are conversant with holy rites, and surpass in
e melodious birds." ^
] A particular description of the bounds of the village,
land-marks, is next inserted in the K&nara language,
hich the patent proceeds thus :
is patent is of the king Harihara, the sole unalterable
beneficence, magnanimous, and whose sweet strains
3 this royal grant. By his command this patent has
kmed, expressed in due form, in the sacred tongue.^
B boundaries of the village on all sides have been
n the provincial dialect.
parts of this long passage are obscure and doabtful. The last stanza,
preceding, omitting one, (that is, the 29th, 30th, and 32nd) appears to
le with three which occur in the grant preserved at EonjeTeram, viz.
L, and 46th. (As. Bes., toI. iii. p. 51.) But there are some yariations
he reading of them in this inscription, and in the copy of the Eonje-
ites, from which Sir W. Jones made his yersion of that grant : and, in a
ices, the interpretation which I have adopted differs from his.
passage may indicate the artist's name, Y&i^ideya.
232 ^^ ANdSNT MOHumirrs
'^Of original gift or oonfirmation of it, oonfirmation i
superior to gift ; by generous grants a man obtains heaven
by confirmation of them, an onperishable abode ; for the coi
firmation of another^s donation is twice as meritorious as
gift made by himself; and his own munificence is renden
fruitless by resumption of another's grants. He who resum
land, whether bestowed by himself or by another, is bom \
insect in ordure for sixty thousand years. In this worid
one only sister of all kings, namely land, which has been eo
ferred on priests : ^ she must not be enjoyed nor espouse*
This general maxim of duty for kings, should be strict
obseryed by you in all times ; so B&machandra earnestly co
jures all future sovereigns.'
[262] "&ri Vihip&ksha; or the auspicious deity wit
uneven eyes." *
* The terms may signify ** fully granted away, or properly bestowed.**
* In mythology, as well as in figurative language, the earth is wife of t
sovereign. With an allusion to this idea, land, which has been granted away,
here called the king's sister: and his seizure of such land is pronounced inoestooo
The expression which has been translated ^espoused* {karagrdhyd, litenllj, M
be taken by the hand'), will also signify * subjected to taxation : ' for kvra flgs
fies ' tax ' as weU as * hand.'
^ This appears to be a quotation from some poem (a Pur&^a or R&m&y^a
The whole of the concluding part of the inscription (comprised in fire staiiii
seems to be the same with the close of the grant on plttes of copper preferred
EonjcTeram. See As. Res., vol. iii. p. 53.
^ This signature is in K&nara letters.
CONTAININQ 8ANSKBIT IKSGRIPTIONS. 233
wifi^ ^JWT ^^Vft n^^ 'wW^: I
fiKii^f V irrPnit wr^ ^*ilir<^ ism
' [I hafe added a fisarga after -^sanffa.]
234
ox ANCIENT MONUMENTS
TRRiy|irnR!^tf*nrw fturtiil i ^8 1
^ [^tm^TTPrf?]
' [ThiiB line is so printed in the Atiatie ReuarehiM, and in the London ofitMB
of the EssaTs. It should he
CONTAINING SANSXBIT INSCBIPTIONS. 236
1
if iftw} «r <ii4iiwi r^m^Hii ^^•^^T I
liis should be the first line of an Ary& bloka :
236 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
lY . Another and similar iMcriptum found at the same place.
With a fac-simile of the forcing inscription, Miyor
Mackenzie communicated the copy of another inscription fennd
also at Chitradarg and in the same year. The whole of the
iutrodactory part, containing the name of the prince, and bii
genealogy, is word for word the same in both grants : exo^
ing a few places, where the variations are [267] eridently
owing to mistakes of the artist, by whom the plates were en-
graved. I have consequently derived much assistance from
this fac-simile in deciphering the original inscription before
described.
The grant, here noticed, is by the same prince, and dated
in §aka 1213 ; only four years anterior to the one befen
translated. I think it therefore unnecessary to complete tbe
deciphering of it, or to insert a copy or translation metdj ftr
the name and description of the lands granted, or the designi- :
tions of the persons on whom they were bestowed.
Concerning the similarity of the grants, it may be remaAed,
that this circumstance is not a sufficient ground of dis-
trust ; for it cannot be thought extraordinary, that a set torn
of introduction to patents should have been in use ; or tbt
grants, made within the space of four years, by the same per-
son, should be alike. I must acknowledge, however, that tbe
inaccuracies of the original have impressed me with some
doubt of the genuineness of the preceding grant. I do not,
however, suspect it to be a modem forgery : bat I apprehendf
that it may have been fabricated while the upper Earn&tab
continued under the sole domination of Hindu princes. Still it
may not be without its use, as an historical monument : since
it may be fairly presumed, that the introductory part i^
copied from a more ancient monument; perhaps from that
with which it has been now collated. *
CONTAINING SANSKEIT INSCRIPTIONS. 237
\ Interipiion on a stone found at Kurugode in the district
of Adoni}
Another ancient monument, for the communication of which
lie Asiatic Society is indebted to the same gentleman, whose
sal for literary research, and inde&tigable [268] industry
Q the prosecution of inquiries, cannot be too much praised, was
bond by him in the upper Karg&taka in 1801, and has been
presented to the Asiatic Society, with the following account of
its discovery and of the inscription which it contains.
' The accompanying stone was found at Kurugode, fourteen
miles north of Ball&ri, not far from the Tungabhadri, among
the rains of the ancient town at the foot of the Durg ; and was
ranoyed thence, in March, 1801, with the consent of the
principal inhabitants, under the impression, that this specimen
of ancient characters, with which it is covered, would be a
dttirable acquisition to gentlemen who cultivate the study
of Emdu literature.
' The inscription is chiefly written in the ancient K&nara
hogoage much mixed with Sanskrit, of which some of the
AoiiM or stanzas are exclusively composed. It commences
^th the invocation of Sambhu (oiva), and after introducing
tte grant, date, and description of the lands, concludes with
MTend iloka» usually added as a formula in confirmation of
such donations.
'A few of the stanzas, said to be written in the Pr&krit
bngoage, could not be understood by the i^astris and Pandits
at Triplikane, who explained the greatest part of the inscrip-
tion to my Br&hmans : by their united efforts and knowledge,
the accompanying translation was given, in which I have
oreiy confidence after the experience I have had of the fidelity
of other translations by the same hands (some of which are
already communicated).
^ The inscription is useful as an historical record, if the
^ja Raksh&malla^ mentioned here, be the same with the
^ A'davani.
238 ^^ ANCIENT 1C0NX7MENTS
sovereign of the same name, mentioned in a history of Mysore,
who flourished about the eighth century ; thus agreeing in
date nearly with the monument.
'The beauty of the character was also a strong motife
[269] for removing it, as an appropriate offering to a Sodetj,
whose labours have been so successfully employed in illnstnt-
ing the interesting remains of Hindu antiquity ; and a per-
manent specimen of a character which appears hitlierto to hxn
escaped much notice.
' The common E&nara language and character are used bj
the natives of all those countries extending from !Koimbaton,^
north to Balkee,' near Bider, and within the parallels from
the eastern 6h&ts to the western, comprehending the modem
provinces of Mysore,* Sera,* upper Bednore,' Soonda,* Goi,
Adoni, Bachore,'' Kanoul,^ the Du&b of the Eish^i and
Tungabhadri, and a considerable part of the modem 8uboh
of Bider and Bij&pur, as far as the source of the Eislugiiit
least. Its limits and point of junction with the Mahnttii
may be yet ascertained with more precision ; but in 1797, 1
had the opportunity of observing, that the junction of the
three languages, Telinga, Mahratta, and K&nara, took plaoe
somewhere about Bider.
*• Besides the common character and language, another ap-
pears to have been used, denominated at present the Halla or
ancient E&nara, in which this inscription is written : it has
gone so much into disuse, that it was with some difficulty I
could get people to read it. An alphabet will be yet com-
municated; as several books and ancient inscriptions are
written in tliis character : and the remaining literature of the
Jains in B&I&gh&t, appearing to be preserved in it, affords
additional motives for pointing it out to the attention of
the learned, as probably affording means of extending the fidd
of knowledge of Hindu literature.
» Koyamutdr. « Ph&laki. > Mahisdr. ♦ Shi.
* Bednar. * Sund&. ^ £&cb(ir. ^ KandanAr.
CONTAININO SANSEBIT INSCEIFTIONS. 239
le of the inscriptions, at K&nara and Salset, appear
0 be written in this character ; and many monuments
kind, dispersed over the upper Gamatic, hold out the
t of further information.
ong several manuscripts in K&nara, five, relating to the
ligion and customs, are in my possession.
i name of Kavellj Boria, a Br&hman, who was highly
ental in forwarding and facilitating the investigations
on in Mysore and the Niz&m's dominions, is inscribed
edge of this stone, as a small tribute to the zeal and
of a native who evinced a genius superior to the com-
sjudices of the natives. He first suggested the idea of
ig the stone to some place where it could be useful
opean literature; and, by his conciliatory manner,
1 the concurrence and assistance of the natives for
irpose.'
stone, sent by Major Mackenzie, with the foregoing
of the discovery of it, is nearly five feet high, and
ide, and about ten inches thick. The front is covered
iting in large characters, above which is a represent-
P the Itnga in the form usual in temples: it is sur-
1 by a sun and crescent ; and near it stands a bull,
1 perhaps for the bull called Nandi,^ a constant atten-
j^iva: this is followed by the figure of a smaller animal,
lar form. The back of the stone is half covered with
translation, mentioned by Major Mackenzie, is here
h1. Not being acquainted with the character in which
inal is written, I have not collated the version ; and
erefore used no freedom with it, except that of substi-
in many places, English words for Sanskrit, which the
or had preserved.
. rides upon a bull, but Nandin or Nandi is one of his principal atten-
hej are plainly distingpushed in Kumdra-tatnbhava, tH. 37.]
240 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
[271] Translation.
'^ Adoration be to the auspicious SwajambhA-n&tlia, or
Self-existent Protector.
1. " I prostrate myself before l^mbhu : whose glorious
head is adorned with the resplendent moon ; and who is the
chief prop of the foundation of the three worlds.^
2. '' May Swayambhu be propitious : he, who won im-
mortal renown ; who grants the wishes of those that earaestlj
intreat him ; who peryades the universe ; the Sovereign Lord
of Deities ; who destroyed the state and arrogance of the
demons ; who enjoyed the delightful embraces of P&r?ati, to
whom the learned prostrate themselves : the God above ill
gods.
3. ^' I prostrate myself before Sambhu ; whose unqnendi-
able blaze consumed the magnificent Tripura ; whose food ii
the nectar dropping from the beams of the moon ; who le-
joiced in the sacrifice of heads by the Lord of lUkshasas;'
whose face is adorned with smiles, when he enjoys the
embraces of Gauri."
(The foregoing stanzas are Sanskrit : the fourth, which is
Pr&krit, is unexplained. Those which follow are in K&nan.)
5. " By the consort of Devi, whose divinity is adored, the
spouse of P&rvati, resplendent with the glorious light of gems
reflected from the crowns of the Lords of Gods and demons
whose heads lay prostrate at his feet ; with a face ever lighted
up with smiles ; he is the self-existent deity : may the wealth,
and the stations of his saints, be ever granted to us.
[272] 6. "Tlie beams of whose sight, like the frequent
waving of the lotus flower, flasli reflected from the numerous
crowns of glorious kings, of the chief of Gods, of the King of
Kings, and of the Lord of Demons ; who exists in all things,
^ ThiB is the same stanza, which hcg^ns the two inscriptions found at Chitn*
durg, and which likewise occurs in a grant in the possession of a Br&hman it
Is^andigul ; and in that preserved at Konjeveram.
^ K&va^a.
CONTAINIKG SANSKEIT INSCBIPTIOXS. 241
in all elements, in water, ur, earth, ether, and fire, in the sun
and moon: the renowned deity manifested in eight forms;
Sambha ; may he grant our ardent prayers.
7. '* Cheerfiilly I bow to Sambha in the lotas of the heart ;
to him who inereafies and gives life to all ; who holds supreme
command over all ; who, through his three divine attributes,
created and animated fourteen worlds ; who ever resides in the
minds of his saints."
(The two next stanzas have not been explained. The
following is in Halla K&nara.)
10. ** For ever be propitious to Someswara Devadi, son of
the fortunate Bhuvana-malla-vira, the protector of the world,
the chief sovereign of kings, the pre-eminent monarch, a man
of superior virtue, a distinguished personage of the noble race,
the ornament of the Chaluka tribe, whose state be increased
progressively in this world, so long as the sun and moon en-
dure; who reigns in the city of Kaly&n, enjoying every
happiness and good fortune, with the converse of good men
sod every other pleasure. In this country of Kuntaladesa,^
a hmd renowned for beauty and for manly strength over all the
sea-girt earth, is situated Kondavipattan, placed as the beauty
Bpot on the human face ; a city fevoured by the goddess of
prosperity ; as a nosegay of elegant flowers adorning the tresses
(^the beauteous goddess of the earth.
11. " How is this favoured land P In its towns are nume-
[273]rous groves of mango ; plantations of luxuriant betel and
fields of rice : in every town are channels of water^ and wells,
opulent men and beautiful women ; in every town are temples
of the Grods and of the saints : in every town are men blessed
with vigour and every virtue.
12. " In its centre, is the mighty hill of Kunigode-durg,
hke the fastnesses^ of heaven, ever famed, rearing aloft its top
> Euntala-detfa, the ancient name of the proyince in which Eunigode ia litu-
ited ; part of the Ball&ri or Adoni District. (Note by Major Mackenzie.)
' The poet indolges his fancy in describing this favoured duty ; bat, in fact, it
TOL. in. [E984T8 O.] 16
242 OK ANCIENT MONUMENTS
crowned with fortresses ; in height and compass snrpassing all
the strong hills on the right or left.
13. '^ This Kurugode was established as the capital of his
dominions by the King of Enntala, who was the foe of the
£ing of Chola ; ^ who terrified the Gurjara ; who is the in-
strument to destroy the plants of Madru ; who put P&^djs
to flight. Is it possible for the king of snakes, though pos-
sessed of a thousand tongues, to praise sufficiently the beaotj
of this city P
14. '^What is the description of the delightful gardens
that encompass the cityP They are gardens wherein we
found the tilakf the tamdl^ the palm, the plantain, the Mima-
sops, the trumpet-flower, the tremulous fig-tree, the citron, the
Oleander, Mesua, and Cassia, the cotton-tree, the Carambok
and Pcederia, the mango, Butea, and firagrant Nalik&; and
various trees, that flourish and produce through all seasons as
in the garden Nandana : these surrounded this city of Euro-
gode."
(The fifteenth stanza is unexplained.)
16. " In the city of Kurugode, the residence of the god-
[274]dess of prosperity, where are numerous temples of wor-
ship, fertile lands, happy spouses, friendly intercourse, a
favourable government, every sacred decoration and zealous
devotion in the service of Siva ;
17. " The Lord of that city, a warrior unrivalled, whose
name was Raksh&malla, whose breast is tin^red with the saf-
fron communicated from the bosom of beauty, whose renown is
ever praised over the whole world."
(The eighteenth stanza is in Pr&krit, and not explained.)
19. " This R&jd Raksh&malla, prince of the earth, born of
iB only about 250 feet high, and no ways remarkable for strength. (Kobe W
Major Mackenzie.)
^ Chola-de^a, , The modem Tanjore ooodM*
Gurjara, Guzarat.
Madru, Madura and Trichinopolf-
P&94ya» Marawar and TincTellj. ^
CONTAINING SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS. 243
o renowned a race of sovereigns, was happily possessed of
raloor, of Tictory, and of wealth.
20. " For the King Bakshfimalla, who was lord of riches
wd a devout worshipper of Siva, had for his consort Somal-
levi, and begot a son named Nerungala B&jd, husband to
ho goddess of renown, the bestower of wealth on the dis-
reesed, on the learned, and on the unfortunate, to the utmost
Ktent of their wishes.
21. "To Nerungala "R&jk and to his wife Pakshal&-devi
the source of all virtues), were happily bom two sons, named
m&di Baksh&malla and Somabhupfila, whose renown, like the
ky, overspread the whole earth.
22. " What is the description of the eldest of these princes P
]m&di (or the second) Baksh&malla B&j&, the successor of
he former, seated on the excellent throne, attended by
nany mighty elephants, in colour like the Chamari,^ ruled
the whole kingdom under one umbrella, possessing the won-
ierfiil power, like Chinna-govinda, of feeding tigers and sheep
in the same fold.
23. " The King Bakshdmalla acquired great power : his
oighty splendour and good fortune were such as drew [275]
be applause of the whole admiring world. The globe was
lied with the light of his reputation. The beauty of his
erson is worthy of the praise even of Cupid, the God famed
)r beauty. He was the destroyer of sin ; eminent above
>reign kings, and in battle he was as Yishnu.
24. "May Mptu* [Siva] graciously bestow eternal wealth
knd prosperity of empire, on the King Bakshdmalla, among all
bis chief saints.
"During the gradual increase of the empire of Rakshdmalla
extending from the north, all around, even to the north, his
Bervant and worshipper, a descendant of Kasyapa*s race,
DUknager of the affairs of Talgard-amari, invested with full
authority; equal in knowledge to Yugandhar, the sun to
244 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
enlighten the cast of Yajinasa, [as the son enlightens th^
sky] ; chief of ministers, bom by the blessing of the go^
Swayambhii, the source of wealth, was B&bar&jiL''
(Several lines follow giving an account of the ancestors o/
B&bar&jii, which have not been translated.)
'' Such is B&bar&ju, who built a temple to the god Swayam-
bhu-devi, while he was managing the affairs of his sovere^
lord, the mighty king, the great Baksh&malla^ whose god wis
the self-existent deity.
'^ The praise of the priests of the temple.
^^ They were learned in the sacred ceremonies of holy de-
Totion, in self-restraint, in austere &8t, appropriate studies,
alms, remembrance, silence, religious practice, and the worship
of &iva.
" They were devout in performing the ceremonies of the
worship of the gods of the family. Among them was one
named B&lasiva-&charya, unequalled for a good or happy
geuius. To this famous B&lasiva-&ch4rya was granted this
gift with water poured into his hands.
[276] " The charitable donation of lands given to the god
Swayambhu in the year of S41iv4han 1095,^ in the Vijay*
year of the cycle, and on the 30th of the month Margasira, on
Monday, in the time of an eclipse of the sun."
(It appears unnecessary to insert the description of the lands.)
'*Also Chinna-govinda-sitara-gundi, king of the city of
Bhogavati, equal to the sovereign of Bhattal, who was ac-
knowledged for ever by the excellent Yirakdlideva, the mighty
king of the earth named Iniadi Rakshamalla-deva. In tb^
year of Salivahan 1103,* of the cycle Plava, and on the 15tl*-
of Kirtika, on Monday, in the gracious time of the moon'*-
eclipse, at the time when he made over in alms Tripu
Agraliaram, granted under D&rapurbak to B&lasiva-deva, w
repaired all the buildings of the temples of Swayambhu-de
^ Answering to a.d. 1173.
** Corresponding to a.d. 1181.
CONTAINING SANSKBIT INSCRIPTIONS. 246
rho is distinguished for knowledge of the pure Vedas, and of
ther religious institutions and customs of the worshippers of
ITS, and for charity in feeding the poor/'
(The sequel of the inscription is likewise omitted : it relates
> a further grant made by the widow of B&bar&jti, at the
ime of her burning herself with the corpse of her husband.
?he concluding part of it was left xmtranslated, being stated
o be illegible.)
The eclipses, mentioned in these grants, do not appear re-
!oncilable with their dates. According to the table of eclipses
salcnlated by Pingre/ the solar eclipses, which occurred in
1172 and 1173, fell on 27th January and 23rd June, 1172,
Udd 12th June, 1173 ; and the lunar eclipses [277] in 1180
and 1181, were on the 13th February and 7th August, 1180,
md 22nd December, 1181. None of these approach to the
iates of M&rgalsira or Agrah&yana 1095 and K&rtika 1103.
Unless, then, the era of S&liv&hana have been counted differ-
)ntly in the peninsula of India, from the mode in which it is
low reckoned, and on which the comparison of it with the
Christian era is grounded, it seems difficult to account for this
lisagreement of the dates and eclipses in any other way, than
by impeaching the inscription, the authenticity of which there
is not otherwise any reason to question.
VI. Inscription on a Stone found at Kurrah.
Having learnt from Captain C. Stewart (a Member of this
Society), that an inscription had been remarked by him in the
gateway of the fort of Kurrah (Khari), I obtained, through
the assistance of Major Lennon, then stationed in the vicinity
of that place, the stone itself which contains the inscription.
It now belongs to the Asiatic Society.
The inscription is very short; contains the date 1093
Samvat, the name of the prince, as also names of several
' Pabliihedin Vart de virifier les dates; and inserted in Playfair's System of
Ckrtmology,
246 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
places ; and is written in a very legible character : yet all mj
endeavours to arrive at any explanation of it have been un-
successful. Whether it be only a fragment of an inscription
(for the stone is very narrow),^ or the inscription have been
inaccurately engraved (and this also is countenanced by its
appearance), I shall not take upon myself to determine. At
present, I can only translate the first six, out of sixteen
lines, which run thus: "Samvat 1093,« [278] on the fint
day of the li^^ht fortnight of Ash&dha. This day, at this
auspicious Kata, the great and eminent prince Yasahpila,' in
the realm of Kaus&mba, and village of Payahisa, comnands,
that r^
^ Its height is four feet nine inches, but it is only nine inches wide.
' Corresponding to a.d. 1037.
' It may be worth remarking, that the inscription discorered at SIranitiA
near Benares, dated ten years antecedent to this, relates to a family of princ*^
whost! names had a similar termination. As. Res., vol. ▼. p. 133.
* [The inscription has been recomparod by Prinsep, S, A. S. Joum. 1836, p-
731, and he has given several corrections, but he adds that "still with thcsa
emendations the context hardly bears complete translation, though the genenl
object is clear."]
CONTAINING SilJSKRIT INSCBIPTIONS. 247
f279] VII. Inscription on a Plate of Copper found in the
District ofDindjpur.
In the beginning of the present year (1806), a plate of
copper was found at ^mg&chhi in Sult&npur, by a peasant,
iigging earth for the repair of a road near his cottage. He
leliyered it to the nearest police officer, by whom it was con-
veyed to the magistrate, Mr. J. Pattle : and by him forwarded
for communication to the Asiatic Society. Amgdchhi, though
now a small village, is described as exhibiting the appearance
of having formerly been a considerable place. Hemains of old
masonry are found there ; and numerous ponds are remarked
in the vicinity of that and of the adjacent villages. It is
sitoated at the distance of about fourteen miles from Bud&l ;
^here an ancient pillar stands, of which a description (as well
tt the inscription, which is read on it), was published in the
first volume o{ Asiatic Researches (p. 131).
The plate is very large, being fourteen inches high and
thirteen broad. It is surmounted by a highly wrought orna-
*n©nt of brass, fixed on the upper part, and advanced some
distance on the plate so as to occasion a considerable break in
the apper lines. The superior surface is covered with writing
^'i very close lines and crowded characters. The inscription is
^inpleted on the inferior surface, which contains sixteen lines
(the upper surface having no less than thirty-three). The
character is ancient Devan&gari, and the language Sanskrit:
^^i so great a part of the inscription is obliterated (some por-
^*<>xi of every line being illegible), that it is difficult to discover
^he purport of the inscription. After wasting much time in
^^deavouring to decipher the whole of it, I have been able
^^ly to ascertain the name of the grantor, and a part of his
genealogy ; with the date [280] of the grant, which unfortun-
ately is reckoned only by the reign, without any reference to
* known era.
The ornament affixed to the plate, and representing a seal.
248 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
contains a single line of writing, which is distinctly read, Sri
Yigrahapala-deva. This name, as of the grantor, is found u
the close of the inscription ; and it occurs more than once in
the body of the patent. Among his ancestors and predeces-
sors, the following names are distinctly legible.
The first prince mentioned is Lokaptia, and after bim
Dharmapala. The next name has not been deciphered : but
the following one is Jayap&Ia, succeeded by Devap&Ia. Two
or three subsequent names are yet undeciphered:^ thejan
followed by B&jap&Ia, p&ladeva, Vigrahapila-deva, md
subsequently Mahip&la-deya, Nayap&la and again Yignb*
pdla-deva.
So far as a glimpse has been yet obtained of the purport of
the inscription, it seems to be a grant by Yigrahapila-deta, in
the making of which Nayap&Ia likewise appears to have hadsom
share. It is dated Samvat* 12, on the 9th day of Ghaitra.
The use of the word Samvat (which properly signifies t
year) to denote the year of the king's reign, and not that of
Vikram&ditya^s era, merits particular notice. In the inscrip-
tion on the plates found at Mongir,' containing a grant of
land by a prince who appears to be of the same family, the
date was read by Mr. Wilkins, Samvat 33 ; which was rop-
posed both by him and by Sir W. Jones to intend the era of
Vikraiii&ditya.* I have always [281] entertained doabta of
that intcrj)rotation : and, among other reasons for hesitating,
one has been the improbability, which to my apprehension
exists, that the era should have been in use, and denoted by
the same abbreviated term, so early after the time at which it
commences. Eras by which nations have continued to reckon
for a series of ages, have not usually been introduced until »
considerable time after the event from which they are counted:
and, when first introduced, have been designated by some
» One seems to be Nkr&yaija ; perhaps Nkr&yavaptla.
* The original seems to exhibit Samat : but this must be intended for 8imW
or Samvat.
» As. llt's., vol. i. p. 123. * Ibid. p. 130.
CONTAIKINO SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS. 249
» definite term than one merely signifying a year. But
vrord Samcai (abbreviated from SammUara 'a year^ being
lat inscription prefixed to a low numeral, and not expressly
rieted, as is usual where Yikram&ditya's era is meant, was
» likely to intend the year of the reigning king (though
W. Jones thought otherwise^) than that of a period
(med from the birth, or the accession, or the demise of
her monarch. It appeared to me likewise, as to Captain
lord, <m examining the fac-simile of the inscription in
rtton,' that the character, which stands in the place of the
Samvat, resembled more nearly the numeral 1. The date
ht therefore be 133 instead of 33. I inclined, however, to
9ve the lower number to have been rightly read by Mr.
kins on the original plate : and consequently supposed it
e the date of the reign of Devap&la, the prince who made
grant. The date of the ^mg&chhi plate, which must be
rred to the reign of the grantor Vigrahapdla, seems strongly
(»rroborate this opinion.
he present inscription, though yet imperfectly deciphered,
sars to be useftil towards ascertaining the age [282] of the
igfr grant. The names of Dharmap&la and Devap&la
X in both inscriptions ; as that of Bdjap&la does, on the
kr at Bud&l, as well as on the ^mg&chhi plate. Some of
e nam^s are also found in the list of princes enumerated in
AjivLi Akbari ' as having reigned in Bengal before Ball&-
oa. The authority of Abu'lfazl, on Hindu history, is
led not great : but the inscription on the statue of Buddha,
;h was found at S&ran&tha, near Benares,^ proves, that a
ily of princes, whose names terminated in pdla, did reign
* €kmda in Bengal, near eight hundred years ago : and this
insistent with the period to which that dynasty is brought
n by Abulfazl ; namely, the middle of the eleventh cen-
^ As. Res , Tol. i. p. 142.
' Plates i. and ii. in the Ist vol. of As. Res.
* Vol. ii. p. 26. « As. Res., toI. ▼. p. 133.
260 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
tuiy of the Christian era. It appears also, from the same
inscription found at S&ran&tha, that these princes were wor-
shippers of Buddha, a circumstance which agrees with the
indications of that faith in the Mongir grant, as translated bj
Mr. Wilkins. The name of Mahipala, mentioned as king of
Gauda in the S&ran&tha inscription, occurs likewise in the
Amgkchhi plate ; and if it be reasonable to believe, that the
same person is intended in both instances, it will be right to
infer, that the grant contained on the plate found at Amg&chhi
is nearly eight hundred years old ; and that the plate found
at Mongir is more ancient by two or three centuries. This
reduces the age of the Mongir grant to the eighth or nmth
century of the Christian era ; which I cannot but think mora
probable, than the opinion of its being anterior to the birth of
Christ.
[283] VIII. Inscriptions on Plates of Copper at Ntdigil
and Ooujda.
*
To the foregoing description of several monuments, which
have been presented to the Asiatic Society, I shall add a brief
notice of two other inscriptions, of which copies have been
received.
Mention has been already made of a grant of land; in-
scribed on five plates of copper, seen at Nidigal, in the year
]801. It was in the possession of a Br&hmai^ residing at
that place : and a copy of it was taken by Major Mackenzie,
which has been communicated by him to the Society. The
grant appears to be from the second Bukka-rdj&, who was third
in succession from the first prince of that name, and grandson
of the king by whom the grants before mentioned were made.
If the date have been correctly deciphered from the copy of
this inscription, it is of the year 1331 Saka, corresponding to
A.D. 1409.
Another inscription, communicated by Major Mackenzie,
CONTAINING SANSKBIT INSCBIPTIONS. 251
irports to be a grant by JaDamejaya, the celebrated monarch
ho reigned in India at the commencement of the present age
r Ealiyuga. It is in the hands of the Br&hmans or priests
f Ooujda Agaiwoim in Bedntir ; and was, with some re-
teUoce, entroAted by them to Major Mackenzie, who him-
sif took from it a copy in &c-simile, the exactness of which
I demonstrated by the &cility with which the inscription may
« deciphered from that copy. The original is described as
ODtained in three plates of copper, fastened together by a
ing, on which is the representation of a seal, bearing the
igare of a boar with a sun and crescent. The purport of the
naeription, for I think it needless to make a complete version
^f it, is that ^ Janamejaya, son of Parikshit, a monarch reign-
Dg at Hastinapora, made a progress to the south, and to
^er [284] quarters, for the purpose of reducing all countries
inder his domination ; and performed a sacrifice for the de-
tniction of serpents, in presence of the god (or idol) Haridra,^
^ the confluence of the rivers Tungabhadr& and Haridr&, at
he time of a partial eclipse of the sun, which fell on a Sunday,
1 the month of Ghaitra, when the sun was entering the
^tthem hemisphere; the moon being in the Nakshatra
awini.'«
Having completed the sacrifice, the king bestowed gold and
ids on certain Br&hmajgias of Gautamagr&ma : whose names
d designations are stated at full length, with the description
d limits of the lands granted. The inscription concludes
th two verses ; the same with two of those which occur in
^ [Harihara in the As. Researches.]
' Such is the deduction from the text, which states a half eclipse of the sun in
latin, on the sun's entrance into the Uttar&yana, or northern path, at the
xnent of Vyatip&ta (which imports new moon on a Sunday in any one of the
der-mentioned Nakshatras, viz. A^wini, S'rayan&, Dhanish^h&, A'rdrk, Aideshai
d Mfigatfiras: the first of which is the only one compatible with the month),
le words of the text are Chaitramdse h iahna (should be kfishna) pakthe so
karana ttttardyana 8an vyatipdta nimitU
rjf%parv€tn\ ardha grdsa gfihita (should be grihita) samae (should be samaye).
In Uie places marked with dots, the letters are wanting in the original.
252 ON ANCIENT MONUMSNTS
the plates found at Chitradarg ^ ; and in those preser?edit
Konjeveram.*
If reliance might be placed on this as an ancient and au-
thentic monument, its importance, in the confirmation of aleii-
ing point of Indian history, woaldbe obvious and great. M^or
Mackenzie, in communicating the copy of it, expresses a doabtof
its authenticity ; but remarks, that it can be no modern ibrgeij,
for the people them [285] selves cannot read the inscriptioD. I
concur with Major Mackenzie both in distrusting the genuM-
ness of this monument ; and in thinking that it is no reoflot
fabrication.
Numerous and gross errors of grammar and orthognplij,'
which can neither be explained by a gradual change of ho-
guage, nor be referred to the mistakes of a transcriber or m-
graver, but are the evident fruit of ignorance in the p«noe
who first penned the inscription in N4gari characters, iroiU
furnish reason for discrediting this monument, were it othsp-
wise liable to no suspicion. But, when to this circumstttM
are added the improbability of the copper-plates having bMl
preserved during sevcfral thousand years, and the distrait
with which any ancient monument must be received, yrbm
I
its present possessor, or his ancestor, may have had clftiiDi
under the grant recorded in it, there can be little hesitation in
considering this grant of Janamejaya as unauthentic ; iod^
pendently of any argument deduced from the character, wUck
is not perhaps sufiiciently antique ; or from the astronomieil
^ See pages [261] and [266] of this Tolume.
' As. Res., vol. iii. p. 52. The yerses are those numbered 60 and 64.
' For example, tamae for samaye (tl*f M ^or ^«|t)), a palpaUe eiror, ohvioiiiT
arising from the blunder of an ignorant amanuensis writing from ^tirtatifla. Tte
mistake occurs more than once ; and can be accounted for in no other BaaMT'*
the syllables # and ye being alike in sound, though dissimilar in form ; aidtkfi
blunder being such as no person acquainted with the mdimenti of the Saadnt
language could have committed. Other instances have beoi remarked, aMt
equally strong : as Parikshiti for Pariluhit : chakravrmfti for cAdbreNKfi*
Short Yowels for long, and vie4 vertd, in repeated instances ; the dental fx Ac
palatal t ; and numerous other errors of spelling ; besides fanlti of graHiBar iii
style.
COITTAINING SAKSKBIT INSCRIPTIONS. 253
ita in this inscriptioiiy which, however consisieiit with Indian
iions of astronomy and chronology, will hardly bear the
li of & critical examination.
186] IX. j1 QrafU of Land hy Jayachandra, B4fd of Kanqf.
It may be proper to notice further, in this place, the in-
ription of which mention was made at the beginning of this
say, as having been deciphered by a Pandit (Sarvoni
riTedi), who commnnicated to me a copy of it, with the
formation, that the original has been conveyed to England
J the gentleman in whose possession it was seen by him.
Lceording to that copy, the genealogy of the prince, who
lade the grant recorded in the inscription, is as follows :
1. &rip&la,^ a prince of the solar race.
2. His son Mahichandra.
3. j^richandra-deva, son of the last mentioned ; acquired,
bj his own strength, the realm of G&dhipura or K&nyakubja
(Einoj) ; visited K&si and other holy places ; and repeatedly
pre away in alms his own weight in gold. He appears to
hiTe been the first King of Kanoj in this family.
4. Madanap&la-deva, son and successor of Srichandra.
5. Govinda-chandra, son of Madanap&la.
6. Vijaya-chandra-deva (the same with Jaya-chand),* son
f Gh>vinda-chandra ; is stated in the inscription as issuing his
ommands to all public officers, and to the inhabitants of
r&guli assembled at Devapallipattana, enjoining them to ob-
snre and obey his patent ; which is recited as a grant of land
) two Br&hmanas, conferred by him on the day of fiill moon
I M&gha 1220,^ subsequently to his inauguration as Yuva-
1 [Bather Taifoyigraha.]
* [This is an error, see p. [294]. Jayachandra was the son of Vijayachandra.
^e hsTe the authority of inscriptions for the following dates, in this list of kings ;
idftiuip&la, A.D. 1097; GoTindachandra, 1120 and 1125; Vijayachandra, 1163;
ijacbandra, 1177, 1179, and 1186. Jayachandra's grandson S'iT&ji became the
■I B&ja of Jodhpnr. See Dr. HaU, B.A.S. Joum. 1858.]
* Corresponding to a.d. 1164.
254 ON ANCIENT MONUMENTS
rdja or designated successor and associate in the empire. The
inscription concludes by quoting, from a Pur&na, four stanzis
to [287] deprecate the resumption of the grant : and by a
signature importing " this copper was engraved by Jayap&Ia."
Without having seen the original, no opinion can be offend
on the probable genuineness of this monument. But it will be
observed, that the inscription is consistent with chronology;
for Jaya-chandy who is described in the Xjini Akbaii,' u
supreme monarch of India, having the seat of his empire at
Kanoj, is there mentioned as the ally of Shah&buddin in the
war with Prithavir&ja of PithorA, about the year of the HSjn
588, or A.D. 1192 : twenty-eight years after the date of this
grant.
Remarks.
A few observations on the general subject under considera-
tion will terminate this essay.
Most of the ancient monuments, which have been yet dis-
covered, contain royal grants of land ; framed, commonly, is
exact conformity to the rules delivered by Hindu writers who
have treated of this subject.* That durable memorials hate
been usually framed to record other events or circumstances,
there is no reason to suppose ; and this consideration is suf-
ficient to explain the comparative frequency of monuments
which recite royal grants. It was the interest, too, of persona
holding possession under such grants, to be careful in the pre-
servation of the evidence of their right. But this circum-
stance, while it accounts for the greater frequency of monu-
ments of this description, suggests a reason for particular
caution in admitting their genuineness. Grants may have
been forged in support of an occupant's right, or of a claimants
pretensions. It will [288] be, therefore, proper to bring »
considerable portion of distrust and jealousy to the examinar
tion of any inscription on stone or metal, alleged to be ancient,
1 Gladwin's Translation, Yol. ii. p. 119.
' As. Res., Tol« iii. p. 60. Digest of Hindu Law, vol. ii. p. 278.
CONTAINING SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS. 265
ad now possessed by persons who have any claims or pre-
BDsionB under the grant which it contains. But no such
wise of jealousy exists, where the monument in question
kfours no one's pretensions, and especially where it is acci-
kntally discovered after being long buried. It is, indeed,
possible, that such a monument, though now casually found,
may have been originally a forgery. But even where that may
be suspected, the historical uses of a monument &bricated so
iDoeh nearer to the times to which it assumes to belong, will
iKvt be entirely superseded. The necessity of rendering the
Ibrged grant credible would compel a fabricator to adhere to
Ustory, and conform to established notions : and the tradition
which prevailed in his time, and by which he must be guided,
would probably be so much nearer to the truth, as it was less
remote from the period which it concerned.
In the present state of researches into Indian antiquities,
tile caution here suggested appears to be that which it is most
wquisite to observe. When a greater number of monuments
shall have been examined and compared, more rules of criticism
nay be devised ; and will, at the same time, become particu-
bily requisite, should the practice arise of purchasing ancient
iBonnments ; or of giving rewards for the discovery of them.
At present no temptation exists for modem fabrications, and
little caution is therefore necessary to avoid imposition.
256
XL
INSCEIPTIONS UPON ROCKS IN SOUTH BIHAIL»
[From the Tratuaetioiu of the Boyal Asiatio Sodetj,
voL i. pp. 201—206.]
[289] Dr. Buchanan Hamilton^ while engaged in staiistieiil
researches in the provinces subject to the government oi Ben-
gal, gave attention to the antiquities of the country, as to othtf
scientific objects, which he had the opportunity of investigat-
ing. His reports, comprising the result of his inquiries, an
deposited in the Library and Museum of the East-India CkmH
pany ; and, at his instance, the Court of Directors have sane^
tioned a liberal communication of the information contaisii
in them to this Society. Among the antiquities collectedly
him, there are many fac-similes of inscriptions. I purpoN
submitting to the Society explanations of such among them
as are interesting ; and I now present the translation of one,
which appears curious.
It is an inscription upon a rock, denominated, from an idol
delineated on it, T4r&ch&ndi, in the vicinity of Sahasram, in
South Bihdr ; and contains the protest of a chieftain, named
PratApa-dhavala-dova, bearing the title of N&yaka, and that
of B&J4 of Japila, against an usurpation of two villages by
certain Brdhmanas in his neighbourhood, under colour of a
grant, surreptitiously obtained through corruption of his
officers, from the Raj& of Gadhinagara or K&nyakubja (Kanoj),
who was the celebrated Vijaya-chandra. Its date is 1229
Samvat, corresponding to a.d. 1173.
^ Read at a public meeting of the Boyal Asiatic Society, December 4, 182i
mSCBIPTIONS UPON KOCKB IN SOUTH BIHAB. 267
[290] In Dr. Bachanan Hamilton's collection, there are
^es of two other inscriptions upon rocks, in the neighbour-
sod, exhibiting the name of the same chieftain, in conjunc-
on with many of his kindred in the one ; and followed bj a
(ng series of his successors in the other. I observe little else
itereeting in them, besides the names and the dates.
The site of the principal inscription is thus described by Dr.
ladianan Hamilton. * In a narrow passage, which separates
be northern end of the hills from the great mass, and through
rhich the road leads from Sahasram to Raut&sghar, is a place
'bere T&r&ch&ndi is worshipped. The image is carved on a
Bdge of rock ; and is so small, and so besmeared with oil and
ediead, that I am not sure of its form. It seems, however,
i» represent a woman sitting on a man^s knee; but not in the
vm usual in Bih&r, which is called Hara-gauri. Adjacent to
be image, a cavity in the rock has been enlarged by one or
wo pillars in front, supporting a roof, so as to form a shed, to
riiieh the priest, and a man who sells offerings and refresh-
Mots for votaries and passengers, daily repair. A few per-
ns assemble in the month of or&van. But the chief profit
rises from passengers ; who are very numerous : and all who
m afford, give something. The priest is a Sanny&si. Above
le shed, the Musulm&ns have erected a small mosque, in
der to show the triumph of the faith : but it is quite neg-
ated. The image is usually attributed to the Gheros : and
my small heaps between the place and Sahasram, are said
be ruins of buildings erected by the same people. But a
Qg inscription, carved on the rock within the shed, refers to
tjaya-chandra, sovereign of Kanoj.'
That inscription was strangely misinterpreted by the Pan-
ta attached to the survey on which Dr. Buchanan [291]
amilton was engaged. The Pandita supposed the chieftain,
tat&pa-dhavala, to premise an intention of commemorating
B descendants ; and to proceed to tlie mention of Yijaya-
landra, proprietor of Kanoj ; and Satrughna, son of the
TOL. HL [nSATS u.] 17
258 INSCRIPTIONS UPON BOCKS
Mah&rdja: whence Dr. Hamilton inferred, that Yijaya-
chandra was son of Prat&pa-dhayala. Dr. Hamilton obser? «%
indeed, that others gave a totally different interpretation : eon-
sidering it as ^ an advertisement from Prat&p»-dhavala^ tliit
he will not obey an order for giving up two villages, which, b
alleges, had been procured by cormption from the offioen of
Vijaya-chandra, king of Kanoj/
The Oriental scholar, upon inspection of the fiie-simile, wiB
have no difficulty in perceiving that the latter was the iigitt
interpretation ; and it is therefore needless to pursue remaifai
which were built upon the Pai]idita's grossly erroneous tnni-
lation.
The style of the protest is singular ; and on that aeeoimft
alone, I should have thought it very deserving of notice. Il
serves, however, at the same time to show, that the paramosot
dominion of K&nyakubja extended to the mountains of Soith
Bih&r : and it presents an instance of the charaeteristic tw*
bulence of Indian feudatories.
The second inscription, bearing the name of the smm
chieftain, Ndyaka Prat&pa-dhavala-deva, with the date 1219
(a.d. 1163), Saturday, 4th Jyaishtha-badi, and undemeatli
the name of his brother, the prince Tribhuvana-dhavala^ tbe
prince's wife Sulhi, and another female Somali, and two sov
Lakslimyaditya and Padni&ditya ; exhibits a rude figure of
a goddess Total4-devi, attributed to the family priest Tii-
warupa. On the other side of the figure are the names of five
daughters, and, at the foot of it, six sons of the N&yskft.
These are Varkii, Satrughna, Uirabala, Sahasa-dhavala, [292]
Y4mi-k&rtikcya and Santayatna-deva. Beneath are names of
K&yasthas, Yajuadhara, and Vidy&dhara, sons of Kosama-
h4ra : the treasurer Devardja, and the door-keeper {pratihM)
Tidhala.
The site of this inscription is described by Dr. Bucbamn
Hamilton : ' Where the Tutrahi, a branch of the Kudait
river, falls down the hills of Tilothu, is a holy place, sacred to
Uf SOUTH BIHAB. 259
» goddess Totals. The recesev into which this stream fiills,
riwnthalfa mile deep; and terminated in a ma^ificent,
nipt rock, somewhat in the shape of a horse-shoe, and from
0 to 250 feet hi^. In the centre is a deep pool, at all
Dee fined with water, and which reeeWes the stream, that
Ds from a gap in this immense precipice. This gap may be
arty feet wide ; and the perpendicular height there 180 feet.
*The image is said to hare been placed by the Oheros, about
gfiieen centuries ago ; and, in &ct, resembles one of the
uges Terj common in the works attributed to that people in
lUr. But this antiquity is by no means confirmed by the
Mription, the date of which in evidently in Samvat 1389, or
J). 1333.
* In another inscription it is said, that the family priest of
neighbonring prince, Pratfipa-dfaaTala, had, in a.d. 1158,
HJe the image of the goddess : alluding evidently to a rude
pire, carved on rock, and now totally neglected.
'The image now worshipped is, as usual, a slab carved in
id^ and represents a female with many arm9, killing a man
tinging from the neck of a buffalo.^ It is placed on the
ghest ledge of the sloping part of the rock, immediately
der the waterfall. From two to three hundred votaries, at
ferent times in the month of l^r&van, go to the place, to pray/
[2933 The third inscription is upon a rock at Bandugh&ta,
the Soue river, opposite to Japila, which was the chieftain's
neipality. The date assigned to Mah&-nripati {i.e. Mahfi-
a) Prat&pa-dhavala, besides the number of twenty-one
ITS (apparently the duration of his reign, as chief of Japila),
in the &c-simile, written 221^ Samvat ; but the first digit
ng clearly wrong, it must be corrected to 1219, or 1229 :
mi likely the latter. No date is assigned to his predecessor
laya-dhavala ; nor to the line of his successors, beginning
th Vikrama, who is perhaps the same with Varku (the first
long his sons, named in the second inscription), and who
^ It figures Mahish&sura, Talg. Bhains&sur, elain by Bhay&ni.
260 INSCRIPTIONS UPON BOCKS
appears from the epithet of vijayin^ ^victorious,' to have been
the reigning prince, when his name was here set down. The
rest must have been subsequently, from time to time, added;
and the first among them is Sahasa^havala, periiaps tlie
fourth son of Prat&pa-dhavala, mentioned in the second in-
scription.
Above all this, there have been inscribed, at a much later
period, other names, viz. ^ Mah4r&ja Nyunat-rai or Nynnti-
r4ya, who went to heaven {Burapura^ i.e. the city of the gods)
in the year 1643 Samvat;^ and ^Mahdr&ja Prat&pa-r&yi, or
Prat&pa-rudra, who went to heaven in the year 1653 Samyat'
In another part of the inscription, there occurs the name
of Mah&r&ja M&nasinha, with the dates of 1652 and 1653
Samvat ; and lower down, a string of three names, MahMja
Kansardja, Pratdpa-dhavala^leva, and Madana-sinha. Be-
tween the two last, there is interposed the date of 1624
Samvat.
The name of Pratdpa appears then to have been of frequent
recurrence. The &mily, which yet possesses the principality
of Bilonja, the representative of which, when visited by Dr.
Hamiltou, was E&jd Bhupan&tha-[294]8&, claims descent froffl
Prat&pa-dhavala, chief of Japila.
Japila is a large estate south of Baut&s (Rohit&swa), in the
district of B&maghar. But the territories of the ancient chief-
tain seem to have extended beyond its present limits, and to
have reached the vicinity of Sahasram.
These inscriptions have no other chronological value, but
as they corroborate the date of one possessing more historical
interest, noticed in the Kesearches of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal (vol. ix. p. 441).^ It records a grant of land by the
same Edj& of K&nyakubja, Vijaya-chandra ; and, as usual,
recites the names of his ancestors, tracing his genealogj
through no less than six generations. The original was said
to have been transmitted to Great Britain by the late Sir
^ See page [286] of the present yolome.
IN SOUTH BIHAB. 261
Jolm Murray MKJregor; but I am unable to saj where it has
bean deposited.^ It would be an acceptable communication,
M serving to authenticate the history of a prince among the
most conspicuous in the annals of his country ; on which he
inflicted the same calamity which Count Julian did on Spain,
Vf assisting a Musnlm&n conquest of it, in revenge for the
[295] abduction of his daughter.' The analogy indeed is not
^te complete; for it was seduction of a daughter which Count
Joliaii sought to revenge.
GoDceming the inscription at T&r&chdndi, of which a
tnnslation is here presented, it is to be remarked, that the
denunciation or protest which it records, is first expressed in
▼ene,' and is then repeated in prose. This repetition has
maeh assisted the deciphering of it, and the correction of
wme errors, either of the original, or of the copy. A few
^lanatory notes will be found annexed.
Translaiion of the Inscription at Tdrdchdndi.
*'Prat4pa-dhavala, wholly divine (deva), possessor of happily
'isen and celebrated glory, addresses his own race. In these
tillages, contiguous to Kalaha^di,^ that contemptible ill cop-
Per^ [grant], which has been obtained by fraud and bribery^
* It a|^6sn from an iiucription (a grant on plates of copper) published, with a
traadatioii, in the fifteenth yolume of Asiatic Researches (p. 447), that Jaya-
tiiandim was son of Yijayachandra ; and that there has been a mistake in con-
sidering Yijayachandra and Jayachand to be equivalent Sanskrit and Hindi
appeDitions of the same individual. The error originated with the p<in4it
SaiToni Trivedi, who oommnnicated a copy of the inscription noticed in the
niBth Tolnme of the Asiatic Researches (see pages [240] and [286] of the present
Tdlmne), at relatiTe to Jayachand, whom he identified (erroneously, as now
ifpean) with Yijayachandra.
The series of princes who reigned at G&dhipura or E&nyakubja, ancestors of
Jtyachandra, is now completely and accurately determined ; and the reading of
tlie inscription in question ceases to be a matter of any interest. [Note from
Trmmmet. IL A. 8. p. 462.]
* Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. i. p. 147.
' In two stanzas of Yasantatilaka metre.
* Kalahan$ ; written Kalahan^l, with a long rowel, in the prose paraphrase.
* The text exhibits, in two places, kutdmbra : which, I conjecture, should be
262 IKSCRIPTIONS UPOK BOCKS IN SOUTH BIHAE
from the thieviflh slaves of the soTereign of G&dhinagara,^ by
priests sprung from SuTalluhahi : ' there is no gronnd of fiiitk
to be put therein by the people arooncL Not a bit of land, so
much as a needle's point might pierce, is theirs.
'' Samvat 1229, Jyeshtha-badi 3rd, Wednesday.
[296] '' The feet of the sorereign of Japila, the great chief:,
tain, the fortunate Pratj^a-dhaTala-deva, declare the troth to
his sons, grandsons, and other descendants sprang of his noe;
this ill copper [grant] of the villages of Salahandi and Bada-
yitd, obtained by fraud and bribery, from the thievish shvw
of the fortunate Yijaya-chandra, the king, sovereign of Einji-
kubja, by Swalluhaniya folks : no £uth is to be put theraa.
Those priests are every way libertines. Not so much land,
as might be pierced by a needless point, is theirs. Enowii^
this, you wili take the share of produce and other dues; «
destroy.
^^ [Signature] of the great Rijaputra (king's son), the fiv-
tunate ^trughua.^
ku'tdmra, from Jhf, 'ill,' and tdmra^ 'copper;' alluding to a grait hMtibed^ii
usual, upon copper. There may be an allusion to Kut&mba, the name of a <£•-
trict in that ricinity.
1 G&dhinagara, the same with G&dhipura, ia identified with Kisxpkfi!iiJLr^
As. Res., Tol. ix. p. 441 (p. [286] of the present volume).
* SuYalluhala ; written Swalluhaniya in the prose paraphrase ; it aypem to be
the desijpiation of the Br&hmopas, who had obtained Uic grant of land in (^QtftioB.
263
XII.
ON THREE GRANTS OF LAND, INSCRIBED ON
COPPER, FOUND AT UJJAYANf, AND PRE-
SENTED BY MAJOR JAMES TOD TO THE
ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.^
[Fkom flie I^ansat^iotu of the Eoyal Asiatic Society,
vd. i. pp. 230—239, and 462—466.]
[297] Thb traiiBliitioiis^ whidi accompanied the Sanskrit
^leeripiioiiB on copper, presented to the Society by Major Tod,
QSTOig been made through the medium of an interpreter, I
bare thought it right to re-examine the originals, at the same
Mme that I undertook the deciphering of a third inscription,
likewise presented by Major Tod, but unaccompanied by a
traaslBtion.
Neither of thd three inscriptions in question is complete.
They had originally consisted of a pair of plates in each in-
stttioe ; as is evident^ both from the contents^ and from the
tety appearance ; for they exhibit holes, through which rings
wtre no doubt passed to hold the plates together. In one
iftstanee, it is the last of the pair, which has been preserred.
In the two others, the first of each remains, and the last has
been lost. Enough, howeyer, subsists, in these fragments of
inscriptions, to render them useful historical documents ; as is
Mnply shown in the very interesting comments on them which
Major Tod has communicated.'
^ Read at a public meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society, December 4, 1824.
* ITt-MmcL K. A. S., TOl. i. pp. 207-226.]
264 ON THREE GRANTS OF LAND
I now lay before the Society a transcript of the contents of
each plate, as read by me ; and copies, &c- simile, of the
originals. My own translations follow ; and notes will be
found annexed.
[298] On collating the &c-simile with the transcript, the
learned reader will observe that errors (for engravers are not
less apt, than ordinary copyists, to commit blunders) have
been in several places corrected. Where the mistake and
requisite correction seem quite obvious, I have in gen^
thought it needless to add a remark. But, wherever it hai
appeared necessary to give a reason for an emendation, jui
explanatory note is subjoined.
All these inscriptions are grants of land, recorded upon
copper, conformably with the usage of the Hindus, and tk
direction of the law, which enjoins that such grants shooU
either be written upon silk, or inscribed upon copper.^
One of these grants or patents records a donation of linl
made by the reigning sovereign of Dh&r&, on the annivemij
of the death of his &ther and predecessor, in 1191 of the
Samvat era ; confirmed by the prince his son, at the time of
an eclipse of the moon, in §r£vana 1200 Samvat. It appetn
from calculation that a lunar eclipse did occur at the time;
viz. on the 16th of July a.d. 1144, about 9^ p.m. apparent
time, at Ujjayani.
This date, so authenticated, becomes a fixed point, whence
the period, in which the dynasty of sovereigns of Dhiri
flourished, may be satisfactorily computed. The series of four
princes, whose names are found in these patents, two of them
anterior to a.d. 1134 (1190 Samvat), and two of them sub-
sequent to that date (for the anniversary of Nara-varma's
funeral rites in 1191 determines his demise in 1190 Samvat)t
may be taken to extend from the latter part of the eleventh
century of the Christian era to near the close of the twelfth.
It is carried retrospectively, through a line of three more
* Dipest of Hindu Law^ vol. ii. p. 278. As. Res., toI. ii. p. 60.
FOUND AT UJJAYANr. 266
princes, to Sindhu, grand&ther of R&jd Bhoja, by the marble
It Madhukara-ghar, aiid other evidence ; as shown by Major
Tod.
[299] The earliest of the three patents inscribed upon
copper, which were procured by Major Tod at Ujjayani, bears
the date of 3rd M&gha-sudi 1192 Sanivat, answering to
Janaary a.d. 1137. It has the signature of Yasovanna-
deTa^ who, in the preceding year, 1191 Sam vat, had made a
donation of land on the anniversary of the demise of his &ther
Nara-varma-deva, which was confirmed (apparently in Yaso-
^wma's lifetime) by his son Lakshmi-varma-deva, in 1200
Samvat : as above noticed. The latest of the three grants is
by his successor Jaya-varma-deva, and being incomplete, ex-
hibits no date. Both these patents agree in deducing the line
rf SQccession from TJday&ditya-deva, predecessor of Nara-
^^*nna. There is consequently this series perfectly authen-
ticated:!
XTdayaditya-deva
NaRA-Y ARM A- DE V A
Yasovarma-deva
/\
Jaya-varma-deva. LakshmI-varma-deva.
No. 1.
A Orant of Land inscribed on Copper, found at Ujjayani.^
wf^ VR I Tl^^ filial iNrt vi^^lj^iaRfH I 'H'^
^ [For a further list of this dynasty see Journal of the Bombay branch of
A.8. 1843, p. 263.]
* See Plate ir. [omitted in this edition].
266
ON THREE GRANTS OF LAND
fiffHff T^ltn* Km' W^ ^^ t^rVT^ ^lfT|[301]^ tr
ftf*i^^<! ^m^n^i*! ^Tw wff'<4i Trt^nv f^nwfT!W
^rr^wr^nrinf^^ ^rf^nnnrm wiStz wpfn fv^ ^s^ *
^t^^wt ^t^ TTfur ^^ftr ^n^^ffM^^l^n^l jf^TPirrf*!: ^
' [^'BRrWf'RftPI- ? Cf. J. Am. 0. S. vu. 46.] ' [J^WT?]
POUND AT UJJAYAXr. 267
«(i
Om ! Well be it ! Auspicious victory and elevation ! ^
'^Victorioas is he« whose hair is the ethereal expanse;*
who, for creation, supports with his head that lunar line'
which is a type of the germ in the seed of the universe.
** May the matted locks of love'^s foe/ reddened by the
lighining^s ring, that flashes at the period of the world'*s end,
spread for you nightless ' prosperity.
**The great prince,^ resplendent with the decoration of
[303] five great titles,^ with which he is thoroughly and ex-
eellently imbued and possessed, the fortunate Lakshmi-varma-
devm, wm ^ of his Majesty,' the great king, sovereign, and
aapreme lord, the fortunate Yaso-varma-deva, son of Nara-
xranna-deva, son of Udayaditya-deva, acquaints the Pat-
^ Both this and the foUowing inscription begin alike, and oontain Bereral other
panOd panages. There are grote errorB in both ; hot one has helped to correct
tiM other.
* VymnaM^a, a title of Sira, whose hair is the atmosphere.
* The crescent, which is 8 'ifa's crest
* Smarfcr4ti, a title of S'ira. He is represented with his hair clotted and
iMtted m a hmg hraid rolled ronnd his head, in the manner in which ascetics
wear theirs. Hair in that state has a tawny hne.
* IV^^IiIIbm, endless : eternal.
* Mahfrkom&ra : a royal yonth, a young prince.
^ I am not entirely confident of the meaning of this passage. [Ct Joom. Amer.
a 8. Ti. 640.]
■ DikUnutlkydta, an ordinary periphrasis for son and successor: literally,
"wboae feet are meditated, i.e, revered, by " [But cf. Joum. Bombay
Brand! R. A. 8., Jan. 1851, pp. 219 and 220.]
* The additions are those usually borne by soyereign princes among the Hindus.
Bha^f&raka answers to the title of majesty. Adhir&ja is a soyereign or superior
^rineeu S'ri, signifying fortunate or auspicious, is prefixed to eyery name.
Vannan is the costomary designation of a R&japutra ; as S'arman is of a Br&h*
ns^a. TIm term enters into eompontion in the names of many of tiiis fiunily.
268 ON THBEE GRANTS OF LAND
takila ^^ and people, Br^hmanas and others, inhabiting
Badauda-gr&ma,^^ dependent on Sur&sai^i, and UthaFanaka-
gr&ma ^' appertaining to Tept&-savarna-pr&8&dik&,^' both sit-
uated in the twelve great districts ^^ held by royal patent ; be
it known unto you : Whereas, at the fortunate Dh&r&,^ the
great king, sorereign, supreme lord, the fortunate Yaso-yanna-
deva, upon the anniversary ^* of the great king, the fortonate .
Nara-varma-deva, which [304] took place on the 8th of
K&rttika-sudi, years eleven hundred andninety-oneelapsedsinoe
Yikrama, having bathed with waters of holy places, having
satisfied gods, saints, men and ancestors with oblations,^
having worshipped the holy Bhaw&n(pati,^^ having sacrificed
to fire offerings of iami, sacrificial grass, sesamum and boiled
rice,^^ having presented an arghya ^ to the sun, having thriee
perambulated Kapil&,'^ seeing the vanity of the world, deem-
ing life a tremulous drop of water on the leaf of a lotus, and
reckoning wealth despicable : — As it is said :
^^ Pattakila is probably the Pa^l of the modems. The term ooeui igni
lower down ; and also in the next grant (No. 2).
^^ Pronounce B.iraud-gr&m. Sorlisa^f appears to be the district, or pnmiee,
in which it is situated.
^' Perhaps Ughavan rather than Uthayan.
^' This seems to be the name of a district.
1* An apanage, comprising tweWe g^reat districts. Mah&-dw&da^ska-mt94ih
seems to have been held by this prince, under a royal grant from his father. He
did not become his successor: for Jaya-yarma is, in another in8cripti<m, Biafld
immediately after Yas'o-Tarma ; and was reigning sovereign.
^^ Dh&rli was the capital of this dynasty.
^* Anniversary of the death. It appears, therefore, that Nara-Tarma died ii
11 90 Samvat.
17 The allusion is to the five great sacraments, which a Hindu is bound to per-
form.— See Manu, iii. 67.
IB Bhaw&nfpati is a title of S'iva, husband of Bhaw&ni. In the foUoriag
inscription, the name again occurs in a similar manner, with the further doig-
nation of Var&vara-guru.
1* The dhuti, or burnt offering ; consisting of boiled rice, with tUa (SessnniB
oricntale), kwa (Poa cynosuroidcs), and iami (Adenanthera or Proeopis acoleata)*
*o An arghya is a libation or oblation, in a conch, or yessel of a particular fonif
approaching to that of a boat — As. Res., vol. vii. p. 291.
'1 Kapil& probably is fire, personified as a female goddess. [Bather a red eov,
— " when applied to a cow, this term signifies one of the colour of lac-dye, trith
black tail and white hoofs." Colebr. Two TreatisM on iJu Hindu Law if h-
heritaneef quoted by Dr. F. Hall, Sdnkhya 8. pref. p. 20.]
FOUKD AT UJJAYAirr. 269
Chis soYereignty of the earth totters with the stormy
; ^ the enjoyment of a realm is sweet but for an instant ;
•reath of man is like a drop on the tip of a blade of grass :
e is the greatest friend in the journey of the other world.—
Cionsidering this, did grant by patent, preceded by gift of
r," for as long as the sun and moon shall endure, [305]
the iJLvasathika ^ the fortunate Yana-p&la,^* son of the
nate Yiswarupa, grandson of the fortunate Mahira-^
si, a venerable Br&hmana of Eam&ta in the south, who
es two vedaa^ and appertains to the j^wal&yana ^ S&kh&,
Dg fix>m the race of Bharadw&ja,^ and tracing a triple
of descent, Bh&radw&ja, ^girasa, and Y&rhaspatya,^
)d at Adrelavaddh&varisth&na,^ the aforesaid Badaiida-
la and TJthaYai;^ka-gr&ma, with their trees, fields and
iikra 18 a ' doud ' ; and vdta, * wind ' : whence vdtdbhroy * a windy dond.'
Wa may signify the ethereal flnid (dkdia). The stanaa is repeated in the
Dicription.
k requifite formality in a donation of land. — See JHgett of Hindu Zaw, yoI.
t76. Treatue$ on Law of Inheritance, p. 268.
Erroneonaly written A'yasthika in the text. Its deriyation is from dvatathaf
me * : and it bears reference to the householder's consecrated fire {gdrhapatya).
odha, author of the Br&hma^a-saryaswa, has, in the epigraph of his work,
le of A'Tasathika-mah&-dharm6dhyaksha.
On a repemsal of the grant No. 1, it appears probable that the grantee's
was Dhanap&la instead of Vanapftla. Throughout the inscription, the letter
I for the most part the appearance of ^, the detached stroke ^ being defaced :
hanap&la is doubtless the more ordinary name.
liis probably should be Mihira, which is a name of the sun.
hcivid is one who studies two vedas : as Trividf one who studies three. [The
ile has dwiveda,"]
lie text exhibits Aildyana ; doubtless for Aiwaldyana, by which name one
idkhdi of the veda is distinguished. AYwal&yana is author of a collection
origins on religious rites (Ealpa-s(itra).
"htra^ * descent firom an ancient sage ' (Rishi), whence the family name is
d. There are four such great families of Brkhma^as; comprehending
•oua divisions.
FVffvsra, ' lineage traced to more of the ancient sages.' The distinction be-
gotra and pravara is not yery clear. M&dhava on the Miin&ns&, 2, 1, 9,
these yery three fiunilies as constituting a gotra : and giyes it as an example
9ara, [On pravara, see Prof. Miiller, Ancient Sanskrit literature, p. 386,
rof. Haug, Ait. Brahm, yol. ii. p. 479.]
This, which seems to be the name of a country, is differentiy written in
xt inscription. Perhaps it may be a branch of the gotra, or family, from
th0 donatory deiiTed his descent
270 ON THREE GRANTS OF LAND
habitations,^^ together [806] with hidden treasure, and de-
posits, and adorned with ponds, wells and lakes.
'' On the 15th of Srdva^^fiadi in the year 1200, at the time
of an eclipse of the moon,** for onr iather^a welfiuv, we hsfe
a^ain granted those two villagee bj patent with the previoiu
gift of water ; therefore all inhabitants of both Tillages, m
well the Pattakila and other people, as hnsbandmeD, hmg
strictly observant of his commands, most pay nnto him all daei
as they arise, tax, money-rent, share of prodnee,** and tberesi
" Considering the frait of this meritorious act as eommoB,
Aiture princes sprung of our race, and others, should respeet
and maintain this yirtuons donation accordingly .'^
*^ By many kings, Sagara as well as others, the earth lus
been possessed. Whose-soever has been the land, his has tlwD
been the fruit.'*
^'He, who resumes land, whether given by himself or
granted by others, is r^enerated a worm in ordure, for 60,000
years.**
[307] *^B&mabhadra again and again exhorts all that
future rulers of the earth : this universal bridge of virtne . . •
"57
• • •
(The remainder, upon another plate, is wanting.)
'^ Miila signifies * field' ; and Aru/a, 'abode.' The passage may admit a diifeieBt
interpretation. [For chatuh-kanka^a-vUuddha see J. Am. 0. S. ▼!. 42.]
Mdla implies (as I learn from Major Tod), according to the acceptation of th«
countr}', land not artificially irrigated, b«t watered only by rain and dew.
'^ An eclipse of the moon appears, from calculation, to have taken place at the
time here assi^oied to it: viz, 16th July, 1144; as in the preceding year, 28tli
July, 1143. — Art de vt-riJUr Us Dates, Tol. i. p. 73.
^ Iliranija^ * gold ' : * rent in money.*
Bharia-bhoga ; in another place, bhdgdhhoga^ — 'share of produce,' 'rent in land.'
^ This stanza, a little varied, recurs in the third grant (No. 3).
'' This also recurs in the same (No. 3) ; and is likewise found in a grant tiiBi>
lated by Sir William Jones. — As. Res., vol. i. p. 365, st. I.
^ A quotation. — See Digest of Hindu Law^ Tol. ii. p. 281, and As. Ret., ^
ii. p. 63. Also vol. i. p. 366 ; and vol. viii. p. 419.
'^ The remainder of the stanza (which may be easily gnpplied firom the oAff
inscriptions : see the next grant ; and As. Res., vol. i. p. 365, st 3, and toL iiL
p. 63, and vol. viii. p. 419) was probably followed, in the leoond pli^ by lort^
POUND AT UJJATANr.
871
No. 2.
I Orant of Land, inscribed on Copper, found at TIjjayani}
ifif ifTi^i \i^ fijTvr i>^ 'RnjV'rtgnjirfiwc i ipfj
n^ ^^T^ ^ *t<q^<tMI4l*i^l<l irCf [308] ilfTT^
Om ! Well be it ! Auspicious victory and elevation !
Virtuous is he, whose hair is the ethereal expanse ; who,
creation, supports with his head that lunar line [309]
2h is a type of the germ contained in the seed of the
rerse.
itioiM, depreeating the resamption of the gift by fature soTereigns : and to
i waa labjoined the sign manual, with the names of attesting officers ; as in
coompanying grant by raifo-yanna (No. 3).
e bridge of yirtue, which signifies ** the maxim of dnty/' bears an allosioQ
ima's bridge, to cross the sea to Lank&.
)ee Plate t. [omitted in this edition].
Chardcharagurum f Gf. J. Am. 0. S. tL 532.]
272 ON THREE GRANTS OF LAND
*^ May the matted locks of love's foe, reddened by Uk. <«
lightning's ring, that flashes at the period of the world's en^
spread for you nightless prosperity.^
" From his abode at the auspicious Bardham&napura, hit
Majesty, the great king, sovereign, and supreme lord, the fo^
tunate Jaya-varma-deva, whom victory attends, son of Yaso-
varma-deva, son of Nara-varma-deva, son of Uday&ditya-deTi^
acquaints all king's officers, Br&hmanas and others, and tha
Pattakila and people, etc., inhabiting the village of M&ytmo-
daka which appertains to the thirty-six villages of Yata:' Be
it known unto you : Whereas we, sojourning at Chandrapui,
having bathed, having worshipped the holy, beneficent and
adorable Bhaw&nipati :—
Considering the world'^s vanity :
for
'^This sovereignty of the earth totters with the stormy
blast ; ' the enjoyment of a realm is sweet but for an instant;
the breath of man is like a drop of water on the tip of a Uidft
of grass : virtue is the greatest friend in the journey of the
other world. —
*' Having gained prosperity, which is the receptacle of the
skips and bounds * of a revolving world, whoever give not
donations, repentance is their chief reward. —
" Reflecting on the perishable nature of the world, p^efe^
[310]ring unseen (spiritual) fruit, [do grant] to be fully poe-
sessed, so long as moon and sun, sea and earth, endan
[unto sprung from the race] of Bharadw&ja^
* These two stanzas occur also in the preceding inscription:
* Va^a-kJitduka-aha^'triniat^ * thirty-six villages of Va^ * : for it should pro*
bahly be read khtfaka (which signifies a village) instead of khednka.
' [Or *Mike a cloud driven by the wind.'']
^ Valgdgra-dhdrd'dhdrd : an allusion is probably intended to Dh&r& the aeai
of government of this dynasty. Vaiga signifies a * leap ' ; and ddkra, a 'horse'i
pace.' [The true reading for vaiga is chakra^ see B. A. S. J. 1861, p. 207t
*' having gained prosperity, which abides on the topmost edge of the reTtdving
world's wheel."]
* The grantee was either the same person, or one of the same family, as in the
preceding grant ; for the designations are identical, so far as this reaches.
FOUND AT UJJAYANr. 273
Settled at Adriya-lambi-d&vari-sth&na, situated within the
BOQthern region, at B&ja-brahma-puri "
(The remainder, inscribed on a separate plate, is wanting.)
No. 3.
A Grant qf Land^ inscribed on Copper^ found at Uijayani}
'^ WRT ^awf^ fwf^ i5^ ^fuiMs;4ii4i4d^i ftsKfT^nn-
n ^RJT ^WRI ^T^f ^Wf*r ^TT "f^T^^TTrf^ ^sn^-
^ See plate yL [omitted in this edition].
' [^[W^fifj Bengal A. S. Jonm. 1858, p. 230.]
' [^ ^IST} See Bengal A. S. Jonm. 1861, p. 210.]
TOL. m. [bbaays u.] 18
274 ^^ THREE orahts op land
[312] . T
(The beginning, inscribed upon another plate, is wanting).
" In respect of two portions ^ of Br&hroana's allowance, by
exchange for two portions allotted to the attendant of the
temple and the reader, to be held as assigned for the amu-
vcrsary of the auspicious Momala-devi ; • and in respect of
seventeen nivarianas ' of land, with eleven ploughs of land,
assigned to both persons in a partition of Yikarikd-grima;*
the whole of the aforesaid little Vainganapadra-gr&ma, also a
moiety of Vikkarika-grdma within the proper bounds, extend-
ing to the grass and pasture, with trees, fields and habitations,
with money-rent, and share of produce, with superior taxes,
and including all dues ; for increase of merit and fame of fflj
mother, of my father, and of myself, are granted by patent,
with the [313] previous gift of water. Aware of this, and
obedient to his commands, they must pay all due share of
produce, taxes, money-rent, etc. to them both.
*' Considering the fruit of this meritorious act as common,
future princes, sprung of our race, and others, should respect
and maintain this virtuous donation, as by us given.
*' And it is said, — By many Kings, Sagaraaswell as others,
* For want of the first plate of this patent, the bc^nning of the second »
very ob«cure ; and, perhaps, not rightly intelligible, without dirining what h*
gone before. I have endeavoured to make sense of it, but am far from confito*
of having succeeded.
* Moraala-devi was not improbably the name of Ya^o-varma's mother ; •»
the anniversary is that of her obsequies : as in the preceding patent for a grtf*
on the anniversary of the obsequies of Yas'o-varma's father. Else it may bed*
annual festival of an idol of that name.
' NirartaHa is a land-measure containing 400 square poles of tencubiti**^
according to the Lildrati. See Algebra of the Hindm,
* The name is written Vikarik&-gr&ma in one place; and Vikkariki-gTim**
another.
Major Tod obserres that the ancient name of Burhknpura is Kari-grtoa.
POUND AT UJJATANr. 275
be earth has been possessed. Whose-soever has been the
&nd, his has then been the fruit.
*'The gifts, which have been here granted by former
mnces, producing rirtue, wealth, and fame, are unsullied re-
lections.5 What honest man would resume them P
"This donation ought to be approved by those who exemplify
he hereditary liberality of our race, and by others. The
bsh of lightning from Lakshmi swoln with the rain-drop,* is
{ift; and the fruit is preservation of another's fame.
^^B&mabhadra again and again exhorts all those future rulers
)f the earth : this universal bridge of virtue for princes is to
)e preserved by you from time to time.
"Considering therefore prosperity to be a quivering drop
if water on the leaf of a lotus ; and the life of man is such ;
md all this is many ways "^ exemplified ; men therefore should
lot abridge the fame of others.
"Samvat 1192, 3rd of M&gha-badi (dark half) ; witness
]314] the venerable purokita^ Vamana ; the venerable swdmi^
E^onshottama ; the prime minister and king's son, Devadhara ;
lod others.
" Auspiciousness and great prosperity.
R.
"This is the sign manual of the fortunate Yasovarma-deva."
Adhi. Sri.
' [Nirmdiyavanti pratimdni^ bat the fac-simile has vdnti. Other inscriptions
lid nirmdlya^dnta-pratimdnif " Gifts once given are like the remains of an
fliiriiij^ or Tomitlngs," t.«. are not to be used again, see B. A. S. J. 1868, p. 238.]
' I bave here hazarded a conjectural emendation ; being unable to make sense
f the text, as it stands. Perhaps the transcriber had erroneously written
NUrf for iundild; and the engraver, by mistake, transformed it into the un-
willing vandald, which the text exhibits. Lakshmi is here characterized as a
tonder-cloud pregnant with fertilizing rain. [The true reading is Chanchaldydh.
tB. A. S. J. 1861, p. 210. ** Fruitful is the giving away of fortune, which
tnittient as a bubble or the lightning-flash ; and so too the preseryation of
Mitiier's fame.*']
^ Chanudhd^ in the text, is an evident mistake ; it should undoubtedly be
^hdhd, [The true reading is cha buddhwdS\ Several other gross errors in this
iciiption have been corrected ; too obviously necessary to require special notice :
t short vowel for a long one, and vice versd.
276
XIII.
ON INSCRIPTIONS AT TEMPLES OF THE JAINA
SECT IN SOUTH BIHitR,!
[From the Trtnuactuma of the Royal Asiatic Society,
Tol. i. pp. 520-523.]
[315] As connected with the subject of an essay on the
Sr&waks or Jainas,^ read at a former meeting, I lay before the
Society copies of inscriptions found by Dr. Buchanan Hamilton
in South Bih&r. Though not ancient, they may be considered to
be of some importance, as confirming the prevalence of a Jaioi
tradition relative to the site of the spot where the last of the
Jinas terminated his earthly existence, and as identifying the
first of his disciples with Gautama, whose death and apotheoas
took place, according to current belief, in the same neighbour-
hood.
In the Kalpa-sutra and in other books of the Jainas, the
first of Mahavira^'s disciples is mentioned under the name of
Indra-bhuti : but, in the inscription, under that of Gautama-
swduii. The names of the other ten precisely agree : whence
it is to be concluded, the Gautama, first of one list, is the
same with Indra-bhuti, first of the other.
It is certainly probable, as remarked by Dr. Hamilton and
Major Delamaine, that the Gautama of the Jainas and of the
Bauddhas is the same personage : and this [316] leads to the
further surmise, that both these sects are branches of one
^ Read at a Public Meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society, Noyember ISth,
^ By Major James Delamaine. Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Sooet/i
vol. i. pp. 413—438.
ON INSCRIPTIONS AT JAINA TEMPLES. 277
Ac<;ordiDg to the Jainas, only one of Mab&Tira's
I disciples left spiritual successars: that is, the entire
ision of Jaina priests is derived from one individual,
inna-sw&mi. Two only out of eleven survived Mah&vira,
ndrabhuti and Sudharma:^ the first, identified with
ima-sw&mi, has no spiritual successors in the Jaina sect.
)roper inference seems to be, that the followers of this
ing disciple are not of the sect of Jina, rather than that
have been none. Gautama's followers constitute the
f Bauddha, with tenets in many respects analogous to
of the Jainas, or followers of Sudharma, but with a
>logy or fabulous history of deified saints quite different,
have adopted the Hindu Pantheon, or assemblage of
linate deities ; both disclaim the authority of the vedas;
oth elevate their pre-eminent saints to divine supremacy.
B short essay on their philosophical opinions, which will
9wise submitted to the Society, it will be shown that a
lerable difference of doctrine subsists on various points :
ardly more between the two sects, than between the
I branches of the single sect of Bauddha.
leserves remark, that the Bauddhas and the Jainas agree
icing within the limits of the same province. South
, and its immediate vicinity, the locality of the death
potheosis of the last Buddha, as of the last Jina, and of
edecessor and his eldest and favourite disciple. Both re-
9 have preserved for their sacred language the same
t, the P&li or Pr&krit, closely resembling the M&gadhi
macular tongue of Magadha (South Bih&r). Between
dialects (P&li [317] and Pr&krit) there is but a shade of
mce,' and they are often confounded under a single name.
