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I/I  B  RAR.Y 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 
OF    ILLINOIS 


F69 
cop.  2. 


Ill    H!ST. 


-^ 


V 


JJ-. 


THE  MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY: 


ITS 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


THE 


MISSISSIPPI    VALLEY: 


ITS 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY, 


INCLUDING  SKETCHES  OF  THE 


TOPOGRAPHY,    BOTANY,    CLIMATE,     GEOLOGY,    AND     MINERAL 

RESOURCES  ;    AND  OF  THE  PROGRESS  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

IN  POPULATION  AND  MATERIAL  WEALTH. 


J.  W.  FOSTER,  LL.D., 

PRESIDENT   OF   THE   AMERICAN   ASSOCIATION    FOR   THE   ADVANCEMENT  OF   SCIKNCEJ 

JOINT-AUTHOR   OF   "FOSTER    AND   WHITNEY'S   REPORT   ON   THE   GEOLOGY   OF 

THE  LAKE  SUPERIOR  REGION;"   LECTURER  ON  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

AND   COGNATE   SCIENCES   IN   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF 

CHICAGO,  ETC.,  ETC. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  MAPS  AND  SECTIONS. 

"Jferum  cognoscere  causas." 


CHICAGO  : 
S.     C.     GRIGGS    AND     COMPANY. 

LONDON: 

TRUBNER    &    CO 

1869. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1869, 

By  S.  C.  GRIGGS  AND  CO., 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Northern  District  of  Illinois. 


CHURCH,  GOODMAN  AND  DONNELLEY,  PRINTERS,  CHICAGO. 


JOHN    CONAHAN,  STEREOTYPER. 


PREFACE. 


HAVING  devoted  many  years  to  explorations  in 
different  parts  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  to 
the  study  of  its  soil,  climate,  and  resources —  min- 
eral and  agricultural, —  and  having  been  a  witness, 
in  part,  of  the  gigantic  strides  which  have  been 
made  during  the  lifetime  of  a  generation,  in  those 
arts  which  contribute  so  essentially  to  the  comforts 
and  conveniences  of  man;  —  I  propose  to  describe, 
in  a  comprehensive  form,  the  Physical  Geography 
of  this  wonderful  region,  and  particularly  of  that 
portion  which  lies  west  of  the  great  dividing  line  — 
the  Mississippi  River.  Already  this  valley  con- 
tains a  majority  of  the  people  of  the  United  States; 
and  the  developments  which  are  now  going  on  to 
bring  it  into  close  commercial  relations  with  the 
mining  regions  of  the  Ultra-montane  and  Pacific 
States,  and  with  the  markets  of  the  Orient,  will 
add  vastly  to  its  resources,  and  to  its  commanding 
position  as  a  part  of  the  Great  Republic. 


VI  PREFACE. 

With  regard  to  the  capacities  of  the  region  lying 
between  the  eastern  rim  of  the  Great  Basin  and 
the  Missouri  River,  and  known  as  the  Plains,  the 
vaguest  ideas  prevail.  Some  theorists,  little  versed 
in  the  laws  of  climatology,  and  over-sanguine  as  to 
the  expansibility  of  our  country,  have  anticipated 
the  time  when  population  would  flow,  in  an  un- 
broken wave,  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains; 
while  others,  more  cautious,  drawing  their  conclu- 
sions from  sources  not  less  erroneous,  have  been 
disposed  to  regard  this  region  as  an  irreclaimable 
desert.  It  is  neither.  While  God  has  doomed 
certain  portions  of  the  surface  to  everlasting  sterility, 
the  greater  portion  will  forever  afford  vast  ranges 
for  pasturage;  and  much  of  it,  under  a  suitable  sys- 
tem of  irrigation,  can  be  reclaimed  and  made  to 
rival  the  ancient  fruitfulness  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

The  phenomena  of  forest-growth,  of  grassy 
plains,  and  arid  wastes,  it  is  believed,  result  from 
laws  as  constant  and  harmonious  in  their  opera- 
tion as  those  which  regulate  the  planetary  move- 
ments. 

It  was  with  a  view  of  illustrating  the  gradations 
between  the  forest,  prairie,  and  desert  ;  the  varying 
conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture,  and  their 
effects  in  determining  the  range  of  those  plants 
cultivated  for  food;  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  trace 


PREFACE.  Vll 

the  character  of  the  fundamental  rocks  over  the 
whole  of  this  region,  pointing  out  the  mode  of 
occurrence  of  those  ores  and  minerals  useful  in  the 
arts;  and,  finally,  to  trace  the  colonization  of  this 
region  from  its  feeble  beginnings  to  its  present 
magnificent  proportions;  that  this  work  was  under- 
taken. With  the  multiplication  of  observations  — 
meteorological  and  geological, —  it  may  be  found 
necessary  to  modify  some  of  the  views  herein  ex- 
pressed; and  the  most  that  I  can  hope  is,  that  they 
may  prove  to  be  in  the  right  direction. 

No  writer  at  this  day  upon  physical  geography 
can  justly  ignore  the  great  name  of  HUMBOLDT. 
He  explored  nearly  the  whole  realm  of  nature,  and 
investigated  her  laws  with  a  patient  industry,  and 
in  a  philosophical  spirit,  which  have  seldom  been 
approached.  He  first  reduced  meteorology  to  the 
regular  and  consistent  form  of  a  science,  when  he 
mapped  the  lines  of  equal  temperature,  thus  show- 
ing the  distribution  of  heat  over  the  seasons,  and, 
in  connection  with  the  hygrometric  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  precipitation  of  rain,  traced 
their  effects  upon  the  geographical  range  of  plants. 
From  confusion  and  uncertainty,  he  evoked  order 
and  harmony;  out  of  materials  apparently  incon- 
gruous and  misshapen,  he  erected  a  temple  to 
science,  proportionate  alike  in  its  outlines  and  in 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

its  several  parts.  He  is  emphatically  the  father  of 
the  science  known  as  Physical  Geography. 

The  scientific  expeditions  fitted  out  by  the  Gov- 
ernment to  determine  the  most  practicable  routes 
for  railways  between  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the 
Pacific  Coast,  have  given  us  an  insight  into  a  vast 
region  which  before  was  almost  a  terra  incognita. 
The  results  are  embodied  in  a  series  of  volumes, 
not  accessible  to  the  general  reader,  even  if  he  had 
the  time  to  peruse  them,  known  as  "  The  Pacific 
Railroad  Surveys."  The  earlier  expeditions 
of  LEWIS  and  CLARKE,  PIKE,  LONG,  FREMONT, 
WILKES,  STANSBURY,  and  others,  gave  us  general 
outlines  of  the  physical  geography;  and  yet,  with 
the  combined  results  of  these  observers,  and  of 
those  who  have  subsequently  become  connected 
with  the  various  mining  enterprises,  much  is  yet  to 
be  determined  in  every  branch  of  natural  history. 

To  Messrs.  MEEK  and  HAYDEN  the  public  are 
indebted  for  valuable  contributions  to  the  geology 
of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  results  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Califor- 
nia, under  the  charge  of  Prof.  J.  D.  WHITNEY, 
afford  us  a  key  to  unlock  the  hidden  mysteries  of 
that  complicated  region;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  so  important  a  work  has  been  suspended. 

In  the  year  1819,  a  regular  series  of  meteorologi- 
cal observations  was  instituted  at  the  various  Mili- 


PREFACE.  IX 

tary  Posts  of  the  United  States,  under  the  authority 
of  the  Secretary  of  War,  which  has  been  continued 
to  the  present  time.  In  1857,  these  observations, 
together  with  those  which  had  been  made  at  other 
points  by  competent  observers,  were  tabulated  and 
brought  out  by  Mr.  LORIN  BLODGET,  in  a  work  en- 
titled "  The  Climatology  of  the  United  States."  This 
work  contains  a  vast  amount  of  information,  and  is 
the  foundation  of  most  of  our  discussions  in  refer- 
ence to  the  lines  of  temperature,  the  distribution 
of  rain,  and  the  prevalent  direction  of  winds  in  the 
United  States.  But  a  work  so  thorough,  must 
necessarily  be  encumbered  with  minute  details,  so 
that  the  generalizations  are  not  presented  in  so 
compendious  a  form  as  to  be  appreciable  by  the 
cursory  reader,  nor  are  they,  in  all  instances,  car- 
ried to  their  legitimate  results.  The  work  is  like 
an  arsenal,  to  which  the  soldier  resorts  to  equip 
himself  with  an  armor  suited  to  the  actual  conflict. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, which  has  been  made  the  repository  of  these 
observations  continued  up  to  the  present  time,  has 
not  communicated  to  the  world  the  tabulated 
results.  These  results,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say,  are  of  great  importance  in  enabling  us  to 
determine  the  varying  fertility  of  the  Continent. 

Prof.  ASA  GRAY,  in  Silliman's  Journal,  1857 
and  1859,  and  Dr.  J.  G.  COOPER,  in  the  Patent 


X  PREFACE. 

Office  Report  for  1860,  have  contributed  valuable 
information  on  the  geographical  range  of  the  for- 
est-trees of  North  America;  and  it  is  to  Sir  JOHN 
RICHARDSON  that  we  are  almost  entirely  indebted 
for  our  knowledge  of  the  climatology,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  botany,  of  the  circumpolar  region  of 
this  Continent. 

The  work  of  HUMPHREYS  and  ABBOT,  on  "  The 
Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the  Mississippi  River," 
is  of  the  very  highesj;  scientific  interest.  Principles 
the  most  elaborate,  are  patiently  wrought  out,  and 
the  results  are  clearly  enunciated.  From  these 
demonstrations,  it  is  evident  that  the  views  which 
formerly  prevailed  as  to  the  extent  of  the  delta,  and 
the  effects  of  fluviatile  action  upon  the  bed  and 
enclosing  banks  of  that  river,  were  not  understood. 

This  work, — which,  with  much  distrust,  I  now 
submit  to  the  public, —  is  not  intended  to  be  a  purely 
scientific  treatise.  The  severity  of  style  and  rigor 
of  deduction  which  characterize  such  works,  have 
been  purposely  avoided.  I  have  attempted  rather 
to  present  a  series  of  graphic  sketches  of  the 
great  phenomena  of  the  region  under  considera- 
tion, in  a  form  which  should  interest  and  instruct 
the  general  reader,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  explain 
those  natural  laws  to  whose  operation  these  phe- 
nomena are  due.  In  preparing  it  for  the  press,  I 
have  been  oppressed  by  a  double  fear, —  lest,  while 


PREFACE.  XI 

I  might  render  it  too  abstruse  for  the  compre- 
hension of  the  general  reader,  at  the  same  time,  the 
specialties  were  not  sufficiently  exact  to  satisfy  the 
requirements  of  those,  who  brought  to  the  investi- 
gation of  these  subjects  a  purely  scientific  spirit. 
These  details  render  science  repellent  to  those  who 
have  not  acquired  a  special  knowledge  of  the  ele- 
ments on  which  it  is  based.  It  is  believed,  how- 
ever, that  generalizations  may  be  set  forth  in  a  man- 
ner to  interest  and  instruct  the  ordinary  reader. 

In  discussing  the  operation  of  natural  laws  as 
manifested  in  climate,  in  the  distribution  of  moist- 
ure, and  even  in  the  origin  and  spread  of  civiliza- 
tion, I  have  felt  at  liberty  to  draw  my  illustrations 
from  every  quarter  of  the  world,  and  from  almost 
every  department  of  science.  These  illustrations 
will  show  that  man,  even,  however  much  he  may 
boast  of  his  dominion  over  matter,  is  the  creature 
of  climate;  and  that,  only  under  certain  favorable 
conditions,  does  he  attain  to  the  full  development 
of  his  physical  and  intellectual  powers.  Such  con- 
ditions, it  is  believed,  obtain  in  the  Upper  Valley 
of  the  Mississippi. 

CHICAGO,  February  i,  1869. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    MISSISSIPPI   RIVER. 

The  magnitude  of  the  Mississippi  —  Area  —  Subordinate  basins  — 
Internal  navigation  —  Character  of  Lower  Mississippi  —  Charac- 
teristic vegetation  —  Overflows  —  Bluffs  — Levees  —  Outlets  — Ap- 
proaches—  Phenomena  of  waters — Geology — Area  of  alluvium 
and  delta  —  Earthquake-action.  -----  Page  I 

CHAPTER  II. 

MOUNTAINS   AND   PLAINS. 

Character  of  the  water-sheds  — The  Appalachain  Range — The  Rocky 
Mountains — The  Sierra  Nevada — The  Cascade  Range — The 
Coast  Ranges  —  Ridges  of  the  Great  Basin  —  Character  of  the 
sources  of  the  Mississippi  —  Of  the  Ohio  Valley  —  The  Llano 
Estacado  —  Rocky  Mountain  Valleys  —  Colorado  Desert — Valley 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  —  Pacific  Railroad  routes  —  Rdsume'.  -  26 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE   ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

Distribution  of  forest,  prairie,  and  desert  —  Prairies  not  due  to  peat- 
growth —  Not  due  to  the  texture  of  the  soil  —  Not  due  to  the 
annual  burnings — Zones  of  vegetation  —  The  Great  Basin — Cli- 
matic conditions  —  Mean  annual  precipitation  —  Source  of  mois- 
ture—  Periodical  rains  of  California  —  Conclusions.  -  -  71 

CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  ORIGIN  OF  PRAIRIES  —  continued. 

South  America  —  Primeval  forests  of  Brazil  —  The  Llanos  of  Carac- 
cas — The  Pampas  of  La  Plata  and  the  Gran  Chaco — Patagonia  — 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

Its  deserts  and  mountains  —  Peru  and  the  desert  ofAtacama  — 
Wind  and  rain  charts  —  Europe  —  Plains  of  the  Black  Sea  — 
Steppes  of  the  Caucasus  —  Plateau  of  Central  Asia  —  Desert  of 
Arabia — Africa  —  Sahara  —  Guinea — Basin  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean— Australia  —  Resume" —  Explanation  of  Map.  -  -  112 

CHAPTER  V. 

FOREST-CULTURE    AND    IRRIGATION. 

How  plants  grow — Effects  of  forests  on  health  —  On  animal  life  — 
Effects  of  disrobing  a  country  of  forests  —  Rapid  destruction 
of  forests  in  the  United  States  —  Forests,  their  lessons  —  They 
modify  climate  — They  retain  moisture  — Tree-planting  —  Irriga- 
tion—  Practiced  at  an  early  day  on  both  hemispheres  —  Success- 
fully introduced  on  the  Rocky  Mountain  slopes — Feasibility  of 
its  application  in  California,  the  Colorado  I>esert,  and  the  West- 
ern Plains.  __-_-.----  141 

CHAPTER  VI. 

CLIMATE. 

Definition  of  climate — Atmospheric  currents — Rains  and  winds  — 
Cloud-bursts  —  Isothermal  lines  —  Gulf-stream  —  Evaporative 
power  of  winds  —  Isotherms  of  the  United  States  —  Climate  of 
the  Pacific  Slope  and  Great  Basin  —  Phenomena  of  the  seasons  — 
Table  of  temperatures  —  Of  rain-precipitation.  -  -  172 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CULTIVATED   PLANTS. 

Conditions  of  climate  and  soil  restricting  the  range  of  plants — Of  the 
soil  in  reference  to  the  growth  of  particular  plants  —  Maize, — 
Wheat, —  Oats, —  Rye,  and  Barley  —  Natives  of  the  plains  of  Cen- 
tral Asia  —  Rice  —  Sugar-cane  —  Sorghum  —  Potato  —  Cotton  — 
Tobacco  —  Grasses  for  pasturage  —  Exhaustion  of  the  soil  —  Fa- 
cilities for  cultivation —  Tables  of  population  and  production. 

209 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

GEOLOGY — IGNEOUS  AND  METAMORPHIC  ROCKS. 

Geological  structure  of  the  Mississippi  Valley — Tabular  view  of  the 
different  formations  —  Igneous  rocks  of  different  age  —  Systems 
of  elevation  of  mountain  chains  —  The  Lake  Superior  system  — 
The  Primeval  Continent — The  Appalachian  system — The  Rocky- 


CONTENTS.  XV 

Mountain  system  —  The  Pacific  Coast  Ranges — Igneous  pro- 
ducts—  River  systems — The  Azoic  system,  associated  with  iron- 
ores —  Iron-region  of  Lake  Superior  —  Of  Missouri — The  Mytho- 
logical age  of  metals — The  present,  the  Iron  age  —  Annual 
product  of  the  world.  --------  342 

CHAPTER  IX. 
GEOLOGY — continued, —  SEDIMENTARY  ROCKS. 

Silurian  system  —  First  evidences  of  organic  life — Area  of  Silurian  — 
Lower  Silurian — Potsdam  sandstone  —  Pictured  Rocks — Copper- 
region  of  Lake  Superior — Lower  Magnesian  limestone — Lead- 
bearing  veins  of  Missouri  —  St.  Peter's  sandstone  —  Cincinnati 
Blue  limestone  —  Galena  limestone  —  Upper  Silurian  system  — 
Niagara  limestone — Onondaga  salt-group  —  Devonian  system  — 
Carboniferous  system — Fluor  spar,  with  veins  of  galena  —  Ga- 
lena deposits  —  Silver  ores  of  Mexico  —  Coal-Measures,  their 
area  —  Thickness  —  Character  of  the  coals  —  Permian  system  — 
Triassic  and  Jurassic  series  —  Gold  deposits  of  California  —  Cop- 
per deposits —  Cretaceous  deposits  —  Coal  deposits.  -  -  272 

CHAPTER  X. 
GEOLOGY  —  continued, —  SEDIMENTARY  ROCKS. 

Tertiary  system  —  Marine  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  —  Fresh-water  of  the 
Missouri  Basin — Marine  of  the  Pacific  Coast — Economic  value 
of  the  Tertiary  coals  —  Igneous  products  of  the  Great  Basin  — 
Comstock  lode,  its  yield  in  silver — Drift-epoch  —  Drift- action  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley  —  Erosive  action  on  the  Pacific  Slope  and 
in  the  Colorado  Plateau  —  Terraces  of  Modified  Drift  —  Loess  — 
Sand-dunes — The  Great  Lakes  —  Drift-phenomena  —  Denuda- 
tion— Area,  depth,  and  elevation  —  Re'sume'.  ...  318 

CHAPTER  XI. 

INFLUENCE   O?   CLIMATE   ON   MAN. 

Geographical  range  of  man,  as  compared  with  that  of  plants  —  Con- 
ditions of  human  life  under  different  zones — Arctic  life  — 
Tropical  life  —  Life  in  Northern  temperate  zone — Human 
energy  displayed  within  certain  isothermal  lines— 7 In  Europe  — 
In  North  America — Climate  of  the  Southern  States,  and  the  con- 
dition of  society — Climate  of  the  Northern  States,  and  the  con- 
dition of  society  —  Effects  of  these  differences  seen  in  the  Rebel- 
lion—  Physical  development.  ------  355 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

ORIGIN   OF    CIVILIZATION. 

Valley  of  the  Mississippi,  its  prospective  population  —  Greece  the 
cradle  of  civilization — Rome  the  inheritor  of  that  civilization  — 
Origin  of  Teutons  and  Celts  —  Characteristics  of  each  race  — 
Colonization  of  North  America  —  National  unity — Causes  which 
promote  it — English  character — Their  homogeneity  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  —  The  civil- 
izing effects  of  the  Christian  religion.  -----  377 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

PROGRESS    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 

Ordinance  of  1787  for  the  government  of  the  Northwestern  Terri- 
tory—  Its  effect  upon  the  character  of  the  colonization  —  First 
settlement  of  the  region  —  Relative  growth  in  population — Area 
of  Western  States — Agricultural  products,  their  rapid  increase  — 
The  assessed  value  of  real  and  personal  property  —  Indians  — 
Their  habits  —  Government  policy  towards  them — The  Mound- 
builders —  Their  civilization — Antiquity  of  their  works  —  Con- 
clusion. -----------  401 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

MAP —  Showing  the  distribution  of  Forest,  Prairie,  and  Desert,  -     140 

MAP  —  Showing  the  Isothermal  Lines  of  the  United  States,      -  200 

GEOLOGICAL  SKETCH  of  the  United  States,           ...  -    372 

INDEX, 433 


THE  MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY: 


ITS 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE     MISSISSIPPI     RIVER. 

THE   MAGNITUDE   OF   THE   MISSISSIPPI AREA — SUBORDINATE 

BASINS INTERNAL    NAVIGATION CHARACTER    OF    LOWER 

MISSISSIPPI CHARACTERISTIC  VEGETATION OVERFLOWS 

BLUFFS LEVEES OUTLETS APPROACHES PHENOMENA 

OF  WATERS GEOLOGY AREA  OF  ALLUVIUM  AND  DELTA 

EARTHQUAKE    ACTION. 


"  THE  beginnings  of  a  river  are  insignificant,  and  its  infancy  is  frivo- 
lous ;  it  plays  among  the  flowers  of  a  meadow,  it  waters  a  garden,  or 
turns  a  little  mill.  Gathering  strength  in  its  growth,  it  becomes  wild 
and  impetuous.  Impatient  of  the  restraints  it  meets  with,  in  the  hol- 
lows among  the  mountains,  it  is  restless  and  fretful ;  quick  in  its  turn- 
ing, and  unsteady  in  its  course.  Now  it  is  a  roaring  cataract,  tearing 
up  and  overturning  whatever  opposes  its  progress,  and  it  shoots  head- 
long down  from  a  rock ;  then  it  becomes  a  sullen  and  gloomy  pool, 
buried  in  the  bottom  of  a  glen.  Recovering  breath  by  repose,  it  again 
dashes  along,  till,  tired  of  uproar  and  mischief,  it  quits  all  that  it  has 
swept  along,  and  leaves  an  opening  of  the  valley  strewed  with  the 
rejected  waste.  Now,  quitting  its  retirement,  it  comes  abroad  into  the 
world,  journeying  with  more  prudence  and  discretion,  through  culti- 

I 


2  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

vated  fields,  yielding  to  circumstances,  and  winding  round  what  it 
would  trouble  it  to  overwhelm  and  remove.  It  passes  through  popu- 
lous cities,  and  all  the  busy  haunts  of  men,  tendering  its  services  on 
every  side,  and  becomes  the  support  and  ornament  of  the  country. 
Increased  by  numerous  alliances,  and  advanced  in  its  course,  it 
becomes  grave  and  stately  in  its  motions,  loves  peace  and  quiet, 
and,  in  majestic  silence,  rolls  on  its  mighty  waters,  till  it  is  laid  to 
rest  in  the  vast  abyss." — Pliny,  "  Hist.  Nat."  Lib.  V. 


Magnitude  of  the  Mississippi  — The  Missis- 
sippi *  River,  when  we  consider  its  great  length, 
the  number  and  character  of  its  tributaries  —  often 
exceeding  the  first-class  rivers  of  Europe, —  the 
area  of  country  which  it  drains,  the  vast  system  of 
internal  navigation  which  it  affords,  and  the  popu- 
lous towns  which  have  been  founded  on  its  banks, 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  striking 
topographical  features  of  the  earth.  The  rivers 
descending  from  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  slopes 
are,  for  the  most  part,  short  and  rapid,  and  are  not 
navigable  beyond  the  reach  of  tide- water;  but  this 

*  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Algonquin,  or  Chippewyan,  lan- 
guage—  Missi,  great,  and  Sepi,  river.  To  the  same  root,  or  corruptions 
of  it,  may  be  traced  several  conspicuous  bodies  of  water  in  the  North- 
west. The  Indian  name  of  Churchill  River  is  Missi-nepi,  probably 
identical  in  meaning  with  Mississippi.  Giimmi  signifies  water,  or  a 
collection  of  water,  not  running;  thus,  the  aboriginal  name  of  Lake 
Superior  was  Kitc/ii,  great — allied  to  Michi  or  Missi — and  Gummi, 
water;  Michi-gan  (Michigan)  is  a  corruption  of  the  same  thing.  In 
conversing  with  a  Chippewyan  Indian,  he  will  describe  any  large  body 
of  running  water,  as  Missi,  or  Michi.  Sepi.  or  Sebi,  and  any  large 
bodv  of  still  water  as  Mitchi,  or  Missi,  Gumini  (great  water)  ;  so  that 
what  he  would  regard  as  a  generic  term,  we  use  as  a  specific  term, 
which  has  become  thoroughly  incorporated  with  some  of  the  most 
marked  topographical  features  of  the  Northwest. 


INTERNAL    NAVIGATION. 


river-system  penetrates  to  the  heart  of  a  continent, 
and,  with  its  numerous  tributaries,  affords  an  inland 
navigation  of  unsurpassed  magnificence. 

Area — Subordinate  Basins. — The  Mississippi 
Valley  comprises  an  area  of  2,455,000  square  miles, 
extending  through  30  degrees  of  longitude  and  23 
degrees  of  latitude;  —  an  area  greater  than  that  of 
all  Europe,  exclusive  of  Russia,  Norway,  and 
Sweden. 

It  is  composed  of  several  subordinate  basins, 
whose  area,  elevation,  drainage,  etc.,  are  as  fol- 
lows:* 


RIVER. 

DISTANCE 
FROM 

MOUTH. 

Miles. 

HEIGHT 
ABOVE 
SEA. 

Feet. 

WIDTH 
AT 

MOUTH. 

Feet. 

'  DOWN- 
FALLOF 
RAIN. 

Inches. 

MEAN 

DISCH'GE 

PER  SEC. 

Cub.Feet. 

AREA 
OF 
BASIN. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Upper  Mississippi. 
Missouri  

1.330 
2,908 
1,265 

i»5H 

1,200 
500 
380 
1,286 

1,  680 
6,800? 
1,649 
10,000 

2,450 

2IO 
1,150 
416 

5,000 
3,000 
3,000 
1,500 
800 
850 
700 
2,470 

35-2 
20.9 

4i-5 
29-3 
39-o 

46-3 
41.1 

30.4 

IO5,OOO 
I2O,OOO 
158,000 
63,000 

57,000 
43,000 
31,000 
675,000 

169,000 
518,000 
214,000 
189,000 
97,000 

13,850 
10,500 

1.244,000 

Ohio  

Arkansas  . 

Red  River  

Yazoo  

St.  Francis  

Lower  Mississippi. 

Internal  Navigation. — The  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries  afford  an  internal  navigation  for  steam- 

*  Humphreys  and  Abbot,  "  Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  Miss.  River." 


4  THE    MISSISSIPPI   RIVER. 

boats,  of  more  than  9,000  miles  in  extent.*  They 
have  proved  the  great  highways  by  which,  within 
a  brief  period,  man  has  been  able  to  penetrate  to 
the  interior  of  the  continent,  and  to  subdue  it  to  his 
uses. 

*  The  Mississippi  is  navigable  — 

From  its  mouth  to  St.  Paul,  .  .  .       1,944  miles. 

And  from  St.  Anthony  to  Sauk  Rapids,          .  .      80        " 

Making  a  total  navigation  of          ...       2,020        " 
Several  of  its  upper  tributaries  are  navigable  — 

The  Minnesota  to  Patterson's  Rapids,       .  .          295        " 

The  St.  Croix  to  St.  Croix,       .  .  .  .      60       " 

The  Illinois  to  La  Salle,      ....          220       " 
The  Missouri  is  navigable,  at  high  water,  from  its 

mouth  to  Fort  Benton,     ....       2,644        " 
but  ordinarily  to  60  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the 
Yellowstone  (1,894  miles)  .  .  .       i?9S4        " 

(The  volume  of  water  discharged  by  the  Yellowstone 
is  represented  to  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Missouri ;  and  after  the  junction,  the  river  attains 
a  width  of  2,000  feet.) 

The  Ohio  is  navigable  to  Pittsburgh,         .  .          975        " 

The  Monongahela  to  Geneva,  .  .  91        " 

The  Tennessee  to  Muscle  Shoals,  .  .          6op       " 

The  Cumberland  to  Burkesville,  .  .  .    370        " 

Some  of  its  other  tributaries,  which  have  been   slack- 
watered,  give  a  navigation  of  ...    550        " 
The  Arkansas  is  navigable,  in  flood,  to  Ft.  Gibson,     642        " 
but  during  its  lowest  stage,  it  is  difficult  for  boats 
of  the  lightest  draught  to  reach  Fort  Smith,          .    522        " 
The  Red  river  is  navigable,  in  ordinary  stage,  to 

Shrevesport,  .....          330        " 

but  only  in  flood,  to  Preston,  .  .  .    820        " 

The  St.  Francis  is  navigable  to  Wittsburg,  .  80        " 

The  White  River  is  navigable  to  Batesvillc,  .  .    175        " 

The  Yazoo  to  Greenwood,  .  .  .          240       " 

The  Kaw  has  been  ascended  to  Fort  Riley,    .  .    100        " 

but  the  navigation  is  ordinarily  precarious. 

The  Platte  is  an  important  tributary  of  the  Missouri,  which,  like  the 
Canadian  and  the  Arkansas,  reaches  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  spreads  out  over  a  wide  space,  so  that  it  is  totally  unfit  for 
navigation. 


CHARACTER    OF   THE    LOWER    MISSISSIPPI.        5 

Character  of  the  Lower  Mississippi.  — 
"  At  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  the  Mississippi  first  assumes 
its  characteristic  appearance  of  a  turbid  and  boiling  torrent, 
immense  in  volume  and  force.  From  that  point,  its  waters 
pursue  their  devious  way  for  more  than  1300  miles,  destroying 
banks  and  islands  at  one  locality,  reconstructing  them  at 
another,  absorbing  tributary  after  tributary,  without  visible 
increase  in  size,  —  until,  at  length,  it  is  in  turn  absorbed  in  the 
great  volume  of  the  Gulf."  * 

The  shores  of  the  Gulf,  so  far  as  relates  to  the 
Louisianian  coast,  are  bordered,  for  fifty  miles 
inland,  by  swamps,  bayous,  and  lakes.  The 
swamps  generally  consist  of  an  oozy  mass  of  mud, 
from  twenty  to  forty  feet  in  depth,  resting  on  blue 
clay.  Upon  the  hummocks,  a  variety  of  vegetable 
forms  take  root,  unknown  in  the  regions  to  the 
northward. 

Typical  Forms  of  Vegetation. —  Conspicuous 
among  these  is  the  cypress,  which  is  first  seen 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  and  is  always  found 
on  land  subject  to  overflow.  From  a  protuberance 
at  the  surface,  a  shaft  rises  straight  to  the  height  of 
sixty  or  eighty  feet,  without  a  limb,  when  it  throws 
out  numerous  branches,  umbrella-shaped,  which 
sustain  a  foliage  of  short,  fine,  tufted  leaves,  of  a 
green  so  deep  as  to  appear  almost  brown.  They 
grow  so  close  together,  that  their  branches  inter- 

*  Humphreys  and  Abbot. 


6  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

lock;  and  hence  a  cypress  forest  resembles  a  mass 
of  verdure  sustained  in  the  air  by  tall  perpendicular 
columns.  From  their  branches,  depend  long  fes- 
toons of  moss,  which  sway  to  and  fro  in  the  wind, 
like  so  many  shrouds, —  communicating  to  the 
scene  the  most  dismal  aspect.  Arranged  around 
the  parent  stem,  are  numerous  cone-shaped  protu- 
berances, known  as  "cypress  knees,"  which  enable 
the  roots  of  the  tree  to  communicate  with  the  air; 
a  provision  of  nature  which  is  essential  to  its 
vitality. 

The  cypress  loves  the  gloomiest  and  most  inac- 
cessible portions  of  the  southern  forest,  and  where, 
for  one-half  of  the  year,  the  surface  is  submerged. 
Repulsive,  then,  as  is  its  habitat,  it  is  the  most  val- 
uable of  all  the  southern  lumber  trees.  Soft,  free 
from  knots,  rifting  straight,  and  easily  wrought,  it 
is  fit  for  shingles,  boards,  and  finishing  material. 

The  palmetto,  not  the  species  of  the  Carolina 
coast,  is  another  characteristic  form  of  these 
swamps,  and  one  which,  by  its  peculiarities,  at 
once  arrests  the  eye  of  the  northern  traveler.  It 
is  perennial;  and,  from  a  large,  tough  root,  throws 
up  a  stem  six  feet  high,  sustaining  fan-shaped  palm- 
leaves,  exactly  ribbed,  and  of  a  rich  green  verdure. 
These  are  used  for  fans,  for  braiding  into  hats,  and 
for  thatching  the  huts  of  the  negroes. 

These  swamps,  clothed  with  trees  of  abundant 


TYPICAL    FORMS    OF   VEGETATION.  ; 

and  interlaced  branches,  springing  from  a  mass  of 
ooze  tremulous  to  the  foot,  remind  one  of  the  estu- 
aries and  lakes,  with  their  luxuriant  vegetation, 
which  stretched  over  large  areas  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face during  the  Carboniferous  epoch  —  a  vegetation 
which  furnished  no  sustenance  to  the  higher  forms 
of  animal  life,  and  which  flourished  in  an  atmos- 
phere probably  fatal  to  air-breathing  animals. 
These  swamps  are  the  chosen  retreats  of  the  alli- 
gator, the  lizard,  and  moccasin  snake,  and  swarm 
with  mosquitoes  and  other  venemous  insects.  To 
man,  they  are  impassable,  except  when  flooded. 
To  traverse  them,  he  should  be  like  Milton's  fiend, 
qualified  for  all  elements  and  all  services;  who, 

"  With  head,  hands,  wings,  or  feet,  pursues  his  way ; 
And  swims,  or  sinks,  or  wades,  or  creeps,  or  flies." 

In  connection  with  the  southern  vegetation,  two 
other  types  may  be  mentioned;  the  live-oak  and 
the  magnolia.  The  live-oak  is  a  noble  tree  —  tall, 
with  long  spreading  branches,  and  presenting 
almost  as  great  a  mass  of  foliage  as  the  northern 
elm.  Its  range  does  not  extend  beyond  latitude 
thirty-one  north. 

The  magnolia  belongs  to  the  tribe  of  laurels. 
The  beauty  of  this  tree  has  been  greatly  overrated. 
It  is,  according  to  Flint,  only  a  fifth-rate  tree,  which 
grows  in  the  rich  alluvium  of  the  Louisiana  bottoms, 


8  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

where  the  soil  is  congenial  to  its  full  development. 
It  is  tall,  graceful  in  form,  with  a  smooth,  light- 
colored  bark,  like  that  of  the  beech.  The  wood  is 
soft  and  useless.  The  leaves  are  glossy  on  the 
upper  surface,  like  those  of  the  orange,  with  a 
yellowish  down  upon  the  under  surface.  The 
flower  is  large,  and  of  a  pure  white,  like  those  of 
the  northern  pond-lily,  but  twice  the  size.  The 
odor  is  strong  and  not  offensive.  "Instead  of  dis- 
playing," says  Flint,  "a  cone  of  flowers,  we  have 
seldom  seen  a  tree  in  flower  which  did  not  require 
some  attention  and  closeness  of  inspection  to  dis- 
cover where  the  flowers  are  situated  among  the 
leaves."  * 

There  are  six  or  seven  species  among  the  laurels 
of  the  magnolia  tribe. 

Overflow  of  the  Mississippi. — When  in  flood, 
the  river  extends  to  a  width  of  thirty  miles,  and  the 
surplus  waters  find  their  way  to  the  ocean  through 
deep  forests  and  almost  interminable  swamps.  The 
ordinary  channel  is  marked  by  an  outline  of  woods. 
As  the  flood  recedes,  it  leaves  behind,  in  the  bottom 
lands,  a  sediment  as  fine  and  as  fertilizing  as  the 
Nile  mud.  The  course  of  the  river  is  in  a  series 
of  curves,  from  ten  to  twelve  miles  in  diameter, 
sweeping  round  with  great  uniformity,  until  it 

*  "  Mississippi  Valley." 


BLUFFS.  9 

returns  to  a  point  very  near  the  one  from  which  it 
was  deflected.  The  current  continually  encroaches 
on  the  alluvial  banks,  until  finally,  during  high 
flood,  a  crevasse  occurs,  when  nearly  the  whole 
volume  of  water  rushes  through  the  newly-formed 
channel,  known  as  a  "cut-off."  Hence,  along  its 
whole  course  are  seen  numerous  crescent-shaped 
lakes  which  owe  their  origin  to  this  cause.  Sand- 
bars accumulate  at  the  mouths  of  the  ancient 
channels,  on  which  first  rushes  take  root,  and  sub- 
sequently cotton-wood,  thus  forming  lakes  which, 
except  in  flood,  become  isolated  from  the  river. 

The  river  being  no  where  rock-bound  in  its 
lower  course,  and  its  banks  consisting  of  the  most 
comminuted  materials,  has  great  excavating  power.* 

Bluffs. —  The  alluvial  bottoms  are  ordinarily 
impassable,  and  the  bluffs  only  afford  sites  for  habi- 
tations. In  a  few  instances,  they  approach  the  river, 
as  at  the  Iron  Banks,  near  Columbus,  and  the  Chalk 


*  The  citation  of  a  single  case,  which  occurred  at  New  Madrid,  will 
suffice.  Joseph  Lewis  (quoting,  as  authority,  an  old  resident,)  as  mar- 
shal, in  1798,  was  ordered,  by  the  local  Spanish  government,  to  move 
the  church  one  mile  north,  to  prevent  its  being  undermined.  The  dis- 
tance was  measured  by  a  surveyor,  and  the  order  was  executed. 

In  1811,  the  region  having  passed  into  the  possession  of  another 
government,  no  pains  were  taken  to  protect  the  church  against  farther 
encroachments,  when  it  fell  into  the  river.  My  informant  had  seen 
the  original  plat  of  the  town,  which  extended  back  from  the  river  front 
four  miles.  There  now  remains  a  strip  of  the  original  plat,  not  more 
than  sixty  feet  in  width. 


10  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

Banks,  near  Hickman,  Kentucky;  at  Fulton,  Ran- 
dolph, Old  River  (but  here  the  river  has  receded), 
and  Memphis,  Tennessee;  at  Walnut  Hills  or 
Vicksburg,  Grand  and  Petit  Gulf,  Natchez,  and 
Fort  Adams,  Mississippi;  and  at  St.  Francisville 
and  Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana.  All  of  the  bluffs 
occur  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  except  the  St. 
Francis  Hills,  and  Point  Chicot. 

The  bluffs,  as  first  suggested  by  Lyell,  belong 
to  the  age  of  the  Rhenish  Loess,  and  ordinarily 
consist  of  beds  of  yellowish  loam,  sand,  and  clay, 
with  beds  of  lignite  of  an  earlier  age  beneath. 

Levees.  —  To  protect  the  plantations  from  over- 
flow, a  system  of  levees  was  commenced  many 
years  ago;  and,  to  aid  the  extension,  Congress 
passed  an  act  directing  the  proceeds  of  the  sale 
of  swamp-lands  to  be  devoted  to  this  purpose. 
Under  the  operation  of  this  act,  levees  have  been 
carried  up  the  east  bank,  nearly  as  far  as  Memphis, 
and  up  the  west  bank  to  a  point  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  Ohio.  The  peculiarity  of  the  immediate 
banks  of  the  river  being  higher  than  the  alluvial 
plain,  is  characteristic  of  the  whole  course  of  the 
Lower  Mississippi. 

During  the  Rebellion,  the  levees,  at  many  points, 
were  destroyed  as  an  act  of  war,  and  at  others, 
were  allowed  to  go  to  decay;  and  the  result  is, 


OUTLETS.  1 1 

that  large  tracts  of  land,  formerly  as  fertile  as  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  have  been  surrendered  up  to 
the  dominion  of  the  river.  To  repair  these  levees 
at  public  expense,  and  to  give  employment  to  a 
class  of  people  overwhelmed  by  misfortune,  even 
if  it  be  the  result  of  their  own  rash  acts,  is  a  meas- 
ure called  for  alike  by  a  common  humanity  and  an 
enlightened  public  policy. 

Contrary  to  the  received  opinion,  it  is  found  that, 
where  the  current  is  confined,  it  has  power  to  push 
forward  its  sediment,  instead  of  allowing  it  to 
deposit  on  the  bottom;  so  that  the  necessity  will 
not  arise  of  raising  the  levees  higher,  with  the  lapse 
of  time. 

Outlets. —  The  immediate  channel  of  the  river, 
after  having  received  the  contributions  of  its  main 
affluents,  is  insufficient  to  discharge  all  of  the 
waters  which,  from  the  drainage  of  the  valley,  find 
their  way  to  the  ocean.  The  first  point  of  escape 
is  at  Cape  Girardeau,  Missouri,  through  the  St. 
Francis,  White,  and  several  other  rivers,  before 
reaching  the  mouth  of  Red  River.  Here  the 
volume  of  water  is  greater  than  at  any  other 
point;  for,  a  few  miles  below,  there  are  several 
lateral  channels  communicating  with  the  Gulf. 
These  outlets  are  known  as  Atchafalaya,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  the, ancient  channel  of  Red  River; 


12  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

Bayou  Manchac,  cbmmunicating  with  Lakes 
Maurepas,  Ponchartrain,  and  Borgne;  and  Bayou 
Plaquemine  and  Bayou  Lafourche. 

Approaches  to  New  Orleans.  —  Bars  exist  at 
the  mouths  of  all  the  passes,  so  that  it  is  difficult 
for  large  vessels  to  enter  the  river. 

The  Southeast  Pass  is  apparently  not  over  2,000 
feet  in  width,  and  the  ordinary  depth  of  water  is  18 
feet.  The  banks  are  low  and  lined  with  reeds. 
The  few  houses  visible  are  perched  on  piles,  and 
occupied  by  pilots,  whose  services  are  at  all  times 
required.  There  is  no  tide  in  the  Mississippi, 
owing  to  its  elevation  above  the  Gulf,  and  its  level 
is  affected  by  winds,  more  than  by  other  causes. 

The  Northeast  Pass,  which  formerly  was  the 
principal  one,  now  carries  from  8  to  9  feet  of  water; 
and  this  is  the  depth  of  the  Southwest  Pass. 

Another  approach  is  through  Barataria  Bay, 
which  admits  of  vessels  drawing  10  or  12  feet  of 
water.  The  Texas  steamers  go  through  the  Grand 
Pass,  into  Vermilion  Bay,  and  thence  into  Grand 
Lake.  The  New  Orleans  and  Opelousas  Rail- 
way extends  to  Berwick's  Bay,  which  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  southern  steamship  lines.  The  Teche 
is  navigable  as  far  as  Franklin,  which  is  quite  a 
shipping  point  for  sugars.  The  country  to  the 
west  is  high  rolling  prairie.  There  is  another 


PHENOMENA    OF   THE   WATERS.  13 

approach,  through  Lake  Borgne  and  Pass  Rigolet, 
into  Ponchartrain,  where  the  depth  of  water  is  from 
8  to  15  feet. 

Phenomena  of  the  Waters. — The  Upper  Missis- 
sippi is  as  clear  as  the  "arrowy  Rhone;"  and  even 
at  St.  Louis,  sixteen  miles  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Missouri,  whose  flood  is  densely  charged  with  sedi- 
ment, the  thread  between  the  differently-colored 
waters  is  distinctly  preserved,  so  reluctant  are 
they  to  commingle.  Every  one  voyaging  on  the 
Lower  Mississippi,  must  have  been  struck  with  the 
character  of  the  current,  as  though  some  substance 
of  the  consistency  of  tar  were  boiling  and  bubbling 
in  a  great  caldron. 

Another  feature  of  this  river  which  has  been 
remarked  upon,  is,  that  its  width  is  not  increased 
by  the  absorption  of  any  tributary,  however  large: 
thus,  at  Rock  Island,  nearly  1,800  miles  from  its 
mouth,  it  is  5,000  feet  wide,  while  at  New 
Orleans,  and  where  it  enters  the  Gulf,  swollen  by 
the  volumes  of  the  Missouri,  Ohio,  Arkansas,  and 
Red  Rivers,  it  is  dwarfed  to  2,470  feet*  Standing 
on  the  Iev6e  at  New  Orleans,  and  looking  across 
to  Algiers  on  the  opposite  shore,  one  can  hardly 
believe  that  within  this  narrow  span  is  comprised 
the  drainage  of  nearly  half  a  continent. 

*  Humphreys  and  Abbot. 


14  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

Geology  of  the  River-Bed.  —  Its  bed,  all  the 
way  from  Cairo  to  the  Gulf,  is  not  formed  of  its 
own  alluvium,  but  is  excavated  in  a  tough  blue 
clay  of  Cretaceous  origin.  By  consulting  the  Geo- 
logical Map,  it  will  be  seen  that,  outside  of  the 
immediate  valley,  the  Cretaceous  rocks  extend  on 
either  side,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  to  within 
seventy  miles  of  the  Gulf,  where  they  are  over- 
lapped by  the  Tertiaries.  There  is  little  doubt  of 
the  former  continuity  of  these  beds,  or,  in  other 
words,  that  the  Cretaceous  sea  extended  from  the 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Atlantic  Coast. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  course  of  the  Lower 
Mississippi  has  been  determined  subsequent  to  the 
Cretaceous  age,  since  its  bed  has  been  excavated 
in  this  formation.  It  would  further  appear  that, 
during  the  Tertiary  epoch,  there  must  have  been 
an  estuary  extending  as  far  north  as  the  mouth  of 
the  Ohio,  as  indicated  by  the  wedge-shaped  body 
of  these  rocks  observed  there.  Since  the  erosion 
of  its  channel  to  a  far  greater  width  than  that  now 
occupied  by  its  waters,  the  immediate  valley  has 
been  filled  in  with  other  formations;  viz.,  the  Loess 
and  Recent  Alluvium.  An  ideal  section  across  the 
valley  would  exhibit  the  following  arrangement  of 
the  several  formations: 


GEOLOGY    OF    RIVER    BED.  15 


1.  Upper  Cretaceous.  3.  Loess,  or  Bluff. 

2.  Tertiary  (Eocine).  4.  Modern  Alluvium. 

Pursuing  our  researches  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
river,  it  is  inferred  that  it  is  subsequent  to  the  Ter- 
tiary epoch,  since  outlying  patches  of  this  formation 
cap  the  summits  of  some  of  the  hills  of  Illinois 
far  beyond  its  ancient  limits,  and  all  of  the  asso- 
ciated fossils  are  of  marine  origin;  thus  showing 
that  no  large  body  of  fresh  water  was  discharged 
at  this  point  into  the  Tertiary  ocean. 

In  the  deposition  of  the  Loess,  however,  we  have 
evidence  that,  at  that  period,  the  river  had  assumed 
its  present  channel,  but  with  a  vastly  enlarged  vol- 
ume of  water.  The  fossils  are  all  of  fresh-water 
origin,  and  of  existing  species,  intermingled  with 
quadrupeds,  for  the  most  part  pachyderms  now 
extinct  but  allied  to  existing  genera,*  which  indi- 
cate the  immediate  presence  of  land  under  condi- 
tions of  soil  and  vegetation  such  as  now  prevail; 

*  The  fresh-water  shells  collected  by  Lyell,  from  the  Loess,  consisted 
of  Helix,  Helicina,  Pupa,  Clystoma,  Achatina,  and  Succinea,  all  iden- 
tical with  shells  now  living;  also,  shells  of  the  genera  Limnea,  Planoi- 
bis,  Palttdin8,  Physa,  and  Cyclas.  Leidy  has  identified  the  following 
quadrupeds :  Felis  atrox  (lion),  Ursus  americanus,  U.  amplidens, 
Megalonyx  jejfersoni,  M.  dissimilis,  Mylodon  harlani,  Ereptodon  pris- 
cus,  Tapirus  americanus,  T.  haysii,  Equus  americanus,  Bootheriinn 
cavifrons,  Elcphas  americanus,  and  Mastodon  giganteus,  all  extinct; 
and  Cervus  virginianus,  belonging  to  a  living  species. 


1 6  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

and  yet,  to  account  for  the  present  position  of  the 
Loess,  as  pointed  out  by  Lyell,  we  must  presuppose 
a  vertical  movement  or  upheaval,  of  two  hundred 
and  fifty  feet. 

Area  of  .Alluvium. — A  wide  belt  of  Recent 
Alluvium  borders  the  Mississippi  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Ohio  to  the  Gulf,  which  is  well  delineated  on 
one  of  Humphreys  and  Abbot's  maps.  This  belt, 
in  its  greatest  expansion,  at  Napoleon,  is  nearly  75 
miles  wide;  while  in  its  greatest  contraction,  at 
Natchez  and  Helena,  it  is  about  25  miles.  The 
area  of  the  tract,  above  the  delta  is  19,450  square 
miles.  According  to  the  authority  above  cited,  the 
alluvial  deposit  at  Cairo  is  25  feet  thick;  about  35 
feet  in  the  Yazoo  swamps;  and  this  thickness  is 
maintained  as  far  down  as  Baton  Rouge.  The 
borings  of  the  Artesian  well  at  New  Orleans,  indi- 
cate there  a  thickness  of  40  feet;  but  at  Bayou 
Plaquemine,  the  alluvial  soil  does  not  extend  much 
below  the  level  of  the  Gulf. 

Area  of  the  Delta. —  The  area  of  the  delta, 
assuming  that  it  begins  where  the  river  sends  off 
its  first  branch  to  the  sea  —  viz.,  at  the  head  of 
Bayou  Atchafalaya — is  estimated  by  them  at  12,300 
square  miles.  This  would  be  at  the  mouth  of  Red 
River,  in  latitude  31°,  while  the  mouth  of  the  Great 


DEPTH    AND    SLOPE.  17 

River  is  now  in  latitude  29°;  thus  extending  through 
two  degrees  of  space. 

The  rate  at  which  the  river  advances  into  the 
Gulf  is  estimated  by  the  same  authority,  at  262  feet 
per  annum;  and  as  its  prolongation  from  its  sup- 
posed original  mouth  is  220  miles,  the  age  of  the 
delta  is  computed  at  4,400  years, — a  period  much 
at  variance  with  the  estimates  of  previous  writers. 
That  the  Mississippi  must  have  been  a  delta- 
forming  river  at  an  earlier  period,  is  evidenced  by 
the  Loess  which  occurs  along  its  banks,  and 
which,  at  Natchez,  attains  a  thickness  of  sixty  feet. 

The  sediment  held  in  suspension  by  the  river,  as 
determined  by  numerous  experiments,  is,  by  weight, 
nearly  as  i  to  1.500;  and  by  bulk,  nearly  as  i  to 
2.900.  The  mean  annual  discharge  of  water  is 
assumed  at  19,500,000,000,000  cubic  feet;  hence,  it 
follows  that  812,500,000,000  pounds  of  sedimentary 
matter — equal  to  one  square  mile  of  deposit,  241 
feet  in  depth — are  yearly  transported,  in  a  state  of 
suspension,  into  the  Gulf.* 

Depth  and  Slope. —  The  maximum  depth  of 
the  Mississippi,  as  indicated  by  Humphreys  and 
Abbot's  tables,  is,  at  Natchez,  118  feet;  and  the 
mean  depth  from  below  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas 
to  Red  River,  is  96  feet.  The  least  low-water 

*  Humphreys  and  Abbot,  "  Physics  of  the  Mississippi." 


1 8  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

depths  on  the  bars  are :  at  St.  Louis,  2  feet ;  Mem- 
phis, 5  feet;  and  Natchez,  6  feet.  The  range 
between  low  and  high-water  is:  at  Rock  Island, 
1 6  feet;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  35  feet;  at 
St.  Louis,  37  feet;  at  Cairo,  51  feet;  at  Carrolton, 
14  feet;  and  at  the  head  of  the  Passes,  2.3  feet. 

The  fall  of  the  Lower  Mississippi  is  about  i80*0-  of 
a  foot  per  mile;  of  the  Ohio,  T4oV  of  a  foot;  of  the 
Missouri,  below  Fort  Union,  A5,,  of  a  foot;  and  of 
the  Upper  Mississippi,  below  St.  Paul,  iVo-  of  a 
foot. 

EARTHQUAKE-ACTION  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY. 

The  series  of  earthquake-shocks  which  occurred 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  commencing  near  the 
close  of  1811,  and  continuing  to  1813,  were  of 
sufficient  violence  to  modify  its  surface  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  creating  yawning  fissures,  and 
converting  dry  land  into  lakes,  some  of  which 
are  fifty  miles  in  circumference.  The  telluric 
activity  of  which  these  events  were  a  part,  extended 
over  half  a  hemisphere,  and  was  manifested  in  a 
series  of  stupendous  phenomena,  such  as  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  island  of  Sabrina,  one  of  the  group 
of  the  Azores,  to  the  height  of  320  feet  above  the 
sea;  the  destruction  of  Caraccas,  with  10,000  of 
its  inhabitants;  the  eruption  of  the  volcano  of  St. 
Vincent;  and  the  fearful  subterranean  noises  which 


EARTHQUAKE-ACTION.  19 

were  heard  on  the  Llanos  of  Calabazo,  and  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Apure,  and  even  far  out  at  sea. 

New  Madrid,  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  and  in 
the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  appears  to  have  been 
one  of  the  foci  of  this  earthquake  disturbance;  and 
the  shocks  were  repeated  almost  every  hour  for 
months  in  succession.  Fortunately,  the  town  as 
well  as  the  surrounding  region,  was  sparsely  inhab- 
ited, and  the  houses  (log  cabins)  were  of  a  char- 
acter little  liable  to  be  toppled  over;  but,  so  far  as 
we  can  gather  from  the  published  accounts,  and 
the  personal  recollections  of  those  who  were  eye- 
witnesses of  the  scenes,  we  are  satisfied  that,  if 
the  same  severity  of  shocks  were  to  occur  at  this 
day,  at  St.  Louis  or  Cincinnati,  the  destruction  of 
life  would  be  appalling,  and  those  cities  would 
become  an  undistinguishable  mass  of  ruins. 

Several  years  ago,  in  voyaging  from  Memphis  to 
Cairo,  I  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mr.  A.  N. 
Dillard,  who  resided  in  the  region  of  these  disturb- 
ances, and  who  was  a  witness  of  the  events  which 
I  shall  record. 

It  was  on  the  night  of  the  i6th  of  December, 
1811,  that  the  first  shock  occurred.  The  weather 
had  been  warm  and  pleasant,  and  the  air  was  filled 
with  that  peculiar  haze  characteristic  of  the  Indian 
summer,  except  that  it  was  more  damp.  About 
midnight,  while  the  French,  who  constituted  the 


2O  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

bulk  of  the  population  at  New  Madrid,  were 
engaged  in  dancing  and  frolicking,  the  first  shock 
came  on,  and  was  of  sufficient  violence  to  shake 
down  many  of  the  houses  and  fences.  The  greatest 
consternation  prevailed.  The  entire  population 
rushed  into  the  open  air;  and  there,  in  the  midnight 
darkness,  and  upon  the  rocking  earth,  Protestant 
and  Catholic,  side  by  side, 

;'  knelt  down, 
And  offered  to  the  Mightiest" 

solemn  supplication;  —  for,  in  that  fearful  hour, 
human  aid  was  unavailing. 

"  The  shocks,"  my  informant  continued, 
"  extended  over  a  period  of  twenty  or  thirty 
months.  Sometimes,  they  would  come  on  gradu- 
ally, and  finally  culminate;  again,  they  would  come 
without  premonition,  and  in  terrific  force,  and  grad- 
ually subside. 

"  In  every  instance  the  motion  was  propagated 
from  the  west  or  southwest.  Fissures  would  be 
formed,  six  hundred  and  even  seven  hundred  feet 
in  length,  and  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in  breadth, 
through  which  water  and  sand  would  spout  out  to 
the  height  of  forty  feet.  There  issued  no  burning 
flames,  but  flashes  such  as  result  from  the  explo- 
sion of  gas,  or  from  the  passage  of  the  electrical 
fluid  from  one  cloud  to  another.  I  have  seen  oak 


EARTHQUAKE- ACTION.  2  I 

trees,  which  would  be  split  in  the  centre  and  forty 
feet  up  the  trunk,  one  part  standing  on  one  side  of 
a  fissure,  and  the  other  part  on  the  other;  and  trees 
are  now  standing  which  have  been  cleft  in  this 
manner. 

"  My  grandfather  had  received  a  boat-load  of 
castings  from  Pittsburgh,  which  were  stored  in  his 
cellar.  During  one  of  the  shocks,  the  ground 
opened  immediately  under  the  house,  and  they 
were  swallowed  up,  and  no  trace  of  them  was 
afterwards  obtained. 

"  I  regard  the  region  as  still  subject  to  these 
agitations.  A  few  years  ago,  I  saw  the  effects 
sufficiently  violent  to  shake  the  bark  off  the  trees, 
and  to  sway  their  tops  to  and  fro. 

"The  region  of  the  St.  Francis  is  peculiar.  I  have 
trapped  there  for  thirty  years.  There  is  a  great 
deal  of  sunken  land,  caused  by  the  earthquakes  of 
1811.  There  are  large  trees  of  walnut,  white  oak, 
and  mulberry,  such  as  grow  on  high  land,  which 
are  now  seen  submerged  ten  and  twenty  feet 
beneath  the  water.  In  some  of  the  lakes,  I  have 
seen  cypresses  so  far  beneath  the  surface,  that,  with 
a  canoe,  I  have  paddled  among  the  branches.  Pre- 
vious to  the  earthquakes,  keel-boats  used  to  come 
up  the  St.  Francis  River,  and  pass  into  the  Missis- 
sippi, at  a  point  three  miles  below  New  Madrid. 
The  bayou  is  now  high  ground." 


22  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

From  one  of  the  fissures  formed  during  these 
convulsions,  was  ejected  the  cranium  of  an  extinct 
musk-ox  {Bootherium  bombifrons},  now  in  the 
possession  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  of 
New  York. 

Reel-foot  Lake,  on  the  opposite  shore,  in  Obion 
county,  Tennessee,  nearly  twenty  miles  long  and 
seven  broad,  owes  its  origin  to  the  sinking  of  the 
ground  during  this  period.  The  trunks  of  dead 
cypresses  are  seen  standing  in  the  water;  and  the 
fisherman,  as  he  plies  his  occupation  in  his  canoe, 
floats  above  their  branching  tops. 

Timothy  Flint  visited  this  region  seven  years 
after  the  occurrence  of  these  terrible  events,  at  a 
time  when  the  recollections  of  the  inhabitants  were 
yet  vivid.  As  the  work  in  which  he  recorded  his 
information  has  become  rare,  I  may  be  pardoned 
for  transcribing  his  graphic  account  almost  entire: 

"From  all  the  accounts,"  he  says,  "corrected  one  by  another, 
and  compared  with  the  very  imperfect  narratives  which  were 
published,  I  infer  that  the  shock  of  these  earthquakes,  in  the 
immediate  center  of  their  force,  must  have  equaled,  in  the 
terrible  heavings  of  the  earth,  any  thing  of  the  kind  that  has 
been  recorded.  I  do  not  believe  that  the  public  have  ever  yet 
had  any  adequate  idea  of  the  violence  of  the  concussions.  We 
are  accustomed  to  measure  this  by  the  buildings  overturned 
and  the  mortality  that  results.  Here,  the  country  was  thinly 
settled.  The  houses,  fortunately,  were  frail,  and  of  logs,  —  the 
most  difficult  to  overturn  that  could  be  constructed.  Yet,  as  it 
was,  whole  tracts  were  plunged  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  The 
grave-yard  at  New  Madrid,  with  all  its  sleeping  tenants,  was 


EARTHQUAKE-ACTION.  2J 

precipitated  into  the  bend  of  the  stream.  Most  of  the  houses 
were  thrown  down.  Large  lakes,  twenty  miles  in  extent,  were 
made  in  an  hour ;  other  lakes  were  drained.  The  whole 
country,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  in  one  direction,  and  to  the 
St.  Francis  in  the  other,  including  a  front  of  three  hundred 
miles,  was  convulsed  to  such  a  degree  as  to  create  lakes  and 
islands,  the  number  of  which  is  not  known,  and  to  cover  a  tract 
of  many  miles  in  extent,  near  the  Little  Prairie,  with  water, 
three  or  four  feet  deep  ;  and  when  the  water  disappeared,  a 
stratum  of  sand,  of  the  same  thickness,  was  left  in  the  place. 
Trees  split  in  the  midst,  and  lashed  one  with  another,  are  still 
visible  over  great  tracts  of  country,  inclining  in  every  direction,. 
and  at  every  angle  to  the  earth  and  the  horizon.  They 
described  the  undulations  of  the  earth  as  resembling  waves, 
increasing  in  elevation  as  they  advanced,  and  when  they  had 
attained  a  certain  fearful  height,  the  earth  would  burst,  and 
vast  volumes  of  water,  and  sand,  and  pit-coal  were  discharged 
as  high  as  the  tops  of  the  trees.  I  have  seen  a  hundred  of  these 
chasms  which  remained  fearfully  deep,  although  in  a  very 
tender  alluvial  soil,  and  after  a  lapse  of  seven  years.  Whole 
districts  were  covered  with  white  sand,  so  as  to  become  unin- 
habitable. The  water  at  first  covered  the  whole  country,  par 
ticularly  at  the  Little  Prairie  ;  and  it  must,  indeed,  have  been 
a  scene  of  horror,  in  these  deep  forests,  and  in  the  gloom  of  the 
darkest  night,  and  by  wading  in  the  water  to  the  middle,  for 
the  inhabitants  to  fly  from  these  concussions,  which  were 
occurring  every  few  hours,  with  a  noise  equally  terrible  to 
beasts  and  birds,  as  to  man.  The  birds  themselves  lost  all 
power  and  disposition  to  fly,  and  retreated  to  the  bosoms 
of  men,  their  fellow-sufferers  in  the  general  convulsion.  A 
few  persons  sank  in  these  chasms,  and  were  providentially 
extricated.  One  person  died  of  affright;  and  one  perished 
miserably  on  an  island  which  retained  its  original  level  in 
the  midst  of  a  wide  lake  created  by  the  earthquake.  *  * 
*  *  *  *  A  number  perished,  who  sank  with  their 
boats  in  the  river.  A  bursting  of  the  earth  just  below  the  vil- 
lage of  New  Madrid,  arrested  the  mighty  stream  in  its  course, 
and  caused  a  reflux  of  its  waves,  by  which,  in  a  little  time,  a 


24  THE    MISSISSIPPI    RIVER. 

great  number  of  boats  were  swept  by  the  ascending  current 
into  the  mouth  of  the  bayou,  carried  out,  and  left  upon  the  dry 
earth,  where  the  accumulating  waters  of  the  river  had  again 
changed  the  current.  There  were  a  great  number  of  severe 
shocks,  but  two  series  of  concussions  were  particularly  terri- 
ble, far  more  so  than  the  rest ;  and  they  remark  that  the 
shocks  were  clearly  distinguishable  into  two  classes :  those  in 
which  the  motion  was  horizontal,  and  those  in  which  it  was 
perpendicular.  The  latter  were  attended  with  the  explosions 
and  the  terrible  mixture  of  noises  that  preceded  and  accompa- 
nied the  earthquakes  in  a  louder  degree,  but  were  by  no  means 
so  desolating  and  destructive  as  the  other.  When  they  were 
felt,  the  houses  crumbled,  and  trees  waved  together,  and  the 
ground  sank,  and  all  the  distructive  phenomena  were  conspic- 
uous. In  the  interval  of  the  earthquakes,  there  was  one  even- 
ing—  and  that  a  brilliant  and  cloudless -.one — in  which  the 
western  sky  was  a  continued  glare  of  vivid  flashes  of  lightning 
and  of  repeated  peals  of  subterranean  thunder,  seeming  to 
proceed,  as  the  flashes  did,  from  below  the  horizon.  They 
remark  that  the  night,  so  conspicuous  for  subterranean  thun- 
der, was  the  same  period  in  which  the  fatal  earthquakes  of 
Caraccas  occurred ;  and  they  seem  to  suppose  those  flashes 
and  that  event  parts  of  the  same  scene."  * 

Flint  confirms  the  observations  of  others,  that 
the  chasms  in  the  earth  were  in  a  direction  from 
southwest  to  northeast,  and  were  of  an  extent  to 
swallow  up  not  only  men  but  houses;  and  that 
they  frequently  occurred  in  intervals  of  half  a  mile. 
The  people  felled  the  tallest  trees  at  right  angles  to 
these  chasms,  and  placed  themselves  upon  their 
trunks,  by  which  precaution  many  escaped  destruc- 


*  "  Recollections  of  the  Last  Ten  Years  in  the  Mississippi  Valley." 
(1826.^)     P.  224 


EARTHQUAKE-ACTION.  25 

tion;  for  more  than  once  the  earth  opened  beneath, 
and  would  have  engulfed  them  in  the  abyss. 

So  great  was  the  destruction  of  property,  and  so 
irretrievably  ruined  were  many  of  the  farms  by 
this  series  of  events,  that  Congress,  at  a  subsequent 
day,  passed  a  law  granting  to  each  proprietor  who 
had  sustained  serious  loss,  a  section  of  land  in  what 
was  known  as  the  Boone-Lick  country,  on  condition 
of  his  relinquishing,  his  desolated  farm  to  the  Gov- 
ernment. 

Earthquake  shocks  yet  occur  in  this  region,  and 
blasts  of  air  and  gas  yet  find  their  way  to  the  sur- 
face through  many  of  the  half-filled  fissures,  but 
there  has  been  no  repetition  of  the  terrible  phe- 
nomena witnessed  in  1811-12. 


CHAPTER  II. 

MOUNTAINS     AND     PLAINS. 

CHARACTER      OF      THE      WATER-SHEDS THE      APPALACHIAN 

RANGE THE    ROCKY   MOUNTAINS THE   SIERRA  NEVADA 

THE    CASCADE     RANGE THE    COAST    RANGES RIDGES    OF 

THE    GREAT   BASIN CHARACTER    OF   THE    SOURCES    OF   THE 

MISSOURI  —  OF  THE  OHIO  VALLEY  —  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI 
VALLEY THE  LLANO  ESTACADO ROCKY-MOUNTAIN  VAL- 
LEYS  COLORADO  DESERT VALLEY  OF  THE  ST.  LAWRENCE 

PACIFIC   RAILROAD    ROUTES RESUME. 

Character  of  the  Water-Sheds. — The  Valley  of 
the  Mississippi  may  be  regarded  as  a  table-land 
between  two  diverging  coast  ranges  —  the  Rocky 
and  Appalachian  Mountains, — with  a  slope  on  three* 
sides  towards  the  line  of  greatest  depression  occu- 
pied by  the  current  of  the  river.  The  Ohio,  at 
Pittsburgh,  is  704  feet  above  the  ocean;  the  water- 
shed between  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Illinois  River 
is  only  8  feet;  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi, 
about  i, 600;  the  sources  of  the  Missouri,  about 
6,800  feet;  the  South  Pass  (source  of  the  Sweet- 
water),  7,489  feet;  Fort  Bridger,  7,254  feet;  and 
the  divide  between  the  Canadian  and  Pecos  Rivers, 


APPALACHIAN    RANGE.  27 

about  5,543  feet.  The  elevations  on  the  Western 
rim  of  the  Basin,  are  attained  by  an  inclined  plane  so 
slight  that,  in  traversing  it,  the  eye  scarcely  notices 
any  deviation  from  a  nearly  uniform  level.  The 
ascent  even  to  the  South  Pass,  higher  than  that  of 
Simplon  or  St.  Gothard  over  the  Alps,  is  so  grad- 
ual that  Fremont  had  to  watch  very  closely  to 
detect  the  culminating  point. 

The  Appalachian  Range. — This  range,  which 
divides  the  Atlantic  slope  from  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  extends  from  Northern  Alabama  to  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence — a  distance  of  more 
than  1,200  miles, — with  a  mean  height  of  about 
2,000  feet,  and  in  a  direction  northeast  and  south- 
west. The  culminating  points,  as  determined  by 
Guyot,  are:  Clingman's  Peak,  in  the  Black  Moun- 
tains of  North  Carolina,  being  6,702  feet;  and  Mt. 
-Washington,  in  the  White  Mountains  of  New 
Hampshire,  being  6,285  ^ee^- 

The  Appalachian  range  does  not  exhibit  a  central 
axis,  but,  as  first  shown  by  the  Rogerses,  consists  of 
a  series  of  conve,x  and  concave  flexures,  giving  rise 
to  alternate  ridge  and  valley,  and  affording  few 
scenes  of  bold  and  rugged  outline. 

"  The  characteristic  features,"  say  they,  "  of  the  Appalachian 
ridges,  are :  their  great  length,  narrowness,  and  steepness,  the 
evenness  of  their  summits,  and  their  remarkable  parallelism. 


28  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

Many  of  them  are  almost  perfectly  straight  for  a  .distance  of 
more  than  fifty  miles ;  and  this  feature,  combined  with  their 
steep  slopes  and  sharp  level  summits,  gives  them  the  appear- 
ance, seen  in  perspective,  of  so  many  colossal  entrenchments. 
Some  groups  of  them  are  curved ;  but  the  outlines  of  all  are 
marked  by  soft  transitions  and  an  astonishing  degree  of  regu- 
larity. It  is,  rather,  the  number  and  great  length  of  the  ridges, 
and  the  magnitude  of  the  belt  which  they  constitute,  than  their 
individual  height  or  grandeur,  that  places  this  chain  among  the 
great  mountain  systems  of  the  world.  *  *  *  The  rocks 
consist  of  the  older  metamorphic  strata,  including  gneiss,  and 
micaceous,  chlorite,  talcose,  and  argillaceous  schists,  together 
with  masses  referable  to  the  earliest  Appalachian  formations."  * 

Flanking  these  ranges  on  the  west,  and  cotermi- 
nous with  them  in  direction,  is  the  Great  Appala- 
chian Valley,  known  by  various  local  names.  Its 
average  width  is  about  fifteen  miles,  and  through- 
out it  forms  a  nearly  level  plain. 

Beyond  this,  to  the  northwest,  and  embracing  an 
assemblage  of  rocks  below  the  Coal-measures,  is  a 
series  of  long  parallel  ridges,  which  reach  to  the 
Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mountains,  having  a 
breadth  of  from  thirty  to  sixty  miles. 

The  northwestern  portion  of  the  Appalachian 
system  is  composed  of  what  are  known  as  the 
Alleghany  and  Cumberland  Mountains,  which  are 
not  protracted  northeasterly  beyond  Southern  New 
York.  They  embrace  the  Carboniferous  series  of 
rocks,  and  are  about  thirty-five  miles  in  breadth. 

While  the  general  direction  of  the  system  is  north- 

*  "  Transactions  of  the  American  Association  of  Geologists." 


APPALACHIAN   RANGE.  29 

east  and  southwest,  there  is  a  remarkable  predomi- 
nance of  southeast  dips  throughout  its  entire  length 
from  Canada  to  Alabama,  particularly  along  the 
southeastern  or  most  disturbed  side  of  the  belt;  but 
as  we  proceed  towards  the  northwest,  or  remote 
from  the  region  of  greatest  disturbance,  the  oppo- 
site or  northwest  dips,  which  previously  were  of 
rare  occurrence,  and  always  very  steep,  become 
progressively  more  numerous,  and,  as  a  general 
rule,  more  gentle,  until  they  finally  flatten  down  to 
an  almost  horizontality  of  the  strata. 

The  Rogerses  suppose  that  the  movement 
which  produced  the  permanent  flexures  "  was 
compounded  of  a  wave-like  oscillation,  and  a  tan- 
gential or  horizontal  pressure,,  both  propagated 
northwestward  across  the  disturbed  belt,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  oblique  character  of  nearly  all  the 
anticlinal  and  synclinal  curves,  both  those  which 
are  closely  folded  and  those  which  are  obtuse;" 
and,  resorting  to  forces  now  in  operation  for  an 
explanation  of  these  phenomena,  they  find  analo- 
gies in  the  wave-like  undulation  of  the  surface, 
which  occurs  and  is  propagated  over  large  areas 
during  the  throes  and  convulsions  of  the  earth- 
quake, as  manifested  in  our  time.* 

*  "Physical  Structure  of  the  Appalachian  Chain,"  ("Trans.  Amer. 
Association  Geologists  and  Naturalists,")  by  Profs.  Wm.  B.  and  Henry 
D.  Rogers. 

