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UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS MUSEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY
Miscellaneous Publication No. 9
2nd Edition (1st ed. was Miscl. Publ. No. 2, 1950)
The HANDBOOK OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF KAN-
SAS by Hobart M. Smith results from a continuation of the work of
the KANSAS BIOLOGICAL SURVEY; the Department of Zoology
and Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas from
time to time hope to be able to provide in published form information
on the kinds, distribution, habits, possible economic uses, and other
attributes of the biota of the state. This second edition of the Hand-
book is a revision of the first edition and is published in response to
scores of requests from citizens of Kansas for information concerning
the amphibians and reptiles of the state.
E. Raymond Hall, Editor.
Snake in color on front of cover is a copperhead
S^ )
HANDBOOK OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES
OF KANSAS
BV
HoBART M. Smith
University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History
Editor: E. Raymond Hall
Miscellaneous Publication No. 9
Second Edition, pp. 1-356, 253 figures
Published April 20, 1956
(First Edition, Miscl. Publ. No. 2, of pp. 1-336, 233 figures was published
September 12, 1950)
University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas
PRINTED BY
FERD VOILAND. JR. . STATE PRINTER
TOPEKA. KANSAS
1956
25-9019
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Purpose 7
Materials 7
Treatment of Species 7
Maps : 8
Acknowledgments 8
History 9
Composition of Fauna 10
Venomous Species 12
Collecting 12
Care of Live Individuals 15
Preservation of Specimens 17
Identification 23
Key to Classes 25
Class Amphibia 25
Key to orders of Amphibia 25
Salamanders, Order Caudata 26
Key to species of salamanders 27
Key to known eggs of salamanders 30
Hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis 31
Eastern Newt, Notophthalmiis viridescens 33
Spotted Salamander, Ambystoma maculatum 36
Narrow-mouthed Salamander, Ambystoma texanum 38
Tiger Salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum 40
Long-tailed Salamander, Eurycea longicauda 43
Cave Salamander, Eurycea lucifuga 45
Nereous Salamander, TyphJotriton nereus 47
Mudpuppy, Nectunis maculosus 48
Anurans ( Frogs and Toads ), Order Salientia 51
Key to species of frogs and toads 53
Key to known eggs of anurans 63
Plains Spadefoot, Spea bombifrons 66
Plains Toad, Bufo cognatus 69
Sonoran Toad, Bufo compactilis 72
Green Toad, Bufo debilis 74
Canyon Toad, Bufo punctatus 77
American Toad, Bufo terrestris 79
Garden Toad, Bufo tvoodhousii 83
Northern Cricket Frog, Acris crepitans 87
Spotted Chorus Frog, Pseudacris clarkii 90
Striped Chorus Frog, Pseudacris nigrita 93
Spring Peeper, Hyla crucifer 95
Common Tree Frog, Hyla versicolor 97
Gopher Frog, Rana areolata 99
(3)
4 Contents
PAGE
Bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana 102
Green Frog, Rana clamitans 104
Pickerel Frog, Rana palustris 106
Leopard Frog, Rana pipiens 109
Wood Frog, Rana sylvatica Ill
Eastern Narrow-mouthed Frog, Gastrophryne carolinensis 11
Western Narrow-mouthed Frog, Gastrophryne olivacea 115
Class Reptilia 117
Key to orders and suborders of Reptilia 118
Turtles, Order Testudines 119
Key to species of turtles 1 19
Common Musk Turtle, Sternotheriis odoratus 126
Yellow Mud Turtle, Kinosternon flavcscens 129
Alligator Snapping Turtle, Macroclemys temminckii 131
Common Snapping Turtle, Chehjdra serpentina 134
Carolina Box Turtle, Terrapene Carolina 137
Ornate Box Turtle, Terrapene ornata 141
Map Turtle, Graptemys geographica 144
False Map Turtle, Graptemys pseudogeographica 147
Painted Turtle, Chryseinys picta 149
Saw-toothed Slider, Pseudemys floridana 152
Elegant Slider, Pseudemys scripta 155
Smooth Soft-shelled Turtle, Amyda mutica 157
Spiny Soft-shelled Turtle, Amyda ferox 160
Lizards, Suborder Sauria 163
Key to species of lizards 163
Carolina Anole, Anolis carolinensis 168
Earless Lizard, Holbrookia maculata 171
Collared Lizard, Crotaphytus collaris 174
Rough-scaled Lizard, Sceloporus tindidatus 176
Texan Homed Lizard, Phrynosoma cornutum 181
Short-horned Lizard, Phrynosoma doiiglassii 184
Brown Skink, Scincella laterale 186
Coal Skink, Eumeces anthracinus 188
Common Five-lined Skink, Etimeces fasciatus 191
Greater Five-lined Skink, Eumeces laticeps 194
Sonoran Skink, Eumeces obsoletus 197
Prairie Skink, Eumeces septentrionalis 200
Six-lined Racerunner, Cnemidophorus sexlineatus 204
Glass-snake Lizard, Ophisaurus attenuatus 207
Snakes, Suborder Serpentes 210
Key to species of snakes 2l2
New Mexican Blind Snake, Leptotyphlops myopica 220
Worm Snake, Carphophis amoenus 222
Contents 5
PAGE
Eastern Ring-necked Snake, Diadophis punctatus 224
Common Hog-nosed Snake, Heterodon platyrhinos 226
Western Hog-nosed Snake, Heterodon nasicus 229
Rough Green Snake, Opheodrys aestivus 231
Smooth Green Snake, Opheodrys vernalis 234
Racer, Coluber constrictor 236
Coachwhip, Masticophis flagellum 240
Rat Snake, Elaphe guttata 243
Pilot Black Snake, Elaphe ohsoleta 245
Glossy Snake, Arizona elegans 248
Bull Snake, Pituophis melanoleucus 250
Blotched King Snake, Lampropeltis calligaster 253
Speckled King Snake, Lampropeltis getulus 256
Red King Snake, Lampropeltis triangulum 258
Long-nosed Snake, Rhinocheilus lecontei 261
Plains Ground Snake, Sonora episcopa 263
Slender Tantilla, Tantilla gracilis 265
Black-headed Tantilla, Tantilla nigriceps 268
Spotted Night Snake, Hypsiglena torquata 269
Yellow-bellied Water Snake, Natrix erythrogaster 272
Graham Water Snake, Natrix grahamii 274
Diamond-backed Water Snake, Natrix rhomhifera 276
Common Water Snake, Natrix sipedon 279
DeKay Snake, Storeria dekayi 281
Red-bellied Snake, Storeria occipitomaculata 283
Southern Ground Snake, Haldea striatula 285
Western Ground Snake, Haldea valeriae 287
Marcy Garter Snake, Thaninophis marcianus 289
Common Garter Snake, Thamnophis ordinatus 291
Plains Garter Snake, Thamnophis radix 293
Ribbon Snake, Thamnophis sauritus 296
Lined Snake, Tropidoclonion lineatum 298
Pit Vipers, Family Crotalidae 301
Copperhead, Ancistrodon contortrix 304
Cottonmouth, Ancistrodon piscivorus 308
Massasauga, Sistrurus catenatiis 310
Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox 313
Timber Rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus 316
Prairie Rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis 318
Species and Subspecies of Probable But Unverified Occurrence 320
Glossary 326
Literature Cited 330
Index 345
PURPOSE
This handbook is designed to meet the needs of students and
others who have httle or no biological background but who are in-
terested, either casually or seriously, in the identification, habits and
distribution of the amphibians and reptiles of the state of Kansas,
Little that is new is included in these pages. Advanced specialists
in herpetology will find useful material chiefly, if at all, in the distri-
butional data which have been carefully compiled as completely as
possible from both published accounts and previously unreported
specimens.
All species and subspecies for which definite evidence of occur-
rence could be found in the state are included in the following ac-
counts. Other species (and even subspecies) of probable but un-
verified occurrence are listed on page 320, and these are likewise
incorporated in the keys to adults (not to eggs or larvae) for the
convenience of those who may discover them.
This publication treats only species now existing in the state.
Extinct kinds were summarized by Lane ( 1945, 1946 ) . For recent
additions see Galbreath (1948), Oelrich (1952, 1953, 1954) and
Twente (1952).
MATERIALS
Specimens used in preparing this account are for the most part
in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History. Other col-
lections examined are at Kansas State Teachers College at Emporia,
Pittsburg State Teachers College, University of Illinois Museum of
Natural History, and Ottawa University. Pertinent pubhshed ac-
counts, especially those treating of Kansas, have also been used.
Descriptions are based on individuals from Kansas although the
mentioned extremes of variation are derived from knowledge avail-
able for the subspecies as a whole, or for the species in instances
where no geographic races have been named. Accounts of habits
and habitats are derived from information obtained in different
states.
TREATMENT OF SPECIES
Probably most users of this account will be interested primarily
in knowing the species to which an animal belongs, since the species
is the largest category of "kind" which satisfies the needs of identifi-
cation. It seems to be unnecessarily confusing, for most beginners,
to be confronted with the detail of subspecific identities. Accord-
(7)
8 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
ingly attempt has been made throughout to emphasize the species.
For advanced students and speciahsts who are interested in the sub-
species there is a brief statement at the end of the account of each
species, of the subspecies in Kansas, and, if more than one sub-
species occurs in Kansas the distinguishing features of each are
mentioned.
The simpHfication by deemphasis of the subspecies, which is con-
trary to the usual practice in guides of this sort, is made possible by
the fact that subspecies have geographic ranges which are comple-
mentary, not overlapping. Therefore identification of a specimen
to species from a known locality automatically furnishes a clue as
to the subspecies concerned. Specimens from areas intermediate
between the known geographic ranges of two subspecies of a single
species are at best decipherable by only the specialist, to whom they
should be made available.
MAPS
The account of each species is accompanied by two maps. One
is a small map of North America, showing the range of the species
as a whole, including all its subspecies, if any are known. The sec-
ond map is an outline of the state, showing exact localities of known
occurrence (see symbols) and the presumed range (a "shaded"
area). The estimate of the range of any species in Kansas is based
on ( 1 ) the locality records for that species, ( 2 ) physiography, and
(3) distributional data for other species of similar range.
The symbols for locality records are as follows: circles, speci-
mens examined; triangles, specimens reported but not examined;
solid symbols, precise localities; hollow symbols, localities known
only to county. Although most localities of occurrence have been re-
corded, not every one is recorded in every county. Closely grouped
localities have been indicated by a single symbol in order to avoid
undue crowding of symbols. However, at least one record is shown
for every county from which the species concerned is known.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many associates have contributed to the completion of this work
directly and indirectly, and to all I acknowledge my debt and ex-
press my gratitude. Among those to whom I am especially in-
debted are: Dr. Edward H. Taylor, who has provided numerous
photographs; Dr. John C. Breukelman, for permission to examine
the collection at Emporia State Teachers College; the late Dr. Henry
Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 9
H. Hall, for permission to examine the collection at Pittsburg State
Teachers College; the late Dr. William B. Wilson, for permission to
examine the collection formerly at Ottawa University (now at the
University of Kansas); Mr. Lester J. Short, Jr., for records of Opheo-
dnjs vernalis; Mr. R. F. Clarke and Dr. Richard B. Loomis, for
numerous suggestions and corrections, and for use of numerous
distributional records personally compiled; Mr. Roger Conant, Mr.
Ray R. Hamm, Dr. Howard K. Gloyd, Dr. Sherman C. Bishop, and
the staff at the New York Zoological Society for their coopera-
tion and courtesy in making certain photographs available; Dr.
Philip W. Smith, for suggestions and photographs; to Dr. Louis W.
Ramsey, Dr. Anna A. Wright, Dr. Arthur H. Wright, Mr. Charles
A. McLaughlin and Dr. Charles H. Lowe, Jr., for numerous photo-
graphs. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the Comstock Pub-
lishing Company, Inc., for permission to reproduce selected illustra-
tions from my "Handbook of Lizards . . ." published in 1946. The
drawings have been made by students at the University of Kansas,
by Mrs. Katherine H. Paul, staff artist at the University of Illinois,
and by Mrs. Virginia Unruh, formerly staff artist. University of
Kansas Museum of Natural History, who has helped in other ways.
Finally I acknowledge with gratitude the assistance of Dr. E. Ray-
mond Hall, at whose suggestion the work was undertaken, and who
has given critical editorial assistance to the several stages of the
work and who has otherwise forwarded completion of the handbook.
HISTORY
Although Kansas is the birthplace and home of a relatively large
number of herpetologists, none of them has published a thorough
account of all of the reptiles and amphibians of the state. The near-
est approach, but little more than a list of species, is Cragin's "A
Preliminary Catalogue . . ." of 1881, in which eighty-eight species
and subspecies are listed, although subsequently many of these have
been shown not to occur in the state. A few supplementary papers
by Cragin ( 1885, 1894 ) added some species to the list for Kansas.
The "father" of Kansan herpetology was unquestionably Dr. Ed-
ward Hallowell, who in 1856 reported upon a very commendable
collection of twenty-four species and subspecies obtained by Dr.
W. A. Hammond from "Kansas" (without further data, at a time
when "Kansas" included a much larger area than it does now).
More recent accounts have treated restricted groups. Examples
are: Branson's "The Snakes of Kansas" (1904), a rare item, now
10 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
of little practical use since the nomenclature has been much changed
in later years. Of still more recent date, and more nearly complete,
are E. H. Taylor's (1929) list of the snakes of Kansas and C. E.
Burt's paper on the lizards (1928). No more recent summary of
either of these groups has appeared. The same is true of the only
summary of the amphibians of the state which appeared in 1934,
in "The Amphibians of Kansas," by H. M. Smith. All of the articles
mentioned are unobtainable now except as secondhand items.
Despite the lack of a complete herpetological account, published
records for the state are unusually numerous. Considerable field
activity since 1925, in great part stimulated by Edward H. Taylor,
Howard K. Gloyd, and Charles E. Burt, resulted in many accounts
being published. Material from the state is contained in widely sep-
arated collections and has been reported in numerous monographs
on natural groups which enter the state, as for example in Blan-
chard's LampropeUis (1921) monograph, Taylor's Eumeces (1935)
monograph, Gloyd's rattlesnake (1940) monograph, and in many
others. Many of these, but by no means all, are cited in the ap-
pended list of literature.
Throughout this period of active collecting in Kansas, the role of
the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas has
been of great importance. A survey of the vertebrates of the state,
initiated by Mr. C. D. Bunker of that Museum, gave the initial im-
petus to the field work that has made the distribution of the fauna
of this state relatively well known.
COMPOSITION OF FAUNA
At the present time 98 species, or a total of 110 species and sub-
species, are known from Kansas. At least 13 others are to be
expected and undoubtedly still more will be found. The totals are
as follows:
Numerical Distribution of the HERPETOFAtrNA of Kansas
Species Probable but
and unverified
Species subspecies species and
verified verified subspecies
Salamanders 9 10 2
Anurans 20 24 3
Lizards 15 16 1
Snakes 40 46 3
Turtles 13 13 2
97 109 11
Although intensive field work has been carried on for many years
in the state, much yet remains to be learned of the composition and
Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 11
distribution of the fauna, especially along the borders of the state.
A comprehensive list of the fauna in only one other adjacent state
(Nebraska) has been published in recent years; for it Hudson
( 1942 ) estimated 56 species and subspecies at that time. Although
now far out of date in nomenclature and completeness of distribu-
tional data, summaries are available also for the states of Missouri
(Hurter, 1911) and Colorado (Ellis and Henderson, 1913, 1915).
No complete printed summary has appeared for Oklahoma, except
for a list of species and localities which Ortenburger published in
1926. The same author published a key to the reptiles only a few
years later (1930), and Bragg et al. (1950) have summarized the
amphibians (others of partially synoptic scope are Bragg, 1942,
1943a, b, 1944a, 1945; Bragg and Smith, 1943). For certain other
nonadjacent states lists of the fauna have been prepared, although
a good many years ago, and some of the compilations can now be
considered far from accurate.
Comparisons of the Kansan Herpetofauna mith That of Other States
Washington 25 ( 1942) New Mexico 88 ( 1924)
South Dakota 36 ( 1943) Missouri 102 ( 1911 )
New Hampshire 36 (1939) Kansas 109 ( 19^4 )
Idaho 40 (1941) lUinois 110 (1949)f
Minnesota 45 (1944) Oklahoma 127 (1934)f
Michigan 46 ( 1928) Arkansas 130 ( 1938)
Nebraska 56(1942) South CaroHna 142 (1954)
Colorado 57 (1915) North Carolina 145 (1943)
Utah 57 ( 1931 ) Florida 162 ( 1940)
Oregon 63 (1939) Cahfornia 169 ( 1947)f
West Virginia 70 (1934) Alabama 180 (IflM)
Pennsylvania 74 ( 1939) Texas 216 ( 1947)
Ohio 78 (1935, 1943, 1946)*
For what it may be worth, however, the number of species and
subspecies recorded for each of these states is listed herewith. All
lists published prior to 1940 now are subject to extensive revision
( especially in the case of New Mexico, but less so in the case of more
eastern states such as Florida, Michigan, Pennsylvania and West
Virginia). More recent lists require fewer corrections, but none is
complete. The table reveals that the most important factor in pro-
viding a large faimal list for any state is its latitudinal position:
there is a gradual and steady increase in number of kinds toward the
south along any meridian.
The second most important factor is an east-to-west geographic
position which embraces good representations of each of the major
groups of reptiles and amphibians: along any parallel their number
* The dates refer to reptile, salamander and aniiran synopses, respectively,
f Unpublished estimate.
12 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
increases as approach is made from either the west or east to the
area which hes between the Mississippi Valley and the Great Plains.
Texas exceeds any other state in extent of its herpetofauna; Arkan-
sas exceeds any other in its parallel (except perhaps Oklahoma or
North Carolina); Missouri exceeds any other in its parallel; and no
doubt Iowa and Wisconsin hold the honor in their positions.
Finally, however, the table reveals the futility of the use of states
or other political divisions for comparisons of faunae on natural
grounds. Some states include a highly varied topography or climate;
they may be expected to have — and actually do possess — a more
varied fauna than states in which conditions are more uniform.
VENOMOUS SPECIES
No lizards, turtles or amphibians in Kansas are venomous. All
statements to the contrary are erroneous. The only possible grain
of truth in the accusation that any of these are venomous is the fact
that the secretions of the skin of some salamanders, toads and frogs
are toxic when taken into the digestive tract or rubbed onto the
nasal membranes or into the eyes of mammals. Even this toxicity,
in species of Kansas, is relatively slight so far as man is concerned.
Perhaps there should also be mentioned in this connection the tem-
porary infusion of the poisonous muscarine of deadly mushrooms
into the tissues of box turtles that have eaten these plants, with sec-
ondary poisoning of persons who eat the turtles (see discussion, p.
140).
The only truly venomous reptiles in the state are certain members
of the family of pit vipers — the copperhead, cottonmouth, and rattle-
snakes. All of these can be recognized unequivocally by either ( 1 )
the presence of a large pit on either side of the head in front of the
eye, in addition to the pair of small nostrils near the tip of the snout;
or by ( 2 ) the presence of a pair of large, i*novable fangs at the front
of the mouth. Persons who are bitten should make a determined
effort to learn whether the snake is a deadly one or not. Much undue
anxiety and pain could be avoided by definite identification of the
kind of snake concerned.
A summary of first aid and precautions for snake bite treatment
is given on p. 302. For further information on the subject of ven-
omous snakes and their structure, see Schmidt and Davis ( 1941 ) .
COLLECTING
There are many techniques for discovery of specimens of reptiles
and amphibians. Each collector develops his own methods to a
Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 13
greater or lesser extent, and often becomes proficient in one or more
techniques. Certain more or less basic principles are universal, how-
ever, among successful collectors.
At certain times of the year, especially in spring, much success
can be obtained by slowly driving along highways at night, with
careful scrutiny of the area of the road lighted by the headlights.
With experience, even the tiny blind snakes (LeptotypJilops) can
be discerned by this means, and of course all manner of other snakes
and of amphibians may be found. By this means diurnal and
aquatic species such as lizards and some snakes are never or rarely
found. Success varies with the speed of driving, alertness of the
observers, intensity of the lights, nature of the road, darkness of the
night, temperature of the air, temperature of the ground, humidity,
and the type of country on either side of the road. Careful observa-
tions on the correlation of these factors with abundance of animals
discovered are much to be desired.
Many amphibians are most easily discovered at night, when they
are breeding or prowling for food. Use of a headlight or, still better,
a gasoline lantern is highly recommended as an aid in collecting
them. In spring, choruses of frogs will lead to their discovery; at
such times it is profitable simply to drive about until voices of inter-
est are heard. At other times any pond, marsh or other body of
water may be expected to yield specimens. Salamanders of most
species breed early, even while a thin layer of ice still is present
on the water. In western Kansas, specimens of the tiger salamander
(Amhystoma tigrinmn) have been found not infrequently at the
mouths of burrows of mammals in which the salamanders spend the
day but from which they may wander a short distance at night.
All caves, especially those with any water in them, are likely places
for amphibians and to a lesser extent for reptiles as well. In caves,
care should be taken to observe streams or pools closely for any
sign of small, often white, salamanders.
Lanterns are likewise valuable when observing nocturnal snakes
on flat plains, desert flats and along streams. On the plains one
should become accustomed to watch both far ahead for fleeting
glimpses of wary snakes, and near at hand for the motionless bodies
of sluggish or temporarily blinded species. Along streams snakes
often do not move even when closely approached; at other times
they dive quickly and must be hastily captured if at all.
Another productive practice is the seining of marshes, ponds and
streams. Turtles and occasionally snakes or salamanders are to be
found by this means. It is well, if any closely packed debris or vege-
14 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
tation is present near the borders of the bodies of water, to haul
quantities of such material onto the shore and carefully pick through
it for salamanders, frogs, snakes or turtles. This procedure is often
extremely effective.
Of most universal application, of course, is the technique of keep-
ing a sharp eye on the entire surroundings, and of turning every
conceivable type of cover. Stones, logs, cardboard, junk, tin, and any
other movable surface cover may well conceal some desired reptile
or amphibian, even in streams. A good collector, literally and fig-
uratively, never leaves a stone unturned. In early spring especially,
and in the fall, one may expect good results from this effort. In the
summer the ground under such cover is often too dry, and little will
be found. At such times of the year it is by far the best practice
to hunt early in the morning, before the heat of the sun has pene-
trated through cover to the ground. Often much more will be pres-
ent under such cover early in the morning than at any other time.
In certain areas removal of debris from the ground reveals many
specimens. Accumulations of leaves, twigs, and even flood deposits,
often conceal reptiles or amphibians. Rotten logs, and loose bark
on logs or trees, likewise are a favorite haunt; different species often
prefer different types of logs. As logs are turned and broken up
one should always remember to turn the bark that often still lies on
the ground, half covered with particles of rotten wood, and under
which animals often seek protection. Piles of hay drying in fields
often conceal many snakes, and make it profitable for the collector
to be present when the hay is being removed.
Turtles may often be found by watching the edge of streams
or pools for small holes in the mud or sand through which the heads
of turtles may have been projected. Feeling with the hands or feet
about such spots often yields turtles that are difficult to find other-
wise.
Once discovered, all frogs and salamanders occurring in Kansas
may be captured and handled with impunity, for they do not bite or
otherwise injure persons. Care should be taken, however, to avoid
any possible entry of the secretion into the collector's eyes, nose or
mouth, for the skin exudate of some salamanders, some frogs (for
example, Rana palustris), and all toads is poisonous if ingested and
irritating on any mucous membrane.
No lizard in the state is venomous, but all can bite; therefore some
precaution may be desired. Actually, only the collared lizard
(Crotaphyttis colloris) and sonoran skink (Eumeces ohsoletus) have
Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 15
jaws powerful enough to deliver bites painful to persons. All others
have jaws so small that no precaution need be made to avoid their
bite. The horned lizards are reluctant to bite, although they do have
a peculiar protective device of squirting blood from their eyes upon
occasion when seriously alarmed.
Snakes, on the other hand, include a number of highly dangerous,
venomous species. Unless these can positively be recognized in ad-
vance, the amateur should treat all snakes as if venomous — that is,
avoid them or capture them in the safest possible manner. Wanton
destruction of snakes or other reptiles is much to be deplored, for all
are of very considerable value in the balance of nature and to man in
controlling his really important enemies and pests among the insects
and small mammals. It is indeed unfortunate that man has not ap-
preciated generally the beneficial role of practically all reptiles.
Harmless snakes can be captured by picking them up quickly by
any part of the body. It is true, however, that any snake more than
sixteen inches long may be capable of giving a painful bite, and that
therefore some precaution against them may be desired. Gloves may
be used, or a stick or other object may be used firmly to hold the
head, while the other hand grasps the snake immediately behind the
head or even at the very rear of the head.
Venomous snakes may similarly be captured, but great care
should be used to avoid the fangs, and to hold the rear of the head
firmly enough so that it is impossible for the snake to twist the jaws
about and wound a finger with the exceedingly mobile fangs.
Fast-moving, wary lizards and snakes can be obtained by means
of .22 caliber shells loaded with fine shot (".22 long rifle shot
shells"). Lizards are usually killed by the shot, but snakes often
are only stunned long enough to allow their apprehension. Care
should be taken not to shoot from too close a range, since the speci-
men may be so damaged as to be useless. The less an animal is
mutilated the more valuable it will be as a specimen.
Some collectors use a noose on a long stick to capture venomous
or vicious snakes. The forked stick, widely known, is of doubtful
value unless the arms of the fork are made very short, so that they
do not obstruct a firm grip on the neck by the crotch of the fork.
CARE OF LIVE INDIVIDUALS
In the field, live specimens are ordinarily placed in specially con-
structed, double-sewed, unbleached muslin bags of various sizes
ranging from that of a ten-pound sugar sack to that of a 100-pound
flour bag. Sugar sacks and flour bags can be used, but if so a cer-
16 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
tain loss should be expected, for neither the cloth nor the sewing is
strong enough to hold all animals safely. A string for tying around
the neck of the bag two or more inches from the mouth should be at-
tached by its middle to one seam.
Two of the animals most often kept alive in houses and schools
are common frogs (Rana) and the anole (Anolis, or, improperly,
the "chameleon"). Suggestions for the care of the latter are given
in the discussion of that species (p. 170); these could well apply to
many other lizards. Dr. S. Meryl Rose, of the Department of Zool-
ogy, University of Illinois, has suggested, in Ward's Natural Science
Bulletin (Vol. 20, No. 3, p. 45, 1947), an effective means for keeping
frogs alive. His article follows:
"When one begins to keep frogs in a laboratory the question of an
adequate artificial diet soon arises, because the time and space re-
quired to grow natural food for a large colony of frogs precludes it
as a practical venture in most laboratories. In the last few years we
have experimented with a number of simple artificial diets and have
finally fixed on one which maintains rapid growth. It is a mixture
of mammalian or fish muscle, bone meal and cod-liver oil. The meat
is cut into thin strips and rolled in bone meal made sticky with cod-
liver oil. This mixture tempts few frogs to jump for it, but there
are exceptions, all bullfrogs. The usual practice is to open the
frog's mouth with smooth, blunt forceps, and then, while holding the
mouth open by a thumb inserted near the angle of the jaw, to push
in enough meat to fill the posterior two- thirds of the mouth cavity.
If the mouth is then closed and the frog made to sit out of water,
the food is swallowed. Young frogs fed this amount every other day
and kept between 20° and 25° C. grow well.
"The cod-liver oil was added because growing laboratory frogs,
deprived of sunlight and without an added source of vitamin D, rap-
idly develop rickets. Associated with the rickets are periodic seiz-
ures with universal muscle contractions resembling a reaction to
strychnine. Compound fractures of rachitic femurs are common
during seizures and a frog survives only a few seizures. However,
by adding a source of vitamin D to the diet some frogs have been
made to recover even after two seizures and a compound fracture
of one leg, and have been kept another year in the laboratory in
healthy condition. The bone meal was added to the diet because
abnormal skeletal proportions were observed in rapidly growing
frogs. Since the addition of bone meal three years ago all of our
growing frogs have had normal proportions.
Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 17
"Disease epidemics sweep through colonies of captive frogs with
alarming rapidity and thoroughness. The common practice is to call
almost all of these diseases 'red-leg.' Our observations, quite inci-
dental to other studies, indicate that there are several different dis-
eases, usually fatal, which are partially characterized by red spots
on the legs and elsewhere. An alternative possibility is that red-leg,
a disease condition in its own right, accompanies other diseases. One
disease in particular, a kind of leprosy, has attracted our attention
because it interferes with limb regeneration. Minute ulcers on the
toes usually accompanied by red spots elsewhere are the first symp-
toms of the disease. The ulcers enlarge and the soft tissues of the
toes regress leaving phalanges exposed. Regression of soft tissues
with subsequent sloughing of skeletal parts may proceed until entire
feet are lost, but far more commonly, the frogs die after only small
parts of toes have disappeared. Accompanying the regression of
tissues is loss of sensory function in the affected appendages while
motor function is maintained.
"All of the common diseases of frogs are prevented by addition of
0.15 percent of NaCl to the tap water in which the animals are kept.
As a rule we use oblong aquaria tipped up a few inches at one end
and with enough saline solution added to cover about one-third of
the floor. The rest of the floor is covered by moist paper toweling
which extends down into the solution and acts as a wick. The solu-
tion is continuously aerated and is changed every day along with the
paper.
"With the above methods of care, a dead frog has become a rarity
in our laboratory."
Snakes may be kept in screened wooden cages on a bottom of
wood shavings. Water should be made available at all times. See
Allen and Neill (1954) for further suggestions for care of live
reptiles.
PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS
Proper preservation involves three steps: (1) killing; (2) hard-
ening, and (3) tagging. The last step is the one most often omitted,
unfortunately. Teachers and students are often misled into pride
for a personal collection of local animals which, through lack of re-
corded data, is useless to an outsider who might otherwise join in
their pride. Addition of simple and accurate locality data is a small
task as compared with the other steps necessary for proper preser-
vation, yet the importance of accurate labeling has been woefully
underestimated. Anyone who preserves a specimen should resolutely
18 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
make a record, in some fashion, of the locaHty at which the specimen
was obtained, and record the date and name of the collector. These
data should be attached to the specimen.
The simplest and perhaps best way to kill reptiles and amphibians
is to immerse them in weak alcohol of not more than fifty-five per-
cent dilution. They should be removed as soon as dead in order to
avoid stiffening in awkward positions; this is especially important
for amphibians, since they quickly become rigid. Ether can be used,
but chloroform never, since it causes the animal to die with its mus-
cles taut. Hot water also produces the same reaction in frogs. It
is essential to use some means for killing that leaves the animals
relaxed.
Next, for amphibians, place the animals in a tray. Spread the
toes and fingers in a lifelike position and pour over them a mixture
of one part of formalin to five parts of water. Pour on no more
than enough to cover the bottom of the loan, else the toes and legs
may float free and change their position. Allow to harden for fifteen
minutes, then pour on more, enough to cover the limbs. Allow to
remain for one hour, or until moderately stiff, then drop into a jar
containing a solution of one part of formalin to six parts of water.
They should there float free so as not to be distorted by pressure of
other specimens; avoid crowding. After they have become thor-
oughly hardened (usually in two to three days) they should be re-
moved. Tags recording the locality and other data should be at-
tached at or before this time. At this time a small slit should be
made in the abdomen with a razor blade or pair of sharp-pointed
scissors, or, instead, the specimen may be injected with a one-to-six
solution of preserving fluid. In thus injecting specimens, care should
be taken to avoid unnaturally distending them because this obliter-
ates many of the important diagnostic characters. The specimens
should then be stored in sixty-five to seventy percent alcohol. Am-
phibians should never be placed in alcohol stronger than seventy
percent, since shrinkage of the skin and digits — both of which carry
very important characters — often results.
Lizards can be treated like amphibians with a few exceptions.
The belly should be cut long and deeply, and the tail should be slit
at various places along its length and always toward the base (or if
small, should be pierced by a needle ) before spreading. The oper-
ation on the tail is very important, although frequently omitted.
In spreading long-tailed species, the tail should be brought forward
along the body for protection and may even be loosely tied in posi-
Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles op^ Kansas 19
tion. The fluid may be poured fairly deeply over them, care being
taken not to float any part of them free until they are hardened.
Lizards require a longer time for the initial hardening than do am-
phibians; reptiles should be left twelve to eighteen hours. Trans-
ferred to the jar for thorough hardening, they should remain for
approximately a week, at which time they may be stored in seventy-
five percent alcohol. They should not under any circumstance be
placed in a solution weaker than seventy percent. Note that this is
stronger than the requirement for amphibians.
Snakes should be treated like lizards, with two exceptions. They
may either be coiled flat in the tray with the head at the center of
and resting upon the nearest coil, or they may be coiled springlike
in a jar of appropriate size. In the latter position they need not be
removed until thoroughly hardened; if in the former position they
should remain only until fairly stiff, and then be removed to jars
where they can harden completely. Large snakes are more appro-
priately spring-coiled and small snakes flat-coiled. As a precaution,
the viscera can be removed from large snakes. These eviscerated
specimens can be placed upside down in jars so that air pockets do
not prevent thorough exposure of all parts to the formalin. The tail
must be slit, as in lizards.
Turtles should, preferably, be injected with formalin (1 to 5 or
stronger). If this is not convenient, the skin between the arms and
neck, and between the legs and bridge, on both sides, should be slit
with a knife and the knife worked around deep in the body in order
to effect a means of entry for the formalin. The mouth should be
propped wide open with a cork, stone, stick or other object. This is
of extreme importance. Then the specimen should be immersed in
formalin and the legs and neck stretched out as much as possible.
Avoid allowing the head and limbs to withdraw, since it is next to
impossible to extend them once they are hardened. Turtles may be
left permanently in formalin.
For tagging of the specimens, some water-resistant paper, pref-
erably as furnished by biological supply houses, or as available at
most laundries, should be used. The tag should be strung, and on it
should be written, in pencil or in Higgin's Eternal Ink (not India
Ink nor any other type ) the date and locality of collection, and name
of the collector. If the locality is unkown, merely say so. This
satisfies the demands of anyone who wishes to know. The experi-
enced collector assigns also a number, and in a field catalog keeps
opposite the number, the data mentioned and identity of the speci-
20 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
men. The plan of attaching to the specimen a tag with only the
number, which refers to a catalog in which the data are kept, is ob-
viously hazardous since the value of the specimen depends entirely
upon the catalog, which might easily be lost or destroyed.
It is important to check the fluids in containers as least twice a
year, or oftener in a hot, dry climate, in order that they do not be-
come exhausted. The collection should be stored in the dark, or
where only artificial light can reach it, since daylight rapidly fades
specimens.
Two stages of amphibians have been relatively neglected, and de-
serve much more attention than they have received in the past.
These are the tadpole and egg stages of anurans. Orton (1946) re-
marks as follows concerning tadpoles :
"The larval stage of the Amphibia has long been one of the com-
paratively unexplored fields of vertebrate zoology. Much work is
needed to make this section of the fauna known to interested stu-
dents and investigators. Larval stages of less than one-third of the
frogs of the world have been described. Even the tadpoles of many
of the frogs in the United States, particularly in the western half of
the country, are incompletely described or entirely unknown. De-
scriptive and morphological studies are necessary preliminaries to
the preparation of identification keys. Ready means of identification
are, in turn, essential if effective utilization of the animals in experi-
mental work is expected. . . .
"If tadpoles are present in a collecting site at all, they are usually
sufficiently abundant to permit the collection of series. This is for-
tunate, for only through the study of series can the characters and
limits of variation be determined. The modern concept of species
in terms of populations rather than individual specimens applies to
larval as well as adult stages.
"Preservation of fresh specimens in the field is preferred, both
to forestall the very rapid degenerative changes in the soft parts
and to prevent shedding of the beaks and labial teeth. Fixation in
ten percent formalin is recommended. For permanent storage, the
specimens should be transferred to seventy percent alcohol if possi-
ble. Full locality data and brief notes on the habitat should be
recorded. Notes on the color and pattern in life are desirable. Many
tadpoles have conspicuous markings of red or yellow, areas of metal-
lic iridescence, or other color characters that disappear more or less
completely in preservative. Such ephemeral pattern elements as
these are of little assistance in the identification of preserved mate-
Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 21
rial, but they are often highly diagnostic of the living specimens and
should be adequately described.
"Preserved tadpoles are somewhat more difficult to ship than are
the adult states, for they require more careful packing to prevent
drying or crushing. Small specimens should be placed in tightly
corked vials filled with formalin or alcohol, each vial wrapped in
cotton, Spanish moss, shredded paper, or other soft material, and
then wrapped and tied in a small piece of cloth to hold the packing
together. A slip bearing the data should, of course, be placed with
each lot of specimens. The wrapped vials may then be placed in
excelsior in a small box in such a way that the vials are not in con-
tact. Preserved tadpoles too large to fit standard-size vials may be
wrapped in formalin-soaked cheesecloth or cotton, placed in a small
bottle with sufficient preservative to keep them wet, and the bottle
packed carefully to prevent breakage."
A recent study of eggs of anurans of this country, by Livezey and
Wright ( 1947 ) , should furnish an impetus to the study of this highly
interesting stage of life history. They summarize as follows:
"Much in the way of adequate field descriptions is lacking in the
study of the eggs of frogs and toads in this country. Seldom are
there complete notes published on the appearance of the masses in
the field. It is surprising to find that that phase of the life history
receives no more attention than it does at present, nor has in the
past, with herpetologists. Some of the field data that would aid
greatly in the future study of this subject are suggested as follows:
location, date, place of deposition (margins or centers of ponds),
appearance of mass (globular, plinth, irregular, etc.), how attached
and to what, depth of mass, depth of water, type of pond or stream
( stagnant, fresh, slowflowing, swift, clear, muddy, rocky, sandy bot-
tom), vegetation in the water and on the bank, air temperature,
water temperature, other amphibians or their eggs, state of develop-
ment at time of collection, and pigmentation. Data that could be
completed at a somewhat later time in the laboratory are: volume
of mass, volume of individual eggs, number of eggs per mass, com-
plement per frog, number of envelopes, diameter of vitellus, vitelline
capsule and all subsequent gelatinous envelopes.
"Another failure in the study of eggs of Salientia of this country
is the laxness in collecting specimens from various localities through-
out the animal's range. A much clearer concept of the optimum
appearance and condition of deposition could be gained by further
collecting. After a description appears in print, most workers seem
22 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
satisfied to take that description without additional investigation.
Hence, sooner or later a difficulty arises, as in the case of Pseiidacris
nigrita triseriata, where two almost totally different descriptions
are given for the one form. Such as this may also arise by failure
to use care in the collecting, preserving, and identification of the
eggs. A sampling over wide areas may very possibly give further
data relevant to the geographical variation of these animals and shed
some light on the validity of some of the species and subspecies that
have been considered by the taxonomists.
"So far as this writer has been able to determine, by questionnaire,
there are at present no collections of Salientian eggs of any size or
completeness in existence in this country. Even the commonest
forms have not been kept to provide a reference for future use. The
only depository of any size is at Cornell University, and sorry to
say, that collection has been harmed in recent years by breakage
of a steam line in the place of storage and through the addition of
alcohol to several specimens in the process of replenishing the pre-
servative. In other words, this aspect of the study is practically nil.
"Perhaps the best method of preserving amphibian eggs is first to
put them in ten percent formalin for not more than twenty-four
hours. After this time has elapsed, they should be removed to a four
percent solution of formalin for permanent storage. The use of
alcohol is decidedly detrimental to the muco-protein forming the
jelly envelopes and will dissolve it away in a short time. When col-
lecting both the eggs and the adults of these animals, it is often the
habit to attempt to preserve both in the same container, and as a
result the eggs are soon rendered valueless by the alcohol most often
used for the preservation of the mature animals.
"The only sure method of identifying many of the eggs is to ob-
serve the female in the act of laying, and then collect both the adult
and the eggs. In this event it should be remembered that the jelly of
the eggs may take some time before it swells to normal size, fifteen
minutes to twelve hours or more, and should be allowed to do so
before being put into any preservative. Eggs laid in the laboratory
often are not of normal appearance for usually they are deposited
in glass containers without provision for attachment; and even if
this is done many specimens will not deposit normally in the ab-
normal situation. Such masses will become flattened by the bottom
and walls of the container and will fail to gain the natural shape and
size.
"Along this line it might be well to point out that in collecting
eggs, caution must be used not to overcrowd specimens of eggs or
Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 23
pack them with animals and other materials. Putting masses in
cheesecloth is not recommended, for the jelly will adhere to the cloth
and in unpacking the specimens will be damaged and distorted. The
best method is to be provided with proper sized jars or tins, even
though this may be bulky and at times cumbersome. In storing a
collection, it is expedient not to place it in excessive heat or in sun-
light, otherwise the jelly will deteriorate rapidly."
IDENTIFICATION
Sooner or later, once a specimen has been obtained, the question
of its "kind" or identity arises. There are two names furnished for
each species, in this handbook: the common (vernacular) name,
and the scientific name. To determine the name, reference should
be made first to the key to classes (unless the class is already
known ) , then to the key to orders or suborders of the class to which
the animal belongs, and then to the key to the species of that order
or suborder. The last key will supply the scientific name, and the
common name will be found by reference to the page number which
follows the scientific name in the key.
Tlie keys are made in the form of a number of sets of two oppos-
ing statements, and the sets are numbered consecutively. Beginning
with set number 1 (1 and 1') a decision should be made as to which
statement applies to the animal in hand. The fitting statement
either leads to a scientific name, or is followed by another set of op-
posing statements (2 and 2') indented underneath it. One should
continue in this fashion until a name is indicated for the animal or
its class, order or suborder.
The common names are names applicable to the entire species, in-
cluding all of its subspecies. The scientific name of a species is made
up of two parts. The first part is the name of the genus and this
generic name always is to be written with an initial capital letter.
The second part is the name of the species and this specific name is
to be written, in zoology, without an initial capital letter. For ex-
ample, Pseiidacris nigrita is the whole of the scientific name of the
Striped Chorus Frog in which Pseiidacris is the name of the genus
and nigrita is the name of the species. At the head of each species
account the author's name follows the scientific name; the author's
own name is placed in parentheses if the generic part of the name is
different from the one used by the author of the specific name. For
instance, Le Conte is the author of the name Pseudacris nigrita, but
in writing this name we place parentheses around the name of the
author, Le Conte — Pseudacris nigrita (Le Conte) — because when
24 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Le Conte originally proposed the name for this species he wrote
"Rana nigrita." Discovery that the species he named nigrita did
not belong in the genus Rana but actually in the genus Pseudacris
resulted in removal of the species from the genus Rana; and now, no
matter in what genus the species is placed, other than Rana, Le
Conte's name must remain in parentheses. If we put the specific
name nigrita back in Rana, the parentheses would be removed from
Le Conte.
As a person becomes more and more familiar with the kinds of
reptiles and amphibians, it is well to pay some attention to the sub-
species, which are geographical subdivisions of a species, based
upon not only their occurrence in different areas but of course upon
recognizably different features (as color, size, number of scales,
etc. ) . Some species, while occurring over wide expanses of terri-
tory, show no features consistently in one area that do not occur in
others, so no subspecies are recognized. In other species of similar
distribution the animals in a number of areas may show distinctive
features not occurring elsewhere in the range of the species. Some
species contain dozens of subspecies. In Kansas, no more than two
subspecies occur in any species of reptile or amphibian. The names
of the subspecies, and their distinctive features if more than one
occurs in the state, are cited at the end of the discussion of each
species.
Further information upon many phases of herpetology (in other
words the study of reptiles and amphibians) can be found in the
articles cited in the list of literature (p. 330). The best summaries
now available, covering the entire field of herpetology in North
America, are the following five books which are essential for further
study:
For Salamanders: Bishop, 1943.
For Anurans (Frogs and Toads): Wright and Wright, 1949.
For Lizards: Smith, 1946.
For Snakes: Schmidt and Davis, 1941.
For Turtles: Carr, 1952.
For further information on the study of herpetology, consult your
nearest University or write to the Director, Museum of Natural His-
tory, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
Often, even after considerable effort, it may be impossible for you
to identify or be confident of your identification of certain specimens.
The Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas has
as one of its functions the extension of aid to those who feel the need
Smith: Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas 25
or wish for advice and encouragement. Specimens may be shipped
for checking to the Director in tight metal containers, in well-packed,
well-sealed jars, or, better yet, in plastic (neoprene) bags like those
used to wrap frozen foods. Be sure that the specimens are so packed
that they will not jostle about. It is well to wrap each one, or each
lot, in cloth (cheesecloth is commonly used) to insure constant
dampness. Only enough fluid should be poured in to moisten the
contents thoroughly and leave a small, unabsorbed quantity in the
bottom of the container. Specimens in plastic bags may be shipped
in cardboard boxes with paper or other packing.
Key to Classes
1. Limbs, if present, with claws on fingers and toes; except in soft-shelled
turtles, surface of body with scales Reptilia, p. 117
1'. Limbs always present (except in some larvae), fingers and toes always
without claws; surface of body never with scales Amphibia, p. 25
Class AMPHIBIA Linnaeus
Two of the three orders generally recognized of living am-
phibians occur in Kansas. The other order, the Apoda or Gymno-
phiona, is comprised of the caecilians only, which occur in tropical
regions. All the living orders are aberrant derivatives of the dis-
tantly related, ancient amphibians ( stegocephalians ) and should not
be considered as "typical" of the class Amphibia, especially when
that class is viewed as a link between fishes and reptiles. With some
justification the ancient and modern amphibians have been consid-
ered by some zoologists as comprising separate classes.
The adults or larvae of salamanders are readily distinguishable
from those of anurans, and are contrasted in the following key. The
eggs of the two orders are not collectively distinguishable. Unless it
is known to which order any given eggs belong it will be necessary
to try them in both keys. The keys to eggs are so designed that the
eggs of one order will not "run down" in the key to tlie other order.
Key to Orders of Amphibia *
1. Tail absent; limbs always present Salientia, p. 51
1'. Tail present; limbs present or absent.
2. Forelegs absent or, if present, considerably less well-developed and
shorter than the hind legs; tadpoles Salientia, p. 51
2'. Forelegs as well as hind legs always present and of about the same
size, or the hind legs just slightly larger Caudata, p. 26
* Including larvae.
26 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Salamanders
Order CAUDATA Oppel
Nine species of salamanders have been recorded from the state.
They represent five families. Possibly two other species occur (see
p. 320). Most are confined to the eastern, relatively humid border;
only one extends west of the eastern third, into the forbiddingly
dry, Great Plains.
All species in the state lay eggs in water, and larvae subsequently
develop \vhich may or may not, according to species ( or in Amhijs-
toma tigrinum according to the individual), eventually transform.
Those which transform breed only after transformation. Those
which do not transform breed in the larval state and thus are sexually
mature in the larval state; they are sjioken of as "neotenic." Ncc-
turus maculosus, Tt/plilofriton nerens and Cnjptohranchus alle-
ganiensis are "obligatory" neotenes, the former two with no steps
toward transformation whatever, the latter with but few; Am-
hystoma tigrinum is a "facultative" neotene, as some individuals
transform while others do not. In some parts of its range, perhaps
in Kansas, NotoplifliaJmiis viridescens is facultatively neotenic.
The eggs and breeding habits are not at all or but poorly known
in all (3) members of the family Plethodontidae, although in other
species they are rather well known. The larvae are known of all
species, although not all stages have been observed and recorded.
Identification of the larvae of species occurring within the state is
relatively simple since they possess numerous characteristics of the
adults. Many species of the family Plethodontidae actually lack a
free-living larval stage, hatching from the egg as miniature replicas
of the terrestrial adult, but none is yet known to exist in the state
of Kansas.
Unfortunately salamanders all too frequently are confounded with
lizards, with which they share the false (so far as species in this
state are concerned) reputation of being venomous. Salamanders
can be distinguished from lizards by having no scales whatever, and
all species in this state have four fingers on each front limb. All the
lizards have scales, and the species in this state have either five
fingers on each front limb, or no limbs whatever (glass-snake lizard).
All salamanders possess numerous, small glands in the skin. These
glands secrete a viscous fluid known in some foreign species to have
venomous properties. No species in this country can effect harm
with tliis secretion unless considerable quantities are eaten or ap-
plied to open wounds. Larvae are less venomous than adults.
Smith: Salamanders
27
Key to Species of Salamanders
(Adults and Larvae)
1. Four toes on each hind foot; eyeUds absent; external gills present
throughout life Necturus maculosus, p.
r. Five toes on each hind foot; eyelids present or absent; gills present or
not througliout life.
2. One, and only one, gill slit on each side of neck; prominent length-
wise folds on each side of body, and along rear margin of hind legs;
no eyelids Cryptobranchus alleganiensis, p.
2'. No gill slits at all, or else 2 on each side of neck; no folds on body
or legs; eyelids present or absent.
3. Gills present behind head.
4. Upper fin extending forward from tail onto body at least past
groin (Fig. 1).
48
31
Fig. 1. Larva of the tiger salamander, Anibystoma tigrinum, in lateral view, X Vio.
K. U. No. 4416. 18 miles north of Elkhart, Morton County, Kansas.
5. Costal grooves 11-12 between limbs.
6. Costal grooves 11 Amhy stoma maculatum, p. 36
6'. Costal grooves 12 Ambystoma tigrinum, p. 40
5'. Costal grooves 13-14 between limbs.
6. Jaws corneous, blackened as seen with mouth open.
Ambystoma texanum, p. 38
6'. Jaws not corneous, and not blackened as seen with
mouth open NotophthaJmiis viridescens, p. 33
Upper fin not extending onto body from tail ( Fig. 2 ) .
5. Costal grooves 13 or 14; 3 or fewer costal grooves sepa-
rating hmbs when the limbs are laid against the sides of
the body with the forelimbs backward and the hind limbs
forward (that is to say, "adpressed" ) .
6. A dorsolateral series of small round, light spots.
Eurycea longicauda, p. 43
6'. A dorsolateral, lateral and paravertebral series of dark
spots Eurycea lucifuga, p. 45
5'. Costal grooves 18 or more; 6 or more costal grooves sepa-
rating limbs when they are adpressed.
6. Costal grooves 19 to 20; 8 or 9 grooves between the
adpressed limbs (not yet recorded from the state).
Eurycea multiplicata
6'. Costal grooves usually 18, sometimes 19; usually 6 or
7 grooves between adpressed limbs.
Typhlotriton nereus, p. 47
28
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
I : -.tfT 1 M ij+iirH 1 1 n I u • 1 1 r\>j
Fig. 2. An adult of the nereous salamander, Typhlotriton nereus, in lateral
view, X 1, K. U. No. 16160, 4 miles north of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County,
Kansas.
Fig. 3. Top of head of an eastern newt, Notophthalmus viridescens, in
dorsal view, X 6, K. U. No. 23027, 3 miles southeast of Fontana, Miami
County, Kansas.
Smith: Salamanders 29
Gills absent.
4. A pair of distinct, longitudinal ridges on top of head ( Fig. 3 ) ;
no costal (vertical) grooves or only indistinct grooves on
sides of body Notophthalmus viridescens, p. 33
4'. No ridges on head; costal grooves distinct.
5. Sixteen or more costal grooves between the limbs.
6. Belly pigmented.
7. A prominent, broad middorsal light streak,
bounded on either side by the dark color of the
sides (not yet recorded from the state).
Plethodon cinereus
7'. Middorsum not lighter than sides (not yet re-
corded from the state ) Plethodon glutinosus
6'. Belly clear, unpigmented.
7. Eyes small, their diameter entering at least 3 times
into interorbital distance; 16 to 18 costal grooves
(not yet recorded from the state).
Typhlotriton spelaeus, p. 320
7'. Eyes large, their diameter subequal to interorbital
distance; 19 or 20 costal grooves (not yet recorded
from the state) Eurycea multiplicata
5'. Fourteen or fewer costal grooves between limbs; body
slender or stout.
6. Body liglit-colored above, with dark spots.
7. A continuous, dark streak, from eye along each
side of body to tail Eurycea longicauda, p. 43
7'. No continuous dark streak along sides of body.
Eurycea lucifuga, p. 45
6'. Body dark-colored above, with or without light spots.
7. No sharply outlined light spots on back or sides.
Amhystoma texanum, p. 38
7'. Sharply outlined light spots on back and sides.
8. Light markings consisting of 4-7 transverse
bands on dark background, their ends often
uniting with a continuous dorsolateral light
streak; sides not marked, uniformly dark (not
yet recorded from the state ) .
Amhystoma opacum, p. 320
8'. Light markings consisting of a number of oval,
round or transverse light spots, often on sides
as well as on back.
9. Belly and lower sides uniform, unspotted;
only one dorsolateral series of round spots
on either side of body.
Amhystoma maculatum, p. 36
9'. Belly or lower sides with light spots; latter
not restricted to a dorsolateral series on
either side, more numerous and irregularh
placed, often more oval, or even in the
form of vertical bars on sides of body.
Amhystoma tigrinum, p. 40
30
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Key to Known Eggs of Salamanders
1. Eggs in strings, beadlike; vitellus 6 mm. in diameter, envelopes 20 mm.
(Fig. 4A) Cnjpiohranchus alleganiensis
1'. Eggs not in strings; vitellus smaller or not; envelopes not more than
11 mm. in diameter.
2. Eggs laid separately but in groups of 60 to 110; vitellus not pig-
mented, 5 to 6 mm. in diameter Necturus maculosus
2'. Eggs not laid singly in clusters; vitellus pigmented, smaller.
3. Eggs in a small, firm compact mass of 60 to 256 eggs.
Amhystoma maculatum
3'. Eggs laid singly or in small masses of not more than 8 eggs each.
Fig. 4. A. A section of the chain of eggs of the hellbender, Ciyptobranchus alleganiensis,
from Bishop (1943), approx. X 1. B. Egg of a narrow-mouthed salamander, Ambijstoma
texanum, approx. X 3, from Haskell Bottoms, 2 miles south of Lawrence, Douglas County,
Kansas. C. Egg of a tiger salamander, Amhystoma tigrimim, X 7, eight miles west of Clay
Center, Clay County, Kansas. Figs. B and C from Smith (1934).
4. Vitellus smaller, 1.5 mm. in diameter; envelopes elliptical, 3.5
by 2.4 mm. Notophthalmus viridescens
4'. Vitellus larger, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter; envelopes spherical,
4 to 8 mm.
5. Outer envelope about 4 mm. in diameter; vitellus about
2mm. in diameter (Fig. 4B) Amhystoma texanum
5'. Outer envelope about 7 to 8 mm. in diameter; vitellus
about 3 mm. in diameter (Fig. 4C). Amhystoma tigrinum
Smith: Salamanders
31
FAMILY CRYPTOBRANCHIDAE
Genus Cryptobraucliiis Leuckart
Hellbender
Cryptobranchus alleganiensis (Daudin)
Salaniandra alleganiensis Daudin, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 8, 1803, p. 231 (type locality
— Alleghenx' Mountains in Virginia).
Cryptobranchus alleganiensis Van der Hoeven, Tijdschr. Nat. Geschied. Phvsiol., vol.
4, 1837, p. 384.
Range. — Extreme southeastern corner of state; recorded only
from Labette ( Neosho River 8 miles west of McCune ) and Cherokee
(1 mile north of Riverton) counties.
_^V^Xi
^
i7n ^h
^iJ
Scale
Ki o 30 4oMiles
I.I I I
Museum of Noiurot History
University of Konsos
1945
Fig. 5. Distribution of the hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — Head and body large, flat; numerous loose folds
along sides of body and on posterior margins of limbs; eyelids ab-
sent; no gills; a single gill slit always present on either side of neck;
tail about one-third of the total length, with a dorsal fin; no fin on
body.
Dark above, a little lighter below; some indistinct dark spots on
dorsal surface.
Size large, up to 27 inches in total length.
Recognition Characters. — The large size (no other Kansas sala-
mander exceeds 17 inches in length) alone serves to identify most
specimens. Individuals of any size, except the smallest larvae, can
be recognized by the single slit on either side of throat.
32
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Habits and Habitat. — The required habitat is permanent streams
or rivers with several feet of water and objects on the bottom that
may be used as cover. The food consists of crayfish, small fish,
snails, worms, insects, and a great variety of animal refuse.
The breeding season is in the fall, commonly in September. The
nest is a shallow excavation constructed on the bottom of a stream,
under some object, say, a flat rock. The eggs are laid in a pair of
long, rosarylike strings, while tlie male emits a cloudy seminal fluid
over them. Three hundred to 450 eggs are deposited by a single
female at one laying. This is the only American salamander which
Fig. 6. A hellbender, Cnjptobranchus a. alleganiensis, X '/s, from Big Sandy Creek, Venango
County, Pennsylvania. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia.
practices external fertilization; in other salamanders, spermatophores
deposited by the males are picked up by the females and internal
fertilization follows.
The large eggs, % of an inch in diameter ( including the gelatinous
envelopes), hatch in 68 to 84 days.
While not vicious, these salamanders sometimes bite most pain-
fully. The flesh is palatable.
Kansan Subspecies. — C. a. alleganiensis is tlie subspecies occurring in Kan-
sas. One other occurs in south-central Missouri and adjacent Arkansas. No
other forms are recognized in the genus.
References. — Bishop, 1941; 37-53, figs. 2b, 4b, 9-13 (description, excellent account of
natural history); Bishop, 1943: 59-63, fig. 14, map 3 (description).
Smith: Salamanders
33
FAMILY SALAMANDRIDAE
Genus 'N otophthohnus Rafinesque
Eastern Newt
Notophtha!mus viridescens ( Rafinesque )
Triturus viridescens Rafinesque, Ann. Nat., Lexington, no. 1, 1820, p. 5 (type locality
— Lake George, or Lake Champlain, New York).
Notophthalmus viridescens Rafinesque, Ann. Nat., Lexington, no. 1, 1820. p. 5.
Range. — Extreme eastern Kansas south of the Missouri River;
recorded only from Miami (Pigeon Lake), Linn (VA miles south
of Boicourt — not shown in figure 7) and Cherokee (1 mile north
and 4 miles east of Crestline; 7 miles east of Baxter Springs) coun-
ties.
Huitufn of Nolural MitlOry
Univtrtity of t^oniat
1945
Fig. 7. Distribution of the eastern newt, Notophthalmus viridescens, in Kansas with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — Adults without gills or gill slits, with 4 fingers and
.5 toes. Aquatic adults with prominent tail fins, the dorsal one of
which extends onto body, and the skin smooth; terrestrial adults
lacking fins, and skin rough, tubercular. Adults with a pair of ridges
between eyes; latter with lids; no costal grooves; males with corne-
ous patches on ventral surface of hind legs and at tips of toes, and
with 3 pits on each side of head; tail slightly longer than head and
body; forelegs considerably more slender than hind legs.
Aquatic adults slate above, yellowish below; small black dots on
both surfaces. Terrestrial adults brick-red above, otherwise marked
the same as aquatic adults.
Larvae with a dorsal fin extending onto body; 13 or 14 costal
2—9019
34 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
grooves discernible; jaws lacking corneous biting surfaces; ridges
between eyes not well-developed.
Size small, reaching 3/2 inches in total length.
Recognition Characters. — The adults are readily recognizable by
the color pattern, or by the ridges between the eyes.
Habits and Habitat. — As these animals develop, they pass from
an aquatic larval stage through a transformed (but not adult) ter-
restrial stage to an aquatic adult stage. Terrestrial forms live on
land amongst leaves, under logs and in brush piles, sometimes at
^Wl'
\
Fig. 8. Eastern newts, Notophtlinlmtis viridesccns louisianensis.
X %, from Imboden, Lawrence County, Arkansas, from Smith
(1934); right figure is of a female and left figure is of a male.
rather great distances from water. Aquatic forms are confined to
either temporary or permanent pools, swamps and other standing
bodies of water, except in rare instances. In such instances they
are in migration from one pool to another or have been forced to
hibernate on land since the pools previously inhabited may have
been so shallow as to freeze to the bottom in winter.
The food consists chiefly of worms, insects and their larvae, tad-
poles, small crustaceans, and snails. Frog and salamander eggs
may be eaten. Food is detected primarily by odor.
Smith: Salamanders 35
An elaborate courtship occurs in the fall, sporadically in winter,
and in the spring. The male, after a short period of contortion in
front of the female, climbs onto her back where he remains quietly
clasping her body with his hind legs around the forepart of her body,
for half an hour to several hours. After he becomes excited and
drags the female about jerkily, he releases his hold and crawls in
front of her, depositing 1 to 3 spermatophores. The female passes
over these and some of the sperm enter her cloaca and the sperm-
sacs ( spermathecae ) within.
The eggs are laid in the last of March or in early April, singly
upon the leaves of submerged water plants. The eggs themselves
measure about 1.5 mm. in diameter, and with their gelatinous en-
velopes about 2.5 to 3.5 mm. Normally they hatch in twenty to
thirty-five days, although under laboratory conditions in as little
time as twelve days.
Normally the larvae transform in three or four months, and then
wander out on land for 2M to 3)2 years, at the end of which time
they return as sexually mature adults. During their stay on land
the skin is rough, the color is usually reddish, and there are no caudal
fins. Upon returning to the water, the animals redevelop the dorsal
and ventral caudal fins and assume an olive coloration, as the skin
becomes smoother. Under certain conditions the larvae may re-
main in water and never pass through a terrestrial stage, and may
even become sexually mature in a single year. Neoteny may occur.
Hibernation is temporary if it occurs at all; specimens have been
seen in winter swimming about under an inch of ice.
They shed their skins at frequent intervals, sometimes taking 1/2
hours for the process, pulling it off with the jaws. The shed skin
is eaten. Where abundant thev can be seen bv dav sunning them-
selves by floating on the water, climbing on aquatic plants, or swim-
ming near the edge of pools. They are not particularly nocturnal,
although some night activity may occur.
The above notes on natural history are of the eastern subspecies,
N. V. viridescens. The natural history of the subspecies occurring in
Kansas is almost entirely unknown. The terrestrial stage is ap-
parently abbreviated and in some parts of the range is apparently
omitted entirely from the life cycle.
Kansan Subspecies. — A', v. louisianensis WolterstorfF, with its type locality at
New Orleans, Louisiana, is the subspecies in Kansas. Three others occur in the
eastern United States.
References. — Smith, 1934: 406-413, map 4 (description, natural history); Bishop, 1941:
54-82, figs. 2g, 4c, 14-17 (superb account of natural history of .V. f. viridescens) .
oo
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
FAMILY AMBYSTOMIDAE
Genus Anibystoma Tschudi
Spotted Salamander
Ambystoma maculatum (Shaw)
Lacerta tnactdata Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol. 3, pt. 1, 1802, p. 304 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Ambystoma maculatum Stejneger, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., vol. 15, 1902, p. 239.
Range. — South of Missouri River; recorded only from Douglas
and Crawford ( 1 mile north of Pittsburg) counties.
Scolfl
10 0 20 ooHlltS
I.I I I
Multum o' Nalurol History
Univtrsity of Kontos
I94S
m
Fig. 9. Distribution of the spotted salamander, Ambystoma macidatum, in Kansas, with
insert showing range of the species.
Description. — Adults without external gills or gill slits; hind limbs
a little stouter than forelimbs; no nasolabial groove; eyes moderate
in size, lidded; 12 costal grooves usually; no fin on tail or body.
Dorsal surface black, slate, or bluish black. A row of rather
widely separated, round, light yellow or orange spots extending
along each side of body from the eyes onto the tail; these spots are
not elongated transversely, and thus never reach belly nor even
lower parts of sides; one small spot is regularly present back of, or
to the median side of, the eye. Ventral surface light gray.
Size moderate, total length up to 1% inches; tail almost exactly
as long as head and body.
Recognition Characters. — The pattern, consisting of rather large,
rounded light spots on a dark background, is distinctive. This spe-
cies is most easily confused with the tiger salamander, A. tigrinum.
Smith: Salamanders
37
in which, however, the hght spots are elongated transversely and
extend far onto the sides or even onto the belly.
Habits and Habitat. — Although this species has been found in
habitats varying greatly in character, it seems to be most abundant
in deciduous woods where ponds, slow streams and temporary pools
offer suitable breeding places. In summer, individuals often wander
considerable distances from the waters in which they breed and
have been found in cellars and window wells of city houses and on
slopes high above the nearest pond or slow stream.
The food consists of earthworms, snails, slugs, spiders and various
insects. Small fishes may be eaten by the larvae. Adults do not
feed while breeding.
In the middle of March, or whenever temperatures during the day
Fig. 10. A spotted salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, X "U, from Hart Scout Reser-
vation, "near Sumney town," Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. Courtesy of the Zoo-
logical Society of Philadelphia.
are above freezing and rains have recently fallen, these salamanders
migrate at night from their terrestrial quarters to shallow ponds.
Temperatures at night may be as low as freezing or as high as
46° F., but are less important by far than the occurrence of rains
and diurnal temperatures above freezing. Under favorable condi-
tions large numbers congregate at pools in areas where at other
times the species may rarely be found. Males precede females by
one or two days in arriving at the ponds. As the females arrive, all
swim around in one or several compact groups, creating a boihng
effect by their gyrations, vigorous rubbing and nosing. When con-
ditions prevent the arrival of many individuals at one time, the com-
munal dance just described does not occur. In courtships of single
pairs, the male rubs the venter of the female with his snout, then
swims away a short distance to where he deposits a spermatophore.
38
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
The female moves her cloaca over the spermatophore and either
rests briefly in that position, allowing the sperm to enter the cloaca
and the spermathecae within, or actually picks up the head of the
spermatophore with the cloaca. The males deposit some forty
sperm atophores .
Eggs are laid a few days after mating. They are deposited in
masses measuring 2/2 to 3/2 inches in diameter and each contains
approximately 100 eggs. They are generally attached to upright
stems approximately six inches below the surface of the water.
They hatch forty-five to fifty days later and the larvae transform
in from sixty to 115 days — as late as the middle of October in New
York. In a year they grow to a length of 82 mm., and are known
to live at least eighteen years.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished in this species.
References. — Smith, 19.34: .'390-396, map 1, fig. 13 (description, natural history); Bishop,
1941: 108-134, figs. 2e, 4e, 23-2.5, 26d-f, 27 (excellent account of natural history, descrip-
tion).
Narrow-mouthed Salamander
Ambystoma texanum ( Matthes )
Salamandra tcxana Matthes, Allg. deutsche naturh. Zeitschr., n. s., vol. 1, 18.55, p. 266
( type locality — Colorado River, Fayette Co., Texas ) .
Amblystoma texanum Baird, U. S. Mex. Bound. Surv., vol. 2, Rept., 1859, p. 29, pi.
35, fig. 15.
Range. — Eastern fourth of the state. Peripheral localities on the
western edge of the recorded range are in Doniphan (Doniphan
Fig. 11. Distribution of the narrow-mouthed salamander, Ambystoma texanum, in Kansas,
with insert showing range of the species.
Smith: Salamanders
39
Lake), Douglas (Lawrence), Lyon (Emporia), Greenwood (Ham-
ilton) and Cowley (9 miles southeast of Dexter) counties.
Description. — Adults without external gills or gill slits; hind legs
a little stouter than forelimbs; no nasolabial groove; eyes moderate
in size, lidded; 14 costal grooves; no fin on tail or body.
Ground color, in life, dark brown to black; dorsal surface with a
variable number of grayish spots of indefinite outline, sometimes so
numerous as almost completely to cover the back, at other times
sparsely distributed; ventral surface with much lighter spots of
somewhat more definite outline, about the size of the eyes, and
usually sparsely distributed, more numerous laterally; occasionally
ventral surfaces uniformly spotted.
Fig. 12. Narrow-mouthed salamanders, Ambystoma tcxanum, approx. X %, from Haskell
Bottoms, 2 miles south of Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas; above, dorsal viev\ ; Ik low,
ventral view, from Smith (1934).
Size small, total length reaching 6)2 inches; tail about f the head-
body length.
Recognition Characters. — The absence of distinctly outlined light
spots on the dark background is generally sufiicient to identify this
salamander. The other two members of the genus in Kansas have
very distinct spots. Species of other genera possess distinct dark
spots, or are of much larger size, or have more numerous costal
grooves, or possess external gills as adults.
40 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Habits and Habitat. — Generally they are found in damp regions
close to ponds or pools. The winter probably is spent in crayfish
holes or other holes near water. After the spring emergence, breed-
ing occurs, and females remain about the water for several weeks to
lay eggs. Males retire to more terrestial haunts after breeding.
Both sexes spend the remainder of the year on land, where they may
be found under logs and stones in damp situations, sometimes far
from water. The breeding pools may disappear completely.
The food consists largely of earthworms but also of insects.
Some 700 eggs are laid in March and April, singly or in groups
of 3 or 4, on upright grass stems or objects on the bottom, 1 to 6
inches below the surface of the water. The egg with its gelatinous
envelopes measures approximately 4 mm. in diameter — the egg
itself 2.1 mm. Ice may cover parts of some pools when eggs are laid
in them.
Kansaii Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished anywhere in the
range of this species.
Reference. — Smith, 1934: 396-400, map 2, figs. 16, 17.
Tiger Salamander
Ambystoma tigrinum (Green)
Salamandra tigrina Green, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 5, 1825, p. 116 (type
locality — Moorestown, New Jersey).
Amblystoma tigrina Baird, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ser. 2, vol. 1, 1849, p. 284.
Range. — State-wide. Specimens are not recorded
from every county but it is almost certain that this
strikingly marked species does occur in every
county of the state.
Description. — Adults without external gills or gill slits; hind limbs
a little stouter than forelimbs; no nasolabial groove; eyes moderate
in size, lidded; twelve costal grooves; no fin on tail or body.
Brownish to steel-gray above, lighter below; large whitish blotches
on back and sides; dorsal spots more rounded in outline than lateral
spots, usually not crossing midline; lateral spots transversely elon-
gate, extending onto ventral surface; tail as well as limbs blotched,
sometimes banded.
Size relatively large, up to 8/2 inches in total length; tail % to %o the
head-body length.
Recognition Characters. — The large, light spots, on a dark back-
ground, which extend onto the ventral surface, characterize this
species. The only other species in Kansas that is likely to be con-
Smith: Salamanders
41
fused with A. tigrinutn is A. inaculatwn in which the pale spots are
circular and do not cross the lateral surface to reach the belly.
Museum of Nolufol History
University of Konsos
I94S
Fig. 13. Distribution of the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum, in Kansas. The range
of A. t. tigrinum in the eastern part of the state is indicated by the stippled area, that of
A. t. mavortium by the lined area.
Habits and Habitat. — Ponds, temporary pools and watering tanks
are habitats of the larvae and breeding adults. Nonbreeding adults
may be found hidden under debris near pools of water, or at con-
siderable distances from water in holes of crayfish and mammals.
From time to time zoologists have found tiger salamanders emerg-
ing from prairie dog holes after dark even on rainless nights.
Fig. 14. An adult tiger salamander, Ambtjstoma tigrinum mavnrtiiim. approx. X %, from
Hamilton, Greenwood County, Kansas. Courtesy of Glenn C. Rinker and E. H. Taylor.
42
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Mating occurs in water, with the males depositing spermato-
phores which the females pick up with their cloacae, after a pre-
liminary courtship of body rubbing, tail lashing and close swimming.
However, mating is not accompanied by a migration like that of
A. maculatum.
Eggs are laid from late February to middle or late March. About
a thousand are laid, singly or in pairs (sometimes 3 together), on
weed stems in shallow water. They measure, with the outer gela-
tinous envelopes, approximately 7.5 mm. in diameter, and hatch in
from fourteen to twenty days.
The larvae eat minute organisms at first and later insects, worms,
tadpoles, and other larvae. Not infrequently they become canni-
FiG. 15. A larval tiger salamander, Amhijsto^ra tigrintni). approx. X %■ Courtesy of the
New York Zoological Society.
balistic and then grow to enormous size. Transformed specimens
eat almost any moving odoriferous object. Neoteny occurs com-
monly.
The length of life is known to be at least eleven years.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies occur in Kansas: Amhtjstoma tignnuin
mavortiiim Baird, with type locality of "New Mexico," and A. t. tigrinum
(Green). Five other subspecies occur in the United States and at least one
and possibly others in Mexico, giving a total range for the species covering
most of the United States and northern Mexico. The two subspecies in Kansas
may be distinguished by the shape of the light spots, which are small and
ovoid in A. t. tigrintini even on the sides of the body, instead of being large
and in the form of vertical bars as in A. t. mavortium.