B traditional chronology of the two sects assigns nearly
.me period to their Grautama respectively : for, according
e Bauddhas, the apotheosis of Gautama-buddha took
^ Page [216] of the present yolame.
' Bnmouf et Lassen, Etaai sur ie Fdfi, p. 154.
278 ON INSCRIPTIONS AT TEMPLES
place 543 years before the beginning of the Christian era ; a
according to the Jainas, the apotheosis of Mah&vira, Gautan
swami's teacher, was soraewhat earlier, viz. about 600 ye;
before the Christian era. The lapse of little more than ha[f
century is scarcely too great for the interval between the deal
of a preceptor and of liis pupil ; or not so much too great as t
amount to anachronism.
Without relying much upon a similarity of name, it ma
yet not be foreign to remark, that the Buddha, who precede
Gautama-buddha, was K&syapa: and that Mah&vira, tl
preceptor of Gautama-swdmi, was of the race of K&syapa.
I take P&rswan&tha to have been the founder of the sect <
Jainas, which was confirmed and thoroughly established b
Mah&vira and his disciple Sudharma; by whom, and by hi
followers, both Mah4vira and his predecessor P&rswaQ&tli
have been venerated as deified saints (Jiuas), and are so wor
shipped by the sect to this day.
A schism, however, seems to have taken place, afte
Mahavira, whose elder disciple, Indra-bhuti, also namei
Gautania-sw&mi, was by some of his followers raised t
the rank of a deified saint, under the synonymous designatioi
of l]uddha (for Jina and Buddha bear the same meaning
according to both Buddhists and Jainas). The precedin
]JudJha, accordiui^ to this branch of the sect, was Kasjap
who is not improbably the same with [318] Sramana Vai
dhannaua Mahavira, son (born of the wife) of Siddh&rtbs
a Suryavansi prince of the K4syapa race.
It is to be observed, without, however, attaching raw
weight to this coincidence, that the name of Siddhartha
coniiiion to Mahavira's father and to Gautama-buddha, who
I suppose to be the same with the Jina^^s disciple, Gautani
sw4nii.
The appellative Gautama is unquestionably a patrouyit
(derived from Gotama), however Sakya-sinha ma\' ha
come by it, whether as descendant of that lineage, near
OP THE JAINA SECT IN SOUTH BIHAR. 279
or remoter, or for whaterer other cause. His predecessor
among Baddhas is, in like manner, designated by a patro-
nymic as above noticed, viz. E&syapa.
The name of Grautama occurs also as an appellative in other
instances besides that of the sixth Buddha, or of the twenty-
fonrth Jina's eldest disciple. One of the legislators of the
Hindus is Grautama, whose aphorisms of law are extant.^
The gentile name of the last Buddha has prevailed in China
and Japan, where he is best known under the designation
of S&kya. His appellation of Gautama remains current in
conntries bordering upon India.^
Inscription at NakhauIi.' •
V^ V9fnn 3* 'P^fT^ W9 W^ 3* - - ^ [319] iftTW
" In the year 1686 Samvat, on the 15th day of Vais&kha-
8udi, the lotus of Gautama-sw4mi's feet was here placed by
Nih&lo mother of Tha. (Thakkur) Sangr&ma-govardhana-d&sa,
son of Tha- Tulasi-ddsa, son of Tha. Vimala-d&sa, of the
face of Chopard and lineage of [Bharata Chakravarti's] prime
councillor: the fortunate Jina-rdja-suri, the venerable guide
rf the great Kharatara tribe, being present."
The same pious family, which is here recorded for erecting,
^^ more probably restoring, the representation of Gautama-
swdnii's feet at Nakhaur, is in like manner commemorated by
^ee inscriptions, bearing date six years later {viz. 1692
* Preface to Two Treatises on the Hindu Law of Inheritance^ p. x.
* [The Chinese, however, know the name Kiu tan."]
' See plate yii. [omitted in this edition]. •
280 0^ INSGBIPnONS AT JAIKA TEMPLES.
Sam vat) ,^ for the like pious office of erecting images
feet of Mah&vira and of his eleven disciples, at P&
which, or its vicinity, is in those inscriptions stated U
site of that saint's extinction {nirvdna) or translation 1
The same names recur, with those of many other ]
inhabitants (as this fiimily was) of the town of Bih&r, ^
numerous congregation of Jainas seems to have then
and with the same additions and designations more f
forth : whence it appears, that the designation of *' desi
of a prime councillor " bears reference to a supposed
from the prime minister of the universal or paramom
reign, Bharata, son of the first Jina Rishabha.
[320] Sangr&ma. and Crovardhana, here joined as
pellation of one person, are in those inscriptions se
as names of two brothers, sons of Tulasi-d&sa and I
Nih&lo. In other respects, the inscriptions confirm and
each other.*
^ Thb liigait of tliose inicriptioiif lamet likewiie the reigniiig Empe
Jfth&n.
* Copiei of those at P&w&pnri were not taken in ftc-omile, but a
transcripts.
281
XIV.
ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN DIVISIONS OF
THE ZODIAO.i
[Prom the Astatic Eeisarches, vol. iz. pp. 323 — 376.
Cakutta, 1807. 4to.]
[321] The researches, of which the result is here laid before
fte Asiatic Society, were andertaken for the purpose of ascer-
te'mng correctly the particular stars, which give names to the
Indian divisions of the zodiac. The inquiry has, at intervals,
Ih)6q relinqaished and resumed : it was indeed attended with
^Qsiderable difficulties. None of the native astronomers,
^bom I consulted, were able to point out, in the heavens, all
Ae asterisms for which they had names : it became, therefore,
^'^^cessary to recur to their books, in which the positions of the
principal stars are given. Here a fresh difficulty arose from
^e real or the seeming disagreement of the place of a star^
^th the division of the zodiac, to which it was referred : and I
^^ led from the consideration of this and of other apparent
^ntradictions, to compare carefully the places assigned by the
Hindus to their nakahatras^ with the positions of the lunar
' [For a Ml discoasioii of the history of the Indian NaknhatraSf see Biot*B
^eletin the Journal des Savans, 1840, 1845, 1859, 1860; Whitney's notes to
f^&XC8s*8 transUtion of the Surya-nddhdnta, pp. 176-210 (1860), and his paper
^ tile Jowm, A. 0, S,, vol. Tiii. and Joum. R. A. S,, vol. i. (n. s.) ; Weber's
^ Vedischfi Nmehrtehten von den Naxatra, 1860, 1862; Hiiller, Pref, Rig Veda,
^^> iv. pp. xxxviii-lzx ; Bnrgess, Joum, A. 0. S. vol. viii. Biot maintained
^ the Indian nakthatras and the Arabian mandzU were derived from the
^ Chinese Siea, 24 of which were fixed about b.c. 2357, and the other 4 about
^^* UOO. The Sien, according to him, form an integral part of the Chinese
"T*^ and they were carefully chosen by the aid of the best instruments at their
282 ox THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
mansions,^ as determined by the Arabian astronomers. Aft^-
repeated examination of this subject, with the aid afforded t^j
the labours of those who have preceded me in the same i^i.
quiry, I now venture to offer to the perusal of the Asiatic
Society the following remarks, with the hope that they will be
found to contain a correct ascertainment of the stars [322] by
which the Hindus have been long accustomed to trace the
moon's path.
The question, which I proposed to myself for investigation,
appeared to me important, and deserving of the labour be-
stowed upon it, as obviously essential towards a. knowledge
of Indian astronomy, and as tending to determine another
question ; namely, whether the Indian and Arabian divisions of
the zodiac had a common origin. Sir William Jones thought
that they had not ; I incline to the contrary opinion. The
coincidence appears to me too exact, in most instances, to be
the effect of chance : in others, the differences are only such
as to authorize the remark, that the nation, which borrowed
from the other, has not copied with servility. I apprehend
command. Prof. Whitney accepted Biot*8 yiew in the main, but inggeBled **^
a knowledj^e of the Chinese astronomy, and with it the Chinese sptem of diviaoB
of the hcuvens into 2S mansions, was carried into Western Asia at a period lot
much later than 1 100 B.C., and was there adopted by some Western people, other
Semitic or Iranian. In their hands it received a new form, such as adapted it ts
a ruder and less scientific method of observation, the limiting stars of the msosiotf
being converted into zodiacal groups or constellations, and in some instsac*
altered in position, so as to be brought nearer to the general path of the ecliptifi*'
It maintained itself in rr{in, as we find traces of it in the Bundehesh under the
Sassanians ; but it also spread into India, and ultimately became known to the
Arabs. Prof. Wiber held that Babylon was the original birth-place of astronomyi
and that the Hindus derived their nakshairas from thence, as also probably the
Chinese and Arabs respectively their tivu and manuiil (cf. Itid. Stud, \jl). Pi™*
Miiller, on the contrar}*, maintained that the uakshatraa were an original Indi*"
idea, suggested by the moon's sidereal revolution; that they were intended to fflirif
certain ecjual diWsions of the heavens ; and that their number was originally 27»
not 28. The Hev. £. Burgess held that the nakskatras originated in h&^
whence they were derived by the Arabians, but that the Chinese titu haw *>
genetic relation with them.]
^ [The matizilt are mentioned in the Koran x. 6 ; xzxW. 39 ; and they are pro*
bably alluded to in the vutzzdroth of Job xxxviii. 32, and the nuutdloth of
2 Kings xxiii. 5.]
DIVISIONS OP THE ZODIAC. 283
ibt it must have been the Arabs who adopted (with slight
viations) a division of the zodiac familiar to the Hindus.
Diifl, at least, seems to be more probable than the supposition,
iat the Indians received their system from the Arabians : we
Mw that the Hindus have preserved the memory of a former
itoation of the Golures, compared to constellations, which
aark divisions of the zodiac in their astronomy; but no
imilar trace remains of the use of the lunar mansions, as
ivisions of the zodiac, among the Arabs, in so very remote
iffles.
It will be found that I differ much from Sir William Jones
1 regard to the stars constituting the asterisms of Indian as-
ronomy. On this, it may be sufficient to remind the reader,
bat Sir William Jones stated only a conjecture founded on a
oomderation of the figure of the naksMtra and the number
r its stars, compared with those actually situated near
Ike division of the ecliptic, to which the nakshatra gives
ame. He was not apprised that the Hindus themselves
lace some of these constellations far out of the limits of
le zodiac.
[323] I shall examine the several nakshatras and lunar
iSBsions in their order ; previously quoting from the Hindu
^ronomers the positions assigned to the principal star,
'nned the yogatdrd. This, according to Brahmagupta, (as
ted* by Lakshmid&sa in his commentary on the Siromani),
' according to the Bi*ahma-siddh&nta (cited by Bliddhara), is
e brightest star of each cluster. But the Surya-siddh&uta
*ecifies the relative situation of. the Yogatdrd in respect of
e other stars ; and that does not always agree with the
aition of the most conspicuous star.
The number of stars in each asterism, and the figure under
lich the asterism is represented, are specified by Hindu
^nomers: particularly by Sripati in the Katnamald. These,
th the positions of the stars relatively to the ecliptic, are
libited in the annexed table. It contains the whole purport
284 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
of many obscure and almost enigmatical verses, of idue
verbal translation woald be nearly as anintelligiUe to
English reader as the original text.
The aathorities, on which I have chiefly relied, booi
they are universally received by Indian astronomeiit an
Surya-siddh&nta, 6iromai]ii, and Orahi^l&ghava. Hmj h
been carefully examined, comparing at the same time flOfi
commentaries. The Batnam&l& of Sripati is dted fiir
figures of the asterisms; and the same passage had fc
noticed by Sir William Jones.^ It agrees nearly with
text of Yasishtha cited by Muniswara, and is coDfinnad
most instances by the Muhdrta-chint&mani. The aaine
thority, confirmed with rare exceptions by Yasishthai 6ikal
and the Abharana, is quoted for the number of stan in «
asterism. The works of [324] Brahmagupta have not 1
accessible to me : but the Marichi, an excellent commenfl
on the Siddh&nta-siromani, by Muniswara, adduces from 1
author a statement of the positions of the stars ; and rema
that it is founded on the Brahma-siddh&nta, contained in
Yishnudharmottara.' Accordingly, I have found the s
passage in the Brahma-siddh&uta, and verified it by the g
entitled Y&san& ; and I therefore use the quotation witl
distrust. Later authorities, whose statements coincide exa
with some of the preceding (as KamaUkara in the Tatt
viveka), would be needlessly inserted : but one (Muni&war
the Siddhdnta-s&rvabhauma), exhibiting the position of
stars differently, is quoted in the annexed table.
The manner of observing the places of the stars is not
plained in the original works first cited. The Surya-siddhi
only hints briefly, ' that the astronomer should frame a spli
and examine the apparent longitude and latitude.' ' C
^ As. Bee., toI. ii. p. 294.
' Another Brahma-riddh&nta ii entitled the S'&kal7a-«anbit&. The mil
the Marfchi, therefore, distinguishes the one to which he refers. [Gokib
always writes this as S&kalya-sanhit&.]
3 Spkufmfikthipa and Sphufadhruvaka ; which will be explained faxf3tm
[Cf. Burgess, Trantl, p. 214.]
u
DIVISIONS OP THE ZODIAC. 285
ators,^ remarking on this passage, describe the manner of
ng the observation : and the same description occurs, with
variation, in commentaries on the Siroma^i.^ They
t a spherical instrument (Golayantra) to be constructed,
rding to instructions contained in a subsequent part of the
This, as will be hereafter shown, is precisely an armil-
sphere. An additional circle, graduated for degrees and
ites, is directed to be suspended on the pins of the axis as
JB. [825] It is named Yedhavalaya, or intersecting circle,
appears to be a circle of declination. After noticing this
;ion to the instrument, the instructions proceed to the
lying of the Golayantra, or armilbry sphere, which is to
laced, so that the axis shall point to the pole, and the
con be true by a water-level.
he instrument being thus placed, the observer is instructed
K)k at the star Eevati through a sight fitted to an orifice
he centre of the sphere ; and having found the star, to
it by it the end of the sign Pisces on the ecliptic. The
rver is then to look, through the sight, at the t/oga star of
ini, or at some other proposed object ; and to bring the
ible circle of declination over it. The distance in degrees,
the intersection of this circle and ecliptic, to the end of
% or Pisces, is its longitude [dhruvakd) in degrees ; and
lumber of degrees on the movable circle of declination,
the same intersection to the place of the star, is its lati-
(vikshepd) north or south.^
de commentators ^ further remark, that ' the latitude, so
d, is (jsphufa) apparent, being the place intercepted be-
langan&tha and Bhddhara.
n the V&5an&-bli&8hja, and in the Marichi.
'ather Pdtan, and, after him, Bailly, for reasons stated by them (Uranol.
ri 2. 2. Asi. Anc. p. 428), are of opinion, that the ancien^ astronomers re-
I Stan to the equator ; and that Eudoxus and Hipparchos most be so under-
t when speaking of the longitudes of stars. Perhaps the Greek astronomers,
he Hindus, reckoned longitudes upon the ecliptic intersected by circles of
ution, in the manner which has been here explained.
&(idhaia is the most explicit on this point.
286 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
tween the star and the ecliptic, on a circle passing through the
poles ; but the tme latitude {asphuta) is found on a circle
hung upon the poles of the celestial sphere, as direct^ in
another place.' The longitude, found as above directed, is, in
like manner, the space intercepted between the origin of the
ecliptic and a circle of declination passing [326] through the
star : differing, consequently, from the true longitude. The
same commentators add, that the longitudes and latitude^
exhibited in the text, are of the description thus explained :
and those, which are stated in the Surya-siddh&nta, are ex«
pressly affirmed to bo adapted to the time when the equinox
did not differ from the origin of the ecliptic in the beginning
of Mesha.
It is obvious that, if the commentators have rightly under-
stood the text of their authors, the latitudes and longitudes
there given require correction. It will indeed appear, in the
progress of this inquiry, that the positions of stars distant from
the ecliptic, as there given, do not exactly correspond with the
true latitudes and longitudes of the stars supposed to be in-
tended : and the disagreement may be accounted for, by the
circunistaiico of the observations liavins: been made in the
manner above described.
Another mode of observation is tauijht in the Siddhdnta-
sinulara, cited and expounded by the author of the SiddliAnta-
sarvabhaunia. 'A tube, adapted to the summit of a gnomon,
is directed towards the star on the meridian : and the line of
the tube, pointed to the star, is prolonged by a thread to the
ground. The line from the summit of the gnomon to the base
is the hypotenuse ; the height of the gnomon is the perpendi-
cular ; and its distance from the extremity of the thread is
the base of the triangle. Therefore, as the hypotenuse is io
its base, so is'tlie radius to a base, from which the sine of the
angle, and consequently the angle itself, are known. If it
exceed the latitude, the declination is south ; or, if the con-
trary, it is north. The right ascension of the star is asce^
DIVISIONS OP THE ZODIAC. 287
t^ned by calcalation from the hour of the night, and from the
right ascension of the sun for that time. The declination
of the corresponding point of the ecliptic being found, the
sum or difference [327] of the declinations, according as they
^re of the same or of different denominations, is the distance
of the star from the ecliptic. The longitude of the same
point is computed ; and from these elements, with the actual
precession of the equinox, may be calculated the true longi-
tude of the star; as also its latitude on a circle passing
trough the poles of the ecliptic'
Such, if I have rightly comprehended the meaning in a
**ilgle and not very accurate copy of the text, is the purport
^^ the directions given in the Siddhdnta-sundara and s&rva-
*^Hauma : the only works in which the tnie latitudes and lon-
Sitades of the stars are attempted to be given. All the rest
Exhibit the longitude of the star's circle of declination, and its
distance fi^m the ecliptic measured on that circle.
I suppose the original observations, of which the result is
Copied from Brahmagupta and the Siirya-siddhanta, with
little variation, by successive authors, to have been made about
the time, when the vernal equinox was near the first degree
of Mesha.^ The pole then was nearly seventeen degrees and
a quarter from its present position, and stood a little beyond
the star near the ear of the Gameleopard. On this supposi-
tion it will be accordingly found, that the assigned places of
the nakshatras are easily reconcilable to the positions of stars
likely to be meant.
I shall here remark, that the notion of a polar star, common
to the Indian and Grecian celestial spheres, implies consider-
able antiquity. It cannot have been taken from our present
pole-star (a UrsaB minoris), which, as Mons. Bailly has
^ Brabmagupta wrote soon after that period ; and the SQrya-siddh&nta is pro-
bably a work of nearly the same age. Mr. Bentley considers it as more modem
(Ab. Res., Tol. vi.) : it certainly cannot be more ancient ; for the equinox must
hare past the beginning of Mesha, or have been near it, when that work was
■ TWkUvl
288 ^^ ^^^ INDIAN AND ARABIAN
observed,^ was remote from the pole, when [328] Eadoxas d
scribed the sphere ; at which time, according to the qaotatic^n
of Hipparchus, there was a star situated at the pole of the
world.' Bailly conjectures, as the intermediate stars of the
sixth magnitude are too small to have designated the pole*
that K Draconis was the star meant by Eudoxus, which bad
been at its greatest approximation to the pole, little more thin
four degrees from it, about 1326 years before Christ. It most
have been distant, between seven and eight degrees of a greit
circle, when Eudoxus wrote. Possibly the great star in the
Dragon (a Draconis), which is situated very near to the drde
described by the north pole round the pole of the ecliptic, had
been previously designated as the polar star. It was within
one degree of the north pole about 2836 years before Ghriit.
As we know, that the idea could not be taken from the star
in the tail of Ursa minor, we are forced to choose betweffl
Bailly'^s conjecture or the supposition of a still greater an-
tiquity. I should, therefore, be inclined to extend to the
Indian sphere, his conjecture respecting that of Eudoxus.
I shall now proceed to compare the tiakshatras with the
manzih of the moon, or lunar mansions.
I. Aswini, now the first nakshatra^ but anciently the last
but one, probably obtained its present situation at the head
of the Indian asterisms, when the beginning of the zodiac was
referred to the first degree of Mesha, or the Ram, on the
Hindu sphere. As measuring a portion of the zodiac, it
occupies the first 13^ 20' of Mesha : and its beginning follows
immediately after the principal star in the last nakshaira
(Revati), reckoned, by some exactly, by others nearly, opposite
to the very conspicuous one, which forms the fourteenth
asterism. Considered as a constellation, [329] Aswini com-
prises three stars figured as a horse's head ; and the principal)
which is also the northern one, is stated by all ancient au-
thorities, in 10"* N. and 8"" E. from the beginning of Mesha.
* Antronomie Aneienne^ p. 511.
^ HipporcbuB, Commmt. on Aratm, lib. i. p. 179.
BIYISIOKS OF THE ZODIAC. 2S9
The first manMil, or lunar mansion, according to the Arabs,
flDtitled Sharat&n, (by the Persians corruptly called, as in
u oUique case, Sharatain), and comprises two stars of the
liid magnitude on the head of Aries, in lat. 6° 36' and
'6V N., and long. 2ff» 13' and 27*^ T} With the addition
P a third, also in tiie head of the Bam, the asterism is de-
Mninated Ashr&t. The bright star of the second or third
ngnimde, which is out of the figure of the Bam according
) Ulogh-beg, but on the nose according to Hipparchus cited
f this author from Ptolemy, is determined N&tih : it is
beed in lat. 9^ 30' N. and long. 1" O'' 4^', and is apparently
le same ¥rith the principal star in the Indian asterism ; for
Ivhammad of Tizin, in his table of declination and right
iosntion, expressly terms it the first star of the Sharatain.'
Many pandits, consulted by me, have concurred in point-
g to the three bright stars in the head of Aries (a fi and 7)
f the Indian constellation Aswini. The first star of Aries
() was also shown to Dr. Hunter, at Ujjayinl, for the prin-
pal one in this asterism ; and Mr. Davis ' states the other
% as those which were pointed out to him by a skilful
tire astronomer, for the stars that distinguish Aswini.
le same three stars, but with the addition of three others,
n indicated to Le Gentil, for this constellation.^ I enter-
II, therefore, no doubt that Sir [330] William Jones ^ was
^t in placing the three stars of Aswini in, and near, the
ad of the Bam ; and it is evident, that the first nakshatra of
B Hindus is here rightly determined, in exact conformity with
B first lunar mansion of the Arabs ; although the longitude
a Arietis exceed, by half a degree, that which is deduced,
' the end of Aswini, from the supposed situation of the
^n''s spike opposite to the beginning of this nakshatra;
1 Hyde's Ulugh-beg, p. 5S.
* Hjde's Com, on Ulugh-beg^i Tablet^ p. 97.
' As. Res., vol. ii. p. 226.
« M6m. Acad. Scien., 1772, P. ii., p. 209.
• As. Res., Tol. ii. p. 298.
"VOL. UI. [B88ATS U.] 19
290 ON THE INDIAN AND AEABIAK
and aIthou<i:h its circle of declination be 13° instead of 8^ &
the principal star in Revati.
II. Bharani, the second Indian asterism, oomprises th
stars figured by the Yoni or pudendum muUebre : and
ancient authorities concur in placing the principal and sontlM
star of this nakshatra in 12° N. The second mansily entitl
Butain, is placed by Ulugh-beg^ in lat. V 12^ and 8° 1!
and this cannot possibly be reconciled with the Hindu oc
stellation. But Muhammad of Tizin* assigns to thebii{
star of Butain a declination of 23° N. exceeding by nearly
the declination allotted by him to N&tih, or his first star
Sharatain. This agrees with the difierenc^ between the pri
cipal stars of Aswinf and Bharani ; and it may be vatsn^
that some among the Muhammadan astronomers havecc
curred with the Hindus, in referring the second consteOiti
to stars that form Musca. There were no good grounds
supposing Bharani to correspond with three stars on the (
of the Ram ; ' and I have no doubt, that the stars, wU
compose this nakshatra^ have been rightly indicated to me,
three in Musca, forming a triangle almost equilateral: tb
brightness, and their equal distance from the first and tk
asterisms, corroborate this opinion, which will be confirmed
showing, as will be done in the progress of [331] this co
parison, that the nakshatras are not restricted to the limiU
the zodiac.
III. Krittiku, now the third, but formerly the first, n
shaira^ consists of six stars figured as a knife or razor, i
the principal and southern star is placed in 4J° or 5° N. i
in 65 sixths of degrees (or 10° 50') from its own commen
ment, according to the Surya-siddhanta, or 37° 28' to
from the beginning of Mesha, according to the Siddhin
siromani, and Graha-ldghava, respectively. This longitude
the circle of declination corresponds nearly with that of
* Hyde, p. 61. 'See Hyde's Chmmentary^^. 97.
' As. lies., Tol. ii. p. 298.
I
DIVISIONS OP THE ZODIAC. 291
bright star in the Pleiades, which is 40'' of loDgiiode distant
from the principal star of BevatL
The stars indicated by Ulugh-beg for Thurayyi, also cor-
respond exactly with the Pleiades ; and these were pointed
(Hit to the Jesuit missionaries,^ as they have since been to
mrj other inquirer, for the third nakshatra. If any doubt
existed. Mythology might assist in determining the question ;
far the Krittik4s are six nymphs, who nursed Skanda, the god
of war, named from these, his foster-mothers, K&rtikeya or
Sha^mitura.
lY. We retain on our celestial globes the Arabic name of
tbe fimrth lunar mansion Dabar&n {or with the article, Alda-
IttrfD) : applied by us^ however, exclusively to the bright star
cilled the Bull's-eye ; and which is unquestionably the same
with the principal and eastern star of Rohini, placed in 4^^ or
t? 8. Mid 49^° E. by the Hindu writers on Astronomy.
This nakshatra, figured as a wheeled carriage, comprises five
Stan, out of the seven which the Greeks named the Hyades.
The Arabs, however, like the Hindus, reckon five stars only
in the asterism ; and Sir William Jones rightly supposed
them to be in the head and neck of the Bull ; they probably
Meap 7 S € Tauri, agreeably to Mens. Bailly'^s conjecture.*
[332] Hindu astronomers define a point in this constella-
tion, of some importance in their fanciful astrology. Accord-
ing to the Surya-siddh&nta, when a planet i» in the 7th
degree of Yrisha (Taurus), and has more than two degrees of
Mmth latitude, or, as commentators expound the passage,
^40"; the planet is said to cut the cart of Rohini. This is
^l^ominated iakatabheda, or the section of the wain. Lalla
ttd the Graha-l&ghava give nearly the same definition ; and it
* w added, in the work last mentioned, that, when Mars, Saturn,
*nd the Moon, are in that position (which occurs, in regard to
moon, when the node is eight nakahatraa distant from
* Coitard'i SitL of Mir., p. 61. Bailly's Aatr. Jnd^ p. 134*
' AMir. Ind^ p. 129.
292 ON THE INDIAN AND AEABIAN
Punarvasu, and might happen in regard to the rest duriog
another t/uga)^ the world is involved in great oalamity. Ae-
cordinglj, the purdnas contain a legendary story of Dm-
ratha's dissoading Satnm from bo traversing the oonstellatios
Bohini.
y. Mrigasiras, the fifth nakshatra^ represented by an into-
lope's head, contains three stars : the same which constitute the
fifth lanar mansion Hak'ah ; for the distance of 10° S. tssigned
to the northern star of this nakshatra will agree with no otiMr
but one of the three in the head of Orion. The differsnce of
longitude (24'' to 2d|°) from Krittik& corresponds with suffi-
cient exactness ; and so does the longitude of its cirale of
declination (62° to 63°) from the end of Bevati; since the tne
longitude of X Ononis from the principal star in Be?ati
(^ Piscium) is 63 J°. It was a mistake to suppose this asteriflm
to comprise stars in the feet of Gemini, or in the Gkdaxy.^
YI. KrAvLt the sixth nakshatra^ consists of a single brif^
star, described as a gem, and placed in 9° S. by one authoiitji
but in IP by others, and at the distance of 4)° to 4^ in
longitude from the last asterism. This indicates the star in
the shoulder of Orion (a Ononis) ; not, as [333] was con-
jectured by Sir William Jones, the star in the knee of Pollux.*
The sixth lunar mansion is named by the Arabs, Han'ah;
and comprises two stars in the feet of the second Twin,
according to Ulugh-beg, though others make it to be his
shoulder.^ Muhammad of Tizin allots five stars to this
constellation : and the K&mus, among various meanings of
Han'ah, says, that it is a name for five stars in the left am
of Orion ; remarking, also, that the lunar mansion is named
Tahiyi, comprising three stars called Tahy&t. Either way,
however, the Indian and Arabian asterisms appear in this
instance irreconcilable.
VII. The seventh nakshatra, entitled Punarvasu, and r^
1 As. Res., vol. ii. p. 298. > As. Bei., ToL ii p. 298.
' Hyde, Com. pp. 7 and 44.
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODIAC. 293
prawnted by a house, or, according to a Sanskrit work cited
by Sir William Jones,^ a bow, is stated by astronomers as
indading four stars, among which the principal and eastern
one is 30° or 32° from the fifth asterism ; but placed by all
anthorities in 6° N. This agrees with (fi Geminorum) one of
the two stars in the heads of the Twins, which together
eonstitute the seventh lunar mansion Zir&', according to
Muhammad of Tds and Muhammad of Tizin and other
Arabian authorities.'
It appears from a rule of Sanskrit grammar,^ that Punar-
fsta, as a name for a constellation, is properly dual, implying,
18 it may be supposed, two stars. On this ground, a conjecture
may be raised, that Punarvasu originally comprised two stars,
though four are now assigned to it. Accordingly, that number
18 retained in the ^kalya-sanhit&.
It may be further observed, that the seventh lunar [334]
mansion of the Arabs is named Zird' ul asad according to
Jaohari and others cited by Hyde ; ^ and that the E&mus makes
thia term to be the name of eight stars in the form of a bow.
Upon the whole, the agreement of the Indian and Arabian
eonatellations is here apparent, notwithstanding a variation in
the number of the stars ; and I conclude, that Punarvasu
eomprises, conformably with Sir William Jones's supposition,^
Stan in the heads of the twins ; viz, a, )9, Geminorum ; and
whieh were indicated to Dr. Hunter by a Hindu astronomer
at XJjjayini: to which, perhaps, 0 and r may be added to
complete the number of four.
YIII. Pushya, the eighth asterism, is described as an
arrow ; and consists of three stars, the chief of which, being
also the middlemost, has no latitude, and is 12° or 13"^ distant
from the seventh asterism, being placed by Hindu astronomers
in 106° of longitude. This is evidently S Gancri ; and does
not differ widely from the eighth lunar mansion Nathrah, which,
^ As. Bes., Tol. ii. p. 295. ' Hyde on XJlugh-beg, p. 43.
' P&9ini, I. ii. 63. * Com. on Ulugh-beg, p. 44.
^ As. Res., Tol. iL p. 299.
294 OS THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
according to Ulugh-beg and others/ consists of two stan,
including the nebula of Cancer. The Indian constellation
comprises two other stars, besides B Cancri, which are perhaps
7 and /3 of the same constellation ; and Sir William Jones's
conjecture, that it consists of stars in the body and claws of
Cancer, was not far from the truth.
IX. The ninth asterisro, ^leshd, contains five stan
figured as a potter^s wheel, and of which the principal or
eastern one is placed in 7° S., and according to dififerent
tables, lOr, 108°, or 109% E. This appears to be inteaied
for the bright star in the southern claw of Cancer (a Caneri),
[335] and cannot be reconciled with the lunar mansion Tarf
or Tarfah, which comprises two stars* near the lion's eye; the
northemnK>8t being placed by Muhammad of Tizin in 24^ of
N. declination.' The Jesuit missionaries, if righUy quoted
by Costard,^ made Asleshd correspond with the bright sta
ill the heads of Castor and Pollux, together with Procyon.
This is evidently erroneous. Sir William Jones's suppositioB
that Xsleshd might answer to the face and mane of Leo, nearly
concurs with the Arabian determination of this lunar mansion,
but disagrees with the place assigned to the stars by Hindo
astronomers. Bailly committed the same mistake, when he
affirmed, that Asleslid is the lion's head.*
X. The tenth asterism, Magh&, contains, like the last, five
stars ; but which are figured as a house. The principal or
southern one has no latitude; and, according to all au-
thorities, has 129"" longitude. This is evidently Regulua
(a Leonis) : which is exactly 129|'' distant from the last
«tar in Revati.
Aecording to the Jesuits cited by Costard, Magha answers
to the lion's mane and heart ; and tlie tenth lunar mansion of
tlie Arabians, Jabhah, comprises three (some say four) stars,
^ Hyde'i Cora., p. 45. ' Hyde's Com., p. 8.
» Hyde's Com., p. 101. * IlUt. of Atir,, p. 51.
* Astr. Ltd. p. 328.
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODUC. 295
learly in the longitude of the lion's heart.^ In this instance,
herefore, the Indian and Arabian divisions of the zodiac coin-
ide : and it is owing to an oversight that Sir William Jones
tates the nakshatra as composed of stars in the lion'*s leg and
uuuich. It appears to consist o(ay ^rj and v Leonis.
XI. Two stars, constituting the eleventh nakahatra^ or pro-
dding Ph&lguni, which is represented by a couch or [336]
ledstead, are determined by the place of the chief star (the
torthemmost according to the Surya-siddh&nta) in 12° N.
od 144° E. or, according to Brahmagupta, the Siromani and
be Graha-I&ghava, 147° or 148° E. . They are probably h and
^ Leonis : the same which form the lunar mansion Zubrah or
Uiart&n.'
It may be conjectured, that Brahroagupta and Bh&skara
elected the southern for the principal star ; while the Surya-
iddh&nta took the northern : hence the latitude, stated by
hose several Hindu authorities, is the mean between both
tars ; and the difference of longitude, compared to the pre-
eding and subsequent asterisms, may be exactly reconciled
ipon this supposition.
XII. Two other stars, constituting the twelfth nakahatra^ or
>llowing Ph&lguni, which is likewise figured as a bed, are
Bcertained by the place of one of them (the northernmost)
1 13° N. and 155° E. This indicates /3 Leonis ; the same
rhich singly constitutes the Arabian lunar mansion Sarfah,^
iiongh Muhammad of Tizin seems to hint that it consists of
lore than one star.^ By an error regarding the origin of the
cliptic on the Indian sphere. Sir William Jones refers to the
receding nakshatra the principal star of this asterism.
XIIL Hasta, the thirteenth nakshatra^ has the name and
ignre of a hand ; and is suitably made to contain five stars.
Che principal one, towards the west, next to the north-
* Hyde'i Ulugh-beg, p. 74, and Com., p. 46.
• Hjde'i XJlugh-beg, p. 76, and Com., p. 47.
• Hyde's Ulugh-beg, p. 78, and Cora., p. 47.
* Hyde, p. 102.
296 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
western star, is placed according to all aathoriiies in IPS. and
170'' E. This can only belong to the constellation CSorro:
and accordingly five stars in that constellation (a j8 7 S €
Corvi) have been pointed out to me by Hinda astronomen
for this nakahatra.
[337] 'Aww£, the thirteenth lunar mansion of the Ank,
is described as containing the same number of stan, sitaatod
under Virgo, and so disposed as to resmnble the letter Alit
They are placed by Ulugh-beg in the wing.^
In this instance the Indian and Arabian diriAons of the
zodiac have nothinc: in common but the number of Stan and
their agreement of longitude. It appears, however, from a
passage cited from Sufi by Hyde,* that the Arabs have also
considered the constellation of Corvus as a mansion of the
moon.
XIY. The fourteenth nak%hatra^ figured as a pearl, is a
single star named Ghitr&. It is placed by the Surya-siddhkta
in 2^ S. and 180° E., and by Brahmagupta, the Slroma^i and
Graha-l&ghava, in If or 2° S. and 183° E. This agrees with
the Virgin's spiko (a Virginis) ; and Hindu astronomen haf»
always pointed out that star for Ghitrd. The same star consti-
tutes the fourteenth lunar mansion of the Arabs, named fiom
it Simdk ul a'zil. Le GentiKs conjecture,' that the fourteenth
nakshatra comprises the two stars h and € Virginis, was
entirely erroneous. And Mons. Bailly was equally incorrect
in placing 6 Virginis in the middle of this asterism.^
XV. Another single star constitutes the fifteenth nakahitrey
Sw&ti, represented by a coral bead. The Surya-siddh&nta,
Brahmagupta, the Siromani and Graha-l&ghava, concur in
placing it in 37^ N. They differ one degree in the longitude
of its circle of declination ; three of these authorities making
it 199°, and the other 198^
The only conspicuous star, nearly in the situation thus
^ Hyde's Ulugh-beg, p. 80. » Com., p. 82.
3 Bailly, Aatr, Jnd.j p. 227. * Aatr, Ind,, p. 227.
blVIBIONS OP THE ZODIAC. 297
»igned to Sw&t{ (and the Indian astronomers would hardly
avel so iar from the zodiac to seek an obscure [338] star),
Aretums, 33** H". of the ecliptic in the circle of declination,
id 198° E. from the principal star of Revati. I am there-
re disposed to believe, that Sw&t( has been rightly indicated
< me by a native astronomer who pointed out Arcturus for
lis nakshaira. The longitude, stated by Muniswara {ciz.
\^ less than Ghitr&), indicates the same star : but, if greater
liance be placed on his latitudes, the star intended may
I € Bootis. At all events, Mens. Bailly mistook, when he
•erted, on the authority of Le Gentil, that the fifteentli
\kshaira is marked by a Yirginis ; and that this star is
taated at the beginning of the ndkshatra}
The Indian asterism totally disagrees with the lunar
anflion Ghafr, consisting of three stars in the Virgin's foot,
icording to Ulngh-beg,* but in, or near, the balance, accord-
ig to others.
XVI. Vis&khi, the sixteenth nakshatra^ consists of four
an described as a festoon. Authorities differ little as to the
toation of the principal and northernmost star: placing it in
; r 20', or r m S., and in 212**, 212** 5' or 213** E. The
fcitade seems to indicate the bright star in the southern
»le (a Libree), though the longitude disagree : for this sug-
sts a remote star (possibly k Libras). I apprehend the first
be nearest the truth ; and hence conclude the four stars to
\ av I LibrsB and 7 Scorpii.
The sixteenth lunar mansion, named Zubanah or Zub&-
yah,' is, according to Muhammad of Tiz{n,^ the bright star
I the northern Scale (/3 LibraB), which Sir William Jones
ipposed to b^ the fifteenth nakshatra.
Father Souciet, by whom Corona Borealis is stated [339]
>r the asterism Visikhi, is censured by Sir William Jones,
nder an impression, that all the nakshatras must be sought
1 Aitr, Ind.f p. 139 and 227. * Hyde, p. 82, and Com., p. 50.
s [Zubdna* or ZuUniydn ?] « Hyde, Com., p. 104.
298 OX THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
within the zodiac. The information^ received by Father
Souciet, does appear to have been erroneous ; bat the ssme
mistake was committed hj a native astronomer, who showed
to me the same constellation for Yisikhd ; and the nakshatm
are certainly not restricted to the neighbourhood of the ecliptic.
XYII. Four stars (or, according to a different reading,
three), described as a row of oblations, that is, in a right
line, constitute the seventeenth nakshaira named Annridhi
Here also authorities differ little as to the situation of the
chief and middlemost star; which is placed in 3°, or ?»
or V 45' S., and in 224^ or 224° 5' E. This must intend the
star near the head of the Scorpion (S Scorpionis) : and the
asterism probably comprises fi B ir and p Scorpionis.
The seventeenth lunar mansion of the Arabs, called lUil
or Iklilu'ljabhah, contains four (some say three, and others
six ^) stars lying in a straight line. Those assigned by XJlogh-
beg * for this mansion are fi Sv ir Scorpionis.
Here the Indian and Arabian divisions appear to conear
exactly ; and Sir William Jones,' as well as the missionaiiei
cited by Costard,* have apparently understood the same stars;
though the latter extend the nakshatra to the constellation
Serpentarius.
XVIII. Jyeshtha, the eighteenth nakalMtra^ comprisei
three stars figured as a ring. In regard to this, also, authorities
are nearly agreed in the position of the principal and middle-
most star, placed in 4^ 3J^ or 3° S., and in 229^, 229° 5',
or 230° E. This position clearly indicates Antares or the
Scorpion's heart (a Scorpionis) ; which is [340] also the
eighteenth lunar mansion, named Kalb or KalbuFakrab. The
three stars of the Indian asterism may be a o* and r Scorpionis.
XIX. The nineteenth asterism, Mula, represented by »
lion's tail, contains eleven stars, of which the cbaracteristic
one, the easternmost, is placed in 9% 8 J°, or 8° S., and in 241"
* Hyde, Com., p. 61. * Hyde, p. 87.
3 As. Res., ii. p. 299. « HUt, Attr., p 61.
DinSIONS OF THE ZODUC. 299
242° K Although the Ifttitnde of t; Scorpionis be five
igreeB too great, there seems little doubt that either that
Uie star east of it, marked i/, must be intended ; and this
termination agrees with the eighteenth lunar mansion of
) Arabs called Shaolah, consisting of two stars near the
)rpion's sting. The Hindu asterism probably includes all
> stars placed by us in the Scorpion's tail, viz, € fi^ti 6 l ic
/ and V Scorpionis.
KX. The twentieth nakahaira^ entitled preceding ^^h&dha,
ired as an elephant's tooth, or as a couch, consists of two
FB, of which the most northern one is placed in 5^°, 5 J°, or
S^ and 254'' or 255"" E. This suits with 8 Sagittarii,
ich is also one of the stars of the twentieth lunar mansion
led Na'&im. It consists of four, or, according to some
Jiorities, of eight stars. The Indian astmsm seemingly
uprises B and e Sagittarii.
KXI. Two stars constitute the twenty-first asterism, named
) subsequent ^sh&dha, which is represented by a couch or
an elephant's tooth. The principal star, which also is the
6t northerly one, is placed in 5° S., and 260°, or 261° E.
is agrees with a star in the body of Sagittarius (r Sagit-
ii), and the other star is perhaps the one marked (f.
rhe twenty-first lunar mansion of the Arabians, named
Idah, comprises six stars, two of which are placed by
ihammad of Tizin in declination 21° and 16°. One of
86 must be a star in the head of Sagittarius. Some
hers, on the contrary, describe the lunar mansion as [341]
ititute of stars.^ At all events, the Hindu and Arabian
isions appear, in this instance, to be but imperfectly re-
icilable.
KXU. Three stars, figured as a triangle, or as the nut of
» floating Trapa, form the twenty-second asterism, named
»hijit ; which, in the modem Indian astronomy, does not
lupy an equal portion of the ecliptic with the other nak*
^ Hyde, Com. on Ulagh-beg, p. 9.
300 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
ahatras^ but is carved out of the contigaoos divisions. Its
place (meaning that of its brightest star) is very remote iem
the zodiac ; being in 60^ or 62^ N. The longitude of its
circle of declination, according to different authorities, is 28!P,
266^ 40\ or 268^. Probably the bright star in the Lyre is
meant. It was shown to Dr. Hunter, at XJjjajini, for the chief
star in Abhijit ; and the same was pointed out to me for tlw
asterism, by a Hindu astronomer at this place.
The Arabian lunar mansion Z&bih consists of two sian
(some reckon four ^) in the horns of Capricorn, totally dis-
agreeing with the Indian nakshatra,
XXIII. Sravani, the twenty-third nakahatra^ represented
by three footsteps, contains three stars, of which one, the
middlemost, is by all authorities placed in 30° N., but thej
differ as to its longitude ; the Surya-siddh&nta pladng it
in 280°; Brahmagupta and the S'iromani in 278°; and the
Graha-l&ghava in 275°. The assigned latitude indicates the
bright star in the Eagle, whence the three may be inferred to
be a /3 and 7 Aquilee.
The twenty-third mansion of the moon, called by the Anhs
Bula', consists of two stars in the left hand of Aquarius.
Consequently the Arabian and Hindu divisions are here tt
variance.
[342] XXIV. Dhanishth&, the twenty-fourth asterism, is
represented by a drum or tabor. It comprises four stars, one
of which (the westernmost) is placed in 36^ N., and according
to the Siirya-siddh&nta, Brahmagupta and the ^iromani, in
290° E., thouorh the Graha-l&ghava state 286° only. This
longitude of the circle of declination, and the distance of the
star on it from the ecliptic, indicate the Dolphin ; and thefeor
stars probably are a )8 7 and h Delphiui. The same constella-
tion is mentioned by the Jesuit missionaries as corresponding
to Dhanishth& ; ' and there can be little doubt that the ascer-
tainment is correct. The longitude stated bv Muniswara
» Uliigh-bog, p. Of, and Hyde's Com., p. 54. » Costard, p. 81.
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODUC. 301
[fis. 294° 12^) supports the conclusion, though his latitude
[26° 26') be too small. To determine accurately the position
of this naka/uUra is important, as the solstitial colure, accord-
ing to the ancient astronomers, passed through the extremity
of it, and through the middle of Asleshd.
The twMity-fourth mansion, called by the Aif^bs Srfdd,
((impriaes two stars in Aquarius (fi and ^ Aquarii) ; totally
disagreeing with the Hindu division.
XXY. I§atabhish&, the twenty-fifth naka/uUray is a cluster
tt a hundred stars figured by a circle. The principal one, or
brightest, has no latitude ; or only a third, or at the utmost
lal^ a degree of south latitude ; and all the tables concur in
>laeing it in long. 320°. This will suit best with \ Aquarii.
Fhese hundred stars may be sought in the stream from the
far, where Sir William Jones places the nakshatra; and in
iie right leg of Aquarius.
Akhbiyah, the twenty-fifth lunar mansion, is stated to con-
RSi of three stars only, which seem to be the three in the
irist of the right hand of Aquarius.^ However, it appears
lom TTIugh-beg's tables, as well as from Mu[343]hammad of
Klin's, that four stars are assigned to this mansion.'
The Hindu and Arabian asterisms differ here less widely
ban in the instances lately noticed : and a passage, cited by
lyde from Firtiz&b&di, even intimates the circular figure of
he constellation.'
XXYI. The twenty-sixth of the Indian asterisms, called
he preceding Bh&drapada, consists of two stars represented
ly a couch or bed, or else by a double-headed figure ; one of
rhich is placed by Hindu astronomers in 24° N., and 325° or
26° E. The only conspicuous star, nearly in that situation,
I the bright star in Pegasus (a Pegasi) ; and the other may
le the nearest considerable star in the same constellation
{^Pegasi). I should have considered fi Pegasi to be the
^ Hyde's Com., p. 66, * Hyde, p. 99, and Com., p. 95.
* C<mi., p. 10.
302 ON THE INDIAN AND AKABIAN
second star of this nakshatra^ were not its yoga or chief star
expressly said to be the most northerly. Mukaddam, the
twenty-sixth lanar mansion, consists of the two brightest stin
in Pegasus (a and /3) ^ ; and thus the two divisions of the
zodiac nearly concar.
XXYII. Two other stars constitute the twenty-se?entli
lunar mansion named the subsequent Bh&drapada. Thej vn
figured as a twin, or person with a double facej or else sb s
couch. The position of one of them (the most n<»therly) is
stated in 26^ or 27" N., and 337° E. I suppose the brigbt
star in the head of Andromeda to be meant ; and the other
star to be the one in the extremity of the wing of Pegasus
(7 Pegasi). This agrees exactly with the twenty-sevcDth
lunar mansion of the Arabians, called Muakhkhar. For
Ulugh-beg assigns those stars to it.'
XXYIII. The last of the twenty-eight asterisms is named
Eevati, and comprises thirty-two stars figured as [344] a
tabor. All authorities agree that the principal star, which
should be the southernmost, has no latitude, and two of them
assert no longitude ; but some make it ten minutes short of
the origin of the ecliptic, viz. SSO"" 50'. This clearly marks
the star on the ecliptic in the string of the Fishes (f Pisciam) ;
and tlie ascertainment of it is important in regard to the
adjustment of the Hindu sphere.
The Arabic name of the 28th mansion, Rishd, signifying a
cord, seems to indicate a star nearly in the same position.
But the constellation, as described by Jauhari cited by Golius,
consists of a multitude of stars in the shape of a fish, and
termed Batnu'lhut ; in the navel of which is the lunar
mansion : and Muhammad of Tizin, with some others, also
makes this lunar mansion to be the same with Batnu'^lhut,
which appears, however, to be the bright star in the girdle of
Andromeda 08 Andromedse) ; though others describe it as
^ Hyde's Ulagh-beg, p. 63, and Com., p. 34.
' Hyde, p. 63, and Com., pp. 34 and 36.
DIVISIONS OP THE ZODIAC. 303
the nortHem Fish, extendiDg, however, to the horas of the
IUin.i The lunar mansion and Indian asterism are, therefore,
not reconcilable in this last instance.
The result of the comparison shows, I hope satisfactorily,
that the Indian asterisms, which mark the divisions of the
ediptic, generally consist of nearly the same stars, which con-
sUtate the lunar mansions of the Arabians : but, in a few
instanoes, they essentially differ. The Hindus have likewise
adopted the division of the ecliptic and zodiac into twelve
signs or constellations, agreeing in figure and designation with
those of the Greeks ; and differing merely in the place of the
ccmstellations, which are carried on the Indian sphere a few
degrees further west than on the Grecian. That the Hindus
took the hint of this mode of dividing the ecliptic from the
Gbeeks, is not perhaps altogether improbable ; but, if such be
the origin of it, they [345] have not implicitly received the
arrangement suggested to them, but have reconciled and
adapted it to their own ancient distribution of the ecliptic into
twenty-seven parts.*
In like manner, they may have either received or given the
hint of an armillary sphere as an instrument for astronomical
observation: but certainly they have not copied the instrument
which was described by Ptolemy, for the construction differs
eonsiderably.
In the Arabic epitome of the Almijast entitled Tahriru'l-
mijasti,' the armillary sphere {Zdt ul halk) is thus described.
^Two equal circles are placed at right angles; the one re-
presenting the ecliptic, the other the solstitial colure. Two
pins pass through the poles of the ecliptic ; and two other pins
^ Hyde's Com., pp. 10, 35, and 96.
* According to the longitude of the three brightest stars of Aries, as stated bj
Ptolemj, viz. \(f 40', T 40', and 6° 40', (I quote from an Arabic epitome of the
Almijast], the origin of the ecliptic, in the Greek book which is most likelj to
lure become known in India, is 6° 20' from the star which the Hindus hare
ideeted to mark the commencement of the ecliptic.
' Bj the celebrated N&siruddin Tiisi ; from the Arabic Tenion of Ish&k ben
Honain, which was revised by Th&bit.
304 0^ ^HB INDUN AND ARABIAN
are placed on the poles of the equator. On the two first pins
are suspended a couple of circles, moving the one within, the
other without, the first mentioned circles, and representing
two secondaries of the ecliptic. On the two other pins a eirde
is placed, which encompasses the whole insimment, and within
which the different circles turn; it represents the meridian.
Within the inner secondary of the ecliptic a circle is fitted to
it, in the same plane, and turning in it. This is adapted to
measure latitudes. To this internal circle, two apertures, or
sights, opposite to each other, and without its plane, in
adapted, like the sights of an instrument for altitudes. The
armillarj sphere is complete when consisting of these n
circles. The ecliptic and secondaries are to be gra[346]dnat6d
as minutely as may be practicable. It is best to place both
secondaries, as by some directed, within the ecliptic (insteid
of placing one of them without it), that the complete revolB-
tion of the outer secondary may not be obstructed by the pirn
at the poles of the equator. The meridian, likewise, shonU
be doubled, or made to consist of two circles ; the exterual one
graduated, and the internal one moving within it. Thus the
pole may be adjusted at its proper elevation above the horizon
of any place. The instrument so constructed consists of seren
circles.
" It is remarked, that when the circle representing the
meridian is placed in the plane of the true meridian, so that
it cuts the plane of the horizon at right angles, and one of tlie
poles of the equator is elevated above the horizon conformablj
with the latitude of the place ; then the motions of all the
circles round tlie poles represent the motions of the uniTcrse.
" After rectifying the meridian, if it be wished to obserw
the sun and moon together, the outer secondary of the ecliptic
must be made to intersect the ecliptic at the sun'*s place for
that time : and the solstitial colure must be moved until the
place of intersection be opposite to the sun. Both circles are
thus adjusted to their true places; or if any other object bat
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODIAC. 305
be obseryed, the colure is tamed, until the object be
its proper place, on that secondary referred to the
the circle representing the ecliptic being at the same
;he plane of the tme ecliptic and in its proper situation.
rds, the inner secondary is turned towards the moon
ly star intended to be observed), and the smaller circle
\, bearing the two sights, is turned, until the moon be
the line of the apertures. The intersection of the
)Condary circle and ecUptic is the place of the moon in
e ; and the arc of the secondary, between the aperture
ecliptic, is the latitude of the moon on either side
r south)."
lame instrument, as described by Montucla from the
Ptolemy (1. 3, c. 2),^ consists of six circles: first,
circle representing the meridian; next, four circles
^gether, representing the equator, ecliptic and two
and turning within the first circle on the poles of the
; lastly, a circle turning on the poles of the ecliptic,
1 with sights and nearly touching, on its concave side,
uodference of the ecliptic.
krmillary sphere, described by the Arabian epitomiser,
therefore, from PtolemyX in omitting the equator
inoctial colure, and adding an inner secondary of the
which, as well as the meridian, is doubled,
ding to Lalande, the astrolabe of Ptolemy, from which
}rahe derived his equatorial armillary, consisted only
circles: two placed at right angles to represent the
md solstitial colure ; a third turning on the poles of
>tic and serving to mark longitudes; and a fourth,
;he other three, furnished with sights to observe
objects and measure their latitudes and longi-
her the ancient Greeks had any more complicated
^ Eist. (Us MathSm,, i. p. 301.
' Lalande, Atlron,, i. 13. ({ 2279).
. m. [B88ATB n.] 20
306 ON THE INDIAN AND ABABIAN
iustrament formed on similar principles, uid applicable to
astronomical obseryations, is perhaps uncertain. We have no
detailed description of the instrument which Archimedes ii
said to have devised to represent the phenomena and motiooi
of the heavenly bodies ; nor any sufficient [348] hint of iti
construction;^ nor does Cicero's account of the sphere ex-
hibited by Posidonius' suggest a distinct notion of iti
structure.
Among the Arabs, no addition is at present known to kafs
been made to the armillary sphere, between the period wba
the Almijast was translated/ and the time of Alh&zin, irlio
wrote a treatise of optics, in which a more complicated instra*
ment than that of Ptolemy is described. Alh&zin's armil-
lary sphere is stated to have been the prototype of Tjdie
Brahe's;^ but neither the [349] original treatise, nor tb
Latin translation of it, are here procurable ; and I am thin-
fore unable to ascertain whether the sphere, mentioned by the
Arabian author, resembled that described by Indian astio-
^ If Claudian's epigram on the robject of it was founded upon any aathontjt
the instrument mu'it have been a sort of orrery, enclosed in glass.
Vide Claud, epi^. 18. Cic. Tusc. Qusst. i. 25. De Nat. Deor. iL 35.
» Cic. Dc Nat. Deor. ii. 34.
3 In the nijra year 212, or a.d. 827, by Alh&zin ben Y&saf, with the aidi(
Sergius (Montucla, ii. p. 304); or rather by Ishak ben Honain, whose death ii
placed about the llijra year 260 (D'Herbclot, p. 456). According to the
Kashf ul 7un6n, Ishak's version was epitomized by Hajj&j ben YCisaf, by Th&Ut
ben Korrah, and by Niisiruddin Tfisi. Other versions, however, are mentioned:
particularly one by Hajj&j, said to have been corrected first bj Honain ben Isb&k,
and afterwards by Thdbit ; another by Thabit himself ; and a third by Mahf ba
Yahv^. A dilfi rcut account is likewise given of the earliest translation of tke
Almijast; which is ascribed to AbQ His&n and Salm&n, who are said to baveooB-
plcted it, after the failure of other learned men, who had preyionsly attempted
the traiuilation. Mention is also made of a version by Ibr&him ben Salat, re-
vised by Honain. But none of these translations are anterior to the nistli
century of the Christian era.
* Adhibuit (Tyiho) armillare quoddam instrumentum, quod tamen comperi ego
positum et adliibitum olim fuisse ante Tychonera ab AJhazeno, lib. 7. opt C. !•
prop. 15. et a VitelL lib. 10. propos. 49. cujus instrumenti astronomice collocrf
ope atque usu, (vide instrumentum multiplex armillare apud Tycho. in Mechsiio^
Astronomiju), eandem elevationem falsam 9 scrupulorum invenit, quam per ilii
duo di versa instrumenta compererat. — Bettini, Apiaria, toI. ii. p. 41.
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODUC. 307
nera. At nil eyents, he is more modem ^ than the oldest of
r Hindu writers whom I shall proceed to quote.'
rhe constructiou of the armillary sphere is briefly and
her obscurdy taught in the Sdrya-siddhdnta. The fol-
ring is a literal translation.
* Let the astronomer frame the surprising structure of the
restrial and celestial spheres.
* Haring caused a wooden globe to be made, [of such si^e}
be pleases, to refM'esent the earth ; with a staff for the axis
Bing through the centre, and exceeding the globe at both
b; let him place the supporting hoops,^ as also the
linoetial circk.
^ Three circles must be prepared (divided for signs and
Tees), the radius of which must agree with the respective
mal circles, in proportion to the equinoctial: the three
im should be placed for the Bam and following signs, re-
etively, at the proper declination in degrees, N. or S. ; the
le ^swer contrariwise for the Crab and other signs. In
I manner, three circles are placed in the southern hemisphere,
the Balance and the rest, and contrariwise for Capricorn
1 the remaining signs. Circles are similarly placed on both
ps for the asterisms in both hemispheres^ as also for Abhijit ;
[ for the seven Bishis, Agastya, Brahma, and other stars.
360] ^^ In the middle of all these circles is placed the
inoctial. At the intersection of that and the supporting
ps, and distant from each other half the signs, the two
inoxes should be determined ; and the two solstices, at the
rees of obliquity from the equinoctial ; and the places of
Bam and the rest, in the order of the signs, should be
listed by the strings of the curve. Another circle, thus
He wrote his treatise on optics and other works about the year 1100. — Biogr,
I.
Bh&ikara flourished in the middle of the twelfth century ; being bom, as he
wlf informs us, in the S'&ka year 1036, answering to a.d. 1114. But the
fa-fiddh&nta is more ancient.
They are the colures.
308 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
passing from equinox to equinox, is named the ecliptic ; and
by this path, the sun, illuminating worlds, for ever travels.
The moon and the other planets are seen deviating from their
nodes in the ecliptic, to the extent of their respective grealesi
latitudes [within the zodiac].*"
The author proceeds to notice the relation of the great
circles before mentioned to the horizon ; and observes, that,
whatever place be assumed for the apex of the sphere, the
middle of the heavens for that place is its horizon. He
concludes by showing, that the instrument may be made to
revolve with regularity, by means of a current of water; and
hints, that the appearance of spontaneous motion may be
given, by a concealed mechanism, for which quicksilver is to be
employed. The manner of using this instrument for astronomi-
cal observations has been already explained (p. [324], etc)
More ample instructions for framing an armillary sphere
are delivered in the Siddh&nta-siromani. The passage is too
long for insertion in this place ; and I reserve it for a sepaiate
article, on account of the explanations which it requires, and
because it leads to the consideration of other topics,^ which
cannot be sufficiently discussed in the pre[351]sent essay. A
brief abstract of Bliaskara's description may here suffice. In
the centre he places a small globe to represent the earth
encompassed with circles for the orbits of the planets arranged
like the curved lines in a spider's web. On an axis passing
through the poles of the earth, and prolonged on both sides, a
sphere, or assemblage of circles, is suspended, by means of
rings or tubes adapted to the axis, so that the sphere may
move freely on it. This assemblage of circles comprises a
horizon and equator adjusted for the place, with a prime verti-
cal and meridian, and two intermediate verticals (intersecting
^ Among others, that of the precession of the equinoxes ; respecting whid
different opinions are stated hy Bh&skara. It appears, from what is said bj 1uB|
that the notion of a libration of the equinoxes has not uniTersollj preraOed
among Hindu astronomers. The correcter opinion of a rerolution of A«
equinoctial points was advanced by some authors, but has not obtained H^
general suffrage of Hindu writers on astronomy.
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODIAC.
309
the horizon at the N.E. and S. W. and N. W. and S.E. points) ;
as also the eqninoctial colore. Another circle is suspended
within this sphere on the poles of the horizon, apparently
intended to measure the altitude and amplitude of an object.
Another sphere or assemblage of circles is in like manner
suspended on the pole of the equator. It consists of both
eolores, and the equinoctial, with the ecliptic adjusted to it ;
and six circles for the planetary orbits duly adjusted to the
ecliptic : as also six diurnal circles parallel to the equinoctial,
md passing through the extremities of the several signs.
This, though not a complete description of Bh&skara's
innillaiy sphere, will convey a sufficient notion of the in-
itrament for the purpose of the present comparison ; and will
justify the remark, that its construction differs greatly from
that of the instrument specified by Ptolemy.
In the description of the armillary sphere cited from the
Sdrya-siddh&nta, mention is made of several stars not in-
dnded in the asterisms which mark the divisions of the
ediptic. The following table exhibits the positions of [352]
those, and of the few other stars which have been particularly
noticed by Hindu astronomers.
Brahma'
tiddhdnta and
stromal^.
OrahO'
Idghava.
Siddhdnta-
adrvabhauma.
Surya-
iiddhdnta.
(iamatvQ
Lat.
7rs.
Long.
8r
Lat.
76*8.
Long.
80*
Lat.
77* 16' 8.
Long.
85* 6'
Lat.
80'' 8.
Long.
90*
•■jF""'y^
r 1 '
LmUkaka, or)
the hunter /
40*8.
86*
40*8.
81*
40* 4'S.'84*36'
1
40*8.
80"
j^
—
—
8*N.
63*
8*14'N.'67*' 4'
1
8*N.
62*
jfn
Brahmahfidaya.
—
— 31° N.
66*
30*49'N.'68*36'
1
30* N.
62* »
Pnffdpaii^ or\
Br^hmd i
—
— 39* N.
61* |38*38'N.
66* 63' ! 38* N.
bV
ApdmpatM
—
—
3*N.
183*
3* N.
183*
3*N.
180*
ijMf
—
1
— 1 —
i 9*N.
180*
1 The S'&kAl7a-Miiliit4 and Tattwa-Tiveka agree with the Sdrya-siddh&nta as
to tiie pofitionf of the first four itars. They omit the other three;
310 ox THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
The Seven SishU^ according to the Sakdlifa'^mMiL
L4T.
Kratu 56^ N.
PULAHA 50" N.
PULASTYA 60" N.
Atri se'N.
Angtras 57* N.
Vasishtha 60" N.
MarIchi 60" N.
Here Agastya ia eTideutly Ganopus ; as Lnbdhaka is SirioB.
Brahmahridaya seems to be Oapella, which was shown, inder
that Indian name, to Dr. Hunter at Ujja[353]yinL Agm
may be the bright star in the northern horn of the Bull
(y3 Tauri) : Praj&pati is perhaps the star on the head of the
Waggoner (8 Aurigse). The distances of the three list
mentioned stars from the ecliptic do not exactly agree witk
the places stated : but no conspicaoos stars are foaiid nflver
to the assigned positions : and it may be remarked, that thej
are all nearly in the longitude of the nakshatra Mrigasins,
corresponding to the head of Orion ; and that the latitude
assigned to thera by Hindu astronomers is as much too smalL
as that of Mrigasiras is too great.
The star, mentioned in the Surya-siddhanta under the name
of Apas or water, is doubtless S Virginis ; and Apdmvatsa
comprises the nebulous stars in the same constellation, marked
b. 1, 2. 3.
Astronomers give rules for computing the heliacal rising
and setting of the star Agastya, on account of certain religious
ceremonies to be performed when that star appears. Var4h»-
mihira says, 'Agastya is visible at XJjjayini, when the sun is
V short of the sign Virgo.' But he afterwards adds, that
' the star becomes visible, when the sun reaches Hasta, and
disappears when the sun arrives at Rohini.' His commen-
tator remarks, that the author has here followed earlier
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODUa 311
riters ; and qnotes Parasara, saying, * When the son is in
[asta, the star rises ; and it sets when the sun is in Rohini/ ^
•hattoipala cites from the five Siddh&ntas ' a rule of com-
ntation, analogous to that which will be forthwith quoted
om the Bh&swati; and remarks, that three periods of
Lgastya^s heliacal rising [354] are observed, viz. 8th and 15th
f ^wina and 8th of £4rttika.
The Bh&swati directs the day of Agastya'^s rising for any
articular latitude to be found by the following rule. ' The
)ngth of the shadow of a gnomon ^ at a particular latitude,
n the day of the equinox, is multiplied by 25 ; and to the
irodact 900 are added ; the sum, divided by 225, gives in
igns and degrees the place of the sun, on the day when
Igastya rises or appears in the south, at the close of night.'
The commentator adds, that ^ the day of the star's setting
Day be computed by deducting the sum found as above, from
.350 ; the difference reduced to signs and degrees, is the place
f the sun, on the day when Agastya sets in the southwest.''
Lccording to these rules, Agastya in latitude 26^ 34', rises
rhen the sun is in 4' 20° and sets when the sun is in 1' 10°.
The Graha-I&ghava teaches another method of calculation.
?he length of the shadow of the gnomon is multiplied by 8,
nd the product is added to 98 for the sun's place in degrees,
n the day when Agastya rises ; or is deducted from 78, to
ind the sun^s place when that star sets. Bj this rule, the
tar should rise, in latitude 26° 34', when the sun is at the
:6th degree of the Lion, and should set when the sun quits
he Bam. Accordingly, the Bhavishya and the Brahma-
UTarta-pur&nas ordain oblations for Agastya three days
efore the sun reaches the zodiacal sign Virgo ; though the
ihabitants of the province of Gauda, as observed in the last-
lentioned purdna^ perform this ceremony three days earlier.
s Pancha-siddh&nta, a treatiie bj Yorfchanuhira.
* In daodecimal parts.
312 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABUN
In regard to the passages aboye quoted, it may remarked,
that the rule, stated in the Bh&swati, implies the distance cl
three signs, from the beginning of Aries, to [355] Agasiya,
and supposes the star to become visible when distant one ngn
from the sun. But the rule delivered in the Oraha-Ughan
places the star at the distance of 88^ from the beginning of
Mesha, and supposes it visible in the right sphere, when W
distant from the sun. According to the quotation from
Parasara, the right ascension of the star must have be^ in
his time, not less than 100° reckoned fit>m the begicmng of
Mesha ; and the star, rising cosmically, became visible in the
oblique sphere, at the distance of 60° from the sun ; and dis-
appeared setting acronychallj, when within that distance.
Making allowance, therefore, for the star's proper motion, and
change of declination and right ascension, it remains probable,
that Pardsara'^s rule was framed for the north of India, at a
period when the solstitial points were, as stated by that andior,
in the middle of Asleshd and becrinninc: of Dhanishtha.^
I have purposely reserved for separate consideration the
seven Rishis, who give name to seven stars in Ursa major;
not only because their positions are not stated by Brah-
magupta, Bh&skara, and the Surya-siddh&nta, but also because
the authors, who give their positions, ascribe to them a
particular motion, or variation of longitude, different from
other stars, and apparently unconnected with the precession of
the equinoxes.
Varihamihira has a chapter in the Vdrdhi-sanhit4 ex-
pressly on the subject of this supposed motion of the Rishis.
He begins by announcing the intention of stating their
revolution conformably with the doctrine of Vriddha Garga,
and proceeds as follows : ' When king Yudhishthira ruled the
earth, the Munis were in Magha, and the period of the era of
that king is 2526 years. They [356] remain for a hundred
years in each asterism, being connected with that particular
* As. Res., vol. ii. p. 393.
DIVISIONS OP THE ZODIAC. 313
katra, to which, when it rises in the east, the line of their
g 18 directed.'' ^
he commentator, Bhattotpala, supports the text of his
or hy quotations from Yriddha Qarga and K&syapa.
the junction of the Eali and Dw¶ ages/ says Garga,
▼irtnous sages, who delight in protecting the people,
1 at the asterism, over which the Pitns preside/ That is
[agb&. *The mighty sages,' says K&syapa, ' abide during
ndred years in each asterism, attended by the yirtuous
Eidhati.'*
le author next states the relative situation of the seven
is, with Arundhatf near her husband Yasishtha ; and the
inder of the chapter is devoted to astrology.
le revolution of the seven Rishis, and its periods, are
ed in purdnaa. The following passage is from the or!
^vata.'
Vt)m your birth (Parikshit is addressed by &uka) to the
(uration of Nanda, 1116 years will elapse.
57] *0f the seven Rishis, two are first perceived, rising
e sky ; and the asterism, which is observed to be at night
with the middle of those two stars, is that with which
tishis are united, and they remain so during a hundred
I of men. In your time, and at this moment, they are
bed in Magh&.
VTien the splendour of Vishnu, named Krishna, departed
3aven, then did the Kali age, during which men delight
Tding to a different reading noticed by the commentator, the concluding
.eh signifies *'they constantly rise in the north-east; together with
lati."
!em'8 ed. reads (p. 85) rdjnaieha for rdjyoiya.l
lok zii. c. 2.
i
314 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
in sin, invade the world. So long as he coniinaed to toacb
the earth with his holy feet, so long the Kali age was unable
to subdue the world.
'When the seven Rishis were in Maghi, the Eali ap
comprising 1200 [divine] years ^ began ; and when, from
Magh&, they shall reach Purv&sh&dha, then will this Eali age
attain its growth nnder Nanda and his successors.'*
The commentator ^ridhara-sw&mi remarks, that the oob-
stellation, consisting of seven stars, is in the form of a
wheeled carriage. Marichi, he observes, is at the extremity;
and next to him, Yasishtha in the arched part of the yoke;
and beyond him Angiras: next to whom are four stars in a
quadrangle : Atri at the north-east comer ; south of him
Pulastya ; next to whom is Pulaha ; and EIratu is north of
the last. Such being their relative position, the two stan,
which rise first, are Pulaha and Kratu ; and whidever
asterism is in a line south from the middle of those stan, is
that with which the seven Rishis are united ; and they ao
remain for 100 years.
A similar passage is found in the Vishnu-pur&na,* and a
similar exposition of it is given by the commentator Bafc-
nagarbha : but the period, there stated to elapse between the
birth of Parikshit and the inauguration of Nanda, is lOlS
years only.
[358] The Matsya-purana contains a passage to the like
effect ; but allows 1050 years from the birth of Parikshit to
the inauguration of Mahapadma ; and the seven !l^ishis are
stated as beinfj in a line with the constellation sacred to fire
(that is Krittikd), 836 years later, in the time of the Andhra
kin<rs.
In the Brahma-siddh&nta of §4kalya, denominated from its
reputed author &4kalya-sanhit&, the supposed motion of the
seven Rishis is thus noticed : ^ ' At the commencement of the
* 432,000 common yean. « Part 4, ch. xxiii. y. 82, etc
' Pra^DA 2, ch. iL
DIVISIOKS OF THE ZODIAC. 315
fuga^ Kratu was near the star sacred to Vishna (Dravaigid), at
liA beginning of the asterism. Three degrees east of him
WBB Pulaha; and Pulastya at ten degrees from this; Atri
bllowed at three d^ees from the last ; and Angiras at
Bight degrees from him ; next came Yasishtha, at the distance
of seyen degrees ; and lastly, Marichi at ten. Their motion
is eight liptdB (minntes) in a year. Their distances from the
ecliptic, north, were respectively 65% 50% 50% 66°, 57% 60%
and 60°. For, moving in the north into different positions,
the sages employ 2700 years in revolying through the assem-
blage of asterisms; and hence their positions may be easily
known at any particular time.^
Lalla, cited by Muniswara in his gloss on the ^iromani,
•ays, ^ K the number of years of the Kali age, less fourteen,
be divided by 100, the quotient, as the wise declare, shows
the aeterisms traversed by Marichi and other celestial sages,
banning from the asterism of Yiranchi (Brahmd).'*
Here Lalla is generally understood to mean Bohin{, which
is sacred to Praj&pati (or Brahm&). But Muniswara has
remarked, in another place, that Lalla may intend Abhijit,
which is sacred to Yidhi or Brahmd ; [359] and consequently
may mean Sravan&, of which Abhijit forms a part : and thus
Lalla and S&kalya may be reconciled.
Most of the commentators on the Surya-siddh&nta and
Siromani are silent on the subject of the seven Eishis. But
Npsinha, in his vdrttikd to the Y&sand-bhdshya, or gloss on
the Siromani, quotes and expounds the 8&kalya-sanhit&, and
lejects Yar&ha's rule of computation, as disagreeing with
pwrdnas. Muniswara, in his commentary on the Siromani,
citee some of the passages above noticed, and remarks, that
Bhiskara has omitted this topic on account of contradictory
opinions concerning it, and because it is of no great use.
The same author, in his own compilation entitled Siddh&nta-
i&rvabhauma, has entered more fully into this subject. He
dbserres, that the seven Rishis are not, like other stars,
316 ON THE INDIAN AND ABABIAN
attached by spikes to the solid ring of the ecliptic, bat levolye
in small circles ronnd the northern pole of the ecliptic,
moving by their own power in the ethereal sphere aboYe
Saturn, but below the sphere of the stars. He places tlw
Kishis in the same relative positions, which ^&kalya hid
assigned to them ; states in other terms the same distances
from the ecliptic, and the same annual motion ; and directs
their place to be computed by deducting 600 from the yean
of the Kali age, doubling the remainder and dividing hj
fifteen : the quotient, in degrees, is divided by 30, to reduce
it into signs. Muniswara supports this mode of calcalation
on the authority of bakalya, against Yar&hamihira and
Lalla; and affirms, that it agrees with the phenomena, as
observable at the period of his compilation. It appears, how-
ever, to be a correction of S&kalya's rule.
Eamal&kara, in the Tattwaviveka, notices the opinion d»*
livered in the Siddh&nta-sdrvabhauma ; but observes, [360]
that no such motion of the stars is perceptible. Bemarkiiig,
however, that the authority of the purdnaa and aanhMis
which affirm their revolution, is incontrovertible, he reconciles
faith and experience by saying, that the stars themselves are
fixed ; but the seven Rishis are invisible deities, who perform
the stated revolution in the period specified.
If Kamal&kara's notion be adopted, no difficulty remains:
yet it can hardly be supposed, that Yar&hamihira and Lalla
intended to describe revolutions of invisible bein<rs. If then
it be allowed, that they have attributed to the stars themseWes
an imaginary revolution grounded on an erroneous theory, a
probable inference may be thence drawn as to the period when
those authors lived, provided one position be conceded;
namely, that the rules, stated by them, gave a result not
grossly wrong at the respective periods when they wrote.
Indeed it can scarcely be supposed, that authors, who, like the
celebrated astronomers in question, were not mere compilers
and transcribers, should have exliibited rules of computation,
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODIAC. 317
irhich did not approach to the truth, at the yery period when
ihej were proposed.
If this reasoning be admitted, it would follow that Yar&ha-
mihira composed the Y4r&hi-sanhit& about 2800 years after
die period assigned by him to the commencement of the reign
)f Yudhishthira, or near the close of the third century after
the expiration of Yudhishthira's era as defined by him. For
the circle of declination passing between Kratu and Pulaha
(the two first of the seven Rishis), and cutting the ecliptic
only 2^ short of the beginning of Maghd, was the solstitial
eolure, when the equinox was near the beginning of Krittik& ;
and such probably was the reason of that line being noticed
by ancient Hindu astronomers. It agrees with the solstitial
[361] eolure on the sphere of Eudoxus, as described by
Hipparchus.^ A similar circle of declination, passing between
the same stars, intersected the ecliptic at the beginning of
Maghd when the solstitial eolure was at the middle of
KiXeahii; and a like circle passed through the next asterism,
when the equinox corresponded with the first point of Mesha.
An astronomer of that period, if he were apprised of the
position assigned to the same stars by Grarga, reputed to have
been the priest of Krishna and the P&ndus, might conclude
with Var&hamihira, that one revolution had been completed,
and that the stars had passed through one nakshatra of the
second revolution. In corroboration of this inference respect-
ing the age of Yar&hamihira's astrological treatise, it may
be added, that he is cited by name in the Panchatantra, the
> << Hipparchns tells us, that Eudoxus drew the eolure of the solstices through
the middle of the Great Bear; and the middle of Cancer; and the neck of Hydrus;
md the star between the poop and mast of Argo ; and the tail of the South Fish ;
md through the middle of Capricorn, and of Sagitta ; and through the neck and
right wing of the Swan ; and the left hand of Cepheus ; and that he drew the
equinoctial eolure through the left hand of Arctophylax ; and along the middle of
bis body ; and cross the middle of Chela) ; and through the right hand and fore-
knee of the Centaur ; and through the flexure of Eridanus and head of Cetus ;
md the back of Aries across, and through the head and right hand of Perseus.*'
Sir I. Newton's Chronology^ § 29. Hipparch. ad FhcMom. in Petayii Uranologia,
pp. 207, 208. Bailly, Mir, Ane, p. 606. Costard, p. 136.
318 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
origiDal of the fables of Pilpay, which were tnuidated for
Nushirv&n more than 1200 years ago.^
The theory being wholly unfounded, Yar&hamihira's role
of computation soon ceased to agree with the phenomena, and
other rules have been successively introduced by differart
authors, as Lalla, ^kalya, and lastly, [362] Muniiwan;
whose rule, devised less than two hundred years ago, does not
yet grossly betray its insufficiency.
This pretended revolution of the stars of Ursa Major is
connected with two remarkable epochas in Indian chronologjr;
the commencement of the Kali ynga or sinful age, in th«
reign of Yudhishthira ; and its prevalence, on the fiulore of
the succession of Kshatriya princes, and establishment of i
different dynasty, 1015 years after the birth of Pariksbit,
according to the Yishnu-pur&na ; or 1115 years, acoordiog
to the Uh&gavata; but 1498 years, if a correction, wfaieh
has been proposed by Sridhara-sw&mi and some other com-
mentators, be admitted. This subject has been already notieed
by Capt. Wilford in his Essay on Yikram&ditya;* and it is,
therefore, unnecessary to enlarge upon it in this place.