It  is  desirable  that  there  be  recognized  a  division  of  the  Appalachian 


30  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

The  Rocky  Mountains.  —  The  numerous  ridges 
bounding  the  Great  Valley  on  the  west,  pursue  a 
general  direction  north  of  west  and  south  of  east, 
and  are  a  part  of  a  long  axial  line  which  extends 
almost  uninterruptedly  from  Cape  Horn  to  Behring's 
Straits,  where,  conforming  to  the  great  circle  of 
the  earth,  it  is  protracted  south,  as  first  pointed  out 
by  Erman,  through  Western  Asia,  and  terminates 
in  Sumatra, — the  whole  length  extending  through 
240°  of  latitude,  or  18,560  miles.*  In  the  United 
States,  the  Rocky  Mountains  extend  from  latitude 
31°  30'  to  49°,  and  from  longitude  102°  to  122^°, 
and  embrace  an  area  of  more  than  100,000  square 
miles.  Their  greatest  width — between  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Fort  Laramie — is  1,000  miles.  In  this 
area  are  included  portions  of  Dakota,  Montana, 
Idaho,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  Utah,  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  California,  Nevada,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington. This  vast  assemblage  of  mountains  is 

Chain  —  a  division  founded  on  a  difference  in  geological  structure,  and 
consequently  on  physical  aspect.  Let  that  portion  which  is  charac- 
terized by  the  presence  of  crystalline  and  metamorphic  rocks,  and 
embracing  the  Unaka  or  Smoky  Mountains  of  North  Carolina,  the 
Blue  Ridge  of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  the  Green  Mountains  of 
Vermont,  and  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire,  receive  the 
generic  name  of  Appalachian  Chain;  while  that  portion  characterized 
by  the  coal-bearing  rocks,  and  known  as  the  Cumberland  Mountains 
of  Tennessee,  and  their  extension  into  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania, 
retain  the  generic  name  of  Alleghanies. 

*  Lieutenant  (now  General)   Warren,   "  Pacific  Railroad  Survey," 
Vol.  XI. 


THE    ROCKY   MOUNTAINS.  3! 

made  up  of  several  distinct  chains,  and  will  doubt- 
less be  found  to  consist  of  several  distinct  systems 
of  upheaval.  Sometimes  they  form  central  groups 
from  which  radiate  subordinate  branches,  and  again 
they  present  an  endless  maze  of  rugged  flanks,  with 
bare  peaks  sharply  defined  against  the  sky,  and 
rising  high  above  the  line  of  vegetation  into  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow. 

It  is  between  the  parallels  40°  and  41°,  that  they 
attain  their  greatest  altitude  and  put  on  their  stern- 
est aspect;  and  as  they  range  northward  they  sink 
down  and  become  less  serrated  in  contour.  The 
most  conspicuous  peaks  are:  Fremont's,  in  the 
Wind-river  Chain,  (13,570);  Long's  Peak,  in  the 
North  Park,  (14,216);  Gray's  Peak,  (14,245) ;  and 
Spanish  Peak  is  supposed  to  be  equally  high. 
These  determinations,  which  differ  somewhat  from 
former  ones,  were  recently  made  by  Parry  and 
Engelmann.  To  the  south,  the  Raton  Mountains 
project  far  into  the  plain.  On  the  35th°  parallel 
there  are  two  conspicuous  landmarks,  known  as 
Mount  Taylor  or  San  Mateo,  estimated  at  11,000 
feet,  and  San  Francisco  Mountain,  estimated  at 
12,000  feet.  All  of  these  peaks  are  volcanic,  and 
their  elevation  is  among  the  most  recent  of  geologi- 
cal events. 

To  the  east,  the  plains  along  the  parallel  of  the 
South  Pass,  are  6,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The 


32  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

western  rim  of  the  Great  Basin  is  elevated  8,200 
feet,  while  the  Basin  itself  is  6,234  feet.  To  the 
north,  about  the  sources  of  the  Columbia,  the 
mountains  attain  an  altitude  of  from  7,000  to  8,000 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  are  not  snow-clad  the  year 
round.* 

Many  observers,  like  Warren  and  Abbot,  looking 
at  the  topographical  rather  than  the  geological  fea- 
tures of  the  region,  have  failed  to  recognize  any 
thing  like  parallelism  in  the  several  chains.  The 
Rocky  Mountains,  like  the  Alps,  will  doubtless  be 
found  to  be  intersected  by  numerous  lines  conform- 
ing to  the  great  circle  of  the  earth;  but  to  develop 
those  lines  will  be  the  work  of  long  and  patient 
investigation.  The  great  frame-work  of  the  region, 
we  have  reason  to  believe,  was  laid  in  a  direction 
of  N.N.W.  and  S.S.E.;  but  that  frame- work  has 
been  repeatedly  shattered,  and  the  strata  displaced, 
by  more  modern  volcanic  eruptions,  the  evidences 
of  which  exist  almost  every  where  throughout  the 
whole  region. 

Topographers  have  laid  down  the  trend  of  moun- 
tains and  valleys,  and  of  lakes  and  rivers,  without 
comprehending  the  full  import  of  apparently  con- 

*  The  following  are  some  of  the  subordinate  groups  composing  the 
Rocky  Mountains :  Bitter-Root,  Cceur  d'Alene,  Kootanie,  Salmon- 
River,  Rocky  Mountains  (proper),  Wind-River,  The  Parks,  Raton, 
Santa  Fe,  Sandia,  Manzana,  Organ,  Gaudalupe,  Hucco,  San  Juan, 
Chusca,  and  Sierra  Madre. 


THE    ROCKY    MOUNTAINS.  33 

forming  lines;  but  geologists,  following  in  their 
wake,  and  carefully  studying  the  strata  which  have 
been  disturbed  by  these  lines,  resulting  from  igneous 
invasions,  have  been  enabled  to  eliminate  some  of 
the  grandest  deductions  in  "physical  science.  Let 
any  student  of  structural  geography  plat  upon  a 
map  the  outlines  of  the  great  Appalachian  and 
Illinois  coal-fields;  let  him  then  examine  the  river- 
systems  in  connection  with  the  mountain-systems 
of  North  America,  and  he  will  see  that  these  topo- 
graphical features  are  not  the  result  of  accidental 
upheaval,  but  of  forces  acting  over  vast  areas,  and 
in  determinate  directions,  —  evincing  that,  even 
amid  apparently  chaotic  materials,  there  was  still  a 
presiding  spirit  of  law  and  order. 

It  must  be  ever  borne  in  mind  that,  between  the 
Mississippi  Valley  and  the  Pacific  Slope,  there  is  a 
great  swelling  of  the  land,  in  an  axial  form,  or  a 
series  of  axes,  to  the  height  of  from  5,000  to  7,000 
feet;  and  from  this  elevated  plateau,  as  in  the 
Andes,  the  Caucasus  in  Central  Asia,  and  other 
mountainous  districts,  rise  still  loftier  ranges, 
various  in  direction  and  in  age.  Humboldt  has 
pointed  out  this  notable  fact  which  has  been 
ignored  by  less  skillful  physicists: 

"  The  arrangement  of  these  partial  groups,"  he  remarks, 
"  erupted  from  fissures  not  parallel  to  each  other,  is  in  its  bear- 
ings for  the  most  part  independent  of  the  ideal  axis  which  may 
be  drawn  through  the  entire  swell  of  the  undulating  flattened 
3 


34  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

ridge.  These  remarkable  features  in  the  formation  of  the  soil 
give  rise  to  a  deception  which  is  strengthened  by  the  pictorial 
effect  of  this  beautiful  country.  The  colossal  mountains,  cov- 
ered with  perpetual  snow,  seem,  as  it  were,  to  rise  out  of  a 
plain.  The  spectator  confounds  the  ridge  of  the  soft-swelling 
land,  the  elevated  plain,  with  the  plain  of  the  low  lands  ;  and 
it  is  only  from  the  change  of  climate,  the  lowering  of  the  tem- 
perature, under  the  same  degree  of  latitude,  that  he  is  reminded 
of  the  height  to  which  he  has  ascended."  (This  swelling  of 
the  soil  belongs  to  a  different  epoch  from  the  rampart-like 
chains  with  which  it  is  crowned.)  "The  immense  swelling 
of  the  surface  of  land,"  he  continues,  "which  goes  on  increas- 
ing in  breadth  towards  the  north  and  northwest,  is  continuous 
from  tropical  Mexico  to  Oregon ;  and  on  this  swelling  or  ele- 
vated plain,  which  is  itself  the  great  geognostic  phenomenon, 
separate  groups  of  mountains,  running  often  in  varying  direc- 
tions, rise  over  fissures  which  have  been  formed  more  recently 
and  at  different  periods.  These  superimposed  groups  of  moun- 
tains—  which,  however,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  are  for  an 
extent  of  8°  of  latitude  connected  together  almost  like  a 
rampart,  and  rendered  visible  to  a  great  distance  by  conical 
mountains,  chiefly  trachyte,  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet  high, — 
produce  an  impression  on  the  mind  of  the  traveler  which  is 
only  the  more  profound  from  the  circumstance  that  the  elevated 
plateau  which  stretches  far  and  wide  around  him,  assumes  in 
his  eyes  the  appearance  of  a  plain  of  the  level  country.  Though 
in  reference  to  the  Cordilleras  of  South  America,  a  considera- 
ble part  of  which  is  known  to  me  by  personal  inspection,  we 
speak  of  double  and  triple  ranges,  we  must  not  forget  that  even 
here,  the  directions  of  the  separate  ranges  of  mountain-groups, 
whether  in  long  ridges  or  in  separate  domes,  are  by  no  means 
parallel,  either  to  one  another,  or  in  direction  to  the  entire 
swell  of  the  land."  * 

The  Sierra  Nevada  or  Snowy  Range   forms 
the  western  rim  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  is  more 

*  "  Cosmos,"  Vol.  V.,  Art.  "  Volcanoes." 


SIERRA    NEVADA.  35 

rugged  and  rises  to  loftier  elevations  than  any  other 
mountain-chain  in  the  United  States.  The  Sierra 
itself  is  a  granitic  crest,  pursuing  a  course  of  about 
N.  30°  W.,  flanked  by  metamorphic  shales  and 
sandstones.  The  culminating  points  are  between 
the  parallels  36°  and  37°  of  latitude.  Mount  Silli- 
man,  as  determined  by  the  Geological  Survey  of 
California,  is  in  height  11,623  feetj  Mount  Brewer, 
13,886;  Mount  Tyndall,  14,386;  and  Mount  Whit- 
ney, 15,000  feet, — probably  the  highest  point  of 
land  in  the  United  States. 

The  volcanic  cones  which  have  been  lifted  up 
since  the  Sierra  Nevada  assumed  its  direction,  have 
an  elevation  little  inferior.  The  Shasta  Butte,  as 
determined  by  Whitney,  rises  14,440  feet,  and 
Lassen's  Peak  is  10,577  feet. 

The  strata  of  Triassic  age,  metamorphosed  and 
tilted,  pursue  a  direction  along  the  foot-hills  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  of  great  uniformity,  and  the 
Cretaceous  and  Miocine  tertiary  are  observed  to 
rest  undisturbed  upon  their  upturned  edges  until 
traced  to  the  vicinity  of  Shasta,  where  it  is  found 
that  the  continuity  of  the  former  is  interrupted,  and 
the  latter  are  lifted  up  at  high  angles,  thus  showing 
that  the  volcanic  action  which  elevated  this  butte 
was  subsequent  in  age  to  that  which  formed  the 
Snowy  Mountains,  and  operated  in  a  different  line 
of  direction. 


36  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

The  Cascade  Range. — This  range  pursues  a 
course  nearly  north  and  south,  and  is  characterized 
by  a  series  of  lofty  volcanic  cones,  among  which 
are  Mount  St.  Helen's,  estimated  by  Dana  at  16,000 
feet;  Mount  Hood,  11,225  feet,  as  recently  deter- 
mined by  Williamson;  Mounts  Jefferson  and 
Adams,  unmeasured;  Mount  Rainier,  (according 
to  Johnson)  12,330  feet;  and  Mounts  Olympus  and 
Baker,  unmeasured.  It  is  probable  that  the  esti- 
mated height  of  St.  Helen's  is  exaggerated;  so 
that  it  is  still  doubtful  whether  any  peak  in  the 
United  States  overtops  Mount  Blanc  (15,810  feet). 

Most  of  these  peaks  have  trachytic  cones,  which 
were  ignited  up  to  a  recent  period;  and  the  peperino 
and  scoriae  which  have  been  ejected  from  these 
vents  cover  large  areas  of  country,  and  effectually 
conceal  the  fundamental  rocks. 

The  Coast  Ranges. — According  to  Antisell,* 
these  ranges  exhibit  a  remarkable  parallelism,  and 
show  unmistakable  evidence  of  ancient  volcanic 
action.  Their  general  direction  is  N.  70°  W.;  but 
Whitney  gives  N.  54°  W.  as  the  strike  of  the 
Mount  Diablo  Range.  They  have,  in  their  course 
north  of  San  Francisco,  some  lofty  peaks,  but  the 
chains  are  short  and  ill-defined.  San  Francisco  itself 
reposes  on  Cretaceous  strata.  South  of  the  city, 

*  "  Pacific  Railroad  Report  "  Vol.  VI. 


THE    GREAT    BASIN.  37 

the  ranges  preserve  much  uniformity  through  4°  of 
latitude,  until;  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Tejon,  they 
become  blended  with  those  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
and  are  prolonged  into  the  sea  at  San  Louis  Bay. 

Monte  Diablo,  which  stands  as  a  sentinel  over 
the  approach  to  the  Golden  Gate,  is,  according  to 
Whitney,  3,856  feet  high;  Mount  Hamilton,  4,440 
feet;  and  Mount  Carlos,  4,977  feet. 

The  elevation  of  the  Coast  Ranges  above  the 
sea-level  was  an  event  subsequent  in  time  to  that 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  since  it  brought  up  and  meta- 
morphosed into  jaspery  materials  the  sandstones 
and  shales  of  the  Cretaceous  and  Miocine-tertiary 
series  which  now  form  the  wall  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 
This  uplift  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
recent  of  the  dynamical  events  which  has  deter- 
mined the  outlines  of  the  continent. 

The  Great  Basin.  —  This  remarkable  plateau  is 
elevated  about  4,500  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and 
is  traversed  by  successive  ridges  running  north  and 
south,  which  preserve  a  considerable  degree  of 
parallelism.  These  ridges  are  generally  short  and 
ill-defined,  and  some  of  them  are  a  deviation  from 
the  general  course  which  characterizes  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Thus,  the  Humboldt  Range  bears  N. 
20°  E.,  and  the  Uintah  Range  runs  east  and  west. 

Within    this    basin    is   contained    the   Washoe 


38  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

Mountains,  which  include  the  famous  Comstock 
silver-lode.  These  mountains,  according  to  Baron 
Richthofen,  are  separated  from  the  steep  slope  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  by  a  continuous  meridional 
depression  marked  by  the  deep  basins  of  Truckee 
Valley,  Washoe  Valley,  and  Carson  Valley. 
Though  irregular,  a  general  direction  may  be 
traced  in  the  summit  range  from  north  to  south, 
where  it  slopes  down  to  a  smooth  table-land,  trav- 
ersed from  west  to  east  by  the  Carson  River  flow- 
ing in  a  narrow  crevice,  beyond  which  the  Washoe 
Range  is  protracted  in  the  more  elevated  Pine-Nut 
Mountains.  The  culminating  point  of  the  range  is 
Mount  Davidson,  whose  elevation,  as  determined 
by  Whitney,  is  7,827  feet.  Virginia  City  is  6,205, 
Washoe  Lake  is  5,006  feet,  and  Dayton  4,490  feet. 

"  The  aspect  of  the  Washoe  Mountains,"  remarks  the  Baron, 
"  is  exceedingly  barren  ;  so  is  the  view  from  Virginia  over  the 
hilly  country  to  the  east.  Yet  there  is  a  remarkable  grandeur 
and  sublimity  in  it.  The  air  is  extraordinarily  pure  and  trans- 
parent, so  as  to  allow  every  gulch  and  declivity  in  the  slope  of 
mountains  a  hundred  miles  off  to  be  distinguished.  The  eye 
wanders  over  an  unbroken  desert,  where  barren  hills  alternate 
with  sandy  basins.  There  is  no  beauty  in  this  scenery,  but  it 
has  a  strange  charm ;  the  constant  enjoyment  of  the  distant 
view  is  a  redeeming  feature  of  life  in  Virginia."  * 

In  the  report  of  the  expedition  under  Governor 
Blasdel  to    Pahranagat,   in   Southeastern  Nevada, 

*  "  Report  on  the  Comstock  Lode,"  by  Ferdinand  Baron  Richthofen. 


THE    MISSOURI    RIVER.  3.9 

the  chief  features  of  the  country  are  noted:  the 
parallelism  of  the  mountain  ranges,  which  are 
nearly  northwest  and  southeast;  wide  valleys,  often 
covered  with  artemisia,  and  often  bare  of  all  vege- 
tation; the  presence  of  volcanic  overflows  along 
the  foot-hills;  the  entire  absence  of  timber,  the 
only  wood  being  mezquite  bushes  near  the  springs; 
great  scarcity  of  water;  the  occurrence  of  wide 
gravel  washes  at  the  mouths  of  the  canons;  and  a 
general  air  of  sterility  and  desolation  pervading  the 
whole  region, 

i 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  MAIN  VALLEYS. 

The  Missouri  River  is  the  longest  affluent  of 
the  Mississippi  —  though  the  volume  of  water  dis- 
charged is  not  so  great  as  that  of  the  Ohio,  —  and 
by  reason  of  its  length  ought  to  be  regarded  as  the 
main  stream.  It  has  its  sources  in  longitude  112° 
and  latitude  47°,  where  they  nearly  interlock  with 
those  of  the  Columbia, — the  only  river  which  rises 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  breaks  through  the 
Coast  Ranges,  in  the  vast  extent  from  British 
Columbia  to  Mexico.  Standing  on  the  summit  at 
any  point,  Captain  Mullan  remarks,  you  can  see 
the  waters  that  flow  into  the  two  oceans;  and  no 
where  on  the  continent  do  we  find  such  a  perfect 
net-work  of  water-courses.  Amid  an  innumerable 


40  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

number  of  sheltered  valleys  found  embosomed  in 
the  mountains,  stock  can  graze  on  the  hill-sides  in 
winter,  without  forage  being  provided  for  them; 
and  here  the  Indians,  during  that  season,  find  abid- 
ing places. 

"  When  we  reach,"  he  continues,  "  the  Great  Falls,  there 
for  thirteen  miles,  the  river,  in  a  series  of  cascades,  falls,  chutes, 
and  rapids,  has  a  total  fall  of  three  hundred  and  eighty  feet. 
The  land  to  the  north,  and  for  four  or  five  miles  back  from  the 
river,  is  much  broken  by  coulees  and  ravines  ;  but  to  the  south, 
and  distant  three  miles,  the  country  is  a  flat  plain."  * 

After  leaving  this  region,  according  to  Hum- 
phreys, the  streams  flow  through  almost  treeless 
plains.  Near  the  foot-hills,  the  soil  is  good,  and 
receives  a  greater  supply  of  moisture  than  the 
region  further  east.  Extending  to  longitude  97°, 
and  thence  southward,  there  is  a  belt  of  country 
which,  without  putting  on  the  features  of  a  desert, 
has  yet  an  aspect  of  sterility  not  to  be  mistaken. 
The  meteorological  conditions  (deficiency  of  moist- 
ure), and  the  nature  of  the  soil  (alternations  of  sand 
and  clay),  render  it  unfit  for  agricultural  purposes. 
The  soil  produces  luxuriant  grapes  in  the  spring, 
but  in  the  dry  season  the  sun  withers  the  vegeta- 
tion, and  parches,  bakes,  and  cracks,  the  clayey 
surface;  a  process  which  gives  it  not  only  a  sterile 

*  Mullan,  "Address  before  Geographical  Society,"  N.  Y. 
f  Huirphreys,   "  Pacific  Railroad  Survey,"  Vol.  I. 


SOURCES    OF   THE    MISSOURI.  4! 

aspect,  but  renders  it  uncultivable.f  This  region 
is  known  as  the  Mauvaises  Terres,  or  Bad  Lands. 

The  Yellowstone  is  the  principal  affluent  of  the 
Missouri,  whose  volume,  as  estimated  by  General 
Warren,  is  as  large  as  that  which  is  considered  the 
main  stream;  and  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Gallatin 
Forks,  are  by  no  means  inconsiderable  rivers. 

The  country  drained  by  these  tributaries,  accord- 
ing to  Mullan,  before  quoted,  is  among  the  most 
beautiful  to  be  found  west  of  the  Mississippi, — 
gently  undulating  prairie,  dotted  here  and  there 
with  clumps  of  timber.  All  the  streams  are  fringed 
with  forest  growth,  the  soil  is  rich,  the  climate  mild 
and  invigorating,  and  here  exist  all  of  the  elements 
for  happy  homes. 

That  portion  of  Oregon  and  Washington  Terri- 
tory west  of  the  Coast  Range,  and  bounding  the 
Pacific,  with  the  exception  of  the  meadow  or  prai- 
rie bottoms,  is  a  dense  forest,  timbered  with  fir, 
pine,  and  oak.  The  lumber  trade  is  large;  and  is 
maintained  with  China,  Japan,  Australia,  and  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  The  finest  spar  and  mast  tim- 
ber is  here  found,  and  is  sent  to  the  ship-yards  of 
France  and  England.* 

The  Columbia  is  navigable  for  four  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  from  its  mouth  to  South  Fork,  subject, 
however,  to  two  interruptions  by  falls,  around 

*  "Address  before  the  Geographical  Society,"  N.  Y. 


42  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

which  railroads  have  been  constructed;  and  there 
is  a  project  to  extend  its  navigation  to  Fort  Boise, 
three  hundred  miles  further,  and  reach  the  heart 
of  Idaho. 

Thus  the  vision  of  the  poet  has  passed  away. 
Those  deep  solitudes, 

"  Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound 
Save  its  own  dashings," 

have  become  the  abodes  of  an  active  population, 
and  the  river  itself  is  made  the  great  highway  to 
the  interior  of  a  continent. 

The  Ohio  Basin  is  so  well  known  that  a  brief 
description  will  suffice.  It  is  diversified  by  hills 
of  no  great  elevation,  and  by  valleys  of  no  great 
width.  The  rocks  are  of  sedimentary  origin,  and 
but  slightly  metamorphosed;  so  that  almost  every 
where,  from  their  yielding  nature,  the  hills  present 
rounded  outlines,  and  are  cultivable  to  their  sum- 
mits. The  valleys  are  fertile,  and  abundantly 
watered  by  running  streams.  The  surface,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  wet  prairies,  was  originally 
clothed  with  magnificent  forests  of  several  species 
of  the  oak,  together  with  black  walnut,  hickory, 
sugar  maple,  and  the  liliodendron;  while  the  under- 
growth was  composed  of  azaleas,  rhododendrons, 
and  many  creeping  plants;  —  altogether  presenting 
a  diversity  of  vegetable  forms  rarely  to  be  seen 


SOURCES    OF   THE    MISSISSIPPI.  43 

over  an  equal  area  on  other  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface. 

The  Sources  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  are 
among  the  great  forests  of  conifers,  white  birches, 
and  aspens  —  subarctic  types  —  which  continue 
north,  but  dwarfed  in  stature,  until  the  limits  of 
arborescent  vegetation  are  reached;  and  its  mouth 
is  in  the  region  of  the  orange,  the  magnolia,  and 
even  the  palm, — thus  approaching  the  verge  of 
tropical  forms.  A  navigable  river,  flowing  through 
a  region  so  diversified  in  climate  and  productions, 
can  not  but  become  the  source  of  a  vast  inland 
commerce. 

Its  central  portion  is  through  a  magnificent  region 
of  alternate  forest  and  prairie.  The  vegetation  of 
the  latter  is  largely  represented  by  the  Composites. 
This  belt,  so  far  from  being  restricted  to  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  extends  southwesterly  through  the 
Osage  and  Cherokee  countries,  and  is  prolonged 
into  Western  Texas,  constituting  the  best  agricul- 
tural region  of  the  United  States,  where  the  condi- 
tions of  soil  and  climate  are  well  adapted  to  the 
cultivation  of  those  plants  useful  to  man. 

Captain  (now  General)  Pope  thus  describes  the 
region: 

"  By  far  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  district  of  country  I 
have  ever  seen,  in  Texas  or  elsewhere,  is  that  watered  by  the 


44  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

Trinity  and  its  tributaries.  Occupying,  east  and  west,  a  belt 
of  one  hundred  miles  in  width,  with  about  equal  quantities  of 
prairie  and  timber,  intersected  by  numerous  clear,  fresh  streams 
and  countless  springs,  with  a  gently  undulating  surface  of  prai- 
rie and  oak  openings,  it  presents  the  most  charming  views,  as 
of  a  country  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation  ;  and  you  are  startled 
at  the  summit  of  each  swell  of  a  prairie,  into  a  prospect  of 
groves,  parks,  and  forests,  with  intervening  plains  of  luxuriant 
grass,  over  which  the  eye  in  vain  wanders  in  search  of  the 
white  village  or  the  stately  house,  which  seem  alone  wanting 
to  the  scene."  * 


Leaving  this  beautiful  country  and  proceeding 
westward,  the  traveler  enters  one  of  the  most  deso- 
late portions  of  the  United  States,  known  as  the 
Llano  Estacado,  or  the  Staked  Plain,  —  a  treeless 
plateau,  elevated  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  a  hun- 
dred miles  or  more  in  breadth,  and  stretching  from 
the  Canadian  to  beyond  the  northern  confines  of 
Mexico,  unbroken  by  a  single  peak,  and  underlaid 
by  nearly  horizontal  strata  of  red  clay  and  gypsum. 
It  is  without  wood  or  water.  For  thirty  miles  east 
of  the  Pecos,  the  surface  is  hard,  and  covered  with 
grama  grass;  and  from  thence  to  a  point  about 
thirty  miles  west  of  the  Colorado  of  Texas,  the 
hard  surface  alternates  with  patches  of  dark-red 
sand,  covered  with  coarse  bunch-grass.  The  Llano 
Estacado  presents  no  inducements  to  cultivation.f 

*  "  Pacific  Railroad  Surveys,"  Vol.  III. 

f  Pope,  "  Pacific  Railroad  Surveys,"  Vol.  II. 


ROCKY-MOUNTAIN    VALLEYS.  45 

Rocky- Mountain  Valleys.  —  Between  Great-Salt 
Lake  and  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada — a  space, 
according  to  Humphreys,  of  500  miles — the  coun- 
try consists  of  alternations  of  mountains  and  plains, 
the  latter  gradually  rising  from  the  lake  to  the  base 
of  the  Humboldt;  that  is,  from  4,200  feet  to  6,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  mountains  are  sharp, 
rocky,  and  generally  inaccessible,  and  rise  from 
1,500  to  3,000  feet  above  the  valleys.  The  greater 
part  of  these  valleys  are  sparsely  sprinkled  with 
several  varieties  of  artemisia,  presenting  the  aspect 
of  a  dreary  waste;  but  on  the  flanks  of  some  of  the 
mountains,  which  are  more  liberally  supplied  with 
moisture  from  the  melting  snows,  grama  grass 
flourishes.  Immediately  west  of  Great-Salt  Lake, 
there  is  a  desert  plain  of  clay  and  sand,  impregnated 
with  salt,  seventy  miles  in  width,  and  extending 
through  five  degrees  of  longitude. 

The  southern  rim  of  the  Great  Basin  is  not 
hemmed  in  by  any  great  mountain  range,  but  is 
formed  by  a  gradual  swell  of  the  plain,  traversed  by 
detached  ranges,  whose  passes  are  only  400  or  500 
feet  above  the  general  level,  thus  preventing  the 
drainage  into  the  Pacific.  This  water-shed  sepa- 
rates the  Great  Basin  from  the  Colorado  Valley, 
the  most  desolate  portion  of  the  United  States. 


46  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

The  Colorado  Desert. — This  desert,  according 
to  Blake,*  extends  from  the  base  of  San  Bernardino 
Pass  to  the  Gulf  of  California,  the  distance,  between 
latitudes  32°  and  34°  N.,  being  about  140  miles. 
Its  greatest  width  is  75  miles,  and  the  entire  area  is 
about  9,000  square  miles.  Portions  of  the  surface, 
instead  of  being  composed  of  drifting  sands,  are  of 
compact  blue  clay,  with  a  floor-like  appearance, 
hardly  indented  with  the  mule's  hoof  in  passing 
over  it.  A  similar  desert  borders  the  Colorado 
River  on  the  east  side,  which  extends  for  a  long 
distance  up  the  Gila,  and  reaches  the  base  of  the 
mountains  in  the  region  of  Sonora. 

The  desert  spreads  out  as  a  wide  and  apparently 
limitless  plain;  not  a  green  spot,  not  a  shrub,  not  a 
solitary  tree  is  to  be  seen,  and  the  mountains  which 
hem  it  in,  are  so  bald  that  there  is  not  soil  enough 
to  cover  the  rocks. 

Blake  notices  the  variety  and  intensity  of  colors 
in  the  light  which  invests  every  distant  object,  as 
characteristic  of  that  region,  the  result  of  the  ex- 
treme purity  and  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
is  so  transparent  that  small  objects  may  be  seen 
at  extraordinary  distances,  robed  in  a  peculiar 
azure  hue. 

Upon  these  desolate  plains  are  witnessed  all  of 
the  phenomena  of  a  tropical  twilight.  The  shadows 

*  "  Pacific  Railroad  Survey,"  Vol.  V. 


VALLEY    OF    THE    ST.    LAWRENCE.  47 

of  the  distant  mountains,  sharply  defined,  are  pro- 
jected on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  these  again 
are  reflected  upon  the  apparently  glassy  vault  above. 
While  yet  the  distant  summits  are  gilded  with  the 
rays  of  the  setting  sun,  the  plain  itself  is  enveloped 
in  darkness,  and  the  stars  sparkle  like  diamonds  in 
a  setting  of  jet, — thus  realizing  the  vision  of  the 
Ancient  Mariner: 

"  The  sun's  rim  dips  ;  the  stars  rush  out ; 
At  one  stride  comes  the  dark." 

Valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence. — "So  little  elevated 
is  the  divortia  aquarum  between  the  river-systems 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  Hudson's  Bay,  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  Hudson  Rivers,  that  it  opposes  slight 
impediments  to  navigation.  The  Mississippi  and 
St.  Lawrence  have  their  sources  in  a  labyrinth  of 
lakes,  —  so  numerous,  indeed,  as,  according  to  Rich- 
ardson, to  cover  at  least  one-half  of  the  surface. 
The  commerce  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
extending  over  a  vast  region,  embracing  the  sources 
of  the  Columbia,  Mackenzie,  Lake  Superior,  Hud- 
son's Bay,  and  the  Saskatchawan,  is  carried  on 
through  a  great  net- work  of  natural  channels.  The 
voyageur,  starting  at  a  common  point  on  that  slightly 
elevated  plateau,  in  a  light  canoe,  may  pass,  by 
easy  portages,  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  to  Astoria,  to 
Hudson's  Bay,  to  Chicago,  to  Quebec,  and  to  New 


48  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

York.  Between  the  Minnesota  branch  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  loaded 
bateaux  are  transferred  each  year.  During  flood, 
the  Muskingum  of  the  Ohio,  interlocks  with  the 
Cuyahoga  of  Lake  Erie;  the  Des  Plaines  of  the 
Illinois,  with  the  Chicago  River  of  Lake  Michigan; 
and  the  Wisconsin  River  of  the  Mississippi,  with 
the  Fox  River  of  Green  Bay. 

By  reason  of  a  notable  physical  fact,  the  sinking 
down  of  the  Alleghany  Ridges,  in  their  north- 
easterly prolongation,  a  continuous  water  commu- 
nication has  beefi  established  between  Lake  Erie 
and  the  Hudson-River  Valley,  which  will,  at  no 
distant  day,  be  enlarged  into  a  ship-canal;  while 
the  Ohio  River  and  Lake  Erie,  and  the  Mississippi 
and  Lake  Michigan,  have  been  connected  by  simi- 
lar artificial  communications,  and  have  been  made 
the  great  highways  of  an  unsurpassed  internal  com- 
merce. 

On  the  destinies  of  New  York  City,  this  peculiar 
topographical  feature  has  exercised  a  dominating 
influence,  enabling  her  to  hold  easy  and  expeditious 
communication  with  the  Great  Interior,  and  to 
become  alike  the  depository  and  the  distributing 
point  of  the  vast  mass  of  vegetable  and  animal  food 
which  annually  moves  from  West  to  East,  through 
this  channel,  to  the  markets  of  the  world.  It  has 
been  the  main-spring  of  her  opulence  and  com- 


INTERNAL    NAVIGATION.  49 

mercial  greatness;  the  Aladdin's  lamp,  by  the  rub- 
bing of  which,  the  baser  materials  have  been  trans- 
muted into  gold;  the  secret,  by  the  possession  of 
which,  she  has  been  enabled  to  outstrip  all  of  the 
rival  sea-board  cities  in  population  and  material 
prosperity,  and  to  become  the  connecting  link  in 
the  traffic  of  two  hemispheres.  The  highlands  of 
the  Hudson  are  the  gateways  of  a  commerce  such 
as  Venice  in  her  palmiest  days  never  dreamed  of, 
and  such  as  Holland,  rescued  from  the  sea  and 
fortified  by  dykes,  can  not  surpass.  In  access  to 
the  ocean,  New  York  has  not,  perhaps,  advantages 
superior  to  Norfolk,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  or 
even  Boston;  but  in  access  to  the  great  FOOD-PRO- 
DUCING STATES,  she  has  unrivaled  facilities,  which 
she  can  for  all  time  retain,  if  she  lends  her  credit  to 
the  opening  of  enlarged  routes  of  communication, 
thereby  producing  cheap  and  easy  modes  of  transit. 
To  many  unacquainted  with  the  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate,  it  might  appear  that  New  Orleans, 
situated  at  the  outlet  of  this  great  river-system, 
would  become  a  powerful  competitor  in  the  career 
of  commercial  greatness;  but  a  few  facts  will  serve 
to  dispel  this  illusion.  Several  years  ago,  I  ex- 
pressed the  following  sentiments,  which,  in  the 
light  of  subsequent  events,  I  am  not  disposed  to 
retract  or  modify: 
4 


50  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

"  In  the  early  settlement  of  the  West,  the  Mississippi  was 
the  only  outlet  for  the  products  of  the  country ;  but  the  open- 
ing of  the  New  York  and  Canadian  canals,  and  the  construction 
between  the  East  and  West  of  not  less  than  five  trunk  rail- 
ways, have  rendered  the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  a 
matter  of  secondary  importance. 

"  The  heated  waters  of  a  tropical  sea,  destructive  to  most 
of  our  articles  of  export;  a  malarious  climate,  shunned  by 
every  Northerner  for  at  least  one-half  of  the  year ;  and  a 
detour  in  the  voyage  of  over  three  thousand  miles  in  a  direct 
line  to  the  markets  of  the  world ;  —  these  considerations  have 
been  sufficiently  powerful  to  divert  the  great  flow  of  animal 
and  vegetable  food  from  the  South  to  the  East.  Up  to  1860, 
the  West  found  a  local  market  for  an  inconsiderable  portion 
of  her  breadstuff's  and  provisions  in  the  South ;  but,  after  sup- 
plying that  local  demand,  the  amount  which  was  exported 
from  New  Orleans  was  insignificant,  hardly  exceeding  two 
millions  of  dollars  per  annum." 

This  system  of  internal  navigation,  if  platted  on 
the  map  of  Europe,  would  stretch  from  the  North 
Sea  to  the  confines  of  Tartary,  and  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  the  Baltic.  We  have,  within  this 
area,  a  people  united  and  prosperous,  and  acknow- 
ledging allegiance  to  one  all-protecting  Govern- 
ment, while  there,  the  area  is  divided  into  princi- 
palities and  empires  for  ages  disunited,  and  differ 
ing  in  laws,  language,  and  race.  No  one  fact  can 
impress  the  American  more  profoundly  than  this, 
of  the  prospective  grandeur  of  his  country. 

The  external  commerce  of  the  nation  is  but  a 
tithe  of  that  which  is  carried  on  through  this 
internal  system  of  communication. 


PACIFIC    RAILROADS.  51 

PACIFIC   RAILROADS. 

Two  railroads,  the  Union  Pacific  and  the  Union 
Pacific  Eastern  Division,  are  in  progress  of  con- 
struction between  the  Missouri  River  and  the 
Pacific  Slope;  and  one  other,  the  Northern  Pacific, 
is  projected  to  connect  the  waters  of  Lake  Superior 
with  those  of  Puget  Sound. 

Union  Pacific  Railroad. — This  railway  starts 
at  Omaha,  on  the  Missouri  River,  at  an  altitude  of 
968  feet  above  the  ocean,  and  follows  the  valley  of 
the  Platte  to  the  forks,  where,  leaving  the  North 
Fork,  it  follows  the  South  Platte  to  Julesburg,  and 
thence  to  the  mouth  of  Lodge-Pole  Creek.  This 
station  is  484.75  miles  distant,  and  the  altitude 
attained  is  3,528  feet.  This  portion  of  the  route  is 
through  a  region  highly  favorable  to  the  construc- 
tion of  a  road;  requiring  few  bridges,  and  little 
excavation. 

Here  the  engineering  difficulties  begin.  From 
Lodge-Pole  Creek  to  Evans's  Pass,  in  the  Black 
Hills,  545.62  miles,  the  altitude  rises  to  8,248  feet. 
This  is  the  culminating  point  on  this  line  between 
the  two  oceans,  and  is  75-  feet  higher  than  the 
Pass  of  Great  St.  Bernard  in  the  Alps.  The  high- 
est points  of  the  Black  Hills,  in  this  vicinity,  are 
from  9,000  to  9,500  feet. 


U6RARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


52  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

The  table-lands  between  the  Black  Hills  and 
Medicine-Bow  Mountains,  have  an  elevation  be- 
tween 6,000  and  7,000  feet,  and  are  nearly  barren 
of  vegetation,  except  the  characteristic  artemisia. 

The  next  highest  summit  is  that  between  Bear 
River  of  Salt  Lake  and  Muddy  Creek,  a  tributary  of 
Green  River  flowing  into  the  Colorado.  This  point, 
on  the  eastern,  rim  of  the  Great  Basin,  is  893  miles 
distant  from  Omaha,  and  has  an  altitude  of  7,567 
feet.  Salt-Lake  City,  distant  1,026.76  miles,  has 
an  elevation  of  4,285  feet.  The  road,  as  finally 
located,  leaves  Salt-Lake  City  to  the  left,  crossing 
Bear- River  Bay,  and  curves  round  the  head  of  the 
lake,  on  whose  borders  is  founded,  by  that  peculiar 
people  known  as  Mormons,  the  largest  "  settlement" 
in  any  of  the  territories;  and  however  much  we 
may  deplore  the  social  economy  of  this  people, 
all  must  admit  that  they  have  exhibited  a  degree  of 
thrift  and  patient  industry  which  is  highly  to  be 
commended. 

Materials  for  construction  of  a  railroad  abound 
along  this  portion  of  the  route.  Pines  suitable  for 
timber  clothe  the  ridges,  and  lignite  is  found  in 
the  earth,  at  intervals,  as  far  east  as  Boulder  Creek, 
sufficiently  pure  to  furnish  fuel  for  locomotives. 
Between  Salt  Lake  and  Reed's  Pass,  in  the  Hum- 
boldt  Mountains  (altitude  5,550  feet),  the  country 


PACIFIC    RAILROADS.  53 

is  said  to  abound  in  grasses,  and  also  in  timber  and 

water. 

From  Reed's  Pass,  1,259.47  miles,  the  route  fol- 
lows one  of  the  branches  of  the  Humboldt  River. 
The  mountains  on  the  south  have  an  elevation  of 
8,000  feet,  and  the  loftiest  peaks  are  perpetually 
covered  with  snow.  The  valley  is  well-watered 
by  numerous  streams  which  have  their  sources  in 
the  melting* snows,  and  is  adapted  to  agricultural 
purposes. 

At  Copper  Canon,  the  river  is  from  150  to  200 
feet  wide,  and  passes  18,000  cubic  feet  of  water  in 
a  minute.  :?  This  section,"  remarks  the  engineer, 
Mr.  Bates,  "  is  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting 
feature  of  the  line.  A  range  of  mountains,  having 
a  direction  nearly  north  and  south,  in  remote  ages, 
formed  a  barrier  to  the  flow  of  the  water  between 
this  point  and  Humboldt  Wells,  and  the  valley  has 
probably  been  the  bed  of  a  lake.  All  along  the 
slopes  of  the  hills,  the  water-line  can  be  seen  seve- 
ral hundred  feet  above  the  river-bed.  .  .  .  They 
rise  several  thousand  feet  in  height,  with  mountain 
on  the  top  of  mountain,  rolling  off,  in  the  dim  dis- 
tance, in  almost  every  conceivable  shape." 

The  lower  valley  of  Humboldt  River  is  suscep- 
tible of  cultivation,  and  several  ranches  have  been 
established  along  its  course. 

The  route  between  Humboldt  Lake  and  Truckee 


54  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

Desert,  traverses  a  region  where  the  soil  is  so  light 
that  it  blows  and  drifts  like  snow,  requiring  ballast 
to  protect  the  road-bed.  The  Truckee-River  Val- 
ley, where  intersected,  is  narrow  and  tortuous,  but 
finally  emerges  into  the  Big  Meadows,  which  are 
surrounded  by  mountains  of  great  height.  These 
meadows  are  inhabited  by  a  mixed  population  of 
500  souls,  occupied  in  agriculture,  trade,  and 
mining.  The  proposed  termination  of  the  road  is 
on  the  Truckee  River,  near  Crystal  Peak,  at  the 
boundary  of  California; — 5, 195  feet  above  tide,  and 
1,550.50  miles  distant  from  Omaha. 

The  Central  Pacific  Railroad  of  California. 
— This  road  extends  from  Sacramento  to  Truckee 
Valley,  and  in  its  construction,  impediments  which 
a  few  years  ago  would  have  been  deemed  insur- 
mountable by  the  civil  engineer,  have  been  success- 
fully overcome. 

Leaving  Sacramento  in  June,  the  passenger,  in 
the  course  of  a  few  hours,  experiences  as  great  a 
change  of  temperature  as  though  he  were  to  pass 
from  New  York  to  Greenland.  The  valley,  at  this 
season,  is  clothed  with  a  semi-tropical  vegetation, 
and  the  balmy  air  is  laden  with  the  fragrance  of 
flowers. 

From  the  treeless  plain  to  the  eastward,  the  Sierra 
Nevada  looms  up  like  a  great  cloud-bank,  the  snow- 


PACIFIC    RAILROADS.  55 

fields  on  the  summits  flashing  in  the  morning  sun 
with  opalescent  hues.  Soon  he  becomes  involved 
in  the  foot-hills,  and  the  view  of  the  distant  moun- 
tains is  shut  out.  The  cars  wind  around  a  project- 
ing promontory,  and  far  down  is  seen,  like  a  silver 
thread,  the  foaming  torrent  of  a  branch  of  the 
American  River.  Ere  long  a  glimpse  of  the  snow- 
capped mountains  is  gained,  and  the  air  is  tempered 
by  their  proximity.  The  flanks  of  the  subordinate 
hills  are  clothed  with  dense  forests  of  pine  and 
other  evergreens. 

As  the  engine  continues  to  climb,  the  country 
becomes  still  more  inhospitable,  and,  seventy-five 
miles  from  Sacramento,  and  4,500  feet  above  the 
sea,  the  snow-fields  descend  to  the  level  of  the 
track;  and  at  intervals,  through  deep  cuts,  are  con- 
structed steep-roofed  sheds  with  heavy  timbers,  to 
ward  off  the  avalanches. 

Still  ascending,  the  pines  are  replaced  by  the 
cedar  and  tamarack,  until  finally  the  limit  of  vege- 
tation is  attained,  and  the  hills  rise  up  bare  and 
desolate.  The  track  is  through  tunnels  in  the  solid 
rock,  and  along  immense  fields  of  snow,  and  icicles 
hang  pendent  from  every  projecting  crag. 

About  one  hundred  miles  from  Sacramento,  the 
summit  is  attained — 7,042  feet,  being  1,206  feet 
less  than  Evans's  Pass;  and,  two  miles  beyond,  the 
train  enters  the  Great  Tunnel,  1,659  ^"ee^  m  l£ngth. 


56  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

The  aspect  here  has  all  the  rigors  of  an  Arctic 
winter.  Deep  snow-banks,  glacier-like  torrents, 
and  stalactites  of  ice,  are  on  every  side. 

And  now  commences  the  descent.  Steam  is 
shut  off,  the  breaks  are  applied,  and  the  train  moves 
forward  by  its  own  momentum.  Far  below,  the 
eye  catches  a  glimpse  of  Donner  Lake,  cradled  in 
the  hills,  and  surrounded  by  a  fringe  of  pines. 
Around  this  lake,  the  road  makes  a  circuit  of  seven 
miles,  to  gain  an  advance  of  only  one-fourth  of  a 
mile,  and  in  this  distance  accomplishes  a  descent 
of  783  feet.  Truckee  Station,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Great  Basin,  is  119  miles  from  Sacramento,  and 
5,860  feet  above  the  sea.  * 

The  entire  distance  from  Omaha  to  Sacramento  is 
1,669  miles, — to  San  Francisco,  1,793  miles. 

Humboldt  Valley  is  represented  as  rich  in  the 
precious  metals,  but  the  products  are  unavailable, 
by  reason  of  inaccessibility  and  cost  of  transporta- 
tion. Virginia  City,  the  seat  of  extensive  and  pros- 
perous mining,  is  sixteen  miles  south  of  the  road, 
but  owing  to  the  topography  of  the  country,  forty 
miles  of  construction  are  required  to  make  the  con- 
nection. 

The  mining  interests  of  Nevada  will  receive  a 
prodigious  impulse  on  the  completion  of  this  great 

*  The  details  of  the  passage  of  the  first  passenger  train,  are  abridged 
from  the  Correspondent  of  the  "  New  York  Tribune." 


PACIFIC    RAILROADS.  57 

work,  —  in  the  accession  of  population;  in  the  dimi- 
nished cost  of  transport  of  mining  machinery  and 
supplies  of  every  kind;  and  in  the  facilities  of  com- 
municating with  both  slopes  of  the  continent. 

Union  Pacific  Railroad,  Eastern  Division. — 
This  road  runs  nearly  due  west  from  Kansas  City, 
Missouri,  up  the  valley  of  the  Kaw,  of  which  the 
Smoky  Hill  River  is  the  continuation,  to  Pond 
Creek,  near  Fort  Wallace,  412  miles  distant.  The 
route  is  through  a  region  highly  feasible  for  the 
construction  of  such  a  work,  the  country  rising  by 
an  almost  uniform  slope  to  the  height  of  about 
2,200  feet. 

The  valley  of  the  Kaw,  for  more  than  100  miles, 
is  well  wooded,  while  the  uplands  rise  in  gently- 
swelling  hills.  The  precipitation  of  rain  is  suffi- 
cient, during  the  spring  and  summer,  to  mature  all 
the  cerealia  usually  cultivated  at  the  West.  The 
western  portion  of  the  State  is  unfitted  for  agricul- 
ture, without  a  resort  to  irrigation,  but  affords  an 
unlimited  range  of  pasturage,  which  was,  up  to  a 
recent  time,  the  favorite  resort  of  the  buffalo. 

To  make  Pond  Creek  the  terminus  of  the  road, 
or  to  continue  it  to  Denver,  seems  a  short-sighted 
policy,  as  it  simply  gives  an  additional  outlet  to  the 
mining  regions  of  Colorado  and  Nevada,  of  which 
there  is  no  pressing  necessity.  The  Company  now 


58  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

propose,  by  Government  aid,  to  deflect  the  road 
southwesterly  to  Fort  Lyon;  thence,  after  ascend- 
ing the  valley  of  the  Purgatoire,  to  cross  the  eastern 
spur  of  the  Raton  Mountain;  and  thence,  passing 
Fort  Union,  to  continue  onward  to  the  Rio  Grande, 
at  Albuquerque,  872  miles.  The  highest  summit 
encountered  is  at  the  head  of  Caiion  Blanco  —  lati- 
tude 35°,  and  about  thirty  miles  south  of  Santa  Fe, — 
7,136  feet  above  the  sea.  From  Albuquerque,  the 
survey  has  been  protracted  nearly  along  the  35th 
parallel,  over  the  axial  line  of  California,  and 
thence  northwesterly  into  the  San  Joaquin  valley; 
and,  crossing  a  gap  in  the  Diablo  range,  reaches 
San  Francisco.  Such  a  route  would  develop  a 
region  rich  in  mineral  resources,  and  over  portions 
of  which  the  dominion  of  the  Government  is  but 
imperfectly  asserted  and  maintained. 

Dr.  Le  Conte,  who  accompanied  the  expedition 
as  far  as  New  Mexico,  has  briefly  reported  on  the 
geology  of  the  country. 

The  region  from  Fort  Wallace  to  the  Arkansas 
(seventy  miles)  is  deficient  in  water;  the  annual 
rain-fall  at  Fort  Lyon  being  11.25  inches.  The 
Arkansas  furnishes  an  abundant  supply  of  good 
water,  and  the  valley  contains  much  land  capable, 
under  irrigation,  of  yielding  abundant  harvests. 
Occasional  groves  of  cotton-wood  are  seen  in  the 
valley;  but  the  Purgatoire  is  fringed  with  a  growth 


PACIFIC    RAILROADS.  59 

of  cotton- wood,  box,  elder,  and  willow.  The  hills, 
within  thirty  miles  of  the  Arkansas,  are  thickly 
covered  with  cedars;  and  on  the  higher  ridges, 
adjacent  to  the  caiion,  pines  of  good  quality  appear. 

Important  beds  of  coal  (Cretaceous)  were 
observed  along  the  foot-hills  of  the  mountains, 
eight  and  ten  feet  in  thickness.  Enough  is  known 
to  justify  the  conclusion  that  there  are  several 
places  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  line  surveyed, 
which  will  furnish  sufficient  supplies  of  fuel  adapted 
to  railroad  and  domestic  purposes. 

Rich  deposits  of  placer  gold  exist  near  Max- 
well's, and  gold  quartz,  argentiferous  galena,  cop- 
per, limonite,  specular,  and  magnetic  oxide  of  iron, 
are  found  in  quantities  of  economic  value.* 

The  country  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  the 
Colorado  of  the  West,  presents  far  different  physi- 
cal aspects.  Instead  of  gentle  slopes,  composed  of 
thick  beds  of  water-worn  materials,  we  find  abrupt 
cliffs,  barren  rocks  excavated  into  deep  caiions,  and 
sheltered  valleys,  where  the  herds  are  secure  against 
the  severest  storms  which  rage  on  the  mountains. 
To  add  to  the  desolation  of  the  scene,  extinct  vol- 
canic cones  and  long  lines  of  erupted  rock  are  by 
no  means  rare. 

*  Dr.  John  L.  Le  Conte's  "Preliminary  Report  to  General  Palmer, 
in  charge  of  Survey,"  1868. 


60  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

"The  Navajo  Country,"  according  to  Dr.  Parry,  "comprises 
a  similar  character  of  broken  highlands,  with  fertile  valleys, 
grassy  slopes,  and  deeply-sheltered  canons. 

"  In  passing  to  the  valley  of  the  Colorado,  we  descend  by  a 
succession  of  irregular  mountain  ranges  and  basin  valleys, 
becoming  more  arid  as  they  reach  the  lower  elevation,  and 
finally  passing  into  the  valley  of  the  Colorado,  characterized  by 
its  bare  mountain  ranges,  desert  uplands,  and  broad  alluvial 
bottoms,  supporting  their  peculiar  semi-tropical  vegetation."  * 

The  features  of  the  Colorado  Desert,  as  well  as 
of  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  require 
no  further  description.  Dr.  Parry  traces  the  pecu- 
liar coal-deposits  two  hundred  miles  west  of  the 
Rio  Grande.  Over  all  of  the  region,  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  placer 
gold  is  known  to  exist.  Silver  is  very  generally 
associated  with  lead  and  copper,  and  it  also  occurs 
in  the  form  of  chloride  and  black  oxide,  with  more 
or  less  gold.  Copper  is  mined  on  Williams's  Fork 
of  the  Colorado,  and  shipped  to  Swansea.  Absence 
of  water  and  fuel,  the  difficulty  of  transporting 
machinery,  and  the  insecurity  of  life,  have  thus  far 
prevented  the  development  of  this  region.  The 
extension  of  this  railroad  has  already  become  a 
matter  of  commercial  importance,  and  will  soon 
become  one  of  national  necessity. 

*  Dr.  C.  C.  Parry,  "  Preliminary  Report,"  1868. 


PACIFIC    RAILROADS.  6 1 

Northern  Pacific  Railroad. — It  is  contemplated 
by  a  company  of  capitalists,  aided  by  a  govern- 
ment subsidy,  to  construct  a  railroad  from  the 
Fond  du  Lac  of  Lake  Superior,  to  the  Great  Bend 
of  the  Missouri,  thence  through  the  valley  of  the 
Yellowstone  River,  and  across  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, through  Cadott's  Pass,  to  the  valley  of  the 
Columbia  ;  and.  thence,  to  Seattle,  in  Washington 
Territory,  with  a  branch  to  Portland,  on  the  Colum- 
bia River. 

This  road  will  traverse  an  entirely  new  region, 
which  is  supposed  to  contain  resources,  both  min- 
eral and  agricultural,  not  to  be  developed  by  the 
roads  now  in  progress  of  construction. 

The  estimated  distance  is  1,775  miles.  From 
Fond  du  Lac  to  the  main  divide  of  the  waters  of 
the  Missouri  and  Columbia, —  according  to  Mr. 
Edwin  F.  Johnson,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  road, — 
a  distance  of  over  1,000  miles,  there  is  no  moun- 
tain range  to  be  overcome.  The  elevation  of  the 
ground  between  the  Mississippi  and  Lake  Supe- 
rior, in  the  direction  of  Crow  Wing,  is  1,158  feet 
above  the  ocean,  or  558  feet  above  Lake  Superior. 
The  highest  elevation  encountered,  is  at  Cadott's 
Pass,  5,330  feet,  and  the  second,  Snoqualmie  Pass, 
3,000  feet.  The  main  range  of  mountains  which 
forms  the  axis  of  the  Continent  where  the  proposed 
line  crosses,  is  broken  down,  so  as  to  permit  the 


62  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

sources  of  the  Missouri  and  the  Columbia  nearly 
to  interlock.* 

The  general  sterility  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Missouri  has  been  dwelt  upon,  but  to  the  north  of 
this,  there  lies  a  region  drained  by  the  Red,  Mouse, 
Assiniboin,  and  Saskatchawan  Rivers,  which  are 
navigable  for  long  distances,  —  a  region  which, 
owing  to  the  rapid  trend  of  the  isothermal  lines  to 
the  northward,  after  passing  longitude  98°,  has  a 
climate  far  more  genial  and  a  soil  far  less  sterile 
than  that  of  New  England.  So  far  as  known,  it  is 
better  adapted  to  the  growth  of  wheat,  rye,  and  oats, 
than  the  prairies  of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin.  Herds 

*  My  young  friend,  William  H.  Dall,  who,  for  five  years  past,  has 
been  engaged  in  investigating  the  natural  history  of  the  region  of 
Alaska,  has  furnished  me  with  the  following  topographical  notes,  as 
to  the  northern  extension  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  ranges  : 

"i.  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS.  —  From  the  reports  of  the  explorers  of  the 
Telegraphic  Expedition,  and  the  employe's  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, and  my  own  explorations,  the  following  are  our  conclusions : 
First,  the  prolongation  of  this  chain,  northwesterly  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  as  laid  down  on  most  physico-geographical  maps,  is  erroneous. 

"The  Rocky  Mountains  lose  their  distinctive  character,  as  a  range, 
about  latitude  60°  N.  The  country  here  to  the  west  and  northwest, 
becomes  mountainous,  rolling,  and  broken.  This  conglomeration  of 
mountains  extends  to  the  north  and  northwest,  perhaps  as  far  as  the 
parallel  64°.  About  longitude  147°  west,  the  Coast  Mountains  (being 
the  prolongation  of  the  Cascade  Range,  and  probably  the  same  in 
age)  also  lose  themselves  in  this  rolling  country.  Through  these 
hills —  1,200  to  2,500  feet  —  the  Youkon  River  cuts  its  way  in  a  north- 
west direction.  These  mountains  gradually  close  up  their  ranks  as 
we  go  west,  and  about  longitude  140°  or  145°,  they  are  united  in  a 
clearly  defined  range,  which  has  a  trend  parallel  with  that  of  the 
coast,  and  which  I  have  named  the  Alaskan  Mountains.  (See  Proc. 
Boston  Society  of  Nat.  Hist.,  Nov.  4,  1868).  This  range  contains 


PACIFIC    RAILROADS.  63 

of  buffalo  range  over  plains  of  rich  pasturage,  and 
winter  even  on  the  sources  of  the  Athabasca, —  a 
pretty  conclusive  evidence  of  the  mildness  of  the 
climate. 

This  region,  as  large  as  the  original  Thirteen 
States  in  area,  would  be  directly  dependent  on  this 
route  for  its  commercial  intercourse;  and,  though 
under  the  dominion  of  a  foreign  power,  its  people 
would  naturally  gravitate  to  us  as  the  centre  of 
their  political  system. 

The  Pacific  coast  has  a  climate  as  congenial  as 
that  of  Western  Europe.  Its  fiord-like  character, 

many  high  volcanic  peaks,  and  forms  the  back-bone  of  the  peninsula 
of  Alaska,  and  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

"2.  ROMANZOFF  MOUNTAINS. — These  mountains  e'xtend  along  the 
coast,  from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  River,  gradually  rising, 
till  they  culminate  near  the  mouth  of  the  Colville  River.  Several  fine 
peaks  are  visible  from  Ft.  Youkon,  at  the  junction  of  the  Porcupine 
and  the.  Youkon  Rivers.  Near  the  Mackenzie  River  they  are  compar- 
atively low  and  insignificant. 

"3.  Between  the  eastern  end  of  this  range,  and  the  high,  rolling 
country  mentioned  above,  there  is  a  broad  extent  of  surface  compara- 
tively free  from  mountains.  It  is  a  rolling  country,  and  these  hills 
attain  their  highest  point  (2,000  feet?)  at  the  water-shed  between  the 
sources  of  the  Porcupine  and  the  Peel  Rivers.  This  permits  the  west- 
ward migration  of  eastern  species  of  birds  —  summer  visitors,  —  and 
the  Alaskan  Range  to  a  great  extent,  if  not  entirely,  arrests  the  north- 
ward progress  of  the  typical  west  coast  land-birds. 

"  There  is  no  defined  northerly  current  through  the  Ounimak  Pass, 
but  to  the  westward  the  Japan  Current,  or  a  branch  of  it,  extends 
north  through  Behring's  Straits,  into  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

"The  other  mountains,  in  the  valley  of  the  Youkon,  are  low,  none 
exceeding  3.000  feet,  and  probably  only  one  or  two  attain  over  1,500  or 
2,000  feet.  There  are  no  large  rivers  emptying  into  Kotzebue  Sound, 
or  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  Kouskoquim  River  is  the  only  large  one 
south  of  the  Youkon. 

"  Isanotsky  Pass  is  a  cul-de-sac,  and  impassable  for  vessels." 


64  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

and  the  deep  articulations  through  the  Straits  of 
Fuca  into  Puget's  Sound,  afford  harbors  unsur- 
passed in  ease  of  approach,  anchorage,  and  shelter. 
Lignite  of  a  superior  quality  is  found  at  Belling- 
ham  Bay  and  in  the  Willamette  Valley.  The  inte- 
rior affords  magnificent  forests,  which  already  yield 
large  supplies  of  lumber.  From  the  Douglas  pine, 
or  the  sugar  pine,  may  be  hewn  spars  fit 

"  to  be  the  mast 
Of  some  great  ammiral." 

The  mountains  of  Idaho  and  Montana  already 
yield  $20,000,000  annually  of  the  precious  metals. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  two  lines  of  Pacific 
railway  are  under  construction,  and  a  third  is 
projected.  Already  is  the  commercial  interest  of 
the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  beginning  to  feel  the 
effects  of  this  new  impulse  communicated  to  its 
trade,  as  the  ocean  is  affected  by  a  large  stream 
discharging  its  waters  into  its  abyss.  That  the 
completion  of  these  lines  is  to  have  an  important 
bearing  on  our  own  commerce  and  that  of  the  world, 
is  not  to  be  gainsayed ;  and  yet  these  benefits  may, 
by  many,  be  overestimated.  Viewed  as  a  work 
of  art,  spanning  such  rivers  as  the  Mississippi  and 
Missouri,  and  scaling  the  crests  of  ridges  like  those 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  Sierra  Nevada,  it  may 
be  pronounced  the  most  magnificent  example  of 


PACIFIC    RAILROADS.  65 

ancient  or  modern  engineering.  Viewed  as  a  com- 
mercial problem,  while  it  may  not  divert  the  com- 
merce of  the  world,  so  far  as  relates  to  bulky  arti- 
cles which  have  received  little  enhanced  value  from 
the  skill  or  industry  of  man,  from  its  accustomed 
channels;  but,  so  far  as  relates  to  human  intercourse 
by  travel,  to  the  transmission  of  intelligence  through 
the  mails,  to  the  development  of  mines  of  the  prec- 
ious metals,  to  the  conveyance  of  the  spices,  silks, 
and  teas  of  the  Orient  to  their  appropriate  markets, 
its  benefits  will  be  great.  But,  viewed  as  a  political 
measure,  building  up  lines  of  States  across  the  Con- 
tinent, linking  together  parts  of  the  Republic  now 
widely  separated  by  ties  of  the  closest  intimacy, 
and  consolidating  the  strength  and  glory  of  a  nation, 
it  presents  an  aspect  far  more  important  than  any 
mere  commercial  enterprise,  and  amply  justifies  the 
expenditure  of  all  the  money  which  has  been 
appropriated  to  this  object. 

The  construction  of  these  roads  will  be  regarded, 
in  all  coming  times,  as  among  those  great  works 
dictated  by  a  wise  patriotism  and  a  far-seeing 
sagacity,  which  have  for  their  object  the  substantial 
welfare  of  every  portion  of  the  Great  Republic. 
Undertaken,  too,  at  a  time  of  great  national  depres- 
sion, and  when  the  burdens  of  taxation  bore 
heavily  on  all  classes,  they  are  illustrious  examples 
of  what  a  free  people  can  accomplish  to  develop 
5 


66  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

those   resources    which    shall    contribute    to   the 
national  strength  and  unity. 


RESUME. 

I  have  thus  attempted  to  sketch  the  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  United  States;  and,  in  doing  so,  have 
purposely  avoided,  except  incidentally,  all  reference 
to  those  portions  which  are  well  known  to  the 
general  reader. 

This  country  has  within  itself  elements  of  wealth 
such  as  are  possessed  by  no  other  nation.  On  other 
continents,  the  progress  of  nations  and  the  unity  of 
the  people  have  been  interrupted  both  by  physical 
restraints,  such  as  impassable  mountains  and  vast 
deserts,  and  by  artificial  restraints,  such  as  civil  dis- 
abilities and  inequality  of  condition.  "The  feeble 
barrier  of  the  Cheviot  Hills,"  says  Mrs.  Somer- 
ville,  "  between  England  and  Scotland,  and  the 
moderate  elevation  of  the  Highlands,  have  pre- 
vented the  amalgamation  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  and 
Celts,  even  in  a  period  of  high  civilization.  The 
Franks  and  Belgians  are  distinct,  though  separated 
by  hills  of  still  less  elevation."  *  Thus,  slight 
physical  barriers  have  controlled  the  migration  of 
races,  and  checked  the  spread  of  civilization. 

*  "  Physical  Geography." 


MATERIAL    RESOURCES.  67 

"  Lands  intersected  by  a  narrow  frith 
Abhor  each  other.     Mountains  interposed 
Make  enemies  of  nations,  who  had  else, 
Like  kindred  drops,  been  mingled  into  one." 

Our  own  country,  with  the  internal  improvements 
already  completed,  presents  no  such  obstacles  to 
inter-communication.  With  a  vast  body  of  agri- 
cultural lands  in  the  interior,  capable  of  producing 
a  diversity  of  products,  with  great  manufacturing 
capacities  at  one  extreme,  and  great  mineral 
resources  at  the  other,  the  whole  intersected  by 
navigable  rivers  and  far-stretching  railroads,  by 
which  expeditious  communication  is  had  with  the 
most  distant  parts,  and  maintaining  an  oceanic 
commerce  both  with  Europe  and  Asia,  soon  to  be 
more  intimate  than  that  of  the  most  favored 
nations,  —  all  these  conditions  are  conducive  to 
national  strength  and  unity. 

Nor  are  the  peculiar  tendencies  of  our  political 
system  to  be  overlooked.  Founded,  as  it  now  is, 
upon  the  basis  of  equal  rights  to  all  men,  every 
citizen  is  animated  with  the  sentiment  that  he  con- 
stitutes a  part  of  the  State.  This  sentiment  will 
impress  him  with  the  value  and  efficiency  of  the 
ballot,  and  the  importance  of  its  use  in  checking 
abuses  and  promoting  reforms.  To  those  who, 
born  in  a  foreign  land,  have  been  accustomed  to 
see  the  right  of  empire  exercised  by  a  rule  of  sue- 


68  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

cession  as  inexorable  as  the  decrees  of  fate,  and 
the  most  obsequious  devotions  paid  by  the  wisest 
statesmen  and  the  most  renowned  warriors  to  one 
who  has  inherited  this  right  by  the  mere  accident 
of  birth,  irrespective  of  public  capacity  or  private 
worth, — to  those,  we  repeat,  who  arrive  on  our 
shores  and  become  invested  with  citizenship,  there 
is  no  inducement  to  maintain  the  distinctions  of 
nationality  or  the  prejudices  of  race,  whether  he 
be  Celt,  Teuton,  or  Sclavonian.  By  the  removal 
of  all  restraints  upon  intermarriage,  by  bringing 
together  the  children  in  the  public  schools  and 
teaching  them  from  the  same  text-books,  and  by 
enlisting  men  in  the  pursuit  of  the  same  industries, 
a  spirit  is  evoked  whose  tendency  is  to  soften  the 
asperities  of  local  association,  and  to  fuse  incon- 
gruous materials  into  harmonious  proportions, — in 
fact,  to  Americanize  all  nationalities. 

The  recognition,  in  its  broadest  sense,  of  individ- 
ual and  political  freedom,  will  produce  unity  and 
fraternity ;  it  will  "humanize  men,  and  give  them 
a  common  country."  * 

Our  country  has  yet  vast  tracts  of  rich  land 
whose  surface  has  never  been  furrowed  by  the 
plough,  and  whose  sod  has  never  been  upturned  to 
the  light  of  the  sun.  It  is  as  fresh  in  rural  beauty 

*  "  Humanitatem  homini  daret,  breviterque  una  cunctarum  gentium, 
in  toto  orbe  patria  fierat."     (Pliny,  "  Natural  History.") 


ANCIENT    CIVILIZATIONS.  69 

as  when  first  it  came  from  the  hand  of  nature. 
Apart  from  the  tumuli  and  embankments  of  that 
mysterious  race,  the  Mound-Builders,  or  occasional 
patches  of  greensward,  to  indicate  the  spot  where 
the  Indian  once  pitched  his  lodge,  there  is  little  to 
remind  us  of  the  former  occupancy  of  the  continent. 
How  different  this  from  the  aspects  of  the  Old 
World!  There  are  the  remains  of  human  struc- 
tures whose  origin  stretches  back  to  the  dawn  of 
the  historic  epoch;  —  pyramids,  obelisks,  and 
sphinxes,  to  remind  us  of  an  Egyptian  civilization; 
winged  bulls,  colossal  in  size,  hanging  gardens,  and 
spacious  palaces,  monuments  of  the  former  great- 
ness of  the  Assyrian  empire;  statues  of  matchless 
proportions,  temples  of  faultless  architecture,  and 
colisseums  vast  in  extent,  to  remind  us  of  the 
refinements  of  a  Grecian  or  Roman  civilization;  and 
Gothic  cathedrals,  castles,  and  towers,  to  recall  the 
rude  civilization  of  the  Middle  Ages.  But  these 
are  monuments  of  an  effete  civilization,  indicative 
of  long  ages  of  crime  and  oppression,  when  man 
remorselessly  appropriated  the  unrequited  toil  of 
his  fellow-man.  There  is  nothing  to  symbolize  the 
moral  or  intellectual  elevation  of  the  masses;  and, 
while  we  may  admire  these  ruins  of  former  great- 
ness, the  true  philanthropist  does  not  regret  that 
such  civilizations  have  been  swept  from  the  earth. 
They  proclaim  a  relation  which,  throughout  all 


70  MOUNTAINS    AND    PLAINS. 

history,  has  been  adverse  to  human  progress, — that 
of  tyrant  and  people,  of  patrician  and  plebs,  of  lord 
and  vassal,  of  master  and  slave. 

But  the  contemplation  of  the  physical  aspects  of 
our  country  awakens  far  different  thoughts.  Its 
vast  primeval  forests  of  rich  and  varied  verdure; 
its  almost  boundless  plains  of  waving  green,  spread 
out  far  as  human  vision  can  range;  its  noble  rivers, 
thousands  of  miles  in  length,  often  expanding  into 
inland  seas,  which  serve  as  the  great  highways  of 
an  extended  and  prosperous  .commerce;  its  lofty 
mountains,  whose  crests  penetrate  high  into  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow,  and  whose  flanks  are 
stored  with  the  precious  metals; — all  remind  the 
statesman  and  the  philanthropist  that  here  are  the 
elements  of  material  wealth  and  of  human  power, 
such  as  the  world  never  saw;  that  here  is  a  field 
for  the  display  of  the  most  vigorous  manifestations 
of  physical  or  intellectual  force;  and  that  here, 
under  a  beneficent  form  of  government,  man  may 
rise  to  his  true  dignity,  —  a  position  in  the  order  of 
creation  "  a  little  lower  than  that  of  the  angels." 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE     ORIGIN     OF     PRAIRIES. 

DISTRIBUTION    OF    FOREST,    PRAIRIE,   AND    DESERT PRAIRIES 

NOT  DUE  TO  PEAT-GROWTH NOT  DUE  TO  THE  TEXTURE  OF 

THE  SOIL NOT  DUE  TO  THE  ANNUAL  BURNINGS ZONES  OF 

VEGETATION THE  GREAT  BASIN CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS — • 

MEAN    ANNUAL    PRECIPITATION SOURCE    OF   MOISTURE 

PERIODICAL   RAINS    OF   CALIFORNIA CONCLUSIONS. 

Distribution  of  Forest ',  Prairie,  and  Desert. — 
Whenever  we  examine  a  continental  mass,  we 
ordinarily  find  a  wooded  belt  along  the  shores, 
succeeded,  as  we  advance  inland,  by  grassy  plains, 
and  graduating  in  the  interior  into  inhospitable 
deserts.  Whenever  we  study  the  annual  precipi- 
tation of  moisture,  in  connection  with  the  lines  of 
temperature,  we  find  that,  wherever  the  moisture  is 
equable  and  abundant,  we  have  the  densely-clothed 
forest;  wherever  it  is  unequally  distributed,  we 
have  the  grassy  plain;  and  wherever  it  is  mostly 
withheld,  we  have  the  inhospitable  desert. 

The  varying  supply  of  moisture,  then,  is  sufficient 
to  account  for  the  diversity  of  vegetation,  modified 
to  some  extent  by  the  physical  features  of  the 


72  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

country,  altitude  above  the  sea,  and  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold. 

Most  of  us  were  born  in  a  wooded  region,  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  moisture-distilling  sea.  In 
our  childhood,  we  were  accustomed  to  look  out 
upon  a  landscape  diversified  by  mountain  and  val- 
ley. Every  hill  had  its  crown  of  forest,  and  every 
stream  its  waterfall.  To  subdue  the  soil  by  cutting 
'down  these  aborescent  forms,  was  an  herculean 
task.  Thus,  then,  from  early  associations,  we  were 
led  to  infer  that  this  was  the  primal  condition  of 
the  earth's  surface. 

Transported  to  a  region  with  a  combination  of 
features  far  different,  with  a  soil  composed  of  the 
most  comminuted  materials,  where  in  a  day's  jour- 
ney we  should  fail  to  see  the  underlying  rock  or 
even  an  erratic  block,  with  a  surface  stretching  out 
in  vast  savannas,  either  level  or  thrown  into  gently- 
rounded  outlines,  tike  the  waves  of  the  ocean 
arrested  and  petrified, —  the  "whole  waving  with  a 
luxuriant  growth  of  vegetable  green, —  while  in  the 
distance,  the  eye  would  discern  a  clump  of  trees, 
like  an  island  in  mid-ocean,  or  a  long  line  of  trees, 
like  a  low  coast,  fringing  a  stream  which  wound  its 
sluggish  way  through  this  mass  of  verdure,  and 
where  the  whole  plain  seemed  to  be  spread  out 
like  a  hemisphere  bounded  by  the  sky; — trans- 
ferred to  such  a  scene,  our  ideas  of  the  earth's 


NOT    DUE    TO    PEAT-GROWTH.  73 

surface  would  be  very  different  from  those  of  our 
youthful  remembrance. 