References. — Smith, 1934: 401-406, map 3, figs. 9, 12. 14 (description, natural history);
Bishop, 1941: 155-173, figs. 2f, 4g, 30-32, 33a-c, 34 (excellent general account).
Smith: Salamanders
43
FAMILY PLETHODONTIDAE
Subfamily Plethodontinae
Genus Eurijcea Rafinesque
Long-tailed Salamander
Eurycea longicauda (Green)
Salamandra longicauda Green, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 1, 1818, p. 351
(type locality — Princeton, New Jersey).
Eurycea longicauda Stejneger and Barbour, Check List N. Amer. Amph. Kept., ed. 1,
1917, p. 19.
Range. — Known only from the extreme southeastern corner of
the state, near Galena, four miles north of Baxter Springs, and eight
miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas.
Scolt
to o so 4oMil«t
III I I
Mustum ol Notural Hitlory
Unlweriity ol Kantot
1945
Fig. 16. Distribution of the long-tailed salamander, Eurycea longicauda, in Kansas, with
insert showing range of the species.
Description. — A slender, small species with long tail, rather broad
head and large, lidded eyes; nasolabial groove; hind legs about twice
as strong as forelegs; fourteen costal grooves; adults without external
gills or gill slits; no fin on body or tail.
A broad, pale yellow dorsal band on body, bordered laterally by
a sharp-edged blackish area extending to sides of venter and becom-
ing gradually lighter and interspersed with spots of same color as
dorsum; ventral surfaces of body white, unspotted; a double series
of, or irregularly arranged, small black spots down middle of back;
top of head of same color as back, with irregularly placed, small
black spots; black band on sides of body extending to posterior mar-
gin of eye; chin finely stippled; dorsal surfaces of limbs mottled;
tail marked like body but without middorsal spots.
44
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Size small, total length reaching 6 inches; tail about I/2 to 1%
times as long as head and body.
Recognition Characters. — The dark sides and light, dark-spotted
back identify this species. Somewhat similar is E. lucifuga, but in
the latter the dark spots are scattered over the entire back and sides.
Fig. 17. A long-tailed salamander, Eurijcca longicaiida melanopleura, X
from Ravenden, Lawrence County. Arkansas, after Smith (1934).
/
' "'*i»*^ ^.
Fig. 18. A long-tailed salamander, Eurycea longicaiida melanopleura,
X 1, from Ravenden, Arkansas. Courtesy S. C. Bishop.
Habits and Habitat. — These salamanders generally are found un-
der rocks near streams, sometimes at the mouths of caves. They are
exceedingly active and if disturbed when out of water they seek to
hide under debris.
Little is known of the natural history of the subspecies which oc-
curs in Kansas. Individuals are said to feed upon spiders, mites,
myriapods, insects, and some plant material. Courtship in most
plethodontid salamanders is like that of ambystomids, consisting of
considerable rubbing of bodies and tails. The male is most active in
this process, and has special stimulating ( hedonic ) glands ( mental )
on the chin. After this "play" the male deposits a spermatophore
and the female walks over it and by means of the cloaca picks up the
cap containing the sperm.
Kansan Subspecies. — Eurycea I. melanopleura (Cope), with type locality at
Rileys Creek, White River, Missouri, is the subspecies occurring in Kansas.
Two other subspecies occur in the central and northeastern United States.
References. — Smith, 1934: 417-420, map 6, fig. 15; Bishop, 1941: 297-307, figs. 3f, 57a-
b, 58-59 (E. /. longicaiida, description and natural history).
Smith: Salamanders
45
Cave Salamander
Eurycea lucifuga Rafinesque
Eurycea lucifuga Rafinesque, Kentucky Gazette, Lexington, n. s., vol. 1, no. 9, 1822,
p. 3, column 6 ( type locality — caves near Lexington, Kentucky ) .
Range. — Known only from the extreme southeastern corner of
the state, eight miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County.
«>Mllat
=1
Musflwm of Nolurol Hittorf
Uxivtrtily of KanMt
194}
m
Fig. 19. Distribution of the cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga, in Kansas, with insert show-
ing range of the species.
Description. — A slender, rather small species with a long tail,
rather broad, flat head and large, lidded eyes; a nasolabial groove;
hind legs about twice as large as forelegs; fourteen costal grooves;
adults without external gills or gill slits; no fins on tail or body.
Ground color yellow to orange, light yellow below; dorsal and
lateral surfaces with numerous, scattered dark spots which may form
a dorsolateral series and even a middorsal series.
Size rather small, reaching 6% inches in length, of which the tail
comprises three-fifths to two-thirds.
Recognition Characters. — The small, dark spots on a hgbt back-
ground distinguish this species from all others in the state except
E. longicauda. In our race of the latter, however, the sides are dark.
In rare individuals the dark spots are larger, diffuse and fused to
form an irregular, somewhat reticulate pattern.
Habits and Habitat. — Generally these salamanders are to be
found on floors and walls of damp caves, in the twilight areas; also
they are found under logs and other debris in damp places near en-
46
University of Kansas Fuels., Mus. Nat. Hist.
trances to caves. Little is known of the natural history of this
species.
In Kansas, the species is difficult to find, inasmuch as suitable
habitats scarcely enter the state. Caves in the central and western
parts of the state are not known to harbor cave salamanders, al-
though occasionally rimiors are circulated in various localities of
cave animals that may be salamanders.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in tlie
range of this species.
Reference. — Bishop, 1943: 431-435, map 50, fig. 129 (description).
iriC''"''^/ '
Fig. 20. A cave salamander, Eurijcca lucifuga, X 74, K. U. No. 24406 from
5 miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Photo by E. IL
Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
S-Miui: Salamanders
47
Genus Tijphlotriton Stejneger
Nereous Salamander
Typhlotriton nereus Bishop
Tijphlotriton nereus Bishop, Copeia, no. 1, 1944, pp. 1-4, fig. 3 (type locality-
Spring, Imboden, Lawrence County, Arkansas).
-York
Range. — Known from only the extreme southeastern corner of the
state, near Galena, Cherokee county.
Mustum of Notural History
Univarsilr of Kgnias
IMS
Fig. 21. Distribution of the nereous salamander, Typhlotriton ncrciis, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — A small, permanently larval species never losing
the gills and gill slits; eyes small, permanently open, not lidded;
usually eighteen, sometimes nineteen, costal grooves; a dorsal tail-
fin reaching only to anus, not onto body.
Brownish above and on sides, whitish below; pigmentation
slightly irregular, with small, vague lighter areas here and there.
Size small, total length reaching 8)2 inches; tail length about half
of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The small size of the species and the
numerous costal grooves (ordinarily 18) will usually identify it.
Although only this species and Necttirus have gills throughout life,
all other salamanders in Kansas have gills for part of their lives.
Habits and Habitat. — In Kansas this species has been taken only
from spring-fed, plant-choked pools in wooded, hilly areas. Little
is known of its natural history anywhere in its range.
48
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Kansan Subspecies. — None has been defined anywhere in the range of the
species.
References. — Smith, 1934: 413-417 (description, habitat); Bishop, 1944: 1-5, figs. 1-4
(description, range, taxonomy).
Fig. 22. Cave salamander, Typhlotriton spelaeus, X 1^/4, from Waynesville, Pulaski
County, Missouri. Courtesy Philip W. Smith. This species, not recorded from but of
possible occurrence in Kansas, is indistinguishable in general appearance from T. nereus.
FAMILY PROTEIDAE
Genus Necturus Rafinesque
Mudpuppy
Necturus maculosus (Rafinesque)
Sirena maculosa Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag. Crit. Rev., vol. 4, no. 1, 1818, p. 41
(type locality — Ohio River).
Necturus maculosus Rafinesque, Ann. Nat., Lexington, no. 1, 1820, p. 4.
Range. — Eastern fourth of Kansas. Peripheral locahties on the
western edge of the recorded range are in Douglas (Lawrence),
Chase (Matfield Green) and Greenwood (Fall River) counties.
Records for the northeastern and southeastern corners are lacking
but to be expected in view of the known range in adjacent states.
Smith: Salamanders
49
Description. — Gills present unless lost accidentally, and gill slits
invariably present; snout blunt, flattened; eyes small, lidless; a
groove across under side of throat; a flap at either side of lower
jaw; tail half length of body, with both dorsal and ventral fin; no
fin on body; toes and fingers 4-4; costal grooves dim, about fifteen.
Adults brownish above, usually with scattered, large, rather poorly
defined, black spots; ground color of belly light, at least down the
middle, with variable spotting. Young with a broad, median longi-
tudinal streak, bordered on either side by a narrower yellow stripe.
Size large, total length up to seventeen inches.
Recognition Characters. — The four toes, instead of five, on the
Scol«
» 40Uil«K
I I
Mul«um of Natural Hiitotf
Uni«irtil|r of Koniai
194}
m
Fig. 23. Distribution of the mudpuppy, Necturus maculosus, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
hind limbs distinguish this species of salamander from all others in
Kansas.
Habits and Habitat. — These salamanders are found only in
streams and well-drained ponds where the water is usually three
feet or more in depth, and where the bottom is provided with suit-
able cover for nesting sites. The necessary cover is flat stones,
boards, or similar objects under which there is space suflBcient for
the deposition of eggs.
The food consists of crayfish, plants, insects (including larvae),
fish, snails, other amphibians, leeches, and minute organisms.
There is strong evidence that mating occurs in the fall. The
50 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
males deposit large spermatophores ( av. 11 mm. in height, 7 mm.
in width ) which the females pick up with the cloaca. The eggs are
laid in spring (late May) as the female finds suitable cover, turns
upside down and deposits them against the under side of the pro-
tective object, from which each hangs pendantlike until it hatches.
Some 60 to 140 are usually laid, in an area some 6 to 12 inches in
diameter. With the gelatinous envelopes they measure 11 X 14 mm.
suspended in water. The females may guard the eggs.
The eggs hatch in five or six weeks. Considerable growth occurs
the first year, and the animal adds 30 to 35 mm. every year there-
after until adult size is reached, when growth is greatly slowed.
Activity is greatest at night. They instinctively shun fight.
Many fishermen believe that the salamanders are poisonous, al-
though actually they are not. They may rarely bite, and the bite
is painful although not serious; they can be handled with impunity.
_ ' ^ ^ '
■ft /^^^r^^t '^*^^&.i IK
Fig. 24. A mudpuppy, Nectunis macidosus mnculosus, approx. X %• Courtesy Zoological
Society of Philadelphia.
Although some fish and fish eggs are eaten, the animals do little
harm and do not deserve the persecution they suffer. They make
excellent food.
Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies Necturus maculosus maculosus (Rafi-
nesque) occurs in Kansas. Only one other race, in Wisconsin, is recognized.
References. — Smith, 1934:422-427 (description, natural history); Bishop, 1941:18-37,
figs. 2a, 7a, 5-8 (description, excellent natural history account. New York); Bishop, 1943:
40-43, fig. 7 (description, breeding).
Smith: Toads and Frogs 51
Anurans (Frogs and Toads)
Order SALIENTIA Laurenti
Twenty species of anurans (that is, members of the order SaHen-
tia), four of which are represented by two subspecies, are known at
the present time in the state. They represent five famiHes. Two
other species, as well as one additional subspecies of a species al-
ready known in the state, are of probable occurrence.
All members of this order known in this state lay eggs in water.
From these hatch limbless larvae commonly known as tadpoles.
In all species these larvae transform into a limbed but tailless ju-
venile which, after a year or two of growth, becomes sexually ma-
ture. There are no neotenic anurans.
The key to the species of anurans is given here in two parts. The
first part ( I ) is to transformed specimens, and the second ( II ) is to
specimens in the tadpole stage.
The larvae, or tadpoles, are characterized chiefly by the presence
of a tail. Those which have not begun to transform, that is to say,
those which do not have legs, are most easily identified by the tad-
pole key. Those which have developed forelegs as well as hind legs
cannot be identified at all by that key, but should be identified by
use of the key to transformed specimens. It may be necessary to
try the specimens with hind legs but without forelegs in both keys
in order to arrive at an identification; even then identification may
be difficult. ,
The key to tadpoles includes only those species actually recorded
from the state. The tadpoles of Acris have been described, but those
of crepitans and grijUus have not been distinguished. Further de-
tails on most species can be found in Wright's summary of 1929. A
notably workable key to genera has been written recently by Orton
(1952).
Identification of tadpoles is not easy. It can be accomplished,
however, by (1) use of a magnifying lens of some sort, (2) study of
the accompanying drawings until the details are well in mind (es-
pecially Fig. 25), and (3) exercise of patience. Patience and per-
severance, indeed, are needed to find and clearly see the structures
that are important in distinguishing one kind of tadpole from an-
other. The key characters are for the most part evident only in
fully developed mouthparts, present in neither early nor late tad-
pole stages.
We include likewise a key to the eggs of anurans, based upon
Livezey's key (1947). The eggs of two species, Bufo debilis and
52
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Spea bombifrons, have not been adequately described and are not
included in the key.
A common query is exactly what distinguishes frogs and toads.
True toads are members of the genus Btifo, and toads in general
are all members of primitive families up to and including the
Leptodactylidae. True frogs are members of the genus Rana, and
frogs in general are all members of the "advanced" families from
the Hylidae through the remaining suborders.
Outer row of Upper
Labial teefh
Inner row of Upper
Lobial teeth
Upper mandible
Upper Labium
Lower Labium
Lower mandible
Papillary fringe
nner row of Lower
Labial teeth
Outer row of Lower
Labial teeth
Fig. 25. Mouth-disc of a tadpole of the garden toad, Bufo woodhotisii X 17,
from Lawrence, Douglas County. Kansas (after Youngstrom and Smith, 1936).
."»«,
■ -Q ■
§
•«iA'<;'L"l°..''VVjc?j-
Fig. 26. Lateral A and dorsal B views of the head of a canyon toad, Bufo punctattts,
from U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 12661, La Paz, Baja California. C and D, same, for the west-
ern green toad, Bufo debilis, from U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 2624, Delaware Creek, Culberson
County, Texas. E and F, same, for the sonoran toad, Bufo compactilis, from U. S. Nat.
Mus. No. 2611, "Pesquieria" Grande, Nuevo Le6n, Mexico. All after Kellogg (1932);
X 1.
Smith: Toads and Frogs
53
Key to Species of Frogs and Toads
I. Transformed Specimens
An enlarged, oval or elongate, raised gland (parotoid gland) on neck
behind eyes; lower surface of rear foot with small warts.
2. Parotoid gland as broad as or broader than long ( Fig. 26A, B ) .
Bufo punctatus, p. 77
2'. Parotoid gland longer than broad.
3. Parotoid gland extending laterally below levels of lower edge of
tympanum (Fig. 26C, D) Bufo debilis, p. 74
3'. Parotoid gland not extending laterally beyond level of middle of
tympanum.
4. Cranial crests absent or, if present, very poorly defined and
better developed behind than between orbits (Fig. 26E, F).
Bufo compactilis, p. 72
4'. Cranial crests well defined.*
Fig. 27. Lateral A and dorsal B views of the head of a plains toad, Bufo cog-
natus, from U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 4626, Nebraska. C and D, same for the
American toad, Bufo terrestris americanus, H. M. Smith 380, Fox Ridge State
Park, Coles Co., Illinois. E and F, same, for the garden toad, Bufo tcood-
housii, from U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 2531, San Francisco Mountain, Arizona.
AU X 1; figs. A, B, C and F from Kellogg (1932); figs. C and D by Mrs.
X. H. Paul.
5. Pattern of large, rather closely placed, distinctly outlined
and light-edged spots, sometimes elongated so as to form
a reticulated pattern; ridges on head between eyes unit-
ing on snout to form a conspicuous boss (Fig. 27A, B).
Bufo cognatus, p. 69
5'. Pattern usually of small spots covering but 3 or 4 warts;
large spots, if present, not distinctly outlined; no boss in
nasal region.
In immature specimens the cranial crests of all species may be poorly defined.
54
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 28. Ventral view of the foot of a striped ehoriis frog, Pscudacris nigrita,
showing the short web between the toes, X 7, from H. M. Smith 381, Urbana,
Illinois. Drawing by Mrs. K. H. Paul.
Fig. 29. A. Body outline of a narrow-mouthed frog, Gastrophryne, X %, after Wright
and Wright (1942). B. Body outline of a spadefoot, Scaphiopus, X %, after Wright
and Wright (1942), showing the elongated (instead of rounded) metatarsal tubercle. C.
Ventral view of the foot of a plains spadefoot, Spea bombifrons, X 3, K. U. No. 5232, 12
miles north of Elkhart, Morton County, Kansas, showing the rounded metatarsal tubercle.
Smith: Toads and Frogs 55
6. Median anterior surface of foot with blackish spines;
parotoid gland separated from postorbital crest (Fig.
27C, D ) ; distal subarticular tubercle almost always
divided, and the penultimate one usually divided;
parotoid glands broader and closer together (width
0.8 to 1.6 of least interparotoid distance); song a high
trill of 10 to 30 seconds duration Bufo terrestris, p. 79
6'. Median anterior surface of foot warty but not tipped
with blackish spines; parotoid glands in contact with
postorbital crest ( Fig. 27E, F ) ; distal subarticular tu-
bercle usually single, and the penultimate one always
single; parotoid glands narrower and wider apart
(width 1.7 to 2.6 times in least interparotoid dis-
tance); song a low trill of less than 5 seconds dura-
tion Bufo woodhoitsii, p. 83
1'. No parotoid gland; lower surface of rear foot warty or not.
2. Toes not webbed or only slightly so, the web never extending be-
yond the basal segment of the movable portion of the longest toe
( as in Fig. 28 ) ; disks on toes absent or considerably less than half
as wide as ear membrane.
3. No ear membrane visible; head much narrower than body (as in
Fig. 29A).
4. Belly heavily pigmented e.xcept in small, scattered spots.
Gastwphnjne carolinensis, p. 113
4', Belly pigmentless, unifonnly white or yellow.
Gastrnphryne oUvace:i, p. 115
3'. Ear meinbrane distinct; head as broad as body or nearly so (ex-
cept in pregnant females ) .
4. Usually a triangular dark mark between eyes; pattern of
rather large, dark spots irregularly arranged on back; no dark
line bordering upper jaw, or a very indistinct one; ear mem-
brane nearly in contact with angle of jaw.
Pseiidacris clarkii, p. 90
4'. Usually no triangular dark mark between eyes; pattern of
stripes, sometimes broken up into rows of spots; usually a
distinct dark line bordering upper jaw; ear membrane dis-
tinctly separated from angle of jaw . Pseudacris nigrita, p. 93
2'. Toes distinctly webbed, the web extending beyond at least the basal
segment of the movable portion of the longest toe; disks on toes
absent or, if present, at least half as wide as ear membrane.
5. An enlarged, blackened tubercle with free cutting edge at base
of foot; pupil vertical in life when subjected to considerable light.
6. Blackened portion of metatarsal tubercle 2-3 times as long as
broad ( Fig. 29B ) ; top of head somewhat elevated in a "boss"
(not yet reported from the state) Scaphiopus hurterii, p. 321
6'. Blackened portion of metatarsal tubercle about as broad as
long ( Fig. 29C ) ; top of head elevated or not.
56 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 30. A. Body outline of a leopard frog, Rana pipiens, K. U. No. 17882, 1 mile north
of Harper, Harper County, Kansas. B. Same of a green frog, Rana clamitans, K. U. No.
23166, 7 miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Both drawings by Ann
Murray, X V2; r, dorsolateral glandular ridge; e, eye; t, tympanum.
Smith: Toads and Frogs 57
7. Top of head elevated between eyes as a boss.
Spea bombifrons, p, 66
7'. Top of head flat ( not yet reported from the state ) .
Spea hammondii, p. 320
5'. No blackened or enlarged tubercle with a free cutting edge at
base of foot; pupil round in light.
6. Tips of fingers and toes with enlarged disks, the largest at
least half as wide as tympanum.
7. Color greenish, slate or grey; no distinct x-shaped mark
on back; webs between toes extending to the terminal
disks except on the longest toe Hijla versicolor, p. 97
7'. Color brownish; a distinct, x-shaped mark on back; webs
between toes extending only to next to the last joint on
all except on the longest one Hyla crticifer, p. 95
6'. No disks on tips of fingers and toes.
7. A raised, ridgelike gland (Fig. 30A, r) at sides of back at least an-
teriorly ( "dorsolateral folds" ) .
8. No distinctly outlined dark spots on back.
9. Ear membrane ["tympanum," (Fig. SOB, t)] as large as eye
(Fig. SOB, e) or larger; no dark blotch on side of head.
Rana clamitans, p. 104
9'. Tympanum smaller than eye; a dark patch behind eye, cover-
ing tympanum and ending on shoulder Rana sylvatica, p. Ill
8'. Distinctly outlined dark spots present on back.
9. Pattern of square or more or less rectangular spots in two
rows between dorsolateral folds and in two rows on the sides;
concealed surfaces of thighs and groin orange ( in life ) .
Rana palustris, p. 106
9'. Pattern not of square or rectangular spots; concealed sur-
faces of thighs and groin not orange.
10. No dark markings on back and sides between spots; dor-
solateral folds usually narrow Rana pipiens, p. 109
10'. Areas between spots distincdy reticulated vidth a color
darker than background; dorsolateral folds usually
broad Rana areolata, p. 99
7'. No dorsolateral folds whatever.
8. Skin on belly smooth; ear membrane always distinct, as large as
or larger than eye; no triangular dark mark between eyes; size
( snout to vent ) up to at least 175 mm. and probably more.
Rana catesbeiana, p. 102
8'. Skin on belly granular; ear membrane indistinct, smaller than
eye; a triangular dark mark between eyes; size (snout to vent)
not exceeding 35 mm Acris crepitans, p. 87
58
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 31. Mouth-disks of anuran tadpoles. A. Plains spadefoot, Spea bombifrons, Meade
County State Lake, Kansas, drawn by Ann Murray, approx. X 20. B. Gopher frog. Rami
areolata, approx. X 17, Herrin, Williamson County, Illinois.
Smith: Toads and Frogs 59
II. Tadpoles
1. Mouth disk absent; spiracle median, near anus.
2. Eyes barely visible in ventral view; rear edge of upper labium pro-
vided with black, homy tubercles Gastrophnjne olivacea
2'. Eyes plainly visible in ventral view; rear edge of upper labium lack-
ing tubercles Gastrophnjne carolinensis
1'. Mouth disk present; spiracle sinistral.
2. Papillary fringe encircling entire mouth disk except for a short space,
less than one-fourth width of jaws, at middorsal border (Fig. 31A);
4 rows of teeth in lower labium (when all present and none lost in
pretransformation changes) Spea bombifrons
2'. Papillary fringe incomplete dorsally by a space more than one-third
width of jaws (Figs. 25, 31B, 32, 33); no more than 3 rows of
teeth in lower labium ( except in Rana sylvatica ) .
3. Papillary fringe encirchng lower labium ( P'igs. 31B, 32, 33).
4. Papillary fringe with a strong indentation at each corner of
mouth (Fig. 31B).
5. Three rows of teeth in upper labium, 4 in lower.
Rana sylvatica
5'. Two rows of teeth in upper labium, 3 in lower.
6. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium
shorter than (% to fj, usually less than V2) e.ther
lateral part Rana arcaJr ta
6'. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium
as long as either lateral part, or longer.
7. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper la-
bium less than twice as long as either lateral part.
8. Beak narrowly pigmented with dark, the lower
mandible dark for less than half its length.
Rana catesbeiana
8'. Beak broadly pigmented with dark, the lower
mandible dark nearly to base . Rana pipiens
7'. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper
labium 2 to 11 times the length of either part.
8. Median space of inner row of teeth 2 to 4
times the length of either lateral part.
Rana palustris
8'. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper
labium 6 to 11 times the length of either
lateral part Rana clamitans
4'. Papillary fringe not strongly indented at each comer of
mouth (Fig. 32).
5. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium ap-
proximately equal to the length of either lateral part; 2
rows of teeth in each labium Acris (crepitans?)
5'. Median space of inner row of teeth in upper labium one-
half the length of either lateral part, or less; usually 3
rows in lower labium.
60
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
"^y^.
%...
'^'^'Q',.
fsmommii,,,, " «»»"""
«"'» „„„|,«U»1""
^ ''^^^^.A^cKM^,,?"'''"-
.J^'
Fig. 32. Mouth-disks of anuran tadpoles. Spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarkii, from
Bragg (1943), X 15. B. Striped chorus frog, Pseudacris nigrita, Lawrence, Douglas
County, Kansas, X 15, from Youngstrom and Smith (1934).
Fig. 33. Mouth-disks of anuran tadpoles. A. Green toad, Bufo debilis, Schwartz
Caiion, Comanche County, Kansas, X 15, from Smith (1934). B. Plains toad, Bufo
cognatus, Meade County State Park, Kansas, X 22, from Smith (1946).
Smith: Toads and Frogs 61
6. Outer row of teeth in lower labium more than half length of
other rows in lower labium Hyla versicolor
6'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium less than half length of
other rows in lower labium (Fig. 32).
7. Upper edge of upper mandible somewhat concave medi-
ally (Fig. 32A) Pseudacris chiikii
7'. Upper edge of upper mandible convex medially ( Fig.
32B).
8. Outer row of teeth in lower labium no longer than
half the length of either section of the inner row of
teeth in the upper labium Hyla crucifer
8'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium more than half the
length of either section of the inner row of teeth in
the upper labium ( Fig. 32B ) . . . Pseudacris nigrita
3'. Papillary fringe confined to sides of labia (Fig. 33).
4. Outer row of teeth in lower labium as long as, or longer than, inner-
most row.
5. Median space between lateral parts of median row of teeth in
upper labium one-third length of either lateral part, or longer.
Bufo punctatus
5'. Median space between lateral parts of median row of teeth in
upper labium absent or much shorter than one-third length of
either lateral part ( Fig. 33A ) Bufo debilis
4'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium shorter than innermost row.
5. Outer row of teeth in lower labium usually two-thirds length of
inner row, or longer.
6. Median space between lateral parts of median row of teeth
in upper labium one-half length of either part, or longer.
Bufo terrestris
6'. Median space between lateral parts of median row of teeth
in upper labium less than one-half length of either part.
Bufo woodhousii
5'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium usually shorter than two-
thirds length of inner row ( Fig. 33B ) .
6. Outer row of teeth in lower labium less than one-half length
of second row ( Fig. 33B ) Bufo cognatus
6'. Outer row of teeth in lower labium usually one-half or more
length of second row Bufo compactilis
62
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hisr.
/
D \
/
\
\
\
/
/
H
Fig. 34. Eggs of various anurans. A. Spring peeper, Uijla crucifer. B. Northern cricket
frog, Acris crepitans. C. Canyon toad, Bufo punctatus. D. Bullfrog, Rana catesheiana.
E. Green frog, Rana clamitans. F. Eastern narrow-mouthed frog, Gastrophryne caro-
linensis. G. Cominon tree frog, Hyla versicolor. H. Western narrow-mouthed frog,
Gastrophryne olivacea. All from Livezey and Wright (1947), X 5.
Smith: Toads and Frogs 63
Key to Known Eggs of Anurans
Eggs deposited singly.
2. Envelope 1.2 to 2.0 mm. in diameter (Fig. 34A) Hyla crucifer
2'. Envelope 2.4 to 3.6 mm. in diameter.
3. Vitellus 0.9 to 1.0 mm. in diameter (Fig. 34B) Acris crepitans
3'. Vitellus 1.0 to 1.3 mm. in diameter (Fig. 34C) Bufo punctatus
Eggs deposited in groups.
2. Egg mass in form of a surface film.
3. Film large with a surface area of 35 sq. in. or more.
4. Each egg with only one gelatinous envelope (Fig. 34D).
Rana catesbciana
4'. Each egg with two gelatinous envelopes (Fig. 34E).
Rana clamitans
3'. Film small, with a surface area of 28 sq. in. or less.
4. Envelope truncated sphere, flat above; outline of envelope
distinct and firm, gi\ing the mass a mosaic appearance ( Fig.
34F) Gastrophryne carolinensis
4'. Envelope round, not trimcate; outline of envelope not dis-
tinct and firm.
5. Egg masses small, of 5 to 40 eggs; a distinct inner en-
velope separated from vitellus by 0.2 to 0.9 mm. ( Fig.
34G) Hyla versicolor
5'. Egg masses large, of more than 100 and as many as 645
eggs; no inner en\elope or if so scarcely separable from
vitellus (Fig. 34H) Gastrophryne olivacea
2'. Egg mass submerged.
3. Egg mass in form of files or strings.
4. Files or strings without a continuous gelatinous encasement,
like a string of beads Bufo punctatus
4'. Files or strings with a continuous gelatinous encasement.
5. One cylindrical envelope; no partitions separating indi-
vidual eggs.
64
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
B
mmmm
Fig. 35. Eggs of various aniirans. A. Garden toad, Bufo woodhousii. B. Sonoran toad,
Bufo compactilis. C. Plains toad, Bttfo cognntus. D. Striped chorus frog, Pseudacris
nigrita. E. American toad, Bufo terrestris. F. Pickerel frog, Rana palustris. G. Gopher
frog, Rana areolata. H. Woodfrog, Rana sylvatica. I. Leopard frog, Rana pipiens. J.
Spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarkii. Figs. A, D, E, G, I from Smith (1934); all others
from Livezey and Wright (1937); figs. A, E, I, X 8; all others X 4.
Smith: Toads and Frogs 65
6. Envelope 2.6 to 4.6 mm. in diameter (Fig. SoA).
Bufo tvoodhousii
6'. Envelope 1.8 to 2.4 mm. in diameter (Fig. 35B).
Bufo compactilis
5'. Two cylindrical envelopes; partitions separating individ-
ual eggs.
6. Envelopes decidedly scalloped, almost beadlike (Fig.
350) Bufo cognatus
6'. Envelopes not scalloped, straight (Fig. 35E).
Bufo terrestris
3'. Eggs in lumps.
4. Each egg with only one envelope Pseudacris nigrita
4'. Each egg with two envelopes.
5. Mass a firm regular cluster of 2,000 to 7,000 eggs.
6. Eggs brown above and yellow below (Fig. 35F),
Rana palustris
6'. Eggs black above and white below.
7. Vitellus 2.46 to 2.50 mm. in diameter (Fig. 35G).
Rana areolata
7'. Vitellus 1.5 to 2.4 mm. in diameter.
8. Egg mass spherical, 2.3 to 4.0 inches in
diameter, of no more than 3,000 eggs (Fig.
35H) Rana sylvatica
8'. Egg mass a plinth measuring 3 to 6 by 2 to 3
inches, of 3,500 eggs or more (Fig. 351).
Rann pipiens
5'. Mass a loose cluster of 10 to 300 eggs, usually 1 inch or
less in diameter.
6. Outer envelope 5.0 to 7.8 mm. in diameter (Fig. 35D).
Pseudacris nigrita
6'. Outer envelope 2.2 to 2.4 mm. in diameter (Fig. 35J).
Pseudacris clarkii
3—9019
66
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
FAMILY PELOBATIDAE .
Genus Spea Cope
Plains Spadefoot
Spea bombifrons (Cope)
Scaphiopus bombifrons Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1863, p. .53 (type locality
— Fort Union, Montana).
Spea bombifrons Cope, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ser. 2, vol. 6, 1866, p. 81.
Range. — Western two-thirds of state, and eastward along the
Kansas River as far as Lawrence, Douglas County. The other
easternmost locality is Winfield, Cowley County; the species has not
been taken in any of the counties north of the latitude of Lawrence
and east of Phillips County (1 mile east of Glade), although it
probably occurs in the northern part of the state as far east as Wash-
ington and Clay counties.
Museum of Natural History
Universllir o( Kansas
I94S
m
Fig. 36. Distribution of the plains spadefoot, Spea bombifrons, in Kansas, with insert show-
ing range of the species.
Description. — Skin rather smooth, sometimes with low wartlike
projections; eyes large, with vertical pupil; prominent, rounded ele-
vation between eyes; parotoid gland poorly defined; tympanum
scarcely visible; fingers only sHghtly webbed; toes nearly fully
webbed; projecting, blackened, hard, inner metatarsal tubercle with
rounded free edge; large outer metatarsal tubercle, not cornified;
tips of fingers corneous in males.
Gray above, coarsely reticulated with darker color; venter whitish,
unspotted; throat blackish in adult males; two poorly defined light
Smith: Toads
67
stripes on each side; inner stripes originating behind orbits, con-
verging toward shoulder region, thence diverging backwards, en-
closing an oval area in middle of back, ending at rear of back; outer
stripes beginning above anus, continuing along sides to groin; thighs
somewhat mottled.
Size moderate, snout-vent measurement reaching 2% inches.
Fig. 37. Plains spadefoot, Spea bomhifrons, X IV2, from 13 miles north of Elfrida,
Cochise County, Arizona. Courtesy George M. Bradt and Charles H. Lowe. Jr.
Recognition Characters. — The vertical pupil and protruding fore-
head are absolutely distinctive of this species, among Kansas forms.
It differs from the various species of Bnfo, wdth which it is most
easily confused, in the absence of a distinct parotoid gland; all other
anurans differ in lacking a blackened, inner metatarsal tubercle
with a free cutting edge. s
68 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Habits and Habitat. — This species, found in somewhat arid re-
gions on sandy or other loose soil, is associated with grasslands, not
normally with flood plains or woodlands. The colony established
beside the Kansas River near Lawrence is of special interest since it
undoubtedly owes its origin to flood-borne waifs swept perhaps ICO
miles east of former range limits.
The plains spadefoot emerges only at night; at other times it
is underground, where it burrows backwards with a peculiar, side-
ways shuffling of the rear feet. These toads burrow to any depths
necessary to remain properly moist; they tend to burrow "beside
objects ( usually plants ) where ( a ) the ground may be softer, (b) it
is more shady, and (c) the burrows are not easily observed" (Bragg:
1945). Individuals emerge when moisture is abundant and the tem-
perature high; the surface of the ground, as well as the ground be-
low the surface, must be damp.
The food consists of almost any kind of terrestial arthropod small
enough to be swallowed and large enough to be seen. The tadpoles
are strongly carnivorous and frequently become cannibalistic; when
cannibalistic they grow to enormous size (4/2 in.). The normal
transformation size is about IVs inches.
There is no definite breeding season. The animals breed only
during or after rains, emerging for that purpose with the first heavy
rain, after a minimum spring fall of 3/2 inches, occurring after
temperatures reach 52° F. They breed only in temporaiy pools,
where they convene in large numbers (both males and females),
attracted by the calls of earlier arrivals. The voice is loud and
harsh; it is audible in chorus for two miles on a still night. In
mating, the male clasps the female with his forelegs, around the
groin of the female, just in front of the hind legs.
The eggs, laid in masses of from 10 to 250 each, hatch in 48 hours.
The hatchling, one-fourth inch in length, doubles its length in five
days, and again with five more days, averaging then one inch in
length. The hind legs appear at this time. In a total of twenty-five
days the maximum length is reached. At thirty days arms appear,
and transformation commences. By the fortieth day, transformation
is complete. The young burrow immediately, emerging at night
to feed, and after a week or so have wandered away from the pool.
Many other details of the life history have been given by Trow-
bridge and Trowbridge (1937) and Bragg (1945).
Kansan Subspecies. — No races have been defined anywhere in the range of
this species.
References. — Smith, 1934: 427-436, map 8 (description, natural history); Trowbridge
and Trowbridge, 1937: 460-480 ( natural history ) ; Bragg, 1944a: 517-533, and 1945: 52-72.
Smith: Toads
69
FAMILY BUFONIDAE
Genus Bufo Laurenti
Plains Toad
Bufo cognatus Say
Bufo cognatus Say, Long's Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 2,
Arkansas River, Prowers County, Colorado).
1823, p. 190 (type localit>- —
Range. — The western three-fourths of the state. Recorded as far
east as Marshall (Blue Rapids), Pottawatomie, Jefferson (1 mi. E
Perry), Douglas (Lawrence), Miami (3 miles southwest of Spring
Scoia
TO 40MiUs
I I
Museum of Nolurot History
Uniwersily of Konsos
1945
m
Fig. 38. Distribution of the plains toad, Bufo cognatus, in Kansas, with insert showing range
of the species.
Hill), Marion (5 miles north of Lincolnville ) , Butler (El Dorado)
and Cowley (Winfield) counties. The record from Lawrence can
be attributed to the effect of the Kaw River, down which specimens
have migrated; that from Miami County is not readily explicable;
the specimen may have been introduced as a tadpole, when waters
were stocked with fish from a place farther west in Kansas.
Description. — Skin warty; cranial crests prominent, uniting an-
teriorly to form a rather pronounced, smooth, flat elevation between
and behind the nares; parotoid glands elongate, ovoid, in contact
with crest behind eye; tympanum distinct, its diameter equal to dis-
tance between nares; inner metatarsal tubercle large, elongate,
blackened, with a free cutting edge; fingers not webbed; toes about
one-half webbed, with three free phalanges on fourth toe and one
on others; warts on body and hind limbs equal in size, those on fore-
legs smaller and spinose; inner digit corneous, blackened in males.
70
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Color yellowish above; sides and back with large brownish areas
each of which is surrounded by a dark band inside a light-colored
band; hind legs banded; forelegs banded or spotted; diagonal
brownish crossbar across each eyelid; upper jaw banded; ventral
surface yellowish, unspotted or with a few dark spots on chest.
Males possess large blackish gular pouches, and the inner fingers
(thumbs) are more or less cornified; females are larger.
Size rather large, snout-vent measurement reaching 4/2 inches.
Recognition Characters. — The large, distinctly outlined, dark
spots, each including numerous warts, are distinctive among Kansas
Fig. 39. A plains toad, Bufo cognatus, X %, 9 miles north of Tnbune,
Greeley County, Kansas, from Smith (1934).
species of Bufo. All toads of the genus Bufo can be recognized by
the distinctly evident parotoid glands. See remarks on B. terres-
tris.
Habits and Habitat. — This plains species is most common in long-
grass and mixed-grass prairies and less common in short-grass areas
where it tends to be restricted to the vicinity of streams. Usually
it does not occur in wooded areas except as accidentally carried
downstream into them. This species like others of the genus Bufo
Smith: Toads 71
is nocturnal, although a few individuals have been observed to be
active in the daytime. The call is said to be a long raucous trill of
metallic timbre suggestive of grinding gears. The vocal sacs of
males are enormous and kidney-shaped when inflated.
The food probably consists of practically any kind of small animal
that moves. Stomachs that were examined contained snout beetles
and dung beetles. Ants may comprise a large proportion of the diet.
Excerpts from Bragg's summary (1940) of the natural history of
tliis species follow. "They breed only after rain in spring or summer
when the temperature exceeds 12° C. Breeding sites in central
Oklahoma include buffalo wallows, flooded fields and the edges of
extensive temporary pools. They do not use ditches, 'tanks' in pas-
tures, streams nor lakes, and they have never been known to breed
in excessively muddy water. . . . The eggs are very numerous
(20,000 to each full clutch), and the percentage of hatching is
high. Concentration of tadpoles in some pools may exceed 750
per cubic foot of water. Food for the larvae ( algae and plant and
animal debris ) is plentiful in the pools, and large numbers of young
often succeed in passing metamorphosis. . . . The embryos
and tadpoles can withstand temperatures in the pools of from near
freezing to at least 37° C. and probably more.
"Metamorphosis starts at one and one-half months after eggs are
laid, at a tadpole length of 26 to 29 mm. The young toads have a
distinctive color pattern, the major feature of which is four to eight
pairs of large dark spots on the dorsal surface and smaller spots on
the sides. In two-day-old toads, the whole dorsal surface is dotted
with small brick-red speckles.
"Immediately after transformation, the young toads average
about 11 mm. in length, and there is not much variation among
them. When, at two or three days of age, they disperse from the
pool, they are about a millimeter longer. They immediately start
feeding and grow very rapidly upon a diet of small insects, young
snails and mites. In one week they vary much in size, the larger
reaching as much as 20 mm. in length. In about four months some
may be half grown (over 50 mm. in length), but others may remain
much smaller. It is probable that the rate of growth of an indi-
vidual is primarily dependent upon availability of food. If this be
the case, then adult size may be reached in two years by some indi-
viduals but not attained by others for three or four years."
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished anywhere in the
range of this species.
References. — Smith, 1934: 440-443, map 10, fig. 18 (description, natural history); Bragg,
1936: 14-20, pis. 1-2 (breeding habits, eggs, tadpole); Bragg, 1937: 273-284, figs. 1-6
(eggs, breeding habits); Bragg, 1940: 322-349, 424-438 (habits, habitat, breeding).
72
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Sonoran Toad
Bufo compactilis Wiegmann
Bufo compactilis Wiegmann, Isis, 1833, p. 661 (type locality — Mexico City, Mexico).
Range. — Uncertain, as no definite records for the state are known.
Cope (1889) reported it from "Kansas," and Bragg and Smith
(1943) record the species from just south of the Kansan border
in Harper County, Oklahoma (near Buffalo, 15 miles south of the
Kansas line). This county is adjacent to Clark and Comanche
counties, Kansas, where precise records of occurrence are to be
sought.
Scala
10 0 zo «)Milat
I.I I '
Muttum of Nolu'Ol Hislor/
Unlvtrsitjr of Kontos
I94J
m
Fig. 40. Distribution of the Sonoran toad, Bufo compactilis, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
Description. — Skin with many low warts, none notably larger
than many others; cranial crests very low, clearly discernible (if at
all) only behind eye; tympanum distinct, vertically oval, its hori-
zontal diameter subequal to distance between inner edges of nares;
parotoid glands small, oval, less than twice as long as broad, sep-
arated from each other by more than the length of either; inner
metatarsal tubercle elongate, a little longer than first toe from the
metatarsal tubercle, with a blackened free edge three times as long
as wide, or longer; outer metatarsal tubercle much smaller, but
blackened and with a free cutting edge; tips of toes often blackened;
fingers not webbed, foot webbed at base, the web extending to the
Smith: Toads
73
antepenultimate segment of the fourth toe, to near tip on others.
Color yellowish or gray in adults, or often both colors interspersed
on the dorsal surface; young with three pairs of dark spots down the
middle of the back, becoming indistinct and broken up in adults;
belly uniform yellow or white, unspotted; dim cross bands present
on legs.
Males with a large gular pouch of the same color as the belly, and
the inner finger (thumb) more or less cornified. Females lack both
modifications and are somewhat larger.
Fig. 41. A Sonoran toad, Bufo compactilis speciostis, Xl'/4, from Tarrant County, Texas.
Courtesy Louis W. Ramsey.
Size moderately large, the snout-vent measurement reaching 3/8
inches in males, 3^ inches in females.
Recognition Characters. — The poorly developed cranial crests
and small, oval parotoid gland but little longer than wide are, in
combination, distinctive of this species. The extraordinarily well-
74 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
developed metatarsal tubercles, both with free cutting edges, are
unique.
Habits and Habitat. — This is a species characteristic of arid or
semiarid, short-grass plains. In some areas it is extremely abundant,
the dominant toad of the region. In other areas the species is rarely
seen except when breeding, as both sexes congregate in large num-
bers about either temporary or permanent pools of water.
Breeding is initiated by heavy rainfall at any time from early
spring through the summer, until the end of August. Wright de-
scribes the call as loud and shrill. The vocal sac in use is sausage-
shaped, one end projecting far in front of the head.
In hot, dry weather the species is seldom seen except in moist areas
and about street lights in certain parts of its range.
The food consists largely of insects but any small moving creature
is likely to be taken.
The eggs are laid in narrow strings. The diameter of the tube
is approximately 1.8 to 2.4 mm. in diameter. Only one gelatinous
envelope, the outer cylindrical tube, is present. The eggs are small,
1.2 to 1.6 mm. in diameter, and brown or dark gray above, yellow
below. The eggs are crowded in the tube, 11 to 17 per inch.
"The bicolored tadpole is small, 1 to l/s inches (24 to 28 mm.),
light colored, its back a drab or light grayish olive; its belly, pale
cinnamon pink; its tail crests translucent. The tooth ridges are %.
After a tadpole period of 40 to 60 days, they transform, June 1 to
August 1, at % inch (12 mm.)" (Wright and Wright, 1942.)
Kansan Subspecies. — One subspecies, Bufo compactilis speciosus Girard, with
type locality at Pesqueria Grande, Nuevo Leon, Mexico, is known in the state.
One other subspecies, in central and western Mexico, is recognized. Two other
subspecies, of California and an area including adjacent parts of Nevada, Utah
and Arizona, were formerly placed in this species but are now referred to the
species B. tvoodhousii.
References. — Wright and Wright, 1949: 167-171 (description, natural history, illus-
trations); Bragg and Smith, 1943: 294-295, map, fig. 4 (distribution in Oklahoma, habits);
Bragg, 1940: 8 (habits).
Green Toad
Bufo debilis Girard
Bufo debilis Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 7, 1854, p. 87 (type locality —
Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico).
Range. — Southwestern Kansas, as far east as Barber County, and
as far north as Logan County. Known from only four other coun-
ties: Grant, Greeley (9 miles northeast of Tribune), Hamilton, and
Morton (18 miles north of Elkhart).
Smith: Toads
75
Description. — Head and body very flat; no longitudinal crests be-
tween eyes, or if so only a low border about eyelids; tympanum
very small, oval, in contact with parotoids to the rear, smaller in
diameter than internarial space; parotoids large, almost as long as
head, broader than internarial space; fingers not webbed; toes one-
half webbed.
Ground color above greenish; some of warts yellowish, others
blackish; the latter color frequently extending over several warts,
forming usually narrow streaks that may tend to give the back a re-
ticulated appearance; hind legs faintly banded; ventral surface
yellowish; belly sometimes spotted.
Size small, the snout-vent length reaching 1% inches.
MuseuTi of Nolurfll History
Univarslly of KonsOS
1945
Fig. 42. Distribution of the green toad, Bufo dcbilis. in Kansas, with insert showing range of
the species. The range of the eastern subspecies, B. d. dcbilis, is crosshatchcd; that of the
western (B. d. insidior) is lined.
Recognition Characters. — The presence of a distinct parotoid
gland identifies the members of the genus Bufo. Of the five species
known in Kansas, only this and B. piinctatus lack cranial crests.
These two species differ in shape of parotoid glands (round in B.
punctatus, elongate in B. dehilis).
Habits and Habitat. — This species inhabits the short-grass prairie
and sand prairie; it ranges also into mi.xed-grass prairie to the east.
The habits are not well known. The animals emerge at night. In
Texas they are said to breed in April and May, in rain-formed pools
and ditches, but pregnant females of Bufo have been found as late
as June 27, and choruses have been heard on August 8 and in early
76 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
September. The voice is said to be "cricket-like, a low sustained
trill." The tadpoles have not been authoritatively identified. A
series tentatively referred to this species has been described ( Smith,
1934).
This is one of the few species of anurans in Kansas whose eggs
are unknown.
Fig. 43. A green toad, Btifo dcbilis insidior, X IVa,
from 18 miles north of Elkhart, Morton Countv,
Kansas, K. U. No. 5647, after Smith (1934).
Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies are recognized, two occurring in
Kansas: B. d. insidior Girard, with the type locality at Chihuahua, Chihuahua,
Mexico, and ranging from trans-Pecos Texas and southeastern Arizona north-
ward into Kansas and southward into Mexico; and B. d. debilis, occurring from
northeastern Mexico northward through central Texas into Kansas. The third
subspecies, B. d. retiformis Sanders and Smith, occurs only in south-central
Arizona and adjacent Mexico. In B. d. insidior the warts on the cranial crests
are pointed and widely separated, and the ridge below eye does not extend
forward beyond the level of the ridge in front of eye. In B. d. debilis the warts
on the crests are smooth and fused to form continuous ridges, and the ridge
below eye extends forward beyond the level of the ridge in front of eye. The
latter tends to have smaller, more nearly round spots, whereas the spots in
B. d. insidior tend to be narrow, elongate, and to enclose several warts.
References. — Smith, 1934: 443-446, map 11, fig. 20 (description); Wright and Wright,
1949: 172-175, pi. 34, map 12 (general account); Bragg and Smith. 1943: 295-296, fig. 5
(habitat, Oklahoma range); Savage, 1954: 83-112, figs. 1-3 (taxonomy, distribution,
phylogeny); Riemer, 1955: 17-19 (taxonomy, phylogeny).
Smith: Toads
77
Canyon Toad
Bufo punctatus Baird and Girard
Btifo punctatus Baird and Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, 1832, p. 173
(type locality — Rio San Pedro, tributary of the Rio Grande del Norte, Texas).
Range. — Southwestern Kansas. Reported only from Morton (12
miles north of Elkhart), Clark (Stephenson and Abell Ranches),
Comanche (Schwartz Canon) and Barber (1 mile west of Sunny-
side School, and 5 miles south of Sun City) counties.
Museum of Nolurol History
Univorsily of Kansas
Fig. 44. Distribution of the canyon toad, Bufo punctatus, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
Description. — Head rather flat; no cranial crests; parotoid glands
small, round, little larger than eye; tympanum distinct, small, oval,
equal in greatest diameter to internarial distance; body with rather
large, low, smooth warts; fingers not webbed; toes half-webbed.
Color brownish or gray above, the warts more reddish and the
head darker; ventral surface yellowish, with small, black spots;
larger dorsal warts edged with black.
Size small, the snout-vent length reaching three inches.
Recognition Characters. — See discussion of B. debilis.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is known only from rocky
semiarid areas, in mountains and in dissected plateaus.
Little is known of the habits. The song is said to be a "long con-
tinued trill, resembling that of a hearth cricket but with more vol-
ume" (Storer). Breeding apparently takes place in late April and
early May. Larvae and recently metamorphosed young have been
observed on May 28. The animals presumably are nocturnal, al-
78 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
though they have been seen in the open in the daytime. The food
consists of beetles, bugs, ants, and bees, with ants predominating;
many other arthropods probably are eaten.
The eggs of this species are the most distinctive of those of any
member of the genus Biifo in the United States. All species except
Fig. 45. A canyon toad, Bufo punctatus,
X 1, from Helotes, Texas. Courtesy A. A.
and A. H. Wright.
this lay eggs in strings. Canyon toads, however, lay their eggs
singly on the bottom of pools or streams. The eggs are protected by
a sticky gelatin, and often tend to adhere one to the others in masses
only a single layer in depth.
The vocal pouch is a more or less spherical structure when in-
flated. As in other anurans, diis pouch occurs only in males. Of the
toads of Kansas, only the sonoran toad and plains toad have the
pouch, or sac, bean-shaped and extending beyond the tip of the
snout.
Except in breeding choruses this species is seldom found. During
dry seasons, presumably much time is spent underground; specimens
have been found in prairie dog burrows at such times. In chorus,
however, enormous numbers may be present, but the time of chorus
is highly unpredictable and apparently dependent largely upon
occurrence of heavy rainfall, even as late as September. Although
resistant to semiarid conditions, these toads are yet restricted to
regions of relatively high moisture content.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been segregated anywhere in th"
range of this species.
References. — Smith, 1934: 446-449, map 12, fig. 21 (description, natiiral history);
Stebbins, 1951: 280-285, pi. 17 (general account); Storer, 1925: 192-199 (description,
natural history); Strecker, 1926: 8-10 (habits); Wright and Wright, 1949: 192-197, pi.
39, map 13 (general account).
Smith: Toads
79
American Toad
Bufo terrestris ( Bonnaterre )
Raua terrestris Bonnaterre, Tabl. Encycl. Method., Erp., 1789, p. 8 (type localit>^ —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Bufo terres-tris Stejneger and Barbour, Check List N. Anier. Amphs. Repts., 1917,
p. 29.
Range. — The eastern quarter of the state. Peripheral locahties
are in Doniphan (Doniphan Lake), Osage (Carbondale), Chase
(10 miles southwest of Toronto) and Chautauqua (3 miles south
of Cedar Vale) counties.
i i i_
Scal«
10 O JO 44Mil9S
I.I 1 I
Museum o' Nolurol Hislory
University of Konsos
I94S
Fig. 46. Distribution of the American toad, Bufo terrestris, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species. The range of B. t. americanus is lined, that of B. t. charlesmithi
crosshatched.
Description. — Skin warty; warts with small apical spines; anterior
surface of foot with black spines; a pair of distinct ridges between
eyes, not directly bordering orbit; tympanum distinct, one-half to
one-third size of eye; parotoid glands large, broad, only one-third to
one-half longer than wide, separated from each other by a distance
less than the length of one gland; dorsal warts of various sizes,
some as large as tympanum; warts on shank as large as those of
body; an enlarged brightly colored wart above and on either side
of anus; large, blackened, inner metatarsal tubercle with free cutting
edge; subarticular tubercles on feet frequently divided, the first
tubercle practically always divided; all toes nearly fully webbed,
except the three terminal phalanges of the fourth.
Color rather dark gray or reddish; a few black, light-outlined spots
each surrounding one or two warts, on dorsal surface; some
individuals with elongate lateral dark marks including numerous
small warts; frequently a black, light-edged bar across each eyelid;
upper lip banded sometimes; breast often with numerous black
80
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
spots; frequently a brightly colored, red or orange patch of warts
between insertion of foreleg and tympanum, and one wart above
and on each side of anus.
In males throat black at least during the breeding season, and
inner finger (thumb) enlarged and cornified (an aid to clasping).
Females larger.
Size moderate, snout-vent measurement as much as 3^ inches.
Fig. 47. American toad, Bufo terresfris americanus, X %. Specimen at left, from Starved
Rock State Park, LaSalle County, Illinois; the specimen at right is from 1 mile southwest
of Carbondale, Osage County, Kansas.
Recognition Characters. — The distinct parotoid gland serves to
identify this species as a member of the genus Bufo. From other
kinds of Bufo in Kansas, B. terrestris may be distinguished by the
distinct cranial crests (excludes B. compactilis, B. dehilis and B.
punctatus) , the small dorsal dark spots (excludes B. cognatus), and
by a number of characters that separate it from B. ivoodhousii. The
latter species is the only one frequently confused with it. There are
many differences between the two; nevertheless, variation in each
species is so extensive that occasional specimens are not easily
identified. Differences mentioned in the following parallel columns
will aid in identifying specimens at least from Kansas.
Smith: Toads
81
B. terrestris
1. Belly usually profusely spotted.
2. Parotoids not more than twice as
long as broad, separated from
each other by no more than the
length of one gland.
3. Skin on median anterior surface
of tarsi and metatarsi with black-
ish spines.
4. Warts on body more varied in
size, fewer, some of them con-
siderably enlarged.
5. Usually but one or two warts to
a dark color spot.
6. Usually no median dorsal white
line.
7. Second subarticular tubercle of
fourth toe frequently divided;
first almost always divided.
8. Parotoids usually separated from
postorbital ridge, and the latter
in contact with tympanum either
directly or by a secondary arm.
9. Snouts of males in lateral profile
pointed to some extent.
10. A pair of brightly colored warts
above anus.
11. Song a high trill of ten to thirty
seconds duration.
12. Eggs laid single file, enclosed in
a double tubular membrane, with
a partition separating each egg
from the next one.
B. woodhousii
1. Belly usually unspotted or with a
single dark, median spot on chest.
2. Parotoids more than twice as long
as broad, usually separated from
each other by more than the
length of one gland.
3. Skin on median anterior surface
of tarsi and metatarsi without
blackish spines.
4. Warts on body more uniform in
size, more numerous, smaller.
5. Some of dorsal spots including
many warts ( eastern specimens )
or but one or two (western
specimens ) .
6. Always a median dorsal white
line.
7. Second subarticular tubercle of
fourth toe never divided; first
seldom divided.
8. Parotoids usually in contact with
postorbital ridge, and the tym-
panum separated distinctly from
the latter.
9. Snouts of both males and females
sharply truncate in lateral profile.
10. No brightly colored warts above
anus.
11. Song a low trill of three to four
seconds duration.
12. No partitions between eggs; a
single tubular membrane.
Habits and Habitat. — Individuals of B. terrestris live in wooded
areas where rainfall is moderately high. Except in the breeding
season, they are scattered far and wide, and can be found under
logs, stones or other shelter in damp areas during the day. At night
and in late evening they emerge from their hiding places to obtain
food. Insects, worms and almost any other kind of small, moving
animals are eaten.
Hibernation occurs probably in underground burrows. The toads
emerge as early as the middle of March in Kansas, and soon con-
gregate at more or less permanent pools of water to breed. Males
82 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
have been heard calling as early as March 24, and as late as April 28.
The song is a high-pitched trill prolonged for ten to thirty seconds.
The males clasp the females about the body immediately back of the
forelegs, pressing the thumbs into the region of the armpits. Eggs
nxe laid in double strings, one from each oviduct, over a considerable
period of time, as the male emits sperm to fertilize them.
The eggs measure 1.43 mm. in diameter, and are arranged single
file down each tube. When examined microscopically, it can be seen
diat the tube is divided into cells by partitions; there is but one egg
in a cell. Two membranes line the tube, the outside diameter of
Fig. 48. An American toad, Btifo terrcstris chtnles-
mithi, X "A, from 1 mile northeast of Riverton, Cher-
okee County, Kansas. Photo bv E. H. Taylor and
T. P. Lyle.
which is 2.86 mm. The total number of eggs laid by a single female
varies from 4,000 to 20,600. The tadpoles transform fifty to sixty-
five days after hatching.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies occur in the state: Bufo t. americantis
(with type locality at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), and B. t. cJmrlesmithi Bragg
(with type locality in McCurtain Co., Oklahoma). Two other subspecies, B. t.
copei Yarrow and Henshaw of northeastern Canada and B. t. terrestris of south-
eastern United States, are recognized. B. t. charlesmithi is small (seldom ex-
ceeding two and one-half inches snout-to-vent) and has an unspotted venter,
whereas adult B. t. americantis usually exceed that size and have a heavily
pigmented venter.
References. — Smith, 1934: 436-440, figs. 22, 23 (description, Kansas localities); Gage,
1904 (natural history); Miller, 1909 (natural history); Wright, 1914 (natural history);
Bragg, 1954 ( systematics, description of B. t. charlesmithi).
Smith: Toads
83
Garden Toad
Bufo woodhousii Girard
Bufo woodhousii Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 7, 18.54. p. 86 (type lo-
cality— San Francisco Mt., Coconino Count>', Arizona).
Range. — Throughout die state. Not recorded
from the eastern border south of the Missouri River;
peripheral locaHties in that area are in Douglas
(Lawrence), Osage ( Carbondale ), Woodson
(Neosho Falls) and Chautauqua (5 miles south of
Cedar Vale) counties.
Museum of Natural History
Univarsiljr of Konsos
1945
Fig. 49. Distribution of the garden toad, Bufo woodhousii, in Kansas. The range of B. w.
woodhousii is lined, that of B. tv. fowleri crosshatchtd.
Description. — Head thick; snout rounded, flat at tip in lateral
profile; sides of head in front of eyes slanting outward at an angle
of about 45°; tympanum distinct, oval, equal in greatest diameter
to distance between nares; cranial crest prominent; parotoids long
and narrow, separated by a distance equal to their own length, as
long as head, or wide as internarial space; dorsal warts small,
numerous, spinose, none enlarged; subarticular tubercles usually
entire, the second sometimes divided (on foot); large, blackened
inner metatarsal tubercle with a free cutting edge; toes two-thirds
webbed.
Color gray or yellow above; spots on body blackish or greenish,
sometimes small and including only one or two warts, but fre-
quently large and including many warts, as in B. w. fowleri; a nar-
row, median, dorsal, light line; usually a transverse bar across
orbits; upper lip with .3 bands; ventral surface usually unspotted,
sometimes with a single median dark spot, rarely several spots.
84
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
In males the throat is blackish, the thumb is enlarged and corni-
fied, the tips of the fingers corneous, the size smaller and the skin
smoother than in females.
Size large, the snout- vent measurement reaching 4% inches.
Fig. 50. A garden toad, Bufo uoodhoiisii woodhoiisii, X V2, from 35 miles southeast of
Meade County State Park, Kansas.
Recognition Characters. — See discussion of B. terrestris, and Figs.
47, 48, and 50.
Habits and Habitat. — Garden toads are most abundant in long-
grass and mixed-grass prairie, but in the eastern part of their range
they enter the periphery of wooded areas, especially in more
sparsely-wooded areas and in oak-hickory associations. An enor-
mous variety of situations is inhabited. These toads are common
about human habitations and in dry river bottoms. In the central
part of Kansas this species is the most common of all toads. Indi-
viduals emerge mostly at night and in the evening, when they forage
for insects of many kinds. They eat bees readily upon occasion and
may be a pest about apiaries for that reason. However, as a regu-
lator of insect pests they are effective, because they have huge appe-
tites and eat large numbers of webworms and probably other pests.
It is estimated that they eat two-thirds their own volume of food
Smith: Toads
85
every twenty-four hours. Young individuals tend to be active dur-
ing the day as well as at night. Adults may emerge early in the
morning to warm themselves. They retire late at night because they
become cool then. In the daytime they burrow into the soil or
utilize crevices under cover or ready-made holes or burrows.
Breeding occurs "in a great variety of places (cattle-tanks,
ditches, flooded fields, back-washes of streams, artificial fish-pools,
edges of small semipermanent artificial lakes, and sloughs on the
flood plains of rivers ) . They are not known to use buffalo wallows
and their general versatility and adaptability to conditions make
this hard to explain. They seem to prefer shallow water for breed-
ing but have been known to produce eggs in water at least three feet
deep. They seem to prefer muddy water but will use clear water at
times. Within any one season the breeding activities are staggered
— that is, not all individuals breed at the same time even under
favorable conditions. They are not dependent upon rain for breed-
ing although most breeding activity does occur after rains in spring
or summer. Congresses of this species are usually small and each
male acts more or less individualistically, calling or not according
to some inner urge. . . .
"Metamorphosis occurs at a total
length of about 30 mm. after a tadpole
period of from thirty-four to forty-five
days, dependent upon both tempera-
ture and food supply. The food of the
larvae is algae and organic debris of
either plant or animal origin. The
young toads are spotted dorsally in
two colors on a grayish-brown back-
ground. The larger spots are dark-
colored and of medium size; the
smaller are tiny and red. . . . The
young toads are active and alert. They
feed upon small insects and arachnids
and may grow at a rate of 0.3 mm.
( i. e., about 3 percent ) a day. Some become half grown during the
first summer. . . ." ( Bragg, 1940 ) .
Breeding has been observed as early as March 25, and as late as
Fig. 51. A garden toad, Bufo
woodhousii fotvleri, X %, from Fox
Ridge State Park, Coles County,
Illinois.
86 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
August 17. The song is a short, low trill of three to four seconds
duration. Bragg (1950) has recorded that with air temperatures at
20° C. and water temperatures at 22° C. two or three calls are given
within intervals of 10 seconds, at least under the conditions prevail-
ing at one time when 120 10-second intervals were observed. How-
ever, rate of call is influenced not only by prevailing temperatures
(air and water temperatures having different effects), but also by
"social factors." Males are stimulated by the calls of their own
kind, and the rate of calling is affected by the numbers calling at any
one time and place. These generalizations seemingly pertain to
all of the anurans possessing a voice.
The known irregularity of breeding activity in this species is,
interestingly enough, correlated with irregularity of ovarian activity.
Clark and Bragg (1950) record that the ovaries ". . . are not
equally ready for ovulation during the known breeding period, but
instead they exhibit a variation of preparedness from animal to
animal in the months of March through August."
Bragg (1950) has recorded size variation in detail for Oklahoma
specimens. Males are mature at a snout- vent length of a minimum
of 65 mm., and reach a maximum at 99 mm.; females as small as 68
mm. snout to vent may be mature, and their maximum is reached
at 126 mm. (only rarely exceeding 118 mm., however).
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies occur in Kansas: B. iv. woodhousii,
with type locality at San Francisco Mt., Coconino Co., Arizona, and Biifo to.
foicleri Hinckley, with type locality at Milton, Massachusetts. The two sub-
species differ (according to Bailey and Bailey, 1940) as follows:
B. w. fowleri B. w. icoodhotisii
1. A pattern including six well-de- 1. A pattern not of six symmetrically
fined, relatively large dark dorsal placed, large dark spots; largest
spots * which usually involve 3 or dorsal spots usually involving 1 or
4 warts (total in all 6 spots, 14 to 2 warts (total in 6, 6 to 18, av. 10;
31, av. 20; 15 or more in 96 per- 13 or less in 92 percent).
cent ) .
2. Postorbital ridge in contact with 2. Postorbital ridge separated from
tympanum in adults. tympanum in most adults.
3. Smaller, maximum snout-vent 3. Larger, maximum s n o u t-vent
length 3 inches in males, 3/4 inches length 3/8 inches in males, 6 inches
in females. in females.
4. Width of parotoid gland 1.3 to 1.9 4. Width of parotoid gland 1.7 to 2.6
(av. 1.7; 1.8 or less in 92 percent) (av. 2.1; 1.9 or more in 88 per-
in interparotoid distance. cent) in interparotoid distance.
References. — Smith, 1934: 449-457, map 13, figs. 22, 23 (description, natural history);
Youngstrom and Smith, 1936: 630-632, figs. 2, 4, 6 (tadpole); Bragg, 1940: 306-321, figs. 1
(habits, habitat, breeding).
* The six spots counted include the two lying between the anterior ends of the parotoids,
two between the posterior ends of the parotoids, and two near the mid-dorsal line in the
middle of the back.
Smith: Frogs
87
FAMILY HYLIDAE
Genus Acris Dumt'-ril, Bibron and Dumeril
Northern Cricket Frog
Acris crepitans Baird
Acris crepitans Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 7, 1854, p. 59 (type locality —
Potomac River at Harper's Ferry, West Virginia.
Range. — State-wide, except perhaps the south-
western corner. It has not been reported southwest
of Wallace (Sharon Springs), Scott (State Lake),
Finney (Essex) and Seward (Arkansas River 12
miles west of Kismet) counties.
Fig. 52. Distribution of the northern cricket frog, Acris crepitans, in Kansas.
Description. — Skin smooth or with small, smooth warts; eyelids
always warty; head rather thick, pointed; tympanum indistinct,
small ( half internarial distance ) , low ( dorsal margin even with ven-
tral margin of eye); no parotoid glands; no dorsolateral ridges; foot,
excluding tarsus, half of snout-vent length or longer; toes nearly
or quite fully webbed, except for the two terminal phalanges on the
fourth toe; a fold across chest between armpits; ventral surfaces
granular at least posteriorly; two short bones at tips of digits.
Color above slate gray; a dark, usually light-edged, triangular
mark, apex directed caudad, between eyes; frequently a broad, ir-
regular light band down back, whitish, greenish or reddish in color;
back frequently with small black spots, sometimes surrounding
lighter areas or warts; about four prominent dark bars across upper
lip on each side; usually a distinct, broad, dark longitudinal line on
88
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
posterior (concealed) surface of thigh, bordered above and below
by a light color; ventral surfaces immaculate, sometimes spotted on
chest and throat; usually a light-colored wart on each side of, and
below anus.
Size small, the maximum snout-vent measurement being 1% inches.
Recognition Characters. — This species can be distinguished from
all others in Kansas by the combination of three characters, as fol-
lows: Presence of two (instead of 1) short terminal bones (about
Fig. 53. A cricket frog, Acris crepitans blanchardi, X 3,
UTMNH No. 16298 from 1 mile north and 3 miles west of
Collinsville, Illinois. Photo by Charles A. McLaughlin.
as long as broad) on digits; presence of extensive webbing on the
feet; and the absence of disks on the tips of the digits. Most easily
confused with A. crepitans are members of tlie genus Pseudacris, but
these have only short webs on the hind feet. The slightly warty
skin, pointed head, and the dark mark between the eyes are the
characters most useful in quick identification, once a person has
become familiar with the forms to be found in the state.
Habits and Habitat. — These frogs generally are found in low vege-
tation on the banks of any permanent or semipermanent bodies of
water. They seem to avoid deep water, yet are seldom found so far
from water that they could not reach it in a few hops.
Smith: Frogs 89
The food consists of aquatic insects, terrestrial arthropods, cray-
fish, ants, caterpillars, beetles, and spiders.
The frogs are active during the day as well as at night, quickly
jumping into the water when disturbed and swimming promptly to
the bank at some other point. They migrate at night between pools.
Breeding places include almost any water except shallow, transi-
tory pools. The frogs emerge early in spring (late February), and
remain active until late in the fall. Breeding, however, does not
occur until early in April, and continues to as late as May 9. Sing-
ing males are heard as late as July 15. Amplexation (clasping of
the female by the male) is axillary. Usually the eggs are laid
singly; a single female lays approximately 250 eggs.
The call of this species is one of the most common of frog voices
in eastern Kansas. It is a distinctive click as of small stones being
struck together, repeated several times and often slurred by lessen-
ing the intervals between notes. The call is not loud and does not
carry well, but until the middle of July or even later it is more
frequently heard than any other. Even after that time the frogs
are commonly seen, but are seldom heard.
The lazy rhythm of a small chorus of this species in late spring
suggests that a sort of "call order" like that recently recorded for
Hyla crucifer may occur. In the latter species, a chorus is com-
posed of numerous trios, each in turn composed of three frogs emit-
ting notes of different key. Each frog always sings the same key,
and the calls are always initiated by the individual having the low-
est note. The highest note is heard only after the other two have
established their rhythm. The members of each trio may be widely
dispersed in a chorus, but the composition of the trio remains the
same despite interruptions, at least for an evening.
Whether the cricket frog actually has a similar call order is not
known, but certainly the nature of the call and the apparent rhythm
casually observed suggest at least the possibility of some sort of
order existing. This is a fertile field for observation, for in only the
one species mentioned have any observations been recorded.
Kansan Subspecies. — The Kansan subspecies is Acris crepitans blanchardi
Harper, with type locahty at Smallen's Cave, Ozark, Christian County, Mis-
souri. One other race, A. c. crepitans, occurs in the eastern United States.
References. — Smith, 1934: 457-461, map 14 (description, natural history); Harper,
1947: 39-40 (description of A. c. blanchardi); Wright and Wright, 1949: 220-228, pi. 46.
map 13 (general account).
90
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Genus Pseudacris Fitzinger
Spotted Chorus Frog
Pseudacris clarkii ( Baird )
Helocactcs clarkii Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 7, 1854, p. 60 (type lo-
cality— Galveston, Texas).
Pseudacris clarkii Smith, Amer. Midi. Nat., vol. 15, 1934, p. 462.
Range. — South-central Kansas from Rush County (Nekoma)
south through Lyon and Sedgwick counties (10 miles north of
Wichita) on the east and Meade County on the west. Known from
only si.x other localities: Cheyenne Bottoms south of Hoisington,
Barton County (not shown in fig. 54); 10 miles south of Ensign,
Gray County; Kingsdown, Ford County; Rezeau Ranch, Kiowa
County; three miles southwest of Sun City, Barber County; and
Harper, Harper County.
Description. — Skin perfectly smooth; head rather flat; tympanum
distinct, rather large, round, in contact with angle of jaw, separated
from orbit by less than half of its own diameter, bordered above by a
fold of skin; fingers not webbed; webs between toes short, not
involving more than the basal phalan.x of the fourth toe; belly
granular.
Uusaum of Natural History
UiM.arsilr ol Konias
1945
m
Fig. 54. Distribution of the spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarkii, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Light slate above, with promiscuously placed, rather large to
medium-sized spots, usually not arranged in longitudinal rows;
usually a triangular dark mark between eyes; limbs banded except
on concealed and ventral surfaces; venter immaculate, whitish.
Size small, maximum snout-\ent measurement being IM inches.
Smith: Frogs
91
Recognition Chaidcters. — The combination of absence of ex-
tensive webs on the hind feet with the presence of a distinct tympa-
num is absokitely distinctive of the members of the genus Pseudacris
in Kansas. Gastro))Jiryne lacks the webs too but also lacks a visible
tympanum. The two species of Pseudacris known from the state
closely resemble each other, but can be distinguished by the follow-
ing characters:
P. clarkii
lip not or feebly
dark-
P. nigrita
1. Upper lip distinctly dark-edged.
2. Usually no triangular dark mark
between eyes.
3. Always striped or with spots ar-
ranged in distinct rows.