It has been noticed, towards the beginning of the present
essay, that the principal star of each nakshatra is denominated
Yogatara. Perhaps it may not be superfluous to caution the
reader against confounding these yoga stars with the yoga»y of
which a list is inserted in Sir William Jones's Treatise on
the Indian Zodiac.^ They are mentioned by him as divisions
of the ecliptic: but it will presently appear, that they cannot
in strictness be so denominated. Their principal purpose
regards astrology ; but they are also employed in regulating
certain movable feasts ; and they are of such frequent nae
that every Indian almanac contains a column specifying the
yoga for each day, with the hour of its termination.
^ Prefaco to the Sanskrit wlition of the Hitopadeda^ p. xi. [page 153 of the
prc'sent vohiine.]
* As. Res., vol. ix. p. 117, etc. ' As. Bes., toL ii. p. 302,
DIVISIONS OP THE ZODIAC. 319
The y0^a is nothing else than a mode of indicating the
im of the longitudes of the snn and moon. The rule for its
imputation, as giren in the Sdrya-siddh&nta, Bh&swati, and
laha-l&ghava, directs that the longitude of the [363] sun be
Ided to the longitude of the moon ; and the sum, reduced to
inntes, is to be divided bj 800 (the number of minutes in
f 20') : the quotient exhibits the elapsed yogas^ counted
om Vishkumbha.^ It is obvious, therefore, that the yogas
•e twenty-seven divisions of 360® of a great circle, measured
[K>n the ecliptic. But, if they be represented on a circle, it
list be a movable one in the plane of the ecliptic.
Astrologers also reckon twenty-eight yogaa^ which corre-
K>nd to the twenty-eight nakshatras or divisions of the moon's
kih; varying, however, according to the day of the week.
8 the Indian almanacs sometimes appropriate a column to
16 moon's yoga for each day, I shall insert in a note a list of
tese yogas^ with the rule by which they are determined.*
* 1. Yishkambha. 2. Priti. 3. AjiiBhmat. 4. Saubh&gya. 6. S'obhtna.
Atiga^da. 7. Sukarmaa. 8. Dhfiti. 9. S'iila. 10. Gai^da. 11. Vriddhi.
. Dhruva. 13. Vyftgh^ta. 14. Hanbana. 15. Yajra. 16. Siddhi. 17.
rutip&ta. 18. Yarlyas. 19. Parigba. 20. Siva. 21. Siddba. 22. S&dhya.
. S'ubba. 24. S'ukla. 25. Brabmaa. 26. Aindra. 27. Yaidbriti.
* 1. Ananda. 2. E&ladai^da. 3.' Dbfimra. 4. Praj&pati. 5. Saamja. 6.
kw&nksba. 7. Dbwaja. 8. S'rivatsa. 9. Vi^ra. 10. Mudgara. 11. Cbhatra.
L liaitra. 13. M&nasa. 14. Padma. 15. Lambuka. 16. Utp&ta. 17.
ritjriL 18. E&^a. 19. Siddbi. 20. S'ubba. 21. Amrita. 22. Musula. 23.
Ida. 24. M&tanga. 25. B&ksbasa. 26. Cbara. 27. Stbira. 28. Pravardba.
The foregoing list is extracted from tbe Ratnam&l& of S'ripati. He adds the
le by wbicb tbe yoga» are regulated. On a Sunday tbe nakshatras answer to
B yoga*, in tbcir natural order ; viz. Aiwini to Ananda, Bharapl to E&ladai^i^
i. But on a Monday tbe first yoga (Ananda) corresponds to Mfiga^iras, tbe
xmd to Ardr&, and so fortb« On a Tuesday, tbe nakshatra^ wbicb answers to
9 first yogay is A^esbfr ; on Wednesday, Hasta ; on Thursday, Anur&dha ; on
iday, XJttar&sh&4ba ; and on Saturday, S'atabhish&.*
Almanacs usually contain another set of astrological divisions of the lunar
» [The regulation of the yogai eyidently depends on the rule which is given at the close of
i emMj on weights and measures for the planetary regulation of the hours and days of the
«ic. If AaTwinl correspond with A'nandEi, or the first ghurri of Sunday, and the list be
tried through the sixty ghurri* of the day, the list of twenty-eight mansions will hare
en gone through twice, and the four first on the list three times. Mrigas'iras is the fifth
msion, and thus becomes regent of the first ghurri of Monday. It is* by a similar process
at the namen of the days of the week in modem usage are determined. See Dion Cassius.
Sui E. T. C.j
320 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
[364] Another topic relative to the zodiac, and connected
with astrology, remains to be noticed. I allade to the Diesh-
k&nas answering to the Decani of European astrologers. Tbe
Hindus, like the Egyptians and Babylonians, from whom thai
vain science passed to the Greeks and Romans, divide each
sign into three parts, and allot to every such part a regent
exercising planetary influence under the particular planet
whom he there represents.
The description of the thirty-six dreshkdnaa is given to-
wards the close of Yar&hamihira's treatise on the casting
of nativities, entitled Vrihat-j&taka. It is here translated
conformably with the gloss of Bhattotpala: omitting, how-
ever, some variations in the reading of the text, which are
noticed by him ; but which can be of no use, unless occasion
should arise for reference to them in comparing the description
of the dreshkdnaa with some amulet or ancient monument in
which the Decani may be supposed to be figured. Even for
that purpose the following description will probably suffice,
c 1. [Mars] A man with red eyes, girt round the waist [365]
with a white cloth, of a black complexion, as formidable as
able to protect, holds a raised battle-axe.
2. [The Sun] A female, clad in red apparel, with her
mind fixed on wearing ornaments, having a mare's head, and
month, wliich it may be proper to explain. They are denominated Earai^a; and
consist of seven variable and four invariable, as in the subjoined list :
Variable Karanas. Invariable Karanas.
1. Bava. 1. S'akuni.
2. B&lava. 2. Chatushp&d.
3. Kaulava. 3. N&ga.
4. Taitila. 4. Kintughna.
6. Gara.
6. Vanij.
7. Vishti.
They answer successively to half a tithi or lunar day ; Kintughna being alwijs
assigned to the first half of the first tithi; and the variable karana* gftenrutii
Bucc(;eding each other regularly, through eight repetitions : they are followed by
the three remaining invariable karanas^ which conclude the month ; Chatushp&d
and N^a appertiiining to Amav&sy& or the new moon, and S'akuni being •?•
propriatcd to the latter half of the preceding tithi.
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODIAC. 321
i bdly like a jar, thirsty and resting on one foot, is exhibited
l)j Yavana as the figure of the dreahkdna in the middle of
Mttha.'
& [JuprrsB] A fierce and wrathful man, conyersant with
fii, of a tawny complexion, solicitous of action, but unsteady
B his resolves ; holds in his hands a raised stick, and wears
od dothes. He is the third in the tripartite division of
(esha.
4. [YsNUs] A woman with hair clipped and curled, a body
mped like a jar, her clothes burnt, herself thirsty, disposed
eat, and fond of ornaments : such is the figure of the first
Vfishabha.
5. [Mercubt] a man with the head of a goat, and a
colder like a bull, clothed in dirty apparel, skilful in regard
the plough and the cart, acquainted with field, grain, house,
L kine, conversant with arts ; and in disposition voracious.
}. [Satubn] a man with a body vast as an elephants,
1 feet great as a Sarabha'^s,' with white teeth and a tawny
Ij, his mind busied upon the wool of wild sheep, occupies
» extremity of the sign Taurus.
r. [Mercuby] Such as are conversant with the subject
;lare the first in the tripartite partition of the third sign
be a woman fond of working with the needle, beautiful,
ighting in ornaments, childless, amorous, and with her
ns elevated.
[366] 8. [Venus] In the middle of the sign Gemini is a
n, with the face of a garuda^ standing in a grove ; he is an
her clad in armour, and holds a bow; he meditates on
*rt, his children, ornaments, and wealth.
)• [Saturn] At the end of the sign Gemini is a man
orated with ornaments, having as many gems as the ocean
** Muhamadhye drethkdnaritpam yavanopadish^am" Bhaftotpala ezpoundB
*' declared by Tavan&ch&rya/' *' Yavandehdryaih kathitam**
A monster with eight legs, who destroys elephants.
An eagle, or else a gigantic crane. Perhaps a yultore.
TOL. m. [B88AT8 II.] 21
322 ON THE INDIAN AND ARABIAN
contains ; clad in armour and furnished with bow and qai?er;
skilled in dance, music, and song, and practising poetry.
10. [The Moon] The wise declare the first in Cancer to be
an animal with the body of an elephant, the feet of a Sarabb)
a boar's head and horse's neck, standing in a groye andera
sandal-wood tree,^ and upholding leaves, root, and fruit.
11. [Mabs] In the middle of the sign Cancer, a woman, in
prime of youth, with blossoms of lotus on her head, attended
by a serpent, cries while standing in a forest, resting against
the branch of Bkpaldia^ tree.
12. [Jupiter] Last in Cancer is a man with his head in*
dined; he is decorated with golden ornaments, and, embarking
on a vessel and encompassed by serpents [twined round him],
he traverses the ocean to seek ornaments for his wife.
13. [The Sun] A vulture and shakal stand on a cotton
tree:' a dog is near: and a man, in a squalid dress, laments
for his father and mother. This representation is pronoonoed
to be the first of the Lion.
14. [Jupiter] A man formed like a horse, bearing on his
head a garland of yellowish-white flowers, wears a leather
dress : unconquered like a lion ; armed with a bow, and
[367] distinguished by a hooked nose ; he is placed in the
middle of Leo.
15. [Mars] The third in the tripartite division of Leo is a
man having the head of a bear, with a long beard and curled
hair ; in disposition similar to an ape ; and holding a staff,
fruits, and flesh.
16. [Mercury] A damsel, bearing ajar filled with blossoms,
(her person clothed in apparel soiled with dirt,) solicitous for
the union of dress with opulence, is going towards the femily
of her spiritual parent : such is the first of Virgo.
17. [Saturn] A man of a dark complexion, with a cloth
on his head, holds a pen, and is casting up accounts of receipts
^ Santalum album sive Sirittm myrtifolium.
' Butea frondoea, ' Bombax keptaphyUum,
DIVISIONS OP THE ZODIAC. 323
ad disbursements : he bears a large bow, smd his body is
>yered with hair : he is placed in the middle of the sign.
18. [Ybnus] a woman of a fair complexion, dressed in
leached silk, tall, holding in her hand a jar and ladle ; is
evontly going, towards a temple of the gods. The wise pro-
oance this to be the last of Yirgo.
19. [Yentts] a man is proceeding along the middle of a
lighway ; holding a balance, and having weights in his hand ;
le is skilled in measuring and meting, and meditates on com-
Dodities and their prices. The Yayanas declare this form to
)e the first of Libra.^
20. [Saturn] A man with the head of a vulture, carrying
i water-pot, is anxious to proceed, being hungry and thirsty ;
n thonght he visits his wife and son« He is middlemost of
he balance-bearer (Libra).
[3683 21. [Mercury] A man, in figure like an ape, adorned
rith gems, bearing a golden quiver and armour, and carrying
raits and flesh, is scaring deer in a forest : such is the figure
xhibited by the Yavanas.'
22. [Mars] A woman, without clotlies or ornaments, comes
rom the great ocean to the shore; she has fallen from her
>lace; round her feet are serpents entwined ; but she is pleasing :
inch is the first of the sign Scorpio.
23. [Jupiter] A woman, with a body like a tortoise and a
lar, and with serpents entwined round her person ; is solicitous
to prepare local comforts for her husband. This figure the
wise pronounce to be the middle one of Scorpio.
24. [The Moon] The last of the Scorpion is a lion with a
large and stooping head, resembling that of a tortoise ; he
iroards the place where sandal-wood grows, terrifying dogs,
leer, boars, and shakals.
> ** Tadritpam vadanti Tavandh prathamam tuldi/dh" This might signify
■ TaTant declares," for the plural is used in Sanskrit respectfully, and Bhattot-
Mila has before expounded Tavana as intending Tavan&ch&rya ; but a different
Explanation occurs a little lowen
* '* Tavanair uddhritah,** which Bhat^otpala expounds *^ declared hj the
andent TaTanas/* ^^ purdtjayovatiaih**
324 ON THE INDIAN AND ABABIAN
ft
25. [Jupiter] An animal with the body of a horse ud
head of a man, holding a large bow, stands near a hermitage
and devoutly guards the implements of sacrifice : such is the
first of the three divisions of the bow (Sagittarius).
26. [Mars] A pleasing female, of golden complexion, like
the champaka,^ moderately handsome, sits on a throne, dis-
tributing marine gems. This is described as the middle
division of the bow.
27. [The Sun] A man with a long beard, of a complexion
yellow like the champaka^ is sitting on a throne with a staff
iu his hand ; he wears silk raiment and a deer's skin : saeh
is the third figure of the ninth sign.
28. [Saturn] A man, of a terrible aspect, with the [369]
body of a hog, hairy, having tusks like a Makara,' holds a
yoke, a net, and fetters. He is first of Capricorn.
29. [Venus] In the middle of Makara is a woman skilled
in music, with eyes large like the petals of the lotus, and inth
a dark complexion. She seeks various things; she is decorated
with jewels ; and wears metallic ornaments in her ears.
30. [Mercury] A man, shaped like a Kinnara,' clothed in
a woollen cloth, and furnished with quiver, bow, and armour,
bears on his shoulder a jar adorned with gems : he is last
of the sign Makara.
31. [Tlie Sun] Tlie first of the jar (Aquarius) is a man
with the head of a vulture, clothed in silk and wearing an
antelope's hide with a woollen cloth : his mind is busied in
obtaining oil, ardent spirits, water, and food.
32. [Mercury] In a burnt carriage, a woman clad in soiled
apparel, bearing vessels on her head, is collecting metals in a
forest containing cotton trees.
33. [Venus] A man of a dark complexion, with hairy ears,
adorned with a diadem, carries and transports vases with
^ Michelia Chatnpaca.
' A sea monster. Perhaps the Narwhal may be intended.
^ A human figure with the head of a horse.
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODUC. 325
irtides of metal, and with bark, leaves, gum, and fruit. He
B last of Kumbha.
34. [Jupitbb] The first of the fish (Pisces) navigates tlie
tea in search of ornaments for his wife ; he has jewels, and
118 hands are full of vessels used in sacrifice, together with
Maria, gems, and shells.
36» [The Moon] A woman, surpassing in complexion the
ilosflora of the champaka^ ascends a ship with lofty masts and
Bags, and approaches the shore of the sea, accompanied by
her retinue. This is declared by sages to be the second in
die tripartite division of Mina.
[370] 36. [MiiRs] Near a cavern, in a forest, a naked man,
irith serpents entwined round his body, and tormented by
robbers and fire, laments. He is the last of the fish.
Arabian astronomers in like mamier divide each sign of the
»diac into three parts, denominated Wajh (^^), or in the
>liural "yjTujdh (^[^j), which severally belong to the different
ilanets^ thence called Babb ul wajh. The proper import of the
erm (J^j) is &ce or countenance ; agreeing with the Greek
rpoa-amop, which is similarly employed in this acceptation.^
The near correspondence of the dreshkdnas with the Decani
if Soman authors and AeKouoX of Grecian writers will be
svident from the following passage of Manilius, supported
by quotations firom other authors, which I shall insert on the
laith of Saumaise ; ' the original works from which they are
taken not being here procurable.
Manilius says : ^
Quam partem decimam dlzere Decania gentes ;
A numero nomen positum est, quod partibus astra
Condita tricenis propria sub sorte feruntur,
Et tribuunt denas in se coeuntibus astris,
Inque vicem terris habitantur sidera Siguis.
1 In the following order, beginning fh>m Aries, viz. Mars, the Son, Yenua,
If ercory, tibe Moon, Satam, Jupiter, Mars, the Snn, etc. — IkhwdnuH Safd,
* Firmici Mathe$is aeu Astron,, Tide infr^
* Salmani Pliniana JSx^reitationet, p. 460, etc.
* lib. It., 298-302.
326 OK THE INDIAN AND AEABIAN
Hephsestion expressly declares,^ that '^ each sign of the
zodiac is divided into three Decani comprising ten [371]
degrees each; the first division of Aries is named Chontare;
the second Ghontachre ; and the third Sicet."
Finnicus diflfers in the names, and does not atlow ten eom^
plete degrees to each Decanos. Thus, in the sign Aries, the
three first degrees are, according to him, unappropriated;
the five next belong to the first Decanus Asitan ; the next
nine are vacant ; and the four following appertain to the
second Decanus Senacher ; five degrees are again unocca[Ae(i;
and the four last belong to the third Decanus Sentacher.*
We learn from Psellus' that the several Decani nm
figured with difi*erent attributes and dresses ; and from Demo-
philus and Finnicus^ that they represent the planets. The
first appertained to Mars ; the second to the Sun ; and the
third to Venus (the Hindu author says, Jupiter).
This astrological notion was confessedly received from
foreign nations. The doctrine seems to be ascribed by
Firmicus to Nekepso, king of Egypt ; * and Psellus cites a
Babylonian author, whom he calls Teucer, and who is also
noticed by Porphyrius ; besides, the names of [372] the Decani,
stated by Hephsestion and Firmicus, are decidedly barbarous.
It was not, therefore, without reason, that Saumaise and
Kircher sought a derivation of the word Decanus itself from
a foreifi^n language. It cannot be deduced, as Scaliger pro-
poses, from the similar term for an inferior officer commanding
' Kal ivrly 6 fihv wpan-os xoi^op^i ^ ^^ BtvTtpos x^vraxp^^ ^ rplros auch.
' Salraasii, Flin. Exere.j p. 460.
^ EiVi yap iy iKdartf rSov (taHioty rptis Kcerti\tyfi4yoi AfKoyoi iroiKiK&fUip^ ^
"TO. (Txhy^a.ra HojcrvKlatv 4yy\^€is crtptMyais, i,irorp6iraia Ztamv ^KurfiarroL ravra
^ihy olv 6 TtvKpos Kol ol kcbt* iKuvv "wtpirroX rbi fitr^o^pa.
* ** Primum irp6awroy est is planeta cujus signum est : secundum vpiwtof
planeta sequens, et sic deinceps. Aries est Martis primum wpSavwow^ secunduiu
Soils, tertium Veneris, juxta seriem errantium." This agrees predselj with the
Arabian ^^^ .
* Sic et Nekepso, ^gypti justissimus imperator, et astrologus ralde bonus,
per ipsos Decanos omnia vitia valetudinesque collegit, ostendens quam Taletodioem
quia Decanus efficeret, etc.
DIVISIONS OF THE ZODUC. 327
ten men ;^ since this office and its designation were first
introdaced later than the time of Manilius, by whom the
astrological term is employed ; and Porphyrins expressly
affirms that the word was used by those whom he denominates
^ ancients/' Hnet, not concurring in either of the opinions
above mentioned, supposes the term to have been corruptly
formed by the astrologers of Alexandria from the Greek
nmneral with a Latin termination.' If this be admitted, it
still remains not improbable that some affinity of sound, in
the Egyptian or in the Ghaldaic name, may have suggested the
fermation of this corrupt word.
The Sanskrit name apparently comes from the same source.
1 do not suppose it to be originally Sanskrit, since in that
language it bears no etymological signification. For the same
reason, it is likely that the astrological doctrine itself may be
exotic in India. One branch of divination, entitled T&jaka,
liaa been confessedly borrowed from the Arabians; and the
technical terms used in it are, as I am informed by Hindu
astrologers, Arabic. The casting of nativities, though its
practice is of more ancient date in India, may also have been
received firom Western astrologers : Egyptians, Chaldeans, or
even Greeks. If so, it is likely that the Hindus may have
received astronomical hints at the same time.
[373] By their own acknowledgment,^ they have cultivated
astronomy for the sake of astrology ; and they may have
done so with the aid of hints received from the same quarter,
from which their astrology is derived. In the present instance
Tar&hamihira himself, as interpreted by his commentator,
quotes the Yavanas (meaning perhaps Grecian authors), in a
^ Erant Decani denif militibas propositi. Veget. 2. 8.
' Ofh rufos iKd\t<ray 99Kayohs ol vaXatol.
* Huetii Animadvtrnontt ad Manilium, lib. iv. t. 298.
* Bh&skara expressly says, <* By ancient astronomers, the purpose of the
Science is declared to be judicial astrology ; and that, indeed, depends on the
influence of configurations ; and these, on tiie apparent places of the planets/* —
e^dhpdya, 1. T. 6. [Vide Note 0. to the Dissertation on ths Algebra of the
•^imduSf where this question is ftirther investigated.]
328 INDIAN AND AEABIAN DIVISI0K8 OF THE ZODIAC.
manner which indicates, that the description of the dreshkanu
IB borrowed from them.
The name of Yavan&ch&rya, who is cited by Bhattotptia,
would not be alone decisive. He is frequently qnoted by
Hindu astronomers : and it is possible, though by no means
certain, that, under this name, a Grecian or an Arabian author
may be intended. To determine that point, it will be reqoiaito
(unless the work attributed to him be recovered) to colleei tB
the passages, in which Yavan&ch&rya is cited by Sanskrit
authors ; and to compare the doctrines ascribed to him with
those of the Grecian and Arabian writers on astronomy. Not
being prepared for such a disquisition, I shall dismiss this
subject for the present, without offering any positive epinion
on the question, which has been here proposed.
329
XV.
OK THE NOTION OF THE HINDU ASTRONOMERS
CONCERNING THE PRECESSION OF THE EQUI-
NOXES AND MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS.
[From the Anatie Eed&arehes, vol. zii. pp. 209 — 250.
Caleuttaf 1816. 4to.]
[374] In an essay on the Indian and Arabian divisions of
bhe Zodiac, inserted in the ninth volume of the Asiatic Re*
%earehe$y I adverted to a passage of Bh&skara, on the pre-
Dession of the equinoxes, and intimated an intention of further
noticing this subject in a separate essay .^ The passage which
I had then in view, occurs in Bh&skara's description of the
anniUarjr sphere.* It appears to me deserving of distinct
examination for the information which it contains, the diffi-
culties which it presents, and the variety of topics which it
suggests. I shall here quote the original, and add a verbal
translation.
*The intersection of the ecliptic and equinoctial circles is
^ At. Bee. toI. iz. p. 853 (p. [350] of tbe present yolume.)
* Gol&dhy&ya, c. 6. t. 17 and 18.
330 HINDU ASTRONOMERS
the Kr&ntip&ta, or intersecting point of the 8im''s path. [375]
Its revolutions, as declared on the authority of Suiya (Sanrok-
t&h), are retrograde three myriads in a kaipa. This is the same
with the motion of the solstice, as aflirmed by Munj&Ia, and
others. But, according to their doctrine, its reyolutions an
199,669 in tkkalpa.'
This is the very passage to which the commentator on the
Surya-siddh&nta, cited by Mr. Davis,^ alludes, where he aajB,
^ the meaning of Bh&skara-&ch&rya was not that Surya [in
the Surya-siddh&nta] gave 30,000 as the revolutions of the
places of the colures, in a kai^ ; the name he used being
Saura, not Surya, and applied to some other book/
It is certainly true, as here observed by this commentator,
that Bh&skara's quotation does not agree with the text of the
Sur}^a-siddh4nta, which expresses, * The circle of the asteriems
moves eastward thirty scores in a yuga. Multiplying the
number of elapsed days by that, and dividing by the terrestrial
days, [which compose the cycle], the quantity obtained is an
arc, which, multiplied by three, and divided by ten,* gires
degrees {atiia) termed ay ana [or the place of the colure].'
Here the number of revolutions is 600 in a yuga^ answering
to 600,000 in a kalpa ; and not, as stated by Bh&skara,
30,000. But the commentator's mode of reconciling the con-
tradiction, by supposing a different book from the Surya-
siddhdnta to have been intended, is incom [376]patible with
Bhaskara's own explanation of his text in the Ydsand-bh&shja,
containing annotations by himself on his own treatise^ He
there says in express words, * the revolutions of the intersecting
1 As. Res. Tol. ii. p. 267. ' Ratio of 2r to 90".
ON THE EQUINOXES. 331
point of the 8im''8 path are stated in the Surya-siddh&nta as
amounting to 30,000 in a kalpaJ ^
His commentator, Maniswara, has therefore recourse to
other expedients for reconciling the contradiction between
Bh&skara's quotation and the text of the Surya-siddh&nta*
Some, he observes, have proposed to read niyuta ^ a hundred
thousand,' for ayuta ^ a myriad.' ' Others have supposed the
hilpa to be a twentieth part only of the period usually so
denominated. The commentator further suggests the re-
solution of the term vyastdh^ translated 'retrograde,' into vi
fer viniati Hwenty,"* and astdh which he makes to signify
* multiplied/ and expounds the phrase, 'thirty thousand mul-
tiplied by twenty.^ But, dissatisfied with this and with
toother exposition, by which trayam ' three ' is construed into
sixty,' he gives the [377] preference to an equally strained
nterpretation, which divides the sentence into two members :
its revolutions are declared by Surya, and [according to a
lifferent authority] are retrograde three myriads in a kalpa^
However unsatis&ctory these explanations of the text may
>e, they prove the concurrence of the commentators of both
srorks, in the received interpretation of the obscure passage of
the Surya-siddh&nta, which is the subject of their discussion.
That interpretation is supported by corresponding passages of
the Soma-siddh&nta, Laghu-vasishtha, and i§&kalya-sanhit&, in
which the number of six hundred revolutions is explicitly
' Bh&8lcara'4 Y&Ban&-bh&Bb7a on the astronomy and spherics of his Siddh&nta-
^iioma^L This Yolame of annotations is commented, with the S'iroma^i, by
Kpnoha in the y&Ban&-T6rttika, as proceeding from the same writer ; and is
ttpreasly acknowledged to be a work of the author of the text (as it actually
pQiports) by the scholiast Mnnibwara, in this yery place, where he is endeayouring
to sapport bis own interpretation of the text, against the apparent and natural
aenae of a passage in the anthor's notes.
^ He alludes either to the y&san&-y&rttika, in which that emendation of the
tet if actually suggested by the annotator Nfisinha, or to some earlier com-
mentary in which Uie same conjectural emendation may have been originally
Pxvpoeed.
332 HINDU ASTR0N0MEK8
stated : ^ as well as by other qaotations, which clearly demon-
strate that a libration of the equinoxes, at the rate of six
hundred in a yuga^ was there meant. For, in all the passages
quoted, the revolution, as it is termed, of the equinoctial
points, consists in a libration of them within the limits of
twenty-seven degrees east, and as many vrest, of the be-
ginnings of Aries and Libra : and that such is the meaning
conveyed in the text of the Surya-siddh&nta, is distinedy
shown by the [378] commentator cited by Mr. Davis,* as wdl
as by the other commentators on that work.
The same doctrine is taught in the P&r&sara-siddh&nta, as
quoted by Muniswara ; and, if we may rely on the authority
of a quotation by this author from the works of Xiyabhatta,
it was also maintained by that ancient astronomer; bat,
according to the first-mentioned treatise, the number of libn-
tions amounts to 581,709. and according to the latter, 578,159
in a kalpa^ instead of 600,000 ; and Aryabhatta has stated the
limits of the libration at 24^ instead of 27^.'
Bhfakara himself, adopting the doctrine for which he quotes
the authority of Munjfila, in the passage above cited, mentions
a complete revolution of the places of the colures throu<rh the
U III IT T TI
twelve signs of the zodiac, at the rate of 69 54 2 31 12 per
annum, or 199,669 complete revolutions in a kalpa. Having
computed, upon the same principle, the quantity of the pre-
Soma-iiddhdnta^
STdkalym-^tmhitd, L 2S6-291.
Laghu-fMtUhiKa-nddMnUt
cited by D&d&bh&i' and Niinnha on the Sitrya^nddhdnta.
' As. Ret., Tol. ii. p. 267. The commentator is Nfisinha.
A'ryabhatta, in the A'ry&sh^s'ata ; quoted by Muniswara. It is espedallj vtff^
ON THE EQUINOXES. 333
nt. ■ o X XI III nil T Tx
cession in his own time at 91,189 0 10 54 35 23 55 40 48,
lie thence, for the sake of facility in calculation, assumes
in his. practical treatise, named Karana-kutfihala, the actual
precession in whole numbers at eleven degrees, and allows the
annual motion to be taken at one minute.^ The time for
which this [379] computation was made is the same with
the epocha of the Karana-kutuhala ; ' which is the year
1105 §&ka,' thirty-three years after the Siromani was com-
pleted.^
Bh6skara*s authority, supporting that of Munj&la, and
eountenanced by Vishnuchandra's,^ has not availed with
Indian astronomers. Even his commentator Muniswara re-
jects the notion of a complete revolution; and, in his own
treatise, entitled Siddh&nta-s&rvabhauma, asserts the doctrine
of libration, and attempts to refute the other opinion, not
indeed by argument, but in deference to the Surya-siddh&nta,
md other authorities to which it is opposed. Upon the same
ground, KamaUkara, in the Siddh&uta-tattwaviveka, says, 'The
mj to diftiiig^h the particolar work of this author, to which reference is made :
§K Biahmagapta reproaches him for his inconsistency in affirming rerolntions of
^ nodes in the Ary&shtaiata, which he denied in the Da^a-gitaka. It is there-
fore probahle that the lihration of the equinoxes (considered as nodes), for which
the first-mentioned work is quoted, may not be stated in the other.
1 Munf^wara, in his commentary on the S'iromai^.
* The Graha-lfighara, written in 1442 S'&ka, deducts 444 from the expired
years of the S'&ka, and divides by sixty, reckoning the precession at a minute a
year. This agrees nearly with the Eara^a-kutQhala ; for, if the same number
(444) be deducted from the years expired (1105 S'&ka), the remainder gives but
006 minute above 1 1% the quantity there assumed by Bh&skara.
R&machandra, who in the E&la-nir^ya states the quantity of precession as
amounting to IT, and reckons the precession at a minute of a degree a year,
seems alM to have followed the same authority. Ue may therefore have
Written about sixty years subsequent to the date of the Kara^a-kuttihala ; or
8'fcka 1165. This ascertainment of the age of K&machandra-&ch&rya is a step
towards investigating the age of writers in other branches of science who have
quoted this author, or who are cited by him. They are numerous.
' Faizf, in his translation of Bhkskara's Lil&vati.
* For it was finished when the author was thirty-six years of age ; and he was
horn in 1086 S'&ka : as he informs us.
* Author of the Yasishtha-siddh&nta, a distinct work from the Laghu-vasishtha
dted by Diui&bh&i, and (under the title of Yasishtha-siddh&nta) by Npsinha.
334 HIKDn ASTRONOMERS
degrees of the colares, as stated by Manj&la, and taught in
the Siroroani, contrary to what is declared by Arka (Surya)
and others, firom not rightly understanding what was by them
declared, [380] must be rejected by the wise.' He certablj
here expresses the prevalent opinion of the Hindu astronomen,
which is decidedly in &your of a libration of the places of the
colures.
Besides Munj&la mentioned by Bh&skara, the only other
ancient author, whose name I find quoted for a ooiD|Jete
revolution of the equinoctial and solstitial points, is Vishj^o-
chandra, from whose works a passage is cited by Prithudak*-
sw&mi, declaratory of a solstitial f/ugOy or period of the aifom.
The text is corrupt in respect of the lowest digits of the
number ; and, having found no other quotation of it, I shaD
not attempt to state the period firom a conjectural emendation
of this passage.
It is necessary to observe that some of the ancient writers
on astronomy have not admitted a periodical motion of the
equinoxes. This is adverted to by Bh&skara himself,^ who
instances Brahmagupta. The reason of that omission or denial
is supposed by Bh&skara' to have been the inconsiderable
quantity of the deviation or precession, not then remarkable,
and coDsequcntly unheeded by Brahmagupta; since whoee
time it is become sensible, and therefore it is now takeu into
account.^ Bhaskara next inquires 'why Brahmagupta and
the rest did not [381] nevertheless state it on the strength
of authority, since it had been declared in the Saura-siddh4nta;
* In the VdsanfiL-bhkshyft. ' Ibid.
' 7T?s|r^ i!|«lf!Hir<fHf^]J^Tft 'ftTi i:fiT %n: W^ ^''WT-
* AVhy has it not been stated by Brahma^pta and other skilfiil astrononMnf
It was not perceived by themf because it was then inconsiderable. But it ■
perceived by the moderns, because it is now considerable. Accordingly it is c«h
eluded that there is motion [of the solstice].' Bh&skara in the y&sao&-bhi^J>'
ON THB EQUINOXES, 335
in like manner as the numbers of reyolutions, the periphery of
epicycles, etc/*
He replies, *In mathematical science holy tradition is
mihority so &r only as it agrees with demonstration.' He
goes on to say, *Such motion as results from the assigned
revolutions, by which places being calculated agree with those
which are observed, must be admitted, whether taught by a
holy sage or by a temporal teacher. If then the same places
•ire deducible from other revolutions, which of the assigned
motions is the true one P The answer is, whichever agrees
with present observation must be admitted. But if in process
of time the difference become great, then men of genius, like
Brahmagupta, will arise, who will acknowledge such motions
18 agree with present observation, and compose books (idstras)
ionfbrmable thereto. Accordingly, this mathematical science
iias no end in eternal time.'
But Brahmagupta^s commentator, expounding a passage of
this author,' which he considers to be levelled againist those
nrho affirmed a periodical revolution of the solstitial points,
Kod which does deny such a revolution, and declares the
lolstice to be invariable, because the longest day and shortest
night occur constantly at the end of Mithuna or Gemini,
idverts, in the course of his exposition of the text, to passages
which place the southera and northern solstice respectively
in the middle of ^leshd and beginning of Dhanishthd, and
proceeds to remark, ' This [382] only proves a shifting of the
solstice, not numerous revolutions of it through the ecliptic/
His notion appears, then, to have been, that his author was
aware of the fact of a change in the positions of the solstitial
and equinoctial points, but did not admit the inference that
the motion must be periodical.
•CLii.
336 HINDU ASTR0N0MEB8
From all that lias been said, it appears that some of
most celebrated astronomers, as Brahmagupta, hare been
silent on the subject of a change in the places of the cohirei,
or have denied their regukr periodical motion. That othen,
as Munj&la and Bh&skara (we may add Yiahii^achaDdn),
have asserted a periodical revolution of the places of the
colures. But that the greater number of celebrated writon^
and all the modem Hindu astronomerSi have affirmed t
libration of the equinoctial points.
The earliest known author who is cited for the support of
this doctrine, as far as present research has gone, is Aipt'
bliatta, who is undoubtedly more ancient than Brahmagupts;
for he is repeatedly quoted in the Brahma-sphuta-siddhiiiti,
which is ascribed to Brahmagupta, and which there is ereij
reason to consider genuine, since the text of the book aeeordi
with the quotations from that celebrated astronomer to be
found in treatises of various dates.
I purposely omit in this place the Sdrya-siddhinta^ Somft,
»^&kalya9 Yasishtha, and P&r&sara, because their aathentidtf
and age are subjects of question or of controversy.
llelying then upon the quotation from the work of Arya-
bhatta, and on the tendency of Bh&skara's observations, both
in his text and notes, it may be inferred, that the notion of a
libnitiou of the equinoxes is of some antiquity in India; once
Brahmagupta, by whom Aryabhatta is repeatedly mentioned,
is either author or [383] republisher of an astronomical
system which was copied by Bhaskara in 1160 a.d., but which
is adapted to a much earlier age.
The doctrine in question found advocates formerly among
the astronomers of Europe and of Arabia. Arzael, a Spaniard,
and a mathematician of the eleventh century,* author of a
treatise entitled Observations on the Obliquity of the Zodiac,
* He observed the quantity of the obliquity of the ecliptic about the year 1070;
and is named by Abraham ebn Ezra, who wrote in the twelfth century (a.ik 11^
or 1150), as anterior to him by scTenty-one years. Biccioli, Mmag, imv.
ON THE EQUINOXES. 337
iffirmed a libration or trepidation in longitude within the
imits of 10^ E. and W. at the rate of a degree in seventy-five
jream.^ Two centuries after him, Th&bit ben Korrah, an
ifltrologer,' assigned to this supposed trepidation the limits
il2Z* E. and W.' To the same astrologer, by some supposed
M> have lived as much earlier, as he is here stated to have
been later, a different doctrine is ascribed, affirming a motion
lyf the intersected points of the ecliptic and equinoctial in a
Roall circle described with the radius 4° 18' 43''.^
They were led to that hypothesis (according to a remark
{acted by the authors who have refuted the notion)^ by
sonsidering that ^ Hermes had found some of the fixed stars
nore distant from the beginning of Aries, than Ptolemy sub-
leqaently did : for instance the bright star of Hydra in 7° of
jeo, placed by Ptolemy in 30° of Cancer; and the star named
rnltor Gadens, in 24° of Sagittarius, but by Ptolemy in 17°.'
[384] The notion of a trepidation in longitude, but at a
ate not equable, had been entertained by the astronomers who
ompiled the Alphonsine Tables, though Alphonsus himself
rag subsequently led to the adoption of a corrector opinion,
ind to the consequent alteration of the tables first published
>j him.^
The earliest mention of a libration in longitude, which
las been found in any Arabic writer, is in the work of
Sfnhammad ben Jabar, sumamed Alb&tani, and by us called
Albategnius. This celebrated astronomer, an Arabian by
birth and Sabian by religion, flourished at the end of the
ninth century;'' or, to speak with precision, about the year
^ EiocioU, Almagestum novum, 3, 28, 6.
* Horeri, Diet,
s Erasmiu Reiohold on Pnrbach ; Rice. Almag. nov, 3, 28, 6.
* Hontucla, Hist, des Math., toI. i. p. 346.
ft Angustmas Biccins, tU tnotu octavm sphara, Regiomontanus, lib, 7. £pi*
oinet Almagesti, Rice. Aim, nao, 3, 28, 6.
* Abrabam Zacn^us, cited, like the preceding authorities, in Riccioli*B Almagest,,
^» 28, 6.
^ D*Herbelot, Bihl. X>rient,
VOL. HL [E88AT8 n.] 22
338 HINDU ASTBONOMERS
of Christ 879;^ and from him we learn that certain ^tro-
nomers, whom he does not appear to have anywhere named,
had before him affirmed a libration of the fixed stars within
the limits of 8^ E. and W. at the rate of a degree in eighty
or eighty-four years.' He himself maintained the doctrine of
a uniform motion at the rate of a degree in sixty-six years.'
I have dwelt the longer upon the history of this opinion
because it appears to me deserving of attention on more than
one account. Alb&tani is the earliest of the Arabian astro-
nomers who improved upon Ptolemy (for Alfarg&ni, who
was a century earlier, is not cited as correcting the Greek
astronomer on this point). It was he, then, who first among
the astronomers of the west of Asia computed the motion of the
stars at a degree in sixty-six years ; which is almost the sane
with the rate of the motion of trepi[385]dation according to
the Surya-siddh&nta, and the herd of Hindu astronomers, who
reckon a degree and a half in a century.^ He is the first
also, as far as can be discovered, in whose works mention is
made of a motion of trepidation, and we may be permitted to
conjecture that the earlier astronomers alluded to by him were
Indian ; since we find A'ryabhatta, an author seemingly of an
earlier age, quoted for a libration of the equinoctial points
within the limits of twenty-four degrees, at the rate of one
in seven tv-ei":ht vears ; and since we know that an Arabian
astronomer, anterior by nearly a century to Alb&tani, had
compiled tables in conformity to rules of astronomy apparently
Indian.^
* lit' liimsclf furnishes the date, beinj^ the year 1627 of the era of Nabonaasar.
Albutv<rii. c. 61, citi-d in Riccioli's Almagest.^ 6, 16, 2.
* Albatognias, c. 61, as cited by Riccioli. * Ihid^ c. 61.
* Tliis is the rate resulting from the quantity of the motion in trepidation
stated in the Sdn-a-siddhknta : and the same results from the rules of calculatioa
given in the Iih;'i8wati-karana of Satlinauda and in the Jlitak^aTa improperiy
ascribed to Van'ihamihira. Tliey both direct the number 421 to be dedortfi
from the expired years of S'iika ; and the one deducts a tenth and reduces the
remsiindor into degrees ; the other adds half and divides by a hundred. Another
rule, producing the same result, is mentioned in Bailly's A9tr, Ind. p. 76.
* 'Ad ngnhs Send Ueiid: (Siddhdnt ?) Abulfarag. -ffiW. DynatU pp. H^ ^
161. Costard's Attrmtmyy p. 167, and Montucla, Hitt, des Math., vol I f ^^-
ON THE EQUINOXES. 339
We may then safely conclude^ that, on the subject of the
ieession of the equinoxes, the Hindus had a theory,, which,
mgh erroneous, was their own ; and which, at a subsequent
le, found advocates among the astronomers of the west.
at they had a knowledge of the true doctrine of an uniform
tion in antecedentia, at least seven hundred years ago,^
en the astronomers of Europe also were divided on the
NStion. That they had approximated [386] to the true
0 of that motion much nearer than Ptolemy, before the
ibian astronomers, and as near the truth as these have ever
le since. From this we may perhaps be led to a further
elusion, that the astronomy of the Hindus merits a more
ticolar examination than it has yet obtained, not indeed
h any expectation of advancing the science of astronomy,
ich needs not such aid, and can derive none from the
ours of astronomers who have recorded no observations ;
; for the history of the science, and ascertainment of the
»gress which was here made : and that, with this view, the
rks of Hindu astronomers, whose age is precisely known,
1 in particular those of Bhdskara, which contain a com-
te course of astronomy and of sciences connected with
should be carefully perused ; as well as those of Brahma-
|>ta, which are full of quotations from earlier astronomers,
iCryabhatta,^ Var&hamihira,' 6rishena,* Vishnuchandra,*
1 some others, who are cited by him for the purpose of
>08ing and correcting their errors.
[n regard to Varfihamihira and the Surya-siddhanta, both
arately quoted in theBrdhma-sphuta-siddhdntaof Brahma-
>ta, I may here remark that a book entitled Siirya-
Ih&nta is mentioned by Yardhamihira himself, in his most
Bh&skara, who quotes Munj&la, completed tke S'iromai^i in 1072 S'&ka, or
1150.
Author of the Datfagitik& and A'ry&sh^-tfata.
Named with censure by Brahmagupto.
Author of the Romaka-siddhdnta,
MeEtioned as the author of the VdgishfhO'aiddhdnta,
340 HINDU ASTB0N0MEB8
undoubted work, the treatise on Astrology, entitled Y&rihi
sanhiti, where, describing the qualifications requisite to fonn
an accomplished astrologer, he says, ' The astrologer should be
conversant with divisions of time and geometrical figares, as
taught in the five Siddh&ntas, or [387] systems of astronomy,
called Paulisa, Romaka, Ydsishtha, Saura, and Pait&maha.'^
Yar&hamihira, as appears from the quotations of his owb
commentators Bhattotpala and many other astronomieil
writers, is likewise author of a treatise entitled Panek'
siddhdntikdy in which the five systems above mentioned an
compared ; and, as far as can be gathered fit)m qnotations,
their agreements and disagreements noticed. A passage of
this treatise, as cited by Bhattotpala, is sufficiently remaricaUe
to be here inserted, since it bears relation to the subject of this
paper. It corresponds in import to a passage quoted by Mr.
Davis, and Sir William Jones,' from the third chapter of the
Y&r&hi sanhitd ; but refers the actual position of the eolores
to the asterisms instead of the signs of the zodiac.
' When the return of the sun took place from the middle of
Aslcshi, the tropic was then right. It now takes place from
Punarvasu.''
The same five systems of astronomy from which Yariha-
mihira is understood to have compiled the astronomical treatise
just now quoted, and which are named by him in [388]
[For thwe five Siddhfmtas, cf. Rcinaud's Mimoire sur rinded p. 332 {MMrti
4JU VAciidemie (its Inscript. iviii. 1849). AlbfrQni positiTelj states thit tltf
Paulisa-Hiddhdntu was attributed to Paulus the Greek, a natiTe of Egypt. Tbe
only Siddh&iitas he could himself procure were those of Paulina and Brahnuigvpta
(p. 3;i4).]
' As. Res., vol, ii. p. 391.
ON THE EQUINOXES. 341
be passage of his astrology before cited, are mentioned by
Irahmagapta also as standard authorities, and enumerated
y him in the same order : and his names, which are precisely
ie same with those in Yar&hamihira's enumeration,^ are
iplained by Bhattotpala, as intending the Pulisa-siddh&nta^
iomaka-siddh&nta, Yasishtha-siddh&nta, Surya-siddh&nta, and
Ir&hma-siddh&nta.
All these books are frequently cited in astronomical com-
ilations, and are occasionally referred to their real or sup-
5sed authors. The first is everywhere assigned to Pulisa,
hose name it bears. The Bomaka-siddh&nta is ascribed by
le scholiast of Brahmagupta, and by a commentator of the
drya-siddh&nta, to Srisena or orishena (for the name is
ariously written). The Visishtha-siddh&nta is by the same
nthority given to Vishnuchandra. Both these authors are
dpeatedly mentioned with censure by Brahmagupta ; and it is
cknowledged that they are entitled to no particular deference.
[389] The Br&hma-siddh&nta, which is the basis of Brahma-
upta's work, is not anywhere attributed to a known author;
ut referred in all quotations of it which have fallen under
bservation, either to the Vishnu-dharmottara-pur&na, of
rhich it is considered as forming a part, or to Brahm^ (also
&11ed Pit&maha), who is introduced into it as the speaker in
dialogue with Bhrigu ; or it is acknowledged to be the work
Yds passage, in which the Paulisha, Romaka, V&sishtha, Saura, and Paitkmaha
re specified^ ia introdactory to a division of the lunar asterisms (for astrological
mpoaes, it should seem), in nneqnal portions, by allotting to fifteen of them
quantity equivalent to the mean diurnal motion of the moon in minutes of a
egree (790' 35''), and half as much more to six of those astcrisms (1185' 52" ;t
od 80 much less to the like number of nakthatras (395' 17") and assigning the
nnplement of the circle (254' 18") to the supplementary nakshatra caUed Abhijit.
((9r The numbers here set down are copied from the scholiast Bhattotpala,
ad from Bh&skara*s commentators ; being stated by them at the nearest second :
>r the moon*s mean daily motion according to Brahmagupta and Bh&skara is a
itle less than 790' Zb'\)
342 HINDU ASTBONOMERS
of some unknown person.^ The tnie author it may be now
impracticable to discover, and would be vun to conjecture.
The Surya-siddhdnta (if the same which we now possess)
is in like manner ascribed to no certiun author, unless in the
passage cited by our colleague, Mr. Bentley,' who says, that
' in the commentary on the Bh&swati, it is declared that
Yar&ha was the author of the Surya-siddh&nta ; ' and who
adds, that 'Satdnanda, the author of the Bhdswati, was a
pupil of Yar&ha under whose directions he himself acknowledges
lie wrote that work.'
The concluding remark alludes to the following yerse of the
Bh&swati-karai^.
'Next I will propound succinctly, from Mihira^s instraction,
[this system] equal to the Surya-siddh&nta.'
[390] It is preceded by an introductory couplet, which will
be found quoted at the foot of the page,' or is omitted in some
copies ; but the correct reading, as appears from collation of
text and scholia, retains both.
Admitting then its authenticity, and supposing, with most
of the commentators, that Var&hamihira is here intended by
the single word Mihira, which, however, is a name of the sun,
^ D(iil{ibhru, in his commontary on the Sdrya-siddhaata, says so.
2 As. Res., vol. \i. p. 572.
* Haring bowed to the foot of the foe of Mora, the fortunate Sat4naDda pro-
pounds, for the benefit of students, the Bhdiswati, in the S'&ka year 1021.'
The author Satananda, as he himself informs us in the close of the book, wu
an inhabitant of Purushottama (the site of the temple of Jagann&tha) : and dates
}ii> W(irk there in 4200 of the Kali yu|^ In the body of the work be directs the
<litl'ort'ncc of longitude to be reckoned from the meridian of Punishottama-kshetn.
♦ [-tm- ?]
ON THE EQUINOXES. 343
nd may here allade to the &bled dialogue of Surya with
lay a, as is observed by the scholiast Balabhadra;^ still the
assage is not unambiguous. It does not necessarily imply
ral tuition, and may refer to instruction derived from the
'orks of Yar&ha ; especially from the Pancha-siddh&ntikd of
liat author, in which the Surya-siddhdnta was explained
mcurrently with four other treatises termed Siddh&nta.
To return from this digression. It appears from what had
^n before said, that a work bearing the title of Surya-
ddh&nta is named as authority by Var&hamihira, in whose
me, according to his assertion, the place of the [391] sum-
ler solstice was at the beginning of the sign Karkata, and in
le asterism Punarvasu. A treatise under the same title is
imilarly mentioned by Brahmagupta, who has likewise noticed
''ar&hamihira himself, and who is supposed by Bh&skara to
ave lived when the colures had not sensibly deviated from
hat position.
It may be questioned whether this testimony be not ever-
brown by proo& of a more modem date (between seven and
ight hundred years ago), drawn from internal evidence, as
^t forth by Mr. Bentley, in his ingenious essays inserted in
le sixth and eighth volumes of our Researches.^
Without entering at present into any disquisition on this
ibject, or discussing the accuracy of the premises ; but ac-
iding generally to the position, that the date of a set of
stronomical tables, or of a system for the computation of the
laces of planets, is deducible from the ascertainment of a time
hen that system or set of tables gave results nearest to the
"uth ; and granting that the date above mentioned approxi-
lates within certain limits to such an ascertainment ; I shall
lerely observe, that supposing the dates otherwise irrecon-
ileable, still the book which we now have under the name of
1 His commentarj is dated in 1465 of Yikram&ditya; more than 400 years ago.
rhis is not the Balabhadra quoted by Alblrfinl, cf. Beinaud, M4m, tur VInde,
336.]
2 As. Res., ToL tI. p. 572, and vol. yiii. p. 206.
344 HINDU ASTBONOMEBS
Surya, or Saara, siddh&nta, may have been, and probably waa,
modernized from a more ancient treatise of the same name,
the later work borrowing its title from an eariier performance
of a different author. We have an instance of this practice
in the kindred case of the Br&hma-siddh&nta ; for we are a^
quainted with no less than three astronomical treatises bearing
this title; one extracted from the Yishi^a-dharmottara; another
termed the S&kalya ; and the third the Sphuta-siddh&nta of
Brahmagupta : and an equal number of tracts entitled Y&dsh-
tha-siddhdnta may be [392] traced in the quotations of authors;
one by Yishnuchandra ; another termed Laghu-yisishtha,
which from its name should be an abridgment ; and the third,
apparently an ample treatise, distinguished as the Ypddha-
T&sishtha. This solution of the objection also is eotiidy
compatible with the tenor of the references to the Saon,
which have been yet remarked in the works of Brahmagupta
and Var&hamihira; none of them being relatiye to points that
furnish arguments for concluding the age of the book fbin
internal evidence.
At all events, whatever may be thought of the Surya-siddh-
&nta, wo have the authority of a quotation from Aryabhatta,
to show that the Hindus had ascertaiued the quantity of the
procession more correctly than Ptolemy ; and had accounted
fur it by a motion in Hbration or trepidation, before this
notion was adopted by any other astronomer whose labours
are known to us.
It appears also from a passage of Brahmagupta''s refutation
of tlio supposed errors of that author, and from his com-
nicntatoFs quotation of Aryabliatta"'s text, that this ancient
astronomer maintained the doctrine of the earth'^s diurnal
revolution round its axis. ' The sphere of the stars,' be
affirms, 'is stationary; and the earth, making a revolution,
produces the daily rising and setting of stars and planets/*
iJMI^^ni *l^iilf lUllH • Aryabham cited by Prithfidaka.
ON THE JEQUINOXES. 345
Brahmagapta answers, ' If the earth move a minute in a
prdna^ then whence and what route does it proceed P If it
revolve, why do not lofty objects fallP**^ But his commentator,
PHthddaka-sw&mi, re[393] plies, '^yabhatta^s opinion ap-
pears nevertheless satisfactory; since planets cannot have
two motions at once: and the objection, that lofty things
would &11, is contradicted; for, every way, the under part
of the earth is also the upper ; since, wherever the spectator
stands on the earth's surface, even that spot is the uppermost
point.'
We here find both an ancient astronomer and a later com-
mentator' maintaining, against the sense of their country-
mMi, the rational doctrine which Heraclides of Pontus, the
Pythagorean Ecphantus, and a few others among the Greeks,
had aflSirmed of old, but which was abandoned by the astro-
nomers both of the east and of the west, until revived and
demonstrated in comparatively modem times.'
Brahmagupta is more fortunate in his reasoning where he
reftites another theory of the alternation of day and night
imagined by the Jainas, who account for the diurnal change
by the passage of two suns, and as many moons, and a double
set of stars and minor planets, round a pyramidical mountain,
at the foot of which is this habitable earth. His confutation
of that absurdity is copied by Bh&skara, who has added to it
from Prithudaka's gloss on a different passage of Brahma-
^pta, a refutation of another notion ascribed by him to the
same sect, respecting the translation of the earth in space.
This idea has no other origin than the notion, that the
earth, being heavy and without support, must perpetually
^^%fT ^nrf^ ^r^^rnrr* ^l^rUt l Brdhma-aphufa-nddhdnta,
* The oommentator wrote at least seven centuries ago ; for he is qnoted by
Bh&skara in the text and notes of the S'iromaj^.
' For an outline of A'ryabha^'s system of astronomy, see a note at the close
of this Eoay, p. [414].
346 HINDU ASTR0N0HEB8
descend : and has, therefore, no relation whatever to the
modem opinion of a proper motion of the sun and stars.
[394] Part of the passage of Bh&skara has been quoted in
a former essay .^ What regards the further subject now
noticed is here subjoined.
' The earth stands firm, by its own power, without otha
support in space.
' If there be a material support to the earth, and another
upholder of that, and again another of this, and so on, there
is no limit. If finally self-support must be assumed, why not
assume it in the first instance P why not recognize it in this
multiform earth P
'As heat is in the sun and fire, coldness in the moon,
fluidity in water, hardness in iron ; so mobility is in air; and
immobility in the earth, by nature. How wonderful are the
implanted faculties !
' The earth, possessing an attractive force,* draws towards
itself any heavy substance situated in the surrounding atmo-
sphere, and that substance appears as if it fell. But whither
can the earth fall in ethereal space which is equal and alike
on every side ?
' Observing the revolution of the stars, the Bauddhas'
acknowledge, that the earth has no support 5 but as nothing
heavy is seen to remain in the atmosphere, they thence
conclude that it falls in ethereal space.
' Whence dost thou deduce, 0 Bauddha, this idle notion,
that, because any heavy substance thrown into the air, falls to
the earth, therefore the earth itself descends P ' *
He adds this further explanation in his notes : *For if the
earth were falling, an arrow shot into the air would not return
to it when the projectile force was expended, since [395] both
* As. Res., vol. ii. p. 322 [p. 201 of the present volume].
' Like the attraction of the loadstone for iron. M&richi on Bh&skara.
3 Meaning the Jainas ; as appears from the author's own annotation os this
passage.
* S'iroma^i, Gol&dhy&ya, c. i. ▼. 2, i, 7 and 9.
OK THE EQUINOXES. 847
would descend. Nor can it be said that it moves slower, and
is overtaken by the arrow ; for heaviest bodies fall quickest,
and the earth is heaviest.^
It has been observed in a former part of this essay, that
Brahmagupta^s treatise of astronomy is founded on an anterior
one entitled Br&hma-siddh&nta ; and the authenticity of the
book extant under Brahmagupta's name has been relied upon,
and passages have been freely cited from it, as the genuine
performance of that ancient astronomer. These matters appear
to be of sufficient importance to deserve a more particular
explanation of their grounds.
The source from which Brahmagupta drew, is indicated by
the author himself, in his introductory couplet, cited by
Lakshmid&sa in the commentary on Bhdskara : ^
which, in a literal version, will stand thus : — ^ The computa-
tion of planets, as declared by Brahmd, and become imperfect
by great length of time, is perspicuously (sphufa) explained
by Brahmagupta, son of Jishnu.'
The ambiguity imputable to this passage is obviated by the
more explicit terms of the initial stanza of his eleventh chap-
ter, where Brahmagupta announces a refutation of opinions
opposed to the Br&hma-siddh&nta :
[396] * I will refiite the errors (respecting the t/ugas and
other matters) of those who, misled by ignorance, maintain
things contrary to the Br&hma-siddh&nta.'
What the work is, to which Brahmagupta refers under the
title specified by him, and corresponding to a subsequent
mention by him of the Paitdmaha-siddhanta (both titles being
1 The Oa9ita-tattwa-€liiiit&ma];4> dated in 1423 S'&ka, or 1501 a.d.
348 HINDU A8TB0K01CEBS
of the same import), is explained by the scholiasts of Bh&slan
and of the Sdiya-siddh&nta. Nrisinha, a commentator on
both texts,^ affirms that Brahmagapta*8 rales are formed from
the Yishnu-dharmottara-pur&na, in which the Br&hma-siddh-
dnta is contained ; ' Bh&skara^s commentator, Mnniswan,'
remarks, that Brahmagupta, having verified by observation
the revolutions stated in the Brdhma-siddh&nta of the Yishnn-
dharmottara, and having found them suitable to his own time,
adopted these numbers, rejecting the revolutions taught by
Surya and the rest. In other places the commentator cites
parallel passages from Brahmagupta and the Br&hma- (also
termed by him Pait&maha-) siddhanta of the Yishiaii-dluu'*
mottara : ^ and these with numerous [397] quotations ttm
^ He is the author of a commentary on the SQrya-siddh&iite, and of ^
V&8an&-v&rttlka on Bh&tkara'a text and notes. It is dated in 1643 S'&ki,<v
1621 A.D.
' As. Ees., Tol. ii. p. 242.
> Author of the M&richi on Bh&skara's S'iromai^i, and of a distinct tnttiieof
astronomy, the Siddh&nta-s4ryabhaama. The earliest copy of the Mfcrfdii v
dated 1560 S'&ka (a.d. 1638), which is not much later than the date of thevoi
itself ; for the Emperor Nfiruddfn Jah&ngir is mentioned at the dose of tke
book, as he also is in the preface of a commentary on the StkryaHriddhftnti br
the author's father Kangan&tha.
* Take tlie following as examples :
Ist. The number of sidereal days in a kalpa (viz. 1,582,236,450,000), wWd»
the Pait&raaha-siddh&nta of the Vish^u-dharmottara (cited in M&richi, di. I)
expresses by these words :
and Brabmagiipta renders by the equiralcnt terms,
2nd. The commencement of the Jto/pa, on Sunday, 1st Chaitra, at the moment
of sunrise on the meridian of Jjonkk, which the Br&hma-siddh&nta of the
Vishnu-dharmottara-purftna (M&richi, ch. ii.) thus expresses :
and Brahmagupta by the following couplet.
ON THE EQUINOXES. 349
Brahmagapta in the Ghini&mani and in other commentaries
on Bh&skara, as well as in the author's notes on his own text,
■re exactly conformable with the Br&hma-sphuta-siddh&nta
now in my possession, and which is accompanied by the gloss
of Brahmagupta's celebrated commentator Ghaturyeda-prithu-
dak»-sw&mi.
It appears, then, from a collation of the passages so cited,
that Brahmagupta's work is, at least in part, a paraphrase of
the Br&hma or Pait&maha ; containing, how[398]eyer, addi-
tional matter: and it is accordingly termed by one of the
seholiasts of the Surya-siddhanta ^ a commentary on the
Paiit&maha ; and Ghaturveda's gloss is denominated by the
same scholiast an interpretation of the Paitdmaha-bh­a.
In support of what has been here said, I shall adduce a few
instances of quotation on subjects possessing some degree of
interest.
The first is one in which Bh&skara vindicates a passage of
Brahmagupta from the objections of his commentator, quoting
the passage itself in his notes, and there naming the scholiast,
Chaturveda; from which, be it remarked, the commentary is
ascertained to be anterior to Bh&skara^s work : I have a further
reason, however, for citing the passage, as it furnishes occasion
&r some observations on the Indian theory of astronomy.
The Hindus, as is well known, place the earth in the centre
of the world, and make the Sun and Moon and minor planets
revolve round it, apparently in concentric orbits, with unequal
or irregular motion. For a physical explanation of the phe-
nomena, they imagine the planets driven by currents of air
along their respective orbits (besides one great vortex carrying
stars and planets with prodigious velocity, round the earth, in
the compass of a day). The winds or currents, impelling the
several planets, communicate to them velocities, by which
their motion should be equable and in the plane of the
ecliptic; but the planets are drawn from this course by certain
1 D&d&bh&i.
350 HINDU A8TB0N0MERS
controlling powers, situated at the apogees, conjunctions, and
nodes.
These powers are clothed by Hindu imaginations with
celestial bodies invisible to human sight, and famished with
hands and reins, by which they draw the planets from their
[399] direct path and uniform progress. The being at the
apogee, for instance, constantly attracts the planet towards itself,
alternately, however, with the right and left hands. The
deity of the node diverts the planet, first to one side, thra to
the other, from the ecliptic. And, lastly, the deity at the
conjunction causes the planet to be one while statiomuy,
another while retrograde, and to move at different times with
velocity accelerated or retarded. These &ncied beings m
considered as invisible planets ; the nodes and apogees haying
a motion of their own in the ecliptic.
This whimsical system, more worthy of the mythologiat
than of the astronomer, is gravely set forth in the SAiyv
siddh&nta ; and even Bhdskara gives in to it, though not
without indications of reluctant acquiescence : for he has not
noticed it in his text, and only briefly in his notes.
To explain on mathematical principles the irregularity of
the planetary motions, the Hindu astronomers remove the
earth from the centre of the planet'^s orbit, and assume the
motion in that excentric to be really equable, though it appear
irregular as viewed from the earth. Another hypothesis is
also taught by them ; according to which the planet reyolres
with an equal but contrary motion in an epicycle, of which
the centre is carried with like but direct motion on a concentric
orbit.
Bhdskara remarks that both theories are equivalent, giving
the same results in computation ; but he maintains that the
planet's motion in an excentric orbit {pratimandala) is con-
sonant to the truth, and the other hypothesis of an epicycle
(nichochcha vritta) is merely a device for the facility of com-
putation.
ON THE EQUINOXES. 35I
Both theories, with certain modifications, which will be sab-
^nently noticed, suffice for the anomaly of the Sun and Moon.
'0 account for the still greater apparent irre[400]gularities
r the five minor planets, the Hindu astronomers make them
)yolye with direct motion on an epicycle borne on an excentric
sferent. (In the case of the two inferior planets, the revolu-
on in the excentric is performed in the same time with the
an : consequently the planet's motion in its epicycle is in
kct its proper revolution in its orbit. In the instance of the
iperior planets, on the contrary, the epicycle corresponds in
me to a revolution of the Sun, and the excentric deferent
oswers to the true revolution of the planet in its orbit.)
So far the Indian system, as already remarked by Mr.
>aTis in his treatise on the astronomical computations of the
lindns,^ agrees with the Ptolemaic. At the first glance it
all remind the reader of the hypothesis of an excentric orbit
ievised by Hipparchus, and of that of an epicycle on a
leferent, said to have been invented by ApoUonius, but
pplied by Hipparchus. At the same time the omission of
a equant (having double the excentricity of the deferent)
nagined by Ptolemy for the five minor planets, as well as
he epicycle with a deferent of the centre of the excentric,
ontrived by him to account for the evection of the Moon,
nd the circle of anomaly of excentricity, adapted to the
aequality of Mercury's motions, cannot fail to attract
lotice.
The Hindus, who have not any of Ptolemy's additions to
he theory of Hipparchus, have introduced a different modifi-
Ation of the hypothesis, for they give an oval form to the
jxcentric or equivalent epicycle, as well as to the planet's
}roper epicycle. That is, they assume the axis of the epicycle
p*eater at the end of the {sama) even quadrants of anomaly
or in the line of the apsides and conjunctions), and least at
he end of the [mhama) odd [401] quadrants (first and third),
^ As. Bes., Tol. ii., p. 250.
362 HINDU A8TB0K01CER8
and intermediately in proportion.^ This oontriTanoe of an
OTal epicycle is applied by certain astronomers to all ike
planets ; and by others is restricted to few ; and by some is
altogether rejected. Aryabhatta, for example, and the Suiya-
siddh&nta, make both epicyles of all the planets oral, plaemg
however the short axis of the proper epicycles of Jnpiter and
Saturn in the line of mean conjanction, termed by Hindu
astronomers their quick apogee (iighrochchd). Brahmagapta
and Bh&skara, on the contrary, acknowledge only the epicycles
of Mars and Yenus to be oval, and insist that the rest are
circular. The author of the Siddh&nta-s&rvabhanma goes a
step further, maintaining that all are circular, and taking the
mean between the numbers given in the Surya-siddh&nta.
^ Bad : Sine of anomaly : : Diff. between circles described on gre«tett and Ind
axis : Diff. between circles described on greatest axis and on the diameter of tbe
epicycle for the proposed anomaly. Whence the circle described on that diuoete
is determined ; and ia used for the epicycle in computations for that aaomilj.
Since circles are to each other as their radii, the proportion aboye stated aosioi
to the following; semitransrerse axis: diff. between transrerse and coDJngite
semiaxis : : ordinate of the circle : a fourth proportional ; which is preciselj tiM
difference between that ordinate and an ordinate of the ellipse for the same abids.
Hindu astronomers take it for the difference between the radios of the drcoiB-
scribed circle and the semidiameter of the ellipse at an angle with the axil eqoil
to the proposed anomaly; and, in an ellipsis Tery little excentric, the error is bdsU.
ON THE EQUINOXES.
353
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354 HINDU ASTRONOMERS
[403] A further difference of theory, though not of practice,
occurs among the Hindu astronomers, in regard to the curva-
ture of the excentric deferents, and the consequent method of
computing on the equivalent hypothesis of epicycles.
A reference to Mr. Davis's Essay ^^ and to the diagnms
which accompany it, will render intelligible what has been
already said, and what now remains to be explained. It is
there observed, that it is only in computing the retrograde-
tions, and other particulars respecting the minor planets, tluft
the Hindus find the length of the karna G ® ' (or line drawn
from the centre of the earth to the planet^s place in thetpi*
cycle). In other cases, as for the anomalistic equation of the
Sun and Moon, they are satisfied to take Ac as equal to the
sine im ' (that is, the sine of mean anomaly, reduced to its
dimensions in the epicycle in parts of the radius of the con-
centric, equal to the sine of the anomalistic equation). The
reason is subjoined : ^ The difference, as the commentator on
the Surya-siddhanta observes, being inconsiderable.'
Most of the commentators on the Surya-siddh&nta do assign
that reason ; hut some of them adopt Brahniagupta's expla-
nation. This astronomer maintains that the operation of
finding the kama is rightly omitted in respect of the excentrics
or equivalent epicycles of all the planets, and retained in
regard to the proper epicycles of the minor planets carried by
the excentric deferents. His hypothesis, as briefly intimated
by himself, and as explained by Bhaskara, suppose the
epicycle, which represents the excentric, to be augmented in
the proportion [404] which karna (or the distance of the
planet's place from the earth''s centre) bears to the radius of
the concentric ; and it is on this account, and not as a mere
approximation, that the finding of the karna^ with the sub-
sequent operation to which it is applicable, is dispensed with.*
^ As. Res., Tol. ii. p. 249.
» As. lies., Tol. ii. p. 250. Diagram, fig. 2. ' Ihid,
* For Rad : periphery of the epicycle : : karna : augmented epicycle. And dide
: sine of anomaly : : augmented epicycle : sine of anomaly in augmented epicjclfl-
ON THE EQUINOXES. 355
The scholiast . of Brahmagupia objects to his author's
^line on this point, that, upon the same principle^ th&
Ksess of finding the karna^ with the subsequent employment
it to find the sine of the anomalistic equation, should in
e manner be omitted in the proper epicycle of the five minor
oiets ; and he concludes therefore that the omission of that
)cess has no other ground but the very inconsiderable
Terence of the result in the instance of a small epicycle.
»r, as remarked by another author,^ treating on the same
bject, the equation itself and its sine are very small near the
e of the apsides ; and at a distance from that line the karna
d radius approach to equality.
Bh&skara, in the oiromani, quotes succinctly Brahmagupta^s
etrine, and the scholiast's objection to it ; and replies to the
ter : and in his notes in the Y&san&-bh4shya, cites the text
Brahmagupta and Ghaturveda's reasoning, which he tries
confute. His quotation agrees perfectly with the present
ct of the Br&hma-[405]sphuta-siddh&nta and commentary
Ghaturveda-prithudaka-swdmi, which is annexed to it.
The passage, which has required so much preparatory
planation, is itself short :
* The karna^ or longest side of the triangle, multiplied by
e periphery of the epicycle and divided by radius, becomes
e multiplier of the sine and cosine of anomaly. The same
suit, as before, is obtained by a single operation in the
stance of the anomalistic epicycle : and therefore kc^rna is
►t here employed.'
Lastly, hania : sine of anomaly in augmented epicycle : : radios : sine of
jmalistic equation.
hence periphery X SSS X t^V. X — "tt^tT^' = «>"' "^ ".omalirtio
2ation.
id, abridging, periphery X ^^^^iriSe^^^ == ^^® ^^ anomalistic equation.
I In the M&richL
356 HINDU ASTRONOMERS
Bh&skara's words in the oiromani are these: ^ Some say
that in this system, in the operation of finding the equation
of anomaly, the karna or long side of the triangle is not
employed, because the difierence in the two modes of com-
putation is very inconsiderable. But others maintain that, if
the karna be used, the periphery of the epicycle must in this
operation be corrected, by multiplying it by karna and dividing
by radius. Wherefore the result is the same as by the former
method : and on that account, they say, the karna is not
employed. It is not to be objected, why is not the same
method used in the iighra epicycle P For the principles of
the two difier.'
In his notes on this part of his text, he cites, as before
observed, the precise passage of Brahmagupta which has been
inserted above, and a portion of Chaturveda's comment on it,
and names the author.
In another instance Bh&skara quotes in his biromani
Brahmagupta by name, and the commentator by implication
(and fuller quotations of both occur in the notes and com-
nientaries), for a disagreement in regard to the latitude [406]
of stars and planets measured from the ecliptic both on a
circle drawn through its poles, and on one passing through
the poles of the equator ; the latter termed sphuta or appa-
rent, and the other anphuta or unapparent.^ Bhdskara remarks
th;it Brahmagupta has directed the latitudes of planets to be
computed by one mode, and has given those of the stars in
the other, but has stated no rule for reducing the latitude of
one denomination to the other, or for rectifying the true
latitude from the measure given on the circle of declination.
The reason he considers to be the little difference between
thein (which is true in respect of the planets, though not so
in the case of most of the stars), and the frequent occasion in
astronomical computations, for the declination of stars, while
^ Asphufa sara is the true latitude of a star or planet; iphu^a Mrtfui^
dcclinution + declination of the point of intersection in the ecliptic.
ON THE EQUINOXES. 357
their proper latitude is not an element in any calculation;
rhereas, in the case of the planets, both are employed on
lifferent occasions: he adverts to a strained interpretation
proposed by the commentator to construe Brahmagupta's rule
18 adapted to the same denomination of latitude which is
omployed by him for the stars. Bh&skara refutes that inter-
pretation, and justifies Brahmagupta^s text taken in its obvious
and natural sense.
This passage of the Siromani ^ confirms what was said
[407] by me, firom other authority, in a former essay,* con-
cerning the Hindu method of determining a star's place
with reference to the ecliptic, by the intersection of a circle of
declination, and by taking the latitude and longitude of the
star to that point of intersection, instead of employing a per-
pendicular to the ecliptic.
The only other passage to which I shall draw the reader^s
attention is one of considerable length, in which Brahmagupta,
although he has rightly given the theory of solar and lunar
eclipses, with the astronomical principles on which they are to be
computed, affirms, in compliance with the prejudices of Hindu
bigots, the existence of R&hu as an eighth planet and as the
immediate cause of eclipses, and reprehends Yar&hamihira,
iGryabhatta, Srishe^a and Yishnuchandra for rejecting this
orthodox explanation of the phenomenon. The passage is
quoted by Bhdskara^s commentator in the Ghint&mani on the
occasion of a more concise text of the Siromani affirming: the
agency of H&hu in eclipses.'
fltHflHir^Hi;
fflR4uii«i«i^M) ^^fli^ ^rer wtt: i etc.
Golddhydya, c. Tiii. v. 11, etc
* Ab. Bes., vol. ix. [p. 284, etc., of the present Yolome].
3 Part 2, ch. vii. v. 10.
358 HINDU ASTRONOMERS
This qvotatiou from the Br&hin&-8iddh&Qta, comprising seyen
couplets in the Ghint&mani, has been verified in the text of
the Br&hma-sphuta-siddhfinta of Brahmagupta.^
All these, with numerous other instances in the annotations
and commentaries of the oiroma^i, which I reirain from
adducing, lest the reader^s patience should be tired, lia?e
established to my entire conviction the genuineness of the
Sphuta-siddh&nta founded on a prior treatise entitled Br&hma-
siddh&nta.
I am not unapprised that, under a feeling of great distrust
or unwillingness to admit the conclusions which follow from
this position, a variety of hypotheses might be formed [408]
to a diflferent effect. Brahmagupta, supposing him to be
entirely an original writer, may have referred to an
imaginary work to give that kind of authority to his per-
formance which the Hindus most fancy; or he may have
fathered on a purdna a synopsis of his own doctrine for the
same purpose; or some other writer, from whatever motire,
may have fabricated a pretended extract of a purdna con-
taining the heads of Brahmagupta's system, and have given
currency to it on the strength of the reference in that
astronomor''8 treatise to an anterior work. These and other
suppositious grounded on surmise of fraud and forgery mar
be formed. I shall not discuss them : for I have no concern
but with the facts themselves. Bhdskara, writing 650 years
fi^xo, declares, and so do all his commentators, that he has
followed Brahmagupta as his guide. They quote numeroos
passages from his work ; and Bhdskara affirms that Brahma-
gupta took the number of revolutions assigned to the planets
in the great period termed kalpa from an earlier authority.
The commentators, who wrote from two to four centuries ago,
assert that those numbers were taken from a treatise in form
of dialogue between Bhagavat (or Brahm&) and Bhrigu»
inserted in the Vishnu-dharmottara-purana, and distinguished
^ Golddhydya,
ON THE EQinNOXES. 359
by the title of Br&hma or Pait&maha-siddh&nta. They cite
parallel passages, which do in fact exactly accord in sense and
import. They occasionally quote observations on Brahma-
]g;upta by his scholiast Ghatarveda-prithudaka-sw&mi. A
book is extant (a copy, partly deficient, however, having come
into my possession with other astronomical collections), and
which consists of a text under the title of Br&hma-sphuta-
siddh&nta, accompanied by a continual commentary by Gha-
turveda-prithudaka-swilmi. The text contains the same
astronomical doctrine which Bh&skara teaches, and which he
professes to have derived [409] from Brahmagupta; and
passages quoted by him in his text, or at more length in his
notes, or by his commentators, or by other astronomical
writers, as the words of Brahmagupta, are found verbatim in
it. I consider it therefore as the genuine text of the treatise
used by Bh&skara, as Brahmagupta's ; and seeing no reason
for suspicion and distrust, I quote it as the authentic work of
that celebrated astronomer.
As the evidence which has been here collected with reference
to particular points, bears also upon other questions, I shall
now state further conclusions, regarding the history of Indian
astronomy, which appear to me to be justly deducible from the
premises. Those conclusions will be supported, when necessary,
by additional references to authorities.
Brahmagupta and Yar&hamihira, though named at the head
of astronomers by Bhdskara and Sat&nanda and by the herd
of later writers, are not to be considered as the authors of the
Indian system of astronomy. They abound in quotation^
from more ancient astronomers, upon whose works their own
are confessedly grounded. In addition to the names before
mentioned,^ those of Pradyumna, L&Ia-siuha, and L&dli&-
ch&rya, may be here specified. But the Br&hma-siddh&nta and
the works of Aryabhatta are what principally engages Bralima-
gupta^s attention : and the five Siddhdntas have been the
1 Page [386].
360 HINDU ASTRONOMEBS
particular subject of Yarahamihira's labours. He appears to
have been auterior to Brahmagupta, being actually cited by him
among other writers, whose errors are exposed and corrected.
Yar4hamihira, constantly quoted as the author of the
y ar&hi sanhitd and Pancha-siddh&ntik&, must be [410] judged
from those works, which are undoubtedly his by the unanimous
consent of the learned, and by the testimony of the ancient
scholiast Bhattotpala. The minor works, ascribed to the
same author, may have been composed in later times, and the
name of a celebrated author have been affixed to them, m-
cordiiig to a practice, which is but too common in India as in
many other countries. The Jatak^rnava, for example, which
has been attributed to him, may not improbably be the work
of a different author. At least, I am not apprised of any
collateral evidence (such as quotations from it in books of some
antiquity) to support its genuineness, as a work of Varaha-
mihira'^s.
In the Y&r&hi sanhitd, this author has not followed the
system which is taught in the Siirya-siddh&nta. For instance,
his rule for finJin^j; the year of the cycle of sixty years,
founded on the mean motions of Jupiter, shows that be
etnployeJ a different number from that which the Surya-
sidJhanta furnishes, riz. 364,224 revolutions in a yuga^ in-
stead of 'i64,200 ; and it appears from a quotation of the
scholiikjt that i^ryabhatta is the authority for that number of
revolutions of Jupiter,
Before the age of Vardhamihira and Brahraagupta, and
subsequently to that of Garga,^ a number of illustrious
astronomers flourished, by whom the science was cultivated
^ [For an account of the Gkrgi Sanhit&, of. Kern's Br that Sanhitd, IntroA pp.