If  we  were  to  penetrate  still  further  into  the  inte- 
rior, and  behold  plains  equally  extended,  the  surface 
covered  with  efflorescences  of  salt  which  glittered 
like  snow-flakes  in  the  morning  sun,  or  with  a  rank 
growth  of  artemisia  which  perfumed  the  air  as  with 
camphor,  or  with  cacti  which  we  had  seen  culti- 
vated as  hot-house  plants,  shooting  up  in  tree-like 
forms  j  our  ideas  of  the  earth's  surface  would  be  still 
further  modified.  And  yet,  such  are  the  diversities 
which  nature  presents  in  every  continental  mass. 

The  Prairies  not  due  to  Peat- Growth.  —  It  is  a 
microscopic  view  to  undertake  to  trace  analogies 
between  the  formation  of  the  prairies  and  that  of 
the  treeless  morasses  known  as  peat-swamps,  as 
has  been  done  by  Lesquereux,  a  distinguished  bota- 
nist, in  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Illinois  Geological 
Reports."  It  is  a  theory  which  presupposes  a  humid 
climate,  a  level  country  with  imperfect  drainage, 
and  with  a  surface  dotted  over  with  lakes  and  shel- 
tered from  the  winds,  where  the  peat-producing 
plants  could  grow,  —  conditions  none  of  which 
obtain  where  the  prairies  assume  their  grandest 
proportions.  * 

*  Take,  for  example,  Kansas  :  So  great  is  the  relief  and  depression 
of  the  soil,  that,  standing  on  one  of  the  "  rolls,"  I  have  commanded 
a  view  of  forty  miles  in  extent.  The  rise  of  the  Kansas  Slope  is  2,200 


74  ORIGIN    OF    THE    PRAIRIES. 

We  can  hardly  conceive  of  conditions  by  which 
the  whole  surface  of  a  country  would  be  converted 
into  a  peat-bog.  Such  bogs  are  generally  found 
occupying  erosions  in  the  surface,  and  where  they 
are  sheltered  from  the  winds.  There  is  no  tendency 
to  the  formation  of  peat  along  the  shores  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  where  the  waters  are  agitated  by 
storms,  nor  along  the  margins  of  rivers  of  briskly- 
running  water.  Peat-vegetation,  then,  only  thrives 
in  still  waters,  and  where  there  is  a  tendency  to 
stagnation;  and  the  area  over  which  it  extends  in  a 
given  region  is  inconsiderable,  compared  with  the 
area  occupied  by  other  vegetable  forms.  * 

feet  in  the  distance  of  400  miles.  What  struck  me  as  remarkable,  in 
traversing  that  region,  was  the  entire  absence  of  peat. 

Dr.  Logan  ("  Report  on  the  Geology  of  Kansas,"  1866,)  remarks: 
"  There  is  but  little  marshy  or  spongy  soil  in  the  whole  State ;  the  sur- 
plus water  coursing  down  the  natural  conduits,  leaves  no  opportu- 
nity for  the  saturation  of  the  ground,  which  is  observable  in  some  of 
the  other  States,  and  particularly  the  prairie  States  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River.  *  *  *  Kansas,  as  said  before,  by  reason  of  its  physi- 
cal features,  its  soil,  and  its  winds,  is  thoroughly  drained.  The  streams 
usually  have  high  banks  and  run  in  narrow  channels,  and  the  water  is 
carried  off  with  great  rapidity.  *  *  Hence,  no  ponds  or  sloughs  are 
formed,  and  but  rarely  any  spongy  soil." 

Thus,  while  the  treeless  region  of  Kansas  is  characterized  by  an 
absence  of  peat,  the  densely-wooded  region  of  Massachusetts  contains, 
by  estimate,  120,000,000  of  cords. 

*  Staring  gives  the  following  explanation  of  the  formation  of  peat: 
The  first  condition  on  the  surface  of  the  fens,  is  stillness  of  water. 
Hence,  it  is  not  formed  in  running  streams,  nor  in  pools  so  large  as  to 
be  subject  to  frequent  agitation  of  the  wind.  Aquatic  plants  of  various 
genera,  such  as  Nuphar,  Nymphcea,  etc.,  fill  the  bottom  with  roots  and 
cover  the  surface  with  leaves.  Many  of  the  plants  die  each  year,  and 
furnish  a  soil  fit  for  a  higher  order  of  vegetation,  viz.,  Phragmites, 


NOT    DUE   TO    PEAT-GROWTH.  75 

The  aromatic  sage-plants,  the  cacti,  and  the 
bunch-grasses,  are  forms  of  vegetation  which  char- 
acterize the  Western  Plains,  and  are  unknown  in  a 
region  favorable  to  the  growth  of  peat. 

The  Llanos  of  Venezuela  have  many  features  in 
common  with  the  prairies,  but  they  are  subject, 
each  year,  to  droughts  so  long-continued  and 
intense  that  the  soil  cracks  and  bakes,  and  the  car- 
bonized particles  of  vegetation  are  whirled  through 
the  air  in  the  form  of  fine  dust.  Such  climatic 
conditions  would  preclude  the  growth  of  peat-vege- 
tation. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  we  must  resort  to 
other  and  different  causes  to  explain  the  phenom- 
ena of  these  grassy  plains. 

Acorus,  Spargamum,  etc.  In  course  of  twenty  or  thirty  years,  the 
muddy  bottom  is  filled  with  roots  of  aquatic  and  marsh  plants,  which 
are  lighter  than  water;  and  if  the  depth  is  great  enough  to  detach  the 
vegetable  net-work,  it  rises  to  the  surface,  bearing  with  it,  of  course, 
the  soil  formed  above  it  by  decay  of  stems  and  leaves.  New  genera 
now  appear  upon  the  mass,  such  as  Carix,  Menyanthes,  and  others, 
which  quickly  cover  it. 

The  turf  has  now  acquired  a  thickness  of  from  two  to  four  feet,  and 
floats  about.  In  about  half  a  century,  the  mass,  having  increased  in 
thickness,  reaches  the  bottom  and  becomes  fixed.  Arborescent  plants, 
Alnus,  Salix,  etc.,  appear,  and  these  contribute  to  hasten  the  attach- 
ment of  the  turf  to  the  bottom,  both  by  their  weight  and  by  sending 
their  roots  through  into  the  ground.  This  is  the  method  employed  by 
nature  for  the  gradual  filling  up  of  shallow  lakes  and  pools,  and  con- 
verting them  first  into  morass  and  then  into  dry  land.  (Staring,  "De 
Bodem  van  Nederland,"  i.,  36.) 

Hundreds  of  acres  of  floating  pastures,  which  have  nothing  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  grass-lands,  resting  on  solid  bog,  are  found  in 
North  Holland.  Cattle  are  pastured  on  these  islands,  and  sometimes 
large  trees  are  found  growing  on  them.  There  is  little  evidence  that 
the  surface  of  the  prairies  has  been  thus  formed. 


76  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

Not  due  to  the  Texture  of  the  Soil.  —  Other 
physicists  would  attribute  the  formation  of  prairies 
to  the  mechanical  or  chemical  composition  of  the 
soil,  —  a  theory  which  we  think  equally  untenable, 
when  we  reflect  that  the  surface  of  these  treeless 
plains  may  vary  in  every  degree  between  drifting 
sands  and  impervious  clays,  and  that  the  efflores- 
cences of  soda  and  gypsum  which  are  the  evidences 
of  an  arid  climate  at  one  extremity  of  the  Conti- 
nent, would  become  fertilizing  agents  at  the  other. 

The  forest  of  Fontainbleau  thrives  on  a  plain 
composed  of  sand  to  the  extent  of  ninety-eight  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  contents;  the  region  of  the  Col- 
orado Valley,  the  most  desolate  portion  of  the 
United  States,  is  often  underlaid  by  a  blue  clay  so 
indurated  as  hardly  to  be  impressed  by  a  mule's 
hoof  in  passing  over  it;  the  soil  of  the  Llano  Esta- 
cado  is  red  clay  and  gypsum,  which,  under  certain 
conditions  of  moisture,  would  be  highly  productive; 
and  even  the  entire  area  of  Sahara  is  far  from  being 
a  mass  of  drifting  sands. 

Not  due  to  Annual  Burnings. — The  theory 
very  much  in  vogue  before  the  laws  of  climatology 
were  fully  understood,  which  attributed  the  forma- 
tion of  prairies  to  the  annual  fires  set  by  the  Indians, 
is  deserving  only  of  a  passing  notice.  If  these 
regions  were  once  wooded,  we  should  expect  to 


ZONES    OF   VEGETATION.  77 

find  the  remains  of  an  arborescent  vegetation 
entombed  in  the  sloughs,  where  they  would  be 
capable  of  indefinite  preservation.  If  their  tree- 
less character  is  due  to  such  causes,  we  should 
expect  to  find  similar  tracts  east  of  the  Allegha- 
nies;  particularly,  as  it  is  a  historical  fact  that, 
when  this  country  was  first  known  to  the  European, 
the  Indian  lived  in  the  wooded  region,  and  not  on 
the  prairies. 

In  traversing  the  great  forests  adjacent  to  Lake 
Superior,  where,  owing  to  the  resinous  nature  of 
the  trees,  the  fires  at  times  rage  with  unabated 
fury,  consuming  even  the  turf,  until  quenched  by 
drenching  rains,  we  have  seen  large  areas  thus 
burnt  over;  but  we  never  saw  a  grassy  plain  which 
could  be  traced  to  such  a  cause. 

In  order  to  fully  comprehend  the  origin  of  these 
vast  savannas,  and  to  trace  that  origin  to  the 
operation  of  known  laws,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
consider  the  varying  distribution  of  moisture  in 
connection  with  the  geographical  distribution  of 
plants. 

ZONES    OF    VEGETATION. 

North  America  may  be  divided  into  five  zones 
of  vegetation,  resulting  from  its  climatic  condi- 
tions: 


78  THE    ORIGIN   OF    PRAIRIES. 

1.  The  Region  of  Mosses  and  Saxifrages. 

2.  The  Densely-wooded  Region. 

3.  Alternate   Wood  and  Prairie. 

4.  Vast  Grassy  Plains,  where  the  Trees  are  restricted  to 
the  immediate  Banks  of  the  Streams. 

5.  Vast  Arid  Plains,  often  bare  of  Vegetation,  and  covered 
to  some  extent  with  Saline  Efflorescences. 

Region  of  Mosses  and  Saxifrages.  —  From 
latitude  6oc  N.,  on  Hudson's  Bay,  and  thence 
extending  northwesterly  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
lie  the  "Barren  Grounds,"  so  well  described  by 
Richardson.  They  are  treeless,  and  the  simpler 
kinds  of  vegetation  abound,  such  as  lichens,  mosses, 
and  fungi.  Still  north,  beyond  the  flood,  is  the 
Terra  Damnata  of  the  Laplanders;  there, 

"  A  frozen  continent 

Lies  dark  and  wild,  beat  with  perpetual  storms 
Of  whirlwind  and  dire  hail,  which  on  firm  land 
Thaws  not,  but  gathers  heap,  and  ruin  seems 
Of  ancient  pile  ;  all  else  deep  snow  and  ice." 

This  peculiar  vegetation  is  the  result  of  dimin- 
ished temperature,  rather  than  of  deficient  moisture, 
where  every  hill  is  sculptured  in  ice,  and  every 
stream  has  a  viscid  flow  to  the  oceanic  abyss. 

Densely-wooded  Belt.  —  Below  the  "  Barren 
Grounds,"  we  enter  upon  a  forest-belt  which 
stretches  continuously  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


ZONES    OF   VEGETATION.  79 

The  prairie  has  its  greatest  transverse  expansion 
in  the  Missouri  Basin,  and  narrows  as  it  goes 
north.  In  the  temperate  zone,  the  western  line 
of  the  forest-belt  would  bear  southeast,  passing 
west  of  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  and  striking 
the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  whence  it  is 
protracted  southwest  into  Eastern  Texas.  Clumps 
of  spruce-fir  form  its  outliers  to  the  north,  while 
its  southern  extension  embraces  the  magnolia  and 
palmetto. 

With  reference  to  the  forest-range,  as  determined 
by  lines  of  latitude,  and,  therefore,  by  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  summer  and  'winter  temperature,  rather 
than  by  the  varying  supplies  of  moisture,  it  may 
be  stated  than  many  of  the  Canadian  types,  follow- 
ing the  course  of  the  Alleghanies,  reach  as  far 
south  as  Virginia,  and  even  Georgia,  where  they 
intermingle  with  forms  purely  sub-tropical.  Thus, 
on  the  crests  of  the  Alleghanies,  in  Pennsylvania, 
may  be  seen  the  hemlock  of  the  north  holding 
divided  empire  with  the  magnolia  of  the  south, — 
sub-arctic  and  sub-tropical  species  intermingling, — 
and  both  withstanding  alike  the  rigor  of  our  win- 
ters and  the  heat  of  our  summers;  both  hybernating 
during  the  winter,  and  both  displaying  during  the 
summer,  in  the  most  vigorous  manner,  the  functions 
of  foliation  and  fructification.  Thus  it  is,  by  reason 
of  these  excessive  variations  of  summer  and  winter 


OO  THE    ORIGIN   OF    PRAIRIES. 

temperature,  an  American  forest  presents  an  assem- 
blage of  trees  and  a  variety  of  foliage,  of  which 
Europe  affords  no  parallel.  The  former  has  about 
one  hundred  and  twenty  different  species,  while 
the  latter  has  only  thirty-four. 

In  the  forests  adjacent  to  the  Great  Lakes,  the 
Coniferous  or  Pine  tribe  is  largely  predominant. 
While  this  group  occupies  a  region  little  prized  for 
agriculture,  by  reason  of  the  poverty  of  the  soil 
and  the  rigor  of  the  climate,  it  is  fortunately  con- 
tiguous to  a  region  where  both  of  these  conditions 
are  wanting,  and  where  the  presence  of  dense  for- 
ests would  be  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  development 
of  the  country. 

Taking  root  in  a  soil  which  may  contain  but  two 
per  cent,  of  organic  matter,  and  which,  but  for  its 
vegetable  covering,  would  become  a  mass  of  drift- 
ing sands,  the  white  pine  (P.  strobus)  becomes  the 
monarch  of  our  forests,  symmetrical  in  form  where 
grown  in  the  open  air,  and  the  most  valuable  of  all 
our  trees  when  felled  for  lumber.  I  cite  this  exam- 
ple to  illustrate  the  fact,  that  certain  forms  of  vege- 
tation are  far  more  dependent  for  their  growth  upon 
a  regular  supply  of  moisture,  than  upon  the  quan- 
tity of  organic  matter  in  the  soil. 

While  the  sub-arctic  types,  in  their  southern  pro- 
longation, cling  to  the  crests  of  the  Alleghanies, 
there  are  other  types,  characteristic  of  a  more  tern- 


ZONES    OF    VEGETATION.  8 1 

perate  climate,  such  as  the  oak,  the  hickory,  and 
tulip,  which  clothe  the  slopes;  and  still  other  types, 
such  as  the  mulberry,  black-walnut,  papaw,  buck- 
eye, honey-locust,  and  persimmon,  which  seek  the 
rich,  mellow  bottoms. 

While  the  geographical  range  of  certain  arbo- 
rescent forms  is  mainly  limited,  north  and  south, 
by  the  conditions  of  temperature,  their  eastern 
and  western  range,  taking  the  Alleghanies  as  the 
axis,  is  limited  by  the  conditions  of  moisture }  and 
these  limits  are  more  circumscribed  by  the  latter 
cause  than  by  the  former. 

The  eastern  rim  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  con- 
tains many  characteristic  trees  which  are  but  feebly 
represented  where  the  prairies  commence,  and  dis- 
appear altogether  beyond  the  Missouri,  where  they 
assume  their  full  development.  On  the  other  hand, 
vegetable  forms  are  not  represented  on  the  eastern 
margin,  which  attain  their  full  development  as  we 
approach  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  These 
changes  are  wholly  independent  of  isothermal  lines, 
but  dependent  on  the  variable  supply  of  moisture. 

Alternate  Wood  and  Prairie. —  In  this  zone, 
we  would  include  the  region  between  the  eastern 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan  and  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Missouri  Basin,  in  Iowa,  latitude  42°  N.,  longi- 
tude 95°  W.;  and  thence  the  western  boundary  is 
6 


82  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

protracted  a  little  west  of  south,  towards  the  mouth 
of  the  Rio  Grande.  This  line  is  far  from  being 
well-defined,  since  the  trees  follow  all  of  the  great 
valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri,  to  within 
five  or  six  hundred  miles  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

With  regard  to  the  botany  of  this  region,  Dr. 
J.  G.  Cooper,  who  has  paid  much  attention  to  the 
geographical  distribution  of  plants  in  the  United 
States,  remarks,  that  "  no  new  forms  of  trees  appear, 
while  those  found  farther  eastward  rapidly  dimin- 
ish towards  the  west.  Thirteen  species  have  not 
been  traced  west  of  its  eastern  border;  about  ninety 
extend  pretty  far  into  the  Texan  and  Illinois  regions; 
but  only  five  or  six  cross  the  eastern  limit  of  the 
Camanche  and  Dacotah  regions,  which,  however, 
receive  nine  more  from  the  west  and  south."  The 
cause  of  the  disappearance  of  trees,  he  attributes 
to  the  deficient  and  irregular  supply  of  moisture. 
"It  is  true,"  he  adds,  "that  this  does  not  materially 
affect  agriculture  in  the  more  eastern  regions;  in 
fact,  most  crops  will  succeed  better  with  less  rain 
than  is  necessary  for  most  trees  to  thrive."  *. 

It  is  in  this  region  that  the  grasses  become 
predominant  over  the  forest,  usurping,  for  the  most 
part,  the  high  and  dry  rolls,  and  hedging  the  trees 
to  the  immediate  valleys,  or  to  such  uplands  as 
have  a  stiff,  clayey,  retentive  soil.  That  the  limits 

*  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1858. 


ZONES    OF    VEGETATION.  83 

of  the  forest  were  not  more  extended  in  former 
times,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  sloughs  yield 
no  entombed  trunks  of  trees  which,  we  know,  in 
other  regions,  are  preserved  for  an  indefinite  period 
of  time. 

The  differences  in  the  retentive  power  of  moist- 
ure in  the  soil,  give  to  the  eastern  line  of  the  prairie- 
region  an  irregular  outline,  which  may  be  likened 
to  a  deeply-indented  coast, — far-entering  bays,  pro- 
jecting headlands,  and  an  archipelago  of  islands. 

What  are  known  as  "oak  openings,"  indicate 
the  transition  from  the  densely-wooded  region  to 
the  treeless  plains.  The  trees  stand  as  in  an  arti- 
ficial park,  shading  a  green-sward  devoid  of  under- 
brush, so  that  the  traveler  may  ride  or  drive  in  any 
direction.  This  characteristic  feature  I  have  noticed 
almost  continuously  from  Green  Bay  to  the  western 
borders  of  Arkansas.  The  trees  appear  dwarfed 
and  sickly;  the  extremities  are  often  .dead,  while 
the  main  body  is  covered  with  foliage,  and  the 
trunks,  when  felled,  are  found  to  be  more  or  less 
decayed.  * 

*  As  illustrative  of  the  retentive  power  of  a  soil  in  modifying  vege- 
tation, I  would  state  that,  in  the  lead-bearing  region  of  Wisconsin,  the 
Galena  limestone  is  a  porous  rock,  intersected  by  numerous  fissures ; 
and  hence,  where  it  prevails,  we  almost  invariably  find  a  growth  of 
scrub-oaks  or  prairie-grass.  In  the  denudation  of  that  region,  dur- 
ing the  Drift-period,  there  were  left  behind  patches  of  the  Cincinnati 
blue  limestone,  which  is  here  a  shale  decomposing  into  clay,  and  is 
much  more  retentive  of  moisture  than  the  subjacent  formation. 

These  patches  form   forest-crowned   mounds,   and   are   so  distinct 


84  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

The  change  in  the  character  of  the  grasses  and 
herbaceous  plants  is  more  marked,  even,  than  in 
the  trees.  These  are  largely  Composite,  with  the 
genera  Helianthus,  Actinomeris,  Coreopsis,  Echi- 
nacea,  etc.  The  compass-plant  (Silphium  la- 
ciniatum})  which  arranges  the  margin  of  its  leaf 
north  and  south  with  so  much  uniformity  that  the 
traveler,  in  a  cloudy  day,  may  determine  the  direc- 
tion of  the  magnetic  meridian,  forms  one  of  the 
most  noticeable  plants  of  the  prairie. 

These  plants  are  the  pioneers  of  a  more  marked 
change  in  a  vegetation  which  finds  its  full  develop- 
ment still  farther  in  the  interior  of  the  Continent, 
and  may  be  regarded,  I  think,  as  the  unerring  index 
of  a  change  in  the  conditions  of  humidity  in  the 
atmosphere. 

Vast  Grassy  Plains,  'with  Trees  restricted  to 
the  immediate  banks  of  the  Streams. — This  is 
the  character  of  the  country  between  the  Missouri 
River  and  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  but 
as  the  traveler  advances  from  east  to  west,  he 
begins  to  notice  increasing  signs  of  dryness  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  of  a  more  marked  continental  cli- 

in  character  from  the  general  plain,  that  the  geologist  can  map 
the  boundaries  of  the  two  formations,  without  an  examination  of  the 
respective  strata,  —  the  vegetation  of  the  one  being  dwarfed,  while 
that  of  the  other  is  luxuriant.  Such  is  the  origin  of  the  Sinsinowa, 
Blue,  and  Scales's  Mounds,  Gratiot's  Grove,  and  several  other  forest- 
crowned  eminences. 


ZONES    OF    VEGETATION.  85 

mate.  The  rain-fall  becomes  insufficient  for  the 
cultivation  of  crops,  and  the  diurnal  changes  of 
temperature  are  too  abrupt  to  permit  the  growing 
and  maturing  of  the  sub-tropical  plants  cultivated 
for  food.  The  thermometer  may  rise  to  70°  or  80° 
at  mid-day,  and  drop  to  below  the  freezing-point  at 
night.  Not  a  cloud,  for  days,  dims  the  lustre  of 
the  sun;  and  at  night,  are  shed  no  refreshing  dews. 
The  purity  of  the  air  is  so  great  that  wild  meats  are 
cured  without  the  aid  of  salt,  and  the  grasses  dry 
up  without  a  loss  of  their  nutritive  properties. 
Surrounded  by  a  medium  so  dry,  elastic,  and  brac- 
ing, the  voyageur  toils  under  a  heat  of  90°  without 
exciting  excessive  perspiration,  and  at  the  same 
time  his  system  is  proof  against  the  chilling  air  of 
the  night.  Those  stifling  and  enervating  heats,  and 
those  cold  and  disagreeable  storms,  characteristic 
of  the  humid  regions  to  the  east,  are  here  unknown, 
and  the  atmosphere  itself  becomes  highly  elec- 
trical. 

There  are  other  indications  of  an  arid  climate. 
The  soil  becomes  sandy  and  porous;  the  surface,  in 
places,  is  covered  with  incrustations  of  soda  and 
gypsum;  and  the  streams  are  rendered  unpalatable 
by  reason  of  the  solution  of  these  salts  in  their 
waters.  Such  phenomena  occur  in  most  regions 
where  evaporation  is  equal  to  precipitation.  Where 
there  is  an  excess  of  precipitation,  the  water  leaches 


86  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

out  these  salts  from  the  soil,  and  bears  them  to  the 
ocean. 

Salt  lakes  and  saline  efflorescences  were  ob- 
served by  Stevens,  as  far  east  as  longitude  101°, 
northwest  of  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi;  by 
Fremont,  in  longitude  100°,  south  of  the  Platte; 
and  by  Marcy,  in  longitude  101°,  on  the  Red  River. 
They  extend  even  farther  east,  as  salt-flats  have 
been  observed  near  the  Red  River  of  the  North; 
in  Nebraska,  within  seventy  miles  of  Omaha;  in 
Kansas,  seventy-five  miles  northwest  of  Fort  Riley, 
and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Republican,  Saline,  and 
Solomon  Rivers;  on  the  Great  Bend  of  the  Arkan- 
sas, in  beds  from  six  to  twenty  inches  deep;  and 
between  the  Arkansas  and  Canadian,  as  far  east  as 
longitude  97°. 

The  vegetation  indicates  a  similar  change  of 
climatic  conditions.  While  the  cotton-wood,  the 
box-elder,  and  occasionally  a  dwarfed  red-cedar, 
are  almost  the  only  representatives  of  the  noble 
forests  to  the  east,  and  these  hug  the  moist  alluvium 
of  the  streams,  there  are  other  forms  which  here 
attain  their  full  development.  These  are  the  arte- 
misia,  the  cactus,  and  the  buffalo  or  bunch  grass. 

The  artemisia  {A.  tridentata)  first  attracts 
attention  on  the  Kansas  River,  as  far  east  as  longi- 
tude 95°,  but  it  attains  a  ranker  development  nearer 
the  base  of  the  Mountains,  where  saline  efflores- 


ZONES    OF    VEGETATION.  87 

cences  are  more  common,  and  its  full  development 
in  the  Great  Basin.  The  narrative  of  every  explorer 
contains  notices  of  the  "  interminable  deserts  "  of 
wild  sage.  Fremont  ("Expedition  of  1842,") 
remarks: 

"With  the  change  in  the  geological  formation,  on  leaving 
Fort  Laramie,  the  whole  face  of  the  country  has  entirely 
altered  its  appearance.  Eastward  of  that  meridian,  the  prin- 
cipal ohjects  which  strike  the  eye  of  the  traveler  are  the  absence 
of  timber,  and  the  immense  expanse  of  prairie,  covered  with 
the  verdure  of  rich  grasses,  and  highly  adapted  to  pasturage. 
*  *  *  Westward  of  Laramie  River,  the  region  is  sandy, 
and  apparently  sterile  ;  and  the  place  of  the  grass  is  usurped 
by  the  artemisia  and  other  odoriferous  plants,  to  whose  growth 
the  dry  air  and  sandy  soil  of  this  region  are  favorable.  *  *  * 
They  grow  every  where,  —  on  the  hills  and  over  the  river-bot- 
toms, in  tough,  twisted,  wiry  clumps  ;  and  wherever  the  beaten 
track  was  left,  they  rendered  the  progress  of  the  carts  rough 
and  slow.  As  the  country  increased  in  elevation,  they  increased 
in  size  ;  and  the  whole  air  is  strongly  impregnated  and  satu- 
rated with  the  odor  of  camphor  and  spirits  of  turpentine  which 
belongs  to  this  plant." 

Bigelow,  on  the  journey  between  Fort  Smith  and 
Santa  Fe,  does  not  record  the  occurrence  of  this 
plant. 

The  cactus  is  another  characteristic  form  of  an 
arid  climate.  Although  occasionally  seen  as  the 
prickly  pear  on  the  sandy  shores  of  Lake  Michigan, 
and  within  the  sparsely-wooded  belt  of  southern 
Missouri,  yet  on  the  Plains  it  puts  on  a  variety  of 
forms,  and  attains,  at  times,  tree-like  dimensions. 


88  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

Bigelow  notes  the  occurrence  of  Opuntia  as  far 
east  as  Fort  Smith.  The  Llano  Estacado,  how- 
ever, is  emphatically  the  region  of  the  cacti,  which 
ascend  even  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  as  at  Santa 
Fe.  Fremont  remarks  that  there  "  cacti  become 
rare,  and  mosses  begin  to  dispute  the  hills  with 
them," — a  conclusive  evidence  of  the  increasing 
humidity  of  the  air;  for  lichens  and  mosses  are  the 
first  to  attach  themselves  to  trees  and  rocks,  where 
they  pave  the  way  for  the  higher  orders  of  plants. 
The  crests  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  which  are  suffi- 
ciently high  to  condense  the  moisture  which  is 
withheld  from  the  plains,  become  clothed  with 
arborescent  forms,  such  as  the  Douglas  pine,  the 
Mexican  yellow-pine  (Pinon)  and  the  balsam-fir. 
Accustomed  as  we  are  to  see  the  Cactaceoe  culti- 
vated as  hot-house  plants,  we  can  form  very  imper- 
fect ideas  of  their  luxuriance  and  magnificence 
where  they  flourish  in  their  native  arid  wilds, — 
some  of  them  rising  in  candelabra-like  forms,  or 
like  the  pipes  of  an  organ,  to  the  height  of  thirty 
or  forty  feet.  One  species  (Cereus  gigantetis),  it 
is  said,  on  the  Gila,  reaches  sixty  feet,  and  shoots 
up  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  without  a  branch, 
yielding  an  edible  fruit  much  prized  by  the  natives. 
The  melon-cactus  contains  within  its  prickly  envel- 
ope a  watery  pulp  which  the  mule,  parching  with 
thirst,  opens  with  his  foot  and  extracts  with  his  lips. 


ZONES    OF    VEGETATION.  89 

The  cactus  is  characteristic  of  the  arid  region  both 
of  North  and  South  America,  but  is  rarely  seen 
under  like  conditions  in  the  eastern  hemisphere. 

The  buffalo  or  "  grama "  grass,  of  which  there 
are  several  species,  is  another  marked  type  of  the 
Plains.  It  grows  in  tufts,  having  a  narrow,  slender 
leaf,  and  where  it  exists  in  all  its  perfection,  the 
surface  of  the  soil  resembles  a  sheep-lawn.  It 
dies  down  under  the  heats  of  summer,  and  the  cli- 
mate is  so  dry  that  its  nutritive  properties  are  pre- 
served; and  thus,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  it  affords 
sustenance  to  the  immense  herds  of  buffalo  which 
roam  over  the  plains.  Bigelow  first  noticed  its 
appearance  on  a  small  branch  of  the  Canadian, 
about  longitude  96°,  and  it  extends  thence  to  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  On  the  Smoky-Hill  route,  I  have 
observed  it  about  thirty  miles  west  of  Fort  Riley. 

Vast  Arid  Plains,  often  bare  of  Vegetation, 
and  covered,  to  some  extent,  -with  Saline  Incrusta- 
tions.— The  Rocky  Mountains  form  a  well-marked 
division  in  the  climatology  of  the  United  States, 
both  in  reference  to  the  fertility  of  soil  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  plants.  Newberry  has  remarked  that, 
while  on  the  eastern  slope,  we  have  immense  grassy 
plains,  large  accumulations  of  detrital  materials, 
and  a  gently-rolling  surface;  on  the  western  slope, 
we  have  large  tracts  of  sandy  wastes,  of  rocky  sur- 


90  ORIGIN   OF   THE    PRAIRIES. 

faces  bare  of  covering,  and  intersected  by  numerous 
and  deep  canons,  so  intricate  as  to  bewilder  and 
impede  the  explorer.  The  Great  Basin  and  the 
Colorado  Desert  occupy  the  region  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  from  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  California  as  far  north  as  lati- 
tude 42°,  and  in  many  respects  present  physical 
aspects  not  elsewhere  recognized  in  North  Amer- 
ica. 

The  Great  Basin.  —  This  remarkable  plateau 
has  a  lake  and  river  system  of  its  own,  and  is  cut 
oft'  from  communication  with  the  sea.  It  embraces 
an  area,  triangular  in  shape,  of  700  miles  in  length 
and  500  in  width.  It  is  elevated  from  4,000  to  6,000 
feet  above  the  ocean,  and  is  traversed  by  bare  and 
rocky  ridges,  having  a  general  parallelism  with  the 
intervening  valleys,  which  are  of  a  desert-like  char- 
acter, and  are  sprinkled  over  with  the  ever-present 
artemisia.  Throughout,  hot  springs  and  salt  lakes 
abound,  the  most  notable  of  the  latter  class  being 
the  Great  Salt  Lake,  whose  outlines  have  been 
faithful  I)7  mapped  by  Stansbury.  * 

*  The  water,  according  to  Stansbury,  ("  Expedition  to  the  Great 
Salt  Lake,")  contains  more  than  twenty  per  cent,  of  chloride  of  sodium, 
and  is  so  buoyant  that,  in  bathing,  a  man  may  float,  stretched  at  full 
length  on  his  back,  having  most  of  his  person  above  water.  In  a  sit- 
ting posture,  the  shoulders  remain  above  the  surface.  The  brine  is  so 
strong  that  the  least  particle  getting  into  the  eyes,  causes  the  most 
acute  pain.  Whole  tracts  of  land  on  the  borders  of  this  lake  are  cov- 


ZONES    OF    VEGETATION.  9! 

The  Dead  Sea,  with  its  river  Jordan,  here  finds 
its  counterpart.  Its  bleak  and  rugged  shores  are 
without  a  tree  to  relieve  the  eye,  and  its  waters 
apart  from  animalculae  sustain  no  organic  life. 

The  mountains  which  rim  this  Basin  are  suffi- 
ciently high  to  condense  the  vapors  of  the  clouds 
and  cause  them  to  descend  in  showers,  thus  forming 
the  sources  of  streams  which,  as  they  reach  the 
margin  of  the  valleys,  are  absorbed  by  the  thirsty 
soil.  Hence,  the  plains  are  absolute  deserts,  whilst 
the  slopes  are  clothed  with  grama  grass.  Salt 
beds  and  alkali  flats  are  abundant.  "  They  are  sit- 
uated," says  Ross  Brown,  "  in  valleys  from  which 
the  waters,  having  no  escape,  are  spread  out  over 
large  surfaces,  and  soon  evaporate,  leaving  the  salt 
and  other  substances  behind.  *  *  Upon  the  great 
saliniferous  fields  of  Nye  county,  Nevada,  millions 
of  tons  could  be  shoveled  up,  lying  dry  and  pure 
upon  the  surface,  to  a  depth  varying  from  six  inches 
to  three  feet."  * 

The  salt  is  extensively  used  in  the  metallurgy 
of  the  silver  ores  which  occur  so  abundantly  in 
Nevada. 

The  mountains  almost  every  where,  except  where 

ered  with  saline  incrustations  having  all  the  purity  of  snow-flakes,  and 
the  amount  in  one  field,  ten  miles  long  and  seven  miles  broad,  was 
estimated  at  100,000.000  of  bushels,  —  equal  in  bulk  to  the  entire  wheat 
crop  of  the  United  States. 

*  "  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States."     1867. 


92  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

they  reach  the  snow-line,  are  clothed  with  forests 
of  pine,  spruce,  and  fir,  of  sufficient  size  to  afford 
the  materials  for  lumber. 

The  Sierra  Nevada. —  Bounding  the  Great  Basin 
on  the  west,  as  with  a  wall,  is  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
The  vapors  rolled  up  from  the  Pacific  are  here 
arrested  and  wrung  of  their  moisture;  and  hence, 
each  side  of  the  axis  is  distinguished  by  well- 
marked  differences  in  climate  and  vegetable  forms. 
The  sea-ward  slope  is  densely  wooded,  and  contains 
many  peculiar  forms,  among  which  is  a  species  of 
red-wood  (^Sequoia  gigantea),  the  monarch  of 
all  arborescent  forms.  * 

*  Many  of  the  trees  of  the  Pacific  Coast  are  peculiar.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned : 

Pinus  lambertiana  (Sugar  Pine).  It  grows  to  the  height  of  200  feet. 
The  grain  is  so  straight  that  shingles  and  clap-boards  may  be  rifted  out 
of  the  trunk.  Whitney  speaks  of  it  thus  :  "  The  sugar  pine  is  the 
grandest  tree.  It  occurs  at  all  altitudes  between  3,000  and  4,000  feet, 
but  attains  its  greatest  dimensions  between  4,000  and  5,000  feet,  where 
it  is  frequently  300  feet  in  height.  Its  trunk  is  perfectly  straight,  its 
head  symmetrical,  and  from  the  slightly-drooping  ends  of  its  horizon- 
tal branches,  the  enormous  cones  hang  down  in  bunches  of  two  or 
three,  like  tassels.  One.  tree,  measured  by  us,  was  found  to  be  300  feet 
high,  without  a  flaw  or  curve  in  its  trunk,  and  only  seven  feet  in  diam- 
eter at  its  base.  These  forests  are  rather  open,  the  trees  being  seldom 
densely  aggregated ;  and,  owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  air,  their  trunks 
are  very  free  from  mosses  and  lichens."  ("  Geology  of  California," 

P-  336-) 

P.  -ponderosa  (Pitch  Pine).  The  wood  is  very  coarse  and  durable, 
and  well-fitted  for  the  purposes  of  construction. 

P.  sabiniana  (Sabine's  Pine.)  Grows  to  the  height  of  150  feet. 
Timber  soft  and  durable. 

P.  insignis  (Seal  Pine).  A  noble  tree,  with  bright  grass-green  leaves. 

Abies  douglasii  (Douglas  Fir).    A  tree  characteristic  of  the  northern 


ZONES    OF    VEGETATION.  93 

As  we  descend  the  slopes  towards  the  sea, 
where  the  conditions  of  moisture  are  less  constant, 
we  encounter  changes  in  the  vegetable  forms  so 
abrupt  as  at  once  to  attract  observation. 

The  forests  of  California  are  mainly  restricted  to 
the  sea-coast  or  the  mountain  slopes,  while  the 
longitudinal  valleys  are  covered  with  herbaceous 
plants,  with  trees  bordering  the  immediate  banks 
of  the  streams, — presenting  features  not  unlike  the 
prairie  region  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  From 
May  to  November  is  the  dry  season,  in  which  rain 
rarely  falls,  and  clouds  and  mists  rarely  veil  the 

Pacific  coast,  from  latitude  40°  to  Alaska,  and  only  found  east  of  the 
Cascade  Range.  This  is  principally  the  timber  used  at  the  saw-mills 
on  Puget's  Sound,  and  is  both  strong  and  durable ;  in  fact,  says  Ross 
Brown,  it  is  the  strongest  timber  on  the  Coast,  both  in  perpendicular 
pressure  and  horizontal  strain.  According  to  experiments  made  in 
France,  at  the  imperial  dock  at  Toulon,  masts  from  this  tree  are  supe- 
rior to  the  best  Riga  spars.  In  flexibility  and  tenacity  of  fibre,  these 
trees  are  rarely  surpassed ;  they  may  be  bent  and  twisted  several 
times  in  contrary  directions  without  breaking,  and  they  possess  other 
rare  qualities,  such  as  superficial  dimensions,  strength,  lightness,  and 
absence  of  knots.  ("  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,"  1868.) 

There  are  other  pines  which  occur  on  the  Rocky  Mountain  Slope, 
deserving  of  notice : 

P.  edulis  (Pinon  of  the  Mexicans),  grows  from  40  to  50  feet  high. 
The  seed  is  about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut,  and  is  used  as  food  by  the 
Indians. 

P.  flexilis  (Rocky  Mountain  White  Pine),  has  many  of  the  qualities 
of  the  P.  strobus  of  the  East.  Dr.  James,  who  first  discovered  it, 
asserts  that  its  nuts  are  edible.  It  is  used  as  a  lumber  tree. 

The  Balsam  Fir  (P.  abies),  and  Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  virginiana), 
range  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mountains.  The  latter  maintains  its 
existence,  with  great  tenacity,  nearly  to  the  base  of  the  Mountains, 
and  reappears  upon  their  flanks. 

All  the  species  of  firs,  according  to  Whitney,  are  very  beautiful. 


94  THE    ORIGIN   OF    PRAIRIES. 

sun;  under  whose  intense  rays  the  temperature 
often  rises  to  1 1 2°— i 15°,  vegetation  is  consumed,  the 
soil  cracks  and  bakes,  and  the  germination  of  seeds 
is  effectually  arrested.  With  the  setting  in  of  the 
autumnal  rains,  vegetation  at  once  quickens  into 
life,  and  the  surface  becomes  clothed  with  a  green- 
sward, interspersed  with  a  multitude  of  variously- 
tinted-  flowers.*  These  effects  are  clearly  traceable 

They  attain  a  large  size,  are  very  symmetrical  in  their  growth,  and 
have  a  very  dark-green  and  brilliant  foliage,  which  is  very  fragrant. 
The  branches  are  often  regularly  and  pinnately  divided,  producing  a 
"  most  brilliant  effect.  The  color  of  the  sky  is  perceptibly  darker,  as 
seen  through  this  peculiar  foliage,  raised  in  a  canopy  so  high  above 
the  observer." 

Sequoia  sempervirens  (Red- wood).  A  noble  tree,  growing  200  feet 
in  height,  with  a  trunk  ten  feet  in  diameter;  wood  soft,  durable,  and 
easily  wrought;  one  of  the  most  valuable  lumber  trees  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  and  in  the  absence  of  its  namesake  would  be  regarded  as  the 
giant  of  the  forest. 

S.  gigantea  (Giant  Red-wood).  The  most  colossal  of  all  forms  of 
forest  growth.  One  prostrate  trunk,  according  to  Blake,  ("  Pacific  Rail- 
road Survey,")  must  have  been  450  feet  in  height,  and  45  feet  in  diam- 
eter. The  Mariposa  grove,  containing  these  trees,  is  scattered  over 
an  extent  of  six  miles  or  more,  and  includes  about  six  hundred  trees. 
They  stand  in  groups  of  twos  and  threes.  The  largest  is  102  feet  in 
circumference,  and  there  are  four  others  which  exceed  100  feet.  There 
are  other  groves,  but  the  trees  have  no  great  geographical  range,  and 
it  is  to  be  feared  that  they  are  undergoing  the  process  of  extinction. 
From  the  number  of  annular  rings  counted  on  some  of  the  prostrate 
trunks,  the  age  indicated  was  not  less  than  1,300  years.  The  British 
botanists  were  the  first  to  become  aware  of  this  gigantic  tree,  and  gave 
it  the  name  of  Wellingtonia.  American  botanists  proposed  the  name 
of  Wash.ington.ia,  but  they  could  not  assert  priority  of  discovery.  It 
is  found,  however,  to  belong  to  the  genus  Sequoia,  and,  hence,  must 
bear  that  name. 

Mariposa  grove  is  included  in  the  grant  made  by  Congress,  of  the 
Yosemite  Valley,  to  the  State  of  California,  to  be  used  as  a  public 
paik;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  noble  trees  will  be  preserved. 

*  See  Newberry's  "Botanical Report,"  in  "Pacific  Railroad  Reports." 


ZONES    OF    VEGETATION.  95 

to  the  unequal  supply  of  moisture.  The  Coast 
Ranges  absorb,  whatever  is  derived  from  the  local 
winds  of  the  Pacific,  and  the  melting  snows  of  the 
Sierra  water  the  mountain-slopes,  while  the  valleys 
are  given  up  to  unmitigated  drought.  These  con- 
ditions fully  explain  the  limits  of  tree  and  herba- 
ceous growth. 

The  Yosemite  Valley,  though  illustrating  no 
meteorological  fact,  forms  one  of  the  most  marked 
physical  features,  not  only  of  California,  but  of  the 
world.  A  narrow  valley,  walled  in  by  precipices 
two  and  three  thousand  feet  in  height,  with  a  great 
dome  4,600  feet  in  height,  dominating  over  the 
whole;  a  cataract,  falling  with  an  unbroken  plunge 
1,600  feet,  another  950  feet,  and  still  another  of  350 
feet,  whose  waters  at  length  commingle  in  a 
river  known  as  the  Merced,  which  winds  its  way 
through  grassy  meadows,  occasionally  expanding 
into  pools,  from  whose  glassy  surface  is  faithfully 
reflected  every  tint,  not  mingled,  but  sharply- 
defined,  of  rock,  tree,  and  sky; — the  whole  forms 
a  combined  scene  of  rugged  grandeur  and  pictur- 
esque beauty,  which  is  probably  unequaled  on  the 
face  of  the  earth. 

Thus,  then,  the  traveler,  in  crossing  the  Continent 
from  east  to  west,  passes  through  every  gradation, 
from  a  luxuriant  forest-growth  to  one  completely 


96  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

bare  of  all  vegetation;  and,  in  his  progress,  is 
impressed  with  the  constantly-increasing  signs  of 
aridity,  until  he  comes  within  the  influence  of  the 
moist  breath  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


SOURCES   OF  MOISTURE. 

Let  us  now  inquire  into  the  sources  of  moisture 
which  fertilizes  the  Continent,  and  its  mode  of  dis- 
tribution. 

1.  The  rains  which  water  the  Atlantic  Slope  are 
equally  distributed,  the  variations    between   the 
four  seasons  being  very  slight. 

2.  Those  which  water  the  Mississippi  Valley  are 
unequally  distributed,  those  of  spring  and  summer 
being  greatly  in  excess;  a  fact  which  has  been  over- 
looked by  most  meteorologists,  in  reference  to  the 
geographical  distribution  of  plants. 

3.  Those  which  water  the  Californian  Coast  are 
•periodic,  marking  a  well-defined  wet  and  dry  sea- 
son. 

In  examining  Blodget's  Rain-Chart  of  the  United 
States,  showing  the  mean  distribution  for  the  year, 
we  find  that,  leaving  out  the  Pacific  Slope  and  the 
extreme  peninsula  of  Florida,  the  greatest  precipi- 
tation is  in  the  vicinity  of  Pensacola,  where  it  annu- 
ally reaches  63  inches.  This  area  is  extremely 
limited,  and  presents  a  rounded  outline,  from 


AMOUNT    OF    RAIN-FALL.  97 

which  the  lines  of  diminished  precipitation  rapidly 
decrease  in  intensity,  like  the  eddying  circles  from 
the  point  where  a  stone  first  strikes  the  water.  The 
Alleghanies,  so  far  from  condensing  the  vapors  and 
causing  increased  precipitation,  seem  to  serve  only 
as  an  entering  wedge  to  separate  the  vapor-bearing 
currents,  and  cause  a  more  copious  precipitation  on 
their  slopes  than  on  their  crests.  The  Great  Lakes, 
too,  instead  of  generating  moisture  to  be  distributed 
over  the  adjacent  regions,  seem  to  repel  it;  so  that 
it  is  dryer  in  their  immediate  basins  than  on  the 
plateaux  which  surround  them. 

When  we  examine  the  precipitation  of  rain,  as 
distributed  over  the  four  seasons,  there  is,  owing  to 
the  two  systems  of  equal  and  unequal  distribution, 
a  strange  inosculation  of  lines. 

Winter. — The  mouths  of  the  Mississippi  and  the 
region  of  Pensacola  are  in  the  area  of  greatest  pre- 
cipitation (18  inches).  From  this  centre,  the  lines 
of  equal  precipitation  on  the  west,  maintaining  a 
considerable  parallelism,  first  bear  northwest  along 
the  Texas  coast;  then,  rapidly  curving,  bear  north- 
east; then  east;  and,  as  they  leave  the  Continent, 
northeast. 

The  conditions  of  moisture  are  as  follows: 


98  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

In  the  Densely- Wooded  Region,     .       18  to  7  inches. 
In  the  Prairie  Region,  .  .  .  5  to  3       " 

On  the  Treeless  Plains,  .         2  " 

Autumn. — The  mouths  of  the  Mississippi  and 
the  region  of  Pensacola  are  within  the  area  of 
greatest  precipitation  (12  inches).  The  lines  of 
equal  precipitation  pursue  a  north-northeast  direc- 
tion, and,  in  the  distribution  of  moisture,  exhibit  the 
following  results: 

In  the  Densely- Wooded  Region,    .        12  to  8  inches. 
In  the  Prairie  Region,  .  .  8  to  5       " 

On  the  Treeless  Plains,      .  .4  " 

Summer. — The  lines  of  summer  precipitation, 
owing  to  the  operation  of  the  law  of  unequal  dis- 
tribution, are  very  irregular.  On  the  Plains,  they 
bear  nearly  north  and  south;  but,  as  protracted 
east,  they  make  one  curvature  to  the  south,  as  they 
approach  Lake  Michigan,  and  another,  still  more 
abrupt,  as  they  approach  the  Alleghanies,  equal  to 
five  degrees  of  latitude, —  after  passing  which,  they 
curve  abruptly  to  the  northeast.  The  conditions 
of  moisture  are  as  follows: 

In  the  Densely- Wooded  Region,     .     15  to  12  inches. 
In  the  Prairie  Region,  .  12  to    8      " 

On  the  Treeless  Plains,       .  .       8  to    4      " 


AMOUNT    OF    RAIN-FALL.  99 

Spring.  —  The  lines  of  equal  precipitation 
exhibit  a  remarkable  deflection  to  the  northwest, 
caused,  as  we  shall  show,  by  the  prevailing  sum- 
mer winds,  and  which,  but  for  this  deflection, 
would  render  the  region  at  the  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  an  uninhabitable  desert.  While  the 
mouths  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  region  of  Pensa- 
cola  still  receive  the  greatest  amount  of  precipita- 
tion (15  inches),  Fort  Laramie,  on  the  Plains,  is 
nearly  as  well  watered  as  New  York,  on  the  sea 
board  (10  inches);  and  Chicago  receives  no  more 
rain  than  falls  in  Cheyenne,  at  the  base  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  (8  inches). 

There  is  this  noticeable  fact,  illustrated  in  the 
preceding  remarks:  that  while,  on  the  Atlantic 
Slope,  the  precipitation  is  pretty  equally  distributed 
over  the  four  seasons,  the  tendency  to  unequal  pre- 
cipitation, comparing  spring  and  summer  with 
autumn  and  winter,  begins  to  manifest  itself  on  the 
Prairies,  and  as  we  enter  the  Plains  it  becomes  still 
more  marked, — the  fall,  and  especially  the  winter, 
being  the  dry  season. 

Making  a  section  across  the  Continent,  from 
New  York  to  San  Francisco,  we  have  the  follow- 
ing results : 


IOO 


ORIGIN    OF    THE    PRAIRIES. 


MEAN    ANNUAL   PRECIPITATION. 


STATIONS. 

SPRING. 

SUMMER. 

AUTUMN. 

WINTER. 

YEAR. 

New  York  1  

II.  CC 

11  -33 

IO.7O 

Q.6t 

42.2"? 

Ann  Arbor2  

7.70 

II.  2O 

7.  CO 

•*.io 

28.60 

Fort  Leavenworths  . 
Fort  Riley*  

7.92 

7.QI 

12.24 

7.  if 

7-33 
S.^8 

2-75 
1.26 

30.29 
21.90 

Fort  Laramie5  

8.69 

C.7O 

3.06 

1.6? 

IQ.QS 

Fort  Yuma6  

O.27 

1.1G 

0.86 

O.72 

•j.ie 

San  Francisco''  .... 

7-56 

1.09 

2.96 

"•34 

21.95 

1   Wooded.     2  Verge  of  Prairie.     3   4   6   Prairie.     6  Desert.     1  Periodical  Rains. 

Contrasting  the  two  stations,  New  York  and 
Fort  Laramie,  it  will  be  seen  that  on  the  sea-board 
about  48  per  cent,  of  the  yearly  precipitation  occurs 
during  the  fall  and  winter,  while  on  the  Plains  only 
25  per  cent,  occurs  during  that  period;  and  that, 
"while  on  the  sea-board  the  precipitation  is  nearly 
uniform  during  the  four  seasons,  three-fourths  of 
the  precipitation  on  the  Plains  occurs  during  the 
spring  and  summer  months. 

At  Fort  Riley,  the  immediate  valley  of  the  Kaw 
is  well-wooded,  and  the  trees  derive  moisture,  apart 
from  the  annual  precipitation,  from  the  stream  itself; 
but  when  we  ascend  the  bluffs  which  line  its  shores, 
the  eye  roams  over  a  region  of  bold,  rounded  out- 
lines, without  a  tree  or  a  shrub  to  break  the  mono- 
tony of  the  scene. 


AMOUNT    OF    RAIN-FALL.  IOI 

A  region  where  the  annual  precipitation  is 
slightly  in  excess  of  twenty  inches,  I  infer  from 
observation,  is  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  trees, 
even  were  that  moisture  equally  distributed;  but 
where  three-fourths  of  it  is  precipitated  during  the 
spring  and  summer,  the  grasses  flourish  and  mature 
to  the  exclusion  of  arborescent  forms.  The  effect 
of  this  peculiarity  of  the  climate  is  to  extend  the 
cultivation  of  the  cereals  much  farther  west  than 
could  be  done,  if  the  moisture  were  equally  distri- 
buted, and  to  afford  rich  pasturage  to  immense 
herds  of  buffalo,  up  to  the  verge  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  over  a  region  which,  if  the  rains  were 
equally  distributed,  would  present  still  more  inhos- 
pitable features. 

California.  —  Turning  now  to  California,  we 
find  that  far  different  conditions  prevail,  and  new 
elements  enter  into  the  combination.  There,  a 
well-defined  wet  and  dry  season  is  observed, —  86 
per  cent,  of  the  annual  precipitation  of  rain  taking 
place  during  the  winter  and  spring,  and  nearly  50 
per  cent,  during  the  winter.  While,  therefore, 
winter  is  the  dry  season  on  the  Plains,  it  is  the  sea- 
son of  most  profuse  rains  on  the  California  coast, — 
a  pretty  conclusive  proof  that  the  vapor-bearing 
winds  which  water  the  Plains,  do  not  come  from 
the  southwest. 


102  THE    ORIGIN   OF    PRAIRIES. 

More  than  one  writer  on  the  Climatology  of  the 
United  States,  *  has  maintained  that  the  moisture 
which  bathes  the  Continent  is  mainly  derived  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  distributed  by  the  great 
southwest  current  of  winds,  without  taking  into 
consideration  how  far  that  current  is  modified  by 
the  configuration  of  the  Continent. 

If  this  theory  of  a  southwest  origin  of  the  moist- 
ure be  true,  we  should  justly  infer  that  the  winds 
of  the  Pacific,  however  highly  charged,  and  apart 
from  a  great  mountain  barrier,  in  passing  over  17° 
of  longitude,  would  become  dry  winds  long  before 
reaching  the  Atlantic  Slope,  and  the  conditions  of 
the  fertility  of  the  Continent  would  be  reversed. 
The  Alleghanies  would  be  as  desolate  as  the  Purple 

*  It  may  be  stated  that  the  National  Observatory  at  Washington, 
under  the  control  of  the  Navj  Department,  and  maintained  by  liberal 
appropriations  from  Congress,  was  for  years  in  charge  of  Lieutenant 
Maury  ;  and  among  the  fruits  of  his  labors  was  a  work  on  the  "  Physi- 
cal Geography  of  the  Sea,"  in  which  it  was  maintained  that  the  moist- 
ure which  waters  this  Continent  is  taken  up  from  the  Pacific  Ocean 
and  carried  into  the  higher  regions,  and  then  precipitated  by  a  descend- 
ing current,  first  striking  the  land  in  the  region  of  Salt  Lake,  among 
the  most  desolate  portions  of  the  United  States. 

Berghaus  and  Johnston  ("  Physical  Atlas  ")  have  mapped  the  United 
States  as  being  mainly  in  the  belt  of  southwest  winds ;  and  Coffin,  by 
tabulating  numerous  results  ("Smithsonian  Institute  Contributions,") 
has  shown  the  existence  of  a  great  westerly  current,  north  of  the  par- 
allel 35°,  and  about  23}^°  in  breadth,  which  encircles  the  globe. 

The  winds  which  water  the  Great  Valley,  as  will  be  seen,  are  the 
result  of  the  peculiar  configuration  of  the  coast  adjacent  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  by  which  they  are  diverted  from 
their  uniform  course;  and  that  diversion  explains  the  phenomena  of 
our  climatology. 


SOURCE    OF    MOISTURE.  103 

Hills,  and  the  Colorado  Desert  would  be  as  fertile 
as  the  Valley  of  the  Shenandoah. 

Source  of  Moisture. — That  portion  of  the  Con- 
tinent which  embraces  the  United  States,  is  situated 
in  the  zone  of  southwest  winds,  and  these  winds 
are  found  to  prevail  with  wonderful  regularity  on 
the  Atlantic,  north  of  the  calms  of  Cancer;  but  in 
the  region  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  there  are  abnormal  conditions  which  pre- 
sent a  marked  deviation  from  the  fixedness  and 
uniformity  observable  in  the  winds  of  the  mid- 
Atlantic  and  the  north  of  Africa.  Both  southerly 
and  northerly  winds  blow  with  violence  across  the 
parallel  30°  (in  the  belt  of  the  calms  of  Cancer) 
which,  away  from  the  American  continent,  acts  as 
a  great  wall  between  the  southwest  and  northeast 
winds.  In  the  summer  season,  the  northeast  trades, 
hot  and  moist  from  the  equatorial  zone,  as  they 
enter  the  Caribbean  Sea,  are  deflected  by  the  lofty 
chain  of  the  Andes  which  girds  the  coast,  and  pass 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  they  become  inland 
breezes  on  the  Coast  of  Texas;  and  as  they  pene- 
trate the  interior,  they  are  gradually  deflected  east, 
until  they  reach  about  latitude  39°,  when  they 
assume  the  direction  of  the  great  southwest  aerial 
current.  It  is  this  deviation  from  the  regular  flow, 


104  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

which   gives  to  the   Mississippi  Valley  its  moist, 
tropical  summer  climate. 

Volney  was  the  first  to  point  out  this  deflection: 

"Mariners  relate  that  from  Cape  Vela,  a  projecting  point  of 
the  Gulf  of  Maracaybo,  the  winds  vary  and  swerve  into  a  course 
parallel  to  the  stream  which  flows  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  On 
entering  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  it  veers  a  little,  and  blows  from 
the  southeast.  The  bank  of  sand  called  Yucatan,  is  interposed 
between  the  two  bays,  but  is  so  low  and  level  that  it  is  no 
obstacle  to  its  progress.  Bernard  de  Orto,  who  has  published 
some  useful  information  on  the  winds  of  Vera  Cruz,  tells  us 
that  southeast  winds  prevail  in  those  parts." 

He  further  adds  that  the  trade-winds  are  deflected 
by  the  table-lands  of  Mexico,  and  become  the  south 
winds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Redfield  admits 
that  it  is  to  this  current  that  the  Mississippi  Valley 
owes  its  fertility;  and  Russell,  whose  work  I  have 
consulted  with  satisfaction,  sustains  the  same  view.* 

Blodget  remarks  that  southeast  winds  prevail 
almost  exclusively,  from  April  to  October,  or  dur- 
ing the  whole  period  of  the  warm  months,  when 
the  westein  plains  receive  their  excess  of  moisture. 
"  These  winds  are  also  stronger  at  the  most  distant 
of  these  posts  from  the  sea, —  a  proof  that  the  im- 
pulse is  not  wholly  at  the  coast,  but  that  some  ade- 

*  Russell,  Robert,  in  his  work  on  "  North  America,  its  Agriculture 
and  Climate,"  elaborately  discusses  this  question,  and  calls  attention 
to  the  remarkable  generalization  of  Volney,  made  at  a  time  when  no 
wind  or  rain  charts  were  available.  Russell  has  overlooked  the  earlier 
generali-i.iiions  of  Blodget,  and  the  facts  on  which  they  are  founded. 


SOURCE    OF    MOISTURE.  105 

quate  cause,  at  least  for  their  continuance,  exists  in 
the  interior."  "  There  is  no  preponderance  of  these 
winds  at  Fort  Scott  or  Fort  Leavenworth."  *  At 
Natchez,  the  winds  are  southerly  and  easterly  to 
the  extent  of  one-third ;  at  St.  Louis,  according  to 
Engelman,  the  south  and  southeast  winds  are  the 
prevailing  ones  from  April  to  October,  in  the  other 
months  the  west  and  northwest;  at  Cincinnati, 
according  to  Dr.  Ray,  west  and  southwest  winds 
are  the  prevailing  ones  the  year  round.  Thus, 
"  these  statistics  are  decisive,"  says  Blodget,  "  that 
the  southerly  winds  have  ceased  before  reaching 
Cincinnati." 

Humphreys  and  Abbot  remark: 

"  Diagrams  of  the  winds  have  been  plotted  from  the  'Army 
Meteorological  Observations,'  for  five  years,  at  Key  West, 
from  June,  1850,  to  June,  1854,  and  also  for  the  year  from 
June,  1851,  to  June,  1852,  at  the  same  place.  Similar  dia- 
grams have  been  made  from  the  wind  observations  of  the 
Delta  Survey,  at  Fort  St.  Philip,  and  at  Carrollton.  The  great 
resemblance  between  the  winds  at  Key  West  and  those  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  is  apparent  when  these  diagrams 
are  compared.  Both  have,  in  part,  the  characteristics  of  the 
northeast  trade-winds.  Blowing  chiefly  between  northeast  and 
southeast,  they  veer  towards  the  south  as  summer  approaches, 
and  continue  to  blow  from  that  quarter  and  from  the  east 
during  the  summer  and  early  part  of  the  autumn  ;  changing 
towards  the  north  upon  the  approach  of  winter,  they  blow 
principally  from  that  direction  during  the  winter  months."  f 

*  "  Climatology  of  the  United  States." 

t  "  Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the  Mississippi  River." 


I06  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

This  course  conforms,  too,  to  the  track  usually 
pursued  by  the  great  hurricanes  which,  originating 
in  the  West  Indies,  first  blow  southeast,  then  curve 
abruptly,  and  sweep  the  Atlantic  Coast  in  a  north- 
east direction. 

Periodical  Rains  of  California. — The  Pacific 
Slope  affords  another  illustration  of  the  law,  every 
where  observed,  of  diverse  climates  on  opposite 
sides  of  a  great  mountain  chain.  It  is  evident  that 
the  high  lands  in  Central  America  interrupt  the 
flow  of  the  northeast  winds  between  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  the  Pacific  Coast,  giving  origin  to  two 
distinct  systems  of  aerial  circulation.  That  of  the 
Pacific  Coast  appears  to  partake  of  the  periodical 
character  of  the  Tropics,  there  being  well-defined 
monsoons,  whose  movements  are  dependent  on 
the  sun.  As  in  autumn  he  retires  southward,  the 
southwest  winds,  charged  with  the  moisture  of 
the  Pacific,  set  in  and  water  the  land,  until  they 
strike  the  crests  of  the  Sierra,  where  they  part  with 
the  remainder  of  their  moisture,  and  flow  over  the 
Great  Basin  as  dry  winds.  As  the  sun  returns 
north,  an  opposite  set  of  winds  become  predomi- 
nant. Day  after  day  and  month  after  month,  the 
sun  flames  in  an  unclouded  sky;  and  under  the 
intensity  of  his  rays,  vegetation  withers  and  shrivels 
up,  and  the  ground  bakes  and  cracks  as  if  in  an  oven. 


PERIODICAL    RAINS.  1 07 

At  few  places  on  the  earth's  surface  does  the  ther- 
mometer mark  a  higher  range  of  temperature  than 
at  Fort  Miller,  amid  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra. 

Parry  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  configuration  of 
the  southerly  slope  of  the  interior  district  between 
the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Colorado  Basin  is  such 
that,  while  it  weakens  the  force  of  the  cold  northern 
currents,  it  permits  the  warm  winds  from  the  south 
to  precipitate  their  moisture  on  the  higher  slopes  in 
the  form  of  summer  rains  and  winter  snows;  and 
hence,  we  have  in  these  elevated  districts,  a  climate 
favoring  the  growth  of  trees,  and  a  more  equable 
precipitation  of  rain  and  dew  throughout  the  year. 
These  features  are  particularly  noticeable  along  the 
elevated  slopes  of  the  San  Francisco  mountains, 
where  magnificent  pine  forests  are  agreeably  inter- 
spersed with  grassy  valleys  and  parks,  and  numer- 
ous springs,  together  with  an  invigorating  atmos- 
phere. * 

The  details  embodied  in  this  chapter  may  fail  to 
enlist  the  attention  of  the  general  reader,  but  they 
contain  the  causes  of  the  variable  fertility  of  the 
Continent,  and  should  be  mastered  by  every  one 
who  would  acquire  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of 
its  Physical  Geography. 

*  Report  on  "  Kansas  Pacific  Railroad,"  along  the  thirty-fifth  paral- 
lel.    By  C.  C.  Parry. 


I08  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Regarding,  then,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  as  the  proxi- 
mate source  of  the  rains  which  water  the  Great 
Valley,  we  can  explain  the  following  phenomena, 
which  are  inexplicable  on  the  supposition  that 
the  southwest  winds  are  the  great  vapor-bearing 
current: 

1.  Why  the    greatest  precipitation   takes    place 
along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

2.  Why  the  Llano  Estacado,  the  Colorado  Des- 
ert, and  the  Great  Basin,  almost  wholly  within  the 
zone  of  the  southwest  winds,  are  dry. 

3.  Why  the  Western   Plains,  during  the   spring 
and  summer,  are  nearly  as  profusely  watered  as  the 
Atlantic  Slope. 

4.  Why  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi,  during  the 
prevalence  of  these  winds,  has  an  almost  tropical 
climate. 

5.  And  why  the  Atlantic  Slope,  instead  of  being 
the  most  arid,  as  it  would  be  if  the  southwest  winds 
furnished    the    moisture,   is   within    the    region   of 
equally-distributed  rains. 

Thus  it  is  believed  that  a  study  of  the  physical 
features  of  this  country,  in  connection  with  the  pre- 
vailing winds,  and  the  consequent  distribution  of 
moisture,  and  also  in  connection  with  the  lines  of 
equal  temperature,  will  show: 


CONCLUSIONS.  109 

1.  That  these  great  changes  in  the  geographical 
distribution  of  plants,  under  nearly  equal   lines   of 
temperature,  are  not  due  to  the  mechanical  texture 
or  chemical  composition  of  the  soil,  but  to  the  vari- 
able supplies  of  moisture. 

2.  And  that  in  the  winds,  as  the  agent  in  the 
distribution  of  that  moisture,  we  have  an  adequate 
cause  to  explain  all  of  the  phenomena  of  forest, 
prairie,  and  desert. 

NOTE.  —  Since  the  completion  of  this  Chapter,  which  is  but  an 
expansion  of  the  views  expressed  by  me  in  a  "  Report  to  the  Illinois 
Central  Railroad  Company,"  in  1858,  my  attention  has  been  directed 
to  a  Report  "  On  the  Flowering  Plants  and  Ferns  of  Ohio,"  by  Dr.  J. 
S.  Newberry,  (1860,)  in  which  that  distinguished  physicist  holds  the 
following  language : 

1.  "The  great  controlling  influence  which  has  operated  to  exclude 
trees  from  so  large  a  portion  of  our  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
is  unquestionably  a  deficiency  of  precipitated  moisture.     To  this  cause 
are   due   the   prairies   of   Oregon,    California,    New    Mexico,    Utah, 
Nebraska,    Kansas,    Arkansas,    and   Texas.     Throughout   this    great 
area,  we  find  every  variety  of  surface,  and  soil  of  every  physical  struc- 
ture, or  chemical  composition, — unless  in  exceptional  circumstances, 
where  it  receives  an  unusual  supply  of  moisture,  —  if  not  utterly  sterile, 
covered  with  a  coating  of  grass. 

2.  "To  the  Great  Plains,  the  typical  prairies  of  the  Far  West,  the 
theories  proposed  for  the  Origin  of  Prairies,  viz. :  that  of  Professor 
Whitney,  that   they  are   due  to  the  fineness  of  soil;   or  that  of  Mr. 
Lesquereux,  that  they  are  beds  of  ancient  lakes ;  that  of  Mr.  Desor, 
that  they  are  the  lower  and  level  reaches  of  sea-bottom ;  or,  finally, 
that  which  attributes  them  to  annual  fires;  are  alike  wholly  inappli- 
cable. 

3.  "The  prairies  bordering  on,  or  east  of,  the  Mississippi,  maybe, 
and  doubtless  are  partly  or  locally,  due  to  one  or  more  of  the  condi- 
tions suggested  in   the  above  theories;  but  even  here,  the  great  con- 
trolling influence  has  been  the  supply  of  water.     The  structure  of  the 
soil  of  the  prairies  coinciding  with  the  extremes  of  want  and  supply 
of  rain  characteristic  of  the  climate,  have  made  them  now  too  dry  and 
now  too  wet  for  the  healthy  growth  of  trees.     A  sandy,  gravelly  or 


110  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

rocky  soil  or  subsoil,  more  thoroughly  saturated  with  moisture  and 
more  deeply  penetrated  with  the  roots  of  forest  trees,  affords  them  con- 
stant supply  of  the  fluid  which  to  them  is  vital.  This,  as  it  seems  to 
the  writer,  is  the  reason  why  the  knolls  and  ridges,  composed  of  coarser 
materials,  are  covered  with  trees ;  while  the  lower  levels,  with  firmer 
soil,  are  prairies.  Where  great  variation  of  level  exists,  the  high  lands 
are  frequently  covered  with  trees,  in  virtue  of  the  greater  precipitation 
of  moisture  which  they  enjoy." 

Dana  ("  Manual  of  Geology,"  1863,  p.  46),  without  going  into  details, 
announces  the  general  result,  thus :  "  That  prairies,  forest  regions, 
and  deserts,  are  located  by  the  winds  and  temperature,  in  connection 
with  the  general  configuration  of  the  land."  Cooper,  before  quoted, 
has  shown  the  geographical  distribution  of  plants ;  and  Blodget,  the 
annual  precipitation  of  rain.  But,  to  fully  explain  the  Origin  of  Prai- 
ries, requires  the  combined  observations  of  the  Meteorologist,  the 
Botanist,  and  the  Geologist. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE     ORIGIN     OF     PRAIRIES     (Continued). 

SOUTH     AMERICA PRIMEVAL      FORESTS     OF     BRAZIL  —  THE 

LLANOS  OF  CARACCAS THE  PAMPAS  OF  LA  PLATA  AND  THE 

GRAN    CHACO PATAGONIA,  ITS  DESERTS  AND  MOUNTAINS 

PERU,    AND    THE    DESERT    OF    ATACAMA WIND     AND     RAIN 

CHARTS EUROPE PLAINS   OF   THE    BLACK    SEA STEPPES 

OF  THE    CAUCASUS PLATEAU    OF   CENTRAL   ASIA DESERT 

OF    ARABIA AFRICA SAHARA GUINEA BASIN     OF    THE 

MEDITERRANEAN AUSTRALIA RESUME  EXPLANATION 

OF   MAP. 

A  THEORY,  such  as  we  have  announced,  in  order 
to  command  assent,  must  not  be  used  to  explain 
local  phenomena,  but  must  be  applicable  to  the 
explanation  of  the  physical  features  of  every  con- 
tinental mass.  Without  deviating  too  far  from  the 
scope  of  this  work,  and  avoiding  unneccessary 
details,  we  propose  to  make  such  an  application. 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

In  instituting  a  comparison  between  the  two  por- 
tions of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  we  have  not,  so 
far  as  relates  to  South  America,  a  series  of  meteo- 


112  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

rological  observations  to  guide  us;  but  we  know 
the  topographical  features  of  the  country,  and  the 
prevailing  direction  of  the  winds,  as  well  as  the 
boundaries  of  the  forests,  llanos  or  pampas,  and 
the  deserts  of  the  interior. 

The  Andes  border  the  western  coast  of  the 
Continent,  from  one  extremity  to  the  other,  rising 
up  rugged  and  rock-ribbed  into  the  region  of  per- 
petual snow,  and  leaving  on  the  Pacific  side  a  nar- 
row and  abrupt  slope  to  the  ocean,  while  on  the 
Atlantic  side  the  country  stretches  out  in  gently- 
undulating  plains.  The  mountains  are  every  where 
sufficiently  high  to  arrest  the  floating  clouds  and 
deprive  them  of  their  moisture;  and  hence,  on 
opposite  sides,  we  find  not  only  the  most  marked 
diversity  of  climate,  but  of  vegetable  forms.  * 

*  The  Andes  assume  their  most  colossal  proportions  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Titicaca  (Peru).  It  is  from  this  point,  according  to  Squier, 
("  Harper's  Magazine,"  April,  1868,)  that  the  traveler  has  a  full  view 
of  the  massive  bulk  of  Illampu,  the  crown  of  the  Continent,  the  high- 
est mountain  of  America,  rivaling  if  not  equaling  in  height  the  mon- 
archs  of  Himalaya.  "  Observers  vary  in  their  estimates  and  calcula- 
tions of  its  altitude,  from  25,000  to  27,000  feet;  my  own  estimates 
place  it  at  not  far  from  26,000.  Extending  southward  from  this,  is  an 
uninterrupted  chain  of  Nevados,  or  Snowy  Mountains,  no  where  less 
than  20.000  feet  in  height,  which  terminates  in  the  great  mountain  of 
Illamini,  24,500  feet  in  altitude." 

"No  where  in  the  world,  perhaps,"  he  continues,  "can  a  panorama 
so  diversified  and  grand  be  obtained  from  a  single  point  of  view.  The 
whole  great  table-land  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  at  its  widest  part,  with  its 
own  system  of  waters,  its  own  rivers  and  lakes,  its  own  plains  and 
mountains,  all  framed  in  by  the  ranges  of  Cordillera  and  the  Andes, 
is  presented  like  a  map  before  the  adventurous  visitor  who  climbs  the 
apacheta  of  Tiahuanaco.  Grand,  severe,  almost  sullen,  is  the  aspect 


SOUTH    AMERICA.  113 

Like  North  America,  this  continent  has  its  region 
of  luxuriant  forests,  grassy  plains,  and  inhospitable 
deserts. 