4. Tympanum smaller and more
widely separated from angle of
jaws.
5. Eggs deposited in clumps of 1 10 or
more.
In the two species the calls are different and the tadpoles are known to differ
in various structural details.
Upper
edged.
A triangular dark mark between
eyes.
Usually with a pattern of irregu-
larly distributed spots, but some-
times striped.
Tympanum larger and in contact
or near-contact with angle of jaws.
Eggs deposited in clumps of 20 or
less.
Fig. 55. Spotted chorus frogs, Pseudacris clarkii, X 1, from 2 miles north of Lex-
ington, Cleveland County, Oklahoma. After Smith (1934).
Habits and Habitat. — This species is characteristic of grassland
prairies. "In springtime, it emerges early in the evening to feed,
ranging through pastures and fields but never in roadways except
quite incidentally. It does not frequent stream margins or pools
(except, of course, for breeding) and is quite secretive and shy. . . .
In late summer (mid-July through September) I have never found
P. clarkii active (except in late breeding congresses) and I think
92 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
that, like the characteristic prairie biifos, they tend to be inactive
during dry, hot weather." (Bragg, 1943: 130.)
Mating occurs in temporary, shallow pools, never in deep pools.
An important environmental factor in bringing about breeding activi-
ties is rainfall; after the first heavy rains of spring ( providing a cer-
tain undetermined minimum of moisture has previously fallen), the
frogs come to the breeding sites. They breed at temperatures of as
low as 5.5° C, and as early as March 5. If the spring is unusually
dry, the breeding is delayed indefinitely, apparently with no ill
effects, at least into August.
The call normally is a "loud, medium pitched, and rapidly re-
peated 'whank, whank, whank'" (Bragg, 1943: 131). However,
the species has a surprisingly varied vocal repertoire, as discovered
by Bragg. At temperatures below 12° C. the call is a slow grinding
note, and when males approach a pond in which the species breeds
they use a call not quite so loud as normal that has "an indescribable
quality which, for want of a better term, I call 'pensive' or 'plead-
ing.' " The latter calls presumably guide more distant males to the
pools, and do not serve primarily to attract females.
Amplexation is axillary, and is maintained for periods of up to
twenty-four hours. The pair moves about, chiefly through efforts
of the female, as eggs are laid in small masses here and there usually
on vertical grasses, sedges or weed stems not more than three inches
below the surface of the water. Occasionally the pair comes to the
surface for air. Approximately 1,000 eggs are laid, in masses of
6 to 30. They have been described in detail by Bragg (1933: 133).
They require a higher concentration of oxygen than do the eggs of
most kinds of frogs, which fact may explain why the eggs are de-
posited close to the surface of the water. They hatch, by disintegra-
tion of the gelatinous envelopes, in 2/2 to 3 days. The tadpole has
been described by Bragg (1943: 136-139).
After transformation the young frogs "remain near the pool for
about three or four days, then gradually scatter widely. While about
the pool, the young are diurnal except in very hot, bright sunshine.
In the latter situation, they seek protection beneath any appropriate
object during the day and come forth at night to feed." (Bragg,
1943: 139.)
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species have been defined any-
where in its range.
References. — Smith, 1934: 462-465, map 15, fig. 24 (description); Bragg, 1943: 70-74
(natural history, compared with that of P. nigrita); Bragg, 1943: 129-140, figs. 1-4 (life-
history ) .
Smith: Frogs
93
Striped Chorus Frog
Pseudacris nigrita (Le Conte)
Rana nigrita Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 1, pt. 2, 1825, p. 282
(type localit>- — Liberty County, Georgia).
Pseudacris nigrita Giinther, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., 1858, p. 97.
Range. — The eastern two-thirds of the state. The western Hmit
of range is not accurately known; the species has been taken as far
west as Hays, Elhs County; Nekoma, Rush County; Pratt, Pratt
County; and Kiowa, Barber County, In the northern part of the
state it probably occurs as far west as Decatur County, yet has not
been taken west of Miltonvale, Cloud County.
uteum of Naturol Hi&torjr
Univlrsity ol Konsos
1945
Fig. 56. Distribution of the striped chorus frog, Pseudacris nigrita, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — Skin perfectly smooth; head ratlier flat; tympanum
round, bordered above by a fold of skin, separated by one-third of
its own diameter from angle of jaws, and by about three-fourths of
its diameter from orbit; fingers not webbed; webs between toes
very short; belly granular.
Color light slate above; typically three broad dark slate stripes
down back; middorsal stripe frequently broken, others less fre-
quently; rarely a triangular dark mark between eyes; a dark spot
covering each eyelid frequently present; transversely elongate spots
on limbs; feet usually pigmented; ventral surfaces whitish; a few
small black spots usually present on chest.
Size small, the snout-vent length reaching 132 inches.
Recognition Characters. — See discussion of P. clarkii.
94 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Habits and Habitat. — The usual habitat of this species of frog is
swampy, marshy places, aud in such places the animals are abun-
dant in spring. At this time of the year they may be found about
temporary pools at roadsides or in pastures, or in small streams,
although never, probably, as abundantly as along the shores of lakes
and in flood plains. In summer and fall they seldom or never sing,
and in these seasons are rarely found.
-^.. ■
Fig. 57. A striped chorus frog. P.seitdacris ni-
grita triseriata, X 1%, K. U. no. 23620, from
1 mile northeast of Riverton, Cherokee County,
Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
Because they lack extensive webs between the toes, they are not
strong swimmers, and because the disks on the digits are small, the
animals seldom climb far above the water.
The breeding season extends through March and April. Am-
plexation is axillary. The call may be imitated by drawing a point
across a comb, commencing at the bottom of a jar and rapidly
bringing it to the mouth. Approximately two months are required
for complete development from the egg to the time of transfor-
mation.
The food consists of many kinds of arthropods, including a large
percentage of spiders and beetles.
Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies occurring in Kansas is P. n. triseriata
(Wied), the type locality of which is Mt. Vernon, Ohio River, Indiana. Five
other subspecies occur in the eastern United States and central Canada.
References. — Smith, 1934: 465-469, map 16 (description, natural history); Bragg, 1943:
70-75 (natural history, comparisons with P. clarkii); P. W. Smith, 1952: 165-180, pi. 1,
figs. 1-2 (taxonomy).
Smith: Frogs
95
Genus Hyla Laurenti
Spring Peeper
Hyla crucifer Wied
Hyla crucifer Wied, Reise Nord. Anier., vol. 1, pt. 5, 1838, p. 275 (type localit)- —
Leavenworth, Kansas).
Range. — Extreme eastern Kansas. Recorded only from Leaven-
worth, Leavenworth County, Pigeon Lake, Miami County and 2
miles south of Galena, Cherokee County,
Fig. 58. Distribution of the spring peeper, HtjJa crucifer, in Kansas, with insert showing range
of the species.
Description. — Skin perfectly smooth; no parotoid glands; tym-
panum distinct, round, its diameter about two-thirds internarial
distance, removed from angle of jaw by about one-half its length,
from orbit by about three-fourths; largest disk on fingers but
slightly smaller than tympanum; a distinct metatarsal tubercle and
tarsal fold; no webs on fingers; webs on toes extending to antepenul-
timate phalanx of fourth toe, to penultimate of others; ventral sur-
faces granular.
Color above light brown, with darker, brownish, narrow markings
forming a band between eyes, a cross extending from eyes to the
midlumbar region, and an inverted v-shaped mark in front of anus;
frequently a band connecting the arms of the cross; limbs narrowK-
banded; ventral surfaces yellowish, immaculate.
Size small, the snout-vent measurement reaching l/i inches.
Recognition Characters. — This is the only genus of amphibian in
Kansas the fingers of which terminate in disks the largest of which
96
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
are nearly or quite as large as the distinct tympanum. The two
species of this genus differ as follows:
H. crucifer
Ground color brownish.
A distinct, narrow-lined cruciform
mark on back.
Webs between toes extending only
to penultimate phalanges ( ante-
penuhimate on 4th).
H. versicolor
1. Ground color greenish, slate or
gray.
2. Markings irregular, seldom cruci-
form.
3. Webs between toes extending to
terminal disks ( to ultimate pha-
lanx on 4th).
Fig. 59. Spring peeper. Hyla c. crucifer, X 2, from 3 miles northeast of Val-
meyer, Monroe County, Illinois.
Habits and Habitat. — This species occurs in marshes, swamps,
ditches, ponds, any pools (whether temporary or permanent), in
timbered areas and in untimbered lowlands.
The breeding season is early — March 15 to March 24 in Kansas,
so far as known. Amplexation is axillary. The song is a series of
half-second peeps, repeated ten to twenty times at intervals of one
minute or so. The sound has the quality of a high shrill whistle.
In chorus the effect is that of jingling sleigh bells ( see p. 89 ) .
Smith: Frogs
97
The eggs hatch in 4 to 5 days, and transformation requires 90
to 100 days.
The food consists of such nonaquatic insects as bugs, flies, and
beetles with a predominance of flying kinds.
Kansan Subspecies. — H. c. crucifer occurs in Kansas. The only other sub-
species recognized occurs in the extreme southeastern United States.
References. — Smith, 1934: 470-472, map 17, fig. 26 (description, natural history);
Wright and Wright, 1949: 311-315, pi. 66, map 23 (general account).
Common Tree Frog
Hyla versicolor Le Conte
Hyla versicolor Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 1, pt. 2, 182.5, p. 28
(tjTJe locality — New York, New York).
Range. — Eastern third of Kansas. Recorded from as far west as
Manhattan, Riley County; Fall River, Greenwood County; and Elk
City, Montgomery County.
Musium of Noturfll Hutoij
1945
Fig. 60. Distribution of the common tree frog, Hyla versicolor, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
Description. — Skin perfectly smooth; no parotoid glands; tympa-
num distinct, large, round, its diameter sHghtly less than internarial
distance, separated from angle of jaws by one-fourth to one-fifth its
own diameter, and almost in contact with orbit; fingers shghtly
webbed; digital disks large; a large inner metatarsal tubercle; toes
nearly fully webbed; ventral surfaces granular.
Color above normally light gray, but back with darker gray,
black-outlined markings, frequently forming a bluntly five-pointed
4—9019
98
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
irregular star-shaped mark in pectoral region; a band across eacti
upper eyelid; a dark line from posterior margin of eye to groin,
limbs broadly banded; posterior concealed surface of thighs reticu-
lated or blotched with darker color; concealed surfaces of thigft,
shank and groin orange in life.
Size moderate, the snout-vent measurement amounting to as
much as 2% inches.
Recognition Characters. — See discussion of H. crucifer.
Habits and Habitat. — These animals are restricted to permanent,
wooded bodies of water, such as lakes, permanent swamps, and
streams. Although they seldom leave the vicinity of these perma-
FiG. 61. Common tree frogs, Hyla v. versicolor. Top from Pigeon
Lake, Miami County, Kansas, X 1V4; courtesy H. K. Gloyd. Bottom
from 4 miles north and 1 mile east of Lawrence, Douglas County,
Kansas, X %; photo by W. W. Tanner and T. P. Lyie.
nent bodies of water, they are not actually in them, except during the
breeding season, but remain in the trees, shrubs and sometimes on
the ground, from where males call in summer and fall. Prior to the
Smith: Frogs
99
actual breeding season they remain in these situations for periods
of up to ten days.
Males are heard as early as April 9 in Kansas, and mating occurs
as late as June. At temperatures of 50° F. or less they do not call
or breed. The eggs are laid in packets of thirty to forty, and from
a single female total up to about 1,800. Amplexation is axillary.
The call is a loud, pronounced trill of approximately two seconds
duration, repeated at intervals of ten to twenty seconds.
Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies of Kansas is H. v. versicolor. Two other
subspecies, H. v. chnjsoscelis Cope and H. v. sandersi Smith and Brown, are
recognized. They occur in Texas and Louisiana northward to Ilhnois.
References. — Smith, 1934: 472-477, map 18, fig. 28 (description, natural history); Bragg,
1943: 64-67 (natural history).
FAMILY RANIDAE
Genus Rana Linnaeus
Gopher Frog
Rana areolata Baird and Girard
Rana areolata Baird and Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, 1852, p. 173
(type locality — Indianola, Texas).
Range. — Southeastern fifth of the state. Known as far west
as 9 miles southeast of Toronto, Greenwood County, and 6^ miles
northeast of Howard, Elk County; and as far north as Lawrence,
Douglas County.
Seal*
Wwiaum er Naiwrfll MiJwf
Un'*«r«<l, of IUmmi
I94>
m
Fig. 62. Distribution of the gopher frog, Rana areolata, in Kansas, with insert showing range
of the species.
100
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. riisi.
Description. — Skin on sides with smooth warts; no parotoid
glands; tympanum distinct, round, separated from eye by one-half
its own diameter, which is about two-thirds diameter of eye; fingers
not webbed; toes webbed to antepenultimate phalanx of fourth digit,
to penultimate or ultimate phalanges of others; no blackened tu-
bercles on hands or feet; a pair of prominent dorsolateral ridges ex-
tending posteriorly to level of groin; short longitudinal ridges present
between dorsolateral ridges.
Color light slate or light brown above; back with numerous, dark
Fig. 63. A gopher frog, Rana arcolata circulosa, X 1, from Haskell Bottoms, 2 miles
south of Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. After Smith (1934).
bluish, blue-brown or darker brown, more or less rounded, usually
hght-edged, sometimes light-centered, spots over body and head,
smaller on latter; a distinct dark reticulation between these dark
Smith: Frogs 101
spots on back; posterior limbs with about four dark cross-bands;
forelimbs blotched. Ventral surfaces immaculate, whitish.
Size moderately large, maximum snout-vent length, AVia inches.
Recognition Characters. — The presence of distinct dorsolateral
ridges combined with a pattern of large, round dark spots, dis-
tinguishes this species from all others in Kansas except R. pipiens.
From the latter it differs most clearly in having (whereas R. pipiens
lacks) a dark reticulation between the dark spots on the back.
Habits and Habitat. — These frogs generally are found in low
meadow land, in crayfish holes, and seldom leave the holes except in
the spring, when breeding choruses form in temporary pools. Ex-
cept during the breeding season, the frogs are rarely seen. They pre-
sumably live in the crayfish holes throughout the year, and wander
but short distances from them, emerging only in early morning.
They breed as early as March 11 and as late as May 15. The calls
are short, one or two seconds in duration. Some 7,000 eggs are laid
in masses five or six inches in diameter. The larvae are undescribed
except for the mouthparts.
Juvenal individuals are extremely rare in collections. Apparently
they utilize burrows immediately upon transformation. If it were
not for the annual breeding congresses, adults imdoubtedly would be
as rarely found as are the juveniles. No other species of Rana in
this country possess such secretive habits. In the postbreeding sea-
son, specimens can be dug from their retreats, but a more eflFective
and less tedious method is to probe into crayfish holes with a slender
stick to the end of which is attached a small fishhook. Holes oc-
cupied by frogs can be identified by the absence of an earthen
funnel and the presence of a smooth platform beside the entrance.
The vocal sacs of males are paired and are distended, when the
song is produced, to a size almost equal to that of the head.
Equally as unique as the habitat, so far as species of Rana in this
country are concerned, are ( 1 ) the formation of breeding congresses
in response only to heavy rains, and (2) utilization by the congresses
of temporary pools. These features identify the xeric (arid) type
of breeding pattern, and suggest that in the distant past the frogs
were subject to much more arid conditions than they now are.
Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies occurring in Kansas is Rana areolata
circulosa Davis and Rice, with type locality at Olney, Richland County, Illinois.
The only other subspecies, R. a. areolata, occurs to the soutli, in Texas, Okla-
homa, Arkansas and Louisiana.
References. — Smith, 1934: 477-482, map 19, fig. 31; Bragg, 1953 (breeding behavior,
eggs, tadpoles); Goin and Netting, 1940: 153-158 (taxonomy, natural history).
102
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Bullfrog
Rana catesbeiana Shaw
Rana catesbeiana Shaw, Gen. Zool., vol. 3, pt. 1, 1802, p. 106, pi. 33 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Ratige. — Presumably state-wide; not recorded in
extreme southwestern corner.
Description. — Skin smooth; no parotoid glands;
tympanum distinct, round to oval, its diameter
twice internarial distance in males, equal in fe-
males; fingers not webbed; toes fully webbed, ter-
minal phalanx of 4th toe sometimes partly free; no blackened tuber-
cles on hands or feet; no dorsolateral ridges, although tympanum
is bordered above by a fold.
Museum of Natural Hislofy
Univartiljr ol Kontat
1945
Fig. 64. Distribution of the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, in Kansas.
Color above green or olive to brownish, either uniform or indis-
tinctly blotched with darker; hind legs usually indistinctly banded
or spotted; if the latter, spots arranged in transverse rows; venter
whitish or obscurely mottled with dark color, especially on chest and
throat; concealed surfaces of shank and thigh heavily mottled or re-
ticulated. Young and larvae with numerous scattered, minute, black
specks above.
Size large, the snout-vent length reaching eight inches.
Recognition Characters. — This can be distinguished from all other
species of Rana in Kansas by the complete absence of dorsolateral
folds; all others have them extending at least halfway to the groin.
From other species of anurans in Kansas it may be distinguished by
Smith: Frogs
103
the following combination of characters: smooth skin, lacking paro-
toid glands ( excludes Btifo ) ; absence of a blackened tubercle with a
free cutting edge at base of foot (excludes Spea); presence of
complete webs between toes, with no more than the last phalanx of
the fourth toe free from web (excludes Pseudacris and Gastro-
phrtjne); and absence of disks at the tips of the digits (excludes
Hyla).
Fig. 65. A bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, X %, from 2 miles north and 1 mile east of
Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by W. W. Tanner and T. P. Lyle.
Habits and Habitat. — These frogs are restricted to permanent
bodies of water such as lakes, rivers and swamps with deep water.
Isolated ponds may be inhabited if the water is permanent. Intro-
duced into cattle tanks, they appear to live well.
Dispersal by man has resulted in establishment under natural
conditions of the species in areas as remote as eastern Mexico and
California, whereas the natural range seems to have been restricted
104
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist,
to the eastern United States. In a few decades the former natural
range may well become completely obscured.
The period of hibernation is probably passed under water. Emer-
gence occurs as early as February 16, but mating follows much later,
certainly in May. The eggs are laid in large films of 10,000 to
20,000 eggs each and one film covers one to two and one-half square
feet; the eggs hatch in four to five days. The larvae typically require
one year for transformation, which occurs late in the second summer
after hatching.
The food is of great variety, including small vertebrates as well
as arthropods. A goodly proportion is terrestrial.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range
of this species.
References. — Smith, 1934: 482-487, map 20 (description, natural history); Wright and
Wright, 1949: 444-449, pi. 94, map 29 (general account).
Green Frog
Rana clamitans Latreille
Rana clamitans Latreille, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 2, 1802, p. 157 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Range. — Extreme eastern Kansas south of the Missouri River.
Recorded from only two counties: Miami (Marais des Cygnes
River near Osawatomie) and Cherokee (Riverton and Shoal Creek
200 ft. from Missouri line, west of Baxter Springs).
Fio. 66. Distribution of the green frog, Rana clamitans, in Kansas, with insert showing range
of the species.
Smith: Frogs
105
Description. — Skin with numerous smooth or spinose rugosities,
except on head; rugosities on hind Hmbs sometimes arranged in lon-
gitudinal rows; no parotoid glands; tympanum distinct, in females
separated from orbit and angle of jaws by one-half its diameter,
which is one-third greater than internarial distance; tympanum in
males with a diameter twice internarial distance and practically in
contact with orbit and angle of jaws; fingers not webbed; toes fully
webbed except for proximal phalanx of fourth toe; no blackened
tubercles on hand or foot; dorsolateral ridges present, extending pos-
teriorly only half the length of the back ( to the sacrum, marked by
the hump, at middle of back ) .
Color uniform olive or olive-brown; sometimes blackish blotches
of indefinite outline scattered over back, sides and top of head;
limbs sometimes narrowly banded; posterior surfaces of thighs re-
ticulated or heavily marbled with blackish, or almost uniform
blackish or gray with minute light spots; throat sometimes faintly
blotched with gray, venter otherwise white, immaculate.
Size moderate, snout-vent measurement reaching four inches.
Recognition Characters. — The presence of dorsolateral folds ex-
tending halfway down the back is distinctive of this species. The
complete absence of distinctly outlined dark spots is characteristic,
but R. catesheiana, as well as each of several other species, is similar
in this respect.
Fig. 67. A green frog. Rami damitans clamitans, X '/!>, from
Callahan, Florida. Courtesy A. A. and A. H. Wright.
Habits and Habitat. — This solitary frog, like R. catesbeiana, is
restricted to permanent pools or streams. In Kansas the breeding
habits are unknown. Elsewhere it emerges in April, and breeding
106 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
follows much later. The larvae typically transform about three
months after hatching. The call is a twanging bass note repeated
at intervals of some thirty seconds.
The life history of northern individuals has been studied in detail.
Nothing is known of the life history of individuals in the central
and southern parts of the range, where transformation may be ex-
pected to occur in the first year, without overwintering in the tad-
pole stage. It is reliably recorded that a similar abbreviation occurs
in the life history of the bullfrog, in which transformation requires
two years in the north and only one in the south.
Ovulation (egg-laying) occurs in a period of about three weeks
at any time in a period of two and one-half months in the north, but
whether such an extended period holds in the central part of the
range is unknown. Details of all parts of the life history of indi-
viduals in Kansas and in more southern areas are to be desired for
comparison with those of individuals from more northern areas.
The food is ninety percent nonaquatic, consisting of worms and
various arthropods such as insects, crayfish and spiders.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are recognized. The one occurring in
Kansas is Rana clamitans melanota (Rafinesque), with Lake Champlain as type
locahty. It ranges northward from southern Oklahoma, southern Ilhnois and
the coastal plain into Canada.
References. — Smith, 1934: 488-491, map 2 (description, natural history); Mecham, 1954:
1-24, figs. 1-7, pi. 1 (taxonomy); Wright and Wright, 1949: 450-454, pi. 95, map 30 (gen-
eral account).
Pickerel Frog
Rana palustris Le Conte
Rana palustris Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 1, pt. 2, 1825, p. 282
(type locality — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania).
Range. — Extreme southeastern Kansas. Recorded only from
Cherokee (3 to 5 miles north of Baxter Springs) and Crawford (Cow
Creek, Pittsburg) counties.
Description. — Skin with a pair of broad dorsolateral ridges ex-
tending posteriorly to level of groin; a number of short longitudinal
ridges between folds; tympanum distinct, round, sometimes bor-
dered above by a fold of skin and separated from tympanum and
angle of jaws by about one-third its own diameter; fingers not
webbed; toes nearly fully webbed but deeply indented, the two
terminal phalanges of fourth toe free or with a narrow flap bordering
each side; metatarsal tubercles present but not blackened.
Smith: Frogs
107
Color above tan or light brown; rectangular, definitely outlined,
sometimes narrowly light-bordered dark reddish-brown spots, ar-
ranged in two more or less regular rows between the dorsolateral
ridges and also in two rows on the sides, the lower row of much
smaller spots; forelegs blotched above, hind legs narrowly banded;
dorsolateral ridges sometimes silvery; posterior surfaces of thigh
blotched; concealed surfaces of thigh and groin orange; ventral sur-
face whitish, unmarked or with a few spots on lower lips.
Size moderate, the snout-vent measurement reaching SVq inches.
Sceli
10 0 » *oMHt«
Hwiium ol Noturfll HlltOff
UiUvrtltf of Konioa
1949
Fig. 68. Distribution of the pickerel frog, Rana palustris, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
Recognition Characters. — The presence of dorsolateral ridges ex-
tending posteriorly to the level of the groin distinguishes this species
from all other anurans of the state with the exception of R. areolata,
R. pipiens and R. sylvatica. The latter has no distinctly outlined
spots, and is thus easily separable from R. palustris, but the first
two do have spots. From R. areolata and R. pipiens, palustris differs
chiefly in the presence of rectangular instead of round or oval spots,
the arrangement of them in regular rows, and in the presence of an
orange color on the concealed surfaces of the flank and thigh.
Habits and Habitat. — This species frequents cold springs, perma-
nent, clear streams, ponds, lakes and the like, where vegetation at
108
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
the water's edge is sufficient for concealment. Among the species of
the genus Rana of the United States, palustris is exceptional in its
ability to secrete an irritating fluid poisonous in the digestive tract
of other animals. These secretions will kill other amphibians if they
are kept in close confinement with R. palustris, and are very dan-
gerous to man if eaten.
No details of the life history in Kansas are known, but elsewhere
the eggs, 2,000 to 3,000 in number, are laid in masses 3/2 to 4 inches
Fig. 69. A pickerel frog, Rana palustris, X %. Courtesy A. A.
and A. H. Wright.
in diameter, and hatch in 11 to 21 days. The larvae transform 90
to 100 days after hatching.
A vast variety of arthropods is eaten. Recently transformed
individuals have a diet of 76 percent terrestrial forms, whereas in
adults 95 percent of the food is terrestrial, in large part as a result
of the thickened skin allowing a wider forage range.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range
of this species.
References. — Smith, 1934: 491-494, map 22 (description, natural history); Wright and
Wright, 1949: 476-480, pi. 100, map 32 (general account).
Smith: Frogs
109
Leopard Frog
Rana pipiens Schreber
Rana pipiens Schreber, Naturforscher, vol. 18, 1872, p. 185, pi. 4 (White Plains, New
York, or Raccoon Landing, Gloucester County, New Jersey ) .
Range. — State-wide.
Description. — A pair of dorsolateral ridges ex-
tending posteriorly to groin; usually short ridges
present between dorsolateral ridges; no parotoid
glands; tympanum with a diameter equal to or
somewhat greater than internarial distance, sepa-
rated by one-fourth its diameter from orbit, by one-
sixth from angle of jaws; fingers not webbed; toes nearly or fully
webbed, except two terminal phalanges on fourth toe, which are
bordered by a narrow flap of skin extending from web; a distinct
tarsal fold; metatarsal tubercles present but not blackened.
Fig. 70. Distribution of the leopard frog, Rana pipiens, in Kansas. The range of R. p.
berlandieri in the eastern part of the state is indicated by the lined area and that of R. p.
brachycephala by the stippled area.
Color above slate; brownish gray to dark gray or blackish spots
on back and sides; bands or spots on hind legs; frequently a light
band along dorsolateral ridges, and from above axilla below tym-
panum and eye onto side of head; in some specimens (especially
southeastern), a distinct dark stripe extends from orbit through
nares to tip of snout, the light line below encroaching upon the for-
mer and not narrowly restricted; ventral surfaces immaculate save
110
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
for markings about edge of lower jaw; posterior surface of thigh
spotted or reticulated with darker.
Size moderate, the snout-vent measurement reaching 4M2 inches.
Recognition Characters. — Only three species of frogs in Kansas
possess a pair of dorsolateral folds extending to groin, combined
with distinctly outlined dark spots: R. areolata, R. palustris, and R.
pipiens. For comparisons of the latter with the former two see dis-
cussions of R. areolata and R. palustris.
"as.
Fig. 71. A leopard frog, Rana pipiens brachycephala, X 1,
from Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by E. H.
Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
Habits and Habitat. — The leopard frog is the most ubiquitous of
the anurans of the state. Practically every roadside pool, stream,
pond, lake, swamp and river has its quota, especially during the
breeding season and early summer, when transformation takes place.
During much of the year specimens may be found in damp situa-
tions far from water.
Hibernation takes place in mud and water at depths below the
frost line. The frogs emerge as early as February 2. Breeding has
been reported as early as March 10, and may continue until the
middle of May. The song is a low chuckling of varied frequency.
Smith: Frogs
111
The eggs, 4,000 to 6,500 in number, are laid in masses four to five
inches in diameter and hatch in five to twenty days. In approxi-
mately three months the larvae transform.
The food consists almost wholly of nonaquatic arthropods.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two races, Rana pipiens herlandieri Baird (with type
locality in southern Texas) and R. p. brachycephala Cope (with type locality
on Yellowstone River), occur in Kansas. There are a number of difiFerences
between these two races in Kansas, the most reliable of which is the ratio of
head length to head width. The latter divided by the former is 1.1 or more in
R. p. brachycephala and less than 1.1 in R. p. berlandieri. Not only is the
southeastern race more narrow-headed, but in it the longitudinal bands on the
front of the thigh are indicated at least by a row of spots (entirely absent in
R. p. brachycephala) ; a spot is rarely present on top of the snout in front of
eyes (usually present in R. p. brachycephala); and distinct bands are present
on each side of the head from the eyes to the tip of the snout (absent or in-
distinct in R. p. brachycephala) .
References. — Smith, 1934: 494-501, map 23 (description, natural history); Wright and
Wright, 1949: 498-520, pis. 105-115, map 34 (general accomit).
Wood Frog
Rana sylvatica Le Conte
Rana sylvatica Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 1, pt. 2, 1825, p. 282
(type locality — New York, New York).
Range. — Limits unknown in Kansas. Apparently a relict form,
known at present only from the Verdigris River bottoms in extreme
southwestern Lyon County.
wHiltl
=1
Mustum el Nolgrot History
UnivtMily ol Kansas
1943
Fig. 72. Distribution of the wood frog, Rana sylvatica, in Kansas, with insert showing range
of the species.
112 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Description. — Dorsolateral ridges extending to level of groin; skin
v^ith small, smooth irregularities giving it a somewhat rough appear-
ance; no parotoid glands; tympanum distinct, its diameter entering
body length 11 to 15 times; no blackened tubercles on hands or feet;
fingers not webbed; toes fully webbed, except on fourth toe.
Color brownish above, usually uniform and unspotted, but some-
times a median white stripe present, and/or a dark area down middle
of back bordering the stripe if present; hind legs with narrow dark
bars; a prominent dark stripe on side of head from snout through
eye and tympanum, bordered below by a broad white line; edge of
upper lip dark; throat and chest usually speckled, ventral surfaces
otherwise white.
Size rather small, the snout-vent measurement not exceeding 2/4
inches, tibia-body proportion .45 to .55; leg ( to heel ) equally as long
as, or shorter than, body.
Fig. 73. A wood frog, Rana s. cantabrigensis, X 1,
. from Fox Ridge State Park, Coles Couiity, Illuiois.
Photo by Charles A. McLaughlin.
Recognition Characters. — The combination of a dark patch on
side of head (involving tympanum), absence of distinctly outlined
spots on back, and presence of a pair of dorsolateral ridges extend-
ing to the level of the groin, is absolutely distinctive of this species
in Kansas. R. clamitans and R. catesbeiana lack dorsal spots but
the dorsolateral ridges are either absent or reach only halfway to the
groin, and they lack the black patch on the side of the head. No
other anurans closely resemble JR. sylvatica.
Habits and Habitat. — This is strictly a woods frog, never found
in open areas. Breeding occurs in woodland pools. Unlike other
ranas of Kansas, it hibernates on land, under stumps, logs or stones.
Smith: Frogs
113
The natural history of this frog in Kansas is unknown. Elsewhere
it breeds from March to July at temperatures of some 50° F. The
eggs, 2,000 to 3,000 in number, are laid in masses 2^4 to 4 inches in
diameter. The larvae transform 44 to 85 days after hatching. The
call is said to be a hoarse clacking.
Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies reported in Kansas is R. sylvatica canta-
brigensis Baird, with type locality at Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan. Two other sub-
species are recognized. One, Rana s. sylvatica he Conte, is to be expected in
the extreme southeastern corner of Kansas. Its chief peculiarity is the long
legs, whose length enters only .53 to .62 times into the snout-vent length, as
opposed to .62 to .74 in R. s. cantabrigensis; the tibia-body proportion is greater,
.55 or more, and the leg ( to heel ) is longer than the body.
References. — Wright and Wright, 1949: 540-552 (description, natural history); Schmidt,
1938: 377-379 (taxonomy).
FAMILY MICROHYLIDAE
Genus Gastrophryne Fitzinger
Eastern Narrow-mouthed Frog
Gastrophryne carolinensis (Holbrook)
Engystoma carolinense Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp., ed. 1, vol. 1, 1836, p. 83, pi. 11
(type locality — Charleston, South Carolina).
GastTophryne carolinensis Stejneger and Barbour, Check List N. Amer. Amph. Kept.,
1917, p. 40.
Range. — Extreme southeastern corner of the state. Recorded only
from four miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas.
i -
hiHttum of Ngiurgl Hiiiorr
Univartllr of KanMS
1943
Fig. 74. Distribution of the eastern narrow-mouthed frog, Gastrophryne carolinensis, in Kan-
sas, with insert showing range of the species.
114 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Description. — Skin smooth; no parotoid glands; no tympanum
visible; head narrow, pointed, considerably narrower than body; no
webs on either fingers or toes; an inner but no outer metatarsal
tubercle, not cornified; a transverse groove passing across head be-
tween posterior borders of orbits and extending onto each side of
head behind angles of jaws, and sometimes completely encircHng,
the head; no tarsal fold; a groove across chest between armpits.
Color dark slate gray above; sides and broad middorsal area often
darker than rest of body; irregular dark spots outline a middorsal
area, whether this area is darker or not; the area generally narrower
in front than behind, but very variable in shape; limbs with variable
dark marks; ventral surfaces of body and limbs dark, with small,
scattered, rounded light spots. In males the throat is dark.
Size small, maximum snout-vent measurement being 1% inches.
Recognition Characters. — ^All other anurans in the state, except
Gastrophrijne olivacea, have at least short webs between the toes,
and a distinct tympanum. The broad body and narrow, pointed
head are likewise distinctive. This species possesses a heavily pig-
mented belly, whereas the belly in G. olivacea is unpigmented.
Fig. 75. Eastern narrow-mouthed frogs, Gastrophrijne carolinensis. Left, K. U. no.
24414, 4 miles east of Baxter Springs. Cherokee County, Kansas, X "/lo- Photo by E. H.
Taylor and T. P. Lyle. Right, from southern tip of Matagorda Island, Matagorda Counts',
Texas, X IVa. Photo by R. R. Hamm.
Habits and Habitat. — Wooded, moist regions are inhabited; there
the animals are found most often either breeding about clear, tem-
porary pools and backwater, or under surface debris. During dry
periods they remain buried underground and are rarely seen.
In the breeding season, from April to August, the males call from
terrestrial pools with a peculiar bleating voice quite like that of
Smith: Frogs
115
sheep. It is of low intensity, scarcely audible at a distance of fifty
to seventy-five feet away. The call is short, lasting 1.5 to 2 seconds.
The eggs and tadpoles are well known (see Wright, 1934). The
egg mass is a surface film; in some instances the eggs are in separate
packets of ten to ninety eggs each. The complement is about 850
eggs, the envelopes of which are truncate. The tadpoles are small
( 1 inch in length ) , flat and wide; the head is notably flattened, the
snout is truncate, and the eyes are visible from below. The spiracle
is immediately in front of the anus. There is no disk, or horny man-
dible, and there are no papillae, or horny teeth.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished anywhere in the
range of this species.
References. — Wright, 1931: 452-476, numerous illus. (complete account, Okefinokee
Swamp, Georgia); Hecht and Matalas, 1946: 1-21 (taxonomic review); Carvalho, 1954: 12-
13 (generic status).
Western Narrow-mouthed Frog
Gastrophryne olivacea (Hallowell)
Engystoma olivaceum Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 8, 1856, p. 252
( type locality — Ft. Riley, Geary County, Kansas ) .
Gastrophryne olivacea Smith, Copeia, 1933, p. 217.
Range. — Eastern two-thirds of the state. Peripheral records to
the west and north are in Meade (State Park), Rush (Nekoma),
Ellis (6 miles west of Hays), and Jewell (14 miles north of Man-
kato) counties.
iitwm of Natural HItlorir
Uni«arill|r of Konioi
1949
m
Fig. 76. Distribution of the western narrow-mouthed frog, Gastrophryne olivacea, in Kansas,
with insert showing range of the species.
116 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Description. — Skin smooth; no parotoid glands; no tympanum visi-
ble; head narrow^, pointed, considerably narrower than body; no
webs on either fingers or toes; a cornified inner but no outer meta-
tarsal tubercle; a transverse groove passing across head between
posterior borders of orbits and extending onto each side of head
behind angles of jaws, and sometimes completely encirchng the
head; no tarsal fold; a groove across chest between armpits.
Color slate or brownish gray above, either uniform or with a few
black spots scattered over back and hind legs; ventral surface
whitish, immaculate or with faint reticulations of dark color on
throat and sides. In males the throat is black.
Size small, maximum snout-vent measurement being VAe inches.
Recognition Characters. — This species differs from all other Kan-
san anurans, save only Gastrophryne carolinensis, in the absolute ab-
sence of webs between the toes; it is also
the only one in which the tympanum is
entirely concealed. The broad body and
narrow, pointed head are also distinctive.
The most obvious distinction from G.
carolinensis is in belly markings; in G.
olivacea the belly is completely unpig-
mented, while in G. carolinensis the belly
is heavily pigmented except in pigment-
less areolae.
Habits and Habitat. — This frog is found
Fig. 77. A western narrow- ill woodcd arcas, somctimcs iu rocky
mouthed frog, Gastrophryne -n i .1- i • rr
o. olivacea, X 1, from 5 miles zoucs. Kocks are the usual cover in Kan-
Te^'n'l.e, DougiaT'county,°Ka^srs' sas, but the animal is subterranean in
Photo by w.^ w^Tanner and j-^^b^^s and iu many parts of its range out-
side Kansas it inhabits rockless areas.
Breeding occurs from April through early September, after rain-
storms when the temperature is high. While active early in spring,
at least in April, breeding is delayed until later in the season. The
call is a slight peep followed by a high-pitched shrill buzz of two
to three seconds duration, audible at a distance of 50 to 100 feet.
The eggs, some 600 in number, are laid as a surface film. Tad-
poles transform thirty to fifty days after hatching.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are recognized. The one in Kansas is
G. o. olivacea. The other, G. o. mazatlanensis Taylor, occurs in Arizona and
northwestern Mexico.
References. — Smith, 1934: 501-505, map 24, fig. 30 (description, natural history); Bragg
and Smith, 1942: 40 (breeding); Bragg, 1943: 75-76 (breeding); Wright and Wright, 1949:
578-583, pi. 126 (description, natural history); Hecht and Matalas, 1946: 1-26 (taxonomic
review); Freiburg, 1951 (thorough ecological study); Tanner, 1950: 47-48 (habits); Car-
valho, 1954: 12-13 (generic status).
Smith: Reptiles 117
Class REPTILIA Laurenti
Two orders of reptiles occur in Kansas: the Testudines or tur-
tles, and Squamata. The latter includes the two suborders of lizards
( Sauria ) and snakes ( Serpentes ) .
One other order, the Crocodilia, possibly occurred naturally in
Kansas at one time, but is now extinct in the state and in fact is not
now reliably known nearer than eastern Texas. The only repre-
sentative concerned, the alligator, was reported by Cragin in 1885
from the Arkansas River at Wichita, and this report has received
credence rather widely. This is the only indication, so far as known,
of the occurrence of the species naturally within the borders of the
state. The range of the species has rapidly diminished in historic
times, however, and it is entirely reasonable to suppose that the
alligator formerly ranged up the Arkansas River as far as Wichita.
Explorers reported in the early days of settlement in Texas that the
species occurred commonly far in the northwestern part of the state,
while it is now restricted to the southeastern corner.
Even at the present time reports are circulated at intervals of the
discovery of alligators in ponds and streams in various parts of
Kansas. All specimens reported are small, however, and the con-
clusion is inescapable that they have been imported and subse-
quently released or permitted to escape. The alligator, therefore,
is not included as a member of the present fauna of Kansas.
Deletion of the alligator from the faunal list for Kansas is com-
pensated for numerically by the addition of one other reptile ap-
parently not formerly occurring in the state — the so-called American
chameleon, better termed the Carolina anole. This small lizard,
so popular in the "pet" trade of this country, has reportedly become
established in the environs of Leavenworth, Kansas, as a result of
the release of imported animals. Although introduced, it may
rightfully be counted as a member of the present Kansas fauna if
the lizard actually becomes successfully established, as it is claimed
it is. Thus slowly does the fauna of a region change. The perma-
nence of the addition of the Carolina anole to the Kansas fauna is
not assured, however; only continued attention to the colonies
known will reveal the ultimate success of the introduction. Reports
from persons familiar with the Kansan colonies, or with other intro-
duced species, would be of great value. Wanton introduction of
species of any animal into new areas is highly undesirable, but
where it has occurred a study of the history of the colonies can be
of some scientific value.
118 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Reptiles do not pass through a transformation from a larval to a
Juvenal stage as do amphibians. Accordingly the keys given here
should apply equally well to all post-embryonic stages.
The eggs of reptiles are incompletely known and no serious at-
tempt has ever been made to distinguish those of one kind from
those of another. Within certain limits such differentiation should
be possible, and deserves the attention of students of natural
history.
Not all reptiles lay eggs. All turtles do lay eggs as also do aU
species of lizards in the state of Kansas unless the short-horned
lizard, a live-bearer, actually does occur in the state. A number
of snakes produce active young. They include all members of the
subfamily Natricinae (Thumnophis, Natrix, Storeria, Haldea, and
Tropidoclonion) , and all of the pit vipers (family Crotalidae) of
this state. In some species little exchange of materials occurs be-
tween embryo and mother, but in others the exchange is so extensive
as to require a placenta of sorts. In the more primitive live-bearing
snakes the eggs are thus simply held in the body until, in effect,
they hatch. Occasionally an individual of such a species may ac-
tually lay eggs that hatch very shortly after deposition (suspected
of Haldea). Some egg-laying species approach the live-bearers,
laying eggs that hatch in but a few days (as in Opheodnjs vernalis)
or, in rare instances, actually giving birth to the active young
( Diadophis punctatus ) .
There are almost as many definitions of turtle, slider, terrapin and
tortoise as there are herpetologists. The definitions preferred by
perhaps most are as follows. Terrapins are members of the genus
Malaclemys, restricted to salt-water marshes of the Atlantic coast
of the United States and perhaps Mexico; they are highly prized for
food. Tortoises are members of the family Testudinidae, of world-
wide distribution in areas of tropical and subtropical climate, occur-
ring in the United States only in the extreme south from Florida to
Arizona ( genus Gopherns only ) . Sliders are members of the genus
Psettdemtjs, all river turtles, restricted to North America north of
Panama. Turtles are any and all members of the order Testudines.
Key to Orders and Suborders of Reptilia
1. Limbs and head retractable within a leathery or bony shell; turtles.
Order Testudines, p. 119
r. Limbs and head not retractable; no shell Order Squamata, p. 163
2. Belly with a single row of large, undivided, transverse plates; always
limbless; most snakes Suborder Serpentes, p. 210
Smith: Turtles
119
2'. Belly with many rows of scales, sometimes arranged in a transverse
series, but never fused together into single transverse plates; legs
present except in two species.
3. No eyelids; a scale, several times as large as eye, covering latter;
worm snakes Suborder Serpentes, p.
3'. Eyelids present; eye not covered by a scale larger than eye;
lizards Suborder Sauria, p.
Turtles
210
163
Order TESTUDINES Batsch
Thirteen species of turtles, belonging to four separate families,
occur in the state, and no species is represented by more than one
subspecies. Two other species, Emys blandingii and Kinosternon
subrubrum, probably will be found to occur in the state. The part
of the shell shielding the upperpart of a turtle is the carapace; and
the part shielding the lower part of the animal is the plastron. The
two parts of the shell are united by a narrow bridge on each side
of the body. In all except the soft-shelled turtles, the shell is
covered by a number of large, thin, horny plates or laminae. They
are illustrated and named in Figures 81 and 82B.
Key to Species of Titrtles
1. Shell soft and leathery at least at edges, not covered by large plates.
2. Anterior border of carapace absolutely smooth; wall separating nos-
trils from each other smooth and even, without longitudinal ridges
( Fig. 78A ) Amyda inutica, p.
157
Fig. 78. Anterior view of tips of snouts of soft-shelled turtles. A. Smooth soft-shelled
turtle, Amyda mutica, X 15, K. U. no. 1962, De Vails Bluff, Prairie County, Arkansas.
B, Desert soft-shelled turtle, Amyda ferox emoryi, X 9, K. U. no. 3128, Phoenix, Mari-
copa County, Arizona. Both drawings by Ann Murray.
2'. Anterior border of carapace provided with tubercles; wall separating
nostrils from each other provided with a prominent ridge on each
side which projects into each nasal opening (Fig. 78B).
Amyda ferox, p. 160
120 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 79. Laminae of plastron of common snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina, X %,
K. U. no. 3388, De Vails Bluff, Prairie County, Arkansas; AB, axillary bridge scale; Ab,
abdominal; An, anal; F, femoral; G, gular (usually not even partly split, as here); H,
humeral; IB, inguinal bridge scale; P, pectoral.
Smith: Turtles
121
1'. Shell hard, bony, covered by large laminae.
2. Zone where upper and lower shells are fused ( the "bridge" ) at least
twice as broad as long (Fig. 79).
3. Head covered with smooth, symmetrical plates; scales on under
side of tail irregularly arranged; tubercles on sides of neck
branched; 3 to 5 extra scutes between marginals and costals
abo\e the bridge (Fig. 80, x) Macroclemys temminckii, p. 131
Fig. 80. Carapace of alLgator snapping ttirtle, Macroclemys temminckii, X V2, K. U.
no. 3401, De Vails Bluff, Prairie County, Arkansas; the lateral marginals, actually not
visible in dorsal view, are depicted as though they were, in order clearly to indicate
the supramarginals (indicated by X).
3'. Head covered with soft skin; scales on under side of tail ar-
ranged in 2 rows at least in part; tubercles on sides of neck un-
branched; no exira scutes between marginals and costals.
Chehjdra serpentina, p. 134
122
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 81. Plastra of musk and mud turtles. A. Cojumon musk turtle, Sterno-
therus odoratus, X V2, K. U. no. 17122, 1 mile east of Climax, Greenwood
County, Kansas. B. Yellow mud turtle, Kinosternon flavescens, X V2, K. U.
no. 20521, 1 mile northwest of Aetna, Barber County, Kansas. Labels as in
Fig. 75A. The stippling indicates the area of uncomified skin; the other areas
are comified.
Fig. 82. Laminae of carapaces of false map turtle and elegant slider. A. False map
turtle, Graptemys pseudogeographica, X %, K. U. no. 3238, De Vails Bluff, Prairie
Covmty, Arkansas. B. Elegant slider, Pseudemys scripta, X %, K. U. no. 3328, Pratt,
Pratt County, Kansas. C, costals; M, marginals; N, nuchal; V, vertebrals.
Smith: Turtles 123
2'. Bridge about as long as wide or longer (Fig. 81).
3. Plastron (exclusive of bridge) with 5 pairs of scutes preceded
usually either by no other scutes or by an unpaired one (if by
another pair, then these extremely minute); plastron completely
separated from carapace by uncomified skin and by two or more
small bridge laminae.
4. First pair of scutes on lower side reaching (or nearly reach-
ing) 3rd pair at midline (Fig. 81B).
Kinosternon ftavescens, p. 129
4'. First pair of scutes widely separated from 3rd pair (Fig.
81A) Stertwtherus odoratus, p. 126
3'. Plastron ( exclusive of bridge ) with 6 pairs of scutes, the anterior
of which is not minute; plates of plastron at least partially in
direct contact with plates of carapace at bridge.
4. Front part of plastron hinged onto the rest and movable.*
5. Upper jaw notched at apex; carapace black with hun-
dreds of small, round or oval, yellow spots (not yet re-
corded from Kansas) Emys bJandingii, p. 323
5'. Upper jaw hooked at apex; carapace brownish, with no
markings or with radiating light streaks.
6. Usually 3 claws on rear feet; markings absent below,
dim above; median scales on carapace keeled.
Terrapene Carolina, p. 137
6'. Usually 4 claws on rear feet; distinct, radiating yellow
lines above and below; no keel on carapace.
Terrapene ornata, p. 141
4'. Entire plastron solid (no part liinged) and immovable.
5. Carapace smoothly rounded behind, edges of all plates
even; a notch at tip of upper jaw, flanked on either side
by a short projection ( Fig. 83A ) . ,. . Chrysemtjs picta, p. 149
* Of preserved specimens which are hardened, those with the hinges have a very deep
groove between the pectoral and abdominal laminae.
124
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat, Hist.
Fig. 83. A. Palatal view of upper jaw of a skull of a painted turtle, Chrysemys picta,
X 2, K. U. no. 1914, Pratt, Pratt County, Kansas. B. Palatal view of upper jaw of skull of
a false map turtle, Graptemys geographica, X 2, K. U. no. 2466, Doniphan Lake, Doniphan
County, Kansas. C. Edges of lips as seen with the mouth partly open, front view, of an
elegant slider, Psetidemys scripta, X %, K. U. no. 17227, Va mile west of Runnymede, King-
man County, Kansas. D. Edges of lips as seen with the mouth partly open, front view, of a
map turtle, Graptemys geographica, X %, K. U. no. 3265, Franklin County, Kansas, ar,
alveolar ridge; as, alveolar surface; n, notch; p, protuberance.
Fig. 84. Patterns, on heads of map turtles, all from dorsolateral view, X 2. A. Map
turtle, Graptemys geographica, K. U. no. 3265, Franklin County, Kansas. B. False map
turtle, Graptemys pseudogeographica, K. U. no. 3288, Neosho River, CoflFey County, Kan-
sas. C. Same, K. U. no. 3298, Verdigris River, Montgomery County, Kansas. D. Same,
K. U. no. 3287, Neosho River, Coffey County, Kansas.
Smith: Turtles
125
5'. Carapace notched and irregular behind (Fig. 82); no notch on upper
jaw, or if so it is not flanked on either side by a projection (Figs. 83B,
C, D, 85A, C).
6. Crushing surface of upper jaw ( as seen with mouth open ) not ridged
( Fig. 83B ) ; plate in middle of anterior margin ( "nuchal" ) less than
twice as long as broad (Fig. 82A).
7. A small (much narrower than diameter of orbit), more or less
triangular, yellow spot behind eye; a distinct, vertical light line
between this spot and eye (Fig. 84A).
Graptemtjs geographica, p. 144
7'. A large (at least as wide as diameter of orbit) crescentic or
transverse yellow spot (frequently linelike) behind eye, often
continued forward under eye and backward on neck; no or only
dim light lines between this spot and eye (Fig. 84B, C, D).
Graptemys pseudogeographica, p. 147
6'. Crushing surface of upper jaw (as seen with mouth open) with a
ridge running parallel to the edge of the jaw ( Fig. 85A, C ) ; nuchal
at least twice as long as broad (Fig. 82B).
7. The broad light stripe which originates at posterior comer of
eye f of uniform diameter, not widened posteriorly (Fig. 86C);
ridge on crushing surface of upper jaw serrate. (Fig. 85A);
lower jaw serrate at sides (Fig. 85B) Pseudemys floridana, p. 152
7'. The broad light stripe which originates at posterior comer of eye
greatly widened posteriorly (Fig. 86A, B); ridge on cmshing
surface of upper jaw smooth ( Fig. 85C ) ; lower jaw not toothed
at sides Pseudemys scripta, p. 155
Fig. 85. A. Palatal view of upper jaw of a skull of a saw-toothed slider, Pseudemys fiori-
dana, X 1%, K. U. no. 1179, De Vails Bluff. Prairie County, Arkansas. B. Dorsolateral
view of lower jaw of same, X 1*A. C. Palatal view of upper jaw of a skull of an elegant
slider, Pseudemys scripta, X V/i, K. U. no. 2899, Doniphan Lake, Doniphan County, Kansas.
Fig. 86. Patterns on heads of sliders, all from dorsolateral view, X %. A. Elegant slider,
Pseudemys scripta, K. U. no. 17227, Vi mile west of Runnymede, Kingman County, Kan-
sas. B. Same, K. U. no. 3328, Pratt, Pratt County, Kansas. C. Saw-toothed slider,
Pseudemys fioridana, K. U. no. 3385, De Vails Bluff, Prairie County, Arkansas.
t Care should be taken not to confuse this light stripe with one which closely skirts the
orbit but which actually originates along its median border.
126
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
FAMILY KINOSTERNIDAE
Genus Sternotherus Gray
Common Musk Turtle
Sternotherus odoratus ( Latreille )
Testudo odorata Latreille, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 1, 1801, p. 122 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Sternotherus odoratus Bell, Zool. Journ., vol. 2, 1825, p. 307.
Range. — Southeastern part of state. Recorded as far west as
Pratt, Pratt County; Wichita, Sedgwick County; and 11 miles south-
east of Winfield, Cowley County; and as far north as 2 miles north
of Lawrence, Douglas County, and Lake of the Forest, Wyandotte
County ( not mapped ) . The record for "Wallace Co." ( KU ) needs
verification because it is doubtful, although the species may occur
much farther west along major streams than is now known.
Hullum of Natural Hltlor|r
Unlvartlty of Konias
I94J
Fig. 87. Distribution of the common musk turtle, Sternotherus odoratus, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — Carapace, except in young, with only feeble keel
along the middle line, or none at all; young specimens may have
three keels. Two hinges in plastron, allowing free movement of its
front part, and restricted movement of rear part (except in young,
in which entire plastron may be rigid). Laminae on plastron com-
pletely separated from small marginal laminae on carapace by two
small shields; five pairs of laminae on plastron, and one small un-
paired lamina (gular) at extreme anterior tip; lamina on either side
of gular widely separated from hinge, reaching only about halfway
there from anterior margin of plastron. Adult males with two
curious patches of horny scales on inner margin of each hind leg.
Smith: Turtles
127
Skin rather spiny; two conspicuous chin barbels; all digits clawed.
Dark olive or brown above, sometimes with darker streaks. Color
below the same, except that margins of plates may be white. Two
narrow yellow streaks, dim in adults and very prominent in the
young, along either side of head.
Size small, carapace of largest recorded specimen measuring 5/3
inches in straight line from front to rear margin.
Recognition Characters. — The combination of having eleven
laminae on the plastron, the 1st pair of which is separated from the
front hinge by half the length of the front lobe of the plastron, is
distinctive; no other turtle in Kansas has both these characters.
The yellow mud turtle, Kinosternon flavescens, which has the same
general appearance, has the first pair of ventral laminae in contact
with the front hinge or narrowly separated from it.
.•.>
1
^1 . '
L •
v--^
Fig. 88. A common musk turtle, Sternotherus odoratus, X %. Courtesy of the Zoological
Society of Philadelphia.
Habits and Habitat. — Sluggish or still, deep waters, with mud-
bottoms, along river banks, in ponds, lakes and marshes, are typi-
cally inhabited by this species. These turtles are mostly bottom
dwellers and are not good swimmers. The food is usually found and
eaten under water. Normally it consists of earthworms, aquatic
insects, small snails, crayfish, minnows and tadpoles. Sometimes
plant food is taken. The animals seldom ba.sk in the sun.
128 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Mating occurs in the fall and spring, and egg-laying in early or
middle summer. Two to seven (usually 3 to 5) eggs are laid and
covered in a shallow excavation dug by the female under or near a
log, stump or similar protection, not farther than 200 feet from
water. The eggs are thick, have brittle shells, and average IHa X ^
inches in size. Under artificial conditions the eggs hatch in two to
three months.
Males reach sexual maturity in three or four years and females in
nine to eleven years. For each sex, about ten years are required to
attain a length 3^/i inches. In captivity they have lived as long
as twenty-three years.
These turtles hibernate in mud at various depths down to a foot
below its surface where the mud is covered with water. They
emerge in March. When captured they are rather vicious, biting
upon but slight provocation. The bite is not severe, however, and
does not break the tougher skin of the hand of a person. After a
time in captivity they become tame and will eat from the fingers.
They have voracious appetites, and survive exceedingly well under
the unnatural conditions of captivity.
These turtles have a strong, offensive odor, which probably serves
as a protection from natural enemies. The odor is produced by the
secretions of four glands, one on each side near the rear margin of
the bridge at the border of the carapace, and one at the margin of
the carapace halfway between the bridge and the middle line an-
teriorly.
This species seems to have no economic value whatever, so far as
man is concerned; it is neither detrimental nor beneficial.
A peculiarity of males only is an odd clasping organ on the rear
surface of the hind legs. It consists of an oval patch of enlarged,
heavy, rough scales on the thigh, and another on the shank. The
two surfaces are thought to be used in copulation to grasp the edges
of the carapace of the female, although the function is not actually
known. Other unique features of the males are a long, stout tail
terminating with a relatively large, blunt, clawlike scale (the tail
is short and clawless in females); a smooth tail (a mid-dorsal row
of tubercles in females ) ; and smaller scutes ( and accordingly larger
non-cornified areas ) on the plastron than in females.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species are recognized, either in
Kansas or elsewhere.
References. — Carr, 1952: 82-89, pi. 12, map 4 (general account); Pope, 1939: 37-47,
pis. 5, 6, 7 ( deicription, life history, habits, range).
Smith: Turtles
129
Genus Kinosternon Spix
Yellow Mud Turtle
Kinosternon flavescens (Agassiz)
Platythyra flavescens Agassiz, Contr. Nat. Hist. U. S., vol. 1, 1857, p. 430; vol. 2,
1857, pi. 5, figs. 12-15 (type locality — Waco, Texas).
Cinostemum flavescens Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 1875, p. 52.
Range. — State-wide except perhaps the northeastern comer of
the state. Recorded as far east as Cherokee ( Columbus ) , Franklin,
and Republic (Republic) counties. Uncommon east of the Arkan-
sas River.
Fig. 89. Distribution of the yellow mud turtle, Kinosternon flavescens, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — Carapace without a keel, except in the young,
which may have a feeble keel along the midline. Two hinges in
plastron, allowing free movement of the front part and restricted
movement of rear part. Laminae on plastron separated completely
from small marginal plates of carapace by two small shields; five
pairs of laminae on plastron, and one small, unpaired lamina ( gular)
at extreme anterior tip; lamina on either side of gular nearly or quite
reaching hinge. Adult males with two curious patches of horny
scales on inner margin of each leg. A pair of barbels on chin.
Dull olive-brown above, and yellowish brown below. Head and
other exposed parts of body olive above, with few if any markings;
head and neck much lighter, yellowish below.
Size small, carapace of largest recorded specimen measuring 5^
inches in straight line from front to rear margin.
5—9019
130
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Recognition Characters. — Having 11 laminae on the plastron, the
first pair of which is in contact with, or narrowly separated from,
the front hinge is a distinctive combination. No other turtle in
Kansas has both these characters. Most easily confused with it is
the common musk turtle, Sternotherus odoratus, which has much
the same appearance, but in the latter species the first pair of ven-
tral laminae is separated from the front hinge by half the length of
the front lobe of the lower shell.
Fig. 90. Dorsal and ventral views of a yellow mud turtle, Kinostcrnon f. flavescens, X ap-
proximately V2, dVz miles west and V4 mile south of Scott Citv, Scott County, Kansas. Photo
by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyl'e.
Habits and Habitat. — Any mud-bottomed waters, shallow or deep,
make suitable habitats for this species. It is mainly a bottom dweller,
and a rather poor swimmer. The food accepted in captivity in-
cludes tadpoles, earthworms, salamanders, snails, raw meat and fish.
Plant food, insects, snails, and small vertebrates may comprise part
of the natural diet. This species is said to bask often in the sun.
Probably the patches of scales on the hind legs of males serve as
grasping devices and not as sound-producing structures.
The two eggs usually laid measure approximately 1 X ^ inch.
Having a strong odor, this species is known as the "stink pot."
Kansan Subspecies. — Kinosternon flavescens flavescens is the only subspecies
occurring in Kansas. Two other subspecies, K. f. stejnegeri Hartweg and K. f.
spooneri Smith, occur in Mexico and Illinois, respectively.
References. — Carr, 1952: 94-99, pi. 15, map 5 (general account); Pope, 1939:52-55
(description, life history, habits, range).
Smith: Turtles
131
FAMn^Y CHELYDRroAE
Genus Macroclemys Gray
Alligator Snapping Turtle
Macroclemys temminckii (Troost)
Chelonura temminckii Troost, in Harlan's Med. Phys. Res., 1835, p. 158, footnote
(type locality — tributary stream of the Mississippi above Memphis, in western
Tennessee ) .
Macroclemys temminckii Gray, Cat. Shield Rept., I, 1855, p. 49.
Range. — Tributaries of the Arkansas River as far north and west
as Florence, Marion County (on Neosho-Cottonwood rivers), Au-
gusta, Butler County ( on Walnut River ) , Wichita, Sedgwick County
(on Arkansas River), and Baxter Springs, Cherokee County (on
Spring River).
Muicum of Nattffol Hiilory
Univartity Qt Kan»a»
1941
Fig. 91. Distribution of the alligator snapping turtle, Macroclemys temminckii, in Kansas,
with insert showing range of the species.
Description. — Carapace, in both young and adults, with three
prominent, high keels. Plastron small, cross-shaped, and lacking
hinges. Nine laminae on plastron; anterior single lamina sometimes
partly split into two. Bridge narrow, separated from marginal
laminae of carapace by rows of two large and usually two small
plates. Marginal laminae of carapace not visible at sides in dorsal
view, concealed by the presence of three or four extra plates ( supra-
marginals) between them and costal plates. Pronounced beak on
both jaws; large plates covering head. Lower surface of tail with
numerous, irregularly arranged, small scales; row of plates no higher
than wide, on midline of tail.
132
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Dull brownish above, on shell, limbs, tail and head; lower surface
whitish.
Size, largest of any American, nonmarine turtle; weight up to
200 pounds (there is a highly questionable record for 403 pounds).
Measurements not available for large specimens; one with carapace
24.02 in. (in a straight line) long weighed 103 pounds.
Fig. 92. An alligator snapping turtle, Macroclemtis tc"^^^irickii, X Va-
logical Society of Philadelphia.
Courtesy of the Zoo-
Recognition Characters. — No other turtle in Kansas has the com-
bination of fewer than eleven laminae on the plastron (excluding
the bridge) and plates on top of the head. The only other species
resembling it is the common snapping turtle (Chehjdra) which is
most easily distinguished — once the difference is seen — by the ab-
sence from the carapace of the highly elevated keels characteristic
of the alligator snapper.
In the young alligator snapper the three keels on the carapace are
high instead of merely prominent as in Chelydra which, as it grows
older, loses the keels. In the alligator snapper the keels remain
highly elevated throughout life. In addition it has numerous small
scales on the lower side of tail instead of two rows of large plates;
and a row of plates which are no higher than vdde on the midline of
the top of the tail ( in Chelydra, height greater than width ) . Macro-
Smith: Turtles 133
cJemys has hard plates on the head instead of soft skin as in
CJielydra, and possesses supramarginal phites (absent in ChcUjdra).
Habits and Habitat. — This turtle is a bottom-dweller, swimming
but little, and living in large, muddy-bottomed rivers and canals.
The food presumably consists of fish. An extraordinary structure,
apparently serving as a lure for prey, is a narrow blood-red band of
tissue, on the middle of the tongue, which can be set in serpentine
motion. This structure closely resembles a wriggling worm. The
mouth otherwise is dull-colored, much like the rest of the entire
animal. It is thought that the tiutle rests on the bottom of the
river with the huge jaws wide open, revealing to view in the murky
waters only the squirming lure; unsuspecting fish in search of a
meal thus themselves become food.
For protection, this species relies chiefly upon camouflage. Dull-
colored, mud-coated and with a growth of algae, these turtles easily
conceal themselves, and remain motionless with wide-open jaws
even when disturbed. Once enraged, however, they are exceedingly
ferocious. Although the jaws are large and the beak formidable, the
fabulous tales of these turtles biting through inch boards and broom
handles are erroneous. It is nevertheless obvious that extreme
caution in the proximity of an angered specimen is highly expedient.
These turtles are known to live at least seventy-five years, and in
all probability they exceed this age twofold. The specimen still alive
in the Philadelphia Zoo, kept for fifty-five years (since May 6, 1890),
weighed only fifty-two pounds in 1939.
Authentic records of the maximum size and weight of this species
are much to be desired. The largest accurately recorded weight is
219 pounds; all reports giving figures in excess of this are based
upon visual estimates of various observers. Large specimens oc-
casionally are in even relatively small creeks and rivers, perhaps in
part because these creatures regularly migrate upstream at a re-
corded rate of about six miles a year, at least in Oklahoma. An
interesting possible correlation is the fact that fishes in a single area
soon learn not to bite at the tongue lure. Therefore the turtle must
constantly need to invade new areas to secure food.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species have been distinguished.
References. — Carr, 1952: 52-60, pis. 6-7, map 1 (general account); Pope, 1939: 66-71,
pis. 16, 17 (description, life history, habits, range).
134
UNivERsnv OF Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Genus Cheltjdra Schweigger
Common Snapping Turtle
Chelydra serpentina (Linnaeus)
Testudo serpentina Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 199 (type locality —
New Orleans, Louisiana).
Chelydra serpentina Schweigger, Konigsberg. Arch. Naturw. Math., vol. 1, pt. 3, 1812,
p. 293.
Range. — State-wide. Taken as far west as Rawlins (Ludell),
Sherman ( North Fork of Smoky Hill River at county
line) and Morton (12 miles north of Elkader) coun-
ties, and east to Marshall (Blue Rapids), Doniphan
(Doniphan Lake), Leavenworth (Fort Leaven-
worth), Miami (Pigeon Lake) and Cherokee
(Columbus) counties.
MusauTi o( Nolural Hittory
Univ.rsirr of Kansas
1949
Fig. 93. Distribution of the common snapping turtle, Chehjdra serpentina, in Kansas.
Description. — Carapace with three fairly prominent lengthwise
ridges (keels) in the young, becoming low or invisible in adults.
Plastron small, cross-shaped, and lacking hinges. Nine laminae on
plastron; anterior single lamina sometimes partly or wholly split into
two. Bridge narrow, separated from marginal laminae of carapace
by row of two large and usually two small laminae. Pronounced
beaks on both jaws. Lower surface of tail with relatively large
laminae mostly arranged in two rows; row of large bony triangular,
projecting plates much higher than wide on midline of upper
surface of tail.
Dull brown above, light below, often obscured by algal growth.
Smith: Turtles
135
Weight frequently as much as fifty pounds; one fattened in a
swill-barrel weighed eighty-six pounds.
Recognition Characters. — The presence of fewer than eleven
laminae on the plastron (exclusive of the bridge) in combination
with the presence of soft skin ( instead of hard plates ) on the head,
distinguishes this species from all others in Kansas. Both this species
Fig. 94. Common snapping turtles, Chelydra s. serpentina, X '/=• Courtesy of the Zoological
Society of Philadelphia.
and the alHgator snapper have very small lower shells (plastrons),
and resemble each other also in other respects. See discussion of
Macroclemys for comparison.
Habits and Habitat. — Practically any permanent waters are in-
habited by this species. Preferred habitats are mud-bottomed
ponds and streams. It is a bottom-dweller and a poor swimmer.
136 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Wholesale slaughter of snappers is seldom if ever recommended
as a desirable method of protecting other animals. Generalizations
are difficult to make, however, since every body of water has its
own unique combination of variables. Nevertheless, autopsies of
large numbers of snappers indicate that, strange as it may seem,
between 35 percent and 70 percent of the food consists of vegeta-
tion, and only 6 percent to 35 percent of game and pan fishes, many
undoubtedly dead when attacked. Rarely vertebrates of other
classes, a few invertebrates, and carrion constitute the rest of the
diet. Birds are rarely taken, reports to the contrary notwithstanding.
Of the invertebrates, crayfish and snails are the kinds most commonly
eaten, but insects also are important. The food is stalked with
imperceptibly slow movements, or by waiting for it to approach
within striking distance. The tongue, according to some writers, is
used as a lure, by thrusting it out of the mouth as the animal lies in
^vait for its prey to investigate and venture within striking distance.
Mating occurs at any time of the year except when the animals
are in hibernation. The sperm remain viable in the female for sev-
eral years. Eggs are laid in June, and hatch in August. Some
twenty to forty spherical eggs one inch in diameter are laid at a
time, in crude, shallow nests scooped by the females in damp soil
exposed to the sun. The nests may be half a mile from the nearest
water. Muskrat houses not infrequently are used as nests. The
hatchlings appear generally to migrate toward the most open hori-
zon, irrespective of humidity gradients, actual direction of water,
position of sun or any other possible factors.
In captivity specimens have lived twenty years.
Hibernation begins in October or November and ends in March.
The turtles spend the winter in mud usually under water, in musk-
rat holes, or buried underneath logs and other objects.
Out of water these turtles are vicious, but when submerged they
attempt only to escape. On land a safe way to handle one is to
grasp its tail and hold the turtle well away from one's self.
The eggs are edible ( fried, for they do not harden when boiled ) ,
and the flesh is widely used for soup. Few turtles are of greater
commercial value.
Kansan Subspecies. — Only one subspecies, Chelydra serpentina serpentina,
occurs in Kansas. Another subspecies is sometimes recognized in Florida, and
still another in Central America.
References. — Carr, 1952: 61-72, pi. 8, map 2 (general account); Pope, 1939:72-83, pis.
18-23 (description, life history, habits, range).
Smith: Turtles
137
FAMILY EMYIDAE
Genus Terrapene Merrem
Carolina Box Turtle
Terrapene Carolina (Linnaeus)
Testudo Carolina Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 198 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Terrapene Carolina Bell, Zodl. Joum., vol. 2, 1825, p. 309.
Range. — Eastern third of state, east of the Flint Hills, and south
of the Kansas River. Cragin (1881) recorded the species from as
far north and west as the vicinity of Manhattan, Riley County, but
the range otherwise is marked by the peripheral localities in Wyan-
dotte (Kansas City), Miami (Pigeon Lake), Franklin (Ottawa),
Museum of Natural Hittory
Univarsilr of Konsas
1945
Fig. 95. Distribution of the Carolina box turtle, Terrapene Carolina, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Osage (Melvern, not mapped), Coffey (1 mile west of Agricola),
Greenwood (Hamilton) and Montgomery (Havana) counties.
Description. — Carapace arched (not flattened on top), with dis-
tinct although sometimes discontinuous keel. Plastron with 12
laminae (exclusive of bridge), and consisting of two movable sec-
tions hinged across middle of shell and capable of completely con-
cealing all soft parts ( head and legs ) . Each forefoot with five claws,
each hindfoot usually with three. Rear feet stumplike, adapted for
walking on land and not for swimming.
Dorsal surface tan or brownish, with a variable pattern of yellow
spots or streaks radiating from posteromedial part of each scute.
138
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Light marks tend to be relatively broad ( nearly as broad as the eye ) ,
short, and indistinct, as compared with those of the ornate box tur-
tle. Ventral surface nearly uniform yellowish. Head and forelegs
/jSSS
I
\
I
/
Fig. 96. Carolina box turtles, Terrapene Carolina triunguis, X %■ Above, courtesy Zoo-
logical Society of Philadelphia. Below, H. M. Smith no. 25, College Station, Brazos
County, Texas. Photo by R. R. Hamm.
Smith: Turtles 139
spotted with orange (males) or yellow (females). Iris of eye of
males reddish, in females usually gray.
Size moderate, plastron measuring about five inches in length in
the largest specimens.
Recognition Characters. — The single hinge on the plastron ( allow-
ing movement of a rear and a front lobe) combined with a uni-
formly yellow lower shell, serves to distinguish this species from all
others in the state. The only other species closely resembling the
Carolina box turtle is the ornate box turtle, distinguished by having
distinct yellow marks on a brownish plastron and four instead of
three claws on the rear feet. The number of toes on the hind
foot in the Carolina box turtle is sometimes four instead of the usual
three.
Habits and Habitat. — Fields and woods on relatively flat terrain
are favored where there is normally a considerable growth of trees.
The eastern race T. c. Carolina is known to be able to swim as well
as Chrysemys picta, although it is not found in water except in hot
dry periods. Whether the Kansan race has like proclivities is un-
known.
For the Kansan race no information is on record concerning hab-
its, which presumably resemble those of the eastern race. The food-
is composed of a large variety of animal and plant material, includ-
ing, in order of importance, mushrooms, insects, earthworms, slugs,,
snails, myriapods, dead animals, blackberries, strawberries, and
other fruit. Seasonal preferences in kind of food are pronounced.