33-40 ; Aufrechfs Cat. of J/.S'6'. in Trinity Coll, Library, pp. 32-36. Dr. Ken
quotes a pasi^igc which describes on invasion of the Yavanas as far as S&keU
(Ayodhyfi) and Pushpapura (Palibothra), and the subsequent tyranny of ft
Scythian king. lie fixes the date of the work approximately as b.c. 50. His
MS. is incomplete; but the only Greek word which occurs in that portion b
hord, and no mention is made of the si^ns of the zodiac]
ON THE EQUINOXES. 361
and promoted, but whose works unhappily are lost, or at least
have not been yet recovered, and are at present known to us
only by quotation. No less than ten intermediate writers are
cited by Brahmagupta ; of whom five at the least are noticed
by Yarahamihira.^
The proficiency of the Yavanas in astronomy was known
to Yar&haraihira. He has mentioned it with applause,^ i*^^^]
and has more than once referred to the authority of their
writers. The name of Yavan&ch&rya, which occurs frequently
in the compilations of Hindu astronomers,' has apparently
reference to an author of that nation ; which is characterized
by Yardhamibira as a people of Mlechhas, or barbarians. The
title of Romaka-siddh&nta, given by Srishena to his astro-
nomical treatise, which is quoted under this title by Yaraha-
mihira and Brahmagupta, may be presumed also to carry
some allusion to the system of the astronomers of the West.
If these circumstances, joined to a resemblance hardly to
be supposed casual, which the Hindu astronomy, with its
apparatus of excentrics and epicycles, bears in many respects
to that of the Qreeks, be thought to authorize a belief that
the Hindus received from the Greeks that knowledge which
enabled them to correct and improve their own imperfect
astronomy, I shall not be inclined to dissent from the opinion.^
There does indeed appear ground for more than a conjecture
that the Hindus had obtained a knowledge of Grecian astro-
nomy before the Arabs began to cultivate the science ; and
> See before pp. [386], [388], and [409].
^For the Yayanas are barbarians ; bat this science is well established among
them ; and they are reTered like holy sages : much more shall a priest who is
learned in it be venerated.' [This passage from Yar&hamihira is quoted by
Albir(jni (Reinaud's Metnoire, p. 333). These lines really occur in the G&rgl
Sanhit&, see Kern's Bfihat Sanhitd, Introd. p. 35.]
3 As. Re8.« vol. ix« p. 376 (see pp. 321 and 323, of the present volume).
* [Cf. Prof. Whitney's note to Burgess's Trantl, iSurya'Siddhdnta^ pp. 327-
3S1.]
362
HINDU ASTRONOMERS
that tbe whole cluster of astronomers mentioned by Brahma-
gupta must be placed in the interval between the age of
nipparchus, and possibly that of Ptolemy, and the date of
Brahmagupta^s revision of the Br&hma-siddh&nta.
In reforming the Indian astronomy, Brahmagupta and the
astronomers who preceded him did not take implicitly the mean
motions of the planets given by the Gre[412]cian astronomer.
In general they are wider from the truth than Ptolemj.^
But in the instance which is the subject of this paper thej
made a nearer approach to accuracy than he had done, and
* Mkan Diubnal Motions of thb Plaxsts.
[Cf. Burgess, Trarul. S^rya-^iddkdnta, pp. 24, 2S2.]
Brahmagupta.
S^rya-siddh&nta.
Ptolemy.
TjiImiuI^l
0 I II III ini
0 1 u III un 0 I II xn im
0 I n mnn
G
0 59 S 10 22
0 69 8 10 10 0 59 8 17 18
0 69 8 19 48
D
13 10 34 52 47
13 10 34 52 3
13 10 34 68 30
13 10 85 1 40
J-
-O 12 11 26 42 25
12 11 26 41 53
12 11 26 31 17
12 11 26 41 Si
d
0 31 26 28 7
0 31 26 28 11
0 31 26 36 68
0 81 26 89 23
9
4 5 32 18 28
4 6 32 20 42
4 5 82 24 12
4 6 82 84 IS
%
0 4 59 9 9
0 4 69 8 48
0 4 59 14 26
0 4 59 16 5S
9
1 36 7 44 35
1 86 7 43 39
1 36 7 43 6
1 86 748 24
b
0 2 0 22 52
0 2 0 22 53
0 2 0 33 31
0 2 0 36 38
In this comparative tahlc, computed to fourth minutes, it will be remarked tint
the Uindu astronomers mostly agree to third minutes and diflfer in the foortfas.
They disagree with Ptolemy at the thirds, and giTe, in almost every instascei
slower motions than he docs to the planets, and still slower than the truth. In
the moon's 8)Tiodical motion, however, they are very nearly correct. On the
other hand, the equation of the centre deducible from the epicycles (page [404]) is
a nearer approximation io the truth than results from the excentricity assigned br
Ptolemy to the orbits of the planets. For instance,
Excentricity of the Sun's Orbit.
Surya-siddhfiinta and Brahmagupta (Had. of the epicycle)...
Hipparchus and Ptolemy [Alm.y 1. 3, c. 4) in parts, of which radius
contains 60 ... ... ••• ... ... ...
Alb^tani (c. 28) ... ... ... ... •••
Greatest Equation of the Sun's Centre :
SCirya-siddh&nta, etc. (computed by the commentators)
Ptolemy (Rice. Aim, war.) ...
/VlOaluTil ... ... ... ... ... «•.
Alphonsine Tables ...
JVclJlcry vlVt •■• ••• ••• ••• •••
Lalande (3rd edit.) ...
«.•
...
0 I n
2 10 30
2 29 80
2 4 4$
2 10 32
2 23 0
1 59 0
2 10 0
2 8 46
1 5636i
ON THE EQUINOXES. 363
nnsty therefore, have used other observations besides those
vhich he has recorded.
The Arabs adopted in its totality Ptolemy's theory of the
notions of the planets ; which the Hindus have only [413]
n part. But the Arabs improved on his astronomy by care-
ul observations : a praise to which the Hindus are not equally
mtitled. Alb&tanf discovered the motion of the Sun's apogee,
md suspected from analogy a motion of the apsides of the
ninor planets.^ The Hindus surmised the motion of the
ipogee of the Sun, and nodes and apsides of the planets, from
inalogy to the Moon's 5 * but were unable to verify the con-
jecture by observation ; and have, in fact, merely assigned
irbitrary numbers to the supposed revolutions, to bring out
the places right (or as nearly so as they had determined them),
relatively to the origin of the ecliptic at a vastly remote
)eriod. Bhaskara, when treating of the manner of verifying
)r of finding the number of revolutions of the planets, etc. in
» given period, teaches the mode of observing the planetary
notions, but considers the life of man too short for observing
he motion of the apsides and nodes (the Moon^s excepted) ;
ad certainly the revolutions assigned to them by him and
*
iher Hindu astronomers are too few, and the motions too
low (the quickest not exceeding seven degrees in 100,000
rears), to have been assumed on any other ground but the
irbitrary one just now stated. The astronomical instruments
employed by the Hindus, of which Bh&skara describes nine,
ncluding one of his own invention, and comprehending the
juadrant, semicircle and entire circle, besides the armillary
iphere, horary ring, gnomon and clepsydra,' were too rudely
executed, whatever may be thought of their design, to enable
he astronomers to make very delicate observations ; and they
'ere not assisted, as in the precession of the equinoxes, by the
lemory of a former position recorded in their ancient writings.
^ Mottucla, p. 349. ' Bh&skara in y&Ban&-bh&8hya.
s Golddhydya. ch. 9.
364
HINDU ASTBONOMEBS
VpAii-
TBIU.
4,120,000
811,040,000
4,854^,000
1,986,120,000
8,179
1,986,123,179
[414] NOTB BXFBBBED TO FBOM PAOV [803].
According to Aryabha^ as quoted by Brabmagnpta and bk
daka-fw&mf : —
One yuffa contain! ... .^
One mahd yuga s 4 yugtu
One Manu yuga = 72 mahd yugat ... •••
One kalpa = 14 3fanu§ s 1008 ntahd yugas ...
^gr Tbe kalpa began on Thnnday, lit Cbaitra-tfnkla, at Hie
moment of sonriM at Lankk.
Tears expired from tbe commencement of tbe kaipa to the war
of tbe Bbirata, or beginning of tbe Kali age ...
Add expired years of tbe Kali to tbe S'&ka era
Yean from tbe beginning of tbe kalpa to tbe commencement of
ine o uui era ... ••• ••• .«• •••
Years expired frt>m tbe commencement of tbe present mahd
yugoy to tbe beginning of tbe Kali age, wben tbere was a
conjunction
BeTolutions of tbe eartb round its own axis, in a quadruple yuga
or mahd yuga ... ... ... ... ... 1,582,237,W0
Hence, deducting revolutions of tbe sun ... ... ... 4,320,000
Remain, nyctbemera, or tdvana days, in a mdha yvga ... 1,677,017,M0
^gr Lengtb of tbe sidereal year is,^ d. g.in d.h.in
therefore, according to Aryabhatta:— ( 866 16 31 15 or 865 6 U »
N.B. — Aryabhatta taught the earth*s diurnal revolution round its axis; ada^
trine which Brohmagupta controverts; but to which bis scholiast Pfithtidab*
riw&mi inclines.
According to the Paulirfa-siddhJinta cited hy Bhattotpala on Var&hamibin'*
Sanhitk, and by Prithildaka.sw&mi on Brahmagupta's Siddb^ta : —
Krifa yuga, 4,800 divine years = 1,728,000
3,240,000
Tretd,
DwdparUy
3,600
2,400
1,200
= 1,296,000
= 864,000
Kali,
3,888,000
r= 432,000
Mahd yuga
= 4,320,000
This author's computation of the kalpa has not been found in any qwtt-
tion ; hut he is cited as reckoning its commencement from midnight
[415] Years expired from the commencement of the present mahd
yuga to the first conjunction of the planets in the Erita yuga
Internal between that and the last conjunction, at the beginning
of the AV//i y!^a ...
648,000
3,240,000
Years expired to the commencement of the Kali yuga
Mean solar {iaura) days, termed by other astronomers tdvana
ilAy^f in one mahd yaga
3,
1,677.917,800
ON THE EQUINOXES.
365
d. R. I n d. h. I XX
365 16 31 30 or 365 6 12 36
Length of the year according to \
iliia-siddh&nta : — /
. — ^The difference of 300 days in the oomputationB of Aryabhatta and
giTes one day in 14,400 years, as is remarked by Brahmagupta.
fth of the year according to \ d.g. iiixn d.h.inmiT
rya-siddhanta:— / 365 15 31 31 24=365 6 12 36 33 36
Tding to Brahmagupta:— 365 15 30 22 30=365 6 12 9
eomputation of the yt^a and kalpa^ according to these anthorities, is well
, and need not be exhibited in this place. They make it begin on Sunday;
) at midnight, the other at suurise, on the meridian of Lank& ; and the
years to the beginning of the Kali age are, 1,972,944,000. To which
igupta adds 3,179 years to the S'&ka era. The Sdrya-siddh6nta deducts
.(KK) years ; making the epoch of a supposed conjunction of planets by so
'ears later than the beginning of the kalpa.
RBYOLTTTIOXa OF THE PlANBTS.
periodical) ..
According to Puli^a
quoted by
Bha^tpala,
In a tnahd yuga,
4,320,000
, 57,753,336
2,296,824
17,937,000
364,220
7,022,388
146,564
According to
the
S6rya-siddh&nta,
In a mahd yvga.
4,320,000
57,753,336
2,296,832
17,937,060
364,220
7,022,376
146,568
According
to
Brahmagupta,
In a kalpa,
4,320,000,000
57,753,300,000
2,296,828,522
17,936,998,984
364,226,455
7,022,389,492
146,567,298
Days
1,577,917,800 1,577,917,828 1,577,916,450,000
I it^* Aryabhatta states the rcToIutions of Jupiter at 364,224; and Var&ha-
I rule for the cycle of sixty years of Jupiter is founded on that number,
nods assigned by these two authors to other planets have not been ascer-
except Saturn's aphelion, reckoned by Aryabhatta at fifty-four reTolutions
ilpa. Aryabhatta's numbers are said to ha^e been derived from the
■a-dddh&nta. (As. Bes., toI. ii., p. 242.)
1
366
APPENDIX TO ESSAYS ON HINDU
ASTRONOMY.
[%* In the Astatic Journal for 1826 Colebrooke wroteareplj
to an attack which Bentley had published during the preceding
year in his Hindu Astronomy. The attack was severe and un-
warranted, and the language of part of the reply was unasoallj
warm. I have reprinted that part of the letter which seemed to
me to throw light on some of the author's views; but I lutTe
omitted everything of a personal nature, as unsuited to the tone
of judicial calmness which pervades the Essays. — £d.]
I NOW proceed to Mr. Bentley'^s direct attack on myself in
the sixth flection of the second part of his posthumous work.
His position is, that the longitudes of stars reckoned from
the beginning of the Hindu sphere must be the same, whether
given by an astronomer who lived a thousand years ago, or by
one who only lived fifty years since; because they are reckoned
from the same point. . . . Hence he affirms, "Mr. Colebrooke's
notions are altogether unfounded."
I have shown in my treatise on the Indian divisions of the
Zodiac (As. Res., vol. ix.), that the longitudes given in the
Indian tables are the longitudes of the stars'* circles of declina-
ation, and not of the stars themselves. It is distinctly so said
by the Hindu writers cited by me in that Essay. The manner
in which they direct observations to be made confirms the
conclusion ; for the intersecting circle, which they use on an
armillary sphere to make the observation, is a circle of declin-
ation. I have repeatedly and explicitly so affirmed. I never
maintained that tables of true longitudes would vary with the
APPENDIX TO ESSAYS ON HINDU ASTRONOMY. 367
time for which they are prepared. But surely tables of the
longitudes of circles of declination are afiected by precession,
and require correction accordingly,
Mr. Bentley was aware of the distinction drawn by me, and
has more than once noticed it in his posthumous work ; but he
suppresses that essential distinction in this place. I again
assert^ that the tabular longitudes and latitudes given in the
Surya-siddh&nta and certain other Hindu works are not the
true longitudes and latitudes of stars ; nor did I speak of
the stars^ true longitudes in the passage in question. The
computation which Mr. Bentley has himself exhibited from
a Hindu author (at p. 176) evidently shows that the tabular
longitude is that of the start's circle of declination ; and not
the star itself, which must be deduced from it by computation.
In fact, I have nowhere endeavoured to deduce the age of
any Hindu work from longitudes of stars. The passage which
I presume Mr. Bentley questions is one contained in my essay
on the Indian divisions of the Zodiac, where '^ I suppose the
original observations, of which the result is copied by succes-
sive authors, to have been made about the time when the
vernal equinox was near the first degree of Mesha ; " adding
in a note, that ^' Brahmagupta wrote soon after that period,
and the Surya-siddh&nta is probably a work of nearly the
same age. Mr. Bentley considers it more modem. It cannot
be more ancient ; for the equinox must have past the begin-
ning of Mesha, or have been near it, when that work was
composed."
This I take to be what gave offence to Mr. Bentley. But
it certainly does not express, nor hint, that the antiquity of a
Hindu work may be deduced from the longitude of stars given
in it.
Mr. Bentley (p. 199) pretends that " I was determined to
adopt a new mode (by the longitudes of the fixed stars from
the beginning of Aswini) for determining the age of the
Burya-siddh&nta.'' I did not do so; and as there is no
368 APPENDIX TO ESSAYS
reference to any particular passage, I can only conjecture thst
the one just now quoted is that to which he alluded.
Mr. Bentley misrepresents the question when he takes Cor
leonis for an example. This star (the Magh& of the Indian
zodiac) has no latitude in Hindu tables ; and consequently the
longitude of this star and that of its circle of declination are
the same, and invariable according to those tables. Bat in
the instance of stars which are distant from the ecliptic, the
Hindu tables differ notably as to the longitude of stars' cirdee
of declination.
In the instance of Brahmagupta I drew an inference as to the
age when this author flourished, from his placing Revatf {^ Pis-
cium) precisely in the equinoctial point, without latitude or de-
clination, and with no longitude. If Mr. Bentley had an eye to
this passage {Notes and liiustrafions, p. xxxv), he has misrepre-
sented my meaning ; for it is not from the longitude of the star,
but from the coincidence of the tropical and sidereal spheres,
according to Brahmagupta, that I here deduce the author's age.
Mr. Bentley comes next to what he terms Mr. C's otha
point, viz., the inference of Var&hamihira having lived 1300
years ago, because he stated one solstice in Karkata and
another in Makara. Mr. Bentley says that " Mr. Cole-
brooke has drawn a most incorrect conclusion."
I did not, as Mr. Bentley pretends, confound the tropical
and sidereal spheres. My position was that the passage of
Varaliainihira implied the actual coincidence of the two in his
time. " At present," ho says, " one solstice is in the begin-
ning of Karkata, and the other in the beginning of Makara."
Mr. Bentley, after quoting the words, says, by this passage of
Vardhaniiliira, the solstices were always at the beginning of
Cancer and Capricorn. Are they not so now ?
By that passage the solstices were not always at the be-
ginning of Cancer and Capricorn. They are expressly said to
be so at present ; and a different former position of them is
distinctly affirmed in the context of that very passage. See
OH HINDU ASTEONOMT. 869
liatn Jones's supplement to his Essay on Indiui
^gy, As. Bes., Vol. ii., p. 391.
>ther passage of the same author similar terms occur
I., vol. xii., p. 222). The solstice is there said to have
been in the middle of Asleshd ; but now the return
un takes place from Pumurvastt. Here, then, it is
kt the sidereal, not the tropical, sphere is meant. Mr.
has imputed to me as an error, that which, were it
r at all, was Sir William Jones's, but was never im-
iy Mr. Bentley until I used the same argument. He
self employed it to determine the age of Brahmagupta
s., Yol. viii., pp. 233 and 235), who flourished about
\ when the solstitial colure cat Punarvasu in the
gree, as is affirmed by Brahmagupta.
fit luits his puriK>se, Mr. Be^^, was ready enough
t that the Hindu sphere is sidereal He distinctly
to be so at p. 163.
e tropical sphere were intended by any Hindu as-
r in a passage relative to the position of the colures,
be by Brahmagupta, who has not noticed any former
position of them, nor spoken of the precession of the
3s. Yet Mr. Bentley proposed the same argument, in
to Brahmagupta, which he rejects, where it is more
in reference to Yar&hamihira : the one made for,
er against, the assumed ages of those astronomers
rely.
Bentley charges, as a mistranslation, when I put
'* for ashtamiy and "fifteenth" for panchadaiL
ijs these terms refer to the moon's age, and never to
of the month. My answer to this piece of hjrper-
L is, that the moon's age is the day of the month,
ig by lunar time, which is the ordinary Hindu mode,
her point which Mr. Bentley has made the ground of
k levelled at me, though I am not named by him, con*
e precession of equinoxes. The Hindu notion, as Mr.
m. [B88AY8 U.] 24
370 APPENDIX TO ESSAYS
Bentley describes it, is represented by an epicycle ; but it
is not the less true that a libration or oscillatory change is
meant. For what else but libration is that change which
advances at an uniform rate to a certain limit, then decreases
at the same uniform rate to the like limit on the other ude;
and so on, backwards and forwards, alternately affirmatiye
and negative, or additive and subtractive P Now, whether this
change be represented by an epicycle or an oscillation, matters
little : it is but a dispute about words, whether it should be
termed a revolution in an epicycle, or trepidation in longitude,
or libration. Mr. Samuel Davis termed it libration. I followed
him in using the same term, which had be^i unquestioned. I
showed that the same notion was to be found in the writings
of Arabian astronomers.
The Hindus have not contended that their epicycles re-
present truly the theory of the celestial motions. In this
instance, in particular, an epicycle does not well show the
uniformity of the motion. For, the annual precession bdog
uniform in the arc of the great circle, the motion is not uniform
in the epicycle by which it is represented.
Mr. Bentley objects (p. 192) to Vishnuchandra^s number of
revolutions of the equinoxes in a kalpa, concerning which, be
says, I altered my opinion, and stated it to be right, having
previously questioned it : if tried with the years now elapsed
of any of the known kalpas^ Mr. Bentley remarks, it will not
give the quantity of the precession for the present time. The
answer is very simple : the kalpasy by which Mr. Bentley tried
the rule, are not Vishnuchandra's. The expired years of
that cycle, by him admitted, are yet unascertained. The
system of one author is not to be tried by the numbers of
another's.
Concerning Mr. Bentley's story of the fabrication of a
spurious Brahma-siddhdnta to impose on my credulity, I need
only say that it is an idle guess, destitute of the smallest
probability, and untrue in all particulars. The manuscript,
ON HINDU ASTRONOMY. 371
which he treats as a &brication, has been long deposited, with
the whole of my collections, in the East India Oompany'*s
Library, where it may be inspected and examined by any
Sanskrit scholar, who will pronounce without difficulty on the
likelihood of its genuineness or imposture.
I might retort on Mr. fientley that the Arya-siddh&nta,
described by him in the third section of the second part of his
posthumous work, is not improbably a fabrication. No one
but himself has yet seen it : the manuscript of it is not forth-
coming : he did not understand Sanskrit, and therefore he was
Tery liable to imposition : his notions, not to say prejudices,
vera well known to the natiyes who attended him ; and he
was as likely as his friend Col. Wilford to have fabrications
imposed upon him. According to the quotations of authors,
Xry^htaka and Dasagitikd were the titles of Aryabhatta's
works, and not Arya-siddh&nta. It is, in all likelihood,
peeudonymous.
In reference to this matter I should here add, that after the
essay, in which I quoted the Brahma-siddh&nta, had been
presented to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, and while the
question of its insertion in the Society's volume was yet under
consideration, Mr. Bentley submitted to the Committee of
Papers the sketch of an intended answer. There was in that
sketch a gross error concerning the mean motions of planets ;
which I noticed in a short reply. The answer has never
appeared: it was suppressed, as I infer, in consequence of
that confutation of one of its main arguments.
The next important point regards the question whether the
heliacal or cosmical rising of Canopus bo intended in rules
delivered by Hindu astronomers for the computation of the
Agastya XJdaya, which governs certain religious ceremonies
that are to be performed when the star appears.
Mr. Bentley says, " the rules give the cosmical risings of
Canopus, and not the heliacal : '' and " this," he adds, " is
evident from the authors themselves, who only state that,
372 APPENDIX TO SSSATS
when the son is in the longitude given by the role, then the
star rises with the sun, and not a syllable about its bmng
yisible."
The words in my translation, which ia what Hr. Bentky
uses (he himself was ignorant of Sanskrit), are, ''when
Agastya rises or appears in the south at the close of the
night." Surely it cannot be said that there ia nothing aboat
the star being visible ; for what else does its appearance in the
south intend P
Vardhamihira^B rule of computation, as Mr. Bentlej a^
knowledges, relates to the heliacal rising of Canopus; the
instance which he exhibits of a computation by Lakshmidin
gives the heliacal rising of the star. It is the heliacal risiog,
not the cosmical, which governs certain religious rites, for
the sake of which the computation is instituted. Yet, in the
face of all this, and much more, Mr. Bentley chooses to Imde^
stand the rule given in the Bh&swati, and other works, ae re-
lative to the cosmical rising, that he may strain it into aa
argument for his new hypothesis of extensive forgeries in die
time of Akbar.
The truth is, that the observations of Hindu astronomers
were ever extremely coarse and imperfect, and their practice
very inferior to their theory of Astronomy. An improTed
theory, or the hint of it, was borrowed from the west; but
they did not learn to make correct observations. They vere
content, in practice, with a rude approximation.
Vardhamihira teaches two rules, which give results widelj
diflferent, for the rising of Canopus ; yet he marks no preference
for one above the other. The Hindu observations of this star
are so discordant, that the longitude of its circle of declination
differs 10^ as given in various tables. It is 90^ in one, 8? in
two others, and 80"* in a fourth. We are not to try their
rules by the test of their agreement with accurate observatioD
at any assignable moment, and thence conclude that the role
and its correct application are contemporaneous.
ON HINDU ASTRONOMY. 373
This has always been the point at issue between Mr.
Bentlej and me. He maintained, in his first essay, that the
age of an astronomical Hindu treatise can be so determined
with precision. I have always contended that their practical
astronomy has been too loose and imperfect for the application
of that test, unless as an approximation.
In one instance^ by the rigorous use of his test, he would
have had to pronounce that the work under examination is of
an age yet to. come (1454 years after a.d. 1799) : see As.
Res., Yol. yi., p. 670. To avoid so monstrous an absurdity,
lie rejected this case, and deduced a mean from the whole of
the other results, yarying fix)m 340 to 1105 years. He should
hare done the same with Yardha's two rules for the heliacal
rising of Ganopus : he should have taken the mean of the
two ; or, what would be more consonant with his own method
of proceeding, he should have deduced the mean of all the
data which any one work (Yar&ha's, for example) furnished,
and not garbled it by selecting the case of Ganopus singly,
and drawing an inference from one out of two rules given.
The absurd conclusions at which Mr. Bentley has arrived
by the limited and exclusive application of his test, the utter
confusion which ensues, sufficiently demonstrate that it is not
to be safely and implicitly trusted.
He pretends (p. 199) that I saw this mode of determining
the antiquity of astronomical books by the positions of the
planets sufficiently correct, when it suited my purpose, in
the case of Brahmagupta, but would not admit it to be so
with respect to the Surya-siddh&nta. This is utterly untrue :
I never admitted it (though I am ready to do so as an ap-
proximation) in the case of Brahmagupta. I explicitly did so
admit it in the instance of the Surya-siddh&nta. (As. Bes.,
vol. xii., p. 226.^) I distinctly there said that " I accede to
the position that the date of a system for the computation of
the places of planets is deducible from the ascertainment of a
' [P. 343 in the present yolume.]
u:zifcf TOtaL ^ 5T?t€in ssv» reaaka nearest to the trath."
ILr. 2«aicLt!y ihen has, ocoimzj to tnith, represented me as
jiiiLccoiseii zo admit that, nieh I expressly acceded to,
-•s^iitn^tilj declaring that I did ».
I JuT^ been no &Toarer nor advocate of Indian astronomy.
I 2Ar^ endearonred to lay bef jf« the public, in an intelligible
Inn. the froit of mj researches conceming it : I hare re->
p»fa:<«il]r noticed its imperfecdocs ; and hare been ready to
almit that it has been no scanty bonover as to theory.
The Hindus, as I hare elsewhere remarked, colUvated
ae:ronomT for the sake of astrology, and for the regolation
o; their reli^noos feasts. They hare been content with a verj
iiiacoarate practice of it, which, however, was sufficient for the
parp>«es of divination and a festal calendar.
Mr. Bentley concludes forgery and imposture where I onlj
infer carelessness and inaccuracy.
i
375
XVI.
DISSERTATION ON THE ALGEBRA OF THE
HINDUS.
[Prefixed to the Author's ' Algebra, with Arithmetic and Mensuration, from the
Sanskrit of Brahmag;upta and BhfiBkara/ London, 1817. 4to.]
[417] The history of sciences, if it want the prepossessing
attractions of political history and narration of events, is
neyertheless not wholly devoid of interest and instruction. A
laudable curiosity prompts to inquire the sources of knowledge;
and a review of its progress furnishes suggestions tending to
promote the same or some kindred study. We would know
the people and the names at least of the individuab, to whom
we owe particular discoveries and successive steps in the
advancement of knowledge. If no more be obtained by the
research, still the inquiry has not been wasted, which points
aright the gratitude of mankind.
In the history of mathematical science, it has long been a
question to whom the invention of Algebraic analysis is due P
among what people, in what region, was it devised P by whom
was it cultivated and promoted P or by whose labours was it
reduced to form and system P and finally, from what quarter
did the diffusion of its knowledge proceed P No doubt, indeed,
is entertained of the source from which it was received im-
mediately by modem Europe ; though the channel have been
a matter of question. We are well assured, that the Arabs
376 DISSERTATION ON THB
were mediately or immediately our instructors in this stady.
But the Arabs them[418]selves scarcely pretend to the dis-
covery of Algebra. They were not in general inTcntors but
scholars, daring the short period of their saccessfnl culture
of the sciences : and the germ at least of the Algebraic
analysis is to be found among the Greeks in an age not
precisely determined, but more than probably anterior to the
earliest dawn of civilization among the Arabs ; and this
science in a more advanced state subsisted among the Hindus
prior to the earliest disclosure of it by the Arabians to modern
Europe.
The object of the present publication is to exhibit the
science in the state in which the Hindus possessed it, by an
exact version of the most approved treatise on it in the
ancient language of India, with one of the earlier treatises
(the only extant one) from which it was compiled. The
design of this preliminary dissertation is to deduce from these
and from the evidence which will be here offered, the degree
of advancement to which the science had arrived in a remote
age. Observations will be added, tending to a comparison of
the Indian with the Arabian, the Grecian, and the modern
Algebra : and the subject will be left to the consideration of
the learned, for a conclusion to be drawn by them from the
internal, no less than the external proof, on the question who
can best vindicate a claim to the merit of having originally
invented or first improved the methods of computation
and analysis, which are the groundwork of both the simple
and abstruser parts of Mathematics; that is, Arithmetic and
Algebra: so far, at least, as the ancient inventions are affected j
and also in particular points, where recent discoveries are
concerned.
In the actual advanced condition of the analytic art, it is
not hoped, that this version of ancient Sanskrit treatises on
Algebra, Arithmetic, and Mensuration, will add to there-
sources of the art, and throw new light on mathematical
ALGEBEA OP THE HINDUS. 377
sience, in any other respect, than as concerns its history.
(19] Yet the renuurk may not seem inapposite, that had an
irlier version of these treatises been completed, had they
dm translated and given to the public when the notice of
tathematieians was first drawn to the attainments of the
[indus in astronomy and in sciences connected with it, some
Idition wonld hare been then made to the means and re-
Hiroes of Algebra for the general solution of problems by
lethods which have been re-invented, or have been perfected,
I the last age.
Tlie treatises in question, which occupy the present volume,
re the Vija-ga^ita and Lil&vati of Bh&skara-dch&rya, and
lie Ganit&dhy&ya and Kuttakadhy&ya of Brahmagupta. The
vo first mentioned constitute the preliminary portion of
Ih&skara^s Course of Astronomy, entitled Siddh&nta-siromani.
lie two last are the twelfth and eighteenth chapters of
similar course of astronomy, by Brahmagupta, entitled
Ir&braa-siddh&nta.
The questions to be first examined in relation to these
orks are their authenticity and their age. To the considera-
on of those points we now proceed.
The period when Bh&skara, the latest of the authors now
nmed, flourished, and the time when he wrote, are ascertained
ith unusual precision. He completed his great work, the
iddh&nta-siromani, as he himself informs us in a passage of
J in the vear 1072 S&ka. This information receives cor-
)boration, if any be wanted, from the date of another of his
(Hrks, the Karana-kutdhala, a practical astronomical treatise,
le epoch of which is 1105 j^&ka;' thirty-three years sub-
iquent to the completion of the systematic treatise. The
ite of the Siddh&nta-siromani, of which the Vija-ganita and
lil&vati are parts, [420] is fixed, then, with the utmost
^ CMddky&pa, or lecture on the sphere, c. 11. } 56. As. Res., rol. zii. p. 214
p. 333 of the present rolume].
' As. Res., ibid.
378 DISSERTATION ON THE
exactness, on the most satis&ctory groondfl, at the middle of
the twelfth centuiy of the Christian era, A.D. 1150.^
The genuineness of the text is established with no lees
certainty by numerous commentators in Sanskrit, besides %
Persian version of it. Those commentaries comprise a pe^
petual gloss, in which every passage of the original is noticed
and interpreted : and every word of it is repeated and ex-
plained. A comparison of them authenticates the text where
they agree ; and would serve, where they did not, to detect any
alterations of it that might have taken place, or variations, if
any had crept in, subsequent to the composition of the earliest
of them. A careful collation of several commentaries,' and of
three copies of the original work, has been made ; and it will
be seen in the notes to the translation how unimportant are
tlie discrepancies.
From comparison and collation, it appears then that the
work of Bh&skara, exhibiting the same uniform text which
the modem transcripts of it do, was in the hands cihoih
Muhammadans and Hindus, between two and three centuries
ago : and, numerous copies of it having been diffused through-
out India, at an earlier period, as of a performance held io
high estimation, it was the subject of study and habitual
reference in countries and places so remote from each other as
the north and west of India and the southern peninsula ; or,
to speak with the utmost precision, Jambusara in the west,
Agra in North Hindustan, and P&rthapura, Golagr&ma, Ama-
r&vati, and Nandigr&ma, in the south.
[421] This, though not marking any extraordinary an-
tiquity, nor approaching to that of the author himself, was a
material point to be determined : as there will be in the sequel
occasion to show that modes of analysis, and, in particuhir,
* Though the matter be introductory, the preliminary treatises on arithmetic
and algebra may have been added subsequently, as is hinted by one of the com-
mentators of the astronomical part (Vfirttik). The order there intimated places
them after the computation of planets, but before the treatise on spherics; wbicb
contains the date. ' Note A.
ALGEBRA OP THE HINDUS. 379
ral methods for the solution of indeterminate problems,
of the first and second degrees, are taught in the Vija-
ta, and those for the first degree repeated in the Lil&vati,
li were unknown to the mathematicians of the west until
Qted anew in the last two centuries by algebraists of
ice and England. It will be also shown that Bh&skara,
himself flourished more than six hundred and fifty years
was in this respect a compiler, and took those methods
. Indian authors as much more ancient than himself.
bat Bh&skara's text (meaning the metrical rules and
iples, apart from the interspersed gloss) had continued
tered from the period of the compilation of his work
. the age of the commentaries now current, is apparent
the care with which they have noticed its various
ings and the little actual importance of these variations ;
d to the consideration that earlier commentaries, in-
ing the author's own explanatory annotations of his text,
extant^ and lay before them for consultation and refer-
Those earlier commentaries are occasionally cited by
iz particularly the Oanita-kaumudi, which is repeatedly
ed by more than one of the scholiasts.^
3 doubt then can be reasonably entertained that we now
388 the arithmetic and algebra of Bh&skara, as composed
published by him in the middle of the twelfth century
le Christian era. The age of his precursors cannot be
mined with equal precision. Let [422] us proceed, how-
to examine the evidence, such as we can at present
Bt, of their antiquity.
awards the close of his treatise on Algebra,' Bhdskara
ms us that it is compiled and abridged from the more
30 works on the same subject bearing the names of
ma (meaning no doubt Brahmagupta), Sridhara, and
oan&bha; and in the body of his treatise he has cited a
91 example, by Stiryad&Ba, under Lil&vatl, } 74 ; and Btill more frequently
Qgan&tha. * Vfja-ga^ta, { 218.
380 DISSEETATION ON THB
passage of ^ridhara's algebra,^ and another of PadmanfibhaV
He repeatedly adverts to preceding writers, and refers to them
in general terms, where his commentators understand him to
allude to ^ryabhattai to Brahmagupta, to the latter's scholiiut
ChaturYeda-pfithudaka-sw&mi,* and to the other writers aboT»
mentioned.
Most, if not all, of the treatises to which he thus Jluim,
must have been extant and in the handa of his oommentaton
when they wrote, as appears from their quotations of them;
more especially those of Brahmagupta and ^ryabhatta^ lAo
are cited, and particularly the first mentioned, in seTenl in*
stances.^ A long and diligent research in various parts of
India has, however, fiuled of recovering any part of the
Padman&bha-Tija (or Algebra of Padman&bha), and of the
algebraic and other works of ^ryabhatta.' But the translator
has been more fortunate in regard to the works of 6ridhsn
and Brahmagupta^ having in his collection firidhara's com-
pendium of arithmetic, and a copy, incomplete howev^, of the
text and scholia of Brahmagupta's Br&hma-siddh&nta, ccmd-
prising, among other no less interesting matter, a chapter
treating of arithmetic and mensuration ; and another, [423]
the subject of which is algebra : both of them fortunately
complete.*
The commentary is a perpetual one ; succedsively quoting
at length each verse of the text; proceeding to the inte^
pretation of it, word by word; and subjoining elucidations
and remarks : and its colophon, at the close of each chapter,
gives the title of the work and the name of the authorJ
Now the name which is there given, Chaturveda-prithudaka-
sw&nii, is that of a celebrated scholiast of Brahmagopta,
» Vya-ganita, } 131. • /*W, § U2.
s Vija-ga?., ch. 5, note of Stiryad&sa. Also Vijt-ga?., { 174 ; and LIL, {2i^
adjinem, * For example, under LiL, ch. li-
ft Note G. • Note B.
"> Vksan^-bh&shja, by ChatnrredA-prithddaka-swflimi, ion of MadhnfAdtfi,
on the Br&hmt-siddhknta (or sometimes Br&hma-spha^-iiddh&nta}.
ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS. 381
requently cited as such bj the commentaries "of Bh&skara
nd by other astronomical writers : and the title of the work,
tr&hma-siddh&nta,^ or sometimes Br&hma-sphuta-siddh&nta,
orresponds, in the shorter form, to the known title of Brahma-
iipta's treatise in the usual references to it by Bh&skara's
ommentators ;' and answers, in the longer form, to the desig-
lation of it, as indicated in an introductory couplet which is
[uoted from Brahmagupta by Lakshmid&sa, a scholiast of
ihfiskara.'
Bemarking this coincidence, the translator proceeded to
ollate, with the text and commentary, numerous quotations
rem both, which he found in Bh&kara^s writings, or in those
f his expositors. The result confirmed the indication, and
fttablished the identity of both text and scholia as Brahma-
;apta^s treatise, and the gloss of Ppthddaka. The authen-
icity of this Br&hma-siddh&nta is further confirmed by
lumerous quotations in the commentary of Bhattotpala on
he sanhitd of Yar&ha[424]mihira : as the quotations from
lie Br^ma-siddh&nta in that commentary (which is the work
»f an author who flourished eight hundred and fifty years
igo) are verified in the copy under consideration. A few
nstances of both will sufiice, and cannot fail to produce
xmviction.^
It is confidently concluded, that the chapters on arithmetic
md algebra, fortunately entire in a copy, in many parts
mperfect, of Brahmagupta's celebrated work, as here de-
Msribed, are genuine and authentic. It remains to investigate
he age of the author.
Mr. Davis, who first opened to the public a correct view of
;lie astronomical computations of the Hindus,^ is of opinion,
bhat Brahmagupta lived in the seventh century of the Christian
1 [It is more usually written Brahma-riddh&nta, and bo Golebrooke himself
lometimes writes it]
* They often quote from the Br&hma-siddh&nta after premising a reference to
Brahmagupta.
s Note C. ^ Note D. » As. Ees., toI. ii. p. 225.
382 DISSERTATION ON THE
era.^ Dr. William Hunter, who resided for some time with
a British embassy at XJjjayanf, and made diligent researches
into the remains of Indian science at that ancient seat of
Hindu astronomical knowledge, was there furnished, by the
learned astronomers whom he consulted, with the ages of the
principal ancient authorities. They assigned to Brahmagapta
the date of 550 l^&ka; which answers to a.d. 628. The
grounds on which they proceeded are unfortunately not
specified : but, as they gave Bh&skara's age correctly, as wdl
as several other dates right, which admit of being rerified, it
is presumed that they had grounds, though unexplained, for
the information which they communicated.'
Mr. Bentley, who is little disposed to &Your the antiqoifyof
an Indian astronomer, has given his reasons for considering the
astronomical system which Brahmagupta teaches, to be between
twelve and thirteen hundred years old (1263f years in aj).
1799).' Now, as the system taught by this author is profiassedly
one corrected [425] and adapted by him to conform with
the observed positions of the celestial objects when he wrote,*
the age, when their positions would be conformable with the
results of computations made as by him directed, is precisely
the ago of the author himself: and so far as Mr. Bentle/s
calcuhitions may be considered to approximate to the truth,
the date of Brahmagupta's performance is determined with
like approach to exactness, within a certain latitude however
of uncertainty for allowance to be made on account of the
inaccuracy of Hindu observations.
The translator has assigned on former occasions* the
grounds upon which he sees reason to place the author's
age, soon after the period when the venial equinox coincided
with the beginning of the lunar mansion and zodiacal asterism
1 As. Res. vol. ii. p. 242.
' Note E. [Dr. Bhkn D6,ji has shown by a quotation from the Brahma-ipkuf^
\\<hihdnta that Brahma^pta fixes the date of composition of that work as 550
S7ika, or a.d. 628.] ' As. Res., vol. vi. p. 686.
* Supra. * As. Res., vol. ix. p. 329 [p. 287 of the present rolume].
ALGEBRA OP THE HINDUS. 383
Aswinf, where the Hindu ecliptic now commences. He is
sapported in it by the sentiments of Bh&skara and other
Indian astronomers, who infer from Brahmagupta's doctrine
concerning the solstitial points, of which he does not admit a
periodical motion, that he lived when the equinoxes did not,
sensibly to him, deviate from the beginning of Aswini and
middle of Chitrd on the Hindu sphere.^ On these grounds it
18 maintained that Brahmagupta is rightly placed in the sixth
or beginning of the seventh century of the Christian era ; as
the subjoined calculations will more particularly show.^ The
age when Brahmagupta flourished seems, then^ from the con-
eoirence of all these arguments, to be satisfactorily settled as
antecedent to the earliest dawn of the culture of sciences
among the Arabs ; and consequently establishes the fact that
the Hindus were in possession of algebra before it was known
to the Arabians.
[426] Brahmagupta's treatise, however, is not the earliest
work known to have been written on the same subject by an
Indian author. The most eminent scholiast of Bh&skara^
quotes a passage of Aryabhatta specifying algebra under the
designation of Yija, and making separate mention of Kuttaka,
which more particularly intends a problem subservient to
the general method of resolution of indeterminate problems
of the first degree : he is understood by another of Bh^kara's
oommentators * to be at the head of the elder writers, to whom
the text then under consideration adverts, as having desig-
nated by the name of Madhyam&harana the resolution of
affected quadratic equations by means of the completion of the
square. It is to be presumed, therefore, that the treatise of
iGryabhatta then extant did extend to quadratic equations in
the determinate analysis, and to indeterminate problems of the
first degree ; if not to those of the second likewise, as most
probably it did.
^ As. Res., vol. xii. p. 216 [p. 334 of the present volume]. * Kotc P.
' Gai^e^a, a distinguished mathematician and astronomer.
* Stir, on Vija-gai^. } 128.
384 DISSSETATION ON THE
This ancient astronomer and algebraist was anterior to l>otIi
Yar&hamihira and Brahmagnpta, being repeatedly named lij
the latter; and the determination of the age when he flourished
is particalarlj interesting, as his astronomical system, though
on some points agreeing, essentially disagreed on others, with
that which those authors have followed, and which the Hioda
astronomers still maintain.^
He is considered by the commentators of the 811171-
siddh&nta and Siromani,' as the earliest of uninspired and
mere human writers on the science of astronomy ; as haTing
introduced requisite corrections into the system of [427] Paii-
sara, from whom he took the numbers for the planetaiy mem
motions ; as having been followed in the tract of emendatioo,
after a sufficient interval to make further correction reqnirite,
by Durgasinha and Mihira ; who were again sncceeded after
a further interval by Brahmagupta sou of Jishi^u.'
In short, Aryabhatta was founder of one of the sects of
Indian astronomers, as Puli^a, an author likewise anteriw to
both Var&hamihira and Brahmagupta, was of another : wfaidi
were distinguished by names derived from the discriminatlTe
tenets respecting the commencement of planetary motions it
sunrise according to the first, but at midnight according to
the latter,^ on tlie meridian of Lankd, at the beginning of the
great astronomical cycle. A third sect began the astronomical
day, as well as the great period, at noon.
His name accompanied the intimation which the Arah
astronomers (under the Abbasside Khalifs, as it would appear)
received, that three distinct astronomical systems were current
among the Hindus of those days : and it is but slightly cor-
rupted, certainly not at all disguised, in the Arabic represen-
* Note G. ' Nrisinha on S6r. Ga^es'o, pref. to Grali. l&gh.
» As. Res. vol. ii. pp. 236, 242, and 244 ; and Note H.
* Brahmn^pta, ch. 11. The names are Andayaka from Udaya * rising;' isd
A'rdharbtrika from Ardhardtriy * midnight.' The third school is noticed bj Bhit-
totpala, the ttcholiast of Yar&hamihira, under the denomination of MfrdhjaDdioA
as alleging the commencement of the astronomical period at noon (froB M*'
dhyandina^ 'middaj').
ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS. 385
tation of it Aryabahary or rather Arjabhar.^ The two other
systoms were, first, Brahmagupta's [428] Siddh&nta, which
was the one thej became best acquainted with, and to which
they apply the denomination of the aind^hind; and second,
that of Arka^ the Sun, which they write ^kand, a corruption
still prevalent in the vulgar Hindi.'
i^abhatta appears to have had more correct notions of
the true explanation of celestial phenomena than Brahma-
gupta himself; who, in a few instances, correcting errors of
his predecessor, but oftener deviating from that predecessor's
joster views, has been followed by the herd of modem Hindu
astronomers, in a system not improved, but deteriorated, since
the time of the more ancient author.
Oonsidering the proficiency of ^ryabhatta in astronomical
sdence, and adverting to the fact of his having written upon
Algebra, as well as to the circumstance of his being named by
numerous writers as the founder of a sect or author of a system
in astronomy, and being quoted at the head of algebraists,
when the commentators of extant treatises have occasion to
mention early and original^ writers on this branch of science,
it is not necessary to seek further for a mathematician
qualified to have been the great improver of the analytic art,
and likely to have been the person by whom it was carried to
the pitch to which it is found to have attained among the
Hindus, and at which it is observed to be nearly stationary
throogh the long lapse of ages which have since passed : the
later additions being few and unessential in the writings of
Brahmagupta, of Bh&skara, and of Jn4na-r4ja, though they
lived at intervals of centuries from each other.
^ The Sanskrit /, it is to be remembered, is the character of a peculiar sound
<rften mistaken for r, and which the Arabs were likely so to write, rather than
with a <0 or with a tau. The Hindi f is generally written by the English in
India with an r. Example : Ber {vafa), the Indian fig, Tolg. Banian tree. [Cf.
iJbfrtoS, Beinand's M^moire, p. 322.]
* Sea notes I, E, and N.
> Sdrya-d&sa on Yija-ga^itai ch. 6.
TOL. ni. [BsaATs u.] 26
386 DISSERTATIOK OK THB
i^abhatta then being the earliest author known to [429]
have treated of Algebra among the Hindus, and being likdy
to be, if not the inrentor, the improver of that analysis, by
whom too it was pushed nearly to the whole degree of ex-
cellence which it is found to have attained among them, it
becomes in an especial manner interesting to investigate any
discoverable trace in the absence of better and more direct
evidence, which may tend to fix the date of his labours, or to
indicate the time which elapsed between him and Brahmft-
gupta, whose age is more accurately determined.^
Taking i^abhatta, for reasons given in the notes, to hire
preceded Brahmagupta and Var&hamihira by several centuries;
and Brahmagupta to have flourished about twelve hundred
years ago;' and Var&hamihira, concerning whose worb
and age some further notices will be found in a subjoined
note,' to have lived at the beginning of the sixth centniy after
Christ,^ it appears probable that this earliest of known Hinda
algebraists wrote as for back as the fifth century of tke
Christian era ; and, perhaps, in an earlier age. Hence it is
concluded that he is nearly as ancient as the Gredan algebraist
Diophantus, supposed, on the authority of Abul&raj,^ to
have flourished in the time of the Emperor Julian, or lAoat
A.D. 360.
Admitting the Hindu and Alexandrian authors to be nearly
equally ancient, it must be conceded in favour of the Indiin
algebraist, that he was more advanced in the science ; since
he appears to have been in possession of the resolution of
equations involving several unknown quantities, which it is
not clear, nor fairly presumable, that Diophantus [430] knew;
and a general method for indeterminate problems of at least the
first degree, to a knowledge of which the Grecian algebraist
had certainly not attained; though he displays infinite sagacitj
^ Note I. s See before and note F.
' Note E. « See before and note S.
^ Pococke B edition and translation, p. 89.
AL6EBEA OF THE HINDUS. 387
1 ingenniiy in partiealar solutions ; and thoagh a certain
itine is discernible in them.
Al comparison of the Grecian, Hindu, and Arabian algebras,
1 more distinctly show, which of them had made the greatest
igress at the earliest age of each that can be now traced.
rhe notation or algorithm of Algebra is so essential to this
9 as to deserve the first notice in a review of the Indian
ftkod of analysis, and a comparison of it with the Grecian
1 Arabian algebras. The Hindu algebraists use abbrevia-
ns and initials for symbols : they distinguish negative
ftntities by a dot,^ but have not any mark, besides the ab-
lee of the negative sign, to discriminate a positive quantity.
» marks or symbols indicating operations of addition, or
iltiplication, etc., are employed by them : nor any announc-
r equality ' or relative magnitude (greater or less).' But a
torn is denoted by the initial syllable of a word of that
port,* subjoined to the terms which compose it, between
dbh a dot is sometimes interposed. A fraction is indicated
placing the divisor under the dividend,^ but without a line
06paration. The two sides of an equation are ordered in
B same manner, one under the other : * and this method of
being [431] terms under each other being likewise practised
on other occasions,'^ the intent is in the instance to be col-
iled from the recital of the steps of the process in words at
ig^, which always accompanies the algebraic process. That
ital is also requisite to ascertain the precise intent of ver-
al lines interposed between the terms of a geometric pro-
sssion, but used also upon other occasions to separate and
leriminate quantities. The symbols of unknown quantity
Yijft-ga^ § 4.
The ngn of equality was first used by Robert Recorde, because, as he says,
two thiugs can be more equal than a pair of parallels, or gemowe lines of one
gth. — Hutton.
I The signs of relatiTe magnitude were first introduced into European algebra
Harriot.
k Vija-ga^ } 21. » Lfl. § 83.
• Yija-ga^. and Biihm. 18, passim. ^ Ylja-ga^ { 66.
388 DI3SERTATI0K OK THE
are not confined to a single one : but extend to erer so great
a variety of denominations: and the characters used are
initial syllables of the names of coloars,^ excepting the first,
which is the initial of ydmi-tdpat, *• as mach as ' ; words of the
same import with Bombelli's tanto^ used by him for the same
purpose. Colour, therefore, means unknown quantity, or tb
symbol of it : and the same Sanskrit word, varna^ also signi-
fying a literal character, letters are accordingly employed
likewise as symbols ; either taken from the alphabet ; ' or
else initial syllables of words signifying the subjects of the
problem ; whether of a general nature,' or specially the nsmeB
of geometric lines in algebraic demonstrations of geometric
propositions or solutions of geometric problems.* Symbob
too are employed, not only for unknown quantities, of which
the value is sought; but for variable quantities of which
the value may be arbitrarily put (F^*. ch. 6, note on com-
mencement of § 153 — 156), and especially in demonstrations,
for both given and sought quantities. Initials of the tenoB
for square and solid respectively denote those powers; and
combined they indicate the higher. These are reckoned
not by the sums of the powers, but by their products. An
initial^ syllable is in like manner [432] used to mark a
surd root.* Tlio terms of a compounJ quantity are ordered
according to the powers ; and the absolute number invariably
comes last. It also is distinguished by an initial syllable, as
a discriminative token of known quantity J Numeral coeffi-
cients are employed, inclusive of unity which is always noted,
and comprehending fractions ; ® for the numeral divisor is
generally so placed, rather than under the symbol of the
unknown : and in like manner the negative dot is set over the
numeral coefficient : and not over the literal character. The
» Vija.ga^. } 17. Brahm. c. 18. § 2. » Vija-ga^. ch. 6.
' Vija-gaii. § 111. * Vija-gan. { 146.
» Lil. k 26. • Vija-ga^. § 29.
7 Vija-gan. § 17.
^ Stcvinus in like maimer included fractions in coefficienti.
ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS. 389
coefficients are placed after the symbol of the unknown
qaantitj.^ Equations are not ordered so as to put all the
quantities positive ; nor to give precedence to a positive term
in a compound quantity : for the negative terms are retained,
and even preferably put in the first place. In stating the two
sides of an equation, the general, though not invariable,
practice is, at least in the first instance, to repeat every term,
which occurs in the one side, on the other : annexing nought
for the coefficient, if a term of that particular denomination be
there wanting.
If reference be made to the writings of Diophantus, and of
the Arabian algebraists, and their early disciples in Europe,
it will be found, that the notation, which has been here de-
scribed, is essentially different from all theirs, much as they
vary. Diophantus employs the inverted medial of ^XXet^e^i
defect or want (opposed to {jvap^c^y substance or abundance^),
to indicate a negative quantity. He prefixes that mark *^
to the quantity in question. He calls the unknown, apedfio^ ;
representing it by the final 9, which [433] he doubles for the
plural ; while the Arabian algebraists apply the equivalent
word for number to the constant or known term ; and the
Hindus, on the other hand, refer the word for numerical
diaracter to the coefficient. He denotes the monad, or unit
abeolate, by fi^ ; and the linear quantity is called by him
arUhmoa; and designated, like the unknown, by the final
Sigma. He marks the further powers by initials of words
signifying them ; S^ /e", SS^ S/c«, KHy^ etc. for dynamia^ power
(meaning the square) ; cuhos^ cube ; dynamo-dynamhy biquad-
ratCy etc. But he reckons the higher by the sums, not the
products, of the lower .^ Thus the sixth power is with him the
eub<hcubo8y which the Hindus designate ad the quadrate-cube
(cube of the square, or square of the cube).
1 Yieta did so likewise.
> A word of nearly the same import with the Sanskrit dhana, used by Hindu
algebraists for the same signification.
» Def. 9.
39Q DISSERTATION ON THE
The Arabian algebraists are still more sparing of symbolB,
or rather entirely destitute of them.^ They hare none^
whether arbitrary or abbreviated, either for quantities known
or unknown, positive or negative, or for the steps and open-
tions of an algebraic process ; bat express everything by
words, and phrases, at full length. Their European scholan
introduced a few, and very few abbreviations of names : eP, (f,
c^ for the three first powers ; c^ q*, for the fijrst and second
unknown quantities ; p, m, for plus and minus ; and ^ fi>r
the note of radicality ; occur in the first printed work, wbidi
is that of Paciolo.' Leonardo Bonacci of Pisa, the eariiest
scholar of the Arabians^' is said by Targioni Tozzetti to hsTe
used the small letters of the alphabet to denote qaantitiee.*
But Leo[434]nardo only does so because he repreeoits
quantities by straight lines, and designates those lines bj
letters, in elucidation of his algebraic solutions of problems.^
The Arabians termed the unknown (and they wrought but
on one) s/iaiy thing. It is translated by Leonardo of Pisa and
his disciples, by the correspondent Latin word res and Italian
cofia; whence Regola de la Cosa^ and Rule of Ciw, with
Cossike practice and Cassike number of our older authors,^
for Algebra or Speculative practice, as Paciolo ' denominstes
the analytic art ; and Coas^ic number, in writers of a somewhat
later date, for the root of an equation.
The Arabs termed the square of the unknown mdl^ poe-
session or wealth ; translated by the Latin census and Italian
censo; as terms of the same import: for it is in the accepta-
tion of amount of property or estate® that census was hew
used by Leonardo.
^ As. Res., vol. xiii. p. 183.
* Or Pacioli, Paciuolo, — li, etc. For the name u Tarioosly written bj Italitf
authors. ^ g^ note L.
* Viaggiy second edition, toI. ii. p. 62.
* Cossali, Origine dcU' Algebra, i.
* Robert Recorde's Whetstone of Witte.
^ Secondo noi detta Pratica SpeculatiTa. Summa 8. 1.
^ CetuuSf quicquid fortonaram quia habet Steph. Thea.
ALGEBRA. OF THE HINDUS. 391
The cube was by the Arabs tenned kclb^ a die or cube ; and
they oombined these terms mdl and kclb for compound names
of the more elevated powers, in the manner of Diophantus,
by the soma of the powers ; and not like the Hindus by their
prodocftfl. Such, indeed, is their method in the modem
elementary worics : but it is not clear that the same mode was
obaerred by their earlier writers; for their Italian scholars
denominated the biquadrate and higher powers Belato prime,
seeundo, tertio, etc.
Positive they call zdid additional; and negative ndkk
deficient : and, as before observed, they have no discrimina-
tive marks for either of them.
[435] The operation of restoring negative quantities, if any
there be, to the positive form, which is an essential step with
ihem, is termed jabr^ or with the article A^abr^ the mending
or restoration. That of comparing the terms and taking like
fiom like, which is the next material step in the process of
reeolution, is called by them tnukdbalah^ comparison. Hence
the name of Tarik affabr wa almukdbalah^ *' the method of
restoration and comparison,' which obtained among the Arabs
for thifl branch of the analytic art ; and hence our name of
Algebra, from Leonardo of Pisa's exact version of the Arabic
title. Fi istikhr^jfl mqfhitldt bi tarik a^abr tea almukdbalah,^
De solntione quarundam quaestionum secundum modum Alge^
brw et AlmiuchabalcB}
The two steps or operations which have thus given name
to the method of analysis, are precisely what is enjoined with-
out distinctive appellations of them, in the introduction of the
arithmetics of Diophantus, where he directs, that, if the
quantities be positive on both sides, like are to be taken from
like, until one species be equal to one species ; but if on either
side or on both any species be negative, the negative species
must be added to both sides, so that they become positive on
1 Khuldtatiil'hiidb. 0. 8. Calcutta^ 1812 (8to.}.
' LiUr abbacif 9. 16. 8. MS. in Magliab. Libr.
392 BISSERTATIOK OK THB
both sides of the equation : after which like are again to be
taken from like, nntil one species remain on each side.^
The Hindu algebra not requiring the terms of the equation
to be all exhibited in the form of positive quantity, does not
direct the preliminary step of restoring negative quantity to
the affirmative state, but proceeds at once to the operation of
equal subtraction (jMmaiodhana) for the difference of like
terms, which is the process denominated [436] by the Arabian
algebraists comparison {muhdhalah). On that point, there-
fore, the Arabian algebra has more affinity to the Gredan
than to the Indian analysis.
As to the progress which the Hindus had made in die
analytic art, it will be seen, that they possessed well the arith-
metic of surd roots ; ' that they were aware of the infinite
quotient resulting from the division of finite quantity by
cipher ; ^ that they knew the general resolution of equations
of the second degree, and had touched upon those of higher
denomination, resolving them in the simplest cases, and in
those in which the solution happens to be practicable by the
method which serves for quadratics : ^ that they had attained
a general solution of indeterminate problems of the first
degree ; * that they had arrived at a method for deriving a
multitude of solutions of answers to problems of the second
degree from a single answer found tentatively,* which is as
near an approach to a general solution of such problems as
was made until the days of Lagrange, who first demonstrated,
that the problem, on which the solutions of all questions
of this nature depend, is always resolvable in whole numbers.'
The Hindus had likewise attempted problems of this higher
order by the application of the method which suffices for those
1 Dcf. 11. * Brabm. 18, } 27—29. Vg.-gai^. § 23—62.
3 Lil. § 45. Vij.-ga^. } 15—16 and § 185.
« Vlj.-gai^. § 129, and { 137—138.
* Brahm. 18. § 3—18. Vij.-gav. } 63-73. LU. } 248—265.
• Brahm. 18. § 29—49. Vij.-ga^ { 76—99.
^ Mem. of Acad, of Turin : and of Berlin.
ALGEBRA OF THE HINDnS. 393
of the first degree ; ^ with indeed very scanty saccess, as
might be expected.
They not only applied algebra both to astronomy' and
[437] to geometry,' but conversely applied geometry likewise
to the demonstration of algebraic mles.^ In short, they
ealtivated algebra much more, and with greater success, than
geometry ; as is evident from the comparatively low state of
their knowledge in the one,^ and the high pitch of their
attainments in the other : and they cultivated it for the sake
of astronomy, as they did this chiefly for astrological pur-
poses. The examples in the earliest algebraic treatise extant
(Brahmagupta's) are mostly astronomical : and here the solu-
tion of indeterminate problems is sometimes of real and
praetical use. The instances in the later treatise of algebra
by Bh&skaraare more various : many of them geometric ; but
one astronomical; the rest numeral: among which a great
number of indeterminate ; and of these some, though not the
greatest part, resembling the questions which chiefly engage
the attention of Diophantus. But the general character of
the Diophantine problems, and of the Hindu unlimited ones,
is by no means alike : and several in the style of Diophantine
are noticed by Bh&skara in his arithmetical, instead of his
algebraic, treatise.^
To pursue this summary comparison further, Diophantus
appears to have been acquainted with the direct resolution of
affected quadratic equations ; but less familiar with the
tnanagement of them, he seldom touches on it. Chiefly
busied with indeterminate problems of the first degree, he yet
oeems to have possessed no general rule for their solution.
His elementary instructions for the preparation of equations
are succinct ; ^ his notation, as before [438] observed, scanty
» VSj.-gav. } 206—207. « Brahm. 18, passim. Vij.-gaigi.
» Vij.-gav. i 117—127, i 146—152. * Vij-gap. } 212—214.
• Brabm. 12. { 21 ; corrected however in Lll. § 169—170.
* LiL { 69—61, where it appears, howeyer, that preceding writers had treated
the question algebraically. See likewise { 139—146. ^ Det 11.
394 DISSBBTATIOir OK THE
and inconyenient. In the whole science he is rery fiyr behind
the Hindu writers, notwithstanding the infinite ingenuity \fj
which he makes np for the want of role, and although pre-
sented to ns under the disadvantage of matilaiion ; if it be,
indeed, certain that the text of onlj six, or at most seyen, of
thirteen books, which his introduction announces, has been
preserved.^ It is sufficiently clear from what does remaia,
that the lost part could not have exhibited a much higher
degree of attainment in the art. It is presumable, that so
much as we possess of his work is a fSiur specimen of the
progress which he and the Greeks before him (for he is hardly
to be considered as the inrentor, since he seems to treat the
art as already known) had made in his time.
The points in which the Hindu algebra appears partienhaly
distinguished from the Oreek are, besides a better and more
comprehensive algorithm, — 1st, The management of equatioBS
involving more than one unknown term. (This adds to tiie
two classes noticed by the Arabs, namely, simple and oom-
pound, two, or rather three, other classes of equation.) 2Dd,
The resolution of equations of a higher order, in which, if
they achieved little, they had, at least, the merit of the
attempt, and anticipated a modem discovery in the solution
of biquadratics. 3rd, Oeneral methods for the solutions of
indeterminate problems of first and second degrees, in which
they went far, indeed, beyond Diophantus, and anticipated
discoveries of modem algebraists. 4th, Application of alg^ra
to astronotnical investigation and geometrical demonstration,
in which also they hit upon some matters which have heea
reinvented in later times.
This brings us to the examination of some of their anti-
[439]cipations of modem discoveries. The reader'^s notice will
be here drawn to three instances in particular.
The first is in the demonstration of the noted proposition of
Pythagoras, concerning the square of the base of a rectangular
1 Note M.
ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS. 395
triangle, eqaal to the squares of the two legs containing a
right angle. The demonstration is given two ways in Bh&s-
karats algpbra (Yij.-gai^. § 146). The first of them is the
ume which is deliyered by Wallis in his treatise on angular
sections (ch. vi.), and, as £ir as appears, then given for the
first time.^
On the subject of demonstrations, it is to be remarked that
the Blndu mathematicians proved propositions both algebrai-
cally and geometrically : as is particularly noticed by Bh&s-
kara himself towards the close of his algebra, where he gives
both modes of proof of a remarkable method for the solution
of indeterminate problems, which involve a factum of two
uknown quantities. The rule which he demonstrates is of
great antiquity in Hindu algebra, being found in the works
of his predecessor Brahmagupta, and being there a quotation
frmn a more ancient lyreatise ; for it is injudiciously censured,
and a less satisfactory method by unrestricted arbitrary as-
aomption given in its place. Bh&skara has retained both.
The next instance, which will be here noticed, is the general
solution of indeterminate problems of the first degree. [440]
It was first given among modems by Bachet de Meziriac in
1624.' Having shown how the solution of equations of the
form a^ — Jy=c is reduced to ax — 6y=+l, he proceeds to
resolve this equation ; and prescribes the same operation on a
and i as to find the greatest common divisor. He names the
^ fie designateB the sides C. D. Base B. Segments k, 8. Then
B:C::C:ic\ . ^^ . jC«=Bk
B:D::D:l/*"^*^^^'«\D»=B«
Therefore C*4-D>b(Bic4-B8s=B into k+9=) B*.
The Indian demonstration, with the same symbols, is
B:C::C:ic\..^-^ i*=5!
B:D::D:«r^^""jj^jB
Therefore B«jt-|-«=C*+D' and B»=CM-D'.
* Probl^mes plaisans et d^lectables qui se font par les nombres. 2nd edit
(1624}. Lagrange*8 additions to Enler's Algebra, ij. 382. (Edit. 1807.)
396 MSSERTATIOK OK THE
residues e^ (/, e^f, etc., and the last remainder ia neoeasarily nmty :
a and b being prime to each other. By retracing the steps
from e^il or/ijbl (according as the nnmber of reniainders is
even or odd) e^l=e, ed+l =S, Sclfkiay, yb±l =^8, fi(i+l=a
e d e b
or/tl=S 5??!=^ «'+l=S. etc.
f e
The last numbers fi and a will be the smallest ralues of x
and y. It is observed, that if a and b be not prime to eadi
other, the equation cannot subsist in whole numbers, unless t
be divisible by the greatest common measure of a and b.
Here we have precisely the method of the Hindu algebrusts,
who have not fidled, likewise, to make the last cited obsorr*.
tion. See Brahm. Algebra, section 1, and Bh4sk. Uh ch. xS.
Fi/. ch. ii. It is so prominent in the Indian algebra as to
give name to the oldest treatise on it extant, and to constitute
a distinct head in the enumeration of the different branches of
mathematical knowledge in a passage cited from a still more
ancient author. See Lil, § 248.
Confining the comparison of Hindu and modem algebras to
conspicuous instances, the next for notice is that of the solution
of indeterminate problems of the second degree ; for which a
general method is given by Brahmagupta, [441] besides rales
^or subordinate cases, and two general methods (one of them
the same with Brahmagupta's), besides special cases, sab-
servient, however, to the universal solution of problems of this
nature ; and, to obtain whole numbers in all circumstances, a
combination of the method for problems of the first degree
with that for those of the second, employing them alternately,
or, as the Hindu algebraist terms it, proceeding in a circle.
Bh&skara's second method ( Vij, § 80-81) for a solution of
the problem on which all indeterminate ones of this degree
depend, is exactly the same which Lord Brouncker devised io
answer a question proposed by way of challenge by Fermat in
1657. The thing required was a general rule for finding the
ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS. 397
innumerable square numbers, which multiplied by a proposed
(non-quadrate) number, and then assuming an unit, will make
a square. Lord Brouncker^s rule, putting n for any given
number, r^ for any square taken at pleasure, and d for dif-
ference between n and t^ (r^ c» n) was — ^ ^ =— — j the
square required. In the Hindu rule, using the same symbols,
2r
*— is the square root required.^ But neither Brouncker, nor
a
Wallis, who himself contrived another method, nor Fermati
by whom the question was proposed, but whose mode of solu-
tion was never made known by him (probably because he
had not found anything better than Wallis and Brouncker
discovered^, nor Frenicle, who treated the subject, without,
however, adding to what had been done by Wallis and
Brouncker,' appear to have been aware of the importance of
the problem and its universal use ; a discovery which, among
the modems, was reserved for Euler in the middle of the last
centnry. To him, [442] among the modems, we owe the
remark, which the Hindus had made more than a thousand
years before,^ that the problem was requisite to find all the
possible solutions of equations of this sort. Lagrange takes
credit for having fiirther advanced the progress of this branch
of the indeterminate analysis, so lately as 1767 ; ^ and his
eomplete solution of equations of the second degree appeared
no earlier than 1769.*
It has been pretended, that traces of the art are to be dis-
covered in the writings of the Grecian geometers, and par-
ticularly in the five first propositions of Euclid's thirteenth
book ; whether, as Wallis conjectures, what we there have be
the work of Theon or some other ancient scholiast, rather
* Vg.-ga?. § 80-81. « WaUis, Alg. c. 98. s Ihid.
« Bh&skara, Vij. § 173, and § 207. See likewise Brahm. Alg. { 7.
* H6111. de TAcad. de Berlin, vol. xxIt.
* See French translation of Euler's Algebra, Additions, p. 286. And Le-
gendre, Throne dee Nombres, 1. § 6. No. 36.
398 DISSBRTATION OK THB
than of Euclid himself: ^ also examples of analytic inTesti-
gation in Pappus ; ' and indications of a method somewhat of
a like nature with algebra, or at least the effects of it, in the
works of Archimedes and Apollonius, though they are sup-
posed to haye very studiously concealed this their art of
invention.'
This proceeds on the ground of considering analysis and
algebra as interchangeable terms; and applying to algebra
Euclid's or Theon's definition of analysis, ^a taking of that as
granted, which is sought, and thence by conseqaences aniTing
at what is confessedly true/*
Undoubtedly they possessed a geometrical analysis ; hints
or traces of which exist in the writings of more than [443] c»m
Oreek mathematician, and especially in those of Archiroedei,
But this is very different from the algebraic calculus. The
resemblance extends, at most, to the method of inversion;
which both Hindus and Arabians consider to be entir^
distinct from their respective algebras ; and which the fiMiner,
therefore, join with their arithmetic and mensuration.'
In a very general sense, the analytic art, as Hindu writers
observe, is merely sagacity exercised, and is independeot of
symbols, which do not constitute the art. In a more restricted
sense, according to them, it is calculation attended with the
manifestation of its principles ; and, as they further intimate,
a method aided by devices, among which symbols and literal
signs are conspicuous.* Defined, as analysis is by an illustrious
modern mathematician,'^ ' a method of resolving mathematical
problems by reducing them to equations,' it assuredly is not
to be found in the works of any Grecian writer extant, besides
Diophantus.
In his treatise the rudiments of algebra are clearly con-
1 Wallis, Algebra, c. 2. » Ibid, and Plefiw*.
' Ibid, and Nunez, Algebra 114.
* Wallis, following Vieta's Version, Alg. c. 1.
b Lil. 3. 1. § 47. Khul&»atu'l His&b. o. 5.
• Vij.-gan. § 110, 174, 215, 224. i D'Alembert
ALGEBRA OF THB HINDUS. 399
^ed. He deliyera in a snccinct manner the algorithm of
iffirmatiye and negatiye qoantities ; teaches to form an
equation ; to transpose the negative terms ; and to bring ont
I final simple equation comprising a single term of each spe-
nee known and unknown.
Admitting, on the ground of the mention of a mathemar
tieian of his name, whose works were commented by Hypatia
ibout the beginning of the fifth century,^ and on the authority
[>f the Arabic annals of an Armenian Christian,' which make
bim contemporary with Julian, that [444] he lived towards
the middle of the fourth century of the Christian era ; or, to
speak with precision, about the year 360 ; ' the Oreeks will
ippear to haye possessed in the fourth century so much of
ilgebra, as is to be effected by dexterous application of the
resolution of equations of the first degree, and even the
Beoond, to limited problems : and to indeterminate also, with-
out, howeyer^ haying attained a general solution of problems
of this latter class.
The Arabs acquired algebra, extending to simple and com-
pound (meaning quadratic) equations : but it was confined, so
fiu* as appears, to limited problems of those degrees ; and they
possessed it so early as the close of the eighth century, or
eommencement of the ninth. Treatises were at that period
written in the Arabic language on the algebraic analysis, by
fcwo distiuguished mathematicians who flourished under the
Abbasside Alm&mdn ; and the more ancieut of the two,
Muhammad ben Mdsa al Khuw&razmi, is recognized among
the Arabians as the first who made algebra known to them.
He is the same who abridged, for the gratification of Al-
m&mdn, an astronomical work taken from the Indian system
in the preceding age, under Almansur. He framed tables, like-
^ Suidas, in Toce Hypatia,
* Gregory AlmlfiBuraj. £z lis etiam [nempe philooopliui qui prope tempora
Jiduuii floroenmt] Diophantns, cajtis liber, qaem Algebram Toeant, Celebris est,
in q^uem si immiserit se lector, oceanam hoc in genere reperiet. — Bocoeke,
* Julian was emperor from 360 to 368. See note M.
400 DISSERTATION ON THE
wise, grounded on those of the Hindus, which he professed to
correct. And he studied and communicated to his coontrj-
men the Indian compendious method of computation; that
is, their arithmetic, and, as is to be inferred, their analytic
calculus also.^
The Hindus in the fifth century, perhaps earlier,' were in
possession of Algebra extending to the general solution [445]
of both determinate and indeterminate problems of the Ist
and 2nd degrees : and subsequently advanced to the special
solution of biquadratics wanting the second term ; and of
cubics in very restricted and easy cases.
Priority seems then decisiye in favour of both Greeks and
Hindus against any pretensions on the part of the Arabians,
who in fact, however, prefer none, as inventors of algebn.
They were avowed borrowers in science ; and, by their own
unvaried acknowledgment, from the Hindus they learnt the
science of numbers. That they also received the Hmda
algebra is much more probable than that the same mathemA-
tician who studied the Indian arithmetic and taught it to his
Arabian brethren, should have kit upon algebra unaided by
any hint or suggestion of the Indian analysis.
The Arabs became acquainted with the Indian astronomy
and numerical science before they had any knowledge of the
writings of the Grecian astronomers and mathematicians ; and
it was not until after more than one century, and nearly two,
that they had the benefit of an interpretation of Diophantus,
whether version or paraphrase, executed by Muhammad
Abulwafd al Buzjdni ; who added, in a separate form, de-
monstrations of the propositions contained in Diophantos;
and who was likewise author of commentaries on the alsrebraic
treatises of the Khuwarazniite Muhammad ben Musa, and of
another algebraist of less note and later date, Abu Yahyi,
whose lectures he had personally attended.' Any inference to
be drawn from their knowledge and study of the Arithmetics
1 Note N. 2 See note I. » See Note N.
ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS. 401
of Diophantus, and their seeming adoption of his preparation
of equations in their own algebra, or at least the close re-
semblance of both on this point, is of no avail against the
direct evidence, [446] with which we are iumished by them,
of previous instruction in algebra and the publication of a
treatise on the art, by an author conversant with the Indian
science of computation in all its branches.
But the age of the earliest known Hindu writer on algebra
not being with certainty carried to a period anterior, or even
quite equal to that in which Diophantus is on probable
grounds placed, the argument of priority, so far as investiga-
tion has yet proceeded, is in favour of Grecian invention.
The Hindus, however, had certainly made distinguished pro-
gress in the science, so early as the century immediately
following that in which the Grecian taught the rudiments
of it. The Hindus had the benefit of a good arithmetical
notation : the Greeks, the disadvantage of a bad one. Nearly
allied as algebra is to arithmetic, the invention of the algebraic
calculus was more easy and natural where arithmetic was best
handled. No such marked identity of the Hindu and Dio-
phantine systems is observed, as to demonstrate communi-
cation. They are sufficiently distinct to justify the pre-
sumption, that both might be invented independently of each
other.
If, however, it be insisted, that a hint or suggestion, the
seed of their knowledge, may have reached the Hindu mathe-
maticians immediately from the Greeks of Alexandria, or
mediately through those of Bactria, it must at the same time
be confessed, that a slender germ grew and fructified rapidly,
and soon attained an approved state of maturity in Indian soil.
More will not be here contended for : since it is not im-
possible, that the hint of the one analysis may have been
actually received by the mathematicians of the other nation ;
nor unlikely, considering the arguments which may be brought
for a probable communication on the subject of astrology ; and
VOL. in. [B88AT8 n.] 26
402 DISSERTATION ON THE
adverting to the intimate connexion between [447] this and
the pure mathematics, through the medium of astronomy.
The Hindus had undoubtedly made some progress at an
early period in the astronomy cultiyated by them for the
regulation of time. Their calendar, both civil and religious,
was governed chiefly, not exclusively, by the moon and son :
and the motions of these luminaries were carefully observed
by them, and with such success that their determination of
the moon's synodical revolution, which was what they wef»
principally concerned with, is a much more correct one than
the Greeks ever achieved.^ They had a division of the ecUptie
into twenty -seven and twenty-eight parts, suggested evidently
by the moon's period in days, and seemingly their own: it
was certainly borrowed by the Arabians.' Being led to the
observation of the fixed stars, they obtained a knowledge of
the positions of the most remarkable ; and noticed, for religions
purposes, and from superstitious notions, the heliacal rising,
with other pha)nomena of a few. The adoration of the sun, of
the planets, and of the stars, in common with the worship of
the elements, held a principal place in their religious obse^
vances enjoined by the Vedas : ' and they were led consequently
by piety to watch the heavenly bodies. They were particularly
conversant with the most splendid of the primary planets;
the period of Jupiter being introduced by them, in conjunction
with those of the sun and moon, into the regulation of their
calendar, sacred and civil, in the form of the celebrated cyde
of sixty years, common to them and to the Chaldeans, and
still retained by them. From that cycle they advanced by
progressive stages, as the Chaldeans likewise did, to larger
periods; at first by combining [448] that with a numbtf
specifically suggested by other, or more correctly determined,
revolutions of the heavenly bodies ; and afterwards by merely
augmenting the places of figures for greater scope (prefernDj
^ As. Res., Tol. ii. and xii. ' See p. 281, etc., of the present Tolume.
^ See Essays, toI. i. p. [106].
ALGEBBA OF THE HINDXTS. 403
this to the more exact method of combining periods of the
Janets by an algebraic process, which they likeVise investi*
gated ^), until they arrived finally at the unwieldy cycles
uuned Mah&yugas and Kalpas. But it was for the sake of
astrology that they pushed their cultivation of astronomy,
espeoially that of the minor planets, to the length alluded
to. Now divination, by the relative position of the planets,
seems to have been, in part at least, of a foreign growth, and
comparatively recent introduction, among the Hindus. The
belief in the influence of the planets and stars upon human
affairs is with them, indeed, remotely ancient; and was a
nataral consequence of their creed, which made the sun a
divine being, and the planets gods. But the notion, that the
tendency of that supposed influence, or the manner in which
it will be exerted, may be foreseen by man, and the effect to
be produced by it foretold, through a knowledge of the position
of the planets at a particular moment, is no necessary result
of that creed ; for it takes from beings believed divine, free-
9g&i€j in other respects, as in their visible movements.