Primeval  Forests  of  Brazil. — Brazil  is  fed  by 
perpetual  currents  of  moisture,  which  are  ex- 
haled from  the  Atlantic  and  distributed  over  half 
a  continent.  A  vast  forest  region  fills  the 
connected  basins  of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon, 
extending  to  the  base  of  the  Andes,  —  a  primeval 
forest,  as  graphically  described  by  Humboldt,  so 
impenetrable  that  it  is  impossible  to  clear  with  an 
axe  a  passage  between  trees  eight  and  twelve  feet 
in  diameter  for  more  than  a  few  paces,  and  where 
the  chief  obstacle  presented  is  the  undergrowth  of 
plants,  filling  up  every  interval  in  a  zone  where  all 
vegetation  has  a  tendency  to  assume  a  ligneous 
form, —  a  region  traversed  in  all  directions  by  sys- 
tems of  rivers,  whose  tributaries  even  sometimes 
exceed  the  Wolga  or  the  Danube,  and  whose 
courses  are  the  only  highways  into  the  interior. 
This  connected  forest  has  an  extent  of  surface,  and 
a  grandeur  of  arborescent  forms,  unequaled  on  any 
other  portion  of  the  earth. 


which  nature  presents  here.  We  stand  in  the  centre  of  a  scenery  and 
a  terrestrial  system  which  seems  to  be,  in  spirit  as  well  as  in  fact,  lifted 
above  the  rest  of  the  world.  *  *  *  Clouds  surge  up  from  the  dank 
plains  and  forests  of  Brazil,  only  to  be  precipitated  and  dissolved  by 
the  snowy  barriers  which  they  can  not  pass."  , 

8 


114  SOUTH    AMERICA. 

The  Llanos  of  Caraccas. —  Bounding  this  forest- 
belt  on  the  north,  the  Llanos  stretch  from  the  lofty 
gigantic  crests  which  gird  the  Caribbean  Sea  south- 
ward to  near  the  channel  of  the  Amazon,  and  from 
the  base  of  the  Andes  east  to  the  mountains  of  La 
Parame,  constituting  a  plain  of  irregular  dimensions, 
1 80  by  200  leagues  in  extent.  It  is  thus  walled  in, 
with  a  single  outlet  through  the  valley  of  the  Ori- 
noco. The  valleys  of  Caraccas  are  fertile  beyond 
compare,  and  grow  all  of  the  tropical  fruits  so 
highly  prized  by  man;  presenting  an  abrupt  con- 
trast to  these  vast  treeless  plains.  "Fresh  from  the 
richest  luxuriance  of  organic  life,"  says  Humboldt, 
"the  traveler  treads  at  once  the  desolate  margin  of 
a  treeless  desert.  Neither  hill  nor  cliff  rises  to 
break  the  uniformity  of  the  plain.  *  *  *  The 
steppe  lies  stretched  before  us,  dead  and  rigid,  like 
the  stony  crust  of  a  desolated  planet." 

During  the  rainy  season,  these  plains  are  clothed 
with  a  rich  carpet  of  verdure ;  but  in  the  dry  season, 
every  form  of  vegetable  organism  is  withered  and 
burned,  as  if  by  an  all-consuming  fire,  and  the  very 
air  is  filled  with  particles  of  carbonized  dust. 

The  contrast  of  seasons  is  graphically  described 
by  Humboldt: 

"When,  under  the  rays  of  a  never-clouded  sun,  the  carbon- 
ized turfy  covering  falls  into  dust,  the  indurated  soil  cracks 
asunder  as  if  from  the  shock  of  an  earthquake.  *  *  The 


SOURCE    OF    MOISTURE.  1 15 

lowering  sky  sheds  a  dim,  almost  straw-colored  light  on  the 
desolate  plain.  The  horizon  draws  suddenly  nearer ;  the 
steppe  seems  to  contract,  and  with  it  the  heart  of  the  wanderer. 
The  hot  dusty  particles  which  fill  the  air,  increase  its  suffocat- 
ing heat,  and  the  east-wind,  blowing  over  the  long-heated  soil, 
brings  with  it  no  refreshment,  but  rather  a  still  more  burning 
glow.  The  pools  which  the  yellow-fading  branches  of  the  fan- 
palm  had  protected  from  evaporation,  now  gradually  disappear. 
As  in  the  icy  north  the  animals  become  torpid  with  cold,  so 
here,  under  the  influence  of  the  parching  drought,  the  croco- 
dile and  the  boa  become  motionless  and  fall  asleep,  deeply- 
buried  in  the  dry  mud.  Every  where  the  death-threatening 
drought  prevails ;  and  yet,  by  the  play  of  the  refracted  rays  of 
light,  producing  the  phenomenon  of  mirage,  the  thirsty  trav- 
eler is  every  where  pursued  by  the  illusive  image  of  a  cool, 
rippling,  watery  mirror.  *  *  *  At  length,  after  the  long 
drought,  the  welcome  season  of  rain  arrives ;  and  then  how 
suddenly  is  the  scene  changed  !  The  deep  blue  of  the  hitherto 
perpetually  cloudless  sky  becomes  lighter ;  at  night,  the  dark 
space  in  the  constellation  of  the  Southern  Cross  is  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable ;  the  soft  phosphorescent  light  of  the  Magellanic 
clouds  fades  away  ;  even  the  stars  in  Aquila  and  Ophiucus,  in 
the  zenith,  shine  with  a  trembling  and  less  planetary  light.  A 
single  cloud  appears  in  the  south,  like  a  distant  mountain  rising 
perpendicularly  from  the  horizon.  Gradually  the  increasing 
vapors  spread  like  mist  over  the  sky,  and  now  the  distant  thun- 
der ushers  in  the  life-restoring  rain.  Hardly  has  the  earth 
received  the  refreshing  moisture,  before  the  previously  barren 
steppe  begins  to  exhale  sweet  odors,  and  to  clothe  itself  with  a 
variety  of  grasses.  *  *  *  Sometimes  (so  the  Aborigines 
relate)  on  the  margin  of  the  swamps,  the  moistened  clay  is 
said  to  blister  and  rise  slowly  in  a  kind  of  mound ;  then,  with 
a  violent  noise,  like  the  outbreak  of  a  small  mud  volcano,  the 
heaped-up  earth  is  cast  high  in  the  air.  The  beholder  acquainted 
with  the  meaning  of  this  spectacle,  flies ;  for  he  knows  there 
will  issue  forth  a  gigantic  water-snake  or  scaly  crocodile, 
awakened  from  a  torpid  state  by  the  first  fall  of  rain.  *  *  * 
A  portion  of  the  steppe  now  presents  the  aspect  of  an  inland 


Il6  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

sea  ;  and  now  nature  constrains  the  same  animals  who  in  the 
first  half  of  the  year  panted  with  thirst  on  the  dry  and  dusty 
soil,  to  adopt  the  amphibious  life.  *  *  Such  a  sight  reminds 
the  thoughtful  observer  involuntarily  of  the  capability  of  con- 
forming to  the  most  varied  circumstances,  with  which  the  all- 
providing  Author  of  Nature  has  endowed  certain  animals  and 
plants."  * 

Such  a  region  could  never  tempt  the  natives  to 
leave  the  beautiful  cacao  groves  of  Caraccas,  but 
since  it  has  been  open  to  European  occupancy,  vast 
herds  of  cattle  here  find  pasturage. 

The  Pampas  of  La  Plata. —  In  the  northern 
portion  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  there  is  an  im- 
mense tract  of  country  known  as  the  Gran  Chaco, 
occupying  a  triangle  between  the  rivers  Paraguay 
and  Solado,  and  reaching  north  to  Bolivia, —  an 
area  of  more  than  100,000  miles  square.  It  is  of 
variable  fertility.  The  northern  part  is  forest- 
clothed,  but  the  southern  part  is  arid,  sandy,  and 
uninhabitable.  West  of  the  Vermejo,  is  the  great 
desert  of  Salinas,  covered  for  the  most  part  with 
mineral  efflorescences  which  sparkle  like  dew- 
drops  in  the  sun. 

The  Pampas,  from  the  Indian  name  valley,  are 
immense  plains  which  commence  as  high  as  lati- 
tude 33°,  and  extend  over  the  whole  country,  grad- 
uating into  the  stern  deserts  of  Patagonia,  and  their 

*  Humboldt,   "Aspects  of  Nature."    Title,   "  Steppes  and  Deserts." 


THE    PAMPAS    OF    LA    PLATA.  II'J 

area  is  not  less  than  300,000  square  miles.  In  the 
main,  they  are  fertile,  being  dotted  with  numerous 
lakes  of  a  brackish  character  j  but  the  wells  afford 
palatable  water. 

Proceeding  inland  from  Buenos  Ayres,  the  char- 
acter of  the  country  undergoes  marked  changes. 
For  the  first  two  hundred  miles,  the  surface  is  cov- 
ered with  clover  and  thistles,  which  grow  in  alter- 
nate crops,  conforming  to  the  seasons.  The  suc- 
ceeding belt,  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles  broad,  is 
clothed  with  grass  alternately  brown  and  green,  as 
spring  or  autumn  prevails;  and  to  this  succeeds  the 
wooded  region,  consisting  of  scrubby  trees  and 
shrubs,  which  stretches  to  the  base  of  the  Cordil- 
leras. The  tre"es,  mostly  evergreens,  do  not  form 
tangled  thickets,  but  are  grouped  in  a  park-like 
arrangement.  "  The  whole  country,"  according  to 
Head,  "  is  in  such  beautiful  order  that,  if  citizens 
and  millions  of  inhabitants  could  suddenly  be 
planted  at  proper  intervals  and  situations,  the  peo- 
ple would  have  nothing  to  do  but  drive  their  cattle 
to  graze,  and,  without  any  previous  preparation,  to 
plough  whatever  quantity  of  ground  their  wants 
may  require."  * 

In  the  region  of  grass  and  wood,  the  climate  is 
exceedingly  dry:  there  is  no  dew  at  night;  in  the 
hottest  weather,  the  most  violent  exertions  of  mail 

*  Sir  Francis  Head's   "Journey  over  the  Pampas." 


Il8  ORIGIN    OF    THE    PRAIRIES. 

produce  very  little  perspiration;  and  the  animals 
which  die,  lie  upon  the  plain  dried  up  in  their 
skins. 

Patagonia.  —  The  southern  extremity  of  the 
Continent,  on  the  western  coast,  is  girt  with  a  range 
of  mountains,  reaching  high  into  the  air;  while  the 
eastern  coast,  so  far  as  known,  is  arranged  in  stair- 
like  terraces,  which  sustain  a  coarse,  wiry  grass, 
with  belts  of  stunted  trees  along  the  water-courses. 
The  plain,  or  interior  region,  is  one  of  unmitigated 
sterility;  but  that  which  borders  the  Pacific,  is  sur- 
feited with  rain.  Twelve  feet  have  been  known  to 
fall  within  forty  days;  and  navigators  report  that, 
off  the  coast,  pools  of  fresh  water  have  been  found 
floating  above  the  briny  waters  of  the  ocean,  so 
pure  that  it  may  be  scooped  up  for  the  use  of  the 
vessel's  crew. 

Peru. —  Although  this  region  occupies  the  same 
relation  to  the  Pacific  Coast  as  the  western  border 
of  Patagonia,  yet  it  presents  an  abrupt  contrast  in 
climate.  Rains  are  unknown,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  occasional  fogs,  called  garua,  the  inhabitants 
enjoy  a  perpetual  serenity  of  sky.  So  constant  is 
this  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  that  those  ordinary 
forms  of  civility  which,  in  the  northern  temperate 
zone,  usually  succeed  an  introduction,  and  are  the 


DESERT    OF    ATACAMA.  119 

prelude  to  more  intimate  relations,  such  as  "A  fine 
day!"  or  "A  prospect  of  a  shower!"  are  here  obso- 
lete terms.  Ridiculous  as  this  custom,  abstractly 
considered,  may  seem,  it  after  all  paves  the  way  to 
more  confidential  relations;  it  is  the  bridge  which 
spans  an  otherwise  almost  impassable  gulf.  In  the 
mountainous  regions,  rains  occasionally  fall,  when 
the  sands  at  once  attest  the  quickening  power  of 
nature,  and  become  clothed  with  peculiar  forms  of 


vegetation. 


Between  the  parallels  21°  30'  and  25°  30'  S.,  lies 
the  desert  of  Atacama.  Towards  the  north,  there 
are  some  fertile  spots,  but  to  the  south  it  is  not  only 
uninhabited,  but  uninhabitable.  The  surface  is 
covered  with  dark  movable  sands;  the  air  is  dry; 
no  refreshing  dews  descend  at  night;  no  clouds 
discharge  refreshing  showers  by  day;  but,  from  the 
abundant  presence  of  salt,  the  surface  glistens  in 
the  clear  sunlight,  as  though  studded  with  a  floor 
of  diamonds. 

Such  are  some  of  the  physical  features  of  South 
America,  —  luxuriant  forms  of  vegetable  life,  far- 
stretching  plains  robed  in  grasses,  deserts  of  drifting 
sands,  or  covered  with  saline  incrustations,  and 
mountains  shooting  far  up  into  the  regions  of  per- 
petual snow. 

We  find  a  solution  of  these  phenomena  in  the 
variable  supply  of  moisture.  The  effect  of  the 


120  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

Andes  in  condensing  the  vapors,  come  from  what 
quarter  they  may,  has  been  adverted  to.  Hence, 
while  there  is  a  wet  and  dry  side  throughout  their 
entire  range,  the  conditions  are  not  constant,  as  seen 
in  the  contrast  between  Patagonia  and  Peru,  for  the 
reason  that  the  winds  which  supply  the  moisture 
are  not  constant. 

WIND  AND  RAIN  CHARTS. 

If  we  examine  the  Map  (Plate  I.),  we  shall  find 
that  the  climatic  centre  of  the  earth — the  Zone  of 
Variable  Winds  and  Calms,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  Zone  of  Constant  Precipitation  —  lies  about  6° 
north  of  the  Equator.  This  belt  is  not  stationary,  but 
advances  and  recedes  with  the  sun,  over  a  space  of 
about  a  thousand  miles,  carrying  with  it  its  attend- 
ant rains,  winds,  and  calms,  and  giving  origin  in  the 
tropics  to  a  well-defined  wet  and  dry  season. 

North  of  this  belt,  about  28°  in  width,  is  the  Zone 
of  the  Northeast-Trades,  and  south  of  it  that  of  the 
Southeast-Trades.  On  the  north  next  succeeding, 
we  have  the  Calm  Belt  of  Cancer,  and  on  the  south 
the  Calm  Belt  of  Capricorn.  North  of  Cancer  is 
the  Region  of  Southwest  Winds,  and  south  of  Cap- 
ricorn the  Region  of  Northwest  Winds.  In  the  calm 
belts,  the  under-currents  proceeding  from  the  Poles 
meet  the  downward  returning  currents  from  the 


SOURCES    OF    MOISTURE.  121 

Equator,  in  which  the  latter  prevail;  so  that,  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  we  have  two  sets  of  aerial 
currents  blowing  in  opposite  directions,  southwest 
and  northeast;  and  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere, 
northwest  and  southeast,  with  a  belt  of  Variable 
Winds  at  or  near  the  Equator. 

Applying  this  system  of  winds  and  rains  to  the 
physical  features  of  South  America,  as  modifying 
the  direction  of  the  currents  and  the  distribution 
of  moisture,  we  find  that  the  Llanos  are  situated  in 
the  Belt  of  Variable  Winds,  and  are,  therefore, 
subject  to  a  wet  and  dry  season.  Walled  in  as 
they  are  on  nearly  every  side  by  lofty  mountains, 
which  exclude  the  local  moisture  of  the  ocean, 
with  heated  columns  of  air  rising  from  the  glowing 
surface,  to  dissipate  each  forming  cloud,  —  giving 
origin  to  droughts  so  protracted  as  to  burn  up  every 
form  of  vegetation  and  cause  the  particles  to  fill  the 
air  with  carbonized  dust,  —  succeeded  by  inunda- 
tions so  copious  as  to  convert  vast  tracts  into  inland 
seas; — these  would  be  conditions  highly  unfavora- 
ble to  the  growth  of  trees,  while  they  would  not  be 
unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  grasses.  It  is,  then, 
to  the  unequal  distribution  of  moisture  that  we  are 
to  attribute  the  origin  of  the  Llanos. 

Brazil,  on  the  other  hand,  lies  between  the  Equa- 
torial Belt  and  the  Belt  of  Capricorn;  while  Peru 
occupies  the  same  position  to  the  west,  but  sepa- 


122  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

rated  by  the  culminating  peaks  of  the  Andes,  not 
less  than  24,000  feet  high.  In  the  one  region,  as 
we  have  seen,  there  is  an  unequaled  forest-growth, 
and  in  the  other  nothing  can  be  grown  except  by 
artificial  irrigation. 

Whence  proceeds  this  diversity?  The  Southeast 
Trades,  laden  with  moisture  perpetually  distilled, 
strike  the  Atlantic  Coast,  and,  as  they  sweep  over 
the  Continent,  make  a  perpetual  deposit;  until, 
reaching  the  snow-capped  Andes,  they  are  wrung 
of  their  remaining  moisture,  and  pass  over  to  the 
Pacific  as  dry  winds.  Hence,  then,  as  these  winds 
blow  constantly,  the  constant  serenity  of  the  Peru- 
vian skies;  and  hence,  too,  the  nearly  unvarying 
flood  which  the  Amazon,  without  a  shoal  or  a  rapid 
between  its  mouth  and  the  base  of  the  Andes,  pours 
into  the  ocean. 

Below  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  the  prevailing 
winds  become  northwest,  which  have  a  long  sea- 
ward sweep  before  striking  the  shore.  The  high 
and  abrupt  coast,  aided  by  the  low  temperature,  at 
once  arrests  and  deprives  them  of  moisture;  and 
hence  the  western  coast  of  Patagonia  is  among  the 
most  profusely-watered  portions  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, while  the  opposite  slope  is  in  an  almost  rain- 
less region. 

La  Plata  occupies  an  intermediate  position 
between  the  luxuriant  forest-growth  of  Brazil  and 


EUROPE.  123 

the  barren  steppes  of  Patagonia;  and  as  nature,  like 
a  skillful  painter,  always  blends  and  harmonizes 
her  lines,  we  should  not  look  for  abrupt  transitions. 
The  northern  portion  is  in  the  Movable  Belt  of  Cap- 
ricorn, where  the  conflict  takes  place  between  the 
under-currents  of  the  Southern  Pole  and  the  upper 
descending  currents  from  the  Equator,  and  is  the 
best-watered;  while  the  southern  portion  is  in  the 
Belt  of  Northwest  Currents,  which  are  dry  off-shore 
breezes,  and  hence  there  is  a  deficiency  of  moisture. 
There  is  a  local  monsoon,  too,  along  the  coast, 
whose  effects  in  distributing  moisture  do  not  extend 
far  inland. 

Combining,  therefore,  in  one  view,  the  varying 
distribution  of  moisture,  as  influenced  by  the  pre- 
vailing winds,  we  find  the  dense  forest,  where  it  is 
constant  and  abundant,  as  in  Brazil;  the  pampas 
and  llanos,  where  it  is  deficient  or  unequally  dis- 
tributed, as  in  Venezuela  and  La  Plata;  and  the 
inhospitable  desert,  where  it  is  nearly  withheld,  as 
in  Patagonia  and  Peru. 

EUROPE. 

The  great  Southwestern  aerial  Current,  described 
in  the  previous  Chapter,  as  it  leaves  the  coast  of 
the  United  States,  is  dry;  but  in  its  passage  across 
the  Atlantic,  it  imbibes  the  warmth  and  moisture 


124  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  it  exhales  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Europe.  It  is  to  the  warmth  and 
moisture  thus  communicated,  that  Ireland  owes 
her  rich  pasturage,  verdant  in  all  vicissitudes  of 
the  seasons;  that  England  has  a  precarious  wheat- 
harvest,  and  that  the  Atlantic  Coast  of  United  States 
exhibits  a  depression  equal  to  11°  of  temperature. 
As  these  winds  penetrate  interiorly,  they  gradually 
part  with  their  moisture,  and  the  climate  assumes  a 
more  continental  character.  To  the  forest-growth, 
succeed  grassy  steppes;  then,  plains  covered  with 
saline  efflorescences;  and  finally,  as  in  the  United 
States  and  in  South  America,  inhospitable  deserts. 

Starting  eastward  from  the  German  Ocean, 
between  the  parallels  52°  and  53°,  the  traveler 
may  advance  to  the  river  Lena,  without  having 
passed  a  mountain-range  higher  than  2,000  feet; 
thus  traversing  130°  of  longitude,  or  more  than 
one-third  part  of  the  curvature  of  the  earth. 

Western  Russia,  in  the  Temperate  Zone,  is  cov- 
ered almost  entirely  with  a  dense  forest,  —  so  dense 
that  it  has  been  said  a  squirrel  might  travel  on  the 
tree-tops  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Moscow,  without 
touching  the  ground.  Leaving  this  forest-region 
and  penetrating  still  further  into  the  interior,  vast 
steppes  succeed,  which  graduate  into  inhospitable 
wastes. 


PLAINS    OF    THE    BLACK    SEA.  125 

Plains  of  the  Black  Sea. — These  plains  have 
been  celebrated  from  the  earliest  historical  period, 
for  their  productiveness  in  human  food;  and  the 
nations  of  the  Mediterranean,  before  the  Christian 
Era,  as  they  now  do,  drew  large  supplies  from  this 
source. 

Herodotus,  the  Father  of  History,  has  described 
this  region  as  possessing  the  same  features  which 
we  now  behold.  "  Across  the  Borysthenes  (the 
Don),  the  first  country  after  you  leave  the  coast  is 
Hylea  (Woodland).  Above  this,  dwell  the  Scythian 
Husbandmen.  *  *  Crossing  the  Panticapes  and 
proceeding  eastward  of  the  Husbandmen,  we  come 
upon  the  wandering  Scythians,  who  neither  plough 
nor  sow.  Their  country,  and  the  whole  of  this 
region  except  Hylea,  is  quite  bare  of  trees."  * 

General  Turchin,  of  Chicago,  whose  early  life 
was  passed  in  this  region,  has  furnished  me  with 
an  elaborate  paper  upon  its  soil  and  climate,  an 
abstract  of  which  I  shall  embody  here.  Between 
these  plains  and  the  prairies  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, there  is  a  marked  similarity  in  soil  and  climate, 
confirmed  by  the  observations  of  one  familiar  with 
both  regions. 

Starting  at  Lublin,  Poland,  about  latitude  51°, 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  wheat-region,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  the  southern  boundary  of  the  forest, 

*  Herodotus,  Book  IV. 


126  ORIGIN   OF   THE    PRAIRIES. 

the  dividing  line  runs  north  of  east  to  Penza,  com- 
prehending the  whole  eastern  portion  of  Russia, 
and  thence  is  produced  along  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  Siberia.  The  whole  area  of  the  wheat- 
growing  region  is  not  less  than  500,000  square 
miles;  from  which,  deducting  the  area  of  timber, 
and  the  salt  and  sandy  steppes,  we  have  375,000 
square  miles.  These  steppes  may  be  thus  classi- 
fied: 

1 .  Those  of  a  rotting  character,  'well  supplied  'with  Tim- 
ber, Springs,  and  Streams. 

2.  Those  partly-rolling,  'with  scarcely  any   Timber,   but 
possessing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  Streams. 

3.  The  level  Steppes,  intermixed  tvith  those  of  a  Salt  and 
Sandy  character,  'with  no  Timber  and  few  Streams. 

i.  The  first  class  of  steppes  comprehends  the 
region  lying  north  of  the  Caucasus  Range.  These 
steppes,  particularly  those  of  the  Ukraine,  are 
extremely  beautiful,  and,  where  not  cultivated,  are 
clothed  with  grasses  and  wild  flowers;  while  the 
streams,  which  are  numerous,  are  bordered  with 
trees.  The  soil  is  very  rich — humus  and  clay, — 
well  supplied  with  different  salts,  such  as  potash, 
magnesia,  lime,  nitre,  etc.,  which,  pulverized  and 
intermixed,  give  it  a  brownish-yellow  color;  but, 
in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  region,  it  is  dark- 
brown.  Almost  all  of  the  nitre  of  Russia  is  manu- 
factured in  the  Ukraine.  The  Coal-Measures  in 


PLAINS    OF    THE   BLACK    SEA.  127 

many  cases  constitute  the  underlying  rock,  and 
yield  an  excellent  quality  of  coal.  These  are  best 
developed  along  the  north  line  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  soil  of  the  Caucasus  is  extremely  rich,  and  the 
timber  attains  an  uncommon  size,  particularly  the 
walnut  and  tchinor,  the  latter  strongly  resembling 
the  cotton-wood  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

2.  The  second-class  steppes  include  the  southern 
part  of  Bessarabia,  the  province  of  Kherson,  and 
the  peninsula  of  Crimea.     The   soil  is  a  very  rich 
black  mould,  produces  every  variety  of  grain,  and 
very  much  resembles  the  black  prairie-soil  of  Illi- 
nois.    Its   composition   does    not   materially  differ 
from  that  of  the  first  class,  except  that  it  contains 
more  humus.     These  steppes  differ  from  the  prai- 
ries in  being  dryer,  in  having  sloughs  only  near  the 
streams,  in  furnishing  grass  of  a  finer  texture,  and 
presenting  a  surface   almost  bare   of  trees.     The 
traveler  may  journey  for  hundreds  of  miles  without 
meeting  with  a  belt  or  grove,  or  seeing  aught  but 
the  green  waves  of  the  grassy  steppes  spread  around 
him  like  a  vast  sea,  and  melting  away  imperceptibly 
into  the  distant  horizon. 

3.  The  third  class  of  steppes  comprises  the  coun- 
try extending  along  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  the 
Sea  of  Azov,  the  interior  of  the  Crimea,  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  country  between  the  Black  and  Cas- 
pian Seas,  and  the  vast  region  on  the  left  bank  of 


128  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

the  Wolga.  These  steppes  are  level,  treeless,  with 
few  streams,  but  contain  numerous  salt  and  sandy 
patches.  In  the  province  of  Sartov,  there  is  a  salt 
lake  from  which  are  annually  extracted  vast  quanti- 
ties of  this  material. 

Thus  far  have  I  extracted  from  General  Turchin's 
MS.  In  examining  the  Rain-Charts  of  this  region, 
we  find  that  the  same  law  prevails  as  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley;  that  is,  instead  of  the  precipitation 
being  distributed  nearly  equally  over  the  four  sea- 
sons, the  spring  and  summer  rains  are  greatly  in 
excess. 

In  explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  this  region, 
it  may  be  remarked  that  the  Caucasus  Range  occu- 
pies the  country  between  the  Black  and  Caspian 
Seas  (a  distance  of  700  miles),  the  highest  peaks 
penetrating  the  snow  line,  and  one  peak  (Elbrouz, 
17,785  feet,)  rising  2,000  feet  higher  than  Mount 
Blanc  (15,744  feet).  A  portion  of  the  moisture 
borne  by  the  Southwest  Trades  against  these  sum- 
mits, is  condensed;  and  here  a  precipitation  takes 
place,  amounting  to  60  inches,  which  is  far  in 
excess  of  what  falls  on  the  steppes.  On  the  first 
and  second-class  steppes,  the  rain-fall  is  from  35  to 
20  inches;  on  the  third  class,  15  inches;  in  the 
salt-region  of  the  Caspian,  10  inches.* 

*  Compare  these  figures  with  those  of  the  United  States  :  Greatest 
precipitation  along  the  Gulf  Coast  (densely  wooded),  63  inches;  prai- 
ries of  Iowa  and  Wisconsin,  35  inches ;  plains  at  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  15  inches;  and  in  the  Great  Basin,  10  inches. 


HIMALAYA    RANGE.  129 

PLATEAU  OF  CENTRAL  ASIA. 

The  Caspian  region  is  but  an  outlier  of  the  Great 
Asiatic  Plateau,  the  vastest,  if  not  the  most  elevated, 
according  to  Humboldt,  on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 
Instead  of  drifting  sands,  the  Asiatic  steppes,  like 
the  Great  Basin,  are  crossed  by  ranges  of  hills 
clothed  with  coniferous  woods.  There  are,  too, 
grassy  plains;  other  parts  are  covered  with  succu- 
lent evergreen  plants;  and  "  other  parts,"  quoting 
from  Humboldt,  "  glisten  from  a  distance  with 
flakes  of  exuded  salt,  which  cover  the  clayey  soil, 
not  unlike  in  appearance  to  fresh-fallen  snow."  Of 
this  character  is  the  great  desert  of  Gobi,  walled 
in  on  the  north  by  .the  Altai  Range,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Kuen-lun.  Nor  are  these  steppes 
uninhabitable.  Tartars  and  Mongolians,  swarming 
forth  from  their  desert  retreats,  have  at  different 
times  exercised  the  most  direct  influence  on  the 
destinies  of  mankind. 

Thus  situated  in  the  interior  of  a  Continent,  in 
the  lee  of  the  monsoons  which  sweep  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  sheltered  by  the  loftiest  mountains  of 
the  world,  it  is  to  be  inferred,  in  the  absence  even 
of  precise  meteorological  statistics,  that  this  Great 
Plateau  would  present  varying  aspects  of  sterility. 
The  southern  slope  of  the  Himalaya  is  intersected 
by  deep-entering  bays,  like  the  Arabian  Sea  and 
9 


130  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

the  Bay  of  Bengal,  which  give  it  a  peninsular  char- 
acter. The  southwest  monsoons  blow  from  April 
to  October,  and  the  northeast  monsoons  the  other 
half  of  the  year,  and  both  expend  their  moisture 
upon  the  southern  slope  of  the  great  mountain  bar- 
rier. The  rain-fall  here  reaches  200  inches  a  year; 
and  thus  it  is  we  have  another  illustration  of  the 
physical  fact  of  a  rainless  district  on  one  side  of  a 
great  mountain  chain,  and  a  district  on  the  other 
most  abundantly  watered. 

Arabian  Desert. — The  desert  of  Arabia  maybe 
considered  as  an  extension  of  that  system  of  arid 
wastes  which  finds  its  full  development  in  the 
Sahara  of  Africa. 

An  historian  versed  in  philosophy,  while  yet  the 
laws  of  climatology  were  not  understood,  has  thus 
graphically  described  that  inhospitable  region: 

"It  is  a  boundless  waste  of  sand,  intersected  by  sharp  and 
naked  mountains  ;  and  the  face  of  the  desert,  without  shade  or 
shelter,  is  scorched  by  the  direct  and  intense  rays  of  the  tropi- 
cal sun.  Instead  of  refreshing  breezes,  the  winds,  particularly 
from  the  southwest,  diffuse  a  noxious  and  even  deadly  vapor ; 
the  hillocks  of  sand  which  they  alternately  diffuse  and  scatter, 
are  compared  to  the  billows  of  the  ocean,  and  whole  caravans, 
whole  armies,  have  been  lost  and  buried  in  the  whirlwind. 
The  common  benefits  of  water  are  an  object  of  desire  and  con- 
test ;  and  such  is  the  scarcity  of  wood,  that  some  art  is  requisite 
to  preserve  and  propagate  the  element  of  fire. 

"  Arabia  is  destitute  of  navigable  rivers,  which  fertilize  the 
soil,  and  convey  its  products  to  adjacent  regions.  The  torrents 


AFRICA.  131 

that  fall  from  the  hills  are  imbibed  by  the  thirsty  earth  ;  the 
rare  and  hardy  plants,  the  tamarind  or  the  acacia,  that  strike 
their  roots  into  the  clefts  of  the  rocks,  are  nourished  by  the 
dews  of  the  night ;  a  scanty  supply  of  rain  is  collected  in  cis- 
terns and  aqueducts ;  the  wells  and  springs  are  the  secret 
treasures  of  the  desert ;  and  the  pilgrim  of  Mecca,  after  many 
a  dry  and  sultry  march,  is  disgusted  with  the  taste  of  the  waters 
which  have  rolled  over  a  bed  of  sulphur  or  salt.  Such  is  the 
general  and  genuine  picture  of  the  climate  of  Arabia.  The 
experience  of  evil  enhances  the  value  of  any  local  or  partial 
enjoyments.  A  shady  grove,  a  green  pasture,  a  stream  of 
fresh  water,  are  sufficient  to  attach  a  colony  of  sedentary  Arabs 
to  the  fortunate  spot  which  can  afford  food  and  refreshment  to 
themselves  or  their  cattle,  and  which  encourage  their  industry 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  palm-tree  or  the  vine. 

"  The  high  lands  that  border  the  Indian  Ocean  are  distin- 
guished by  their  superior  plenty  of  wood  and  water ;  the  air  is 
more  temperate,  the  fruits  are  more  delicious,  the  animals  and 
the  human  race  more  numerous ;  the  fertility  of  the  soil  invites 
and  rewards  the  toil  of  the  husbandman  ;  and  the  peculiar  gifts 
of  frankincense  and  coffee  have  attracted,  in  different  ages,  the 
merchants  of  the  world.  If  it  be  compared  with  the  rest  of 
the  peninsula,  this  sequestered  region  may  truly  deserve  the 
appellation  of  HAPPY  ;  and  the  splendid  coloring  of  fancy  and 
fiction  has  been  suggested  by  contrast,  and  countenanced  by 
distance.  It  was  for  this  earthly  paradise,  that  nature  had 
reserved  her  choicest  favors  and  her  most  curious  workman- 
ship." * 


AFRICA. 

A  grander  and  a  more  desolate  aspect  character- 
izes the  plains  of  Africa.  "  They  are,"  says  Hum- 
boldt,  "  parts  of  a  sea  of  sand  which,  stretching 

*  Gibbon,  "  Decline  and  Fall,"  Ch.  L. 


132  THE    ORIGIN   OF    PRAIRIES. 

eastward,  separate  fruitful  regions  from  each  other, 
or  encloses  them  like  islands.  Neither  dews,  nor 
rains,  bathe  these  desolate  plains,  or  develop  on 
their  glowing  surface  the  germs  of  vegetable  life; 
for  heated  columns  of  air,  every  where  ascending, 
dissolve  the  vapors,  and  disperse  each  swiftly- 
vanishing  cloud."  * 

And  yet  these  plains  do  not  present  one  wide 
waste  of  desolation.  They  have  their  oases,  which 
are  habitable  by  man;  — 

"  The  tufted  isles 
That  verdant  rise  amid  the  Libyan  wild." 

They  have  their  fountains,  shaded  by  the  palm, 
where  the  weary  traveler  may  slake  his  thirst. 

Approaching  the  Great  Sahara  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean or  the  Red  Sea,  we  view  it  where  it  puts  on 
its  sternest  features.  The  extreme  northwestern 
portion  of  the  Continent,  lying  in  the  Zone  of 
Southwest  Winds,  has  a  strip  of  cultivable  land; 
while  the  Nile,  by  its  annual  inundations,  maintains 
a  green  thread  of  vegetation  through  a  region  of 
desolate  sands. 

There  is  no  region  of  the  earth  where  the  condi- 
tions of  climate  are  more  constant  than  those  which 
embrace  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  When  the  Dog- 
Star  rises,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Lower  Valley  look 

*  "Aspects  of  Nature,"  Title,  "  Steppes  and  Deserts." 


INUNDATION    OF    THE    NILE.  133 

for  a  swelling  of  the  river.  If  the  Nilometer  which 
measures  the  height  of  the  flood,  indicates  but  eight 
cubits,  the  crops  will  be  scanty;  but  if  it  reaches 
fourteen  cubits,  they  will  be  abundant. 

"Where  the  Nile,"  says  Draper,  "breaks  through  the  moun- 
tain gate  at  Essouan,  it  is  observed  that  its  waters  begin  to  rise 
about  the  end  of  the  month  of  May,  and  in  eight  or  nine  weeks 
the  inundation  is  at  its  height.  The  flood  in  the  river  is  due 
to  the  great  rains  which  have  fallen  in  the  mountainous  coun- 
tries among  which  the  Nile  takes  its  rise,  and  which  have  been 
precipitated  by  the  trade-winds  that  blow,  except  where  dis- 
turbed by  the  monsoons,  over  the  vast  expanse  of  the  tropical 
Indian  Ocean.  Thus  dried,  the  East- Wind  pursues  its  solemn 
course  over  the  solitudes  of  Central  Africa,  a  cloudless  and  a 
rainless  wind,  its  track  marked  by  desolation  and  deserts.  At 
first  the  river  becomes  red,  and  then  green,  because  the  flood 
of  its  great  Abyssinian  branch,  the  Blue  Nile,  arrives  first ; 
but  soon  after,  the  White  Nile  makes  its  appearance,  and  from 
the  overflowing  banks,  not  only  water,  but  a  rich  and  fertiliz- 
ing mud,  is  discharged."  * 

"  Those  portions  of  the  Great  Desert  accessible 
from  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Nile,  are  wholly 
within  the  Belt  of  Northeast  Winds,  which,  in 
their  passage  over  other  lands,  have  been  wrung 
of  all  their  moisture;  and  hence,  as  observed  by 
Marsh,f  the  present  general  drift  of  the  sands 
appears  to  be  to  the  southwest  and  west. 

The  coast  of  Guinea,  the   strike  side,  is   in  the 
Zone  of  Periodical  Rains,  and  is  most  profusely 

*  "  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe." 
f  "  Man  and  Nature." 


134  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

watered.  In  1838,  during  three  months,  at  Sierra 
Leone,  the  prodigious  quantity  of  314  inches  of  rain 
fell;  and  in  two  days,  nearly  20  inches,  an  amount 
equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  annual  precipitation  in  the 
British  Isles.  The  rainy  season  lasts  from  May  to 
November,  and  is  ushered  in  and  carried  off  by 
tornadoes.  To  the  inhabitants,  it  is  a  period  of 
gloom  and  apprehension.  The  hills  are  wrapped 
in  impenetrable  fogs,  and  the  rains  fall  in  such  tor- 
rents that  all  out-door  exercises  are  suspended.  It 
is  the  period,  too,  of  fevers  and  malarious  diseases. 

Vast  and  impenetrable  forests  stretch  into  the 
interior,  which  afford  teak  and  cam- wood.  A  range 
of  mountains,  whether  mythical  or  real  I  know  not, 
is  laid  down  by  most  geographers  as  reaching 
from  the  coast  eastward  into  the  interior,  which 
should  serve  as  a  wall  to  arrest  the  vapor-bearing 
currents  and  prevent  their  flow  into  the  region  of 
the  Great  Desert. 

In  the  absence  of  positive  information,  then,  we 
would  presuppose  that  a  section  extended  from  the 
Coast  of  Guinea  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  would 
exhibit  somewhat  the  following  features:  A  lux- 
uriant growth  of  arborescent  vegetation  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast,  developed  under  tropical  heats  and 
oceanic  moisture;  alternations  of  grove  and  grass; 
and  last,  wild  wastes  of  drifting  sands.  A  theory 
which  supposes  that  these  arid  wastes  originated  in 


AUSTRALIA.  135 

and  are  maintained  by  the  circulation  of  an  atmos- 
phere previously  robbed  of  all  moisture,  is  just  as 
plausible  and  tenable  as  one  which  presupposes 
that  these  sands  are  but  a  portion  of  an  elevated 
ocean-bed,  from  whose  glowing  surface  arise  heated 
currents  of  air,  which  dissolve  every  vapor-bearing 
cloud.  It  is  simply  a  question  whether  we  have 
not  confounded  cause  with  effect. 

The  strip  of  cultivable  land  bordering  the  Medi- 
terranean, including  Morocco  and  Algeria,  is  in 
the  Region  of  the  Southwest  Currents,  and  affords 
man}7  fruitful  valleys.  It  is  shut  off  from  the  desert 
by  the  stupendous  chain  of  the  High  Atlas,  whose 
range  is  east  and  west.  In  the  basin  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, evaporation  is  far  in  excess  of  precipitation, 
and  hence  there  is  a  constantly-flowing  current 
from  the  Atlantic,  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 
to  supply  the  vacuum  thus  created. 

AUSTRALIA. 

Australia  has  been  characterized  as  "  a  land  of 
anomalies," — where  the  fishes,  in  some  instances 
at  least,  approach  in  structure  those  of  the  Old 
Red  Sandstone  epoch;  where  the  birds,  recently 
extinct,  were  furnished  with  wings  simply  to  ena- 
ble them  to  run;  where  we  find  mammalia  that  do 
not  suckle  their  young;  where  reptiles  are  warm- 


136  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

blooded;  where  animals  bring  forth  a  few  days 
after  conception — the  foeti  being  without  limbs  or 
external  organs;  and  where  other  animals  whose 
fore-legs  are  nearly  useless  for  locomotion,  accom- 
plish this  operation  by  employing  their  hind-legs 
and  tail;  and  finally,  wher'e  there  is  a  paradoxical 
animal,  with  the  bill  and  feet  of  a  duck,  the  body 
of  a  mole,  and  the  general  structure  of  a  reptile. 
The  vegetation  is  equally  strange,  where  the 
margin  of  the  leaves,  and  not  the  surface,  as  in 
other  lands,  is  upturned  to  the  sun. 

The  physical  features  of  the  country  are  no  less 
strange, — a  Continent  without  rivers,  and  where 
fertility  is  confined  to  the  summits  of  considerable 
hills.  Surrounded  by  the  ocean,  yet  its  interior  is 
an  arid  waste.  While  subject  in  some  degree  to  a 
wet  and  dry  season,  there  are  cycles  of  ten  or  twelve 
years  of  unmitigated  drought,  during  which  no  rain 
falls;  close  upon  which,  is  a  year  of  floods.  The 
floods  of  the  coast  are  simultaneous  with  drought 
in  the  interior,  and  vice  versa. 

Australia  lies  partly  within  the  influence  of  the 
Southeast  Trades,  and  partly  within  that  of  the 
Northwest  Currents;  while  the  northern  portion  is 
swept  by  the  Periodical  Monsoons.  The  highest 
mountains  are  on  the  Pacific  side,  and  hence  pre- 
vent the  passage  of  the  Northwest  Currents  into 
the  interior.  According  to  Dana,  the  Australian 


RESUME.  137 

Alps,  which  face  the  southwest  shores,  have  peaks 
5,000  to  6,500  feet  in  height,  which  are  continued 
northward  in  the  Blue  Mountains,  whose  general 
elevation  is  3,000  to  4,000  feet,  with  some  more 
elevated  summits,  and  beyond  these,  in  ridges 
under  other  names,  —  the  whole  range  being 
between  2,000  and  6,000  feet  in  elevation.  The 
elevated  grounds  to  the  east  perform  the  same 
office,  and  thus  we  have  a  Continent  with  high 
borders  around  a  depressed  interior.  Of  all  conti- 
nents, Australia  is  the  most  arid  and  inhospitable. 

RESUME. 

If  we  examine  a  geological  map  of  the  world, 
we  shall  find  that  these  vast  plains  and  deserts  were 
sea-bottoms  during  the  Cretaceous,  and  in  many 
instances,  during  the  Tertiary  epoch,  and  the 
mountains  by  which  they  are  girt  were  the  ancient 
shore-lines.  But  this  does  not  justify  us  in  the 
inference  that  their  desert-like  character  is  due  to 
this  cause,  for  the  sedimentary  rocks  of  every 
age,  which,  as  a  general  rule,  afford  a  far  more 
hospitable  soil  than  those  of  igneous  origin,  have 
undergone  the  same  process.  There  is  little  doubt 
that,  if  the  most  inhospitable  portions  of  Sahara 
had  been  exposed  to  the  direct  action  of  the  winds 
of  the  region  of  monsoons,  which  give  origin  to 


138  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

the  inundations  of  the  Nile,  they  would  have  been 
robed  with  an  appropriate  vegetation,  whose  decay, 
in  the  course  of  ages,  would  have  created  an 
amount  of  humus  which,  incorporating  itself  with 
the  soil,  might  have  made  this  desolation  a  garden. 

Embracing  the  whole  subject  in  a  comprehensive 
glance,  we  believe  that  it  will  be  found: 

That  the  phenomenon  of  varying  vegetation, 
throughout  every  continent  and  throughout  every 
zone,  is,  primarily,  dependent  on  the  varying  supply 
of  moisture;  modified,  secondarily,  by  altitude  of 
surface  above  the  sea,  diversity  of  soil,  its  evapo- 
rative power,  and  the  climatic  conditions  of  tem- 
perature. 

The  winds  and  the  rains,  heat  and  cold,  light  and 
and  darkness,  are  the  great  powers,  whether  mani- 
fested in  the  tempest  or  in  the  gently-distilling 
dew;  whether  in  Arctic  colds  or  tropical  heats; 
whether  in  midnight  darkness  or  in  the  full  glare 
of  the  midday  sun ;  whether  in  the  structure  of  the 
rugged  oak,  or  in  the  delicate  tissues  of  the  unfold- 
ing flower; — these,  we  repeat,  are  the  great  powers 
which  every  where  act  in  accordant  harmony,  to 
produce  the  infinite  diversity  of  vegetable  life;  they 
are  the  agents  by  which  Nature  perpetually  renews 
the  youth,  the  beauty,  and  the  fertility,  of  our 
planet. 

And  yet,  all  these  apparently  complicated  phe- 


RESUME.  139 

nomena  are  but  emanations  from  a  single  source, 
the  SUN, — the  "lantern  of  the  World"  (lucerna 
mundi),  as  described  by  Copernicus;  the  all-vivi- 
fying, pulsating  "  heart  of  the  Universe"  as 
described  by  a.n  ancient  philosopher;*  or,  as 
described  by  a  modern  philosopher,  f  the  primary 
source  of  light  and  radiating  heat,  and  the  generator 
of  numerous  terrestrial,  electro-magnetic  processes, 
and,  indeed,  of  the  greater  part  of  the  organic  vital 
activity  on  our  planet. 

"  By  its  rays,"  quoting  the  greatest  of  living  astronomers,  { 
"  are  produced  all  winds,  and  those  disturbances  in  the  electric 
equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere  which  give  rise  to  terrestrial 
magnetism.  By  their  vivifying  action,  vegetables  are  elaborated 
from  inorganic  matter,  and  become  in  their  turn  the  support 
of  animals  and  man,  and  the  sources  of  those  great  deposits  of 
dynamical  efficiency  which  are  laid  up  for  human  use  in  our 
coal-strata.  By  them,  the  waters  of  the  sea  are  made  to  circulate 
in  vapors  through  the  air,  and  irrigate  the  land,  producing 
springs  and  rivers.  By  them  are  produced  all  disturbances  of 
the  chemical  equilibrium  of  the  elements  of  nature,  which,  by 
a  series  of  compositions  and  decompositions,  give  rise  to  new 
products,  and  originate  a  transfer  of  materials.  Even  the  slow 
degradation  of  the  solid  constituents  of  the  surface  in  which 
its  chief  geological  changes  consist,  and  their  diffusion  among 
the  waters  of  the  ocean,  are  entirely  due  to  the  abrasion  of  the 
wind  and  rain,  and  the  alternate  action  of  the  seasons." 

*  "Theon  of  Smyrna." 

t  Humboldt,  "Cosmos,"  V. 

J  Sir  John  Herschel. 


140  THE    ORIGIN    OF    PRAIRIES. 

Thus,  then,  to  solar  influence  may  be  traced  all 
the  great  phenomena  which  affect  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  —  day  and  night,  heat  and  cold,  atmospheric 
and  oceanic  currents,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
seasons,  and  extending  even  to  the  oxygen  of  the 
atmosphere,  which  to  man  is  "the  breath  of  life." 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  MAP. 
PLATE   I. 

1.  The  map  shows  the  relative  areas,  on  each  Continent,  of 
Forest,  Prairie,  and  Desert. 

2.  The  distribution  of  some  of  the  Great  Families  of  Plants. 

3.  The  different  Zones  of  the  Winds,    and  the  barriers,  in 
the  form  of  mountain-chains,  which  they  encounter  in  their 
sweep  over  the  land. 

The  Rain-Chart  of  the  World  would  be  identical  with  the 
Wind-Chart,  with  a  substitution  of  names,  viz.,  for  "Zone  of 
Variable  Winds"  read  "Zone  of  Periodical  Rains,"  which 
has  a  range  north  and  south  of  nearly  a  thousand  miles 
during  the  year  ;  for  the  "  Zone  of  Southwest  Currents,"  read 
"  Zone  of  Constant  Precipitation."  The  deeply-shaded  por- 
tions occupied  by  the  Palmae  and  Deciduous  and  Coniferous 
types,  are  well-watered  ;  while  the  slightly-shaded  portions, 
occupied  by  the  Cacti  and  Grasses,  are  either  deficient  or  une- 
qually supplied. 


CHAPTER  V. 

FOREST-CULTURE     AND     IRRIGATION. 

HOW  PLANTS  GROW  —  EFFECTS    OF   FORESTS    ON   HEALTH ON 

ANIMAL  LIFE EFFECTS  OF  DISROBING  A  COUNTRY  OF  FOR- 
ESTS  RAPID  DESTRUCTION  OF  FORESTS  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES  FORESTS,  THEIR  LESSONS THEY  MODIFY  CLI- 
MATE  THEY  RETAIN  MOISTURE TREE-PLANTING IRRI- 
GATION  PRACTISED  AT  AN  EARLY  DAY,  ON  BOTH  HEMI- 
SPHERES   SUCCESSFULLY  INTRODUCED  ON  THE  ROCKY 

MOUNTAIN     SLOPES FEASIBILITY    OF    ITS    APPLICATION    IN 

CALIFORNIA,  THE  COLORADO  DESERT  AND  THE  WESTERN 
PLAINS. 

HOIV  Plants  Grow. —  Plants  extract  inorganic 
substances  from  the  soil,  which  are  essential  to 
their  perfection;  but  the  ligneous  portions,  together 
with  the  sugar,  starch,  and  acids,  are  derived,  for 
the  most  part,  from  the  air.  The  cerealia,  or  edible 
grains,  require  both  potash  and  phosphate  of  mag- 
nesia; they  also  require  silica,  to  give  hardness  to 
the  stem,  and  to  the  seed-envelope.  This  substance 
enters  largely  into  the  structure  of  those  grasses 
known  as  canes,  bamboos,  and  scouring  rushes. 
The  oak  extracts  iron;  and  those  vegetables  com- 
prehended in  the  term  Cruciferce,  such  as  cabbages, 


142  FOREST-CULTURE. 

turnips,  mustard,  etc.,  contain  sulphur.  The  rains 
are  the  solvent  power  by  which  the  salts  are 
brought  within  the  reach  of  their  rootlets,  by  which 
they  are  taken  up,  assorted,  and  assimilated,  and 
such  parts  as  are  useless  rejected,  as  the  human 
system  casts  oft'  the  exuviae  after  the  nutriment  has 
been  extracted.  Hydrogen,  resulting  from  the 
decomposition  of  water,  is  also  absorbed,  and 
forms  an  element  in  the  composition  of  wood,  as 
well  as  of  the  fruits,  flowers,  and  seeds  of  plants. 
Ammonia,  the  result  of  the  decay  of  animal  matter, 
is  volatilized,  and  passes  into  the  atmosphere;  but, 
returned  to  the  earth  in  descending  showers,  it  is 
absorbed  by  the  soil,  and  enters  into  the  pores  of 
the  plant,  where  it  is  separated  into  its  constituent 
parts,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen.  The  latter  enters  into 
the  albumen  of  wood  and  the  gluten  of  the  cerealia, 
which  is  the  nutritive  part.  It  also  enters  into  the 
composition  of  the  esculent  roots,  such  as  potatoes 
and  beets;  and  of  the  climbing  plants,  such  as  peas 
and  beans. 

From  the  air,  plants  derive  carbonic  acid,  a  sub- 
stance which,  where  it  exists  in  excess,  is  destructive 
to  animal  life.  This  is  not  a  simple  element,  but  a 
compound  of  oxygen  and  carbon,  and  is  diffused 
throughout  the  air  in  about  the  proportions  of  joins 
parts.  This  supply  is  maintained  by  every  exhala- 
tion of  air-breathing  animals,  by  the  steam  poured 


HOW    PLANTS    GROW.  143 

out  from  every  active  volcano,  and  by  every  fire 
artificially  kindled.  It  is  also  given  off  in  the  decay 
of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  where  oxygen,  though 
by  a  less  rapid  combustion,  performs  the  same  office 
as  fire.  The  leaves  of  plants,  on  the  other  hand, 
constantly  absorb  carbonic  acid  by  day,  decompose 
it,  restoring  the  oxygen  to  the  atmosphere,  and  con- 
verting the  carbon  into  ligneous  fibre.  Solar  influ- 
ence seems  to  be  essential  to  effect  this  result,  for 
at  night,  and  in  gloomy  weather,  almost  a'll  of  the 
carbonic  acid  is  returned  to  the  air  unchanged. 

Thus,  it  may  be  said  that  the  trees  and  grasses 
which  clothe  the  surface  of  the  earth,  as  well  as  the 
immense  accumulations  of  coal  stored  beneath  the 
surface,  are  but  the  condensation,  by  solar  rays,  of 
those  gases  destructive  to  animal  life,  into  forms 
which  are  essential  to  its  support  and  comfort. 
The  black  mould  in  soils  known  as  humus,  is  the 
result  of  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter,  such  as  the 
leaves  of  the  forests,  the  grasses  of  the  meadows, 
and  the  mosses  of  the  peat-swamps.  When  brought 
in  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  an 
equal  volume  of  carbonic  acid  is  evolved.  The 
effect  of  ploughing  or  stirring  up  the  soil,  is  to 
bring  fresh  portions  of  humus  in  contact  with  the 
air,  and  thus  create  a  fresh  supply  of  carbonic  acid. 
In  applying  animal  manure  to  soils,  we  seek  mainly 
to  furnish  this  substance  to  the  growing  plant. 


144  FOREST-CULTURE. 

Although  soils  of  pure  lime  and  sand  are  barren, 
yet,  if  they  contain  two  per  cent,  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter, the  fir  and  pine  tribes  will  flourish,  but  oaks 
and  other  deciduous  trees  require  ten  times  as 
much. 

Such  is  the  order  which  prevails  throughout  the 
realms  of  Nature.  Inorganic  substances  act  and 
react  in  accordant  harmony,  to  give  support  to  that 
infinite  diversity  of  organic  life,  both  animal  and 
vegetable,  which  is  found  on  the  surface  of  our 
planet;  and  one  series  of  elements  which  is  destruc- 
tive to  animal  life,  is  essential  to  the  growth  and 
perfection  of  vegetable  life.  Thus  intimate  is  the 
connection,  thus  mutually  dependent.  Thus  is  con- 
stituted a  great  system  of  vital  forces,  by  which  the 
surface-covering  of  continents  is  perpetually  main- 
tained, and  the  wants  of  its  inhabitants  provided 
for. 

Effects  of  Forests  on  Health. — We  have  seen 
that  a  beautiful  harmony  exists  between  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  —  that  while  the  former  consumes 
oxygen  and  exhales  carbonic  acid,  the  latter  assimi- 
lates carbonic  acid  and  gives  out  oxygen;  and  that 
the  noxious  effluvium  arising  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  animal  matter,  is  converted  into  ammonia, 
and  elaborated  into  seeds,  grains,  and  fruits,  which 
become  the  essential  food  of  man.  Thus,  the  for- 


FORESTS    ON    HEALTH.  145 

ests  perpetually  renew  the  purity  of  the  air,  and  fit 
it  for  the  respiration  of  the  higher  orders  of  animals. 
Forests  absorb  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  mere 
flowering  plants,  the  noxious  gases  which  are 
continually  thrown  into  the  air  from  a  variety  of 
sources;  —  from  the  breath  of  animals,  from  the 
smoke  of  chimne}Ts  in  densely-populated  cities,  and 
from  the  decay  of  organic  matter.  Few  people  are 
aware  of  the  extent  of  such  emanations.  It  is  ren- 
dered probable  that  the  peculiar  principle  of  the 
atmosphere  known  as  ozone,  is  a  most  efficient 
disinfectant;  and  yet,  as  stated  by  Angus  Smith,  a 
wind  blowing  over  a  manufacturing  city,  like  Man- 
chester, at  the  rate  of  fifteen  miles  an  hour,  after 
having  passed  less  than  a  mile,  is  deprived  of  this 
principle.  A  single  individual  exhales,  in  a  day, 
twenty  cubic  feet  of  carbonic  acid,  and  therefore 
contaminates  20,000  cubic  feet  of  air.  The  addition 
of  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  may  be  perceived. 
The  rain  that  falls  in  a  populous  city  is  so  acrid 
that  a  drop  will  redden  litmus  paper.  Blood  shaken 
in  the  air  of  towns  takes  a  different  shade  from  that 
shaken  in  pure  air.  A  method  has  been  devised 
by  Dr.  Smith  for  measuring  the  amount  of  impurity 
in  the  air,  by  means  of  dilute  permanganate  of  pot- 
ash poured  in  a  bottle,  and  noticing  the  degree  of 
decolorization  of  the  liquid,  when  exposed  to  the 
light.  The  oxidizable  matter  in  the  air  over  a  pig-sty 

10 


146  FOREST-CULTURE. 

was  represented  by  109  measures,  in  the  centre  of 
Manchester  by  58,  and  over  Lake  Lucerne  (Swit- 
zerland) by  1.4.  *  Thus,  people  closely  huddled 
together  are  surrounded  by  emanations  both  of 
organic  and  inorganic  matter,  which  may  be  inju- 
rious to  health,  even  when  the  effluvium  is  not 
apparent  to  the  senses. 

The  winds,  in  their  mechanical  power  to  trans- 
port and  dissipate  these  exhalations,  and  in  their 
chemical  power  to  oxidize  them;  the  sunlight,  in 
hastening  decomposition,  and  causing  new  combi- 
nations; the  soil,  in  its  power  of  absorption;  and, 
lastly,  the  vegetation,  in  its  power  of  consolidating 
the  most  abundant  of  these  exhalations  into  innocu- 
ous forms,  are  the  great  natural  disinfectants. 
Hence,  then,  tree-planting  along  crowded  thor- 
oughfares and  in  parks  amidst  dense  cities,  can  not, 
as  a  measure  of  sanitary  economy,  be  too  strongly 
recommended.  The  practice,  however,  of  sur- 
rounding a  house  with  dense  shrubbery,  is  far  from 
commendable.  It  is  desirable,  so  far  as  can  be 
attained,  that  the  sunlight  should  strike  all  portions 
of  the  wall  during  the  day.  Where,  in-doors, 
there  is  a  lack  of  sunlight  and  air,  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  rooms,  and  even  of  the  furniture, 
becomes  coated  with  a  film  of  organic  matter,  on 

*  Dr.  R.  Angus  Smith,  in  Ure's  Die.  Sup. ;    Art.   "  Sanitary  Econ- 
omy." 


FORESTS    ON    HEALTH.  147 

which  fungi  germinate,  giving  off  unpleasant  odors. 
Books,  even,  become  thus  invested.  Rubbing  with 
water  does  not  destroy  the  vegetable  growth,  but 
the  application  of  any  of  the  essential  oils,  like  tur- 
pentine, benzine,  etc.,  is  effectual. 

Malaria  may  also  originate  in  wooded  belts,  par- 
ticularly in  conditions  of  the  weather  which  cause 
vegetation  to  putrefy  instead  of  to  grow.  On  the 
other  hand,  deltas  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  marsh 
lands,  and  lands  alternately  flooded  either  by  salt 
or  fresh  water,  generate  malaria,  resulting  in  fevers, 
which  do  not  travel  far  from  the  places  of  their 
origin.  It  has  been  found  that  a  forest-belt  inter- 
posed to  the  leeward  of  such  malarious  marshes 
afforded  an  efficient  protection  against  these  dis- 
eases,— the  canopy  of  foliage  acting  both  mechani- 
cally and  chemically,  in  the  one  case  to  intercept 
the  current  of  miasmatic  vapors,  and  in  the  other 
to  decompose  and  recombine  them  into  harmless 
elements.  And  yet,  as  to  the  relative  salubrity  of 
the  forest  and  prairie,  as  evidenced  in  the  settlement 
of  the  Western  States,  the  preponderance  is  greatly 
in  favor  of  the  latter. 

Sunlight  is  essential  both  to  animal  and  vegetable 
life.  It  undoubtedly  exercises  a  chemical  action 
upon  the  organic  tissues  of  both;  and  we  know 
that,  in  the  case  of  plants,  they  become  bleached  and 
sickly  where  it  is  feebly  exerted ;  and  that  man,  dur- 


148  FOREST-CULTURE. 

ing  the  long  and  cheerless  night  of  an  Arctic  winter, 
is  peculiarly  liable  to  scorbutic  diseases.  Darkness 
is  his  worst  enemy.  We  know,  too,  the  vivifying 
action  which  the  sun  brings,  after  his  long  exclusion 
from  the  heavens.  Kane,  with  his  little  party,  win- 
tering at  Renssellaer  Harbor,  describes  the  depress- 
ing effects  of  the  u  long,  intense  darkness,"  extend- 
ing not  only  to  man,  but  even  to  the  dogs,  some  of 
whom  died  of  epilepsy,  resulting  from  "  long-lost 
daylight."  We  read  with  what  joyful  feelings  he 
greeted  "  the  first  distinct  orange  tint "  indicative 
of  the  returning  sun,  observed  on  the  southern  hori- 
zon, at  noon,  January  21;  and  he  records  how  dif- 
ferent it  was  "from  the  cold  light  of  the  planets."  * 
Forests  exclude  the  sunlight  and  obstruct  the 
circulation  of  the  air,  and,  therefore,  generate  and 
retain  dampness, — conditions  which  are  prejudicial 
to  health,  and  which  do  not  exist  on  the  prairies. 
The  first  stirring-up  of  the  soil,  whether  of  the  forest 
or  the  prairie,  generates  malaria,  probably  from 
the  liberation  of  carbonic  acid;  but  it  is  far  more 
malignant  in  the  former  region  than  in  the  latter. 
The  pioneers  who  planted  themselves  in  Western 
New  York,  Ohio,  and  Michigan,  suffered  far  more 
from  intermittent  fever  than  those  who  first  subdued 
the  soil  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin.  The 
history  of  those  who  colonized  the  Holland  Land- 

*  "Arctic  Explorations,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  155. 


FORESTS    ON    ANIMAL    LIFE.  149 

Purchase,  in  Western  New  York,  is  one  of  priva- 
tion and  suffering  from  disease.  A  prominent 
physician  of  Chicago,  whose  early  career  was 
passed  in  Michigan,  informed  me  that  there  would 
be  hardly  a  family  within  the  circuit  of  a  day's 
ride,  but  had  some  member  of  it  afflicted  with 
chills  and  fever.  So  prevalent  was  this  disease, 
that  at  length  it  came  to  be  understood  that  it  was 
necessary  to  build  the  cabin  to  the  windward  of  the 
farm  to  be  subdued.  The  partial  destruction  of  the 
forest  in  the  Middle  States,  by  letting  in  the  sun- 
light and  permitting  a  free  circulation  of  air,  has 
improved,  without  doubt,  the  sanitary  condition  of 
the  country.  On  the  prairies  of  Illinois  and  Wis- 
consin, cases  of  intermittent  fever  occur,  but  it  is 
of  a  mild  type,  and  readily  yields  to  appropriate 
treatment;  and  at  this  day,  it  is  far  less  prevalent 
than  on  Staten  Island,  or  along  the  shores  of  New 
Jersey  and  Long  Island,  where,  under  the  action 
of  the  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  tide,  large  muddy 
flats  are  alternately  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun 
and  the  wash  of  the  ocean. 

The  Effects  of  Forests  on  Animal  Life. — The 
depths  of  the  forest  are  almost  as  destitute  of  ani- 
mal life,  as  the  interior  of  deserts.  Throughout 

'  D 

the  Mississippi  Valley,  there  are  abundant  monu- 
ments, in  the  form  of  high  circular  mounds,  of  par- 


150  FOREST-CULTURE. 

allel  roads  and  far-reaching  embankments,  laid  out 
in  mathematical  forms,  of  a  race  who  possessed  a 
higher  degree  of  civilization,  and  different  manners 
and  customs,  from  those  who  occupied  the  country 
when  first  known  to  the  European.  These  monu- 
ments are  restricted  to  the  valleys.  They  are 
neither  found  in  the  densely-wooded  region,  nor  on 
the  open  prairie.  The  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers 
were  selected  by  the  Indians,  as  the  sites  of  their 
lodges;  for  these  gave  them  the  most  easy  and 
expeditious  highways  of  communication.  To  a 
race  unacquainted  with  the  use  of  iron,  the  forest 
would  present  an  insurmountable  barrier,  except  so 
far  as  marking  it  by  trails.*  Even  European  settle- 
ments followed  the  same  course.  Colonies  were 
planted  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  or  in  places  acces- 
sible to  the  sea.  They  extended  themselves  up  the 
valleys,  and  at  last  resorted  to  the  highlands.  But, 
in  the  case  of  the  Aborigines,  there  was  a  reason 
why  their  lodges  should  be  restricted  to  the  valleys. 
Here  the  sunlight  could  gain  access.  Here  grew 
the  spontaneous  fruits  of  the  earth,  which  could  be 
appropriated  as  food.  The  waters  furnished  fish, 
and  the  quadrupeds  and  birds,  such  as  furnish  food 
to  man,  here  found  their  feeding-grounds.  The 

*  Perhaps  it  is  necessary  to  explain  what  is  meant  by  a  "  trail."  It 
has,  however,  a  specific  meaning  with  every  backwoodsman.  It  is  the 
path  beaten  through  the  forest,  by  men  moving  in  Indian-file  —  or  a 
column  of  men  following  in  the  footsteps  of  a  leader. 


FORESTS    ON   ANIMAL    LIFE. 


beasts  and  birds  of  prey  followed  in  their  wake. 
Every  explorer  in  a  North  American  forest  must 
have  remarked  the  absence  of  game  remote  from 
lakes  and  water-courses,  and  how  rarely  its  solitude 
is  broken  by  the  song  of  birds.  * 

Humboldt,  in  his  "Aspects  of  Nature,"  has 
devoted  a  chapter  to  the  nocturnal  life  of  animals 
in  the  primeval  forests  of  South  America.  At 
night,  all  resort  to  the  rivers.  "  The  jaguar  pur- 
sues the  peccaries  and  the  tapirs,  and  these,  press- 
ing against  each  other  in  their  flight,  break  through 
the  inwoven  tree-like  shrubs  which  impede  their 
flight;  the  apes  on  the  tops  of  the  trees,  being 
frightened  by  the  crash,  join  their  cries  to  those  of 
the  larger  animals;  this  arouses  the  tribes  of  birds, 
who  build  their  nests  in  communities;  and  thus  the 
whole  animal  world  becomes  in  a  state  of  commo- 
tion." 


*  To  this  general  rule,  there  is  a  notable  exception.  Those  who 
have  camped  in  the  forests  of  Lake  Superior,  have  often  heard,  issuing 
from  its  deepest  recesses,  not  only  by  day,  but  in  the  darkness  of  night, 
the  song  of  a  small  bird,  of  which  at  times  he  may  catch  a  glimpse,  as 
it  flits  among  the  branches. 

Richardson,  in  his  "  Arctic  Expedition,"  thus  records  :  "  The  song 
of  the  Fringilla  leucophrys  has  been  heard  day  and  night,  and  so 
loudly,  in  the  stillness  of  the  latter  season,  as  to  deprive  us  at  first  of 
rest.  It  whistles  the  first  bar  of  '  Oh,  dear,  what  can  the  matter  be ! ' 
in  a  clear  tone,  as  if  played  on  a  piccolo  fife ;  and  though  the  distinct- 
ness of  the  notes  rendered  them  at  first  very  pleasing,  yet,  as  they 
haunted  us  up  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  were  loudest  at  midnight,  we 
came  to  wish  occasionally  that  the  cheerful  little  songster  would  time 
his  serenade  better." 


152  FOREST-CULTURE. 

So,  too,  in  the  northern  forests,  the  deer  at  night 
resorts  to  the  lake  or  running  stream,  tracked  by 
his  remorseless  foe,  the  wolf.  Hardly  have  the 
shades  of  evening  fallen,  when  the  panther,  rousing 
himself  from  his  lair,  sets  up  a  howl  preliminary  to 
starting  on  his  predatory  tramp,  and  the  beaver 
and  other  aquatic  animals  begin  their  nocturnal 
tasks. 

Effects  of  Disrobing  a  Country  of  Forests. — 
Vast  areas  of  the  prairie-region  now  deemed  too 
arid  for  cultivation,  are  as  well-watered  and  possess 
as  productive  a  soil  as  those  regions  adjacent  to  the 
Mediterranean  which  were  formerly  the  sites  of 
mighty  cities  in  the  midst  of  a  densely-populated 
country.  If,  therefore,  the  desolation  of  these 
regions  has  been  brought  about  by  the  agency  of 
man,  it  becomes  an  interesting  inquiry  whether  that 
agency,  beneficially  exerted,  can  not  restore  their 
former  fruitfulness.  If  so,  can  not  the  area  of  the 
cultivable  prairies  be  enlarged  by  an  application  of 
the  same  means? 

Mr.  George  P.  Marsh,  in  a  late  work  entitled 
"Man  and  Nature,"  has  collected  a  vast  body  of 
facts  tending  to  show  the  influence  of  man  upon 
the  material  world.  That  influence  has  been  bene- 
ficially exerted  in  the  conversion  of  the  desert  into 
a  garden,  in  draining  marshes,  in  cutting  canals  and 


DESTRUCTION   OF   FORESTS.  153 

roads,  in  clearing  at  one  point  a  portion  of  the 
forest  and  letting  in  the  sunlight,  and  in  planting 
forests  at  another.  That  influence  has  been  inju- 
riously exerted  by  disrobing  a  country  entirely  of  its 
forests,  thereby  creating  a  more  arid  climate  by 
drying  up  the  sources  of  the  springs,  and  by  giving 
the  local  winds  an  unresisted  passage  over  the  land, 
thereby  communicating  to  it  a  more  continental 
character.  I  shall  refer  to  this  storehouse  of  facts 
to  illustrate  my  text: 

"If  we  compare,"  says  he,  "the  present  physical  condition 
of  the  countries  [around  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean] 
with  the  descriptions  that  ancient  geographers  and  historians 
have  given  of  their  fertility  and  general  capability  of  minister- 
ing to  human  uses,  we  shall  find  that  more  than  one-half  of 
their  whole  extent  *  *  is  either  deserted  by  civilized  men 
and  surrendered  to  hopeless  desolation,  or  at  least  greatly 
reduced  both  in  productiveness  and  population.  Vast  forests 
have  disappeared  from  mountain  spurs  and  ridges ;  the  vegeta- 
ble earth,  accumulated  beneath  the  trees  by  the  decay  of  leaves 
and  fallen  trunks,  the  soil  of  Alpine  pastures  which  skirted 
and  indented  the  woods,  and  the  mould  of  the  upland  fields, 
are  washed  away  ;  meadows,  once  fertilized  by  irrigation,  are 
waste  and  unproductive,  because  the  cisterns  and  reservoirs 
that  supplied  the  ancient  canals  are  broken,  or  the  springs  that 
fed  them  dried  up ;  rivers  famous  in  history  and  in  song,  have 
shrunk  to  humble  brooklets ;  the  willows  that  ornamented  and 
protected  the  banks  of  the  lesser  water-courses  are  gone,  and 
the  rivers  have  ceased  to  exist  as  perennial  currents,  because 
the  little  water  that  finds  its  way  into  their  old  channels  is 
evaporated  by  the  droughts  of  summer,  or  absorbed  by  the 
parched  earth,  before  it  reaches  the  lowlands ;  the  beds  of  the 
brooks  have  widened  into  broad  expanses  of  pebbles  and  gravel, 
over  which,  though  in  the  hot  season  passed  dry  shod,  in  win- 


154  FOREST-CULTURE. 

ter  sea-like  torrents  thunder  ;  the  entrances  of  navigable  streams 
are  obstructed  by  sand-bars ;  and  harbors,  once  marts  of  an 
extensive  commerce,  are  shoaled  by  the  deposits  of  the  rivers 
at  whose  mouths  they  lie." 