In the eastern race, mating occurs at any time in the period in
which the turtles are active but is most frequent in spring. The eggs,
laid in June or early July in the District of Columbia, vary from twa
to seven, and usually number four in each clutch; they measure, on
the average, 33 X 19-5 mm., and are laid and covered in shallow
nests dug by the hind legs at night in relatively open spots in loose,
moist soil. The excavation of a nest and laying of eggs requires four
to five hours. Hatching occurs generally in September, and hiber-
nation immediately ensues without partaking of food. Groviih in
subsequent seasons is rapid, a carapace length of five inches being
reached in five years. Specimens commonly live sixty years, occa-
sionally exceed 100 years, and are said to reach even 123 years of age.
Hibernation is accomplished by degrees, the turtle burrowing
deeper and deeper as the season progresses. Final depth depends
upon the severity of the wdnter, and may be as much as two feet.
In Kansas in late autumn they frequently are found in burrows of
140 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
the striped skunk where they presumably go to pass the winter. Sud-
den and severe cold spells, occurring before the animals burrow
■deeply, not uncommonly are fatal.
The turtles have a restricted home territory rarely more than a
half-mile in diameter. The homing instinct is well developed. Un-
like strictly aquatic turtles, they will not drop off high ( 6 feet ) sur-
faces, and hesitate to walk off surfaces even one foot above lower
levels.
Most specimens are docile, but exceptional individuals are more
active and bite readily. The bite is not severe.
The flesh is palatable, but a person who dines upon these turtles
does so with some risk because the poison of the mushrooms eaten
by them — which does not deleteriously affect the turtles — is reported
to be transferred undiminished in potency to man who unfortunately
is not immune to its effect.
Naturalists resident in Kansas and elsewhere in the range of the
western subspecies which occurs in this state could well use the ex-
tensive work done upon the eastern subspecies as a guide for similar
investigations upon the western race. Casual observations suggest
that differences in habits may be numerous. References to two of
the more important studies are appended. Of interest is the fact that
the only barrier between the two races is the Mississippi River,
which seems to be sufficiently eflFective that no gradual transition,
but rather an abrupt change from the characters of one to those of
the other race occurs in the vicinity of the river.
One of the most outstanding problems involving the habits of the
species ( all subspecies ) concerns the activities of young individuals
less than three inches in length of plastron. Juveniles are so seldom
seen that even their natural haunts are uncertain. An even stronger
aquatic preference on the part of juveniles than in adults has been
suggested.
Aid in maintenance of the chigger population of the country is a
curious role of this species, shared with most other reptiles of ter-
restrial habits. Chiggers utilize such a variety of wild animals as
hosts, however, that control of them by host elimination is not
feasible.
Kansan Subspecies. — Only one, Terrapene Carolina triunguis (Agassiz), with
type locality at New Orleans, Louisiana, occurs in Kansas. Three other races
are recognized but they occur only east of the Mississippi River and in southern
Louisiana and Texas.
References. — Carr. 1952: 153-156, pis. 28, 29, map 11 (general account); Pope, 1939:
135-136, pi. 39 (description, range, natural history); Allard, 1948 and 1949 (complete life
history, based upon data collected over a period of many years ) .
Smith: Turtles
141
Ornate Box Turtle '' ■■■(''
Terrapene omata (Agassiz)
Cistudo omata Agassiz, Contr. Nat. Hist. U. S., vol. 1, 1857, p. 443 (type locality —
Council Bluffs, Pottawatomie County, Iowa ) .
Terrapene omata Baur, Science, vol. 17, 1891, p. 191.
Range. — State-wide, except in extreme northeastern and extreme
southeastern corners. Not known in the Ozark
Plateau region of southeastern Cherokee County,
nor in the area north of the line from Washington
(6 miles north of Haddam) to Atchison (EflBng-
ham) and Leavenworth (Leavenworth) counties.
Fig. 97. Distribution of the ornate box turtle, Terrapene omata, in Kansas.
Description. — Carapace high but frequently flattened on top,
lacking a keel except in very young. Plastron provided with twelve
laminae (exclusive of bridge), and consisting of two movable lobes
hinged across the middle of the shell and capable of completely con-
cealing the head and legs. Each forefoot with five claws, each rear
foot usually with four. Rear feet stumplike, adapted for walking
on land and not for swimming.
Dorsal surface dark brown, usually with a bright pattern of nar-
row, yellow lines or spots radiating from the posteromedial comer
of each plate. The light lines average narrower than those of the
Carolina box turtle, and the width of one is approximately half the
diameter of the eye. The ventral surface is marked much Hke the
dorsal, with radiating light lines on a dark background. Irregular
light areas are present on the head and neck, and more or less
rounded light spots on the front- of the forelegs; these light spots.
142
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
as well as the iris of the eye, are reddish in males and yellowish in
females.
Size moderate, plastron measuring up to 5% inches in length.
Recognition Characters. — The two ventral lobes of the plastron
.•'^ V' ■ . 7'*'.- — -^^ "'' •
Fig. 98. Ornate box turtles, Terrapene o. ornata. Above, Hutchinson, Reno County, Kansas,
X %. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Below, iy2 miles southwest of
Stockton, Rooks County, Kansas, X %• Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyie.
Smith: Turtles 143
united by a single transverse hinge, combined with a yellow-marked,
dark ventral surface, serve to identify this species and to distinguish
it from all other turtles in Kansas. Only one other species in the
state resembles it — the Carolina box turtle. See discussion of the
latter for comparison.
Hybrid individuals combining the characteristics of both the
ornate and Carolina box turtles have authoritatively been recorded
in adjacent states, and may rarely be found in Kansas. Normal
variation is extensive in both species, however, and extremes not in-
frequently are labelled erroneously as hybrids. Careful study is
required of suspected hybrids to determine their exact identity.
Such individuals should be submitted to experts for examination
(see p. 24).
Habits and Habitat. — This species usually is found in relatively
dry open areas on flat or somewhat hilly terrain. It is most abun-
dant in sandy places, but occurs also in wooded regions at the east-
ern edge of its range. Moisture requirements sometimes cause T.
ornata in dry weather to congregate about streams or ponds and
often to lie half-buried or completely concealed in the mud or sand
near the shore.
The food consists mostly of insects, of which grasshoppers form a
conspicuous portion, but may include tender plant material as well.
Mating occurs in May, and eggs are laid as late as the first part
of August. The eggs average 36 X 22.5 mm. in size.
T. ornata hibernates earlier and farther below ground than T.
Carolina; presumably T. ornata is less resistant to cold.
Although even-tempered, this species will bite upon occasion.
The bite is not particularly powerful, but can break skin as tender
as that on the back of a man's hand.
In captivity a cage should be provided with sandy soil, shade and
sun, a protective retreat, and a low water container. The animals
can be fed bits of meat in addition to insects. Regular feeding, once
a day, will produce a feeding reflex.
This species can, for the most part, be considered beneficial. In
the Dakotas, Indians use it for food, and the practice no doubt
could be more widely adopted. The only reported damages wrought
by the animals were incurred in their rare attacks upon ripening
cantaloupes.
Kansan Subspecies. — Terrapene o. ornata is the only subspecies in Kansas.
One other, T. o. luteola, Smith and Ramsey, occurs in western Texas.
References. — Carr, 1952: 156-162, pi. 30, map 12 (general account); Pope, 1939:139-
145, pis. 43, 44 (description, range, natural history); Clarke, 1930:54 (records of aquatic
habitats in Kansas); Norris and Zweifel, 1950:1-4 (habits); Rainey, 1953:109-110 (para-
sitization by fly larvae).
144
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Genus Graptemys Agassiz
Map Turtle
Graptemys geographica (Le Sueur)
Testudo geographica Le Sueur, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 1, pt. 1, 1817,
p. 86, pi. 5 (type locality— marsh on the border of Lake Erie).
Graptemys geographica Agassiz, Contr. Nat. Hist. U. S., vol. 1, 1857, p. 436.
Range. — Eastern third of state. Known from only six localities:
Anderson (Garnett), Crawford (State Park 3 miles north of Pitts-
burg), Franklin (Ottawa), Osage (Melvern — not shown on map),
Montgomery, Riley (Manhattan), and Wilson counties.
Mullum of Nalgroi Hitlery
1949
Fig. 99. Distribution of the map turtle, Graptemys geographica, in Kansas, with insert
showing the range of the species.
Description. — Carapace high, with uneven median keel (highest
at back of each scale) in both young and adults, shell not arched
but sloping nearly straight away from keel to lateral edge; rear edge
of carapace moderately notched; plastron with twelve laminae, ab-
solutely fixed in position ( no part movable ) ; hind legs and to lesser
extent forelegs greatly widened toward tip as an adaptation for
swimming. Jaws smooth-edged externally; upper jaw sometimes
with feeble indentation at apex; crushing surface of upper jaw (as
seen with mouth open) smooth, not ridged. Lamina in middle of an-
terior margin of carapace (nuchal lamina) short and broadened pos-
teriorly, less than twice as long as broad.
Carapace dull olive, marked with narrow, yellowish lines of varia-
ble distinctness; plastron unmarked, uniform cream-yellow; legs
olive, with longitudinal light streaks; neck and head with numerous
light-yellow lines extending longitudinally; more or less rounded,
Smith: Turtles 145
small, yellow spot behind eye, separated from eye by distance equal
to diameter of spot; light line clearly defined, passing transversely
between postocular spot and eye.
Size moderately large, carapace measuring as much as 10^ inches
in a straight line in females, and 5/4 inches in males.
Recognition Characters. — The genus to which this species belongs
can be recognized by the combination of characters as follows:
plastron with twelve plates and lacking any movable portion (2
characters which exclude all turtles except members of the genera
Chrysemys and Pseudemys); crushing surface of upper jaw (as seen
with mouth open) smooth, not ridged (this excludes Pseudemys) ;
upper jaw lacking a notch at apex which is flanked by a projection
on either side (this excludes Chrysemys) . All except young speci-
mens of Graptemys can, with some practice, be distinguished by the
possession of a single, median keel (lacking in Chrysemys of all
sizes but present in young Pseudemys) . Chrysemys can be excluded
also by the smooth posterior border of the carapace, which in both
Pseudemys and Graptemys is notched.
The species Graptemys geographica can be distinguished most
easily from the only other species of the genus ( G. pseudogeograph-
ica ) occurring in the state by the pattern on the head, especially that
back of the eye. In G. geographica a small, isolated light spot back
of the eye is separated from the eye by a distance approximately
equal to the diameter of the spot, and across that space passes a
narrow, transverse light line. In G. pseudogeographica the post-
ocular spot is usually much larger, and frequently is crescent-shaped,
extending below the eye and even backward on the neck. Some-
times, however, the spot is so reduced in size that confusion with
G. geographica is possible. Accordingly it is important to observe
that the postocular spot in G. pseudogeographica is very close to —
almost in contact with — the eye, and that there is not sufficient
space between the spot and eye for a transverse light line between
them as there is in G. geographica.
Habits and Habitat. — The preferred habitat is a large, permanent
body of water with considerable plant growth and a mud bottom.
Marshes, lakes and large rivers meet this turtle's needs.
The food consists almost entirely of snails and clams. The broad,
crushing surfaces of the jaws are especially adapted for this diet.
The larger the turtle the tougher-shelled the clams and snails which
can be eaten. Insects and crayfish are eaten to a lesser extent.
Mating occurs in spring and perhaps in fall. Eggs are laid in late
May, June, and early July. Eggs deposited early in the season
146
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
hatch in August or September, but those laid later may overwinter
without hatching until the following spring. The eggs measure ap-
proximately 22 X 35 mm. and have soft, white shells. They are laid
in shallow excavations dug in soft eartli, sometimes as far from
water as a quarter of a mile. The female covers the clutch, con-
sisting of from ten to sixteen eggs, carefully and leaves it to fate,
without further checking. In fact the only time these turtles leave
the water, except for basking, is when the eggs are laid.
L. -^k.
1
" •:^>i'- -, Jcj
r
' ^^^i^S^^^ ^
V
Fig. 100. A map turtle, Graptcnnjs geographica, X %■ Courtesy of the Zoological Society of
Philadelphia.
Hibernation may or may not occur, according to the severity of
the winter. The turtles may remain feebly active all winter, walk-
ing slowly about on the bottom and breathing no air; the skin,
pharynx, and cloaca serve as organs for aquatic respiration.
These turtles are extremely shy, and at the slightest disturbance
hide in masses of vegetation in the water. They bite when cap-
tured, but only upon close approximation of annoying objects; the
animals are not vicious. In their natural habitat they bask a great
deal, climbing onto the shore, trees or ledges that allow immediate
reentry into the water. They spread their legs and relax completely,
giving every indication of enjoyment and inattention whereas they
are in reality alert for the slightest indication of danger.
This species is palatable for man but is not commonly eaten.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the
range of this species.
Reference. — Pope, 1939:168-175, pis. 48, 49 (description, range, natural history).
Smith: Turtles
147
False Map Turtle
Graptemys pseudogeographica (Gray)
Emys pseudogeographica Gray, Syn. Kept., 1831, p. 31 (type locality — Wabash River,
New Harmony, Indiana).
Graptemys pseudogeographica Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. 12 1863
p. 180.
Range. — Eastern third of state. A dubious record for "Wallace
county" (KU) needs substantiation. There are rehable records
from as far west and north as Doniphan (Doniphan Lake), Riley
(Manhattan), Shawnee (Topeka), Osage (Long Creek), Coffey
(Neosho River), Woodson (Neosho Falls), Wilson and Montgomery
(Verdigris River) counties.
=1
Mvltum 0f Notufol Hittorr
Univirailr of K«niat
I94S
m
Fig. 101. Distribution of the false map turtle, Graptemys pseudogeographica, in Kansas, with
insert showing the range of the species.
Description. — The description given of G. geographica, applies to
this species except for color, size, and the fact that the rear margin
of the carapace is strongly, instead of moderately, notched.
Color like that of G. geographica, except that the postocular spot
is large (generally as broad as, or broader than, eye) and usually
is crescent-shaped, curving under the eye. Occasionally the spot is
continuous posteriorly near the median line of the neck, or may be
a transverse oval. In any case the spot is close to the eye (the
distance between is much less than the width of the spot), and
there is thus no space for a distinct transverse light line between
the spot and eye as in G. geographica.
Size moderately large, the carapace reaching a length of ten inches
as measured in a straight line ( not on the curve of the shell ) .
Recognition Characters. — See the account of G, geographica.
14S
University of Kansas Publs.. Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 102. A false map turtle, Graptemijs pseudogeographica kohnii, X %. Courtesy of the
Zoological Society of Philadelphia. This specimen is of the subspecies which occurs in
Kansas.
Habits and Habitat. — Both habits and habitat closely correspond
to those of G. geographica except that the adults are omnivorous.
The species is palatable for man and in parts of its range is sold
on the turtle market. In Kansas it is not used frequently as food.
Kansan Subspecies. — The race found in this state is G. p. kohnii (Gray),
the type locaHty of which is restricted to St. Martinsville, Louisiana. Two other
races occur in Texas and south-central United States.
The taxonomic status of the false map turtles of Kansas is not yet established
securely. Cagle tentatively recognizes G. kohnii as a full species that lives in
much of central United States along with G. p. ouachitensis Cagle (type locality
Harrisonburg, La. ), distinguishing the two primarily on the basis of head pattern
and head size: G. kohnii with a curved, continuous subocular-postocular line
(as in Figs. 84D, 102) and a broad head in adult females, G. p. ouachitensis
with a subrectangular spot behind eye ( as in Fig. 84B, C ) and narrow head in
adult females. The extent of variation I have observed in turtles of this group
is so great that I judge every intermediate condition exists and that nowhere do
two populations coexist. G. p. ouachitensis appears to be a vaUd geographic
race not occurring in Kansas, but it is true that some Kansan specimens re-
semble that form, others G. p. pseudogeographica and G. p. kohnii. Since most
are of the latter type to that name all Kansan specimens are here referred,
pending a more thorough study.
References. — Carr, 1952: 202-207, pi. 38, figs. 13, 15, 16, map 15 (general account);
Cagle, 1953: 1-17, figs. 1-3 (taxonomy); Cagle, 1954: 183-186 (in generic key; taxonomy,
distribution); Pope, 1939: 175-179, pis. 50, 51 (description, range, natural history).
Smith: Turtles
149
Genus Chrysemys Gray
Painted Turtle
Chrysemys picta (Schneider)
Testudo picta Schneider, Naturg. Schildkr.. 1783, p. 348 (type locality — Lancaster,
Pennsylvania ) .
Chrysemys picta Gray, Cat. Shield Kept. Brit. Mus., pt. 1, 1856, p. 32.
Range. — State-wide except perhaps the southwestern corner. Not
yet recorded west of a line from Meade (State
Park) through Ford (2 miles south of Bucklin),
Scott (State Park), and Logan (Vincent Ranch, ex-
treme northwest corner) to Cheyenne (23 miles by
road northwest of St. Francis ) counties.
lytlum of Nalwrot Hitlory
Univcriity of K«ntat
I94>
Fig. 103. Distribution of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta, in Kansas.
Description. — Carapace not arched (but slightly flattened), com-
pletely lacking longitudinal keels, with posterior edge smooth (not
at all notched); plastron completely fixed, with no movable part,
and composed of twelve laminae; hind legs somewhat broadened,
adapted for swimming. As seen in the open mouth, crushing surface
of upper jaw smooth and not ridged; apex of upper jaw with sharp
notch flanked on either side by a projection. Claws on forefeet of
males long, presumably modified for the special courtship practiced
by this species ( see discussion under Habits and Habitat ) .
Slate gray above; carapace with fine, irregular, yellow border
which joins narrow light line passing through center of each mar-
ginal plate; marginal lines continuous in turn with irregular, coarse
network of light lines which become faint toward middle of cara-
150
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist,
pace; middle of plastron dark, with dark extension outward on each
suture between plates; limbs and head with a number of light Hnes
somewhat wider than those on carapace.
Size moderate, carapace measuring as much as ten inches in
a straight line.
Recognition Characters. — This species can be recognized by the
combination of the following characters: Plastron with no movable
part and provided with twelve laminae; notch at apex of upper jaw
flanked on either side by toothlike projection; posterior margin of
upper shell perfectly smooth, not notched. Most easily confused
with this turtle are the several species of the genera Fseudemys and
Graptemys, in which the posterior margin of the carapace is notched,
Fig. 104. Painted hirtles, Chrysemys picta beUii. Left, K. U. no. 24393, 4 miles east and
1 mile north of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas, X %• Right, IM; miles south-
west of Stockton, Rooks County, Kansas, X %• Photos by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
and the upper jaw does not have a tooth-flanked notch at its apex;
Graptemys moreover has no ridge on the middle of the crushing sur-
face of the upper jaw ( as seen with the mouth open ) ; and specimens
of all ages of Graptemys have a median longitudinal ridge down the
back.
Habits and Habitat. — Shallow, warm waters, with some plant
growth, such as ponds, ditches, streams, lakes, and still pools in
rivers, are inhabited. Surprisingly, stagnant and polluted waters
sometimes are inhabited.
The food consists about half-and-half of plant and animal mate-
rial. The plant matter is mostly algae and leaves, and the animal
Smith: Turtles 151
matter primarily insects, with smaller amounts of MoUusca and
vertebrate animals. The latter are not killed by tliese turtles but
are eaten after death has been caused by some other agency. The
scavenger habit is pronounced.
Mating occurs in spring and fall. In courtship the male swims
backward in front of the female, facing her as she swims forward.
From time to time he slows, allows her to approach, then stretches
his forelimbs forward, vibrating them rapidly on the chin and sides
of the snout of the female. This activity may continue for a quarter
of an hour or longer before copulation occurs.
Eggs are laid in June and early July, generally in late afternoon or
early evening. They number from five to fifteen, are white and
measure 28 to 32 mm. long and 17 to 20 mm. thick. They are laid
in nests, in which they are adroitly covered. The nests are dug by
use of the hind legs and may be several hundred yards from water.
At the site chosen, the female digs diligently, alternately with the
hind feet, pushing the dirt back from time to time by sliding back-
ward while the forefeet remain fixed — as they do during the entire
nesting process. The soil is dampened from time to time by release
of fluid from the bladder; several species of turtles are known to
have this habit. As much as two hours may be occupied in digging
and covering the nest.
Eggs hatch in aj)proximately seventy-two days. The egg-tooth,
although present, is useless in this process. If the hatching occurs
late in the fall the young may not emerge from the nest until the
following spring. In some nests eggs laid in one year do not hatch
until the following spring. The newly hatched turtles find water
by virtue of their instinct to move toward the source of greatest
illumination.
The turtles hibernate in mud at the bottom of the bodies of water
in which they live. They enter hibernation in late October or early
November and emerge in April.
In captivity these turtles have lived to be 11/4 years old. They
tame readily, will learn to eat from the fingers, and are hardy
vivarium inmates. Although these turtles may be eaten by man,
they are not popular on the market.
Kansan Subspecies. — Chrysemys picta bellii (Gray), the type locality of
which is Puget Sound, Washington, is the race that occiurs in Kansas. Three
other races are known in the eastern United States.
References. — Carr, 1952: 219-224, pi. 41, map 16 (general account); Legler, 1954:
137-144 (nesting habits); Pope, 1939:184-203, pis. 56, 57 (description, range, natural his-
tory).
152
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat, Hist.
Genus Pseudemys Gray
Saw-toothed Slider
Pseudemys floridana (Le Conte)
Testudo floridana Le Conte, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. 3, 1830, p. 100
(type locality — St. John's River, Florida).
Pseudemys floridana Baur, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 31, 1893, p. 223.
Range. — Southern half of eastern third of state. Known from
only five localities in Greenwood ("Holmer creek south of Hamilton
on State Highway 99"), Wilson (northeast of Neodesha), Woodson
(5y2 miles northeast of Coyville; Neosho Falls), Bourbon (5 miles
west of Fulton) and Miami (Murray Lake) counties.
Museum of Natural Htstorjr
Uni.artitr Ot Kaniot
1949
Fig. 105. Distribution of the saw-toothed slider, Pscuderntjs floridana, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — Young with prominent median longitudinal keel
on carapace, but this keel absent in subadults and adults; plastron
fixed, with no part movable, and provided with twelve laminae.
Limbs, especially hind legs, conspicuously broadened toward tip,
adapted for swimming; claws on forefeet long in males ( correlated
with breeding habits). Crushing surface of upper jaw, as seen in
open mouth, with high, toothed ridge; upper jaw sometimes notched
at tip but notch, if present, not flanked by conspicuous toothlike
projections as in Chrysemys; lower jaw with sharp projection
( "tooth" ) at apex, and feebly serrate at edge.
Carapace with complicated network of yellow lines on dark-slate
ground color; limbs with narrow yellow lines; lines on head nar-
Smith: Turtles
153
Fig. 106. A saw-toothed slider, Pseudemys floridana hoyi, X %, from Harris County,
Texas. Courtesy Louis A. Ramsey.
154 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
row above, broad below; lines radiating backward from eye narrow,
not expanded; plastron cream, unmarked or with seven vaguely de-
fined dark areas (three on each side, one anterior) except in young,
which have an irregular, narrow, longitudinal dark marking.
Size moderately large, carapace measuring as much as fifteen
inches in a straight line.
Recognition Characters. — The genus Psetidetnys can be recog-
nized by the following combination of characters: plastron fixed and
lacking any movable part, provided with twelve plates; and crushing
surface of upper jaw with a conspicuous longitudinal ridge evident
in the open mouth. The first character eliminates all but the genera
Chrysemys and Graptemys. The latter genus can be distinguished
from all except young Pseitdemys by, in addition to the character
mentioned above, the presence of a strong keel. Chrysemys is dis-
tinctive in having a notch flanked by teeth at the apex of the upper
jaw, and in having the posterior margin of the carapace smooth and
not at all notched. The two most conspicuous differences between
the two species of Fseudemys occurring in Kansas ( P. fioridana and
P. scripta ) are the pattern of the head and the character of the crush-
ing surface of the upper jaw. In P. floridana the ridge on the
crushing surface of the upper jaw is strongly toothed, while in P.
scripta it lacks teeth. The latter species, in Kansas, has a broad
light line extending posteriorly from the eye; the width of the line
is as great as the diameter of the eye. In P. scripta none of the lines
extending backward from the eye are particularly broad; their width
does not exceed about one-half the diameter of the eye.
Habits and Habitat. — Completely aquatic, this species is at home
in permanent bodies of still or slow-moving shallow water. A soft
bottom and plenty of vegetation is preferred.
These turtles are almost completely carnivorous, eating insects,
crayfish, tadpoles, and small fish. They act as scavengers. Some
aquatic plants are eaten.
The mating habits are like those of Chrysemys, as probably also
are the nesting habits. The eggs, not definitely known, are thought
to measure approximately 26 X 38 mm. and to be laid in early June
in clutches of 9 to 19.
Turtles of this species are extremely wary, although they delight
in sunning themselves either on objects in the water or at the surface
of the water itself.
Kansan Subspecies. — Fseudemys floridana hoyi (Agassiz), with type locality
at Springfield, Missouri, is the race in Kansas. Seven other races are known
in the eastern and southern United States, and extreme northern Mexico.
References. — Carr, 1952: 307-311, pi. 58, figs. 19, 20, map 19 (natural history, descrip-
tion, range); Pope, 1939:205-215, pis. 60-70 (natural history).
Smith: Turtles
155
Elegant Slider
Pseudemys scripta (Schoepff)
Testudo scripta SchoepfF, Hist. Testud., pts. 1-2, 1792, p. 16, pi. 3, figs. 4, 5 (type
locality — Charleston, South Carolina).
Pseudemys scripta Jordan, Man. Vertebr. Anim. North. U. S., ed. 8, 1899, p. 209.
Range. — Southeastern half of state, south and east of a line from
Doniphan (Doniphan Lake), Ottawa, Reno (2
miles south of Lerado), Pratt (Pratt), and Clark
(Stephenson Ranch, 6 miles south of Kingsdown)
to Meade ( State Park ) counties. A dubious record
for "Wallace County" (KU) needs verification.
Uut«um of Notgnil Hltlory
Unntrsify of Kontot
1945
m
Fig. 107. Distribution of the elegant slider, Pseudemys scripta, in Kansas.
Description. — Young with prominent median longitudinal keel on
carapace, but keel absent in subadults and adults; lower shell com-
pletely fixed, with no movable portion, and provided with twelve
laminae. Limbs, especially posterior pair, conspicuously broadened
toward tip, adapted for swimming; claws on forefeet exceptionally
long in males ( correlated with breeding habits ) . Crushing surface
of upper jaw, as seen in open mouth, with high, smooth (not toothed)
ridge; outer edge of jaw even; apex of upper jaw sometimes with a
notch, but latter never flanked by a projection on either side; lower
jaw lacking apical beak.
Carapace with rather dim light lines, the most conspicuous of
these extending through middle of costal and marginal plates; adult
males lose this pattern and instead develop dark lines along sutures
between plates; these lines expand with age until entire carapace
may be black. Each plate on ventral surface with a large, circular
156 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
dark mark, which becomes fainter in adults and almost completely
disappears in adult males. Limbs and head with conspicuous yel-
low lines; most conspicuous line on head begins at upper rear corner
of eye, passes backward, becoming very broad, and terminates
abruptly near posterior margin of head.
Size moderately large, plastron measuring as much as lO'/ic inches
in length.
Recognition Characters. — See account of P. floridana.
Fig. 108. Elegant sliders, rscudimtji scripta elegans, X Vo. Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee.
Left, male; right, female. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia.
Habits and Habitat. — Permanent bodies of water are inhabited,
such as lakes, rivers, creeks, large ponds and marshes. Still waters
with mud bottoms are preferred.
The food is mostly animal matter, including insects, snails, cray-
fish, tadpoles, small fishes and various dead animals. Some aquatic
plants are eaten.
The courtship of this species is like that of Chrysemys, and may
occur either in spring or fall. Egg-laying follows some two weeks
after mating. An average of ten (5 to 22) eggs are laid in June
or early July, in a nest closely resembling that of Chrysemys.
Six to eight years are required to reach maturity ( breeding state ) .
Animals of this species are inoffensive and shy, but upon capture
they go through the motions of swimming, even in the air, and may
half-heartedly attempt to bite.
In parts of some other states man makes important use of these
turtles as food.
Kansan Subspecies. — Pseudemys scripta elegans (Wied), whose type locality
is the Fo.x River at New Harmony, Indiana, is the race occurring in Kansas.
Five other races are known from the eastern United States and the region south
to Panama.
Reference. — Pope, 1939:224-233. pis. 79, 80, 81 (description, range, natural history).
Smith: Turtles
IS'
FAMILY TRIONYCHIDAE
Genus Amyda Schweigger
Smooth Soft-shelled Turtle
Amyda mutica (Le Sueur)
Trionyx vmticus Lc Sueur, Mem. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, vol. 15, 1827, p. 263, pi. 7
(type locality — Wabash River at New Harmony, Indiana).
Amyda mutica Agassiz, Contr. Nat. Hist. United States, vol. 1, 1857, p. 399, vol. 2,
pi. 6, figs. 6-7.
Range. — Eastern two-thirds of state, south and
east of a line from Doniphan (Doniphan Lake)
through Trego (Wakeeney), McPherson (Linds-
borg), Reno (6 miles east of Turon), Gray (1 mile
west of Cimarron; not mapped ) and Barber (Aetna)
counties.
Ilttt«ym of NalunI Hitle/y
UAl*«r«ilr of KanMt
IMS
m
Fig. 109. Distribution of the smooth soft-shelled turtle, Amyda mutica, in Kansas.
Description. — Shell leathery, without laminae, although bone is
"visible" centrally; carapace completely devoid of tubercles; limbs,
especially the rear ones, adapted for swimming. Nostrils rounded,
lacking a ridge projecting from median septum into nasal cavities.
Adults uniform light or dark brown above, unmarked; head dark
above, light below; lower surfaces cream-white. Young light brown
above, with pale, yellowish margin around sides and rear part of
carapace in turn bordered medially by narrow dark line; small dark
flecks may be present on back; light, dark-edged band extending
158
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
from eye onto neck, and at least a short distance (sometimes to
snout) anteriorly from eye; sometimes small dark flecks on sides
and upper surfaces of neck, and on forelegs.
Fig. 110. Smooth soft-shelled turtles, Amyda mutica. Above, courtesy New York Zoo-
logical Society, X */»• Below right, Lage Texoma, Grayson County, Texas, X '/s. Below
left, snout of same, approx. X IVs-
Size moderately large, carapace measuring as much as eleven
inches in length.
Recognition Characters. — The soft-shelled turtles are easily rec-
ognized by the flexible, leatherlike edges of the shells, and absence
Smith: Tubtles 159
of laminae covering the body. The only difficulties arise in distin-
guishing the two Kansan species from each other. A. mutica lacks
the ridge projecting to each side from the median nasal septum
into the nasal cavities, which ridge is present in A. ferox and
easily seen by looking directly at the end of the snout. Moreover
A. mutica completely lacks the spines and tubercles at the front end
of the carapace, so characteristic of A. ferox; these tubercles are
not clearly evident in young specimens of A. ferox.
Habits and Habitat. — These are typically river and stream tur-
tles, although they are found in nonstagnant lakes. Waters with
mud bottoms and aquatic vegetation are preferred.
The food consists of insects, worms, crayfish, snails, clams, frogs,
tadpoles, fishes, perhaps young birds, fruit, nuts and potato stems.
These turtles are the best swimmers of all freshwater turtles, and
perhaps of any turtles, and can catch even such piscatorial experts as
trout. Even on land these turtles are said to be remarkably swift.
Some ten to thirty-one eggs are laid in June and incubate in about
seventy days. They measure approximately 23 mm. in diameter
and have thick, white shells. The female scoops out a nest in plain
sight of the water, and not more than sixty feet from it or nearer
than ten feet to it. Sandy soil of just the right dampness so that the
particles will cling together, and lacking any cohesive foreign mat-
ter such as clay, is required.
These turtles are vicious and difficult to handle because the long,
snakelike neck allows great freedom of movement for the head which
can be moved rapidly, and enables the powerful jaws to grasp an
adversary. The least hazardous way to manage one of these turtles
is to hold it by the tail.
These turtles spend hours at the edge of streams, buried under a
thin layer of sand in water just deep enough to permit the nostrils
to reach the air when the animal stretches its neck. In such a situa-
tion it is almost impossible to see one. While unbelievably shy and
wary, the turtles sun themselves to some extent on beaches near
water. For food this is one of the best of all turtles.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range
of this species.
References. — Carr, 1952: 436-440, pi. 79, map 23 (general account); Pope, 1939: 318-
323 (description, range, natural history).
160
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Spiny Soft-shelled Turtle
Amyda ferox (Schneider)
Trionyx ferox Schneider, 1783, Naturg. Schildkr., p. 330 (type locality — Savannah
River, Georgia).
Amyda ferox Oken, Lehrb. Zool., vol. 2, 1816, p. 348 (but Oken's names and com-
binations are in question as to availability).
Range. — State-wide, except entire northern border and perhaps
extreme southwestern corner. Not recorded north
of Doniphan (Doniphan Lake), Riley (Manhat-
tan), Sheridan (7 miles northeast of Quinter) and
Wallace counties. Not recorded south and west of
a line from Meade ( State Park ) to Hamilton ( Syra-
cuse) counties.
Museum of Nolural Hittorr
Uniwarsity of Kanto)
1943
Fig. 111. Distribution of the spiny soft-shelled turtle, Amyda ferox, in Kansas.
Description. — Shell leathery, without laminae, although bone is
"visible" centrally; tubercles or spines present at front margin of up-
per shell, very low in young and several millimeters long in adults;
limbs adapted for swimming. A ridge projecting from each side of
septum between nostrils into the nasal cavities.
Adults uniformly light or dark brown above, unmarked; head
dark above, light below; lower surfaces creamy white; in young
carapace dark spotted and light bordered; inside the light border
is narrow dark ring; light line through eye.
Smith: Turtles
161
Size moderateh large, carapace measuring as much as fourteen
inches in length.
Recognition CJiaracters. — See account of A. miitica.
Habits and Habitat. — Rivers and streams are the usual habitat,
where soft bottoms are available. Well-drained lakes and ponds
may be inhabited, but temporary waters are shunned.
Fig. 112. A spiny soft-shelled turtle, Amtjda fcrox spinifcra, X ^3. from Champaign,
Ilh'nois.
The food consists mostly of crayfish, but also of many other items
such as insects, snails, worms, frogs, tadpoles, clams, small fishes
and grains of corn. In seeking food "they crawl or swim along the
bottom, thrusting their snouts under stones and into masses of vege-
tation, occasionally snapping up a crayfish or larva that they have
succeeded in dislodging." ( Newman, 1906. )
Twelve to twenty-five, generally eighteen or nineteen, eggs of
usually spherical shape, approximately 26 mm. in diameter, are laid
in June and hatch in the fall. The female follows much the same
procedure as other turtles in constructing the nest, but usually
makes it within twenty-five feet of water, and is extremely wary
during the entire process ( most other turtles are not easily disturbed
at that time). "The nest is flask-shaped, ranging in depth from four
to ten inches, in greatest diameter from three to five inches, and
6—9019
162 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
with a narrow neck around one and one-half inches in diameter"
(Carr, 1952:429).
Females reach sexual maturity when 9/2 inches long — a length
attained probably at six or seven years of age.
Hibernation begins in late October, and the turtles emerge in
April or May. They hibernate under a few inches of mud or sand
covered by water.
They sun themselves on open beaches in summer, but always re-
main close to the water and highly alert to any indication of danger.
They float at the surface of the water for hours, and also lie in shal-
low water barely covered by sand or mud flipped onto the back by
the feet or into which the body is sidled. Often specimens may be
found on sandy beaches in the hottest parts of summer days by
probing into depressions where they have dug near water. They
live under water for hours by practicing aquatic respiration with
use of the highly vascularized interior of the throat and esophagus.
The adaptive value of the soft-margined flat shell of Aniijda seem-
ingly is not so much a provision for speed in aquatic locomotion
(although these turtles are said to overtake bass), as it is a means
by which the turtle may easily conceal itself.
The disposition of these turtles is notoriously fierce. They snap
and strike long distances with great speed and precision, so that
they can safely be handled only by the tail. Strangely, the eyes
are kept uppermost when striking at objects behind them. For
some time after capture they retain their sour disposition, but even-
tually submit to captivity and have survived 10/2 years under arti-
ficial conditions.
The flesh of this and A. mtttica is the most delicious of any Kan-
san turtles. The soft-shelled turtles have never been of commercial
importance, however, because of rarity of capture.
According to Carr (1952: 431), "The importance of this soft-shell
as an enemy of valuable fishes has not been demonstrated and prob-
ably is not nearly so great as is popularly supposed. It quite possi-
bly is of more significance as a competitor with game fish than as an
enemy, since the preponderance of crayfish in its diet implies a de-
pendence on a partly similar food supply."
Kansan Subspecies. — A. /. hartwegi Conant and Goin is the race in Kansas.
Its type locality is at Wichita, Kansas. Five others occur in the eastern United
States.
References. — Carr, 1952: 433-435, pi. 78, map 22 (general account); Pope, 1939:307-
318 (description, range and natural history; Pope's plates for this species actually illustrate
another subspecies, A. f. aspera).
Smith: Lizards
163
Order SQUAMATA Oppel
Lizards
Suborder Sauria Macartney
Fourteen species, two of which are represented by two subspecies,
are known to occur in the state. They represent four famihes. One
other species, a skink of the genus Eumeces, is to be expected in the
state ( see p. 321 ) .
Key to Species of Lizards
1.
r.
207
Body limbless Ophisaurus attenuatus, p.
Body with 4 limbs.
2. Scales around middle of trunk numbering 35 or more, differing
markedly in size and shape.
3. Posterior border of head provided with horns (Fig. 113).
4. Spines at rear of head (occipitals) about twice as long as
those at sides of head, 3 times as large as those back of eye
(Fig. 113A); 2 fringes of elongate scales on each side of
trunk; chinshields increasing in size posteriorly.
Phrynosoma cornutum, p. 181
4'. Spines at rear of head about same size as those at sides of
head, and less than twice as large as those back of eye (Fig.
113B): 1 fringe of elongate scales on each side of trunk;
chinshields decreasing in size posteriorly.
Phrynosoma douglassii, p. 184
vcv»
Fig. 113. Dorsal views of tht- heads of horned lizards. A. Texan horned lizard, Phryno-
soma cornutum, X l^i-, from Burt (1935). B. Short-horned lizard, Phrtjnosonui douglassii,
X 4, K. U. no. 21451, 16 miles southwest of Marsland, Box Butte County, Nebraska. Drawn
by Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh.
3'. Head without horns.
4. No ear opening; tympanic membrane invisible.
Holbrookia maculata, p. 171
4'. Ear opening present; tympanic membrane visible.
164
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist,
poztrosirals
internasals
fronial ridges
circumorbifals
supraorbiial semicircle
inierpariefal
rosiral
canihals
loreals (4 rows)
preoculars
superciliaries
suboculars
postoculars
iemporals
ear opening
mental
infralabials
sublabials
gulars
ihroat fan
posianal
dorsal scales
lateral scales
ventral scales
Fig. 114. Typical scutellation in an anole, Anolis carolincnsis. X 2, locality unknown. A.
Top of head. B. Under side of head. C. Side of head. D. Ventral view of right hind leg
and anal region. E. Section of body in lateral view. F. Ventral view of hind foot. From
Cope, after Smith (1946).
Smith: Lizards
165
I'art ot fingers and tofs expanded, padlike; scales granular
above, small below; no fold across lower surface of neck,
but a longitudinal flap ( throat fan ) present in males ( Fig.
114) Annlis carolmensis, p. 168
Fingers and toes of nearly uniform diameter throughout,
never expanded; all scales large, or at least the lower scales
considerably larger than the upper; no longitudinal throat
flap.
6. A granular fold across lower surface of neck; scales on
back granular.
7. Belly scales large, abruptK' difterentiated from dorsal
scales (Fig. 115A); fewer than 15 rows of scales
across middle of belly. Cnemidophorns sexlineatus, p. 204
7'. BelK scales small, gradually merging with the dorsal
scales; more than 15 rows of scales across middle of
belly Crotapht/tus collaris, p. 174
6'. No fold across neck; dorsal scales large, keeled, strongly
pointed, overlapping Sceloponis undulatus, p. 176
B
Fig. 115. A. A strip of scales around middle of body, split at middorsal line, of a si.\-lined
racerunner, Cncmidophorus sexlineatus, X 2, from Burt (1935). B. Dorsal view of head of
a brown skink, Scincelta laterale, X 2ij, from Imboden, Lawrence County-, Arkansas. C.
Lateral view of head of same species, locality unknown, from Burt (1935). D. A strip of
scales around middle of body, split at middorsal line, of a skink, Eumeccs tctragrammus, X 2,
from Burt (1935).
Scales around middle of trunk numbering 30 or less, all of uniform
size and shape, and relatively large, absolutely smooth, shiny and
overlapping (Fig. 115D).
3. Frontal V-shaped, rear part much narrower than forepart (Fig.
115B); lower eyelid with a single fairly large, windowHke scale
(Fig. 11.5C); supranasals absent ScinceUa laterale, p.
186
106
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
preocu/or-
superclliaries,,
posterior loreal--^
anterior loreal
posfnosa/
nasol *
rostral
upper secondary
lemporai
l;> tertiary temporals
lower secondary
temporal
'primary temporal
-postlabials
upper labials
tower labials
menial
-- postmenlal
chinshtelds
posfgeniaf
rostral
supranosals
~ frontonasal
prefrontal
- frontal
■"->> supraoculars
preocular
superciliaries
upper ciliary series
- trontopofietal
— parietal
interparietal
upper secondary
temporal
nuchal
palpebrals
postoculars
posisuboculars
\; lower ciliary series
presuboculars
Fig. 116. Typical scutellation in a skink, EumeceSy species not determined. A. Side of
head, X 2 7/10. B. Top of head, X 2 7/10. C. Under side of head, X 2 7/10. D. Or-
bital region in lateral aspect, X 4. From Taylor, after Smith (1946).
B
Fig. 117. A section of the side of the body. A. Sonoran skink, Eiimcces obsolcttis. B.
Common five-lined skink, Eumcccs fasciatus. Both drawings X 3.
Fig. 118. A. Lateral view of head of a coal skink, Euttwces nnthracintis, X 1%, K. U. no.
8221, Imboden, Lawrence Connty, Arkansas, after Taylor (1936). B. Ventral view of head
of same, approx. X %. locality unknown, after Burt (1935). C. Lateral view of head of a
prairie skink, Eumeces septcntrionalis, X 1%, K. U. no. 6988, 5 miles west of Onaga, Potta-
watomie County, Kansas, after Taylor (1936). D. Ventral view of head of same species,
locality unknown, after Smith (1946).
Smith: Lizards
167
3'. Frontal nearly rectangular, with nearly straight sides, rear part
being but little narrower than forepart; lower eyelid with many
scales, none windowlike; supranasals present (Fig. 116).
4. Third scale row ( counting to either side from the middle of
the back ) with a dorsolateral light line running down its mid-
dle (not yet known from Kansas) Eumeces multivirgatus, p. 321
4'. Third scale row not marked by any hght line.
5. Only 7 or fewer rows of scales parallel with long axis
of body; lateral rows oblique, rising as they continue pos-
teriorly (Fig. 117A) Eumeces obsoletus, p. 197
5'. At least 8 dorsal scale rows, and usually also lateral rows,
parallel with long axis of body (Fig. 117B).
6. One postmental (Fig. 118B); no postnasal (Fig.
118A); never a forked median hght line on head.
Eumeces anthr acinus, p. 188
6'. Two postmentals (Fig. 118D); postnasal present or
absent; median light line forking on head or not.
B
C D
Fig. 119. A. Side view of head of Eumeces laticeps. B. Same, E. fasciatus. C. Pos-
terior surface of right fourth toe of E. laticeps. D. Same, E. fasciatus. All from Smith
(1946). A and B, X 1; C and D, X 3.
7. In young and subadults, a median light line pres-
ent, forking on head; in adults, dorsolateral light
line indistinct or bordered medially by a dark line
narrower than the light line or by no dark hne at
all; postnasal present.
8. No postlabials, or 1 or 2 of small size; lateral
intercalary scales on 4th toe reaching onto next
to last phalanx; maximum snout-to-vent length
5^6 inches Eumeces laticeps, p. 194
8'. Two postlabials of relatively large size; lateral
intercalary scales on 4tli toe not reaching pen-
ultimate phalanx; maximum snout-vent meas-
urement 3^,^ inches . . Eumeces fasciatus, p. 191
7'. Median light line never forking on head; dorso-
lateral light line always distinct and bordered
medially by a dark line as broad as, or e\en
broader than, the light line; postnasal absent ( Fig.
118C) Eumeces septentrionalis, p. 200
168
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hisr.
FAMILY IGUANIDAE
Genus Anolis Daudin
Carolina Anole
Ano!is carolinensis Voigt
Anolhis carolinensis Voigt, Cuvier's Thierreich, vol. 2, 1832, p. 71 (t>pe localitx —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Range. — Not a natural inhabitant of Kansas. Introduced in the
vicinity of Leavenworth.
Musaum of Nolural Hitlory
University of Kaniai
194 :>
Fig. 120. Distribution of the Carolina anole, Anolis carolinensis, in Kansas, \\ ith insert show-
ing range of the species.
Description. — The head is long, flattened, and rather wedge-
shaped, covered above with small, heavily keeled scales. The dorsal
scales are a little more strongly keeled; fingers and toes, except the
first on each hand, curiously expanded near tips; expanded parts
provided with numerous fine lamellae; last joint with claw, ex-
tending beyond expanded part. Male with a loose, integumentary
fold in middle of throat, supported internally by a slender rod of
cartilage. This supporting rod can be lifted away (downward)
from the surface of the body by swinging it from its attached,
anterior end; thus the loose skin is pulled away from the body and
flared so as to show the bright color of the skin between the scales.
There are no femoral i:)ores, but enlarged postanal scales are present.
The tail is round in cross section.
The color of lizards capable of such pronounced metachrosis as
these is difficult to describe. The animals may be a uniform light
brown above and flecked with brown below, or pure, pale green
above and white below. Almost all imaginable intermediates be-
Smith: Lizards
169
tweeii these two extremes can be assumed b\ the Hzarcls at will. In
some a middorsal light stripe may extend from the head to the tail.
The back may be mottled with brown and green, or show short,
irregular, dark stripes. This dark pattern varies greatly between
specimens but is constant in any one animal in that phase of its
color repertoire in which the pattern is evident at all. Dark speci-
mens usually show several short, longitudinal dark streaks on the
sides of the throat, fine white flecks on the sides of the body, and a
dim reticulation or spotting with darker brown on the sides of the
abdomen. Both green and brown specimens have a white or cream
stripe along the sides of the head below the eye; in dark specimens
it extends to the shoulders more or less through the middle of the
e>'e. The dewlap in males is colored a brilliant red, but the color is
fully visible only when the fan is spread. The females lack a
Fig. 121. Carolina anoles, Anolis c. carolinensis. A. Female, X ^/lo, from Auburn, Ala-
bama. B. Male, Thomson, Georgia. C. Male, y '2, from Auburn, Alabama. From Smith
(1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright (A. C), and Gloyd (B).
well-developed dewlap but sometimes show feeble evidence of it
in the middle of the throat.
Size small, the snout-vent length reaching 2% inches; the tail is
long, approximately twice the snout-vent length.
Recognilion Characters. — No other lizard in this state possesses
expanded digits, or a well-developed dewlap in males, or the combi-
nation of the presence of tiny scales all o\'er the body with the
absence of a transverse gular fold.
Habits and Habitat. — These animals are found on trees, shrubs,
vines, low vegetation, fences, and sometimes old wooden buildings.
Shade, some sort of protection, and something on which they can
climb limit their range of habitat. In relati\'ely dry areas they
choose moist habitats and are less abundant.
Like most other lizards of the United States, anoles are diurnal.
170 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
beginning their movements when the temperature has risen in late
morning. They are most active early in the clay. They feed mostly
upon flies and may function usefully in the control of mosquitoes.
Males frequently fight among themselves, spreading the throat
fan as a threatening gesture. Also, probably to intimidate an ad-
versary, the skin along the middle of the back and neck is elevated
to form a high crest. They are known to climb fifty or sixty feet
above the ground in trees; when active they make two-foot leaps
between limbs. They swim well and may live in waterside bushes.
The skin is shed several times a year and is usually eaten. In
captivity the animals are known to live nearly four years.
Mating occurs in April or May, and the eggs, usually two in num-
ber, are laid in June a few inches below the surface in loose, slightly
moist debris. The eggs measure approximately 6 X H mm., are
soft-shelled, and hatch in six to seven weeks.
Since the anole is the most common rej)tile "pet" or curio in the
United States, some details of its proper care may be of interest.
Although the lizards are normally short-lived, many die prematurely
in captivity because of lack of attention.
In summer, anoles may have the run of a screened porch, but
during the winter a cage should be provided. A box, preferably
"at least two or three feet long, placed where it will receive plenty
of sunlight, may be used. The open face should be covered with a
pane of glass, mosquito netting, or a fine-meshed wire screening,
A small, shallow bowl containing a water hyacinth , , . or
some other water plant should be placed inside the cage and
a little water sprayed over its leaves at least once each day, as
these lizards normally procure what water they require by lapping up
with their thick tongues scattered droplets on leaves. A captive
anole may soon die of thirst even with a pan of water in the cage.
Do not give sweetened water. An anole will soon die on a diet of
sugar and water. . . .
"Captive chameleons may be fed on flies and meal worms or
on insects caught in a net swept through rank vegetation. Under
ordinary conditions, live meal worms will prove to be the most
satisfactory diet, especially as they may be bred or purchased
from dealers. Cockroaches have been found acceptable when other
insects have been refused." (Wildlife Research and Management
Leaflet BS-92. )
Kansan Subspecies. — A. c. carolinemis is the subspecies occurring in Kansas,
Two others occur in the West Indies.
References. — Smith, 1946: 95-99, fig. 59, pi. 11, map 2 (description, natural history,
range); Brumwell, 1942:54 (establishment in Kansas).
Smith: Lizards
171
Genus Holbrookia Girard
Earless Lizard
Holbrookia maculata Girard
Holbrookia maculata Girard, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., New Haven, vol. 4, 185),
p. 201 (t>-pe localit>- — opposite Grand Island, Platte River, Nebraska).
Range. — State-wide except in the eastern fourth. Peripheral lo-
calities on the eastern edge of the recorded range in Kansas are in
Rawlins ( 4 miles northeast of Ludell ) , Osborne ( Alton ) , Dickinson
(Manchester), Lyon (6 miles southeast of Emporia), Woodson
(Neosho Falls), Wilson, and Elk (Longton) counties.
1 -y
Uvttiim of Natural Hillary
UnUartlty of K«(tsat
IMS
m
Fig. 122. Distribution of the earless lizard, Holbrookia maculata, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — Dorsal scales small, flat; lateral scales a little
smaller, decreasing in size toward belly, but somewhat pointed and
elevated near tips; belly scales larger, smooth. Hat, grading into lat-
eral scales; a prominent, granular, gular fold, and a smaller, pre-
gular one just anterior to it; supralabials diagonal; a triangular
postmental; supraoculars numerous, slightly enlarged, separated
from median head scales by one or two rows of small scales; femoral
pores usually ten to fourteen; enlarged postanals present in males.
Dorsal ground color light gray to gray-brown; a broad, middorsal,
gray, unmarked light area; on either side of this is a series of nine
to fourteen dark brown spots on body; dark spots a little broader
than long, bordered laterally by a rather dim, dorsolateral light line
extending from orbit to base of tail; another light line extending
from axilla to groin; area between these light lines on either side
172
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
unmarked or with a series of dim spots similar to those on back.
Two black, diagonal bars, directed posteroventrally, extending from
extreme lateral belly scales and disappearing a short distance above
lateral fold; these bars, and sometimes 1 or 2 similar bars posterior
Fig. 123. An earless lizard, Holhrookia m. mactilata, X 1, from 3 miles east of Sharon
Springs, Kansas. Dorsal and ventral views of a male, from Smith (1946). Photos by A. A.
and A. H. Wright.
to these, are always present in males and usually in females; in the
latter the belly is otherwise unmarked, except for a gray suffusion
sometimes in the gular region; in males the throat is usually grayish,
Smith: Lizards 173
and frequently there is some mottlinj^ or a barred pattern laterally.
Size small, the snout-vent measurement reaching I'v; inches. The
tail is slightly shorter to slightly longer than the snout-vent length.
Recognition Clioractcrs. — No other lizard in the state lacks an ear
opening or visible tympanum. The diagonal supralabials and trian-
gular postmental are also distinctive. The only species frequently
confused with it is Sceloporus iindiihittis, which can however be dis-
tinguished easily by the absence of a ventral throat fold, presence of
an ear opening, flat supralabials not overlying each other, and by
the absence of a median postmental.
Habits and Habitat. — A more or less sandy soil, where vegetation
is sparse and low and where there is little grass, seems to be pre-
ferred by this species.
These lizards are not extremely wary, but are not often caught by
hand. On warm days they are active and can be seen scampering
about the bases of bushes. In the day they spend some time partly
buried in the sand. Early in the evening, long before the sun ac-
tually sets, they retire to burrows made by mammals or other ani-
mals where they spend the nights and cold days. They are seldom
found under rocks or other objects.
They eat spiders and insects. Grasshoppers comprise nearly a
half, and true bugs about one-fourth of their food. As an eater of
chinch bugs which damage planted crops, these lizards may be of
considerable economic importance.
The breeding habits are little known. Mating occurs in late June
and early July. The eggs number six to eight, and are probably
laid in August. In the mating periods, this species is found in pairs
composed of one individual of each sex. They are intensely curious
which on occasion leads to their capture by enemies.
If kept in a sandy habitat and provided with adequate light and
heat, these lizards live well in captivity, for they eat readily under
proper conditions. Adequate but not excessive light and heat are
best provided by a thermostatically controlled, weak light bulb.
Kansan Subspecies. — H. in. maculatu Girard is the only subspecies in the
state. Four other subspecies are recognized from the southwestern United
States and northwestern Mexico.
References. — Burt, 1928: 53-54 (food); Bvirt, 1928: 11-16, map 2 (description, habits,
habitat, Kansas records); Smith, 1946: 115-119, fig. 63, pi. 16, map 4 (distribution, descrip-
tion, habits, habitat).
174
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Genus Crotaphijtus Holbrook
Collared Lizard
Crotaphytus collaris (Say)
Agama collaris Say, Long's Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 2, 1823, p. 252 (type locality — Ver-
digris River near its union with Arkansas River, Oklahoma).
Crotaphytus collaris Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp., ed. 2, vol. 2, 1842, p. 79, pi. 10.
Range. — Southern and central Kansas. Peripheral localities on
the northern edge of the recorded range in Kansas are in Bourbon,
Anderson (6 miles south of Garnett), Coffey (8 miles southeast of
Waverly), Wabaunsee (2 miles northeast of Alma), Pottawatomie
(east of Rocky Ford Power Plant), Riley (Garrison), Marshall (5
Museum of Nolunil Hitlorjr
UnivtrsJfr of KAnsai
194}
Fig. 124. Distribution of the collared lizard, Crotaphytus collaris, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
miles south of Waterville), Cloud (Miltonvale), Mitchell (Glen
Elder), Lincoln (3 miles west of Sylvan Grove), Russell, Ellis,
Rush (3 miles west of Shaffer) and Seward counties.
Description. — Head broad and distinctly set off from body by a
relatively narrow neck; scales on head small; 1, 2, 3 or 4 unpaired,
rather irregular, scales between areas above eyes; a distinct fold
across throat; ear opening large, oval, not protected by overlapping
scales; dorsal scales small, smooth; ventral scales a little larger; a
long series of 14 to 27 femoral pores on each thigh; males lacking
enlarged postanal scales.
Males of this species are brightly colored; ground color straw
yellow; a black collar, broken in the middle, extends dorsally around
the neck between the insertions of the arms; another collar preceding
Smith: Lizards
175
this, also broken inedialK-; six dark crossbands on back; blue spots
scattered near edges of dark bands; ventral surface white or cream,
unmarked save for a coarse reticulation on lower lips; throat some-
times orange or yellow. Females marked like males but less brightly
colored. Young with broader collars on neck and more distinct dark
bands on body; these bands may enclose large, more or less circular,
light marks; the breaking up of these circular marks in adults results
in small blue flecks near edges of crossbands; in very old specimens
crossbands disappear completely and the only distinct markings
remaining may be light flecks.
Size large, snout-vent length reaching 115 mm.; tail usually about
twice as long as body and head. Males have a notably broader,
more muscular head, than females. Hind legs larger than the
forelegs, and about as long as head and body.
f
Fig. 123. A collared lizard, Crotapliijtus c. coUaris, X Vz, Manhattan, Kansas, from
Smith (1946). Courtesy Howard K. Gloyd.
Recognition Characters. — The general body form of this species
is distinctive. No single scale character is distinctive, but the com-
bination of a transverse gular fold, absence of horns on the head,
presence of an ear opening, and small ventral scales less than six
times as large as the dorsals, will serve to identify all specimens of
the species.
Habits and Habitat. — These lizards are common on the limestone-
capped hills of the central part of the state, where they reach their
maximum abundance. They are restricted to rocky areas or canyons
in the prairies, and thus do not occur on the vast expanse of flat
]")rairie in the west.
The pugnacious habits of these lizards are well known. Their
discrimination must be poor, for they sometimes react threateningly
at almost any movement, when startled, whether the moving object
be a dog, human, or train. Sometimes they are taken by surprise.
176 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
but usually they see an intruder when he is yet a considerable
distance away and take refuge under stones or in cracks before
the intruder arrives on the scene.
The eggs vary from four to twenty-four according to published
accounts, and may be deposited in loose sand to a depth of four or
five inches, or in tunnels underneath rocks.
The food consists largely of grasshoppers, but includes other large
arthropods such as spiders, beetles, moths, and occasionally small
vertebrates, including other lizards.
Kansan Subspecies. — Only C c. coUaris Say occurs in Kansas. Two other
subspecies, C c. baileyi Stejneger and C c. oiiriceps Fitch and Tanner occur
in the southwestern United States.
References. — Burt, 1928: 51-53 (food); Burt, 1928: 5-11. fig. 1 (description, habits,
habitat, Kansas distriliution ); Smith, 1946: 168-170, fig. 71, pi. 32, map 8 (description,
range, habits).
Genus Sceloporus Wiegmann
Rough-scaled Lizard
Sceloporus undulatus (Latreille)
Stcllio undulatus Latreille, Hist. Nat. Kept., vol. 2, 1802, p. 40 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Sceloporus undulatus Wiegmann. Isis, 1828, p. 369.
Range. — State-wide, except for a peculiar gap that occupies most
of the eastern third of the state. Peripheral localities on the eastern
edge of the recorded range of the western subspecies, S. ii. garmani,
are in Norton (2 miles southeast of Dinsmore),
Rooks (Stockton), Osborne, Saline ( Brookville ) ,
Geary (Fort Riley), Douglas (Lawrence), Chase,
Harvey (10 miles northwest of Halstead), Sedg-
wick (Clearwater), and Cowley (Arkansas City)
counties. The eastward record stations, in Geary
and Douglas counties, probably result from floodwaters carrying
animals eastward of their normal geographic range. The eastern
subspecies, S. ii. liyaciutliinus, is known from only as far west as
Cherokee (1 mile north of Crestline), Crawford (3 miles north of
Pittsburg), Johnson (3 miles west of Mission), Wyandotte and
Atchison (Atchison) counties; these are the only counties from
which reliable records are now available.
Description. — Dorsal scales rough, overlapping, with backward-
projecting spines thirty-live to forty-nine from occiput to base of
tail; ventral scales a little smaller than dorsal scales; numerous
scales on top of head, irregular in shape and number; no transverse
fold across throat; femoral pores ten to nineteen on each side.
hi the eastern subspecies, S. ti. hyacinthinus, ground color gray-
brown, broken by a series of six to ten narrow, dark, undulating
Smith: Lizards
177
crossbands; ventral surface, in males, bluish at sides of belly, bluish
color being bordered by black; middle of belK' light, or in large
specimens black; throat suffused with gray, becoming black in large
specimens. Wntral surface in females and young dusky, with small,
scattered dark marks and no distinct large markings.
■^■imii
Musaum of Naturol HIsrory
University Ol Konsos
i94S
Fig. 126. Distrilmtion of the rcjuKli-scaled lizard, Sccloporus undtiliitiis. in Kansas. The
range of S. u. liyticinlhiiuis in the eastern part of the state is indieated h\ the lined area, that
of S. u. gcirinani by the stippled area.
In the western subspecies, S. u. p,armoni, ground color light brown;
a dorsolateral light stripe, and sometimes a lateral one also; on each
side of mid-dorsal line a series of nine small, dark brown spots. In
males, sides of belly light blue, from axilla to groin, but ventral sur-
faces otherwise white. Females not marked below.
Size moderate, snout-vent length reaching 2M inches; tail about
1/2 times as long as rest of animal.
Recognition Characters. — The distinctive feature of this lizard,
within the boundaries of the state of Kansas, is the presence of uni-
form, overlapping, relatively large dorsal scales with sharp points
on their posterior edges. Another feature of importance is the ab-
sence of a transverse or longitudinal fold on the throat. The latter
character alone, in fact, distinguishes this species from all others
with the exception of the legless lizard, the horned lizards, and the
smooth-scaled skinks; all of these are readily separated from Scclo-
porus by other characters.
Habits and Habitat. — The habitat of S. //. liyacintJiiniis, the east-
ern race, is dry forested areas, where the animals may frequent
178
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
almost any sort of object on which they can climb if it receives a
fair amount of sunshine. They spend a great deal of time basking
Fig. 127. Rough-scaled lizards, Sceloporus undulatus fiuacinthinus, all X 'i;. A. Patuxent
Research Refuge, Bowie, Maryland; female and male. B. Weymouth, New Jersey; female.
C. Same locality; male. D. San Antonio, Te.xas; male. From Smith ( 1946). Photos bv
A. A. and A. H. Wright (B-D), and by U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (A).
in the sun, and for that reason heavy woods through which the sun
does not penetrate are uninhabited. They frequently spend as much
as half of their time in the day on the ground, but trees or other ob-
jects on which they can climb are a necessary part of their habitat.
In Missouri, hibernation may begin as late as November 15, and
emergence may follow as early as February 10. As in most species
Smith: Lizards 179
of lizards, the adults spend a longer time in hibernation than do the
young, and for both age groups the actual length of hibernation
varies greatly according to the rigor of the season. Hibernating
quarters are burrows in the ground, spaces under or between rocks,
or within rotten logs or stumps.
Soon after emergence from hibernation the breeding season com-
mences, and la.sts several weeks. In this time the lizards are active
and react quickly to the presence of others of their species. They
occupy rather restricted territories, and males will defend their ter-
ritories from the entry of others. Females do not defend territory
and are permitted by the males to wander freely. Apparently, for
a period of some two or three weeks, during the mating season, there
is a sort of family tie.
The eggs are laid, about eight weeks after mating, one-half to
four inches below the surface of slightly damp soil. The lizard
makes its own burrow for the eggs, lays four to seventeen eggs, and
then covers them carefully. Egg-laying may occur over a period of
six weeks, in any one year, and the eggs hatch in about ten weeks.
The lizards have a voracious appetite, and eat all kinds of small
or medium-sized terrestrial arthropods. Ordinarily only moving
prey is taken. Most of the food is taken early in the morning, after
a brief period of sunning. During hot parts of the day the lizards
are quiescent, and in the evening they may again become active just
before retiring at dusk.
When pursued, they seek to conceal themselves rather than to
escape by rapid flight. The immediate reaction is to climb some-
thing, and enter a hole, hide under a loose bit of bark, or just to
keep the structure on which the animal is climbing between it and
the source of danger.
At night it appears that the lizards sleep aloft rather than on the
ground.
The western subspecies, S. u. garmani, prefers a terrestrial habitat
and in fact seldom climbs except upon rocks and sometimes in
weeds. Sand dunes or sandy soil seems to be preferred, and in such
habitats these lizards may be nearly as abundant as the earless
lizards. They are more widely distributed than the latter, being
found on sandstone hills, in the white chalk cliffs of the western
part of the state, and even on the open prairie wherever there is
some cover such as piles of weeds, or burrows of mammals. They
are frequently found under shocks of wheat.
180 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist,
Fig. 128. Rough-scaled lizards, Sceloponn unduhitiis gantiani. all X %. \, B, female,
from 10 miles southwest of Winfield, Kansas. C, D, male, from Hackherry Lake, Gordon
County, .\ehraska. From Smith ( 1946). Photos by U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Smith: Lizards
181
The food consists of small grasshoppers and beetles, for the most
part. Large insects may be killed but not eaten. Ladybird beetles
and bees are not molested. A bee sting will kill one of these lizards.
Seven to eleven eggs are laid in the middle of June.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two occur in the state: Sceloparus undiilatus garmani
Boulenger (type locality at Pine Ridge, South Dakota), and Sceloporus un-
duhitus hijacinthinus (Green) (type locality at Princeton, New Jersey). Five
other subspecies are recognized from areas outside the state. The situation
with regard to the two subspecies in Kansas is rather strange, for their ranges
do not meet, so far as is now known, within the state, where the two forms are
entirely distinct. They do meet farther soutli, in Oklahoma and Texas, how-
ever, and intergradation occurs there. They can be identified by the following
differences.
hijacinthinus
1. Dark markings on back narrow but
extending transversely across most
of back, usually crossing the dorso-
lateral light lines.
2. Males with 1 or 2 large, distinct,
dark blue or black areas on throat.
3. Scales in a line between ends of
femoral pore series, by smallest
count, 7 or more in 7.5 percent of
286 counts.
garmani
1. Dark markings on back n(jt more
than 3 times as wide as long, not
crossing either a broad middorsal
zone or a distinct dorsolateral light
line.
2. Throat of males unmarked or with
two very inconspicuous dark mark-
ings posteriorly.
3. Scales in a line between ends of
femoral pore series, by smallest
count, 7 or more in 6 percent of
47 counts.
References. — Burt, 1928: 54-56 (food); Burt, 1928: 16-27, figs. 3, 4 (Kansas distribu-
tion, habits, habitat, description); Smith, 1938: 8-10, 14-15 (taxonomy); Smith, 1946: 222-
231, pis. 51, 52, map 15 (range, description, habits, habitat).
Genus Phrynosoma Wiegmann
Texan Horned Lizard
Phrynosoma cornutum ( Harlan )
Agama cormtta Harlan, Journ. Acad. Xal. Sci. Phila., vol. 4, 1825, p. 299, pi. 20
(type locality — Fort Riley, Geary County, Kansas).
Phrynosoma cornutum Gray, Griffith's Cuvier's Anim. Kingdom, Syn. Rept., 1831. p. 9.
Range. — Almost state-wide, excluding only the northwestern and
northeastern corners. To the west the species has been recorded
as far as Rawlins County, but other records would
limit it at a line from Morton (12 miles northwest
of Elkhart) through Ellis to Phillips (4 miles south
of Glade) counties. Toward the northeast it has
been recorded as far as Smith, Cloud ( 7 miles south-
east of Scottsville), Ottawa, Riley (Manhattan),
182
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Douglas (Lawrence), Franklin (Ottawa), and Bourbon (Fort
Scott) counties. Some peripheral occurrences may be introductions.
Description. — A much enlarged spine on each side of the back
of the head; three other spines, about half as large or less, projecting
from the rear sides of the head; a series of large chinshields, greatly
increasing in size posteriorly, separated by a couple of rows of small
scales from the lower labials; three groups of lateral neck spines; a
transverse gular fold; dorsal scales mostly small, but scattered, en-
larged, keeled spines also present; numerous keeled scales near mid-
dorsal line, but latter with only small scales; two series of spines at
fringe of abdomen, and one series along sides of tail; femoral pores
and enlarged postanals poorly defined.
Ground color light yellowish brown to reddish brown or tan; a
dark brown; elongate, white-edged, sharply outlined blotch on
wHIlai
Mu&aum of Natural Hislory
Univtrsily of Kansai
1945
Fig. 129. Distribution of the Texan horned Hzard, Phrijnosoma cornutiim, in Kansas.
each side immediately behind head; a series of four more or less
rounded dark spots on either side of middorsal line on body, each
bordered posteriorly by a white streak, and each surrounding an en-
larged spine; another series of three similar spots on either side, fre-
quently fused with the more median row to form transverse, un-
dulate bars; a light middorsal streak from head to tail; a number of
alternating dark and light streaks across top of head, and radiating
from eye; ventral surfaces white, unspotted or with a few small,
rounded dark spots on chest, belh' and preanal region.
Size moderate, snout-vent length reaching 4K inches, about D'l
times length of tail.
Recognition Characters. — The presence of a pair of large spines at
the rear of the head, three times as large as the spines just back of
Smith: Lizards
183
eye, is distinctive of this species of horned Hzard in Kansas. In the
other species of Plinjnosoma the occipital horns are mnch smaller
(less than half the size of the postocular horns), and the chinshields
decrease instead of increase in size posteriorly.
Habits and Habitat. — These are terrestrial lizards which occur on
almost any type of flat, dry land where vegetation is scanty. The
soil may be rocky, sandy or a loam.
B
Fig. 130. Texan horned lizards, Phnjnosoma cornutum. A, X %, and C, X %, both from
10 miles southeast of Comstock, Texas; male. B, X %, from Wilcox, Arizona. From Smith
(1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright.
Exclusively diurnal, these lizards prey upon many types of arthro-
pods, which are active in the daytime. Ants form by far the largest
part of the diet. As befits a lizard which requires such high temper-
atures for feeding, hibernation occurs early — in September or Octo-
ber; emergence follows in April or May. Mating occurs soon after
emergence, and some time later a large number ( 23 to 37 ) of eggs
are laid in pits dug to a depth of five to seven inches in loose soil
or sand. The eggs hatch in thirty-nine to forty-seven days.
Immediately after being captured, rare individuals have been ob-
served to squirt a tiny stream, or a few drops, of blood from one or
both eyes to a distance of several feet.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range
of this species.
References. — Burt, 1928: 56-58 (food); Burt, 1928: 27-32, fig. 5 (description, habits,
habitat, Kansas localities); Smith, 1946: 290-293, fig. 84, pi. 74, map 20 (description,
habits, habitat, distribution).
184
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Short-horned Lizard
Phrynosoma douglassii (Bell)
Aganui (IntifiUissii Bell, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, vol. 16. 18''5'3, p. 105, pi. 10 (type
locality — watershed of Columbia River).
PhriinosoDid doti^ldssii Wagler, S>st. .4niph., 1830, p. 146.
Range. — Perhaps northwestern tliird of state; recorded only from
Smith, Rooks, Logan, Ellis (Hays) and Edwards connties, but the
verified distribution of this species in states adjoining Kansas, and
the lack of preciseness and authenticity of each record for Kansas,
strongly suggest that all records for Kansas are based either upon
escaped specimens imported from elsewhere, or upon erroneous
data.
Fig. 131. Distribution of the short-horned lizards, Phrynosomii doiitihissii, in Kansas, with
insert showing range of the species.
Description. — Horns on head short, the pair at rear on either side
of middorsal line not over twice size of other horns; three or four
small horns at either side of rear of head, and another back of each
eye; chinshields decreasing in size posteriorly; a pair or more of
transverse folds on throat; several enlarged scales on a loose fold on
either side of neck; dorsal scales highly irregular in size; four series
of enlarged scales toward tip of tail; a single fringe of elongate scales
at sides of abdomen; belly scales small, smooth; femoral pores twelve
to sixteen.
Ground color gray or brown; a series of three or four irregularly
outlined, dark blotches on each side of middorsal line, and some-
times a similar lateral series; each blotch light-edged posteriorly,
fading into ground color anteriorly; a large, indistinct blotch on each
Smiiii: Lizards
185
side of neck behind head; hiteial hinge of scales whitisli; belly light,
sometimes black-speckled; throat usually mottled with gray.
Size relatively small, snout-vent measurement reaching 2/2 inches;
tail a little less to a little more than half length of rest of animal.
Recognition Characters. — The presence of horns on the head, none
of which are conspicuously enlarged (for instance to the length of
the eye), is distinctive. See discussion of Phrynosonia cornutum.