Whatever may have been the period when the notion first
ebteined, that foreknowledge of events on earth might be
gsixied by observations of planets and stars, »id by astro-
oomical computation, or wherever that fancy took its rise,
entain it is that the Hindus have received and welcomed
lommHBioations from other nations on topics of astrology:
lod although they had astrological divinations of their own
10 early as the days of Par&sara and [449] Garga, centuries
before the Christian era, there are yet grounds to presume
that communications subsequently passed to them on the like
subject, either fi'om the Greeks, or from the same common
aource (perhaps that of the Chaldeans) whence the Greeks de-
rived the grosser superstitions engrafted on their own genuine
and ancient astrology, which was meteorological.
This opinion is not now suggested for the first time.
^ Brahmagapta, Algebra.
404 AL6EBBA OF THE HINDtJS.
Former occasions haye been taken of intimating the same
sentiment on this point :^ and it has been strengthened bj
further consideration of the subject. As the question is
closely connected with the topics of this dissertation, reasons
for this opinion will be stated in the subjoined note.'
Joining this indication to that of the division of the zodiac
into twelye signs, represented bj the same figures of animals,
and named by words of the same import with the zodiacal
signs of the Oreeks; and taking into consideration the analogy,
though not identity, of the Ptolemaic system, or rather that
of Hipparohus, and the Indian one of excentric deferents and
epicycles, which in both serve to account for the irregularities
of the planets, or at least to compute them; no doubt can be
entertained that the Hindus received hints finom the astn^-
nomical schools of the Oreeks.
It must then be admitted to be at least possible, if not
probable, in the absence of direct evidence and positive proo^
that the imperfect algebra of the Oreeks, which had advanced
in their hands no further than the solution of equatiooB,
involving one unknown term, as it is taught by Diophantus,
was made known to the Hindus by their Grecian instructors
in improved astronomy. But, by the [450] ingenuity of the
Hindu scholars, the hint was rendered fruitful, and the alge-
braic method was soon ripened &om that slender beginning to
the advanced state of a well-arranged science, as it was taught
by Aryabhatta, and as it is found in treatises compiled bj
Brahmagupta and Bh&skara, of both which versions are heie
presented to the public.
^ See page 361, etc., of the present volume. • Note 0.
405
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,
A.
Scholiasts of Bhaskara,
The oldest commentary of ascertained date which has come
into the transktor^s hands, and has been accordingly employed
by him for the purpose of collation, as well as in the progress
of translation, is one composed by Gang&dhara, son of Gobar-
dhana, and grandson of Div&kara, inhabitant of Jambosara.^
It appears, from an example of an astronomical computation
which it exhibits,' to haye been written about the year 1342
&dca (A.D. 1420). Though confined to the Lil&vati, it ex-
pounds and consequently authenticates a most material chapter
of the Yija-ganita, which recurs nearly verbatim in both
treatises; but is so essential a part of the one, as to have
given name to the algebraic analysis in the works of the early
writers.' His elder brother Yishnu-pan[451]dita was author
of a treatise of arithmetic, etc., named Granita-s&ra, a title
boiTOwed from the compendium of ^ridhara. It is frequently
quoted by him.
The next commentary in age, and consequent importance
fer the objects now under consideration, is that of Suryasuri,
also named Suryad&sa, native of P&rthapura, near the con-
fluence of the Oodd and Yidarbh& rivers.^ He was author of
a complete commentary on the Siddh&nta-siromani ; and of a
* A town sitaated in Gujr&t (Gnijara), twenty-eight miles north of the town
of Broach. > Lil. { 264.
* Knt^k&dhy&ya, the title of Brahmagupta's chapter on algebra, and of a
<^pter in Aryabha^'s work. * God&yari and Ward&.
406 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
distinct work on calculation, under the title of Ghugita-m&lati ;
and of a compilation of astronomical and astrological doctrines,
Hindu and Muhammadan, under the name of Siddh&nta-
8anhit&-sara-samuchchaya, in which he makes mention of his
commentary on the oiromai^L The gloss on the Lil&vati,
entitled Ganit&mrita, and that on the Yija-gaigLita, named
Surya-prak&sa, both excellent works, containing a clear in-
terpretation of the text, with a concise explanation of the
principles of the rules, are dated the one in 1460, the other
in 1403 6aka ; or a.d. 1538 and 1541. His &ther Jn&nar&ja,
son of N&gan&tha, a Br&hman and astronomer, was author,
among other works, of an astronomical conne, under the title
of Siddh&nta-sundara, still extant,^ which, like the Siddhanta-
siroma^i, comprises a treatise on algebra. It is repeatedlj
cited by his son.
Ganesa, son of Keiaya, a distinguished astronomer, natife
of Nandi-grama, near Devagiri (better known by the Ma*
hanimadan name of Daulatab&d),* was author of a commen-
tary on the Siddh&nta-siromani, which is mentioned byiiifl
nephew and scholiast Nrisinlia, in an [452] enumeration of
his works, contained in a passage quoted by Viswanatha on
the Grahalaghava. His commentary on the Lil&vati bears
the title of Buddhivilasiui, and date of 1467 Saka, or a.d.
1G4.5. It comprises a copious exposition of the text, with
demonstrations of the rules ; and has been used throughout
the translation as the best interpreter of it. He, and his
father Kesava, and nephew Nrisiuha, as well as his cousin
Lakshniidasa, were authors of numerous works both on
astronomy and divination. The most celebrated of his own
pertbrinanceSy the Grahaldghava, bears date 1442 Saka, an-
swering to A.D. 1520.
The want of a commentary by Ganesa on the Vlja-ganita,
i.s supplied by that of Krishna, son of Ballala, and pupil of
* The astronomical part is in the library of the East-India Company.
^ Xandigram retains its ancient name, and \& situated west of Daulat&bid,
about sixty-live miles.
NOTES AND ILLU8TBATI0NS. 407
Vishnu, the disciple of Ga^esa's nephew Nrisinha. It con-
tains a clear and eopioos exposition of the sense, with ample
demonstrations of the rules, much in the manner of Ganesa,
on the Lfl&yati ; whom also he imitated in composing a com-
mentary on that treatise, and occasionally refers to it. His
work is entitled £alpalat&yat&ra. Its date is determined at
the close of the sixteenth century of the Christian era, by the
notice of it and of the author in a work of his brother
fiangan&tha, dated 1524 ^ka (a.d. 1602), as well as in one
by his nephew Muniswara. He appears to have been astro-
loger in the service of the Emperor Jah&ngir, who reigned at
the beginning of the seventeenth century.
The gloss of Bangan&tha on the Y&sand, or demonstratory
annotations of Bh&skara, which is entitled Mitabhdshini, con-
tains no specification of date ; but is determined, with suffi-
cient certainty, towards the middle of the sixteenth century
of the Saka era, by the writer's relation of son to Nrisinha,
the author of a commentary on the Surya-siddh&nta, dated
1542 l^aka, and of the y&san&-[453]v&rttika (or gloss on
Bh&skara's annotations of the Siromani), which bears date in
1543 ^ka, or a.d. 1621 ; and his relation of brother, as well
as pupil, to Kamal&kara, author of the Siddhdnta-tattwa-
yiveka, also composed towards the middle of the same century
of the Saka era. Nrisinha, and his uncle Yiswan&tha, author
of astrological commentaries, describe their common ancestor
Div&kara, and his grandfather Bdma, as Mah&r&shtra Br&h-
mans, living at Golagr&ma,^ on the northern bank of the
Grod&vari, and do not hint a migration of the family.
Nrisinha's own father, £rishna, was author of a treatise on
algebra in compendious rules (jsHtra)^ as his son affirms.
The Vija-prabodha, a commentary on the Vija-ganita, by
R&makrish^a, son of Lakshmana, and grandson of Nrisinha,
inhabitant of Amaravati,^ is without date or express in-
1 Golg&ra of the maps, in lat. 18' N. long. 78° E.
' A great commerciai toMm in Bcr&r.
408 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDXTS.
dication of its period; unless his grandfather Nfisinha he
the same with the nephew of Yiswan&tha jost now men-
tioned; or else identified with the nephew of Ga^esa and
preceptor of Yishnu, the instmctor of Erish^a, author of
the Kalpalatfivat&ra. The presumption is on either put
consistent with proximity of country : Amar&yati not heing
more than 150 miles distant from Nandigr&ma, nor more than
200 from Gt>Iagr&ma. It is on one side made probable by the
author's frequent reference to a commentary of his preceptor
Krishna, which in substance corresponds to the Kalpalati-
yat&ra ; but the title differs, for he cites the Nav&nkora. On
the other side it is to be remarked, that Epshna, father of the
Nrisinba, who wrote the Y&sand-y&rttika, was author of a
treatise on algebra, which is mentioned by his son, as beftre
observed.
The Manoranjana, another commentary on the Lil&vatf,
[454] which has been used in the progress of the translation,
bears no date, nor any indication whatsoever of the period
wlien the author B&makpshi^eva, son of Sad&deva, 8iu>
named Apadeva, wrote.
The Ganita-kaumudi, on the Lfldvati, is frequently cited
by the modem commentators, and in particular by Suryasuri
and Rangandtha ; but has not been recovered, and is only
known from their quotations.
Of the numerous commentaries on the astronomical portion
of Bhdskara's Siddhdnta-siromani, little use having been here
made, either for settling the text of the algebraic and arith-
metical treatises of the author, or for interpreting particular
passages of them, a reference to two commentaries of this
class, besides those of Suryasuri and Granesa (which have not
been recovered), and the author's own annotations, and the
interpretation of them by Nrisinha above noticed, may suffice:
viz, the Ganita-tattwa-chintamani, by Lakshmidasa, grandson
of Kesava (probably the same with the father of Ganesa
before mentioned), and son of Y&chaspati, dated 142^ Saka
KOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 409
(a.Dw 1501); and the M&richa, by Muniswara, surnamed
Vi8war6pa, grandson of Ball&la, and son of Bangan&tha,
who was compiler of a work dated 1524 j^a (a.d. 1620),
as before mentioned. Muniswara himself is the author of
a distinct treatise of astronomy entitled Siddh&nta-s&rva-
bhanma.
Persian Torsions of both the Lil&vati and Vija-ganita have
been already noticed, as also contributinc^ to the authentication
ef the text. The first by Faizi, undertaken by the command
of the Emperor Akbar, was executed in the 32nd year of his
reign, a.h. 995 (a.d. 1587).« The translation of the Yija-
ganita is later by half a century, having been completed by
*At4 Ullah Rashidi, in the 8th year of the reign of Sh&h
Jah&n, A.H. 1044, a.d. 1634.
B.
Astronomy of Brahmagufta.
[455] Brahmagupta's entire work comprises twenty-one
lectures or chapters ; of which the ten first contain an astro-
nomical system, consisting (1st and 2nd) in the computation
of mean motions and true places of the planets ; 3rd, solution
of problems concerning time, the points of the horizon, and
the position of places ; 4th and 5th, calculation of lunar and
solar eclipses; 6th, rising and setting of the planets; 7th,
position of the moon^s cusps ; 8th, observation of altitudes by
the gnomon; 9th, conjunctions of the planets; and, 10th, their
conjunction with stars. The next ten are supplementary,
including five chapters of problems with their solutions : and
the twenty-first explains the principles of the astronomical
system in a compendious treatise on spherics, treating of the
astronomical sphere and its circles, the construction of sines,
the rectification of the apparent planet from mean motions,
410 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
the cause of lanar and solar eclipses, and the constmction of
the armillaiy sphere.^
The copy of the scholia and text, in the translator's posses-
sion, wants the whole of the 6th, 7th, and 8th chapters, and
exhibits gaps of more or less extent in the preceding five; and
appears to have been transcribed from an exemplar equally
defective. From the middle of the 9th, to near the close of
the 15th chapters, is an uninterrupted and regular series, com-
prehending a very curious chapter, the 11th, which contains
a revision and censure of earlier writers : and next to it the
chapter on arithmetic and mensuration, which is the 12th of
the work. It is followed in the 13th, and four succeeding
chapters, by solutions of problems concerning mean and true
motions of planets, finding of [456] time, place, and points in the
horizon ; and relative to other matters, which the defect of
the two last of five chapters renders it impracticable to specify.
Next comes (but in a separate form, being transcribed from
a different exemplar) the 18th chapter on Algebra. The two
which should sucxreed (and one of which, as appears from a
reference to a chapter on this subject, treats of the various
measures of time under the several denominations of solar,
sidereal, lunar, etc. ; and the other, from like references to it,
is known to treat of the delineation of celestial pha>nomenaby
diagram,) are entirely wanting, the remainder of the copy
being defective. The twenty-first chapter, however, which is
last in the author's arrangement (as the corresponding book
on spherics of Bli^skara'^s Siddhanta-siromani is in his), has
been transposed and first expounded by the scholiast: and
very properly so, since its subject is naturally preliminary,
being explanatory of the principles of astronomy. It stands
first in the copy under consideration ; and is complete, except
one or two initial couplets.
' [AlbfrCini gives a complete table of the chapters of the Brahma-siddh&iita.
Keiuaud's Memoire^ p. 334.]
NOTM AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 411
c.
Brahma-siddhAnta, tttls of Brahmagupta's Astronomy.
The passage is this: ^^ Brahmohtu-grahchganitam nuihatd
kdkna yat khUi'-bMitam^ ahhidhiyate sphutam tat Jiahnu-suta*
BraAmaguptena.*^
* The oompatation of planets, taught by Brahma, which had
become imperfect by great length of time, is propounded correct
by Brahmagupta, son of Jishnu.^
The beginning of Prithudaka's commentary on the Brahma-
riddh&nta, where the three initial couplets of the text are ex-
pounded, being deficient, the quotation cannot at present be
brought to the test of collation. But the title is still more
expressly given near the close of the [457] eleventh chapter
(§ 59) "Brdhme aphuta-siddhdnte ravindu-bhu-yogam, etc."
And again (§ 61) '^ Chandra-ravi-grahanendu-chhayddishu
mrvadd yato Brdhmey dng-ganitaikyam bhavatt, sphuta-siddh-
intas tato Br&hmah.'^ ' As observation and computation
always agree in respect of lunar and solar eclipses, moon^s
■badow (i. e, altitude), and other particulars, according to the
Br&hma, therefore is the Br&hma a correct system (sphuta-
mUhdntay
It appears firom the purport of these several passages
eompared, that Brahmagupta's treatise is an emendation
of an earlier system (bearing the same name of Br&hma-
siddh&nta, or an equivalent title, as Pitamaha-siddhanta,
or adjectiyely Pait&maha), which had ceased to agree with
the phsenomena, and into which requisite corrections were
therefore introduced by him to reconcile computation and
observation; and he entitled his amended treatise 'Correct
Brahma-siddh&nta.' That earlier treatise is considered to
be the identical one which is introduced into the Yislinu-
412 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
dharmotiara-pur&9a, and from which parallel passages are
accordingly cited by the scholiasts of Bh&skara. (See follow-
ing note.) It is no doubt the same which is noticed by
Yar&hamihira under the title of Pait&maha and Br&hma-
siddh&nta. Couplets, which are cited by his commentator
Bhattotpala from the Brahma-siddh&nta, are found in Brahma-
gupta's work. But whether the original or the amended
treatise be the one to which the scholiast referred, is neyer-
theless a disputable point, as the couplets in question may be
among passages which Brahmagupta reUuned unaltered.
D.
Yerificatign of the Text of Brahmagttfta's Treatise of
astronomt.
[458] A passage, referring the commencement of astronomietl
periods and of planetary reyolutions to the supposed instaot of
the creation, is quoted from Brahmagupta, with a parallel
passage of another Brahma-siddh&nta (comprehended in the
Vishnu-dharmottara-pur&na), in a compilation by Muniswara,
one of Bh&skara''s glossators.^ It is verified as the 4th couplet
of Brahmagupta's first chapter (upon mean motions) in the
translator's copy.
Seven couplets, specifying the mean motions of the planets'
nodes and apogees, are quoted after the parallel passage of the
other Brahma-siddh&nta, by the same scholiast of Bh&skaia,
as the text of Brahmagupta ; and they are found in the same
order from the 15th to the 21st in the first chapter of bis
work in the copy above mentioned.
This commentator, among many other corresponding passages
noticed by him on various occasions, has quoted one from the
same Brahma-siddh&nta of the Yishnu-dharmottara concerning
^ As. Res., Tol. zii. p. 232 (p. 848 of the present Tolame}.
KOTSS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 413
the orbits of the planets deduced from the magnitude of the
sky computed there, as it also is by Brahmagupta (ch. 21, § 9),
but in other words, at a circumference of 18,712,069,200,000,000
yqfanas. He goes on to quote the subsequent couplet of
&ahmagupta, declaring that planets travel an equal measured
distance in their orbits in equal times; and then cites his
scholiast (tikdkdra) Ghatunred&ch&rya.
The text of Brahmagupta (ch. 1, § 21), specifying the
diurnal revolutions of the sidereal sphere, or number of [459]
sidereal days in a kalpa^ with the correspondent one of the
Pait4maha-siddh&nta in the Yishnu-dharmottara, is another
of the quotations of the same writer in his commentary on
Bh&skara.
A passage relating to oval epicycles,^ cited by the same
author in another place, is also verified in the 2nd chapter (in
the rectification of a planet's place).
A number of couplets on the subject of eclipses' is cited by
Lakshmid&sa, a commentator of Bh&skara. They are found
in the 5th chapter (on eclipses), § 10 and 24 ; and in a section
of the 21st (on the cause of eclipses), § 37 to 46, in the copy
in question.
Several couplets, relating to the positions of the constella-
tions and to the longitudes and latitudes of principal fixt stars,
are cited from Brahmagupta in numerous compilations, and
specifically in the commentaries on the Surya-siddh&nta and
Siddh&nta-siromani.' They are all found correct in the 10th
chapter, on the conjunctions of planets with fixt stars.
A quotation by Gra^esa on the Lil&vati (a.d. 1545), de*
scribing the attainments of a true mathematician,^ occurs with
exactness as the first couplet of the 12th chapter, on arithme-
tic ; and one adduced by Bh&skara himself, in his arithmetical
treatise (§ 190), giving a rule for finding the diagonal of a
trapezium,' is precisely the 28th of the same chapter.
* Page 362, etc., of the present Tolume. » Page 367 of the present Tolome.
.» Page 2S3, etc., of the present volume. ^ Lll. ch. 11. * Ldl. § 190.
414 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
A very important passage, noticed by Bh&skara in his notes
on his Siddhinta-siromani, and alluded to in his text, and
fully quoted by his commentator in the Miricha, relatiTo to
the rectification of a planef's true place from the [460] mean
motions,^ is found in the 21st chapter, § 27* Bb&skara has,
on that occasion, alluded to the scholiast, who is accordingly
quoted by name in the commentary of Lakshmidi^a (a.d.
1501) : and here again the correspondence is exact.
The identity of the text as BrahmagnptaX and of the glos^
as his scholiast^s, being (by these and many other instancd^
which haye been collated) satisfactorily established; as the
genuineness of the text is by numerous quotations from the
Brahma-siddh&nta (without the author's name) in the moid
ancient commentary of Bhatfotpala (a.d. 968) on the works of
Var&hamihira, which also have been verified in the mutilated
copy of the Brahma-siddh&nta under consideration ; the next
step was the examination of the detached copy of a commen-
tary on the 18th chapter, upon algebra, which is terminated
by a colophon so describing it, and specifying the title of the
entire book Brahma-siddh&nta, and the name of its author
Brahniagupta.
For this purpose materials are happily presented in the
scholiast's enumeration, at the close of the chapter on arith-
metic, of the topics treated by his author in the chapter on
algebra, entitled Kuttaka:^ in a general reference to the
author's algorithm of unknown quantities, affirmative and
negative terms, cipher and surd roots, in the same chapter;'
and the same scholiast'^s quotations of the initial words of four
rules ; one of them relative to surd roots ; * the othw three
regarding the resolution of quadratic equations : ^ as also in
the references of the scholiast of the [461] algebraic treatise to
passages in the astronomical part of his author'^s work.^
* Page 354, etc., of the present volame. • Arithm. of Brahm. § 66.
' Arith. of Brahm. \ 13. ^ Arithm. of Brahm. \ 39.
0 Arithm. of Brahm. § 15 and 18. • Alg. of Brahm. § 96 (Role d^.
NOTES AND XLLUSTRATIONS. 415
The quotations have been verified : and they exactly agree
with the rule concerning surds (§ 26) and the three rules which
compose the section relating to quadratic equations (§ 32-
S4); and with the rule in the chapter on the solution of
astronomical problems concerning mean motions (ch. 13, § 22) :
and this yerification and the agreement of the more general
references demonstrate the identity of this treatise of algebra,
consonantly to its colophon, as Brahmagupta's algebra entitled
Kuttaka and a part of his Brahma-siddh&nta.
E.
Chsonoloot of Astronomical Authorities according to
Astronomers of TJjJAiANi.
The names of astronomical writers with their dates, as
fbrnished by the astronomers of Ujjayani, who were consulted
by Dr. William Hunter, sojourning there with a British
embassy, are the following : —
Yarfthamihira 122 S'aka [a.d. 200-1]
Another Var&hamihira 427 [lj>, 505-6]
Brahmagapta 550 [a.d. 628-9]
Mnnj&la 854 [a.d. 932-3]
Bhattotpala 890 [a.d. 968-9]
SVetotpala 939 [a.d. 1017-8]
VanugLa-bha^ 962 [a.d. 1040-1]
Bhoja-r&ja 964 [a.d. 1042-3]
Bh&skara 1072 [a.d. 1150-1]
Kaly&^achandra 1101 [a.d. 11 79-80]
The grounds on which this chronology proceeds are un-
explained in the note which Dr. Hunter preserved of the
communication ; but means exist for verifying two of the dates
specified and corroborating others.^
^ [According to Albirtiiif, who wrote in 1031, the Hindus then reckoned 526
yaan since the composition of the Pancha-siddh&nta of Var&hamihira, 366 years
lor the Kanda-klitaka tables [Ehaijt^-kh&dya-kara^a P] of Brahmagnpta, and 132
years for the Eara^a-s&ra of Bh&skara [cf. infrd, p. 423 P] thus making Var&ha-
mihira flourish in a.d. 504, Brahmagupta in a.d. 664, and Bh&skora [P] in 898.
(BeinAad, Mimoire^ p. 837.)]
416 ALGEBRA OF THE HimOTTS.
[462] The date assigned to Bh&skara is precisely that of
his Siddh&nta-siromaniy plainly conclnded from a passage of
it, in which he declares that it was completed by him, being
thirty-six years of age; and that his birth was in 1036 ^aka.
R&J& Bhoja-deva, or Bhoja-r&ja, is placed in this Ust of
Hinda astronomers apparently on account of his name being
affixed, as that of the author, to an astrological treatise on the
calendar, which bears the title of Br&ja-m&rtanda, and whieh
was composed probably at his court and by astrologers in his
service. It contains no date ; or at least none is found in tbe
copy which has been inspected. But the age assigned to
the prince is not inconsistent with Indian History : and is
supported by the colophon of a poem entitled Subh&shitft-
ratna-sandoha, composed by a Jaina sectary named Amitagsti,
who has given the date of his poem in 1050 of Yikramiditja,
in the reign of Munja. Now Munja was uncle and prede-
cessor of Bhoja-r&ja, being regent, with the title of sovereign,
during his nephew's minority : and this date, which answers
to A.D. 993-4, is entirely consistent with that given hj the
astronomers of XJjjayani, viz. 964 Saka, corresponding to
A.D. 1042-3 : for the reign of Bhoja-deva was long; extending,
at the lowest computation, to half a century, and reaching,
according to an extravagant reckoning, to the round number
of an hundred years.
The historical notices of this King of Dh&r& ^ are examined
bv Major Wilford and Mr. Bentley in the ninth and eighth
volumes of Asiatic Researches : and they refer him to the
tenth century of the Christian era, the one making him ascend
the throne in a.u. 982; the other in a.d. 913. The former,
which takes his reign [463] at an entire century, including of
course his minority, or the period of the administration, reign,
or re<»ency, of his uncle Munja, is compatible with the date
of Amitagati'a poem (a.d. 993), and with that of the E4j»-
martanda or other astrological and astronomical works ascribed
1 The modem Dhdr. WUford, As. Bes.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 417
to liim (a.d. 1042), according to the chronology of the as-
tronomers of TJjjayanL
The age assigned to Brahmagupta is corroborated by the
arguments adduced in the text. That given to Munj&la is
consistent with the quotation of him as at the head of a tribe
of authors, by Bh&skara, at the distance of two centuries.
The period allotted to Yar&hamihira, that is, to the second
and most celebrated of the name, also admits corroboration.
This point, however, being specially important to the history
of Indian astronomy, and collaterally to that of the Hindu al-
gebra, deserves and will receive a foil and distinct consideration.
F.
Age of Brahmaoupta inferred from Astronomical
DATA.^
The star Ghitrd, which unquestionably is Spica Virginis,'
was referred by Brahmagupta to the 103rd degree counted
from its origin to the intersection of the star's circle of de-
clination ; ' whence the star''s right ascension is deduced
182° 45'. Its actual right ascension in a.d. 1800 was
198° 40' 2".* The difference, 15^ 55' 2", is the quantity by
which the beginning of the first zodiacal asterism and lunar
mansion, Aswini, as inferrible from the position of the star
Ghitr&, has receded from the equinox : and it indicates
[464] the lapse of 1216 years (to a.d. 1800), since that point
coincided with the equinox ; the annual precession of the star
being reckoned at 47', 14.*
The star Revati, which appears to be ^ Piscium,^ had no
» [Cf. Prof. Whitney, Journ. A.O.S. viii. p. 93.]
* Page 296 of the present volume.
* Pages 283, etc and 356 of the present volume.
* Zach's Tables for 1800 deduced from Maskelyne's Catalogue.
* Maskelyne's Catalogue : the mean precession of the equinoctial points being
reckoned 60^', 8. * Page 302 of the present volume.
VOL. ni. [laaATB n.] 27
418 ALGEBEA OF THE HINDUS.
longitude, according to the same author, being situated pre-
cisely at the close of the asterism and commencement of the
following one, Aswini, without latitude or declination, exactly
in the equinoctial point. Its actual right ascension in 1800
was 15° 49' 15." ^ This, which is the quantity by which the
origin of the Indian ecliptic, as inferrible from the position of
the star Bevati, has receded from the equinox, indicates a
period of 1221 years elapsed to the end of the eighteenth
century ; the annual precession for that star being 46", 63.'
The mean of the two is 1218^ years; which, taken from
1800, leave 581 or 582 of the Christian era. Brahmagupta
then appears to have observed and written towards the close of
the sixth, or the beginning of the following century ; for, as
the H indu astronomers seem not to have been very accurate
observers, the belief of his having lived and published in the
seventh century, about a.d. 628, which answers to 550 ^a,
the date assigned to him by the astronomers of TJjjayan(, is not
inconsistent with the position, that the vernal equinox did not
sensibly to his view deviate from the beginning of Aries or
Mosha, as determined by him from the starRevati (fPiscium),
which he places at that point.
The same author assigns to Agastya or Cauopus a distance
of 87% and to Lubdhaka or Sirius 86% from the [465] begin-
ning of Mesha. From these positions a mean of 1280 years
is deducible.
The passage in which this author denies the precession of
the coluros, as well as the comment of his scholiast on it,
being material to the present argument, they are here sub-
joined in a literal version.
' The very fewest hours of nijrht occur at the end of
Mithuna, and the seasons are governed by the sun's motion;
therefore the pair of solstices appears to be stationary, by the
evidence of a pair of eyes.' ^
Scholia : ' What is said by Yishnuchandra at the begin-
1 Zach's Tables. * Zach's Tablet. ' Brahma-Biddh&nta, iL } 64.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 4 19
ning of the chapter on the yuga of the solstice (" Its re-
▼olutions through the asterisms are here [in the kalpa] a
hundred and eighty-nine thousand four hundred and eleven.
This is termed a yuga of the solstice, as of old admitted bj
Brahma, Arka, and the rest.") is wrong: for the very fewest
hours of night to us occur when the sunn's place is at the end
of Mithuna [Gemini] ; and of course the very utmost hours
of day are at the same period. From that limitary point, the
sunn's progress regulates the seasons ; namely, the cold season
(iiHra) and the rest, comprising two months each, reckoned
from Makara [Capricorn]. Therefore what has been said
concerning the motion of the limitary point is wrong, being
contradicted by actual observation of days and nights.
* The objection, however, is not valid : for now the greatest
decrease and increase of night and day do not happen when
the sunn's place is at the end of Mithuna : and passages are
remembered, expressing '' The southern road of the sun was
from the middle of Aslesh& ; and the northern one at the
beginning of Dhanishth& ; '*'' * and [466] others [of like im-
port]. But all this only proves, that there is a motion ; not
that the solstice has made many revolutions through the
asterisms.' *
It was hinted at the beginning of this note, that Brahma-
gupta's longitude {dhruvaka) of a star is the arc of the
ecliptic intercepted by the star's circle of declination, and
counted from the origin of the ecliptic at the beginning of
Mesha; as his latitude (pikahepa) of a star is the star's
distance on a circle of declination from its point of intersection
with the ecliptic. In short, he, like other Hindu astronomers,
counts longitude and latitude of stars by the intersection of
circles of declination with the ecliptic. The subject has been
before noticed.' To make it more clear, an instance may be
taken : and that of the scholiast's computation of the zenith
^ This quotation is firom Var&hamihira's sanhitd, ch. 3» § 1 and 2.
' Prithddaka-sw&mf-chatunreda on Brabm.
* Pages 285y etc., and 367 of the present volnme.
420 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
distance and meridian altitude of Canopus for the latitude of
Kanyakubja (Kanouj) may serve as an apposite example.
From the vikshepa of the star Agastya, 77°, he subtracts
the declination of the intersected point of the ecliptic 23° 58' ;
to the remainder, which is the declination of the star, 53° 2\
he adds the latitude of the place, 26° 35' ; the sum, 79° 37', is
the zenith distance ; and its complement to ninety degrees,
lO"" 23', is the meridian altitude of the star.^
The annual variation of the star in declination, 1", 7, is too
small to draw any inference as to the age of the scholiast fronv
the declination here stated. More especially as it is taketx
from data furnished by his author ; and as he appears to
have been, like most of the Hindu astronomers, no vei^
accurate observer ; the latitude assigned by him to [467] the
city in which he dwelt being no less than half a degree wrong :
for the ruins of the city of Kanouj are in 27° 5' If.
G.
ArYABHATTA's DOCIRINE.
A'ryabhatta was author of the Arydshtasata (800 couplets*)
and l)asa<;itik4 (ten stanzas), known by the numerous quota-
tions of Brahniagupta, Bhattotpala, and others, who cite both
under these respective titles. The Laghu Arya-siddh4nta, as
a woik of the same author, and, perhaps, one of those above
nicntioned,^ is several times quoted by Bh&skara's commentator
Muniswara. lie likewise treated of algebra, etc. under the
distinct heads of Kuttaka^ a problem serving for the resolution
of indeterminate ones, and Vija^ principle of computation, or
analysis in general. — Lil, c. 11.
From the quotations of writers on astronomy, and par-
1 PrithCidaka-swdrai on Brahm., ch. 10. § 35. » [Rather 108 coaplets.]
3 [Cf. Dr. Bhku Dkji, J.R.A.S., 1864, p. 399, and Pjrot Kern, Vfihal Setik.
pref. p 56.]
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 421
ticularly of Brahmagnpta, who, iu many instances, cites
^ryabhatta to controvert his positions (and is in general
contradicted in his censure by his own scholiast Prithudaka,
either correcting his quotations, or vindicating the doctrine of
the earlier author), it appears that i^ryabhatta affirmed the
diurnal revolution of the earth on its axis, and that he
accounted for it by a wind or current of aerial fluid, the
extent of which, according to the orbit assigned to it by him,
corresponds to an elevation of little more than a hundred
miles from the surface of the earth : that he possessed the
true theory of the causes of lunar and solar eclipses, and
disregarded the imaginary dark planets of the mythologists
and astrologers, affirming the moon and primary planets (and
even the stars) to be essentially dark, and only illumined by
the sun: that he [468] noticed the motion of the solstitial and
equinoctial points, but restricted it to a regular oscillation, of
which he assigned the limit and the period : that he ascribed
to the epicycles, by which the motion of a planet is represented,
a form varying from the circle and nearly elliptic : that he
recognized a motion of the nodes and apsides of all the
primary planets, as well as of the moon ; though in this
instance, as in some others, his censurer imputes to him
variance of doctrine.
The magnitude of the earth, and extent of the encompass-
ing wind^ is among the instances wherein he is reproached by
Brahmagupta with versatility, as not having adhered to the
same position throughout his writings ; but he is vindicated
on this, as on most occasions, by the scholiast of his censurer.
Particulars of this question, leading to rather curious matter,
deserve notice.
Aryabhatta's text specifies the earth's diameter, 1050
yqjanas; and the orbit or circumference of the earth's wind
[spiritus vector] 3393 yojanas ; which, as the scholiast rightly
argues, is no discrepancy. The diameter of this orbit, accon^
ing to the remark of Brahmagupta, is 1080.
422 ALGEBRA OF THE HDmUS.
On this it is to be in the first place observed, that the
proportion of the circamference to the diameter of a circle,
here employed, is that of 22 to 7 ; which not being the same
which is given by Brahmagupta^s rule (Arithm. § 40), most
bo presumed to be that which ^ryabhatta taught. Applying
it to the earth's diameter as by him assigned, m. 1050, the
circumference of the earth is 3300 ; which evidently con-
stitutes the dimensions by him intended : and that number is
accordingly stated by a commentator of Bh&skara. See Gan.
on lAl. § 4,
This approximation to the proportion of the diameter of a
circle to its periphery , is nearer than that which both [469]
Brahmagupta and Sridhara, though later writers, teach in
their mensuration, and which is employed in the Surja-
siddhanta; namely, one to the square root of ten. It is
adopted by Bhdskara, who adds, apparently from some otiier
authority, the still nearer approximation of 1250 to 3927.—
LiL §201.
iVryabhatta appears, however, to have also made use of
tlic ratio which afterwards contented both Brahmagupta and
SnMhara ; for his rule, adduced by Ganesa (ii/. § 207), for
fni(liii<:; the arc from the chord and versed sine, is clearly
founded on the proportion of the diameter to the periphery, as
one to the square root of ten : as will be evident if the semi-
circle be coni[>uted by that rule : for it conies out the square
root of y, the diameter being 1.
A more favourable notion of his proficiency in geometry —
a science, however, much less cultivated by the Hindus thau
algebra — may be received from liis acquaintance with tlie
tlitHjrem containing the fundamental property of the circle,
which is cited by Prithudaka. — Brahm. 12, § 21.
The number of 3300 yojanas for the circumference of the
earth, or 9^ yojanas for a degree of a great circle, is not verv
wide of the truth, and is, indeed, a very near approach, if the
yojana^ which contains four kro§a$, be rightly inferred from
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 423
the modem computed hroia found to be 1, 9 B. M.^ For, at
that rate of 7, 6 miles to a yojcma^ the earth's circumference
would be 25,080 B. miles.
The diflFerence between the diameter of the earth and that
of its air {vdyu)^ by which term itryabhatta seems to intend
a current of wind whirling as a vortex, and causing the earth's
revolution on its axis, leaves 15 yojanas^ or [470] 114 miles,
for the limit of elevation of this atmospheric current.
H.
Scantiness of the ADDmoNS by later Writers on
Algebra.
The observation in the text on the scantiness of the im-
provements or additions made to the algebra of the Hindus in
a long period of years after ^ryabhatta probably, and after
Brahmagupta certainly, is extended to authors whose works
are now lost, on the faith of quotations from them. Sridhara's
rule, which is cited by Bh&skara (Vij.-gan. § 131), concerning
quadratics, is the same in substance with one of Brahmagupta^s
(ch. 18, § 32-33). Padman&bha, indeed, appears from the
quotation from his treatise (Vij.-gan. § 142) to have been
aware of quadratic equations affording two roots; which
Brahmagupta has not noticed ; and this is a material accession
which the science received. There remains an uncertainty
respecting the author, from whom Bh&skara has taken the
resolution of equations of the third and fourth degrees in their
simple and unaffected cases.
The only names of algebraists who preceded Bh&skara, to
be added to those already mentioned, are, 1st, an earlier writer
of the same name (Bhdskara), who was at the head of the
commentators of Aryabhatta ; and, 2nd, the elder scholiast of
' As. Res., Tol. T. p. 106.
424 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
the Brahma-Biddh&nta, named Bhatta-balabhadra. Both are
repeatedly cited by the successor of the latter in the same task
of exposition, Prith6daka-sw&mi, who was himself anterior to
the author of the Siromani, being more than once quoted by
him. As neither of those earlier commentators is named by
the younger Bh&skara, nor any intimation given of his having
consulted and employed other treatises besides [471] the three
specified by him in the compilation of the Yija-ganita, it is
presumable, that the few additions, which a comparison with
the Euttaka of Brahmagupta exhibits, are properly ascribable
either to Sridhara or to Padman&bha : most likely to the
latter, as he is cited for one such addition ; ^ and as Sridhara's
treatise of arithmetic and mensuration, which is extant, is mi
seemingly the work of an author improving on the labours
of those who went before him.' The corrections and im-
provements introduced by Bh&skara himself, and of which
he carefully apprizes his readers,' are not very numerous,
nor in general important.^
I.
Age op i^LRYABHAXTA.^
Under the Abbasside Khalifs Almansur and Almamun, in
the middle of the eighth and beginning of the ninth centuries
1 rfj.'gnn. § 142.
a IM. § 147. Brahm. c. 12, § 21 and 40. Oan. Sdr, § 126.
3 Vij.-gan. before \ 44, and after § 67, also ch. 1, towards the end ; and ch. 5,
§ 142.
* Unless HI § 170 and 190.
» [Arj-abha^ (as the name is more correctly spelt) is now known to hare been
born A.D. 476 (see Dr. Bhku D&jl's paper, J.R.A.S. 1864). We have, of his
works, the Dahgiti in twelve stanzas, two of which contain only the invocation
and colophon, and the Aryabha^a-aiddhdnta or Aryabhaiiya in 111 stanzas;
but if we omit the three invocatory and closing stanzas, we get 108, i.e. Arydtk-
\a»ata (see Prof. Kern's introduction to his edition of Var&hamihira's VriM
S'lnhif/i, pp. 65-59). The Mahd-aiddhdnta belongs to a later Aryabha^ cf.
Vfihat Sanh, pref. p. 60.]
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 425
of the Christian era, the Arabs became conversant with the
Indian astronomy. It was at that period, as may be pre-
sumed, that they obtained information of the existence and
currency of three astronomical systems among the Indians ; ^
one of which bore the name of i^iryabhatta, or, as written in
Arabic characters, i^irjabahar* (perhaps [472] intended for
Arjabhar), which is as near an approximation as the difference
of characters can be expected to exhibit. This then un-
questionably was the system of the astronomer whose age is
now to be investigated ; and who is in a thousand places cited
by Hindu writers on astronomy, as author of a system and
founder of a sect in this science. It is inferred from the
acquaintance of the Arabs with the astronomical attainments
of the Hindus, at that time, when the court of the Khalif drew
the visit of a Hindu astrologer and mathematician, and when
the Indian determination of the mean motions of the planets
was made the basis of astronomical tables compiled by order
of the Khalifs, ^ for a guide in matters pertaining to the stars,^
and when Indian treatises on the science of numbers were
put in an Arabic dress ; adverting also to the difficulty of
obtaining fiirther insight into the Indian sciences, which the
author of the T&rikhu'l hukam& complains of, assigning for
the cause the distance of countries, and the various impedi-
ments to intercourse : it is inferred, we say, from these, joined
to other considerations, that the period in question was that
in which the name of Aryabhatta was introduced to the
knowledge of the Arabs. This, as a first step in inquiring
the antiquity of this author, ascertains his celebrity as an
astronomical authority above a thousand years ago.
He is repeatedly named by Hindu authors of a still earlier
date: particularly by Brahmagupta, in the first part of the
1 THrikhu^l hukamdy or Bibl. Arab. Phil, quoted hj Casiri : Bibl. Arab. Hisp.
▼oL i. p. 426. See note M.
* Cossali's Argebakr is a misprint (Orig. etc., dell' AJg. vol. i. p. 207). Casiri
giTea, as in the Arabic, Argebahr : which, in the orthography here followed, is
Aijabahr.
426 ALOEBBA OF THE HINBIJS.
seventh century of the Christian era. He had been copied
bj writers whom Brahmagupta cites. Yar&hamihira has
allusions to him, or employs his astronomical determinations
in an astrological work at the beginning of the sixth century.
These facts will be further weighed upon as we proceed.
For determining Xryabhatta^s age with the greater precision
of astronomical chronology, grounds are pre[473]sented^ at
the first view promising, but on examination insufficient.
In the investigation of the question upon astronomical
grounds, recourse was in the first place had to his doctrine
concerning the precession of the equinoxes. As quoted by
Mnniswara, a scholiast of Bhaskara, he maintained an oscilla--
tion of the equinoctial points to twenty-four degrees on either
side ; and he reckoned 578,159 such librations in a kaipaJ
From another passage cited by Bhattotpala on Yar&hamihira,'
his position of the mean equinoxes was the beginning of Aries
and of Libra.' From one more passage quoted by the
scholiast of Brahmagupta,^ it further appears, that he reckoned
1,986,120,000 years expired'* before the war of the Bh&rata:
and the duration of the ka/pa, if he be rightly quoted bj
liniliniagupta,^ is 1008 quadruple f/ugas of 4,320,000 years
each.
From tlicse data it follows that, according to him, the
equiuoctial point had completed 263,699 oscillations at the
epoch of the war of the Bharata. But we are without any
information as to the progress made in the current oscillation
when ho wrote, or the actual distance of the equinox from the
beginning of Mesha : the position of which, also, as by him
received, is uncertain.
^ Page 332 of the present volume.
* Vj-ihat-sanhiti, ch. 2.
^ ' From the beginning of Mesha to the end of Kanyfi (Yirgo), the half the
ecliptic passes through the north. From the beginning of Tul& to the end of
(the tishes) Mina, the remaining half passes by the south.'
* PrithQdaka on Brahm., c. i. § 10 and 30, and c. xi. § 4.
* Six Maausy twenty-seven f/upas and three-quarters.
* Prithddaka on lirahm., c. i. ( 12.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 427
His limit of the motion in trepidation, 24°, was evidently
suggested to him by the former position of the colures de-
clared by Par^ara ; the exact difference being 23° 20'. [474]
But the commencement of Par&sara's Aslesha, in his sphere,
or the origin of his sidereal Mesha, are unascertained.
Whether his notions of the duodecimal division of the zodiac
were taken from the Grecian or Egyptian spheres, or from
what other immediate source, is but matter of conjecture.
Quotations of this author furnish the revolutions of Jupiter
in a yuga<} and of Saturn^s aphelion in a kalpa ; ' and
those of the moon in the latter period : but the same passage,'
in which the number of lunar revolutions in that great period
are given, supplies those of the sun ; namely 4,320,000,000 ;
differing from the duration of the kalpa according to this
author as cited by more ancient compilers. The truth is, as
appears from another quotation/ that i^iryabhatta, after de-
livering one complete astronomical system, proceeds in a
second and distinct chapter to deliver another and different
one as the doctrine of Par&sara; whose authority, he ob-
serves, prevails in the Kali age: and though he seems to
indicate the kalpa as the same in both, he also hints that in
one a deduction is made for the time employed in creation ;
and we have seen that the duration of the kalpa differs in
the quotations of compilers from this author.
The ground then being insufficient, until a more definitive
knowledge of either system, as developed by him, be re-
covered, to support any positive conclusion, recourse must be
had, on failure of precise proof, to more loose presumption.
It is to be observed, that he does not use the Saka or Samvat
of Vikram&ditya, nor the Saka era of Salivdhana, but ex-
clusively employs the epoch of the war of the Bharata, which
is the era of Yudhish[475]thira and the same with the com-
mencement of the Eali yiiya. Hence it is to be argued, that
^ As. Res., vol. iii. p. 215. ' Man. on Bhfrs., c. i. } 33.
' Hon. on Bh&& c. L § 16 — 18. ^ VdrU and Mun. on Bh&s.
428 ALGEBRA OP THE HINDUS.
he flourished before this era was superseded by the introduction
of the modem epochas. Yar&haniihira, on the other hand,
does employ the 6aka, termed by him Saka-bhupa-k&Ia and
^akendra-k&la : which the old scholiast Interprets ^ the time
when the barbarian kings called Saka were discomfited bj
Yikramaditya : ' ^ and Brahmagupta uses the modem Sab
era, which he expresses by Saka-nripante, interpreted by the
scholiast of Bh&skara *the end [of the life or reign] of
Yikramaditya, who slew a people of barbarians named Sakas.'
Yar&hamihira's epoch of ^aka appears to have been under-
stood by his scholiast Bhatfotpala to be the same with the
era of Yikram&ditya, which now is usually called Samyat, and
which is reckoned to commence after 3044 years of the Kali
age were expired : ' and Brahmagupta^s epoch of Saka is the
era of S&livdhana, beginning at the expiration of 3179 years
of the Kali yuga : and accordingly this number is specified in
his Brahma-siddh&nta. When those eras were first intro-
duced is not at present with certainty known. If that of
Yikram&ditya, dating with a most memorable event of his
reign, came into use during its continuance, still its introduc-
tion could not be from the first so general as at once and
universally to supersede the former era of Yudhishthira.
But the argument drawn from Aryabhatta''s use of the ancient
epoch, and his silence respecting the modem, so far as it goes,
favours the presumption that he lived before the origin of the
modern eras. Certainly he is anterior to Brahmagupta, who
cites him in more than a hundred places by name : and to
Varahamihira, whose compilation is founded, among other au-
thorities, on [476] the Romaka of Srishena, and Y&sishtha
of Vishnuchandra, which Brahmagupta affirms to be partly
taken from Aryabhatta.' The priority of this author is
explicitly asserted likewise by the celebrated astronomer
^ Vrihat-ganhitft.
* [Prof. Kern, in the preface to his ei of Var&hamihira's Vribat-sanbitA, p. 6,
considers that Bhattotpala meant the era of S'&liv&hana.]
3 Brahm. Siddh , o. 11, § 48—51.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 429
i^esa, who, in explanation of his own undertaking, says :
tules framed by other holy sages were right in the Tretd
d Dwdpara ; but, in the present age, Par&sara's. KryBr-
atta, however, finding his imperfect, after great lapse of
ne, reformed the system. It grew inaccurate, and was
srefore amended by Durgasinha, Mihira, and others. This
ain became insufficient : and correct rules were framed by
e son of Jishnu [Brahmagupta], founded upon Brahma^s
relation. His system also, after a long time, came to
hibit differences. Kesava rectified it. Now, finding this
:ewise a little incorrect after sixty years, his son Granesa has
rfected it, and reconciled computation and experience.' ^
.^Gyabhatta then preceded Brahmagupta, who lived towards
B middle of the sixth century of the §aka era ; and Yard-
mihira, placed by the chronologers of Ujjayani at the
ginning of the fifth or of the second (for they notice two
tronomers of the name). He is prior also to Yishnu-
andra, Srishena, and Durgasinha ; all of them anterior to
e second Yar&hamihira ; and an interval of two or of three
nturies is not more than adequate to a series of astronomers
Hewing each other in the task of emendation, which process
time rendered successively requisite.
On these considerations it is presumed, that A'ryabhatta is
iquestionably to be placed earlier than the fifth century of
e Saka : and probably so, by several (by [477] more than
ro or three) centuries : and not unlikely before the com-
Bncement of either Saka or Samvat eras. In other words, he
»arished some ages before the sixth century of the Christian
a : and perhaps lived before, or, at latest, soon after its com-
encement. Between these limits, either the third or the
orth century might be assumed as a middle term. We
all, however, take the fifth of Christ as the latest period to
lich ^yabhatta can, on the most moderate assumption, be
ferred,
^ Citation by Nfisinha on Sdr. Siddh.
430 ALGEBEA OF THE HINDUS.
K.
Writings and Age op Varahamihika.
Tliis distinguished astrological writer, a native of TTjjayaDi,
and son of Adityad&sa,^ was author of a copious work on
astrology, compiled, and, as he declares, abridged from earUer
writers. It is comprised in three parts: the first on as-
tronomy ; the second and third, on divination : together con-
stituting a complete course. Such a course, he observes in his
preface to the third part, has been termed by ancient writers
Sanhita, and consists of three akandhas or parts : the first,
which teaches to find a planet's place by computation (ganiia),
is called tantra; the second, which ascertains lucky and
unlucky indications, is named hard; it relates chiefly to
nativities, journeys, and weddings ; the third, on prognostics
relative to various matters, is denominated idkhd. The direct
and retrograde [478] motions of planets, with their rising and
setting, and other particulars, he goes on to say, had been
propounded by him in a treatise termed Karana, meaning,
as the scholiast remarks, his compilation entitled Pancha-
siddhantika : which constitutes the first and astronomical po^
tion of liis entire work. What relates to the first branch of
astrology {hord\ the author adds, had likewise been delivered by
him, including nativities and prognostics concerning journeys
and weddings. These astrological treatises of his author, the
scholiast observes, are entitled Vrihat-jdtaka, Vrihad-yatri,
and Vrihad-vivdha-patala, The author proceeds to deliver
the third part of his course, or the second on divination,
^ Yrihat-jktaka, c. 26, § 5; where the author so describes himaelf. His
scholiast also calls him AVantika from his native city Ujjayairi, and terms him i
Magadha BrCihman, and a compiler of astronomical science. Bhattotpala on
Vfi.'jdt, 1. The same scholiast similarly describes him in the introduction oft
commentary on a work of his son Prithnyatfas.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 431
omitting, as he says, superfluous and pithless matter, which
abounds in the writings of his predecessors : such as questions
and replies in dialogue, legendary tales, and the mythological
origin of the planets.
The third part is extant, and entire ; and is generally
known and cited hy the title of Vrihat-sanhitd, or great
coarse of astrology : a denomination well deserved ; for, not-
withstanding the author's professions of conciseness, it con-
tains about four thousand couplets distributed in more than a
hundred chapters, or precisely (including the metrical table of
contents) 106.^
Of the second part, the first section, on casting of nativities,
called Yrihat-j&taka, is also extant, and comprises twenty-
five chapters, or, with the metrical table of contents and
peroration which concludes it, twenty-six.^ The other two
sections of this part of the course have not been recovered,
though probably extant in the hands of Hindu astrologers.
The scholia of the celebrated commentator of this author's
works, who is usually called Bhattotpala, and who in several
places of his commentary names himself IJtpala (quibbling
with simulated modesty on his appellation, for [479] the
word signifies stone),^ are preserved; and are complete for
the third part of the author's course, and for the first section
of the second : and the remainder of it likewise is probably
extant, as the copy of the first section in the possession of the
anther of this dissertation terminates abruptly after the com-
mencement of the second.
This commentator is noticed in the list of authorities
famished by the astronomers of IJjjayanI, and is there stated
^ [Edited and translated by Dr. Eeni. Sanhit& is here used as equiralent to
B^ftkhft, or the third portion of Sanhit& in its wider sense.]
* [Printed with Utpala's Comm. at Benares and Bombay. C£ Eem's Preface,
p. 26.]
' Prefiice to the commentary on the Yfihat-j&taka. Conclnsion of the gloss
<m dL 18 of Vrihat-8anhit&, etc. * Stone (utpala) frames the raft of interpre-
iitioii to cross the oceao composed by Yar&hamihira.' [ Vpala is the Sanskrit
for ' stone/ not Utpala, Utpaia here simply means the author's name.]
432 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
as of tlie year 890 of the 6aka era (a.d. 968).^ Sir William
J^nes supposed him to be the son of the author, whose work
is expounded by him. The grounds of this notion, which is
not, liowever, very positively advanced by that learned
Orientalist,^ are not set forth. No intimation of such relatioa
of the scholiast to his author appears in the preface or the
conclusion, nor in the colophon, of the commentary which
has been inspected : nor in the body of the work, where the
author is of course repeatedly named or referred to, without
however any addition indicative of filial respect, as Hinda
writers usually do employ when speaking of a parent or
ancestor. Neither is there any hint of relationship in the
commentary of the same scholiast Bhattotpala on a brief
treatise of divination, entitled Prasna-koshthi, comprising fifty-
six stanzas by Prithuyasas, son of Var&hamihira. The sng^
gestion of the filial relation of the scholiast is probably there-
fore a mere error.
The Pancha-siddh&ntik& of Yar&hamihira has not yet been
recovered ; and is only at present kno\yn from [480] quota-
tions of authors ; and particularly a number of passages cited
from it by his scholiast in course of interpreting his astro-
logical writings. An important passage of it so quoted will
be noticed forthwith.
It is a compilation, as its name implies, from five siddh'
dntas^ and they are specified in the second chapter of the
Vrihat-sanhita, where the author is enumerating the requisite
qualifications of an astronomer competent to calculate a
calendar. Among other attainments, he requires him to be
conversant with time measured by yugas^ etc. as taught in the
five suldhdntas upon astronomy named Paulisa, Romaka,
V^sishtha, Saura, and Paitdmaha.^
^ [Ho gives the date of his Comm. on Var&hamihira*s VrihaUjatahm u
S aka (a.d. 966).]
2 The words are, ' The comment written by Bhattotpala, who, it seems, wis i
son of the author.' As. Res., voL iL p. 390.
3 YrihaUanhit&, c. 2. § 7.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 433
The title of Yar&hamihira's compilation misled a writer on
Hindu astronomy^ into an unfounded supposition, that he
^ras the acknowledged author of the five &iddhdntas; the
names of two of which, moreover, are mistaken, Soma and
Panlastya being erroneously substituted for Bomaka and
Paulisa. These two, as well as the Y&sishtha, are the works
of known authors, namely, Pulisa, Srishei^ and Yishnu-
ehandra ; all three mentioned by Brahmagupta : by whom
also the whole five siddhdntas are noticed under the very same
names and in the same order;' and who has specified the
authors of the first three.' The Yasishtha of Yishnuchandra
was indeed preceded by an earlier work (so entitled) of an
unknown author, from which that, as well as the Bomaka, is
in part taken ; ^ and it may be deemed an amended edition :
but the Bomaka and Paulisa are single of the names : and no
Hindu astronomer, possessing any knowledge of the history
of the science cultivated by him, ever [481] could imagine,
that Yar&hamihira composed the work which takes its name
from Pulisa, the distinguished founder of a sect or school in
astronomy opposed to that of Aryabhatta.
The passage of the Pancha-siddhdntik^ cited by the
scholiast,^ and promised to be here noticed, has been quoted in
an essay inserted in the Researches of the Asiatic Society,^
as well as a parallel passage of the Yrihat-sanhita,'^ both
relative to the ancient and actual position of the colures ; and
deemed parallel (though one be less precise than the other),
since they are cited together as of the same author, and con-
sequently as of like import, by the scholiast.® The text of
the Yrihat-sanhit& is further authenticated by a quotation
of it in the commentary of Prithudaka on Brahmagupta ; '
and the former position of the colares is precisely that which
1 Ab. Res., Tol. Tiii. p. 196. ' Brahma-siddh&nta, c. 14.
* Ihid,c,\l. ^ Ibid.
* On yribat-8anfait&, c. 2. * See page 340 of the present Tolume.
7 C. 3. § 1 and 2. « On Vrihat-sanh. c. 2.
* Bruhm.-siddh&nta, c. xi. § 54.
VOL. III. [bssatb n.] 28
434 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDITS.
is described in the calendar appendant on the Yedas,^ and
which is implied in a passage of Par&sara concerning the
seasons, which is quoted by Bhattotpala.
The position of the colures, affirmed as actual in his time
by Yardhamihira, in the yrihat-eanhit&, implies an antiquity
of either 1216 or 1440 years before a.d. 1800, according to
the ori^n of the ecliptic determined from the star Chitri
(Spica virginis), distant either 180° or 183° from it ; or a still
greater antiquity, if it be taken to have corresponded more
nearly with the Grecian celestial sphere. The mean of the
two numbers (disregarding the surmise of greater antiquity),
carries him to a.d. 472. If Yarahamihira concurred with
those Indian astronomers, who allow an oscillation of the
equinox to 27° in [482] 1800 years, or a complete oscillation
of that extent both E. and W. in 7200 years, he must haye
liyed soon after the year 3600 of the Kali yti^a, or 421 ^aka,
answering to a.d. 499 ; which is but six years from the date
assigned to him by the astronomers of TTjjayani, and twenty-
seven from the mean before inferred.
It is probable, therefore, that he flourished about the close
of the fifth century of the Christian era ; * and this inference
is corroborated by the mention of an astrologer of this name
in the Panchatantra, the Sanskrit original of the fables of
Pilpay, translated in the reign of Nushirvdn, King of Persia,
in the latter part of the sixth century and beginning of the
seventh.^
To that conclusion there is opposed an argument drawn
from a passage of the Bh&swati-karana ; in which the author
of that treatise, dated 1021 Saka (a.d. 1098), professes to
have derived instruction from Mihira, meaning, it is supposed,
1 See Essays, vol. i. p. [108].
» [Dr. Bhiu Dkjl (J.R.A.S. 1864) has shown that Varkhamihira died in 509
S'aka, A.D. 587. The date in the Ujjayini list, S'aka 427 {$up, p. 41o), maj
refer to his birth.]
' Pref. to the Sanskrit edition of the Hitopadetfa, printed at Serampor. (See
page 153 of the present volume.)
NOTES AND ILLUSTBATIONS. 435
5ral instruction from Yar&hamihira ; and the argument has
been supported by computations which make the Surya-siddh-
&nta and J&tak&r^va, the latter ascribed to Yar&hamihira,
to be both works of the same period, and as modem as the
eleventh century.^
To this it has been replied^ that the Mihira, from whom
Sat&nanda, author pf the Bh&swati, derived instruction, is not
the same person or personage with the author of the Yrihat-
sanbiti ; if indeed Sat&nanda's expression do intend the same
name, Yar&ha.' That expression must be allowed to be a very
imperfect designation, which omits hal^ and that the most
difltinctive half, of an appellation : and it is not such as would
be applied [483] by a contemporary and auditor to an author
and lecturer, whose celebrity could not yet be so generally
diffused as to render a part of his name a sufficient intimation
of the remainder, without previous and well-established asso-
ciation of the terms. But even conceding the interpretation,
it would then be right to admit a third Yar&hamihira, besides
the two noticed by the chronologists of TTjjayani ; and the
third will be an astronomer, contemporary with B&ja Bhoja-
deva, and the preceptor of Satananda, and author of the
J&tak&rnava, supposing this treatise on nativities to be prOf
perly ascribed to an author bearing that name, and to be on
sufficient grounds referred to the eleventh century.
There remains to be here noticed another treatise on casting
of nativities, to which the same favourite name of a celebrated
tfitrologer is affixed. It is a concise tract entitled Laghu«
j&taka : and its authenticity as a work of the astrologer of
Ujjayani is established by the verifying of a quotation of the
scholiast Bhattotpala, who cites a passage of his author's
compendious treatise on the same subject {swalparjdtaka\ in
eoorse of expounding a rule of prognostication concerning the
destination of a prince to the throne, and his future character
as a monarch (Yrihat-jdtaka, 11, 1). That passage occurs in
^ As Bes., ToL ri. p. 572. ' See page 342 of the present Tolnme.
436 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
the Laghu-j&taka (Misc. Chap.). It is hardly to be supposed
that the same writer can have given a third treatise on the
same subject of nativities, entitled J&tak&n^va.
The question concerning the age of the Silrya-siddh&nta
remains for consideration. It is a very material one, as both
Yar&hamihira and Brahmagupta speak of a Saura (or Solar)
siddh&nta, which is a title of the same import : and unless a
work bearing this title may have existed earlier than the age
which is assigned, for reasons to be at a future time examined,
to the Surya-siddhinta, [484] the conclusions respecting the
periods when they respectively wrote are impeached in the
degree in which those grounds of calculation may deserve
confidence. Those grounds in detail will be discussed at a
separate opportunity. But independently of this discussion
of their merits, sufficient evidence does exist to establish that
more than one edition of a treatise of astronomy has borne the
name of Sdrya (with its synonyma) the sun. For Lakshmi-
dasa cites one under the title of Yphat-sdrya-siddh&nta ^ (for
a passage which the current solar Siddh&nta does not exhibit),
in contradistinction to another more frequently cited by him
without the distinctive epithet of Vrihat : and in these latter
instances his quotations admit of verification. A reference of
Bhaskara to a passage of the Saura, or, as explained by his
own annotation, the Surya-siddh&nta, does not agree with the
text of the received Surya-siddhinta.* His commentators
indeed do not unreservedly conclude from the discrepancy a
difference of the work quoted, and that usually received under
the same title. Yet the inference seems legitimate. At all
events the quotation from the Vrihat-siirya-siddh&nta, in the
(Janita-tattwa-chintamani of Lakshmidasa, proves beyond
question, that in that commentator's opinion, and consistently
with his knowledge, more than one treatise bearing the same
name existed.
* Gan.-tattwa-chint. on Spherics of S'iroma^i, ch. 4. Cons, of Sines.
' See page 330 of the present Tolome.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 437
There is eyidence besides of Arabian writers, that a system
of astronomy beating the equivalent title of Xrka (Solar) ivas
one of three, which were found by them current among the
Hindus, when the Arabs obtained a knowledge of the Indian
astronomy in the time of the Abbasside Khalifs, about the
close of the eighth century or commencement of the ninth of
the Christian era.^ i^kand, [485] the name by which the
Arabs designate one of those three astronomical systems,
assigning it as an Indian term, is the well-known corruption of
i^rka in the common dialects,' and is familiar in the application
of the same word as a name of a plant (Asclepias gigantea),
which bearing all the synonyma of the sun, is called vulgarly
iOcand or i^rkand.
The solar doctrine of astronomy appears then to have been
known by this name to the Arabians as one of the three
Indian astronomical systems a thousand years ago. The fact
is, that both the title and the system are considerably more
ancient. Beyisions of systems occasionally take place; like
Brahmagupta^s revisal of the Brahma-siddh&nta, to adapt and
modernize them ; or, in other words, for the purpose, as
Brahmagupta intimates, of reconciling cx)mputation and ob-
servation. The Surya or Xrka-siddh&nta, no doubt, has
undergone this process, and actually exhibits manifest indica-
tions of it.^
In every view, it is presumed that any question concerning
the present text of the Siirya-siddh&nta, or determination of
that question, will leave untouched the evidence for the age
of the author of the Yrihat-sanhitft, Var&hamihira, son of
Aidityad&sa, an astrologer of Ujjayani, who appears to have
flourished at the close of the fifth or beginning of the sixth
century of the Christian era. He was preceded, as It seems,
1 See note N.
' [Albir&ni explaius A'rkand as the oomiption of the Sanskrit aharpa^ot
< nnmber of the days/ This tenn was first used by Brahma^pta. — £einand*t
M^moire, p. 322, of. also p. 354.]
* Ab. Res., Tol it. p. 235.
438 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDITS.
by another of the same name, who li^ed, according to the
chronologists of ITjjayani, at the close of the second centmy.
He may have been followed by a third, who is said to hare
flourished at the court of Br&j& Bhoja-deva of Dh&r&, and to
have had Satdnandai the author of the Bh&swati, for his
vcholar.
Introduction and Progress op Algebra among the
Italians.
[486] Leonardo of Pisa was unquestionably the first who
made known the Arabian algebra to Christian Europe. The
fact was, indeed, for a time disputed, and the pretensions of
the Italians to the credit of being the first European nation
which cultiyated algebra, were contested, upon vague surmises
of a possible, and therefore presumed probable, communication
of the science of algebra, together with that of arithmetic, by
the Saracens of Spain to their Christian neighbours in the
Peninsula, and to others alleged to liave resorted thither for
instruction. The conjecture hazarded by Wallis (Algebra,
Historical and Practical) on this point, was assisted by a
strange blunder, in which Blancanus was followed by Vossiua
and a herd of subsequent writers, concerning the age of
Leonardo, placed by them precisely two centuries too low.
The claifns of the Italians in his favour, and for themselves as
his early disciples, were accordingly resisted with a degree of
acrimony (Gua, Mem. de TAcad. des Sc, 1741, p. 436),
which can only be accounted for by that disposition to de-
traction, which occasionally manifests itself in the literary, as
in the idler, walks of society. The evidence of his right to
acknowledgments for transplanting Arabian* algebra into
Europe was for a long period ill set forth : but, when diligently
N:OT£S AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 439
sought, and oarefiiUy adduced, doubt was removed and op*
position silenced.^
The merit of vindicating his claim belongs chiefly to
Gossali.' A manuscript of Leonardo's treatise on [487]
arithmetic and algebra, bearing the title of Liber Abbaei
compmtm a Leonardo filio Bonaoci Pisano in anno 1202,
was found towards the middle of the last century by Targioni
Tozzetti ^ in the Magliabecchian library at Florence, of which
he had the care ; and another work of that author, on square
numbers, was afterwards found by the same person inserted
in an anonymous compilation, treating of computation, (un
trattato d'Abbaco), in the library of a royal hospital at the
same place. A transcript of one more treatise of the same
writer was noticed by Tozzetti in the Magliabecchian collec-
tion, entitled Leonardi Piaani de filiis Bonacci Practica
OeometruB composila anno 1220. The subject of it is con-
fined to mensuration of land ; and being mentioned by the
author in his epistle prefixed to the revised Liber Abbaei,
shows the revision to be of later date. It appears to be of
1228.^ Tozzetti subsequentl}'^ met with a second copy of the
Liber Abbaei in Magliabecchi's collection : but it is described
by him as inaccurate and incomplete.^ A third has been since
discovered in the Biccardian collection, also at Florence : and
a fourth, but imperfect one, was communicated by Nelli to
Cossali.^ No diligence of research has, however, regained any
trace of the volume which contained Leonardo's treatise on
square numbers : the library in which it was seen having been
dispersed previously to Cossali's inquiries.
It appears from a brief account of himself and his travels,
and the motives of his undertaking, which Leonardo has
^ Montaola, 2nd Ed. Additions.
> Origine, etc deir Algebra. Parma, 1797.
' Viaggi, Tol. i. and vi. Edit. 1751 — 1754.
* Cossalif Origine, etc. c. 1. § 5.
» Viaggi, Tol. iL Edit. 1768.
* Origine, etc. dell' Algebra, c. 2. { L
440 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDITS.
introduced into his preface to the Liber Abbaci, that he [488}
travelled into Egypt, Barbary, Syria, Greece, and Sicily;
that being in his youth at Bugia in Barbary, where his &ther
Bonacci held an employment of scribe at the Custom-house, by
appointment from Pisa, for Pisan merchants resorting thither,
he was there grounded in the Indian method of accounting
by nine numerals : and that finding it more commodious, and
&r preferable to that which was used in other countries visited
by him, he prosecuted the study ,^ and with some additions of
his own and taking some things from Euclid's geometry, he
undertook the composition of the treatise in question, that
^' the Latin race might no longer be found deficient in the
complete knowledge of that method of computation." In
the epistle prefixed to the revision of his work he professes
to have taught the complete doctrine of numbers according to
the Indian method.'
His peregrinations then, and his study of the Indian com-
putation through the medium of Arabic, in an African city,
took place towards the close of the twelflh centaiy ; the
earliest date of his work being a.c. 1202.
He had been preceded by more than two centuries, in the
study of arithmetic under Muhammadan instructors, by Ger-
bert (the Pope Silvester 11.),^ whose ardour for the acquisition
of knowledge led him, at the termination of a two years'
noviciate as a Benedictine, to proceed by stealth into Spain,
whore he learnt astrology from the Saracens, and with it more
valuable science, especially [489] arithmetic. This, upon his
return, he communicated to Christian Europe, teaching the
method of numbers under the designation of Abacus, a name
apparently first introduced by him (rationes numeromm
^ Quare amplectens strictias ipsum tnodum Tndonim, et aotentius stodeiu in
eo, ex proprio sensu qusedam addens, et qusedam ex sabtilitatibiis Euolidis
geomctriflo artis apponens, etc.
' Plenam numeromm doctrinam edidi Tndonim, quern modum in ipsa adentii
pnestantiorcra elegi.
3 Archbishop in 992 ; Pope in 999 ; died in 1003.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 44I
Abaci ^), by rules abstruse and difficult to be understood, as
William of Malmesbury affirms : Abacum certe primus a
Saracenis rapiens^ regulas dedit, qucB a atidantibus Abacistia
vix intelliguntur.^ It was probably owing to this obscurity
of his rules and manner of treating the Arabian, or rather
Indian arithmetic, that it made so little progress between his
time and that of the Pisan.
Leonardo's work is a treatise of arithmetic, terminated, as
Arabic treatises of computation are similarly,' by the solution
of equations of the two first degrees. In the enumeration
and exposition of the parts comprised in his fifteenth chapter,
which is his last, he says, Tertia erit super modum Algebra
it AlmucabakB ; and, beginning to treat of it, Incipit pars
tertia de solutione quarundam qucBstionum secundum modum
Algebra et Almucabalce, scilicet oppositionis et restauratumis.
The sense of the Arabic terms is here given in the inyerse
order, as has been remarked by Cossali, and as clearly appears
from Leonardo'^s process of resolving an equation, which will
be hereafter shown.
He premises the observation, that in number three con-
siderations are distinguished ; one simple and absolute, which
is that of number in itself; the other two relative, being those
of root and of square. The latter, as he adds, [490] is called
census^ which is the term he afterwards employs throughout.
It is the equivalent of the Arabic ma/, which properly
signifies wealth, estate ; and census seems therefore to be here
employed by Leonardo, on account of its correspondent ac-
ceptation (quicquid fortunarum quis habet. Steph.) ; in like
manner as he translates the Arabic shai by res^ thing, as a
designation of the root unknown.
He accordingly proceeds to observe that the simple number,
the root, and the square {census\ are equalled together in six
' Ep. prefixed to his Treatise De Numeromm Diyisione. Gerb. £p. 160.
(Ed. 1611.) * De Gestis Anglorum, c. 2.
* See Mr. Strachey's examination of the Khul&satu*! hislib, Ab. Bes. toI. xii*
Etflj History of Algebra.
442 ALGEBRA OF THE HINBUS.
ways: so that six forms of eqaality are distingoished ; the
tliree first of which are called simple, and the three others
compound. The order in which he arranges them is precisely
that which is copied by Paciolo.^ It differs by a slight trans-
position from the order in which they occur in the earliest
Arabic treatises of algebra;' and which, no doubt, was retained
in the Italian version from the Arabic executed by Ghiglielmo
di Lunis, and others who are noticed by Oossali upon indica-
tions which are pointed out by him.' For Paciolo cautions
the reader not to regard the difference of arrangement, as
this is a matter of arbitrary choice.^ Leonardo's six-feld
distinction, reduced to the modem algebraic notation, is 1st,
0h=p X. 2nd, a?:=:n. 3rd, p a=m. 4th, a^+p rr-^w, 5tli,
p x+n=a^. 6th, a^+n=p x. In Paciolo's abridged notation
it is Ist, (f ec^. 2nd, <f e n**. 3rd, c* e n% etc.* The Arabic
arrangement, in the treatise of the Khuwarazmite, ia, Ist,
a*=p X, 2nd, afesit, 3rd, p x=n. 4th, sf^p x=:=n, 6th,
^+/2=:/7 X. 6th, p a?+n=4^. Later compilations transfer
the third of these to the first place.^
[491] Like the Arabs, Leonardo omits and passes unnoticed
tlie fourth form of quadratic equations, ar^+jo x+n=o. It
could not, indeed, come within the Arabian division of eqav
tions into simple, between species and species, and compotindi
between one species and two : "^ quantity being either stated
aflSrmatively, or restored in this algebra to the positive form.
Paciolo expressly observes that in no other but these six ways
is any equation between those quantities possible : AUramenie
che in quest i 6 discorsi modi none pombile alcuna loro equations,
Lconardo'*s resolution of the three simple cases of equation
is not exhibited by Cossali. It is, however, the same, no
doubt, with that which is taught by Paciolo; and which
precisely agrees with the rules contained in the Arabic
^ Summa de Arithmetica, etc. ' See note N.
3 ()ri«?ine, etc., dell' Alg. * Summa, 8, 6, 6.
* Summa, 8, 6, 5. • KhuldMtu'l kUdb,
f Khuldiatul hitdb.
NOTES AND ILLUSTEATIONS. 443
books.^ To &cilitate comparison, and obviate distant re-
j^rence, Paciolo'*8 rules are here subjoined in fewer words than
he employs.
Ist. Divide the things by the squares [coefficient by co-
efficient], the quotient is the value of thing.
2nd. Divide the number by the squares [by the coefficient
of the square], the root of the quotient is the value of thing.
3rd, Divide the number by the things [that is, by the
coefficient], the quotient is the value of thing.'
The resolution of the three cases of compound equations
is delivered by Cossali from Leonardo, contracting his rugged
Latin into modem algebraic form.
l«t. Beaf+pcpzzzn. Then a?=— J/>+ V(J/^+w).
2nd. Beafc=/>a^-w. Then a=Jj9+\/(ij9'+n).
3rd. Be a?+n=:p x. Then, if i jo* Z n, the equation is
[492] impossible. If \ ph=n, then x=^ p. If i i?* 7 n, then
^=i P-^(i i^-n), or =J p+V(i p'-n).
He adds the remark : M sic, si non solvetur qucBstio cum
diminuUaney solvetur cum additione.
The rules are the same which are found in the Arabic
treatises of algebra.' The same rules will be likewise found
in the work of Paciolo, expressed with his usual verboseness
in his Italian text : to which, in this instance, he has added
in the margin the same instructions delivered in a conciser
fcnn in Latin memorial verses. As they are given at length
by Montucla, it is unnecessary to cite them in this place. On
the subject of the impossible case Paciolo adds, as a Notandum
uiiHmmum, ' Sel numero qual si trota in In ditta equatione aC'
tompagnato con lo censo, sel non e minore o veramente equale al
fuadrato de la mita de le cose, el caso essere insolubik : e per
eonsequenie dieo aguaglimento non potere avenire per alcun
modoJ Summa, 8, 4, 12.
Concerning the two roots of the quadratic equation in the
Other case, under the same head, he thus expands the short
1 See note N ; and As. Bee., toI. xiL * Samma, 8, 5, 6. 'See note N.
444 ALGEBRA OF THE HIKDUS.
conclading remark of Leonardo : Sicehe Vuno e VaUro modo
Motis/a ai tema : ma a U roUe 9e hate la terita a Funo modOf
a ie roite a FaUro; ^ el perehe, 9e eavando la radiee del ditto
remanente de la miia de k cfm nan satisfaeesse al ienui, la ditta
radiee aggiongni a la mita de le cose, e averai el quesUo : e nud
fallara che a Puno di tai modi nan sia saHsfaiio al quesiio, doe
giongnendo la, owero eavando la del dimeciamenio de le cote.
Summa, 8, 4, 12.
Bombelli remarks somewhat diSerentlj on the same point
Net quesiti ahuna roUa, ben ehe di rado, il rtUante non ieni,
ma ben si la somma eempre. Alg. 2, 262.
[493] The rules for the resolation of componnd eqnstioiis
are demonstrated by Leonardo upon rectilinear figares ; and in
the last instance he has reference to Enclid. — ^Lib. 2. Th. 5.
There is room then to surmise, that some of the demonstn-
tions are among the additions which he professes to have made.
Among the many problems which he proceeds to resolTe,
two of which are selected by Gossali for instances of his min-
uer, it will be snfficient to cite one, in the resolation of whidi
the whole thread of his operations is exhibited ; sabstituting,
however, the more compendious modem signs. His manner
of conducting the algebraic process may be ftilly understood
from this sinrrle instance.
Problem : To divide the number 10 into two parts, such
that dividing one by the other, and adding 10 to the sum of
the quotient, and multiplying the aggregate by the greater,
the amount is finally 114.
Let the right line a be the greater of the parts sought;
which I call thing [quam pono rem) : and the right line b g
equal to 10: to which are joined in the same direction g d^dft
representing the quotients of division of the parts, one by the
other. Since a multiplied by 6 ^ is equal to 114, therefore
(^y^b g+axg d+axd e=114; and taking from each side
axb g, there will be a x ^ d+a x d €=114— a xb g. Begd
' Compare with Hinda algebra. TSj.-ga^., {130 and 142,
NOTES AND ILLUSTBATIONS. 44g
the qaotient 10— a, there will arise 10— a+axrf ^=114—
a
axi ^=114—10 a; since 6 ^ is eqaal to 10. Whence ax
d e:=104-«9 a. Bat d e \a the quotient a : wherefore
10-a
(f =104-9 a^ So that fl«=1040-194 fl+9 a\ Be-
10-a
store diminished things (reataura res diminutas), and take one
square from each side {et extrahe unum cenmm ab utraque
parte) ^ the remainder [494] is 8 a*+1040=J.94 a; and
dividing by eight, a* +130=24 J a; and resolving this ac-
cording to rule, fl=97-V/92\*-130=97-3a=8: con-
8 \8^ 8 8
seqnently 10— a=2.
Besides his great work on arithmetic and algebra, Leonardo
was anther of a separate treatise, as already intimated, on
square numbers. Reference is formally made to it by Paciolo,
who drew largely from this source, and who mentions Le quali
domande (questions concerning square numbers) sone diffidlliS'
$ime quanta ala demomtratione dela practka : comme sa cM ben
T a scrutinato. Maxime Leonardo Pisano in un particulare
tractate che fa de quadratis numeris intitulato. Dove con
grande sforzo se ingegna dare norma e regola a aimili Bolutumi.
Samma 1, 4, 6.
The directions for the solution of such problems being
professedly taken by Paciolo chiefly from Leonardo, and
the problems themselves which are instanced by him being
probably so, it can be no difficult task to restore the lost
work of Leonardo on this subject. The divination has ac-
cordingly been attempted by Gossali, and with a considerable
degree of success. (Origine, etc. dell' A Igebra, c. 5.)