The  architectural  ruins  and  other  monuments 
attest  that  these  regions,  now  almost  withdrawn 
from  human  occupancy,  must  formerly  have  been 
tenanted  by  a  dense  population  who  derived  their 
support  from  a  soil  of  great  productiveness.  The 
causes  of  this  decay,  as  traced  by  him,  apart  from 
the  tyranny  and  misrule  of  the  governing  classes, 
are  mainly  found  to  be  due  to  the  destruction  of  the 
forests.  Van  Lennep  states  that  one  can  not  for  a 
moment  doubt  that  the  parched  region  which  lies 
between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  was 
once  a  fertile  garden,  "  before  the  forests  which 
covered  the  hill-sides  were  cut  down,  before  the 
cedar  and  the  fir-tree  were  rooted  up  from  the  sides 
of  Lebanon."  To  this  cause,  Sir  John  Herschel 
attributes  the  aridity  of  Spain;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  rain  has  become  more  frequent  in  Egypt  since 
the  palm  has  been  more  vigorously  cultivated.  * 

Bolande.r,  in  speaking  of  the  power  of  certain 
trees  to  condense  moisture,  particularly  the  Red- 
woods {Sequoia  sempervirens),  which  are 
restricted  to  the  foggy  regions  of  the  Coast 
Ranges  of  the  Pacific  and  the  underlying  meta- 

*  Marsh,  ibidem. 


DESTRUCTION    OF    FORESTS.  155 

morphic  sandstones,  both  of  which  conditions  are 
required  for  their  growth,  uses  this  language: 

"It  is  my  firm  conviction  that  if  the  Redwoods  are  destroyed 
(and  they  necessarily  will  be,  unless  protected  by  the  wise 
action  of  our  Government,)  California  will  become  a  desert,  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  word.  In  their  safety  depends  the  future 
welfare  of  the  State  ;  they  are  our  safeguard.  It  remains  to  be 
seen  whether  we  shall  be  benefitted  or  not  by  the  horrible  expe- 
rience which  such  countries  as  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Spain, 
and  France,  have  made,  by  having  barbarously  destroyed  their 
woods  and  forests.  But  with  us  here,  it  is  even  of  a  more 
serious  nature.  Wise  governments  would  be  able  to  replace 
them  in  those  countries ;  but  no  power  on  earth  can  restore  the 
woods  of  California,  when  once  completely  destroyed."  * 

Rapid  Destruction  of  the  Forest  in  the  United 
States.  —  In  the  United  States,  the  destruction  of 
the  forest  is  going  on  at  an  accelerated  rate.  The 
lumber  trees  of  Maine,  in  accessible  positions,  are 
nearly  exhausted,  and  twenty  years  will  accomplish 
the  same  result  with  regard  to  the  extensive  pineries 
of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  The  White  pine  is 
the  most  valuable  lumber  tree  of  America.  The 
ease  with  which  it  is  wrought;  its  freedom,  as  com- 
pared with  most  trees,  from  shrinking,  swelling, 
and  warping;  and  its  durability,  when  properly 
protected  by  paint;  make  it  the  principal  tree 
employed  in  the  construction  of  a  vast  majority  of 
houses  and  even  fences  and  sidewalks.  To  one 

*  Bolandeiv  Henry  N.,  "  Remarks  on  California  Trees,"  "Pro.  Cal. 
Acad.  Nat.  Sciences." 


156  FOREST-CULTURE. 

who  realizes  how  rapidly  the  sources  of  supply  are 
becoming  exhausted,  and  the  prodigality  with  which 
it  is  used,  it  can  not  but  be  disheartening.  It  is  a 
tree  of  slow  growth,  and  the  surface  on  which  it 
grows,  when  disrobed,  is  unfitted  for  profitable 
agriculture.  The  annual  receipts  at  Chicago  alone 
(a  city  which  has  sprung  up  within  the  life-time  of 
a  generation)  are  in  excess  of  730,000,000  feet  of 
lumber,  400,000,000  of  shingles,  and  24,000,000  of 
lath.  Possessing  a  material  within  easy  reach, 
and  on  the  banks  of  a  canal,  known  as  the  Athens 
limestone  —  a  double  compound  of  carbonate  of 
lime  and  magnesia — unequaled  for  flagging  and 
building,  and  having  a  river  whose  dredgings  are 
capable  of  conversion  into  brick,  it  is  a  singular 
fact  which  strikes  every  stranger  within  her  gates, 
that  Chicago  should  exhibit  such  an  extent  of  plank- 
walks  and  wooden  tenements, — structures  of  the 
most  superficial  character,  which  must  soon  give 
way  to  those  more  solid  and  enduring.  The 
products  of  the  lake  pineries  are  distributed  over 
nearly  half  a  continent.  From  them  are  built  the 
farm-houses  of  the  pioneers  upon  the  solitary  prai- 
rie, and  the  bridges  which  span  the  waters  of  the 
Kansas  and  the  Platte. 

The  destruction  of  hard-wood  timber  is  going 
on  at  a  pace  equally  rapid.  The  railways  require, 
annually,  in  construction  and  maintenance,  at  least 


DESTRUCTION    OF    FORESTS.  157 

10,000,000  of  ties.  Nothing  strikes  the  emigrant 
from  the  Atlantic  Slope,  on  returning  after  years 
of  absence,  so  forcibly,  as  to  see  those  hills  which, 
in  his  youth,  were  forest-crowned,  now  bare  and 
desolate,  and  the  streams  which  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  fish,  dwindled  to  mere  trickling  rills.  The 
Pacific  railroads  which  traverse,  for  long  distances, 
the  valleys  of  the  Kaw  and  Platte,  have  consumed 
in  their  construction  nearly  every  stick  of  timber, 
and  in  four  years  will  have  consumed  nearly  all  the 
fire-wood.  Transportation  is  economized  by  strip- 
ping each  tie  of  its  bark,  and  allowing  it  to  undergo 
the  process  of  seasoning,  before  its  conveyance  to 
the  place  where  required.  The  beautiful  Black 
walnuts  of  the  Kaw  Valley,  fit  for  gun-stocks  and 
cabinet-ware,  have  been  remorselessly  sacrificed  to 
these  base  purposes.  Public  policy  requires  that 
this  wholesale  destruction  of  the  forest  be  arrested. 
As  a  sanitary  measure,  in  thronged  cities,  the  side- 
walks should  be  firmly  laid  in  stone  or  brick, 
instead  of  plank,  which  serve  as  coverings  to 
reservoirs  of  stagnant  waters,  screened  from  the 
evaporation  of  the  sun.  A  "balloon"  house,  as 
proverbially  known  throughout  the  West,  can  be 
hastily  thrown  up,  but  one  of  brick  or  stone  is,  in 
the  end,  far  more  durable  and  economical.  Ties 
can  be  treated,  at  an  inconsiderable  expense,  with 
kreosote  or  coal-tar,  so  that  their  durability  shall  be 


158  FOREST-CULTURE. 

protracted  for  a  quarter  of  a  century;  but  we  have 
yet  to  learn  the  name  of  the  corporation  that  has 
resorted  to  the  process.  The  managers  of  such 
roads,  particularly,  as  the  Union  Pacific,  where 
transportation  is  so  far  and  so  expensive,  would 
have  consulted  the  true  interests  of  their  stock- 
holders if  they  had  placed  the  iron  on  ties  thus 
prepared. 

In  the  first  settlement  of  the  country,  so  far  as 
relates  to  the  Atlantic  Slope,  the  Appalachian 
Region,  and  the  Ohio  Valley,  the  forest  was  the 
great  obstacle  to  be  encountered.  The  settlers 
attacked  it  as  though  it  were  a  common  enemy. 
To  fell,  to  girdle,  to  "  log,"  and  to  burn,  those  noble 
forms  of  vegetation  whose  origin  stretches  back 
to  remote  ages,  was  a  preliminary  work  to  that  of 
planting,  sowing,  reaping,  and  harvesting.  But  that 
necessity  no  longer  exists. 

Our  people  find  themselves  possessed  of  a  coun- 
try vast  in  resources,  but  imperfectly  developed. 
On  every  side,  they  see  avenues  leading  to  the 
exertion  of  human  skill  and  energy.  They  are 
restless,  eager  in  the  pursuit  of  gain,  and  bound  by 
few  local  attachments.  In  their  investments,  they 
look  for  immediate  returns.  If  they  build  a  house 
or  subdue  a  farm,  it  is  in  reference  to  its  market 
value,  should  they  desire  to  migrate.  If  they  plant 
trees,  say  they,  two  generations  must  elapse  before 


FORESTS — THEIR    LESSONS.  159 

they  attain  their  growth.  If  appealed  to,  that  their 
acts  will  be  commended  by  posterity,  they  will 
probably  answer,  in  the  language  of  the  bluff 
English  statesman,  "Confound  posterity!  what  has 
it  ever  done  for  us?"  But  this  is  a  narrow,  selfish 
spirit.  The  future  has  claims  upon  the  present 
generation, — that  they  shall  not  despoil  the  fair 
heritage  which  is  entrusted  to  them  as  an  usufruct, 
but  transmit  it  to  future  generations,  not  only  unim- 
paired, but  beautified  and  adorned. 

Forests — Their  Lessons.  —  They  Modify  Climate. 

"  The  groves  were  God's  first  temples  ;  'ere  man  learned 
To  hew  the  shaft  and  lay  the  architrave." 

No  one  can  wander  "through  the  dim  vaults  and 
winding  aisles"  of  a  primeval  forest,  amid  the 
"venerable  columns"  which  support  the  "verdant 
roof,"  and  listen  to  the  sound  of  the  "invisible 
breath"  that  "sways  at  once  all  their  green  tops," 
without  acknowledging,  with  all-reverent  spirit, 
that  here  he  verily  is  in  the  sanctuary  of  Nature. 

Trees  are  the  noblest  manifestations  of  vegetable 
life.  Like  men,  they  flourish  best  in  communities, 
and  are  dependent  on  one  another  for  support. 
Their  infancy  must  be  sheltered  beneath  the  out- 
stretching arms  of  the  parent,  until  they  acquire  the 


l6o  FOREST-CULTURE. 

strength  and  vigor  to  shoot  into  the  upper  air,  and 
become  self-supporting. 

They  modify  climate,  in  breaking  the  force  of  the 
winds,  in  sheltering  the  earth's  surface  from  the 
intensity  of  the  sun's  heat,  and  in  serving  as  the 
perpetual  reservoirs  for  the  supply  of  streams. 
The  transitions  of  temperature  on  the  plains  of 
Kansas  are  very  great.  In  the  spring  the  winds 
may  blow  for  several  days  from  the  southwest, 
bringing  with  them  an  almost  summer  tempera- 
ture, under  whose  influence  the  buds  of  fruit-trees 
expand  and  burst;  when,  suddenly  veering  to  the 
northwest,  the  blast  sweeps  down  from  the  snow- 
clad  peaks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  cold  and 
blighting  frosts,  the  thermometer  often  dropping 
15°  or  18°.* 

The  interposition  of  a  forest  belt,  or  even  of 
hedges  of  Osage  orange,  a  shrub  which  flourishes 
on  a  prairie  soil,  would  obviate  these  disastrous 
effects.  It  has  been  found,  in  older  countries,  that 
the  effects  of  such  a  barrier  extend  to  a  very  con- 
siderable distance  above  its  own  height.  Becquerel 
states  that,  in  the  Valley  of  the  Rhone,  a  simple 
hedge  two  metres  (a  little  more  than  5^  feet)  in 
height,  is  a  sufficient  protection  for  a  distance  of 
twenty- two  metres  (72  feet)  in  length. 

*  "  Geological  Report  Kansas,"  1866. 


FORESTS    RETAIN    MOISTURE.  l6l 

"  From  the  experience,"  says  he,  "  in  older  countries,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  effects  of  these  cold  blasts  can  be  greatly 
mitigated ;  and  observation  teaches  that,  while  the  tops  of  the 
trees  are  swayed  by  their  violence,  the  surface  air  will  be  found 
calm  and  warm.  Certain  districts  which  have  there  been 
stripped  of  their  forests,  are  now  exposed  to  loss  of  harvests 
by  tempests,  droughts,  and  frosts.  Hurricanes,  before  unknown, 
sweep  unopposed  over  the  regions  thus  denuded,  conveying 
terror  and  devastation  in  their  track."  * 

Forests  Retain  Moisture.  —  The  continuous 
existence  of  moisture  in  the  forests,  and  its  con- 
stant evaporation,  modify  the  heats  of  summer. 
The  leafy  canopy  of  trees  naturally  condenses  the 
floating  vapors  of  the  air,  and  causes  them  to 
descend  in  fertilizing  showers.  It  retards  the  cir- 
culation of  the  atmosphere,  and  consequently  retards 
evaporation.  The  leaves  shed  during  the  autumnal 
frosts,  not  only  protect  the  ground,  but  serve  as  a 
sponge  to  absorb  and  retain  a  portion  of  the  moist- 
ure which  would  otherwise  find  its  way  at  once 
into  the  streamlets. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  roots  constantly  draw 
from  the  earth  moisture,  which  passes  through  the 
trunks  and  branches,  as  through  a  mass  of  capillary 
tubes,  and  this  is  given  off  through  the  leaves;  a 
process  by  which  the  humidity  of  the  air  is  increased 
and  its  temperature  lowered. 

*  Marsh,    "  Nature  and  Man." 


II 


1 62  FOREST-CULTURE. 

"  In  wooded  countries,"  according  to  Schacht,  "  the  atmos- 
phere is  generally  humid,  and  rain  and  dew  fertilize  the  soil. 
As  the  lightning-rod  abstracts  the  electric  fluid  from  a  stormy 
sky,  so  the  forest  abstracts  to  itself  the  rain  from  the  clouds 
which,  in  falling,  refreshes  not  it  alone,  but  extends  its  benefits 
to  the  neighboring  fields.  *  *  The  forest,  presenting  a  con- 
siderable surface  for  evaporation,  gives  to  its  own  soil  and  to 
all  the  adjacent  soil  an  abundant  and  enlivening  dew.  There 
falls,  it  is  true,  less  dew  on  a  tall  and  thick  wood  than  on  the 
surrounding  meadows,  which,  being  more  highly  heated  during 
the  day  by  the  difference  of  insulation,  cool  with  greater  rapid- 
ity by  radiation.  But  it  must  be  remarked,  that  this  increased 
deposition  of  dew  on  the  neighboring  fields  is  partly  due  to  the 
forests  themselves  ;  for  the  dense  saturated  strata  of  air  which 
hover  over  the  woods,  descend  in  cool,  calm  evenings,  like 
clouds,  to  the  valley,  and  in  the  morning,  beads  of  dew  sparkle 
on  the  leaves  of  the  grass  and  the  flowers  of  the  field.  For- 
ests, in  a  word,  exert  in  the  interior  of  continents,  an  influence 
like  that  of  the  sea  on  the  climate  of  islands  and^  of  coasts ; 
both  water  the  soil,  and  thereby  insure  its  fertility." 

Tree-Planting. — Although  the  wooded  regions, 
as  shown  by  the  hyetal  charts,  have  more  abundant 
moisture  and  more  equally  distributed  than  the 
prairies,  yet  there  is  little  doubt  that,  under  suita- 
ble conditions,  tree-planting  may  be  successfully 
extended  over  large  areas  which  now  show  no  evi- 
dences of  ever  having  been  clothed  with  arborescent 
forms,  first  removing  the  light  pulverulent  soil  so 
rich  in  humus,  and  bedding  the  rootlets  in  the  stiff 
loamy  subsoil;  and  as  we  push  our  conquests  fur- 
ther into  the  domain  of  the  grasses,  the  trees  first 

*  Schacht,  "  Les  Arbres"  quoted  by  Marsh. 


TREE-PLANTING.  163 

planted  will  have  acquired  the  power  of  retaining 
not  only  the  existing  humidity,  but  of  abstracting 
that  which  the  winds  bring  from  other  quarters,  and 
causing  it  to  be  precipitated.  Thus,  I  doubt  not 
that  a  century  would  very  materially  change  the 
existing  outlines  between  woodland  and  prairie. 

The  effect  of  such  tree-planting  would  be,  as  we 
have  shown,  to  break  the  force  of  the  fierce  blasts 
so  destructive  to  fruit-culture;  to  modify  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold;  to  check  the  recur- 
rence of  droughts;  to  fill  the  brooklets  with  run- 
ning water;  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  beautify  and 
adorn  the  country. 

Man  appreciates  these  noblest  types  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  He  loves  their  symmetrical  form, 
their  spreading  canopy  of  leaves,  and  their  grateful 
shade.  *  His  ideas  of  the  pleasures  of  a  country 
life  are  intimately  connected  with  trees;  and  no 
object  is  more  beautiful  or  attractive  than  a  park 
with  a  carpet  of  bright  greensward.  Every  farmer 

*  An  ordinary  observer,  after  viewing  the  long  avenues  of  elms 
which  line  the  streets  of  Hadley,  Northampton,  New  Haven,  and 
other  New  England  villages,  wonders  at  the  dearth  of  shade-trees 
which  characterizes  western  villages,  whose  sites  have  been  reclaimed 
from  the  primeval  forest;  but  a  little  reflection  would  convince  him 
that  trees  grown  in  the  forest  are  mutually  dependent  upon  one 
another  for  support,  and  lack  the  canopy  of  foliage  which  is  required 
for  shade.  In  clearing  a  forest,  therefore,  where  isolated  trees  are  left, 
they  are  found  to  be  deficient  both  in  the  spread  of  their  roots  and 
limbs,  and  are  liable  to  be  toppled  over  by  every  careering  blast. 
Hence,  then,  shade-trees  are  the  result  of  a  second  growth,  and  under 
different  climatic  conditions. 


164  FOREST-CULTURE. 

can  commence  a  grove,  and  though  he  may  not 
hope  to  enjoy  its  shade,  it  will  be  a  highly-prized 
heritage  to  his  children. 

Our  ideas  of  rural  felicity  are, — a  country  of 
sufficient  relief  and  depression  of  surface  to  admit 
of  perfect  drainage,  divided  in  proper  proportions 
between  woodland,  pasture,  meadow,  and  field; 
with  springs  gushing  out  from  the  shaded  recesses 
of  the  forest,  and  furnishing  perennial  water  to  the 
streams  which  flow  through  the  lowlands;  with  the 
rising  knoll  crowned  by  a  neat  painted  farm-house 
and  ample  barns,  protected  by  locust  groves  or 
fruit-bearing  orchards,  alike  from  winter  winds  and 
summer  heats;  with  fields  enclosed  by  well-trimmed 
hedges,  and  pastures  dotted  with  clumps  of  trees, 
to  which  cattle  can  resort  for  shelter  from  the  mid- 
day sun  or  the  drifting  storm;  while,  as  a  conspic- 
uous feature  in  the  landscape,  should  stand  out  in 
bold  relief,  the  village  church  and  village  school- 
house,  a  sign  and  symbol  of  the  morality  and  intel- 
ligence of  its  inhabitants;  —  and  such  a  landscape 
can  be  created  almost  every  where  in  the  fertile 
prairie-region  of  the  West. 

God  bless,  then,  the  man  who  plants  a  tree !  — 
whether  by  the  dusty  roadside  or  on  the  grassy 
plain;  for  thereby  he  renders  himself  a  public  bene- 
factor. The  pedestrian,  foot-sore  and  weary,  as  he 
pauses  beneath  its  shade,  shall  bless  him;  the  patient 


IRRIGATION.  165 

ox,  with  lolling  tongue,  shall  bless  him;  his  children 
and  his  children's  children,  as  they  gather  in  sportive 
group  beneath  its  sheltering  boughs,  shall  remember 
him.  Not  to  the  wandering  Arab  is  the  recol- 
lection of  the  solitary  palm  on  the  desert,  over- 
hanging a  fountain,  more  grateful  than  is  to  us  the 
village  elm,  associated  with  childhood's  sports. 
These  associations  touch  a  chord  in  the  memory 
of  every  one,  which  shall  cease  to  vibrate  only 
with  life  itself.  The  Charter  Oak,  the  Big  Elm  of 
Boston  Common,  the  Willow  of  Pope,  and  the 
Mulberry  of  Shakespeare,  each  has  become  histor- 
ical. Again  we  say,  God  bless  the  man  who  plants 
a  treel 

IRRIGA  TION. 

Another  method  by  which  the  aridity  of  the 
plains  can  be  modified,  under  favorable  conditions, 
is  by  irrigation, — an  art  practised  by  the  early 
inhabitants  of  both  continents,  who  represented  the 
highest  civilization  then  attained.  The  plains  which 
contain  the  sites  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  were 
irrigated  by  the  surplus  waters  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  distributed  in  a  series  of  canals  through 
the  cultivated  fields.  Layard  describes  the  ruins 
of  an  immense  artificial  mound  erected  in  the  heart 
of  the  Assyrian  capital,  built  up  with  terraces, 


1 66  IRRIGATION. 

planted  with  the  choicest  flowers,  and  irrigated  by 
fountains, — a  work  constructed  by  one  of  the  mon- 
archs  as  a  tribute  of  respect  to  the  queen-consort, 
who  had  been  born  in  a  mountainous  region,  and 
desired  some  .reminiscence  of  her  youthful  home. 
From  the  earliest  ages,  too,  this  system  has  been 
practised  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  the  area 
thus  cultivated,  as  indicated  by  the  abandoned 
and  nearly  filled-up  canals,  was  far  more  extensive 
under  the  Pharaohs  than  at  this  day.  In  Armenia, 
Palestine,  India,  and  China,  in  fact  throughout  most 
Oriental  countries,  there  is  evidence  that  this  prac- 
tice prevailed;  and,  without  supposing  an  abandon- 
ment of  it,  we  can  not  account  for  the  diminished 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  decimation  of  the  popu- 
lation. 

When  the  Spaniards  invaded  Peru,  they  found 
the  country  developed  by  a  great  system  of  internal 
improvements; — an  artificial  road  more  than  a  thou- 
sand miles  in  length,  forming  a  line  of  communi- 
cation through  all  the  different  provinces  of  the 
empire,  the  road-bed  either  macadamized  or  paved 
with  flat  stones;  ravines  and  rivers  spanned  by 
bridges  of  stone,  or  wood,  or  rope;  distances 
marked  by  mile-stones;  station-houses  of  well-cut 
stone  at  convenient  intervals;  aqueducts  for  bring- 
ing water  to  the  caravansaries;  and  cisterns  for 
retaining  water  to  irrigate  the  cultivated  fields.  As 


COLORADO.  167 

the  Peruvians  used  no  wheeled  vehicles,  the  moun- 
tain steeps  were  scaled  by  long  flights  of  steps, 
with  resting-places  at  proper  intervals.  Humboldt 
remarks  that  nothing  he  had  seen  of  the  remains  of 
Roman  roads  in  Italy,  in  the  South  of  France,  or 
in  Spain,  was  more  imposing  than  these  works  of 
the  ancient  Peruvians;  and  Hernando  Pizarro,  the 
brother  of  the  Conqueror,  exclaimed:  "In  the 
whole  of  Christendom,  there  are  no  where  such 
fine  roads  as  those  which  we  here  admire."  *  Not 
the  least  of  the  evils  inflicted  on  the  country  b}' 
the  more  warlike  and,  we  might  add,  less  civilized 
Spaniards,  was  the  destruction  of  the  aqueducts  and 
cisterns  by  which  the  supplies  of  water  were  regu- 
lated. 

In  Piedmont  and  Lombardy,  according  to  Marsh, 
irrigation  is  bestowed  on  almost  every  crop,  and 
the  amount  of  water  each  day  distributed  over  the 
plains  would  equal  the  entire  volume  of  the  Seine. 

This  system  has  been  successfully  introduced 
along  the  slopes  of  the  Rock}7  Mountains.  The 
farming  operations  of  the  Mormons  exhibit  a 
degree  of  thrift,  and  are  attended  with  results, 
which  it  would  be  difficult  for  the  prairie  farmer 
of  Illinois  to  parallel.  The  same  results  have  been 
achieved  in  Colorado.  The  wheat  thus  grown  is 
of  the  choicest  kind,  and  the  yield  is  far  beyond 

*  "Aspects  of  Nature." 


1 68  IRRIGATION. 

that  known  in  the  most  favored  regions  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley.  When  it  is  ripened,  the  water  is 
withdrawn,  and  the  farmer  may  gather  the  crops  at 
leisure,  secure  against  blight  or  rains.  The  prices 
of  wheat  and  beef  at  Denver  are  less  than  at  Chi- 
cago- 
California  has  astonished  the  world  by  becoming 

a  wheat-exporting  region,  but  whether  she  will 
maintain  this  position,  is  a  matter  of  doubt.  Colton, 
who  resided  there  during  the  early  occupation  by 
the  Americans,  says: 

"  Some  of  the  largest  crops  that  ever  rewarded  the  toil  of 
the  husbandman,  have  been  gathered  in  California ;  and  yet 
those  very  localities,  owing  to  a  slender  fall  of  winter  rains, 
have  next  season  disappointed  the  hopes  of  the  cultivator. 
The  farmer  can  never  be  certain  of  an  abundant  harvest,  till 
he  is  able  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  rain  by  irrigation."  * 

Antisell  states  that — 

"  The  annual  fall  of  rain  in  the  central  counties  is  about  20 
inches.  In  the  south,  it  ranges  from  10  to  12  inches.  As  this 
quantity  does  not  suffice  to  keep  the  rivers  running  throughout 
the  year,  or  to  soak  the  soil  thoroughly  with  moisture,  irriga- 
tion is  necessary  during  the  summer  months.  In  the  latter 
period  of  the  year,  every  thing  languishes  for  drought,  and  the 
valleys  that  blossomed  like  the  rose  in  March  and  April,  with 
every  wild  flower,  rare,  beautiful,  or  fragrant,  becomes  from 
July  to  August,  brown,  parched,  fissured,  and  the  abode  of  the 
grasshopper  and  reptile.  During  October,  sooner  or  later  with 
the  latitude,  comes  the  first  rain,  and  vegetation  starts  afresh 
into  life  and  variety."  f 

*  "Three  Years  in  California.' 

t  "Pacific  Railroad  Survey,"  Vol.  VII. 


COLORADO    PLATEAU.  169 

During  the  rainy  season,  all  of  the  agricultural 
operations  are  carried  on.  "  The  whole  of  the 
rain,"  he  continues,  "  does  not  come  at  once,  but 
at  intervals,  like  the  former  and  the  latter  rain  of 
Judea." 

In  the  Valley  of  the  Santa  Clara,  the  varieties 
known  as  "California  bearded"  wheat  and  the 
"Chile"  are  cultivated.  The  seed  is  of  good  size 
and  white,  and  the  yield  is  from  forty  to  fifty  bush- 
els to  the  acre.  Barley  yields  seventy-five  bushels, 
and  oats  one  hundred. 

The  Colorado  Desert  is  inhospitable,  not  so 
much  by  reason  of  the  poverty  of  the  soil,  as 
absence  of  moisture,  only  requiring  the  presence 
of  this  condition  to  quicken  vegetation  into  life, 
and  secure  to  the  cultivator  abundant  crops.  The 
barometrical  measurements  carried  over  the  valley, 
show  that  it  is  so  much  lower  than  the  stream  that 
it  may  be  successfully  irrigated.  Capt.  Humphreys 
gives  the  area  as  4,500  square  miles,  or  four 
times  greater  than  that  of  the  cultivated  land  of  the 
Mississippi,  between  the  mouth  of  Red  River  and 
the  Balize,  that  may  be  rendered  cultivable. 

The  Colorado  Plateau,  or  the  Mesa  formation  of 
New  Mexico,  consists  of  broad  uplands,  abruptly 
terminated,  according  to  Parry,  by  steep  mural 
declivities,  bounding  narrow  valleys  of  erosion,  or 
presenting  isolated  buttes  and  fantastically  castel- 


17°  IRRIGATION. 

lated  rocks.  The  uplands  are  almost  bare  of  detri- 
tal  materials,  while  the  valleys  afford  strips  of  land 
adapted  to  agriculture.  The  Pueblo  Indians  are 
enabled  to  cultivate  the  soil,  availing  themselves 
of  the  inundations  of  the  rivers,  and  to  pasture  their 
flocks  by  shifting  them  at  different  seasons  to  dif- 
ferent exposures,  which  involves  a  nomadic  life. 

The  region  to  the  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  pre- 
sents a  far  different  aspect,  and  an  increase  of 
moisture  alone  is  required  to  render  it  fertile 
beyond  compare.  Newberry  thus  describes  it: 

"For  seventy-five  miles  after  leaving  Santa  Fe,  and  proceed- 
ing east,  we  were  involved  in  the  spurs  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  were  passing  through  a  remarkably  picturesque  and 
beautiful  region,  in  which  the  surface  is  nearly  equally  shared 
between  rocky,  ragged,  and  pine-covered  Sierras,  and  open, 
grassy  valleys,  through  which  flow  streams  of  the  purest  water, 
fed  by  the  melting  of  the  snows.  In  this  interval,  we  crossed 
the  rim  of  the  Great  Mississippi  Valley  and  began  to  descend 
its  western  slope.  *  *  *  The  soil  became  more  fertile,  the 
vegetation  more  varied.  The  summer  showers  by  which  we 
were  drenched,  were  for  a  time  so  refreshing  a  novelty  that  we 
scarcely  cared  to  avoid  them.  By  all  these  and  other  signs, 
we  saw  that  we  were  emerging  from  the  vast  arid  area  [the 
Colorado  Plateau],  in  which  many  preceding  months  had  been 
passed,  where  sterility  was  the  rule  and  productiveness  the 
marked  exception,  and  were  approaching  the  region  where  a 
flowing  stream  is  not  a  wonder,  and  where  an  unbroken  sheet 
of  vegetation  covers  the  soil.  *  *  The  contrast  of  physical 
features  presented  by  the  plains  east  and  west  of  the  mountains 
is  not  merely  of  abstract  interest.  It  involves  all  of  the  econ- 
omical differences  between  a  nearly  uninhabitable  desert  and 
perhaps  the  best  agricultural  region  of  the  Continent."  * 

*  "  Pacific  Railroad  Surveys,"  Vol.  XI. 


ROCKY-MOUNTAIN   SLOPE. 


So  far  from  Providence  having  doomed  these 
plains  to  everlasting  sterility,  they  will  be  culti- 
vated whenever  population  shall  press  on  the 
means  of  subsistence;  and  the  waters  of  the  Platte, 
Kansas,  Canadian,  and  Arkansas,  will  be  gathered 
in  reservoirs  and  distributed  by  canals  through  cul- 
tivated fields,  like  those  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
as  in  olden  time.  On  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates 
was  founded  a  city  which  the  prophet  pronounced 
"  the  glory  of  kingdoms,"  and  the  plains  of  Shinar 
sustained  another  city  of  nearly  equal  magnificence, 
whose  "merchants"  were  "multiplied  above  the 
stars  of  heaven." 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CLIMATE. 

DEFINITION    OF    CLIMATE ATMOSPHERIC    CURRENTS RAINS 

AND     WINDS CLOUD-BURSTS ISOTHERMAL     LINES GULF- 
STREAM EVAPORATIVE    POWER  OF  WINDS ISOTHERMS  OF 

THE  UNITED  STATES CLIMATE  OF  THE  PACIFIC  AND  GREAT 

BASIN PHENOMENA     OF    THE     SEASONS TABLE    OF   TEM- 
PERATURES  OF   RAIN   PRECIPITATION. 

Definition  of  Climate.  —  Climate,  in  its  most 
extended  sense,  embraces  a  great  variety  of  phe- 
nomena; such  as  the  ever- varying  changes  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  direction  of  the  winds,  the  precipi- 
tion  of  rains,  the  distribution  of  temperature,  the 
organic  development  of  plants,  and  the  conditions 
of  animal  life.  Each  of  these  branches,  properly 
illustrated,  would  comprise  a  treatise;  but  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  announcing  general  results 
•which  have  been  recorded  by  numerous  explorers 
in  this  domain  of  nature.  Much  information  as  to 
the  distribution  of  winds  and  rains,  which  properly 
belongs  to  this  subject,  has  already  been  anticipated 
in  the  preceding  Chapters. 


ATMOSPHERIC    CURRENTS.  173 

Atmospheric  Currents. — We  may  regard  the 
earth  as  surrounded  by  two  oceans, —  one  aerial  and 
the  other  aqueous.  The  height  of  the  atmosphere 
has  been  assumed  at  fifty  miles  j  but,  owing  to  the 
difference  of  temperature  at  the  Equator  and  at  the 
Poles  (as  80°  to  o),  it  is  unequal,  amounting  to  a 
difference  of  about  four  miles.  Owing,  also,  to  the 
rapidly-decreasing  density  of  air,  as  we  ascend  into 
celestial  space,  one-half  of  the  mass  is  compressed 
into  a  limit  of  three  and  one-half  miles,  which  is 
less  than  the  height  of  the  culminating  points  of 
several  of  the  great  mountain  chains,  such  as  the 
Himalaya  and  the  Andes;  and  hence  it  may  be 
inferred,  that  those  tremendous  perturbations,  as 
manifested  in  the  tornado  or  hurricane,  whose  track 
is  marked  on  the  surface  by  indiscriminate  ruin, 
extend  to  no  great  height  in  the  region  of  space. 

Henry,  in  his  "  Contributions  to  Meteorology," 
has  so  well  explained  the  complex  system  of  winds 
that  we  shall  avail  ourselves  of  his  explanation,  but 
with  some  condensation. 

If  the  earth  were  at  rest,  he  remarks,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  air,  expanded  by  the  sun's  heat  at  the  Equa- 
tor, would  rise  up  and  flow  over,  descending,  as  it 
were,  an  inclined  plane  towards  the  poles,  where  it 
would  reach  the  earth's  surface,  and  flow  back  to 
the  Equator,  and  thus  a  perpetual  circulation  would 
be  maintained.  It  is  further  evident  that,  since  the 


174  CLIMATE. 

meridians  of  the  earth  converge,  all  the  air  that 
rose  at  the  Equator  would  not  flow  along  the  upper 
surface  entirely  to  the  Poles,  but  the  greater  portion 
would  proceed  no  further  north  and  south  than  lati- 
tude 30°,  for  the  surface  of  the  earth,  contained 
between  the  parallel  of  this  degree  and  the  Equator, 
is  equal  to  that  of  half  of  the  whole  hemisphere. 
Portions,  however,  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
would  flow  on,  to  descend  at  different  points 
further  north;  and  of  these  portions,  some  probably 
would  reach  the  pole,  and  there  sink  to  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  from  that  point  diverge  in  all 
directions  in  the  form  of  a  northerly  wind.  Be- 
tween the  two  ascending  currents  near  the  Equator 
there  would  be  a  region  of  calms,  or  variable 
winds.  The  currents  which  flow  over  towards  the 
poles  would  descend  with  the  greatest  velocity 
at  the  coldest  point,  because  there  the  air  would  be 
densest. 

Now,  the  earth  is  in  rapid  motion  on  its  axis, 
from  west  to  east;  and  every  particle  of  air,  there- 
fore, flowing  from  the  north  to  the  Equator,  would 
partake  of  the  motion  of  the  place  at  which  it 
started,  and  would  reach  in  succession  lines  of 
latitude  moving  more  rapidly  than  itself.  It  would, 
therefore,  lag  behind  continually,  and  appear  to 
describe  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  a  slightly 
curvilinear  course  towards  the  west;  and  hence 


ATMOSPHERIC    CURRENTS.  1 75 

the  Northeast  Trades  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
and  the  Southeast  Trades  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere, where  the  conditions  are  reversed,  but  both 
blowing  towards  the  belt  of  greatest  rarefaction. 

The  particles  of  air  approaching  the  equator  will 
not  ascend  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  but  will 
rise  continually  as  they  advance  towards  the  west 
along  an  ascending  plane,  and  will  continue  for  a 
time  their  westerly  motion  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere. After  they  have  commenced  their  return 
towards  the  north,  and  until  they  arrive  at  parts  of 
the  earth  moving  more  rapidly  than  themselves, 
they  will  gradually  curve  towards  the  east,  and 
finally  descend  earthward,  to  become  again  a  part 
of  the  surface  Trade  Winds  from  the  northeast. 
The  atoms  will  move  westward  as  they  ascend: 
i.  On  account  of  the  momentum  in  that  direction; 
and,  2.  Because,  as  they  reach  a  higher  elevation, 
they  will  have  less  easterly  velocity  than  the  earth 
beneath.  They  will  also  be  affected  by  another 
force,  first  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Ferrell,  due  to  the 
increase  of  gravity  which  a  particle  of  matter  expe- 
riences in  traveling  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that 
of  the  rotation  of  the  earth.  The  last-mentioned 
cause  of  deflection  will  operate  in  an  opposite 
direction  on  atoms  when  they  assume  an  easterly 
course.  The  result  of  the  complex  conditions 
under  which  the  motive-power  acts  in  such  a  case, 


Ij  CLIMATE. 

would  be  to  produce  a  system  of  circuits  inclined 
to  the  west,  the  eastern  portion  of  which  would  be 
at  the  surface,  and  the  western  portion  at  different 
elevations,  even  to  the  top  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  circulation  would 
descend  to  the  earth  within  30°  of  the  equator, 
giving  rise  to  the  Trade  Winds;  another  portion 
would  flow  further  north,  and  produce  the  South- 
west Winds;  and  another  portion,  flowing  still 
further  north,  would  descend  to  the  earth  as  a 
Northwest  Wind.  The  air  which  descends  in  the 
region  of  the  North  Pole  would  not  flow  directly 
southward;  but,  on  account  of  the  rotation  of  the 
earth,  would  turn  towards  the  west,  and  become  a 
northeasterly  current.  It  might  appear,  at  first 
sight,  that  the  north  wind  which  descends  from  the 
polar  regions  would  continue  its  course  along  the 
surface,  until  it  joined  the  Trade  Winds  within  the 
tropics;  but  this  could  not  be  the  case,  on  account 
of  the  much  greater  western  velocity  which  this 
wind  would  acquire  from  the  rapidly-increasing 
rotary  motion  as  we  leave  the  pole.  * 

Thus  it  is  that  we  have  different  belts  of  air 
encircling  the  earth  with  girdles,  divided,  as  it 
were,  by  impenetrable  walls.  In  the  circumpolar 
region  of  the  North,  we  have  the  girdle  of  South- 
west Currents,  bounded  by  the  Calm  Belt  of  Can- 

*  Professor  Joseph  Henry,  "Patent  Office  Report,"  1856. 


ATMOSPHERIC    CURRENTS.  1 77 

cer;  in  the  circumpolar  region  of  the  South,  the 
girdle  of  Northwest  Currents  (at  right-angles  to  the 
former),  bounded  by  the  Calm  Belt  of  Capricorn. 
Within  the  tropics,  we  have,  north  of  the  Equator, 
the  girdle  of  Northeast  Trades,  and  south  (at  right- 
angles),  the  girdle  of  Southeast  Trades,  with  the 
Movable  Belt  of  Variable  Winds  and  Constant 
Precipitation,  whose  action  is  regulated  by  the 
advance  and  recession  of  the  sun,  during  the  pro- 
gress of  the  seasons.  (  Vide  Plate  I.)  This  gives 
rise  to  the  periodicity,  in  the  tropics,  of  winds  and 
rains.  The  breadth,  too,  of  the  several  belts  varies, 
being  contracted  into  a  smaller  space  towards  the 
poles  during  the  winter,  and  expanded  into  a  wider 
space  during  the  summer. 

If  the  earth  were  a  sphere  perfectly  smooth,  the 
flow  of  the  winds,  as  thus  defined,  would  be  uni- 
form; but  it  is  crested  with  ridges,  the  culminating 
points  of  which  in  some  instances  pierce,  as  we 
have  seen,  at  least  one-half  of  the  mass  of  the 
aerial  envelope,  and  hence  interrupt  that  uniformity 
of  flow,  giving  force  and  direction  to  local  winds. 

The  inclination  of  the  earth's  orbit  to  the  Equator 
(23°  27'  54.8"),  and  the  inclination  of  its  axis  to  its 
orbit  (66°  32'),  give  origin  to  a  great  variety  of 
changes  which  exert  a  marked  influence  on  animal 
and  vegetable  life.  If  the  earth's  Equator  coincided 
with  the  Ecliptic,  the  sun  would  pursue  an  unvary- 

12 


178  CLIMATE. 

ing  round,  and  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Poles  it 
would  never  appear,  except  on  the  verge  of  the 
horizon.  The  days  and  nights  would  be  of  equal 
duration,  the  winds  would  blow  constantly  in  one 
direction,  and  the  difference  between  summer  and 
winter  temperature  would  be  unknown.  Instead 
of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons, — spring,  with 
every  valley  and  plain  covered  with  new-born  ver- 
dure; summer,  with  its  maturing  fruits  and  harvests; 
autumn,  with  its  rustling  and  shriveled  leaves;  and 
winter,  with  its  ice-bound  streams  and  mantle  of 
snow;  —  we  should  have  at  the  Equator,  eternal 
summer;  at  the  verge  of  the  Tropics,  eternal 
spring;  and  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  which  now, 
during  the  short-lived  summer,  is  made  verdant  by 
a  covering  of  Alpine  blossoms,  would  reign  eternal 
ice. 

Rains. — The  ocean  receives  into  its  abyss  the 
superabundant  moisture  of  the  land,  and  at  the 
same  time  is  the  great  source  from  which  it  ema- 
nates. The  heated  air  which  ascends  from  the 
Equator  up  into  the  regions  of  space,  is  saturated 
with  moisture  gathered  in  its  passage  across  these 
wide  expanses  of  water.  The  ocean  may  be  com- 
pared to  an  enormous  sponge,  whose  capacity  for 
absorption  is  in  direct  proportion  to  its  power  of 
expansion.  As  the  heated  column  ascends,  it  con- 


CONDITIONS    OF    RAIN-FALL.  179 

stantly  encounters  a  diminished  temperature,  which 
condenses  its  volume,  and  causes  it  to  part  with  a 
portion  of  its  moisture",  which  descends  under  the 
form  of  fog,  or  dew,  or  hail,  or  rain,  or  snow,  or 
ice. 

This  action  is  more  energetic  under  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  than  in  the  cold  glare  of  an  Arctic 
night;  and  hence  it  is,  theoretic 'ally r,  that  the  great- 
est precipitation  takes  place  within  the  tropics,  and 
the  least  within  the  circumpolar  regions.  Hum- 
boldt  estimates  that  the  average  rain-fall  at  the 
Equator  is  96  inches;  at  latitude  19°,  80  inches;  at 
45°,  29  inches;  at  6oc,  17  inches.  But  there  are 
disturbing  causes,  such  as  the  configuration  of  the 
country  by  reason  of  lofty  mountain  chains,  vast 
sandy  plains,  oceanic  expanses,  etc.,  as  we  have 
before  shown,  which  modify  the  flow  of  atmos- 
pheric currents;  so  that  these  speculations  are 
nearly  valueless. 

There  are  two  conditions  of  the  atmosphere 
under  which  precipitation  ordinarily  takes  place: 
i.  Where  two  equal  portions  of  air  at  different 
temperatures,  completely  saturated  with  moisture, 
are  mingled  together,  so  as  to  partake  of  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  whole  mass;  and,  2.  As  in 
thunder-storms,  due  to  the  electrical  action  of  the 
clouds,  where  the  hygrometric  moisture  of  the  air 
is  held  in  suspension  by  the  mutual  repulsion  of  the 


l8o  CLIMATE. 

particles,  until  the  electricity,  which  is  the  sustain- 
ing power,  is  withdrawn,  when  the  particles  coalesce 
and  descend  by  the  force  of  gravitation.  To  enter 
into  an  explanation  of  all  these  complex  phenomena 
would  lead  to  a  wide  digression  from  the  objects 
of  this  Chapter;  but  it  may  be  said  that,  through 
the  ocean,  with  its  connecting  springs  and  rivers,  a 
harmonious  circulation  of  moisture  is  perpetually 
maintained  over  the  whole  of  our  planet,  which 
may  be  compared  to  the  flow  of  blood  from  the 
heart,  through  the  arteries  and  veins  of  the  human 
system,  each  pulsation  of  the  great  centre  commu- 
nicating a  vital  force  to  the  very  extremities. 

In  making  an  application  of  these  general  princi- 
ples to  the  Great  Valley,  it  may  be  said  that  its 
configuration  is  such  as  to  show  marked  peculiari- 
ties, both  in  reference  to  temperature  and  the 
distribution  of  moisture,  which  separate  it  in  some 
degree  from  the  Atlantic  Slope,  and  widely  from 
the  Great  Basin  and  the  Pacific  Slope.  Walled  in, 
as  we  have  seen,  both  on  the  east  and  west,  by  two 
diverging  mountain  chains,  and  presenting  between 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Arctic  Sea  no  elevation 
much  to  exceed  2,000  feet,  there  is  no  great  barrier 
to  arrest  the  flow  of  the  hot  southerly  winds  of 
summer,  or  the  cold  northerly  winds  of  winter;  in 
this  respect  presenting  far  different  structural  rela- 
tions from  those  of  the  northern  portion  of  the 


THUNDER-GUSTS.  iSl 

Eastern  Hemisphere.  Though  included  mainly  in 
the  Belt  of  Southwest  Winds,  yet,  owing  to  the 
configuration  of  the  country,  as  before  shown,  it 
draws  its  supplies  of  moisture  from  the  Northeast 
Trades,  which,  during  one-half  of  the  year,  trav- 
ersing the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
before  striking  the  land,  bear  the  warmth  of  those 
waters  far  inland,  and  communicate  to  the  region 
the  peculiar  semi-tropical  character  of  its  summers; 
while,  during  the  other  half  of  the  year,  the  cold 
blasts  of  the  north  sweep  down  unopposed  into  the 
lower  latitudes,  producing  all  of  the  rigors  of  an 
Arctic  winter.  We  have  already  adverted  to  the 
effects  of  these  extremes  of  temperature  upon  the 
forest-growth,  and  shall  have  occasion  to  describe 
their  influence  in  determining  the  range  of  those 
plants  which  are  cultivated  for  human  food. 

The  phenomena  often  attending  the  summer 
precipitation  are  these:  Day  after  day,  under  the 
influence  of  a  southwest  wind,  the  thermometer 
will  mark  a  temperature  of  90°  or  even  100°  F., 
and  however  violent  the  wind,  it  brings  no  refresh- 
ing coolness,  but  rather  increased  languor.  The 
sun  glows  with  a  fierceness  and  intensity  unknown 
in  the  tropics,  and  the  air  itself  seems  to  be  deprived 
of  ozone,  or  that  principle  of  oxygen  which  com- 
municates life  and  energy  to  the  system.  But  at 
length  there  comes  a  change.  A  cloud  is  seen  to 


l82  CLIMATE. 

gather  in  the  north  or  northwest,  which  gradually 
unrolls  its  murky  folds  as  it  advances  against  the 
wind.  The  sky  becomes  overcast,  and  almost  the 
darkness  of  night  succeeds.  Then  there  is  a  lull. 
The  wind  suddenly  veers  to  an  opposite  point,  and 
sweeps  down  with  careering  force.  The  air  is  filled 
with  dust,  and  the  foliage  of  the  trees  sways  to  and 
fro.  The  rain  descends  in  torrents,  accompanied 
by  loud  peals  of  thunder  and  intense  flashes  of 
lightning.  Gradually  the  rain  abates,  the  clouds 
disperse,  the  sun  comes  out,  a  rainbow  spans  the 
sky,  new  life  is  infused  into  the  air,  and  every 
organism,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  is  refreshed 
and  invigorated. 

There  are  ordinarily  two  or  three  of  these  heated 
terms  in  the  course  of  the  summer  season,  termi- 
nated by  abrupt  changes  of  temperature.  The 
prairie  region,  having  no  forest-belts  to  break  the 
force  of  these  thunder-gusts,  suffers  from  their  visi- 
tations; and  each  year  there  are  recorded  instances 
from  this  cause,  of  the  loss  of  life  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  property.  In  the  great  northern  forests, 
even,  are  to  be  seen  wide  tracks  where  every  tree 
is  prostrate,  provincially  known  as  "  windfalls." 

Cloud- Bursts.  —  Standing  at  Denver,  in  a  clear 
summer's  afternoon,  and  looking  west  at  the  long 


CLOUD-BURSTS.  183 

range  of  mountains  in  whose  gulches  snow  is 
perennial,  a  cloud  may  often  be  seen  to  rise  up 
in  a  straight  column,  like  the  smoke  of  a  volcano, 
and  gradually  spread  out  like  the  covering  of  an 
umbrella.  Another  cloud  will  rise  up  in  another 
quarter  and  assume  the  same  shape,  until  at  length 
there  is  a  mingling  of  vapors  with  electrical  explo- 
sions, when  there  falls  a  gentle  shower,  extending 
often  to  a  region  which,  but  for  these  local  phe- 
nomena would  be  nearly  rainless.  Soon  the  sun 
shines  out,  and  the  sky  is  cloudless.  But  these 
manifestations  of  electrical  phenomena  are  not 
always  equally  harmless.  Explorers  in  the  Great 
Basin  describe  wide  washes  of  coarse  gravel,  which 
bear  unmistakable  evidence  of  the  action  of  violent 
torrents,  which  occasionally  pour  down  the  valleys 
and  involve  every  thing  in  a  common  ruin. 

These  phenomena  are  known  as  "cloud-bursts," 
and  are  frequently  of  such  violence  as  to  endanger 
life.  The  appearance  is  described  by  Mr.  Harrison 
"as  if  an  inverted  whirlwind  was  drawing  from 
the  cloud  immense  quantities  of  water,  which  it 
dashed  in  floods  against  the  mountain  sides."  By 
these  floods,  he  had  known  trees  to  be  uprooted, 
and  rocks  transported  to  considerable  distances. 
On  one  occasion,  the  water  in  the  canon  was  thirty 
feet  deep.  These  storms  are  in  the  nature  of  a 


1 84  CLIMATE. 

water-spout,  and  occur  when  elsewhere  the  sky  is 
clear  and  cloudless.  * 

In  the  region  of  Texas,  and  extending  far  up  the 
Plains,  there  is  a  peculiar  wind,  experienced  in  the 
first  months  of  the  year,  known  as  "a  norther." 
The  wind  will  blow  from  the  Gulf  for  many  days, 
bringing  with  it  a  summer  heat.  Man,  under  its 
influence,  feels  an  oppressive  languor,  while  vege- 
tation quickens  into  life;  but  almost  instantaneously 
the  weather-cock  veers  to  the  north,  and  a  cold  blast 
succeeds.  Instances  are  recorded  where  the  tem- 
perature has  suddenly  dropped  from  84°  to  36°. 

During  the  winter,  in  Canada,  the  cold  winds 
are  northwest;  in  the  Middle  States,  west;  and  in 
Texas,  north.  The  winter  storms  are  usually  pre- 
ceded by  southerly  winds,  and  are  attended  with 
great  fluctuations  of  the  barometer.  To  these  suc- 
ceed cold  westerly  winds,  during  which  the  mercury 
occasionally  drops  to  -20°. 

Of  all  the  storms,  however,  in  the  temperate 
region,  the  most  cheerless  and  tantalizing  to  him, 
particularly,  who  is  sensitive  to  rheumatic  twinges, 
are  those  known  as  "  northeasters."  They  are 
long-continued,  and  are  accompanied  by  a  chilling 
sensation  not  characteristic  of  rains  from  other 
quarters.  These  storms  are  rare  in  the  Gulf  region, 
but  are  felt,  though  in  diminished  force  and  fre- 

*  W.  J.  Young,  of  Boise  City,  in  "  Smithsonian  Report,"  1867. 


ATMOSPHERIC    MOVEMENTS.  185 

quency,  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The  general 
cloud-movement,  north  of  latitude  30°,  is  from 
west  to  east,  whatever  may  be  the  direction  of  the 
surface  current.  The  fact  that  a  northeast  storm 
may  originate  at  Pittsburg  or  Washington,  when 
a  west  wind  is  blowing  at  Boston,  is  pretty  con- 
clusive that  the  saturation  of  the  under  current  is 
not  derived  from  the  Atlantic.  This  fact,  first 
observed  by  .Franklin,  is  recognized  by  men 
engaged  in  the  practical  pursuits  of  navigation.* 

Without   further  detail    as    to    the    atmospheric 
movements,  we  submit  the  following  summary: 

1.  That  the  Northeast  Trades,  deflected  in  their 
course  to  south  and  southeast  winds,  in  their  pas- 
sage through  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,   are   the   warm    and    moist   winds   which 
communicate   to    the    Mississippi   Valley  and    the 
Atlantic  Slope,  their  fertility. 

2.  That  the  prevalence  of  these  winds  from  May 
to   October,  communicates   to   this   region  a  sub- 
tropical climate. 

3.  That,  in  the  region  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of 

*  Mr.  Prescott  states  that  the  owner  of  a  line  of  steamers  plying 
between  Boston  and  Portland,  employs  an  agent  in  New  York  to 
transmit  to  him  daily  reports  of  the  weather.  If  foul,  he  sends  a  mes- 
sage at  8  A.M. ;  if  a  storm  comes  up,  he  sends  another  at  noon ;  and 
another  at  3  o'clock  P.M.,  giving  a  full  statement  of  its  progress.  If 
violent,  the  owner  then  orders  the  Portland  boat  to  remain  in  harbor; 
and  next  determines  whether  the  Boston  boat  can  reach  Portland 
before  the  storm  can  overtake  her.  (••  History  Electric  Telegraph.") 


1 86  CLIMATE. 

Mexico,  the  atmospheric  disturbances  are  propa- 
gated from  south  to  north;  but  in  the  Northern  and 
Middle  States,  owing  to  a  prevailing  upper  current, 
from  west  to  east. 

4.  That  while  this  upper  current  is  cool  and  dry, 
and  we  have  the  apparent  anomaly  of  rain-storms 
traveling  from  west  to  east,  at  the  same  time  the 
moisure  supplying  them  comes  from  the  south. 

5.  That,  in  the  winter,  the  south  and  southeast 
winds  rise  into  the  upper  current,  while  the  west 
and  northwest  winds  descend  and  blow  as  surface 
winds,  accompanied  by  an  extraordinary  depression 
of  temperature,    creating,   as    it  were,   an  almost 
Arctic  climate. 

6.  That  the  propagation  of  the  cold  winds  from 
west  to  east,  is  due  to  the  existence  of  a  warmer 
and  lighter  air  to  the  eastward. 

7.  That  in  summer  the  westerly  currents  seldom 
blow  with  violence,  because,  in  passing  over  the 
heated  plains,  they  acquire   nearly  the  same  tem- 
perature as  the  southerly  currents;   but  in  winter, 
these  conditions  are  reversed. 

\ 

Isothermal  Lines.  —  Before  the  laws  of  clima- 
tology were  understood,  it  was  customary  to  judge 
of  the  mean  temperature  of  a  place  by  its  distance 
from  the  Equator;  but  with  the  progress  of  physi- 
cal geography,  it  was  found  that  the  influence  of 


ISOTHERMAL    LINES.  187 

radiation  was  essentially  modified  by  the  presence 
of  large  oceanic  or  continental  areas.  Humboldt 
was  the  first  to  connect  together,  by  certain  lines, 
those  places  which  possessed  the  same  degree  of 
temperature;  and  he  extended  the  application, 
by  lines  uniting  places  where  the  summer  tempera- 
ture was  the  same,  and  the  places  where  the  winter 
temperature  was  the  same.  The  lines  of  mean 
annual  temperature  were  termed  Isothermal /  those 
of  mean  winter  temperature,  Isochimenalj  and 
those  of  mean  summer  temperature,  Isotherial. 

The  lines  of  mean  winter  and  summer  tempera- 
ture, when  traced  around  the  earth,  are  not  parallel, 
but  exhibit  convex  and  concave  summits,  and  often 
describe  sharp  curves.  The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  two  places  may  be  equal,  and  yet  the  sum- 
mer and  winter  temperatures  may  present  the  most 
abrupt  contrasts.  Compare,  for  instance,  Dublin, 
Ireland,  with  West  Point,  New  York: 

Lat.       Mean.      Winter.     Spring.     Summer.    Autumn. 

Dublin 53  23'        49.1  40.2  47.1  59.6  49.7 

West  Point.  .41° 23'        50.7          29.7  48.7  71.3  53.2 

Difference. .  .12°  1.6          10.5 —          1.6  11.7+  3.5 

We  are  first  struck  with  the  difference  in  latitude, 
Dublin  being  12°  further  north;  and  next,  while 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  year  is  about  the 
same,  the  winters  are  more  than  10°  colder,  and 
the  summers  more  than  11°  warmer,  thus  making 


1 88  CLIMATE. 

an  extreme  difference  of  nearly  22°  in  the  yearly 
variation  between  the  two  points.  And  yet  Ireland, 
with  her  equable  climate  and  moist  skies,  where 
the  orange  may  remain  out-doors  unfrosted,  all  the 
year  round,  can  not  mature  those  fruits  and  grasses 
which  fully  ripen  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson. 
The  deflection  of  the  isothermal  lines  to  the  south, 
in  passing  from  the  western  coast  of  Europe  to  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  United  States,  is  equivalent  to 
about  n°  of  latitude,  or  nearly  700  geographical 
miles.  The  reason  of  this,  when  we  come  to  com- 
prehend all  of  the  phenomena,  is  obvious. 

The  Gulf- Stream. — This  current,  with  a  mean 
temperature  of  80°,  sets  over  from  the  coast  of 
Africa,  into  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  then  abruptly  curves  around  the  extreme 
peninsula  of  Florida,  and  conforms  in  its  course  to 
the  trend  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  as  far  north  as  lati- 
tude 40°,  when  it  is  deflected  northeast,  and  spreads 
itself  in  a  fan-like  shape  over  the  cold  waters  of 
Western  Europe,  from  Spitzbergen  to  the  Bay  of 
Biscay;  throwing  upon  those  shores  the  warmth 
and  moisture  gathered  in  the  tropics,  and  commu- 
nicating an  equable  climate  unknown  to  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  United  States. 


OCEANIC    CURRENTS.  189 

The  Arctic  Current.  —  The  Arctic  Current 
which,  setting  from  Baffin's  Bay,  flows  along  the 
coasts  of  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  interposes 
a  zone  of  cold  water  between  the  Gulf-Stream  and 
the  land,  which  refrigerates  the  region  far  inland. 
The  winds,  too,  which  prevail  on  the  land,  are  cold 
westerly  winds,  and  ofF-shore,  thus  bearing  the 
warmth  and  moisture  of  the  Gulf-Stream  away 
from  the  United  States.  This  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  a  vessel  often  in  approaching  the  coast,  in 
mid-winter,  finds  her  shrouds  and  decks  encased  in 
ice,  so  much  so  as  to  render  her  nearly  unmanage- 
able. Reversing  her  course,  a  few  hours'  run 
brings  her  into  a  summer  heat;  the  ice  drops  from 
her  shrouds,  the  frosted  crew  are  warmed  by  the 
soft  breath  of  the  Gulf-Stream,  and  are  reinvig- 
orated  to  encounter  again  the  perils  of  a  winter's 
sea. 

The  harbor  of  St.  John  has  been  known  to 
remain  closed  until  June,  while  that  of  Liverpool, 
two  degrees  further  north,  is  never  obstructed  by 
ice.  A  native  of  the  British  Isles,  taking  up  his 
abode  in  New  York,  finds  a  climate  almost  the 
reverse  of  that  to  which  he  has  been  accustomed; 
a  summer  as  hot  as  that  of  Rome,  and  a  winter  as 
cold  as  that  of  Copenhagen. 

We  can  conceive  of  changes  in  the  relative  level 
of  the  land  and  sea,  by  which  Western  Europe 


190  CLIMATE. 

would  assume  climatic  conditions  such  as  pre- 
vailed during  the  Drift  epoch.  A  German  physi- 
cist (Harwig)  has  remarked: 

"  If  we  suppose  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Central  America  to 
be  sunken  in  the  ocean,  the  warm  equatorial  current  would 
no  longer  follow  its  circuitous  route  around  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
but  pour  itself  through  a  new  opening  directly  into  the  Pacific. 
We  should  then  lose  the  warmth  of  the  Gulf-Stream ;  and 
cold  Polar  currents,  flowing  further  south,  would  take  its  place, 
and  be  driven  on  our  coasts  by  western  winds.  The  North 
Sea  would  resemble  Hudson's  Bay,  and  its  harbors  would  be 
free  from  ice  only  in  summer.  The  power  and  prosperity  of 
its  coasts  would  shrivel  under  the  breath  of  winter  ;  commerce, 
industry,  fertility  of  soil,  and  population,  would  disappear ; 
and  the  vast  waste  —  a  new  Labrador  —  would  become  a 
worthless  appendage  of  some  clime  more  favored  by  nature." 

Between  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States 
and  the  western  coast  of  Europe,  there  is  a  simi- 
larity in  the  equable  precipitation  of  rain,  but  a 
marked  dissimilarity  in  the  temperature  of  the  sea- 
sons. Between  the  western  coast  of  the  United 
States  and  the  western  coast  of  Europe,  there  is  a 
marked  similarity  in  the  temperature  of  the  seasons, 
but  a  marked  dissimilarity  in  the  distribution  of 
rains. 

Evaporative  Power  of  the  Winds. — While  the 
annual  fall  of  rain  in  the  British  Isles  averages  36 
inches,  that  of  the  Atlantic  coast  is  44  inches. 
The  air  of  the  latter  region  is  dryer,  notwithstand- 


EVAPORATION. 


ing  this  excess  of  rain,  for  the  reason  that  its  evap- 
orative power  is  greater.  This  arises  from  two 
causes:  —  the  greater  proportion  of  cloudless  skies, 
and  the  higher  temperature  of  the  summers.  Com- 
paring Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  with  White- 
haven,  England,  —  one  of  the  most  copiously 
watered  points  in  the  British  Isles,  —  we  find  that 
the  annual  precipitation  is  nearly  the  same  (44.48 
inches  and  45.25  inches),  and  that  the  annual  evap- 
oration is  as  56  to  30.03  inches. 

The  United  States  enjoy  a  serenity  of  sky 
unknown  to  Great  Britain.  While  in  one  country 
the  crops  are  subject  to  drought  with  a  great  sum- 
mer precipitation,  in  the  other  they  are  liable  to  be 
injured  by  excess  of  moisture;  while  in  the  lower 
latitudes  of  the  United  States  the  grasses  shrivel 
up  and  die,  under  the  heats  of  a  summer's  sun,  in 
Ireland  they  preserve  a  perennial  green.  These 
examples  show  that  the  dryness  of  a  climate  does 
not  depend  upon  a  mere  deficiency  of  rain,  but 
upon  heat  which  expands  the  air  and  increases  its 
absorbing  capacity,  and  upon  the  serenity  of  the 
skies  which  permits  evaporation  to  take  place. 
The  air  is  the  dryest  in  the  hottest  months,  when 
evaporation  is  the  greatest;  it  contains  the  greatest 
dampness  in  the  coldest  months,  for  the  reason  that 
the  moisture  is  condensed  and  thus  rendered  appar- 
ent. 


1 92  CLIMATE. 

Isotherms  of  the  United  States.  (See  Plate 
II.,  at  the  end  of  the  Chapter.)  —  In  comparing 
the  climate  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  with  that  of  the 
Great  Valley,  where  it  assumes  the  character  of 
treeless  plains,  it  is  found  that,  as  we  advance  into 
the  interior,  the  summers  become  warmer  and  the 
winters  cooler.  Great  as  are  the  extremes  on  the 
sea-board,  they  become  greater  on  the  prairies, — 
thus  showing  the  effect  of  the  earth's  radiation  over 
vast  surfaces  remote  from  internal  seas,  and  deprived 
of  forest-belts.  The  presence  of  the  ocean  tends, 
in  some  degree,  to  mitigate  the  excessive  tempera- 
ture of  the  Atlantic  Slope,  and  the  same  effect  is 
produced  by  the  forests  which  clothe  not  only  the 
crests  but  the  slopes  of  the  Alleghanies.  The 
Great  Lakes  also  exercise  a  similar  influence  over 
the  adjacent  regions.  Hence,  as  we  trace  the 
isotherms  of  spring  and  summer,  say  from  New 
York  as  a  geographical  point,  they  are  found  to 
pursue  a  pretty  uniform  direction  westerly  until 
they  reach  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan, 
when  they  abruptly  curve  to  the  northwest,  and  at 
longitude  105°  are  found  to  have  deviated  about  8° 
from  the  corresponding  parallel  of  latitude.  Capt. 
Mullan,  who  was  engaged  in  the  Pacific  Railroad 
Surveys  of  this  region,  and  was  subsequently 
detailed  to  open  a  wagon-road  from  Fort  Benton 
to  the  Columbia,  gives  several  citations  of  mean 


ISOTHERMS.  193 

temperature.  That  of  Walla- Walla,  in  latitude 
46°,  corresponds  to  that  of  Washington,  latitude 
38°;  that  of  Clark's  Fork,  48°,  to  that  of  St. 
Joseph's,  Mo.,  41°;  and  that  of  Bitter- Root  Valley, 
46°,  to  that  of  Philadelphia,  40°. 

In  reference  to  the  climatology  of  this  region,  he 
remarks : 

"As  early  as  the  winter  of  1853,  which  I  spent  in  these 
mountains  (the  Upper  Missouri  Valley),  my  attention  was 
called  to  the  mild  open  region  lying  between  the  Deer-lodge 
Valley  and  Fort  Laramie,  where  the  buffalo  roamed  in  mil- 
lions during  the  winter,  and  which,  during  that  season,  consti- 
tuted the  great  hunting-grounds  of  the  Crows,  Blackfeet,  and 
other  mountain  tribes.  *  *  *  The  meteorological  statistics 
collected  during  a  great  number  of  years,  have  enabled  me  to 
trace  an  isochimenal  line  across  the  continent,  from  St. 
Joseph's,  Missouri,  to  the  Pacific ;  and  the  direction  taken  by 
this  line  is  wonderful,  and  worthy  the  most  important  attention 
in  all  future  legislation  that  looks  towards  the  travel  and  settle- 
ment of  this  country.  This  line,  which  leaves  St.  Joseph's,  in 
latitude  40°,  follows  the  general  line  of  the  Platte  to  Fort  Lar- 
amie, where,  from  newly-introduced  causes,  it  tends  north- 
westerly between  the  Wind-River  Chain  and  the  Black  Hills, 
crossing  the  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  latitude  47°  ; 
showing  that  in  the  interval  from  St.  Joseph's,  it  had  gained 
6°  of  latitude.  Tracing  it  still  further  westward,  it  goes  as 
high  as  48°,  and  develops  itself  in  a  fan-like  shape,  on  the 
plains  of  the  Columbia.  From  Fort  Laramie  to  Clark's  Fork, 
I  call  this  "  an  atmospheric  river  of  heat,"  varying  in  width 
from  one  to  one  hundred  miles.  On  either  side,  north  and 
south,  are  walls  of  cold  air,  which  are  so  clearly  perceptible 
that  you  always  detect  when  you  are  on  its  shores."  * 

*  Captain  Mullan,  "  Guide  to  Oregon,"  etc.,  1865. 
13 


194  CLIMATE. 

Captains  Paliser  and  Blackstone,  of  the  English 
Army,  accompanied  by  Dr.  Hector  as  Geologist,  in 
their  report  of  the  Saskatchawan  country,  and  of 
the  region  lying  between  Lake  Winipeg  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  which  are  embraced  in  this 
warm  belt,  state  that  there  is  an  area  of  11,000,000 
acres  of  fertile  soil,  where  the  winters  are  mild, 
and  where  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  have  pro- 
duced every  crop  grown  in  the  Northwestern 
States.  In  the  Pembina  Settlement,  we  know  that 
for  years  agriculture  has  been  successfully  prose- 
cuted. 

In  explanation  of  these  phenomena,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  Rocky  Mountains,  as  we  have  before 
shown,  attain  their  highest  elevation  south  of  the 
South  Pass,  in  the  parallel  of  39°  north,  and  as  pro- 
longed northward,  they  drop  down  and  become 
merged  in  hills  of  moderate  elevation.  Through 
this  depression,  it  is  believed  that  the  warm  breath 
of  the  Pacific,  brought  by  the  southwesterly  winds, 
flows,  until  it  is  met  by  the  cooler  currents  which 
prevail  over  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Great  Valley. 
The  effect  of  this  flow  is  to  modify  the  rigor  of 
the  climate  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  as  far  up  even  as  Athabasca  and  the 
Assiniboin,  and  to  render  subservient  to  agriculture 
a  region  corresponding  in  latitude,  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  with  the  inhospitable  wastes  of  Labrador. 


GULF   COAST.  195 

Along  the  Gulf  Coast,  the  isothermal  lines  pursue 
a  nearly  uniform  parallelism  with  those  of  latitude, 
until  they  strike  the  high  table-lands  of  Western 
Texas,  when  they  are  rapidly  deflected  south*  but 
in  their  passage  across  the  Great  Basin,  are  rapidly 
deflected  to  the  north. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  Mississippi  Basin  is 
more  directly  exposed,  in  spring  and  summer,  to 
the  warm, moist  breath  exhaled  from  the  Gulf,  than 
the  sea-board ;  and  its  effect  is  seen  in  the  increased 
duration  of  tropical  heat,  and  the  quickening  power 
communicated  to  vegetation.  The  profuse  rains 
which  characterize  this  portion  of  the  year,  deprive 
the  climate  largely  of  its  continental  features,  and 
dispense  their  fertilizing  effects  far  towards  the 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Climate  of  the  Gulf  Coast. — Along  the  Gulf 
Coast,  the  climate  assimilates  in  its  features  to  that 
of  the  tropics,  —  clear  blue  skies  in  the  morning, 
starlight  nights,  gentle  showers  at  midday,  and  a 
luxuriant  vegetation,  with  large  spreading  leaves, — 
unlike  the  vegetation  of  the  Plains,  where  the  dry 
air  concentrates  the  saps,  and  often  communicates 
to  the  plants  an  aromatic  odor.  But  even  here,  the 
fluctuations  of  temperature  occasioned  by  the 
change  of  air-currents,  are  very  great.  The  south 
winds  sweeping  over  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the 


196  CLIMATE. 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  are  moist  and  warm,  while  the 
north  winds,  meeting  with  no  barrier  to  arrest  their 
progress,  and  being  overland,  are  dry  and  cold; 
and  hence  the  changes  of  temperature  are  abrupt. 
At  New  Orleans,  snow  occasionally  falls,  and  for  a 
short  time  whitens  the  ground.  The  frosts  which 
accompany  the  "  northers  "  are  of  sufficient  inten- 
sity to  destroy  the  sugar-cane  and  cotton-plant;  but 
at  the  same  time,  while  they  do  not  strip  the  trees 
of  their  leaves,  they  hardly  admit  of  a  perpetually- 
verdant  vegetation.  The  processes  of  fructification 
and  foliation  are  arrested,  and  the  distinctions  be- 
tween summer  and  winter  are  faithfully  preserved. 
The  effect  of  these  two  differences  which  we 
have  pointed  out,  between  the  climate  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi  Valley  and  the  Atlantic  Slope, — to  wit, 
excess  of  moisture  and  warmth  during  the  summer, 
and  deficiency  of  moisture  during  the  fall  and  win- 
ter,— are  conditions  highly  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  the  grasses,  and  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of 
arboreal  forms;  a  fact  which  nature  seems  to  have 
written  in  legible  characters  on  the  features  of  this 
region.  If  the  conditions  of  equally-distributed 
rains  over  the  four  seasons,  which  characterize  the 
climate  of  the  sea-board,  as  before  shown,  existed 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  it  would  greatly  restrict  the 
area  over  which  the  cerealia  can  be  cultivated,  and 
render  uninhabitable  a  region  which  will  hereafter 


PACIFIC    SLOPE.  197 

afford  a  vast  range  of  pasturage  to  the  domestic 
herds. 

In  tracing  the  isotherms  for  the  fall  and  winter 
seasons,  a  depression  of  the  lines,  so  far  as  relates 
to  the  Upper  Mississippi  region,  begins  to  manifest 
itself  during  the  autumnal  months,  which  becomes 
more  marked  as  the  season  advances.  Thus,  St. 
Paul's,  which  has  the  summer  temperature  of  West 
Point,  has  the  winter  temperature  of  Montreal*  and 
Fort  Riley,  which  has  the  summer  temperature  of 
Washington,  has  the  winter  temperature  of  New 
York. 

The  Gulf  Coast  exhibits  no  marked  deflections 
of  temperature  until  the  Llano  Estacado  is 
reached.  The  interposition  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain Chain,  many  of  whose  peaks  are  snow-clad, 
and  many  of  whose  sheltered  valleys  retain  the 
drifted  snows  during  the  entire  year,  causes  a  local 
refrigeration  of  the  air  which  is  exhibited  in  a 
series  of  abrupt  curves,  like  the  plications  of  strata 
in  a  highly  metamorphic  mountain  range. 

Climate  of  the  Pacific  Slope. — Notwithstand- 
ing the  equable  temperature  which  characterizes 
the  immediate  Pacific  Coast,  the  foot-hills  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Colorado  Valley  exhibit  an 
intensity  of  heat  seldom  indicated  by  the  thermom- 
eter in  other  parts  of  the  world,  whether  on  the 


198  CLIMATE. 

Neva,  the  Senegal,  the  Ganges,  or  the  Orinoco. 
Humboldt  has  remarked  that  on  no  part  of  the 
earth's  surface,  if  the  observations  be  properly 
made  in  the  shade,  at  a  distance  from  all  solid 
bodies  which  radiate  heat,  and  with  thermometers 
not  filled  with  spirit  which  absorbs  light,  do  the 
readings  range  higher  than  between  93°  and  104°; 
and  that  those  excessive  heats  of  122°  and  133°, 
recorded  by  Ritchie,  in  the  oasis  of  Mourzouk, 
must  be  ascribed  to  hot  particles  of  sand  floating 
in  the  air. 