Habits and Habitat. — In Nebraska these lizards are said to occur
in fairly rough terrain in the semiarid short-grass plains.
%
*. ' -•*«,<
Fig. 132. A short-horned lizard, Phrynosoma doiiglds.sii l>rcvir()strc, X %. Casper, \\'yoiiiing;
female. From Smith (1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright.
The food consists mostly of grasshoppers and ants.
This species gives birth to young instead of laying eggs. Broods
from females of the subspecies occurring in Kansas contain five or
six young. Possibly several broods are carried at once, as one female
contained six young about ready to be born, and four large eggs.
In Kansas this is the rarest of native lizards. Any specimens dis-
covered are well worth preservation in a museum ( see pp. 18, 25 ) .
Kansan Subspecies. — Only Plirynosoma doufilassii brevirostre (Girard), with
type locality at Pole Creek, Nebraska, is ascribed to Kansas and this ascription
is open to question; see above (page 184) under "Range." Four other sub-
species are currently recognized in the western United States.
References. — Burt, 1928: 32-36, map fig. 6 (description, Kansas localities); Smith. 1946:
302-304, pi. 79, map 21 (description, natural history, distribution).
186
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
FAMILY SCINCIDAE
Genus Scincella Mittleman
Brown Skink
Scincella laterale ( Say )
Scincus lateralis Say, Long's Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 2, 1823, p. 324 (type locality-v
Banks of Mississippi below Cape Girardeau, Missouri).
Scincella laterale Mittleman, Herpetologica, vol. 6, 1950, p. 19.
Range. — Eastern third of state. Peripheral locahties on the west-
ern edge of the recorded range in Kansas are in Harper (7 miles
southwest of Norwich), Kingman (2 miles north of Adams), Clay
(Clay Center), Pottawatomie (Flush), Jefferson (10 miles north of
Lawrence) and Leavenworth (7 miles northeast of Lawrence)
counties.
Fig. 133. Distribution of the brown skink, ScinceUa laterale, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
Description. — All scales of body small, very smooth, flat, and
rounded; twenty-six to thirty-two (usually 28 or 30) scale rows
around middle of body, and seventy-seven to eighty scales from
parietal to above anus; head scales large, regular, including among
the more important a large frontonasal broadly in contact with
rostral; no supranasals; a large elongate frontal in contact anteriorly
with frontonasal, narrowly in contact with two frontoparietals poste-
riorly; a large parietal on each side, narrowly in contact behind a
small, median interparietal; four large supraoculars, second largest;
seven upper labials, fourth smallest; a nearly transparent window in
lower eyelid; median row of subcaudals somewhat enlarged.
Smith: Lizards
187
Light brown abo\e, the sides dark brown, and sometimes a fine
white Hne at point of contact of the two colors; sides hght below the
lateral dark stripe, which occnpies two scale rows and sometimes
half of each adjacent row; lower lips and sometimes throat with
irregnlar dark gray marks or l)ars.
Size small, snout-vent length reaching Us inches; tail VA times
as Ions: as bodv.
Fig. 134. Brown skinks, ScinccUa latcralc, X "/lo- A. Patuxent R' search Refuge, Bowie,
Maryland. B, D, E, Somerset, Texas. C. Helotes, Texas. From Smith (1946). Photos
by A. A. and A. H. Wright (B-E), and by U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Recognition Characters. — All of the skinks are distinctive in
having absolutely smooth, shiny scales — not granular or rough scales
as in other legged-lizards of Kansas. The brown skink may be told
from other species most easily by the shape of the frontal, which
tapers sharply toward the posterior, instead of being about as broad
in front as behind, as in other species. Also distinctive is the rather
large, windowlike scale in the lower eyelid; in other skinks this is not
present or is represented by several instead of a single scale.
Furthermore, in no other skinks are the supranasals absent.
Habits and Habitat. — These skinks are found in wooded areas on
the ground among leaves and other debris; moist places, frequently
near streams, are preferred. Less commonly they are found in open
fields or on grassy hills, vmder stones and logs.
These lizards are secretive, and seldom seen in the open. They
are probably diurnal, but ordinarily they are seen during the day
188
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
only when uncovered or startled from underneath objects of
concealment. The food consists of small insects, millipeds, pill-
bugs, and earthworms.
The eggs, one to five in number (usually 3), are laid in humus,
rotten stumps or logs. They measure about 9x4 mm., are thin and
brittle-shelled. They are laid from early June to August. Hatching
occurs in August and throughout September. The lizards are active
from April through October.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the range
of this species.
References. — Burt, 1928: 61 (food); Burt, 1928: 45-49, map fig. 8 (description, natural
history, Kansas localities); Smith, 1946: 337-340, figs. 94, 96, 98, pi. 92, map 25 (descrip-
tion, natural history, distribution); Johnson, 1953: 11-27 (life history); Slater, 1949: 79-80
(food habits ).
Genus Eumeces Wiegmann
Coal Skink
Eumeces anthracinus ( Baird )
Plestiodon anthracinus Baird, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ser. 2, vol. 1, 1849, p. 294
(type localit>' — North Mountain near Carlisle, Pennsylvania).
Eumeces anthracinus Cope, Bidl. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 1875, p. 45.
Range. — Southeastern fifth of state; recorded from Dickinson
(Carlton), Franklin (Homewood; Ottawa), Anderson (Glenlock),
Miami (Pigeon Lake) and Cherokee (3 miles east of Crestline; 4
miles northeast of Baxter Springs ) counties.
Sou
I
Wutaum o( Nalunl Hltlorjr
UnUtnity of KonMa
IMS
jn
Fig. 13.5. Distribution of the coal skink, Eumeces anthracinus, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
Smith: Lizards 189
Description. — Scales around body uniform in size, flat, smooth,
twenty-four to twenty-eight at middle of body; head scales rather
large, regular, including among other scales of importance a single
postmental, a scale longer than wide bordering postgenial medially;
postnasals absent; seven supralabials; median subcaudals widened.
Adults olive gray to olive brown above; a narrow dorsolateral
white line on each side, on scale rows three and four (counting from
middorsum), originating at eye and extending onto tail; a broad,
dark brown band below this, occupying two and one-half scale rows,
and bordered below by a narrow white line; this light stripe is bor-
dered below by a dark area fading gradually into the lighter ven-
tral color; venter bluish or gray, unmarked; sometimes a narrow
median light stripe, bordered on either side by black, on back, but
not reaching onto head; a number of light spots on head. Young
almost uniformly black, with reddish spots on head; tail deep blue-
violet.
Size moderate, the snout-vent length reaching two and one-half
inches. Tail about twice the length of the rest of the animal, in
adults, about equal in the young; limbs overlapping when adpressed.
Recognition Characters. — All skinks can easily be recognized by
the presence of uniform, smooth, overlapping scales all around the
body; in all other legged-lizards of Kansas the scales are rough,
different above and below, or are granular. The shape of the fron-
tal, which is about as broad behind as in front, is distinctive of
Eumeces; the absence of a single windowlike scale in the lower eye-
lid is also distinctive (Eumeces has several plates in the place of the
window); and the presence of supranasals likewise will distinguish
this genus from ScinceUa, the only other genus of skinks in the
state. Within the genus Eumeces, as represented in Kansas, the
species E. anthracinus is distinctive in being the only one with a
single postmental, but this character is not infallible for it varies
somewhat not only in this but in other species. From E. obsoletus,
anthracinus differs in having the scale rows on the sides of the body
parallel to those on the back; the absence of a middorsal light line
forking on the head distinguishes it from all others except adult
specimens of £. fasciatus; and the latter species can be distinguished
by the presence of a postnasal.
Habits and Habitat. — Typically this skink is found on wooded
hillsides in rotten logs, piles of debris, and under loose stones, in
moist areas fairly near water. Usually these lizards are discovered
in places of concealment, but they have been seen moving about
enough in the daytime to indicate that they are diurnal. In seeking
to escape they do not hesitate to take to %\'ater. Courtship and
mating probably occur in April. Eight or nine eggs are laid in
190
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
a nest guarded by the female. They hatch in four to five weeks, and
the newly born young measure 47 to 51 mm. in total length. The
food consists of insects and insect larvae.
It is impossible to predict with accuracy where specimens may be
found, for many apparently suitable localities are uninhabited.
Fig. 136. Coal skink, Etiireccs (tntliracinus; B, C, E. a. anthracinus; others, E. a. pluvialis.
A. Male, and D, female, Inihoden, Arkansas. B. Female with eggs and young, and C,
femal • from Bergen, New York. E, F. Cherokee Countv, Kansas. All X %■ From Smith
(1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright (A-D), and by E. H. Taylor (E, F).
Kansan Subspecies. — The subspecies occurring in this state is Eunieces
anthracinus pluvialis Cope, with type locality at Mobile, Alabama. One other
race is recognized in the eastern United States.
References. — Taylor, 1935: 373-387, figs. 62, 63, pi. 32 (monograph); Smith, 1946:
372-375, fig. 116, pi. 103, map 30 (description, natural history, distribution).
Smith: Lizards
191
Common Five-lined Skink
Eumeces fasciatus (Linnaeus)
Lacerta fasciata Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 209 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Ettmeces fasciatus Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 1875, p. 4.5.
Range. — Eastern third of the state. Peripheral western localities
are in Snmner, Sedgwick (Wichita), Chase (6 miles south of Clem-
ents), Geary (Ft. Riley), Riley (Manhattan), and Doniphan (Doni-
phan Lake) counties. The record for Ransom, Ness County, based
upon a K. U. specimen, needs verification.
Muttum 0' Natural History
Urtivarsity of Kortios
1945
Fig. 137. Distribution of the common five-lined skink, Eumeces fasciatus, in Kansas, w
insert showing range of the species.
ith
Description. — Scales of body smooth, overlapping, twenty-five to
thirty-one around middle of body (usually 28 or 30); head scales
few, regular, including among others of importance seven suprala-
bials; two well-defined, rather large postlabials between last suprala-
bial and ear; two postmentals; median row of subcaudals greatly
widened.
Young more or less uniform black above, except for five narrow
white lines, including a median one that forks on the nuchals (rear
of head) and reunites on the rostral; a pair of dorsolateral light
stripes on the third and fourth scale rows; a lateral light stripe from
sides of head through ear opening to hind leg; throat and snout
cream, rest of ventral surfaces bluish-gray; dorsal surface of tail
azure blue, very brilliant on distal half. As specimens attain larger
size, brownish streaks form along the middle of the dark areas be-
tween the light stripes, and expand until little or none of the black
192
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 138. Common five-lined skink, Eumeces fasciatus. A. Locust Grove, Mayes County,
Oklahoma, X "/i«. B. Ithaca, New York. X Vs. C, E. Pennsylvania State College Cam-
pus, X "In,. D, X Vio, F, X -lo, G, X -/s, from Lawrence, Kansas. From Smith (1946).
Photos bv A. A. and A. H. Wright (B-G), and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (A).
Smith: Lizards 193
remains. The lateral dark bands remain darker than the rest of the
body, but even these become lighter with greater age; the tail loses
all trace of the blue color. This condition occurs in young males and
in all adult females, which do not lose the stripes except on the head
where they may become dim. In old males all stripes may disappear
except for the dark lateral stripes; the head becomes reddish, at least
ill the breeding season, and the back is olive or olive-brown.
Size moderate, the snout-vent measurement reaching three and
one-eighth inches. The tail is a little less than twice the head-body
length.
RecogJiition Characters. — The smooth, flat scales identify the
skinks. This species, which is often confused with E. anthracinus
and E. septentrionalis differs from them in a number of scale char-
acters as well as in details of pattern. The most conspicuous differ-
ences are listed in the key. See discussion also of E. anthracinus.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is commonly found in wooded
areas, usually on the ground, under stones, in piles of leaves and in
rotten logs. A moist but not wet environment is preferred.
These lizards frequently sun themselves in open areas in the hot
part of the day, but because of their nervous temperament they sel-
dom remain long in one place. They wander considerably, but on
cool days may not emerge at all. They seem to wander within
circumscribed areas, and have habitual retreats. Because of their
wariness, specimens are seldom seen abroad even when abundant,
but more frequently under objects where they have taken refuge.
They mate soon after emerging from hibernation. A preliminary
courtship consists of scratching the ground or rubbing the ground
with the cloaca. Active courtship on the part of the male consists of
rushing, with open mouth, any lizard of the same species that may
be around; if the latter fights or runs away, it is probably a male, but
if it submits, it is a female and mating generally ensues. In copula-
tion the male grasps the female by the side of the neck with his jaws,
curling his cloaca underneath that of the female. One of the two
hemipenes ( either one ) is used. Courtship lasts some five to seven
minutes, and mating four to eight minutes.
Eggs are laid after six to seven weeks, in a two- week period in
early summer. Hatching requires an average of five to six weeks.
The eggs are laid in clutches of from two to eighteen, in rotten logs
or loose soil several inches below the surface, and are brooded for
the entire incubation period by the female. Intruders are coura-
geously attacked. At hatching, the young measure 24 to 27.5 mm.
from snout to vent.
Winter is spent in rotten logs or underground; one was found hi-
7—9019
194
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
bernating in a pile of sawdust and others, in Kansas, have been found
as deep as eight feet in the ground. The earliest recorded date of
emergence in Kansas is April 6.
The food consists of almost any small moving animal, including
many kinds of arthropods and even small vertebrates.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species have been defined any-
where in its range.
References. — Burt, 1928: 61-62 (food); Burt, 1928: 51-56, map fig. 11 (description,
habits, habitat, Kansas localities); Smith, 1946: 347-351, figs. 95, 109, 111, pi. 93, map 26
(description, natural history, distribution); Taylor, 1935: 188-212, figs. 24-27, pi. 13 (mono-
graph); Fitch, 1954 (complete life history, ecology).
Greater Five-lined Skink
Eumeces laticeps (Schneider)
Scinctis laticeps Schneider, Hist. Amph., 1801, vol. 2, p. 189 (type locality — Charles-
ton, South Carolina, by subs, design.).
Eumeces laticeps Peters, Monatsb. Acad. Wiss. Berlin, 1864. p. 49.
Range. — Extreme eastern central part of the state. Recorded
only from Murray Lake, Miami County, and a locality 4 miles west
of La Cygne, Linn County.
Scoli
10 aoMilfli
Museum of Nalurol Hutotf
Uftivarsilit o( Kanias
I94J
Fig. 139. Distribution of the greater five-lined skink, Eumeces laticeps, in Kansas.
Description. — Scales of body smooth, overlapping, rounded at
free edge, twenty-eight to thirty-four around middle of body
(usually 30 or 32); head scales few, regular, including among
others of importance a postnasal, two postmentals, seven or often
Smith: Lizards
195
enght supralabials; postlabials tiny (if paired), single, or absent;
median row of snbcaudals greatly widened.
Young more or less uniform black above except for five narrow
white lines; median line forking on nuchal scales at rear of head;
dorsolateral lines on third and fourth, fourth and fifth, or fourth
scale-row only; lateral light stripe extending from sides of head to
upper edge of ear opening, and then from middle of rear edge of
Fig. 140. Greater five-lined skink. Etimeccs laticcps. A, Stove Lake near Turrell, Arkan-
sas; B, Boliver. Tenn.; C, Waverlv Mills, South Carolina. From Smith (1946). Photos bv
A. A. and A. H. Wright ( C, E, F), Gloyd (B, D), and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (A).
A, D, E, X %; B, X %; E, F, X 1.
ear opening to hind leg; tail a striking azure blue, brilliant on distal
half; throat and snout cream, belly bluish-gray to white. Half-grown
examples and young adult females have light brown streaks in the
196 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
dark fields between the light stripes, and the tail is slate. In old
adult females and all adult males the stripes tend to disappear
completely, and the lateral dark field is the last to go; in such
specimens the entire dorsal surface is uniform light brown. In the
breeding season adult males have a reddish head, and the jaw
muscles are so enlarged as to give the rear of the head a swollen
appearance.
Size large, the snout-vent measurement reaching five inches. The
tail when intact is a third or a half greater than the head-body
length; a regenerated tail is shorter, but is often so similar in
appearance to the original tail as to be distinguishable only by
reference to the midventral scales, which are wider than those on
the intact part of the tail.
Recognition Characters. — The smooth, flat, rounded scales identify
the skinks. The possession of five light lines and a postnasal readily
separates this species from all others occurring in Kansas, with the
exception of E. fasciatus. These two species are extraordinarily
similar; they are among the best examples of "sibling" species
known in vertebrates. No known character will distinguish all
examples. E. laticeps reaches a much larger size, lays larger eggs,
produces larger, broader-headed young; it more frequently has 8
supralabials and the dorsolateral light stripe not involving the third
scale row; seemingly the most reliable character is the reduction
of the postlabials to two tiny scales, or to one scale, or to nothing
whatever.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is restricted to wooded regions,
where it is commonly found in logs or piles of brush and in or on
standing trees. It is of more arboreal habits than the common
species, but is often found on or near the ground. Its habits appear
to be virtually the same as those of E. fasciatus (which see). The
egg clutch appears to be a little smaller, of 6 to 10 eggs as opposed
to 2 to 18 in E. fasciatus. The eggs when laid measure about
15 X 10 mm., and near hatching time about 20 X 14 mm. The
hatchlings measure 30.5 to 32 mm. snout to vent.
The bite of large males is exceptionally powerful and may draw
blood. Specimens never become docile, but they do learn to
tolerate captivity. Captive specimens have been kept for years on
a diet of mealworms and miscellaneous insects as they become
available.
Kansau Subspecies. — No subspecies of this species have been defined
anywhere in its range.
References. — Anderson. 1950:53 (report from Kansas); Smith, 1946: 353-356. figs. 108,
110, pi. 95, map 27 (description, natural history, distribution); Taylor, 1936: 212-224
( monograph ) .
Smith: Lizards
m
Sonoran Skink
Eumeces obsoletus ( Baird and Girard )
Plestiodon nbsolctum Baird and Girard, Proc. Acad. Xat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, 1852, p.
129 (type locality — N'allt-y of Rio San Pedro, tributary of Rio Grande del Norte,
Texas ).
Eumeces obsoletus Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 187.5, p. 4.5.
Range. — Apparently state-wide; presumably oc-
cupies the northwestern corner of the state, but has
not been reported northwest of Hamilton (Syra-
cuse), Logan (Oakley), Osborne and Jewell (Man-
kato) counties.
MuSAwm o( Notwrot H4ilorr
Uni««r«ilr of Kantoi
J943
Fig. 141. Distribution of the Sonoran skink, Eiimeces obsoletus, in Kansas.
Description. — Scales on body smooth, flat, twenty-eight around
middle of body, those on sides in rows obliquely rising dorsad as
they extend posteriorly; at least seven scale rows on back parallel
to each other; two postmentals; usually no postnasal; subcaudals
considerably widened.
Adults light slate gray; a dark border around each scale usually,
sometimes so expanded that a somewhat lined pattern is evident;
venter unmarked. Young, black with a blue tail; most scales on
head with a rounded, bluish white or orange spot. Specimens inter-
mediate in size show intermediate stages in the change from the
youthful to the adult pattern. The juveniles were long thought to
represent a distinct species, so different is their pattern from that
of the adults.
Size rather large, the snout-vent measurement reaching 4/8 inches.
Tail about VA times as long as head and body.
19S
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 142. Sonoran skiiiks, Euiticccs ohsolctus. A, X \i. B, X 2, C, X %, E, X %. from
Lawrence, Kansas. D, X %, Cameron Countv, Texas. From Smith (1946). Photos by
A. A. and A. H. Wright (A, B, D), and E. H. Taylor (C, E).
Smith: Lizards 199
Recognition Characters. — The conil)inatioii of smooth, uniform
scales around the body, with the ol)hque ^josition of the hiteral scale
rows, is distinctive of this species. As a rule no other skink of the
state has the lateral scale rows obHque; they parallel the dorsal
scale rows. But on rare occasion (see in E. septentrionalis) some of
the lateral scale rows are diagonal, much as in E. ohsoletus. In the
former species, however, not so many of the lateral rows are diagonal
in the abnormal specimens examined, and it is believed that none
would have so few as seven middorsal scale rows parallel with each
other; that number is the maximum in E. ohsoletus. The species is
so distinct that it is not often confused with an>' other.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is found most commonly on
grassy or somewhat wooded hillsides underneath loose, flat, lime-
stone rocks. Rough country seems to be preferred, but like Scelop-
orus u. garmani, this skink may be found even on flat prairie if
there are enough burrows of mammals to afford protection Its dis-
tribution is especially spotty in the latter habitat.
Like the other skinks, these lizards are so secretive and shy that
they are seldom seen even though they are common and diurnal.
They are active as early as late March, and as late as early October.
They hibernate in burrows underground, at depths of as much as
ten inches.
These are among the most vicious lizards of the state. They do
not tame well, and their powerful jaws may well lacerate the skin
since only small pinches are taken at any one time. When releasing
a grip, they wriggle energetically immediately in advance.
Mating occurs from late April to the middle of June, and may
last for four to five minutes. The male grasps a fold of the side of
the neck of the female in his jaws, and curls the cloaca under that of
the female when copulating with her.
Eggs are laid from the middle of June to the middle of July.
Seven to fifteen are laid in a nest where the female usually remains
until the eggs hatch in late August.
The food consists of a wide variety of small arthropods. Males
have eaten the eggs of their own species. Ground beetles and lady-
bird beetles are rejected.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have as yet been defined anywhere in
the range of this species, although several are to be expected.
References. — Burt, 1928: 62-63 (food); Burt, 1928: 58-63, map fi«. 13 (description,
natural histor>', Kansas records); Smith, 1946: 362-36.5, figs. 100, 101, pi. 99, map 29 (de-
scription, natural history, distribution); Taylor, 1935: 305-320, fids. 47, 48. pi. 24 (mono-
graph completely summarizing natural histor>-, structural and geographic variation).
200
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Prairie Skink
Eumeces septentrionalis (Baird)
Plestiodon septentrionalis Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1858: 256 (type lo-
cality— Fort Ripley, Minnesota).
Eumeces septentrionalis Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 1, 1875: 44.
Range. — The eastern third and south-central quarter of the state.
The western subspecies, E. s. obtusirostris, is known from only two
localities: Schwartz Canon, Comanche County, and Norwich, King-
man County. The eastern subspecies, E. s. septentrionalis, is re-
corded as far west as Pottawatomie (5 miles north of Onaga),
Russell (7 miles south and 2 miles east of Russell), Chase (6 miles
south of Clements), Woodson (Neosho Falls) and Cherokee coun-
ties.
Fig. 143. Distribution of the prairie skink, Eumeces septentrionalis, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species. The range of E. s. septentrionalis is indicated by the lined
area, that of E. s. obtusirostris in the south by the stippled area.
Description. — Scales on body perfectly smooth, shiny, flat, usually
in twenty-six or twenty-eight rows around middle of body; head
scales relatively large, regular, including among others of importance
two postmentals; postnasal usually absent; frontonasal small, some-
times absent, seldom in contact with anterior loreal ( a scale to each
side of the frontonasal).
Ground color olive to olive-brown; dorsolateral hght lines extend-
ing from above eye along the fourth or adjacent edges of fourth and
Smith: Lizards
201
fifth scale rows onto tail; lateral light lines from sides of head
through ear, above arm and to tail; a narrow dark line below lateral
light line, and a broad brown band occupying the space between the
lateral and dorsolateral light lines; bordering the dorsolateral light
lines medially is another brown band involving two half scale rows;
on the adjacent edges of the first and second scale rows, from the
nuchal region to the tail, extends another dark brown stripe on each
side; these three lines of ground color ( not light color as in the dorso-
lateral and lateral light stripes ) are enclosed by four dark bands;
in some specimens the dark bands on either side of the middle of the
Fig. 144. Prairie skink, Eumcces s. septentrionalis, X %. A, B, E, Onaga. Pottawatomie
County, Kansas. C, F, Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. D, Ice Caves, northeastern Iowa.
From Smith ( 1946). Photos by A. A. and A. H. Wright.
back are poorly defined. Tail bright blue in young, the color disap-
pearing at a snout-vent length of about two inches.
Size moderate, the snout-vent length reaching 3)4 inches; the tail,
but little longer than the head and body in young specimens, be-
comes proportionately about twice as long in adults.
Recognition Characters. — This species is often confused with E.
fasciattis, although there are many details that differ. See the key
for a list of the conspicuous diflFerences.
202
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Habits and Habitat. — Open grassy hillsides provided with small,
flat rocks are the best places to find these lizards.
They appear to have a very spotty distribution; at any rate they
have been found at relatively few localities in the state. Although
A':
Fig. 145. Prairie skink, Eumeces s. ohtusirostris, X 1, Waco, McLennan Countv,
Texas. From Smith (1946). Photos by E. H. Taylor.
Smith: Lizards 203
rarely seen in the open, probably they are diurnal. Because they
seek cover in advance of the near approach of an observer, they may
only appear always to be under cover.
Nothing is known of the natural history of the southern race.
In the northern race, E. s. septentrionalis, a niunber of facts are
known owing to the work of Breckenridge in Minnesota. Mating
occurs in May or early June, and five to thirteen eggs are laid in
excavations in loose, moist soil under boards, stones and other ob-
jects, in late May and June. In an average of forty-six days the
eggs hatch, and the hatchlings measure 24 to 26.5 mm. snout to vent.
After hibernation through the first winter, growth is rapid, at an
average rate of .37 mm. per day, and in the second year it proceeds
at the rate of .31 mm. per day, but in subsequent years it is much
slower. Maturity is reached by the end of the second year, with at-
tainment of a length of 65 mm. from snout to vent.
The food consists of small invertebrates such as insects, snails, and
spiders; small vertebrates, even young of its own species, are some-
times eaten.
Enemies of this and other similar lizards include hog-nosed snakes,
hawks, owls, skunks, raccoons, and ground squirrels.
In Minnesota, most of these skinks become inactive in September,
and begin hibernation in October. In Iowa, a group of fifty-two
specimens was found 4/2 feet below the surface of the ground in a
gravel pit. Males emerge from hibernation before the females (as in
many other species), in April or early May, but females do not
emerge until later in May, in Minnesota.
Kansun Subspecies. — Two races are known in Kansas: Eumeces septen-
trionalis septentrionalis (Baird), and Eumeces septentrionalis ohtusirostris Bo-
court. The type locality of the latter is in "Texas." These two subspecies can
be identified by reference to the accompanying table of differences. A third
subspecies occurs in Texas.
E. s. septentrionalis E. s. ohtusirostris
1. Frontonasal small, usually not in 1. Frontonasal large, usually in con-
contact with anterior loreal on each tact on each side with anterior
side. loreal.
2. Ground color usually light gray. 2. Ground color usuallv- very dark.
3. Dark borders of median light hne 3. No dark borders on median light
present but frequently broken and line.
poorly defined.
4. Dark lines bordering dorsolateral 4. Dark lines bordering dorsolateral
light lines well defined, broad. light lines poorly defined.
Reference. — Taylor, 1935: 394-410, pis. 28, 34 (monoeraph ).
204
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
FAMILY TEIIDAE
Genus Cnemidophorus Wagler
Six-lined Racerunuer
Cnemidophorus sexlineatus ( Linnaeus )
Lacerta sexlineata Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 364 (type locality — ■
Charleston, South Carolina).
Cnemidophorus scxiincattts Dumeril and Bibron, Erp. Gen., vol. 5, 1839, p. 1.
Rurii'c. — State-wide.
Description. — Dorsal scales small, granular, sev-
enty-six to ninety-three from one side to the other
at about the middle of the body; large, flat, quad-
rangular belly plates, not overlapping, in eight
longitudinal rows; two gular folds, the posterior
overlapped anteriorly by enlarged scales; head plates
large; scales on limbs variable, some large, others small.
Muiaoffl ol Naturol Hlslor)r
Unlvtriilf of KdntOS
1949
m
Fig. 146. Distribution of the six-lined racerunner, Cnemidophorus sexlineatus, in Kansas.
Six, well-defined, narrow, longitudinal, light pale blue to yellowish
lines on body in females and in young, all extending from head to
base of tail or groin; the lateral stripe passes through the ear; the
dorsolateral stripes begin at the posterior corner of the eye, and the
others begin near the median edge of the parietal; back and sides
between these stripes usually black; the area between the middle
stripes is brownish; belly white. Adult males with the same dorsal
pattern; lateral stripes and dark areas above them indistinct, merged
with belly color; black between dorsolateral and median stripes less
intense; belly and throat suffused with pale blue.
Smith: Lizards
205
Size modorate, the snout-vent length reaching 3 inches; the tail
is long and slender, about 2^/io to 2M\ times the head-body length.
Recognition Clioracters. — This is the only lizard in Kansas with
granular, uniform dorsal scales combined with the presence of large,
Fig. 147. Six lined racerunncrs, Cncmidophorus sexlineatus, all X %, except D which
is X V2- A, B, Cape Henrys Virginia. C. Three miles east of Sharon Springs, Kansas.
D. St. Petersburg, Florida. E. Key West, Florida. From Smith (1946). Photos
by A. A. and A. H. Wright (C-E), and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( A-B).
206 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
juxtaposed (not overlapping), quadrangular ventrals many times as
large as the dorsals. No other species is easily confused with it.
Habits and Habitat. — The habitat is in relatively dry areas, where
sandy or other loose soil, short grass, and other kinds of low vege-
tation occur. The chief requirement seems to be a certain degree
of dryness. The land may be flat or hilly, and the soil coarse or fine.
These are moderately wary lizards frequently seen in places where
they occur, but seldom caught by hand unless special effort is made
to run them down or dig them out of holes to which they retreat
when pursued. They can dig their own burrows, but frequently use
burrows made by other kinds of animals. In digging they use their
front legs to remove the soil. The burrows extend to depths of
eight to ten inches. It is said that the burrows are used as retreats
at night, and for laying eggs. Probably they hibernate in such bur-
rows, many of which may be constructed in a year.
Activity begins early in the morning on warm days and falls oflF
in the afternoon; in late afternoon the lizards retire completely. On
cool or cloudy days they may not emerge at all. These are among
the fastest of Kansan lizards, being able to run at the rate of about
18 miles per hour. Their speed requires further check.
The food consists of practically any small, moving animals found,
save ladybird beetles. Soft-bodied insects are preferred.
Mating occurs in spring, probably not later than two or three
weeks after emergence from hibernation. Courtship by the males
includes a preliminary rubbing of the cloaca upon the ground, dash-
ing in figure eights in front of a prospective mate, and the chasing
and nipping of any other individuals of the species that may be in
the vicinity. Reception of his attention by any females is immedi-
ately followed by a five-minute period of copulation, during which
time the male grasps in his jaws some loose skin on the posterior
part of the back of the female.
The eggs, four to six in number, are laid from as early as the first
part of June until as late as the middle of July, four to twelve inches
below the surface, or frequently under some object on the surface
such as a log. Mole tunnels may frequently be used, the lizards
making side tunnels in which the eggs are deposited. The eggs
hatch in August.
Kansun Subspecies. — No subspecies are currently recognized anywhere in
the range of this species.
References. — Burt, 1928: 58-61 (food); Burt, 1928: 38-46 (description, natural history,
localities in Kansas); Burt, 1931: 76-97 (monograph); Smith, 1946: 415-418, figs. 13, 122,
pi. 116, map 33 (description, natural history, distribution).
Smith: Lizards
207
FAMILY ANGUIDAE
Genus 0))Jiisaiirus Daudin
Glass-snake Lizard
Ophisaurus attenuatus Baird
Ophisauriis vcntralis attenuatus Baird, in Cope, Bull. U. S. N'at. Mus., no. 17, 1880,
p. 18 (type locality — Cook County, Texas).
Ophisatirus attenuatus Bouleniler, Cat. Liz. Brit. Miis., \ol. 2. 1885, p. 282.
Range. — Eastern half of the state. Westernmost records are in
Washington (3 miles southeast of Haddam), Graham, Ellis. Ells-
worth (Ellsworth), McPherson, Butler, and Barber (Sharon)
counties.
ScoK
X> 4oMII«ft
I I
Mv»«um 0' Notyrol Hittorj
Uni*«r9lt]r of Kontos
I94S
Fig. 148. Distribution of the glass-snake lizard, Ophisaurus attenuatus, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — No evidence whatever exists externally of either
the front or the hind legs; head scales large or small, regular in posi-
tion; eyehds present; ear openings small, about halfway between
eye and anterior ends of a deep longitudinal fold extending along
each side of belly to side of anal region; dorsal scales from inter-
parietal to base of tail 118 to 124, in 14 to 16 longitudinal rows;
scales toward middle of back sometimes convex or with a round
keel; ventral scales in ten rows, about same size as dorsals, flat;
tail scales like those on body; no lateral fold on tail.
Dorsal ground color light gray to brown, covering head, body
in a broad median area involving six scale rows and the edge of the
adjacent row on each side, and the tail in an area involving four
208
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
scale rows; ground color sharply differentiated laterally from the
dark brown sides, the color broken only by narrow light lines ex-
tending along either the middle or edges of the scale rows; brown
lateral color fading into white or cream near lateral fold; sides of
head also usually dark, with vertical alternating light and dark bars
of varying distinctness; a few dark marks on lower lips. Back
nearly uniform, or with a median dark stripe, or a narrow dark
streak on each scale row; ventral surfaces of belly and tail entirely
white, with the exception of dark streaks along lateral scale rows
in some specimens.
Size large, snout- vent length reaching 9% inches; tail consider-
ably longer, about 1% to 2 times length of head and body. The
length of an extraordinarily large specimen has been recorded as
37/l> inches; ordinarily adults do not exceed 28 inches in total length.
Fig. 149. A glass-snake lizard, Ophisattrus a. attenuatus, X %, K. U. no. 23605, Law-
rence, E)ouglas County, Kansas. Photo by W. W. Tanner and T. P. Lyle.
Recognition Characters. — The absence of legs is a totally reliable
means of identification of this species of lizard, if indeed it is
properly recognized as a lizard by anyone who captures or examines
specimens of it. The presence of an ear opening will readily dis-
tinguish the species from the animals it most closely resembles,
the snakes.
Habits and Habitat. — These lizards are found on the ground in
moist, grassy open areas in wooded regions. They are said to bur-
Smith: Lizards 209
row a great deal and are frequently unearthed by plowing. They
are seldom seen in the open, unless startled from some cover;
apparently they are diurnal. After heavy rains they are said to
emerge in abundance. The skin is shed almost entire whereas in
most other lizards it is shed in large patches.
The food consists, as in other lizards, of insects and their larvae,
spiders and other arthropods, and small snails. It is said that other
lizards as well as snakes are eaten, and that at least in captivity
they may be cannibalistic.
Eight to seventeen eggs are laid from early June to early August,
and are brooded by the female, which turns the eggs from time to
time, but makes no eflFort to defend the eggs as skinks do theirs. The
eggs of Ophisaurus hatch in from fifty-six to sixty-one days, and
the young measure approximately five inches in total length.
One of the most celebrated characteristics of this species is that
of the ready parting of the tail. If the animal is handled, it may
by violent squirming suddenly break the tail from the body, some-
times into several pieces, and while the vital portion glides quietly
away the parts of the tail thrash and bound so energetically that
no attention is given to the escape of the animal. At least, such ap-
parently is the purpose of the adaptation for breaking the tail so
readily. The superstitions that the parts of the tail grow back to-
gether, or that they reunite with the body at sometime, or that they
can grow new individuals, all are entirely false. The lost tail de-
generates or is eaten by other animals, and the lizard itself grows a
new tail from the remaining stump. The new tail is shorter than
the original and lacks the uniform pattern; its internal structure
likewise is different. Skinks have been known deliberately to break
off and eat their tails as food, and it is possible that this species also
may do it. In early stages of regeneration the tip of the tail has a
spinelike or spurlike appearance, giving rise to the erroneous suppo-
sition that the structure constitutes a sting.
Kansan Subspecies. — Only O. a. attenuatus occurs in this state. One other
subspecies and two other monotypic species of this genus are recognized in
the extreme southeastern United States.
References. — Burt, 1928: 58 (food); Burt, 1928: 36-38, map fig. 7 (description, habits,
habitat, Kansas distribution); Smith, 1946: 466-470, figs. 2, 134, pi. 133 (description, nat-
ural history, distribution); McConkey, 1954: 147-171, fig. 5, pi. 2 (taxonomy, natural
history ) .
210
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Snakes
Suborder Serpentes Linnaeus
Forty species of snakes, six of which are represented by two
subspecies each, are known from the state of Kansas. Three other
species are to be expected. These belong to only three families, two
of which (Colubridae, Crotalidae) belong to the superfamily Colu-
broidea, whereas the third ( Leptotyphlopidae ) belongs to the super-
family Typhlopoidea. At least eleven other families and one other
superfamily (Boidoidea) occur elsewhere in the world. Only two
other families (Elapidae, Boidae) occur in the United States.
Numerous taxonomic and ecological problems exist pertaining to
snakes, as well as to other groups of reptiles and amphibians within
the boundaries of Kansas. A detailed study of geographic varia-
tion, with special emphasis upon areas of intergradation, is highly
desirable, for most intergrading zones can now be but roughly
approximated. Such a study is prerequisite for any definitive ap-
proach to a zoogeographic analysis of the state. As implied by
Peters (1955), the conventional concept of faunal provinces may
require extensive revision; only a detailed distributional and varia-
tional study will reveal the extent and nature of revision that may
be necessary.
The accompanying figures (Figs. 150, 151) may be of value in
use of the following keys. Most of the features commonly used in
classifying snakes are indicated there.
FRONTAL
SUPRAOCULAR,
PREOCULAR> >
PREFRONTAL V \
\ V
POSTNASAL \^ \ \
INTEHNASAL*,
PRENASAL--.
ROSTRAL
f lHar UPPER LABIAL
MENTAL''
fIRST LOWER LABIAL'
POSTOCULARS
/ .PARIETAL
, FIRST TEMPORAL
SECOND TEMPORALS
,«05TRAL
-rNTERNASALS
LAST UPPER LABIAL
■ LAST LOWER LABIAL
ROSTRAL
,-MCNTAL
-fiBST LOWES LABIAL
_,-ANTeRlOB CH)N SMIELOS
^T£ACtNIAL5
'POSTCRIOI* CMiN SMICLOS
.-riRJT VCNTHAb
Fig. 1.50. Names of certain scales used in classification of snakes. Drawing of a king snake,
Lampropeltis, X %. From Perkins (1940).
Smith: Snakes
211
CANTHU9 HOST»*LIS
NOSTRIL
meroONTAL ARCA-"
(iNTtRCANTHALS)
ROSTRAU
,-intcrna»al
,-prenasau
.-.cantmals
. fRONTAL ARCA- .
(iNTtRSUPRAOCULARS;
SUPRAOCULAR
MCNTAL
flRST INfRALAilAL*
.--••-SeNIALS
,.-,CULARS
..'FIRST VtNTRAL
-LAST INPRALABIAlJ
•■RICTUS or MOUTM
OR COMMISSURE
VENTRAL* OM
CASTR0STI6CS
-SUPRAOCULAR
PREOCULARS —
PIT—'
SUPRALABIALS
INFRALABIALS
CANT HALS
— INTERNASAL
-POSTNASAL
-PRENASAL
--ROSTRAL
-FIRST SUPRALABIAL
MENTAL
\ GENIAL
ViRST INFRALABIAL
LOREALS>^
CANTHALSv
POSTNASAL^ )
NOSTRIL-^
PRENASAI .
ROSTRAL-
PIT—
FIRST SUPRALABIAL---
MENTAL-
FIRST INFRALABIAL--
LOWER PREOCULAR'
,OPPER PREOCULAR
^.SUPRAOCULAR
/ ,POSTOCULARS
-LAST SUPRALABIAL
-LAST INFRALABIAL
Fig. 151. Nomenclaturt' of certain scales used in classification of snakes. Drawing of a
rattlesnake, Crotalus, X 1. From Perkins (1940).
212
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Key to Species of Snakes
1. Scales of equal size all around body (Fig. 152A).
Leptotyphlops myopica, p. 220
r. Scales on belly much larger than other scales (Fig. 152B).
B
Fig. 152. A. Ventral scales of a blind snake, Leptotyphlops, X 6. B. A king snake,
Lampropeltis, X 1. From Perkins (1940).
2. A large pit on either side of head between eye and nostril (Fig.
153B).
n p e
Fig. 153. A. Lateral view of the head of a snake lacking a facial pit. B. Lateral
view of the head of a snake possessing a pit; e, eye; n, nostril; p, pit. From Perkins
(1940), X 1.
3. Rattle (or any segment thereof, or a homy "button") absent
(Fig. 154A).
4. No loreal; usually 25 scale rows at middle of body.
Ancistrodon piscivorus, p. 308
4'. A loreal; usually 23 scale rows at middle of body.
Ancistrodon contortrix, p. 304
3'. Rattle, or at least a segment thereof, or a horny "button," present
(Fig. 154B).
Fig. 154. A. The tail of a copperhead, Ancistrodon contortrix, X SVz. B. The tail of a
rattlesnake, Sistrurus catenatus, X 1%. From Blanchard (1925).
Smith: Snakes
213
Four large scales on top of head in front of eyes; other head
scales relatively large (Fig. 155A).
5. Dorsal blotches separated by interspaces 1.5 to 2 times as
long niiddorsally as the blotches themselves.
Sistrurus miliarius, p. 324
5'. Dorsal blotches separated by interspaces shorter along the
middorsal line than the blotches themselves.
Sistrurus catenatus, p. 310
Fig. 1.5.5. A. The head scales of a massasauga, Sistrurus catenatus, X 1. B. The head
scales of a rattlesnake of the genus Crotalus, X 1. From Perkins ( 1940).
4'. Numerous and only small scales (except supraoculars) over
entire upper surface of head (Fig. 155B).
5. Pattern of body consisting chiefly of crossbands ( some-
times chevron-shaped) Crotalus horridus, p. 316
5'. Pattern of body consisting of a median series of blotches
less than 3 times as wide as long.
6. Ground color and dark rings of tail distinctly different
from those of body; blotches diamond-shaped, angu-
lar (pointed) laterally Crotalus atrox, p. 313
6'. Ground color and dark rings on tail closely resembling
those on body; blotches oval, not pointed laterally.
Crotalus viridis, p. 318
2'. No pit between eye and nostril (Fig. 153A).
3. Scale at tip of snout enlarged, sharp-edged, and with a sharp
median, longitudinal keel (ridge) (Fig. 156).
Fig. 1.56. A. Head scales of a western hog-nosed snake, Hetcrodon nasicus. X 1. B. Head
scales of an eastern hog-nosed snake, H. platyrhinos, X 1- From Cope (1900).
4. In lateral profile, tip of snout abruptly turned up (Fig.
156A) Heterodon nasicus, p. 229
4'. In lateral profile, tip of snout almost straight above ( Fig.
156B ) Heterodon platyrhinos, p. 226
214
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 157. A. Dorsal view of head of a bull snake, Pituophis melannlciicus, X %, from Cope
(1900). B. Lateral view of head of a western ground snake, Hahlea valeriae, appro.\. X 2,
from Blanehard (1925). C. Lateral view of head of a red-bellied snake, Storcria occipito-
maculata, X 2%, from Blanehard (1925); 1, loreal; p, preocular; r, rostral.
Fig. 1.58. A. Lateral view of a head of slender tantilla, TantiUa gracilis, X 4, 10 miles
southwest of Somerset, Atascosa County, Texas. B. Lateral view of head of collared tantilla,
Tantilla atriceps, X 4, Drumright, Oklahoma. After Taylor (1937).
B
Fig. 1.59. A. Smooth scales as seen in side view of body, as of a king snaki', Lnmpro-
pcltis, X %. B. Keeled scales as seen in side view of bodv, as of a water snake, Natrix,
X %. From Perkins (1940)'.
Smith: Snakes 215
3'. Snout rounded, not keeled.
4. Entire dorsal surface uniformly dark except for a conspicuous,
narrow, light ring around neck; belly yellowish, black-dotted.
Diddophis punctatus, p. 224
4'. Ring on neck lacking, or if present the dorsal surface with
other markings also.
5. Color of entire dorsal surface black or dark brown,
sharply differentiated, at third dorsal scale row, from im-
spotted yellowish or reddish color of belly; jirefrontal
touching eye Carphophis amoenus, p. 222
5'. Color of dorsal or ventral surfaces marked with some sort
of pattern, or else merging with each other gradually at
sides of ventral scales; prefrontal touching or not touching
eye.
6. All or most subcaudals undivided.
Rhinocheilus lecontei, p. 261
6'. All or most subcaudals divided.
7. Rostral twice as high as wide; usually four pre-
frontals (Fig. 157A) . Pituophis melanoleucus, p. 250
7'. Rostral nearly or fully as wide as high; two pre-
frontals.
8. Preocular absent; prefrontal in contact with
eye (Fig. 157B).
9. Five supralabials; 1 postocular; usually 1
internasal Haldea striatula, p. 285
9'. Six supralabials; 2 postoculars; 2 internasals
( Fig. 157B ) Haldea valeriae, p. 287
8'. Preocular present; prefrontal not in contact
with eye.
9. Loreal absent (Fig. 157C).
10. Scales smooth (Fig. 159A).
11. Six supralabials (Fig. 158A); top
of head sometimes darker than
body but the colors of body and
head merging gradually with
each other . . . Tantilla gracilis, p. 265
11'. Seven supralabials (Fig. 158B);
top of head black, the color
sharply distinguished from that of
body; dark area on head with a
V-shaped posterior border whose
apex extends onto neck.
Tantilla nigriceps, p. 268
10'. Scales keeled (Fig. 159B).
11. Seventeen scale rows; 7 supra-
labials Storeria dekayi, p. 281
11'. Fifteen scale rows; 5 or 6 supra-
labials (Fig. 157C).
Storeria occipitomacnlata, p. 283
9'. Loreal present.
216
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
B
Fio.
160. Undivided anal platp, as of a king snake, Lampropeltis, X 1. B. Divided
anal plate, as of a rat snake, Elavhc RiiUata, X 1. From Perkins (1940).
Smith: Snakes 217
10. Anal plate undivided (Fig. 160A).
11. Dorsal scales keeled (Fig. 159B).
12. Two rows of black spots down middle of belly; supralabials
6 or less Tropidoclonion lineatum, p. 298
12'. Spots on belly, if in 2 rows, much nearer sides than middle of
belly; supralabials 7 or more.
13. Lateral light stripe clearly involving third and fourth
scale rows anteriorly.
14. Lips barred; tail less than 27 percent of total
length; supralabials usually 7; fields between stripes
with well defined spots Thamnophis radix, p. 293
14'. Lips not barred; tail 27 percent or more of total
length; supralabials usually 8; fields between stripes
tending to be uniformly dark, the spots scarcely or
not evident Thamnophis sauritus, p. 296
13'. Lateral light stripe absent, indistinct, or clearly not in-
volving 4th scale row. '
14. Lateral light stripe not involving second scale row
on anterior half of body; scale rows at middle of
body 21; lips prominently barred; a conspicuous,
crescent-shaped white mark behind angle of jaw.
Thamnophis marcianus, p. 289
14'. Lateral light stripe involving second scale row on
anterior half of body; scale rows at middle of body
19; lips slate-colored, feebly barred; no crescentic
white mark behind angle of jaw.
Thamnophis ordinattis, p. 291
11'. Dorsal scales smooth (Fig. 159A).
12. No markings on belly; scale rows 29 or more.
Arizona elegans, p. 248
12'. Belly marked in some fashion; scale rows 27 or less.
13. Pattern consisting of red-centered blotches or rings.
Lampropeltis triangtdum, p. 258
13'. Pattern not of red-centered blotches or rings.
14. Pattern consisting chiefly of a dorsal series of gray
or brown, black-edged blotches on a lighter back-
ground; scale rows around middle of body usually
25 or 27 Lampropeltis calligaster, p. 253
14'. Dorsal pattern consisting chiefly of small, light
(yellow) spots on a dark background, either ir-
regularly and profusely scattered (one on nearly
every scale), or fewer and outlining dark blotches;
scale rows around middle of body usually 19 or 21.
Lampropeltis getulus, p. 256
10'. Anal plate divided (Fig. 160B).
218
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 161. A. Lateral view of head of a racer. Coluber constrictor, X %, from Blan-
chard (1925). B. Lateral view of head of a water snake, Natrix crythrogastcr, X 1,
from Cope (1900); at, anterior teniperal.
Fig. 162. A. Ventral view of head of a plains ground snake, Sonora episcofxi, X 4. B. Ven-
tral view of a smooth green snake, Opheodrys vernalis, X 2. From Schmidt and Davis
(1941).
Smith: Snakes 219
11. Two or more anterior temporals in contact with postocular (Fig.
161A).
12. Scale rows 25 or more.
13. A large /\-shaped mark on head; apex of mark between
eyes, and arms united with first blotch on neck.
Elaphe guttata, p. 243
13'. No such mark on head, which is more or less unicolor above.
14. More than 220 ventrals Elaplie ohsoleta, p. 245
14'. Fewer than 220 ventrals (not yet recorded from the
state ) Elaphe vulpina, p. 323
12'. Scale rows 17 or fewer.
13. Scale rows 15 immediately in front of anus.
Coluber constrictor, p. 236
13'. Scale rows 13 immediately in front of anus.
Masticophis flageUum, p. 240
11'. Only one anterior temporal in contact with postocular (Fig. 161B).
12. Scales smooth.
13. Posterior chinshields much shorter than anterior chinshields
(Fig. 162A) Sonora episcopa, p. 263
13'. Posterior chinshields approximately as long as anterior chin-
shields (Fig. 162B).
14. Uniform green above Opheodrys vernalis, p. 234
14'. Numerous blotches present on back and sides.
Htjpsiglena torquata, p. 269
12'. Scales keeled.
13. Uniform green above, unmarked below; scale rows 17.
Opheodrys aesticus, p. 231
13'. Not green above but instead usually blotched or striped;
belly frequently marked; scale rows 19 or more.
14. Scale rows 19; striped Natrix grahamii, p. 274
14'. Scale rows 21 or more.
15. Belly without markings, or dark markings on only
the anterior edges of belly scales; dorsal markings
obscure in adults; 3 or fewer complete transverse
bands on neck Natrix erythrogaster, p. 272
15'. Belly with definite markings; dorsal markings visi-
ble in all specimens; 5 or more complete transverse
bands on neck.
16. Large dorsal spots, the anterior spots forming
broad transverse bands Natrix sipedon, p. 279
16'. Small alternating, dorsal and lateral spots con-
nected by oblique bars . . Natrix rhombifera, p. 276
220
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
FAMILY LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE
Genus Leptotyphlops Fitzinger
New Mexican Blind Snake
Leptotyphlops myopica (Garman)
Sienostoma myopicum Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoiil., vol. 8, 1883, p. 6 (type lo-
cality— Tampico, Tamaulipas, Mexico).
Leptotyphlops myopica Barbour and Loveridge, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 69 (10),
1929, p. 345.
Range. — Southern midwest border of state; recorded from Meade
(1 mile west of State Lake; 10 miles west of Englewood), Clark (2
miles south of State Lake; Stevenson Ranch); and Barber (Lake
City) counties.
Mutaum of Nalwl HHi9ti
l»4»
Fig. 163. Distribution of the New Mexican blind snake, Leptotyphlops myopica, in Kansas,
with insert showing range of the species.
Description. — A slender, wormlike snake, cylindrical throughout
its length; eyes not clearly visible, appearing as a dark spot on each
side of head, underneath a large scale (ocular); a large rostral, fol-
lowed middorsally by a series of scales little different from those on
body, the anterior four, in order from front to back, known as pre-
frontal, supraocular, interparietal, and interoccipital; a supraocular
on either side of prefrontal, in contact with ocular; two occipitals
back of ocular, on each side, each in contact with middorsal series
of scales, the first in contact with the last (third) supralabial and
sometimes split into two, and the second separated from third supra-
labial by single temporal scale; a large nasal, divided crosswise
through the naris into two scales, in front of ocular; upper lip bor-
Smith: Snakes 221
dered by rostral, nasal, 1st and 2nd supralahials. ocnlar, and third
supralabial, in succession from anterior to posterior. All scales
around body uniform in size and character, all smooth; fourteen
scale rows around body, ten around tail near base; 224 to 246 ( aver-
age 238) middorsal scales from rostral to spine at tip of tail; twelve
to sixteen (average 14) midventral subcaudals from anus to ter-
minal tail spine.
Dark above on seven scale rows (3 on either side of middorsal
series), pink to cream below.
Size small, total length reaching 10/4 inches; ratio of total length
to diameter of body averages 51 in adults, ratio of total length to tail
length about 21.7. '
Recognition Characters. — No other snake in Kansas has ventral
scales which are no wider than the dorsals; in this species, all scales
on the body, above and below, are of equal size; in other snakes of
the state the ventral scales are several times as large as the dorsals.
Habits and Habitat. — Little has been recorded about this species.
It lives in rocky, semi-arid areas where moisture may locally be
present. It is a strange fact that moist spots are preferred, such as
the ground imderneath rocks and other surface cover, while the
species does not occur in regions which receive much rainfall. Loose,
sandy soil is preferred. In captivity moist sand is preferred to dry.
The snakes are nocturnal, emerging at about sunset and actively
moving about for two hours or more; they are most active from 8:00
to 8:30 p. m.
They emerge only when temperatures at night are 64° F. or
higher; optimum temperatures are between 78° and 82' F. They
are most easily obtained by driving slowly along paved highways
and watching the lighted part of the road.
In the daytime these snakes are most frequently found under
stones, especially soon after heavy rains and as long as moisture re-
mains.
The food probably consists of soft-bodied insects such as ter-
mites; ant eggs have been eaten in captivity. They drink as do
other snakes, and use the tiny tongue for perception of odors.
Eggs are laid presumably in middle or late summer; as many as
seven are laid by a single snake. Snakes as small as 7% inches in
total length are known to lay eggs. The eggs are long and slender,
and in other species of about the same size and proportions measure
approximately 15 X 4/2 mm.
Nocturnal birds of prey, and some other predators, for example
coyotes, are known to prey upon these snakes. When the snakes
222
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist,
are forced to emerge in the daytime, as sometimes occurs in floods,
diurnal birds and other animals readily feed upon them. These
snakes are inoffensive and incapable of biting a person.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two races are here recognized ( some authors recognize
3), only one of which is known in Kansas: Leptottjphlops mtjopica dissccta
(Cope) whose type locality is Lake Valley, Sierra County, New Mexico. The
other subspecies occurs in northeastern Mexico.
Reference. — Klauber, 1940:112-117, 144-149 (taxonomy and summary of life history).
FAMILY COLUBRIDAE
Genus Carphophis Gervais
Worm Snake
Carphophis amoenus ( Say )
Coluber amoenus Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 4, pt. 2, 1825, p. 237 (type
locality — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ) .
Carphophis amoena Blanchard, Papers Mich. Acad. Nat. Sci., Arts Letters, vol. 4,
1924, p. 527.
Range. — Eastern third of the state. Recorded as far west as
Riley (Garrison), Geary (5 miles southwest of Wreford), Chase
(6 miles southwest of Gottonwood Falls), Greenwood (4 miles
northwest of Lamont ) and Cowley ( 13 miles east-northeast of
Arkansas City) counties.
Description. — Head flat, no wider than neck; head scales typical
(see Fig. 150) except as follows: supraocular small, of about the
Mu58um of Notuial History
Univarsttn of Kansas
1945
Fig. 164. Distribution of the worm snake, Carphophis amoenus, in Kansas, with insert show-
iua range of the species.
Smith: Snakes 223
same size as postocular; frontal large, pentagonal; nasal single;
loreal touching eye; no preocular; one postocular; one anterior and
one posterior temporal; five supralabials, last low, elongate; six
infralabials. Scales on bodv absolutely smooth; dorsals in thirteen
rows throughout length of body; anal and all subcaudals divided;
ventrals 127-137 in males, 129-148 in females; subcaudals 37-41 in
males, 23-33 in females.
Glossy black or brownish-black, salmon pink below; belly color
extending dorsally onto the three lower dorsal scale rows.
Size small, reaching 12^y]G inches in total length; tail about
one-seventh of total length.
Recognition Characters. — No other species of snake in the state
has the dorsal surface uniformly black and the belly orange. Also
this snake is the only one in Kansas having no more than thirteen
scale rows. The only other species (2 of Halclea) that lack a pre-
ocular have keeled scales.
Fig. 165. A worm snake, Carphophis amoenus vermis, X %, from Golden Eagle, Calhoun
County, Illinois.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is commonly found in the east-
ern part of the state in moist woods under stones or logs. Probably
it is nocturnal; I collected a specimen in Cherokee County at night
as it crawled on the gravel banks of a creek. The food consists
almost entirely of earthworms; the snake does not constrict its food.
Two to five eggs are laid in July. They measure approximately
30 X 10 mm. and hatch in September. The species is entirely
innocuous and never attempts to bite persons.
Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies are recognized; one, Carphophis
amoenus vermis (Kennicott), occurs in Kansas, and its type locality is in
Missouri. The other races occur in the eastern United States.
Reference. — Blanchard, 1925:527-530 (taxonomy).
224
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Genus Diadophis Baird and Girard
Eastern Ring-necked Snake
Diadophis punctatus ( Linnaeus )
Coluber ptmctatus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 376 (type locality-
Charleston, South Carolina).
Diadophis punctatus Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Kept., pt. 1, 1853, p. 112.
Range. — Probably state-wide, except perhaps the
extreme northwestern quarter. Not recorded in the
area north of Wallace ( Wallace ) and Gove counties,
and west of Mitchell County.
Description. — Head flattened, a little broader than neck; head
scales typical, as indicated in Fig. 150. Scales on body absolutely
smooth, dorsals usually in seventeen scale rows on anterior two-
thirds of body, fifteen on posterior one-third (sometimes 17-17, or
15-15, or 15-17-15); anal and all subcaudals divided; ventrals 142-
169 (average 156) in males, and 151-185 (average 168) in females;
subcaudals 37-57 (average 46) in males, and 30-50 (average 41)
in females.
Slate grey to black above (on all dorsal scales), darker on head;
an orange or yellow ring one or two scales wide across neck, bor-
dered with black behind; supralabials, infralabials, chin and throat
whitish, with small, scattered, black spots; belly usually with many,
scattered black dots, rarely absent or arranged in a single midventral
row, sometimes arranged in two rows; posterior lateral edge of sub-
FiG. 166. Distribution of the eastern ring-necked snake, Diadophis punctatus, in Kansas.
Smith: Snakes 225
caudals black, and to a lesser extent those of ventrals also; anterior
part of belly whitish or pale pink, the latter color becoming more
intense posteriorly, so that on the tail it is bright red.
Size small, total length reaching 15/2 inches; tail varies from 12.5
to 22 percent of total length; newly hatched specimens measure four
inches in total length.
Recognition Characters. — The presence of a narrow, light ring
across the neck above — the only marking on the otherwise uniformly
dark back — is absolutely distinctive, among Kansan species.
^^AJtX?^
Fig. 167. .\n eastern ring-necked snake, Diadophis punctotus arniji, X 1, from Tarrant
County, Texas. Courtesy Louis W. Ramsey.
Habits and Habitat. — In eastern Kansas this species is commonly
found in more or less open woods, under stones, and in or under rot-
ten logs and stumps. Ordinarily it is found on hillsides rather than
on flat land, perhaps because of the greater amount of cover. Piles
of drift sometimes harbor the species which probably is nocturnal.
The food consists of earthworms and, in captivity, small sala-
manders. Insect eggs and insects such as beetles also are eaten.
There are some records of small snakes, frogs, and lizards having
been eaten. The food is not constricted.
The eggs vary from one to three from each female, and are laid
from June to August in rotten logs and in the ground. They measure
approximately 27 X 6.5 mm. and hatch in from fifty-four to seventy
days. In the first year an increase of sixty-seven percent in length
8—9019
226 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
of the snake is recorded, and for successive years increases of thirty-
six, thirty-one and nine percent.
When captured, these snakes have a habit of curhng the tail in a
spiral, with the bright red underside uppermost, and at the same
time they void excreta and secretions from the anal scent glands.
The odor produced is rather offensive. Ordinarily this reaction is
not repeated after the snake is first handled.
Kansan Subspecies. — Five subspecies are recognized. One, Diadophis punc-
iatus arniji Kennicott, whose type locality is Hyatt, Anderson County, Kansas,
is known from the state. The other subspecies occur in the eastern i^art of the
United States as far west as Texas.
Reference. — Blanchard, 1942:69-87, fig. 16 (monograph).
Genus Heterodon Latreille
Common Hog-nosed Snake
Heterodon platyrhinos Latreille
Heterodon platyrhinos Latreille, Hist. Nat. des Kept., vol. 4, 1800, p. 32, figs. 1-3
(type locality — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania).
Range. — State-wide. Not yet recorded from either
the extreme northwestern or extreme northeastern
corner but certainly occurring in the latter and
probably also in the former part of the state.
Description. — Snout (the rostral scale) projecting forward, with
a single median keel above, not turned up; one or two small un-
paired scales immediately back of rostral, separating prefrontals;
nasal divided; a ring of seven to thirteen small scales surrounding
eye, except above it where the supraocular is situated; generally one,
sometimes two loreals; two to four anterior temporals; two large tem-
poral scales bordering last three supralabials; supralabials generally
eight, infralabials generally ten; head scales otherwise about as usual
(as in Fig. 150). Dorsal scales keeled except in one to three rows
next to ventrals; scale rows twenty-five or twenty-seven anteriorly,
twenty-three or twenty-five at middle of body, and usually nineteen
(seldom 17) in front of anus; anal and all subcaudals divided; ven-
trals 122-139 in males, 122-147 in females; subcaudals 45-57 in males,
40-52 in females. One or two teeth somewhat enlarged at rear of
the upper jaw, but solid and fixed in position, and lacking in any
function concerned with venom.
Ground color yellow to dark gray; except in darkest specimens
in which the pattern is little evident, a series of 20-31 rather large,
dark blotches on middle of back (excluding tail); a series of smaller
dark blotches on either side, alternating with dorsal blotches; ground
color frequently lighter between median dark blotches; tail with
Smith: Snakes
227
seven to fourteen alternating dark and light rings above. Belly
yellowish to gray, with vague, indefinite and irregular dark areas
toward sides (darker in young specimens, becoming almost entirely
Musaam of Nalurol H>tlor|
Univtrsitjr of Kcnaof
1945
m
Fig. 168. Distribution of the comnion hog-nosed snake, Heterodon platyrhinos, in Kansas.
black ) ; undersides of head, throat and tail usually lighter than rest
of ventral surfaces.
Total length reaching thirty-nine inches; tail fourteen to twenty-
three percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The shovellike tip of the snout, with
the upper edge horizontal (not turned up), is distinctive. No other
species, except H. nasicus, has a similar, shovellike snout, but the
upper edge ( as seen in lateral profile ) turns sharply upward. These
two species are the only ones in the state with a median, dorsal
longitudinal ridge on the rostral plate.
Habits and Habitat. — Dry areas where ample sunshine reaches the
ground seem to be required for this species. Specimens are to be
found in dry woods, on sandy shores of rivers, in sand dunes, but
seldom in moist or heavily wooded areas.
The food consists almost exclusively of toads, but frogs are eaten,
and at times insects. Birds have been recorded. The food is not
constricted.
Mating occurs in April and May. Eight to forty eggs are laid in
June or July, and hatch sixty to ninety days later, as late as the mid-
dle of October. Emergence from hibernation occurs as early as late
January in Ohio, but probably not before March in Kansas.
228 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
These snakes are diurnal in habit. Their most widely known habit
is that of flattening the head and much of the body when disturbed.
Upon discovery this is their immediate reaction; continued dis-
turbance will cause the snake to act more threateningly, jerkily
thrusting the head outward, twisting the tail, and voiding excreta
Fig. 169. A common hog-nosed snake, Hctcrodon f). i)hiti/rhinos, X %, Shawnee National
Park, Illinois. Photo by R. R. Ilamm.
and secretions from the anal scent glands. The mouth may be held
partly open, while the snake hisses ferociously. The strikes and
fierce demeanor are, however, all bluff, for these snakes, even in
their worst moods, practically never bite persons. If the bluff does
not drive the tormentor away, the snake rolls over onto its back,
twitches a little, opens the mouth, which may be somewhat bloody
inside, and holds the tongue extended in an arch forward and down-
ward from the lower jaw. Even though the snake is picked up, and
otherwise molested, it will remain limp as though dead. If the in-
truder leaves, the snake gradually regains confidence, and after a
cautious survey of its environs rolls onto its belly and crawls away.
Reappearance of danger may cause the snake to flop again onto its
back, but this behavior is not repeated many times. After a few
hours the snake tires of the sham and cannot afterward be induced
to perform imder any circumstances.
Smith: Snakes
229
Kdii.san Stih.s))cciL'.s. — Two subspecies are currentK- recognized; one, Iletew-
don platijrhinos pkityrhinos (Latreille) occurs in Kansas. The other subspecies
occurs in Florida. This species has been known erroneously for the past 30
\ears as Heterodon contortrix.
References. — Cope, 1900: 761-769. figs. 165, 166 (description, habits); Conant, 1938:
41-44 (description, habits, Ohio); McCauley, 194.5: 63-66 (description, habits, Maryland);
Schmidt and Davis. 1941: 115, 117-118, figs. 25, 26, pi. 11 (description, habits).
Western Hog-nosed Snake
Heterodon nasicus Baird and Girard
Heterodon nasicus Baird and Girard, Stansbury's Expl. Surv. Valley Great Salt Lake,
1852, p. 352 (type localit>- — Amarillo, Texas).
Range. — Entire state except extreme southeastern corner, in Ozark
Plateau region. Not recorded from northeastern
corner but to be expected. Peripheral records to-
wards the east are in Washington (4 miles north of
Haddam), Riley (Manhattan), Douglas, Franklin,
and Crawford (1 mile east of Anna) counties.
Fig. 170. Distribution of the western hog-nosed snake, Heterodon nasicus. in Kansas. The
range of H. n. ruisicus is indicated by oblique lines, that of //. n. gloydi by vertical lines.
Area of overlap of lines indicates zone of intergradation.
Description. — Snout (the rostral scale) projecting forward, with
a single median keel above, rather sharply turned up; 9 to 25 small
scales between rostral and large plates aboxe and between eyes
(frontal, supraoculars); nasal divided; a ring of 9 to 13 small scales
encircling eye, except above where supraocular is situated; 1 to 6 lo-
230
Univeksity of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 171. A western hog-nosed snake, Heterodon nanicus gloydi, approx. X %. Courtesy
of the New York Zoological Society.
reals; 3 or 4 anterior temporals, the lower largest; supralabials un-
usually high, generally 8; infralabials 10 or 11; anal and all subcau-
dals divided; head scales otherwise about as usual (as in Fig. 150).
Dorsal scales keeled except in one row next to ventrals; scale rows
20-26 anteriorly, 21-24 at middle of body, and 17-20 in front of
Sntith: Snakes 23i
anus; ventrals 128 to 141 in males, 139-151 in females; subcaudals
41-47 in males, 32-38 in females.
"Ground color above light yellowish-brown; a median dorsal row
of 31-50 (av. 40.1) dark brown or olive blotches; 2 or 3 rows of
small alternating blotches along each side (often obscure except the
upper row); scales between median dorsal blotches sometimes pale
brownish-white, forming narrow cross-bars; ventral surface yellow-
ish-white with wide irregular black band down center; this black
band usuallv interrupted bv blotches of white or vellow." ( Hudson,
1942:51.)
Size moderate, total length reaching 26/2 inches; tail about 15
percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — See discussion of //. platyrhinos.
Habits and Habitat. — This species inhabits only relatively dry
areas, and is especially abundant in sand dunes. It is characteristic
of prairie regions. The food apparently is much the same as that
of H. platyrhinos, consisting chiefly of toads. It is not constricted.
Like all other hog-nosed snakes, this species shams death, in much
the same manner as described in the discussion of H. platyrhinos.
It is diurnal and egg-laying.
Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies are known, two of which, Heterodon
nasicus nasicus Baird and Girard, and H. n. gloijdi Edgren, with a type locality
at Wheelock, Robertson County, Texas, occur in this state. The other occurs in
the Rio Grande Valley of Texas and in northern Mexico. In H. n. nasicus and
H. n. gloydi respectively the niiddorsal blotches on body are 35 or more vs.
32 or fewer in males; in females they are 40 or more vs. 37 or fewer.
References.- — Cope, 1900: 774-777, fig. 168 (description, variation); Edgren, 1952: 2-3
( taxonomy ) .
Genus Opheodrys Fitzinger
Rough Green Snake
Opheodrys aestivus ( Linnaeus )
Coluber aestivus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 387 (type localit\^ —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Opheodrys aestivus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 560.
Range. — Southeastern quarter of the state. Recorded as far west
as Riley and Cowley (Arkansas City) counties. The record for Bar-
ton County ( Great Bend ) is questionable.
Description. — Head rather thick, a little wider than neck; head
scales typical (see Fig. 150) except as follows: nasal single; one
preocular; two posterior temporals; generally 7 supralabials, gener-
ally 8 infralabials. Scales on body keeled except those on outer 1
to 3 rows on each side, next to ventrals; 17 scale rows on anterior
two-thirds of body, 15 on posterior third; anal and all subcaudals
232
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
divided; ventrals 146 to 164, with little difference between the ex-
treme counts of males and females; subcaudals 114 to 142, av. 128.
Dorsal color pale to dark green, unmarked; chin and throat pale
yellow; other ventral surfaces yellowish white.
Body form extremely elongate and slender; total length reaching
32-^ inches; tail varies from 34.6 to 41.8 percent of total length.
Fig. 172. Distribution of the rough green snake, Opheodrtjs aestivus, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Recog7iitio7i Characters. — The keeled scales furnish an important
character in this species, separating it from all others which are uni-
form bluish above and unmarked below. Most frequently confused,
probably, are the smooth green snake and blue racer, both of which
have absolutely smooth scales.
Habits and Habitat. — Open woods, fields and marshes are fa-
vorite haunts of this species. It occurs both on the ground and in
bushes and low trees. In either place it is difficult to see because of
the protective, green color. The snakes are often passed, as they
rest without moving where they lie, stationary in position until a
person reaches within a few inches of them. This habit of "freezing"
in position renders them extremely difficult to detect. They lie for
considerable periods with the head and a few inches of the neck ex-
tending upward, free from any support.
These snakes are nonpoisonous, but may attempt to bite when
first captured. After a short time in captivity they are remarkably
docile. Always they retain a degree of wiriness which does not
make them as pleasant to handle as some other snakes. They are
Smith: Snakes 233
capable of extending the body ontvvard an extraordinary distance.
The tail has strong prehensile powers, althongh the body shows no
ability to constrict. The snakes are completely diurnal.
The food consists mostly of insects, of which a large portion is
grasshoppers; snails, flies, caterpillars and crickets have been re-
FiG. 173. A rough green snake, Opheodrys aestivus majalis, X '1;, K. U. no. 23687, 3
miles north of Galena, Cherokee Countv. Kansas. Photo bv Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh and
t. P. Lyle.
corded as the food of some specimens. In captivity they readily
eat grasshoppers and crickets.
Mating activities have been observed in the middle of May. One
male of this species attempted to mate with a female of the smooth
green snake.
The eggs are laid at any time in July in clutches of 3 to 9 in rotten
stumps and logs. They measure 21-31 mm. in length and 10-12 mm.
in width. They hatch in 56 to 62 days; the young average 200 ( 190
to 213) mm. in total length upon hatching and are dull grayish
olive. In six days the skin is shed for the first time, and the color
becomes bright, dark green.
Kansan Subspecies. — Opiieodrys a. mdjalis ( Baird and Girard), with type
locality at New Braunfels, Comal Count)', Texas, is the subspecies occurring
in Kansas. Two others are recognized in the eastern United States.
References. — Conant, 1938: 45-47, pi. 5, fig. 3 (description, natural history, Ohio); Mc-
Cauley, 1945: 66-71, fig. 14 (description, natural history, Maryland); Burger, 1947 (abstract
or taxonomic study, first modern usage of o. a. luajalis, resurrected).
234
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Smooth Green Snake
Opheodrys vernalis ( Harlan )
Coluber vernalis Harlan, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 5, 1827, p. 361 (type lo-
cality— Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ).
Opheodrys vernalis Schmidt and Necker, Herpetologica, vol. 1, no. 2, 1936, p. 64.