Among problems of this sort which are treated by Paciolo
iSUit Leonardo, several are found in the current Arabic
treatises ; others, which belong to the indeterminate analysis,
446 ALOEBEA OF THE HINDUa
occur in the algebraic treatises of the Hindos ; some, which,
are more properly Diophantine, may have been taken from the
Arabic translation, or commentary, of the work of Diophantos.
Leonardo'^s endeavour to reduce the solution of such problems
to general rule and system, according to Paciolo's intimation
of his efforts towards that end, must haye been purely his
own : as nothing systematic to this effect is to be found in the
[495] Arabic treatises of algebra ; and as he clearly had no
communication through his Arab instructors, nor any know-
ledge of the Hindu methods for the general resolution of in-
determinate problems, simple or quadratic.
Montucla, who had originally underrated the performance
of Leonardo, seems to have finally conceded to it a merit
rather beyond its desert, when he ascribes to that author th^
resolution of certain biquadratics as deriratire equations of
the second degree. The derivative rules were, according to
Cardan's affirmation, added to the original ones of Leonardo
by an uncertain author; and placed with the principal bj
Paciolo. Gardan'^s testimony in this respect is indeed not
conclusive, as the passage in which the subject is mentioned is
in other points replete with errors ; attributing the invention
of aljrebra to Muhammad son of Musa, and allegring the tes-
timony of Leonardo to that point ; limiting Leonardo''s rules
to four, and intimating that Paciolo introduced the derivative
rules in the same place with the principal : all which ia
unfounded and contrary to the fact. Cossali, however, who
seems to have diligently examined Leonardo''s remains, does
not claim this honour for his author; but appears to admit
Cardan's position, that the derivative, or, as they are termed
by Paciolo, the proportional equations, and rules for the
solution of them, were devised by an uncertain author, and
introduced by Paciolo into his compilation under a separate
head: which actually is the case. (Summa, 8, 6, 2, etc.)
In regard to the blunder, in which Montucla copied earlier
writers, respecting the time when Leonardo of Pisa flourished,
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 447
he has defended himself (2nd edit. Additions) against the
reprehension of Cossali, upon the plea, that he was not bound
to know of manuscripts existing in certain libraries of Italy,
which served to show the age in [496] which that author
Uyed. The excuse is not altogether valid: for Targioni
Tozzetti had announced to the public the discovery of the
manuscripts in question, with the date, and a sufficient in-
timation of the contents^ several years before the first volumes
of Montucla^s History of Mathematics appeared.^
I am withheld {i*om further animadversion on the negligence
of an author who has in other respects deserved well of science,
by the consideration, that equal want of research, and in the
very same instance, has been manifested by more recent
writers, and among our own countrymen. Even so lately as in
the past year (1816) a distinguished mathematician, writing
in the Encyclopfiedia which bears the national appellation,'
has relied on obsolete authorities and antiquated disquisitions
eonceming the introduction of the denary numerals into
Europe, and shown total unacquaintance with what was made
public sixty years ago by Targioni Tozzetti, and amply dis-
cussed by Cossali in a copious work on the progress of algebra
in Italy, and in an earlier one on the origin of arithmetic,
published more than twenty years since: matter fully re-
eognized by Montucla in his second edition, and briefly
noticed in common biographical dictionaries.^
In the article of the Encyclopaedia to which reference has
been just made, the author is not less unfortunate in all that he
says concerning the Hindus and their arithmetical knowledge.
He describes the Lil4vati as ''a short and [497] meagre
performance headed with a silly preamble and colloquy of
the gods." (Where he got this colloquy is difficult to divine ;
1 Targioni Tozzetti's first yolame bears date 1751. His sixth (the last of his
tet edition) 1754. Montacla*s first two Tolumes were published in 1758.
* Encycl. Brit Supp. art. Arithmetic.
* Diet. Hist, par Chaudon et Dalandine: art Leonard de Pise. 7 Edit%
(1789). Probably in earlier editions likewise.
a0^
Of
10*
flUS'W'
• ^^
wflfB
lit^B*
|JlOiB»''>
(fit*
nts^
^•^?!rrr^.^j:::&'t.
t\»»««^
rfi>»»
*.*rt*
^tibB»»
4s»
^t\i • ***V A« e»^
t\i«
*-^3^*^
ba»
^b«»»t^*
t©vet»®
\ie».^
tVie
tYie
iVoO
1 ve*t pvo<
^y«>>*
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 449
by these numerals so far back as the eighth century of the
Christian era.^
To return to the subject.
After Leonardo of Pisa, and before the invention of the
art of printing, and publication of the first printed treatise on
the science, by Paciolo, algebra was diligently cultivated by
the Italian mathematicians ; it was publicly taught by pro-
fessors ; treatises were written on it, and recurrence was again
had to the Arabian source. A translation of ^' the Bule of
Algebra " (La Regola dell' Algebra) from the Arabic into the
language of Italy, by Ouglielmo di Lunis, is noticed at the
beginning of the Bagionamento di Algebra by Baffaelo
Garacci, the extant manuscript of which is considered by an-
tiquarians to be of the fourteenth century.' A translation of
the original treatise of Muhammad ben Musa, the Khuwaraz-
mite, appears to have been current in Italy : and was seen at
a later period by both Cardan and Bombelli.' Paolo della
Pergola, Demetrio Bragadini, and Antonio Comaro, are named
by Paciolo as successively filling the professor*s chair at
Venice ; the latter his own fellow-disciple. He himself taught
algebra publicly at Peroscia at two difierent periods. In the
preceding age a number of treatises on algorithm, some of
them with that title: others, like Leonardo's, entitled De
Abaco, and [499] probably like his touching on algebra as
well as arithmetic, were circulated. Paolo di Dagomari, in
particular, a mathematician living in the middle of the four-
teenth century, obtained the surname of Deir Abaco for his
skill in the science of numbers, and is besides said to have been
conversant with equations (whether algebraic or astronomical
may indeed be questioned), as well as geometry.^
With the art of printing came the publication of Paciolo, and
the subsequent history of the inventions in algebra by Italian
masters, is too well known to need to be repeated in this place.
1 See note N. ' Coesali, Orig. etc. dell' Algebra, toI. i. p. 7.
* Ibid. vol. i. p. 9. Cardan, An Magna, 6. * Coasali, toI. i. p. 9.
VOL. m. [bssats II.] 29
450 ALOEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
M.
Arithmetics of Diophaktits.
•
Five copies of Diophantos, viz. three in the Yatiean
(Cossali, On'ff. delV Alg. i. 4, § 2.) ; XylanderX suppoeed
(Coss. ib. § 5.) to be the same with the PaUtine inspected bj
Saumaise, though spoken of as distinct by Bachet {Epi^, od
lect.) ; and the Parisian used by Bachet himself (t6.) ; all con-
tain the same text. But one of the Vatican copies, belieyed
to be that which Bombelli consulted, distributes a like portion
of text into seven instead of six books. (Gosa. i5. § 5.) In
truth the division of manuscript books is very uncertain : lod
it is by no means improbable, that the remains of Diophantos,
as we possess them, may be less incomplete, and constitute a
larger portion of the thirteen books announced by him (D^.
11), than is commonly reckoned. His treatise on polygon
numbers, which is surmised to be one (and that the last) of the
thirteen, follows, as it seems, the six (or [500] seven) boob
in the exemplars of the work, as if the preceding portion were
complete. It is itself imperfect : but the manner is essentially
different from that of the foregoing books : and the solution of
problems by equations is no longer the object, but rather the
demonstration of propositions. There appears no groond,
beyond bare surmise, to presume, that the author, in the rest
of the tracts relative to numbers, which fulfilled his promise of
thirteen books, resumed the algebraic manner : or, in short,
that the al^^ebraic part of his performance is at all mutilated
in the copies extant, which are considered to be all transcripts
of a single imperfect exemplar. (Bachet, Ep, ad lecL)
It is indeed alleged, that the resolution of compound equa-
tions (two species left equal to one) which Diophantus pro-
mises {Def, 11) to show subsequently, bears reference to »
lost part of his work. But the author, after confining him
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 451
Belf to eases of simple equations (one species equal to one
species) in the first three books, passes occasionally to com-
pound equations (two species equal to one, and even two equal
to two species) in the three following books. See iy. Q. 33 ;
vi. Q. 6 and 19 ; and Sachet on Bef. 11, and i. Q. 33. In
various instances he pursues the solution of the problem,
until he arrives at a final quadratic equation ; and, as in the
case of a simple eqaation, he then merely states the value in-
ftrrible, without specifying the steps by which he arrives at the
inference. See iv. Q. 23 ; vi. Q. 7, 9 and 11. But, in other
places, the steps are sufficiently indicated : particularly iv. Q.
33 and 45 ; v. Q, 13 ; vi. Q. 24 : and his method of resolving
the equation is the same with the second of Brahmagupta's
mles for the resolution of quadratics (Brahm. 18, § 34). The
first of the Hindu author's rules, the same with Sridhara's
quoted by Bh&akara {Vi/.-gan. § 131; Brahm. 18, § 32),
dififers from that of Nugnez (Nonius) quoted by [501] Bachet
(on Dioph. i. 33), in dispensing with the preliminary step of
reducing the square term to a single square: a preparation
-which the Arabs first introduced, as well as the distinction of
three cases of quadratics : for it was practised neither by
Diophantus, nor by the Hindu algebraists.
Diophantus has not been more explicit, nor methodical, on
simple, than on compound, equations. But there is no reason
to conclude, that he returned to either subject in a latter part
of his work, for the purpose of completing the instruction, or
better explaining the method of conducting the resolution of
those equations. Such does not seem to be the manner of his
arithmetics, in which general methods and comprehensive rules
are wanting. It is rather to be inferred, as Cossali does, from
the compendious way in which the principles of Algebra are
-delivered, or alluded to, by him, that the determinate analysis
was previously not unknown to the Greeks, wheresoever they
got it; and that Diophantus, treating of it cursorily as a
matter already understood, gives all his attention to cases of
452 ALGEBRA OF THB HIKBITS.
indeterminate analysis, in which perhaps he had no Greek
precursor. (Coss. Orig. dell* Alg. i. 4, § 10.) He certainly
intimates, that some part of what he proposes to teach is new :
uro>9 fjihf ovv SoK€l TO irparffia hv<r)(€p&ir€pop imiBif yoficm
yiHapLiiov i(m. While in other places {Def. 10) he expects the
student to be previously exercised in the algorithm of algebra.
The seeming contradiction is reconciled by conceiving the
principles to have been known ; but the application of them
to a certain class of problems concerning numbers to have
been new.
Concerning the probable antiquity of the Diophantine
algebra, all that can be confidently affirmed is, that it is not
of later date than the fourth century of Christ. Among th^
works of Hypatia, who was murdered [502] a.d. 415, as the
are enumerated by Suidas, is a commentary on a work of ^
Diophantus, most likely this author. An epigram in ikie
Greek anthologia (lib. ii. c. 22 ^) is considered with probability
to relate to him : but the age of its author Lacillius is xm-
certain. Bachet observes, that, so far as can be conjectured,
Lucillius lived about the time of Nero. This, however, is
mere conjecture.*
Diophantus is posterior to Hypsicles, whom he cites in the
treatise on polygon numbers. (Prop. 8.) This should
furnish another fixed point. But the date of Hypsicles is not
well determined. He is reckoned the author, or at least the
reviser,^ of two books subjoined to Euclid's elements, and
numbered 14th and 15th. In the introduction, he makes
mention of Apollonius, one of whose writings, which touched
on the ratio of the dodecaedron and icosaedron inscribed in
the same sphere, was considered by Basilides of Tyre, and by
the father of him (Hypsicles), as incorrect, and was amended
by them accordingly : but subsequently he (Hypsicles) met
with another work of Apollonius, in which the investigation
> [li. 103.] » [But cf. ii. 672.]
s 7drikht4'l hukamd, cited by Canri, BibL Ar<U. SUp.^ foL L p. 346. The
Arabian author qms the word ailahy * amended.*
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 453
of the problem was satis&ctorj, and the demonstration of the
proposition correct. Here again Bachet observes^ that, so &r
as can be conjectured, from the manner in which he speaks of
Apollonios, he must have lived not long after him. Gossali
goes a little further: and concludes, on the same grounds, that
they were nearly contemp<Nrary. (Orig. delV Alg> i. 4, § 4.)
The grounds seem inadequate ta support any such conclusion :
and all that can be certainly inferred is, that Hypsides of
Alexandria was posterior to ApoUonius, who flourished in the
reign of Ptolemy Euergetes : two hundred years before Christ.
[503] Several persons of the name of Diophantus are
noticed by Greek authors; but none whose place of abode,
profession, or avocations, seem to indicate any correspondence
with those of the mathematician and algebraist : one, a praetor
of Athens, mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, Zenobius, and
Suidas ; another, secretary of King Herod, put to death for
forgery, as noticed by Tzetzes ; and a third, the instructor of
Libanius in eloquence, named by Suidas in the article con-
cerning that sof^ist and rhetorician.
The Armenian Abu*liaraj places the algebraist Diophantus
under the Emperor Julian. But it may be questioned, whether
he has any authority for that date, besides the mention by
Greek authors of a learned person of the name, the instructor
of Libanius, who was contemporary with that Emperor.
Upon the whole, however, it seems preferable to abide by
the date furnished in a professed history, even an Arabic one,
on a Grecian matter; and to consider Diophantus as con-
temporary with the emperor Julian, about a.d. 365. That
date is consistent with the circumstance of Hypatia writing
a commentary on his works ; and is not contradicted by any
other &ct, nor by the affirmation of any other writer besides
Bombelli, on whose authority Cossali nevertheless relies.
Bombelli, when he announced to the public the existence
of a manuscript of Diophantus in the Yatican, placed the
author under the emperor Antoninus Pius, without citing any
454 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
grounds. His general accuracy is, however, impeached by
his assertion, that the Indian authors are frequently cited
by Diophantus. No such quotations are found in the very
manuscript of that author'^s work, which he is known to have
consulted, and which has been purposely re-examined. (Goss.
i. 4, § 4.) Bom[504]belli's authority was, therefore, very
properly rejected by Bachet, and should have beea so by
GossalL
N.
Progress and Proficiency of the Arabians in Algebra.^
In the reign of the second Abbasside Khalif Almansur, and
in the 156th year of the Hijra (a.d. 773), as is related in the
preface to the astronomical tables of Ben al AdamI, published
by his continuator Al K&sim in 308 u. (a.d. 920), an Indian,
astronomer, well versed in the science which he professed,
visited the Court of the Khalif, bringing with him tables of the
equations of planets according to the mean motions, with ob-
servations relative to botli solar and lunar eclipses and the
ascension of the signs ; taken, as he affirmed, from tables
computed by an Indian prince, whose name, as the Arabian
author writes it, was Phighar. The Khalif, embracing the
opportunity thus happily presented to him, commanded the
book to be translated into Arabic, and to be published for a
guide to the Arabians in matters pertaining to the stars. The
task devolved on Muhammad ben Ibrdlum Alfazdri ; whose
version is known to astronomers by the name of the greater
Sind'hindy or Hind-sind, for the term occurs written both
ways.2 It signifies, according to the same author Ben al
^ [Cf. also Woepcke's Recherchet sur Vhistoire des Scienera Mathematiquet
chtz la Orientaux, Journ, Aaiatique, 1854-5, and his edition of Omar al Shay*
yirai, 1851, and Extrait du Fakhri, 1853.]
* Casiri, Bibl. Arab. Hiap. citing BibL Arab. Fhil. (Tkrikhu'l hukamk), Tol. i.
p. 428, voce Alpbazkri.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 455
Adami, the reyolving ages, Ad dahr ad ddhir ; which Gasiri
tnai&]sXe& perpetuum CBtemumque}
No Sanskrit term of similar sound occurs, bearing a signi-
fication reconcilable to the Arabic interpretation. If a [505]
conjecture is to be hazarded, the original word may have
been Siddh&nta.' Other guesses might be proposed, partly
combining sound with interpretation, and taking for a ter-
mination sindhu ^ ocean,' which occurs in titles now familiar for
works relative to the regulation of time, as K&la-sindhu,
Samaya-sindhu, etc., or adhering exclusively to sound, as Indu-
sindhu, or Indu-siddh&nta ; the last a title of the same im-
port with Soma-siddh&nta still current. But whatever may
have been the name, the system of astronomy which was made
known to the Arabs, and which is by them distinguished by
the appellation in question, appears to have been that which is
contained in. the Brahma-siddh&nta, and which is taught in
Brahmagupta's revision of it. This fact is deducible from the
number of elapsed days between the beginning of planetary
motions and the commencement of the present age of the
world, according to the Indian reckoning, as it is quoted by
the astrologer of Balkh, Abu Ma'shar, and which precisely
agrees with Brahmagupta. The astrologer does not indeed
specify which of the Indian systems he is citing. But it is
distinctly affirmed by later Arabian authorities, that only one
of the three Indian doctrines of astronomy was understood by
the Arabs ; and that they had no knowledge of the other two
beyond their names.^ Besides, Aryabhatta and the Arka-
siddh&nta, the two in question, would have furnished very
different numbers.
^ Ibid, YoL L p. 426, voce Katka. Sind and Hind likewise signify, in the
Arabian writers, the hither and remoter India. D'Herbelot, Bibi. Orient, p. 415.
' [Reinaud (Jf^. p. 331) quotes from Albir6nf, *' Our word Sind-hind answers
to what the Hindus call Sidhdnd, This word properly means ' what is straight
and does not bend, what cannot be altered.' " This definition exactly agrees
with eiddhdnta, * demonstrated conclusion,* * certain tinith.']
' Tdrlkhu*l hukamd^ cited by Casiri, BibL Arab. Eiep., toI. i. p. 426, voce
Katka.
456 ALGEBRA OF THE HDrDUS.
The passage of Abd Ma'shar, to which reference has been
now made, is remarkable, and even important ; and, as it has
been singnhu^j misunderstood and grossly misquoted by
Bailly, in his Astronomie Ancienne (p. 302), it may be
necessary to cite it at fiill length in this place. [506] It
occurs at the end of the fourth tract (and not, as Bailly
quotes, the beginning of the fifth), in Ab& Ma*shar's work on
the conjunctions of planets. The author there obserres, that
*the Indians reckoned the beginning [of the world] on
Sunday, at sunrise (or, to quote from the Latin rersion, Et
sestimayerunt Indi quod principium fuit die dominica sole
ascendente) ; and between that day and the day of the de-
luge (et est inter eos, s. inter ilium diem et diem dilurii)
720,634,442,715 days equiralent to 1,900,340,938 ^ Persian
years and 344 days. The deluge happened on Friday (et fiiit
diluvium die Yeneris) 27th day of Rabe 1st, which is 29
from Gibat and 14 from Adristinich. Between the deluge and
the first day of the year in which the Hijra occurred (fuerunt
ergo inter diluvium et primum diem anni in quo fuit Alhegin)
3837 years and 268 days ; which will be, according to the
years of the Persians, 3725 years and 348 days. And
between the deluge and the day of Jesda^^ir (Yazdajird) king
of the Persians, from the beginning of whose reign the Per-
sians took their era, .... 3735 years, 10 months, and 22
days ' The author proceeds with the comparison of the eras
of the Persians and Arabians, and those of Alexander and
Pliilip ; and then concludes the treatise : completi sunt qua-
tuor tractatus, Deo adjuvante.
Bailly's reference to this passage is in the following words.
' Albumasar^ rapporte que selon les Indiens, il s'est ^coule
720,634,442,715 jours entre le deluge et T^poque de Th^gire.
* There is something wanting in the number of years : which is deficient it
the third place. Both editions of the translation (Augsburg 1489, Venice I6I0J
give the same words.
' De Magn. Conj. Traits t, au commencement.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 457
n en concluty on ne Bait trop comment, qu'il s'est 6couI^ 3725
ana dana cet intervalle : ce qui placeroit [507] le deluge 3103
ana avant J. 0. pr^cis^ment & T^poque chronologiqne et as-
tronomique dea Indiena. Maia Albumasar ne dit point com-
ment il eat parvenu k ^galer cea deux nombrea de 3725 ana et
de 720,634,442,715 joura.'— ^«^. anc. eel. liv. i. § xvii.
Now on thia it ia to be obaerved, that Baillj makjsa the
ante-diluvian period between the Sunday on which the world
began and the Friday on which the deluge took place, com-
priaing 720,634,442,715 daya, to be the aame with the poat-
dilavian period, from the deluge to the Hijra ; and that he
quotea the author, aa unaccountably rendering that number
equivalent to 3725 yeara, though the text expresaly atatea
more than 1,900,000,000 yeara. The blunder ia the more in-
excuaable, aa Bailly himaelf remarked the inconaiatency, and
should therefore have re-examined the text which he cited, to
verify hia quotation.
Major Wilford,^ relying on the correctneaa of Bailly'a quo-
tation, concluded that the error originated with either the
tranacriber or tranalator. But in fact the miatake reated
aolely with the citer : aa he would have found if hia attention
had been drawn to the more correct quotation in Anquetil du
Perron*a letter prefixed to hia Recherches Hist et Oeog. sur
rindCy inaerted in Bemoulli''a aecond volume of -De«c. de
VInde (p. XX). But, though Anquetil ia more accurate than
Bailly in quotation, he ia not more auccessful in hia inferencea,
gueaaea, and surmisea. For he atrangely concludea from a
paaaage which diatinctly provea the use of the great cycle of
the kalpa by the Indian astronomers to whom Abu Ma'ahar
refera, that they were on the contrary unacquainted in those
days with a less cycle, which ia comprehended in it. So little
did he underatand the Indian periods, that he infers from a
specified [508] number of elapsed days and correspondent
1 As. Bes., Tol. z. p. 117.
458 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDnS.
years, reckoned from the beginning of the great cycle which
dates from the supposed moment of the commencement of the
world, that they knew nothing of a subordinate period, which
is one of the elements of that cycle. Nor is he nearer the
truth y but errs as much the other way, in his conjecture, that
the number of solar years stated by Abu Ma'shar relates to
the duration of a life of Brahmi, comprising a hundred of
that deity's years.
In short, AnquetiFs conclusions are as erroneous as Bailly's
premises. The discernment of Mr. Davis, to whom the
passage was indicated by Major Wilford, anticipated the cor-
rection of this blunder of Bailly, by restoring the text with
a conjectural emendation worthy of his sagacity.'
The name of the Indian author from whom Abu Ma'shar
derived the particulars which he has furnished, is written by
Bailly, Kankaraf ; taken, as he says, from an ancient Arable
writer, whose work is subjoined to that of Messala, published
at Nuremberg by Joachim Heller in 1648.* The Latin trans-
lation of Messahala (M&-sh&^- Allah) was edited by Joachim
Heller at Nuremberg in 1549 : but it is not followed, in the
only coj)y accessible to me, by the work of any other Arabic
author ; and the quotation consequently has not been verified
D*Herbelot writes the name variously ; Kankah or Caneah,
Kenker or Kankar, and Kengheh or Kanghah ; ^ to which
Reiske and Schultens, from further research, add another
varia[o09jtion, Kengch ; * which is not of Arabic but Persian
orthography. Casiri, by a difference of the diacritical point,
reads from the Tarikhu'l hukama, and transcribes, Katka.^
That the same individual is all along meant, clearly appears
* As. Res., Tol. ii. p. 242. Appendix to an Essay of Major Wilford.
' Astr. Anc. p. 303.
3 L'ibL Or. Art. Caneah al HeDdi, and Kenker al Hendi. Also Ketab Menxuel
al Caiuar and Ketab al Keranat.
* Bibl. Or. (1777-79), vol. iv. p. 725. Should be Kengeh : a like error occurs
p. 727, where sharch is put for shareh.
* Bibl. Arab, IIuij)., vol. L p. 426.
NOTES AND ILLUSTEATIONS. 459
from the correspondence of the works ascribed to him ;
especially his treatise on the greater and less conjunctions of
the planet^, which was imitated by Abu Ma'shar.
Amidst so much diversity in the orthography of the word
it is difficult to retrieye the original name, without too much
indulgence in conjecture. Eanka, which comes nearest to the
Arabic corruption, is in Sanskrit a proper name among other
significations ; but it does not occur as the appellation of any
noted astrologer among the Hindus. Garga does; and, as
the Arabs have not the soft guttural consonant, they must
widely corrupt that sound; yet Eanghar and Kankah seem
too remote from it to allow it to be proposed as a conjectural
restoration of the Indian name.
To return to the more immediate subject of this note. The
work of Alfaz&ri, taken from the Hindu astronomy, continued
to be in general use among the Muhammadans, until the time
of Alm&mun ; for whom it was epitomized by Muhammad ben
Musa al Khuw&razml ; and his abridgment was thenceforward
known by the title of the less Sind-hind. It appears to have
been executed for the satis&ction of Alm&mun before this
princess accession to the Khil&fat, which took place early in
the third century of the Hijra and ninth of Christ. The
same author compiled similar astronomical tables of his own ;
wherein he professed to amend the Indian tables which fur-
nished the [510] mean motions ; and he is said to have taken
for that purpose equations from the Persian astronomy, some
other matters from Ptolemy, and to have added something of
his own on certain points. His work is reported to have been
well received by both Hindus and Muhammadans : and the
greater tables, of which the compilation was commenced in the
following age, by Ben al Adami and completed by Al K&sim,
were raised upon the like foundation of Indian astronomy :
and were long in general use among the Arabs, and by them
deemed excellent. Another and earlier set of astronomical
tables, founded on the Indian system called Sind-hind, was
460 ALGEBRA OF THE mNDUB.
compiled bj Habash, an astronomer of Baghdad ; who flourished
in the time of the khalif Alm&mun.^ Several others, similarlj
founded on the mean motions, furnished by the same Indian
system, were published in the third century of the Hijra, or
earlier: particularly those of Fazl ben H&tim N&rizi; and
Al Ilasan ben Misb&h.'
It was no doubt at the same period, while the Arabs were
gaining a knowledge of one of the Indian systems of as-
tronomy, that they became apprized of the existence of two
others. No intimation at least occurs of any different specific
time or more probable period, when the information was likeljr
to be obtained by them, than that in which they were busj^
with the Indian astronomy, according to one of the thre^
systems that prevailed among the Hindus; as the author
of the T&Hkhu*l hukamd, quoted by Casiri, affirms. The
writer, whose compilation is of the twelfth century,' observe^
that * owing to the distance [511] of countries and impedi-
ments to intercourse, scarcely any of the writings of tbe
Hindus had reached the Arabians. There are reckoned/ he
adds, ' three celebrated systems (mazhab) of astronomy among
them ; namely Bind and hind; A'rjabahar, and A'rkand:^ one
only of which has been brought to us, namely, the Sind-kind:
which most of the learned Muhammadans have followed/
After naming the authors of astronomical tables founded on
that basis, and assigning the interpretation of the Indian
title, and quoting the authority of Ben al Adami, the com-
piler of the latest of those tables mentioned by him, he goes
on to say, that ^ of the Indian sciences no other communica-
tions have been received by us (Arabs), but a treatise on
music, of which the title in Hindi is Biyaphar, and the signi-
1 Tdrikhu'l hukamd, Casiri, toI. i. pp. 426 and 428. Abti'liaraj, ed. Pocoeke, 161.
'^ Casiri, toI. i. pp. 413 and 421.
3 lie flourished in 695 h. (a.d. 1198), as appears from passages of his work.
MS. MDCCLXXIII. Lib. Esc. pp. 74 and 316. Casiri, toI. il p. 332.
* Casiri, Tol. i. pp. 426 and 428. The Kaahful zunun specifies three astra-
nomical systems of the Hindus under the same names.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 461
fication of that title '' frait of knowledge ; " ^ the work en-
titled Kalilah and Dimnah, upon ethics; and a book of
numerical computation, which Abu Ja'far Muhammad ben
Musa al Khuw&razmi amplified {basat)^ and which is a most
expeditious and concise method, and testifies the ingenuity and
acuteneas of the Hindus.'
The book, here noticed as a treatise on ethics, is the well-
known collection of fables of Pilpai or Bidpai (Sanskrit Yaid-
yapriya) ; and was translated from the Pehleyi version into
Arabic, by command of the same Abbasside Khalif Almansur,'
who caused an Indian astronomical treatise to be translated
into the Arabian tongue. The Arabs, however, had other
eommunications of portions of Indian science, which the
author of the T&rikhu'l hukamd has in this place overlooked ;
especially upon medicine, on which [512] many treatises,
general and particular, were translated from the Indian tongue.
For instance, a tract upon poisons by Shanak (Sanskrit
GharakaP), of which an Arabic version was made for the
Khalif Almamun, by his preceptor 'Abb&s ben Sa'id Jauhari.
ALso a treatise on medicine and on materia medica in par-
ticular, which bears the name of Shashurd (Sanskrit Susruta) :
and numerous others.'
The Khuw&razmite Muhammad ben Musa, who is named
as having made known to the Arabians the Indian method of
computation, is the same who is recognized by Arabian authors
with almost a common consent (Zakariya of Kasbin, etc.) as
the first who wrote upon algebra. His competitor for the
honour of priority is Abu K&mil Shuja ben Aslam, surnamed
the Egyptian arithmetician (H&sib al Misri) ; whose treatise
on algebra was commented by 'All ben Ahmad al 'Amr&ni of
1 SanB. Vidydphala, fruit of science.
* Introd. Rem. to the Hitopadeia [p. 148 of the present Tolume].
' D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient. Eetab al samoun, Xetab Sendhaschat, Ketab al
•okkar, Eetab Scbascbourd al Hendi, Eetab £ai al Hendi, Eetab Noufschal al
Hendi, Eetab al akakir, etc.
462 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
Musalla;^ and who is said by D'Herbelot to have been the
first among learned Musulmans, that wrote upon this branch
of mathematics.' The commentator is a writer of the tenth
century ; the date of his decease being recorded as of 344 h.'
(a.d. 955). The age in which his author flourished, or the
date of his text, is not furnished by any authority which
has been consulted ; and unless some eyidence be found,
showing that he was anterior to the Khuw&razmf, we may
abide by the historical authority of Zakariya of Easbin ; and
consider the Ehuwarazm( as the [513] earliest writer on
algebra in Arabic. Next was the celebrated Alchindus (AbtL
Yusaf Alkindi), contemporary with the astrologer AbiK
Ma'shar, in the third century of the Hijra and ninth of the
Christian era,^ an illustrious philosopher, versed in the sciences
of Greece, of India, and of Persia, and author of severaf
treatises upon numbers. In the prodigious multitude of his
writings, upon every branch of science, one is specified as a
tract on Indian computation (Hisdbu'l hindi) : others occur
with titles which are understood by Gasiri to relate to algebra,
and to the ' finding of hidden numbers ; ' but which seem
rather to appertain to other topics.* It is, however, presum-
able, tliat one of the works composed by him did treat of
algebra as a branch of the science of computation. His pupil,
Ahmad ben Muhammad of Sarkhas in Persia (who flourished
in the middle of the third century of the Hijra, for he died in
286 H.), was author of a complete treatise of computation
embracing algebra with arithmetic. About the same time a
treatise of algebra was composed by Abu Hanifah Dainawari,
who lived till 290 h. (a.d. 903.)
^ Tcirlkhnl hukamd^ Casiri, Tol. i. p. 410.
2 Bibl. Orient. 482. Also 226 and 494. No grounds are specified, Ibn Khal-
kkn and Il&ji Khalfah, whom he very commonly follows, ha?e been searched io
Tttin for authority on this point.
» Tdr. Casiri, vol. i. p. 410.
* Abu'lfaraj ; Pococke, p. 179.
» Tdrikhul hukaind ; Casiri, toI. i, pp. 353 — 360.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 463
At a later period Abti'Iwaf& Buzj&ni, a distinguished mathe-
matician, who flourished in the fourth century of the Hijra,
between the years 348, when he commenced his studies, and
388, the date of his demise, composed numerous tracts on
computation, among which are specified seyeral commentaries
on algebra : one of them on the treatise of the Khuw&razmite
upon that subject : another on a less noticed treatise by Abu
Yahy&, whose lectures he had attended : an interpretation
(whether commentary or paraphrase may perhaps be doubted)
of the work of Diophantus : demonstrations of the proposi-
tions contained [514] in that work : a treatise on numerical
computation in general: and several tracts on particular
branches of this subject.^
A question has been raised, as just now hinted, whether
this writer's interpretation of Diophantus is to be deemed a
translation or a commentary. The term which is here em-
ployed in the TdrikhuT hukamd (fa/sir^ paraphrase,) and that
which Abti'lfaraj uses upon the same occasion (fassar, inter-
preted,) are ambiguous. Applied to the relation between
works in the same language, the term, no doubt, implies a
gloss or comment ; and is so understood in the very same
passage where an interpretation of the Khuwdrazmite's
treatise, and another of Abii Yahyd's, were spoken of. But,
where a difference of language subsists, it seems rather to
intend a version, or at least a paraphrase, than mere scholia ;
and is employed by the same author in a passage before cited,'
where he gives the Arabic signification of a Hindi term. That
Bazj&nrs performance is to be deemed a translation, appears
to be fairly inferable from the separate mention of the de-
monstration of the propositions in Diophantus, as a distinct
work : for the latter seems to be of the nature of a commen-
tary ; and the other, consequently, is the more likely to have
been a version, whether literal or partaking of paraphrase.
1 TdHkhiil hukamd; Casiri, vol. i. p. 433.
s Ibidj Tol i. p. 426, Art. Katka.
464 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
Besides, there is no mention, by an Arabian writer, of an
earlier Arabic translation of Diophantus; and the Buzj&ni
was not likely to be the commentator in Arabic of an untrans-
lated book. D^'Herbelot then may be deemed correct in
naming him as the translator of the arithmetics of Dio-
phantus ; and Gossali, examining a like question, arriyes at
nearly the same conclusion ; namely, that the Buzj&ni [515]
was the translator, and the earliest, as well as the expositor, of
Diophantus. (On'g. dell' Alg.^ vol. i. p. 175.) The yersion
was probably made soon after the date which Abu'lfaraj
assigns to it, 348 h. (a.d. 969), which more properly is thc^
date of the commencement of the translator'^s mathematical^
studies.
From all these facts, joined with other circumstances to I>e
noticed in progress of this note, it is inferred, 1st, That the
acquaintance of the Arabs with the Hindu astronomy is traced
to the middle of the second century of the Hijra^ in the reign
of Almansur, upon authority of Arabian historians citing
that of the preface of ancient astronomical tables ; while their
knowledge of the Greek astronomy does not appear to have
comineiiccd until the subsequent reign of Harun Arrashid,
when a translation of the Almajist is said to have been exe-
cuted under the auspices of the l^arniacide Yahyd ben Khilid,
by Abii Iliyan antl Salmi, employed for the purpose.^ 2Ddly,
TJiiit tliey were become conversant in the Indian method of
numerical computation within the second century ; that is,
before the beginning of the reign of Alm&mun, whose ac-
cession to the Khilafat took place in 205 H. 3rdly, That the
first treatise on algebra in Arabic was published in his reign;
but their acquaintance with the work of Diophantus is not
traced by any historical facts collected from their writings
to a period anterior to the middle of the fourth century of
the Hijra, when Abii'lwafa Buzj&ni flourished. 4thly, That
Muhammad ben Musa Kliuwdrazmi, the same Arabic author
^ Casiri, toI. i., p. 349.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 466
who, in the time of Alm&muD, and before his accession,
abridged an earlier astronomical work taken from the Hindus,
and who published a treatise on the Indian method of numeri-
cal computation, is the first [516] also who furnished the
Arabs with a knowledge of algebra, upon which he expressly
wrote, and in that Khalifs reign, as will be more particularly
shown as we proceed.
A treatise of algebra bearing his name, it may be here re-
marked, was in the hands of the Italian algebraists, translated
into tlie Italian language, not very long after the introduction
of the science into that country by Leonardo of Pisa. It
ippears to have been seen at a later period both by Cardan
and by Bombelli. No manuscript of that yersion is, how-
eyer, now extant ; or at least known to be so.
Fortunately, a copy of the Arabic original is preserved
the Bodleian collection.^ It is the manuscript marked
GMXYm. Hunt. 214 folio, and bearing the date of the
transcription 743 h. (a.d. 1342). The rules of the library,
though access be readily allowed, preclude the study of any
book which it contains, by a person not enured to the tem-
perature of apartments unvisited by artificial warmth. This
impediment to the examination of the manuscript in question
has been remedied by the assistance of the under librarian,
Mr. Alexander Nicoll, who has fiirnished ample extracts pur-
posely transcribed by him from the manuscript. This has
made it practicable to ascertain the contents of the book, and
to identify the work as that in which the Khuwdrazmi taught
the principles of algebra; and consequently to compare the
state of the science, as it was by him taught, with its utmost
progress in the hands of the Muhammadans, as exhibited in
an elementary work of not very ancient date, which is to this
. time studied among Asiatic Musulmans.
I allude to the Khuldaatu'l hisdb of Bahdu 'd din, an
author who lived between the years 953 and 1031 h. The
1 [This was edited and tnuialated by Bosen in 1831.]
vol*, in. [E8BAT8 U.] 30
466 ALGEBEA OF THE HINDnS.
Arabic text, with a Persian commentary, has been printed
in Calcutta; and a summary of its contents had been pre-
[517]viously given by Mr. Strachey in his " Early History
of Algebra," in which, as in his other exertions for the inves-
tigation of Hindu and Arabian algebra, his zeal surmounted
great difficulties, while his labours have thrown much light
upon the subject.^
The title-page of the manuscript above described, as well as
a marginal note on it, and the author's preface, all concur in
declaring it the work of Muhammad ben Musa Khuw&razmi :
and the mention of the Khalif Alm&mun in that preface
establishes the identity of the author, whose various works,
as is learned from Arabian historians, were composed by
command, or with encouragement, of that Khalif, partly be-
fore his accession, and partly during his reign.
The preface, a transcript of which was supplied by the
care of Mr. NicoU, has been examined at my request bj
Colouel John Baillie. After perusing it with him, I am
enabled to affirm, that it intimates '^ encouragement from
the Imam Ahn4mun, Commander of the Faithful, to com-
pile a compendious treatise of calculation by algebra ; " terms
which amount not only to a disclaimer of any pretensions
to the invention of the algebraic art, but which would, to
my apprehension, as to that of the distinguished Arabic
scholur consulted, strongly convey the idea of the pre-exist-
ence of ampler treatises upon algebra in the same language
(Arabic), did not the marginal note above cited distinctly
assert this to be "the first treatise composed upon algebra
among the faithful/* — an assertion corroborated by the similar
affirmation of Zakariya of Easbin, and other writers of Arabian
history. Adverting, however, to that express affirmation,
the author must be here under[5 18] stood as declaring that
he compiled {allaf is the verb used by him) the treatise upon
* Seo Bija Ganita, or Algebra of the Hindus, London, 1813; Hutton'i
Math. Diet., cd. 1815, Art. Algebra; and As. Be«., Tol. xii. p. 159.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 467
algebra frcMn books in some other language : doabtless, then,
in the Indian tongue, as it has been already shown that he
was conversant with Hindu astronomy, and Hindu computa-
tion and account.
It may be right to notice that the title of the manuscript
denominates the author, Abd 'abdallah Muhammad ben Musa
al Khuwdrazmi, differing in the first part of the name from
the designation which occurs in one passage of the Tdrikhu^l-
hukamd, quoted by Casiri, where the Khuw&razml Muham-
mad ben Musa is called Abu Jafar.^ But that is not a
sufficient ground for questioning the sameness of persons and
genuineness of the work, as the Khuw&razmi is not usually
designated by either of those additions, or by any other of
that nature taken from the name of offspring : and error may
be presumed, most probably on the part of the Egyptian
author of the Tdrikha^Uhukamd^ since the addition which he
introduces, that of Abu Jafar, belongs to Muhammad ben
Musa ben Shdkir, a very different person; as appears from
another passage of the same Egyptian's compilation.^
The following]: is a translation of the Khuw&razmi's direc-
tions for the solution of equations, simple and compound, a
topic which he enters upon at no great distance from the
oommencement of the volume, having first treated of unity
and number in general.
* I found that the numbers, of which there is need in com-
putation by restoration and comparison,^ are of three kinds ;
namely, roots, and squares, and simple number relative to
neither root nor square. A root is the whole of thing mul-
tiplied by [root] itself, consisting of unity, or [519] numbers
ascending, or fractions descending. A square is the whole
amount of root multiplied into itself; and simple number is
the whole that is denominated by the number, without re-
ference to root or square.
1 Casiri, vol. i. p. 428. ' Casiri, vol. L p. 418.
' Hiidbu'ljabr toa al tnukdbalah.
468 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
' Of these three kinds, which are equal, some to some, the
cases are these : for instance, you say *' sqnares are equal to
roots;" and *' squares are equal to numbers;" and *^ roots
are equal to numbers/^
' As to the case in which squares are equal to roots ; for
example, " a square is equal to fire roots of the same : " the
root of the square is five ; and the square is twraty-fiye : uid
that is equivalent to five times its root.
^ So you say '* a third of the squure is equal to four roots : "^
the whole square then is equal to twelve roots ; and that is a
hundred and forty-four ; its root is twelve.
* Another example : you say *^ five squares are equal to ten
roots."" Then one square is equal to two roots : and the root
of the square is two ; and the square is four.
* In like manner, whether the squares be many or few, thqr
are reduced to a single square : and as much is done to the
equivalent in roots ; reducing it to the like of that to which
the square has been brought.
^ Case in which squares are equal to numbers : for instance,
you say, "the square is equal to nine.'' Then that is the
square, and the root is three. And you say, "five squaree
are equal to eighty : '' then one square is a fifth of eighty 5 and
that is sixteen. And, if you say, " the half of the square is
equal to eighteen:*''* then the square is equal to thirty-six;
and its root is six.
' In like manner, with all squares affirmative and negative,
you reduce them to a single square. If there be less than a
single square, you add thereto, until the square be quite com-
plete. Do as much with the equivalent in numbers.
[520] ' Case in which roots are equal to number : for in-
stance, you say, " the root equals three in number." Then
the root is three ; and the square, which is raised therefrom,
Is nine. And, if you say, "four roots are equal to twenty;"
then a single root is equal to five ; and the square, that is
raised therefrom, is twenty -five. And, if you say, "the half
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 469
of the root is eqaal to ten : '' then the [whole] root is equal to
twenty; and the square, which is raised therefrom, is four
hundred.
' I found that, with these three kinds, namely, roots, squares,
and number compound, there will be three compound sorts
[of equation] ; that is, square and roots equal to number ;
squares and number equal to roots; and roots and number
equal to squares.
^ As for squares and roots, which are equal to number : for
example, you say, '' square, and ten roots of the same, amount
to the sum of thirty-nine/' Then the solution of it is : you
halve the roots ; and that in the present instance yields fire.
Then you multiply this by its like, and the product is twenty-
fire. Add this to thirty-nine : the sum is sixty-four. Then
take the root of this, which is eight, and subtract from it
half the roots, namely, five ; the remainder is three. It is the
root of the square which you required ; and the square is nine.
* In like manner, if two squares be specified, or three, or
less, or more, reduce them to a single square ; and reduce the
roots and number therewith to the like of that to which you
reduced the square.
*For example, you say, ^^two squares and ten roots are
equal to forty-eight dirhams;'*^ and the meaning is, any two
[such] squares, when they are summed, and unto them is
added the equivalent of ten times the root of one of them,
amount to the total of forty-eight dirJuims. Then you must
reduce the two squares to a single square: and [521] as-
suredly you know, that one of two squares is a moiety of both.
Then reduce the whole thing in the instance to its half: and
it is as much as to say, a square and five roots are equal to
twenty-four dirhams; and the meaning is, any [such] square,
when five of its roots are added to it, amounts to twenty-four.
Then halve the roots, and the moiety is two and a half.
Multiply that by its like, and the product is six and a
quarter. Add this to twenty- four, the sum is thirty dirhams
470 ALGEBEA OF THE HINDUS.
and a quarter^ Extract the root, it is five and a half. Sab-
tract from this the moiety of the roots; that is, two and
a half: the remainder is three. It is the root of the square:
and the square is nine.
*• In like manner, if it be said **' half of the square and five
roots are equal to twenty-eight dirhanu ; " it signifies, that,
when you add to the moiety of any [such] square the equiva-
lent of five of its roots, the amount is twenty-eight dirhatns.
Then you desire to complete your square so as it shall amount
to one whole square ; that is, to double it. Therefore double
it, and double what you have with it ; as well as what is equiJ
thereunto. Then a square and ten roots are equal to fifty-six
dirhatns. Add half the roots multiplied by itself, twenty-five,
to fifty-six ; and the sum is eighty-one. Extract the root of
this, it is nine. Subtract from this the moiety of the roots;
that is, five : the remainder is four. It is the root of the
square which you required : and the square is sixteen ; and its
moiety is eight
*• Proceed in like manner with all that comes of squares and
roots ; and what number equals them.
' As for squares and number, which are equal to roots ; for
example, you say, "a square and twenty-one are equal to
ten of its roots : '* the meaning of which is, any [such] square,
wlien twenty-one dirhams are added to it, amounts [522] to
what is tlie equivalent of ten roots of that square : then the
solution is, halve the roots ; and the moiety is five. Multiply
this by itself; the product is twenty-five. Then subtract
from it tweuty-one, the number specified with the square:
the remainder is four. Extract its root ; which is two. Sub-
tract this from the moiety of the roots; that is, from five:
the remainder is three. It is the root of the square which
you required : and the square is nine. Or, if you please, you
may add the root to the moiety of the roots : the sum is seven.
It is the root of the square wliich you required; and the
square is forty-nine.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 471
' When a case occurs to you which you bring under this
head, try its answer by the sum : ,and, if that do not serve,
it certainly will by the difference. This head is wrought both
by the sum and by the difference. Not so either of the others
of three cases requiring for their solution that the root be
halved. And know, that, under this head, when the roots
have been halved, and the moiety has been multiplied by its
like, if the amount of the product be less than the dirhania
which are with the square, then the instance is impossible :
and, if it be equal to the dirhams between them, the root of
the square is like the moiety of the roots, without either ad-
dition or subtraction.
' In every instance where you have two squares, or more or
less, reduce to a single square, as I explained under the first
head.
* As for roots and number, which are equal to squares : for
example, you say, '' three roots and four in number are equal
to a square : ** the solution of it is, halve the roots : and the
moiety will be one and a half. Multiply this by its like,
[the product is two and a quarter. Add it to four, the sum
is six and a quarter. Extract the root, which is two and
a half. To this add the moiety of the [523] roots : the sum
is four. It is the root of the square which you required : and
the square is sixteen.]'
The author returns to the subject in a distinct chapter,
which is entitled, *' On the six cases of Algebra.**^ A short
extract from it may suffice.
* The first of the six cases. For example, you say, " you
divide ten into two parts, and multiply one of the two parts
by the other : then you multiply one of them by itself, and
the product of this multiplication into itself is equal to four
times that of one of the parts by the other.'*^
* Solution. Make one of the two parts thing^ and the other
ten less thing : then multiply thing by ten less thing, and the
product will be ten things less a square. Multiply by four ;
472 ALGEBRA OF THS HINDUS.
for you said " four times : '^ it will be four times the product
of one part bj the other; that is, forty things less four squares.
Now multiply thing by thing^ which is one of the parts by
itself: the result is, square equal to forty things less four
squares. Then restore it in the four squares, and add it to
the one square. There will be forty things equal to fire
squares ; and a single square is equal to eight roots. It is
sixty-four ; and its root is eight : and that is one of the two
parts, which was multiplied into itself: and the remainder oP
ten is two ; and that is the other part. Thus has this instance
been soWed under one of the six heads : and that is the case
of squares equal to roots.
*The second case. *'You divide ten into two parts, and
multiply the amount of a part into itself. Then multiply ten
into itself; and the product of this multiplication of ten into
itself, is equiYalent to twice the product of the part taken into
itself, and seven-ninths : or it is equivalent to six times ttid
a quarter the product of the other part taken into itself."
*• Solution. Make one of the parts thing^ and the other
[524] ten less thing. Then you multiply thing into itself:
it is a square. Next by two and seven-ninths : the product
will be two squares, and seven-ninths of a square. Then
multiply ten into itself, and the product is a hundred. Re-
duce it to a single square, the result is nine twenty-fifths;
that is, a fifth and four-fifths of a fifth. Take a fifth of a
hundred and four-fifths of a fifth ; the quotient is thirty-six,
which is equal to one square. Then extract the root, which
is six. It is one of the two parts ; and the other is un-
doubtedly four. Thus you solve this instance under one of
the six heads : and that is "squares equal to number." '
These extracts may serve to convey an adequate notion of
the manner in which Khuw&razmi conducts the resolution
of equations simple and compound, and the investigation of
problems by their means. If a comparison be made with the
Khuldsatu'l hisdb, of which a summary by Mr. Strachey will
NOTES AND ILLU8TEATION8. 473
be found in the Researches of the Asiatic Society,^ it may be
seen that the algebraic art has been nearly stationary in the
hands of the Mnhammadans, from the days of Muhammad
of Khuw&razm' to those of Bah&u ''d din of 'Amul,' not-
withstanding the intermediate study of the arithmetics of
Diophantus, translated and expounded by Muhammad of
Bu2rj&n. Neither that comparison, nor the exclusive con-
sideration of the Khuwarazmi's performance, leads to any
other conclusion, than, as before intimated, that, being con-
versant with the sciences of the Hindus, especially with their
astronomy and their method of numerical calculation, and
being the author of the earliest Arabic treatise on algebra, he
must be deemed to have learnt from the Hindus the resolu-
tion of simple and quadratic equations, or, in short, algebra, a
branch of their art of computation.
[625] The conclusion, at which we have arrived, may be
strengthened by the coincident opinion of Cossali, who, after
diligent research and ample disquisition, comes to the follow-
ing result.^
*• Concerning the origin of algebra among the Arabs, what
is certain is, that Muhammad ben Mtisa, the Khuw&razmite,
first taught it to them. The Elasbinian, a writer of authority,
affirms it; no historical fact, no opinion, no reasoning, op-
poses it.
^ There is nothing in history respecting Muhammad ben
Miisa individually, which favours the opinion, that he took
from the Greeks the algebra which he taught to the Muham-
madans.
' History presents in him no other than a mathematician of
a country most distant from Greece and contiguous to India,
skilled in the Indian tongue, fond of Indian matters, which
he translated, amended, epitomized, adorned : and he it was,
» Vol. xii. » On the Oxua.
' A district of Syria ; not Amnl, a town in Khur&i&n. Com.
* Oriff, deU* Alg,, vol. i. p. 216.
474 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
who was the first instructor of the Muhammadans in the
algebraic art.^
' Not havin<r taken al^rebra from the Greeks, he must have
either invented it himself, or taken it from the Indians. Of
the two, the second appears to me the most probable/ *
O.
Communication of the Hindus with Westbrn Nations
ON Astrology and Astronomy.
The position, that Astrology is partly of foreign growth in
India; that is, that the Hindus have borrowed, and largely
too, from the astrology of a more western region, [526] is
grounded, as the similar inference concerning a different branch
of divination,' on the resemblance of certain terms employed
in both. The mode of divination, called Tdjaka, implies by
its very name its Arabian origin. Astrological prediction by
configuration of planets, in like manner, indicates even by its
Indian name a Grecian source. It is denominated Hori, the
second of three branches which compose a complete course of
astronomy and astrology : * and the word occurs in this sense
in the writings of early Hindu astrologers. Yardhamihira,
whose name stands high in this class of writers, has attempted
to supply a Sanskrit etymology ; and in his treatise on casting
nativities derives the word from Ahordtra, day and night, a
nycthemeron. This formation of a word by dropping both
the first and last syllables, is not conformable to the analogies
of Sanskrit etymology. It is more natural, then, to look for
the origin of the term in a foreign tongue : and that is pre-
sented by the Greek a>pa and its derivative wpoaKoiroi;, an
^ Oriff. deir Alg.y Tol. i. p. 219. ' Sec his reasons at large.
'As. Res., vol. ix. p. 366 (p. 320 of the present Tolume). [Cf. Weber's ex-
cellent paper on Indian Astrology in Inditcht Studien, ii. pp. 236-287.]
* See note K,
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 475
astrologer, and especially one who considers the natal hour^
and hence predicts events.^ The same term hord occurs
again in the writings of the Hindu astrologers, with an ac-
ceptation (that of hour') which more exactly conforms to the
Grecian etymon.
The resemblance of a single term would not suffice to
ground an inference of common origin, since it might be
purely accidental. But other words are also remarked in
Hindu astrology, which are evidently not Indian. An in-
stance of it is dreshkdna^^ used in the same astrological sense
with the Greek Sexavo^ and Latin decanus : words, which,
notwithstanding their classic sound, are to be considered as
of foreign origin (Chaldean or Egyptian) in the [527] classic
languages, at least with this acceptation. The term is as-
suredly not genuine Sanskrit: and hence it was before^ inferred,
that the particular astrological doctrine, to which it belongs,
is exotic in India. It appears, however, that this division of
the twelve zodiacal signs into three portions each, with planets
governing them, and pourtrayed figures representing them, is
not implicitly the same among the Hindu astrologers, which
it was among the Chaldeans, with whom the Egyptians and
Persians coincided. Variations have been noticed.^ Other
points of difference are specified by the astrologer of Balkh ; *
and they concern the allotment of planets to govern the
decani and dreahkdnas, and the figures by which they are
represented. Abu Ma'shar is a writer of the ninth century ;''
and his notice of this astrological division of the zodiac as
received by Hindus, Chaldeans, and Egyptians, confirms the
fact of an earlier communication between the Indians and
the Chaldeans, perhaps the Egyptians, on the subject of it.
^ Hesych. and Said. ' As. Kes., vol. t. p. 107.
' As. Res.y Yol. ix. p. 367 (p. 320 of the present Yolumo).
« As. Res., Yol. ix. p. 367 and 372 (p. 320 of the present Yolume). Vide
Salm. £xere. Flin,
* Ihid., vol. ix. p. 874 (p. 326 of the present volume).
* Lib. intr. in Ast. Albumasis Abalachi, pp. 5, 12, and 13.
? Died in in 272 h. (886 c.) aged a hundred.
476 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
With the sexajs^esimal fractions, the introdaction of which
is by Wallis ascribed to Ptolemy amoug the Greeks,^ the
Hindus have adopted for the minute of a degree, besides a
term of their own language, kald^ one taken from the Greek
XcnriLf scarcely altered in the Sanskrit lipid. The term must
be deemed originally Greek, rather than Indian, in that ac-
ceptation, as it there corresponds to an adjective Xarrd^,
slender, minute: an import which precisely agrees with the
Sanskrit kaid and Arabic dakik, fine, [528] minute ; whence,
in these languages respectively, kaid and dakik for a minute
of a degree. But the meanings of lipta in Sanskrit* are,
1st, smeared ; 2nd, infected with poison ; 3rd, eaten : and its
derivative liptaka signifies a poisoned arrow; being derived
from lip, to smear : and the dictionaries give no interpretation
of the word that has any affinity with its special acceptation
as a technical term in astronomy and mathematics. Yet it
occurs so employed in the work of Brahmagupta.'
By a different analogy of the sense and not the sound, the
Greek yiolpa^ a part, and specially a degree of a circle, is in
Sanskrit r/wiflr, hMga^ and other synonyma of part, applied
emphatically in technical language to the 360th part of the
periphery of a circle. The resemblance of the radical sense,
in the one instance, tends to corroborate the inference from
the similarity of sound in the other.
Kendra is used by Brahmagupta and the Surya-siddhanta,
as well as other astronomical writers (Bhiskara, etc.), and
by the astrologers Vardhamihira and the rest, to signify the
equation of the centre.* The same term is employed in the
Indian mensuration for the centre of a circle ; ^ also denoted
by madhya^ middle. It comes so near in sound, as in signifi-
cation, to the Greek Kcvrpov, that the inference of a common
origin for these words is not to be avoided. But in Sanskrit
' Wallis, Alg. c. 7. ' Am. Kosh. ^ C. i., § 6, et pauim.
* Brahm. siddh. c. 2. Sur, tiddh. c. 2. Vjrihat and Laghu Jdtaka$.
* ISur, on LU, } 207.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 477
it is exclusively technical ; it Is unnoticed by the Yocabularies
of the language; and it is not easily traced to a Sanskrit
root. In Greek, on the contrary, the correspondent term
was borrowed in mathematics from a familiar word signifying
a goad, spur, thorn, or point; and derived from a Greek
theme Kemico}
[629] The other term, which has been mentioned as com-
monly used for the centre of a circle, namely, tnadhya^ middle,
is one of the numerous instances of radical and primary analogy
between the Sanskrit and the Latin and Greek languages.
It is a common word of the ancient Indian tongue ; and is
clearly the same with the Latin mediua ; and serves to show
that the Latin is nearer to the ancient pronunciation of
Greek, than fiSco^i from which Sipontinus^ derives it, but
which must be deemed a corrupted or softened utterance 'of
an ancient term coming nearer to the Sanskrit nuuthyoB and
Latin medius.
On a hasty glance over the jdtakas^ or Indian treatises
mpon horoscopes, several other terms of the art have been
noticed, which are not Sanskrit, but apparently barbarian.
For instance, anaphd, sunaphd, durudhard, and kemadruma,
designating certain configurations of the planets. They occur
in both the treatises of Yar&hamihira ; and a passage, re-
lative to this subject, is among those quoted from the abridg-
ment by the scholiast of the greater treatise, and verified in
^ [Kem gives a list of thirty-six Greek words wliich occur in Yar&hamihira's
Yrihat Sanhit4 (cf. Weber, Indisehe Studien, ii. 254, 260). The signs of the
Zodiac (except Cancer), Eriya, T&vari, Jituma, Leya, P&thcna, Dy6ka or J(ika,
Kaurpya, Taokshika, Akokera, Hridroga, Ittham ; — Heli (4}\idr) Himna ('Ep^^s),
Ara ("A^f), Jyau (Zc^f), Eo^a (Rfx^yos), Asphujit (*A^po8(n7), hor&, kendra,
dzeshk&na or drekk&^a, lipt&, anaph& (oi^a^), 8unaph& {(jwa^)y damdhar&
(Ihpv^pla), kemadruma (x/n7/AaTia/i((f), ves'i (^cb-ts), lipoklima {ikir6ic\ifia),
pa^aphara {ivaycupopd), hibuka {{nr^tioy), j&mitra (Sic^crpos), meshilra^a
QjMO'ovpdyrifM), dyunam or dyutam (ZuriK6y ?), ribpha (^t^), and harija {6pi(u^),
' Pyrrhi Perotti, EpUeopi Sipontini^ Comttcopia hive LingucB Zatina Comment
tarii, col. 1019, edit. Aid. 1527, fol.
' l'*M4vaoi steht fiir fic0-j-o5, fi4<ros ist weiter abgeschwacht." — Curtias,
Otundzmgef p. 310.]
478 ALGEBRA OF THE HINDUS.
the text of the less.^ The affinity of those terras to words
of other languages used in a similar astrological sense, has
not been ti*aced ; for want, perhaps, of competent acquaintance
with the terminology of that silly art. But it must not be
passed unremarked, that Yardhamihira, who has in another
place praised the Yavanas for their proficiency in astrology
(or astronomy, for the term is ambiguous), frequently quotes
them in liis great treatise on horoscopes ; and his scholiast
marks a distinction between the ancient Yavanas, whom he
cha[530]racterizes as " a race of barbarians conversant with
(hord) horoscopes," and a known Sanskrit author bearing the
title of Yavaneswara, whose work he had seen and repeatedly
cites ; but the writings and doctrine of the ancient Yavanas,
he acknowledges, had not been seen by him, and were known
to him only by this writer^s and his own author'^s references.
No argument, bearing upon the point under consideration,
is built on Bh&skara's use of the word dramma for the value
of sixty-four cowry-shells (LiL § 2) in place of the proper
Sanskrit term pramdna, which Sridhara and other Hinda
authors employ ; nor on the use of dtndra, for a denomination
of money, by the scholiast of Brahmagupta (12, § 12) who
also, like Bhaskara, employs the first-mentioned word (12,
§ 14): though the one is clearly analogous to the Greek
dracJuna, a word of undoubted Grecian etymology, being de-
rived from Bparrofjuic ; and the other apparently is so, to
the Roman denarius^ which has a Latin derivation. The
first has not even the Sanskrit air; and is evidently an
exotic, or, in short, a barbarous term. It was probably re-
ceived mediately through the Muhammadans, who have their
dirham in the like sense. The other is a genuine Sanskrit
word, of which the etymology, presenting the sense of
* splendid,"* is consistent with the several acceptations of a
specific weight of gold; a golden ornament or breast-piece;
^ See p. 435. Another passage so quoted and verified uses the term k$ndra i&
the sense above mentioned.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 479
and gold money : all which senses it bears, according to the
ancient yocabularies of the language.^
The similarity seems then to be accidental in this instance;
and the Muhammadans, who have also a like term, may have
borrowed it on either hand ; not improbably from the Hindus,
as the dinar of the Arabs and Persians is [531] a gold coin
like the Indian ; while the Boman denarius is properly a
silver one. D"*Herbelot assigns as a reason for derivins: the
Arabic dinar from the Roman denarius, that this was of gold.
The nummus aureus sometimes had that designation; and
we read in Roman authors of golden as well as silver denarii.^
But it is needless to multiply references and quotations to
prove, that the Roman coin of that name was primarily silver,
and so denominated because it was equal in value to ten
copper as;^ that it was all along the name of a silver coin ; *
and was still so under the Greek empire, when the hqvdpuiv
was the hundredth part of a large silver coin termed aprfvpov^?
^ Ammra koaha, etc. [The Ui^&di Sutras give a rale (iii. 140) for the for-
mation of dindra, hut Ujjwaladatta in his Comm. expressly states that the role
was wanting in two of the earlier commentaries]
" Plin. 33, i 13, and 37, § 3. Petron. Satyr. 106, 160.
> Plin. 33, 4 13, Vitr. 3, 1, Yolns. Meecianiis, Didyrous.
^ Yitr. and Vol. Meec. ^ Epiphanius, cum multis aliis.
[From Mr. Colehrooke*s researches into the ancient astronomy and algebra
•f the Hindus, he was led to suspect that in astrology they borrowed largely
from the Greeks. To this conclusion he arrived chiefly on philological evidence,
the terms employed in their books being derived in some cases from the Arabs,
but still more from the Greeks. This new he considered perfectly consistent with
the supposition that the belief in the influence of the stars was part of their ancient
religion, and that this so-called science was of considerable antiquity. Had he
thought the subject worthy of research, he would not have failed to have supported
the former view with very powerful reasons. The terminology of this "silly art," as
he terms it, affords stronger traces of its Grecian origin than he has pointed out. Of
acme of the words specified by him, of which he has failed to trace the origin, two are
evidently derived from the Greek. The word anaphd claims kindred with 4irwa/^pd
* rising,' — a word frequently used by Sextus Empiricus. Sunaphd is derived from
the Greek word for * conjunctions.' The title of a chapter of the TcrocOSi/BAot of
480 ILOnBftJuOVTHBHIHDini.
(DdambniL,«9.19.) SbG«oigeLnrii,faiUi<8vv«y olte JUtnMiqrfl'^
AMiflnta,' hat dmddrted th« mAj VUtmf ol aitralogy witk gmft iMiabg^ m^
kMproT8d»I tibinkt t«7 OQMlHif«l]r, thtlte pcMtiet of atfiulMi ftim ilaB
nA pliiwiti wu of gfMil nl^iiljt tDd JaUodMad into llw B<ww Itoiplw wi
^gjptbjtlieGlialdMM; Imt Ibilil aurad ill eiUawdiMiy poptfgi^ tad ■■»
Mi to Um cBgnftiiig ipoa te dd ndt molkodi ifUhim of tlio iiiMlWi
minoamj of tlie Gredb. Wnm ttia tea it qmad vapidly ow tha Bohhi
Kipire, wu ealtifatad ia X^TP^ Vj ^ Aiabii and flm& thiwaa ifmd vfm
Waatam Enopa In ipita id pnUUlotjr km of tka Bommi Clnfani— t and
alM^g oppodtioii of tta ChiWaa Ohnnihu It ia in tUa aadn tern of gene-
ttUalogj, or jodieial MtroDooiyy tibat it liaa aqoyad tiw aaaa astnoidiaai)
fopdari^ia India, and il vodd ba pnintly aondrtttt viA all flMt va fam
of tiw hiitorj of InAan aatiuiwaw, ta rappoaa tkat thay dadfad Aair know*
ladfB of tiia iUaa ananoa fnm tiw aaaa aoona; bat tidi in no wny imalidBlBi
tiw iqppoation that tha atnty af aationoiy witk anaw ta difinaiiun mtjJuBn
ba« aoUifatad in mon MMMt tiMa.-8ir T. S. a]
481
ADDITIONAL NOTES TO THE FIRST VOLUME OF
THE ESSAYS.
Page 117, l%n» 31. But cf. the M^ldhyandina version, x. 6, 4, 5.
Page 118, ImI Une. Add <'Ind. Stad. zii. 350 sq."
Page 131, Kne 27. . Add <<Ind. Stad. iz. 424 sq. ; x. 213 sq."
Page 210, line 10. Dr. Hall has shown, in his Rationdl Refutation^
pp. 196, 212, that Siuikara-dch&rya and his followers held Yiahntu
to be the Supreme Spirit; cf. A. 0. Bumell's preface to his edition
of the Vania-hrdhmana, 1873.
Page 316, line 21. Another form of the negative argament is
as follows. We have first the afELrmative argament '^ the mountain
has fire because it has smoke," and, from this, ''the lake has the
absence of smoke because it has the absence of fire." But the
mountain has the absence of the absence of fire because it has the
absence of the absence of smoke, or, in other words, " the mountain
is different from the lake because it has smoke." In the same way
we may prove that, as earth has earthiness because it has smell
(smell being only found where earthy particles are), ''earth ie different
from other things, as water, etc., because it has smell."
ADDITIONAL NOTES TO VOL. II.
Page 38, line 6. Since this portion was printed, the Mahdbhdehga,
with Kaiyata's commentary, has been published in Benares. Frof.
Weber has published in Tnd, Stud. vol. xiii., a valuable article on
its importance for Indian literary history.
Page 159, line 16. A note was inadvertently omitted here to
suggest the correction of ' Ed^a ' to ' Ri^^*'
VOL. III. [B88AY8 II.] 31
483
IIJfDEX.
[ IVhere cat article entirely consists of references to the first volume^ only the
Pages are given. Titles of books are printed in italics,^
A.
Abacus, ii. 440*
Abbaci, Liber^ it 391, 440, 449.
* Abdullah beau'l Muka£&*, it 148,
152.
A'bharancL^ ii. 45, an astronomical
work, ii. 284.
Abhiva, 285, 309, 328, 329.
Abhidhdnay ii 48.
Abhidhdna-chintdmaniy ii. 185.
Abhidhdna-ratnamdld, iL 54*
Abhidharma, 41^
Abhihitlnyaya-vddina^, 341.
Abhijit, ii. 299, 315.
Abhimdna, 255.
Abhimanyu, ii. 178.
Abhinanday ii. 50.
Abhinava-^dka^ayana, iL 41.
Abhfra class, ii. 163, metre, ii. 139.
Abhiri dialect, iL 62.
Abhisheka, 32.
Abhyupagama, 313.
Abja, 42.
. Ablutions, 142, 154.
Abraham ebn Ezra, ii. 336.
Absorption of the soul in the Supreme
'^ Being, ^88, 389, 399»,426.
Abii Hanifah Daindwari, ii. 462.
Abu Hiydn, iL 464.
Abu Hisdn, ii. 306.
Abd Kimil Shuja* ben Aslam, ii. 461.
Abu'l-fazl, ii. 148, 149, 249.
Abii'l-hasan 'Abdullah benu'1-mu-
kaffa', iL 148, 152.
Abu'l-mila (?) NasruUah, iL 148, 149.
Abu*l-wafd al-buzjin{, ii. 400, 463, etc.
Abti-Ma'shar, iL 455, etc, 475.
Abii-Yahyd, ii. 400, 463.
Abu-Yusaf al-kindi, iL 462.
Achaladhfiti m. iL 138, 144.
Achdra, 328.
Achdra-chandrikdy 167, 472.
Achdrddariay 167.
Achhdvdka, 153, 205.
Achita, a weight, 531.
Achyuta-chakravarti, 482.
Achyuta-jallaki) iL 17.
Achyuta-kfish^nanda-tirtha, 362.
Achyuta-upddhyaya, iL 51.
Adbhuta^ adbkuta-brdhmana, y^ 120.
Adhaka, a measure, 533, etc.
Adhara, a weight, 531.
Adharma, 306, 409, 410, 421.
Adharmdstikdya, 409.
Adhikara^as, 321, 326, 342, 355, 403.
Adhish^hdna-tfarira, 258.
Adhwara, 66.
Adhwaryu, 13, 153.
Adhydtnia-rdnuiyanaf ii. 92.
Adhyaya, 17 32, 49, 54 65, 71, 355.
Adiswara, Adisur, u. 167.
Aditi, 170.
Aditya, the sun, 50.
Adityas, the, 28, 34, 67, 222.
Adivipuld m, iL 137.
Adfitanaya m. ii. 145.
Adwaitdnanda, 359, 362.
Adwayananda, 362.
Agama, Agatnas, i. 19, 414, 438, 441 ;
iL 158.
Agastya, i. 20^ 26, a star, iL 307, 309,
etc, 41 8> 420.
Aghamarshana's hymn, 29, 114, 157,
158.
Agni, author of part of the Yafurveda^
L 66 ; incarnation of Agni, 242 ; a
star, ii. 309, etc.
Agnidhra, 205.
Agni-purdnoy i. 143 ; ii. 59.
Agni-raMajya, 54, 331.
Agnishloina, 49, 68, 74, 105.
Afiankiia, ^55, 44a
Ahflrilia iarira, iL 174.
Ahmad lien Muhaaimail of Sarklut,
ij. 461.
i:huti, iL 168.
Amdrmya^l, 163.
AUwaiy^ 440.
Aitareyi, 41.
AHartya-dra^yaia, 41, ett., 116.
AUatrjm-brihmurna, 33, 38, 3a, etc,
"5
Aiiartya-ufkiHisliad, 4I, 83, 1 1^ 351.
Ailihya, JI9, 427.
Ailif ayana, J3a.
Aiilailalr
Ajalwlalru, 48, 59, 371,
Ajaya, ii. 54.
AjLgarla, 31.
Ajila, the Jiiu, ii. 1S7.
A i»«, 405. 406, 446.
Akiii. ass, 189, 296, 364, 368, etc,
397, 41-^. \ii.j^2,^j.
i[ki/a>liliijyii. 4CJ,
Akhbiyjh. li, 301.
AiAIdh Hindi, 11. IS4.
Xkh^inaid m. iL 113, 143, 146L
Akmi ". ii. 145'
Akiiha, a weight, iy>,
Akih>p4<la, 3S0.
Akshapjdu. the, 180:
Akihara-chhandas n. ii. 87, 141.
Akshara-pankti M. ii. 136, 141.
Alaka, A Hcighl, 533.
AlbiLeenius (Al-bilanJ), ii. 337, 338,
Albirmii. i. 197 ; Li. 34O, 4IO, 4IS, 437-
AlbuT
Akhii
AloU ■>. iL 143.
Alpurmb-pankii m. a. 136.
Alfhotavu TaUa, iL 337.
AnuUnanda, 3S8.
AmaLAdatta, iL 54.
Amani-deni, u-49.
Amai-i-hiika.iL 16,46,48.
.; a. 6, 16,19,36,
46. 48. 163.
Amaiavati, ii. 407,
Amaiu, ii. 86,
Amari..ial„ia, iL 86.
Ambarlshs, 33.
Amla.'itiOiii claiS, ii. 160^ 166.
Ambhii^ zS.
Ambhrii^a, 2S, 39.
Ambhriiji, aS.
Amgichhi, iL 147.
.^mitaeati, ii, 4S, 416.
Amlt Khin Anjam, iL 13.
Amrita-dhiii m. iL 146.
Amrita-gaii *r. ii. r43^
AtnriU-nmli (?) m. ii. 143.
AmfilmiiHdu-apaniskad, 86.
Anolluunda t^j. 358.
Xnamla, 70, 435.
Anandagiii, 56, S6l
Anandajnina, 69, 75, 84.
Ananda-laluai, iL 103.
Anaadamaya, 363. koM. 395-
A □anda'rania, S3,
Ananditirtha. 41, 42, 75, 359.
AnaHiim'-xlli-tipamskad, 88.
An.tUK.i-V.Ma m. iL 79, 138.
i- 456-
Airarsaiif, 'ii. 338.
Alfa/in, ii. 454, 459.
i( itie HinHm. iL 375. etc, ;
450. '
:.f (ht
i. 1^1. ei
.. ,lSo. t
. 397.
; 4S4.
Alharin Iwn Vil
' Ali'ilahiyaii^ ihe, iL 3o3, 204.
'Ali-iillah, iL 303, 304.
Al-ki.im. ii. 454, 459.
Alloiiii. ihe. ii. 183.
L 399. 4=4. 4S9. 464. 466.
1- 3'«. 424. 454. 461. 464-
Ancestors, ceremonies perfonned in
Apdaja, 396,
Andbra dialect, 340.
Anekartha-dh-waiu-manftoi, iL ■9.
Anga (the coantij'). ii. 159, I9&
Anga (a king), i. 31, 37.
Angir, 84.
Aiigirai, L 30, 31, 33. 35, 36, 53,fo
84. 166, 469 ;ii. 177.
Aiigirasa family, ii. 269.
Aiigula, 1 meMiiit, 537, 53S.
Alm,^
I. 30J. e
Alokaka.^a, 409, 450,
,404.
Anna, 397.
Aniiamaya (kotfa), 396b
, Ania, iL 330, 476.
I Am:ika. ,63.
I AntaWya, 408. 448.
INDEX.
485
ed, ii 32.
csha, 442.
imin, 366.
ipuli. m. n, 137.
72.
idha, ii. 35.
iva, 287, 31a
iva, 448, 449.
iiti-swarupdchirya, ii. 41.
nana, 130.
i m. il 138,
imai^, 20, 24, 89, 108, 109,
Ii m, ii. 142.
na, 328.
ti (the goddess), 170, 207.
ih4, L 214; iL 298, 319.
hana-^arira (?), 258.
ubhfft, i. 31, 114; ii. 107, 108,
136, HI*
tia, 205.
«as, I7»49.^.68, 80, 107, 119.
i-vyatirekau, 314.
^hidhina-vidina^ 341.
I Suhailiy ii. 148, etc.
drtha'prakdiikd^ 36a
^bhava, 31a
o, 397.
rantfa disdect, iL I, 2, 3P^ 61.
(Tas, the, 34.
fa, 314.
atsa, star, ii. 309, etc.
43.209.
jra-tamas, 352.
iti m. ii 143.
itikd m. it 71, 138.
aktra m, IL 112,. 146.
I star, iL 309, 310.
mha, 15, 90, 162, 213, 339,
mbiyas, the, 15.
Jca fw. ii. 71, 138.
ka, 473, 486.
la m. ii. 145.
1ga,425.
libuddni, 301.
91. ii. 146.
, U. 6, 36, 45.
nius, ii. 398, 452.
nius, Pmlostratus' life of,
ed, ii. 181.
>ankhya-nirodha, 421.
itti, 407.
sas, IJ4.
ichayalankdra^ 444.
ikya, 328.
25. 34.
^ 343-
i-dikshita, Appayya, etc, L
362 ; ii. 154.
Arabs, their divisions of the Zodiac,
ii. 283, etc.; their theory of the
motion of planets, iL 363; their
algebra, iL 390, 399, 454, 461.
Aranyoy 42, 68.
ArcniMikaSf the, 41, etc., $6,68, 116,
a fifth, 333.
Aratf.ya-'gana, 72, 74, 120.
Aratni, a measure, 539.
Archikoy 72, lao.
Archika-gdncL^ 72, 73, 120.
Archimedes, ii. 306, 398.
Ardha-mieadhf, iL 62.
Ardharitrika, iL 384.
Ardha-^oka, ii. o^.
Ardha-vaind^ika, 418.
Ardrd, ii. 292, 319.
Argha, 153, 182, 187, 202.
Arghya, L 220 ; ii. 268.
Arhachchandra-siiri, 444.
Arhat, Arhats, L 323, 404, etc, 413;
ii. 185, etc.
Arhatas, the^ L 337, 404, etc. ; iL 197.
Arindama, 41.
Aijabahar, iL 385, 425, 46a
Arjikiyi, the river, 155.
Aiiuna, L 65 ; ii. 76, etc
Arka, ii. 38$, 437-
Arkand, ii. 385, 437, 460.
Arka-siddhdnia, iL 437, 455.
Armillary sphere, iL 285, etc., 303,
etc, 308.
Ari^a, Ar^ii, m. ii. 117, 145.
Arpava m, ii. 117, 145.
Arrian, his account of the Indian
sa^es, ii. 179.
Arsheya-brdhmai^ 73, 1 20.
Artha, 293.
Arthipatti, 329, 444.
Arthavdda, 327.
Aruija, 33, 48, 75, 76, 78.
Aru^adatta, iL 54.
Arundhati, 134.
Aruniya or Arteniyoga upatmhad^ 86.
Arya language, 34a
Aryi m. 1. 279; ii. 66, etc, 81, 137.
Aryabhafta, iL 332, 336, etc, 364,
380, 383* «^c., 420, etc; his age,
424, etc ; his name, 424.
Aryi-glti m. ii. 67, 69, 137.
Aryaman, 70, 228, 233.
Arydsk\a-iata, ii. 332, 339, 420^ 424.
Arya-siddhdnta^ ii. 371.
Ary&varta, iL 197, 210.
Arzael, iL 336.
Asamiti, 22, 108.
Asambadhd m, iL 143.
Asandivat, 36.
Asanga, 21.
Asat, 30.
486
INDEX.
Asclepias, juice of the acid, 35, 49, 66.
Seg Soma.
Asha^hi metre, it 140 ; the asterism,
ii. 299.
Ashrit, ii. 2S9.
Ask^ddAydya, iu 38).
Ashfaka, 17, 65.
Ashii m. ik 143.
Asikni, 155.