At  Ringgold  Barracks,  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley, 
the  mean  of  the  observations,  at  3  o'clock  P.M.,  for 
the  entire  three  summer  months  of  1850,  was  101.2°, 
and  the  single  extremes  reached  107°  for  each 
month.  Still  higher  readings  are  recorded  in  the 
Colorado  Valley,  at  Fort  Yuma,  and  in  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley,  at  Fort  Miller,  reaching  at  the 
former  point  121°,  and  at  the  latter  116°.*  Now, 
when  we  reflect  that  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
tropics,  the  region  of  the  palms,  is  between  78.2° 
and  85.5°,  we  see  that,  for  continuous  periods,  the 
Pacific  Slope,  and  also  the  Colorado  Valley,  have  a 
climate  where  the  heat  is  as  excessive  as  within 
the  torrid  zone;  and  occasionally  the  thermometer 
marks  as  high  a  temperature  on  the  borders  of 
Lake  Superior,  and  even  at  Methy  Lake  (latitude 

*  Blodget,  "  Climatology  of  the  United  States." 


OCEANIC    CURRENTS.  199 

56°  36'  30"  N.,  and  longitude  109°  52'  54"  W.,)  as 
beneath  the  vertical  rays  of  a  tropical  sun. 

Oregon  has  an  equable  climate.  The  rains,  as  in 
California,  assume  a  periodic  character,  and  winter 
is  the  rainy  season.  As  early  as  the  middle  of 
February,  the  grounds  are  ploughed  and  planted. 

Sitka  lies  in  the  region  of  constant  precipitation, 
and  the  annual  rain-fall  reaches  90  inches,  —  an 
amount  equal  to  that  which  ordinarily  falls  at  the 
Equator.  While  here  the  winter  temperature  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  Washington  City,  or  St. 
Louis,  the  summer  temperature  is  that  of  the  northern 
shore  of  Lake  Superior.  British  Columbia  and  the 
southern  slope  of  what  were  lately  the  Russian 
Possessions,  now  added  to  our  domain,  partake  of 
these  equable  features. 

To  account  for  these  climatic  conditions,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  study  the  topography  of  the 
country  in  connection  with  the  prevailing  winds 
and  currents.  The  peninsula  of  Alaska  juts  far  into 
the  Pacific,  and  is  separated  from  Asia  by  Behring's 
Straits,  whose  channel  in  the  narrowest  part  is 
only  thirty  miles  broad  and  twenty-five  fathoms 
deep.  Through  these  Straits,  no  icebergs  from  the 
Polar  Sea  escape  into  the  Pacific,  but  a  warm  cur- 
rent, setting  in  an  opposite  direction,  enters  these 
regions  of  ice,  while  a  cold  current  strikes  the  Cali- 
fornian  coast  as  low  down  as  San  Francisco.  This 


200  CLIMATE. 

region,  too,  is  in  the  belt  of  Southwest  Winds 
which  traverse  a  vast  expanse  of  waters,  warmed 
by  a  tropical  sun,  before  they  strike  the  shore. 
The  country  sinks  down  so  as  to  permit  their  flow 
inland,  warming  up  the  Athabasca  and  Saskatcha- 
wan  regions,  as  before  shown,  until  their  influence 
is  destroyed  by  the  continental  conditions  which 
prevail  in  the  interior. 

Thus,  then,  it  may  be  said  that  the  conditions  of 
climate  on  the  Atlantic  Slope  are  continental,  on 
the  Pacific  Slope  oceanic,  while  those  of  the  Great 
Interior  Plain  are  of  a  mixed  character,  resulting 
from  the  conflict  of  these  two  systems. 


PHENOMENA    OF  THE   SEASONS. 

Lake  Superior  Region. — That  portion  of  the 
region  occupied  by  the  great  Coniferous  forest,  has 
but  two  seasons,  summer  and  winter.  About  the 
middle  of  September,  heavy  gales  sweep  over  the 
lake,  and  hoar-frosts  fall,  nipping  the  leaves  of  the 
deciduous  trees,  of  which  the  maple  is  conspicuous, 
and  dyeing  them  with  many-colored  tints.  Large 
flocks  of  geese,  arranged  in  a  V-like  form,  are  seen 
winging  their  way  southward,  filling  the  air  with 
discordant  notes,  and  the  lesser  water-fowl  follow 
in  their  track.  By  the  middle  of  October,  the  snow 


AURORAS.  201 

begins  to  fall,  and  to  this  succeeds  an  interval  of 
calm,  lasting  two  or  three  weeks,  when  winter 
sets  in  in  earnest.  The  interior  lakes  are  closed 
with  a  thin  covering  of  ice,  and  land  and  water  are 
wrapped  in  a  mantle  of  snow,  so  that  the  ground 
becomes  frozen  to  no  great  depth.  The  dense 
forest  prevents  the  drifting  of  the  snows,  and  the 
warmth  of  the  soil  is  retained  until  the  opening  of 
spring.  The  thermometer  occasionally  drops  to 
-30°,  followed  by  a  dry,  cold,  and  elastic  northwest 
wind,  which  seems  to  rob  the  temperature  of  its 
intensity,  so'  far  as  relates  to  its  effects  upon  the 
human  system.  The  trapper,  amid  these  intense 
colds,  and  shod  with  snow-shoes,  pursues  his  accus- 
tomed round,  camping  at  night  with  his  feet  towards 
the  log-built  fire,  with  no  other  covering  than  a 
Mackinac  blanket. 

During  the  long  winter  nights,  the  northern  sky 
is  frequently  illumined  with  brilliant  streaks  of 
variously-colored  light,  which  reach  to  the  zenith, 
and  then  dissolve  in  luminous  waves.  So  intense 
are  they  at  times  as  to  communicate  a  crimson  tint 
to  the  snow,  and  clothe  every  object  with  an  unnat- 
ural hue.  The  Northern  Lights  increase  in  number 
and  intensity  in  September  and  March,  as  though 
there  was  an  intimate  connection  between  these 
phenomena  and  the  changes  of  the  equinoxes. 

The  animal  tribes  are  in  various  ways  affected 


202  CLIMATE. 

by  these  protracted  winters.  The  bear  an^l  hedge- 
hog remain  in  a  state  of  hybernation;  the  ermine 
and  the  hare  put  on  a  robe  of  white;  the  beavers, 
living  in  communities,  erect  houses  several  stories 
in  height,  putting  on  the  exterior  coat  after  the 
frosts  have  set  in,  that  it  may  freeze  hard,  and  thus 
resist  the  attacks  of  their  natural  enemy,  the  wol- 
verine. The  fur-bearing  animals  are  now  in  per- 
fection, and  in  man  they  find  their  most  remorseless 
foe. 

Towards  the  end  of  April,  the  streams  become 
released  from  their  icy  fetters.  When  the  weather 
has  become  so  far  mollified,  as  it  ordinarily  does  by 
the  middle  of  March,  to  thaw  at  midday  and  freeze 
at  night,  the  sap  of  the  maple  begins  to  flow,  and 
then  commences  the  sugar-harvest.  This  tree,  as 
far  north  as  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  clothes 
most  of  the  ridges,  and  the  bird's-eye  and  curled 
varieties  are  the  most  abundant.  By  the  beginning 
of  May,  when  the  sun's  rays  have  acquired  sufficient 
power  to  dissolve  the  snows,  the  trees  start  from 
their  winter's  sleep,  and  commence  the  process  of 
foliation  with  an  activity  unknown  in  lower  lati- 
tudes; the  air  is  vocal  with  the  hum  of  insects;  the 
birds  resume  their  accustomed  haunts;  and  all 
nature  seems  roused  from  a  lethargic  sleep. 

In  June,  the  thermometer  often  rises  to  90°,  and 
the  sun's  rays  have  a  scalding  effect.  In  reference 


INSECT-LIFE.  203 

to  the  heat  of  these  northern  latitudes,  Richardson, 
when  on  the  Mackenzie  River,  entered  on  his  jour- 
nal that  the  irritability  of  the  human  frame  is  either 
greater,  or  the  sun,  notwithstanding  its  obliquity, 
acts  more  powerfully  than  near  the  Equator;  for  he 
had  never  felt  its  direct  rays  so  oppressive  within 
the  tropics,  as  he  experienced  in  these  sub- Arctic 
regions.  The  luxury  of  bathing,  even,  is  not  with- 
out alloy;  for  if  you  choose  the  midday,  you  are 
assailed  in  the  water  by  the  Tabani  (moose-flies), 
who  draw  blood  in  an  instant  with  their  formidable 
lancets;  and  if  you  select  the  morning  or  evening, 
clouds  of  mosquitoes,  hovering  around,  fasten  on 
the  first  part  that  emerges.*  But  these  are  not  the 
only  foes.  The  black  fly  on  the  high  ridges  is  so 
abundant  that  the  wood-chopper  has  to  go  masked; 
and  on  the  sand-beeches,  the  midges,  although 
nearly  microscopic,  inflict  a  sting  that  burns  like 
the  point  of  a  glowing  coal  of  fire.  Thus,  nothing 
can  be  more  uncomfortable  than  summer  life  in  a 
northern  forest.  The  explorer  is  assailed  by  day 
and  night,  whether  by  the  lake-shore  or  on  the 
mountain-top,  by  myriads  of  insects  thirsting  for 
his  blood,  who  seem  to  make  up  in  activity  for  the 
brief  period  of  their  summer's  existence. 

The  presence  of  so  large  a  body  of  water  as  is 
contained  in  the  Great  Lakes,  modifies  the  range 

*  "Arctic  Journey." 


204  CLIMATE. 

of  the  thermometer,  lessening  the  winter's  cold  and 
the  summer's  heat.  Lapham  has  given  a  map,  illus- 
trating in  an  accurate  manner  the  effects  of  this 
action,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  State  of  Wisconsin.* 
In  freezing,  the  water  evolves  a  large  amount  of 
heat,  and  during  the  summer  the  winds  are  tem- 
pered in  passing  over  its  surface.  When  the 
unclouded  sun  sinks  behind  the  western  horizon,  a 
cool  breeze  commences  blowing  toward  the  heated 
surface  of  the  land;  so  that,  however  hot  the  day 
may  have  been,  the  night  is  rarely  sultry.  In  the 
winter,  the  ice  accumulates  around  the  shores, 
drifting  with  the  prevailing  winds,  and  it  is  rare 
that  the  blue  water  is  not  seen  beyond.  When  the 
thermometer  suddenly  drops  below  zero, — the  air 
becoming  far  colder  than  the  water, — vast  columns 
of  vapor  roll  up  from  the  surface,  like  the  steam 
from  some  great  geyser;  or,  if  a  wind  prevail,  it  is 
drifted  like  the  smoke  from  a  burning  prairie. 
This  scud,  when  driven  inland,  invests  every  tree 
and  shrub  with  ice  which,  in  the  clear  sunlight, 
flashes  back  the  rays  like  so  many  surfaces  of  the 
purest  crystal. 

Climate  of  the  Plains. —  The  climate  of  the 
Plains  exhibits  some  peculiarities  deserving  of 
notice, — such  as  the  purity  of  the  air;  the  cloudless 

*  "  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,"  Vol.  I. 


RANGES    OF    TEMPERATURE.  205 

skies  during  certain  seasons,  giving  to  the  landscape 
such  sharply-defined  outlines;  the  dewless  nights; 
the  illusive  phantoms  of  the  mirage;  and  the  feeling 
of  vastness  which  impresses  every  beholder  as  he 
stands  on  some  high  swell,  and  in  every  direction, 
sees  the  surface  stretched  out  like  a  hemisphere. 

As  in  the  distant  north  there  is  a  mingling  of 
spring  and  summer,  so  here  the  summer  is  pro- 
tracted far  into  autumn.  This  is  the  most  delight- 
ful season  of  the  year,  characterized  by  an  absence 
of  severe  rain-storms,  with  a  cool,  bracing  atmos- 
phere, so  gratifying  to  the  physical  system  that 
man  exults  "in  the  intense  consciousness"  of  his 
existence. 

That  delicious  season  known  as  "  Indian  sum- 
mer" is  often  prolonged  into  December,  when  a 
calm,  soft,  hazy  atmosphere  fills  the  sky,  through 
which,  day  after  day,  the  sun,  shorn  of  his  beams, 
rises  and  sets  like  a  globe  of  fire.  This  peculiarity 
is  observed  as  far  north  as  Lake  Superior,  but  is 
more  conspicuous  and  protracted  in  Kansas  and 
Missouri,  but  does  not  extend  south,  into  the  lower 
latitudes  of  the  United  States. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Mississippi  Valley 
possesses  a  great  diversity  of  climate;  and  this  is 
naturally  to  be  inferred,  when  we  consider  that  it 
extends  through  twenty  degrees  of  latitude,  and 
that  its  western  rim,  at  many  points,  rises  into  the 


206  CLIMATE. 

region  of  perpetual  snow,  so  that  the  traveller 
may  elect  whether  to  breathe  the  pure  and  difficult 
air  of  the  mountains,  or  the  soft  and  balmy  air 
wafted  from  the  tropics. 


TABLE    OF    TEMPERATURES    IN    THE     UNITED     STATES. 
Compiled  from  Blodgefs  "Climatology" 


STATIONS. 

ALT. 

Feet. 

SPRING 

SUMM'R 

AUT'MN 

WINTER 

YEAR 

Toronto,  Canada,  

•241 

41.  1 

64.8 

46.6 

24.  C 

44.7 

Portland,  Me.,  

2O 

42.8 

6C.2 

48.1 

24.7 

4C.2 

Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  

2O 

43-2 

64.4 

4Q.O 

26.6 

4C.8 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  

71 

44.7 

68.6 

CO.  I 

26.2 

47.7 

Amherst,           "        

267 

4C..O 

68.6 

48.7 

24-7 

46.7 

New  York  City  

27, 

48.7 

72.1 

T4.C 

71.4 

CI  7 

Albany,  N.  Y.,  

I  TO 

46.7 

70.0 

CO.O 

26.O 

48  2 

Rochester,  "      

^06 

44-6 

67.6 

48.0 

27.O 

47  .0 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  

60 

<;o.6 

71.0 

C2.I 

72.6 

CI.6 

600? 

50.0 

71.6 

CI.I 

7O.  I 

TO.  7 

Washington  City  

78 

*>4.2 

7?.  I 

C7.Q 

77.0 

C7.8 

Charleston,  S.  C.,         

20 

6c,.8 

80.6 

68.1 

CI.7 

66  6 

Pensacola,  Fla.,  

20 

68.6 

81.6 

69.8 

M.q 

68.7 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,     

oo 

78.0 

Si.c. 

78.7 

71.  Q 

•  77  e 

Mobile,  Ala.,  

25 

70.1 

82.7 

71.0 

17-3 

7O.3 

New  Orleans,  La.,  

IO 

7O.O 

82.7 

70.7 

"?6.C 

60  o 

Galveston,  Texas,  

oo 

71.0 

82.  c 

70.2 

^3.8 

60.4 

Fort  Towson,  I.  T.,  

3OO? 

62.4 

70.1 

61.7 

47.Q 

6i.7 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  

4  IO 

C4-I 

'z 

76.2 

re.  4 

^2.7 

C4  C 

CCO 

C4.3 

77.0 

CC.O 

72.  Q 

C3  8 

Hudson,        "    

1,131 

4Q.I 

70.2 

48.4 

28.8 

dO.  I 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  ........ 

700? 

4C..C 

66.3 

48.4 

2C.7 

d.6.4. 

Fort  Wilkins,  Lake  Superior, 
Fort  Brady,              " 

627 
600 
cqi 

38.5 
37-6 
42.7 

60.8 
62.0 
67.7 

43-o 
43-5 

CO.  I 

21.8 
18.3 

26  o 

40.1 

40.4 

4.6  4 

Chicago,  111.,   

col 

44-Q 

67.7 

48.8 

2C.Q 

46  7 

Fort  Madison,  Iowa,  

CCO? 

50.1; 

77-2 

C7.I 

2  y 
26.7 

150.8 

St.  Paul's,  Minn.,  

820 

4C.6 

70.6 

4C.O 

16  i 

Fort  Scott,  Kansas,  

1,000? 

54.8 

74..  Q 

CC.7 

77.  0 

Cd.  C 

Fort  Leavenworth,  "       
Fort  Riley,                 "       
Fort  Kearney,  Neb.,  

896 

M47 
2,760' 

53-8 
56.5 
46.8 

74-1 

77.2 

71.  c 

53-7 
60.2 

4Q  7 

29.6 

32.4 
27.  0 

52.8 
56.6 

47.7 

4-CIQ 

46.8 

71.  0 

CO.  7 

71.  1 

CO  I 

Great  Salt  Lake  

4,  •?<  I 

ci.7 

7C.Q 

72.1 

Fort  Benton,  Upper  Mo.,.  .  .  . 
Fort  Union,  Texas,  

2,663 
6.418 

49-9 

48.7 

72.8 
67.7 

44-5 
48.7 

25-4 

32.6 

48.2 

4Q.I 

Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico,  
Fort  Yuma,  Col.,     .  . 

6,846 
1  2O  , 

497 

72.1 

70.4 

QO.O 

50.6 

7C  7 

31.6 
56  8 

^.y.Ji 
50.6 
77  ft 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  

CO 

C7.O 

60  I 

Sacramento,          "     

CQ 

CQ.2 

72.8 

6l  7 

Aft  7 

Fort  Miller,           "     

4.O2 

62.8 

8c.c 

66  4 

4Q  7 

66.0 

3  CO 

53-° 

70.  7. 

C2.2 

3s  6 

C2  8 

CQ 

CI.I 

61  6 

C7  7 

C2  2 

Sitka,  Alaska,  

CQ 

4O.O 

C4.2 

d.7  Q 

72  2 

<12  6 

ANNUAL    PRECIPITATION    OF    RAIN    AT    SEVERAL    STA- 
TIONS  IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Compiled  principally  from  Blodgefs  "Climatology" 


STATIONS. 

SPRING. 

SUMMER 

AUTUMN. 

WINTER. 

YEAR. 

Toronto,  Canada,  

7.16 

0.57 

10.33 

4.2Q 

31.  3tr 

Portland,  Me.,.  .  .  . 

12.  II 

10.28 

1  I.O3 

IO.Q3 

45.25 

Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  

G.O7 

Q.2I 

8.95 

8.38 

35-57 

Cambridge,  Mass.,.  .  '.  

10.8? 

11.17 

12.57 

9.89 

44.48 

Amherst,           "       .... 

IO.27 

11.84 

11.  -JO 

Q.7O 

43.l6 

New  York  City  

II.  CC 

11.33 

10.30 

Q.63 

42.23 

Albany,  N.  Y.,  

Q.7Q 

12.^1 

10.27 

8.30 

4O.67 

6.62 

8.86 

0.38 

5.38 

3O.44 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  

IO.Q7 

12.45 

10.07 

10.06 

43.56 

Gettysburg,        "     

Q-74 

IO.2O 

Q-77 

9.10 

38.81 

Pittsburg,       "     

9.38 

9.87 

8.23 

7.48 

O^  "• 

34.06 

Washington,  D.  C.,  

IO.4<C 

IO.5.2 

10.  16 

11.07 

41.20 

Charleston,  S.  C.,  

8.60 

18.68 

n.  61 

9.40 

48.2Q 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  

31.  QO 

116.80 

51.40 

5  .50 

783.20 

Pensacola,  Flor.,  
Mobile,  Ala.,  

12.86 
14.24 

18.69 
18.00 

i3-7i 
13.01 

11.72 

18.27 

56.98 
64.42 

New  Orleans,  La.,  

II.  2Q 

17.28 

9.62 

12.71 

5O.QO 

IO.QO 

I4.2O 

Q.^O 

18.40 

53.00 

Fort  Jessup,  La.,  

13.68 

IO.Q4 

0.74 

11.49 

45-85 

Fort  Towson,  I.  T  

15.55 

14.76 

12.27 

8.94 

51.08 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  

12.  7O 

H.I4 

8.94 

y~t 
6.04 

42.72 

Cincinnati,  O.,  

12.14 

I7.7O 

Q.QO 

11.15 

46.89 

Hudson,         "     

0.76 

8.87 

6.16 

800 

72.7Q 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  

7.70 

1  1.  20 

7.00 

3-io 

28.60 

Mackinac,        "          

4.67 

8.88 

7.01 

"?-3i 

23.87 

Fort  Brady,     "          

c.44 

Q-Q7 

10.76 

5.18 

7I-7t; 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,  

6.60 

Q.7O 

6.80 

4-  20 

27-2O 

St.  Paul.  Minn.,  

6.61 

IO.Q2 

5.98 

1.92 

2^*47 

Fort  Madison,  Iowa,  

I?.  TO 

it;.  90 

14.50 

4-7° 

50*50 

Fort  Scott,  Kansas,  

12.57 

16.37 

8.39 

4-70 

42-12 

Fort  Leavenworth,  "       .... 
Fort  Riley,                  "       
Fort  Kearney,  Neb.,  

7-97 
7.91 
10.80 

12.24 

7-15 

12.05 

7-33 
5-58 
3.82 

2-75 
1.26 
1.31 

30.29 
21.90 
27.98 

Fort  Laramie,      "       

8.69 

5.70 

3.96 

1.63 

19.98 

Fort  Union,  Texas,  

2.47 

9.62 

5.12 

2.03 

19.24 

El  Paso,  New  Mexico,  
Santa  Fe,                          
Fort  Yurna        Cal.,   

0.70 
2.83 
0.27 

3.56 

8.90 

1.30 

5-25 

6.02 

0.86 

1.70 
2.08 
0.72 

II   21 
19.83 
3.15 

San  Francisco,    "     

7-S6 

0.09 

2  96 

11.34 

21.95 

Sacramento,        "     

7.01 

o.oo 

6.61 

12.  II 

25-73 

Fort  Miller,         "     

Q-S7 

O.O2 

2.80 

9-79 

22.18 

Astoria,  Oregon,  

16.43 

4.00 

21.77 

44-1? 

86.35 

Steilacoom,  Wash.  Ter.,  .  .  . 
Dalles  of  Columbia  

11.19 
2.63 

3.85 

0.42 

15-83 
3-78 

22.62 
6.98 

53-49 
13.81 

Sitka  Alaska.,   

18.32 

ic.  7? 

72.  IO 

23.77 

89.04 

CHAPTER   VII. 

CULTIVATED     PLANTS. 

CONDITIONS    OF    CLIMATE    AND    SOIL,  RESTRICTING  THE    RANGE 

OF  PLANTS OF  THE  SOIL   IN    REFERENCE    TO    THE    GROWTH 

OF    PARTICULAR    PLANTS MAIZE WHEAT  OATS,    RYE, 

AND    BARLEY,  NATIVES    OF   THE    PLAINS  OF  CENTRAL  ASIA 

RICE  SUGAR-CANE  SORGHUM    POTATO  COTTON  

TOBACCO GRASSES  FOR   PASTURAGE EXHAUSTION  OF  THE 

SOIL  —  FACILITIES   FOR   CULTIVATION TABLES    OF   POPULA- 
TION  AND    PRODUCTION. 

Conditions  of  Climate  and  Soil. — The  range 
of  plants  is  dependent  on  two  causes:  —  climatic 
conditions,  such  as  temperature  and  moisture,  and 
the  chemical  and  mechanical  composition  of  the 
soil.  We  have  pointed  out  the  extreme  range  of 
temperature  which  is  characteristic  of  the  climate 
of  the  Great  Valley,  as  compared  with  that  of 
Western  Europe;  we  now  propose  to  inquire  into 
the  effect  of  this  range  upon  the  growth  of  food- 
producing  plants. 

The  newly-arrived  immigrant  may  be  disposed  to 
deprecate  a  climate  so  different  from  that  to  which 
he  has  been  accustomed;  but  the  experience  of  a 
H 


210  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

single  year  will  convince  him  that  it  is  to  this 
extreme  range,  during  the  growing  season,  that  we 
owe  the  cultivation  of  many  of  the  kindly  fruits  of 
the  earth,  and  of  many  of  the  plants  most  useful  to 
man.  The  tropical  element  in  our  summers  ena- 
bles the  peach  and  apple  to  ripen,  and  the  corn  and 
tobacco-plant  to  mature,  which  they  will  not  do  in 
England,  although  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
year  be  considerably  higher.  Thus,  the  history  of 
vegetation  shows  that  a  high  temperature  for  a 
short  season  produces  a  different  effect  upon  plants 
than  a  moderate  temperature  long  continued. 

With  regard  to  the  conditions  of  soil,  it  may  be 
said  that  its  character  is  largely  influenced  by  the 
subjacent  formation.  The  different  classes  of  rocks 
have  a  physiognomy  as  distinct  as  the  features  of 
the  different  races  of  men.  The  granites  rise  up 
in  dome-shaped  masses,  or  as  pinnacles;  the  meta- 
morphic  rocks  stretch  out  in  serrated  ridges;  the 
traps  assume  a  precipitous  or  stair-like  form;  the 
volcanic  cones  are  generally  isolated;  the  lime- 
stones are  often  cliff-like;  the  sandstones  exhibit 
rounded  outlines,  except  where  undermined  by 
running  streams;  while  the  shales  of  the  slightly- 
metamorphosed  strata,  and  the  detrital  materials  of 
the  Drift,  are  spread  out,  forming  extensive  plains 
or  savannas.  Now  as  the  soil  results  from  the 
abrasion  or  decomposition  of  these  rocks,  mingled 


DOMESTICATED    PLANTS.  211 

r 

with  organic  matter,  it  is  not  surprising  that  it 
should  exhibit  great  diversity,  and  partake  of  the 
character  of  the  underlying  rock,  both  in  chemical 
composition  and  mechanical  texture.  We  thus 
speak  of  a  soil  as  argillaceous,  calcareous,  arena- 
ceous, etc.,  as  expressive  of  the  source  from  which 
it  has  been  derived.  Each  of  these  soils  has  its 
appropriate  vegetable  covering,  and  each  contains 
certain  elements  adapted  to  the  nourishment  of 
peculiar  plants.  Its  agricultural  capacity  is  also 
undoubtedly  influenced  by  the  extreme  state  of 
subdivision  in  the  particles,  by  which  the  rootlets 
of  plants  are  enabled  readily  to  appropriate  such 
elements  as  are  fitted  for  their  growth.  The 
cotton-plant  shuns  the  sandy  soil  of  the  Tertiary, 
but  thrives  in  the  mellow  loam  of  the  Cretaceous; 
the  sweet  potato  luxuriates  in  the  dry, sandy  plain, 
but  shuns  the  damp  clayey  soil  of  the  meadow; 
Indian  corn  grows  best  in  the  prairie-soils  rich  in 
nitrogen,  with  a  period  of  sixty  or  ninety  days  of 
high  temperature;  while  wheat  flourishes  best  in  a 
cooler  climate  and  on  a  soil  less  fertile. 

Many  of  the  useful  plants,  too,  have  improved  by 
being  transported  from  their  habitats  to  a  different 
climate.  Cotton  is  a  plant  which  grows,  in  the 
tropics,  with  a  perennial  growth,  where  it  has  a 
tree-like,  woody  stem.  Transplanted  to  a  temper- 
ate climate,  it  becomes  a  delicate  annual,  with  an 


212  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

i 

herbaceous  growth.  Indian  corn  is  of  tropical 
origin,  where  it  grows  with  a  rank  stock,  and  pro- 
duces little  seed.  Perhaps  none  of  the  cerealia 
show  so  great  a  susceptibility  to  adapt  themselves 
to  a  modified  climate,  as  this  plant;  for  every  few 
degrees  of  latitude  exhibits  a  different  variety. 
The  potato  has  a  still  more  diversified  range,  and 
is  characterized  by  a  still  greater  number  of  varie- 
ties. 

In  the  domestication  of  plants,  then,  as  in  that 
of  animals,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  run  into 
varieties,  resulting  from  altered  conditions  of  tem- 
perature, soil,  and  moisture.  The  New  World  is 
indebted  to  the  Old  for  many  of  the  most  useful 
and  widely  distributed  plants,  such  as  wheat,  bar- 
ley, rice,  and  coffee;  and  many  of  the  most  luscious 
fruits,  such  as  oranges,  lemons,  peaches,  and  apples. 
The  sugar-cane  is  probably  indigenous  to  the  West 
Indian  Isles.  On  the  other  hand,  the  New  World 
has  contributed  to  the  Old,  potatoes,  which  form  so 
important  an  article  of  food;  Indian  corn,  perhaps 
the  most  valuable  of  the  cereals;  and  tobacco,  now 
consumed  the  world  over.  It  is  proposed  to  give 
a  brief  sketch  of  the  principal  plants  cultivated 
for  the  use  of  man  in  the  Great  Valley,  and  to 
inquire  how  far  their  cultivation,  in  each  instance, 
is  restricted  by  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 


CORN-CULTURE.  213 

Maize  {Zea  mays].  —  Of  all  crops,  where  the 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  are  favorable,  there 
is  none,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  rice,  which 
affords  so  great  an  amount  of  nutriment  in  propor- 
tion to  the  labor  bestowed,  as  this.  The  cheap 
food  derived  from  this  source  was  the  origin  of  the 
ancient  Peruvian  civilization,  which  enabled  the 
surplus  labor  to  be  expended  upon  those  immense 
structures  which  excited  the  admiration  of  the 
Spanish  conquerors  and  all  subsequent  observers. 
So,  too,  we  can  trace  the  ancient  Egyptian  civiliza- 
tion to  the  abundance  of  the  date,  and  that  of  India 
to  the  ease  with  which  rice  was  grown, — the  chief 
food  of  most  people  living  within  the  tropics. 
Maize  is  emphatically  the  great  food-producing 
plant  of  the  Great  Valley;  not  so  much,  perhaps,  as 
contributing  directly  to  human  sustenance,  as  in 
those  modified  forms  of  beef,  pork,  etc.,  which 
constitute  the  bulk  of  the  animal  food  of  the  people 
of  the  temperate  zone.  In  a  congenial  climate,  it 
is  rarely  cut  off  by  drought,  or  frost,  or  blight.  It 
can  be  harvested  at  leisure,  as  it  receives  no  injury 
from  exposure,  whether  cut  or  uncut.  A  man  and 
boy  can  tend  forty  acres,  besides  devoting  a  portion 
of  their  time  to  other  crops,  which,  with  good 
management,  may  be  made  to  yield  from  sixty  to 
eighty  bushels  to  the  acre.  This  would  give  all 
the  way  from  2,400  to  4,800  bushels  of  grain;  and 


214  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

the  yield  would  furnish  rations  to  between  120  and 
240  able-bodied  men  for  an  entire  year.  The  esti- 
mate of  the  western  farmer  is  that,  in  feeding  swine, 
every  ten  bushels  of  corn  produces  one  hundred 
pounds  of  pork. 

The  northern  limit  of  corn-culture  may  be  repre- 
sented by  the  summer  isotherm  65°,  which  would 
exclude  a  considerable  portion  of  Maine,  the  region 
north  of  the  immediate  Valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
the  Azoic  region  of  Lake  Superior,  the  higher 
slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  immediate 
coast  of  the  Pacific.  It  attains  its  full  perfection 
in  the  region  between  the  isotherms  72°  and  77°, 
which  would  include  the  central  and  southern  por- 
tions of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  nearly  all 
of  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  and  Kansas,  and 
the  great  plains  north  and  south  between  the  Cana- 
dian and  the  sources  of  the  Missouri;  but  limited 
on  the  west  by  a  line  running  east  of  Fort  Laramie 
and  west  of  Fort  Atkinson. 

As  to  the  conditions  of  moisture,  it  is  probable 
that  its  limits  would  be  restricted,  except  in  the 
immediate  valleys,  to  about  longitude  100°.  It  is 
to  the  presence  of  the  two  elements, —  a  period  of 
intense  heat  during  the  summer,  and  a  virgin  soil 
rich  in  nitrogen, —  that  the  great  geographical  range 
of  this  plant  in  the  United  States  is  due;  and  to 


WHEAT-CULTURE.  215 

their  absence  in  Western  Europe,  which  has  there 
rendered  its  cultivation  unprofitable. 

Wheat.  —  There  are  two  principal  varieties 
recognized:  —  Triticum  hibernicum,  or  winter 
wheat;  and  T.  cestivum,  summer  or  spring  wheat. 
The  geographical  range  of  these  varieties  is  not 
coincident.  Wheat  requires  a  cooler  climate 
and  a  less  nitrogenized  soil  than  corn,  and  has  a 
wider  geographical  range.  It  is  a  reliable  crop 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  as  far  north  as  the 
Saskatchawan  Valley,  latitude  54°;  and  on  the 
Pacific  Slope  as  high  as  latitude  60°.  Along  the 
flanks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  British 
Columbia  to  the  limits  of  Mexico,  where  sufficient 
moisture  can  be  obtained  from  the  melting  snows, 
it  arrives  at  a  perfection  and  development  of  grain 
unknown  to  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi;  and 
the  Californian  Coast,  cooled  by  the  breezes  of  the 
Pacific,  seems  to  be  well  adapted  to  its  growth,  and 
produces  an  amount  far  beyond  the  wants  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  tropical  element  in  our  climate 
so  favorable  to  the  growth  of  Indian  corn,  is  unfa- 
vorable to  the  perfection  of  wheat.  Winter  wheat 
is  not  successfully  cultivated  in  the  immediate  Val- 
ley of  the  Mississippi  above  the  parallel  40°,  for 
the  reason  that  the  plant  is  not  sufficiently  protected 
during  the  cold  season  by  a  permanent  body  of 


2l6  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

snow,  so  as  to  exclude  the  direct  action  of  the  air. 
Even  if  there  was  not  a  deficiency  of  snow,  the 
prairies  are  so  wind-swept  that  it  seldom  lies  to  a 
great  depth,  and  the  young  wheat  is  liable  to  be 
winter-killed.  In  the  partly-wooded  regions  of 
Southern  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri,  where 
there  is  a  clay  subsoil  of  considerable  tenacity, 
winter  wheat  is  successfully  cultivated.  It  is  sown 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  September,  so  that  it  may 
ripen  in  the  spring,  before  the  hot  suns  of  July 
strike  it.  The  harvest-time  is  late  in  May  or  early 
in  June. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  wheat  grown  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  is  the  spring  or  summer  variety.  It 
requires  to  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  frost  leaves  the 
ground,  which  should  be  prepared  for  its  reception 
the  preceding  autumn.  The  danger  to  which  this 
crop  is  exposed,  is  the  stimulating  nature  of  the 
soil,  producing  a  too  rapid  growth  of  the  stalks, 
which  causes  the  vesicles  to  burst,  and  at  the  same 
time  prevents  the  ear  from  filling.  Hence,  the 
high  rolling  knolls  are  generally  selected  for  its 
cultivation.  The  ingredient,  lime,  would  consoli- 
date the  stock,  and  check  the  tendency  to  a  rank 
growth.  Hence,  I  infer  that  the  conditions  of  soil 
for  the  cultivation  of  this  plant  are  highly  favorable 
in  Eastern  Kansas  and  the  Cherokee  country, 
provided  the  conditions  of  climate — hot  summer 


WHEAT-CULTURE.  2iy 

suns  —  are  obviated  by  early  sowing;  and  the 
reports  as  to  the  results  of  wheat-culture  in  that 
region,  confirm  these  views. 

Minnesota,  while  not  prolific  in  corn,  is  the  best 
wheat-growing  region  in  the  Northwest;  but, 
without  exact  knowledge,  it  is  believed  that  in  the 
region  of  Pembina  and  Assinaboin  there  is  a  belt 
of  country,  vast  in  extent,  where  this  class  of  cere- 
alia  can  be  successfully  cultivated.  * 

The  finest  specimens  of  wheat  on  exhibition  in 
the  Agricultural  Bureau  at  Washington,  are  from 
New  Mexico;  and  it  would  seem  that  the  dry  cli- 
mate which  there  prevails  during  the  ripening  of 
the  plant,  develops  the  grain  at  the  expense  of  the 
stalk.  Dr.  Le  Conte  speaks  of  the  yield  of  the 
Sonora  wheat  in  the  Purgatoire  Valley  as  being 
eighty  bushels  to  the  acre. 

The  irrigated  region  of  Utah  and  Colorado  pro- 

*  Col.  Whittlesey,  who,  as  a  practical  geologist,  has  had  a  large 
experience  in  the  Northwest,  furnishes  the  following  testimony,  in  a 
note  to  Captain  Mullan  : 

"  In  the  fall  of  1848,  I  was  at  Red  Lake,  in  Northern  Minnesota, 
when  Mr.  Ayres,  a  very  intelligent  missionary,  came  in  from  the  Brit- 
ish Settlements  on  the  Red  River.  He  brought  some  unbolted  flour, 
from  wheat  grown  on  the  banks  of  that  river,  at  the  Pembina  Settle- 
ments. It  was  the  sweetest  and  most  nutritious  flour  I  ever  ate.  He 
stated  that  the  employes  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  had  for  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  produced  all  the  wheat  needed ;  that  it  was  a  sure 
crop,  the  grain  sound,  and  that  it  would  yield  forty  bushels  to  the  acre. 
The  result  of  my  examinations  at  that  time,  on  our  northern  frontiers, 
was  a  conviction  that  the  true  wheat-growing  region  of  the  United 
States  lies  north  of  the  St.  Peter's  River,  and  west  of  the  Mississippi." 


2l8  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

duces  wheat  of  a  far  greater  yield  and  of  a  far  better 
quality  than  the  most  favored  region  of  the  prairie, 
the  yield  reaching  sixty  bushels  to  the  acre.  The 
Californian  wheat,  as  we  have  before  shown,  is 
abundant  in  yield  and  excellent  in  quality. 

The  best  conditions,  then,  are  a  cool  and  rather 
dry  climate,  and  a  clayey  soil,  not  too  rich  in  nitro- 
gen, with  the  presence  of  lime. 

Oats,  Rye^  and  Barley.  —  These  are  hardier 
plants  than  wheat,  and  are  successfully  cultivated 
to  the  northern  limits  of  the  United  States.  Wheat, 
rye,  and  oats,  are  probably  native  to  the  dry  plains 
of  Central  Asia,  which  as  we  have  shown,  partake 
in  soil  and  climate  of  the  character  of  the  prairies, 
where  they  have  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest 
historical  period.  Herodotus,  the  earliest  of  profane 
historians,  describes  the  Scythian  husbandmen  as 
dwelling  on  the  borders  of  the  Black  Sea,  in  the 
country  extending  on  the  south  to  Taurica  (the 
Crimean  Coast  from  Sevastopol  to  Kaffa) ;  on  the 
east  to  the  Trench  of  the  Blind  Slaves  (the  mart 
of  Palus  Maerotis)  called  Cremni  (the  Cliffs) ;  and 
in  part  to  the  River  Tanais,  now  the  Don.  *  Thus 
it  will  appear  that,  in  the  provinces  of  Kherson, 
Kiev,  and  Ekaterinoslav,  in  the  fifth  century  B.  C., 

*  "  Herodotus,"  Book  IV.,  Ch.  16,  20. 


BREAD-CORN.  219 

the  Scythians  cultivated  corn,*  "not  for  their  own 
use,  but  for  sale."  This  trade  was  chiefly  carried 
on  with  the  Greeks,  and  gradually  extended  to  the 


*  Corn  is  a  generic  term,  comprehending  the  seeds  of  certain  grasses 
which  may  be  ground  into  meal,  and  fitted  for  the  food  of  man  or  ani- 
mals. In  the  United  States,  the  term  "  corn  "  is  restricted  to  maize 
or  Indian  corn. 

"  All  bread  corns  are  annual  plants,  and  from  that  circumstance  far 
better  adapted  for  universal  cultivation  than  if  they  had  been  peren- 
nials, or  even  biennials.  An  annual  plant  may  indeed  be  said  to 
belong  to  no  country  in  particular,  because  it  completes  its  existence 
during  the  summer  months;  and  in  every  part  of  the  world  there  is  a 
summer.  Hence,  we  find  the  same  corns  ripening  their  seeds  within 
the  Frigid  and  Torrid  Zones;  and  though  the  quality  of  the  grain  of 
barley  and  wheat  grown  in  Lapland  is  far  inferior  to  that  grown  in  the 
south  of  Spain  or  on  the  plains  of  India,  yet  it  is  still  such  as  to  be 
made  into  wholesome  bread  and  invigorating  fermented  liquor.  Had 
the  bread  corns  been  perennials,  they  must  necessarily  have  required 
to  live  through  the  winter  in  every  country  in  which  they  are  grown, 
as  well  as  through  the  summer;  and  such  of  them  as  might  have  been 
adapted  to  the  winters  of  cold  climates,  when  taken  to  warm  climates, 
have  been  so  far  weakened  by  being  kept  in  a  growing  state  through- 
out the  year,  as  in  a  few  years  to  have  ceased  to  exist;  while  the  peren- 
nials of  warm  climates,  such  as  the  south  of  Spain  and  Italy,  could 
not  have  lived  through  a  single  winter  in  Russia  or  Lapland.  For  the 
Same  reason  that  they  are  annuals,  and  require  little  more  than  to  be 
sown  and  reaped,  bread-corns  are  in  an  especial  manner  the  domestic 
plants  of  man  in  an  early  stage  of  civilization.  A  people  like  the 
wandering  Arabs,  who  live  in  tents,  and  change  their  encampments 
annually  or  oftener,  may  conveniently  reap  their  crops,  raise  their 
tents,  and  carry  their  seed-corn  about  with  them,  till  they  find  a  suita- 
ble spot  where  they  can  pitch  their  tents,  and  take  their  next  crop. 
This,  however,  could  not  be  done  by  a  people  who,  in  addition  to  corn 
and  pulse,  depend  for  the  food  of  themselves  and  cattle,  on  the  pro- 
duction of  roots,  such  as  the  turnip  and  the  potato;  and  these  accord- 
ingly are  plants  characteristic  of  a  settled  people,  in  a  higher  degree 
of  civilization  and  a  greatly-advanced  state  of  agriculture.  The 
capacity  of  any  country  for  growing  corn,  may  be  said  to  be  according 
to  the  flatness  of  its  surface,  provided  it  be  neither  too  hot  nor  too 
cold,  too  wet  nor  too  dry;  and  hence  the  immense  plains  of  Russia 
and  Tartary  are  eminently  calculated  for  raising  food  for  man." 
(Brande's  Dictionary,  Art.  "  Corn.") 


220  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

east  of  the  limits  assigned  by  Herodotus;  and  be- 
tween B.  C.  400  and  B.  C.  300,  the  princes  of  the 
Bosphorus  drew  from  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of 
Azov  and  the  Crimea,  supplies  to  an  enormous 
amount. 

According  to  Strabo,  Leucon,  who  reigned 
from  A.  C.  393  to  B.  C.  353,  sent  on  one  occasion 
2,100,000  medimini  (3,150,000  bushels)  of  corn  to 
Athens,  from  the  single  port  of  Theodosia.  Demos- 
thenes states  that,  of  the  whole  foreign  importation 
of  grain  into  Attica,  almost  one-half  came  from  the 
Euxine;  and  estimates  its  amount  in  ordinary  years 
at  400,000  medimini,  or  600,000  bushels.  ("  Orat. 
in  Leptin.")  * 

The  fertility  of  the  country  and  the  habits  of  the 
people  remain  nearly  the  same  as  when  Herodotus 
wrote.  The  trade  of  the  Mediterranian  ports  with 
those  of  the  Black  Sea  is  nearly  the  same  as  was 
carried  on  twenty-three  centuries  ago;  the  Hylea 
still  deserves  the  name  of  the  "Woodland,"  and  the 
multitudinous  channels  of  the  Dneiper  still  wind 
through  the  forests  of  oaks  and  poplars,  seldom 
touched  by  the  axe;  while  beyond,  the  Panticapes 
stretch  out  in  treeless  steppes,  as  in  the  days  of  old. 
The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  not  renewed  by  a  system 
of  rotation  of  crops,  or  by  the  application  of  ma- 
nures; but  when  it  shows  signs  of  exhaustion,  it 

*  Rawlinson,  Note  to  "  Herodotus,"  B.  IV.,  Ch.  17. 


CORN-TRADE    OF    ODESSA.  221 

is  suffered  to  lie  fallow  until  it  reimbibes  those 
elements  from  the  atmosphere  which  have  been 
abstracted,  or  creates  a  fresh  supply  of  humus  by 
the  decay  of  its  own  vegetation.  These  facts  have 
a  significant  bearing  upon  the  ultimate  productive- 
ness of  our  own  prairies.  They  show  that,  while 
they  may  be  deficient  in  the  equably-distributed 
moisture  essential  to  tree-growth,  they  possess 
superior  advantages  for  the  cultivation  of  the  food- 
producing  plants,  and  that  these  advantages  remain 
constant. 

The  modes  of  transportation  to  the  markets  of 
Odessa  and  Kertch,  are  such  as  formerly  prevailed 
in  Illinois  and  other  Western  States.  The  carts, 
laden  with  grain,  move  in  long  lines,  like  an  army 
train,  and  the  oxen  at  night  are  unyoked  and 
allowed  to  feed  upon  the  open  plain.  In  modern 
times,  the  exports  of  wheat  from  Odessa  in  some 
years  have  reached  nearly  7,500,000  bushels;  and  it 
is  a  singular  fact  that,  while  the  flour  in  the  Medi- 
terranean marts  is  esteemed  above  all  others ;  in  the 
English  market,  when  British  wheat  commands 
60.?.,  wheat  from  this  source  only  brings  525.  The 
route  between  Liverpool  and  Odessa  is  circuitous, 
and  quite  as  much  time  is  consumed  in  making  it 
as  in  crossing  the  Atlantic.  It  is  almost  essential 
that  the  voyage  be  made  in  winter,  as  the  sum- 
mer heats  are  almost  sure  to  damage  the  wheat. 


222  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

The  expense  of  importing  a  quarter  is  from  165. 
to  185.  The  price  free  on  board  at  Odessa  consid- 
erably exceeds  405.  per  quarter.  It  is,  therefore, 
evident  that  England  can  draw  her  supplies  cheaper 
from  other  sources  than  this.  * 

Rice  (  Oryza  sativa]  is  a  plant  of  intertropical 
range,  which  heretofore  has  formed  a  large  item  in 
southern  exports.  It  was  introduced,  according  to 
McCulloch  ("Com.  Dictionary"),  into  the  Caro- 
linas  from  Madagascar,  late  in  the  seventeenth 
century;  and  the  thorough  adaptation  of  the  soil 
and  climate  to  its  growth,  is  evidenced  by  the  fact 
that  the  Carolina  rice  commands  a  higher  price  in 
the  English  market  than  that  grown  in  the  Indies. 
This  cereal  constitutes  the  principal  food  of  the 
inhabitants  of  a  warm  climate.  It  is  the  most 
nutritive  of  all  the  cerealia,  and  contains  about 
eighty-five  per  cent,  of  starch.  As,  in  a  cold 
climate,  a  highly-nitrogenized  food  is  required  to 
replace  the  waste  of  the  tissues;  so,  in  a  hot  cli- 
mate, where  that  waste  is  less  rapid,  the  system 
requires  a  food  in  which  there  is  an  excess  of  oxy- 
gen,—  and  rice  and  vegetables  fill  this  requirement. 
The  facility  of  irrigating  the  fields  during  the  pro- 
gress of  its  growth,  seems  to  be  all-important;  and 
hence  it  is,  in  those  Oriental  countries  where,  by 

*    Vide  "  Encyclopaedia  Brittanica,"  Art.  "  Wheat." 


RICE-CULTURE.  223 

chance,  the  annual  flood  of  the  rivers  is  withheld, 
the  people  are  subject  to  deplorable  famines. 

On  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  between  New 
Orleans  and  Fort  Jackson,  rice  is  grown  in  small 
plantations,  and  its  culture  is  said  to  be  not 
unhealthy,  for  the  reason  that  the  water  is  not 
allowed  to  stagnate.  The  river  begins  to  swell  in 
February,  and  does  not  subside  until  June.  In  its 
overflow,  it  deposits  a  layer  of  sediment  on  its 
banks,  leaving  the  clear  water  to  flow  into  the 
swamps  of  the  interior,  and  to  find  other  channels 
to  the  ocean.  This  process,  continued  for  ages, 
has  raised  its  banks  above  the  level  of  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

Rice-culture  is  accomplished  in  this  way:  A 
sluice  is  cut  through  the  river-bank,  and  the  fields, 
being  first  enclosed  in  a  levee,  are  flooded.  The 
land  is  ploughed  and  sown  in  March,  and  as  soon 
as  the  young  plants  appear,  they  are  submerged  in 
water,  so  regulated  as  to  keep  their  heads  just 
above  the  surface.  When  the  grain  has  matured, 
the  fields  are  laid  dry,  and  the  crop  is  gathered; 
and  the  yield  is  from  thirty  to  sixty  bushels  to  the 
acre. 

These  small  plantations,  before  the  Rebellion, 
were  cultivated  by  white  labor,  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  that  culture  may  not  be  maintained. 
The  rice-swamps  along  the  Savannah  River  and 


224  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

the  Carolina  coasts  were  formerly  cultivated  by 
slave-labor,  and  so  unhealthy  were  they,  that  they 
were  regarded  as  the  synonym  of  disease  and  death. 
The  acclimated  white  man  dreaded  to  be  detained 
in  the  region  over  night,  so  sure  and  deadly  were 
the  effects  of  the  miasmata, — effects  clearly  trace- 
able to  the  stagnant  water.  The  rice  product  in 
1860,  was  in  excess  of  187,000,000  pounds,  of  which 
the  Carolinas  furnished  the  great  bulk. 

Sugar-Cane  {Saccharum  officanaruni} . — This 
is  a  tropical  plant  which  has  been  domesticated  on 
the  verge  of  the  Gulf  Coast,  and  is  so  sensitive  to 
frost  that,  if  its  juice  becomes  frozen,  its  saccharine 
matter  will  not  crystallize  into  sugar.  As  it  does 
not  mature  until  October,  and  the  frosts  set  in  late 
in  December,  the  whole  labor  of  gathering,  grind- 
ing, and  boiling,  is  compressed  within  a  space  of 
sixty  days,  during  which,  under  the  system  of 
compulsory  labor  which  formerly  prevailed,  the 
strength  and  endurance  of  the  slaves  were  tasked 
to  the  utmost.  In  Cuba,  this  plant  is  perennial; 
but  in  Louisiana,  the  crop  is  propagated  by  rat- 
toons,  one-third  of  which  is  renewed  each  year. 
The  rattoons  consist  of  stock-cuttings,  eighteen 
inches  long,  which  are  planted  at  a  shallow  depth. 
Shoots  spring  up  from  every  joint,  which  are  culti- 
vated like  Indian  corn.  The  plant  grows  to  the 


SORGHUM-CULTURE.  225 

height  of  twelve  feet  or  more,  but  about  three  feet 

o  * 

of  the  upper  portion  are  too  watery  to  pay  for 
crushing  and  evaporating.  Sugar-culture  has  not 
extended  farther  north  than  the  mouth  of  the  Red 
River.  Since  the  Rebellion,  some  of  the  estates 
have  passed  into  the  hands  of  northern  men,  who 
find  no  difficulty  in  securing  all  the  labor  which 
they  require.  The  annual  product  of  sugar  for- 
merly exceeded  300,000  hogsheads  of  1,000  pounds 
each,  and  16,300,000  gallons  of  molasses. 

Sorghum  saccharatum.  —  The  immense  con- 
sumption of  sugar  in  the  United  States  has  led  our 
farmers  to  attempt  the  domestication  of  this  plant, 
to  supply  at  least  a  portion  of  that  consumption; 
and  while,  perhaps,  it  has  not  succeeded  as  a  sugar- 
producing  plant,  it  has  repaid  for  the  cultivation,  in 
yielding  a  much-prized  syrup.  The  sorghum  is  a 
native  of  China,  while  the  imphee  is  a  native  of 
South  Africa.  The  cultivation  of  both  varieties 
can  be  maintained  up  to  the  isotherm  67°.  Like 
corn,  it  requires  a  loose,  deep  soil,  and  one  rich  in 
nitrogen.  The  dry  autumns  of  the  West  are  favor- 
able to  its  culture,  as  the  elaboration  of  the  sac- 
charine principle  is  more  effectually  accomplished 
under  such  conditions  than  where  the  plant  receives 
an  excess  of  moisture.  The  product  in  syrup  in 


226  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

1860,  was  in  excess  of  7,000,000  gallons, — grown, 
for  the  most  part,  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  Potato  {Solanium  fabe?osum). —  The 
germ  of  this  most  useful  of  all  vegetables  was  first 
found  on  the  flanks  of  the  Andes,  some  4,000  feet 
above  the  sea-level;  and  it  is  the  most  valuable 
contribution  which  America  has  made  to  the  food- 
producing  plants  of  the  world.  Its  culture  has 
extended  to  all  the  temperate  climates;  it  forms 
the  principal  part  of  the  food  of  many  nations;  and 
every  table,  —  whether  spread  in  the  palaces  of 
kings,  or  the  cottages  of  the  poor,  —  is  incomplete 
without  the  presence  of  this  esculent.  It  has  even 
a  wider  geographical  range  than  wheat;  and,  like 
that  cereal,  it  has  a  tendency  to  run  into  varieties. 
It  is  cultivated  in  Bermuda,  and  as  far  north  as 
Iceland.  The  short  summers  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  even  of  Hudson's  Bay,  give  to  it  a  perfection 
which  it  does  not  acquire  in  the  mild  latitude  of 
St.  Louis  or  Southern  Illinois.  The  potato  degen- 
erates rapidly  in  a  warm  climate;  and  if  the  tubers 
are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground,  they  undergo 
a  second  germination,  which  is  at  the  expense  of 
their  size  and  nutritive  properties.  Hence  it  is, 
that  those  regions  lying  south  of  the  parallel  40°, 
derive  their  supplies  for  winter  use  from  colder 
climates,  while  the  stock  in  Bermuda  is  kept  up 


COTTON-CULTURE.  227 

by    transmitting    annually    northern    varieties,  and 
cultivating  them  only  during  the  winter  season. 

Cotton  (Gossypium  herbaceum). — The  upland 
varieties  have  been  cultivated  nearly  as  far  north 
as  latitude  40°,  but  only  under  favorable  circum- 
stances. Cotton-patches  are  to  be  seen  in  Southern 
Illinois  and  Southern  Missouri,  where  the  plant  is 
grown  for  domestic  use;  and  in  many  a  family  the 
hand-loom  is  yet  in  vogue. 

As  a  great  commercial  staple,  however,  its  cul- 
ture embraces  a  belt  of  country  100  miles  or  more 
in  width  —  underlaid  by  the  Cretaceous  formation  — 
which  starts  near  the  northern  line  of  the  State  of 
Mississippi,  and,  sweeping  round  the  base  of  the 
Alleghanies  through  Alabama,  Georgia,  South 
Carolina,  and  North  Carolina,  extends  as  far  north 
as  Raleigh  and  even  Richmond,  Virginia.  The 
southern  limit  of  this  belt  is  where  it  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  region  of  Pine  Barrens,  whose  soil 
consists  of  Pliocine-Tertiary  sands.  Its  culture 
extends  up  the  Mississippi  to  Memphis,  and  up  the 
lower  valleys  of  the  White,  Arkansas,  and  Red 
Rivers. 

The  cotton-soils  are  of  moderate  fertility,  and 
when  stripped  of  timber,  are  exceedingly  liable  to 
wash  into  gullies  and  ravines.  After  a  few  crop- 
pings,  they  are  very  difficult  to  renovate,  since  they 


228  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

do  not  admit  of  a  rotation  of  crops.  The  climate 
is  unfit  for  the  growth  of  the  nutritious  grasses,  and 
hence,  where  the  ground  lies  fallow  for  a  few  years 
to  recover  its  productive  powers,  it  ceases  to  be 
profitable.  The  grasses  which  spring  up  are  coarse, 
and  afford  little  nutriment  to  cattle.  The  forage  of 
the  planter  is  derived  from  corn-stalks,  cut  before 
maturity;  and  hence,  throughout  the  region,  we 
find  no  herds  of  cattle  or  swine,  nor  can  any  course 
of  industry  render  stock-raising  profitable.  For- 
merly the  shipments  of  breadstuffs  and  provisions 
from  the  North  into  this  region  were  enormous, — 
sufficient  almost  to  sustain  the  entire  population. 
This  interchange  of  products  was  found  to  be 
profitable  to  both  sections,  the  labor  of  each  being 
applied  to  the  cultivation  of  those  plants  requiring 
a  peculiar  soil  and  climate  for  their  full  develop- 
ment. The  Rebellion  operated  as  an  effectual  bar 
to  all  interchange;  and  since  the  restoration,  the 
South,  owing  to  her  disorganized  industry,  rendered 
more  deplorable  by  successive  failures  of  crops,  has 
not  established  to  the  full  extent,  those  ties  of  com- 
mercial intercourse  which  formerly  prevailed;  and, 
in  the  absence  of  credit,  has  been  forced  to  devote 
a  portion  of  her  labor,  under  disadvantageous  cir- 
cumstances, to  the  cultivation  of  those  crops  which 
are  absolutely  essential  to  the  support  of  human 


COTTON-CULTURE.  229 

life.  Let  us  hope  that  this  state  of  affairs  is  not 
long  to  continue. 

The  sea-island  variety  is  restricted  to  the  islands 
and  a  narrow  belt  on  the  immediate  coast  of  the 
Atlantic,  extending  from  the  Great  Pedee  River,  in 
North  Carolina,  to  Cape  Canaverel,  in  Florida.  It 
has  a  length  and  strength  of  fibre  unequaled,  and 
is  therefore  well  adapted  to  thread  or  spool-cotton. 
These  qualities  give  it  a  commercial  value  five  or 
six  times  greater  than  that  of  ordinary  upland  cot- 
ton. 

So  far  as  relates  to  the  sanitary  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  cultiva- 
tion of  this  plant  by  free  labor;  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  this  crop  will  recover  the  commercial 
importance  which  it  enjoyed  before  the  outbreak 
the  Rebellion;  since  the  effect  of  that  act  was  to 
divert  European  capital,  which  was  formerly 
employed  in  moving  this  crop,  to  opening  new 
sources  of  supply,  and  abstracting  a  portion  of 
Oriental  labor  from  its  accustomed  channels.  The 
product  of  cotton  in  1860,  was  in  excess  of  5,000,000 
bales,  and  showed  an  increase  of  more  than  100 
per  cent,  in  ten  years. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  century,  that  cotton- 
manufacture  became  so  important  a  branch  of 
national  indusfry;  and  this  importance  is  due  to 
the  inventions  and  discoveries  of  .a  few  men  in  the 


230  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

United  States  and  Great  Britain.  Owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  separating  the  fibre  from  the  seed  by 
hand,  the  labor  was  great,  and  the  price  was  so 
high,  that  cotton  would  never  have  come  into 
general  use;  but  this  difficulty  was  obviated  by 
Whitney,  in  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin.  The 
invention  of  the  jenny,  by  Hargreaves,  enabled  one 
person  to  spin  one  hundred  and  twenty  threads,  in 
the  same  time  that  a  single  thread  could  be  spun 
by  the  methods  before  in  use;  and  the  subsequent 
inventions  of  the  spinning-frame  by  Arkwright, 
and  of  the  power-loom  by  Cartwright,  may  be 
regarded  as  among  the  greatest  achievements  of 
inventive  genius,  which  have  conferred  the  most 
lasting  blessings  on  the  race,  giving  employment 
to  many  millions  of  people,  affording  cheap  clothing 
to  all,  and  forming  a  principal  item  in  the  commerce 
and  industry  of  more  than  one  nation. 

Tobacco  (Nicotiania  tabacmn). — This  plant  is 
indigenous  to  America,  and  to  Sir  Francis  Drake 
and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  is  ascribed  the  honor  of 
having  first  introduced  it  into  England,  more  than 
three  centuries  ago.  Perhaps  there  is  no  habit 
which  has  taken  so  strong  a  hold  upon  mankind,  as 
the  use  of  this  weed,  nor  one  which,  when  acquired, 
is  so  difficult  to  eradicate.  It  is  smoked  "  from 
Indus  to  the  Pole,"  alike  by  civilized  and  savage 


TOBACCO-CULTURE.  23! 

races,  and  by  men  in  every  walk  of  life.  Its  cul- 
ture, too,  has  extended  from  America  to  every  part 
of  the  civilized  world,  where  the  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate  are  favorable  to  its  growth.  It  was  in 
universal  use  among  the  Indians  when  this  country 
was  first  known  to  the  European*  and  from  the 
pipes  found  in  the  mounds,  it  is  evident  that  that 
mysterious  race  who  built  them,  knew  its  virtues, — 
or  rather,  perhaps,  its  vices. 

Tobacco  requires  a  warm,  light,  silicious  soil  to 
develop  its  peculiar  aroma  in  all  of  its  perfection. 
Where  grown  on  an  argillaceous  soil,  or  one  rich 
in  organic  matter,  the  leaf  is  rankly  developed,  and 
is  lacking  in  the  finer  qualities.  Tobacco-culture 
is  carried  on  as  far  north  as  the  Connecticut  Valley, 
and  south  to  the  tropics;  but  here  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  cultivate  it  only  during  the  winter,  as  the 
summer  heats  and  rains  are  unfavorable  to  its  pro- 
fectlon.  The  States  of  Missouri,  Illinois,  Kentucky, 
Indiana,  and  Ohio,  are  far  better  adapted  to  its  cul- 
ture than  those  bordering  on  the  Gulf.  Of  the 
entire  product  of  the  United  States,  in  1860, — a 
little  more  than  four  and  one-fourth  million 
pounds,  —  these  five  States  furnished  about  two 
hundred  and  seventy-three  and  one-half  millions. 

Grasses  for  Pasturage. — The   natural   grasses 
of  the  prairies  east  of  the  Mississippi,  do  not  put 


232  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

forth  their  leaves  until  May,  and  they  wither  in 
August.  The  treading  and  cropping  of  the  turf  by 
cattle,  cause  them  at  first  to  become  thin,  and  then 
die  out.  They  are  supplanted  by  white  clover 
which  in  turn  is  rooted  out  by  the  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  {Poa  compressd).  The  latter  is  destined  to 
become  the  most  valuable  grass  of  the  prairies.  It 
bears  the  heat  of  the  summers,  and  affords  a  rich 
pasturage  in  the  winters.  A  rapid  change  is  going 
on  in  the  cultivated  prairie.  The  native  grasses 
are  retreating  before  the  cultivated  grasses,  as  the 
Red  man  retreats  before  the  White  man.  Wher- 
ever a  wagon-track  is  made  or  a  path  beaten,  the 
white  clover  comes  in;  wherever  a  tract  is  appro- 
priated to  pasturage,  the  blue-grass  becomes  domi- 
nant. 

The  English  grasses,  as  a  general  thing,  do  not 
flourish,  for  they  are  adapted  to  a  moist  and  cool 
climate.  Timothy,  however,  once  rooted,  main- 
tains its  ground,  and  remains  green  from  May  to 
December.  The  yield  in  hay  is  not  as  great  as  in 
the  meadows  of  New  England. 

West  of  the  Mississippi,  agriculture  is  too  new 
to  have  solved  the  question  of  what  grasses  are 
best  for  cultivation.  The  Western  Plains,  as  we 
have  before  remarked,  contain  several  species  of 
bunch-grass,  which  are  highly  nutritious,  grow  in 


GRASSES    FOR    PASTURAGE.  233 

an    arid    climate,    and    are    self-curing.      Fremont 
remarks  that: 

"  The  grazing  capabilities  of  this  region  are  great,  and  in 
the  indigenous  grasses  an  element  of  individual  and  national 
wealth  may  be  found.  In  fact,  the  valuable  grasses  begin 
within  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  of  the  Missouri  frontier, 
and  extend  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  East  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, it  is  the  short,  curly  grass  on  which  the  buffalo  delight  to 
feed  (whence  its  name  of  buffalo  grass},  and  which  is  still 
good  when  dry  and  apparently  dead.  West  of  the  mountains, 
it  is  a  larger  growth,  in  clusters,  and  hence  called  bunch  grass. 
This  has  a  second  or  fall  growth.  Plains  and  mountains  both 
exhibit  them,  and  I  have  seen  good  pasturage  at  an  elevation 
of  ten  thousand  feet.  It  is  upon  this  spontaneous  product,  the 
trading  or  traveling  caravans  can  find  subsistence  for  their  ani- 
mals ;  and  in  military  operations,  any  number  of  cavalry  may 
be  moved,  and  any  number  of  cattle  may  be  driven ;  and  thus 
men  and  horses  supported  on  long  expeditions,  and  even  in  the 
winter,  in  the  sheltered  situations."  * 

Governor  Bross,  who  has  traversed  the  western 
region  extensively,  in  a  late  communication  to  the 
Chicago  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  described 
the  agricultural  capacities  of  Colorado  as  being 
very  great,  and  so  rapidly  developing  that  the  peo- 
ple would  soon  be  independent  of  supplies  from  the 

*  "  Report  of  Exploring  Expedition." 

NOTE. — "  Captain  Croft,  U.  S.  A.,  recognizes  four  principal  varieties 
of  grasses  in  Arizona  :  i.  Lowland  Grama  (Pleuraphisjamesii},  which 
grows  in  great  profusion  in  the  Valley  of  the  Gila.  2.  Highland 
Grama  (Aristida purpured},  growing  on  the  sandy  '  mesas.'  3.  Black 
Grama  {Muhlenbergia  pungcns),  growing  on  the  highlands,  in  sandy, 
arid  soil.  4.  Sporobolus  airoides,  growing  in  the  valleys.  ("  Proc. 
Cal.  Acad.  of  Natural  Science,"  1865.) 


234  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

Mississippi  Valley,  and  even  compete  in  the  pro- 
vision-market of  the  world.  He  described  the 
cattle  as  superb  in  form,  and  clean  in  limb;  and 
anticipated  the  time  when  herds  would  be  driven 
eastward,  moving  afoot  by  easy  stages,  and  grazing 
on  the  rich  grasses  of  the  prairies,  until  they  were 
brought  within  the  lines  of  railroad  transportation. 
There  is  no  doubt  that,  while  much  of  the  region 
between  the  Missouri  and  the  base  of  the  Moun- 
tains, is  not  adapted  to  agriculture,  it  will  afford  an 
almost  unlimited  range  of  pasturage. 

Exhaustion  of  the  Soil. — Rich  as  are  the  prairie- 
soils  in  organic  matter,  they  are  treated  as  though 
inexhaustible.  The  products,  so  far  as  relate  to 
corn  and  wheat,  are  for  the  most  part  exported  to 
distant  regions,  where,  after  entering  into  the  ani- 
mal economy,  they  recombine,  and  contribute  to 
fertilize  the  soil.  Even  the  exuviae  of  the  cattle 
and  the  straw  of  the  grain,  are  allowed  to  accumu- 
late in  heaps,  and  rot  on  the  ground,  without  any 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  farmer  to  restore  them 
to  the  sources  from  which  they  have  been  derived. 
Thus,  each  year  the  farmers  of  the  Northwest  are 
sending  off  millions  of  tons  of  organic  matter,  in  a 
highly  concentrated  form,  —  impoverishing  their 
own  fields  to  enrich  those  of  distant  regions.  Such 
a  drain  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  though  appar- 


FACILITIES    FOR    CULTIVATION.  235 

ently  imperceptible  now,  will  ultimately  manifest 
itself  in  diminished  production,  and  will  involve  the 
necessity  of  adding  organic  matter  to  the  soil,  or 
of  allowing  it  to  remain  fallow  until  it  shall  have 
reimbibed,  from  the  decay  of  its  own  vegetation,  or 
from  the  elements  of  the  circumambient  air,  those 
principles  which  have  been  abstracted. 

Nature,  under  almost  every  condition  of  soil  and 
climate,  exhibits  a  self-perpetuating  power  whereby 
to  renew  the  youth  and  fertility  of  our  planet.  In 
the  absorption  of  the  gasses,  whether  arising  from 
the  decay  of  vegetation,  or  the  volume  of  smoke 
poured  out  from  the  multitudinous  chimneys  of 
densely-populous  cities  — which,  under  other  cir- 
cumstances, would  prove  destructive  to  life, —  and 
in  their  conversion  into  ligneous  fibre  or  into  food- 
producing  seeds,  she  evinces  a  providence  which 
ought  to  be  appreciated  by  every  one  who,  with  an 
inquiring  spirit,  investigates  her  laws. 

If  man,  therefore,  like  an  honest  debtor,  will 
only  restore  what  he  abstracts,  over  and  above  the 
requirements  of  self-support,  he  will  find  that  she 
is  not  an  all-remorseless  creditor,  but  a  kind  and 
beneficent  parent. 

Facilities  for  Cultivation.  —  Perhaps  there  is 
no  region  of  the  world  where  the  facilities  for  cul- 
vation,  and  for  the  conversion  of  the  natural  surface 


236  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

into  productive  fields,  are  so  great  as  on  the  western 
prairies;  and  hence  their  rapid  development  in  agri- 
cultural resources.  To  subdue  a  primeval  forest 
and  render  the  ground  fit  for  cultivation,  is  a  Hercu- 
lean task;  and  it  requires  the  lapse  of  a  generation 
before  the  fields,  by  a  removal  of  the  stumps  and 
trunks,  become  entirely  fit  for  the  plough.  Inter- 
communication is  confined  to  highways  cut  out  at 
rare  intervals;  trees  are  felled  or  girdled,  and  aban- 
doned to  fire  or  spontaneous  decay.  Hence,  the 
settlement  of  a  wooded  country  has  been  attended 
with  an  immense  destruction  of  the  forest,  without 
having  subserved  any  useful  purpose.  While  it 
has  required  nearly  two  and  one-half  centuries  to 
subdue  and  bring  under  cultivation  the  Atlantic 
Slope  of  the  United  States,  a  greater  area  in  the 
Upper  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  has  been  subdued, 
producing  ampler  supplies  of  human  food,  and  sus- 
taining a  larger  population,  within  the  memory  of 
men  yet  living. 

This  wonderful  change  has  been  wrought  out  by 
the  inventive  genius  of  an  illiterate  Northumbrian 
coal-miner,  George  Stephenson.  When  he  con- 
ceived and  brought  out  the  locomotive  known  as 
the  "Rocket,"  —  one  among  the  few  inventions 
that  ever  originated  complete  in  all  its  parts,  from 
the  brain  of  the  inventor, — he  conferred  an  inesti- 
mable boon  upon  mankind,  before  which  the  labors 


RAILROAD    FACILITIES.  237 

of  the  most  successful  statesmen,  or  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  most  renowned  warriors,  stand 
dwarfed.  So  far  as  relates  to  our  own  country, 
he  placed  in  our  hands  a  power  by  which  to  subdue 
a  continent  and  revolutionize  the  trade  of  the  world. 
Up  to  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  railways,  the 
prairies  repelled  settlement.  The  difficulty  of  pro- 
curing materials  for  construction,  such  as  wood  and 
stone,  restricted  the  immigrant  to  the  borders  of 
some  timbered  belt,  while  the  prairie  spread  out 
before  him,  an  almost  illimitable  waste.  When  the 
lines  of  improved  communication  had  crossed  the 
Alleghanies,  it  was  found  that  the  prairies  were  the 
appropriate  field  for  the  development  of  the  railroad 
system.  Their  topographical  features  were  such 
that  almost  air-lines  could  be  constructed  between 
given  points,  and  at  an  expense  which  bore  no  pro- 
portion to  that  through  the  wooded  or  mountainous 
regions  of  the  Atlantic  Slope.  Settlement  followed 
along  these  lines,  and  as  fast  as  villages  sprang  up 
at  the  stations,  a  rural  population  also  sprang  up  to 
sustain  them.  It  was  found,  too,  that,  with  the  great 
forest-belts  at  the  north,  adjacent  to  the  shores  of 
the  Lakes  and  lining  the  tributaries  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi,  Nature  had  dealt  kindly  with  man  in 
spreading  out  these  vast,  grassy  plains, —  more  so, 
even,  than  if  she  had  robed  them  with  forests;  for 
it  was  far  easier  for  the  settler  to  draw  his  supplies 


238  CULTIVATED    PLANTS. 

of  lumber  from  this  source  to  fence  his  farm  already 
prepared  for  the  plough,  than  to  doom  the  forests 
to  indiscriminate  destruction,  as  had  been  done  in 
Ohio  and  Western  New  York,  preliminary  to  culti- 
vation. 