Range. — Not well known, but probably state-wide. The present
records are all in the eastern third of the state or on the central
southern border, but records from adjacent states
indicate occurrence throughout all of Kansas. The
great rarity of the species accounts for the paucity
of data. Peripheral records are in Geary (Fort
Riley), Riley (Manhattan), Pottawatomie, Douglas,
Franklin (8 miles southeast of Ottawa), Craw-
ford (Pittsburg), Montgomery, Chautauqua (4y2 miles southeast of
Cedar Vale), and Meade (Meade) counties.
Scol*
(0 0 « 4oMt(#(
III I I
Mui«um of Nfl'ural Hiitory
Univtrtilf of Koniat
1945
Fig. 174. Distribution of the smooth green snake, Opheodrys vernalis, in Kansas.
Description. — Head rather thick, elongate, a little wider than
neck; head scales typical (see Fig. 150) except as follows: nasal
entire; preocular generally single, occasionally double (28^2 per-
cent of specimens ) ; two posterior temporals; generally seven supra-
labials; generally eight infralabials; internasals as large as pre-
frontals. Scales on body absolutely smooth; scale rows fifteen
throughout length of body; anal and all subcaudals divided; ventrals
125-141 in males (average 134), 139-154 in females (average 145);
Smith: Snakes 235
subcaudals 78-95 in males (average 88), 68-82 in females (average
75).
Dark greenish blue or blue above, without markings; ventral sur-
face ivory yellow.
Slender and elongate in form; total length moderate, reaching
47^ inches; tail about twenty-five percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The bluish dorsal color, combined with
the presence of no more than fifteen scale rows, is distinctive of this
species in Kansas. Only four other species have fifteen and no more
than fifteen scale rows on the body: Sonora episcopa, Storeria oc-
cipitomacnlata, Tantilla gracilis and T. nigriceps. The latter three
lack a loreal (present in O. vernalis) and Sonora episcopa has post-
genials which are much shorter than the pregenials (equal in O.
vernalis).
Fig. 175. A smooth green snake, Opheodrys v. vernalis, X '/a, Durham, New
Hampshire. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd.
Habits and Habitat. — This snake is found in relatively moist,
grassy situations. Sometimes it climbs bushes. In most parts of its
range it can be found under objects on the ground more readily than
elsewhere, since in the open its coloration conceals it almost per-
fectly. It is diurnal.
The food consists chiefly of insects, including moths, crickets,
beetles, ants and grasshoppers; other arthropods such as spiders are
eaten, and snails also are taken; there is a record of one having eaten
a salamander. In captivity crickets are said to be eaten freely.
Lepidopterous larvae (caterpillars) also are readily taken, if the
proper, hairless, green varieties are offered. It is possible that when
236 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
available these actually form a large part of the diet in nature. The
food is not constricted.
The life history of the race occurring in Kansas is unknown. The
eastern race is known to lay three to eleven (usually 7) cylindrical
eggs measuring 19.5 to 34 mm. in length and 8 to 18 mm. in width.
The eggs are laid from late July to the end of August, and hatch in
four to tvventy-three days. The short incubation period is re-
markable; the young snakes are well developed when the eggs are
laid, measuring as much as 95 mm. in total length; at hatching the
total length varies from 101 to 166 mm.
Mating has been recorded in the fall (August 18 and 22) in
Ontario.
This snake is remarkably inoffensive, refusing to bite and quickly
becoming calm and quiet in captivity.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two races are known, one of which, Opheodrtjs vernalis
blanchardi Grobman, with type locahty at Spanish Peaks, 8,000 ft., Colorado,
occurs in Kansas. The other race occurs in the northeastern United States.
References. — Conant, 1938: 47-49 (description, summary of natural history, Ohio); Grob-
man, 1941: 1-38 (description, variation, taxonomy); McCauley, 1945: 71-73 (description,
natural history, Maryland); Stille, 1954: 1-11 (reprodvicHon, distribution).
Genus Coluber Linnaeus
Racer
Coluber constrictor Linnaeus
Coluber constrictor Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 216 (type locality —
northern America ) .
Range. — State-wide.
Description. — Head thick, elongate; head scales
typical (see Fig. 150) except as follows: frontal
nearly twice as wide anteriorly as posteriorly; two
preoculars, the lower small; two anterior as well
as two posterior temporals; supralabials generally
seven, lower labials generally nine. Scales on body
absolutely smooth; seventeen scale rows on anterior two-thirds of
body, fifteen on posterior one-third; anal and all subcaudals divided;
in both sexes ventrals 158 to 191 in the subspecies which occurs in
Kansas (but in Kansas proper probably not less than 165), averag-
ing about three less in males than in females (about 177 and 180 re-
spectively, in Kansas ) ; subcaudals 66 to 105 in both sexes throughout
the range of the Kansas race (probably not less than 70, nor more
than 95 in Kansas proper ) averaging about seven more in males than
in females (about 87 and 81, respectively, in Kansas).
This species goes through as remarkable a change in pattern from
young to adult as any snake in the state. In the young "there is a
Smith: Snakes
237
median dorsal row of chestnut l)lotches which number 65-80 between
the head and the anterior third of the tail. . . . Along either side
and on the belly are numerous chestnut or blackish dots. The
juvenile color pattern is well-developed in specimens up to sixteen
inches in length, but gradually fades out beyond this so that in indi-
viduals twenty-one inches long the spots are barely visible." ( Hud-
son, 1942:55.) The adults are pale greenish olive above and whitish
to yellow below, without markings.
Size rather large, the total length reaching seventy-one inches in
Ohio, and forty-seven and nine-sixteenths inches in Nebraska. The
tail comprises 20-29 percent of the total length.
Recognition Cliaracters. — The adults can be distinguished from
all other Kansan snakes by the uniform bluish color of the upper
parts combined with the occurrence of seventeen scale rows and
absolutely smooth dorsals. Most often confused are the green
snakes, one of which (O. aestiviis) has keeled scales, while the other
(O. vernaJis) has fifteen scale rows.
Mus«um ot Noiural Hltlory
Uniworiiljr ot Kontos
I94S
Fig. 176. Distribution of the racer. Coluber constrictor, in Kansas.
The spotted young could be confused with several other snakes,
but the combination of smooth scales and seventeen scale rows will
distinguish them from all other species of spotted snakes in the state.
Habits' and Habitat. — This is one of the most ubiquitous snakes
of the state, occurring in moist and dry habitats, in wooded areas
and in prairies. Although it is chiefly a ground snake, it has been
known to climb bushes and trees, and one author states that it
238
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
ascends twenty to thirty feet into trees. It is commonly found along
roads, but is most easily captured early in the morning before the
sun has had a chance to warm the earth, under stones or other shel-
ter where it spends the night. The snake is completely diurnal.
During most of the day, unless the temperatures are low, it is not
to be found under cover. When disturbed it flees rapidly, relying
upon speed for escape, but if closely pursued it may stop abruptly
and coil as tightly as possible.
The food is of enormous variety. Insects, especially the larger
kinds, are commonly eaten; so also are smaller vertebrates such as
lizards, other snakes, small mammals, birds, eggs of various verte-
brates, frogs and toads. The animals eaten mostly have no economic
value; the chief portions of the diet are kinds of animals which
man regards as his competitors or as of no economic value. Racers
eat copperheads and even other racers. Racers frequently hibernate
with copperheads and rattlesnakes, sometimes in large numbers.
The food is not constricted although the body may be used to hold
the food down while the snake obtains a hold with its jaws.
Fig. 177. An ndnlt blue racer. Coluber constrictor flavivcntris, X %, K. U. no. 24391, 2
miles east of Shaw, Neosho County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. V. Lyie.
Smith: Snakes
239
Eight to twenty-five eggs are laid in June and July. They average
35 X 22 mm. in size, and are laid in the ground, in rotten logs and
stumps, or in other debris of similar nature. They hatch in about
two months (61, 62, 67 and 70 days have been recorded for the east-
ern subspecies, C. c. constrictor). Emergence from hibernation has
been recorded in April.
Fig. 178. A juvenal blue racer. Coluber constrictor flaviventris, X 1, 9 miles southwest of
Clintou, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by R. R. Hanini.
These snakes appear to have definite home territories and retreats
to which they will return almost invariably, even though the in-
truder may stand between them and the retreat. When captured
they are vicious, biting vigorously with a sliding motion that imbeds
and tears the teeth through the flesh. They may become fairly tame
in captivity, but are always nervous.
Kansan Subspecies. — In the United States and northern Mexico, six sub-
species are known, of which only one occurs in Kansas. It is Coluber constrictor
jlaviventris Say, with type locahty at a stone quarry on the west side of the
Missouri River three miles above the mouth of Boyer's River, Iowa.
References. — Conant, 1938: 54-55 (description, variation, natural history, Ohio); Orten-
burger, 1928: 175-192, pis. 27-30 (monograph).
240
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Genus Masticophis Baird and Girard
Coachwhip
Masticophis flagellum (Shaw)
Coluber flagellum Shaw. Gen. Zool.. vol. 3, 1802, p. 475 ( t\ pe locality — Charleston,
South Carolina ) .
Masticophis flagellum Ortenburger, Mem. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., vol. I, 1928, p. 104.
Range. — State-wide except in the northeastern quarter. Peri-
pheral locahties in the north are in Rooks (Stockton), Elhs, Chase
(Ehndale), Greenwood (Hamilton), Elk (5 miles west of Grenola),
and Douglas counties. The latter is highly questionable.
Descriptio7i. — Head thick, elongate; head scales typical (see Fig.
150) except as follows: frontal nearly twice as wide anteriorly as
posteriorly; two preoculars, the lower small; two anterior as well
as two posterior temporals; supralabials generally eight, infralabials
generally ten, often eleven. Scales on body absolutely smooth;
seventeen scale rows on anterior three-fifths of body, and thirteen
immediately in front of anus; anal and all subcaudals divided; ven-
trals 186-207; subcaudals 94-119.
Fig. 179. Distribution of the coachwhip, Masticophis flagellum, in Kansas, with insert show-
ing range of the species. The parallel lines indicate the range of M. f. flagellum, the dots
that of M. /. flavigularis.
As in Coluber, the young of Masticophis are colored differently
than the adults, although there is less difference in this genus than in
Coluber. In the young the ground color is light brownish yellow;
narrow, irregular-edged, dark brown crossbands are present an-
teriorly. Posteriorly these bands become dim and disappear on the
posterior part of the body near the anus. The spaces between the
Smith: Snakes 241
bands are about equal to three times the width of the bands them-
selves. The belly is whitish or cream, anteriorly with a row of small
dark spots on either side of the midventral line; these spots become
dim as the rows extend posteriorly, and disappear on the posterior
part of the belly. The head is irregularly marked with dark and light
areas. In adults the dark bands become obscure, either by fading to
the same color as the ground color, or by the darkening of the ground
color to an intensity equal to that of the bands. As a result the
adults are either uniform light brown above, with a double row of
feebly defined spots below on an otherwise unmarked belly ( M. /.
fiavigtilaris), or are black or dark brown above and below on the fore-
part of the body, light brown (mottled) above and whitish below
on the rear part and on tail (A/. /. fageUuni).
The total length reaches six feet; the tail averages twenty-five
Fig. 180. .^n adult coachwhip, Masticophis f. flagcUum, X Vt, Montgomers- Countv,
Texas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd.
percent of the total length. Elsewhere the species is recorded to
reach eight feet two inches, less an estimated four-inch tail-tip.
Recognition Characters. — The smooth scales in 17 rows, reduced
to 13 rows immediately in front of anus, is diagnostic of this species
in Kansas. In body form the species resembles the blue racer, but
no species is often confused with the coachwhip.
Habits and Habitat. — This terrestrial species usually is found in
grassy areas more or less devoid of trees, but individuals are capable
of climbing into trees and bushes. They are completely diurnal.
When captured these snakes ordinarily bite viciously, and the
habit of rasping the long teeth through the flesh makes a painful
wound. The tail frequently is vibrated when the snake is annoyed.
The snakes are, nevertheless, nonpoisonous. Captives tame slowly.
The food consists of other vertebrates such as snakes, lizards.
242 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 181. A juvenal coachwhip, Masticophis f. ftagelluru, X 1. 8 miles east of Baxter
Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Photo by W. W. Tanner and T. P. Lyle.
small mammals, and probably birds, and larger insects such as
grasshoppers and cicadas. Large quantities of the latter are eaten
where they are abundant. The food, if of considerable size, is
commonly held down with the body as it is being swallowed, but
the snake does not constrict. Occasionally other snakes are killed
before being swallowed. The coachwhip grasps the head in its jaws
and holds down the body with its own body; the coachwhip then
rasps its teeth through the flesh back of the victim's head, producing
a wound that probably is at times fatal to the prey.
Mating occurs in April and May. The eggs number as many as
twelve, and average about eight in each clutch. They are laid in
the ground; one clutch was eleven inches beneath the surface.
Kaiisan Subspecies. — In the southern United States and northern Mexico,
eight subspecies are recognized. Two occur in Kansas: Masticophis flageUum
ftageUttin (Shaw), and Masticophis flageUiun flaviguhiris (Hallowell), whose
type locality is Maysville, Garvin County, Oklahoma. The adults of these two
can easily be distinguished on the basis of color, those of M. f. jlageUum being
black anteriorly and mottled with brownish posteriorly, whereas those of M. f.
flaviguhiris are brownish througliout the length of the body. The young look
more alike, but can be distinguished on the basis of the width of the narrow
dark crossbands on the anterior part of the body. In M. f. flavigularis, these
bands are one or two scales wide and are separated from each other by areas
three to five scales wide and thus the bands are about one-third as wide as the
interspaces; in M. /. flageUum, the dark bands are separated from each other
by spaces only one or two scales wide, and thus the dark bands are about as
broad as or broader than the interspaces.
References. — Ortenburger, 1928: 92-111, pis. 16-19 (monograph); Schmidt and Davis,
1941: 127, 130-131, pi. 13 (description, natural history); Maslin, 1953: 193-200 (tax-
onomy ) .
Smith: Snakes
243
Genus Elaplie Fitzinger
Rat Snake
Elaphe guttata (Linnaeus)
Coluber guttatus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 385 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Elaphis guttatus Dumeril, Bibron and Dumeril, Erpet. Gen., vol. 7, 18.54, p. 273.
Range. — Throughout state except western fourth and extreme
northeastern corner. Peripheral locaHties on the west are in Meade
(Schwartz Caiion), Trego and PhilHps counties; in the northeast,
Marshall (Blue Rapids) and Leavenworth (10 miles northeast of
Lawrence) counties.
Mmflum of Noturol Hitlery
Univvrsili of KoflSOt
I94S
Fig. 182. Distribution of the rat snake, Elaphe guttata, in Kansas, with insert showing range
of the species.
Description. — Head somewhat flattened, a little wider than neck;
head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; one preocular; temporals 2
or more both anteriorly and posteriorly; supralabials generally 8.
seldom 9; infralabials 11 to 14, generally 12 or 13. Median dorsal
scale rows keeled at least feebly (except perhaps in the very young),
but outer 7 rows on each side smooth; scale rows usually 25, occa-
sionally 27 on anterior third of body, usually 27 but occasionally 29
at middle of body, and 19 or 21 immediately in front of anus; ven-
trals 213-232, average 220, in males, and 219-234, average 228, in
females; subcaudals 66-80, average 76, in males, 60-75, average 68,
in females.
Ground color gray, olive or olive-brown; a middorsal series of 25-
45 well-defined, quadrangular, dark brown, black-bordered spots
on body, 8 to 20 on tail; the blotches about 4 scales in length,
244 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
sepiirated by interspaces iy2-2 scales in length; a series of small,
rounded blotches on sides, alternating with niiddorsal blotches, and
another series of still smaller spots just above ventrals, alternating
with those in the series above; a distinct band extending along each
side of top of the head across parietals to frontal, where they merge;
belly whitish or cream, with irregularly placed, quadrangular dark
blotches.
Size moderately large, total length reaching forty-five inches; tail
about one-fifth or one-sixth of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The most important peculiarity of this
species is one of pattern: the two broad dark lines converging for-
ward from the neck, cross the parietals and meet on the frontal.
No other blotched species — or unblotched for that matter — has such
a marking. Most often confused with it is Lampropeltis calligaster,
which however has a single anal (divided in E. guttata); also similar
are the young of Elaplie obsoleta and Coluber, neither of which,
however, has the marking described for E. guttata.
Fig. 183. A rat snake, Elaphc guttata cmortii.
approx. X %• Courtesy of the Zoological Society
of Philadelphia.
Habits and Habitat. — This apparently is a nocturnal snake, and
is found frequently in the day in hiding under stones and other ob-
jects, in caves, and in other dark places. It is usually associated
with rocky hillsides or canyons, and seldom if ever occurs on the
open prairie. E. guttata does not frequent heavily wooded areas, al-
though it occurs commonly on sparsely or moderately heavily
wooded hillsides. The food is constricted.
Nothing has been published upon the natural history of this
species, although it is known to be egg-laying.
Smith: Snakes
245
Kansan Subspecies. — Five races may be recognized, one of which, Elaphe
guttata emortji ( Baird and Girard ) , type locality Howard Springs, Ellis County,
Oklahoma, occurs in Kansas. The other races occur as far west as Utah,
southward into Arizona and northern Mexico, and as far east as the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts.
References. — Woodbury and Woodbury, 1942: 133-142 (taxonomy, description); Dow-
ling, 19.51: 39-44, figs. 1. 2; 1952: 2--3 (taxonomy).
Pilot Black Snake
Elaphe obsoleta (Say)
Coluber obsoletu.s Say, Long's Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 1, 1823, p. 140 (type localit>' —
Council Bluffs, Iowa).
Elaphis obsoletus Gamian, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 8, no. 3, 1883, p. 54.
Range. — Eastern half of state. Recorded as far west as Marshall
(1 mile east of Waterville ) , Riley (Manhattan), Saline (3 miles
northeast of Salina), Harvey (10 miles northwest of Halstcad),
Sedgwick (8 miles west of Wichita), and Harper (Danville)
counties.
yilMlHn or NotwfVl Hi«l9rr
UaJvanJIy of KanMl
IMS
Fig. 184. Distribution of the pilot black snake, Elaphe obsoleta, in Kansas, with insert show-
ing range of the species.
Description. — Head somewhat flattened, a little wider than neck;
head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; one preocular; t^vo anterior
temporals, three or four posterior temporals; supralabials generally
eight; infralabials generally eleven or twelve. One to eleven outer
rows of dorsals on either side perfect!)' smooth (the fewer rows of
smooth scales at posterior part of body ) , others feebly keeled, ap-
parently smooth in very young; scale rows 25 or 27 on anterior
three-fifths of bodv, 17 or 19 immediatelv in front of anus; anal and
246
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
all subcaiidals divided; ventrals 221-241 in males, 227-244 in females;
subcaudals 73-91 in males, 69 to 89 in females.
Color of young and adults different. Young with gray ground
color; middorsal series of 28 to 38 well defined, quadrangular, seal
Fig. 185. An adult pilot black snake, Elaphe o. ohsoleta, X %, K. U. no.
24392, 5 miles south of Humboldt, Allen County, Kansas. Photo by E. H.
Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
brown blotches 4 to 8 scales long and 11 to 14 scales wide; two series
of smaller spots alternating with each other and with dorsal spots,
on each side; belly whitish, with irregular, extensive dark blotches.
Adults usually uniform black above, but occasionally blotches re-
main evident, sometimes red-bordered; belly dusky anteriorly, be-
coming nearly uniform posteriorly and on tail.
Size large, total length reaching eight feet, five inches; tail aver-
aging seventeen or eighteen percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The adults, with their large size and
nearly uniform black back, cannot be confused with any other
species in the state. The young, however, have a color pattern
Smith: Snakes 247
closely resemhlinti; that of Elaplic '^uttata^ Lauipropdtis call i paster,
and the young of Coluber constrictor. The first may be distinguished
by the presence of dark bars on the top of the head crossing the
parietal plates and uniting on the frontal; the king snake may be
distinguished by the presence in it of an entire anal; and the blue
Fig. 186. A juvenal pilot black snake, Ehiphv o. ohsoletii . X 1, 4
miles .south of Garnett. Anderson County, Kansas. Photo by E. H.
Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
racer differs by having two preoculars ( instead of 1 ) , and no more
than nineteen scale rows (instead of more than 20).
Habits and Habitat. — This species is partial to moist, wooded re-
gions. It is a proficient climber — probably a better climber than
any other snake in the state. Its climbing is done mainly in trees.
It is largely diurnal in habits. Individuals frequently sun them-
selves.
The food consists for the most part of small mammals, and to a
lesser extent of birds. Frogs and insects are occasionally eaten.
The food except for smaller items is constricted. Eggs are not in-
frequently taken.
In Maryland mating occurs in May and June; seven to twenty-
248 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
two eggs are laid in sawdust piles, loose earth, manure piles, rotten
trees, logs and stumps, and other places in or near the ground, from
July to early August. The eggs measure 37 to 50 mm. in length,
21 to 27 mm. in width, and hatch after some 2*2 months.
When first captured these snakes ordinarily bite rather readily;
the bite is painful but not of such a lacerating character as that of
the blue racer and coachwhip. Pilot black snakes are somewhat
more docile than either of the two species just mentioned, and some
individuals even when first captured do not attempt to bite. After
a time in captivity they become quite tame. When annoyed the tail
is rattled, and when the snake is picked up the scent glands e.xude
a secretion of strong and somewhat repugnant odor.
K(ins(i7^ Subspecies. — Five races are recognized at present, one of which
occurs in Kansas : Eluphe ohsoleta obsoleta ( Say ) . The other races occur in
the southeastern United States from Texas and Oklahoma eastward.
References. — Conant, 1938: 55-60, pi. 8, fig. 1 (description, variation, natural history,
Ohio); McCauley, 1945: 81-85, fig. 19 (description, variation, natural history, Maryland);
Hudson, 1942: 58-60 (brief description, variational notes, natural history, Nebraska);
Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 148-150 (description, natural history, general).
Genus Arizona Kennicott
Glossy Snake
Arizona elegans Kennicott
Arizona elegans Kennicott, in Baird, U. S.-Mex. Bound. Survey, vol. 2, Rept., 1859,
p. 18, pi. 13 (type locality — lower Rio Grande, Texas).
Range. — Western third of state. Reported as far north and east
as Cheyenne (13 miles southeast [ = SSE] of Benkelman, Ne-
braska), Stafford (Little Salt Marsh), Reno (Hutchinson), and
Harper (5 miles northwest of Harper) counties.
Description. — Head rather thick, pointed, a little wider than
neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; rostral enlarged, pro-
jecting backwards between internasals, not keeled above; 2 pre-
oculars; 2 anterior and 3 posterior temporals; generally 8 supra-
labials; generally 13 or 14 infralabials; postgenials small, about
one-tenth size of pregenials. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; scale
rows usually 29 or 31 at middle of body, 19 or 21 immediately in
front of anus; anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 187-219 in
males, 205-226 in females; subcaudals 52-57 in males, 42-53 in
females.
Ground color light gray-brown; 45-65 distinct, dark gray or
brown, black-edged blotches on body; 2 series of smaller spots on
either side, alternating with each other and with median spots; belly
cream, without markings (unlike the otherwise similar king snakes).
Smith: Snakes
249
Size rather large, total length reaching 44/2 inches; tail comprises
14-15 percent of total length.
Scoit
10 0 20 40Mll«&
I.I I '
MuKum 9' Natural Hislorj
Urxvarsitf of Kgnsoi
1943
Fig. 187. Distribution of the glossy snake, Arizona elegans, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
Recognition Characters. — No other blotched snake in the state
with smooth scales and entire anal has the ventral surfaces un-
marked, except some specimens of Rhinocheilus, in which most of
the subcaudal plates are entire.
Fig. 188. A glossy snake, Arizona elegans blanchardi, X Vt, from Motley County, Texas.
Courtesy Louis W. Ramsey.
Habits and Habitat. — This nocturnal species is characteristic of
sandy areas; it is found only in semiarid regions, on Hat plains. The
250
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist,
food, which is constricted, consists largely of lizards so far as known.
A single clutch of ten eggs has been recorded.
Individuals of the glossy snake are notably wary and they are
not easily approached at night, but those in captivity do not offer to
bite and they are remarkably docile. The species is nonpoisonous.
Kansan Subspecies. — Nine subspecies are now recognized, one of which,
Arizona eJegans hhinchcirdi Klanber, occurs in Kansas. Tlie type locahty is 13
miles southeast of Benkehnan, Nebraska, in Cheyenne County, Kansas. The
other subspecies occur in tlie southwestern United States and northwestern
Mexico.
References. — Blanchard, 1924: 1-5 (variation, taxonomy); Schmidt and Davis, 1941:
156-158, fig. 44 (brief description, natural history); Klauber, 1946: 328-333 (monograph).
Genus Pitiiophis Holbrook
Bull Snake
Pituophis melano!eucus ( Daudin )
Coluber ituhinohucus Daudin, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 6, 1803, p. 409 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina, b\' restr. ).
Pituophis mclanolcuctis Holbrook, \. Amer. Herp., ed. 2, vol. 4, 1842, p. 7 pi. 1.
Range. — State-wide. Less abundant in the east-
ern quarter of the state, and uncommon along the
eastern border in extensively wooded areas. No
other reptile in Kansas is recorded, however, from
localities in so many different counties.
Scot«
to «oUJI«k
I I
Muteum «! Nslurot Hliterv
1945
Fig. 189. Distribution of the bull snake, PittiopJiis mclanohuctts, in Kansas.
Smith: Snakes 251
Description. — Head somewhat thickened, a Httle wider than neck;
snout pointed; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; rostral en-
larged and projecting somewhat beyond the general level of the
head, about twice as high as wide, half separating internasals; nasal
divided; 4 prefrontals; often 1 or 2 small scales preceding frontal,
between prefrontals; preoculars usually 1, sometimes 2; postoculars
2-5, usually 3 or 4; usually 1 loreal, sometimes 2, rarely 0; 3 or 4
rows of temporals; parietals small, broken into small scales at rear
margin; postgenials one-fourth size of pregenials. Dorsal scales
prominently keeled, but 5-9 anterior rows and 1-4 posterior rows on
each side smooth; scale rows 25-35 on anterior third of body (ex-
cept immediately back of head), 28-37 at middle of body, and 21-
27 immediately in front of anus; anal plate entire; all subcaudals
divided; ventrals 211-236, average 223, in males, and 215-244,
average 227, in females; subcaudals 49-67, average 59, in males, and
47-65, average 53, in females.
"Ground color above pale biownish-yellow with a median row of
33-73 ( av. 51 ) large brown or black blotches in front of vent; 3 or 4
rows of more or less indistinct small blotches along either side;
blo'^ches usually black on forward part of body, brown along middle
and black toward posterior end; all blotches black in a few indi-
viduals; median blotches broader anteriorly but forming narrower
cross-bars toward tail; head speckled with black; vertical margins
of upper and lower labials black; 9-15 black bars across upper side
of tail; under surface yellowish-white, sparsely or thickly mottled
with black, rarely immaculate. " ( Hudson, 1942, pp. 62-63. )
Size large, total length reaching 83 inches; tail 10 to 14 percent of
total length.
Recognition Characters. — The four prefrontals are absolutely dis-
tinctive of this species of snake, in Kansas. Characteristic also is
the high, narrow rostral; in all other species it is not twice as long
as broad. The pointed head, yellowish ground color and nearly
square dark spots on back are other distinctive features.
Habits and Habitat. — This is a terrestrial, diurnal species char-
acteristic of plains regions. In wooded areas it occurs in open
meadows, fields and grasslands.
Upon discovery this reptile usually reacts by vibrating the tail,
drawing the head back into a striking position, and hissing loudly
through slightly parted lips. The hiss has a considerable similarity
to the rattle of a rattlesnake, consisting of a hoarse, vibrating sound.
It is produced by forcing air past a median vertical vanelike car-
tilage attached at its upper and lower tips to the opening of the
windpipe; the cartilage whips back and forth like a flag in the
breeze as the air rushes past it, and produces the peculiar vibrating
effect of the hiss. The structure bears some resemblance to the
252
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
epiglottis of mammals, and for this reason these snakes were once
placed by taxonomists in the genus Epiglottophis (epiglottis-snake).
While these snakes ordinarily strike frequently when first cap-
tured, they readily become tame and refuse to bite unless provoked
unduly. They moreover eat readily in captivity and for these
reasons make good pets.
The food consists largely of small mammals, which are killed by
constriction, unless the prey is too small or in such confining quar-
ters that loops of the snake's body cannot be thrown about the food.
Mammals as small as young mice and rats are eaten as captured,
alive. Others are first killed. The snake usually searches out its
prey in burrows, or similar confines, and thus kills by compressing
Fig. 190. A bull snake, Pituophis mclanolcucus sayi, X Vs, 9 miles southwest of Clinton,
Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by R. R. Hanim.
the animal against the wall of the burrow. Sight ordinarily is little
used by the snake in catching food. When killing or capturing prey,
any touch upon the snake's body causes it to attempt to compress or
constrict whatever is there; thus several animals may be killed at
once, and in fact a snake was once observed to kill three half-grown
rats at one time. These snakes are extremely proficient "mousers,"
Smith: Snakes 253
and will rid barns and other bnildings of rats and mice much more
efficiently than cats. Many farmers encourage the snakes to remain
about their buildings for that reason, and import them when they
are especially needed. It is estimated that an adult snake of aver-
age size eats the equivalent of some twelve full-grown pocket
gophers every season. On this basis the value of a bull snake has
been computed to be about $3.75 per year. There is a certain cycle
of activity — feeding, fasting and moulting — repeated about every
thirty days. Ordinarily the food is swallowed head-first.
Not only are these snakes of great value about human habita-
tions, but in the fields they eat large numbers of rodents injurious
to agriculture. They wreak havoc in communities of gophers and
prairie dogs; gopher snake is the vernacular name applied to this
species in several western states, as for example Nevada and Cali-
fornia. Unfortunately they occasionally turn to eating birds and
eggs. The eggs are crushed as they pass through the esophagus.
Ten to sixteen eggs are laid in July and hatch about two months
later. The eggs measure 42-52 mm. in length and 28-38 in width.
The hatchlings measure approximately 15 inches in total length and
shed their skins about ten days later. They apparently do not eat
for several weeks; in captivity they may overwinter before eating;
others have eaten nine weeks after hatching.
Kansan Subspecies. — About eleven races of this species are known, onl>- one
of which is recognized in Kansas. It is Pituophis rnelanoleucus sayi ( Schlegel )
with type locahty at Carthage, Jasper County, Missouri. The other races occur
throughout most of the United States and in northwestern Mexico.
Reference. — Stull, 1940: 91-122, fig. 50a (monograph).
Genus Lampropeltis Fitzinger
Blotched King Snake
Lampropeltis calligaster (Harlan)
Coluber calligaster Harlan, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 5. 1827, p. 359 (t>pe
localit>' — St. Louis, Missouri).
Lampropeltis calligaster Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 255.
Range. — State-wide, except northwestern corner.
Recorded as far northwest as Republic, Mitchell,
Ellis (5 miles south of Martin), Gove, Logan, and
Hamilton (1 mile east of Coolidge) counties.
Description. — Head thick, blunt, cylindrical, little wider than
neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; preocular single; supra-
labials generally seven, sometime eight; infralabials generally nine
254
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
or ten; temporals two in anterior row, three or four in posterior rows.
Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; scale rows 23-25 on anterior third
of body, 23-27 (usually 25) at middle of body, 19-21 immediately
in front of anus; anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 194-215;
subcandals 44-57, average 51, in males, and 38-52, average 46, in
females.
Ground color gray or gray-brown; a series of 46-78 (average 60)
dark gray, black edged blotches down middle of body, including
tail; spots 11-12 scales wide and 2-4 long; two or three series of dark
spots on each side, alternating with the middorsal series and with
Musaum of Naturol Historjr
Univarsily ol Konsas
194$
Fig. 191. Distribution of the blotched king snake, Lampropeltis calligaster, in Kansas.
each other; spots usually white-edged; belly whitish, with irregular
dark markings.
Size moderately large, reaching a total length of 53/8 inches; tail
11 to 15 percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — No other snake in Kansas has the com-
bination of smooth scales, entire anal, a pattern of blotches, and
the belly marked, except Rhinocheilus, which is easily distinguished
by having most of the subcandals entire. Elaphe guttata is most fre-
quently confused with the blotched king snake probably because
the color pattern is remarkably similar. In Elaphe, however, the
anal is divided and the dorsal scales are weakly keeled. Another
species, not commonly found in the state, resembles L, calligaster
even more closely; it is Arizona elegans, and can be distinguished
most easily by the complete absence of ventral markings.
Smith: Snakes 255
Fig. 192. A blotched king snake, Lampropeltis c. calligaster, X %, 9 miles
southwest of Clinton, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by R. R. Hamm.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is nocturnal. Individuals are
most frequently found wandering about at night in open fields, along
roads, about pastures or near barns; they live mostly in prairie areas,
in open woods and fields, spending the day under cover of stones,
old boards or logs.
These snakes are docile and rarely attempt to bite. The bite is
painful, but not poisonous.
The food consists almost entirely of mice. In captivity other kinds
of warm-blooded vertebrates are eaten, but large numbers of these
snakes examined in the field have contained only mice. The food
is constricted, and probably is killed also by compression in the same
way that the bull snake is known to kill its prey.
A clutch of eleven eggs, plowed up in a field, has been recorded.
They hatched in early September.
Kansan Subspecies. — Onl\' two races are known of this widely distributed
species, and one occurs in Kansas: Lampropeltis calligaster calligaster ( Harlan).
The other race, L. c. rhombomaculata (Holbrook), occurs in the southeastern
United States.
Reference. — Blanchard, 1921: 115-127, figs. 6, 39. 40 (monograph).
256
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Speckled King Snake
Lanipropeltis getulus ( Linnaeus )
Coluber e.etu]us Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 382 (type locality-
Charleston, South Carolina).
Lampropeltis gctula Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 255.
Range. — Probably state-wide, although not re-
ported west of Rawlins (4 miles northeast of Lu-
dell ) , Logan, Scott, Kearny ( 2 miles east of Lakin )
and Meade ( State Park ) counties.
Description. — Head thick, blunt, cylindrical, little wider than
neck; head scales arranged much as in Fig. 150; preocular single;
supralabials generally seven; infralabials generally nine; temporals
two in anterior row, three or four in posterior rows. Dorsal scales
absolutely smooth; scale rows 19-21 on anterior third of body, 19-23
at middle of body, and 17-19 immediately in front of anus; anal en-
tire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 200-220; subcaudals 37-55.
Mgiaum of Noluro< Hiilory
Univartily o( Kantos
1945
m
Fig. 193. Distribution of the speckled king snake, Lampropeltis getulus, in Kansas.
Black or blue-black above; adults with a light yellow spot in the
middle of every dorsal scale, the size of the spots increasing laterally
so that the scales appear light with a black border; frequently the
light spots are so arranged that they form 50 to 100 spotted cross-
bars; in such specimens the scales in the middorsal region between
the cross-bars frequently have less distinct spots, so that a faint
blotched effect is produced; this is especially prominent in young
specimens, and the blotched appearance becomes less and less dis-
Smith: Snakes
257
tinct as the animals grow. The venter is whitish and is blotched
with black.
Size moderately large, reaching a total length of 64^ inches; tail
10 to 15 percent of total length.
Recogriition Characters. — No other species in the state has a black
back on which most scales are yellow-centered. The species is not
easily confused with any other.
Habits and Habitat. — This is another nocturnal snake, as are the
other species of the genus Lampropeltis, and occurs in a rather wide
variety of habitats in which ample moisture seems the most char-
acteristic feature. The snakes are sometimes plowed up, indicating
Fig. 194. A speckled king snake, Lampropeltis gctuhis holbrooki, X V2, K. U. no. 24403,
1 mile north of Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
that they spend some part of their time underground, and perhaps
they generally live in holes in the ground; they have been found
also under stones and logs in hilly areas and canyons.
The food is normally more varied than that of L. calligaster, con-
sisting of snakes, lizards, eggs, small mammals and some birds.
Poisonous snakes are eaten as well as nonpoisonous. Most of the
food is constricted, but small animals are eaten without delay.
9—9019
258 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
The snake is more nervous than L. calligaster, striking upon cap-
ture and vibrating the tail. After even several months in captivity
the snake will \'ibrate its tail when annoyed. It does not eat well
in captivity.
Little has been recorded of the breeding habits. It is known that
mating occurs in May, and that the eggs, six to ten (average 9) in
number, are laid in late June; the eggs measure approximately
35 X 18 mm., and hatch from late August to early October; the
hatchlings measure about ten inches in total length.
Katisan Subspecies. — Ten subspecies of this species are recognized, only one
of which occurs in Kansas. It is Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki Stejneger,
whose type locahty is the Valley of the Mississippi. The other subspecies occur
in the southern half of the United States and in northern Mexico. Specimens
of L. g. holbrooki from southwestern Kansas in color pattern approach L. g.
splendida, but in other respects are typical of L. g. holbrooki.
References. — Blanchard, 1921: 33-42, fig. 32 (monograph); Conant, 1938: 63-66 (habits
of a related subspecies, L. g. nigra, Ohio).
Red King Snake
Lampropeltis triangulum (Lacepede)
Coluber triangulum Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Quadr. Ovip. Serp., vol. 2. 1788, tabl.
meth., p. 86 (type locality — New York, New York).
Lampropeltis triangula Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 256.
Range. — State-wide. Not yet recorded south of
the Arkansas River except in the southwestern cor-
ner of the state and in Sedgwick County, nor in a
similar area at the northern border of the state, but
to be expected.
Description. — Head thick, blunt, cylindrical, little wider than
neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; preocular single; su-
pralabials generally seven; infralabials generally nine; temporals
two in anterior row, three or four in posterior rows. Dorsal scales
absolutely smooth; scale rows 19-21 anteriorly, 19-23 at middle of
body, and 17-21 immediately in front of anus; anal entire; sub-
caudals divided; ventrals 176-215; caudals 41-54, average 48, in
males, and 31-50, average 46, in females.
Ground color whitish or cream, frequently suffused with gray; a
series of 19 to 30 large, red, black-edged blotches on body, 0-6 on
tail; white spaces between blotches covering 1 to 2/2 scale lengths;
red blotches extending laterally to about the third scale row, some-
times onto edges of belly; belly thickly mottled with black, the color
fused with the black borders of the red blotches.
Smith: Snakes
259
Size moderate, total length reaching 41M inches; tail 12 to 16
percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The color pattern, of large, red blotches,
is completely distinctive of this species. At first glance Rhinocheilus
might be confused with this species, but it has most of the sub-
caudals single instead of entire.
Habits and Habitat. — This snake occurs in a wide variety of habi-
tats in the state. It is nocturnal, and apparently has a procliv-
ity for burrowing, as it is frequently found in plowing. It is found
also under stones and logs.
Scflla
10 o ro .oMiItt
I [ I I
Mutftum of Na<urol HiHerr
Uni.crtilf o) KsnMt
1945
Fig. 195. Distribution of the red king snake, Lampropcltis trianguhim, in Kansas. The
range of Lampropeltis trianguhim syspila in the eastern part of the state is indicated by the
lined area, and that of Lampropeltis triangulum gentilis by the stippled area.
When captured this species seldom bites; it is extremely docile,
but does not thrive well in captivity.
The food, which usually is constricted, consists chiefly of small
mammals, and to a lesser extent of snakes (even of its own species),
lizards, birds, insects, earthworms and spiders. The species is less
addicted to feeding upon other snakes than are most other kinds of
king snakes.
Few data are recorded on the breeding habits of the races occur-
ring in Kansas. In the eastern race eleven to sixteen eggs, measur-
ing 30 X 16 mm., are laid in June and July in the ground or in piles
260
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 196. A red king snake, Lampropeltis trianguluiit syspUa, X V2, K. U. no. 24401, 4 miles
east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
of refuse; the hatchlings, nine inches long, appear in September.
Kansan Subspecies. — This species, consisting of some fourteen races as now
known, is represented in Kansas by two subspecies: Lampropeltis triangulum
gentilis (Baird and Girard), whose type locaHty is the north fork of the Red
River, near Sweetwater Creek, Wheeler County, Texas, and Lampropeltis
triangulum stjspila (Cope), whose type locahty is Richland County, Illinois.
According to Blanchard, the two characters which are most useful in distin-
guishing these two races are as follows: In L. t. gentilis, at least the posterior
half of the upper side of the head is black, without red; and the black borders
of the red rings tend to encroach middorsally upon the red, expanding inward
into each red blotch. In L. t. stjspila there is an extensive red area on the
posterior part of the head, generally black-bordered to be sure, but the black
borders do not ordinarily occupy more area than the red; and the red dorsal
blotches are not encroached upon by their black borders.
In a rather broad area on the western border of the eastern one-fourth or
one-third of the state, some difficulty may be experienced in distinguishing
specimens of the two subspecies from each other; in fact this area is one of
intergradation, and the person wishing to identify specimens to subspecies
should not be concerned so much with the appearances of single specimens as
with lots of specimens; a series of specimens from each area is almost necessary
before accurate determination as to subspecies can be made.
References. — Blanchard, 1921: 165-171, 179-187, figs. 52, 68, 72 (monograph); Conant,
1938: 66-70, and McCauley, 1945: 93-100 (habits of related races, L. t. triangulum and
L. t. temporalis; most of the observations will apply also to the Kansan subspecies).
Smith: Snakes
261
Genus Rhinocheilus Baird and Girard
Long-nosed Snake
Rhinocheilus lecontei Baird and Girard
Rhinocheilus lecontei Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 120 (t>pc lo-
cality— San Diego, California).
Range. — Southwestern quarter of state. Recorded as far north
as Morton (3 miles north of Elkhart), Finney (Garden City), Ford
(Bellefont), Barber (Medicine Lodge) and Harper (5 miles west of
Attica) counties.
Description. — Head thick, pointed, little wider than neck, cyhn-
drical; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; rostral swollen,
prominent, as wide as high; usually one preocular; temporals usually
two in anterior row, three in posterior row; supralabials 7-9, usually
8; infralabials 8-11, usually 9; posterior genials usually split into
2 or more scales. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; scale rows 23
Muitiifn of Nolurot Hislofy
Un'vt'Silir of K9rtio&
1945
Fig. 197. Distribution of the long-nosed snake, Rhinocheilus lecontei, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
or, rarely, 25 about middle of body, 19 immediately in front of tail;
anal plate and at least half the subcaudals entire; ventrals 191-209,
average 200, in males, and 181-203, average 195, in females; sub-
caudals 50-61, average 54, in males, and 43-54, average 49, in fe-
males.
Ground color yellowish or cream; a series of 18-35, average 26,
dark blotches on body, 6-17, average 10, on tail; blotches equal to
length of interspaces, to 2/2 times as long; scales at sides of blotches
with light centers; most of sides of body below blotches irregularly
262 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
mottled with light and dark color, sometimes (especially in the
young) arranged to form a lateral series of blotches alternating with
the dorsal spots; spaces between middorsal blotches unmarked, pink
or red in life; lighter areas on sides also at times suffused with pink-
ish in life. Belly cream or whitish, unicolor or marked irregularly
with black or dark brown.
Size moderately large, total length reaching 37 inches; tail 12 to
17 percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — With the exception of the pit vipers
(the rattlesnakes, cottonmouth and copperhead), this is the only
species of snake in the state which has a large proportion ( at least
half) of the subcaudals undivided. All others have only divided
subcaudals, except for certain variants which may have one to a
half-dozen or so plates abnormally entire.
Fig. 198. A long-nosed snake, Rhinocheilus Iccontei tessellatus, X Vi, from Baylor
County, Texas. Courtesy Louis W. Ramsey.
Habits and Habitat. — In southern California, where studied more
intensively than elsewhere, these snakes are found chieHy in grassy
or bushy, semiarid regions, and to a lesser extent in rocky areas.
The snakes are almost exclusively nocturnal, and reach their greatest
activity between 8:00 and 9:00 p. m. They wander about when
temperatures are as low as 62° F., and as high as 87° F. More
individuals are to be found in the open in May than in any other
month. They burrow readily in loose soil, but if conditions permit
they hide by entering crevices rather than by burrowing in the
ground.
Six to nine eggs are laid in late June or July; they measure
approximately 26 X 16 mm. and hatch in August.
Smith: Snakes 263
These are rather docile snakes which bite with some rekictance.
The tail is \'ibrated when the snake is annoyed.
The food consists of snakes, lizards, lizard eggs, small mammals
and large insects snch as grasshoppers. Most of the food is con-
stricted.
Kansoji Subspecies. — One subspecies, RhinorJiciltis lecontei tessellatus Car-
man, occurs in Kansas. Its type locality is Monclova, Coahuila, Mexico. One
other race is recognized in the southwestern United States and northwestern
Mexico.
Reference. — Klauber, 1941: 302-308, 320-323, pi. 12, fig. 2, pi. 13, fig. 3 (monograph).
Genus Sonora Baird and Girard
Plains Ground Snake
Sonora episcopa ( Kennicott )
Lamprosoina episcopum Kennicott, U. S.-Mex. Bound. Surv., 1859, p. 22, pi. 8, fig. 2
( type localitj' — Eagle Pass, Maverick County, Texas ) .
Sonora episcopa Stickel, Copeia, no. 4, 1938, p. 184.
Range. — Southern half of state; known distribution in regions
contiguous to Kansas indicates a wider distribution within the state
than do the scanty state records themselves. Selected record sta-
tions are Clark ( 2 miles south of State Lake ) on the west and Ellis
( Hays ) , Russell ( 5 miles north of Russell ) , Wilson ( 2 miles north-
west of Neodesha), and Crawford (7 miles west of Pittsburg)
counties, on the north.
Description. — Head somewhat flattened above, but still fairly
thick, little wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150;
1 preocular; loreal occasionally absent; 2 posterior temporals; post-
genials small or absent; usually 7 upper and 7 lower labials. Dorsal
scales absolutely smooth; scale rows 15 throughout length of body
(occasionally 14 immediately in front of anus); anal and all sub-
caudals divided; ventrals 134-155, average 147, in males, and 140-
162, average 153, in females; subcaudals 39-52, average 44, in males,
and 31-44, average 37, in females.
Gray, dark brown or red above, cream or whitish below; no mark-
ings except sometimes above; back occasionally uniform, unmarked;
sometimes a black, collarlike spot on neck; a variable number
(1-25) of black, oval crossbands sometimes present on back.
Size small, total length reaching 14 inches; tail 16 to 21 percent
of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The smooth scales in fifteen rows are
absolutely distinctive of this species with the exception of the
smooth-scaled green snake {Opheodnjs vernalis); the latter how-
ever has postgenials as long as the pregenials, and of course a much
diflFerent color and build. The thick, broad head is distinctive.
264
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Scale
to o 20 *3MiHi
I . I I 1
Museum of No'urol Hi&tory
Universily el Konsos
1945
m
Fig. 199. Distribution of the plains ground snake, Sonora episcopa, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Habits and Habitat. — These ground snakes are characteristic of
plains and are found most frequently under stones and other surface
debris on sides and crests of grassy hills. They are apparently
nocturnal in habit. The food probably consists of small insects
and other arthropods, although no direct observations have been
made. The food probably is not constricted.
Nothing is known of the breeding habits of this species. A related
B
Fig. 200. Plains ground snakes, Sonora episcopa, X %• A, locality unknown; courtesy
A. A. and A. H. Wright. B, St. Clair County, Missouri; courtesy H. K. Gloyd.
Smith: Snakes
265
form of southern Texas is known to lay eggs, one specimen laying
6 that measured approximately % X ^^ inches.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished, although a re-
lated form in Texas (S. taylori) by some writers has been considered to be a
subspecies of S. episcopa.
References. —Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 199-200, fig. 64 (description); Stickel, 1938:
183, 184-185 (diagnosis); Cope, 1900: 938-939, fig. 238.
Genus TantiUa Baird and Girard
Slender Tantilla
Tantilla gracilis Baird and Girard
Tantilla gracilis Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 132 (type locality —
Indianola, Texas).
Range. — Eastern half of state, seemingly not reaching the Ne-
braska border. Recorded as far west as Riley (Garrison), Geary
(4 miles south of Ft. Riley), Chase (3 miles west of Strong), and
Sumner counties.
Huttum of Noturqt Htstcry
Univanlty ol Kantoi
1945
Fig. 201. Distribution of the slender tantilla, Tantilla gracilis, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
Description. — Head much flattened, little if any wider than neck;
head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; one preocular; no loreal; one
postocular (seldom 2); six supralabials and infralabials (seldom 7);
one anterior and one posterior temporal; postgenials half as long
as pregenials. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; fifteen scale rows
throughout length of body; anal plate and subcaudals divided; ven-
trals 115-127, average 122, in males, and 126-138, average 132, in
266 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
females; subcaudals 44-57, average 51 in males, and 36-48, average
42, in females.
Body light yellow-brown above, the color becoming gradually
darker on head; belly whitish.
Size small, maximum total length recorded SJs inches; tail about
23 percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The tantillas and some pit vipers are the
only snakes of the state that lack the loreal. When only one scale is
present between the eye and nasal, however, it is not always easy
to say offhand whether it is a loreal or a preocular; since certain
other snakes regularly lack the preocular, confusion can occur. The
single scale can be identified as a preocular if it is as high as long
(or higher), and as a loreal if it is longer than high. In identifying
Fig. 202. A slender tantilla, Tantilla gracilis hallotvelli, X 1,
K. U. no. 23689, 3 miles north of Galena, Cherokee County,
Kansas. Photo by Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh and T. P. Lyle.
a snake that may be a tantilla, it is helpful to remember that only
three other snakes in the state ever have fifteen smooth scale rows
and a divided anal. They are: Diadophis punctatus (with a con-
spicuous light ring about neck), Opheodrys vernalis (green above,
more than 80 subcaudals, postgenials twice as long as broad), and
Smith: Snakes 267
Sonora episcopa (postgenials separated from each other and some-
times indistinguishable; 2 posterior temporals; much thicker head).
The present species, T. gracilis, is most certainly distinguished
from T. nigriceps by the gradual change of the color on the body to
the darker color of the head; in T. nigriceps the head is darker than
the body, but there is absolutely no graduation between the colors
on the nape; the black of the head terminates posteriorly at a sharply
defined line. Also T. gracilis usually has six supralabials and one
postocular, whereas T. nigriceps always has seven supralabials and
t\vo postoculars. Since these characters based on scales vary, how-
ever, the color characteristic, which does not vary, should be given
greater emphasis. A further difference occurs in the number of
ventrals: T. nigriceps has no less than 146, and T. gracilis no more
than 138.
Habits and Habitat. — This snake is commonly found under stones
on the hills of eastern Kansas where trees are scarce and the vegeta-
tion is chiefly grass. Probably it is nocturnal. The snakes are ex-
tremely docile and rarely if ever attempt to bite. While they pos-
sess venom, it is so weak, as far as mammals are concerned, that no
risk whatsoever attends the capture and handling of these snakes.
The food consists of elongate insect larvae and centipedes. These
are kinds of animals that would be found underground or under ob-
jects where these snakes abound. Probably the food is rendered
somewhat helpless by the venom. A pair of enlarged teeth at the
rear of the mouth have faint grooves along the side, which facilitate
conduction of the poisonous saliva into the wounds made by the
teeth. Teeth such as these are termed "pleuroglyph," as opposed to
"opisthoglyph" teeth of some snakes of the United States and else-
where, in which the sharp teeth have grooves along the front margin.
Opisthoglyph teeth occur only at the rear of the jaws. Still other
types of teeth are the solenoglyph and proteroglyph types; one is
movable (that is, the bone to which it is attached moves), whereas
the other (proteroglyph) is fixed; both are types occurring in the
front of the jaws, and are possessed by dangerously venomous
snakes. In each the groove has closed over so that there is a cavity,
or canal, running the length of the tooth, down which the venom is
forced, in much the same manner as fluids are forced through a
hypodermic needle. The salivary gland which secretes the venom
has a direct connection with the base of the tooth, with the result
that all of the secretion goes into and through the teeth, rather than
being freed loose in the mouth as in snakes with pleuroglyph and
opisthoglyph teeth. The venom is a specialized saliva.
268
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
T. gracilis in June and early July lays one to four eggs 13-26 X
4-6/2 mm. in size; they hatch in September.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are recognized. The one occurring in
Kansas is T. g. halloivelli Cope, with type locality restricted to Manhattan,
Riley County, Kansas. The other subspecies, T. g. gracilis, occurs in Texas and
southern Oklahoma.
References. — Blanchard, 1938: 371-372, 376 (diagnosis); Force, 1935: 645-659 (nat-
ural history, Oklahoma); Taylor, 1936: 337-339 (variation).
Black-headed Tantilla
Tantilla nigriceps Kennicott
Tantilla nigriceps Kennicott, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 328 (type locality
— Fort Bliss, Texas ) .
Range. — Entire state except eastern third. Recorded as far east
as Riley (4/2 miles south of Manhattan), Douglas
and Cowley counties ( the latter two doubtful ) , and
as far to the northwest as Hamilton, Kearny (1
mile east of Lakin), Gove, and Rooks (5 miles
northwest of Stockton) counties.
Mutfuin of Nalgral Hlitorr
UAlvtnlli of KonMt
19^9
Fig. 203. Distribution of the black-headed tantilla, Tantilla nigriceps, in Kansas.
Description. — Head much flattened, little if any wider than neck;
head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; no loreal; 2
postoculars; 7 supralabials; 6 infralabials; 1 anterior and 1 pos-
terior temporal; postgenials half as long as pregenials. Dorsal
scales absolutely smooth; 15 scale rows throughout length of body;
anal plate and subcaudals divided; ventrals 146-159, average 143,
Smith: Snakes
269
in males, and 150-161, average 155, in females; subcaudals 43-62,
average 52, in males, and 35-58, average 44, in females.
Body light yellowish brown above, except on top of head; latter
black above, the color extending posteriorly on 2-4 scale rows onto
nape, there terminating with a V-shaped ( with the apex posteriorly )
extremity; belly whitish.
Size small, maximum recorded total length 13'^ inches; tail
approximately 20 percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — See discussion of T. gracilis.
Fig. 204. A black-headed tantilla, Tantilla n. nigriceps, X %, Congress Junction,
Arizona. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd.
Habits and Habitats. — Specimens taken in Riley County were
found under stones at the crest of the barren, grassy hills in only one
restricted area south of Manhattan. Seemingly identical hillsides
elsewhere in the vicinity of Manhattan harbored T. gracilis in quan-
tity, but no T. nigriceps. The distribution of this form probably is
spotty. Its habits are not known to differ from those of T. gracilis.
Kansan Subspecies. — One subspecies, Tantilla nigriceps nigriceps Kennicott,
occurs in Kansas. The only other subspecies recognized at present occurs in
south-central Texas, and adjacent parts of Mexico.
References. — Blanchard, 1938: 372, 376 (diagnosis); Taylor, 1936: 342-344, fig. 3 (var-
iation ) .
Genus Hypsiglena Cope
Spotted Night Snake
Hypsiglena torquata (Giinther)
Leptodeira torquata Giinther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. 5, p. 170 (type lo-
cality— Laguna Island, Nicaragua).
Hypsiglena torquata Cope, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 32, 1887, p. 78.
Range. — Western half of state along its southern border. Re-
corded only from 2 localities in Clark County (2 miles south of
270
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
State Lake, and Stevenson Ranch), and two in Barber County
(6 miles southwest of Sun City, and 4 miles south of Aetna).
Fig. 205. Distribution of the spotted night snake, Hypsiglcna torquata, in Kansas, with in-
sert showing range of the species.
Description. — Head flattened, pointed, distinctly wider than neck;
head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1-3, usually 2, preoculars;
2 postoculars; usually 1, sometimes 2, anterior temporals; usually 2,
sometimes 1, posterior temporals; 7-9, usually 8, supralabials;
usually 10, sometimes 9, infralabials; pregenials about equal in size
to postgenials. Dorsal scales absolutely smooth; anal plate and
subcaudals divided; scales in 21 or occasionally 23 rows at middle
of body, 15 or 17 immediately in front of anus; ventrals 160-199,
subcaudals 38-66. Pupil of eye vertical when examined during the
day (that is, in Hght).
Ground color yellowish white, sprinkled with minute flecks of
dark color; a series of 49-70 dark dorsal blotches on body, 10-12
scale rows broad, wider than long and sometimes placed diagonally
and even broken into two spots by a split along the median line; 2-4
rows of smaller spots alternating with each other and with the dor-
sal series, on either side; 3 rather large spots on nape, including an
elongate median spot and a larger lateral one on either side; latter
spots continuous or in line with a dark band on side of head passing
through eye and bordered above by a distinct white line; lips
whitish, stippled; belly immaculate, under side of tail sometimes
flecked with gray.
Size rather small, total length reaching 20/2 inches; tail 13-16
percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The 21 (or 23 at middle of body)
smooth scale rows and divided anal are, in combination, absolutely
distinctive of this species in Kansas. Note also the vertical pupil.
Smith: Snakes 271
Habits and Habitat. — This snake is found to be active only at
night and the shape of the pupil (a vertical slit) in the light is addi-
tionally indicative of nocturnal habits. It is most often found under
stones during the day, but at night wanders about on the ground.
Arid and semiarid, particularly rocky areas, are inhabited; open
terrain without cover such as rocks and other debris on the surface
of the ground seemingly is avoided. This species lays eggs.
The food is known to include small lizards. A pair of slightly
enlarged teeth at the rear of the upper jaw lacks any connection
Fig. 206. A spotted night snake, Hypsiglcna torquuta tcxana, X Vi;,
from Palo Pinto, Texas. Courtesy A. A. and A. H. Wright.
with poison ducts, but the saliva of this species is known to be
mildly poisonous to lizards; it has little or no effect upon man and
other large warm-blooded vertebrates. The snakes are docile and
do not often try to bite; they are so small that the small teeth can
do almost no damage to any but the smallest creatures.
This species, members of the genus Tantilla, and the deadly veno-
mous pit vipers are the only venomous snakes in the state; all others
are completely harmless, and of course Tantilla and Hypsiglena are
absolutely harmless so far as man is concerned.
272
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. ,Hist.
Kansan Subspecies. — One subspecies, Hypsiglcna torquata texana Stej-
neger (with type locality "between Laredo and Camargo, Texas"), occurs in
Kansas. Ten other subspecies occur in the western United States and Mexico.
References. — Van Denburgh, 1922: 779-783, pi. 85 (description, distribution); Tanner,
1944: 51-54 (description, taxonomy ).
Genus Natrix Laurenti
Yellow-bellied Water Snake
Natrix erythrogaster (Forster)
Coluber erythrogaster Forster, in Bossu, Travels Through That Part of North America
Formerly Called Louisiana, vol. 1, 1771, p. 364 (type locality — restricted by
Conant to Parker's Ferry, Edisto River Swamp, Charleston Co., South Carolina).
Natrix erythrogaster Clay, Copeia, 1938, no. 4, pp. 181-182.
Range. — Southeastern half of state. Recorded as far west as
Seward (12 miles northeast of Liberal), Ford, Stafford (Salt Marsh),
Dickinson (Abilene) and Doniphan (Doniphan Lake) counties.
Mjjssum of Noturol Historjr
Univtrtily ot Kontas
I94S
Fig. 207. Distribution of the yellow-bellied water snake, Natrix erythrogaster, in Kansas,
with insert showing range of the species.
Description. — Head flattened, wider behind than in front, dis-
tinctly wider than neck; head scales much as in Fig. 150; 1 preocular;
3 postoculars; 2-3 posterior temporals; supralabials generally 8;
infralabials generally 11. All dorsal scales keeled, the dorsal most
strongly keeled; scale rows generally 25, sometimes 23, at middle of
body, 17 immediately in front of anus; anal plate and all subcaudals
divided; ventrals 143-157; subcaudals 62-83.
Thirty-two to forty rectangular blotches along middle of back
Smith: Snakes
273
in young and half-grown individuals; another lateral series of
blotches, alternating with the dorsal blotches as far forward as head
or second or third dorsal blotch; belly whitish, with anterior margins
of ventrals, especially toward sides of belly, black or gray. These
markings becoming less distinct in large specimens, and belly be-
coming lighter, so that in some the belly is uniform yellow or whitish,
unmarked or only dimly clouded, whereas dorsal surface is more or
less uniform olive or gray-brown. Size large, total length reaching
about five feet (the eastern race has been recorded as reaching 5
feet, 7/2 inches ) ; tail about twenty percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The members of the genus Natrix in
Kansas can be recognized by the combination of keeled dorsal scales.
Fig. 208. A yellow-bellied water snake, Natrix erythrogastcr transversa, X %, K. U. no.
24395, 5 miles west of St. Paul, Neosho Countv, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P.
Lyle.
a single anterior temporal, divided anal, and no fewer than nineteen
scale rows at middle of body. The present species may be distin-
guished from the others of the genus by the absence of dorsal spots
combined with an unmarked or only cloudy belly, or, in case the
dorsal spots are present, by the fact that they alternate with the
lateral spots all the way forward to the head, except sometimes one
or two spots back of head, which may be fused with the dorsal
blotches to produce three or fewer crossbands. The species N.
274 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
erythrogaster is most often confused with Natrix sipedon, in which
the dorsal spots are always visible, and more than three crossbands
are present on the neck; in that species the belly is heavily mottled,
whereas in N. erythrogaster the belly is unmarked or else the mark-
ings ( visible only in young specimens ) are restricted to the anterior
edges of the belly scales. The subcaudals toward the tip of the tail
are immaculate in N. erythrogaster, but mottled in N. sipedon.
Habits and Habitat. — Almost any permanent stream, river or lake
harbors this species. It is nocturnal, and during the day can be
found under stones and logs at the margin of die water. However
on warm days the snakes emerge and bask for several hours in the
sun, providing it is not too hot. All efforts to capture food, however,
seem to be restricted to the evening.
The food is not constricted and probably consists of aquatic ani-
mals such as fish, frogs, crayfish, tadpoles and salamanders.
Like most other water snakes, these are extremely vicious, and do
not become docile even in captivity except when special pains are
taken not to arouse their fears. They strike repeatedly upon cap-
ture, and at the same time exude small quantities of an evil smelling
fluid from the scent glands at the base of the tail. The teeth are
long, numerous and sharp, and inflict numerous painful scratches.
The snakes do not, however, like some others such as the racers,
hold on and chew; they strike, bite and immediately let go.
Mating has been observed in the eastern subspecies in late April
and May. No eggs are laid, but the females in September and
October give birth to 8 to 27 young measuring 8/8 to 101 inches in
length.
Kansan Subspecies. — Four races are recognized, one of which, Natrix erythro-
gaster transversa ( Hallowell ) , occurs in Kansas. Its type locality is the "Creek
boundary, near the banks of the Arkansas and its tributaries." The other races
occur in the eastern United States.
References. — Conant, 1938: 70-74 (natural history of the eastern subspecies, N. e. ery-
throgaster); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 224-225 (description, natural history); Cope, 1900:
973-975, fig. 252 (description); Conant, 1949: 12-14, pi. 1 in color (diagnosis, variation,
comparisons ) .
Graham Water Snake
Natrix grahamii (Baird and Girard)
Regina grahamii Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 47 (type locality—
Salado Creek, Bell County, Texas).
Natrix grahamii Cope, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 14, 1892, p. 668.
Range. — Eastern half of state. Recorded as far west as Jewell
(Jewell) and Pratt (Pratt) counties; records sparse toward west.
Smith: Snakes
275
Description. — Head small, narrower than body which tapers some-
what anteriorly, somewhat flattened above, and little wider than
neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; posterior temporals
2; supralabials 7, sometimes 8; infralabials 9-10; postgenials longer
than pregenials. Dorsal scales strongly keeled, except those in
outer row which are generally smooth; anterior scale rows 19 or
21, at middle of body 19, immediately in front of anus 17; anal and
all subcaudals divided; ventrals 155-170; subcaudals 51-66.
More or less uniform brown above; a yellow stripe along either
side involving 3 outer scale rows, with an irregular black border
below which involves ends of ventrals and outer edge of first scale
Scol*
■0 0 K «0Mil«S
■I I I
Wui«um of Netural History
Uflivtnilr o' Kontot
1945
m
Fig. 209. Distribution of the Graham water snake, Natrix grahamii, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
row; vague dark border on inner edge of light stripe; sometimes a
feeble, dark-edged median light stripe; ventral surface immaculate
or with one or two series of small dark spots; sometimes a median
series of small spots under tail.
Size moderately large, total length reaching 29^2 inches; tail about
16 percent of total length when complete (tip often missing).
Recognition Characters. — The striped pattern is distinctive of this
peculiarly marked Natrix. It is the only species in the state com-
bining nineteen scale rows at the middle of the body with a divided
anal and keeled scales. Tropidoclonion lineatum looks much like
the young of the present species, but has an entire anal and 2 rows
of large spots down the belly.
276 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Habits and Habitat. — In Nebraska these snakes have been found
only near ponds. In Texas, where streams also are frequented, they
have been found abundantly in crayfish burrows. The food consists
largely of crayfish and to a lesser degree of other aquatic animals.
Ten to fifteen young measuring approximately eight inches in
total length are born in late August and probably as late as Sep-
tember.
Fig. 210. A Graham water snake, Natrix grahamii, X %, 7 miles southeast of Waco, Mc-
Lennan County, Texas. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been distinguished anywhere in the
range of this species.
References. — Hudson, 1942: 69-70, pi. 13, fig. 1 (description, habits, Nebraska);
Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 210, fig. 67 (description, habits, general).
Diamond-backed Water Snake
Natrix rhombifera (Hallowell)
Tropidonotus rhombifera Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 6, 1852, p. 177
(type locality — Tulsa, Oklahoma).
Natrix rhombifera Cope, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 11, 1889, p. 398.
Range. — Southeastern half of state. Recorded as far west as
Meade (State Lake), Stafford (Salt Marsh), Lyon (5 miles north-
west of Reading), Jefferson and Leavenworth counties.
Description. — Head flattened, large, wider than neck; head scales
much as shown in Fig. 150; internasals narrow; 1 preocular or rarely
2; 3 postoculars or rarely 4 or 5; 2 posterior temporals; postgenials
longer than pregenials; 7-11, generally 8, supralabials and 10-14,
generally 11, infralabials. Dorsal scales strongly keeled, except
those on sides which are weakly keeled; anal plate and all sub-
caudals divided; 25-29 scale rows at middle of body, 21-29 im-
mediately in front of anus; ventrals 133-150, subcaudals 57-81.
Smith: Snakes
277
Ground color lij^ht gray; a series of 30-64 small, dark gray blotches
down middle of back on body, connected by narrow, sometimes
indistinct, dark lines with similar, alternating dark spots in a
row on each side; belly yellow; most ventral plates with several
semilunar dark spots on their anterior edge.
Size large, reaching fifty-seven inches in total length; tail twenty
to twenty-three percent of total length; body large and heavy.
Recognition Characters. — The members of the genus Natrix are
characterized by the combination of keeled dorsal scales, a single
anterior temporal, divided anal, and no fewer than 19 scale rows at
middle of body. In the genus Natrix, N. rhomhifera is set apart
chiefly by its peculiar color-pattern, which is not duplicated in any
other Kansan member of the genus or for that matter by any other
ScoU
20 40Milt»
I '
Mutlum of Notural HIslery
Untvtnily of KartMf
I94J
Fig. 211. Distributfon of the diamond-backed water snake, Natrix rhomhifera, in Kansas,
with insert showing range of the species.
snake in the state. The chief peculiarity of the pattern is the small
size of the dorsal spots, and their connection with the small lateral
spots by diagonal lines passing both forward and backward.
Habits and Habitat. — These, like other water snakes, are noctur-
nal although they enjoy basking in the sunshine for a part of each
day. The basking, as in other species, is done on the branches of
trees, on logs, rocks, or other promontories a few feet or a few inches
above the surface of the water. Objects at the edge of the water
may be used for basking, or objects projecting from it. When bask-
278
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
ing, they are not especially wary, and many individuals can be ap-
proached closely enough to be captured. At night when they are
seeking food they are more wary but in shallow water can be cap-
tured easily. They strike and bite viciously, and their large size
makes them the most feared of all the nonvenomous snakes in the
state. The long teeth lacerate a person's flesh easily.
The food is much like that of other water snakes; items found in
stomachs include catfish, small snapping turtles, sunfish, shad, frogs
and other aquatic animals. The food can be, and probably often is,
captured and swallowed under water; there is accordingly no foun-
Fig. 212. A diamond-backed water snake, Natrix r. rho-mbifera. X '/3. K. U. no. 24402,
5 miles west of St. Paul, Neosho County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
dation for the popular belief that snakes cannot strike under water.
Eighteen to forty-three, average thirty, young are born in late
August and early September.
Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies have been defined; one, Natrix rhom-
hifera rhombifera ( Hallowell ) , occurs in Kansas. The other subspecies occur on
the eastern coast of Mexico.
References.— Cag\e, 1937: 179-185, pi. 1, text fig. 1 (variation, habits, Tennessee);
Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 217-218, fig. 71 (description, natural history); Cope, 1900: 963-
965, fig. 249 (description).
Smith: Snakes
279
Common Water Snake
Natrix sipedon ( Linnaeus )
Coluber sipedon Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, 1758, p. 219 (type locality — ■
New York, New York).
Natrix sipedon Kirsch, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm., vol. 14, 1895, p. 333.
Range. — State-wide except for extreme south-
western corner. Recorded as far west as Phillips,
Rooks, Logan and Meade (State Park) counties.
Not recorded from northwestern corner but to be
expected.
Muiaum of Norwrql Hittorir
Unlvartitf of Kontoi
I94S
m
Fig. 213. Distribution of the common water snake, Natrix sipedon, in Kansas.
Description. — Head flattened, broader than neck; head scales
much as shown in Fig. 150; internasals somewhat narrowed anteri-
orly; 1 preocular; 3 postoculars; supralabials generally 8, seldom
9; infralabials 9-11, generally 10; postgenials longer than pregenials.
Dorsal scales strongly keeled, those on sides weakly keeled; scale
rows on anterior % of body 21-23, immediately in front of anus
17-19; anal and all subcaudals divided; ventrals 132-149, average
140; subcaudals 66-82, average 75, in males, and 56-74, in females,
average 64.
A series of 24-50 quadrangular blotches on body, the anterior
four or more (average 10) crossbarlike, fused with lateral spots on
either side; back of the level of the crossbands, lateral spots alternate
with dorsal spots; ground color gray or olive; belly usually rather
brightly marked with various hues from dark gray to orange, the
darker markings tending to be semilunar in shape and scattered
more or less irregularly over the belly; tail similarly, densely marked.
280
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist,
Size rather large, total length reaching fifty-one inches; tail twenty
to twenty-nine percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — Members of the genus Natrix in Kan-
sas may be recognized by the combination of keeled dorsal scales,
a single anterior temporal, divided anal, and no fewer than nine-
teen scale rows at middle of body. N. sipedon may be distinguished
from other species of the genus by the presence of four or more
broad crossbands on the anterior part of the body. It is most often
confused with N. erythrogaster, which has immaculate caudals at
the tip of the tail, an unmarked belly or belly with marks only at the
anterior margin of the ventrals, and no more than three complete
crossbands on the neck. See discussion of N. erythrogaster.
-viia%.r^'-
'^^^^v > ^^i^S-^'^ -■
"■Mat, ' ^12^.
Fig. 214. A common water snake, Natrix s. sipedon, X Vs, 2 miles south of Townsend, New
Castle County, Delaware. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia.
Habits and Habitat. — The habits and habitat of this species are
much like those of other Natrix in Kansas. It is, however, by far
the most ubiquitous species of the genus in the state. It is the
species commonly found about streams, rivers, marshes, permanent
ponds and lakes. At times the snakes wander several hundred feet
from water.
This and other species of Natrix have the very unpleasant habit
of exuding the contents of the anal scent glands when captured,
while the tail and rear part of body flail about, scattering widely the
evil smelling secretion, often mixed with copious quantities of feces.
Mating occurs in spring (April and May) and perhaps also in fall
Smith: Snakes
281
(September). Ten to seventy-six young are bom from August to
October; the number varies with the size of the female; large
females have large litters, and small females small litters. There
is considerable evidence that any one female will bear young only
in alternate years. When born the young measure nine inches in
total length.