AiHeshi (Akleshi), i. 81, 98, i;i6, etc. ;
u. 294, 312, 319, 335, 340, 4191 427.
Atoarathya, 354, 368, 372.
Atfoka-manjari m. ii. 145.
Asphu^, ii 286, 356.
Asphu(a-sara, ii. 356.
Airama-upanishad^ 88.
Asrava, 406, 447, 448.
Astara-pankti m. ii. 136.
Astikilya, 409, 447.
Astrology, Hindu, derived from the
west, ii. 403, 474, etc
Astronomical instruments of the
Hindus, iu 285, etc., 307, etc
Astronomy, Sanskrit works on, ii
284, etc ; Hindu as compared with
Greek, i 129, 130; ii. 402, etc.,
474, etc.; Arabian writers on, ii.
454, etc.
Asu, 46.
Aiubodha^ ii. 44.
Asuri, 93, 162, 242, 243, 24s, 271, 279.
Atfwagati m, ii. 143, 144.
A^wala, 62, 85.
Ai/walalita m. ii. 145.
As'walayana, i. 13, 42, 85, 90, 333,
470 ; ii. 45.
Aswalayani-sakha, i 13, 17; ii. 269.
As'wamedha, 50, 54, 55, 56, 66, 117,
119, 140, 250, 348, 399, 460.
As'wanibandhika, ii 219.
As'wapati, 76, 367.
Aswatara^wa, 76, 78.
Aswina (month), 201, 207.
Ab'wini, the asterism, i 99, 128; ii.
288, 319, 383* 417-
Arfwini, the mother of the Aswins,
200, 221, 226.
Aswins, 26, 29, JO, 61, 99.
* Ata-ullah Rashidi, ii 409.
Atharvaa, lo, 50, 53, 60, 61, 82, 84.
At/iarz'a or Atharvana Vfda^ 9, 60,
80, etc., 121, 122.
Atharva-parib'ishta, 535.
Atharvaairas-upanishad^ 86, 1 23.
Atheistical Sanikhya, 249, 264.
Athilla m. ii. 139.
Alidhriti m. ii. 144.
Atijagati w. ii. 143.
Atiliha m. ii. 139.
Atikriti w. ii 145.
Atipidanich|it-giyatH m. ii 136.
Atipala, a measure of time, 541.
Atiritra, 68.
Atiruchiri m. ii 79, 139, 143.
Ati^akkari m, ii 143.
Atirfayani m, ii 144.
Atisundara m. ii 143.
Ativ&hika, 257.
Atmabodha-upanishadt lOi, 132.
Atman, 256, 367, J71, 417, etc
Atmd'Upanishad^ 86.
Atoms, 240, 21s, 298, 372, 411, 423.
Atreya, i 15, 3205 ii 45.
Atrcyi (?k 3J4.
Atreyi ^akha, 14, 15, 67, 105, 106.
Atri, 20, 37, 171, 468.
Atyantibhava, 309.
Atyar^ti, 38.
Atjrashti m, ii 144.
Atyukti m, ii. 141.
Audiuika (?) sarira, ii 174.
Audayaka, ii. 384.
Audavika, 446.
Au^ulomi, 354, 372, 392.
Au^umbara, 163.
Aukhyivas, the, 15.
Aulukya^, the, i 280; ii 197.
Aupachhanda^kaiff .ii. 71, 73, 75, 138.
Aupamanyayas, the, 15.
Aupaa'amika, 4461
Avachatnuka, 37.
Avaha, 205.
Avalambaka m. ii 140.
Avatiras, 42, 100; of Agni, 242;
hereditary avatdra of Ga^esa, 212.
Avanti, ii. 62.
Avantikd dialect, ii. 62.
Avara^a, 448.
Avasarpii?! age (of the Jainas), ii 186,
194.
Avasathika, ii. 269.
Avidya, 420.
Avikshit, 36,
Avirati, 448.
Avitatha m. ii. 133, 144.
Avyakta, 251, 373.
*Awwa, ii. 296.
Ayana, i. 121, 540; ii. 330, 334.
Ayisya, 61.
Avatana, 368.
AyiniAkbaH, i. 532, 536; ii 177, 254.
Ayogava class, ii 162.
Ayu (?), a measure, 537.
Ayushka, Ayus, 408, 448.
A'zam-shdh, ii. 22.
B.
Babhru, 41.
Bddardyana, 320, 352, 385, 392.
Badari, 320, 354, 368, 391, 392.
INDEX.
487
Iha, 406.
ihitmi, 406.
I, a measure,' 533, 534, 537.
idur All, Mir, ii. 154.
L-ud-din, iL 465, 473.
iksi, countiy, IL 62, language, id,
dm SMh, Sultin, ii 149.
di, the cow, 207^
di-chaturthf, 207.
/jicA, 13.
Tfich-brdhmai^'Upanishadf 41.
Tich-rfikhi, 333, 339.
]ra, ii. 160.
yanitha-pdyagunda-bhatta, ii. 13.
,40.
balabhi-bhujanga, 473.
bhadra, ii. 343.
ievas, Jaina, iL 196.
G[ra, a measure, 538.
ka,50.
Iti. 48, 59» 371-
.krish9a, 53, 8$, 87.
mbhatta, i. 485 ; iL 39.
rdma, 440.
rima-panchdnana, ii. 44.
nipa, 473-
-tfarman P^ondiya, iL 13.
ah, ii. 299.
>hadra, 283.
I, a weight, 532.
ibha-achirya, 283, 304, 359.
ila, iL 406, 409.
ila-sena, ii. 167, 169.
ch, ii. 207.
ibha^ta, iL 89. See Va^a.
Uia, 407, 431, 447, 448.
ihu m, iL 142.
:a, iL 159, 169.
ling, 173-
da-rdja, ii. 39.
iya, ii. 161.
lara, iL 159.
ara language, 339, etc
esanes' account of the Buddhists,
i8a.
j^ class, iL 164.
uyah, iL 148.
tkala, I3;sikhi, 13, 105.
ikali, 13.
ing, 142, 154.
u'lhut, iL 302.
Ihayana, L90^ 162, 215, 339, 3S7,
o ; ii. 92.
ihiyanas, the, 15.
Idhas, the, L 100, 285, 308, 313,
3» 337, 354, 377, 402, 413, etc.,
3; ii. 16, 172, etc, 277 ; their re-
^on posterior to the Brahmanical,
176 ; epoch of their persecution,
323-
Beatitude, 249, 286, 426.
Beings, orders of, among theSdnkh3ras,
250 ; among the Jainas, 447.
Bei^gal, brahmans of, ii. 167; kdyas-
thas of, ii. 169.
Bengali lan^;uage, iL 25, 63.
BenUey's cntidsm, answer to, ii. 366,
etc.
Benu'l Adami, iL 454, 459.
Bhidra, 167.
Bhadraka m, iL 145.
Bhadrapad^ iL 301, 302.
Bhadrdvaldufa river, 174.
Bhadravirdj m. IL 146.
Bhadriki m. iL 141, 142.
Bhaga, 29.
Bhiga, ii. 476.
Bhigabhoga, iL 27a
Bhagavad-gUd, 352, 353, 379, 400,437.
Bhagavat, 439, 440.
Bhdgavata'purdisa^ L 94, 124, 210,
437;iL 94, 313, 3«8.
Bhigavatas, the, 354, 437.
Bhiguii, i. 470; ii. 19, 45, 54.
Bhikhi, iL 31.
Bhakta, 438.
Bhakti, 438.
Bhallavi, 76, 77.
Bhimaha, ii. 44, 61.
BhdmatU 358.
Bhdmini'vUdsaf iL 106.
Bhanga-naya, 410, 450.
Bhdnudatta-miira, iL 87.
Bhinu-dikshita, iL 51.
BhAnuji-dikshita, ii. 16, 17.
Bhdra, a weight, 531.
Bharadwija, 20, 84, 85 ; iL 167.
Bhiradwdja, the grammarian, ii. 6, 45.
Bhdradwija famuy, ii. 269, 272.
Bhara^ L 128; ii. 201, 290^ 319.
Bharata, 37, 38, 115.
Bhdrata era, ii. 426, 427.
Bharatamalla, iL 44, 51.
Bhiravi, ii. 69, 73, 76, 88, 95, 100.
Bharga, 41*
Bharma, a weight, 532.
Bhartrihari, ii. 6, 40, 105, 155.
Bhdshd, ii. 30.
Bhdshd-parichheddt 281, 284.
Bhdshd-vritti, ii. 38.
Bhdshd-vfithfartha-vivfiH, ii. 38.
Bhashya^ 282.
Bhdshya-pradipa-vivarana^ iL 38.
Bhdshya'pradipaddyota^ ii. 38.
Bhdskya-ratna-prabhdf 359.
Bhdskara, L 360; iL 88, 197, 201,
307, etc, 329, etc, 377, 405, 415,
422, etc.
Bhiskara-bhatta, ii. 39.
BhdswaH^ iL 311, etc, 342, 438.
488
INDEX.
BhdswoH-karai^f ii. 338, 434.
Bhatta, 322, 325, 329, etc
Bhatta-balabhadra, ii. 424.
Bhatia-bhdskara, loi, 359.
Bhaiia-dipiki, 324.
Bhatia-kumirila-swimi, 322, etc., 337,
416, 444.
Bhat^-malla, ii. 45.
Bhatia-nir&ya^a, ii. 167.
Bha^raka, ii. 267.
Bhaiti, ii. 105.
Bhaiii'kdvvay ii. 41, 92, 105.
Bhatioji-dikshita, ii. 12, 36, 39.
Bha^tpala, iL 311, etc., 320, 381,
384, 412, 415, 426, 428, 431.
Bhautika, 416, 417.
Bhautika-sarga, 258.
Bhdva, 285 ; Bhava, 42a
Bhavabhuti, ii. 104, u8, 122, 123, etc
Bhavadeva-bhatta, 167, 473.
Bhavadeva-mitfra, 360^ 39a
Bhivan^, 307.
Bhayandtha-mirfra, 324.
Bhavini, 100, 211.
Bhdva-prakdiikdt ii. 39.
Bhavdrtha-dipikd, 283.
Bhava-sarga, 259.
Bhdvayavya, 21.
Bha-vipuli m, ii. 140.
Bhavishya-pur&na^ i. 137, etc., 148,
150; ii. 311.
Bh^a, 310.
Bhekuri, 229.
Bhelupura, ii. 191.
Bhilla, ii. 164.
Bhima, i. 41 ; ii. 45.
Bhi'mascna [?], 207.
Bhogavati, the city, ii. 244.
Bhogya, 405.
Bhoja, 34,
Bhoja-prabandhay ii. 48.
Bhojaraja, Bhojadeva, or Bhojapati,
i. 248, 488; ii. 21, 45, 48, 50, 265,
415, 416, 435, 438.
Bhoktfi, 405.
Bholinatha, ii. 43, 53.
Bhramarapada m. ii. 144.
Bhramaravali w. il 143.
Bhramaravilasita m. ii. 99, 142.
Bhfigu, 20, 36, 69, 85, 468, 470.
Bhrigutialii'Upanishad, 88.
Bhii, 442.
Bhiidhara, ii. 283, 285.
Bhujagaeiifusrita m. ii. 141.
Bhujangaprayiti m. ii. 106, 142.
Bhujangasangatd m. ii. 142.
Bhujangavijrimbhita m. ii. 145.
Bhuman, 368.
Bhiir, bhuvah, swar, 24.
Bhurij, m. ii. 137.
Bhiriprayoga-koshOf ii. 19.
Bktishana^ra'darpaifa, it 40.
Bhiita, 416.
Bhi!ita-3roiii, 367.
Bbutidatta, ii. 162.
Bhuvana, 36.
Bhuvana-malla- vin, iL 241.
Bidpdf, u. 149, 150, 434, 461.
Bigha, ii. 219.
Bihiri-lil, ii. 22, 8a
Bijinagar, iL 227.
Bijju-mili m, ii. 141.
Bilwa, a measure, 537.
Bimbi m. iL 142, 144.
B{^Lsw4mi•bhat^^ 467.
Biydphar, iL 460.
Bisi, a measure, 536.
Black Yajurveda, i. 14, 65, etc, 105,
119; ii. 231.
Bodhitmi, 405.
Bodhdyana (?), 323.
Bodhinyisa, ii. 38.
Bodhisattwa, iL 178, 186, 222, 224.
Bodv, inquiry conceminc;, in the
Sankhya, 257, etc ; in the Nyiya,
289, etc. ; in the Ved^ta, 395 ; in
the sceptical school, 428.
Bohrahs, the, ii. 202, etc
Bombelli, iL 388, 444, 449, 465.
Bonacci. See Leonardo.
Bopdlita, iL 19, 54.
Brachmanes, ii. 180, etc
Brahmi, a star, ii. 307, 309.
Brahma, Brahman, 24, 51, 69, 76,
365 (note), etc.
Brahma, 28, 29, etc., 46, 84, 195,
365, etc.
Brahmd, Vishnu, and S'iva or Rudra,
132, 144, 149, 15a
Brahmi priest (Brahman), 168.
BrahmaguDta, iL 68, 283, etc., 333,
etc., 358, etc., 377, etc., 409, 411,
etc, 421, 426; his date, 382, 415,
417, etc.
Brahma-hfidaya, a star, ii. 309, etc
Brahma- mimins4, 320, 350, etc
Brahma-mlmdnsd-bhdshya^ 243.
Brahmdrnfiia-varshiniy 360.
Brdhmanachhansi, 153, 205.
Brahma^l^ parimara^, 39.
Brahminanda, 362.
BrahmAnanda-saraswati, 360, 362.
Brahmans, ii. 158, 175.
Brdhmanas of the Vedas, 16, 17, 61,
333» 355 ; of the Rigveda 32, etc;
oi the white Yajurveda^ 53, etc ;
of the black Yajurveda^ 68, 1 19;
of the Sdmavala^ 74, 120; of the
Atharvai>eda^ 82.
Brdhmana-sarvaswa, 167, 472.
iin)BX.
489
Brahma-^rdna^ 136^ 138.
Brahmapura, 369.
Biahmanipaka m, ii. 144.
Brahtna-siddhdnta^ ii. 283, etc, 309,
314, 341, etc., 347, 358, 371, 377,
380,411, etc., 45$.
Brahma'Sphu^a-stddhdnta^ iL 68, 339,
345. 34^ 358. 381.
Bnhma'^iidra, iL 161.
Brakma-stitrat 352.
Btahma'Siitra'bhdshya^ 360.
BroAma-iwTMirta-purdifa^ ii. 311.
Bnhmavidin (-dini), 28.
BraAma-Tndydbharana^ 359.
Brtikmavidyd'Upanishad^ 86.
Brahmavindu-upaniskadf 86.
Biihmi, 254.
Brakmopanishad^ 86.
Breath. See Pdu^
Bridegroom, his solemn reception by
the fother of the bride, 217, etc.
Brij.bhikhi, ii. 32.
Buddha, L 93, 100, 323, 402, 413,
414; iL 183.
Bnddhi, 254, 305, 310, 311, 395, 437.
Baddhists. See Bauddhas.
Buddki-9ildsmi, iL 406.
Bndha, 20, 171.
Bnkka-rdya, L 325 ; ii. 9, 227, 228.
Bokka-rdya II., iL 250.
Bala', ii. 300.
Boll, an emblem of religious duty, 152.
^Burning of dead bodies, 175.
Bntain, iL 29a
Butta, ii. 183.
Buzur-chnmihr, ii. 148.
Bnzjani, see Abu*l-wa££ al B.
C.
Calanus, 346.
Calendar, ancient, 96, 97, 125, etc.
Caracd, Raiiaelo, iL 449.
Cardanus, Hieron. ii. 446, etc, 465.
Casts. See Classes.
Cause and efiect, 265, 266, 375 ; the
three causes, 288.
Census, censo, ii. 390, 441.
Ceremonies, writers on, 90, 141, 167 ;
Ceremonies to be observed by a
Brdhman when rising from sleep,
142, etc.; Funeral Ceremonies, 173,
etc.; Ancestral Ceremonies, 195,
etc ; HospitaMe and Nuptial
Ceremonies, 217, etc
Ch^uvin tribe, iL 212.
Chaitanitmi, 405.
Chaitanya, 284, 489.
Chaitanydrnfita^ iL 44.
Chaitra, 214.
Ckaitraku\i^ iL 42.
Chakita m, iL 143.
Chakra m, iL 143.
Chakrapdtam. iL 143.
Ch^kravarmapa, iL 45.
Chakravartis, the twelve Jaina, ii. 195.
Chala m, ii. 144.
Chaldean astrology, ii. 403, 475.
Chaluka tribe, ii. 241.
Chdmara tn, ii. 143.
Champa, ii. 196.
Champaka-m^l4 m, ii. 99, loo, 142.
Champ4puri, ii. 193.
Champu, ii. 95, 122.
Chanchald m, ii. 143.
Chanchaldkshikd m. ii. 142.
ChanchaHk4val{ m, ii. 142.
Chdi^ddla class, L 79 ; ii. 163.
Chi^^li dialect, ii. 62. *
Cha]i(^-vpshti-pray4ta m, iL 145 .
Chan^cffwara, 471, 480, 536.
Chan^i m. ii. 143.
Chandra the grammarian, ii. 6, 19,
36, 45 ; the Kanauj Brihman, ii. 167.
Chandra m. ii. 144.
Chandrabhigi river, 174.
Chandraleklm m, iL 143.
Chandramdla m. ii. 144.
Chandramukhi m. iL 142.
Chandrdvartd m. ii. 100, 143.
Chandravartma m, ii. 142.
Chandr&vati, iL 193.
Chandrild, ii. 14, 40.
Chandrikii, a metre, ii. 78, 137, 138,
H3-
Cha]Md£ nu iL 67, 108, 137, 140.
Charagh-kush, the sect, ii. 202.
Charaka, L 15 ; the medical treatise,
L 247;iL40I.
Charakas, the, 15.
Chara^ Vedic, i. IDS ; (foot in pro-
sody) ii. 135.
Charana-^ytiha, 13, 105.
Charchari m, ii. 144.
Cham, 341.
Chinigiti m. ii. 138.
ChdruMsini m, ii. 71, 138.
Chdrumukhi m. ii. 142.
Chdrvdka, Chirvdka school, L 240,
253. 329» 355, 404, 426, etc, 4S6»
etc ; ii. 197.
Chaturansd m, iL 141.
Chaturbhuja, ii. 45.
Chaturthf, 235.
Chaturveda, IL 349, 355. See Prithu-
daka-sw4mi.
Chaturvedf, ii.
Chatushpadi, iL 139.
Chatushpdd-anush^ubh m. ii. 136.
Chatushpdd-gijratri m, ii. 136.
Chatushpad-pankti m. iL 136.
490
INDEX.
Chatushpid-ushi^ m, iL 136.
Chatushpad-^nluiti m, it 136.
Chatushpadild m, u. 85, 139.
Chaub^, II.
Chaucer's treatise on the Astrolabe,
543.
Chauhan tribe, ii. 212.
Chdiipia m, il 139.
Chaupdi m, ii. 8^.
Chaupaia m. ii. 85, 139.
Chaura, iL 86.
Chaurin/d m. ii. 141.
Ckaura'panchdiikd^ iL 86, 106.
Chaurola m. iL 140.
Chauthi, 235.
Chauvansi m. ii. 141.
Che<y, 21.
Cheais, the, ii, 73.
Chesh^, 329.
Chet Sinh, ii. 22.
Chhala, 318.
Ckhankasi sanhiidt 72.
Ckhafubga-paridishfa, 471.
Chhandoga priests, 72.
ChhandO'govinda^ ii. 59.
Chhdndogya^ !• 15; upanishad, 10, 75,
etc., 83, I20i 326; iL 177.
Chhando-mdld, iL J9.
Chhando-manjarl^ li. 59.
Chhando-mdrtan^ay ii. 59, 91.
139.
Chhando-nrvUi \f\ iL 59.
Chhappiia m, ii. 82,
Chhd\d, iL 43.
Chhayd m. ii. 144.
Chhatri, 189.
Chidasthimdidy ii. 39.
China, ii. 159.
Chinna-govinda-sitara-gundi, iL 244.
Chintdmani, 284, See also Ganita-
tattwa-ch.
Chitra, 22, 48.
Chitra, a metre, iL 78, 138, 143.
Chitra, a sacrifice, i. 345.
Chitra, a star, i. 127, etc, 214; iL 296,
383, 417, 434.
Chitradurg, ii. 226, 236.
Chitragupta, i. 399; ii. 162.
Chitralekha m. iL 144.
Chitrangada, ii. 162.
Chitrapada m. ii. 145.
Chitrapada m. ii. 108, 141.
Chitrasala m. ii. 144.
Chitrasanga m. iL 143.
Chitrasena, ii. 162.
Chitravati m. ii. 143.
Chitta, 416, etc.
Chola, ii. 159, 242.
Chopara, ii. 279.
Chuda m. iL 79, 138.
Chiidikd m, iL 79, 139.
Chu^ikaU iPf. iL 139.
Chuliali IK. iL 139.
Chiiliki IK. iL 79, 139.
Chilikd upamshad^ 86.
Chuiikd-Daiiichi, iL 61.
Churpika, iL 120.
Chyayana, 36.
Classes or casts of the Hindus, ii. 157,
etc, 172 ; known to Greek writers,
179, etc.
Qemens Alexandrinos, iL 182.
Clepsydra, 97, 98, 125.
Colour, Nyftya doctrine respecting,
299.
Commentaries, their importance in
preservinfir the text of a book from
changes, 89.
Controversies of various philosophic^
schools, 252, 263, etc, 290, 293,
3I3» 329. 373» 403, 404, 41P1 427.
434, 441, 444, 457, etc
Cosa, cossike, iL 390.
Courts of justice, Hindu, 490, etc
Cows, let loose on certain solemn occa-
sions, 221.
Creation of the world, 30, 42, 57, 58,
117, 149, 158; Vedantist idea of,
376.
D.
Dibishlim, iL 149.
Ddbistdn^ the, ii. 203.
DadabhAf, ii. 332, 333, 342.
Dadhyach, 50, 53, 61.
Dahara, 369.
Dahara-vidyd^ 352, 369.
Dah'ota, 23,
Daksha, 28, 139, 469 ; the priest from
KanauL ii. 167.
Dakshi^a, 28, 112.
Dakshi^dntik^ m. ii. 138.
Dakshina-ri^hd, ii. 169.
Dakshinatya dialect, ii. 62.
Ddm, a measure, 533, 536.
Damanaka m. ii. 141, 142.
Damayanti, iL 68, 69, 95.
DamayanU-kathd^ iL 95.
Damodara, ii. 178.
Ddnayogfswara, ii. 484.
Da^(iU, a measure of length, 539, of
time, 540, 541.
Da^daka m. iL 117, 127, 129, 145.
Danda-kala m. ii. 139.
Dandi, iL I, 89, 120, 154.
I>ara-shukoh, 8.
Darbha, 81.
Dars'anas, the six, 354.
Darsana-upaniskady loi.
Dariana-varaviya (?), 408, 448.
INDEX.
491
Lss, ii. 162 ; a common termi-
I of proper names, ii, 169.
72.
f*H iL 333, 371, 420, 424.
xntdra-charitra^ ii. 89, 120, 154.
ha, i. 189; iL 105, 113.
70.
•mlmdnsdj 486.
ya, 468.
nnhlt ii. 42.
^ffh 479» 481, etc.
'\nyiya, 484.
^ama'sangraha, 482.
ihasya^ 484.
na-vichaspati, ii 43.
/ftwfl, 471, 480, 483.
43, 57, 388, 413.
.ii- 320, 325, 326, 475-
invoked in the hymns of the
I resolyable into different titles
e God, L 22, 23, 1 10 ; deities
indu mythology have only a
te duration of life, i. 177, 251,
four classes of, distinguished
ejainas, ii. 199.
common termination of proper
5, iL 169.
grammarian, IL 45.
(&a,468w
rrfa, 16.
rii tfikhi, 16.
idevas, iL 185.
i, iL 406.
ti, 242.
loi.
i. 374, 469, 470 ; ii- 5-
gari, ii. 25.
a-bhat^ 480.
la, iL 248, etc.
la-deva, ii. 16.
lU-pattana, ii. 253.
»f the Jainas, ii. 185.
of a mantra, 19, 108.
dha, 41.
na, 390.
5a, iL 43.
ii, 219.
ijaya, L 472 ; iL 19.
>ala, ii. 45.
itha, i. 98, 126, etc. ; iL 300,
335, 4x9.
., dhaniirdia^da, a measure of
h, i- 539; ii- 187, 195.
antari-nighan^a, ii. 19.
i. 248 ; ii. 264, etc., 416, 438.
a, a weight, 530, etc.
idhara, 467.
U'koshaf iL 19, 54.
wrara (Le. Bhoja), 248, 473,
Dharma, 306, 319, 385, 409, 410,
420,447.
Dharmddhyaksha, the, 491, 495.
Dharmidi^a, ii. 222.
Dharmapdia, iL 248, etc.
Dhannapurdna^ L 93; iL 157, etc
Dharmardja, 163.
Dharmar&ja-dikshita, 361.
Dharma'Totna, 472.
Dharmaidstra, L 337, 338, 466; ii.
Dharmastikaya, 409.
Dhat4 (?), 541.
Dhataka, a weight, 532.
Dhitri, 205, 2cS.
ph&iU'dlptkdy IL 43, 45.
Dhdht-ghoshd^ ii. 43.
Dhdtu-pdrdyana^ ii. 15, 45.
Dkdtu-pdfha of Pai^mi, ii. 8, 15, 40.
DhdtU'pradlpa, ii. 9, 40.
Dkdiu-ratnavalif ii. 43.
Dhaumjra, 470.
Dhavala m, iL 144.
Dhavalinka m, iL 144.
Dhiralalita m, iL 143.
Dhfitarish^ra, 134, 139.
Dhjitasinha, ii. 19.
Dhfita^ri m. iL 145.
Dhfiti m. iL 144.
Dhruvaka, iL 285, 419.
Dhurpads, ii. 32.
Dhurta-swimi, ii. 45.
Dhwaja, ii. 135.
Dhwansa, 309.
Dwansi, 529.
Dhydnavindu-upanishad^ 86.
Dialects of India, L 340; ii. i, etc.,
20, 60, 61.
DidhUi, 284.
Digambaras, the, i. 405, 452 : ii. 198.
Difipa, 207, 218.
Dilla m. iL 141.
Dindr, dinira, L 531 ; ii. 478, 479.
Diophantus, ii. 386, 389, 393, 450,
etc., 463, etc
Dipaka m, iL 140.
DiM'kalikd, 468, 473, 486.
D(rghatamas, 37.
Divikara, ii. 405, 407.
Div4kara-bha^^ L 215 ; iL 59, 60,
119.
Divine grace, 400.
Divoda^ 22.
Dwya, iL 44.
Dfwali festival, 235.
Doab, ii. 32.
Dob^ II.
Dodhaka m, ii. too, 142.
DohA m, iL 80, 83, 85, 139.
Dohrd m, iL 22, 80.
492
INDEX.
Donations ratified by pouring water
into the hand of the donee, ii. 230,
244, cf. i. 194.
Dosha, 311.
Dramatic writers, dialects employed
by, ii. 60, 61, 122.
Dramma, ii. 478.
Drivi^ ii. 27, 63, brihmans, ii. 159.
Drdvida, ii. 5a
Dravi^ dialect, i. 340 ; ii 62.
Dravya, 409, 410.
Dreshki^as, ii. 320, etc., 475.
Djik-rfakti, 433.
Drishtanta, 313.
Dro^a, a measure, L 533, etc.; ii. 219.
Dro^ikd, a measure, 537.
Druta-bodha^ ii. 44.
Druta-madhyi m. ii. 145.
Druta-pada m, iL 142.
Druta-vilambita m. ii. 78, 106, 142.
Duality, Vaitfeshika idea ol^ 301.
Dubkhami-sukhami, ii. 193.
Du^khinta, 431, 433.
Dubshanta, ^7, 115.
DummadumI, it 223.
Durga, ii. 19.
Durgi, ii. 223.
Durga-d^ ii, 43, 45.
Durgi-datta, iL 60.
Durgd-gupta, ii. 42.
Dui^-mahattwa, ii. 165.
Durgasinha, ii. 42, 384, 429.
Durga-^ikd^ ii. 42.
Durgha\a-7/ritti ^ ii. 65.
Durghata-gha\anay ii. 43.
Durmila m. ii. 140, 145.
Durmilika m. ii. 140.
Durmukha, 38, 1 15.
Durudhara, ii. 477.
Durvasa-s 468.
Dushmanta, Dushyanta, 37, 115.
Dwaipayana, 95, 352.
Dwaita-niriyaya^ 471.
Dwaita-pariiish^a^ 47 1.
Dwdra, 432, 433.
Dwaraka, ii. 73, 82.
Dwikhandika m, iL 138.
Dwipadi, -a, -ika m. ii. 85, 139.
Dwipad-viraj (gayatri) m. iL 136.
Dwipatha m. ii. 80, 139.
Lhuirukti-kosha^ ii. 19.
Lhvinipa^ ii. 54.
Dwivid, iL 269.
Dwivedi, 1 1.
Dwiyodhi m. iL 141.
E.
Ear, impurity removed by touching
the right, 144.
Earth, invoked, L 155; its dionud
revohitioB, ii. 344.
Eclipses, ii. 244, 245, 251, 270-,
theory of their cause, iL 357.
Ehdhikara-koshOy ii. 19.
Ekdyana, 438, 439.
Eli m, iL 143.
Elements, five, 255, 256^ 397 ; four,
416. 456.
Elephants must not be killed by a
Kshatriya unless in battle, iL 115.
Epicycles, iL 350^ etc.
Equinoxes, snppcMed position o( when
the Rigveda was arranged, L 99,
126, etc , 214; precession of, n. 286,
329, etc., 383, 426 ; libnuion of, ii.
336.
Erigena, 256.
Error, 259, 349.
Eternity of sound and of the Veda,
etc., 331, etc., 373.
Etherial fluid. See Akdsa.
Evidence, various kinds of, i. 252,
253. a«7» 329, 356, 427.456, etc.;
iL 173.
Evil spirits, 164, 206.
F.
Faith, 400, 438.
Faizi, iL 333, 409-
Feet in prosody, how expressed, il
63, 64, 135-
Fermat, ii. 397.
Fire, sacrificial, its consecration, 167,
etc. ; seven tongues of fire, 205 ;
maintenance of a perpetual fire,
203, 387.
Finiz Shah, ii. 206, 208.
Flesh-meat, use of, 202.
Free will, 40a
Fruit of works, 400.
Frogs, hynm to the, 28, 112.
j Fuel used at sacrifices, 169.
^ Funeral rites, 172, etc.
G.
Gadadhara-bhattichdrya, 284.
Gddhi-nagara, ii. 256, 262.
Gadhi-pura, ii. 253, 261, 262.
Gadisinha, ii. 45.
Gaga^dngana m. ii. 139.
Gdhd m, iL 66, 81, 137.
Gihini m. ii. 137.
Gdhu m. iL 137.
Gaja-turanga-vilasita m. ii 143.
Gdiava, ii. 6, 45.
Gai^a, 502, 507.
Gdnasy the, 72, 74, 120.
IStDEL
493
ihandas, ii. 66, 71.
laras, ii. 194.
ipas, iL 194.
'|Aa, ii. S, 40.
tyas, 2io» 212.
itna-mahoiiadki^ iL 36, 40.
itta, ii. 137.
A m. iL 145^
i river, 173, 174.
^'k,m. ii. 85, 139,
19a m. ii. 85, 139.
ira, 41.
irba, 52, 13s, 2Z9, 236; the
226b
lH, 139-
ka, ii. 160.
, 210 ; hereditaxy incarnation
12.
, the astronomer, ii. 383, 3849
408, 413, 422, 429.
38, 144, 154, 155. 174.
ckampti^ ii 122.
Ihara, L 360; iL 19 ; the comxn.
ilavati, ii. 405.
lhara-bha^iE^ iL 81.
rani, 48.
'a-up4dhyiya, 284.
ii. 430'
ihydya, ii. 377.
kaumudif ii. 379, 408.
•mdlatl^ ii. 406.
fnfita^ ii. 406.
'sdra, ii. 405.
•tatiwa-chiftidmai^t iL 347, 408^
i-upanishadf 86, 257.
i- 59, 85; iL 317, 360, 403, 459.
63, 368...
'anhitd, ii. 360.
^ i- 59. 37^ 470; the giam-
an, ii. 6, 45.
i-purd^a, 93.
inita m. iL 144.
I'UpanisluuLt 88.
m. iL 66, 81, 118, 137, 146.
, 26.
1 m. ii. 137.
(Gaura), ii. 25, 63, 167, l68^
311 ; language, ii. 25, 62.
Brahmans, iL 159.
pdda, 86, 89, 93, 241, 245, 360,
'a dialect, ii. 25, 62.
sarshapa, a weight, 529.
m. ii. 142, 143, 145.
Anta, 283, 300.
na, i. 339, 469.
na (Gotama), Gautama Buddha,
4; iL 176, 224, 276, 278, 279.
na-swami, iL 276, 277, 278.
Gavyuti, a measure^ i. 539 ; ii. 195.
Ga)^, 20L.
Giyatri, the, 26, 31, iii, 142, 152,
181, 183, 193, 197, 225, 335 ; ex-
plained, 145; another version, 191,
cf. III.
Gayatri metre, L 31. 32; ii. 136, 1 41.
Gerbert (Pope Sylvester II.), iL 440.
Germanes, ii. 180, etc.
Ghafr, ii. 297.
GhAH m, ii. 141.
Ghana copies of the Rig and Yigur.
veda, 10.
Ghanahasta, 537.
Gha^a^karpara^ iL 68.
Gha0, gha^ki, ghurri, L 541, 542,
543 ; ii- 319-
Gha^ m, iL 85, 139.
Ghatlananda m, ii. 85, 139.
Ghora, ii. 177.
Giranira, iL 82, 191
Gitd, gitiki, m, iL 145.
Giti M. iL 67, 137.
Gitydryi m, iL 79, 99, 138, 144.
Goaria-gop, ii. 162.
Gobhila, 1. 00 ; iL 9.
Gobhiliya-^khi, 339.
God's existence denied by Kapila, 264.
Gods. See Deities.
Go^hna, 217, 218.
GoKulasthas, 211.
Golagrdma, ii. 407.
Golayantra, ii. 285.
Gonarda, iL 178.
Gopi, a measure, 537.
Gop, iL 162.
Gopa class, iL 161, 162.
Gopajivi, iL 162.
Gopdla-bhatta, 528, etc
Gopila-chakravarti, iL 43, 53.
G<^dla'tdpaniya^upanishadf 99, 131.
GopatAa-ordhmaiyi, L 82, 84, 122,
535.
Gopkhandana-upanishad, ID I.
Gopinitha, ii. 42.
Gorakhpur, ii. 220.
Gotama, 20, 78, 138, 239, 280, etc,
377» 469.
Gotama or Buddha, 414. Sa Gautama.
Gotra, L 134 ; iL 269.
Gotrika, 408, 448.
Govardhana, ii. 19, 4^, 50, 67, 405.
Govardhana-mirfra, 283.
Govinda, 245, 36a
Govinda-bha^ta, L 284; iL 45.
Govinda-chandra, ii. 253.
Govindananda, i. 359 ; iL 53.
Govindanatha, 94.
Govinda-raja, 467.
Govinda-rama, ii. 43.
Gtaiia-Ugkmti, a. 384, 190, 309, etc,
333.406.
I_.ra!ie*»ara, 473.
C'-dma;,r.a-.0»a, J2, 73, IM.
GiBinniar, early wiiter* on, ii. S, 35,
4S ; list of worki on Suukiit gnun-
Gnudim ^ranlha), it iS.
Graots of land, li. 115, etc, 331,
356, etc
GrivaetuI, 153.
GtMks, ihdr pbilosophy, L 350, 413,
4J9, 436, 441. 443 ; their logic, i.
3j6 I their lulronomjr, ii. 385, 317,
3*6, 345. 35'. 361 ; 'heir algebra.
iL 3S9, 397; hints which the IlinduE
received from the astmnomical
■diools of the Grceki, it 361, 401.
etc ; list of Greek astrological terms
found in SaoskriC, ii. 477.
GriliTa-gianlha, 338.
GrtiyaiiUnu, 135, 14I.
Griihnia, 315.
Gritsamada, 20.
Gneiil, solemn reception of, 317, etc.
GUKlielmo di Lanfs, il. 44a, 449.
Gujjara Bi^malu, iL 159.
Gujrit, iL 30, 305.
Guija, 01 quality, Z99, 432.
Gui^as, the three, 161.
Gn^vishgu, 167, 336.
Gunja seed, 339, 530.
Gapla, a common lerminaLion of
Vni»ya proper names, ii. 169.
Gupti, 449-
Gutjara, ii. 30, 63. 129, M^-
Giiru(l'ral)hik!ira), i. 333.
(Jnm (in j.rosody), ii. 63.
Gurviii! m. ii. 6(i, 137.
I, Gurjara.
Gymi
]phiitL>.-,
181, el
IIal>ash, ii. 460.
Uaddi-thaiidra, ii. 50.
Haima-kosha, ii. 19, 53.
Ilaima-ty.itarana, ii. 41.
Hajjjj ben Vij^t. ii. 306.
Ilak'ah, ii
HaU-ili
139-
Hala, ii
Haiamukhi w. 11. 141-
Halayudha, i. 167, etc, 333,
49S;'i- '9,44. 54.59- 7*. "8
Holla cliaracici and language, 11
Ilammtra. iL 6a. S3, etc., 213.
Han'ali, ii. Ii)3.
10. "S. A 38^
Hum. HI. iL t^, 143.
HanxamiU m. li. 141.
HaniapadI iw. ii. 141.
HantiniCa m. VL 141.
Hanla-upaniskad, 88.
Hintf m. iL 143, I45.
Hira, a weight, L 531 ( ■ 6>ol i
prosody, iL 13s,
HaiaJalU, ■'^■•
Haradalta-
JiirdvaH,ti. i8.'s4-
IMrdatnM, 353.
Hari, L 187 ; a metre, it 144.
Hirf m. iL 141.
Hariballabha, ii. 40.
ilaribhaskara, ii. 59.
Haridife.hita, iL 13, 39-
Jlari^lri. ariver, iLSSI.
Haridia (?), iL 351.
Harigili m. iL 140.
Harihara, L J35, 473; iL 117, 33&
llariki n. iL 141.
Harikila-deva, iL 330.
Hanidriid, il M), 40k
Hariifaigumeshi, ii. 191.
ffaH^mdmT,ia, ii. 44.
Haripa[>lula rti. ii. 144.
Hari^apluta n. ft 146.
Haripl M. ii 103, 131, 144.
Hirii^ m, iL 144.
Klripra-sida, iL 23.
llarirama.cbaliravarti, U. 42.
Harita, 137, 468.
Hariiabaiidha m. iL 141.
/{jrimnta-fiurd^, the Jaina poem,
U. 186.
Ilarun-alrashid, ii. 464.
Hasan ben suhail, ii. 152.
Hasan fiabbah, iL 203.
Hasta, the constellation, L Z14 ; ii.
195. 3'°, 319-
Ilasta, a foot in prosody, iL 135 ; 1
measure of lenglh, i. 538, S39.
Ha.stinaputa, iL 193, 151.
Haya, ii. 135.
Hayagnva, 75, 121.
Hiiyagriva-upatiishad, 131.
HedL'iL 3lS.
Helaraja, iL 30, 45.
Ik.nu, a «eli;ht. 532.
I Hemadri, i. 473, 534.
INDEX.
495
Hetw&bbisa, 318.
Hierocles, iL 181, 183.
Himavat, 34*
Hindi language, ii. 22, etc. ; parts of
the Veda translated into it, i. 8.
Hindiipati princes, iL 60, 229.
Hinduriva, ii. 229.
Hindustani, ii. 22, 31.
Hira, Hiraka m. ii. 140.
Hira^yagarbha, 47, 369, 391, 396.
Hira^yanibha, 15.
Hiia^yastupa, 21.
Hitopadeia^ ii. 147, etc.
Holikd or Holi festival, i. 235, 339.
Homa, 49, 343.
Honain, ii. 306.
Hoii, i 541, etc. ; ii. 430, 474.
Hospitality, 217.
Hotri, 152, 205.
Hdhii, 162.
Humdyiin-ndmahf ii. 148, 153.
Husain Mirzd, SiUtiUi, ii. 149.
Husain W^'iz, ii. 148, 149.
Hiishank, testament of, ii. 148, 149^
152.
Hylobii, ii. 183.
Hypatia, ii. 399, 452, 453.
Hypsicles, ii. 452.
I.
Ibrdhfm ben Salat, ii. 306.
Idavatsara, 52.
Idvatsara, 53.
Iklil ul jabhah, ii. 298.
Ikshwdku, i. 22; the Jaina, iL 186, 195.
Imadi Raksbdmalla, ii. 243, 244.
Imim Ja'far, ii. 203, 206.
Immolation of victims, 100, loi, 252 ;
allegorical immolation of Brahmd,
30,31, so, 114, 184.
Incarnations, see Avatira; not the
doctrine of the Veda, 100.
Indra, i. 24, 26, etc. ; consecration of,
33 ; derivation of the name, 45 ;
many Indras admitted by the Jainas,
ii. 192.
Indra, the grammarian, ii. 6, 36.
Indrabhuti, ii. 194, 276, 277, 278.
Indradyumna, 76, 77.
Indrapramati, 13.
Indrdsana, a Prakrit foot, ii. 135.
Indravajra tn, ii. 91, 142.
Indravan^a m. ii. 94, 142.
Induvadana m, ii. 143.
Inference, three kinds of, in the Sin-
khya, 253 ; in the Nyaya, 287.
Inscriptions, general remarks on, ii.
213, etc., 254 ; Inscription on the
pillar at Baddl, 16; at Buddhagayd,
16, 49 ; on the pillar at Delhi, 208;
at Cintra in Portugal, 216; from
Tipura, 216 ; at GonJchpur, 220 ;
from Chitradurg, 226, 230, 252 ; at
Kurugode, 237; at Kurrah, 245 ;
at Sdrandtha, 246 ; in the district of
Dinijpur, 247 ; at Mongir, 248,
249 ; at Nidigal and Gou,^a, 250 ;
in S. Bihdr, 256 ; at Tdr&chindi,
261 ; at Ujjayani, 263.
Intellect, obstructions of,^ in the Sdn-
khya, 259.
riddhydyay 53.
Isam, ii. 152.
Tf^ina, 472.
riAvisya-upaniskad^ 53, 83, 117, 351.
Isha, 215.
Ishik ben Honain, iL 303, 306^
Ishti, 343-
Isma'il, iL 203.
Isma'iliyahs, the, ii. 202, 203.
Tefwara, 242, 256, 263, 264, 405, 431.
rSwara-giid^ yj^. ^^Bhagavadgitd.
frfwara-kjishna, i. 93, 245, 246, 279,
358; iL 68.
r^wardnanda, ii. 38.
refwara-prasdda, 400.
It, ii. 35.
Itihdsoy 10, 60, 85, 207.
* lydr'i-ddnish^ ii. 148.
J.
Tabald, 33.
Jdbdlas, the, 15.
Jdbdla-upanishad, 88:
{dbdii, 470.
abhah, ii. 294.
Jabr, U. 391, 441.
Jagadisa-tarkalankdra, 284.
[aganndtha, i. 465, 473, 477-
[aganndtha Pai^dita-rdja, iL 106.
[agati m. i. 31 ; ii. 136, 142, (pankti)
136, (trishtubh) 136.
Jaghanya-chapala m. iL 137.
Tahdngir, ii. 63, 348, 407.
[ahnu, 155.
[aigishavya, 254.
[aimini, 12, 15, 230, 240, 320, etc.,
353» 367, 372, 305, 391. 392.
Jama sect, Jainas, i. 91, 337, 354,
377, 402, etc., 444, etc.; iL 16, 42,
61, 1 7 1 , etc. , 2 76, etc. ; astronomical
notions of, ii. 201, 345; Jaina in-
scriptions, ii. 276, etc.
Jajjala, ii. 83, 84.
Jaladhara m. ii. 140.
}aladhara-mdld tn, ii. 142.
alaharand m. ii. 140.
Jaldli nipiya, 533.
Jaloka, iL 178.
496
INDEX
faloddhatagad m, iL 99, 142.
falpa, 317.
famadagni, 20.
famaka m. ii. 141.
fambudwipa, ii. 159, 200.
fambusara, ii 405.
fana, 76^ 78.
fanaka, 41, 62, 64, 371.
[inaki m. iL 145.
fanamejaya, i. 33, 35, 41, 65 ; il 251,
252.
[anantapa, 38.
rana^niti, 75.
fapila, ii. 256, etc.
fara, 421.
fa(4 copies of the Rig and Yajur
Veda, 18.
ydtakdrnava, iL 338, 360, 435, etc.
Jat^dhiris, 430.
f4ti, i. 3G^, 318, 421 ; metre, iL 80.
fdtimala, iL 157, etc
Jdtiikania, i. 162, 535.
Ja-vipul4 m. ii. 140.
^aufnarOf ii. 43.
in-khiradj iL 148, 152.
[ayachandra, iL 215, 253, 254, 261.
fayadeva, i. 470 ; iL 79, 86.
[aydditya, iL 9, 38, 50, 222, etc.
[a3ranta, iL 14, 39.
layapdla, iL 248.
[ayavarmadeva, ii. 265, etc., 272,
[hallani m. iL 140.
[imuta m. iL 1 1 7, 145.
[imutavahana, 472, etc, 479, etc.;
his (late, 488, 489.
Jina, Jinas, i. 323, 404, etc, 413 ; ii.
185, 186, etc
{inadatta-suri, 45 1,
inenclra, ii. 6, 36, 38, 50.
Jishnu, ii. 347, 384* 4". 429-
Jiva, i. 405, 406, 410, 417, 431, 440,
446, etc. ; iu 1 74.
Jiva^hosha-swami, iL 44.
Jivaja, 396.
Jivala, 75.
Jivan-mukti, 393, 399.
Jivastikaya, 409.
Jivatma, 289, 442.
Jitendriya, 473.
iyikiya[?J, 154.
Jndrtiimrtta^ ii. 44.
Tndna-raja, ii. 385, 406.
Jnana-varaniya [?], 408, 448.
Jnana-yojy^a, 441.
jnanendra-saraswati, ii. 1 3, 39-
Juhii, 28j 112.
Jumaranandi, ii. 43.
Jupiter, the planet, 35-
Jyeslitha, i. 214; ii. 298.
Jyotis, a metre, ii, 79, 138.
JyoHsha{yyotis)f the calendar appended
to the Vedas, L 53, 96^ etc., 124,
etc. ; iL 58.
{yotishmati (tri^^bh) m. iL 136.
yotish^ma, 54, 66w
K.
KaT), iL 391.
Kabandha, 16.
Kabandhi, 85.
Kabir'uddin, Say3rid, iL 2o6.
Kabits, iL 22.
K&dambari^ ii* 89, 1 20.
KAha^, a measure, 536.
Kiit, iL 161.
Kaivalva, 248, 425.
KahHuya-upoMishad^ 88.
Kaivarta class, ii. 164.
Kaiyata, Kaiyya^, ii. 8, 36, 38.
KAkii^ weight, 532.
Kakshivat, 21.
Kakubh (ush^ih) m. ii. 136.
I^akudmati im. iL 137.
Kila, 410.
Kald^ iL 40.
KalA, in mathematics, L 125, 540 ;
ii. 476 ; in prosody, ii. 135.
Kalabhairava, 189.
Kalahansa m, ii. 143.
Kdlds^irudra-upanishad^ 88.
KaUkanda m.'vL 143.
Kdlamukhas, the, 430*
Kdla-nirnaya, iL 333.
Kaldpa, ii. 42, $2, 53.
Kaldpa-tattwdrnava^ ii. 42.
Kalb, Kalb ul akrab, iL 298.
Kali age or yuga, i. 65, 97 ; iL 313,
Kali, loi.
Kalidasa, L 171, 207, 218, 470 ; ii.
59, 64, 68, 76, 88, 91, etc, I02,
112, etc, 123, 154.
Kalika m. ii. 140, 143, I46.
Kdlikd-purdna^ lOI.
Kalilah wa Dimnah, iL 149, etc,
461.
Kalinga, the country, iL 159.
Kalinga, iL 50.
Kalpa (religious observances), L 90;
astronomical period, L 67, 393 : iL
330» 332, 348, 3581 364* 403. 4^,
427.
Kalpadnimay 473.
Kalpalatd^ 473.
Kalpalatdvatdra,, ii. 407, 408.
KaJpasutra, L 338 ; ii. 185, 191, etc,
276.
Kalpaiaru^ 472, 534-
Kalyan, the city, ii. 241.
Kalya^-chandra, iL 415.
INDEX.
497
Kima, i 30 ; metre, ii. 141.
Kima, the god, 340, 44a
Kimakrida m, ii 143.
Kdmadhenti^ L 473 ; u. 41, 42, 45.
Kamalakara, L £fio\ iL 284, 316,
333» 407.
Kamali (-i) m. ii. 141.
Kimarupa, ii. 44, 159.
KAmivat^ra m, vl 141.
Kamini-kdnta, m, ii. 141.
Kampa, ii. 228.
Kimya, 139.
Ka^abhuj or Ka^abhaksha, 354, 424.
See Ka^da.
Ka^abhuj, Kd^abhaksha, 423.
Ka^ida, 240, 280, etc., 354, 411,
423.
Kanaka-prabhA m, ii. 143. *
Kinara language, iL 29, 227, 231,
237, 238, 240.
Kanda m, ii. 143.
Kaiida, 54, 65, 68, 80.
/C(tn4dttukrama, 14, 105.
Kandarpasiddhdnta, ii. 44.
Ka^dika, 49, 54, 66.
Kankaraf, Kankah, etc., ii. 458.
Kanoj, Kanauj, 1 1 ; list of kings o(
iL 253 ; see Kanya-kubja.
Kansakara, ii. 160.
YAiiXk m. iL 144.
Kanihairuti'UjfHinishadf 86.
Kantimati m. iL 91.
Kantotpi^ m. ii. 142.
Kaii^wa, L 15, 20; ii. 45.
Kai)iwa school, 15, 53, 56, 64.
Kanyd nu ii. 141.
Kanya, a constellation, iL 426.
Kanyakubja, Kanyakubja, ii. 22, 253,
258, etc., 420; Brahmans of, L ii;
ii. 159, 167, etc., 217; dialect, iL 22,
63, 107.
Kinyakubjas, the, ii. 22, 27.
Kapardaka, 532.
Kapala class, iL 164.
Kapalas, Kapalikas, 430.
Kapila,i. 93, 100, 162, 241, etc, 374;
JL 68 ; his doctrine contrasted with
Patanjali's, L 248, 264, etc.
Kapili, iL 268.
Kapila-bhdshya^ 241, 243, etc
Karahancha m. ii. 141.
Karana class, ii. 161, 162 ; the astro-
nomical treatise, ii. 430.
Karana, i. 287, 431, 432.
Karana-kuhihalay ii. 333, 377,
Kirana-s'arira, 395.
Karanas, astrological, ii. 320.
KdrikAj 284. See also Sankhya K.
Kdrikds on Panini, ii. 6, 40.
AdriAdvalif ii. 44.
TOL. III. [B8SATB U.]
Karka^a, ii. 343.
Karmakira claiss, iL 162, 164.
Karma-mlmansd, 320, etc
Karman, Karma, 307, 320, 400^ 406,
407, 408, ^8.
Kdrmaga-rfanra of the Jamas, iL 174.
Karna, in prosody, ii. 135 ; in astro-
}ogy» 354» etc
Karijiata language, iL 29.
Kan^taka, ii. 29.
Karsha, a weight, 530, 532.
Kirshipana, a weight, 530, 532.
Karshika, a weight, 532.
Karsh^jini, 354.
Karttika, 136.
Kirttika-siddhanta, ii. 43.
Kartri, 431.
Karunika-siddhantins, 43a
Karya, 287, 431, 432.
Karya-brahma, 391.
Karfakyitsna, i. 354, 372 ; iL 6, 36.
Kaserd, ii. 160.
Kashaya, 448.
Kashmir, chronicle o(^ ii. 177, etc
Kashta-srotriya-brahmavas, iL 168.
Kishthd, 540, 541.
Ki^i,'22, 48,59. 139.
Kasim, iL 454.
Kdiikd'VritH, il 9, lO, 20, 36, 222.
ICdsikd'VfitU-panjikd, iL 38.
Kasirama, 484.
Kis'iswara, iL 43, 44.
Kdiiiwari-ganay ii. 44.
Kis'mira language, ii. 27 ; biihmans,
iL 159.
Kas'u, 21.
Kafifvapa, i. 20, 36, 153, 207, 47©; iL
167, 278.
Ka^yapa, L 280, 423 ; ii. 6, 45, 59,
313 ; the Buddha, ii. 278.
KatantrOy iL 42, 45.
Kdtantra'chandrikd^ iL 42.
Kdtanira'chatmh\aya-prad{pa^ ii. 42.
Kdiantra-dhdlU'^kosha^ ii. 42. •
Kdtantra-^na-dhdtu^ iL 42.
Kdtantra-panjikdy ii. 42.
Kdiantra-pariiish^ay iL 42.
Kdlantra-iabda-mdld, ii. 42.
Kdtantra-shatkdrakay ii. 42.
Kdlantra-unddi-vritti^ ii. 42.
Kdtantra-Zfistdray ii 42.
Kdtantra-vritH-\{kd^ iL 42.
Katha, 15.
Kathd, 317.
Katha, a measure, 536.
Kaphas, the, 15.
Katha^ Ka^htwalll^ or Kdihatta Upan-
ishad, 71, 83, 87, 119, 124, 333,
35I-
Kdihaka s'akha, 106.
32
498
INDEX.
Katya, 85.
Katyayana, L 20, 85, 90, 162, 469; iu
6, 9» 35,, 38, 49.
Kityiyani, 60.
JCoMla-upanishad, loi.
JCaumudl, ii. 12, 52. See Siddhinta K.
Kaumudi m. ii. 146.
Kautfdmba, ii. 246.
Kau^alya, 85.
Kaushitaki, 13, 47, 48.
KtmshUaki-brdhmof^'Upanishad^ 47,
48, 116, 351.
Kausika, iL 45.
Kau^iki river, 174.
Kau^humi (?) i^akhA, 15, i6, 106, 332.
Kauthuma, 332.
Kavasha, 35, 65.
Kivasheya, 65.
Kavi-kal padruma^ ii. 1 5, 43.
Kavi-kalpadruma-vydkhydf ii. 43.
Kaviraja, ii. 89.
Kavi-raAasya, ii. 44.
Kavya m. ii. 82, 139.
Kdt^a-kdmadhenUf ii. 38, 43.
Kayastha class, iL 161, 167, 211, 224,
258 ; of Bengal, ii. 169.
Kedira-bhat^, iu 59.
Kekaya, 76.
Kemadruma, ii. 477.
Kena or Keneshita Upanishad^ 80,
83, 87, 121, 351.
Kendra, ii. 476.
Kesara m. ii. 144.
Kesava, ii. 406, 408, 429.
Kea'ava-dasa, ii. 63, 92.
Kes'ava-mis'ra, 283, 293, 471.
Kesava-swami, ii. 45.
Kelumati m. ii. 146.
Kcvala, 445.
Kha^ati m. ii. 143.
Kliai.ula, }yl^ 80.
Khandadcva, 324.
Khandaka (Kha^idaka ?), m. ii. 137.
Khcindrtvcyas 15.
Khania m. ii. 85, 139, 146.
Khan, KhariWa, a measure, 533, etc,
537.
Khaiatara tribe, iL 279.
Khartaii, ii. 295.
Kheals. ii, 32.
Khuldsat ul liisdh^ ii. 391,441, 465,472.
Khila-grantha, 352.
Ki'lala, 186.
Kiraniivaliy 282.
Kirata, ii. 76.
KirdtJrjuniyij^ ii- 76, etc., 95, 96, lOO,
118.
Kiris'a, 41.
Kirita ///. ii. 145.
Kishku, a measure, 539.
Knowledge, soorcesofl 5^r Evidence.
Kokilaka m. iL 144.
Ko^a, a weight, 532.
Ko^^^-bhat^, L 284 ; iL 401
Kondavipattan, iL 241.
Konka^ iL 50.
Kopavad m, li. 143.
Kosas, the soul's, 395.
Krama copies of die Rig and Yajnr
veda, 18.
Kramaditfwara, iL 43.
Krinti tiu iL 144.
KdLntip&ta, iL 330.
Kratuvid, 41.
Kraunchapadi m, iL loo, 145.
Kraush^ika [?], iL 59.
KH^ichandra m. iL 144.
Knshva,*L 25, 99, etc, 150, 211,
440; mentioned in the Chhandogya
Upanishad, iL 177 ; his combat
with S'isupila, ii. 73, 74 ; his sports
with the Gopis, iL 32, 80 ; his wor-
ship of later origin, L loov iL 177.
Krish^^ son of BalULla, iL 406.
Kfish^adasa, ii. 53.
Kfish^a-dwaipdjrana, 3 c 2.
Krishi^kinta-vidyaviigitra, 483.
Kfish^ala, a weight, 529, etc., 535.
KfishfiAlankdray 362.
Kfishnananda, 80^ 362, 489.
Kjishi^as, nine Jaina, ii. 195.
Kiishpa-pa^^ita, ii. 14* 39> 94-
Krish^ia-tirtha, 360.
Krishna- upanishad^ 99.
Kfili, L 16, metre, ii. 144.
Krittika, L 81, 97, 128; ii. 290, 314,
37-
Kriya, 138.
Kriyasakti, 433.
Kriyayoga, 441.
Kro^a, a measure, 539.
Kshama m, ii. 78, 143.
Kshana, 540, 541.
Kshatriyas, L 134, 337, 403; iL W^
158, 160, etc.
Kshattri, Kshatta, class, iL i^*
Kshayika, 446.
Kshira-swamf, ii. 45, 50, 51.
Kshira-tarafii^iniy ii. 45.
Kshurikd-upanishad^ 86.
Kudava, a measure, 533, etc., 537'
Kudmala-dantt m. iL 99, 142.
Kula, 492, 505.
Kula, iL 159.
Kulaka, ii. 65, 120.
Kulachandra, iL 42.
Kulatha m. ii. 137.
Kulina m. ii. 137.
Kulina Brahmanas, ii. 168 ; Kayasthas,
iL 169.
INDEX.
499
■bhatta, L 9, 467, 469, 486;
ii. i6a
f ii. 42.
-lalita m, ii. 14K
I'SamdAava, iL 76, 92.
Iff. ii. 143.
a-sw4m{. Stg Bhatta K. S.
I, a measure, i. 533, 534, etc.,
iac sign, ii. 325.
ikira, iL 160.
a measure, 533, S34-
kkm. u. 83, »4, 139.
^ 14, 105.
-def(a, ii. 241.
>ha*janiti m, ii. 142.
la, 21.
purdr^, 249.
5.
le country, 35, 62.
ie-durg, ii. 241, 242.
a, 21.
ass, 178, 196, etc. ; a cushion
9.
". 45-
I, 41.
26.
injalif 284.
L-stavaka /». ii. 145.
i-vichitr4 m, ii. 99, 142.
ta-Iata-vellitA m. ii. 144.
li, Kuthumi, 15, 470.
». ii. 143.
ati m. ii. 143.
21, 25, 26, III.
I, ii. 383, 414, 420.
idhydya, ii 377, 405,
la, ii. 161.
yana, 32a
idrya, ii. 359.
4 m. ii. 141.
in prosody), iL 63.
Irya-siddhdntaf ii. 420.
bhtishana-kdnti^ ii. 40.
hcdha, iL 44.
iipikd, 69.
atakay ii. 435.
baumudif ii. 14, 39.
*>aribhdshd'Z>Tiitij ii. 39.
iabda-raina, ii. 39.
mbdendu-iekhara^ iL 13, 39.
yaiydkarana-siddhdnta-man-
, ii. 40.
vasisktha-siddhdntay iL 331,
344-
yfx//l^ iL 41.
Lakhimd-devf, 471, 48a
Lakshai^ 285.
Lakshmi, prayer to, 194.
Lakshmi m. ii. 143.
Lakshmiddsa, iL 1981 201, 283, 347,
381, 406, 408, 413, 436.
Lakshmfdhara m. ii. 142.
Lakshmidhara, L 472, 534, 535.
Lakshmi-niriya^, 173, 211..
Lakshm{-varma-deya^ ii. 265, etc.
Lalani m. iL 99, 142.
Ldlasinha, ii. 359.
LalitarOT. iL 146.
Laliti m, iL 118, 138^ 142^ 145,
146.
Lalitapada m, ii. 142.
Lalita-purdnay ii. 178.
Laliia-vistaroy L 414; iL 179.
Lalla, iL 291, 315, 316.
Lankii, meridian of, ii. 364, 365,
384.
LAnguages used by Hindu poets, iL
I, etc., 61, 1224
Lati m, ii. 144.
Li^ydvana, 90.
Laugakshi, 162.
Lava, a measure of time, 541.
Lavali m, ii« 146.
Law, different schools of Hindu, 471,
etc., 479, etc.
Leonardo Bonacci of Pisa, iL 390^
438, etc., 448, 465.
Liber abad, ii. 391, 440, 449.
Liberation of the soul, 257, 259, 393,
399, 407, 449.
Likhita, 339, 469.
Likshd, a weight, 529, 538;
Lili m. ii. 143.
LiUkhela m. ii. 143.
LUdvati (Bhdskaia's), iL 88, 333,
377. etc.
LiUvati tn, ii. 140.
Lilopavati m. iL 145.
Linga, 25, 211.
Linga-rfarfra, 257, 395, 442.
Lingis, 211.
Lipta, iL 315, 476.
Lokika^a, 409.
Lokakshi (-i,), 15, 162, 470.
Lokandtha, ii. 53.
Lokapala, ii. 248.
Lokiyatas, Lokayatikas, 426, etc.
L0I4 m. ii. 139, 143.
Lubdhaka, a star, ii. 309, 418.
Lunar mansions, Arabian, ii. 281,
288, etc.
Lunar month, 214, etc.
Lunar race, ii. 228.
Lunchita-kei^a, 405.
500
INDEX.
M.
Madalekhi, m, ii. 141.
Madamatta m. ii. 145.
Madanagfiha m. ii. 140.
Madanahari m. ii. 140.
Madanalalitd m. ii. 144.
Madanapdla of Dfgh, 467, 473, 488.
Madanap41a-deva of Kanauj, ii. 253.
Madanapdrijdta^ 1^6, 473, 485, 488.
Madana-vinoda^ 480.
Madandha m. ii. 142.
Madhava, the month, 214, 215.
Madhavacharya, i. 48, 49, 325, 326,
469, 486; ii. 36, 41, 50, SS, 185,
228; his age, i. 325. See Sayai^-
dcharya.
Mddhava-deva, 283, 30a
M4dhavi, ii. 50.
Madhaviki m. it 145.
Mddhaviya-vritti on Pacini, ii. 9, 36,
41, 45-
Madhu, the month, L 214, 215, a
metre, ii. 141.
Madhu, 3^9.
Madhubhava m. ii. 139.
Madhuchbandas, 21, 29, 50.
Madhu-mddhavi, ii. 50; metre, 143.
Madhumati m, ii. 141.
Madhuparka, 220, 223.
Madhusudana, ii. 43, 45; name of
Krishna, i. loi.
Madhusudana-saraswati, 12, 362.
Madhuvidyd^ 352.
Madhwachar>a, i. 210, 359; ii. 185.
Madhya, ii. 477.
Mailhya m. ii. 136, 141.
Madliya-jyotishmati m. ii. 136.
Madhya-kdumudi^ ii. 14, 39.
Madhyakshama m. ii. 143.
Madhyamaharana, li. 383.
Madhya-mafwramay ii. 14, 39.
Madhyamikas, the, 415, 427.
Madhyandina, 15, 49.
Madliyandina school of astronomers,
ii. 3S4.
Madhyandina J^akha, 15, 53, 56, 62,
64, 117, 118.
Miidhyandina-iatapatha B. 54, 1 1 7.
Madira m. ii. 145.
Madru. ii. 242.
Mai^adha, i. 535.. 537; "• 61, 159.
Magadha caste, ii. 162.
Maj^adhi dialect, ii. I, 2, 30, 61, 191,
277.
Magha, the asterism, i. 81, 121, 127;
ii. 294, 312, etc., 317.
Maj^dia, the month, 98, 126, 20I, 213.
Ma;^'ha, the poet, ii. 65, 72, etc., 89,
95, 10 1, 109, etc., 118, etc.
Mahdbhdrata^ iL 426, 427.
Mahdbhdshya on Panini, i. 247 ; iL 7,
20, 3S» 38, 58.
Mahdbhdshya'pradlpOy ii. 38.
Mahabhuta, 416.
Mahibrahman, 174.
Mahachapala m, ii. 137*
Mahideva, 100.
Mahdkdvya, six poems thus designated,
ii. 76.
Mahalakshmf m. ii. 141.
Mahalayi, 201.
Mahdmalika m. ii. 144.
Afahdndrayana-u/taniskaJ^ 68.
Maharashtra language, ii. 28, 62, 63, 93.
Maharashtra, a metre, ii. Si, 14a
Mah^rdshira Brahmans, iL 159.
Mahabdla (?), 366.
Mahasarga, 254.
Mahat, 254, 373, 431, 437.
Mahdvfra, the last Jtna, ii. 191, 276,
etc.
Mahavrihati m, ii. 136.
Mahayuga, ii. 368, 403.
Mahes'wara, 482.
Maheiwara-siddhdnta^ 430.
Maheij'wara-vaidya, ii. 18, 53.
Mahe^waras, the, 354, 404, 430^ etc
Mahi m. ii. 141.
Mahibhat^, ii. 41.
Mahichandra, ii. 253.
Mahidasa, 41.
Mahfdhara, 49, 53, 89.
Mahijiala-deva, ii. 248.
Mahirajas (a measure), 538.
Mahishasura, ii. 222.
Mahishya class, ii. 161.
Mahratta language, ii. 28, 93, 238.
Mainda m. ii. 141.
Maitliila dialect, ii. 26.
Maithila Brahmans, iu 159, 168.
Maitra (Maitri), 71.
Maitravaruna, 153, 205.
Maitrayani, 162.
Maili-ayani fc'akha, 71, 106.
Maitrayani or MaUri-uJ>aniskad, 71,
Maitraya^iyas, 15.
Mai trey a, 41.
Madreya-upanishad^ 257.
Maitreya-rakshita, ii. 9, 36, 40, 50, 55.
Maiireyi, 60, 61, 64, 371.
Majdlis-ul-muminiti^ iL 202.
Makara, symbol of the Indian Cupid,
ii. 81 ; the constellation Capricorn,
ii. 324, 419.
uMakarauda, ii. 44.
Makarandika m. ii. 144.
Mai, ii. 390, 441.
Mala, ii. 270.
INDEX,
501
Mal4, a metre, iL 85, 100, 139, 143.
Mal4dhara m. ii. 144.
Milikdra, ii. 162.
Malati m. ii. 141, 142, 145.
Mdlati-mddhava^ iL 104, 123, etc
Milati-mald m, iL 142.
Malavi m. ii. 140.
Mill, IL 162.
Malik Muhammad Jaisf, iL 22.
Malini m, iL 96, 104, 143.
Mallildi m, iL 108, 141, 145.
Mamata, 37.
Manahansa (?) m. ii. 143.
Manamati hills, ii. 216.
Manas, 255, 292, 442.
Manas-paryaya (Jaina), 445.
Mi^avaka m. ii. 141.
Minavak^-kri<]ld m. iL 108, 141.
Mandikini m, ii. 142.
Mandikrdntd tn, iL 102, 128, 144.
Mandalas of the Rigveda Sanhiti, 17,
107.
Mandara m. ii. 141.
Mandhdtri, L 22, 109; ii. 196.
Ma^dukeya, 13.
Mdndii^a-upanuhadf 83, 86, 123,
360.
Manibandha m, ii. 142.
Mail^bandha tribe, ii. 160, 162.
Maigd-gui^a-nikara m. iL 99, 160, 143.
Mdniki, a measure, ^36, 537.
Ma^ikara tribe, ii. 160.
Minikya-chandra, ii. I.
ManiliiLs quoted, ii. 325.
Mani-madhyi m, iL 141.
Ma^i-mald m. iL 142.
Mani-manjari m. ii. 144.
Ma^i-prabhi m. iL 91.
Manjari m, ii. 143, 146.
Manjira m. ii. 144.
Manjubhdshi^i m. iL 117, 143.
Manjugiti m. ii. 138.
Manjusaurabha m. ii. 146.
Manohansa m. (?) iL 143.
Manomaya (rfarira), 39$.
Manoramdf iL 36, 39, 42.
Manoramd, a metre, ii. 142.
Manoramd-ifittif ii. 44.
Manoranjana^ ii. 408.
Manthina m, iL 141.
Mantra, 108.
Mantras, II, 16, 17, 47, 49, 333, 334.
Mantra-iasira^ 19, lOi.
Manu, L 9, 22, $8, 93. 374» 4^71 etc,
528, etc; race of, L 36; laws of,
cited, i. 58, 148, 158, 202, 238, 249;
iL 157, etc.
Manu-yuga, ii. 364.
Manwantaras, 201.
Manwartha-muktdvallf 467.
Manzils of the moon, ii. 288, etc
Maraha^ a metre, ii. 81, 140.
Mara^a, 421.
Mirapa, ii. 228.
Mdrlcha, iL 284, 346, 348, 409.
Marichi, 20, 32, 470, a measure, 529,
530-
Marichi commentary, the. iie^Mdricha.
Markal, a measure, 538.
Marriage ceremonies, 218, etc., 237.
Marudvridha river, 155.
Maruts, 26, 35, 36, 23a.
Marutta, 36.
Mai^aka, 323.
Masha, 529, etc.
Mashaka, Mishika, 530, etc
Mashnara, 38.
Matallikd m. iL 108, 141.
Mdtangi tn. iL 141.
Mathura, iL 61.
Mathudinitha-tarkavagitfa, 284.
Mathure^a, iL 51, 52.
Mati (Jaina), 445.
Matirama, a Hindi poet, ii. 22, 87.
Mdtr4, ii. 64, 65, 135.
Mdtrd-chhandas, iL 71, 138.
Matra-samaka m, ii. 78, 100, 138.
Mdtrd-vritta, ii. 137, 138.
Mdtri-gai?a, 339.
Matsya-purdna, L 249, 254; ii. 314.
Matta m, ii. 99, 140, 142.
Matta-kridd m. iL icx>, 145.
Matta-matanga-lildkani m, ii. 145.
Matta-mayura m. ii. 1 1 7, 143.
Maudaka class, iL 161.
Mauktika-ddma m. ii. 142.
Mauktika-maU m. ii. 1 42.
Maulika Kdyasthas, ii. 169. ,
Ma-vipuld m, iL 140.
Maya, L 93; iL 343.
Mdyi, i. 30, 254, 400, 431 ; the metre^
ii. 143*
Miydmaya, 398.
Miyana, 325.
Mayukha-mdldy 324.
Mayura-siri^i tn, ii. 142.
Meal, ceremonies at a, 208.
Medabhilla (?) class, ii. 164.
Medhatithi, 21, 50; the commentator^
9, 467, 486.
Medhyitithi, 21.
Medini-kdra, ii. 18, 53.
Medini-kosha, ii. 18, 53.
Meditation, religious, 385, etc.
Megasthenes, ii. 180, 184.
Meghaduta, ii. 76, 102.
Megha-visphuijita m. ii. 144.
Mem, 39, 296.
Mesha, i. 215 ; iL 288, 312, 418, 426,
427.
502
INDEX.
Messahala (Md-shi*-allah), il 458.
Metemps3rchosis, 252, 382.
Mihira. See Vsurdha-nuhinu
Miminsi, Piirva, 90, 319, etc., 403;
its use in law, 342; Uttara, See
Vedinta.
Miwdnsd'bhdshyaf 360.
Mimdnsd'kaustubheif 324.
Mlmdnsd-nydya-viveka^ 324.
Mina, i. 214; ii. 325, 426.
Mind, an organ of perception and
action, 255, 292.
Misani-miBra, 471, 480.
Mi^ra, Jaina term, 446.
Mitfra, ii. 43.
Mis'ra dialect, iL i.
Mi^ra, a surname, ii. 168.
Mitabhdsha^ iL 407.
Afitdkshard, a commentary on the
Brihad-4ra93raka, 56; on Y4jna-
valkya'-s Inst. 468^ 479, 481, 485,
488 ; on Gautama's Inst. 486.
Mithild, ii. 20, 63; brihmans of, ii.
159, 168; measures used in, t 536,
537-
Mithuna, il 335, 418.
Mitra, 24, 28, 70, 23a
Mitra-mis'ra, 480, 485.
Mixed classes, ii. 160, etc.
Mlechhas,!. 340 ;ii. 164, I72,I78» 361.
Modaka m, ii. 142.
Moha, 311, 425.
Mohan lya, 408.
Mohsin Fani, ii. 203.
Moksha, 286, 407, 424, 431, 449.
Moon, its mythic origin, 1 7 1.
Motanaka m. ii. 142.
, Mourning, ceremonies of, 178, etc.
Mrigas'iras, i. 214; ii. 292, 310, 319.
Mrigendra m. ii. 141.
Mrigendramukha m, ii. 143.
Mfigi m, ii. 141.
Mrita-sanjhiul^ ii. 59.
Mfityu, 61, 87.
Muakhkhar, ii. 302.
Mudgapa, ii. 228.
Mufarrihul Kultiby ii. 1 54.
Mt4gdhabodha^ ii. 15, 43.
Mugdhabodha-pariii5h\a^ ii. 43.
Mugdhabodhiniy ii. 51.
Muhammad Afzal, ii. 22.
Muhammad ben Ibrahim al Kazan', ii.
454* 459-
Muhammad ben Miisa al-Khuwa-
razmi, ii. 399, 449, 461, 464, etc.
Muhammad Khuni, Sultan, ii. 83.
Muhammad Mahdi, ii. 203.
Muhammad of Tizin, ii. 289, etc.
Muhammadan sects, ii. 202, etc.
Muhi ben Yahya, ii. 306.
Muhurta, i. 82, 98, 125, 126, 540.
Muhiirta'chintdmaniy ii. 284.
Mukibalah, ii. 391, 39s, 441.
Mukaddam, ii. 302.
Mukha-chapali m, ii. 137.
Mukta, Muktitmi, 406.
Muktaka, ii. 120.
Muktakachhas (Buddhists), 413.
Muktambaras (Jainas), 405.
Muktavasanas (Jainas), 404.
Mukti, 139, 393, 399, 424, etc
Mukuta, iL 17, 50.
Miila, ii. 298.
Mula-prakriti, 254, 448.
Mulld * AU, ii. 204.
Mun4aka-uJ>aniskad, 83, 84, 104, 1 23,
35'.
Munis'wara, ii. 198, 201, 284, 315,
331, 348, 407, 409, 412, 420, 426.
Munia, king^ iL 49, 416.
Munjdla, iL 330, 332, etc, 41$, A^l-
Miir, Mum, iL 28 ; character, ib.
Mudlri, ii. 42.
Murari-mitfra, 473.
Miirchha Kh4n, iL 52.
Murdhdbhishikta class, iL 160, 166.
Mush^ a measure, 533, etc.
^^usulmins of India Ixnrow super-
stitious ceremonies from the Hindus,
235.
Mythology of the Vedas, 25, i la
N.
Na'aim, ii. 299.
Nabhanedishtha, 22, 109.
Nabhas, 21$.
Nabhasya, 215.
Nachikelas, 87, 124, 370.
Nddainndu'Upanishad, 86.
Nadi m. ii. 143.
Ni^i, Nadika,a measure of time, 125,
of length, 539.
Nagalika m. ii. 141.
Naganf, Nagania w. ii. 14I.
Naganika w. iL 141.
Nagari writing, ii. 26.
Naga-swanipini m, iL 108, 141.
Nages'a-bhatta, iL 13, 39, 40.
Nagi (gayatri) m. iL 136.
Nagnajit, 41.
Nagoji-bhatta, i. 243, 248; ii. 38, 39.
Naigcya-s'akha, 106.
Nai, ii. 161.
Naigama^ 23, 109.
Naimittika, 139.
Naishadhha^ i. 223; ii. 76, 95, 96.
Naiydyika, L 281 ; iL 197.
Naka, 51.
Nakis, iL 391.
Nakshatras, i. 98, 126, 214 ; iL 28 1, etc.
INDEX.
503
Nala, ii. 68, 69, 96.
Nala-chamj^y iL 95, 122.
Nalodayay iL 67, 60, 96.
Nalwa, a measure, 539.
Ndma-mdldy iL 19.
Ndma-nidhdnay ii. 1 9.
Ndma-pdrdycn^ ii. 15.
Ndma-rupa, 420^ 454.
Namika, Ndma, 408, 448.
Ndndrtha-koshOf ii. 19, 49.
Nandakitfora, iL 43.
Nandana m. iL 144.
Ndndana, 45.
Nandapan^ita, 486.
Nanddvarta, ii. 190.
Nandi (-i), ii. 239; a grammarian, iL 45.
Nandigrima, ii. 406.
Ndndfmukha, 202.
Nindfmukh{ m. iL 143.
Nandini, the cow, 207.
Ndpita class, ii. 161, 164.
Ndricha, Naricha m, ii. 143, 144.
Ndrada, i. 10, 20, 36, 75, 368, 470^
528; iL 73.-
Ndrada-panchardtray 437.
Nir&^arya, 162.
Narasinha, 472.
Naravarmadeva, iL 264, etc., 272.
Ndidyai^,42, 134; allegorical immola-
lation of, 50, 55. See also under
BrahmiL
Nirdvana-bhafta, ii. 59, 60, 63, 107,
118 (tdra).
Ndrdya^a-chakravarti, ii. 52.
Ndriya^a-punisha, 50.
Nirdvana-tirtha, 246, 284, 362.