No  where  on  the  continent  is  a  farm  so  easily 
subdued,  and  no  where  are  the  processes  of  agri- 
culture performed  with  so  slight  an  expenditure  of 
human  strength.  The  spade  and  the  hoe  are  seldom 
resorted  to,  and  the  furrow  is  formed  by  the  plough. 
Planting,  sowing,  reaping,  raking,  binding,  thresh- 
ing, shelling, —  all  are  mainly  done  by  machinery;  — 
processes  which  in  many  regions  are  impracticable 
by  reason  of  the  inequality  of  the  soil,  the  presence 
of  stumps,  rocks,  and  other  impediments. 

The  older  States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  are 
now  intersected  by  a  net-work  of  railways.  Their 
effects  are  seen  in  a  rapid  development  of  the  agri- 
tural  capabilities  of  the  regions  they  traverse;  in  an 
enormous  increase  of  internal  commerce;  in  an 
active  intercourse  between  widely-separated  points; 
in  the  spread  of  civilization;  and  in  the  mingling  of 
discordant  characters,  arising  from  local  prejudices 
or  ancestral  traditions,  into  a  harmonious  whole. 

The  appended  tables,  compiled  from  the  Census 
Returns  of  the  United  States,  exhibit  the  progress 
of  population,  as  well  as  of  agriculture,  in  the 
States  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  showing  an 


AGRICULTURAL    PRODUCTS.  239 

increase, —  unparalleled'  in  other  portions  of  the 
earth,  —  of  two-fold,  during  each  decade  of  ten 
years.  Comparing  the  whole  superficies  of  these 
States,  525,301  square  miles,  with  the  area  culti- 
vated, it  will  be  seen  that  only  about  18  per  cent, 
has  been  devoted  to  agriculture. 

The  product  of  cereals  in  the  eight  food-pro- 
ducing States  for  the  year  1859,  based  on  a  crop 
which  was  nearly  one-third  deficient,  exceeded 
550,000,000  bushels. 

To  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  the  motive  power 
required  to  distribute  this  prodigious  mass,  in  its 
crude  state,  it  may  be  stated  that  it  would  employ 
more  than  64,400  locomotives,  each  hauling  8,500 
bushels;  and,  if  required  to  deposit  their  freight  at 
a  given  depot,  a  train  must  arrive  oftener  than  once 
in  seven  minutes,  by  day  and  by  night,  throughout 
every  working  day  of  the  year. 

After  feeding  the  existing  population  of  those 
States,  there  remained  a  surplus  of  more  than 
500,000,000  of  bushels,  to  be  used  as  seed  for 
future  crops,  as  food  for  the  domestic  animals,  and 
for  exportation,  either  in  a  crude  state,  or  in  a  con- 
centrated form,  as  beef,  pork,  lard,  oil,  whisky,  etc. 

The  amount  of  cereals  which,  in  1862,  flowed  out 
of  the  lake-region  to  the  seaboard,  was  in  excess 
of  136,000,000  bushels;  since  which  time  it  has 
greatly  augmented. 


240 


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CHAPTER    VIII. 

GEOLOGY IGNEOUS   AND   METAMORPHIC 

ROCKS. 

GEOLOGICAL    STRUCTURE    OF   THE    MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY  —  TABU- 
LAR  VIEW    OF     THE     DIFFERENT     FORMATIONS RANGE     OF 

ORGANIC   LIFE  —  IGNEOUS    ROCKS    OF    DIFFERENT   AGE  —  SYS- 
TEMS    OF     ELEVATION     OF    MOUNTAIN-CHAINS  —  THE    LAKE 

SUPERIOR      SYSTEM  THE      PRIMEVAL       CONTINENT  THE 

APPALACHIAN    SYSTEM THE    ROCKY    MOUNTAIN    SYSTEM 

THE    PACIFIC    COAST    RANGES IGNEOUS    PRODUCTS RIVER 

SYSTEMS  THE     AZOIC      SYSTEM,    ASSOCIATED     WITH     IRON 

ORES IRON-REGION    OF   LAKE    SUPERIOR OF   MISSOURI 

THE    MYTHOLOGICAL  AGE    OF    METALS THE    PRESENT,  THE 

IRON   AGE ANNUAL    PRODUCT    OF   THE    WORLD. 

Geological  Structure.  —  If,  from  an  elevated  posi- 
tion, an  observer  were  enabled  to  comprehend  in  a 
bird's-eye  view  the  entire  structure  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  he  would  find  that  it  was  rimmed  on 
three  sides  by  granitic  or  highly  metamorphic 
rocks;  and  that  these  rocks,  while  affording  abund- 
ant evidences  of  having  originated  from  the  action 
of  direct  or  transmitted  heat,  have  at  many  points 
been  invaded  by  products  of  a  purely  volcanic 
origin.  He  would  further  find  that  the  basin  had 


GEOLOGICAL    STRUCTURE.  243 

been  filled  in  with  rocks  of  a  far  different  charac- 
ter, reposing  for  the  most  part  in  nearly  horizontal 
strata,  and  little  metamorphosed  by  heat, — such  as 
limestones,  sandstones,  shales,  and  loose,  detrital 
materials,  the  whole  forming  an  assemblage  many 
thousand  feet  in  thickness.  Descending  from  his 
elevated  position,  and  examining  the  individual 
groups  critically,  he  would  find  that,  while  the 
granitic,  the  metamorphic,  and  volcanic  rocks 
afforded  no  traces  of  organic  life,  the  sedimentary 
rocks  were  stored  with  numerous  forms  as  delicate 
or  massive  in  structure,  as  any  that  now  tenant  the 
earth  or  sea.  He  would  further  find  that  they 
differed  not  only  from  existing  forms,  but  among 
themselves,  and  that  there  was  a  corresponding 
order  of  succession  in  the  strata  wherein  they  had 
been  entombed;  and  from  the  constancy  of  this 
order,  he  would  be  justified  in  inferring  that  they 
appeared  upon  the  earth  at  different  intervals,  and 
that  those  intervals  comprehended  long  periods  of 
time.  Now,  as  this  order  is  never  reversed,  these 
fossils  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  land-marks  in 
the  physical  history  of  our  planet, —  as  so  many 
"  medals,  struck  by  nature  to  commemorate  her 
revolutions."  Extending  his  researches  to  vegeta- 
ble forms,  he  finds  that  the  same  diversity  and  the 
same  order  of  succession  prevail. 


244  GEOLOGY. 

Directing  his  attention  to  those  substances  useful 
to  man,  he  finds  stored  in  the  granitic,  volcanic,  and 
metamorphic  rocks,  the  precious  metals  — gold  and 
silver, —  and  the  baser  metals  — copper,  tin,  zinc, 
mercury,  lead,  iron,  etc., —  sometimes  segregated 
in  veins,  and  at  others  in  beds  or  sheets,  incorpo- 
rated with  the  strata. 

In  the  limestones,  sandstones,  and  shales,  which 
show  slight  signs  of  igneous  action,  while  he  notes 
the  absence  of  the  precious  metals,  he  finds  the 
more  useful  ores,  such  as  iron,  lead,  and  zinc.  In 
addition  to  these,  he  finds  at  various  intervals,  and 
stretching  over  vast  areas,  immense  deposits  of 
fossil  fuel,  stored  away  at  accessible  depths,  and 
in  positions  protected  from  combustion  and  decay, 
to  supply  the  wants  and  conveniences  of  man 
throughout  all  time. 

When  he  examines  the  superficial  materials, 
he  finds  that  they  repose  on  rocks  which  have 
been  grooved  and  striated,  and  the  removed 
parts  ground  up  into  an  almost  impalpable  pow- 
der; but  when  he  reflects  that  this  impalpable 
powder  forms  the  soil  which  supports  the  infinite 
variety  of  vegetation  that  clothes  the  earth  and 
constitutes  the  food,  directly  or  indirectly,  of 
every  living  form  that  moves  upon  its  surface  or 
sports  in  its  waters,  and  how  slow  would  have 
been  its  accumulation  if  left  to  mere  atmospheric 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  245 

chancres,  he   is   led  to    the    irresistible    conclusion 

O         ' 

that  these  are  the  results  of  a  manifest  design. 

To  investigate  the  structure  of  the  globe,  and 
the  revolutions  which  its  surface  has  undergone; 
to  trace  the  succession  of  animal  and  vegetable 
life;  to  determine  the  conditions  under  which 
the  precious  metals  and  the  useful  ores  are 
found;  and  to  bring  forth  from  hidden  depths 
those  materials  which  minister  to  the  conveniences 
of  man,  is  the  province  of  geology. 

Geologists,  then,  guided  by  the  succession  of 
organic  remains  and  the  superposition  of  the 
strata,  have  become  satisfied  that  the  earth  did 
not  come  from  the  hands  of  the  Creator  as  we 
now  behold  it;  but  that  it  acquired  its  present 
configuration  after  repeated  revolutions,  embrac- 
ing the  lapse  of  long  periods  of  time,  during 
which  distinct  races  of  living  organisms  were 
introduced,  flourished,  and  died,  and  their  remains 
became  entombed  in  the  rocks;  from  many  of 
which  we  build  our  temples  and  dwellings,  and 
out  of  which  even  we  carve  our  monuments, — 
thus  using  the  sepulchres  of  extinct  races  to  per- 
petuate the  remembrance  of  our  own.  The  very 
dust  we  tread  upon  was  once  instinct  with  life. 

The  following  classification  may  be  adopted  as 
embracing  the  most  conspicuous  groups  of  rocks 
in  the  Great  Valley: 


246 


GEOLOGY. 


TABULAR    VIEW 

OF    THE 

PRINCIPAL  FOSSILIFEROUS  STRATA  of  the  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY 
AND  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 


RECENT. 

LOESS   OR  BLUFF. 


POST-TERTIARY. 


3.    RIVER  TERRACES. 

4.    DRIFT  OR   BOULDER  GROUP. 

5.  LOUP-RIVER  GROUP.                                         PLIOCENE.                   "^     ^   1 

6.    WHITE-RIVER  GROUP.                                                    )                                                                         I       <J 

>    MIOCENE.                       J.    H 

1     WIND-RIVER   GROUP.                                                        )                                                                       1       H 

8.    FORT  UNION,  OR  GREAT  LIGNITE  GROUP.    ~)                                                                         W 

>    EOCINE.                         J     H 

9.    V1CKSBURGH   GROUP.                                                      ) 

u 

HH 

IO.    FOX-HILL   GROUP.                                                             ^ 
II.    FORT  PIERRE   GROUP. 
12.    FORT   BENTON   GROUP. 

>•    CRETACEOUS.            >\     ^ 

fEOZO 

13.    DAKOTA  GROUP. 

i 

A 

14.    AURIFEROUS   SLATES   OF  CALIFORNIA.        -v                                                                          f     ^H 

15.    LAMINATED   MARLS   OF   BLACK   HILLS.                 JURASSIC                                           r\ 
f                AND 
l6.    VARIEGATED   MARLS   OF   COLORADO?                      TRIASSIC.                                J       ffl 

17.  VAKIEGATED  MARLS  OF  KANSAS?                 -' 

l8     FORT   RILEY   GROUP,   KANSAS.                                        PERMIAN.                               ' 

• 

19.    COAL-MEASURES. 

20.   CHESTER   LIMESTONE. 

21     ST.  LOUIS   GROUP. 
22.    KEOKUK   GROUP. 

•    CARBONIFEROUS. 

23.    BURLINGTON   LIMESTONE. 

6 

24.    K1NDERHOOK   GROUP. 

o3 

o 

25.    HAMILTON  SLATES.                                                          « 
26.    CONIFEROUS   LIMESTONE.                                         \      DEVONIAN. 

•| 

N 

>•  o 
w 

27.   ORISKANY   SANDSTONE.                                               J 

OH 

^ 

28.  SALINA  LIMESTONE. 
29.    NIAGARA   LIMESTONE.                                                   C      UPPER  SILURIAN. 

OH 

3O.    CINCINNATI   BLUE   LIMESTONE.                          ' 

31.    GALENA    LIMESTONE. 

32.  TRENTON  LIMESTONE. 
33.  ST.  PETER'S  SANDSTONE. 

-    LOWER  SILURIAN.  - 

- 

34.    LOWER     MAGNESIAN     LIMESTONE. 

35.   POTSDAM  SANDSTONE. 

RANGE    OF    FOSSILS.  247 

While  each  of  these  groups  has  its  character- 
istic fossils,  by  which  it  can  be  identified  over 
widely-separated  areas,  yet  there  are  two  infer- 
ences, erroneous  in  their  results,  which  the 
geological  student  might  draw  without  further 
examination. 

i.  He  must  not  infer  that  these  groups  envelope 
a  considerable  part  of  the  earth  like  the  coats  of 
an  onion,  for  at  no  point  do  they  present  an 
unbroken  succession  of  comforming  strata.  There 
exist  gaps,  indicating  that  while  aqueous  causes 
were  active  in  one  region  in  accumulating  strata, 
they  were  dormant  at  another;  but  this  fact  is 
unquestioned, —  the  order  of  succession  is  never 
reversed. 

And  2.  That  while  the  age  of  a  group  is 
determined  by  the  assemblage  of  fossils,  they  are 
not  in  all  instances  restricted  to  a  particular  zone 
of  life,  but  certain  specific  forms  are  found  to 
range  through  several  distinct  formations.  In 
such  cases,  they  generally  appear  as  varieties;  as 
though  the  surrounding  conditions  had  so  far 
changed  as  to  produce  variations  in  their  form 
and  character.*  While  the  extremes  differ  in 


*  Take,  for  instance,  that  subdivision  of  the  Mollusks  known  as 
Brachiopods  (animals  with  arm-like  feet),  which  comprehends  the 
four  genera  :  Rhychonella,  Crania,  Discina,  and  Lingula.  Davidson, 
the  most  eminent  of  English  palaeontologists,  after  an  exhaustive 
investigation  of  the  Brachiopods  of  the  British  Isles,  finds  that  all  of 


248  GEOLOGY. 

these  particulars,  there  is  a  series  of  gradations, 
the  result  of  altered  conditions  of  habitat,  which 
link  them  together. 

As  it  is  not  my  purpose  to  refer,  except  inci- 
dentally, to  the  fossil  fauna  which  characterize 
the  several  groups  of  strata,  I  will  simply  remark 
that,  in  the  order  of  creation,  there  appears  to 
have  been  a  progressive  development,  from  the 
simplest  organic  structures  in  the  oldest  forma- 
tions, to  the  highest  type  of  being  represented  in 
the  latest  creation, —  man.  According  to  the  exist- 
ing knowledge,  the  Vertebrates,  represented  by 
the  fishes,  first  appear  in  the  Upper  Silurian;  the 
Reptiles  in  the  Sub-carboniferous  (the  Sauropus 


these  genera  appear  in  the  Silurian,  and  are  continued  through  all  the 
subsequent  formations  up  to  the  present  time,  persistent  in  form  and 
character;  while  other  genera  have  a  less  diversified  range,  and 
exhibit  wide  deviations  from  the  primitive  type.  Thus  the  common 
fossil,  Atrypa  unguicularis,  appears  in  the  Devonian,  is  continued  in 
the  Carboniferous,  where  it  is  known  as  Spirifer  urn,  and  is  still 
continued  in  the  Permian,  where  it  is  known  as  S.  clannyamts. 
Whether  what  are  known  as  species  are  independent  creations,  and  so 
long  as  they  continue  to  exist,  preserve  a  fixedness  of  character;  or 
whether  they  are  capable  of  varying  indefinitely  from  an  original 
type,  dependent  on  altered  conditions  of  climate,  food,  etc.,  are  ques- 
tions upon  which  naturalists  are  divided.  In  the  breeding  of  domesti- 
cated animals,  we  certainly  see  a  strong  tendency  to  run  into  varieties; 
on  the  other  hand,  we  find  certain  living  species  of  Mollusks  which 
are  identical  with  the  fossil  forms  entombed  in  the  Tertiaries ;  thus 
showing  that  these  forms  must  have  remained  constant  through 
millions  of  years.  But  in  reply  to  this  objection,  the  believer  in  the 
transmutation  of  species  might  say  that  the  physical  conditions,  such 
as  the  temperature  and  saltness  of  the  water,  depth  of  the  ocean,  etc., 
had  remained  constant,  and  that,  therefore,  we  had  no  right  to  expect 
a  deviation  from  pristine  types. 


IGNEOUS    ROCKS.  2  f9 

primcevus  of  Lee) ;  the  Mammalia,  represented 
by  a  marsupial  or  pouched  animal,  like  the  opos- 
sum of  America,  in  the  Upper  Oolite;  and  some 
small  quadrupeds  not  clearly  made  out,  in  the 
Upper  Trias;  traces  of  birds  are  detected  in  the 
Upper  Oolite  (Archceopteryx  macrurus),  in  the 
lithographic  limestone  near  Solenhofen,  Bavaria; 
and  last,  the  evidences  of  man  occur  in  the  Post- 
Pliocine,  if  not  in  the  Pliocine  itself. 

Igneous  Rocks. — When  we  examine  the  igneous 
rocks  of  this  region,  we  find  that,  like  the  fossilif- 
erous  strata,  they  are  not  all  of  the  same  age.  For 
instance,  if,  as  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  we 
find  the  Potsdam  sandstone  abutting  against  a 
great  boss  of  granite,  with  all  of  its  projections 
worn  off, —  like  rocks  at  the  present  day  on  the 
sea-shore  exposed  to  the  action  of  a  heavy  surf, — 
while  the  sandstone  reposes  in  horizontal  beds,  and 
shows  few  signs  of  metamorphism,  we  infer,  and 
justly  too,  that  the  granite  was  upheaved  and 
assumed  its  present  relative  position  before  the 
deposition  of  the  sandstone. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  go  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  observe  granite  in  the  form  of  domes  or 
crests,  constituting  mountain  masses,  flanked  by 
Triassic  strata  reclining  at  a  high  angle;  and  if  we 
find  that,  where  such  contact  takes  place,  sandstone 


250  GEOLOGY. 

is  metamorphosed  into  quartz,  shale  into  gneiss,  and 
limestone  into  marble,  we  infer  that  the  granite  has 
been  protruded  through  the  yielding  strata,  and 
that  this  change  in  the  sedimentary  rocks,  is  due 
to  the  action  of  direct  or  transmitted  heat.  As  this 
is  the  usual  form  in  which  granite  appears,  and 
never  in  the  form  of  a  lava-overflow,  it  is  inferred 
that  it  is  not  a  volcanic  product,  but  that  it  was 
elevated  in  a  pasty  condition,  and  under  circum- 
stances which  permitted  it  to  assume  a  crystalline 
form. 

We  also  observe  another  class  of  rocks,  occupy- 
ing narrow  apertures  in  the  pre-existing  strata  in 
the  form  of  dykes,  or  diffused  over  the  surface, 
sometimes  in  aspect  compact  and  close-grained, 
at  others  glassy  or  scoriaceous.  These  rocks  inter- 
mingle with  the  fossiliferous  strata  of  all  ages,  and 
resemble  so  much  the  product  of  modern  volcanoes 
that  geologists  have  not  hesitated  to  ascribe  their 
origin  to  this  source. 

Systems  of  Elevation. —  It  has  been  found,  too, 
that  the  structural  features  of  the  earth  —  the  out- 
lines of  continents  and  the  shore-lines  of  the  ocean 
—  have  been  mainly  determined  by  the  upheaval 
of  these  crystalline  rocks.  These  again  have 
influenced  the  destinies  of  the  human  race,  in  the 
migrations  of  men,  in  the  distribution  of  languages, 


SYSTEMS    OF    ELEVATION.  25! 

and  in  the  modification  of  climate.  Hence,  then; 
the  study  of  mountain  chains,  their  range  and  extent, 
is  one  of  absorbing  interest.  They  form  the  grand- 
est and  most  imperishable  record  of  the  great  cycle 
of  events  through  which  the  earth  has  passed. 

It  has  been  found,  too,  as  first  observed  by 
Steensen,  and  subsequently  elaborated  in  the  com- 
prehensive work  of  Elie  de  Beaumont,  that  the 
great  lines  of  fracture  and  uplift,  instead  of  being 
fortuitous,  pursue  certain  determinate  lines  of 
direction,  conforming  to  the  great  circle  of  the 
earth;  and  that,  instead  of  a  single  line  of  fracture 
and  uplift,  there  are  parallel  lines  which  appear  to 
have  been  formed  simultaneously  over  vast  areas 
of  the  earth's  surface.  Mountain  chains  of  different 
ages  intersect  one  another  at  different  angles;  and 
thus,  while  to  the  superficial  observer,  such  an 
assemblage  as  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Alps, 
the  Himalayas,  or  the  Caucasus,  may  appear  as  a 
confused  and  discordant  mass,  yet  by  patient  study 
of  the  strata  which  repose  on  their  flanks,  the 
geologist  may  determine  the  several  systems  of 
upheaval,  and  evoke  order  out  of  apparent  confu- 
sion. 

While  the  outlines,  then,  of  continents  have 
been  determined  by  mountain  chains,  the  result 
of  paroxysmal  action,  the  area  of  continents  has 
been  determined  in  many  instances  by  the  gradual 


252  GEOLOGY. 

oscillations  of  the  crust,  such  as  are  now  taking 
place  over  the  northern  portion  of  the  hemisphere. 
That  these  oscillations  have  been  going  on  during 
the  whole  progress  of  the  earth's  history  admits 
of  no  doubt;  for,  e.  g.,  in  the  strata  of  the  Coal- 
Measures,  and  of  the  Cretaceous,  we  meet  with 
repeated  alternations  of  marine  and  terrestrial  life; 
and  in  the  Tertiaries,  we  see  that  fresh  and  salt- 
water have  alternately  held  dominion  over  the  sur- 
face. The  Drift-terraces  and  ancient  sea-beaches, 
high  above  the  present  water-level,  point  to  the 
same  conclusion.  The  earth,  therefore,  to  the 
geologist,  is  not  an  emblem  of  stability.  He  sees, 
in  the  displacement  and  plication  of  the  strata,  that 
its  foundations  have  been  repeatedly  broken  up, 
and  that  its  crust  is  but  an  oscillating  mass. 

It  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  elevation  of 
mountain  chains,  as  though  it  were  a  bodily  lifting 
up  of  the  strata,  by  a  force  operating  directly  from 
beneath;  but  in  this  respect  the  term  is  misap- 
plied. If  we  suppose  that  the  earth  was  once 
in  a  fluid  state,  and  that  the  present  condition  of  its 
surface  is  due  to  a  process  of  refrigeration,  there 
must  have  been  a  time  when  a  solid  crust  was 
formed,  composed  wholly  of  crystalline  rocks.  As 
the  process  of  refrigeration  went  on,  the  earth's 
sphere  would  gradually  contract  to  accommodate 
itself  to  the  diminished  nucleus.  Such  contraction 


OUTLINES    OF    CONTINENTS.  253 

would  be  attended  with  ruptures  of  the  crust,  which 
would  pursue  certain  determinate  lines,  represented 
by  mountain  chains;  so  that  the  word  elevation,  as 
applied  to  mountain  ranges,  really  means  subsid- 
ence. If  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  an  incandescent 
mass,  as  is  supposed,  the  pasty  matter  would  rise 
up  and  fill  the  fissures  thus  created,  and  appear 
under  the  form  of  granite;  or  if  this  matter  were 
in  a  fluid  condition,  it  would  appear  under  the 
form  of  porphyry,  basalt,  trap,  etc.,  filling  pre- 
existing fissures  in  the  crust  as  dykes,  or  flowing 
over  the  surface  in  long  lines  like  lava-currents. 
Earthquake  and  volcanic  action  belong  to  this  class 
of  phenomena,  and  the  reason  why  their  manifesta- 
tion is  less  striking  now  than  at  former  periods,  is, 
that  the  earth  is  supposed  to  have  arrived  at  that 
stage  when  the  radiation  of  heat  into  space  is  about 
equal  to  that  received  from  the  sun. 

No  American  physicist,  perhaps,  has  investigated 
the  structural  relations  of  continents  so  thoroughly 
and  so  ably  as  Dana.  He  has  brought  to  bear 
upon  this  subject  extensive  observation,  made  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  united  to  close  analyti- 
cal reasoning;  and  the  conclusions  in  which  such  a 
mind  rests  are  entitled  to  all  respect.  He  recog- 
nizes two  great  systems  or  trends  applicable  to  the 
whole  world :  — A  north-western  and  a  northeastern^ 
transverse  to  one  another;  and  he  claims  that  the 


254  GEOLOGY. 

islands  of  oceans,  the  outlines  and  reliefs  of  con- 
tinents, and  the  oceanic  basins  themselves,  alike 
exemplify  these  systems. 

In  the  application  of  these  principles,  it  may  be 
said  that  there  are  three  grand  systems  of  upheaval, 
different  in  age  and  direction,  which  have  deter- 
mined the  structural  features  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  viz.: 

i.  The  Lake  Superior  System, —  which  ranges 
N.  80°  E.,  S.  80°  W.,  from  Labrabor  to  the  sources 
of  the  Mississippi:  northward  it  extends  to  near 
the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  rocks  composing 
this  system  consist  of  granites,  traps,  and  porphy- 
ries, undoubtedly  of  igneous  origin;  together  with 
quartzites,  marbles,  and  chlorite  and  talcose  schists, 
of  aqueous  origin,  —  the  whole  highly  metamor- 
phosed. On  both  sides  of  the  axis,  the  Silurian 
groups  are  found  resting  uncomformably.  This, 
as  we  long  ago  pointed  out,  is  the  oldest  system  in 
America,  forming,  as  it  were,  the  Primeval  Conti- 
nent, which  stretched  east  and  west  in  a  low, 
narrow  belt,  from  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  to 
Labrador;  and  north  and  south,  from  the  northern 
borders  of  Michigan  to  the  Arctic  Sea.  Its  culmi- 
nating points  no  where  attained  an  elevation  of 
more  than  2,000  feet  above  the  old  Silurian  ocean. 
At  that  time,  the  Alleghanies  and  Rocky  Moun- 


MOUNTAIN-SYSTEMS.  255 

tains  had  not  assumed  their  form  and  direction,  and 
the  only  objects  which  rose  above  the  barren  waste 
of  waters  to  break  the  monotony  of  the  scene,  were 
a  few  isolated  islands,  like  the  Iron-Mountain  region 
of  Missouri,  Magnet  Cove  of  Arkansas,  and  per- 
haps the  Washita  Mountains  of  Texas,  the  Black 
Hills  of  Nebraska,  and  the  Central  Plateau  of 
Colorado.  No  forms  of  vegetable  life,  at  that 
time,  clothed  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  no  forms  of 
animal  life  roamed  through  the  valleys,  and  even 
the  waters  were  tenantless.  It  was  emphatically  a 
petrified  continent,  rigid  and  stony.* 

2.  The  Appalachian  System.  —  This  system,  as 
we  have  seen,  extends  from  Alabama  to  the  River 
St.  Lawrence,  where  it  intersects  the  Azoic  belt  of 
Lake  Superior,  pursuing  for  1,200  miles  a  general 
direction  of  northeast  and  southwest,  and  present- 
ing a  nearly  unbroken  succession  of  conforming 
strata;  and  yet  the  strata  at  many  points  are  trav- 
ersed by  a  series  of  faults,  particularly  observ- 

*  This  generalization  was  made  by  the  writer  as  far  back  as  1851, 
and  was  communicated  to  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  at  the  Cincinnati  Meeting  of  that  year.  Agassiz,  who 
was  present,  endorsed  it  as  among  the  most  important  that  had  been 
made  in  American  Geology.  In  some  miscellaneous  papers  published 
in  the  "Atlantic  Monthly,"  and  subsequently  collected  into  a  volume, 
this  eminent  naturalist  has  substantially  repeated  my  views;  and 
while  many  ascribe  to  him  the  merit  of  this  generalization,  he  himself, 
if  questioned,  would  be  the  first  to  acknowledge  the  source  from 
which  it  was  derived. 


256  GEOLOGY. 

able  in  Southern  Virginia  and  Northern  Alabama, 
by  which  rocks  of  the  Silurian  era  are  brought  to 
a  level  with  those  of  the  Carboniferous.  These 
vertical  displacements  in  some  instances  amount 
to  20,000  feet.  It  was  at  the  close  of  the  Carbon- 
iferous epoch  that  the  Appalachian  chain  became 
folded,  plicated,  and  metamorphosed.  The  force 
by  which  these  changes  were  produced,  appears 
to  have  been  a  lateral  one,  and  to  have  operated 
from  the  Atlantic  side,  since  the  steepest  and  most 
abrupt  acclivities  invariably  face  in  that  direction, 
and  as  the  strata  are  traced  westward,  they  unfold 
in  a  series  of  gentle  undulations  until  they  come 
within  the  influence  of  N.  N.  W.  system  of  Illinois 
and  other  western  States,  where  all  further  traces 
become  obliterated. 

The  Triassic  and  Jurassic  series  of  the  Atlantic 
Slope  repose  upon  the  upturned  edges  of  the  Appa- 
lachian System;  and,  while  having  the  same  general 
direction,  and  disturbed  by  an  elevatory  movement 
of  their  own,  in  no  instance  do  they  appear  to  have 
crossed  the  Alleghanies  and  invaded  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi.  On  the  other  hand,  the  region  of 
the  Pacific  opposed  no  barrier  to  the  Triassic  and 
Jurassic  seas,  since  deposits  of  this  age  are  found 
on  both  sides  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Thus  then,  at  this  early  epoch,  we  find  evidences 


MOUNTAIN-SYSTEMS.  257 

of  ancient  shore-lines  conforming  to  those  which 
give  configuration  to  the  whole  Atlantic  Slope. 

3.  The  Rocky  Mountain  System. — This  system 
has  a  general  trend  of  N.  N.  W.  and  S.  S.  E.  (though 
subject  to  minor  deviations  where  invaded  by  the 
purely  volcanic  rocks),  through  the  whole  territory 
of  the  United  States.  This  assemblage,  view  as  a 
whole,  may  be  regarded  as  a  vast  sea  of  mountains, 
sometimes  rising  in  isolated  summits  above  the 
snow-line,  sometimes  in  ranges,  either  serrated  or 
dome-shaped,  often  overlapping,  and  often  sending 
out  lateral  spurs,  as  buttresses  to  the  main  wall. 
Whether  called  Sierra  Madre,  Sierra  Blanca, 
Washtash,  Wind-River,  Black  Hills,  etc.,  they  are 
but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole. 

With  regard  to  the  age  of  their  elevation,  much 
doubt  has  hitherto  prevailed.  Our  own  views, 
expressed  as  far  back  as  1851,  based  on  the  obser- 
vations of  Humboldt  and  Von  Tschudi  among  the 
Andes  of  South  America,  was  that  their  elevation 
was  as  late  as  the  Cretaceous  age.  The  observa- 
tions of  those  attached  to  the  Pacific  Railroad 
Surveys,  seemed  to  point  to  the  Carboniferous 
period,  making  their  elevation  contemporary  with 
that  of  the  Alleghanies;  but  the  more  exact  obser- 
vations of  Whitney  in  California,  and  of  Remond 
in  Northern  Mexico,  would  indicate  beyond  a 


258  GEOLOGY. 

doubt  that  their  elevation  to  their  present  relative 
position,  took  place  at  or  near  the  close  of  the 
Triassic  period.  Between  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  we  see  no  reason  to  draw 
a  line  of  demarcation.  They  are  parallel  in  direc- 
tion, are  charged  with  the  same  metallic  contents, 
and  are  invaded  by  the  same  volcanic  products. 

Whitney,  in  summing  up  the  results  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Survey,  remarks: 

"  The  sedimentary  portion  of  the  great  metalliferous  belt  of 
the  Pacific  Coast  of  North  America,  is  to  a  large  extent  made 
up  of  rocks  of  Jurassic  and  Triassic  age,  with  a  comparatively 
small  development  of  Carboniferous  limestone,  and  these 
formations  are  so  folded  together,  broken  up,  and  metamor- 
phosed in  the  great  chain  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  that  it  will  be 
immense  labor,  if  indeed  possible  at  all,  to  unravel  its  detailed 
structure.  While  we  are  fully  justified  in  saying  that  a  large 
portion  of  the  auriferous  rocks  of  California  consists  of  Triassic 
and  Jurassic  strata,  we  have  not  a  particle  of  evidence  to 
sustain  the  theory  which  has  been  so  often  brought  forward, 
that  all,  or  even  a  portion  of  the  auriferous  rocks  are  older 
than  the  Carboniferous,  not  a  trace  of  a  Devonian  or  Silurian 
fossil  ever  having  been  discovered  in  California,  or  indeed  any 
where  to  the  west  of  the  n6th  meridian.  It  appears,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  no  inconsiderable  amount  of  gold  has  been 
obtained  from  metamorphic  rocks,  belonging  as  high  up  in 
the  series  as  the  Cretaceous.* 

While  such  are  the  generalizations  of  Whitney 
as  to  the  age  of  the  auriferous  rocks  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  Remond  arrives  at  the  same  results  as  to 

*  "  Palaeontology  of  California,"  Vol.  I. 


MOUNTAIN-SYSTEMS.  259 

the  metalliferous  rocks  of  Northern  Mexico,  em- 
braced in  the  ranges  known  as  the  Sierra  Madre, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  southern  extension 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  system. 

"  The  oldest  sedimentary  rocks  which  I  have  observed 
belong  to  the  Carboniferous  series ;  this  is  represented  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Sonora,  by  heavy  masses  of  limestone,  forming 
very  high  and  rugged  ridges,  running  a  little  west  of  north. 

*  *     Argentiferous  veins  occur  throughout  this   formation. 
The    next  group  of  rocks   in   order  is   the   Triassic,      *      * 
made   up   of   heavy   beds   of  quartzites   and   conglomerates. 

*  *      Wherever    metamorphosed,    the   Triassic    rocks    are 
auriferous,    and    contain   veins   of  silver   ores.      *      *      The 
Cretaceous  period  is  also  represented  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra 
Madre.     *     *     The   strata  belonging  to  this  series  are  chiefly 
argillaceous  shales,  and  these  rest  upon   porphyries   and  Car- 
boniferous limestones.     They  have  been  disturbed  and  elevated 
since   their  deposition.      *       *       The  veins  cut  all  the  rocks 
older  than  the  Cretaceous,  whether  igneous  or  sedimentary."  * 

These  facts  clearly  indicate  that  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Rocky-Mountain  Chains  were  up- 
lifted, metamorphosed,  and  infiltrated  with  the 
precious  metals  at  or  about  the  close  of  the  Tri- 

*  "  Proc.  Gala.  Academy  Nat.  Sci."    Vol.  III. 

It  would  seem  that  the  Carboniferous  and  Triassic  series  exist  in  inti- 
mate relation  through  the  whole  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the 
United  States.  The  Triassic  has  been  recognized  in  the  Colorado 
Basin  (Newberry) ;  in  the  region  of  Washoe  (Whitney)  ;  east  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Raton  Mountain  (Le  Conte); 
in  the  Black  Hills,  Big  Horn  Mountains,  and  about  the  sources  of  the 
Missouri  (Meek  and  Hayden).  The  Carboniferous  series  exists  in 
great  force  in  the  region  of  Santa  F6  (Newberry);  Salt  Lake  (Hall); 
and  in  the  Great  Basin  east  of  longitude  116°  (Whitney). 


260  GEOLOGY. 

assic  age;  and  yet  they  must  have  subsequently 
undergone  great  subsidence,  for  we  find  the  Cre- 
taceous strata  reposing  undisturbed  upon  both 
slopes,  and  imposed  on  these,  a  series  of  Tertiary 
beds,  some  marine  and  some  fresh-water,  which 
appear  to  have  been  unaffected  by  the  elevatory 
movements  which  gave  form  and  direction  to  the 
Rocky-Mountain  System.  Subordinate  systems 
are  known  to  exist,  and  others  will  undoubtedly 
be  determined;  but  it  is  to  these  three  great  lines 
of  upheaval  that  the  Mississippi  Valley  owes  its 
configuration. 

The  Coast  Ranges.  —  The  elevation  of  the 
Coast  Ranges  of  the  Pacific,  as  determined  by 
Antisell  and  others,  is  as  recent  as  the  Miocine- 
Tertiary,  which  has  brought  up  strata  over  2,000 
feet  in  thickness,  containing  fossils  differing  from 
those  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  indicating  a 
difference  in  the  waters  of  the  two  oceans.*  Later 
observations  by  Whitney  show,  that  while  the  Cre- 
taceous strata  repose  undisturbed  on  the  flanks  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  they  partook  of  the  movement 
by  which  the  Coast  Ranges  were  made  to  assume 
their  present  form  and  direction;  and  are,  there- 
fore, far  more  modern  in  age.  Their  range  is  from 
the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  California  to  the 

*  "Pacific  Railroad  Surveys."     Vol.  III. 


VOLCANIC    PRODUCTS.  261 

British   Possessions,   and  their  bearing  about   N. 
70°  W. 

Volcanic  Products.  —  This  class  of  rocks  is 
observed  in  the  form  of  basalts,  greenstones,  and 
amygdaloids,  protruded  among  the  grits  and  con- 
glomerates of  the  Silurian  age,  in  the  Lake  Supe- 
rior district;  but  their  grandest  display  is  in  the 
Rocky-Mountain  region,  and  on  the  Pacific  Slope. 
Mt.  Hood,  Shasta,  and  Lassan's  Peak,  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  Raton  Mountain,  Long's  Peak,  and 
the  Three  Teutons,  on  the  other,  with  San  Fran- 
cisco and  San  Mateo  on  the  Colorado  Plateau,  are, 
as  we  have  seen,  but  volcanic  craters,  whose  fires 
have  but  recently  been  extinguished.  All  over 
this  region  there  are  crested  ridges  and  isolated 
peaks  that  have  been  thus  lifted  up,  and  from  their 
orifices  have  flowed  lava,  peperino,  scoria,  and 
ashes,  so  copiously  as  to  cover  the  fundamental 
rocks  over  large  areas.  These  overflows  will  prob- 
ably be  found  to  be  of  various  ages,  but  some  of 
them  are  of  extremely  modern  origin.  Perhaps 
the  most  conspicuous  example  of  recent  action 
is  exhibited  at  Table  Mountain,  California,  as 
described  by  Whitney,  where  the  summit  con- 
sists of  basaltic  lava  nearly  150  feet  thick,  and 
elevated  2,000  feet  above  the  Stanislaus  River. 
The  stream  of  once  molten  matter  is  traceable  for 


262  GEOLOGY. 

forty  miles  up  to  its  source  in  the  High  Sierra; 
and,  as  it  must  have  sought  the  lowest  depressions, 
at  the  time  of  its  overflow,  it  is  inferred  that  the 
country  has  since  been  denuded  to  that  extent. 
Beneath  the  basalt  are  about  200  feet  of  slightly- 
coherent  sandstones,  and  argillaceous  shales  and 
clays,  containing  silicified  wood  and  impressions 
of  leaves,  which  Newberry  refers  to  the  later 
Pliocine  epoch'  and  quite  recently  Silliman  has 
obtained  the  fragmentary  bones  of  a  mastodon 
from  the  same  locality. 

Gabb  describes  the  occurrence  of  Post-Pliocine 
deposits  on  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California, 
made  up  almost  of  casts  or  shells  of  Molusca  still 
living  in  the  adjoining  waters,  which  are  often 
capped  by  volcanic  products  to  the  depth  of  100 
feet;  and  Remond  states  that,  scattered  along  the 
whole  Pacific  coast  of  Northern  Mexico,  volcanic 
products  are  found  in  positions  which  clearly  indi- 
cate that  they  have  been  poured  forth  since  the 
elevation  of  the  formations  which  constitute  the 
fundamental  rocks  of  that  region. 

These  facts  would  indicate  that  man  has  proba- 
bly been  witness  to  some  of  the  most  stupend- 
ous events  which  have  modified  the  physical  geog- 
raphy of  the  continent, —  the  lifting  up  of  long  lines 
of  coast,  the  formation  of  volcanic  cones  12,000 
feet  or  more  in  height,  and  the  denudation  of  the 


RIVER-SYSTEMS.  263 

country  to  the  depth  of  2,000  feet.  Accustomed 
as  we  are,  at  this  day,  to  witness  the  calm  opera- 
tions of  nature,  rarely  interrupted  by  catastrophes, 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  conceive  that  such  tre- 
mendous changes  in  the  physical  aspect  of  these 
regions,  are  to  be  ranked  among  the  most  recent 
of  events  in  the  world's  history. 

River- Systems. —  In  comparing  the  Mountain- 
systems  with  the  River-systems  of  the  Great  Inte- 
rior, we  find  that  the  direction  of  the  Saskatchawan, 
the  Churchill,  the  Athabasca,  and  other  affluents  of 
Hudson's  Bay,  together  with  those  great  fresh- water 
lakes, — Great  Bear,  Slave,  and  Athabasca, —  almost 
rivaling  in  dimensions  the  Laurentian  Chain,  has 
been  determined  by  the  Lake  Superior  System; 
the  Ohio  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  including  Lakes 
Erie  and  Ontario,  by  the  Appalachian  System;  and 
the  Upper  Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  together  with 
Lake  Winipeg,  and  Mackenzie's  River,  by  the 
Rocky-Mountain  System. 

The  line  of  greatest  depression  on  the  continent 
would  be  represented  by  about  longitude  90°, 
which  cuts  the  Mississippi  River,  Lake  Michigan, 
Lake  Superior,  and  Hudson's  Bay.  That  these  fea- 
tures which  make  up  the  architecture  of  the  Con- 
tinent are  not  fortuitous,  but  are  the  result  of  the 
operations  of  fixed  laws,  will  be  apparent  to  every 
careful  student  of  physical  geography. 


264  GEOLOGY. 

I 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  FORMATIONS. 

Within  this  valley,  though  at  no  one  point  exhib- 
iting an  unbroken  succession,  have  been  deposited 
the  principal  groups  of  formations  observed  else- 
where, as  constituing  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

Azoic  System. —  From  the  entire  absence  of  all 
vestiges  of  organic  remains  in  these  rocks,  and 
lying  inconformably  beneath  that  group  which 
exhibits  the  first  traces  of  such  remains,  this  sys- 
tem has  been  called  the  Azoic  (without  life).  It 
is  inferred  that  the  very  condition  of  our  planet  at 
that  epoch  —  an  incandescent  body  gradually  cool- 
ing, its  crust  subject  to  volcanic  paroxysms, 
mephitic  vapors  constantly  escaping  through  wide 
fissures  communicating  with  the  interior,  and  the 
waters  heated  to  a  high  temperature, —  would  be 
highly  unfavorable  to  the  existence  of  animal  or 
vegetable  life.  The  rocks  consist  of  igneous  pro- 
ducts, such  as  granites,  greenstones,  and  porphyries; 
and  of  metamorphic  products,  such  as  talcose 
and  chlorite  slates,  quartzites,  and  saccharoidal 
marbles. 

In  the  Lake  Superior  region  they  are  largely 
developed;  and  while  the  metamorphic  strata  are 
tilted  at  high  angles,  the  Potsdam  sandstone, 
which  contains  the  earliest  forms  of  organic  life, 


IRON-ORES.  265 

reposes  upon  their  basset  edges,  slightly  metamor- 
phosed, and  in  nearly  horizontal  strata. 

The  crystalline  belt  which  forms  the  crest  and 
eastern  slope  of  the  Appalachians  has,  by  some, 
been  referred  to  this  system,  while  others  regard 
it  as  a  portion  of  the  Silurian  system  highly  meta- 
morphosed ;  but  the  discussion  of  this  question 
does  not  come  within  the  purview  of  this  work. 

In  Missouri  and  Arkansas  there  are  isolated 
patches  of  these  rocks,  which  appear  to  have  been 
islands  in  the  old  Silurian  sea,  and  it  would  seem 
that  portions  of  the  region  occupied  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains  served  as  the  floor  of  the  Azoic  ocean, 
on  which  the  purely  sedimentary  deposits  were 
formed;  for  Newberry,  in  the  Canon  of  the  Little 
Colorado,  saw  in  one  magnificent  section,  over 
4,000  feet  in  depth,  an  unbroken  succession  of  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  conformable  in  dip,  and  extending 
from  the  Potsdam  sandstone,  reposing  on  granite, 
up  to  and  including  the  Carboniferous  series;  and 
Meek  and  Hayden  have  detected  the  Potsdam 
sandstone,  with  its  characteristic  fossils,  in  the 
Black  Hills  of  Nebraska. 

Iron  Ores. — The  Azoic  rocks  are  the  reposito- 
ries of  vast  deposits  of  specular  and  magnetic  oxide 
of  iron.  They  range  through  the  region  of  Lake 
Superior;  they  occur  in  Canada,  in  the  Adiron- 


266  GEOLOGY. 

dacks  of  New  York,  in  New  Jersey,  Missouri,  and 
Arkansas. 

IRON  REGION  OF  LAKE  SUPERIOR. — As  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  commerce  and  manufac- 
tures of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  ores  of  iron, 
occurring  at  two  of  the  points  above  enumerated, 
deserve  a  more  extended  notice,  both  by  reason 
of  their  purity,  and  the  magnitude  of  the  deposits; 
viz.,  those  of  Lake  Superior  and  of  Missouri. 

There  is  no  region  of  the  earth  where  the  ores 
of  iron  are  developed  on  a  scale  of  such  grandeur, 
or  concentrated  in  a  state  of  such  purity,  as  on  the 
southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior.  Nijny  Tagilsk, 
Dannemora,  and  Elba,  may  contain  isolated  deposits 
equally  rich;  but  these  combined  would  occupy  a 
mere  patch  on  the  surface  over  which  the  ores  of 
this  region  are  known  to  be  distributed. 

This  area  is  somewhat  irregular  in  outline.  Its 
length,  east  and  west,  is  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  miles,  with  a  variable  breadth,  north  and  south, 
from  six  to  seventy  miles.  The  greatest  concen- 
tration of  the  ores,  however,  is  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Jackson,  Cleveland,  and  Lake  Superior  mines. 
For  many  years  these  ores  were  worked  in  open 
quarry;  but,  with  the  vast  demand,  it  has  become 
necessary  to  sink  upon  them  below  the  drainage 
of  the  country.  This  demand  now  exceeds  one- 
half  million  of  tons  a  year.  In  the  furnace,  the  ores 


IRON-ORES.  267 

yield  about  65  per  cent,  of  pig  metal,  which, 
when  properly  puddled,  gives  an  iron  of  great 
strength  and  tenacity.  The  principal  market  for 
these  ores  is  in  the  Mahoning  and  Shenango  Val- 
leys, Detroit,  Buffalo,  and  Pittsburgh. 

IRON  REGION  OF  MISSOURI. —  In  this  region, 
embracing  the  counties  of  Iron  and  St.  Francois, 
in  the  State  of  Missouri  —  about  eighty  miles  south 
of  St.  Louis, —  occur  large  deposits  of  specular  and 
magnetic  iron-ores,  known  as  Iron  Mountain,  Pilot 
Knob,  and  Shepherd's  Mountain.  The  Iron  Moun- 
tain rises  to  the  height  of  about  200  feet  above  the 
surrounding  country,  and,  while  so  far  as  revealed 
by  the  uncovering,  it  contains  a  vast  amount  of  ore 
of  the  purest  quality,  it  is  traversed  north  and 
south  by  one  or  more  porphyritic  dykes.  The  ore, 
externally,  has  the  appearance  of  an  erupted  mass. 
Pilot  Knob  rises  to  the  height  of  581  feet,  in  a 
symmetrical  form.  The  mass  is  porphyry  to  the 
height  of  450  feet.  Then  succeeds  a  layer  of 
banded  ore,  resembling  a'  metamorphic  product, 
about  60  feet  in  thickness,  which  is  capped  by  a 
lean,  jaspery  ore,  70  feet  in  thickness,  forming  the 
summit  of  the  hill.  At  Shepherd's  Mountain  the 
ores  are  magnetic,  and  occur  in  two  veins,  respect- 
ively eight  and  fourteen  feet  in  width,  traversing 
porphyry.  These  ores  give,  in  their  working,  about 
60  per  cent,  of  pig  iron,  and  are  known  to  iron- 


268  GEOLOGY. 

masters  as  "  neutral "  in  the  quality  of  bar-iron. 
In  Dent  County  there  is  said  to  exist  a  mountain- 
mass  of  iron-ore  still  larger  than  any  described. 

Owing  to  the  supposed  remoteness  of  a  proper 
fuel  to  smelt  these  ores,  the  greatest  product  of  the 
mines  in  no  one  year  has  exceeded  25,000  tons; 
but  there  has  lately  been  developed  an  iron-making 
coal  in  the  counties  of  Randolph  and  Perry,  adjoin- 
ing the  Mississippi  River,  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  so 
that  a  union  between  the  materials  for  iron-making 
can  be  easily  effected,  and  these  ores  will  hereafter 
play  a  more  prominent  part  in  the  manufacturing 
industry  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

In  Missouri,  the  granite  associated  with  this 
series  of  rocks  is  traversed  by  numerous  veins  of 
tin  —  a  discovery  which,  at  the  time  of  its 
announcement,  was  received  with  much  distrust 
by  the  scientific  community.  Like  tin  veins  in 
other  parts  of  the  world,  they  are  not  rich,  but 
specimens  have  been  assayed  which  gave  as  high 
as  eight  per  cent,  of  metal. 

Gold  has  been  found  sparsely  distributed  in  the 
Azoic  rocks  throughout  their  entire  range;  and  the 
baser  metals,  copper  and  lead,  are  by  no  means 
rare.  The  true  Golden  Age  of  the  world,  how- 
ever, was  of  far  more  recent  date. 

The  igneous  and  metamorphic  rocks  are  the 
principal  repositories  of  metallic  wealth.  This 


AGES    OF   THE    METALS.  269 

wealth  is  concentrated  in  the  form  of  veins,  or  in 
beds  running  parallel  with  the  formation.  The 
accuracy  of  the  opinion  almost  universally  enter- 
tained in  the  early  investigation  of  mineral  veins, 
that  they  had  been  filled  by  injections  from  beneath, 
may  well  be  doubted.  Their  filling,  where  they 
exhibit  a  comb-like  structure,  must  have  been  the 
result  of  successive  infiltrations,  and  their  gangues, 
particularly  where  they  consist  of  the  zeolite  min^ 
erals,  would  indicate  that  water,  or  superheated 
steam,  rather  than  heat,  had  been  the  solvent 
power.  It  will  probably  be  found,  too,  that  some 
action  like  that  of  galvanism,  has  abstracted  the 
metallic  particles  from  the  enclosing  rocks,  and 
concentrated  them  in  fissures  and  beds.  The 
theory  of  injection  has  led  to  the  delusive  idea, 
justified  by  no  mining  experience,  that  veins 
become  enriched  in  proportion  to  the  depth  pene- 
trated. 

According  to  the  Mythology  of  the  Ancients, 
there  were  Four  Ages,  symbolized  by  the  four 
metals  — gold,  silver,  brass  (copper),  and  iron. 
The  geologist,  while  recognizing  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain periods  in  the  earth's  history  were  prolific  in 
certain  metals,  fails  to  recognize  this  order  of  suc- 
cession. The  Azoic  series  is  characterized  by  the 
abundance  of  iron;  copper  is  associated  with  the 
first-formed  sedimentary  rocks,  or  rather  their  igne- 


270  GEOLOGY. 

cms  products;  lead  predominates  in  the  Lower 
Silurian  and  Sub-carboniferous  series;  silver  is  of 
the  Carboniferous  age,  and  even  of  that  of  the  Ter- 
tiary volcanic  rocks;  gold  appertains  to  the  Tri- 
assic;  and  mercury  to  the  Cretaceous. 

The  Golden  Age,  according  the  poets,  was  one 
of  unmixed  delight,  when  man, 

"Vindice  nullo, 
Sponte  sua  sine  lege  fidem  rectumque  colebat." 

Ours  is  emphatically  an  age  of  IRON.  The  use 
of  this  metal  is  intimately  associated  with  the 
whole  history  of  the  progress  and  civilization  of 
man.  In  every  thing  relating  to  the  production, 
transformation,  and  distribution  of  material  wealth, 
whether  extracted  from  the  sea,  the  soil,  or  the 
deep  recesses  of  mines,  iron  performs  an  all-impor- 
tant part.  No  other  metal  could  be  successfully 
substituted  for  the  axe,  the  plough,  or  the  spade;  or 
for  the  loom,  the  steam-engine,  the  locomotive,  or 
the  railroad  track. 

"  Every  one,"  says  Ure,  "  knows  the  manifold  uses  of  this 
truly  precious  metal.  It  is  capable  of  being  cast  into  moulds 
of  any  form  ;  of  being  drawn  into  wires  of  any  desired  strength 
or  fineness  ;  of  being  extended  into  plates  or  sheets  ;  of  being 
bent  in  any  direction ;  of  being  sharpened,  hardened,  and  soft- 
ened at  pleasure.  It  accommodates  itself  to  all  our  wants, 
our  desires,  and  even  our  caprices.  It  is  equally  serviceable 
in  the  arts,  the  sciences,  to  agriculture,  and  war ;  the  same 
ore  furnishes  the  sword,  the  ploughshare,  the  scythe,  the  prun- 


IRON-PRODUCT. 


271 


ing-hook,  the  needle,  the  graver,  the  spring  of  a  watch,  or  of 
a  carriage,  the  chisel,  the  cannon,  and  the  bomb.  It  is  a 
medicine  of  much  virtue,  and  the  only  metal  friendly  to  the 
animal  frame."  * 

The  amount  of  iron  consumed  by  a  nation  may 
be  regarded  as  an  unerring  index  of  its  progress  in 
civilization.  In  Great  Britain  the  annual  consump- 
tion is  about  the  combined  weight  of  the  whole 
population;  in  the  United  States  and  France,  it  is 
a  little  less;  and  in  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Russia, 
it  is  still  less. 

The  following  is  the  annual  product  of  pig  and 
wrought  iron  in  the  several  countries  of  the  world, 
in  tons  of  2,240  pounds  each:  f 


Pig  Iron,        Wrought  Iron. 

ENGLAND,       ........ 

4>53<>>°5i 

3,500,000 

FRANCE,      ....... 

1,200,320 

844734 

UNITED  STATES,    ------ 

1,175,000 

882,000 

BELGIUM,    ------- 

500,000 

400.000 

AUSTRIA,    ------- 

800.000 
312,000 

400  ooo 

2OO.OOO 

SWEDEN,         ------- 

226,676 

148,292 

RUSSIA,      ------- 

408  ooo 

350,000 

SPAIN,    -------- 

75,000 

50.000 

ITALY,         ....... 

30,000 

20,000 

SWITZERLAND,       ------ 

15,000 

10,000 

ZOLLVEREIN,        ------ 

-    250,000 

200,000 

9,322,047 


7,005,026 


*  "Ure's  Die."    Art.  Iron. 


t  Hewitt's  "  Report,"  etc.     (Paris  Universal  Exposition),  1867. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GEOLOGY  (Continue*^ SEDIMENTARY  ROCKS. 

SILURIAN     SYSTEM FIRST     EVIDENCES     OF     ORGANIC     LIFE 

AREA    OF     THE     SILURIAN  LOWER      SILURIAN  POTSDAM 

SANDSTONE PICTURED    ROCKS COPPER    REGION   OF  LAKE 

SUPERIOR LOWER  MAGNESIAN  LIMESTONE LEAD-BEAR- 
ING VEINS  OF  MISSOURI —  ST.  PETER'S  SANDSTONE  —  CINCIN- 
NATI BLUE  LIMESTONE LEAD-BEARING  ROCKS  OF  WISCON- 
SIN    UPPER  SILURIAN  SYSTEM NIAGARA  LIMESTONE 

ONONDAGA  SALT-GROUP DEVONIAN  SYSTEM CARBONIF- 
EROUS SYSTEM FLUOR-SPAR  VEINS  WITH  GALENA GALENA 

DEPOSITS  SILVER     ORES     OF    MEXICO COAL-MEASURES 

THEIR   AREA THICKNESS CHARACTER    OF    THE    COALS  

PERMIAN  SYSTEM TRIASSIC  AND  JURASSIC  SERIES GOLD- 
DEPOSITS  OF  CALIFORNIA COPPER  DEPOSITS CRETACEOUS 

SYSTEM COAL  DEPOSITS. 

IN  treating  of  the  vast  assemblage  of  rocks  of  a 
purely  sedimentary  origin  which  fills  the  connected 
basins  of  the  Ohio,  the  Missouri,  and  the  Missis- 
sippi, we  shall  begin  with  a  description  of  the 
lowest,  and,  therefore,  the  first-formed,  and  pro- 
ceed in  an  ascending  order  to  the  most  recent. 
And  that  the  reader  may  fully  comprehend  the 
order  of  succession,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  Lower 
Silurian  groups,  and  their  relation  to  the  igneous 


SILURIAN    SYSTEM.  273 

rocks,  we  append  the  following  ideal  section, 
extending  from  the  Copper-region  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior to  the  Lead-bearing  region  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley: 


4  333 

1.  Azoic  rocks  of  Lake  Superior,  bearing  iron. 

2.  TRAPPEAN  rocks  of  Lake  Superior,  bearing  copper. 

3.  POTSDAM  SANDSTONE. 

4.  MAGNESIAN  LIMESTONE,   including  ST.  PETER'S  SANDSTONE,  the 

Lead-bearing  rock  of  Missouri. 

5.  TRENTON  LIMESTONE. 

6.  GALENA  LIMESTONE,  Lead-bearing  rock  of  Wisconsin. 

7.  CINCINNATI  BLUE  LIMESTONE. 

8.  NIAGARA  LIMESTONE,  capping  mounds. 


The  Silurian  System. — The  term  SILURIAN 
was  first  applied  to  a  series  of  fossiliferous  strata 
lying  below  the  Old-Red  sandstone,  and  occupy- 
ing a  part  of  Wales,  and  some  contiguous  counties 
in  England,  which  were  once  inhabited  by  the 
SILURES,  a  tribe  of  ancient  Britons;  but  so  univer- 
sally has  this  series  of  rocks  been  recognized,  the 
world  over,  that  the  term  has  passed  into  the 
nomenclature  of  every  text-book  on  geology.  In 
this  region,  this  system  is  divisible  into  not  less 
than  eight  distinct  groups,  characterized  alike  by 
fossil  remains  and  lithological  characters. 

In  the  lowest  member  of  this  system — the  POTS- 
DAM SANDSTONE  —  we  detect  the  first  traces  of 
18 


274  GEOLOGY. 

organic  life, —  not  of  those  complicated  and  highly- 
organized  forms  which  now  inhabit  the  earth,  but 
low  in  the  scale  of  creation, —  trilobites,  with 
crescent-shaped  head  and  jointed  body,  allied  to  the 
crab  and  lobster;  graptolites,  or  sea-pens,  so 
closely  resembling  certain  vegetable  forms  that 
zoologists  long  hesitated  to  which  kingdom  to 
assign  them;  encrinites,  which  were  permanently 
attached  to  the  sea-bottom,  and  sent  forth  their 
branches  like  vegetable  forms;  and  chambered 
shells  of  the  "least  ornate  structure.  It  is  no  part 
of  this  treatise  to  describe  the  succession  of  organ- 
isms introduced  upon  the  earth, —  beginning  with 
the  simplest  forms,  and  terminating  in  man,  the 
most  complex  in  organization,  and  far-reaching  in 
his  capacities.  To  this  succession  incidental  refer- 
ence only  will  be  made.  The  economic  materials, 
however,  furnished  by  these  several  groups,  will 
be  dwelt  upon  more  in  detail. 

The  greatest  area  occupied  by  the  Silurian  Sys- 
tem (See  the  Geological  Sketch  of  the  United 
States  appended  to  this  Chapter,  p.  271),  lies  south 
of  the  Azoic  belt  of  Lake  Superior  and  stretches 
west  to  near  the  Missouri  River,  comprehending 
portions  of  Michigan,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, and  Iowa.  In  this  area  are  to  be  found  all 
of  the  groups  from  the  Potsdam  sandstone  up  to 
the  Niagara  limestone.  In  Ohio,  a  circular  area 


SILURIAN-SYSTEM.  275 

of  thin-bedded  limestones  occurs  in  the  vicinity  of 
Cincinnati,  which  has  received  the  name  of  the 
Blue  limestone,  as  typical  of  that  member  of  the 
system.  The  Silurian  rocks  flank  both  slopes  of 
the  Alleghanies;  they  occupy  a  large  area  in 
Southeastern  Missouri,  extending  into  Southern 
Illinois,  and  Northeastern  Arkansas.  They  have 
been  recognized  in  the  Black  Hills  of  Nebraska, 
and  in  the  Black  Canon  of  the  Little  Colorado. 

Lower  Silurian  System. — THE  POTSDAM  SAND- 
STONE finds  its  greatest  development  in  the  region 
of  Lake  Superior,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  bed 
of  this  lake,  whose  area  is  32,000  square  miles,  is 
mainly  excavated  in  this  rock.  Here,  where  it 
has  been  invaded  by  trappean  overflows,  it  is 
highly  metamorphosed,  often  containing  jaspery 
materials  and  large  pebbles  of  greenstone  and 
amygdaloid,  derived  from  the  immediate  vicinity, 
but  no  pebbles  like  granite  or  quartz,  which  are 
foreign  to  the  region.  So  energetic  were  the 
igneous  and  acqueous  causes,  that  they  have  been 
accumulated  to  the  thickness  of  more  than  3,000 
feet,  while  250  feet  would  represent  the  general 
thickness  of  this  member,  remote  from  this  telluric 
activity.  South  of  the  Azoic  belt,  the  sandstone 
is  so  slightly  coherent  that  it  may  be  crushed  in 
the  hand,  and  is  characterized  by  the  presence  of 


276  GEOLOGY. 


and  Trilobites.  It  extends  south  to  the 
Wisconsin  River,  and  west  to  the  Mississippi,  in 
Minnesota.  In  this  region  the  strata  repose  hori- 
zontally upon  the  irregular  surface  of  the  Azoic 
series. 

PICTURED  ROCKS  OF  LAKE  SUPERIOR.  —  The 
best  natural  section  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone  in 
the  Northwest,  is  afforded  by  the  famous  Pictured 
Rocks  of  Lake  Superior.  Commencing  at  Grand 
Island,  and  extending  eastward  for  about  five  miles, 
this  group  of  strata  lines  the  shore,  rising  from  the 
water's  edge,  in  mural-like  faces,  from  50  to  200 
feet  in  height,  not  in  an  unbroken  line,  but  in  a 
series  of  projections  and  recessions.  It  is  not  the 
mere  height  of  these  cliffs,  or  the  bold  sweep  of 
their  lines,  which  constitute  the  charm  of  this  land- 
scape, and  impress  so  profoundly  the  beholder; 
but  it  arises  from  two  other  sources,  —  the  brilliant 
hues  with  which  they  are  dyed,  and  the  fantastic 
shapes  into  which  they  have  been  excavated. 
While  the  general  tone  of  the  rock  is  a  light-yel- 
low, at  particular  points  there  are  broad  vertical 
stripes  extending  for  thirty  or  forty  feet  above  the 
water,  variously-tinted  umber,  yellow,  and  grey, 
together  with  bright-blue  and  green,  the  two  latter 
tints  being  less  frequent.  All  the  colors  are  fresh, 
distinct,  and  brilliant,  as  in  a  fresco  painting;  and, 
embracing  the  whole  scene  in  a  coup  c^ceil,  —  the 


PICTURED    ROCKS.  277 

deep-blue  waters  of  the  lake  at  the  base,  the  canopy 
of  bright-green  foliage  above,  and  still  beyond  the 
over-arching  sky, — the  effect  is  grand  and  beautiful. 
These  colors  result  probably  from  the  percolation 
of  the  water  through  the  strata,  taking  up  various 
mineral  oxides,  and  depositing  them  on  the  nearly 
vertical  walls.  Adverting  to  the  second  conspicu- 
ous feature,  it  may  be  said  that  the  action  of  the 
lake-waves  upon  the  slowly-yielding  strata,  con- 
tinued through  an  indefinite  period  of  time,  has 
excavated  them  into  many  grotesque  forms.  As 
approached  from  Grand  Island,  in  the  distance 
they  resemble  the  ruins  of  some  fortified  city, — 
ramparts  formed  into  bastions  and  curtains,  soli- 
tary towers,  and  long  lines  of  wall,  with  arched 
entrances,  or  portals;  and  hence,  the  early  voya- 
geurs  gave  to  this  assemblage  of  rocks  the  name 
of  Les  Portails.  Coasting  in  a  small  boat,  along 
the  verge  of  the  water  and  beneath  the  overhang- 
ing cliffs,  the  observer  passes  a  succession  of 
scenes  each  one  of  which  is  of  rare  and  exquisite 
beauty: — "Miner's  Castle,"  with  its  turrets  and 
portals;  the  "Amphitheatre,"  with  its  smooth  walls 
and  its  symmetrical  curves;  "Sail  Rock,"  where  a 

tabular  mass  of  sandstone,  detached  from  the  cliffs 

i 

above,  stands  nearly  vertically  in  the  water,  pre- 
senting the  similitude  of  a  sloop  under  full  sail; 
and  the  "  Grand  Portal,"  where  a  quadrilateral 


278  GEOLOGY. 

mass  of  strata  200  feet  in  height,  projects  into  the 
lake  for  600  feet,  and  is  pierced  with  an  arched 
opening  100  feet  high  and  168  feet  broad,  leading 
through  high  vaulted  passages  into  the  great  dome, 
300  feet  from  the  face  of  the  cliff.  Nor  must  it  be 
forgotten  that  the  effects  of  this  scenery  are  height- 
ened by  occasional  cascades,  which  descend  in  a 
sheet  of  foam  from  the  brow  of  the  cliffs,  and 
mingle  with  the  waters  of  the  lake. 

The  whole  line  of  cliffs  presents  a  succession 
of  wonderful  and  constantly-varying  scenes,  and 
amply  repays  the  tourist  who  pauses  sufficiently 
long  to  contemplate  the  details.* 

This  group  of  rocks  is  recognized  as  flanking  the 
Alleghanies  in  Tennessee,  always  disturbed,  and 
sometimes  in  nearly  vertical  strata.  Traces,  too, 
are  observed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Iron  Mountain, 
Missouri,  where  it  is  nearly  horizontal.  It  appears 
in  Burnet  County,  Texas  (Shumard) ;  in  the  Black 
Canon  (Newberry) ;  and  in  the  Black  Hills  of 
Dakota,  the  Laramie,  Big  Horn,  and  Wind-River 
Ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  (Hayden).  It 
would  thus  seem  that  the  Potsdam  sandstone 
was  deposited  in  a  sea  whose  confines  were  as 
extended  as  those  of  the  Great  Valley,  and  that  it 


*  For  a  more  minute  description  of  the  "  Pictured  Rocks,"  see  Fos- 
ter and  Whitney's  Report,  "  Geology  of  Lake  Superior  Region." 
Vol.  II. 


COPPER-REGION.  279 

rests  at  the  base  of  the  whole  fossiliferous  series. 
Thus  far,  throughout  its  range,  we  are  not  aware 
of  its  having  proved  metalliferous,  except  in  con- 
nection with  the  igneous  products,  in  the  region  of 
Lake  Superior. 

THE  COPPER-REGION  OF  LAKE  SUPERIOR  com- 
mences at  the  head  of  Keweenaw  Point,  where  the 
trappean  rocks,  with  their  associated  conglomer- 
ates, rise  up  in  bold,  stair-like  cliffs,  and  afford 
many  scenes  of  picturesque  beauty.  This  peculiar 
physiognomy  is  characteristic  of  the  whole  trap- 
pean region.  From  this  point,  in  a  variable  belt, 
from  two  to  ten  miles  broad,  the  associated  traps, 
conglomerates,  and  sandstones,  range  in  a  south- 
western direction  for  130  miles,  conforming  to  the 
trend  of  the  shore,  when  they  sink  down,  and  their 
presence  is  only  indicated  at  times  by  an  isolated 
knob.  Those  portions  of  the  range  most  produc- 
tive in  copper,  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Portage  Lake, 
the  Cliff,  and  Copper  Falls  locations,  and  the 
Ontonagon  River.  Native  copper  is  almost  exclu- 
sively found.  On  Keweenaw  Point  it  occurs  in 
a  system  of  veins  bearing  about  north  21^°  west. 
In  the  early  mining,  it  was  supposed  that  the  pro- 
ductive deposits  were  restricted  to  these  veins; 
but,  in  the  progress  of  development,  it  was  found 
that  certain  intercalated  beds  of  amygdaloid  and 
volcanic  ash  were  sufficiently  impregnated  with 


280  GEOLOGY. 

copper  to  render  its  extraction  profitable;  and  it  is 
from  the  latter  sources  that  the  bulk  of  the  copper 
is  now  derived. 

The  annual  consumption  of  refined  copper  in  the 
United  States  is  about  12,000  tons,  of  which  these 
mines  furnish  about  9,000  tons;  Tennessee,  100 
tons;  and  California,  and  Vermont,  2,500  tons, 
leaving  a  small  surplus  for  exportation. 

THE  MAGNESIAN  LIMESTONE,  the  equivalent 
of  the  CALCIFEROUS  SANDSTONE  of  the  New  York 
Survey,  is  nearly  as  persistent  in  its  range  as  the 
Potsdam  sandstone;  but  in  the  Lake  Superior 
region  it  assumes  $n  arenaceous  character,  while 
in  Wisconsin  and  Missouri  it  becomes  a  gray,  cal- 
careous rock  (an  almost  pure  dolomite),  with  more 
or  less  embedded  chert.  The  Magnesian  limestone 
series  in  the  latter  State,  as  determined  by  Swal- 
low, is  divisable  into  four  members,  numbered 
in  a  descending  order:  i.  (190  feet);  2.  (230 
feet) ;  3.  (350  feet) ;  and  4.  (300  feet) ;  sepa- 
rated by  bands  of  sandstone,  saccharoidal  in  char- 
acter, varying  from  50  to  125  feet.  While  the 
Second  Magnesian  limestone  contains  galena  in 
economical  quantities,  the  well-known  mines  of 
Washington,  Franklin,  and  St.  Francois  Counties, 
are  in  the  third  member  of  the  series. 

THE  LEAD-BEARING  VEINS  OF  MISSOURI  appear 
under  different  forms.  In  Franklin  County,  there 


LEAD-BEARING   VEINS.  28 1 

is  a  series  of  vertical  fissures,  bearing  nearly  north 
and  south,  which  penetrate  indefinitely  downwards, 
filled  in  with  sulphate  of  barytes  and  associated 
with  galena.  Where  they  pass  through  a  soft 
mineral  plane  they  become  enlarged  and  enriched; 
and  where  they  enter  a  close,  cherty  rock,  they 
become  pinched  and  impoverished.  Like  other 
classes  of  veins,  they  have  their  "  chimneys  "  or 
cavernous  openings,  where  the  "  mineral "  is  con- 
centrated. Galena  also  occurs  in  flat  sheets  in  the 
soft  arenaceous  bands  of  Magnesian  limestone, 
which  weather  into  a  yellowish  sand.  At  Mine 
la  Motte  and  St.  Joseph's,  the  lead  is  deposited 
at  the  base  of  the  individual  layers  of  limestone, 
which  are  separated  by  well-defined  lines  of  strati- 
fication, as  though  the  metal  had  been  held  in 
solution  with  the  lime,  and  precipitated,  and  accom- 
modated itself  to  this  position  by  reason  of  its 
greater  specific  gravity.  At  Mine  la  Motte,  also, 
occurs  nickel  in  paying  quantities,  in  connection 
with  cobalt  and  copper. 

THE  ST.  PETER'S  SANDSTONE  is  the  line  of  sepa- 
ration between  the  Lower  Magnesian  and  Trenton 
groups,  and  is  readily  recognized  in  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota.  Its  thickness  rarely 
exceeds  100  feet.  It  is  a  soft,  friable  rock,  often 
pure-white,  and  is  employed  for  glass-making,  at 
Chicago. 


282  GEOLOGY. 

THE  TRENTON-LIMESTONE  group  is  widely  dis- 
tributed. It  is  recognized  along  the  southern  shore 
of  Lake  Huron,  and  amid  the  islands  of  the  St. 
Mary's  River.  It  crosses  the  Escanaba  River  just 
above  the  head  of  Bay  de  Noquet,  and  thence  is 
protracted  into  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Illinois,  where 
it  rests  at  the  base  of  the  lead-bearing  rocks.  It 
forms  the  crest  of  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony, 
reappears  on  the  Missouri  River,  in  Franklin 
County,  and  on  the  Mississippi,  below  St.  Louis, 
and  is  developed  in  the  interior  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  where  it  is  known  as  the  Stone's-River 
group. 