The food consists of aquatic animals, chiefly fish, frogs, sala-
manders and crayfish. Mammals rarely are eaten. Some of these
snakes die as a result of being impaled on the spines of fins of
catfish that they have swallowed.
Kansan Subspecies. — Eight subspecies are known, one of which, Natrix sipe-
don sipedon (Linnaeus), occurs in Kansas. The others occur in the eastern
United States eastward from Texas.
References. — Conant, 1938: 81-86, pi. 11, fig. 1 (description, natural history, Ohio); Mc-
Cauley, 1945: 106-114, fig. 28 (description, natural history, Maryland); Schmidt and Davis,
1941: 219-220, pi. 24 (description, natural history).
Genus Storeria Baird and Girard
DeKay Snake
Storeria dekayi (Holbrook)
Tropidonotus dekayi Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp., ed. 2, vol. 4, 1842, p. 53, pi. 14 (type
locality — Cambridge, Massachusetts ) .
Storeria dekayi Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Kept., 1853, p. 135.
Range. — Eastern two-thirds of state. Recorded as far west as
Graham and Kiowa (Rezeau Ranch) counties.
Fig. 215. Distribution of the DeKay snake, Storeria dekayi, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species.
282
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Description. — Head rather thick, sHghtly flattened above, a httle
wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular;
2 postoculars; 6-8, usually 7, supralabials and infralabials; 1 anterior
and 2-3 posterior temporals; postgenials a little broader and longer
than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled, those in outer row rather
feebly; scale rows 17 throughout length of body; anal and sub-
caudals divided; ventrals 121-131, average 125, in males, and 125-
140, average 131, in females of this area; subcaudals 53-61, average
56, in males, and 41-51, average 46, in females.
Gray or olive above, sometimes uniform but usually with a dim
middorsal light stripe some three scale rows wide; almost always
Fig. 216. A DeKay snake, Storcria dckayi texnna, X 1, K. U. no. 23608, Law-
rence, Douglas County, Kansas. Photo by E. H. Taylor and T. P. Lyle.
evident is the series of small spots bordering the median stripe on
either side; sides of belly finely stippled, venter otherwise whitish
or slightly pinkish; a dark spot below eye and on either side of neck.
Size small, total length reaching 15 inches; tail 17-27 percent
of total length.
Recognition Characters. — There is no obvious character distin-
guishing this species from others of the state. The combination of
seventeen rows of keeled scales and a divided anal distinguishes the
species from all others except Opheodrys aestivus (a larger snake
with more than 100 subcaudals) and Haldea (which has 5 or 6
supralabials and no preocular). The dim, broad, middorsal light
stripe combined with the small size are the two most useful char-
acters for spot recognition, and for readily distinguishing this species
from the other species of snakes with which it might be confused
in Kansas. The absence of the loreal is a useful characteristic.
Smith: Snakes
283
Habits and Habitat. — This apparently nocturnal species frequents
moist situations, generally under rocks, logs or other cover in
creek beds and in woods. It is completely innocuous, making no
attempts to bite even with severe provocation; it does secrete a
rather strong-smelling fluid from the anal glands at least when first
captured. Even this defense is later dropped.
Slugs, snails and earthworms and but little else are taken as food.
In the eastern subspecies mating occurs in late March and April,
and 3-24 young are born in July and August; at birth they measure
3/2 to 4^2 inches long.
Kansan Subspecies. — Six subspecies are known, of which but one, Storeria
dekatji texana Trapido, occurs in Kansas. Its type locaUty is at Edge Falls, 4
miles south of Kendalia, Kendall County, Texas. The other subspecies occur
in the eastern United States and eastern Mexico and Guatemala.
References. — Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 227-228, pi. 25 (description, natural history);
Trapido, 1944: 63-79, figs. 45-50 (description, variation, distribution).
Red-bellied Snake
Storeria occipitomaculata (Storer)
Coluber occipito-maculatus Storer, Rep. Fish Rept. Birds Mass., 1839, p. 230 (type
locality — Amherst, Massachusetts ) .
Storeria occipito-maculatus Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 137.
Range. — Eastern fifth of state. Records from Riley, Phillips
(Long Island) and Hamilton counties require confirmation.
Seal!
10 0 ta wMilcl
litiaum of Notural H'ltfrf
Unrv«ritl, ot KanMt
I94S
Fig. 217. Distribution of the red-bellied snake, Storeria occipitomaculata, in Kansas, with
insert showing range of the species.
284 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Description. — Head rather thick, shghtly flattened above, a little
wider than neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 2 preocu-
lars; 2 postoculars; 1 anterior and 2-3 posterior temporals; usually
6 supralabials; usually 7 infralabials; postgenials a little shorter but
wider than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled except those in outer
row; scale rows 15 throughout length of body; anal and subcaudals
divided; ventrals 112-132, average 121, in males, and 121-133, aver-
age 125, in females of this area; subcaudals 42-55, average 49, in
males, and 37-51, average 42, in females.
Dark gray or brown above, the color extending onto ends of
ventrals; remainder of ventral surface whitish anteriorly, generally
reddish posteriorly; 3 light spots back of head on nape, and one
on side of head below and behind eye.
Size small, maximum total length recorded 15 inches; tail 17-29
percent of total length.
Fig. 218. A red-bellied snake, Storeria o. occipitomaculata, X 1, K. U. no. 23690, 5%
miles east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee County, Kansas. Photo by Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh
and T. p. Lyle.
Recognitioti Characters. — No other species in the state has fifteen
keeled scale rows.
Habits and Habitat. — This species, like S. dekayi, is restricted to
moist areas, where it is found under boards, stones, logs and other
surface debris. It is completely harmless and refuses to bite, al-
though an interesting reaction has been noted by McCauley in Mary-
land: the snakes sometimes, when first discovered, rear backward
and curl the upper lip outward, turning the upper jaw bone ( maxil-
Smith: Snakes
285
lary) outward at the same time; the action is reminiscent of the
"showing of teeth" practiced by some mammals for purposes of
intimidation. The reaction has been noted by Conant in Haldea
valeriae also.
The food consists of earthworms, slugs and small insects.
The young are born from July to September in litters of 1-14,
average 7, and measure upon birth 2% to 3% inches long.
Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies have been recognized in this species,
only one of which occurs in Kansas; it is Storeria occipitomaculata occipito-
maculata (Storer). The other subspecies occur in Florida and central Mexico.
References. — Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 229-230, fig. 74 (description, natural history);
Trapido, 1944: 20-33, figs. 11-13, 20 (description, variation, distribution).
Genus Haldea Baird and Girard
Southern Ground Snake
Haldea striatula (Linnaeus)
Coluber striatulus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 375 (t>pe localitj' —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Haldea striatula Cope, Ann. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1898 (1900), p. 1009, fig. 272.
Range. — Extreme southeastern corner of state. Recorded only
from Crawford (6 miles east of Pittsburg) and Cherokee (3 miles
east of Crestline; 2 miles north of Baxter Springs ) counties.
Muacwm •! Naiur«i H>ilerf
Unlv«ni(r el Kantai
IMS
Fig. 219. Distribution of the southern ground snake, Haldea striatula, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
286 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Description. — Head small, thick, rather sharply pointed, not dis-
tinct from neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; internasals
fused, represented by a single plate (rarely 2); no preocular; loreal
and prefrontal in contact with eye; 1 postocular; 1 anterior and 1 or
2 posterior temporals; supralabials 5; infralabials 6; postgenials as
long as or a little shorter than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled,
except those in outer row, which are smooth; scale rows 17, occa-
sionally reduced to 15 immediately in front of anus; anal plate and,
with occasional exceptions of 1-10 scales, subcaudals divided; ven-
trals 120-135; subcaudals 36-50.
Dull gray or gray-brown above and yellow to pink below; head a
little darker than body; no markings except (in eastern United
States ) sometimes a light band of varying distinctness across middle
of parietals.
Size small, total length reaching twelve inches; tail approximately
seventeen percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — This is the only snake in the state that
has the internasals fused together to form a single scale. Only one
Fig. 220. A southern ground snake, Haldca striatula, X 1. Tulsa, Okla-
homa. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd.
other species has five supralabials — Carphophis amocnus, but it has
thirteen rows of smooth scales instead of seventeen rows of keeled
scales.
Habits and Habitat. — This is apparently a nocturnal species,
found in the day hidden under logs, bark and leaves, and at night
wandering about among leaves on the ground. It occurs in moist
areas near streams or pools of water. In Texas the species was
collected in large numbers by Edward H. Taylor by raking with
the hands in leaves and other debris on the banks of long-deserted
gravel pits where small trees and other vegetation provided con-
siderable shade during the day; more open spots were avoided.
Smith: Snakes
287
The food consists of insects, their larvae, earthworms, spiders and
other small invertebrates.
The young are born in litters of six to eight, and each measures
approximately four inches in total length.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies have been defined anywhere in the
range of this species.
Reference. — Schmidt and Davis, 1941:231-232, fig. 75, pi. 25.
Western Ground Snake
Haldea valeriae (Baird and Girard)
Virginia valeriae Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 127 (type localitv-
— Kent County, Maryland ) .
Haldea valeriae Stejneger and Barbour, Check List N. Amer. Amph. Rept., ed. 4,
1939, p. 132.
Range. — Eastern border of the state. Recorded only from
Leavenworth (15 miles northeast of Lawrence), Jefferson (10 miles
north of Lawrence, Douglas (Lawrence), Franklin (Ottawa) and
Anderson counties.
Scela
n «3 Milts
I I
Museum of Natural Hitlory
Univ«r»il| ol KontOS
1945
at
Fig. 221. Distribution of the western ground snake, Haldea valeriae, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — Head little flattened, pointed, scarcely distinguished
from neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; no preocular;
loreal and prefrontal in contact with eye; 1-3, generally 2 post-
oculars; 1 anterior and 2 posterior temporals; 6 supralabials; 6
infralabials; postgenials two-thirds length of pregenials. Dorsal
scales keeled except those in 1 or 2 lateral rows; generally 17 scale
288
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
rows throughout length of body; anal and all subcaudals divided;
ventrals 113-131; subcaudals 25-45.
Olive above, sometimes suffused with pink; belly whitish; a faint
middorsal light streak sometimes evident, bordered on either side
by a series of tiny black flecks.
Size small, maximum total length measurement recorded, 12/2
inches; tail 13 to 21 percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — Only two other species in the state lack
Fig. 222. A western ground snake, Haldea valeriae elegans, X 1, San An-
tonio, Texas. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd.
a preocular: Carphophis amoentis (13 rows of smooth scales) and
Haldea striatula ( 1 internasal, 5 supralabials ) .
Habits and Habitat. — These are nocturnal, terrestrial snakes
which live in wooded areas where they hide beneath stones, logs
and other surface cover.
In the eastern subspecies, in August, 4-8 young are born, each
approximately 2)2 inches in length.
The food consists of earthworms, insects and their larvae. In
captivity the snakes are said to feed well upon earthworms.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are known, one of which, Haldea
valeriae elegans (Kennicott), occurs in Kansas. Its type locality is "heavily
timbered regions of southern Illinois." The other subspecies occurs in the
eastern United States.
References. — Conant, 1938: 94-96, and McCauley, 1945: 119-121 (habits of the eastern
subspecies, H. v. valeriae, Ohio and Maryland, respectively); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 232-
233, fig. 76 (description).
Smith: Snakes
289
Genus Thamno})his Fitzinger
Marcy Garter Snake
Thamnophis marcianus ( Baird and Girard )
Eutaenia marciana Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Kept., 1853, p. '36 (type locality
— Slough Creek, east of Hollister, Tillman County, Oklahoma).
Thamnophis marcianus Ruthven, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 61, 1908, p. 58.
Fig. 223.
Distribution of the Marcy garter snake, Thamnophis marcianus, in Kansas, with
insert showing range of the species.
Range. — Western third of state seemingly not reaching the Ne-
braska border. Recorded as far east as Sheridan, Trego and Barber
(Lake City) counties.
Description. — Head somewhat flattened, distinctly wider than
neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 3-4 post-
oculars; 2 posterior temporals; generally 8 supralabials, infralabials
9-11, most frequently 10; postgenials narrower but as long as pre-
genials. Dorsal scales keeled, those in outer row feebly if at all
keeled; scales in 21 rows at middle of body, 17 immediately in
front of anus; anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 144-165,
subcaudals 62-79.
Ground color brownish yellow; a middorsal light stripe covering
1 scale row and a half of each adjacent row, the edges irregular
and not sharply defined; a lateral light stripe on the third scale
row only anteriorly, the second and third posteriorly; none of the
light stripes particularly well defined; between these stripes on
either side two series of small, dark, alternating spots, sometimes
poorly defined; another series of ill-defined spots below lateral light
stripe, encroaching on ends of ventrals; belly yellowish, unspotted;
10—9019
290
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
upper labials strongly barred; well-defined, light, crescent-shaped
mark, followed by a dark mark, behind angle of jaws.
Size moderate, total length reaching 28/8 inches; tail 19 to 26 per-
cent of total length.
Fig. 224. A Maicy gaiter snake, Thaitinophis m. viarcianus, X %.
New York Zoological Society.
Courtesy of the
Recognition Characters. — The garter snakes (Thamnophis) may
be distinguished from all other snakes in Kansas except Pitiiophis
(which has an enlarged rostral and 4 prefrontals) and TropicJo-
clonion (which has 6 supralabials ) by the combination of keeled
scales and an entire anal. Most easily confused with it is the species
Natrix grahamii (Natrix has a divided anal), Storeria (also with a
divided anal) and T ropidoclonion; these are the only other striped
snakes in the state. The species differs from others of the genus in
the restriction of the lateral light stripe to the third scale row
anteriorly; in all others it involves the fourth and second row also.
Likewise characteristic, although not unique, is the absence of
sharply defined, straight edges on the middorsal stripe, and the
presence of a crescent-shaped mark back of the head on either side.
Habits and Habitat. — This species occurs only in semiarid regions,
but like other garter snakes frequents the margins of pools of water
and of streams and rivers. The food probably consists of frogs,
toads and fish, as well as some invertebrates.
Little is known of the life history of this species. It, like other
garter snakes, gives birth to living young; a litter of fourteen has
been recorded. Litter size probably varies with size of mother.
Smith: Snakes 291
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are recognized. Tlic western one,
Thamnophis mairianus nigrolateris Brown, occurs in Kansas. Its type locality
is at Tucson, Arizona.
References. — Cope, 1900: 1044-1046, fig. 289 (description); Schmidt and Davis, 1941:
241-242 (description); Mittleman, 1949: 246-248.
Common Garter Snake
Thamnophis ordinatus (Linnaeus)
Coluber ordinatus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 379 (type locality —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Thamnophis ordinatus Klauber, Copeia, 1948, no. 1, p. 9.
Range. — State-wide. Precise locality records
are lacking for the entire northwestern third of
the state, but records available from adjacent
states reliably indicate occurrence throughout
Kansas.
Description. — Head somewhat flattened, distinctly wider than
neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 2-4,
usually 3, postoculars; 1 anterior and 1-3 posterior temporals;
supralabials usually 7, occasionally 8; infralabials 9-11, usually 10;
postgenials slightly longer than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled;
scale rows 19 on anterior two-thirds of body, 17 immediately in
front of anus; anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 156-178,
average 163, in males, and 150-169, average 161, in females; sub-
caudals 76-95, average 83, in males, and 65-79, average 74, in
females.
Three light stripes on body, lateral stripes not always well de-
fined, involving second and third rows, middorsal stripe involving
one full and two half scale rows; two series of alternating spots on
either side between the stripes; spots in upper series generally fused
with each other and with the spots in lower row; spaces between
these spots reddish; a series of similar dark spots below lateral light
line, separated by light areas suffused in part with red; belly gray
or greenish, throat and under side of tail lighter; a series of small
spots sometimes evident near ends of ventrals; lips barred or not,
the markings quite variable.
Size moderate, total length reaching 45/2 inches; tail 20-32 per-
cent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — This is the only species of the genus
Thamnophis (see discussion of T. marcianus for its distinctive char-
acters) in Kansas which has the light lateral stripe involving the
second scale row on the anterior part of the body; it is likewise the
only one with the spots of the upper row fused with each other and
with the spots of the adjacent row; and only one other species
(rarely) has red in the dorsal coloration {T. radix, as an anomaly);
ordinarily the presence of distinct red areas on the back can be
292
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Fig. 225. Distribution of the common garter snake, Thamnophis ordinotiis, in Kansas.
relied upon as a criterion diagnostic of this species. If the specimen
is emaciated, however, and the skin does not show between the
scales, the red then may not be evident; the scales should be spread
to determine the color of the skin if the red is not visible upon
first glance. Preserved specimens tend to lose this color.
Habits and Habitat. — This is one of the most ubiquitous snakes
of the state. It does not appear to be confined in particular to
'■^'^^^r
Fig. 226. A common garter snake, Thamnophis ordinatiis parictiiUs, X %, Derby, Colo-
rado. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd.
Smith: Snakes 293
aquatic habitats, although it occurs there in perhaps greater abun-
dance than elsewhere. It is the common garter snake in towns,
where it may be foimd in vacant lots and overgrown yards.
This, like other garter snakes, is a diurnal species seldom found
at night, even under logs, stones or other cover where a person
would expect to find it. Its temperament is like that of other garter
snakes; that is to say, it is rather nervous and wary. Specimens
bite when captured and void foul-smelling fluids from the anus;
both reactions are inhibited in captivity. When startled, the snakes
tend to flatten the body and spread the skin, thus exposing the red
areas to full view. Certain other garter snakes have the same habit.
Earthworms, tadpoles, frogs and toads make up the bulk of the
food of this species. Presumably carrion fish, small mammals and
birds, are sometimes eaten.
Mating occurs in May in Maryland (in a different subspecies
than that of Kansas), and 14-78 young measuring 6 to 8 inches in
total length are born in August and September.
Kansan Subspecies. — Eight subspecies are recognized at the present time, one
of which, Thamnophis ordinaius parietalis (Sa\), occurs in Kansas. The type
locaUty is the same as that for T. sauritus proximus. The other races occur
throughout the United States and in southern Canada and extreme northern
Mexico. This species has been referred to as T. sirtalis ( Linnaeus ) for much of
the past forty years, although that name actualK- was based upon the ribbon
snake. The name could be preserved for the present species by fiat decision
of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, as indicated
in the latest checklist for the United States (Schmidt, 1953, p. 174), but
this has not been done. Less confusion results in retention of the name T.
ordinatus, actually the first to have been applied to this species. That name
has never been appHed commonly (if at all) to any other species, and has
been of frequent usage in the past few years.
References. — Conant, 1938: 102-107, and \fcCauley, 1945: 124-128 (natural history,
Ohio and Maryland, respectively, of a related form, T. o. ordinatus, there called T. s. sir-
talis); Hudson, 1942: 78-80, pi. 14, fig. 2 (description, variation, habits, Nebraska);
Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 253-255 (description, natural history).
Plains Garter Snake
Thamnophis radix (Baird and Girard)
Eutacnia radix Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Rept., 1853, p. 34 (type localit\- —
Chicago, Illinois).
Thamnophis radix Jordan, Man. Vert. Anim. North. U. S., ed. 8, 1899, p. 193.
Range. — State-wide. Uncommon or rare in
eastern quarter of state, and not recorded in the
'^ eastern corners, but records from adjacent states
indicate that this species occurs in all parts of
Kansas; abundance locally varies greatly.
294
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist,
Fig. 227. Distribution of the plains garter snake, Thainnophis radix, in Kansas.
Description. — Head somewhat flattened, distinctly wider than
neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 2-4 post-
oculars, generally 3; 1 anterior and 2-3 posterior temporals; supra-
labials usually 7, sometimes 8; infralabials generally 9 or 10; post-
genials slightly longer than pregenials. Dorsal scales keeled; 19-21
scale rows on anterior two-thirds of body, 17-19 immediately in
front of anus; anal plate single; subcaudals divided; ventrals 142-
176; subcaudals 73-87 in males, 56-75 in females.
Ground color greenish gray to light olive; a distinct middorsal
stripe, generally yellowish in color, involving one full and two half
scale rows and with straight, sharply defined edges; lateral light
stripes, generally well defined, on adjacent edges of third and fourth
scale rows anteriorly (on third or second and third posteriorly);
two alternating series of spots on each side between stripes, and
another series below lateral stripe; lips barred with black; belly
whitish, the extreme anterior edges of ventrals black but the color
showing chiefly at the edges of the ventrals, where the black ex-
pands somewhat to form a small black spot, and thus collectively a
series of small black spots down each side of belly.
Size moderate, total length reaching 36 inches; tail 20-26 percent
of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The genus Thamnophis in Kansas may
be distinguished as indicated in the discussion of T. marcianus.
From other members of the genus, T. radix may be distinguished
most easily by the presence of the light lateral stripe upon the third
and fourth rows anteriorly, combined with the presence of dark bars
Smith: Snakes
295
on the lips or a tail less than twenty-seven percent of the total length.
The only other species with the lateral light stripe involving the
fourth scale row is T. sauritus, but in this the lips are not barred
and the tail is 25-37 (rarely less than 27) percent of the total
length.
^^V* '*^^ >.f *''^ t A-7S;$>
Fig. 228. A plains garter snake, Thawnophis radix hayilcni, X Vs, from Scott County,
Kansas. Courtesy H. K. Gloyd.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is characteristic of the plains,
where it is found most abundantly in marshy or swampy areas,
along streams or other bodies of water. Snakes of this species do,
however, wander far from water and may be found almost anywhere
in fairly moist spots. They hibernate on land, in holes or ant hills
several inches or feet below the surface of the ground. They are
rather aggressive and usually attempt to bite upon capture; also
they exude quantities of excreta and secretions from the postanal
scent glands. After a time in captivity they become more docile,
although never the dependable pets that some other kinds of snakes
become. Plains garter snakes eat fairly readily in captivity, and may
be fed upon earthworms, frogs and toads. These items form their
296
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
natural food. Insects, tadpoles, fish and other aquatic or subaquatic
animals are eaten.
Mating occurs in spring (April, May), and in late July through
September litters of 13-40 young are born. At birth a young snake
measures approximately 7 inches in total length,
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are currently recognized in the range of
this species. Thamnophis radix haijdeni (Kennicott), with a type locaUty in
Stanley County, South Dakota, is the subspecies occurring in Kansas. The
other subspecies occurs to the east.
References. — Hudson, 1942: 75-77, pi. 13, fig. 5 (description, habits, distribution, Ne-
braska); Ruthven, 1908: 70-87 (variation, distribution); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 250-
251, fig. 80, pi. 26 (description, natural history); Smith (A. G.), 1949: 285-292 (variation,
distribution ) .
Ribbon Snake
Thamnophis sauritus ( Linnaeus )
Coluber saurita Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 385 (type locality — •
Charleston, South Carolina, by restr. ).
Thamnophis saurita Stejneger, N. Amer. Fauna, no. 7, 1893, p. 210.
Range. — State-wide, except perhaps the north-
western corner. Not recorded north of Wallace,
Graham and Washington (6 miles east of Haddam)
counties.
Scola
lo wyilai
I I
Mgiawm of Notwat Hillorjr
1949
Fig. 229. Distribution of the ribbon snake, Thamnophis sauritus, in Kansas.
Smith: Snakes 297
Description. — Head somewhat flattened, distinctly wider than
neck; head scales much as shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 2-3,
usually 3, preoculars; 1 anterior and 1-2 posterior temporals; supra-
labials 8; infralabials 10; postgenials. slightly longer than pregenials.
Dorsal scales keeled; scale rows 19 on anterior two-thirds of hody,
17 immediately in front of anus; anal plate entire; suhcaudals di-
vided; ventrals 150-179; suhcaudals 75-125.
Dark gray or black above, whitish below; a middorsal and 2
lateral light stripes, all well defined and with sharply defined,
straight borders; lateral light stripes placed upon third and fourth
scale rows, at least anteriorly, posteriorly dropping to the second and
third rows; no discernible spots between or below stripes; lips
completely immaculate, white; lateral edges of ventrals black; a
pair of small, elongate, white spots on either side of the suture
between parietal plates on head.
Size moderate, total length reaching 44 inches; tail 25-37 percent
of total length; body relatively slender.
Recognition Characters. — When recognized as a member of the
genus Thamnophis (see discussion of T. marcianus), this species can
easily be distinguished from others of the genus by the combi-
FlG. 230. A ribbon snake, Thotnnophit sauritus firoximus, X '■;, K. U. no. 23688, l^i miles
east of Baxter Springs, Cherokee Countv, Kansas. Photo bv Mrs. Virginia C. Unruh and
T. P. Lyle.
nation of immaculate lips and a light lateral stripe on the third and
fourth scale rows anteriorly. Only T. radix among other Kansas
species of garter snakes has the stripe situated on the same rows,
but in it the upper lips are strongly barred. The absence of spots
between the stripes, and the presence of the small light spots on the
middle rear part of the head are also distinctive, but not unique.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is more often confined to the
immediate vicinity of more or less permanent bodies of water than
298 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
any other species of garter snake in the state. It is generally
found along the shores of swamps, lakes and streams, especially
where grass and other vegetation comes up to the water's edge.
They are diurnal, like other garter snakes, and are frequently
startled in grass as they search for food. They immediately retreat
to the water, where they proceed to hide in vegetation or swim
away. When captured they bite vigorously, and at the same time
release the obnoxious secretions of the anal glands and excreta from
the colon. Even after some time in captivity they remain somewhat
nervous, although with careful treatment they refrain from use of
their defense mechanisms. In captivity, they readily eat frogs,
salamanders, small fish and probably small insects and earthworms.
These items no doubt form their natural diet.
Mating probably occurs in spring, as in most other snakes. In
July and August 5-20 young ( less than in most other garter snakes )
measuring about QM inches in total length are born.
Kansan Subspecies. — Four subspecies are recognized. The one which occurs
in Kansas is Tliamnophis sauritus proximus (Say). Its type locality is a stone
quarry on the west side of the Missouri River, 3 miles above the mouth of
Boyer's River, Iowa. The other subspecies occur in the eastern United States
and southward along the Atlantic Coast of Mexico and Central America to
Costa Rica.
References. — Conant, 1938: 99-102, and McCauley, 1945: 121-124 (habits and natural
history of a related form, T. s. sauritus, in Ohio and Maryland, respectively); Hudson, 1942:
77-78, pi. 14, fig. 1 (description, habits, Nebraska); Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 256-257,
fig. 82, pi. 28 (description, natural history).
Genus Tropidoclonion Cope
Lined Snake
Tropidoclonion lineatum (Hallowell)
Microps lineatus Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1856, p. 241 (type locality
— Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, by rest.).
Tropidoclonion lineatum Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1860, p. 76.
Range. — All except the western border of the
state. Recorded as far west as Rawlins (2 miles
east of Atwood), Logan, Scott, Sedgwick (Wichita)
and Cowley (4 miles southeast of Arkansas City)
counties.
Description. — Head little flattened, pointed, no wider than neck,
narrower than body which tapers anteriorly; head scales much as
shown in Fig. 150; 1 preocular; 2 postoculars; 1 anterior and 2
Smith: Snakes
299
posterior temporals; usually 5, sometimes 6 supralabials; infra-
labials 6 or sometimes 7; postgenials about half size of pregenials.
Dorsal scales keeled except those in outer 1 or 2 rows on either side;
scale rows in 17 rows on anterior one-third of body, 17 to 19 rows
at middle of body, and 15-17 rows immediately in front of anus;
anal entire; subcaudals divided; ventrals 138-146; subcaudals 29-45.
Ground color varying from dark to light gray; a poorly defined,
light gray middorsal light stripe and a similar lateral stripe on
either side involving the second and third scale rows; on a light
lui«gm of Nolurol Hi|tof)r
Un>«*rst1y of KOnSOS
1945
Fig. 231. Distribution of the lined snakes, Tropidoclonion Uncatum, in Kansas. The range
of T. I. lineatum is indicated by the crosshatched area, that of T. 1. annectens by the single
set of lines.
ground color small black spots are evident bordering the light lines;
belly whitish, with two rows (nearer midline than edges of ven-
trals) of rounded, well-defined, black spots, a pair of spots on each
ventral.
Size small, total length reaching 20 inches; tail about 13 percent
of total length.
Recognition Characters. — The two rows of black spots down the
middle of an otherwise unmarked belly is absolutely distinctive of
this species in Kansas. Other species of snakes have rows of spots
nearer the sides of the bellv than its middle, but none has them so
distinct and near the middle of the belly as does this species. It
most closely resembles Natrix grahamii, which has a divided anal
300 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
(entire in Tropidoclonion) . Garter and ribbon snakes are super-
ficially similar, but the former have seven or more supralabials.
Habits and Habitat. — These snakes are not infrequently found
emerging in the day from hiding places under stones, logs, rock
fences and other cover on the surface of the ground. They have
been taken as late as early November in Kansas, when they took
advantage of late warm spells to emerge from hibernation in a stone
fence. Whether they are normally nocturnal or diurnal is un-
known; they are said to forage at night, although they have been
found moving about in the daytime. The food consists almost en-
tirely of earthworms.
Fig. 232. Lined snake, Tropidoclonion 1. lineatum. Lower left, X 1, Courtesy of the New
York Zoological Society. Upper right, view of undersurface, midway between head and
anus, from St. Louis, Missouri, X 1, by courtesy A. A. and A. H. Wright.
The snakes seldom if ever attempt to bite, but do thrash about
and void copious anal excretions and secretions, much like their
larger relatives, the garter snakes and water snakes.
The young are born in August in litters of 2-12 (usually 7 or 8).
Kansan Subspecies. — Three subspecies have been defined in the range of this
species. Two occur in Kansas: T. I. lineafinn, usually with less than 144 ven-
trals in females, 143 in males; and T. I. annectens Ramsey (type locality Tulsa,
Oklahoma), usually with more numerous ventrals in both sexes.
References. — Hudson, 1942: 80-81, pi. 14, fig. 3 (description, distribution, Nebraska);
Ramsey, 1947: 15-18 (interesting account of the feeding habits); Schmidt and Davis, 1941:
257-259, fig. 83, pi. 29 (description, natural history); Ramsey, 1953: 7-24, figs. 1-4 (tax-
onomy, geographic and structural variation, range maps, locality records).
Smith: Snakes 301
The Pit Vipers
FAMILY CROTALIDAE
This family includes only those snakes provided with a facial pit
between the eye and nostril. The pit functions as a detector of slight
differences in temperature, so that the possessors of the organ can
discern the presence of warm-blooded animals without seeing them.
Since most species of these snakes hunt at night, and feed mostly
upon small warm-blooded animals such as mice and birds, the ad-
vantage of such an organ is obvious.
The rattlesnakes, cottonmouths and copperheads belong to this
family; they are the only representatives in the United States.
Many other kinds occur in other parts of the world. The only other
poisonous snakes in the United States are the coral snakes, which
belong to the very different family Elapidae. They do not occur
in Kansas.
The rattlesnakes are the most striking members of the family
Crotalidae. They comprise a group occurring in the Western
Hemisphere from Southern Canada to Brazil. They are not known
in the Old World.
The rattle is a structure composed of a number of loosely jointed,
horny segments which, when vibrated against each other produce
a peculiar, characteristic sound. The snake when born has only
a simple, blunt, "pre-button" at the end of the tail. When the skin
is shed for the first time a few hours later, the rest of the first
segment, or "button," of the rattle is formed. Thereafter the snake
adds a new segment to the rattle each time it sheds. Shedding
occurs two to four times a year, and accordingly the saying that a
rattlesnake adds a rattle each year is a myth. The approximate
age can be estimated, if the button is present, by dividing the total
number of segments by three, which represents the average number
of times per year a snake sheds its skin. Generally the series is
incomplete, for the terminal rattles wear away until they drop off.
A string of nine rattles is unusual, yet at least some rattlesnakes
are known to live twenty or twenty-five years. Obviously the
rattles wear away much too rapidly to permit age estimation by
this method except for very young snakes.
Two genera of rattlesnakes are known. They differ chiefly in the
size of the scales on top of the head: Sistrurus has large scales,
Crotahis small ones. Both genera occur in Kansas.
All members of the family Crotalidae are deadly poisonous; all
.302 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
significantly poisonons snakes of Kansas belong to this family.
They are provided with a pair of large, movable fangs (modified
teeth) in the front of the mouth. When the month is closed the
fangs are folded back against the roof of the mouth, but when the
snake opens the mouth to bite or strike, the fangs may be rotated
downward at will so that they project more or less straight down-
ward. As the fangs penetrate, muscles contract about the poison
glands at the rear of the head, forcing the venom through a duct
leading to the fangs and finally through the fangs themselves into
the bitten object. The fangs are hollow, much like a hypodermic
needle, and have a fine opening at the free tip through which the
poison passes to the exterior.
The poison of most members of this family affects the blood and
any cells with which it comes into contact. Normally it is injected
into spaces between the cells, and is slowly swept along in the
lymphatic system toward the heart. As it is carried along it
breaks down many cells, especially those of vessel walls, and thus
contributes to the accumulation of a great deal of lymphatic ooze.
Thus it is that considerable swelling occurs at the site of the bite
of one of these snakes, and that the swelling accompanies the venom
as it moves toward the heart. The venom breaks down the red
blood cells as well as other cells, of course, and if death ensues it is
brought about chiefly by the loss of too many red blood cells and
resultant asphyxiation through the lack of the oxygen which these
cells normally carry to the body tissues. If, by chance, the venom
is injected directly into the big vessels of the blood circulatory
system, it comes into immediate contact with many red blood cells;
these are broken down rapidly and death may follow in a few
minutes. The action is greatly slowed if the venom is injected
into the spaces between the cells and is carried into the blood
circulation by the slow movement of lymph. Fortunately, this is
the way the venom is most often received.
It is obvious that any procedure slowing the rate of entrance of
the venom into the blood circulatory system is so much to the good.
For this reason loose tourniquets are applied, when possible, near the
site of the bite — between it and the heart. As the swelling advances,
the tourniquet should be advanced also, always a little ahead of
the swelling.
Much pain and serious difficulties would be avoided if the victim
of a bite would immediotely — with the loss of not a fraction of a
second — cut with a sharp knife or razor at the site of the bite, as
Smith: Snakes 303
deeply as the fangs penetrated, and then suck out all the blood,
lymph and venom that can be extracted. The second or two after
the bite is the most critical in the victim's chance for recovery;
immediate suction may at once remove as much as seventy-five
percent of the venom before it has a chance to diffuse in the tissues.
Swift action may mean the difference between life and death, and
certainly will reduce very greatly the hazards and pain in the
victim's recovery. Care should be taken, of course, to avoid cutting
large blood vessels. If one is cut the flow should be lessened as
much as possible and the suction applied to one side of the spot.
First aid to the extent described should be in the mind of every
one who is exposed to possible snake bite. Ordinarily the treatment
just outlined is sufficient until the time when a doctor is reached.
The steps to be followed have been summarized by Gloyd (1938:
9, 11) much as follows:
1. "Sterilize the skin over the area of the bite and with a sharp
knife or razor blade, also sterilized, make cross cuts over each fang
mark at least a quarter of an inch deep. Any standard antiseptic,
such as iodine or mercurochrome, mav be used for sterilization. If
an antiseptic is not available, use the flame from a match.
2. "Do not run or do anything that will speed up circulation; do
not use whisky or other forms of alcohol internally.
3. "Apply a tourniquet between the bite and the heart. Do not
tie it too tight. Soft rubber tubing, such as that furnished with the
various snake bite kits, makes the best tourniquet but a shoe string,
handkerchief, or necktie will do.
4. "Apply suction to the incision. If the small rubber bulbs sup-
plied with the kits for this purpose are not available, the mouth may
be used. There is no danger if there are no cuts or sores in the
mouth or on the lips. The venom must get into the blood stream
to cause harm.
5. "Continue the suction, loosening the tourniquet every ten
minutes for a few seconds. As swelling progresses the tourniquet
should be moved and kept just above it, and just tight enough to
retard, but not obstruct, the flow of blood in the veins. Great harm
may result if it is too tight. It should be loose enough to allow a
finger to be slipped under it easily.
6. "Get to a doctor or hospital as quickly as possible. Mean-
while continue suction.
7. "If antivenin is available, after about an hour of suction,
inject five ampouls (50 cc. ) directly into the bite and the sur-
304 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
rounding areas. An amount smaller than this, according to Doctor
Jackson, is of no practical value.
8. "If antivenin has been given as above, wait one hour before
resuming suction; otherwise continue the active suction treatment.
"By this time you should have reached a physician. If not,
continue suction for at least fifteen hours.
"It should be strongly emphasized that a snake bitten person
should be taken to a physician or hospital at once, if possible. Only
a physician is qualified to meet emergencies that may arise during
treatment."
It is perhaps worth emphasis that the bite of a copperhead or
pigmy rattlesnake is not by any means as serious as that of the
other pit vipers of the state. There is little chance that an untreated
bite of either of these snakes would result fatally; only small chil-
dren and persons in poor health would be in danger of losing their
lives. If the simple first-aid directions are followed, virtually all
chance of fatal results are eliminated. Such is not the case for the
true rattlesnakes (Crotalus) nor for the cottonmouth. The bile of
either of these can only be considered highly dangerous; only proper
treatment will lessen the danger.
Genus Ancistrodon Beauvois
Copperhead
Ancistrodon contortrix (Linnaeus)
Boa contortrix Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, vol. 1, 1766, p. 273 (type localit>- —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Agkistrodon contortrix Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Amer. Kept., 1853, p. 17.
Range. — Eastern third of state. Recorded from as far west as
Marshall (Irving), Riley (Manhattan), Geary (Ft. Riley), Lyon
(1/2 miles northwest of Reading), Greenwood (Hamilton), and
Cowley ( 1 mile south of Winfield) counties.
Description. — Head somewhat flattened, considerably wider than
neck; nine large plates on top of head, in general as in most colubrid
snakes ( see Fig. 150 ) ; a large pit on side of head between nostril at
tip of snout and eye; one loreal above pit; several preoculars, sub-
oculars and postoculars, all forming a continuous series bordering
ey-^ except above, where the supraocular plate lies; several rows
of temporals; supralabials 6-10, usually 8; infralabials 8-12, usually
10; postgenials absent. Dorsal scales keeled; 25 scale rows on an-
terior part of body, 23 at middle of body, ust.ally 21 immediately
in front of anus; anal plate and most subcaudals (all except a few
at tip of tail) undivided; ventrals 140-157, average 148; subcaudals
37-54, average about 45, in both sexes.
Smith: Snakes
305
Ground color various hues of brown, from light yellow-brown to
dark gray-browii and bright red-brown; a series of 10-20 light-edged
crossbands on body, each about one-half as wide at middle of body
as at sides; ventrals whitish, mottled with dark brown, the most
conspicuous markings of which are small spots coinciding with and
alternating with the dorsal bands, and therefore twice as numerous
as the dorsal bands; a narrow black line from eye to angle of jaws,
fading into ground color above, sharply differentiated from clear
yellowish lips below; a pair of black dots usually visible on middle
of rear part of head, in the parietal plates. Tip of tail yellow in the
young.
Size moderately large, the total length reaching a recorded maxi-
mum of 53 inches; tail 12-15 percent of total length.
Sccit
.« C K •cMilfl
I i 11
Muiaum e( Natural »tttatj
Uftlwtrtllr et KansOB
I94J
Fig. 233. Distribution of the copperhead, Ancistrodon contortrix, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species. The range of Ancistrodon contortrix mokeson in the eastern
part of the state is indicated by the lined area, and that of Ancistrodon contortrix laticinctus
by the stippled area.
Recognition Characters. — Members of the genus Ancistrodon are
easily recognized by the combination in them of nine large plates on
top of the head (as in most colubrid snakes), no rattle, and a deep
pit on side of head. Of other Kansas snakes, only rattlesnakes have
the facial pit, but in them the rattle is present.
The cottonmouth and copperhead, the only members of the genus
Ancistrodon in Kansas, are best distinguished by the presence of a
loreal in A. contortrix and its absence in A. piscivorus. In the latter
species, the large upper preocular is in contact with the nasal plate,
whereas in A. contortrix these two plates are separated from each
306
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
other by the loreal. A. piscivorus almost always has twenty-five
scale rows, and A. contortrix twenty-three scale rows, but there
is some variation in this character and thus some specimens would
be erroneously identified by use of it. There are certain diflFerences
in pattern but they are so vague that no reliance should be placed
upon them.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is found in wooded areas, gen-
erally on hillsides where rock is exposed. The snake is partial to
the more moist eastern part of the state, avoiding the drier western
portions. Extremely heavy woods are not inhabited, for there is
insufficient penetration of the sun between the trees to warm the
Fig. 234. Copperheads, Ancistrodon contortrix mokeson, X Vs, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia.
snakes in spring and fall. Except in spring and fall, however, when
the snakes emerge for the warmth of the sun's rays, they are ex-
clusively nocturnal. They have been found rather frequently near
streams at night.
The food consists chiefly of mice, with occasional birds, and even
large insects and larvae of insects. Larger prey is struck and re-
leased, and sought after its death, by use of the tongue and the
heat-detecting organ, the pit. Smaller prey is held in the mouth un-
til the poison of the venom has killed it. Items which do not need
Smith: Snakes 307
to be quieted before being swallowed are eaten without delay and
without the use of the venom apparatus, except as the fangs are
manipulated to help in the swallowing process. Most large items
are swallowed head first.
All these snakes hibernate but choose relatively few dens for hi-
bernation. Therefore, in spring, as they emerge from hibernation,
they are concentrated in considerable numbers, and can easily be
captured or killed. Later they disperse, or else emerge only at night,
and can be found less readily. Throughout the year, however, some
can be expected under stones and logs near the hibernation quarters.
These snakes appear not to wander so far from their winter quarters
as do at least some rattlesnakes.
Fig. 235. A copperhead, Ancistrodon contortrix laticinctus. approx. X M, Boerne, Kendall
County, Texas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd.
These are fairly sluggish snakes, seldom attempting to bite unless
unduly provoked. The venom is less powerful than that of rattle-
snakes, and even that of large specimens is rarely if ever fatal to
full-grown persons unless they are in poor health or are in their old
age. To small children the venom has been known to be fatal. Seri-
ous secondary infections seldom occur after copperhead bites, al-
though they almost always accompany those from rattlesnakes. If
permanent damage ever results, almost invariably infections, not
venom, are the cause.
Two to ten young measuring about 8/2 inches in total length are
born in August and September, Mating occurs in April and May.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two races occur in Kansas: Ancistrodon contortrix
mokeson (Daudin), and Ancistrodon contortrix laticinctus Gloyd and Conant.
The type locality of the former is Philadelphia, Penns>lvania, and that of the
latter is 26 miles northwest of San Antonio, Texas. Two other races are known.
308
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Gloyd and Conant distinguish the two races occurring in Kansas as follows:
In A. c. mokeson, "dorsal markings of body in the form of dark transverse
'dumb-bells' or 'hourglasses,' considerably narrower on the middorsuni than on
the sides, and rounded off at the ends, not continuous with the dark markings of
the belly." In A. c. laticincius, "dorsal markings consisting of broad, dark cross-
bands, not much narrower on the middorsum than on the sides of the belly,
and continuous with the dark markings of the belly." Only in Cowley County,
in Kansas, do specimens resemble the latter subspecies. The variation occurring
in that area indicates that this is an area of intermediacy ( intergradation ) be-
tween the two subspecies. The most recent monographers (Gloyd and Conant)
are followed in allocation of the Cowley County specimens.
References. — Conant, 1938: 107-112, pi. 14, fig. 1 (description, natural history, Ohio);
Gloyd and Conant, 1943: 150-153, 156, figs. 1, 3, 7, 9 (description, taxonomy, range); Mc-
Cauley, 1945: 128-135, fig. 34 (description, natural history, Maryland); Gloyd, 1934: 587-
604, figs. 1-2, pis. 1-3 (breeding habits, young).
Cottonmouth
Ancistrodon piscivorus (Lacepede)
Crotalus piscivorus Lacepede, Hist. Nat. Serpens, vol. 2, 1789, p. 130 (type locality- —
Charleston, South Carolina).
Agkistrodon piscivorus Stejneger, Ann. Kept. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1893, p. 406.
Range. — Barely enters southeastern part of state; recorded only
from the Neosho River at Chetopa, Labette County.
MuKum o( Nalurol Hiitofy
Univflriity of Koniai
Fig. 236. Distribution of the cottonmouth, Ancistrodon piscivorus, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
Description. — Head somewhat flattened, considerably wider than
neck; nine large plates on top of head, much as in most colubrid
snakes (see Fig. 150); a large pit on side of head between nostril
at tip of snout and eye; 2 large preoculars, the upper in contact with
Smith: Snakes
309
nasal scale; no loreal; 3 postoculars; several rows of temporals;
supralabials 6-11, generally 8; infralabials 8-13, generally 11; post-
genials small or absent. Dorsal scales keeled; generally 27 scale
rows on anterior part of body, 25 at middle of body, and 23 imme-
diately in front of anus; anal plate and subcaudals entire, except
for a few at tip of tail; ventrals 130-142, average 134; subcaudals
37-49, average 43.
Young specimens with a light gray-brown ground color; 10-16
crossbands on body, much as in copperheads, narrower medially
than at sides; each band usually with a somewhat lighter, trans-
verse, central area; belly whitish, becoming black toward anus;
under side of tail black. In adults all the dorsal markings become
dim as the ground color darkens, so that in large specimens there is
usually little or no evidence of the transverse bands. Young speci-
mens with well-defined markings look extraordinarily like copper-
heads. Tip of tail yellow or greenish yellow in the young.
Size large, the body heavy and the head large, maximum recorded
total length 58/2 inches; tail about 14 percent of total length.
Recognition Characters. — See discussion of the copperhead.
Habits and Habitat. — This is an almost completely aquatic snake;
it is seldom found more than a few hundred feet from water, and
usually in the water. It frequents permanent streams in this state.
Fig. 237. A cottonmouth, Ancistrodon piscivorus leucostomus, X Vs, Miller County, Missouri.
Photo by H. K. Gloyd.
but in parts of its range elsewhere it is found in swamps, marshes,
lakes and other permanent bodies of water. The snakes are es-
sentially nocturnal, but emerge from their hiding quarters in the
310 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
daytime to bask in the sun, outstretched on the Hmbs of trees, on
objects floating in the water, and on promontories at the edge of
the water. In general their actions are much hke those of the water
snakes (Natrix) with which the cottonmouth will be forever con-
fused by those who are not well acquainted with both animals.
Unlike the copperhead, cottonmouths are pugnacious; their
powerful jaws, long fangs, vicious disposition and potent venom
make them a very dangerous animal. The venom is much more
powerful than that of the copperhead, and is more nearly compa-
rable to that of the rattlesnake. Any bite from this species is to be
considered highly dangerous to life.
The food normally consists of both cold-blooded and warm-
blooded vertebrates; frogs, fishes, turtles, small mammals and birds
are eaten.
When annoyed these snakes have the habit of drawing the head
backward quickly and flicking the jaws wide open, flashing into
view the white interior of the mouth. The tail is vibrated as in the
copperhead, sometimes producing a sound much like the rattle of
a rattlesnake.
Mating occurs in March or April. Males at this and other times
indulge in a curious combat. They entwine their bodies and lift
the anterior parts straight out of the water several times in succes-
sion. The young are born in August and September, in litters of
five to fifteen, averaging eight. The young measure approximately
ten inches in length when born.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies are known, one of which, Ancistrodon
piscivorus leucostomtis (Troost), occurs in Kansas. The type locality is 10 miles
northeast of Bolivar, Hardeman County, Tennessee. The other subspecies
occurs in the extreme southeastern United States.
References. — Gloyd and Conant, 1943: 164-165, figs. 5, 13, 15 (description, taxonomy);
Schmidt and Davis, 1941: 285-287, fig. 94, pi. 30 (description, natural history).
Pigmy Rattlesnakes
Genus Sistruriis Carman
Massasauga
Sistrurus catenatus (Rafinesque)
Crotalinus catenatus Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag. Crit. Rev., vol. 4, 1812, p. 41
(type locality — Kansas Citj', Missouri).
Sistrurus catenatus Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoiil., vol. 8, 1883, p. 118, 176, pi. 9,
fig. 2.
Range. — Throughout state except northwestern quarter; recorded
from as far west as Ford, Russell (5 miles north and 2 miles east of
Smith: Snakes
311
Gorham), Osborne and Smith (12 miles north of Downs; not
mapped) counties.
Description. — A horny rattle or button at end of tail; 9 large
plates on top of head, including 2 large plates (parietals) back of
eye level, a plate on top of each eye, 1 between the eyes, and 4 in
front of eye level; a large pit on each side of head between nostril
and eye; on under side of tail most scales entire, not split in the
middle; anal scale entire. Dorsal scales usually in 25 rows at middle
of body and 19 on posterior part, rather strongly keeled except those
in 1 or 2 outermost rows.
Ground color gray-brown; a series of 21 to 50 large, squarish or
rectangular dark blotches, usually with fine white borders, on back
(excluding tail); blotches about twice as large as spaces between
Scolt
I.I I I
MwltHin ol NQIurql MItnrf
IMS
Fig. 238. Distribution of the massasauga, Sistrurus catenatus, in Kansas, with insert showing
range of the species. The range of S. c. catenatus is indicated by the lined area, that of
S. c. tergeminus by the stippled area.
them; belly dark and heavily blotched, or light with numerous,
irregular dark blotches.
Usually about two feet long, occasionally slightly exceeding three
feet.
Recognition Characters. — No other species of snake definitely
known in Kansas has the combination of a rattle on the end of the
tail and large plates on top of the head. The western subspecies
of ground rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliaritis streckeri), which may
occur in extreme southeastern Kansas, has this combination, but
may be distinguished by the reduction of the scale rows to seventeen
on the posterior part of the body and the small size of the dorsal
blotches ( about half as long as the spaces occurring between them ) .
312
University of Kansas Publs,, Mus. Nat. Hist.
^^^F.||B^"^
^^!?J?^!^^
Fig. 239. A massasauga, Sistrtirus catenatus tergeminus, X V2, Ellsworth, Ellsworth County,
Kansas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd.
. 1.
' /•
'i«
>^ ,
^L J- , j' "... - ■* '^^?!
'■^'J^^
:;^^^'
Fig. 240. A massasauga, Sistrurns c. catenatus, X Vz- Courtesy of the New York Zoological
Society.
Smith: Snakes 313
Habits and Habitat. — Characteristically found in swampy places
except in summer when they may move into drier situations.
Small terrestrial mammals such as mice form most of the food of
these snakes. Frogs are sometimes eaten. They are said to swallow
the frogs immediately, while the mice are struck and allowed to
die in advance.
Young are born in August and September. They number up to
12 and average 8 or 9 per litter. At birth they measure 8 to 9^2
inches.
In temperament these snakes are more docile than most other
rattlesnakes. They will strike when sufficiently annoyed, however,
and the venom is known to be extremely toxic although only two
deaths of human beings, caused by the bite of this species, have been
recorded.
Kansan Subspecies. — Two subspecies occur in Kansas: The Eastern Massa-
sauga, Sistrurus catenatus catenatus (Rafinesque), and the Western Massa-
sauga, Sistrurus catenatus tergeminus (Say), with type locaHty at Winfield,
Cowley County, Kansas. No other subspecies are recognized anywhere in the
entire range of the species. The first-mentioned occurs as far west as Franklin
( Ottawa ) and Anderson ( Garnett ) counties, and as far south as Allen County
(4 miles west of Moran). Westward and southward of these localities S. c.
tergeminus occurs. The type locality of the latter is not known.
The two subspecies differ as follows:
catenatus tergeminus
1. Belly dark. 1. Belly relatively Hght.
2. Ventrals average 137 (range 129- 2. Ventrals average 147 (range 140-
150) in males, 142 (range 136-151) 154) in males, 152 (range 148-
in females. 158) in females.
3. Dorsal blotches usually fewer than 3. Dorsal blotches usually more than
36, average 32 (range 21-40) in 36, average 38 (range 28-45) in
males, 33 (range 24-39) in fe- males, 40 (range 30-50) in fe-
males males.
Reference. — Gloyd, 1940: 36-55, maps 1-2, pis. 2-3 (complete description, locality rec-
ords, range, variation ) .
True Rattlesnakes
Genus Crotalus Linnaeus
Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake
Crotalus atrox Baird and Girard
Crotalus atrox Baird and Girard, Cat. N. Anier. Rept., 1853, p. 5 (type locality —
Indianola, Calhoun County, Texas).
Range. — Extreme southern Kansas. Recorded definitely only
from a locality six miles west of Pittsburg, Crawford County, and
one mile north of Weir, Cherokee County, Kansas. Residents of
Rarber, Clark and Comanche counties report its occurrence in that
314
University of Kansas Publs., Mus, Nat. Hist,
region, and specimens have been taken immediately south of that
area near Freedom, Woods County, Okhihoma.
Description. — A horny button or rattle at end of tail; scales on
top of head numerous, small; deep pit on each side of head between
eye and nostril; ventrals 170 to 196; caudals 16 to 31, for the most
part undivided; anal plate entire; dorsal scales in 25 or 27 rows
at middle of body, rather strongly keeled except those in the 1 or 2
outermost rows.
I ...;
L.„L:^^Ss^..._L
>...._.L
Museum of Nolurol History
UoivirtKy of KOOSOE
1S45
Fig. 241. Distribution of the western diamond-backed rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox, in Kansas,
with insert showing range of the species.
Ground color gray, gray-brown, or buff; 25 to 45 rhomboidal or
diamond-shaped blotches on body (excluding tail); blotches light-
edged and sometimes with a dark border inside the light line; tail
with prominent, alternating white and black rings, all sharply con-
trasting with color of body; a light diagonal stripe back of eye, and
sometimes another in front of eye.
Frequently up to about 4/2 feet in total length, sometimes ex-
ceeding 7 feet.
Recognition Characters. — There are three species of snakes in
Kansas which possess the combination of small scales on the head
and a rattle on the tail. This species can be distinguished from the
other two by the combination of rhombic blotches and a tail marked
with white and black rings. The prairie rattlesnake has somewhat
Smith: Snakes
315
Fig. 242. .\ western diamond-backed rattlesnake, Crotahis atrox, X %, Cache, Oklahoma.
Photo by H. K. Gloyd.
similar blotches, but its tail is marked much like the rear part of its
body, and the pattern of the tail thus does not contrast sharply with
the pattern of the body. The timber rattlesnake has chevron-shaped
blotches at least on the forepart of the body, 23 scale rows at the
middle of the body (the others have 25 or 27) and the tail is black
in most adults (ringed in the young).
Habits and Habitat. — This species prefers relatively dry plains,
canyons and hills, where vegetation is sparse or low.
The food consists chiefly of small terrestrial mammals such as
rats, mice, and small rabbits. Birds are eaten occasionally.
Mating occurs in early spring, and the young are born in the fall
or late summer. Litters may include as many as twenty, but usually
number around ten. At birth the young measure about a foot in
length.
Kansan Subspecies. — No subspecies are recognized at the present time
anywhere in the range of this species.
Reference. — Gloyd, 1940: 204-206, map 16, pi. 20, fig. 2 (range, diagnosis, synonymy).
316 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Timber Rattlesnake
Crotalus horridus Linnaeus
Crotahts horridus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 214 (type locality — New
York, New York).
Range. — Northeastern sixth of state, and extreme eastern border
southward to Oklahoma; recorded as far west as Elk (3 miles east
Fig. 243. Distribution of the timber rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus, in Kansas, with insert
showing range of the species.
of Elk Falls), Bourbon (Xenia), Anderson, Linn (Mound City),
Frankhn (Ottawa), Osage (5 miles northeast of Carbondale),
Wabaunsee, Geary (15 miles southeast of Junction City), Riley
(Manhattan), and Marshall (Irving) counties.
Description. — Horny button or rattle at end of tail; scales on top
of head numerous, small; deep pit on each side of head between eye
and nostril; ventrals 158 to 177, caudals 17 to 25, scale rows at
middle of body 23, in subspecies occurring in Kansas; caudals mostly
undivided; anal plate entire; dorsal scales rather strongly keeled
except those in outer rows.
Ground color variable, light to dark gray; 18 to 33 dark blotches
on body (excluding tail); blotches in the form of narrow, angular
crossbands at least on forepart of body; tail usually black in adults
and subadults, no alternating dark and light rings clearly evident.
Smith: Snakes
31'
Commonly reaches length of 3/2 feet; maximum recorded length
6 feet 2 inches.
Recognition Characters. — See discussion of the western diamond-
backed rattlesnake.
•. ^
Fig. 244. A timber rattlesnake, Crotahis h. horridus, X Vs, 7 miles southeast of Ottawa,
Franklin County, Kansas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd.
Habits and Habitat. — This species is usually found, at least in
Kansas, in wooded hills where there is a limestone outcrop. In
summer they probably wander away from the hills into adjacent
open valleys and plains, but no observations on their activity at
different times of the year have been recorded.
The food consists chiefly of small mammals. An analysis of 141
Virginia snakes reveals that 38 percent contained mice, 18 percent
rabbits, 5 percent shrews, and 13 percent birds.
Kansan Subspecies. — Only one, Crotahis horridus horridus Linnaeus, occurs
in the state. Only one other subspecies is recognized; it occurs in the southern
half of the eastern United States and is known as the Canebrake rattlesnake
(Crotalus horridus atricaudatus Latreille).
Reference. — Gloyd, 1940: 168-184, map 12, pi. 12, fig. 2, pi. 13, fig. 1 (synonymy, de-
scription, distribution, locality records, variation, phylogeny).
31S University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Prairie Rattlesnake
Crotalus viridis (Rafinesque)
Crotolinus viridis Rafinesque, Anier. Month. Mag. and Crit. Rev., vol. 4, p. 41 ftjpe
locality — Pierre, South Dakota).
Crotalus viridis Klauber, Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 8, 1936, pp. 194, 241,
figs. 50, .52, 68, 85.
Range. — State-wide e.xcept in northeastern quarter of state. Re-
corded from as far east as Crawford County (Pittsburg) and Riley
County (Manhattan). Rare east of Republic and Barber counties.
Score
to aoMiltt
I I
Muaaum of Noiuro' Hittory
Univiriltf o( Kontdt
1945
Fig. 24.5. Distribution of the prairie rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis, in Kansas, with insert show-
ing range of the species.
Description. — A horny button or rattle at end of tail; scales on
top of head numerous, small; deep pit on each side of head between
eye and nostril; ventrals 164 to 196; caudals 14 to 31, mostly un-
divided; anal plate entire; dorsal scales in 25 or 27 rows at middle
of body, rather strongly keeled except the outer rows.
Ground color greenish gray or greenish brown; 33 to 55 oval,
usually white-edged, dark blotches on body (excluding tail); pos-
terior blotches becoming crossbands; ground color of tail like that of
body; rings on tail similar in color to those on rear part of body,
gradually becoming darker toward tip, so that the last 1 or 2 may be
black; sides of head dark, with two diagonal white lines; 1 or 2 fine
Smith: Snakes
319
transverse white lines on each side of top of the head, over the eyes.
Commonly reaches a total length of three feet, and has been re-
corded up to five feet.
Recognition Characters. — See discussion of the western diamond-
backed rattlesnake.
Fig. 246. A prairie rattlesnake, Crotalus v. viridis, X Vs. Courtesy of the New York Zoo-
logical Society.
Habits and Habitat. — Commonly found in prairies, prairie can-
yons, and other grasslands. Overwinters in underground cavities,
as in rocky hills, caves, and large holes. The species is said to be
active mostly in the daytime.
The food consists primarily of small mammals such as rats, mice,
gophers and young prairie dogs.
Litters of young are born every other year ( for any one female ) ;
and the number per litter varies from 4 to 21, and averages 12.
Kansan Subspecies. — Only one, Crotalus viridis viridis (Rafinesque), occurs
in the state. Seven other subspecies are commonly recognized from the Rockies
westward.
Reference. — Gloyd, 1940: 212-213, map 17, pi. 22 (range, diagnosis, synonymy).
320
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Species and Subspecies of Probable
But Unverified Occurrence
The following list includes kinds of reptiles and amphibians which have
not yet been certainly recorded from Kansas but the occurrence of which in
Kansas is indicated by the distributional data from adjoining areas. Probably
still other kinds exist within the state. Nevertheless, the list may include most
of the kinds which remain to be found and can serve as a guide to the areas
in which it will be most profitable to look for them.
MARBLED SALAMANDER
Amhtjstoma opacum ( Gravenhorst )
The marbled salamander probably occurs in extreme southeastern Kansas.
It is a terrestrial species which is widely distributed in the eastern and southern
United States.
Fig. 247. A marbled salamander, Amhystoma opacum. approx. X 1, 5 miles south of
Church Creek, Dorchester County, Maryland. Courtesy of the Zoological Society of Phila-
delphia.
OZARK BLIND SALAMANDER
Typhlotriton spelaeus Stejneger
This species is known from southwestern Missouri, northwestern Arkansas
and northeastern Oklahoma. If a suitable habitat occurs in extreme south-
eastern Kansas — a cave with constantly running water — this species almost
certainly will be found in it. See Fig. 23a.
HAMMOND SPADEFOOT
Spea hammondii ( Baird )
The Hammond Spadefoot has been recorded from two northern counties in
Oklahoma (Woods and Cimarron). If these records are correct the species
probably occurs also in Kansas, in adjacent areas.
Smith: Unverified Inhabitants
321
HURTER SPADEFOOT
Scaphiopus hiirterii Strecker
The Hurter Spadefoot has been recorded from northern Oklahoma in Osage
and Cimarron counties, and ahnost certainly occurs in Kansas along the
Arkansas and Cimarron rivers.
WOOD FROG
liana sijlcatica sylvdtica Le Conte
Probably the Wood Frog is a resident ot extreme southeastern Kansas. It
has been recorded from Washington County in northwestern Arkansas and
Stone Coimtv in southwestern Missouri.
Fio. 248. .\ wood frog. Rana s. stilvaiica, X lU. Courtes\- of the New York Zoological
Society.
COMMON MUD TURTLE
Kinostemon suhrubnim hippocrepis Gray
The record of this species from Kansas City, Missouri (Anderson, 1942,
p. 211), and other records for northeastern Oklalioma and southwestern Mis-
souri, indicate a strong probability that K. .sul)rubrum occurs in extreme eastern
Kansas. Specimens may easily be confused with Sternotherus odomtus, which
has similar markings on the sides of the head. The size of the plastron differs
markedly, however, as in other species of the two genera.
MANY-LINED SKINK
Eumeces multivirgatti.s (Hallowell)
No authentic records of this species in Kansas are known. Taylor ( 1935:351 )
cites three unacceptable records, for Woodson (Cragin, 1881), Anderson (Burt,
11—9019
322
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
;1 \ ! I
,%•••.
<;
^^
Fig. 249. Many-lined skinks, Eximeces inuUivirgatus. A. Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico,
X l*/i. B. Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, X IVz. C, D, E, Weld County, Colo-
rado, X 1. From Smith (1946). Photos by E. H. Taylor.
Smith: Unverified Inhabitants
323
1928) and Labette (Burt, 1928) counties. These are unquestionably incorrect,
through either niis!dentification or erroneous locaHty data. Well authenticated
records an- from northern, central and western Nebraska and eastern Wyoming
southward through Colorado and New Mexico; the species accordingly possibly
occurs in northwestern Kansas, although the preferred habitat (arid high
plains) of the species does not enter the state. The eastern limit of range of
the species seems closely to correspond with that of Fhrijnnsoma doufijassii
(see p. 184; Richard B. Loomis, personal communication).
BLANDING TURTLE
Emt/s blandingii (Holbrook)
The Blanding Turtle should be looked for in tributaries of the Missouri and
Kansas (Kaw) rivers in north-central and northeastern Kansas. In Nebraska
it has been recorded from as far south as Kearney in Buffalo County.
I'^A
Tig. 250. Blanding turtles, Ennjs blandingii, X Vs. Courtesy of the New York Zoological
Society.
FOX SNAKE
Elaphe cidpina vulpina ( Baird and Girard)
The Fox Snake probabh- occurs in northeastern Kansas. It is known
throughout eastern Nebraska, and from as near Kansas as Nemaha County,
Nebraska. Cragin believed that he had collected the species in Kansas, but
no identifiable material was preserved (Branson, 1904:390).
324
University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
BASIN GARTER SNAKE
TlumntopJiis cJcgans vagrans (Baird and Girard)
This garter snake probably occurs in extreme western Kansas. It has been
recorded from northwestern Nebraska ( Sioux Co. ) and northwestern Okla-
homa (Cimarron Co.). It should be looked tor in Kansas along streams such
as the Cimarron, Arkansas, Smoky Hill and Republican rivers, all of which
head in Colorado and New Mexico. Cragin notes a specimen from "Kansas"
in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, and another from "Ft. Riley" where
the species undoubtedly does not occur (see Taylor, 1929:61).
Fig. 251. A fox snake, Elaphc v. vtdpina, X V2. Courtesy of the New York Zoological
Society.
PIGMY RATTLESNAKE
Sistrurus niiliariiis streckeri Gloyd
Possibly this snake occurs in extreme southeastern Kansas; it has been
recorded from southwestern Missouri, northwestern Arkansas and northeastern
Oklahoma, and should be sought near water in adjacent areas of Kansas.
Smith: Unverified Inhabitants
325
Fig. 252. Basin garter snakes, Thamnophis elegans vagrans, X %. Courtesy of the New
York Zoological Society.
Fig. 253. A pigmy rattlesnake, Sistrurus miliarius streckeri, approx. X %, Imbodun, Law-
rence County, Arkansas. Photo by H. K. Gloyd.
326 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Glossary
abdomen — the belly.
ahdoniinal — pertaining to the belly; in turtles, the scutes preceding the femoral
scutes which are in broadest contact with the bridge, the third set in front
of the rear margin of the plastron.
adpressed — in reference to the limbs, laid full length against the sides of the
body, with the hind legs pointing anteriorly and the forelegs pointing
posteriorly.
anal — of or pertaining to the anus; in snakes, the scale covering the anus; in
turtles, the scutes or pair of scutes at the rear of the plastron.
antepenultimate — the third in a series, counting from the end.
anterior — pertaining to, designating, or situated near or toward, the head.
anurans — the order of tailless amphibians; popularly, the frogs and toads.
anus — the posterior opening of the digestive tract.
areolae — a small open space; in patterns, small impigmented areas.
boss — a roimded protuberance, as on toj) of the head between the eyes in
certain toads.
bridge — in turtles, a narrow connection at sides of the belly between the ventral
part of the shell ( plastron ) and the dorsal part ( carapace ) .
carapace — in turtles, the dorsal part of the shell.
chinshields — in lizards, a paired series of enlarged scales diverging posteriorly
from the mental or postmental scale; in snakes, one or two median i^airs of
elongate scales on the ventral surface of the head, posterior to the mental
or to the first infralabial scales which may be in contact on the mid\ entral
line.
corneous — of a surface texture resembling that of horn; toughened, in refer-
ence to epidermal tissue.
costal — pertaining to the sides of the thoracic region or to the ribs; in turtles,
one of the plates between the series of median (vertebral) and lateral
( marginal ) plates.
costal groove — in salamanders, a vertical groo\e on the side of the body between
the limbs or positions of the limbs.
cranial crests — crests or ridges on the top and sides of the head.
cruciform — as applied to reptiles and amphibians, X-shaped.
deivlaj) — a \ertical, longitudinal, loose flap of skin on the throat, as in anoles.
dextral — of or pertaining to the right, not left.
digit — one of the fingers or toes.
distal — designating that end of a limb or other part which is farthest from the
point of attachment.
dorsal — situated on or pertaining to the back or upper surface, as applied to
reptiles and amphibians.
dorsals — the dorsal scales, counted in a straight line in lizards from the rear
of the head, immediately back of the interparietal, to a point even with the
rear margin of the hind legs as the latter are held at right angles to the
body; in snakes, the scales on the sides as well as the back, including all
on the body except the single row of enlarged \entral scales.
dorsolateral folds — folds or in reality ridges extending posteriorly along the
sides of the back.
Glossary 327
envelope — applied to tlio surface of any one of possibly several layers of
gelatinous material around amphibian eggs.
facial pit — a deep pit on the side of the head between the nostril and eyes.
femoral — of or pertaining to the proximal part of the leg (thigh); in turtles,
the scutes of the plastron immediately iireceding the rear plates.
femoral pores — in certain lizards, a series of i)ores on tlie imder side of the
thigh.
frontal — in snakes and lizards, the plate on the middle of the upper surface
of head between the eyes.
frontonasal — in lizards, the plate or plates immediately preceding the pre-
frontals.
frontoparietals — in lizards, the scales between the parietals and frontal.
gills — organs for respiration under water; in amphibians, restricted to pha-
ryngeal (neck) region; in salamanders, fluffy structures on the sides of
the neck.
gill slits — clefts or holes on the sides of the neck of salamanders, situated at
the bases of the gills (gills absent in the hellbender).
groin — the area on the body anterior to the bases of the hind legs.
giilar — pertaining to the ventral surface of the neck (throat); in turtles, a
scute or pair of scutes preceding the pectoral plates.
gular fold — in lizards, a transverse belt of tiny granules, bordered by or often
overlapped from the front by larger scales across the throat, immediately
in front of the forelegs; in salamanders, a groove in the skin at the same
position.
humeral — a scute or pair of scutes on the plastron (ventral portion of the shell)
of hard-shelled turtles; the second pair in front of the bridge.
immaculate — unspotted, unpigmented.
infralahials — the scales on the lower jaw bordering the lower lip.
inner metatarsal tubercle — a protuberance on the under side of the heel opposite
the first toe.
internasals — one or two pairs of scales on the median dorsal surface of the
snout between the nasals.
interoccipital — one or several small scales in a middorsal area at rear of head
immediately back of the interparietal.
interparietal — in lizards, a median scale posterior to the frontal on the dorsal
surface of the head; in or below it the parietal "eye" occurs.
keel — an elevated, longitudinal, straight ridge, either sharp and well defined
or broad and obtuse.
labium — lip; in tadpoles the upper or lower part of the disk surrounding the
beak which guards the opening of the mouth.
lamellae — in lizards, the transverse plates on the under sides of the digits.
lamina — large, thin, horny plates on the surface of the shell in most kinds of
turtles.
lateral — situated on or pertaining to the right or left sides.
lateral intercalary scales — in skinks, the row of scales wedged at the base of a
digit between the two series of plates covering the upper and the lower
surfaces of a digit.
loreal — pertaining to the region between the eye and naris on the side of
the head; the scale or scales immediately above the supralabials between the
preocular and the na.sal or postnasal( s); in snakes, if only one lateral scale
328 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
is present between the eye and the nasal, that lateral scale may be regarded
as a loreal if longer than wide (high), but that scale is to be regarded as
a preocular it wider than long.
lower labials — the plates on the lower jaw bordering the lower lip.
mandible — a jaw, usually used in reference to a movable jaw, therefore usually
the lower jaw only (both jaws in tadpoles).
marginals — in turtles, the scutes bordering the upper part (carapace) of the
shell.
median — situated in the middle.
metatarsal tubercle — a tubercle or projection on the ventral surface of the heel.
metatarsus — the basal portion of the foot, from the heel to the base of the digits.
mouth-disk — a more or less flattened (when spread) disk surrounding the mouth
of a tadpole.
nares — the nostrils; naris the singular form.
nasal — of or pertaining to the nostrils or the passages into which they lead;
the scale through which the nostril is pierced.
nuchal — situated on or pertaining to the dorsal or lateral surface of the neck;
in some lizards, restricted to the enlarged scales immediately posterior to
the head; in turtles, the median anterior scute of the margin of the carapace
( dorsal part of the shell ) .
occipital — of or pertaining to the occiput, or in horned lizards, to the pair of
spines on either side of the middorsal rear point of the head.
occiput — the rear part of the head.
ocidar — situated on or pertaining to the lateral surface of the orbit; in the
blind snakes, applied to the large scale situated immediately over the eye-
ball (which may be detected as a small dark spot below the surface in the
orbital region).
orbit — the space in which the eyeball is situated.
outer metatarsal tubercle — a projection or protuberance on the ventral surface
of the heel opposite the fifth toe.
papillarij fringe — a fringe of papillae (minute fingerlike projections), as around
portions of the edge of a mouth-disk.
parietals — a pair of scales near the rear of the head; in snakes, they are in
contact with each other, are situated immediately posterior to the frontal
and supraocular, and form the rear margin of the plated portion of the
head; in lizards, they are on either side of the interparietal and usually
posterior to the frontoparietal.
parotoid gland — in toads, a gland, appearing as a swollen area, on either side
of the neck above the level of the tympanum.
pectoral — pertaining to the chest and to a forelimb or its girdle; in turtles,
a pair of scutes on the plastron immediately preceding the abdominal scutes
which lie opposite (or in snapping turtles fonii a part of) the bridge.
penultimate — the last but one.
phalanges — bones or cartilages in the fingers or toes.
pit, facial — a deep pit on the side of the head between the nostril and eye.
plastron — the ventral part of the shell of a turtle.
plinth — a flattened mass, oval or round.
postanals — in lizards, a pair of large scales, surrounded by small scales, near
the midventral line a short distance posterior to the anus.