Ndriyana-upanishady 68,88, 1 19, 1 24.
Ndriyai^endra, 42.
Nardataka m. iL 144.
Narendra m, iL 145.
Ndri tn, iL 141.
Narkutaka m. ii. 133, 144.
Narmada, 173, 174.
Nasir uddin Tiisf, ii. 303, 306.
Nasrullah. See Abu'l Mdla.
Ndstikas, L 404, 413; iL 197.
Nastikya, 441.
Nata class, ii. 164.
Nataka class, ii. 164.
Na^ati m. ii. 143.
Nathrah, ii. 293.
Na^ih, ii. 289.
Nature (Sankhya). See PrakptL
Navamdlini m, iL 142.
Navdnkura, ii. 408.
Na-vipul4 m. iL 140.
Naya, ii. 161.
Ndyaka, ii. 256, 258.
Nayandnanda, iL 52.
Nayapala, ii. 248.
Nema, 340.
Nerun^ala-rdjd, iL 243.
Neshtn, I53» 205.
Nichochcha-vritta, ii. 35a
Nichfit w. ii. 137.
Nfchyas, 34.
Niddnas, the twelve Buddhist, 420,
453. etc.
Nidar^ana, 314.
Nigamana, 314.
Nighan{Uy L 23, 109; iL 20, 41.
Nigraha-sthdna, 318.
Nipsara^^^ 42^.
Nil^tfreyasa, 28i5, 425.
Nila m, iL 143.
Nilakan^ha, i. 359, 480 ; iL 52.
Nlla-purdna^ iL 178.
NUarudra-upanishad, 86.
Nila-swanipa m, iL 142.
Nimba tree, 179, 190.
Nimesha, 540, 541.
Nimitta-kdra^a, 288, 436.
Niranga, a measure, 540.
Nireranthas, the, 405.
Niruiwara-sdnkhya, 249, 264.
Niijara, -d, 407, 449.
Nir^aya, 3 1 7.
Nirnaya-sindhu^ 196.
Nirukta, L 13, 23, 89, 109; iL 20, 41.
Nirupa (?) 421.
Nirvd^^ L 425, 426 ; ii. 280.
Nishdda class, ii. 160.
Nishka, a weight, 530, etc
Nisipdla m. ii. 143.
Niti-manjariy 91.
Nitydnandds'rama, 56.
Nityasiddha, 406.
Nivaha, 205.
Nivartana, ii. 274.
Nodhas, 2a
Nonius (Nunez), 'ii. 451.
Nrimedha, 66.
Nrisinha, L 86; ii. 315, 331, etc., 348,
384, 406, etc
Nrtsinha-champiiy ii. 122.
Nfisinha'purdna^ 93.
Nrisinha-saraswati, 362.
Nfisinha-tdpanlya-upanishad, 83, 86,
123, 131.
Nuddea school of logic, 284.
Nunez (Nonius), iL 451.
Nuptial ceremonies, 218, etc., 237.
Nurullah, iL 202, 204.
Niishfrwan, ii. 148, IJ3.
Nyanku-sdri^ (vfihatf), ii. 136.
Nydsa, ii. 9, 38.
Nydya, the, 239, 249, 280, etc, 377;
syllogism, 314, etc., 356.
Nydya-bhashyUf 281, 202.
Nydya lUdvoHy 283.
504
iin)Ex.
Nydya-mdld-vistaray 325.
Nyaya-panchanana, ii. 43.
Nydya-ratnamdldf 324.
Nydya-sankskepa^ 284.
Nydya-sangraha^ 283.
Nydya-sdra, 283.
Nydva-sarvaswaj 472.
Nyivdvall-dldhitiy 324.
Nydva-tristitri-vdrttika, 282.
Nydya-vdrttika^ 282.
Nyaya- vdrtHka-tdiparya'parUuddhiy
2S2.
Nydya-vdrttika-tdtparya'^kdy 282.
O.
Obsequies, i. 172, etc., 195.
Observation, astronomical, Hindu
modes of| ii. 285, etc.
0<^, O^ra-desa, ii. 26, 63, 159.
Ojhi, a surname, ii 168.
Cm, 24, 1 10, 134, 148, 263, 369, 431.
Om tat sat, 223.
Oigans, 255, 291, 38a
Orissa. See 04ra-de^a.
Orthodox s^tems of Hindu philo-
sophy, 239, 240.
P.
Paciolo, iL 390, 442, 449.
Pada, a measure, 539.
Pada, i. 247, 355 ; iL 64, 66, 87, 137.
Pada text of the Rig and Vajur Vedas,
18, 107.
Pcuia-chandrikd^ ii. 17, 41, 50.
Padacliaturi'irdhwa m. ii. 146.
Padakulaka m. ii. 78, 138, 139.
Padamaujari, ii. 10, 36, 38, 53.
Padanichrit-jjayatri w. ii. 136.
Pdddniulhyata, ii. 267.
Paclajiankti, ///. ii. 136.
Padartlia, 285, 293, 405, 430.
Padiirtha-dipikny 284.
Paddrtha-katimudiy ii. 52.
Paddvali^ ii. 44.
Piid<iyojiinik/i^ 36 1 .
Padmanahha, ii. 379, 380, 423.
Padmanal)hadalta, ii. 44.
Padmanabha-vijay ii. 38a
Pcuima-ptirdnay 155, 466.
Padroavati m. ii. 139.
Pahlavi translation of the fables of
Pilpay, ii. 148.
Pajjalia m. ii. 139.
Paila, 12, 13.
Pain, three sorts of, 251.
Paippal.ida 332.
Paip[)ala(h'-sakha, 16, 84.
Paisachi dialect, ii. I, 2, 61.
Pcuidmaha'hhdshyay ii. 349.
Paitdmaha'Siddhdftta^ iL 340, 347,
359,411,413,432.
Pai^hinasi, 47a
Pikasthiman, 21.
Paksha, in logic, 314.
Pakshila-swamin, 282.
Pala (a weight), 98^ 530^ etc. (measure
of time), 541.
Palatfa, 148, 188, 344.
Pali, the, of Ceylon, i. 404, 414; iL
192, 277.
Pali, a measure, 536.
Palya (Jaina term), iL 194, 195.
PaQa weight, 530, etc.
Pa^ava m. iL 99, 142.
Pancha-chamara m. iL 143, 144.
Panchdgni-vidyd-prakarca^ 352-
Pancha-panchajana\^, 373.
Panchala, L 35, 38, 62 ; metre, iL 141.
Pdncharatras, the, 354, 377, 4G4, 437,
etc.
Panchaseri, 536.
Pancha^ikha, 93, 162, 242, 243, 271,
279, 374.
Paruhasiddhdntay ii. 31 1.
Panchasiddhantiid, ii. 340, 343, 360,
430. 432.
PanchatatUrOy ii. 147, etc, 3 1 7, 434.
Panchmnnia-brdhmanay 74, 87, 120.
Panchikd, 32, 74.
Pan^i^a'SarvoTwa, 472.
Pdn^ya, ii. 242.
Panini, i. 20, 24, 470 ; iL 5, etc, 35,
40, 41, 45, 46.
Pdnintya-mata-darjHjna, iL 41.
Panjabi language, ii. 32, 63.
Panjikd-pradipa^ ii. 45.
Pan kaj avail' m. ii. 143.
Pankavali m. ii. 143.
Pankti m. ii. 136, 141, 142.
Papapuri, ii. 193.
Parajaya-hetu, 318.
Paramahansa, ii. 198.
Paramahansa-upanishady 88.
Paramai;iu, L 372, 528, etc, 538.
Paramarhata, ii. 196.
Paramarthika, 361, 398.
Paramatma, 289.
Paramatma-vidydy 352.
Paramcshthi, 24, 30, 35, 50.
Parangama m. ii. 140.
Paras'ara, i. 20, 97, 144, 214, 326,
353. 486; iL 311, 312, 336, 384,
403, 427, 429.
Pdrdsara-siddhdntay ii. 332, 365.
Paril'^'arya, 62, 162.
Pa rasa v a, ii. i6a
Parasika language, 340.
Paraskara, 470.
IKOEX.
505
Para-fi^reyas, 438.
Parasu, 21, 108.
Parasiikshma, a measure, 538.
Paia^u-rama, 134.
Paribhdshds, iu 13, 36, 39.
Paribhdshdrtha-sangraha^ iL 39.
Paribkdshd-vfitti^ ii. 39, 44.
Paribh&shendu'iekharay ii* I3» 40*
Paribkdshendu-iekhara-kdiikdy ii. 40.
Parigfti m. ii. 138.
Parikshi, L 285 ; gloss so called, iL 59.
Parikshit, i. 33, 35, 65; u. 25 1.
Parimala^ 358, 362.
Pdri^amika, 446.
Pariiishtoffrahadhay ii. 42.
ParUisnta-prakdia^ 471.
Parisish^a-siddAdnta'ratndkara, iL 42.
Parivaha, 205.
Parivatsara, 52.
Pamo^ja, 134.
Paroshnih m. ii, 136.
Par^waniltha, the Tina, iL 191, 278.
Pdrtha-sirathi-misra, 323.
Parush^i river, 155.
Parvata, 36.
Pirvati, ii. 222, 240.
Paryanka-vidydy 352.
Pd^a, 431.
Parfu, 343, 431.
Piiupatas, fhe, 240, 354, 377, 404,
430, etc ; 508.
Pa^upati, 430, author of a ritual, 472.
Pan upaii'f astray 430.
Pitaliputra, L 390; iL X2I.
Pdtanjala-bkdshyaj 248.
Patanjali, i. 247, etc ; 263, 297, 354,
385; the grammarian, iL 7, 35, 38,
Patanjali'Stitra-Trntti, 248.
Pathya, 16.
Pathyd m. iL 67, 108, 137, 138, 140;
(pankti) 136, (vrihati) 136.
Pattakila, ii. 268, 272.
Pattasutrakara, ii. 164.
Patiikara class, ii. 161.
PaulUa-siddhdnta, iL 340, 364, 432,
433.
Paumd m. ii. 139.
Paurinikas, the, 427.
Paurdnika-sankhya, 249, 254.
Pausha, 201.
Paushpinji, 15.
Pautf, a measure, 536.
Pautimdshi, 64.
Pautimashya, 61.
Pavitra m, iL 141.
Pawapuri, ii. 193, 280.
Pi3ritta m, iL 141.
Payodhara, ii. 135.
Perception, 252, 328, 329, 427.
Persian translation of Pilpay*s fables,
ii. 148, etc ; of the upanishad^, i. 8,
ii. 177; of the Lilivatfj ii. 377, 409.
Persians, their ancient religion, ii. 179.
Phala, 311.
Phdlguna, 2 1 3.
Phalguni, iL 295.
Phfgar, ii. 454.
Philosophy, Hindu systemsof, 239, etc.
Philostratus, iL 1 8 1, 183.
Pi4 m, iL 141.
Pijavana, 36.
Pilpay, fables of,iL 147, etc, 434,461.
Pjlu, 339.
Pina-nitambd m, ii. 144.
Pinda, 138.
Pindaraka, 174.
Prnda-upanishady 86.
Pingala, ii. 57, 58, 63, 88.
Pingaia-prakdaa, ii. 60.
Pingala-vfitiij ii. 60, 82, 84, 93.
Pipilika-madhya m, ii. 137.
PippaUda, 16, 85, 369.
Pi^achas, L 296; ii. 61.
Pitdmaha-siddhdntajVL ^11. SaVdlXi-
maha S.
Pitonhia, 152.
Pitris, 197, 392.
Pitfi-medha, 50, 66, 136.
Pitri-paksha, 201.
Planets, in the Veda, 25,111; sacrifices
to the, L 171 ; Hindu theory of
their motions, ii. 329, etc. , 364 ; the
hours of the day which they preside
over, i. 541, etc. (cf. ii. 319).
Plavangama m, iL 140.
Playoga, 21.
Pliny, ii. 181.
Polar star, L 234; ii. 287, 288.
Porphyrins, ii. 1 8 1.
Potri, I53» 205.
Prabh, a measure, 536.
Prabha, ii. 39, a metre, ii. 142.
Prabhakara, 322, 329, etc.
Prdbhakaras, the, 329.
Prabhadraka m. iL 143.
Prabhavati m, ii. 143.
Prabodha-ckandrodaya^ iL 94.
Prabodka-prakdia, ii. 44..
Prabodhita m. ii. 143.
Prachetas, 136, 218, 469, 470.
Pdichinarfdla, 76, 367.
Prdchinayoga, 77.
Prachita m. ii. 129, 145*
Prdchya dialect, ii. 62.
Prachya-vritti m. ii. 71, 138.
Prachyas, 34.
Pradesa (Jaina tattwa), 446, 448, 449.
Prade^a, a measure, 539.
Pradipa, 473.
506
INDEX.
Pradlpa-manjari^ iL C3.
Pradhina, 254, 363, 3fc, 431, 434, 435.
Prddvivika, the, 491, 495, $11, etc.
Pradyunina, i. 439, 440; the astrono-
mer, it 359.
Pragabhiva, 309.
Praf;iti m. it 138.
Praharapa-kalitk m, ii. 143.
Praharshi^f m. ii. 104, 130, 143.
Prajinatha, 97.
Prajapati, i. 24, 28, 29, 34, 46, 50, 75,
etc.; abode of, 391 ; a star, n. 309,
510.
Prajapatya fast, 137.
Prajja^ika m. ii. 139,
Prilna, 370, ^98.
Prakara^a, 281.
Prakrit, L 341, 404; iL I. etc, 21,
60, etc., 191, 277; derivation of the
word, ii. 2, 60.
Prakrit prosody, ii. 64 ; measures, iL
80. etc., 137, 139.
Prdkxita-kdmadkfnUt ii. 44.
Prdkrita-chandrikd^ ii. 42, 44.
I\dkfita-lankeiwara^ iL 44.
Prdkfita-mancramd^ iL 21, 42.
Prakfita-pingala^ iL 21, 60.
Prdkrita-prakdia^ ii. 44.
Prakfili, 254, 261, 266, etc., 286, 363,
373» 380, 43'. 436, 437i 448; metre,
iL 145.
Prakriyd-kaumudi, iL lO, 13, 20, 36,
39-
Prakriyd-ratna^ ii. 45.
Trama, 310, 349.
Tramadu w. ii. 138, 143.
IVamaila, 44S.
rrain.inn, 253, 2S7. Sec Evidence.
I'rainani, w. ii. 6S, 107.
I'rainanika m. ii. 141.
rranu'va, 2S7.
rramilak>liara m. iL 78, lOO, 142.
rraiuna-, ii. iSi.
rraTiuhlita-vaiLma m. ii. 142.
Trana. i. 20<). 364, 370, 380 ; iL 345 ; a
uieaMiie of time, i. 540, 541.
IVanaj;Tiiln»tr.i, 79.
/V,;'/;,/^ nth.\*t\2.h^,iuishadf 86.
Pranaiiiaya (.-aiira), 395.
J*r,iiut-s,ifn: ii t'd or /ri/mz-rtV/r^, 352.
Pranas, the five, 20C), (v.i>'us), 397.
rrajKitliaka, 54, 65, 72, 75, 80, 82.
Pra^.ui.i, ii. 3(), 39, 41, 43.
I^.v-'a-sla-j^ada, 2S2.
rra.-'na, <)5, (>6, (vS.
/''■a.inj-l\'jht'\i\ ii. 432.
/•/./.';/,;-///.;;;/. >i'.;,/, 83,85, 123.257,351.
rra-riti, a measure, 533, etc.
I'rastara-pankli ///. ii. 136.
rra;>lha, i. 98, 533, etc.
Prasthdna-hkeda^ 12, 1 7, I06u
Pratipa-dhavala-deva, iL 256, etc.
Pratardana, 22, 48, 364.
Prdtibhasika, 361.
Pratijna, 314.
Pratima^j^a, ii. 35a
Pratipa, iL 45.
Pratisankhyinirodha, 421.
Pratishthi m, ii. 136, 141.
PratUdkshard, 486.
Prativisudevas, the 9 Jaina, iL 196.
Pratiyogi, 309. .
Pratyabhijni-danana, 433.
Pratyapi^ m, ii. 146.
Pratyaya, 419.
Pratyaya-sarga, 259.
Prau^Uka'tnanoramd^ iL 12, 39.
Pra\*aha, 205.
Pravaha^a, 75.
Pravara, iL 269.
Pravara-lalita m, iL 1 44.
Pravrittaka m. iL 71, 138.
Pravfitti, 310, 406.
Prayojana, 312.
PretyabhAva, 31 1.
Priests, sixteen reqtured at a greit
solemnity, 347.
Prithivi, 67, 397-
Prithu, L 155; iL 196.
Prithudaka-swami, iL 334, 345, 349'
380, 411, 421, 422.
Prithuyas'as, ii. 430, 432.
Prithwi m. iL 144.
Priya m. ii. 141.
Priyamedha, 37.
Priyamvada, m. iL 142.
Property, King's, in the soil, 345.
Prose, Sanskrit, ii. 1 20.
Prosmly, Sanskrit, ii. 63, 65; writer
on, ii. 58, 59, etc.
Ptolemy, ii. 289, 305, etc; 337, etc.
351, 362, 476.
Pudgala, 406, 410, 447.
Pudgaliistikaya, 409.
Piiga, the, 492, 505.
Pulastya, 470.
Pulis'a, ii. 341, 365, 384, 433.
PuIisa-sidJhdntaj'ii. 341. ^c'i'auliAa^
Pulusha, 76.
Punarvasu, iL 292, 340, 343.
Punarbhoga, 31 1.
Punarutjxitti, 311.
Pundraka class, ii. 164.
Punjaraja, iL 20, 41.
Puns, 256.
Purana weight, L 530, 532.
/"urdtujs, i. ID, II, 55, 58, 60, 65, 8
241; ii. 5, 17.
Purasiad-jyotishmati m. ii. 136.
Purastad-vrihali pn. iL 136.
INDEX.
607
Xhirapnsh^ih m. iL 136.
fnri^ya, 369.
I^dr^achandra, ii. 45.
Fi&rpa-pnijnas, the, 359.
Pdr^a-yainii^kas, 417.
Purohita, i. 39 ; li. 275.
Punisha, ^3, 81,82, 256, 369, 373, 428.
Punuhakara, ii. 45.
Punisha-mcdha, 9, 50, 55, 117, 33J5.
Purusha-siikta^ 31, 81, 11$, 121, 183,
205, 335.
Pnmshottama, ii 19, 44, 5a
Porashottama-deva, ii. 38, ^4.
Piinra-bhadrapad^ i. 214; ii. 301.
Pdrva-mimdnsi, 239, 319, etc., 350.
Purva-paksha, 326.
Piirva-phalgiinf, it 295.
PdnraaM^h^ it 299.
Jhhffa'tdpaniya-upanishady 86.
Purva-varsha (Jaina), ii. 187.
Pdshan, 26, 29, 228.
Pnshkala measure, 533, 534.
Poshpadima m, ii. 144.
Pnshpiti^ m, ii. 96, 112, 116, 146.
Pnshja, iL 293.
Pata m, ii. 142.
Putra, 75.
Pntiajiva, 152.
Q.
Qualities, 261, 299. See Gui^.
R.
Rabb ul wajh, ii. 325.
Rabhasa, ii. 49, 54*
Rabhasapdla, iL 19.
Rii^(Ri4hi?), iL 159.
Ra^^hd m, ii. 84, 139.
Radhd, i. 211, ii. 32.
Ri4bi^ brahmans of, ii. 167, etc
Radhivallabhi, 211.
Radhikfishna, ii. 43.
Righay^anda, 324.
RAghavap&f^4avlya^ ii. 89, 92,
Raghunandandchdrya-rfiromai^, ii. 42.
Ragfaunandana-bha^tdchdrya, i. 464,
471, ^, 483, 489, 530, etc., 541.
Raghunatha-chakravarti, ii. 52.
Raghundtba-siromard, 284, 489.
RaghuvafUa^ L 189, 207, 218; ii. 76,
Qi, 112, etc.
R&, ii. 32.
Rahasanandf (?), ii. 42.
Rahasya, 83.
RcUtasya-brdhmanay 352.
Rdjd,35.
Rdja^deva, ii. 5a
Rajaka class, ii. 164.
Rdia-mdrtai^f L 248, 536; ii 416.
Raja'ttighcB^fay iL 19.
.Rijapd&,ii.248,249.
Rajaputra, u. loa
Rajas, 261.
Rd^a-sarshapa weight, 529.
Rdjasuya, 49, ^ 66.
Rdfa'tarangini, ii. 177.
Raja-vdrttSka, 247.
Rajikd weight, 530, 532.
Raiu, iL 198.
RakshdmaUa, iL 237, 242, etc
Rakshita, iL 38.
Rakshoghna lamp, 205.
Raktika weight, 529, etc
Rdma, i. 25, 100; ii. 177 ; worshippers
of, i. 25, 100^ 131, 211 ; the gnun-
marian, iL 45.
Rdmabhsuira, ii. 43.
Rdmabhadra-nydydlankdra, 483.
Rdmachandra, i. 21 1, the grammarian,
iL 10, 39, 44 ; the astronomer, ii. 333.
RdmacAandnkdf ii. 92.
Rdmachara^a, iL 62.
Rdmaddsa, ii. 42.
Rdmadeva-mis'ra, ii. 45.
Rdmakdnta, iL 44.
Rdmakrishijia, L 242, 246; iL 407.
Rdmakrish^a-deva, ii. 408.
Rdmakrishna-dUcshita, 361.
Rdmalingakriti, 283.
Rdma-mohan Rdya(Rammohun Roy),
357.
Rdmdnanda, i. 360; iL 43, 53.
Rdma-ndrdjra^a, ii. 44.
Ramd-ndtha, ii. 42.
Ramandtha-vidyd-vdchaspati, L 484;
ii. 52 (Ramd-ndtha V. ?).
Rama^fy-d m, iL 141.
Rdmdnuja, L 359, 430^ 439; iL 185.
Rdmdnujas, the, 211, 439.
Rdma-nydydlankdra, ii. 43.
Rdma-prasdda-tarkdlankdra, ii. 53.
Rdmaprasdda-tarkavdgib'a, iL 43.
Rdma-rdja, ii. 69.
Rdmdi^rama, iL 50, 51, 53.
Rdma'tdpaniya-upaniskad^ 88,99, 1 3 1.
Rdma-tarkavdgfsa, ii. 43, 52.
Rdma-tirtha, 360, 361, 362.
Rdmdyana of TiUasiddsa, ii. 85, 92 ;
of Vdlmiki, L 189, 470; ii. 92, 94;
of Baudhdyana, ii. 92.
Rdma-vydkartn^, ii. 45.
Rambhd m. iL 141.
Rdmeefwara, ii. 44, 53.
Rana-ranga-malla, 248.
Rdpdyaniyas, 16, 106, 352.
Rai^^ m. iL 137.
Rangandtha, i. 360, 362 ; ii. 285, 348,
379, 407, 408.
508
HHDEX.
Rangardja-dDcshita, 362.
Rantideva, ii. 19, 54-
Rasamulil m. ii. 140.
Rasamanjarl^ ii. 87.
Rasei^waras, the, 433.
Rathantara, 229.
Rathoddhatd m. iL 95, 142.
Rati m. ii. 141.
Ratikdnta-tarkavag{sa, iL 43.
Ratnagarbha, ii. 314.
Ratnakosha^ ii. 19, 54.
Ratndmdldy a dictionary, ii. 19, 54^^
grammar, ii. 44; an astronomical
work, ii. 284, 319.
Ratti, rattiki, a weight, 529, etc.
Raumaka language, 340.
Ra-vipula m. ii. 140.
Riya-muku^a-mani, iL 17, 50, 51,
Recorde, Robert, ii. 387, 39a
Regions of the world according to the
Jainas, ii. 199, etc
Rek, a measure, 536.
Rekhtah, ii. 32.
Renu, a measure, J38.
Revati, ii. 285, 288, etc, 302, 417.
Rice, used at the nuptial ceremonies,
227.
Rich, 12, 17, 49, 80, 107, 184, 334.
Rigveda, i. 12, 17, etc., 106, 333, etc;
passage on the burning of widows,
»• I35» 137; followers of, il 23a
Rishi, ii. 302.
Rishabha, the Jina, ii. 187, 280.
Rishabha-gaja-vilasita m. ii. 143.
Rishiofamantra, 18, 19,50,66,73,111.
Rishis, seven, ii. 307, 310, 312, etc.
Rishyaf^ringa, 470.
Ritu, 540, 541.
Rituals, 338, 339.
Rivers, holy, 154, 1 55.
Rohi(la<''wa, 22.
Rohini, ii. 291, 310, 315.
Kola w. ii. 82, 83, 139.
Romaka-sidJhdnta^ ii. 339, 34O, 361,
428, 432.
Rom as a, 21.
Ruchira m. ii. 104, 117, 140, 143.
Riidaki, the Persian poet, ii. 148.
Rudimcntal creation (Sankhya), 257,
258.
Rudra, i. 27, 29, 132, 149, 159, 230;
the {grammarian, ii. 19, 54.
Rudr.ini, 195.
Rudras, 28, 34, 67, 221.
Rudra-y<imala-tautra^ ii. 1 57, etc.
Rukmavati m. ii. 99, 142.
Riipa, 420.
Riipa-mi'ild^ ii. 44.
Rupa-mali ///. ii. 142.
Riipa-skandha, 418.
S.
Sdbara'bkdshya^ 321.
S'abara-swamI, 321, 322.
S'ibari dialect, ii. 62.
S'abda, S'dbda, 329, 427.
Sabda-gkoshd, ii. 43.
Sahda-kaustubfuL^ iL 12, 38, 39.
SabdAnuidsana^ iL 41.
Sabda-ratfuij ii. 13, 39.
Sabda-ratftdvali^ ii. 52.
Sfjbddrnaifo^ iL 19, 54.
Sabdaiakti-prakdsikd, 284.
SabcUndu'iekhara, ii. 13, 39»
Sdbdikdbharana, ii. 45.
Sichiguna, 38W
Sacraments, the five great, 166, etc;
viz., 1st, study of the Veda, 160^ etc ;
2nd[, sacrifice to the deities, 166, etc ;
3rd, sacrifice to the Manes, l8x, etc;
^4th, sacrifice to the spirits, 205, etc;
5th, hospitality, 217, etc
Sadinanda, 361, 428.
Sddhana, 314, 406.
Sadhya (in logic), 314, 406.
Sddhyas, the, 34, 184.
Sadikiyaihs, tlie, ii. 206.
Sidfitfya, 286.
SadyukH-mukidvall, 283.
Sagara, the sons of, 374.
Sigara (Jaina term], iL 194.
Sahadeva, 41.
Sahas, 215.
Sahasya, 215.
Sdhitya-darpana, ii. 62, 89.
Sahotaja, 134.
S'ailas'ikha m, iL 144.
Sailava, ii. 59.
S'aiva sect, the, i. 100, 210, 211, 430;
iL 177.
S'aiva-dar^ana, 433, 434.
S'aka (dcs'a), ii. 159.
Sakadwipa, ii. 159.
S'aka era, ii. 427, etc.
Sakalya, L 13, 63, 118, 162; ii. 6, 45,
284, 314, 316, 336; sakha, L 17,
105 ; sanhita, iL 2S4, 293, 314, 331.
Sakambhari, iL 83, 210, 212.
S'akapurni, 13.
S'akari dialect, iL 62.
S'aka^a-bheda, iL 291.
S akatayana, ii. 6, 36, 45.
S'akayanya, 71.
S'akhd, in astrology, ii. 430.
S'akhas of the Vedas, 12, etc., 105,
106, 148, 192, 333.
Sakhera, ii. 160.
S'akkari m. ii. 143.
Saksha (?), a measure, 537.
Saktas, the, 100, 210, 211.
INDEX.
609
i. 25» 2IO, 286, 440; ii 103.
told, ii. 123.
, Sakya-sinha, i. 323, 414; IL
278. 279.
s, the 337, 341.
I weight, 532.
-ama (ammonite), 173.
nidhi m. ii. 145.
m. ii. 94, 142.
hana, ii. 81, 427, 428.
, ii. 464.
[1, ii. 306.
m. iL 145.
hi, 139, 247.
as, 15, 105.
, 12, 72, 120, 184, 229, 334.
a air, 209.
aeans, il 181, 182, 183.
f m. ii. 68, 107.
ikd m. ii. 141.
/rf, il 45.
ya, 308.
3€ihana, ii. 392.
ravas, 62.
aya, 288, 309.
veday 9, II, 15, 71, etc, 105,
226, 233, 334.
edfya priests, 72, 224.
-purdna^ 144.
ndha, 287.
ava, 329.
ava, the Jina, iL 188.
avi, 427.
er, ii. 83,
lu m. ii. 145.
u (?) m. ii. 144.
lu, iL 240, 241.
s'ikhara, iL 191.
179, 188, 23a
. 449-
>ha m, iL 141.
isada, 37a
, sdmrajya, 34.
rata^a m. iL 144.
ha, 205.
ra, 406, 447, 448.
rga-vidyd, 352.
rta, 36, 469.
t, in inscriptions, sometimes
tes the year of the reign, iL
248 ; the era, ii. 427, etc.
tsara, 52, 82.
^■darsana, 445.
g-joana, 445.
k-charitra, 445.
I, 147, 162.
lana, 162.
uta, 41.
na, 162.
umara, lO, 75, 368.
Sandhyd, 398.
Sandila (?), ii. 167.
S'd^dilya, 438.
Sdndilya-siitraSy 438.
SdndUya-vidyd^ 352.
Sanga, 450.
Sangama, L 325 ; ii. 22, 228.
Sangiti nu iL 137, 138.
Sangraha^ 247, 325.
SangrcJumi-raina^ ii. 198.
Sanhitd in astrology, iL 430.
Sanhitd, 12, 13; of the Rig-veda, 17,
etc. ; of the White Yajurveda, 49,
etc.; of the Black Yajurveda, 65,
etc. ; of the Sdmaveda, 72, etc. ; of
the Atharvaveda, 80, etc.
Sanjivf, 64.
Sanjna-skandha, 419.
Sanjnin, 447.
Sanjutd m. ii. 142.
Sankalpa, 134.
S'aukara, L 11, 42, 53, 56, 69, 80^ 84,
89, 94, 157, 210, 245, 323, 357, 488;
ii. 16, 86, 103, 104, 185.
Sinkard (?) dialect, ii. 62.
S'ankara-misra, 282, 283.
Sankara-vijaya^ L 93, 157, 213, 433;
iL 86.
Sankarshana, 439, 440.
S'ankha, 339, 469.
S'ankha-ddraka, iL l6a
S'ankha-kara, ii. i6a
S'ankhanari m, ii. 141.
S'ankhdri, ii. 160.
S'ankhayana, I3» 90.
Sdnkhya philosophy, i. 240, etc, 363 ;
ii. 173, 197 ; derivation of the word,
L 241.
Sdnkhya-bhdshyaf 243, 245.
Sdnkhya-chandrikdy 246.
Sdnkhya-kdrikd, i. 245, etc ; ii. 68 ;
translated, L 272, etc
Sdnkhya-kaumudly 246.
Sankhyd-parimdnOy 528, etc.
Sdnkhya-pravachanay 243, 244, 247,
etc.
Sdnkhya'sdrCy 243, etc.
Sdnkya-tattwa-kaumudly 246.
Sankrama, a measure of time, 541.
Sankriti m. iL 145.
Sankshcpa-idrirakay 360.
Sankshipta-sdray ii. 43.
S'ankumati m. ii. 137.
Sanmaulika Kayasthas, iL 169^
Sannydsa-upanishady 86.
Sannydsi, iL 182.
SansdrAvartay ii. 1 9.
Sans'aya, 312.
Sanskdra, i.307, 420, 438, 453; ii. 172
Sanskira-skandha, 419.
610
INDEX.
Sanslqrita, ii. i, 3; derivation of the
word, 2.
Sanstixa-pankti m, u. 136.
Sanyoga, 287.
SanyuKti m, U. 142.
Sapi^dana, 195, 198.
Saptabhanga-naya, 450, cf. 41a
Sapta-chitika, 205.
Sapta-iaii^ ii. 67.
Sara, ii. 135.
S'arabha, a metre, ii. 143 ; a monster,
ii. 321.
S'arad, 215.
Sdrdmrita^ ii. 44.
Sara^adeva, ii. 45.
Siranitha (Sdmdth), ii. 2491
S4ranga m. iL 142.
S&rangaka,-gika m, iL 143.
Sirangi m. ii. 141.
Sarasim. ii. 145.
Sdrasundarif ii. 51.
Sdraswata^ ii. 14.
Siraswata Brdhmans, ii. 159, 168,
192 ; nation and language, ii. 21,
63, 192.
Saraswati, a river, i. 154; ii. 21.
Saraswatf, the goddess, 170, 231.
Saraswatf-b41a-bd^, ii. 20.
Saras7tfat{-kan{hdbharanay ii. 21, 45.
Saraswati'Prakriyd, ii. 41.
Siravati m. ii. 142.
Sarayu river, 174.
S'irdiila m. ii. 144.
S'ardula-lalita m. ii. 144.
S'drdula-vikridita m. iL lOI, 127,
etc., 144-
Sarfah, ii. 295.
.S'arira, 352, ^65.
S'drtraka-hhAshya-vihhdga, 358.
S' Arlraka-mimdnsdy 86, 352, etc
S'drinika-nnmdnsd-bhdshya^ 358.
S'driraka-mimiUtsd'Sutra^ 352, etc.
S'drira-shfra^ 352.
Sdrira-i titra -sdrdrtha-chandrikdy 360,
Sarja, 41.
S'arkarakshya, 76.
S'arman, a common termination of
proj)er names, ii. 168, 267.
Sarmanes, li. 183.
S'amgadhara, ii. 212.
S'drn'^adhara-piddhatiy ii. 211.
S'anij^i m. ii. 141.
Saroja, ii. 135.
Sarshapa, 530.
Saru m. ii. 141.
Sarva-darhona-sanqrahat 265, 301,
303, 322, 415, 433, 444, 456.
Sarvadhara, ii. 19, 50.
Sarvajnalina-giri, 360,
Sarv-ajnatwa, 433.
Sarvamedha, 50, 51.
SarvdnandOy ii. 50.
Sarva-vainitfikas, 417.
Sarva-varman, ii. 42.
Sarwfpanishat-sdray 88.
Sarvoru-trivedf, L 473; ii. 21X, 215,
253.
S'i^ta, 36.
S'asi m. iL 141.
S'atfi-kaU m, ii. 143.
SWi-vadand m, ii. 141, 145.
S'istra, 414.
Sdstra-dlpikdy 322, 324.
Sdstra'StddhdfUadeia'sangraka^ 362.
S'^Bwata, ii. 19, 49, 54.
S'^'wati, 21.
Sat, 30.
S'atabhishi, ii. 301, 319.
Sata^-pankti m, ii. 136.
Satakas of Bhartfihari/vi, 1 5 5, 156.
S'atamana, a weight, 530.
S atdnanda, u. 33^ 342, 359, 435, 438.
S'atAnika, 36.
Saiapaiha-brdhma^f 53, 56, 91, 117*
S'atanipd, 58.
S'dtatapa, 469.
Sati, L 13^, etc.; metre, ii. 141.
Satoviihati, m, ii. 136.
Satrdjit, 36.
S'atrunja^a, ii. 193.
Sat'saiy u. 80^ 81.
Sattwa, 261.
Satwats, the, 34.
Saturn, the planet, oblation to, 172.
Satyahav>'a, 38.
Satyakama, 7,3^ 85, 366, 369.
Satyaki, ii. 74.
Satyavaha, 84.
Satya-2'idydy 352.
Satyayajna, 76.
Saugatas, sect of, L 413; iL 172.
Saumya m. ii. 79, 138.
S'aunaka, 16, 20, 42, 84, 106, 366.
S'aunakiya-^akhd, 16, 84, 106.
Saura day, iu 364.
Sauras, the, 210, 212.
Saurabhaka m, ii. 118, 146.
S'aurasenf dialect, iL 61.
Saurashtra metre, iL 80, 81, 139.
Saura-siddhdnta, ii. 334, 340, 344,
432, 436.
S'aurpanayya, 62.
Saur>'4yani, 85.
Sautramani, 50, 54.
Sautrantikas, the, 415, 416.
Savana day, iL 364 ; month, i. 125.
Savariia, iL 167.
Savitri, 27, 31, 230, 233.
Savitri, 28.
Savya, 21.
INDEX.
511
Saya^ichiiya, i. 17, 27, 32, 42, 67,
74» 83, 89, 326; ii. 9, 41, 228. See
Midhavdcharya.
Seasons, the six, 213.
Sectaries, Indian pMlosophical, 402,
etc
Sects, religious, of the Hindus, 209, etc
Self-immolation, 133, etc., 346.
Senaka, ii. 45.
Ser, a measure, 536.
Sesd m. ii. 141.
S'esha m. ii. 141.
S'esha, the serpent, 247.
S'eshaniga, i. 96, 135 ; iL 58.
Se^wara-sankhya, 248.
Setika, a measure, 534.
Seven Rishis, i. 241 ; iL 307, 310;
their motion, ii. 312, etc.
Seven steps, the, 231 ; seven worlds,
147.
Sha4iyatana, 420.
Shadmdn, Mirza, iL 207.
Shadvinia'brdhmanat 74, 1 20.
Shahjahdn, iL 22, 63, 280.
Shai, ii. 39a
Shanak (Charaka?), iL 461.
Shanzabah, ii. 150.
Sharatan, ii. 289.
Shdri, a measure, 533.
Shashurd (sus'ruta?), iL 461.
Shatpada m. iL 139.
Shatpadika m. ii. 82, 139.
Shaulah, ii. 299.
Sheaths of the soul, 395.
Shi'ahs, the, ii. 202, etc.
Shodaiakala-vidydy 352.
Siddhaka m. iL 145.
Siddhdnta, 313, 326.
Siddhdnta-chandrikdy ii. 41.
Siddhdnta-kalpaiarUy 362.
Siddkdnia-kaumudi, ii. 12, 20, 36, 39.
Siddhdnta-muktdvali, 284.
Siddhdnta - sanhitd-sdra-samuchchaya,
iL 406.
Siddhdnta-sdrvabhauma^ iL 284, 286,
309, 3i5» 333, 348, 352» 409. ^
Siddhdnta-siromant, iL 284, etc., 308,
33^ 345* etc., 377, 406, 408, 416.
Siddhdrtta-sundara, iL 286, 287, 406.
Siddhdnta-tathva-viveka^ ii. 407. See
Tattwaviveka.
Siddhintas, the five, ii. 340, 359, 432.
Siddhartha, ii. 224, 278.
Sieu, Chinese, ii. 281.
S'igrabodha^ ii. 44.
S'igrochcha, ii. 352.
S'ikha m. iL 79, 85, 138, 139, 146.
S'ikharini m. iL 103, 132, 134, 144.
Sikhs, their sacred writings, iL 63.
Sikshd, iL 41.
Sildra, house of^ 472, 486, 488.
Silk, silkworms, iL 164.
Silvester II., pope, iL 440.
Simdk ul a*zil, ii. 296.
Siman, 45.
Simeo Sethus, ii. 152.
Sind-hind, ii. 385, 454, 459, 46a
Sindhu, ii. 265.
Sindhudwfpa, 22, 108.
Sinhilao m, iL 140.
Sinha-nada m. ii. 143.
Sinhdvaloka m, ii. 140.
Sinhavikrdnta m. iL 129, 145.
Sinhini m. iL 138.
Sinhonnatd m, ii. 143.
S'lra-deva, ii. 39.
S'irshd m. iL 141.
Sisa m. ii. 141.
S'isira, 213, 215.
S'isup41a, ii. 73.
S'tiupdla-badha, iL 73, etc., 109, etc,
119.
Sfta, 211.
S'iva, L 132, 144, 188, 195, 210, 211;
iL 221, 227.
S'ivd, iL 103.
S'iva-bhagavatas, 430.
S'iva-bhat^, ii. 13.
S'ivadasa, ii. 42, 79.
S'ivadeva, iL 45.
Stvdgatna, 43a
S'ivardma-chakravartf, iL 42.
S'iva-swami, ii. 45.
S'ivL 22, 39, 85.
Skanda-upanishad, loi.
Skandha m. ii. 137.
Skandhas, the Buddhist, 418.
Skandhogrivi (-1) m. iL 136.
S'loka m. ii. 64, 107, io8.
S' loka-vdrttika^ 325.
Smaranui, 310.
Smarta-bha^tachdrya, 471.
Smriti, 328, 337, 374, 384, 466.
Smriti-chandrikdy 473, 479.
SmfiH-ratndvaliy 484.
Smriii'Sdra^ 472.
Smriti-iattwa^ 483.
Smrityartka-sdra^ 472.
S'obha m. iL 145.
S'obhdvaii m. ii. 143.
Solar race, ii. 253, 278.
Soli, a measure, 536.
Solinus, ii. 181.
Solstitial points, supposed situation
of, 81, 99, 121, 127, etc.
Soma, the deity, 28, 167, 182, 183,
198, 224, 230, 468.
Soma (the acid asclepias), 25, 343,
Somabhupala, iL 243.
Somaka, 41.
612
INDEX.
Somilkara, i. 125 ; iL 58.
Somanatha (an author), 324.
Somanatha in Gujrit, iL 82.
Somaraji m. ii. 141.
Soma-suidhdnta^ ii. 33 1, 336.
Somaiushman, 36.
Somes'wara-devadi, iL 241.
Sommonacodom, ii. 1 75.
Sorattha m, ii. 80, 81, 139.
Soul, i- 45 ; in the Sankhjra, i. 256,
267, etc ; in the Nyiya, 288 ; in the
Vedanta, 378. 388, 395, 398; in
the Jaina doctrine, i. 406, 410, ii.
174 ; in the Buddhist, L 418.
Sound, its eternity, 305, 313, 330,
etc., 372.
Sources of knowledge. See Evidence.
Spars'a, 420.
Sphota, 33'» 373-
Spho^yana, ii. 45.
Sphuta, iL 285, 347, 356, 41 1.
Sphu^-sara, iL 356.
Sphuia-siddhdnia^ ii. 344, 358.
Spots in the moon, iL 21 8.
S rad(Jha, 400.
S'raddha, 137, 181, 195, etc.
Sragdhara m. iL 106, 145.
Sraddha-vn'ekiiy 482.
Sra£[vini m. ii. 106, 142.
Sraj ni. ii. 143.
Sramana, ii. 175, 182.
S'ravaka, iL 175.
Sravana, 98.
S'ravana, ii. 300, 315.
Sravishtlni, y8.
S'rcni, liic, 492, 505, 507.
S'renika ///. li. 142.
Sjreyas, 425.
S'ri ///. ii. 141, 142.
S'rihall.ibhacliarya, iL 43.
S'ril>ha<lra, ii. 45.
S'richandra-ileva, ii. 253.
S'ridhara, ii. 379, 380, 405, 422, 4^,
451-
S'ridharacliana, 473.
S'n'dhara-cliakravarti, ii. 44.
S'ridhara-swami, ii. 105, 3'4'
S'rihaislia, ii. 76, 89, 95; the Kanauj
braliiiian, ii. 167.
S'rikarachar\a, 472, 484-
S'rikrislina-larkalankdra, 472,481, 482.
S'rinalliacharya-chudamani, 472, 482.
S'ripala, ii. 253.
S'rij)ati, ii. 2^3, 319.
S'ripali-datl.', li. 42.
S'ripula m. ii. 142.
S'riMiLM.a, ii. 339, 341, 357, 361, 428,
Srii>liti<lli»'ii»i, ii. 38.
S'rivalsa, ii. 189.
S'ruta (Jaina term), 445.
Sruta-oodha^ iL 59, 60.
S'ruU, 337, 466.
Stanza in Saiiskrit poetry, how com-
posed, ii. 64.
Stephanus Byzantinus, ii. 181.
Sthavara, 406, 447.
Sthiti, 448.
Sthiti-sthivaka, 307.
Sthula-sarira, 395, 442.
Strabo, his account of Indian chiOTes,
iL 176, 180.
Stri m. iL 141.
Subandhu, i. 282 ; iL 89, X20^ etc.
Suhhadraka m. iL 143.
S'ubhanga, ii. 19.
Subh^skUa-ratna-sandohay iL 48, 416.
Subhiiti-chandra, ii. 45, 5a
Subodkini (a title of various works),
i. 360, 362, 485 ; ii. 43.
Substances, nine, of the Vaiseshika
system, 293.
Subtile frame, investing the soul, 258,
, 395. 442.
S'uchi (name of a month), 215.
Sudds, 36, 41.
S'uddha-ganapati, 212.
S'uddha-^rotriya-brahmai;kas, iL 168.
S'uddha-virij m. iL 1 42.
S'uddha-vira^-rishabha m, iL 1 46.
S'uddhodana, ii. x86.
Sudhd m, ii. 144.
Sudhakara, ii. 45.
Sudhanwa, 323.
Sudharma-swami, ii. 194, 277, 278.
S uddfuunbodha [?J, ii. 44,
S'udras, ii. 158, 160, etc.
Sugata, i. 329; ii. 186, 224.
Sugiti VI. ii. 138.
Suicide, legal, 133, etc., 189, 346.
S'uka, 93, 162.
Sukannan, 15.
Sukes'a, 85.
Sukesara m. ii. 143.
S uklabalas, the nine Jaina, iL 196.
S'uklambaras, ii. 198.
S'ukra, regent of the planet Venus,
138, 468, name of a month, 21$.
Suk-shma-s'arira, 257, 395, 442.
Sukta, 17, 80, 81.
S'ulapani, 468, 473, 486.
Sumalati m. ii. I41.
Sumanika /;/. ii. 141.
Sumantu, 12, 15, 16, 47a
S'umhhades'a, ii. 159.
Sumukhi m. ii. 142.
Sun, the, 26, 64, 148, 151 ; worship-
pers of, 210, 212,
S'unal?>epha, 21.
S'unaka, 84.
INDEX.
513
dini m. it 143.
h4, ii. 477, 479.
ra, Sundar, a Hindi poet, ii.
87.
rananda, ii. 53.
H m. ii. 117, 145.
H-tdpaniat Sundarl-upanishad^
. 132.
^ the, iL 204, etc.
^ 372-
ma^ ii 44, 52.
ma-dhdtupdiha^ ii. 44.
ma-makaranda^ it 44.
ma'pariiisk^a^ ii 44.
itrd m. ii. 143.
tishthi m. ii. 141.
'a, ii 135.
b(, the cow, 207, 218.
I m, ii. 144.
ena, ii 61.
xrar^chdrya, 56^
, a measure, 533.
ii- 330. 331.
, 28, 1 12.
1^ ii 379, 380, l%y 405.
'prakdia^ ii. 406.
•siddhdnta^ i 93, 127; ii. 284,
. ,307, 330, etc, 436k
iiiri, ii. 405, 40&
dman, 41.
tni m, ii 142.
ODan, 22.
^-kavirdja, ii. 42.
ai^a, 39.
tnna ray, 171, 229; artery, 389.
ta^ ii 461.
12, the caste, ii. 162.
rl, the river, 154.
- of Buddhamuni, i. 414.
^ of Bidardya^a or Vyisa, i.
, etc
of Gotama, i 281, etc.
- of Jaimini, i. 320, etc.
' of Kandda, i. 281, etc.
' of Kapila, i 243, etc
of Pancha^ikha, i 245.
- of Patanjali, i 247, etc
of Panini, ii 5, II, 38.
of Pingala, ii. 58.
of Vfihaspati, i. 429, 460.
n, 41
ii 301.
an4 m, ii 106, 144.
la weight, 530, etc
I m. ii 141.
a, 97.
i4, 30, 181, 195.
td m, ii. 95, 117, 142.
, 181, 195.
I, ii. 19, 45.
YOL. lU. [E88AT8 n.]
Swana)^ 21.
Swar, 24, 51, 442.
Swaraj, i. 34 ; (metre) ii. 137.
Swaiga, 40.
Swar^agrdma, ii I59t
Swastilui, ii 188.
Swdtantrya, 400.
Switi, i. 214 ; ii^ 296.
Swayambhii-brahma, 5a
Swayamprakdtfdnanda, ii. 40.
Swayamprakiitfinanda-saraswati, 362.
S'wetaketu, i. 48, 75 ; the bodhisatwa,
ii. 224.
SVetdmbaras, the, 405, 452.
S'wetditfwatara, 71.
S'wetdifwatara-ifdkhd, 15, 71.
Swddiwaiara-upanUhad^ 71, 120,257.
S'wetotpala, ii 415.
Syidvida, 450 (cf. 410).
Syddvdda-manjari^ 451.
S^auras, ii 175.
S yena-yiga, 344.
S'yenika m. ii.. 142.
Syllogism, Hindu, 314, etc., 356.
T.
Tad, 30.
Tahdyi, ii. 292.
Tahnr^ul'tnijastij ii. 303.
Tahyit, ii 292.
Taijasa-^arira of the Jainas, ii. 174
(cf. i. 398).
Tailanga Brdhma^as, ii. 159.
Tailanga language, ii. 29.
Tailika, ii 162. *
Taittiriya-dranyakay 68, 1 1 9.
TaittiHya-brdhmana^ 68, 1 19, 124.
Taittiriyakas, 15.
Taittiriva-^dkhi, 15, 106, 339.
Taittirlya-sanhitdy 42, 65, etc., 106,
118, 215.
TaitHHya-upanishad^ 68, etc, 88, 119,
351.
Taittirlya-yajur-veda^ 14, 40, 56, 67,
215.
Tdjaka, ii 327, 474.
Tdluddin, ii. 154.
Tdla, ii. 135.
Talavakdras, the, 16, 80.
Talttvakdra (Kena) upanishad^ 121.
Tdll m, ii. 141.
Tdmarasa m. ii. 142.
Tamas, 30, 261.
Tdmbulf ii. 162.
Tamil langu^e, ii. 27.
Tdmrakuta (Tdmrakut^?), ii. 160.
Tdncjiava, ii 135.
Tdndin, ii 59.
Tdndya-brdhmana, 74, 1 20.
Tanka weight, 5 32,. etc.
33
614
INDEX.
Tanlika (?), ii. 162.
Tanmdtra, 255, 395, 437.
Tanmitra-sarga, 258.
T4nt{, ii. i6a
Tantra, in astronomy, iL 430; a
sacr^ writing, i. 374, 438.
Tantras^ the, L 19, 55, loi, 213; ii.
'7> I57i etc.* ^t of the principal,
ii. 165.
TanirapradipcLt ii 40.
Tantravijra class, ii 160^ 161, 162.
Tanumadhyi m. ii 141.
Tanwi m, ii 145.
Tipanivas, the, 15.
Tdpaniya-upamshads^ IQ, 86, 99, 104,
131-
Tapas, 67, 407 ; the month, 98, 186,
213, 215-
Tapasya, 213, 215.
Tappas, ii 32.
Tiuachindi ii. 256, 257.
Tdraka m. ii 143.
Taralanayani m, ii 142.
TarangnU'ix, 45.
Tirapala, ii 54.
Tarf, tarfah, ii. 294.
Tdrikk-ul'hukamd, ii 460, 467.
Tarka, 316.
Tarkdbh^ 317.
Tarkabhdshd, 283.
Tarkabhdshd'prakdia, 283.
Tarhibhdshd'Sdra-manjiuri^ 283.
Tarka-sangraha^ 284.
Tarpa^a, 137.
Tata m. ii. 142.
Tatpana (tatpara ?), a measure of time,
541.
Tattwa, 312, 427, 432, 446, etc., 45a
Tattu'a-bodhinif ii. 13, 39.
Tattwa-chandra^ ii. 14, 36, 39.
Tattwa-kaumudly 246.
Tattwa- stmdsay 244, 245.
Tattwa-vinduy 358.
Tattwa-viveka, ii. 284, 309, 316, 333,
407.
Tautatita, 444.
Ta-vipula m. ii. 140.
Tejas, 261, 397, 440.
Tejai'indu'upanishady 86.
Telinga language, ii. 29, 238.
Thabit ben Korrah, ii. 303, 306, 337.
Thakura, a surname, ii. 168.
Theistical Sankhya, 248, 263.
Thurayyd, ii 291.
Tika, 282.
Tlkd-sarvaswa^ iL 50.
Tiia, 178, etc., 223.
Tilaka m, ii. 141.
Time, 297, 410.
Tii^ m. ii 141.
Tirabhukti (Tirhut), i. 390; ii I, 2a
Tirhutiya dialect, ii 16; writing, ii
26, 216, 221.
Tirindira, 21.
Tir^i m, ii. 141.
Tirthankara, i 408; ii iSf.
Tithi, ii. 320.
Tittiri, 15.
Tiware, ii.
Toiala-taniray ii 158.
Tola, weight, 531, 534.
Tolaka, weight, 530, etc, 536.
Tomara m, u. 142.
To^ka m. ii 68, 100, 142.
Totali, ii 259.
Traipuiijra-upanishad, lOi.
Transmigrations of the soul, 382, 413.
Trasa, 447.
Trasadasyu, 21, 22, 108.
Trasarevu, 528, 530^ 538.
Triad of cods, 131, 132, 144, 254.
Tribhangi i». ii 140.
Trich, 334.
Trikdn4a, ii 48, 49-
THAdnda^cAiM/dmam, ii 52.
Trik(h4A'man4aHa^ i 2I(X
TriJkdn4a'desAat ii 19, 54, 62.
Trikdn4a'Vweka, ii 52.
Trilochana-dasa, ii. 42, 53.
Trijpid-anushtubh m, ii 136, -giyatri,
iL 136, -ush^ih, ii 136, -^laj, ii
136.
Tri-pitaka, 414.
Tripura-upaniskad^ lOI, 132.
Tripuri-upanishady loi.
Trishtubh m. i 31, 113, H4; ii 136,
142.
Trita, 25, III.
Trivikrama-bha^ta, ii. 95, 122.
Trivid, ii. 305,
Trivedf, II.
Trivrit, 341.
Truti, a measure of time, 541.
Tryaruna, 21.
Tuld (a weight), i. 53 1 ; (the sign in
the Zodiac) ii. 426.
Tula.^'idasa, ii. 85, 92.
Tunaka m. ii 143.
Tunga m, ii 141.
Tura, 35, 65.
Turiya, or highest state of the soul,398.
Turushkas, the, ii 62, 178.
Twash^ri, 29.
U,
Ubhayavipuli m, ii. 137.
Uchchhish^-ga^apati, 212.
Udahara^a, 314.
Udamaya, 37.
INDEX.
515
Udana, 209.
Udayadhavala, ii. 259.
Udajridityadeva, iL 265, etc., 271.
Udayanachdiya, i. 282, 283, 304, 470;
il 16.
Udbhid, 345.
Udbhijja, 396.
Uddilaka, 33, 48, 7S» 7^1 3^6, 367.
UddeTa, 28;.
UddhsLTshb^ m. ii. 143.
Uddyotakara-dchirya, 282.
Udgati m, ii. 118, 146,
Udgithd m, ii. 137.
Udgitri, 152.
Udgfti m, il 67, 137.
Udichya-vrifti m, ii. 71, 138.
U^ya, ii. 63.
Udumbara, 346.
Udvaha, 205.
Uggdhi m. ii. 137.
Ugra class, ii. 161.
Ugrasena, 36.
ifhagdna^ 73, 74, I20.
Vhyagdnat 74, 12a
Ujjayanl, il 263, etc., 271, 273, 38a,
415-
Ujjinta, ii. 191.
Ujjwali m, ii. 142.
UkkachhA fiu iL 139.
Ukha, 15.
Uktha m. (?) ii. 141.
Ukth)^ 68.
Ulkd^ ii. 44.
UlUla m, iL 82, 139.
Ulugh Beg, ii. 289, etc
Umapati, iL 42.
Ui^di, ii. 8, 54.
Unddi-kosha^ ii. 54.
Unddvvfittiy iL 44.
Upachitrd m, ii. 78, 138, 142.
Upachitra m. ii. 145.
Upaddna, 420.
UpcLdtia-sahasri^ 361.
Upddhi, 308.
Upagiti m. iL 67, 137.
Upahira, 432.
Upajdti m, iL 91, 93, 94, 112, 142,
146.
Upakotfala, 366.
Upakoiala-vidydf 352.
Upamilini m, ii. 143.
Upamina, 328.
Upamanyu, 76.
Upanaya, 314.
Upanishad, 17, 41, etc., 68, 75, 83, 122,
257 ; list of the upani shads most
used in the Vedinta, 351.
Uparishtdd-jyotishmati m. iL 136,
•vrihati, il. 136
Upasthita m, iL 142.
Upasthita*prachupita m. iL 146.
Upavarsha, 321, 322, 357.
Upavedas, iL 20.
Upayoga, 446.
Upendravajra m, ii. 89, 91, 117,
142.
Urdu-zabdn, iL 31.
l/ija, 215.
Uro-v|ihati, m, ii. 136.
Urubhusha^a, 531.
Urvatfi, 61.
Utfanas, 138, 468.
Ushnih m. L 31, 32 ; iL 136, 141.
Urfij, 21.
Utfmara, 22, 35.
Utathya, 280, 469.
Utkachhi m. ii. 83, 139.
Utkala, i. 537, 538; iL 26 ; Brdhmans,
ii. 159-
Utkaliici-prdya, ii. 120.
Utkfiti m, ii. 145.
6^//a//>f/vocabuJary, ii. 19, 49; metre,
H3-
Utsara m. ii. 143.
Utsarpini age (of the Jainas), ii. 194.
Uttara, 326.
Uttara-bhadrapadi, iL 301, 302.
Uttara-grantha^ 334.
Uttara-kuni, 34, 39.
Uttara-madra, 34.
Uttara-m{minsa, 239, 350^ etc., 403.
Uttara-phalguni, i. 214; ii. 295.
Uttara'tdpanfya, 86.
Uttaiirchika, 120.
Uttarishd^hi, iL 299.
Uva^, 49, 89.
V.
Vich, hymn ascribed to, 28, 1 13.
Vachaknu, 63.
Vdchakutl (?), 162.
Vichaspati, ii. 19, 54.
Vichaspati-bhattdchirya, 471.
Vichaspati-mitfra, i. 246, 248, 282,
283, 358; the legist, 471, 535.
Vdda, 317.
Vaibhdshikas, the, 415, 416.
Vaidarbhi, 85.
Vaidarbhf dialect, ii. 62.
Vaideha class, iL 162.
Vaidikas in Bengal, ii. 168.
Vaidya, ii. I S9.
Vaijav4p{, 162.
Vaijayaniif a commentary, L 486 ; a
lexicon, iL 19.
Vaikarika (sarira), iL 174.
Vainava, 1 74.
Vai^ikha, 136, 214.
Vaiiampayana, 12, 13, 15.
516
INDEX.
VaUcshika philosophy, 239, 240, 253,
280, etc., 405, 411.
Vaiihamya-kaumudi^ ii. 53.
Vaishnava sect, the, i. loo^ 2JO, 21 1,
437 ;ii. 177-
Vais'wadeva ceremony, 136, 203, 207.
Vaiswadevi »i. iL 142.
Vaiawanara, 367.
Vaiiwdnara-vidydf 352.
Vaisyas, ii. 158, 160, etc
Vairfya class among the Jainas, 1. 403 ;
ii. 175.
Vaitiliya m, iL 71, 72, 138.
Vaitaraiii, 192.
Vaitarani-dhenu, 192.
Vaivaswata, 163.
Vaiydkarana-bhiishana, i. 284 ; it 40.
Vaiydkarana-bAtishana-sdraf iL 40.
Vaiydkarana-siddhdnta-manjiishd, ii.
40.
Vajapeya, 49, 54, 66, 348.
Vdjaratna, 36.
Vdjasantyi'Sanhitd'upanishad^ 53, 1 1 7.
Vdt'asaneyi-yajurvfda, 14, 48, etc. , 1 16.
Vdjasatuyi'Mhrnaj^-upanisfuid^ 56,
117.
Vajasaneyins, the, 339, 352, 438.
Vajras'ravasa, 87.
Vajins, the, 14, 64, 352.
Vdjivahana m, ii. 145.
Vairas^chl-upanuhad^ lOi.
V;Ucpati, 97.
Vaktra m. ii. 107, 108, 128, 140.
Vakya-pradipa \-piidiya ?\ ii. 40.
Vcilakhilya hymns, 107.
Vallabhacharya, 210.
Vallari /;/. ii. 138.
Valli-upanishad^ 87.
Valmiki, i. 189, 470 ; ii. 92, 94.
Vdniadeva, 20, 46, 50, 116.
Vamadcvya hymn, 235.
V'unadLiya-7'iJyd^ 352.
Vamana, ii. 9, 19, 36, 38.
VJmana-kd»ikd, ii. 222. See Kaiika-
vritli.
Vamana-jayaditya. See Vamana.
Vamanendra-swanii, ii. 13.
Vana, ii. 117, 120. .SV^ Bdna.
Vanadi'ya-bhatta, ii. 53.
Vanaka weifjht, 532.
Vanamala w. ii. 144.
Vanamaladhara m. ii. 144.
Vana-vasika m. ii. 78, 138.
Vhn-hhushana^ ii. 59.
Vanini in. ii. 143.
Vanila w. ii. 141.
Vans'a, a measure, 540.
Vansapalra m. v. 144.
Vans'aj)atrapatita m. ii. 144,
Vansoiitha (-a ?) m. ii. 94, 97, 142.
Vans'asthavila m, iL 142.
Vansi (?), 529, 530.
Vansivadana, iL 43.
Varaha, 67, 339; a holy place, 174.
Varaha-avatara, 67.
Vaddia-kalpa, 67.
Vardhamihiia, ii. 59, 153, 310, etc.,
327* 339f 360, 3»i. c^c.» 4I2» 428;
age of, ii. 415, 417, 430, etc. ; more
thui one of the name, IL 435, 437,
438.
VaraW (gdyatri) m, iL 136.
Vdrdhi-sanhitd, iL 312, 340^ 360, 381.
Vardjivi class, iL 161.
Vdri^asi (Benares), L 390 ; ii. 94.
Var^nichi, ii. I, 19, 42, 44, 49, 61.
VarasundaH m, iL 143.
Varatanu m. ii. 142.
Varayuvati m, ii. 144.
Vardhamina, the Jina, ii. 19 X.
Vardhamani m. ii. 146.
Vardhamdnd (gdvatri) m, iL 136.
Vardhamana-mi/ra, iL 42.
Varendra, iL 159, brahmansof, ii. 168.
Varga, a section, 17, 107 ; a company,
502.
Vdrhaspatya siiiras, i. 427, 429, 460 ;
family, ii. 269; school, ii. 197.
Vannan, a common surname of
Kshatriyas, iL 169, 267.
Vap?a, ii. 388.
Varnadeiandy ii. 54.
Varna- vritta, ii. 87, etc., 141.
Varsha, i. 215.
Varshas, the Jaina, ii. 197.
Vdriiika^ 282, 322, 325.
Vdrttikas^ iL 45 ; on Pdnini's sutras,
ii. 6, 10, 35, 38, 39.
Vdrttika-tdtparya-parihiddhi^ 282, 283
Vdrttika-idtparya'\ikd, 282, 2S3.
Varu, 22, 108.
Varuna, 24, 27, 28, 50, 52, 69, 156,
191, 221, 226, 230, 391.
Varuna- bhatta, ii. 415.
Vdrunl'Upanishad^ 69, 88.
Vas'a," 35.
Vdsand gloss, iL 284, 407.
Vasand metre, iL 140.
Vdsand-bhdshyay iL 198, 20I, 285,
315' 330, 334, 355. 380.
Vdsafui-vdrttika^ iL 315, 331, 348,
407.
Vasanta, 214, 215; metre, ii. 141.
Vasanta-tilaka m. iL 106, 117, 131,
.«33» 143.
Vasanti m. ii. 143.
Vdsavadattdy L 282 ; ii. 89, 1 20, etc.
Vasishtha, i. 20, 26, etc., 36, 38, 50,
1 1 2, 207, 218, 222, 339, 469, etc. ;
ii. 284, 336.
INDEX.
517
Vdsishiha-siddhdnta^ ii. 333, 340, etc.,
428, 432.
Vdsudeva, 4.39.
Visudeva-sarvabhauma, 284, 489.
Visudevas, Jaina, ii. 195.
Vasumanas, 22.
Vasumati m. ii. 141.
Vasus, the, 28, 34, 67, 98, 222.
Vdtormi m, iL 94, 142.
Vatsa ii. 167.
Vatsydyana 281, 282.
Vayu in astronomy, ii. 423.
Vedagarva (?), ii. 167.
Vedadipa, 20, 49, 53, 116.
Vedamitra, 13.
Vedand, 420.
Vedand-skandha, 418, 419.
Veddngas^ 161.
Vedaniya, 408, 448.
Veddnta, 17, 90, 239, 3«o, etc., 393.
Veddnta-kalpa-latikd^ 362.
Veddnta-kalpataru^ 358.
Veddnta-kcdpatarU'tnanjarl, 358.
Veddnta-kalpatarU'parimala^ 358.
Veddnta-paribhdshd^ 361.
Veddnta-sdra^ 360, 361.
Veddnta-iikhdmani^ 329, 361.
Veddnta- siddhdnta-vindUj 362.
Veddnta-siitras^ 352.
Vedanta'Siitra-fnuktd^aHy 360.
Veddnta-siitra-^dkhyd-chandrikdy 360
Vedas, i. 9, etc., 103, etc. ; Consisting
of parts written at various times, i.
96, 124, 335 ; Portions liable to the
suspicion of modem origin, i. 92,
99, etc., 131, 333; Genuineness and
antiquity of the Vedas generally, i.
88, etc, 124; iL 176, 179, 184;
presimied date of, i. 81, 99, etc., 121,
124, 126, etc., 213, etc. ; obsolete
dialect of, i. 102, 341, ii. 3 ; mono-
theism of, i. 22, etc., 46, 109, no,
210; mythol<^ of, i. 25, no;
Vedas often described as three, L 9 ;
four Vedas alluded to in some
upanishads, L 10, 60, 85, 104;
supposed fiifth Veda, L 10, 11, 103 ;
the Vedas maintained by the Mi-
mdnsd to be primeval, L 333, 372 ;
Prayers on banning a lecture of
the several Vedas, i. 160^ 203 ;
Metres peculiar to, ii 57, 66, 136 ;
the Vedas rejected by the Bauddhas
and Jainas, ii. 172.
Vedavydsa 9, 103. See Vydsa.
Vedhavalaya, ii. 285.
Vega, 307.
Vegavati m, ii. 146.
Venka^ddri, Venka^agiri, 324.
Venus, the planet, i. 172 ; iL 321.
VeiJ'vd m, ii. 137.
Vetdla-panchavinsati, ii. 79.
Vibhindu, 21.
Vibhiiti,^248.
Vibudha-priya m, ii. 144.
Vidagdha, 63, 118.
Vidarbha, a king, 41.
Vidarbha, the country, i. 223 ; ii. 62.
Videhas, the, 62.
Videha-mukti, 393.
Vidhdtri, 205.
Vidhi, 327, 431, 432.
Vidriti, 45.
Vidwan'fnafUhranjinl^ 362.
Vidyddhara m, ii. 142.
Vidydnagara, -i, L 325 ; ii. 227, 229.
Vidydndtha-bha^ta, 358.
Vidydra^ya, 48, 56, 71, 87, 116.
Vidydvinoda, ii. 105.
Vid3rullekhd m, iu 141.
Vidyunmdld m, ii. 99, 100, 141.
Vidyut m. ii. 143.
Vigdhd m. ii. 137.
Vigdthd m, ii. 137.
Vigiti m, XL 138.
Vigrahapdla-deva, ii. 248, 249.
Vija, ii. 383, 420.
Vija-ganita, ii. 377.
Vija-prabodha^ ii. 407.
Vijaya-chandra, ii. 253, 256, 261.
Vijaya-pura, ii 222.
Vijaya-Tnldsa, 13, 20.
Vijndna, 415, 418, 420, 433, 453.
Vijndna-bhikshu, 243, 248, 360.
Vijndnamaya (f^arira), 395.
Vijndna-skandha, 418.
Vijndnayogi or Vijndnerfwara, 93, 468,
485 ; his age, 487, 488.
Viiohd m, iL 141.
Vikald, 540.
Vikramdditya, ii. 7, 16, 48, 427, 428.
Vikfiii m, ii. 145.
Vikshepa, ii. 285, 419.
Vimala-saraswati, iL 44.
Vinddikd, a measure of time, 541.
Vindyaka, iL 154.
Vindhya-vdsinf, ii. 222.
Vipala, a measure of time, 541.
Viparitdkhydnaki m. iL 1X2, 146.
Viparita-pathyd m, ii. 140.
Vipina-tilaka m. ii. 143.
Vipra, iL 135.
Vipuld m, iL 67, io8, 137, 140.
Virdj, i. 34, 47, 56, 57, 58, 61, 184,
369; metre, L 31, 114; iL 137.
Viramiirodaya^ 480, 485, 487.
Virana (vi- ?), 226.
Virochana, 37.
Virya, 440.
ViidkM, L 127, 214; ii. 297.
518
INDEX.
Wila, 42.
Visala-deva, ii. 210.
VUesha, 308.
Vii^eshika m, ii 142.
Vishaya, 311. *
Vishkumbha, ii. 319.
Vishnu, i. 70, 132, 144, 181, etc, 230,
etc. ; ii. 222, 228 ; do trace of the
worship of his incarnations in the
Vedas, L 25, icx); his three strides,
L 155, 168; his nine foes (Jaina),
iL 190.
Vishnu, the legislator, 136, 468.
Vish^u-chandra, il 333, 334, 339, 341,
357, 418, 428, 433.
VisM^fU'dharmottara-fiurdna^ ii 284,
341, 344, 348, 358, 411.
Vish^u-miiTra, ii. 44.
Vishi^u-pa^^ita, ii 405.
Visknu'furdna, i I3f I4> 93f 'S^.
249 ;ii 314,318.
Vishpu-^arman, ii 148.
Vi^oka M, ii. 78, 138.
Vismita m, ii 144.
Vistira-pankti m, U. 136.
Vii^wa, or waking state of the soul,
398.
Viiwaiit, 345.
ViiwaJcarman, 36, 67.
Virfwimitra, 20, 26, 50, 335, 470.
Vitfwanitha, i 283, 284 ; ii 53 ; the
astronomer, ii. 406, 407.
Vi^wantara, 41.
VUwa-prakdia^ ii 18, 19, 53.
Virfwaratha, ii 60.
Vis wanipa, i. 468 ; ii. 409.
Virfwedevas (Viswe devi^?), 28, 34,
196, etc.
Viiwesfwara-bhatta, 473, 485.
Vis'wes'warananda-saraswatf, 362.
Vitina m. ii. 108, 141.
Vitanda, 317.
Vitard^a-stuiiy 445.
Vitasta river, 155.
Vitasti, a measure, 538, 539.
Vitthaldcharya, ii. 39.
Vtvdda-bhangdtnavaj 473.
Viz>dda-chandray 471, 480.
Vivdda-chintdmaniy 471, 480.
Vwdda-ratndkaray 471, 480.
Vivdddrnava'Situ, i. 464, 473; ii. 157.
Vivdda-sdrdrnavay 473.
Vwdda-idiidavay 480.
Vrvaranas on Pdniniy ii 8.
Vivasanas or Jainas, 404.
Vivaswat, 5a
Vivaha, 205.
Vodhu, 162.
Vopadeva, i. 210; ii. 15, 36^ 38, 42,
43» 45» 5'-
Vopilita. Sit Bopilita.
Vraja-bhishi, ii 32.
Vrata, 432, 446.
Vriddha-gar;^ ii 312, 313.
Vfiddha-'vdwh^ha^ ii 344.
Vriddhi-^riddha, 202.
Vfihad-amara-kosha^ ii. 19.
Vfikad-dranyaka^ and V.A .upanishmi^
i 14, 28, 48, 55, etc, 91, 117, 351,
366; ii. 173.
Vfikad-dkarma'purdna, i 93; ii 157.
Vrihad'hdrdvalt, ii 53,
Vrihadratha, 71.
Vrihaduktha, 38.
VriAad-tnvdia'j^tala, ii. 430.
Vfihad-ydird^ li. 43a
VfiAan-ndrdyana-upanifAadf 68, 88,
119, 124.
Vrihaspati, 20, 21, 31, 50, 70, 138,
172, 226, 230^ 233, 426, 460, 469,
531.
Vrihaspati-mukata, ii 17, 50.
Vrihat (text), 229.
Vrihati m, i 31, XI4; ii 136, 141.
Vrihat-jdtaka, ii 320, 430, 431.
VTihai-ni^han^i^ ii. 19.
Vfihat-pardiaraj 97.
Vfikat-sanhadf ii 426, etc
Vfihat-siirya'siddhdnta^ ii 436.
Vfinddvana-chamfii, ii 122.
Vrinti m, ii 142.
Vrisha (the constellation), i 214, 215 ;
ii 291, 321.
Vrishabha, thejina, ii. 187.
Vrishagir, 21.
Vritra, 25.
Vjitraghna, 38W
Vjitrahan, 25.
Vfitta m. ii. 145.
Vritti m. ii. 142.
Vfitta-darpanay ii. 59, 60.
Vfitta-gandhi, ii. 1 20.
Vfitta-kaumudiy ii. 59.
Vritla-muktdvaJlf ii. 59, 60, 66.
Vfitta-ratndkara, ii. 59, 60, 79, 91,
107, 119.
Vfiiti, a gloss, 357=pravntti, 406.
Vfittikdra, 282, 321.
Vfitti-sangrahat ii 36, 38.
Vfittokii-raina^ ii 59, 60.
Vudila, 76, 78.
Vyddi, ii. i^, 49, 54.
Vydghrabhuti, ii 45.
Vyighrapad, 77, 78.
Vyaghrapada, ii. 45.
Vyahritis, 24, 33, no, 145.
Vydkdra-dipikdy ii. 43.
Vydkhydmrita^ ii 5a
Vydkhyd-pradipoy ii. 17, 51.
Vydkhyd-sdra^ ii. 42.
INDEX.
519
Vydkhyd'sudkd, ii. 17, 51.
Vyila m. ii. 117, 145.
Vyana, 209.
Vydpd, 284, 314.
Vydsa, i. Q, 12, 20, 62, 93, 103, 239,
2/p, 248, 352, 469, 470, 539; ii. 92.
Vyasas'raraa, 358. • .
lydsa-siitra-vfitti, 360.
Vyasa-tirtha, 75.
Vyatipita, 201.
Vyavahdra'chintdmmfi^ 47 1, 48a
Vyavahdra'tatiwa, 471.
Vyavahdra-mayiikha, 48a
Vyavahdra-ratndkara^ 480.
Vyavahdrika, 361, 392, 398.
W.
Waters, prayers to the, 143.
Weights and measures, Indian, 528,
etc.
White Yajur-Veda, 14, 15, 48, etc,
105, no.
Whitney, Prof., notes by, on Cole-
brooke*s Essay on the Vedas, 103,
etc.
Widow, Hindu, 133, etc.
Worlds, seven, 147.
Wujuh, ii. 325.
Y.
Yidava, ii. 45.
Y4ga, 343.
Yajna, Yajnas, 1 1, 49, 55, 82, 96, 100.
Yajna personified, 3a
Ydjna-deva (?), 55.
Yajna-ndrdya^a, ii. 45.
yajnatantra-sttdhdntdkiy 73.
Yijnavalkya, 14, 50, 58, 60, 62, 92,
145, 146, etc, 162, 366, 368, 371,
468, etc., 528.
Yajurvida, See Black Y., White Y.
Yajus, II, 49, 116, 184, 334, 335.
Yama, 28, 87, 113, 163, 176, 209,
218, 227, 230, 370^ 399, 469.
Yamaka m, ii. 141.
Yamf, 112.
Yamund, 28, 38, 112, 1 54, 174.
Yan-lug-anta-iiromani, ii. 41.
Yai^ab-p41a, ii. 246.
Ydska, i. 13, 15, 105 ; iL 8, 41, 59.
Yas'ovarmadeva, ii. 265, etc., 272, 274.
Yati, i. 136 ; Jaina, ii. 175.
Yatna, 306.
Yava, i. 198, a weight and measure,
529, 530, 538.
Yavamadhyd m. ii. 137.
Yavamati m, ii. 146.
Yavanas, the, il 164, 321, 323, 327,
361, 478.
Yavanichirya, ii. 321, 323, 328, 361.
Yavane^wara, ii. 478.
Yavana language, 340.
Yavat-t4vat = Bombel]i's/a»/^, ii. 388.
Ya-vipulA /«. ii. 140.
Yauvanamatti, m, ii. 144.
Year, 52, 96, 117, 125.
Yodha m. iL 141.
Yoga, 431, 432, 447.
Yoga philosophy, i. 240^ etc, 263,
37?, 390, 393 ; ii. 197-
Yogachiras, the, 415.
Yoga-idstra^ i. 243, 246, 247, 258,
263 ;ii; 58.
Yoga-4tkhshd-upanishad, 86.
Yogasiddha, 406.
Yoga-stitraSy 247, etc.
Yogas (27 or 28), ii. 318, 319.
Yoga-tattwa-upanishad^ 86.
Yogatdrd, ii. 283, 318.
Yoga-vdrttika^ 243, 248, 360.
Yoga-vdsish\ha^ i. 352 ; ii. 92.
Yogi, 263, 392, 393.
Yogi-yajnavalkya, 145.
Yojana, i. 539, 540, 542 ; great yoj ana,
ii. 20a
Yoni-grantha^ 334.
Yudhan^raushti, 36.
Yudhishthira, il 73, 178, 427.
Yuga, L 96, 97, 125 ; u. 360, 419, 364,
426, 427.
Yugadyis, the four, 201.
Yugma, iL 65.
Yuka, a measure, 538.
Yuvanatfwa, 22.
Zibih, ii. 300.
Zdid, ii. 391.
Zdt ul halk, ii. 303.
Zira*, ii. 293.
Zodiac, its divisions, ii. 281, etc.,
404.
Zubana*, Zubdniyin, ii. 297.
Zubrah, ii. 295.
ElTD OF BS8ATB, VOL. H.
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