Glossary 329
posterior — at or toward tlic liintlcr end of the body; — opposed to anterior.
postgenial — in lizards, the rear scale in the series of chinshields; in snakes, the
rear ehinsliield.
postlabiah — scales posterior to and in series with either the supralabials or the
infralabials.
postmental — a median, unpaired scale (rarely paired) or series of scales pos-
terior to the mental.
postnasal — in lizards, a scale, sometimes paired, immediately posterior to the
nasal.
postorbital crest — in toads, a bony ridge (one of the cranial crests) extending
transversely immediately posterior to the orbit.
postocular(s) — one or more enlarged scales bordering the orbit posteriorly.
prefrontal(s) — one or more scales immediately preceding tlie frontal, between
the anterior margins of the orbits.
pregenials — in snakes, tlie anterior pair of chinshields.
preocular{s) — one or more enlarged scales bordering the orbit anteriorly.
proximal — designating that end of a limb or other part which is nearest to the
point of attachment.
reticulation — a network of lines which cross irregularly and form meshes.
rostral — a scale fonning the tip of the snout.
rugosity — a wrinkle or corrugation, or the state or property of being rugose,
corrugated or wrinkled.
scale rows — the longitudinal rows of scales on the back and sides; counted in
snakes crosswise on the body from one side of the enlarged ventrals to the
other side (see Fig. 150); when unspecified, a scale row number in snakes is
the number at midbody.
scute — a large scale.
serrate — notched on the edge like a saw.
shank — the part of the leg between the knee and ankle.
sinistral — on or pertaining to the left side.
spiracle — an opening into a gill pouch or chamber, when only one opening is
present on a side.
suharticular — below an articulation (joint).
subcaudal — on the ventral surface of the tail; in snakes, the single or paired
row of scales on the ventral surface of the tail.
subequal — approximately equal or alike.
supralabials — scales of the upper jaw bordering the upper lip, except that scale
situated at the median anterior point at the tip of the snout.
supramarginals — the small scales (in the alligator snapper only) between the
marginal scutes and the costal scutes.
supranasals — scales bordering the nasal scale above (medially), and lateral to
the internasals.
supraoculars — scales lying directly above the orbit.
temporalis) — on or pertaining to the sides of the head behind the orbits; in
snakes and lizards, the scales of that area.
primary — the anterior temporal(s).
secondary — the second row (transverse) of temporals, immediately posterior
to the anterior row.
thigh — the part of the leg between the knee and the bod\-.
330 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
truncate — blunt, as if cut off; not tapering.
tubercle — a small, often somewhat blister-shaped, projection.
tyinpunuin — the ear drum.
tipper labials — the scales of the upper jaw bordering the upper lip except the
scale at the median anterior point at the tip of the snout.
vent — anus; the opening at the rear end of the digesti\'e tract.
ventral — on or pertaining to the ventral surface; in snakes, one scute of the
series of the scutes on the belly.
vertebral — on or pertaining to the middorsal line; in turtles, the scutes on the
middorsal line exclusive of the nuchal.
vitelline membrane — the fine membrane, usually not visible, surrounding and
in contact with the vitellus.
vitellus — the egg itself, including the yolk but excluding the enveloping mem-
branes.
Literature Cited
AND
Partial Bibliography
The following list of publications is, with certain exceptions, as
complete a catalog as possible of works referring to reptiles or am-
phibians from the state of Kansas. The list excludes only certain
old monographs of continental or world-wide scope, all of purely
historical interest and completely superseded by other studies.
Allard, H. a.
1948. The eastern box turtle and its beha\ior. Journ. Tenn. Acad. Sci.,
23: 307-321.
1949. Ibid., 24: 146-152.
Allen, E. R., and W. T. Neill.
1954. Keep them alive! Rept. Inst., Silver Springs, Fla., 32 pp.
Anderson, Paul.
1942. Amphibians and reptiles of Jackson County, Missouri. Bull. Chicago
Acad. Sci., 6: 203-222.
1950. The greater five-lined skink, Eumeces laticeps (Schneider), in Kan-
sas. Herpetologica, 6: 53.
Bishop, S. C.
1941. The salamanders of New York. Bull. New York State Mus., 324:
1-365, figs. 1-66.
1943. Handbook of salamanders. Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 569
pp., 1 col. pi., 144 figs., 56 maps.
1944. A new neotenic plethodont salamander, with notes on related spe-
cies. Copeia, 1: 1-5.
Bishop, S. C, and F. J. W. Schmidt.
1931. The painted turtles of the genus Chrysemys. Ztiol. Ser. Field Mus.
Nat. Hist., 18(4): 123-139, figs. 1-27.
Blanchard, F. N.
1921. A revision of the king snakes: genus Lampropeltis. Bull. U. S. Nat.
Mus., 114: i-vi, 1-260, figs. 1-78.
Literature 331
1923. The snakes ot tlic genus \'irginia. Papers Miehigan Aead. Sei., Arts
Letters, 3: 343-365.
1924. A new snake of the genus Arizona. Oeeas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ.
Michigan, 1.50: 1-5.
1924. Tlie forms of Carphophis. Papers Mieliigan .Aead. Sei., Arts Let-
ters, 4(1): 527-530.
1925. A key to the snakes of the United States, Canada and Lower Cal-
i'ornia. Papers Miehigan Aead. Sci., Arts Letters, 4(2): i-.\iv, 1-65.
1938. Snakes of the genus Tantilla in the United States. Zool. Ser. Field
Mus. Nat. Hist, 20(28): 369-376.
1942. The ring-necked snakes, genus Diadophis. Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci.,
7(1): 1-144, figs. 1-26, tables I-XVII, maps 1-4.
BOULENGER, G. A.
1919. Synopsis of the American species of Rana. .\nn. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
(9) 3 (16): 408-416.
1920. A monograpli of the American frogs of the genus Rana. Proc.
Amer. Acad. Arts. Sci., 55(9): 413-480.
Bragg, A. N.
1936. Notes on the breeding habits, eggs and embryos of Buja co^nnttis
with a description of the tadpole. Copeia, 1: 14-20, figs. 1-13.
1937. Observations on Bufo eognatus with special reference to breeding
habits and eggs. Amer. Midland Nat., 18(2): 273-284, figs. 1-5.
1940. Obser\'ations on the ecolog>' and natural histor\' of Anura. IL
Habits, habitat and breeding of Bufo woodhousii woodhousii
(Girard) in Oklahoma. Amer. Midland Nat., 24(2): 306-321,
fig. 1.
1940. Observations on the ecolog\- and natural history of Anura. IIL
The ecological distribution of Anura of Cleveland Count\, Okla-
homa, including notes on the habits of several species. Amer. Mid-
land Nat., 24(2): 322-335, fig. 1.
1940. Obser\ations on the ecolog>- and natural history of Anura. I.
Habits, habitat and breeding of Bufo eognatus Sa>-. Amer. Nat.,
74:322-349, 424-438, figs. 1-8.
1942. A key to the frogs of the genus Rana in Oklahoma. Proc. Oklaho:iia
Aead. Sci., 22: 18.
1943. Obser\ations on the ecology and natural history of Anura. X\'. The
hylids and microhylids in Oklahoma. Great Basin Naturalist,
4(3 and 4): 62-80.
1943. Common names for frogs and toads in Oklahoma. Proc. Oklahoma
Acad. Sci., 23: 39-40.
1943. Observations on the ecology and natural histor>- of Anura. .\\T.
Life-history of Pseudacris clarkii ( Baird ) in Oklahoma. Wasmann
Collector, 5(4): 129-140, figs. 1-4.
1944. The spadefoot toads in Oklahoma with a summar\- of our knowledge
of the group. Amer. Nat., 78: 517-533, figs. 1-5.
1944. Breeding habits, eggs and tadpoles of Scaphinpu.s hurterii. Copeia,
4: 230-241, figs. 1-2.
1945. The spadefoot toads in Oklahoma, with a sunmiar\ ot our knowl-
edge of the group. II. Amer. Nat., 79: 52-72, fig. 6.
332 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
1950. Frequency of sex calls in some Salientia. Researches Amph. Okla.,
8: 117-125.
1950. Data on size range in adults of Bufo w. woodhousii, Girard. Proc.
Okla. Acad. Sci., 31: 39-40.
1952. Amphibians of McCurtain County, Oklahoma. Wasmann Journ.
Biology, 10(2):241-250.
1953. A study of Rana areolata in Oklahoma. Wasmann Journ. Biol.,
11 (3): 273-318.
1954. Bufo terrestris charlesmithi, a new subspecies from Oklahoma.
Wasmann Journ. Biol., 12(2) :245-254, figs. 1-4.
Bragg, A. N., and W. F. Hudson
1951. New county records of Salientia and a summary of known distribu-
tion of Caudata in Oklahoma. Great Basin Naturalist, 11 (3-4):
87-90.
Br.\gg, a. N., and C. C. Smith.
1942. Observations on the ecology and natural history of Anura. IX.
Notes on breeding behavior in Oklahoma. Great Basin Naturalist,
3(2): 33-50.
1943. Observations on the ecology and natural history of Anura. IV. The
ecological distribution of toads in Oklahoma. Ecology, 24(3): 285-
309, figs. 1-11.
Bragg, A. N., et al.
1950. Researches on the amphibia of Oklahoma. Univ. Okla. Press,
154 pp.
Branson, E. B.
1904. Snakes of Kansas. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 2: 353-430, figs. 1-39.
Brennan, L. a.
1936. A check list of the amphibians and reptiles of Ellis County, Kansas.
Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 37: 189-191.
1938. A study of the habitat of reptiles and amphibians of Ellis County,
Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 40: 341-347.
Breukelman, J.
1940. The snake, Haldea striatula in Kansas. Herpetologica, 2(2): 56.
Breukelman, J., and R. F. Clarke.
1951. A revised list of amphibia and reptiles of Chase and Lyon Counties,
Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 54(4): 542-545.
Breukelman, J., and A. Downs.
1937. A list of amphibia and reptiles of Chase and Lyon counties, Kansas.
Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 39 ( 1936) : 267-268.
Breukelman, J., and H. M. Smith.
1946. Selected records of reptiles and amphibians from Kansas. Univ.
Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 1: 101-112.
Brumwell, M. J.
1940. Notes on the courtship of the turtle, Terrapene ornata. Trans.
Kansas Acad. Sci., 43: 391-392.
1942. Establishment of Anolis carolinensis in Kansas. Copeia, 1: 54.
Bugbee, R. E.
1945. A note on the mortality of snakes on highways in western Kansas.
Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 47(3): 373-374.
Literature 333
BURGEH, \\". L.
1947. A taxononiic and statistical stucl> ot tlic keeled green snake,
Opheodnjs aestivus. Bull. Eeol. Soc. Anier., 28(5): 54 (abstract).
Burt, C. E.
1927. On the type locality of tlie horned lizard (Phrjrmsonia bre\'irostre
Girard). Copeia, 163: 53-54.
1927. An annotated list of the amphibians and reptiles of Riley County,
Kansas. Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 189: 1-9.
1928. The lizards of Kansas. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, 26( 1 ) : 1-81.
1928. Insect food of Kansas lizards with notes on feeding habits. Journ.
Kansas Ent. Soc, 1(3): 50-68.
1928. The s\non\m\-, variation and distribution of the collared lizard,
Crotaphijtus coUaris (Sa\'). Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich-
igan, 196: 1-19, pis. 1-7, 1 map.
1928. A key to the species of lizards definitely reported from Kansas.
Privately printed. 2 pp.
1928. A new amphibian record from Kansas, Hyla phaerocrypta (Cope).
Science, 67: 630-631.
1929. The synonymy, variation, and distribution of the sonoran skink,
Eumeces obsoletus (Baird and Girard). Occas. Papers Mus. Zool.
Univ. Michigan, 201: 1-12, pis. 1-3, 1 map.
1929. The sexual dimorphism of the collared lizard, Crotaphytus collaris.
Papers Michigan Acad. Sci., Arts Letters, 10: 417-421, pi. 23.
1931. A report on some amphibians and reptiles from Kansas, Nebraska,
and Oklahoma. Proc. Biol. Soc. ^^'ashington, 44: 11-16.
1931. A study of the teiid lizards of the genus Cnemidophorus, with
special reference to their phylogenetic relationships. Bull. U. S.
Nat. Mus., 154: 1-286, figs. 1-38.
1932. Records of amphibians from the eastern and central United States
(1931). Amer. Midland Nat, 13(2): 75-85.
1933. Some lizards from the Great Basin of the west and adjacent areas,
with comments on the status of \arious forms. Amer. Midland
Nat, 14: 228-250.
1933. Some distributional and ecological records of Kansas reptiles. Trans.
Kansas Acad. Sci., 36: 186-208.
1935. Further records of the ecology and distribution of ampliibians and
reptiles in the middle west. Amer. Midland Nat., 16(3): 311-366.
1936. A key to the lizards of the United States and Canada. Trans.
Kansas Acad. Sci., 38: 25.5-305, figs. 1-71.
1937. The fauna: amphibians and reptiles of "Rock City." Trans. Kansas
Acad. Sci., 40:195.
1949. Baby gartersnake victim of garden spider. Herpetologica, 5: 127.
Burt, C. E., and NL D. Burt.
1929. A collection of amphibians and reptiles from the Mississippi Valley,
with field observations. Amer. Mus. Novitates, 381 : 1-14.
1929. Field notes and locality records on a collection of amphibians and
reptiles, chiefly from the western half of the L'nited States. I.
Amphibians. Journ. \\'ashington Acad. Sci., 19(19): 428-434.
334 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
1929. Field notes and locality records on a collection of amphibians and
reptiles, chiefly from the western half of the United States. II.
Reptiles. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., 19(20): 448-460.
Burt, C. E., and W. L. Hoyle.
1935. Additional records of the reptiles of the central prairie region of
the United States. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 37: 193-216.
Cagle, F. R.
1937. Notes on Natrix rhombifera as observed at Reelfoot Lake. Journ.
Tennessee Acad. Sci., 12: 179-185, fig. 1, pi. 1.
1943. Two new subspecies of Grciptemtjs psetidogeographica. Occas.
Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 546: 1-17, figs. 1-3.
1944. Two new species of the genus Graptemys. Tulane Studies Zool.,
1(11): 167-186, figs. 1-15.
C.\RR, A. F., Jr.
1938. Notes on the Pseudemys scripta complex. Herpetologica, 1: 131-
135, pi. 13.
1938. A new subspecies of Pseudemys floridana, with notes on the flori-
dana complex. Copeia, 3: 105-109.
1952. Handbook of turtles of the United States, Canada and Baja Cali-
fornia. Cornell Univ. Press, 542 pp., 82 pis., 37 figs.
Carvalho, a. L. de
1954. A preliminary synopsis of the genera of American microhylid frogs.
Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, .555: 1-19, pi. 1, figs. 1-8.
Clark, C. B., and A. N. Bragg.
1950. A comparison of the ovaries of two species of Bufo with different
ecological requirements. Researches Amph. Okla., 10: 143-152.
Clarke, R. F.
19.50. Notes on the ornate box turtle. Herpetologica, 6: 54.
1953. Additional turtle records for Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci.,
56(4): 438-439.
Conant, R.
1938. The reptiles of Ohio. Amer. Midland Nat., 20( 1 ) : 1-200, pis. 1-26,
maps 1-38.
1949. Two new races of Natrix enjthrogcistcr. Copeia, 1: 1-15, pi. 1,
table 1.
Conant, R., and C. J. Coin.
1948. A new subspecies of soft-shelled turtle from the central United
States, with comments on the application of the name Amyda.
Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 510: 1-19, pis. 1-2, map.
Cope, E. D.
1889. The batrachia of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 34: 1-525,
pis. 1-86, figs. 1-119.
1893. On the Batrachia and Reptilia of the plains at latitude 30° .30'.
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 45: 386-387.
1900. The crocodilians, lizards and snakes of North America. Rept. U. S.
Nat. Mus., 1898: 153-1270, pis. 1-36, figs. 1-347.
Cragin, F. W.
1878. Snakes and cold victuals. Amer. Nat., 12: 820-821.
1881. A preliminary catalog of Kansas reptiles and batrachians. Trans.
Kansas Acad. Sci., 7: 112-120.
Literature 335
1884. The faunal relations of Kansas. Bull. Washburn College Lab. Nat.
Hist., 1: 1().3-1()5.
1885. Recent additions to tlie list of Kansas reptiles and batrachians, with
further notes on speeies previously reported. Bull. Washburn Col-
lege Lab. Nat. Hist., 1: 100-103.
1885. Editorial notes. Bull. Washburn College Lab. Nat. Hist., 1:111-112.
1885. Miseellaneous notes. Bull. Washburn College Lab. Nat. Hist., 1:
147-148.
1885. Second contribution to ihe herpetology of Kansas. Trans. Kansas
Acad. Sei., 9: 136-140.
1886. Miscellaneous notes. Bull. Washburn College Lab. Nat. Hist., 1:
188.
1886. Miscellaneous notes. Bull. Washburn College Lab. Nat. Hist., 1:
212.
1886. Note on a new variety of a Sonoran serpent from Kansas. Trans.
Kansas Acad. Sci., 10: 85-86.
1894. Herpetological notes from Kansas and Texas. Colorado Coll.
Studies, 5th Ann. Publ.: 37-39.
Dice, L. R.
1923. Notes on the conmiunities of the vertebrates of Riley County, Kan-
sas, with especial reference to amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.
Ecology, 4(1): 40-53, 3 figs., one table.
DlCKEHSON, M. C.
1913. The frog book. Doubleday, Page and Co., New York, wiii -|-
253 pp., 16 colored pis., 290 figs.
DOWLING, H. G.
1951. A taxonomic study of the ratsnakes, genus Elaplic Fitzinger. I. The
status of the name Scotupliis hietus Baird and Girard (1853).
Copeia, 1951 (l):39-44, figs. 1-2.
1952. A taxonomic study of the ratsnakes, genus ElapJie Fitzinger. IV.
A check list of the American forms. Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ.
Michigan, 541: 1-12.
Dundee, H. A.
1947. Notes on salamanders collected in Oklahoma. Copeia, 1947(2):
117-120.
Dunn, E. R.
1918. The collection of amphibia caudata of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zo6l., 62(9): 445-471.
1926. The salamanders of the Family Plethodontidae. Smith College,
50th Anniv. Publ., 7: i-xii, 1-441, figs. 1-86, frontis.
Dyche, L. L.
1908. The poison-glands of a rattlesnake during the period of hibernation.
Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 22: 312-313.
Eaton, T. H., and R. M. Imagawa.
1948. Early development of Pseudacris clcirki. Copeia, 1948 (4) : 263-266,
figs. 1-23.
Edgren, R. a.
1952. A synopsis of the snakes of the genus Heterodon with the diagnosis
of a new race of Heterodon nasicus Baird and Girard. Nat. Hist.
Misc., 112:1-4.
336 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
Ellis, M. M., and J. Henderson.
1913. The Amphibia and ReptiUa of Colorado. Univ. Colorado Studies,
10: 39-129.
1915. Amphibia and Rcptilia of Colorado. Part II. Univ. Colorado Stud-
ies, 11(4): 253-263, pis. 1-2.
Fitch, H. S.
1954. Life history and ecology of the five-lined skink, Eumeces fasciatus.
Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 8(1): 1-156, 2 pis., 26 figs.,
17 tables.
1955. Habits and adaptations of the great plains skink ( Eumeces obso-
letus). Ecol. Mon., 25: 59-83, 11 figs.
Force, E. R.
1935. A local study of the opisthoglyph snake Tantilla gracilis Baird and
Girard. Papers Michigan Acad. Sci., Arts Letters, 20: 645-659, pi.
99, figs. 52-56.
Fowler, H. W., and E. R. Dunn.
1917. Notes on salamanders. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 69: 7-28,
pis. 2-3.
Freiburg, R. E.
1951. An ecological study of the narrovi'-mouthed toad (Microhyla) in
northeastern Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 54(3): 374-376.
Gage, S. H.
1904. Life history of the toad. Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets: 185-206.
Galbreath, E. C.
1948. Pliocene and pleistocene records of fossil turtles from western
Kansas and Oklahoma. Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat. Hist., 1(7):
281-284.
Gloyd, H. K.
1928. The amphibians and reptiles of Franklin County, Kansas. Trans.
Kansas Acad. Sci., 31: 115-141, tables 1-26.
1929. Two additions to the herpetological fauna of Riley County, Kansas.
Science, 66(1776): 44.
1932. The herpetological fauna of the Pigeon Lake Region, Miami County,
Kansas. Papers Michigan Acad. Sci., Arts Letters, 15: 389-409,
3 pis.
1934. Studies on the breeding habits and young of the copperhead,
Agkistrodon mokasen Beauvois. Papers Michigan Acad. Sci., Arts
Letters, 19: 587-604, pis. 77-79.
1938. Snake poisoning in the United States: a review of present knowl-
edge. Bull. Jackson Park Branch, Chicago Medical Soc, 15: 3, 5,
7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17.
1938. Methods of preserving and labeling amphibians and reptiles for
scientific study. Turtox News, 16(3): 49-53, 66-67.
1940. The rattlesnakes, genera Sistrurus and Crotalus. A study in zooge-
ography and evolution. Spec. Publ. Chicago Acad. Sci., 4: i-viii,
1-270, pis. 1-31, text figs. 1-10, maps 1-22.
Gloyd, H. K., and R. Conant.
1938. The subspecies of the copperhead, Agkistrodon mokasen Beauvois.
Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci., 5(7): 163-166, pi., figs. 1-3.
Literature 337
1943. A synopsis of the American forms of Agkistrodon (copperheads and
moccasins). Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci., 7(2): 147-170, figs. 1-16,
maps 1-2, table 1.
Coin, C. J., and M. G. Nettinc.
1940. A new gopher frog from the Gulf Coast, with comments upon the
Rana areolata group. Ann. Carnegie Mus., 28: 137-168, pi. 12.
Grant, C.
1927. The blue-tail skink of Kansas. Copeia, 164: 67-69.
1937. Herpetological notes from central Kansas. Amer. Midland Nat.,
18(3): 370-372.
Grobman, a. B.
1941. A contribution to the knowledge of variation in Opheodnjs vernalis
( Harlan ) with the description of a new subspecies. Misc. Publ.
Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool., 50: 1-38, 2 figs., 1 map, 11 tables.
Hall, E. R.
1953. A westward extension of known geographic range for the timber
rattlesnake in southern Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 56( 1 ) : 89.
Hall, H. H., and H. M. Smith.
1947. Selected records of reptiles and amphibians from southeastern
Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 49(4): 447-454.
Hallo WELL, E.
1857. Notice of a collection of reptiles from Kansas and Nebraska pre-
sented to the Academy of Natural Sciences, by Doctor Hammond,
U. S. A. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8: 238-253.
1857. Note on the collection of reptiles from the neighborhood of San
Antonio, Texas, recently presented to the Academy of Natural
Sciences by Dr. A. Heerman. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
8: 306-310.
Hartman, F. a.
1906. Food habits of Kansas lizards and batrachians. Trans. Kansas
Acad. Sci., 20: 225-229.
Hecht, M. K., and B. L. Matalas.
1946. A review of middle North American toads of the genus Microhyla.
Amer. Mus. Novitates, 1315: 1-21, figs. 1-12.
HiBBARD, C. W.
1937. Hypsiglena ochrorhynchus in Kansas and additional notes on Lep-
totyphlops didcis. Copeia, 1937(1): 74.
HiBBARD, C. W., and A. B. Leonard.
1936. The occurrence of Bufo punctatus in Kansas. Copeia, 1936(2):
114.
Hill, E. J.
1931. An addition to tlie herpetological fauna of Kansas. Science, 74: 547-
548.
HOYLE, W. L.
1937. Notes on faunal collecting in Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci.,
39: 283-293.
Hudson, G. E.
1942. The amphiliians and reptiles of Nebraska. Nebraska Conservation
Bull., 24: i-iv, 1-146, pis. 1-20, maps 1-32.
338 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
HURTER, J.
1911. Hcipftology ot Missouri. Trans. Atad. Sci. St. Louis, 20(5): 59-
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Johnson, R. M.
1953. A contribution on the life history of the lizard Scincella laferale
(Say). Tulane Studies in Zoology, 1(2): 11-27, figs. 1-16.
Klauber, L. M.
1940. The worm snakes of the genus Leptotyphlops in the United States
and northern Mexico. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 9: 87-162,
pi. 6, figs. 1-8, maps 1-2.
1941. The long nosed snakes of the genus Rhinocheilus. Trans. San Diego
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1946. The glossy snake, Arizona, with descriptions of new subspecies.
Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 10(17): 311-398, pis. 7-8, fig. 1,
map.
Lane, H. H.
1945. A survey of the fossil vertebrates of Kansas, Part II. Amphibia.
Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 48(3): 286-316, figs. 1-7.
1946. A survey of the fossil vertebrates of Kansas, Part III. The reptiles.
Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 49(3): 289-332, figs. 1-7.
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1954. Nesting habits of the western painted turtle, Chrijsemijs pictu bellii
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LlNSDALE, J. M.
1927. Amphibians and reptiles of Doniphan County, Kansas. Copeia,
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1947. A synoptic key to the salientian eggs of the Ihiitcd States. Amer.
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LOEWEN, S. L.
1941. A polydactylous lizard. Copeia, 1: 48-49, fig.
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1945. The reptiles of Maryland and the District of Columbia. Privately
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1954. A systematic study of the North American lizards of the genus
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McDowell, A.
1951. Bull snake active in December. Herpetologica, 7: 142.
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1947. Notes on the ranges of some North American salamanders. Copeia,
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Marr, J- C.
1944. Notes on amphibians and reptiles from the central United States.
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1953. The status of the whipsnake MasticopJiis flagcUttm (Shaw) in Colo-
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Literature 339
Mecham, J. S.
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340 University of Kansas Publs., Mus. Nat. Hist.
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1953. A fossil snake of the genus Heterodon from the Pliocene of Kansas.
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1953. Death of an ornate box turtle parasitized by dipterous larvae.
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1947. Feeding behavior of Tropidoclonion lineatum. Herpetologica, 4(1):
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1889. The mode of respiration of the common salamander { Amhlystoma
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1951. Amphibians of western North America. Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley,
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1938. Restitution of the name Ptychemys hoyi Agassiz for a western river
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1938. The snakes of the genus Sonora in the United States and Lower
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1943. The Mexican snakes of the genera Sonora and Chionactis with notes
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1954. Observations on the reproduction and distribution of the green
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1940. Variations and relationships in the snakes of the genus Pituophis.
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1946. A taxonomic study of the genus Hypsiglena. Great Basin Naturalist,
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Transmitted hij author December 15, 1954.
INDEX
The complete discussion of each species of the state is indicated by two
numbers separated from each other by a hyphen. Within those pages a dis-
tribution map and usually a photograph are reproduced. Illustrations on pages
other than these are indicated in italicized numbers.
Under common names are cited page numbers only for the discussion of the
species, and for any illustration of an individual at any stage of development,
whether the common name is cited in the legend or not. Under scientific names
are cited all pages where the names appear.
Words in the glossary are not indexed.
59, 62 egg, 6-3,
89
30
Acris, 87
crepitans, 51, 57.
87-89
blanchardi, 88,
crepitans, 89
gryUus, 51
aestiviis.
Coluber, 231
Opheodnjs, 219, 231-233, 237, 282
Agama coUaris, 174
cornuta, 181
douglassii, 184
Agkistrodon
contortrix, 304
piscivonis, 308
alleganiensis
Cryptobranchus, 26,
31-32
alleganiensis, 32
Salaniandra, 31
alligator, 117
snapping turtle, 121, 131-133
Ambhjsioma tigrina, 40
texanum, 38
Ambystoma, 36
mactdatum, 27, 29, 30, 36-38, 41
opacum, 29, 320
texanum, 27, 29, 30 egg, 38-40
tigrinum, 13, 26, 27 bodv outline,
29, 30 egg, 36, 40-42
mavortium, 41, 42
tigrinum, 42
Ambystomidae, 36
American toad, 5.3 head, 55, 61. 64
egg, 65, 70, 79-82, 84
americanus, Bufo terrestris, 53, 79,
80, 82
amoenus,
Carphophis, 215, 222-223, 286, 288
Coluber, 222
Amphibia, 25
amphibians, preservation, 18
Amyda, 157, 162
ferox, 119, 159, 160-162
aspera, 162
emoryi, 119
hartivegi, 162
spinifera, 161
mutica, 119, 157-159, 161, 162
Ancistrodon, 304, 305
contortrix, 212, 304-308
laticinctus, 305, 307, 308
mokesan, 305, 306, 307, 308
piscivorus, 212, 305, 306, 308-310
leucostomus, 309, 310
Anguidae, 207
annectens, Tropidoclonion lineatum,
299, 300
anole, Carolina, 164, 165, 168-170
Anolis, 16, 168
carolinensis, 164, 165, 168-170
carolinensis, 169, 170
Anolitis carolinensis, 168
anthracinus,
Eumeces, 166, 167, 188-190, 193
anthracinus. 190
Plestiodon, 188
anurans, 51
handbook, 24
key, 53
Apoda, 25
areolata,
Rana, 57, 58 tadpole, 59, 64 egg,
65, 99-101, 107, 110
areolata, 101
Arizona, 248
elegans, 217, 248-250, 254
bhmchardi, 249, 250
arnyi, Diadophis punctatus, 225, 226
aspera, Amyda ferox, 162
atricaudatus. Crotalus horridus, 317
atriceps, Tantilla, 214
atrox, Crotalus, 213, 313-315
attenuatus.
Ophisaurus, 163, 207-209
attenuatus, 209
ventralis, 207
(345)
346
Index
auriceps, Crotaphyttis coUaris, 176
authors' names, 23
hailciji, Crota])hiitus coUaris, 176
basin garter snake, 324, 325
hcllii. Chryseiuy.s picta, 150, 151
lycrhindieri. Rami pipicns, 109, 111
])ibli()graphy, 330
bite,
salamander, 32, 50
snake, 302, 303, 307, 310
l)laek-hcacled tantilla, 215, 235, 267,
268-269
blaek snake, pilot, 219, 244, 245-248
hlanchardi,
Acris crepitans, 88, 89
Arizona ele^ans, 249, 250
Ophciidriis vcrnalis, 236
hlandingii,'Emi,s. 119, 123, 323
Blanding turtle, .'32.3
blind
salamander, Ozark, 320
snake, New Mexiean, 212, 220-222
snakes, 13
blotched king snake, 217. 244, 247,
253-255, 2.58
Boa contortrix, 304
Boidae, 210
Boidoidea, 210
homhifrons,
Scupliiopus, 66
Spea, 51, .54 toot, 57, 58 tadpole,
.59, 66-68
box turtle,
Carolina, 123, 1.37-140, 143
ornate, 123, 141-143
brachi/cephaki, Rana pipicns, 109,
lid. 111
hrevirostre, Phrijnosoma dotiglassii,
185
brown skink, 165, 186-188
Biifo, 52, 67, 69, 70, 75, 103
cognatus, 53 head, 60 tadpole, 61,
64 egg, 65. 69-71, 80
compactilis, 52 head, 53, 61, 64 egg,
65, 72-74, 80
speciosiis, 73, 74
dehilis, 52, 53, 60 tadpole, 61,
74-76, 77, 80
debilis, 75, 76
insidior, 7.5, 76
retiformis, 76
ptinctatus, 52, .53, 61. 62 egg, 63,
75, 77-78, 80
terrestris, 55, 61, 64 egg, 65, 70,
79-82, 84
americanus, 53, 79, 80, 82
chark'smithi, 79, 82
copei, 82
terrestris, 82
tcoodhousii, 52 tadpole, 53, 5.5. 61,
64 egg, 65, 74, 80, 81, 83-86
fowleri, 83, 85, 86
tcoodhousii, 83, 84, 86
Bufonidae, 69
bullfrog, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 102-104,
105, 112
bull snake, 214, 215, 250-2,53
button, .301
caeeilians, 2.5
callifiaster,
Cohdn-r, 253
Lampropeltis, 217, 244, 247, 2.53-
255, 258
Lampro]U']tis caUigaster, 255
eanebrake rattlesnake, .317
cantahrigensis, Rana sylvatica, 112,
113
canvon toad, 52, .53, 61, 62 egg, 63,
75, 77-78, 80
captivity, care in, 15-17
Carolina
anole, 117, 164, 165, 168-170
box turtle, 123, 1.37-140, 143
Carolina,
Terrapene, 123, 1.37-140, 143
Carolina, 1.39
Testudo, 137
carolinense, Engystoma, 113
carolinensis,
Auolis. 164, 165, 168-170
carolinensis, 169, 170
Anolius. 168
Gastrophryne, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63,
113-115, 116
Carphophis, 222
amoenus, 215. 222-223, 286, 288
vermis, 223
catenatus,
Crotalinus, 310
Sistrurus. 212. 213, 310-313
catenatus. 311, .3i2, 313
catesheiana, Rana, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63,
102-104, 105
Caudata, 25. 26
cave salamander, 27, 29, 43-44, 45
"chameleon," 16
charJcsmithi, Bufo terrestris, 79, 82
CheJonura temminckii, 1.31
Chelydra, 132, 1.33, 1.34
serpentina, 120, 121, 1.34-1.36
serpentina. 136
Chelydridae, 131
Chorus frog,
spotted, .55, 60 tadpole, 61. 64 egg,
65, 90-92. 93, 94
striped, 23, .5.3 foot, 55, 60 tadpole,
61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92, 93-94
Chrysemys, 145, 149, 1.52, 1.54, 156
picta. 123, 124, 1.39, 149-151
heUii, 150, 151
chrysoscelis, Hijla versicolor, 99
cinereus, Flethodon, 29
Cinosternum jlavescens, 129
circidosa, Rana areolata, 100, 101
Cistudo ornata, 141
Index
347
clamitans,
Rami, 56, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63,
104-106
clamitans, 105
clarkii,
Uclocaetes, 90
Pscuducris, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64
egg, 65, 90-92, 93, 94
clasping organ, 128, 130
Cnenii(li)p}ioru.s, 204
sexliiwatu.s. 165, 204-206
coachwhip, 219, 240-242
coal skink, 166, 167, 188-190, 193
cognatus, Btifo, 53 head, 60 tadpole.
61. 64 egg, 65, 69-71, 80
collared lizard, 14, 165, 174-176
collaris,
Againa, 174
Crotaphyttis, 14, 165, 174-176
collaris, 175, 176
collecting techniques, 12
Coluber, 236, 240, 244
aestivus, 231
amoenus, 222
calligaster, 253
constrictor, 218, 219, 236-239, 247
constrictor, 239
jiaciventris, 238, 239
erythrogaster, 272
fiagclhim, 240
getulus, 256
guttatus, 243
melanoleucus, 250
obsoletus, 245
occipito-maculatus, 283
ordinutus, 291
punctatus, 224
saurita, 296
sipedon, 279
striatulus, 285
triangulum, 258
vernalis, 234
Colubridae, 210, 222
Colubroidea, 210
common
five-lined skink, i66, i67, 189 191-
194, 196, 201
garter snake, 217, 291-293
hog-nosed snake, 215, 226-229, 231
mud turtle, 321
musk turde, 122, 123, 126-128
130, 321
snapping turtle, 120. 121, 134-1-^6
tree frog, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 96,
97-99
water snake, 219. 274, 279-281
cornpactilis, Bitfo, 52 head, 53, 61,
64 egg, 65, 72-74, 80
constrictor.
Coluber, 218, 219, 236-239
constrictor, 239
consultants, 25
contortrix,
Agkistrodon, 304
Aticistrodoii. 212, 304-308
Boa, 304
Hetcrodon. 229
copei, Bufo terrestris, 82
copperhead, 212, 301, 304-308
coral snakes, 301
cornuta, Agatna, 181
cornutum, Phrijnosoina, 163, 181-183
185
cottonmouth, 212 301, 305, 306, 308-
310
crepitans,
Acris, 51, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 87-89
crepitans, 89
cricket trog, northern, 51, 57, 59 62
egg, 63, 87-89
Crocodilia, 117
Crotalidae, 210, 301
Crotalinus catenatus, 310
viridis, 318
Crotalus, 211, 213, 301, 304, 313
atrox, 213, 313-315
horridns, 213, 316-317
atricaudattis, 317
horridns, 317
piscivorus, 308
viridis, 213, 318-319
viridis, 319
Crotaphi/tus, 174
collaris, 14, 165, 174-176
auriceps, 176
bailey i, 176
collaris, 175, 176
crucifer,
Hyla, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 89, 95-97.
98
crucifer, 96, 97
Cryptobranchidae, 31
Cryvtobranchus, 31
alleganiensis, 26, 27, 30 egg, 31-32
alleganiensis, 32
Bw/o, 52, 53, 60 tadpole, 61. 74-76,
77, 80
debilis, 75, 76
dekayi,
Storeria, 215, 281-283, 284
Tropidonotus, 281
Dekay snake, 215, 281-283, 284
Diadophis, 224
punctatus, 118, 215, 224-226, 266
ariiyi, 225, 226
diamond-backed
rattlesnake, western, 213, 313-315
water snake, 276-278
dissecta, Leptotyphlops myopica, 222
douglassii,
Agania. 184
Phnjnosonia, 163, 184-185, 323
earless lizard, 163, 171-173
348
Index
eastern
narrow-mouthed frog, 55, 59, 62
egg, 63, 113-115, 116
newt, 26, 27, 28 head, 29, 30, 33-35
ring-necked snake, 118, 215, 224-
226, 266
eggs,
preservation, 21-23
reptile, 118
study of, 21
EhipJie, 243, 254
guttata, 216, 219, 243-245, 247,
254
cnionji, 244, 245
obsoleta, 219, 244, 245-248
ohsoleta, 246, 247, 248
vulpina, 219
vulpina, 323, 324
Elapliis ohsolctiis, 245
guttatus, 243
Elapidae, 210, 301
elegans,
Arizona, 217, 248-250, 254
Haldea valeriae, 214, 215, 285,
287-288
Pseudemys scripta, 156
elegant shder, 122, 124, 125, 154,
155-156
emonji.
Amy da ferox, 119
Elaphe guttata, 244, 245
Emyidae, 137
Emys,
blandingii, 119, 123, 323
pseudogeographica, 147
Engystoma carolinense, 113
Epiglottophis, 252
episcopa, Sonora, 218, 219, 235, 263-
265, 266
episcopuni, Lamprosoma, 263
erythrogaster.
Coluber, 272
Natrix, 218, 219, 272-274, 280
erythrogaster, 21 A
Eumeces, 163, 166, 188, 189
anthracinus, 166, 167, 188-190, 193
anthracinus, 190
pluvialis, 190
fasciatus, 166, 167, 189, 191-194,
196, 201
laticeps, 167, 194-196
multwirgatus, 321, 322
obsoletus, 14, 166, 167, 189, 197-
199
septentrionalis, 166, 167, 193, 199,
200-203
obtxisirostris, 200, 202, 203
septentrionalis, 200, 201, 203
tetragrammus, 165
Eurycea, 43
longicauda, 27, 29, 43-44, 45
longicauda, 44
melanopleura, 44
lurifuga, 27, 29, 44, 45-46
multipUcata, 27, 29
Eutaenia marciana, 289
radix, 293
facial pit, 301
facultative neotene, 26
false map turtle, 122, 124, 125, 145,
147-148
fangs, 302
fasciata, Laccrta, 191
fasciatus, Eumeces, 166, 167, 189,
191-194, 196, 201
ferox, Amyda, 119, 159, 160-162
first aid (snake bite), 303
five-lined skink,
common, 166, 167, 189, 191-194,
196, 201
greater, 167, 194-196
flagellum.
Coluber, 240
Masticophis, 219, 240-242
flagellum 240, 241, 242
flavescens,
Cinosternum, 129
Kinosternon, 122, 123, 127, 129-
130
flavescens, 130
Platythyra, 129
flavigularis, Masticophis fl/igellum,
242
flaviventris. Coluber constrictor, 238,
239
floridarm,
Pseudemys, 125, 152-154, 156
Testudo, 152
fowleri, Bufo woodhousii, 83, 85, 86
fox snake, 323, 324
frog,
common tree, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63,
96, 97-99
eastern narrow-mouthed, 55, 59, 62
egg, 63, 113-115, 116
gopher, 57, 58 tadpole, 59, 64 egg,
65, 99-101, 107, 110
green, 56, 57, 59, 62 egg, 63, 104-
106, 112
leopard, 56, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65,
101, 107, 109-111
northern cricket, 51, 57, 59, 62 egg,
63, 87-89
pickerel, 14, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65,
106-108, 110
spotted chorus, 55, 60 tadpole, 61,
64 egg. 65. 90-92, 93-94
striped chorus, 23, 53 foot, 55, 60
tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92,
93-94
western narrow-mouthed, 55, 59,
62 egg, 63, 114, 115-116
wood, 59, 64 egg, 65, 107, 111-113.
321
frogs and toads, key, 53
I^^DEX
349
frogs,
distinguished from toads, 52
raising, 16-17
garden toad, 52 tadpole, 53, 55, 61,
64 egg, 65, 74, 80, 81, 83-86
garmani, Sceloportis undulatus, 176,
177, 179, 180, 181, 199
garter snake,
basin, 324, 325
common, 217, 291-293
Marcy, 217, 289-291, 294, 297
plains, 217, 291, 293-296, 298
Qastrophriine , 54 body outline, 91,
103, 113
carolinensis, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 113-
115. 116
olivacea, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 114,
115-116
mazatlanensis, 116
olivacea, 116
gentilis, Lampropeltis triangulum, 259,
260
genus, 23
geographica,
Graptemtjs, 124, 125, 144-146, 147,
148
Testudo, 144
getula, Lampropeltis, 256
getulus.
Coluber, 256
Lampropeltis, 217, 256-258
glass-snake lizard, 26, 163, 207-209
glossary, 326
glossy snake, 217, 248-250, 254
glot/di, Heterodon nasicus, 229, 230,
231
glutinosus, Plethodon, 29
gopher frog, 57, 58 tadpole, 59, 64
egg, 65, 99-101, 107, 110
Gopherus, 118
gracilis,
Tantilla. 214, 215, 235, 265-268,
269
gracilis, 268
graJiamii,
Natrix, 219, 274-276, 290, 299
Rcgina, 274
Graham water snake, 219, 274-276,
290, 299
Graptemt/s, 144, 145, 150, 154
geographica, 124, 125, 144-146, 147,
148
kohnii, 148
pseudogeographica, 122, 124, 125,
145. 147-148
kohnii, 148
ouachiiensis, 148
pseudogeographica, 148
greater fiye-lined skink, 167, 194-196
green
frog, 56, 57, 59, 62 egg. 63, 104-106,
112
rough. 219, 231-233, 237, 282
smooth, 118, 218, 219, 234-236,
263, 266
toad, 52, 53, 60 tadpole, 61, 74-76,
77, 80
ground snake,
plains, 218, 219, 235, 263-265, 266
southern, 215, 285-287, 288
western, 214, 215, 285, 287-288
grtjllus, Acris, 51
guttata, Elaphc, 216, 219, 243-245,
247, 254
guttatus.
Coluber, 243
Elaphis, 243
Gymnoi^hiona, 25
Haldca. 118, 223, 282, 285
striatula, 215, 285-287, 288
valeriae, 214, 215, 285, 287-288
elegans, 288
valeriae, 288
hallowelli, Tantilla gracilis, 266, 268
Hammond spadefoot, 320
hanimondii, Spea, 55, 320
hartwcgi, Amtjda spinifera, 162
haudeni, Thamnophis radix, 295. 296
lieilbender, 26, 27, 30 egg, 31-32
Helocaetes clarkii, 90
herpetology, 24
Heterodon, 226
contortrix, 229
nasicus, 215, 227, 229-231
glotidi, 229, 2.30, 231
nasicus, 229, 231
plati/rhinos, 215, 226-229, 231
plattjrhinos, 228, 229
hippocrepis, Kinosternon suhrubrum,
321
history, 9
liog-nosed snake,
common. 215, 226-229, 231
western, 275, 227, 229-231
holbrooki, Lampropeltis getulus, 257,
258
Holbrookia, 171
maculata, 163, 171-173
maculata, 172, 173
horned lizard, Texan, 163, 181-183
horridus.
Crotalus, 213, 316-317
horridus, 317
Jioyi, Pseudemtjs jloridana, 153, 154
hurtcrii, Scaphiopus, 55, 321
Hurter spadefoot, 321
ht/acinthinus, Sceloporus undulatus,
176, 177, 178, 181
//(//«, 95, 103
crucifer, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 89,
95-97, 98
crucifer, 96, 97
350
Index
versicolor, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 96,
97-99
chrysosceUs, 99
sandersi, 99
versicolor, 98, 99
Hylidae, 52, 87
Hi/psigletui, 269, 271
torquata, 219, 269-272
texana, 271, 272
Iguanidae, 168
insidior, Bufo dcbilis, 75, 76
kevs, use of, 23
killing, 17-18
king snake,
blotched, 217, 244, 247, 253-255,
258
red, 217, 258-260
speckled, 217, 256-258
Kinostemidae, 126
Kinosternon, 129
ftavescens, 122, 123, 127, 129-130
ftavescens, 130
spooneri, 130
stejnegeri, 130
subrubrum, 119, 321
hippocrepis, 321
kolmii,
Graptemys, 148
pseudogeographica, 148
labels, 19
Lacerta
fasciata, 191
maculata, 36
sexlineata, 204
laminae, 119
Lampropeltis, 210, 2i2, 214, 216,
253, 257
calligaster, 217, 244, 247, 253-255,
258
calligaster, 255
rhombomactdata, 255
ge*u/a, 256
geftdus, 217, 256-258
holbrooki, 257, 258
nigra, 258
splendida, 258
triangula, 258
triangtdum, 217, 258-260
gentilis, 259, 260
syspila, 259, 260
temporalis, 260
triangtdum, 260
Lamprosoma episcopum. 263
laterale, Scincella, 165, 186-188
lateralis, Scinciis, 186
Eumeces, 167, 194-196
Scincus, 194
laticinctus, Ancistrodon contortrix.
305, 307, 308
lecontei, Rhinocheilus, 215, 261-263
leopard frog, 56, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65,
101, 107, 109-111
Leptodactylidae, 52
Leptodeira torquata, 269
Leptotvphlopidae, 210, 220
Leptotyphlops, 212, 220
myopica, 212, 220-222
dissecta, 222
leucostomus, Ancistrodon piscivorus,
309, 310
Tropidoclonion, 217, 275, 298-300
lineatum, 300
lineatus, Microps, 298
lined snake, 217, 275, 298-300
literature cited, 330
live individuals, care, 15-17
lizard,
collared, 14, 165, 174-176
earless, 163, 171-173
glass-snake, 26, 163, 207-209
rough-scaled, 165, 172, 176-181
short-homed, 118, 163, 184-185
Texan horned, 163, 181-183
lizards, 163
distinguished from salamanders, 26
handbook, 24
key, 163
preservation, 18-19
longicauda,
Eurycea, 27, 29, 43-44, 45
longicauda, 44
Salamandra, 43
long-nosed snake, 215, 261-26:3
long-tailed salamander, 27, 29, 43-44,
45
louisianensis, Notophthalmus viride-
scens, 34, 35
lucifuga, Eurycea. 27, 29, 44, 45-46
luteola, Terrapenc ornata, 143
Macroclemys, 131, 135
temminckii, 121, 131-133
macidata,
Holbrookia, 163, 171-173
maculata. 172, 173
Lacerta. 36
maculatum, Ambystoma, 27, 29, 30,
36-38, 41
maculosa. Sirena, 48
maculosus.
Necturus, 26, 27, 30, 48-50
ynaculosus, 50
majalis, Opheodrys aestivus, 232. 233
Malaclemys, 118
many-lined skink, 321, 322
maps, explanation, 8
map turtle, 124, 125, 144-146, 147,
148
false, 122, 124. 125, 145. 147-148
marbled salamander, 29, 320
marciana, Eutaenia, 289
Index
351
iitarciunus, Tlumniopliis, 217, 289-
291, 294, 297
marrianits, 290
Marcv ^'arter snake, 217, 289-291,
294, 297
iiiassasauga, 212, 213, 310, 313
Mdsticophis, 240
fidficlhwi, 219, 240-242
fitmcllum, 240, 241, 242
flavifitilaris, 242
mavortium, Aniht/stonia tigrimim, 41,
42
nwzatlaiwnsis, Gastroplirt/ne olivacea.
116
inchmoh'ucus.
Coluber, 250
Pituophis, 214, 215, 250-253
melanopleura, Eurycea longicauda, 44
ntelanota. Rami chimitans, 106
Microhvlidae, 113
Microps lineatus. 298
miliarius, Sistrurus, 215
mokeson. Ancistrodon contortrix, 305,
■306, 307, 308
mudpuppy, 48
mild turtle,
common, 321
yellow, 122, 123, 127, 129-130
multiplicafa, Eurycea, 27. 29
muhivirgatus, Eumeces, 321, 322
musk turtle, common, 122, 123, 126-
128, 130, 321
luufico, Amyda, 119, 157-159, 161,
162
uuitictis, Trio7n/x, 157
myopica, Leptotyphlops, 212, 220-222
myo])icum, Stennstonia, 220
narrow-mouthed
frog,
eastern, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 113-
115, 116
western, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63, 114,
115-116
salamander, 27, 29, 30 egg, 38-40
nasictis,
Heterodon, 215. 227, 229-231
nasicus, 229, 231
Natricinae, 118
Natrix, 118, 214, 272, 273, 275, 277,
280, 290, 310
crythrngaster, 218, 219, 272-274,
280
erythrogaster, 21 A
transversa, 273, 274
grahamii, 219, 274-276, 290, 299
rhomhifera, 219, 276-278
rhomhifera, 278
sipedon. 219, 274, 279-281
sipedon, 280, 281
Necturus, 48
maculosus, 26, 27, 30, 48-50
maculosus, 50
ucotcnic, 26
nereous salamander, 26, 27, 47-48
nereus, Tyjjhlotriton, 26, 27, 47-48
New Mexican blind snake, 212, 220-
222
newt, eastern, 26, 27, 2H head, 29, 30,
33-35
night snake, spotted, 219, 269-272
nigra, Lantpropeltis getulus, 258
nigriceps,
Tantilla, 215, 235, 267, 268-269
nigriceps, 269
nigrita,
Pseudacris, 23, 5.3 toot, 55, 60 tad-
pole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92, 93-94
Rana, 24, 93
nigrolateris, Thamnophis marciamis,
291
northern cricket trog, 51, 57, 59, 62
egg, 63, 87-89
Notoph tlialm us, 33
viridescens, 26, 27, 28 head, 29, 30,
33-35
louisianensis, 34, 35
viridescens, 35
obligatory neotene, 26
obsoleta,
Elaphc, 219, 244, 245-248
obsoleta, 246, 247, 248
obsoletum, Plestiodon, 197
obsoletus.
Coluber, 245
Elaphis, 245
Eumeces, 14, 166, 167, 189, 197-
199
obtusirostris, Eumeces septentrionalis,
200, 202, 203
occipitomaculata,
Storeria, 214, 215, 235, 283-285
occipitomaculata, 284, 285
occipito-maculatus.
Coluber, 283
Storeria, 283
odorata, Testudo, 126
odoratus, Sternotherus, 122, 123, 126-
128, 130, 321
olivacea,
GastropJin/ne, 55, 59, 62 egg, 63,
114, 115-116
olivacea. 116
opacum, Ambystoma, 29, 320
Opheodrys, 231
aestivus. 219, 231-233, 237, 282
majalis, 233
vernalis, 118, 218, 219, 234-236,
237, 263, 266
blanchardi, 236
vernalis, 235
Ophisaurus, 207. 209
attenuatus, 163, 207-209
attenuatus, 209
ventrulis attenuatus, 207
352
Index
ordinatus.
Coluber, 291
Thamnophis, 217, 291-293
ordinatus, 293
ornuta,
Cistudo, 141
Terrapene, 123, 141-143
ornata, 142, 143
ornate box turtle, 123, 141-143
ouachitensis, Grapternys pseudogeo-
graphica, 148
Ozark blind salamander, 29, 48, 320
painted turtle, 123, 124, 139, 149-151
palustris, Rana, 14, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65,
106-108, 110
parietalis, Thamnophis ordinatus, 292,
293
peeper, spring, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 89,
95-97, 98
Pelobatidae, 66
Phrynosoma, 181, 183
cornutum, 163, 181-183, 185
douglassii, 163, 184-185, 323
brevirostre, 185
pickerel frog, 14, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65,
106-108, 110
picta,
Chrijsemys, 123, 124, 139, 149-151
Testudo, 149
pigmy rattlesnake, 324, 325
rattlesnakes, 304, 310
pilot black snake, 219, 244, 245-248
pipiens, Rana, 56, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65,
101, 107, 109-111
piscivorus,
Agkistrodon, 308
Ancistrodan, 212, 305, 306, 308-
310
Crotalus, 308
pit, facial, 301
Pituophis. 250, 290
melanoleucus, 214, 215, 250-253
sayi, 252, 253
pit vipers, 118, 301
placenta, 118
plains
garter snake, 217, 291, 293-296,
298
ground snake, 218, 219, 235, 263-
265, 266
spadefoot, 51, 54 foot, 55, 58 tad-
pole, 59, 66-68
toad, 53 head, 60 tadpole, 61, 6^
egg, 65, 69-71, 80
platyrhinos,
Heterodon, 215, 226-229, 231
platyrhinos, 228, 229
Platythyra flavescens, 129
Plestiodon
anthracinus, 188
obsoletum, 197
septentrionalis, 200
Plcthodon rincreus, 29
glutinosus, 29
Plethodontidae, 26, 43
Plethodontinae, 43
pluvialis, Eumeces anthracinus, 190
poison ( see venom )
poisonous turtles, 140
prairie rattlesnake, 213, 318-319
prairie skink, 166, 167, 193, 199, 200-
203
preservation, 17-23
amphibians, 18
eggs, 21-23
fluids. 18
Hzards, 18-19
snakes, 19
tadpoles, 20-21
turtles, 19
Proteidae, 48
proximits, Thamnophis sauritus. 293,
297, 298
Pseudacris, 23, 24, 88. 91. 103
clarkii, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64 egg,
65, 90-92, 93, 94
nigrita, 23, 53 foot, 55, 60 tadpole.
61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92, 93-94
triseriata, 22, 94
Pseudemys, 118, 145, 152, 154
floridana, 125, 152-154, 156
hoyi, 153, 154
scripta, 122, 124, 125, 154, 155-156
elegans, 156
pseudogeographica,
Eiyiys, 147
Grapternys, 122, 124, 125, 145, 147-
148
pseudogeographica, 148
punctatus.
Bufo, 52, 53, 61. 62 egg, 63, 75, 77-
78,80
Coluber. 224
Diadovhis. 118. 215. 224-226, 266
racer, 218, 219, 236-239
racerunner, six-lined, 165, 204-206
radix,
Eutaenia, 293
Thamnophis, 217, 291, 293-296.
297, 298
Rana, 16, 24, 52, 99, 101, 102, 108
areolata, 57, 58 tadpole, 59, 64 egg,
65, 99-101, 107, 110
areolata, 101
circtdosa, 100, 101
catesbeiana, 57, 59. 62 egg, 63, 102-
104, 105, 112
clamitans, 56 body outline, 57, 59,
62 egg, 63, 104-106, 112
clamitans. 105
melanota, 106
nigrita, 24. 93
palustris, 14, 57, 59, 64 egg, 65. 106-
108, 110
Index
353
pipiem, 56 body outline, 57, 59, 64
egg, 65, 101, 107, 109-111
berlandieri, 109, 111
brachycephala, 109, 110, 111
sylvatica, 59, 64 egg, 65, 107, 111-
113
cantabrigensis, 112, 113
sylvatica, 113, 322
terrestris. 79
Ranidae, 99
rat snake, 216, 219, 243-245, 247, 254
rattle, 301
rattlesnake,
canebrake, 317
pigmy, 324, 325
prairie, 213, 315, 318-319
timber, 213, 315, 316-317
western diamond-backed, 213, 313-
315
rattlesnakes, 301
pigmy, 304, 310
true, 304, 313
red-bellied snake, 214, 215, 235 283-
285
red king snake, 217, 258-260
red-leg disease, 17
Regina grahamii, 274
Reptilia, 2,5, 117, 118 key
retiformis, Bufo debilis, 76
Rhinocheihts, 249, 254, 259, 261
lecontei, 215, 261-263
tessellatus, 262, 263
rhombifera,
Natrix, 219, 276-278
rhombifera, 278
Tropidonotus, 276
rhomhomaculata, Lampropeltis
caUigaster, 255
ribbon snake, 217, 295, 296-298
ring-necked snake, eastern, 118, 215,
224-226, 266
rough green snake, 219, 231-233, 237
282
rough-scaled lizard, 165, 172, 176-181
salamander bite, 32, 50
salamander,
cave, 27, 29, 44, 45-46
long-tailed, 27, 29, 43-44, 45
marbled, 29, 320
narrow-mouthed, 27, 29, 50 egg
38-40
nereous, 26, 27, 47-48
Ozark blind, 29, 48, 320
spotted, 27, 29, 30, 36-38, 41
tiger, 13, 26, 27 body outHne, 29,
30 egg, 36. 40-42
salamanders, 26
handbook, 24
key, 27
Salarnandra,
aUeganiensis, 31
longicauda, 43
tt'xana, 38
tigrina, 40
Salamandridae, 33
Salientia, 25, 51
sandersi, lUjla versicolor, 99
Sauria, 117, 119, 1&3
saurita.
Coluber, 296
ThaninopJiis, 296
sauritus,
Thamnophis, 217, 295, 296-298
sauritus, 298
saw-toothed slider, 125, 152-154
sayi. Pit uo phis melanoleucus, 252, 253
^caphiopus, 54
bombifrons, 66
hurterii, 55, 321
Scelaporus, 176, 177
undulatus, 165, 172, 176-181
garmani, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181,
199
hyacinthinus, 176, 177, 178, 181
scientific names, 23
Scincella, 186, 189
laterale, 165, 186-188
Scincidae, 186
Sciricus lateralis, 186
laticeps, 194
scripta,
Pseudemys, 122, 124, 125, 154,
155-156
Testudo, 155
septentrional is,
Eumeces, 166, 167, 193, 199, 200-
203
septentrionalis, 200, 201, 203
Plestiodon, 200
Serpentes, 117, 118, 119
serpentina,
Chelydra, 120, 121, 134-136
serpentina, 136
Testudo, 134
sexlineata, Lacerta, 204
sexlineatus, Cnemidophorus, 165, 204-
206
shipping, 24-25
short-horned lizard, 118, 163, 184-
185
sipedim.
Coluber, 279
Natrix, 219, 274, 279-281
sipedon, 280, 281
Sirerui maculosa, 48
sirtalis,
Thamnophis, 293
sirtalis, 293
Sistrurus, 301, 310
catenatus, 212, 213, 310-313
catenatus, 311, 312, 313
tergeminus, 311, 312, 313
miliarius. 215
streckeri, 311, 324, 325
354
Index
six-lined racorunner, 165, 204-206
skink,
brown, 165, 186-188
coal, 166, 167, 188-190, 193
common five-lined, 166, 167, 189,
191-194, 196, 201
greater five-lined, 167, 194-196
manv-lined, 321, 322
prairie, 166, 167, 193, 199, 200-203
sonoran, 14, 766, 167, 189, 197-199
slender tantilla, 214, 215, 235, 265-
268, 269
slider, 118
elegant, 122, 124, 125, 154, 155-
156
saw-toothed, 125, 152-154
smooth
green snake, 118, 218, 219, 234-
236, 263, 266
soft-shelled turtle, 119, 157-159,
161, 162
snake,
basin garter, 324, 325
blotched king, 217, 244, 247, 253-
255, 258
bull, 214, 215, 250-253
common
garter, 217, 291-293
liog-nosed, 213, 226-229, 231
water, 219, 274, 279-281
Dekay, 215, 281-283, 284
diamond-backed water, 219, 276-
278
eastern ring-necked, 118, 215, 224-
226, 266
fox, 323, 324
glossy, 217, 248-250, 254
Graham water, 219, 274-276, 290,
299
lined, 217, 275, 298-300
long-nosed, 215, 261-263
Marcy garter, 217, 289-291, 294, 297
New Mexican blind, 212, 220-222
pilot black, 219, 244, 245-248
plains,
garter, 217, 291. 293-296, 298
ground, 218, 219, 235, 263-265,
266
rat, 276, 219, 243-245, 247, 254
red-bellied, 214, 215. 235, 283-285
red king, 217, 258-260
ribbon, 217, 295, 296-298
rough green, 219, 231-233, 237, 282
smooth green, 118, 278, 219, 234-
236, 263. 266
southern ground. 215, 285-287, 288
speckled king, 217. 256-258
spotted night, 219. 269-272
western
ground, 27-^, 215, 285. 287-288
hog-nosed, 273, 227, 229-231
worm, 215, 222-223, 286, 288
yellow-bellied water, 278, 219, 272-
274, 280
snake-bite treatment, 302-304
snakes, 210
handbook, 24
key, 212
preservation, 19
snake venom, 302
snapping turtle.
alligator, 727. 131-133
common. 720, 121. 134-136
soft-shelled turtle,
smooth, 77.9, 157-159, 161, 162
spiny, 7 7,9, 159, 160-162
Sonora. 263
episcopa, 218, 219, 235, 263-265,
266
taylori, 265
sonoran
skink, 14, 766, 167, 189, 197-199
toad, 52 head, 53. 61, 64 egg, 65,
72-74. 80
southern ground snake. 215, 285-287.
288
spadefoot.
Hammond, 320
Hurter, 321
plains 51, 54 foot, 55, 58 tadpole,
59, 66-68
Spea, 66, 103
hombifrons, 51, 54 foot, 55, 58 tad-
pole, 59, 66-68
hammondii. 55, 320
species, 23
speciosus, Bufo compactiUs, 73, 74
speckled king snake, 217, 256-258
spehieus, Tijphlotriton, 29, 48, 320
spinifera, Amtfda ferox, 161
spiny soft-sheiled turtle, 779, 159, 160-
162
sphndkla, Lampropeltis getuJiis, 258
spooneri, Kinostenum flavescens, 130
spotted
chorus frog, 55, 60 tadpole, 61, 64
egg, 65, 90-92, 93, 94
night snake, 219, 269-272
salamander, 27, 29, 30, 36-38, 41
spring peeper, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 89,
95-97, 98
Squamata, 117, 118, 163
stegocephalians, 25
stejnegeri, Kinostemon flavescens, 130
SteUio nndulatiis, 176
Stenostoma nnjopicum, 220
Sternotherus, 126
odoratus, 122, 123, 126-128, 130,
321
Index
355
Storeriu, 118, 281, 290
dekai/i, 215, 281-283, 284
tcxumi, 282, 283
occipiiomacnlaia, 214, 215, 235,
283-285
occipifomoctilata, 284, 285
occipito-nwculdtiis, 283
streckeri. Sistnint.s luiliarius, 311, 324,
325
striatula, Haldea, 215, 285-287, 288
striatulus. Coluber, 285
striped chorus frog, 23, 53 foot, 55, 60
tadpole, 61, 64 egg, 65, 91, 92,
93-94
subspecies. 24
stjJvatica,
Rana, 59, 64 egg, 65, 107, 111-113
sijlvatica, 113, 321
syspila. Lampropeltis triangulum, 259,
260
tags, 19
tadpoles,
characters, 52
key, 59
preservation, 20-21
TantiUa, 265, 271
atriceps, 214
gracilis, 214, 215, 235, 265-268, 269
gracilis, 268
hallowelli, 266, 268
nigriceps, 215, 235, 267, 268-269
nigriceps, 269
tantilla,
black headed, 215, 235, 267, 268-
269
slender, 214, 215, 235, 265-268, 269
taylori, Sonora, 265
Teiidae, 204
temminckii,
Chelonura, 131
Macroclcmijs, 121, 131-133
temporalis, Lampropeltis triangulum,
260
tergeminus, Sistrurus catenatus, 311,
312, 313
Terrapene, 137
Carolina, 123, 137-140, 143
Carolina, 139
triunguis, 138, 140
ornata, 123, 141-143
luteola, 143
ornoffl, 142, 143
terrapins, 118
f^^ west ris
Bufo, 55. 61, 64 egg, 65, 70, 79-82,
84
t err est ris, 82
, Rana, 79
tessellatus, Rhinocheilu.s lecontei, 262,
263
Testudines, 117, 118, 119
Testudinidae, 118
Testudo,
Carolina, 137
fioridana, 152
geographica, 144
odorata, 126
p/cto, 149
scripta, 155
serpentina, 134
tetragrammus, Eumeces, 165
texana,
Hypsiglcna torquata, 271, 272
Salamandra, 38
Storeria dekayi, 282, 283
Texan horned lizard, J 63, 181-183
Amhhjstoma, 38
Ambystoma, 27, 29, 30 egg, 38-40
Thamnophis, 118, 289, 290
elegans vagrans, 324, 325
marcianus, 217, 289-291, 294, 297
marcianus, 290
nigrolateris, 291
ordinatus, 217, 291-293
ordinatus, 293
parietalis, 292, 293
roc//x, 217, 291, 293-296. 297, 298
haydeni, 295, 296
sauritus, 217, 295, 296-298
proximus, 293, 297, 298
sauritus, 298
sirtalis. 293
sirtalis, 293
tiger salamander, 13, 26, 27 body out-
line, 29, 30 egg, 36, 40-42
tigrina,
Amblystoma, 40
Salamandra, 40
tigrinum,
Ambystoma, 13, 26, 27, 29, 30 egg,
36, 40-42
tigrinum, 42
timber rattlesnake, 213, 315, 316-317
toad,
American, 53 head, 55, 61, 64 egg,
65, 70, 79-82, 83
canyon, 52, 53, 61, 62 egg, 63, 75,
77-78. 80
garden, 52 tadpole, 53, 55, 61, 64
egg, 65, 74, 80. 81, 83-86
green, 52, 53, 60 tadpole, 61, 74-76,
77, 80
plains, 53 head. 60 tadpole, 61, 64
egg, 65, 69-71, 80
sonoran, 52 head, 53, 61, 64 egg, 65,
72-74. 80
toads.
and frogs, key. 53
distinguished from frogs, 52
torquata,
Hypaiglcna, 219, 269-272
Leptodeira, 269
356
Index
tortoises, 118
transversa, Natrix erythrogaster, 273,
274
tree frog, common, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63,
96, 97-99
triangiila, Lampropeltis, 258
triangulurn.
Coluber. 258
Lampropeltis, 217, 258-260
triarifiiilum, 260
Trionychidae, 157
Trionux miiticus, 157
triseriata, Pseudacris nigrita, 22, 94
Triturits viridescens, 33
triunguis, Terrapene Carolina, 138, 140
Tropidoclonion, 118, 290, 298, 299
lineatum, 217, 275, 298-300
annectens, 299, 300
lineatum, 299, 300
Tropidonotus
dekayi, 281
rhombifera, 276
turtle,
alligator snapping, 121, 131-133
Blanding, .323
Carolina box, 123, 137-140, 143
common
mud, 321
musk, 122, 123, 126-128, 130, 321
snapping, 120, 121, 134-136
false map, J22, 124, 125, 145, 147-
148
map, 124, 125, 144-146, 147, 148
ornate box, 123, 141-143
painted, 123, 124, 139, 149-151
smooth soft-shelled, 119, 157-159,
161, 162
spiny soft-shelled, 119, 159, 160-162
yellow mud, 122, 123, 127, 129-130
turtles, 118
handbook, 24
key, 119
poisonous, 140
preservation, 19
Typhlopoidea, 210
Typhlotriton, 47
nereus, 26, 27, 47-48
spelaeus, 29, 48, 320
undulatus,
Sceloporus, 165, 172, 176-181
Stellio, 176
vagrans, Thamnophis elegans, 324,
525
valeriae,
Haldea, 214, 215, 285, 287-288
valeriae, 288
Virginia, 287
venom,
salamanders, 14
snake, 302
venomous reptiles,
capture, 15
recognition, 12
vermis, Carphophis amoenus, 223
vernalis.
Coluber, 234
Opheodnjs, 118, 218, 219, 234-236,
237, 263, 266
vernalis, 235
versicolor,
Hyla, 57, 61, 62 egg, 63, 96, 97-99
versicolor, 98, 99
vipers, pit, 188, 301
Virginia valeriae, 287
viridescens,
Notophthalmus, 26, 27, 28 head
29, 30, 33-35
viridescens, 35
viridis,
Crotalinus, 318
Crofalus, 213, 318-319
viridis, 319
vulpina,
Elaphe, 219
vulpina, 323, 324
water snake,
common, 219, 274, 279-281
diamond-backed, 219, 276-278
Graham, 219, 274-276, 290, 299
yellow-beUied, 218, 219, 272-274,
280
western
diamond-backed rattlesnake, 213,
313-315
ground snake, 214, 215, 285, 287-
288
hog-nosed snake, 215, 227, 229-231
narrow-mouthed frog, 55, 59, 62
egg, 63, 114, 115-116
wood frog, 59, 64 egg, 65, 107, 111-
113, .32i
tcoodhousii,
Bufo, 52 tadpole, 53, 55, 61, 64
egg, 65, 74, 80, 81, 83-84
woodhousii, 83, 84, 86
worm snake, 215, 222-223, 286, 288
vellow-bellied water snake, 218, 219,
272-274, 280
yellow mud turtle, 122, 123, 127, 129-
130
D
25-9019
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iJniversity of Kansas Museum of Natural History, Miscellaneous Publications.
Institutional libraries interested in publications exchange nui\ obtain this
series by addressing the Exchange Librarian, University of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas.
Requests of individuals are handled instead by the Museum of Natural His-
tory, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. There is no provision for sale of
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and mailing.
*1. The Museum of Natural History, the University of Kansas. By E. R. Hall and Ann
Murray. Pp. 1-16, illustrattd. January 5, 1946.
*2. Handbook of Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas. By Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 1-336,
233 figures in text. September 12, 19.50.
3. In Memoriam, Charles Dean Bunker, 1870-1948. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 1-11,
1 figure in text. December 1.5, 1951.
4. The University of Kansas, Natural History Reservation. By Henry S. Fitch. Pp. 1-38,
4 plates, 3 figures in text. February 20, 1952.
5. Prairie Chickens of Kansas. By Maurice F. Baker. Pp. 1-68, 4 plates, 15 figures in
text. March 10, 1953.
6. The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin. By Francis Harper. Pp. 1-140, 28 figs.
October 21, 1955. Copies, paper bound, $1.50 postpaid from The Arctic Institute
of North America, 1530 P Street NW, Washington, D.C.
7. Handbook of Mammals of Kansas. Bv E. Ravmond Hall. Pp. 1-303, illustrated.
December 13, 1955. Paper bound, $I..50 postpaid (cloth $4.00).
8. Mammals of Northern Alaska, on the Arctic Slope. B\' lam s W. Bee and E.
Raymond Hall. Pp. 1-309, Frontispiece colored, 4 plates, 127 figures in text. March
10, 1956. Paper bound, $1.00 postpaid (cloth $4.00).
9. Handbook of Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas. Bv Hobart M. Smith. 2nd [re-
vised] edition. Pp. 1-356, 253 figures. April 20, 1956. Paper bound, $1.50 post-
paid (cloth $4.00).
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