THE  GALENA  LIMESTONE  may  be  regarded  as 
an  intercalation  in  the  series,  and  is  locally 
developed  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Wisconsin 
and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Iowa  and  Illinois,  embrac- 
ing an  area  of  about  3,000  square  miles.  Its  thick- 
ness is  about  250  feet.  Its  tone  is  light-grey  or 
yellowish,  and  the  rock  itself,  a  compound  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  magnesia  (dolomite),  often 
weathers  into  fantastic  forms,  leaving  at  the  base  a 
coarse,  meagre,  ochre-colored  sand.  It  is  by  no 
means  rich  in  fossils,  but  there  is  a  peculiar 
sun-flower-like  form,  the  Solenoides  io-wensis  of 
Owen,  which,  when  once  seen  by  the  casual 
observer,  is  ever  afterwards  recognized.  With 
regard  to  the  occurrence  of  galena  in  this  lime- 


SILURIAN    SYSTEM.  283 

stone,  it  may  be  said  that  the  upper  fifty  feet  are 
unproductive.  The  middle  is  characterized  by 
gash  veins,  which  are  crevices  with  no  polished 
walls  or  well  characterized  gangue.  These  crevi- 
ces, as  followed,  often  expand  into  "  openings  "  or 
caves,  which  again  close  up  to  a  mere  seam. 
As  traced  downward  to  the  Trenton  or  Buff  lime- 
stone, the  "  mineral "  spreads  out  in  a  flat  sheet, 
or  bed-like  form,  with  a  considerable  pitch  to  some 
angle  of  the  horizon.  The  ore  is  almost  invariably 
a  sulphuret  of  lead  (galena),  except  where  decom- 
position has  partially  taken  place,  when  the  cubes 
are  often  studd-ed  with  pearl-colored  crystals  of 
carbonate  of  lead.  Sulphuret  of  zinc  (black-jack), 
carbonate  of  zinc,  iron  pyrites,  and  occasionally  car- 
bonate of  copper,  accompany  the  galena,  together 
with  calc-spar,  and  rarely  heavy  spar. 

THE  CINCINNATI  BLUE  LIMESTONE,  the  equiva- 
lent of  what  was  formerly  regarded  as  the  Hudson- 
River  group  of  the  New  York  Reports,  occurs  at 
the  typical  locality,  in  thin-bedded  strata  of  lime- 
stone, profusely  filled  with  fossils,  with  interlami- 
nated  marls  and  shales.  It  is  also  traced  along 
Drummond's  Island  in  the  St.  Mary's  River  and 
the  northern  slope  of  Lake  Michigan  to  Green 
Bay,  and  through  Lake  Winnebago.  It  reappears 
in  the  lead-region  of  Wisconsin  and  Iowa,  in  isola- 
ted mounds,  often  capped  by  the  Niagara  lime- 


284  GEOLOGY. 

stone.  Here  it  is  about  fifty  feet  thick,  and  the 
layers  consist  mainly  of  calcareous  shales,  in  which 
the  Nucula  forms  the  predominating  fossil,  while 
Orthoceratites  and  Lingulce  are  not  wanting. 
This  group  is  recognized  in  Missouri,  by  Swallow, 
where  it  is  220  feet  in  thickness,  and  by  Worthen 
in  Southern  Illinois,  adjacent  to  the  Mississippi 
River. 

Upper  Silurian  System. — THE  NIAGARA  LIME- 
STONE series  is  a  most  important  one  in  the  Lake 
region,  inasmuch  as  the  shore-lines  for  many  hun- 
dred miles  have  been  determined  by  its  range.  It 
is  an  enduring  rock,  and  furnishes  a  building  mate- 
rial of  an  agreeable  color,  and  easily- wrought. 
From  Niagara  Falls,  it  ranges  through  Canada, 
forming  the  ridges  near  Hamilton  and  Dundas, 
and  the  conspicuous  promontory  known  as  Cabot's 
Head  on  Lake  Huron;  and  thence  through 
the  Manitoulin  Islands,  and  along  the  northern 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan  and  the  eastern  shore 
of  Green  Bay;  thence  through  Wisconsin  to 
Chicago  and  the  head  of  Lake  Michigan.  In  this 
vicinity  it  is  known  as  the  "Athens  marble,"  and 
in  chemical  composition  is  almost  a  pure  dolo- 
mite. It  is  of  a  light-grey,  or  cream-colored  tint, 
and  forms  one  of  the  best  and  most  easily-wrought 
materials  for  architectural  purposes  to  be  found  in 


SILURIAN    SYSTEM.  285 

the  United  States.  The  thickness  of  the  series  is 
about  250  feet.  Traced  westward,  it  becomes  the 
fundamental  rock  over  a  large  space  in  North- 
western Illinois,  rises  in  continuous  bluffs  along 
the  Mississippi,  and  caps,  in  many  instances,  the 
mounds  of  the  Lead-region.  Near  the  town  of 
Hampton,  according  to  Worthen,  it  sinks  below 
the  bed  of  the  Mississippi,  but  reappears  along  the 
southwestern  border  of  the  State,  and  in  Jersey 
County,  forms  perpendicular  cliffs  from  50  to  100 
feet  high,  along  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  Rivers. 
The  quarries  at  Grafton  furnished  the  material  for 
that  noble  structure,  now  in  ruins,  the  Lindell 
Hotel  of  St.  Louis.* 

THE  ONONDAGA-SALT  GROUP  forms  the  base 
of  the  island  of  Mackinac,  is  developed  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Michigan,  and  is  recognized  by  Hall,f  in 
Wisconsin  and  Iowa.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
the  bed  of  Lake  Michigan  has  been  in  part  exca- 
vated in  this  group.  That  portion  of  the  series  in 
which  originate  the  salt-springs  in  the  vicinity  of 
Saginaw,  has  been  designated  by  Winchell  as 
the  SALINA  GROUP,  and  is  estimated  to  cover  an 
area  of  17,000  square  miles.  The  annual  product 

*  "  Geology  of  Illinois."    Vol.  I,  p.  136. 
t  "  Geology  of  Iowa.'      P.  76. 


286  GEOLOGY. 

of  the  salt-wells    of  Michigan  reaches    1,300,000 
bushels. 

Devonian  System. — The  rocks  consist  of  sand- 
stones, limestones,  and  shales.  In  their  range,  they 
occupy  nearly  the  whole  area  of  Lower  Michigan, 
Western  Ohio,  and  Eastern  Indiana,  and  are  pro- 
tracted southerly  into  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  A 
narrow  belt,  running  northwest  and  southeast,  skirts 
the  northern  rim  of  the  coal-field  in  Iowa,  and  a 
limited  area  also  occurs  in  Northeastern  Missouri. 
Among  the  fossils  collected  by  Stansbury  in  the 
vicinity  of  Salt  Lake,  Hall  recognized  Devonian 
types,  and  Meek  has  described  their  occurrence  in 
the  Great  Basin,  near  the  base  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada. 

These  rocks  are  the  reservoirs  of  the  copious 
petroleum  springs  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  which 
have  added  so  much  to  the  national  wealth,  the 
exports  of  which  now  exceed  ninety-four  and  one- 
half  millions  of  gallons. 

To  illustrate  the  order  of  succession  in  the 
groups  which  make  up  the  interval  between  the 
Silurian  and  Cretaceous  formations,  the  following 
ideal  section,  from  the  Smoky-Hill  River,  west  of 
Fort  Riley,  Kansas,  to  Callaway  County,  Missouri, 
is  appended: 


CARBONIFEROUS.  287 


SECTION   FROM   KANSAS   TO   MISSOURI. 
5  4 


1.  DEVONIAN,  the  equivalent  of  the  Hamilton,  Onondaga,  and  Oris- 

kany  groups  of  the  New  York  Reports. 

2.  SUB-CARBONIFEROUS,  including  the  Ferruginous  sandstone,  Upper 

Archimedes  orKaskaskia  limestone,  Prairie  du  Rocher  sandstone, 
Middle  Archimedes  or  Ste.  Genevieve  limestone,  St.  Louis  lime- 
stone, Lower  Archimedes  or  Keokuk  limestone,  and  Encrinital 
limestone  of  the  Missouri  Reports. 

3.  COAL-MEASURES  of  Missouri  and  Kansas. 

4.  PERMIAN,   embracing  the  variegated    marls   and    soft   magnesian 

limestones  of  Kansas. 

5.  TRIASSIC?  along  the  western  border  of  the  Permian. 

6.  CRETACEOUS. —  Reddish   and   whitish   sandstones   of   the    Dakota 

group,  widely  distributed  over  Western  Kansas. 


Carbon  iferous  System —  (<z) .  SUB-CARBONIFER- 
OUS.—  In  the  States  of  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Missouri, 
the  Sub-carboniferous  limestones  are  developed 
on  a  scale  of  unbroken  succession,  and  are  stored 
with  a  variety  and  profusion  of  organic  forms  such 
as  are  not  elsewhere  observed.  To  the  palaeon- 
tologist they  afford  materials  of  absorbing  interest, 
and  the  splendid  illustrations  which  have  already 
been  given  in  the  Geological  Reports  of  these 
States,  convey  to  us  a  pretty  complete  knowledge 
of  the  conditions  of  organic  life  during  this  period 
in  the  history  of  our  planet. 

Taking  Illinois  as  typical    of  these  groups,  we 


288  GEOLOGY. 

have  between  the  base  of  the  Coal-Measures  and 
the  Devonian,  the  following  subdivisions,  as  deter- 
mined by  Worthen: 

CHESTER  GROUP,       -        -        -        -        -        -  500  to  800  feet  thick. 

ST.  Louis  GROUP,          -----          50  to  200        " 

KEOKUK  GROUP,        ------  100  to  150        " 

BURLINGTON  LIMESTONE,      -  25  to  100        " 

KlNDERHOOK    GROUP,  -----       IQO   to    150  " 

CHESTER  GROUP. — The  calcareous  members  of 
this  group  are  a  grey  and  closely-granulated  lime- 
stone, well  fitted  for  building  purposes,  and  are 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  an  immense  nauti- 
loid  shell  nearly  two  feet  in  diameter  (Nautilus 
spectabilis),  together  with  some  sixteen  species 
of  fishes,  besides  Crinoids  and  Brachipods. 

THE  ST.  Louis  LIMESTONE  is  a  regularly-bed- 
ded, light-grey,  or  bluish-grey  limestone,  and  in 
composition  is  a  nearly  pure  carbonate  of  lime. 
The  Melonites  multipora^  resembling  the  fruit  of 
the  tomato,  and  the  Poteriocrinus  missouriensis 
are  characteristic  Crinoids.  This  rock  is  highly 
cavernous,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis  there 
are  many  sink-holes,  which  indicate  the  entrance 
to  these  caverns. 

THE  KEOKUK  LIMESTONE  is,  at  Nauvoo  and  Keo- 
kuk,  a  regular-bedded,  grey  rock,  well  fitted  for 
building  purposes.  Above  this,  in  position,  is  the 
Geode-bed,  which  has  furnished  so  many  fine  spe- 
cimens of  quartz  crystallizations.  The  geodes  occur 


SUB-CARBONIFEROUS    SERIES.  289 

disseminated  through  shaley  limestone,  sometimes 
so  aggregated  as  to  touch  one  another,  and  again 
so  disseminated  that  several  feet  of  the  shale  will 
afford  not  more  than  a  single  specimen.  Some- 
times the  cavities  are  filled  with  asphaltum,  and  at 
others  with  water,  and  there  often  occur  splendid 
groups  of  calcite  crystals,  implanted  on  crystalline 
quartz.* 

THE  BURLINGTON  LIMESTONE,  in  its  upper  part, 
is  a  light-grey,  or  yellowish  limestone,  and  consists 
almost  entirely  of  a  mass  of  Crinoids.  The  lower 
portion  is  more  magnesian,  and  of  a  brownish 
color,  and  disintegrates  so  readily  that  it  is  unfit 
for  building  purposes.  Worthen,  in  speaking  of 
the  beauty  and  profusion  of  the  Crinoids  in  this 
group,  says: 

"  No  spot  of  the  same  geographical  extent  has  yet  been  dis- 
covered on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  where  those  beautiful 
"  lily  stars  "  flourished  in  such  numbers,  as  along  the  northern 
shores  of  the  Sub-carboniferous  ocean,  during  the  deposit  of 
this  limestone ;  and  no  where  else  have  their  remains  been 
found  in  such  profusion,  or  in  such  a  perfect  state  of  preserva- 
tion as  in  this  rock.  *  *  *  More  than  three  hundred  spe- 
cies have  already  been  described  from  this  region,  and  many 
new  ones  are  still  being  discovered,  from  time  to  time ;  and 
yet  probably  not  one  individual  in  every  hundred  that  lived 
during  this  period,  has  been  preserved  in  such  a  condition 
that  their  specific  character  can  now  be  obtained."f 

*  "Illinois  Geol.  Rep."    Vol.  I,  p.  96. 
f  Ibidem,  p.  104. 

'9 


290  GEOLOGY. 

THE  KINDERHOOK  GROUP  consists  of  sandy  and 
argillaceous  shales,  with  thin  beds  of  fine-grained, 
oolitic  limestone,  the  whole  being  from  one  to  two 
hundred  feet  in  thickness,  and  constituting,  accord- 
ing to  Worthen  and  Meek,  the  base  of  the  Sub- 
carboniferous  system,  being  the  equivalent  of  the 
Lower  limestone  seen  at  Burlington ;  of  the  Gonia- 
tite-bed  at  Rockford,  Indiana;  of  the  Waverley 
sandstone  of  Ohio;  and  of  the  Choteau,  the  Litho- 
graphic, and  Vermicular  sandstones  and  shales  of 
the  Missouri  Reports. 

The  entire  series  of  the  Sub-carboniferous  rocks, 
in  Southern  Illinois,  attain  a  thickness  of  1,200  and 
1,500  feet;  but  they  thin  out  as  traced  northward, 
and  at  LaSalle,  the  Coal-Measures  are  seen  to 
repose  upon  the  upturned  edges  of  the  Lower 
Silurian  groups.  They  are,  however,  found  to 
encircle  the  Michigan  coal-field;  in  Ohio,  they 
are  represented  by  a  thin  group  of  arenaceous 
deposits,  and  are  recognized  in  Tennessee,  Arkan- 
sas, and  Texas.  Limestones  of  the  Carboniferous 
age,  highly  metamorphosed,  exist  along  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  probably  almost 
continuously  from  Mexico  to  British  Columbia;  on 
the  Colorado  Plateau;  and  in  the  Great  Basin. 
They  are  the  oldest  group  which  has  been  recog- 
nized on  the  Pacific  Slope,  and  often  occur  in  con- 
nection with  and  conforming  to  the  Trias. 


SUB-CARBONIFEROUS    SYSTEM.  291 

The  Sub-carboniferous  rocks,  like  the  corres- 
ponding groups  in  England,  at  certain  points  are 
productive  in  galena.  In  Southern  Illinois  this  ore 
is  intimately  associated  with  heavy  veins  of  fluor 
spar,  a  substance  so  rare  in  mass,  that  it  deserves 
more  than  a  passing  notice;  and  particularly,  when 
it  is  understood  that  it  can  be  obtained  in  an 
unlimited  quantity,  and  that  it  may  be  extensively 
employed  in  the  metallurgic  arts. 

FLUOR  SPAR-VEINS  CARRYING  GALENA. — There 
is  a  series  of  flexures  in  Illinois,  first  noticed  by 
Norwood  and  confirmed  by  the  observations  of 
Worthen,  running  about  N.  30°  W.,  which  have 
brought  to  the  surface  the  Silurian  rocks,  and  have 
disturbed  and  given  a  quaquaversal  dip  to  the 
Coal-Measures.  This  system  is  at  right  angles 
to  Appalachian  system,  and  conforms  to  that  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  Thus,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Ohio  River,  we  find  the  Coal-Measures  of  Illinois 
separated  from  those  of  Kentucky  by  an  axis  which 
has  brought  up  both  divisions  of  the  Chester  group, 
the  St.  Louis  limestone,  and  the  Upper  Devonian 
shales.  The  crown  of  this  axis  is  well  displayed 
in  the  vicinity  of  Rosiclare,  Hardin  County,  where, 
in  a  bluff,  two  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height, 
overlooking  the  Ohio  River,  are  exhibited  the 
sandstones,  shales,  and  argillaceous  limestones  of 
the  Chester  group,  and  about  fifty  feet  of  the  St. 


292 


GEOLOGY. 


Louis  limestone  beneath,  which  is  here  a  grey- 
tinted  rock,  often  oolitic  in  structure,  and  chemi- 
cally an  almost  pure  carbonate  of  lime.  While 
the  fissures  traverse  both  groups,  it  is  only  in  the 
St.  Louis  limestone  that  they  develop  their  true 
metalliferous  character. 

These  phenomena  are  illustrated  in  the  follow- 
ing 

SECTION  ACROSS  THE  OHIO  VALLEY. 


s.  w. 


1.  COAL-MEASURES. 

2.  CHESTER  GROUP  (Upper  Division). 

3.  CHESTER  GROUP  (Lower  Division). 

4.  ST.  LOUIS    LIMESTONE. 

5.  UPPER  DEVONIAN  SHALES. 

The  Sub-carboniferous  groups  are  intersected 
at  right  angles  to  their  bearing  by  a  set  of  veins 
of  fluor  spar,  ranging  about  N.  20°  E.,  and  appar- 
ently of  indefinite  depth.  These  fissures  present 
all  of  the  phenomena  of  true  veins.  They  cut 
through  different  mineral  planes,  their  gangue  dif- 
fers from  the  enclosing  walls,  there  is  a  lining  of 
of  flucan  on  either  side,  and  they  pursue  a  nearly 
undeviating  course,  except  where  they  enter  the 


LEAD-BEARING    VEINS. 


sandstone  which  becomes  shattered  and  tilted  up, 
often  at  an  angle  as  high  as  45°,  at  the  point  of 
contact.  This  is  represented  in  the  annexed  wood- 
cut, which  exhibits  the  following  section  of  one  of 
the  veins: 


1.  SANDSTONE. 

2.  FLUCAN,  or  shale,  6  feet. 

3.  FLUOR  SPAR,  4  feet. 

4.  FLUCAN,  3  feet. 

5.  LIMESTONE  of  indefinite  depth. 


The  vein  at  this  point  has  a  width  of  13  feet, 
and  as  traced  downward  is  observed  to  expand, 
and  at  the  depth  of  150  feet,  exhibits  the  annexed 

section;  but  here,  even, 
the  entire  vein  has  not 
been  cross-cut.  Through- 
out  the  gangue  is  distribu- 
ted at  intervals,  galena  of 
a  steel-like  fracture  and 
color,  which,  on  assay,  is 
found  to  be  both  argenti- 
ferous and  auriferous. 
The  fluor  spar  is  ordinarily  crystalline,  and  of  a 
straw-coior,  but  where  cavities  occur,  there  are 


294  GEOLOGY. 

found  beautiful  cubical  crystals  of  an  amethystine 
tint. 

THE  SOUTHWESTERN  LEAD-REGION  OF  MIS- 
SOURI.— The  famous  Granby  Mines  are  in  this 
formation,  and  in  productiveness  are  probably 
unsurpassed  in  the  United  States.  They  now  give 
employment  to  about  500  miners.  The  amount 
of  mineral  raised  annually,  reaches  10,000,000 
pounds,  yielding  7,000,000  pounds  of  lead.*  The 
ore  occurs  in  three  zones,  the  lowest  about  sixty 
feet  beneath  the  surface,  and  each  zone  is  capped 
by  a  layer  of  chert  about  eighteen  inches  in  thick- 
ness. Before  the  war,  the  annual  product  of  lead- 
ore  was  not  far  from  four  and  one-half  millions  of 
pounds.  Zinc,  in  the  form  of  sulphuret,  occurs 
here  abundantly,  as  well  as  the  carbonate;  in  fact, 
both  of  these  ores  accompany  galena  in  its  range 
throughout  Missouri.  In  Taney  County,  however, 
I  have  observed  veins  of  the  silicious  carbonate  of 
zinc,  which,  in  strength  and  purity,  surpass  all 
deposits  of  the  kind  which  I  have  observed  else- 
where. 

The  metalliferous  deposits  of  Mexico  are,  in 
part,  included  in  heavy  masses  of  limestone  which 
have  been  elevated  in  rugged  ridges,  running  west 
of  north  and  east  of  south;  and  the  age  of  these 

*  Parker,  "  Missouri  as  it  is."     1867. 


COAL-MEASURES.  295 

rocks,  according  to  the  best  observers,  is  referable 
to  the  Carboniferous  epoch. 

(£.)  COAL-MEASURES. —  In  the  whole  range  of 
rocks  which  compose  the  crust  of  the  globe,  there 
is  no  group  which  contains  materials  so  valuable 
to  man  as  this.  Closely  as,  in  the  past,  coal  and 
iron  have  been  identified  with  the  progress  of  man, 
they  are  to  be  still  more  closely  identified  with  his 
future  triumphs  over  matter,  and  with  all  that  per- 
tains to  his  temporal  prosperity.  If  there  is  any 
thing  which  distinguishes  this  age  above  all  others, 
it  is  the  result  of  their  cooperation  in  the  infinite 
variety  of  operations  performed  by  machinery,  to 
the  superseding  of  human  muscles.  The  steam- 
engine  is,  perhaps,  the  most  marked  example  of 
this  union;  and  in  the  rapidity,  precision,  and  skill 
with  which  it  performs  its  multifarious  tasks,  it 
seems  to  be  endowed  almost  with  intelligence, —  to 
be  almost  "  a  thing  of  life."  "  Its  action  is  so  regu- 
lated, as  to  make  it  capable  of  being  applied  to  the 
finest  and  most  delicate  manufactures,  and  its 
power  so  increased  as  to  set  weight  and  solidity 
at  defiance.  It  has  become  a  thing  stupendous 
alike  for  its  force  and  flexibility, —  for  the  pro- 
digious power  it  can  exert,  and  the  ease  and  pre- 
cision and  ductility  with  which  that  power  can  be 
varied,  distributed,  and  applied.  The  trunk  of  an 
elephant,  that  can  pick  up  a  pin  or  rend  an  oak,  is 


296  GEOLOGY. 

as  nothing  to  it.  It  can  engrave  a  seal,  and  crush 
masses  of  obdurate  metal  before  it, —  draw  out, 
without  breaking,  a  thread  as  fine  as  gossamer,  and 
lift  a  ship  of  war  like  a  bauble  in  the  air.  It  can 
embroider  muslin,  and  forge  anchors, —  cut  steel 
into  ribands,  and  impel  loaded  vessels  against  the 
fury  of  the  winds  and  waves."  * 

The  benefits  which  this  invention  has  conferred 
upon  the  world  can  not  be  overestimated.  In 
Great  Britain  it  performs  the  labor  of  fifty  millions 
of  men,  and  in  every  civilized  country  it  has  vastly 
augmented  the  amount  of  its  productions,  and  be- 
come the  basis  of  additional  wealth  and  popula- 
tion. It  lies  at  the  foundation  of  an  improved  and 
more  expeditious  commercial  intercourse,  and  on 
the  land  it  has  annihilated  distances.  It  has  become 
a  tremendous  engine  in  war,  and  in  peace  it  has 
armed  the  feeble  hand  of  man  with  an  instrument 
by  which  nearly  every  mechanical  process  can  be 
performed, —  and  yet  it  is  in  its  infancy,  and  each 
year  develops  new  applications. 

In  these  elements  of  industrial  art  —  coal  and 
iron,  —  no  region  is  so  bountifully  supplied  as  the 
Great  Valley.  We  have  already  traced  the  range 
and  extent  of  the  iron  ores;  it  remains  to  trace  the 
distribution  of  the  coals.  Let  any  one  glance  at 
the  Geological  Map  (p.  272),  and  he  will  at  once 

*  Jeffrey.     Miscellanies  : — "  Character  of  James  Watt." 


COAL-MEASURES.  297 

see  the  vast  area  over  which  the  Coal-Measures 
constitute  the  prevailing  rocks,  divided  into  several 
distinct  fields,  and  intersected  by  navigable  waters 
by  which  the  products  of  these  fields  are  made  ac- 
cessible to  the  markets  of  the  Great  Valley.  Instead 
of  lying  in  basin-shaped  depressions  as  in  England, 
where  the  coal-seams  can  be  approached  only  by 
deep-penetrating  shafts,  they  range  with  the  enclos- 
ing strata  over  large  areas,  and  can  be  mined  by 
drifts  and  adits,  driven  above  the  ordinary  drainage 
of  the  country. 

THE  ALLEGHANY  COAL-FIELD  ranges  through 
Western  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  Eastern  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  and  terminates  in  North- 
ern Alabama.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  60,000  square 
miles.  The  assemblage  of  shales,  limestones,  and 
sandstones,  is  estimated  at  2,500  or  3,000  feet  in 
thickness.  The  workable  seams  of  coal  at  Pitts- 
burgh, have  an  aggregate  thickness  of  25^  feet,  and 
in  Southern  Ohio,  of  22^  feet. 

THE  ILLINOIS  COAL-FIELD  occupies  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  area  of  that  State,  and  parts  of  Indi- 
ana and  Kentucky.  The  area  is  about  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Alleghany  coal-field.  The  thickness 
of  the  associated  rocks  is  about  800  feet,  and  of 
the  workable  seams,  in  Southern  Illinois,  19  feet. 

THE  MISSOURI  COAL-FIELD  occupies  the  north- 
western portion  of  that  State ;  the  eastern  portion 


298  GEOLOGY. 

of  Kansas;  a  large  area  to  the  north,  in  Iowa  and 
Nebraska;  and  is  protracted  south  into  the  Indian 
Territory.  Its  area  is  the  largest  in  the  United 
States,  and  even  in  the  world,  being  not  less  than 
100,000  square  miles.  According  to  Swallow,  the 
coal-rocks  of  Kansas  are  2,000  feet  thick,  and  con- 
tain from  12  to  15  feet  of  workable  coal.  The 
Upper  Measures,  so  far  as  we  have  observed,  are 
nearly  barren.  Isolated  patches,  outliers  of  this 
great  coal-field,  occur  on  the  Arkansas  River. 

THE  MICHIGAN  COAL-FIELD  is  extremely  shal- 
low, being  about  100  feet  thick,  and  extending  over 
an  area  of  5,000  square  miles.  The  coal,  for  the 
most  part,  is  mined  for  neighborhood  purposes. 

The  boundaries  of  the  TEXAS  COAL-FIELD,  of 
which  Fort  Belknap  is  the  centre,  have  been  but 
imperfectly  defined.  It  is  known  to  occupy  several 
of  the  northern  counties  of  that  State,  but  it  is  so 
covered  with  arenaceous  deposits,  that  its  presence 
can  only  be  determined  by  boring,  and  the  region 
has  not  become  sufficiently  populated  to  render 
such  explorations  necessary.  Coals  have  been 
mined  along  the  Brazos  River  for  use  at  Fort 
Belknap,  and  the  seam  varies  from  two  to  four 
feet.  Fossils  of  the  coal-measure  limestones  have 
been  observed  by  Newberry  in  the  valley  of  the 
Rio  Grande;  by  Stansbury  in  the  South  Pass,  and 
at  Laramie  Ridge;  and  by  Meek  and  Ha}^den  in 


COAL-MEASURES.  299 

the  Black  Hills.  Thus,  while,  as  before  remarked, 
the  Carboniferous  limestones,  and  even  the  lime- 
stones of  the  Coal-Measures,  have  been  observed, 
at  frequent  intervals,  along  the  entire  eastern  slope 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  there  is  yet  to  be  discov- 
ered, in  all  that  region,  a  true  seam  of  coal  of  the 
Carboniferous  epoch;  and  the  reason  for  this  is,  we 
think,  obvious.  In  the  western  portion  of  the 
Great  Valley,  during  this  epoch,  conditions  existed 
which  were  adverse  to  its  formation;  while  to  the 
east,  the  waters  were  shoaling,  giving  origin  to  a 
series  of  lagoons,  on  whose  borders  flourished  in 
rank  luxuriance,  developed  under  a  tropical  cli- 
mate, and  in  an  atmosphere,  perhaps,  surcharged 
with  carbonic  acid  gas,  a  peculiar  vegetation,  such 
as  grasses,  yucca-like  Lilliacece,  and  Palms,  and 
also  Coniferce  and  Cycadece.  Calamites,  some- 
what like  our  bamboos  and  rushes,  shot  up  in 
arborescent  forms,  and  the  Lycopodiacece^  like  our 
club-mosses,  assumed  tree-like  dimensions.  Lepi- 
dodendra  and  Sigillarice,  with  accurately-arranged 
markings  or  with  fluted  trunks,  reached  sixty  feet 
or  more  in  height,  while  the  Stigmarice,  which 
are  found  ordinarily  in  the  fire-clay  beneath  the 
coal,  have  the  markings  of  the  Cactus.  There 
were,  too,  tree-like  ferns  of  great  variety,  astero- 
phyllites  with  whorl-like  leaves,  and  Araucaria- 
like  Coniferce.  Such  was  the  vegetation  which 


300  GEOLOGY. 

flourished  during  that  period,  and  which  we  now 
employ,  consolidated  into  coal,  to  warm  our  dwell- 
ings, to  light  our  cities,  and  to  propel  our  machin- 
ery.* 

As  the  region  rose  and  fell,  the  torrents  swept  in 
their  silts  of  sand,  mud,  and  clay,  now  consolidated 
into  sandstones,  shales,  and  slates;  and  when  the 
ocean  invaded  the  land,  limestones  were  formed 
by  precipitation,  enclosing  forms  of  animal  life 
exclusively  marine.  In  all  the  Western  coal-fields, 
the  alternate  dominion  of  land  and  water  is  clearly 
indicated  by  the  character  of  the  organic  remains. 
While  such  conditions  existed  to  the  East;  on  the 
other  hand,  to  the  West,  stretched  out  an  ocean 

*  The  shales  which  overlie  our  coal-seams  often  contain,  in  great 
perfection,  the  most  delicate  forms  of  these  vegetable  structures. 
Buckland  (Bridgewater  Treatises,  Geology,)  thus  describes  the  roof 
of  a  coal-mine  in  Bohemia: 

"The  most  elaborate  imitations  of  living  foliage  upon  the  painted 
ceilings  of  Italian  palaces,  bear  no  comparison  with  the  beauteous 
profusion  of  extinct  vegetable  forms  with  which  the  galleries  of  these 
instructive  coal-mines  are  overhung.  The  roof  is  covered  with  a 
canopy  of  gorgeous  tapestry,  enriched  with  festoons  of  most  graceful 
foliage,  flung  in  wild,  irregular  profusion  over  every  portion  of  its 
surface.  The  effect  is  heightened  by  the  contrast  of  the  coal-black 
color  of  these  vegetables,  with  the  light  ground-work  of  the  rock  to 
which  they  are  attached.  The  spectator  feels  himself  transported,  as 
if  by  enchantment,  into  the  forests  of  another  world;  he  beholds  trees, 
of  forms  and  characters  now  unknown  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
presented  to  his  senses  almost  in  the  beauty  and  vigor  of  their  pri- 
meval life;  their  scaly  stems  and  bending  branches,  with  their  deli- 
cate apparatus  of  foliage,  all  spread  out  before  him,  little  impaired 
by  the  lapse  of  countless  ages,  and  bearing  faithful  records  of  extinct 
systems  of  vegetation,  which  began  and  terminated  in  times  of  which 
these  relics  are  infallible  historians." 


COAL-MEASURES.  30! 

with  no  visible  shores,  whose  waters  were  tenanted 
only  by  marine  forms,  and  upon  whose  floor  only 
limestone  sediments  were  deposited.  Fanciful  as 
these  speculations  may  seem,  they  become  of  prac- 
tical utility  in  discussing  the  great  routes  of  con- 
tinental and  oceanic  communication.  They  are 
questions  which  come  home,  as  Bacon  has  said, 
"  to  men's  business  and  bosoms." 

The  coals  derived  from  these  different  fields,  and 
even  from  the  different  seams,  and,  it  may  be  said, 
from  different  parts  of  the  same  seam,  are  far  from 
being  uniform  in  character.  The  anthracites  are 
restricted  to  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Alleghanies, 
where  metamorphic  action  has  been  most  manifest, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  driven  off  the  greater 
portion  of  the  volatile  materials.  The  semi-bitu- 
minous coals  next  succeed,  where  that  action  has 
been  less  marked;  and  finally,  where  it  has  been 
but  feebly  exerted,  we  have  the  fatty,  bituminous 
coals. 

The  most  valuable  coals,  perhaps,  thus  far  devel- 
oped on  the  western  slope  of  the  Alleghanies,  are 
those  of  Northern  Ohio  and  Northwestern  Penn- 
sylvania, derived  from  the  lowest  seam  in  the 
series,  and  known  as  Brier  Hill  or  Ormsby.  It  is 
a  splint  coal,  so  thoroughly  compacted  as  to  bear 
repeated  handling  and  distant  transportation,  and  is 
capable  of  sustaining  the  burden  of  a  furnace  with- 


302  GEOLOGY. 

out  crushing.  It  contains  from  62  to  64  per  cent,  of 
fixed  carbon;  from  2  or  3  per  cent,  of  hygrometric 
moisture;  from  33  to  35  per  cent,  of  volatile  com- 
bustible matter;  and  less  than  3  per  cent,  of  ash, 
nearly  white.  While  valuable  as  a  domestic  fuel 
by  reason  of  its  freedom  from  sulphur,  its  inflam- 
mability, its  small  amount  of  ash,  and  its  disposi- 
tion not  to  agglutinate  or  give  off  an  excess  of 
sooty  matter;  its  preeminent  merit  is  that,  in  a 
crude  state,  it  is  an  iron-making  coal;  and  hence  in 
the  Mahoning  and  Shenango  Valleys,  the  facilities 
for  iron-smelting  are  almost  unsurpassed.  Within 
a  few  years,  a  coal,  having  similar  properties,  has 
been  developed  in  the  vicinity  of  Brazil,  Indiana, 
and  has  been  applied  to  the  same  purposes.  This 
is  the  lowest  seam  in  the  Illinois  coal-field. 

More  recently,  in  the  vicinity  of  Chester,  Illinois, 
an  iron-making  coal  has  been  discovered,  which 
will  be  made  available  in  reducing  the  immense 
deposits  of  specular  and  magnetic  iron  of  Missouri; 
and  a  coal  having  similar  properties,  is  said  to  have 
been  reached  by  a  shaft  near  Springfield.  We  dis- 
covered, some  years  ago,  a  coal  having  similar 
properties  in  Iowa,  west  of  the  DCS  Moines  River, 
but  it  is  too  remote  from  the  iron-ores  to  be  made 
available. 

The  Pittsburgh  coals,  which  include  those  of  the 
Monongehala  and  Youghiogheny,  rank  deservedly 


COAL-MEASURES.  303 

high.  They  contain  more  gaseous  matter,  and  are, 
therefore,  unavailable  for  iron-making,  without 
undergoing  the  preliminary  process  of  coking. 
The  coals  of  Southern  Ohio  are  equally  good; 
those  of  Central  Ohio,  about  Zanesville,  are  so 
fatty  as  to  agglutinate  in  burning,  and  are  excellent 
for  coking. 

The  coals  of  Northern  Illinois  are  ordinarily 
highly  charged  with  water,  often  containing  as  high 
as  12  per  cent.,  and  are  so  sulphurous  as  to  disin- 
tegrate on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  Still  they 
are  extensively  mined  for  domestic  fuel,  and  for 
generating  steam  in  stationary  engines  and  loco- 
motives. 

The  Kansas  coals  have  not  been  developed  suffi- 
ciently to  show  their  true  character.  The  Burlin- 
game  coal,  near  the  upper  portion  of  the  Measures, 
shows  impurities  such  as  appertain  to  those  of 
Northern  Illinois,  but  the  seams  in  the  lower  por- 
tion, which  come  to  the  surface  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  State,  are  said  to  be  of  considerable 
thickness  (7  feet),  and  the  coal  is  of  an  excellent 
quality. 

Apart  from  coal,  other  economic  materials  exist. 
The  brine-springs  of  Western  Pennsylvania  and 
Virginia,  and  of  Southern  Ohio  and  Eastern  Kan- 
sas, have  their  reservoirs  at  the  base  of  this  group. 
The  manufacture  of  salt  has  been  prosecuted  for 


304  GEOLOGY. 

many  years,  and  in  the  older  States,  has  proved  a 
source  of  great  revenue  to  the  respective  regions. 
The  impure  carbonates  of  iron  abound  in  the 
Alleghany  coal-field,  but  in  those  which  lie  farther 
west,  few  productive  beds  have  been  observed. 

Permian  System. — This  series  of  rocks  is  want- 
ing in  the  older  States,  and  is  by  no  means  abund- 
antly developed  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The 
existence  of  these  rocks  was  first  made  known  by 
Swallow,  and  were  observed  by  him  near  Fort 
Riley,  on  the  Kaw  River  of  Kansas.  Here  they 
consist  of  a  series  of  drab  and  dove-colored  lime- 
stones, with  intercalated  marls  and  shales,  vari- 
ously-colored red,  green,  and  grey,  with  gypsum- 
beds  more  or  less  abundant.  They  flank  the  west- 
ern outcrop  of  the  Coal-Measures,  which  here  dip 
northwest,  and  rest  conformably  upon  them.  As  the 
lower  portion  is  made  up  of  transition  beds,  clearly 
indicating  gradually-changing  conditions  in  the 
character  of  the  sediments  and  of  organic  forms, 
it  becomes  difficult  to  draw  the  line  where  the 
Carboniferous  ceases  and  the  Permian  begins. 

Near  Manhattan,  a  limestone  is  quarried  from 
this  series  for  architectural  purposes,  which  is  so 
soft  that  it  may  be  sawed  with  a  hand-saw,  and 
planed  with  a  jack-plane,  and  yet  is  very  durable. 
It  is  the  cheapest  material  of  which  the  pioneer  can 


TRIASSIC    AND  JURASSIC    SERIES.  305 

construct  his  house  —  cheaper  even  than  it  would 
be  to  resort  to  the  forest,  if  such  existed,  for  logs. 
Hayden  notices  the  occurrence  of  a  similar  lime- 
stone, and  belonging  to  the  same  age,  in  Ne- 
braska. 

In  passing  up  the  valley  of  the  Kaw,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Fort  Riley,  these  rocks  are  seen  lining 
the  bluffs  which  attain  a  height  of  250  feet.  The 
unequal  power  to  resist  the  weathering  effects  of 
the  atmosphere,  causes  the  more  enduring  strata  to 
stand  out  in  bold  relief;  and,  as  their  inclination  is 
very  slight,  the  bluffs  for  miles  have  the  appearance 
of  being  crowned  with  Titanic  walls  which  con- 
form to  all  the  curvatures  of  the  ravines.  Hayden 
has  identified  the  extension  of  these  rocks  into 
Nebraska;  Shumard  recognizes  their  existence  in 
the  Gaudalupe  Mountains  of  Texas;  and  Meek 
and  Hayden  in  the  Black  Hills,  and  the  Big-Horn 
Mountains. 

Triassic  and  Jurassic  Series. — These  rocks 
have  hitherto  occupied  a  subordinate  place  in  the 
the  text-books  of  American  geology,  but  recent 
explorations  on  the  Pacific  Coast  show  that  they 
are  widely  developed,  and  enter  largely  into  the 
orographical  features  of  this  continent.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  they  will  be  found  coterminous 
with  the  whole  Rocky  Mountain  system,  flanking 

20 


306  GEOLOGY. 

the  great  granitic  masses,  and  proving  the  main 
repositories  of  the  precious  metals. 

The  sandstones  and  intercalated  traps  which  fill 
the  lower  valley  of  the  Connecticut,  belong  to  this 
series,  and  from  thence  it  is  traced,  in  inter- 
rupted ranges,  through  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Virginia,  and  North  Carolina.  It  is  supposed  that 
these  rocks  represent  both  of  the  great  divisions, 
Jurassic  and  Triassic;  but  it  has  been  found 
impossible  to  draw  the  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween them,  and  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  the 
same  difficulty  exists. 

Above  the  Permian,  in  Kansas,  Swallow  ob- 
served a  series  of  variegated  sandstones  and  marls 
which  he  assigns  to  the  Trias.  In  the  Colorado 
Valley,  Newberry  saw  a  series  of  marls,  2,000  feet 
thick,  but  destitute  of  fossils,  interposed  between 
the  Carboniferous  and  Cretaceous  systems,  which  he 
regards  as  Triassic.  Occurring  at  the  Black  Hills 
of  Dakota  and  at  the  Red  Buttes,  on  the  North 
Platte,  Meek  and  Hayden  describe  beds  subordi- 
nate to  the  Jurassic,  which  probably  belong  to  the 
Trias;  and  they  subsequently  recognized  this 
formation  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Laramie, 
Big-Horn,  and  Wind-River  Mountains. 

The  Upper  Trias,  according  to  Le  Conte,  is 
exposed  in  the  deepest  part  of  Purgatoire  Canon, 
and  also  farther  south,  near  the  Sandia  Mountains, 


TRIASSIC    AND  JURASSIC    SERIES.  307 

and  along  the  Rio  Grande.  Triassic  rocks  also 
occupy  a  broad  belt  in  Nevada,  extending  from  the 
meridian  117°,  west  to  the  California  boundary. 

But  the  development  of  this  system,  or  rather  the 
Triassic,  in  all  of  its  importance,  is  the  result  of  the 
California  Geological  Survey.  The  generalizations 
brought  out  are  of  the  most  striking  character,  and 
such  as  to  afford  us  a  clue  to  unravel  the  age  of  the 
auriferous  deposits  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
palaeontological  evidence  would  indicate  that  these 
rocks  are  equivalent  to  the  Upper  Trias,  or  the 
Hallstadt  limestone  of  the  Austrian  Alps — a  group 
of  rocks  which,  up  to  a  recent  time,  was  thought  to 
be  barren  of  organic  forms,  but  which,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Austrian  Survey,  has  added  800 
specimens  of  Radiates  and  Mollusks  to  the  fauna 
of  this  epoch. 

"  This  great  Triassic  belt  of  the  Pacific  Coast,"  according 
to  Whitney,  "  has  been  explored  by  the  Survey  in  the  latitude 
of  40°,  and  over  a  width,  east  and  west,  of  nearly  four  degrees 
of  longitude  (117°  to  120°).  *  *  [Triassic  fossils  have 
been  collected]  from  the  three  parallel  ranges  in  longitude  117° 
to  118°  in  Nevada  Territory,  known  as  the  Humboldt  Moun- 
tains, or  the  Humboldt  mining  region,  and  from  localities  in 
Plumas  County,  California.  But  sufficient  palaeontological 
evidence  has  been  obtained  to  enable  us  to  state,  that  this 
formation  extends  from  Mexico  to  British  Columbia,  and  that 
it  occupies  a  vast  area,  although  much  broken  up,  interrupted 
by  eruptive  rocks,  and  covered  in  many  places  by  heavy  accu- 
mulations of  volcanic  materials."  * 

*  Palaeontology  of  California."     Vol.  I. 


308  GEOLOGY. 

THE  GOLD-BEARING  ROCKS  OF  CALIFORNIA  COI1- 

sist  of  metamorphic  sandstones,  with  intercalated 
beds  of  quartz,  in  which  the  gold  is  segregated. 
The  beds  almos-t  invariably  have  the  same  range 
and  dip  as  the  associated  rocks,  and  are  not,  there- 
fore, true  fissure-veins.  The  strike  of  the  rocks  is 
pretty  uniform,  being  about  north  30°  west,  except 
where  they  have  been  disturbed  by  volcanic  out- 
bursts, subsequent  to  their  first  uplift.  As  you 
ascend  to  the  High  Sierra,  the  crests  are  found  to 
consist  of  great  masses  of  granite,  often  dome- 
shaped,  whose  culminating  points  reach  15,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  constituting,  as  conjectured  by 
Whitney,  the  highest  land  in  the  United  States. 
While  gold  is  not  absent  in  these  igneous  rocks, 
it  has  not  been  found  profitable  to  mine  it.* 

THE    COPPER-BEARING     ROCKS     OF   CALIFORNIA 

are  of  the  same  age,  and  occupy  the  western  flanks 

*  The  product  of  this  series  of  rocks,  in  the  precious  metals,  is  esti- 
mated by  Ross  Brown  for  the  year  1867  (Mineral  Resources  of  the 
United  States),  at  $75,000,000,  apportioned  as  follows: 

CALIFORNIA,       ---------  $25,000.000 

NEVADA,           ----.--_-  20,000,000 

MONTANA,           ---------  12,000.000 

IDAHO,     ----------  6,500,000 

WASHINGTON,     ---------  1,000.000 

OREGON,          ---------  2,000.000 

COLORADO,          ----...--  2,500,000 

NEW  MEXICO,           --------  500.000 

ARIZONA,    ----------  500,000 

UNKNOWN  SOURCES,        .......  5,000,000 

$75,000,000 


TRIASSIC   SERIES.  309 

of  the  Sierra.  The  copper,  which  appears  mainly 
as  a  sulphuret,  is  segregated  in  beds  which  are 
included  in  chlorite  and  talcose  slates.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Copperopolis,  they  have  been  exten- 
sively mined,  and  the  monthly  product  has  been 
known  to  exceed  3,000  tons  of  ore.  In  1864,  the 
shipments  from  San  Francisco  reached  14,315  tons, 
valued  at  $1,094,660.  The  excessive  cost  of  trans- 
portation to  the  coast,  and  the  absence  of  a  supply  of 
proper  fuel  by  which  to  reduce  the  ores  to  a  matte, 
operate  adversely  to  copper-mining,  so  that  only  the 
richer  ores  are  selected.  Besides,  the  fall  in  the 
price  of  copper  the  world  over,  has  caused  the 
export  almost  entirely  to  cease. 

Remond,  before  quoted,  has  shown  that  the  Sierra 
Madre  of  Northern  Mexico,  is  similar  in  geological 
structure  to  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  Triassic  rocks 
of  Sonora  consist  of  heavy  beds  of  quartzite  and 
conglomerate,  with  coal-bearing  shales,  and  rest 
on  greenstones,  porphyries,  and  granites.  Wher- 
ever metamorphosed,  they  are  both  auriferous  and 
argentiferous. 

These  observations  show  that,  during  this  epoch, 
both  Europe  and  the  United  States  were  convulsed, 
and  the  dynamical  forces  were  such  as  to  lift  up 
some  of  the  most  stupendous  mountain  chains  to 
be  found  on  the  surface  of  our  planet. 


310  GEOLOGY. 

Cretaceous  System. — The  three  great  axial  lines 
which  determine  the  contour  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  had  assumed  their  form  and  direction  before 
these  deposits,  exceeding  in  places  2,000  feet  in 
thickness,  had  been  made  in  the  Cretaceous  sea. 
The  boundaries  of  that  sea  may  be  described  as 
follows:  There  were  entering  bays  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast  from  New  Jersey  to  North  Caro- 
lina. The  sea  washed  the  southern  flanks  of  the 
Alleghanies,  and  formed  an  estuary  which  pene- 
trated inland  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  It 
swept  round  the  southern  portion  of  the  North- 
western coal-field,  extending  south  into  Mexico, 
and  north  beyond  the  limits  of  the  United  States. 
All  that  portion  of  the  country  lying  between  Cen- 
tral Kansas  and  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  was  open  water.  On  the  Pacific  side, 
the  Cretaceous  sea  washed  the  base  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  extended  up  the  valley  of  the  Colorado, 
and  even  penetrated  the  Great  Basin.  There  is  no 
one  formation  in  the  United  States,  which  is  so 
widely  distributed.  The  beds  of  this  series  in  New 
Jersey  attain  a  thickness  of  only  400  feet,  while 
on  the  Upper  Missouri,  they  reach  2,500. 

To  Meek  and  Hayden  we  are  mainly  indebted 
for  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  Cretaceous 
strata  of  the  Upper  Missouri,  which  they  have 
grouped  in  the  following  order: 


CRETACEOUS    SYSTEM. 


SECTION  OF  THE   CRETACEOUS  ROCKS   OF  THE   UPPER 
MISSOURI. 


UPPER  SERIES.  —  Gray,  ferruginous  and  yel- 
lowish sandstones,  and  arenaceous  clays,  con- 
taining Belemnitella  bulbosa,  Nautilus  dekayi, 
Ammonites  placenta,  A.lobatus,  Scaphites  con- 
radi,  S.  nicollet,  Baculites  grandis,  Busycon 
bairdi,  Fusus  culbertsoni,  F.  neivberryi,  Apor- 
rhais  americana,Pseudo-buccimim  nebrascencis, 
Mactra  zvarrenaua,  Cardium  subquadratum, 
and  a  great  number  of  other  molluscous  fossils, 
together  with  bones  of  Mosasaurus  missourien- 
sis. 


FOX-HILL  BEDS,  No.  5.  —  Fox- 
Hills,  near  Moreau  River;  near 
Long  Lake;  above  Fort  Pierre; 
along  base  of  Big-Horn  Moun- 
tains; and  on  North  and  South 
Platte  Rivers. 

Thickness,  500  feet. 


Dark-gray  and  bluish  plastic  clays,  containing 
near  the  upper  part,  Nautilus  dekayi,  Ammo- 
nites placenta,  Baculites  ovatus.  B.compressus, 
Scaphites  nodosus,  Dentalium  gracile,  Crassa- 
tella  evansi,  Cuculleea  nebrascencis,  Inoceramus 
saffcnsis,  I.  nebrascensis,  I.  -vanuxemi;  also, 
bones  of  Mosasaurus  missouriensis,  etc. 

Middle  Zone  nearly  barren  of  fossils. 

Lower  fossiliferous  Zone,  containing  Ammo- 
nites complexus,  Baculites  ovatus,  B.  compres- 
siis,  Helicoceras  mortoni,  ff.  tortum,  H.  umbili- 
catum,  H.  cockleatum,  Ptychoceras  mortont, 
Fusus  vinculum,  Anisomyon  borealis,  Amaur- 
opsis  paludiniformis,  Inoceramus  subulatus, 
I.  tenuilineatus ;  also,  bones  of  Mosasaurus 
missouriensis,  etc. 

Dark  bed  of  very  fine  unctuous  clay,  contain- 
ing much  carbonaceous  matter,  with  veins  and 
seams  of  gypsum,  masses  of  sulphuret  of  iron, 
and  numerous  small  scales  of  Fishes,  local,  fill- 
ing depressions  in  the  bed  below. 


FORT  PIERRE  GROUP,  No.  4. — 
Sage  Creek;  Cheyenne  River,  and 
on  White  River;  above  the  Mau- 
vaises  Terres,  Fort  Pierre,  and 
out  to  Bad  Lands ;  down  the  Mis- 
souri, on  the  high  country,  to 
Great  Bend. 


Great    Bend  of  the    Missouri, 
below  Fort  Pierre. 


Near  Bijou  Hill,  on  the  Mis- 
souri. 


Thickness,  700  feet. 


LOWER  SERIES. — Lead-gray  calcareous  marl, 
weathering  to  a  yellowish  or  whitish  chalky 
appearance  above,  containing  large  scales  and 
other  remains  of  Fishes,  and  numerous  species 
of  Ostrea  congesta  attached  to  fragments  of 
Inoceramus,  passing  down  into  light-yellowish 
and  whitish  limestone,  containing  great  num- 
bers of  Inoceramus  problentaticus,  I.  pseudo- 
mytiloides,  I.  aviculoides,  and  Ostrea  congesta ; 
Fish  Scales,  etc. 


NIOBRARA  DIVISION,  No.  3.  — 

Bluffs  along  the  Missouri,  above 
the  Great  Bend,  to  the  vicinity  of 
the  Big  Sioux  River;  also  below 
therej  and  on  the  tops  of  the  hills. 
Thickness,  200  feet. 


Dark-gray  laminated  clays,  sometimes  alter- 
nating, near  the   upper    part,  with  seams   and 
layers  of  soft  gray  and  light-colored  limestones, 
Inoceramus  problentaticus,    I.  ienuiroslratus, 
Ostrea    congesta,   Venilia 


Inoceramus  problemat. 
l.lalus?  I.  frag  His,  O 
mortoni,  Pfioladomya 


nya  papyracea,  Ammonites 
mullani,  A.  percerinatus,  A.  -vespertinus,  Sea- 
pkites  ivarreni,  S.  larv&formis,  S.  ventricosus, 
S.  -vermiformis,  Nautilus  elegans,  etc. 


FORT  BENTON  GROUP,  No.  a. — 

Extensively  developed  near  Fort 
Benton,  on  the  Upper  Missouri; 
also  along  the  latterj  from  ten 
miles  above  James  River  to  Big 
Sioux  River,  and  along  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  as 
well  as  at  the  Black  Hills. 
Thickness,  870  feet. 


Yellowish,  reddish,  and  occasionally  white 
sandstone,  with,  at  places,  alternations  of  va- 
rious colored  clays,  and  beds  and  seams  of  im- 
pure lignite;  also,  silicified  wood,  and  great 
numbers  of  leaves  of  the  higher  types  of  dico- 
tyledonous trees,  with  casts  of  Pharellaf  dako- 
tensis,  Axinea  siouxensis,  and  Caprina  arena- 
rea. 


DAKOTA  GROUP,  No.  i.  —  Hills 
back  of  the  town  of  Dakota ;  also 
extensively  developed  in  the  sur- 
rounding country  in  Dakota  Coun- 
ty, below  the  mouth  of  the  Big 
Sioux  River,  thence  extending 
southward  into  Northeastern  Kan- 
sas and  beyond.  Thickness,  400  ft. 


312  GEOLOGY. 

The  Cretaceous  strata  of  this  country,  notwith- 
standing their  extraordinary  development,  are,  in 
position,  above  the  Older  Cretaceous  beds  of 
Europe. 

The  Lower  series  is  the  equivalent  of  the  Lower, 
or  Grey  chalk  and  Upper  green-sand  of  British 
geologists;  while  the  Upper  series  is  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  Upper  or  White  chalk  and  Maestricht 
beds. 

The  Cretaceous  rocks,  if  the  more  recently 
formed  Tertiary  strata  were  removed,  would  prob- 
ably be  found  every  where  abutting  against  the 
first-formed  strata  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but 
there  are  places  where  they  have  been  disturbed 
by  more  recent  volcanic  eruptions.  At  the  Raton 
Pass,  the  eruptive  rocks  have  broken  through 
the  lower  and  middle  series,  which  for  a  long  dis- 
tance form  a  very  conspicuous  terrace.  Inter- 
calated with  these  strata,  are  beds  of  coal  of  suffi- 
cient thickness  and  purity  to  prove  of  great 
economical  value.  In  the  Raton  Pass,  they  are 
eight  feet  thick,  and  lie  horizontally,  and  in  Ver- 
mejo  Canon,  they  reach  ten  feet.  Forts  Lyon 
and  Union  are  supplied  with  fuel  from  these 
sources.  Near  Tijeras  and  west  of  Los  Lunas, 
and  also  east  of  Don  Pedro,  near  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  in  San  Lagaro  Hill,  twenty-five  miles  west  of 
Santa  Fe,  coal  has  been  observed,  and  at  the  latter 


CRETACEOUS    SERIES.  313 

place  it  forms  a  very  pure  anthracite,  the  metamor- 
phism  being  due  to  a  trachytic  overflow.  (Le 
Conte.)  Similar  deposits  have  been  observed  in 
the  Puerco  Valley,  and  also  in  those  of  San  Jose 
and  Ojo  Pescado,  showing  an  extension  of  the  coals 
two  hundred  miles  west  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  in 
many  instances  the  igneous  protrusions  have  con- 
verted them  into  anthracite.  (Parry.) 

The  Coast  Ranges  of  the  Pacific  are  made  up 
largely  of  Cretaceous  and  Miocine-Tertiary  strata. 
They  are,  at  numerous  points,  invaded  by  igneous 
products  which  have  not  only  tilted  them  up  at 
high  angles,  but  metamorphosed  them  into  jaspery 
materials,  obliterating  every  trace  of  organic  life. 
Like  the  same  formations  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  there  are  intercalations  of 
valuable  seams  of  coal;  and  to  this  epoch  may  be 
referred  the  deposits  of  Mount  Diablo,  near  San 
Francisco;  of  Bellingham  Bay,  in  Washington 
Territory;  of  Nanaimo,  on  Vancouver's  Island; 
and  those  along  the  shores  of  the  Straits  of  Fuca 
and  Puget's  Sound.  All  of  these  coals  are  soft, 
are  charged  with  a  large  percentage  of  water,  and 
are  apt  to  exfoliate  on  exposure  to  the  air.  They 
contain  not  to  exceed  45  per  cent,  of  fixed  carbon, 
and  are,  therefore,  unfit  for  use  where  a  strong, 
concentrated  heat  is  required. 

The  Coast  Ranges  are  not  destitute  ol  metallic 


GEOLOGY. 


wealth.  It  is  claimed,  even,  that  the  rocks  are 
sparingly  impregnated  with  gold;  but  quicksilver, 
in  the  form  of  cinnabar,  is  found  at  several  points. 
The  most  productive  mines,  however,  are  at 
New  Almaden,  where  the  yearly  product  reaches 
3,000,000  pounds.  The  supply  is  far  in  excess  of 
the  wants  of  the  mining  community,  and  the  sur- 
plus is  shipped  to  China  and  the  South  American 
States.  The  ores  occupy  a  series  of  irregular 
cavities,  mostly  confined  within  a  space  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  square,  and  extending  down- 
wards for  about  four  hundred  feet,  —  dipping  to  the 
north  at  an  angle  of  30°  to  35°,  —  and  the  cavities 
are  scattered  through  the  enclosing  mass  without 
any  approach  to  regularity.  * 

All  the  way,  according  to  the  California  Survey, 
between  Fort  Tejon  and  Fort  Reading,  along  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Sierra,  are  to  be  seen,  except  where 
removed  by  denudation,  strata  of  Marine-Tertiary 
and  Cretaceous,  reposing  in  a  horizontal  position 
upon  the  upturned  edges  of  the  auriferous  slates. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Shasta,  however,  which,  as  before 
remarked,  is  a  volcanic  cone  of  extremely  recent 
origin,  both  of  these  formations  have  been  dis- 
turbed, —  the  result  of  this  uplift,  —  but  there  is 
little  doubt  that  they  were  once  continuous  across 
the  valleys  of  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento,  to  the 

*  Whitney.     "  Geological  Survey  of  California."     P.  69. 


CRETACEOUS    SERIES.  315 

Pacific  Ocean;  on  the  one  hand,  exhibiting  striking 
evidences  of  metamorphism,  and  on  the  other, 
reposing,  for  the  most  part,  in  an  undisturbed 
position. 

According  to  Gabb,  the  Cretaceous  of  California 
is  represented  but  by  a  single  member  of  this  for- 
mation, corresponding  with  the  Fort  Pierre  group, 
or  No.  4,  of  Meek  and  Hayden.  The  peninsula  of 
California  may  belong  to  the  same  group,  although, 
on  the  authority  last  quoted,  it  is  regarded  as  an 
open  question. 

In  Northern  Mexico,  as  we  have  seen,  the  Cre- 
taceous strata  occupy  the  same  relation  to  the 
Sierra  Madre  that  they  do  to  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

The  close  of  the  Cretaceous  epoch  would  seem 
to  indicate  an  important  change  in  the  history  of 
the  earth's  progress  towards  the  condition  of  affairs 
which  we  now  behold.  Whilst  organic  forms 
were  represented  by  the  four  great  divisions  of  the 
animal  kingdom;  still,  the  condition  of  the  globe 
seems  to  have  been  unfitted  for  the  introduction 
and  sustenance  of  the  warm-blooded  animals,  such 
as  now  roam  over  its  surface,  although  there  are  a 
few  exceptions  to  this  general,  rule.  The  Creta- 
ceous period  was  emphatically  the  age  of  reptiles. 
Immense  saurians  swarmed  the  seas,  and  winged 
lizards,  known  to  us  as  pterodactyles,  cleft  the 
air.  The  vegetable  remains,  in  this  country,  show 


316  GEOLOGY. 

a  near  approach  to  existing  forms.  These  consist 
of  dicotyledonous  plants,  among  which  Newberry 
identifies  species  belonging  to  the  genera  Populus 
(poplar)  ;  Salix  (willow)  ;  Alnus  (alder)  ;  Pla- 
tanus  (sycamore) ;  Liriodendron  (tulip) ;  Ficus 
(fig-tree),  and  others;  and  European  botanists, 
while  admitting  the  Cretaceous  age  of  the  Ne- 
braska flora,  unequivocally  assert  that  it  is  closely 
allied  to  that  of  the  Miocine-Tertiary  of  the  Eastern 
Continent. 

In  the  following  table,  are  given  the  results  of 
the  analyses  of  coals  from  the  different  formations 
in  the  United  States,  by  which  it  will  be  seen,  that 
while  those  of  the  recent  epochs  are  more  highly 
charged  with  water,  and  contain  less  fixed  carbon, 
which  is  the  heating  power,  they  are  yet  of  great 
economical  value. 


CRETACEOUS    SERIES. 


317 


ANALYSES  OF  COALS. 


DESIGNATION. 

HYGROM. 
MOISTURE. 

FIXED 
CARBON. 

VOLATILE 
MATTER. 

K 
i 

CHEMIST. 

CARBONIFEROUS. 

2.40 
3.20 
3.80 

2-34 

1.  00 

4.00 

2.OO 

'•'3 
6.17 

6.31 

7-5° 
9.25 

6.22 
8.47 
7.00 
10.00 
IO.OO 
10.00 

II.  20 

7.92 
8.62 
3-13 

67.60 
S4-6I 
53-80 
SS-82 
58.40 
66.56 
56.OI 
29.14 
59.I7 
62-75 
50.00 
46.66 

61-57 

56.24 

61.20 

SS-oo 
54.60 
56.00 
59-80 
46.76 
47.42 
4908 
50.81 
50.78 
51.16 

80.30 

59-25 
61.08 
58.70 
66.48 

40.65 
46.84 
44.92 
44-55 
36.35 
45-69 

41.98 
48.36 

28.00 
36.80 
39.68 

34-31 
SS-oo 
26.93 

37-89 
61.29 
33-i6 
28.68 
40.62 
29.50 
26.50 
25.28 
28.60 
27.40 
27.40 
25.20 
22.60 

& 

38.77 
34.06 
34-20 
43-50 

9.98 

32.00 
28.45 
36-50 
29.00 

40.36 

33-89 
40.27 
37.38 
35-62 
33-26 

32-59 
47.00 

2.OO 

5-39 
2.72 
7.16 
5.60 
2.50 
4.10 
842 
1.50 
2.25 
1.87 

5-12 

5-30 

IO.OO 

3-20 

7.60 

8.00 
8.80 
6.40 
3-58 
5-88 
9.02 

I5-J3 

15.02 

5-34 

9.72 

8-75 
10.47 
4.80 
4-52 

5-52 
4-58 
0.97 
3-94 
7-50 
12.66 

S-34 
4.64 

Blaney. 

Chilton. 
Peters. 
Blaney. 
Hayes. 

Blaney. 

K 
u 

K 

Whitney 

Chilton. 
Frazer. 

Rogers. 
Andreas. 
Johnson. 

Rogers. 

Whitney. 

Whitney. 
Kent. 

"              "           "       (Lower)  

*'               "           "     (Lower  Seam).. 

«            «            "       "     3,21    

"            "            «       "     4,  18      
«           "           «       "     5,  16      

"     (Middle)  

TRIASSIC  AND  JURASSIC. 

CRETACEOUS. 

Mount  Diablo^  California. 

13-47 
14.69 

13-84 
'4->3 
20.53 
8-39 

PEACOCK  

BELLINGHAM  BAY,  W.  T  

MIOCINE-TERTIARY. 

20.09 

CHAPTER  X. 

GEOLOGY  (Continued), SEDIMENTARY  ROCKS. 

TERTIARY     SYSTEM  —  MARINE     OF    THE     ATLANTIC     SLOPE  — 

FRESH- WATER    OF    THE    MISSOURI     BASIN MARINE    OF  THE 

PACIFIC      COAST  ECONOMIC      VALUE      OF     THE      TERTIARY 

COALS IGNEOUS     PRODUCTS    OF    THE    GREAT    BASIN COM- 

STOCK     LODE    AND    ITS    YIELD     IN    SILVER DRIFT-EPOCH 

DRIFT-ACTION       IN       THE       MISSISSIPPI       VALLEY  EROSIVE 

ACTION  ON  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE  AND  IN  THE  COLORADO  PLA- 
TEAU   TERRACES  OF  MODIFIED  DRIFT LOESS SAND- 
DUNES THE  GREAT  LAKES DRIFT-PHENOMENA  IN  THEIR 

BASINS DENUDATION,     AREA,    DEPTH,    AND     ELEVATION 

RESUME. 

The  Tertiary  System. — The  organic  remains  en- 
tombed in  this  series  of  strata,  inaugurate  an  epoch 
when  the  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  begin  to 
approach  nearer  to  existing  species.  In  fact,  many 
of  the  forms  which  tenanted  the  seas  of  that  age 
are  identical  with  those  now  living,  and  the  abor- 
escent  vegetation  was  not  unlike  that  of  the  sub- 
tropical latitudes  of  this  day.  We,  too,  have  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  large  fresh- water  deposits, 
and  consequently  of  the  proximity  of  large  areas 


TERTIARY    SERIES.  319 

of  dry  land.  The  Tertiary  deposits  are  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  United  States,  and  are  both 
of  marine  and  fresh-water  origin. 

THE  MARINE  STRATA  occur  in  the  immediate 
valley  of  the  Lower  Mississippi,  above  its  junction 
with  the  Ohio  Valley,  and  along  the  Texas,  Gulf, 
and  Atlantic  Coasts,  as  far  as  Richmond,  Virginia; 
and  patches  are  found,  even,  as  far  north  as  Mar- 
tha's Vineyard.  Lignite  beds  occur  inland,  as  at 
Brandon,  Vermont,  and  at  other  points. 

What  are  known  as  the  Pine  Barrens,  in  the 
Southern  States,  is  a  belt  of  country  more  than 
1,700  miles  long,  and  often  170  miles  broad, 
stretching  from  Richmond,  along  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  Coasts,  to  beyond  the  western  line  of  Louisi- 
ana, where  the  soil,  derived  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  newest  member  of  the  Tertiary  series, 
is  sandy,  and  where  the  principal  arborescent  form 
is  the  long-leaf  pine  {Pinus  -palustris}.  It  is  em- 
phatically the  "  poor  man's  region."  These  forests, 
while  affording  a  valuable  article  of  lumber,  also 
yield  pitch,  tar,  and  turpentine. 

In  this  series,  three  epochs  have  been  recognized, 
i.  THE  CLAIBORNE  beds  of  Alabama,  and  those 
of  JACKSON  and  VICKSBURGH,  Mississippi,  which 
are  referred  to  the  oldest,  or  Eocine.  2.  Those 
of  YORKTOWN,  Virginia,  to  the  middle,  or  Miocine. 


320  GEOLOGY. 

And  3.  Those  of  SUMTER  and  DARLINGTON,  to  the 
newest,  or  Pliocine.  * 

According  to  Hilgard's  general  section,  the  com- 
bined Tertiary  series,  embracing  the  Northern  Lig- 
nite, the  Claiborne,  Jackson,  Vicksburgh,  and 
Grand-Gulf  groups,  have  a  thickness  of  more  than 
750  feet,  f  The  most  interesting  fossil,  perhaps, 
in  the  whole  series,  is  that  from  the  Jackson  group, 
known  as  the  Zeuglodon  cetoides,  a  marine  animal 
of  the  whale  tribe,  which  resembled  the  sau- 
rians  in  shape,  and  attained  a  length  of  seventy 
feet. 

On  the  Atlantic  Coast,  the  rocks  which  compose 
this  series,  are  variable  in  character, —  consisting  at 
times  of  beds  of  sand  and  clay;  at  other  localities, 
of  compact  sandstones;  at  others,  of  calcareous 
sandstones  and  shell-beds;  and  in  South  Carolina 
occurs  a  cellular  Buhr-stone,  adapted  to  mill-stones. 
The  clays  and  sands  often  contain  lignite  and 
hsematitic  iron-ore  in  such  quantities  as  to  be  of 
economic  value;  and  the  clays  are  of  sufficient 
purity  to  make  fire-brick,  and,  when  washed,  are 

*  These  three  divisions  were  established  by  Lyell :  Pliocine,  because 
the  major  part  of  the  fossil  testacea  of  this  epoch  are  referable  to  exist- 
ing species ;  Miocine,  because  a  minor  part  only  of  the  species 
is  referable  to  existing  forms ;  and  Eocine,  because  in  this  forma- 
tion, we  recognize  the  dawn  of  forms  allied  to  existing  species. 

f  "Geology  of  Mississippi,"  p.  108. 


TERTIARY    SERIES.  32! 

of  such  whiteness  as  to  be  used  in  giving  opacity 
to  writing  paper. 

The  northern   limits  of  the  Marine-Tertiarv  do 

J 

not  appear  to  have  extended  far  up  the  Ohio  Val- 
ley; but  in  Pulaski  County,  Illinois,  Worthen  found 
marine  shells  of  the  genus  Cucullcea  and  Turri- 
tella,  in  a  green-sand,  and  a  shark's  tooth,  near 
Caladonia,  where  there  is  a  thin  bed  of  lignite  at 
low-water  mark  in  the  Ohio  River.  The  hills  in 
Southern  Illinois  are  capped  occasionally  with  beds 
of  ferruginous  conglomerate,  which  may  be  referred 
to  this  age.  A  few  miles  west  of  St.  Louis,  at 
Webster  station,  Mr.  Freeman  has  lately  obtained 
specimens  of  that  peculiar  American  shell,  now 
inhabiting  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  known  as  Gnatho- 
don,  and  Worthen  has  collected  detached  sharks' 
teeth  at  Warsaw,  and  near  the  mouth  of  Skunk 
River,  Iowa. 

FRESH-WATER  TERTIARY  STRATA. — These  are 
largely  developed  in  the  region  lying  between  the 
Missouri  River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
even  penetrate  the  Great  Basin.  They  have  been 
carefully  studied  by  Meek  and  Hayden,  who  find 
that  they  are  referable  to  four  distinct  periods,  indi- 
cated by  the  entombed  organic  remains.  Their 

classification  is  as  follows: 

» 

21 


322 


GEOLOGY. 


GENERAL  SECTION  OF  THE  TERTIART  ROCKS  OF  THE    UPPER 

MISSOURI. 


THICK- 

FOREIGN 

NAME 

S.                           SUBDIVISIONS. 

NESS. 

LOCALITIES.                   EQUIVA- 

LENTS. 

Fine,  loose    sand,    with    some 

On    Loup-Fork   of  -^ 

layers    of     limestone;      contains 

Platte   River,   extend- 

bones of  Cowrs  (dog),  .fW/'s  (cat), 
Castor  (beaver),  Equus   (horse), 
Mastodon  and  Elephas  (elephant), 

u    * 

ing  north  to  Niobrara 
River,  and  south  to  an 
unknown  distance  be- 

w 

Testudo   (tortoise),  etc.,   some  of 

1 

yond  the  Platte. 

H 
>         O 

M       1 

which   are   scarcely  distinguisha- 

o 

0 

K 

ble    from    living    species;     also, 

J 

5 

o 

shells  of  the  genera  Helix,  Physa, 
and   Succinea,  probably  of  recent 

i 

fi 

•3  ; 

species.    All  fresh-water  and  land 

V 

.  types. 

-< 

s-       White  and  light-drab  clays,  with 
some  beds  of  sandstone,  and  local 

i! 

Bad  Lands  of  White  " 
River,  under  the  Loup- 

1 

• 

limestone.      Mammalian   fossils: 

E 
O 

River  bed  ;  on  the  Nio- 

C 

Oreodon,  Titanotherium,  Chtero- 

E 

brara;  and  across  the 

W 

SB 

potamus,    Rhinoceros,   Anchithe- 

h 

country  to  the  Platte. 

I 

rium,    Hyamonodon,     Machairo- 

*j 

>       o 

p  « 

dus.     Reptilian  :  Trionyx,  Testu- 

E 

o 

M 

S 

do.    Shells   (fresh  water)  :  Helix, 

if! 

^ 

j^ 

Planorbis  and  Limnea.     Petrified 

8 

wood,  etc.  All  extinct.  No  brack- 

„- 

Mm! 

Light-gray     and      ash-colored 
sandstones,    with    more    or    less 

Wind-River  Valley;  ") 
also    west    of   Wind-    I 

argillaceous      layers.         Fossils: 

°- 

River  Mountains. 

5  "  J 

^  o  ^ 

Fragments  of  Trionyx,  Testudo, 

o  t3 

1 

p  p.   J 

with   large   specimens   of   Helix, 

O'-S 

f 

Vivipararus,  Petrified  wood,  etc. 

8 

fc*      1 

No     marine    or    brackish    water 

*5 

55    (. 

types. 

J 

Beds   of    clay  and  sand,  with 

Occupies  the  whole  •> 

H     J 

round     ferruginous     concretions, 

country     round     Fort 

<n 

and   numerous  beds,  seams,  and 

Union,          extending 

£  2 

local   deposits  of  lignite.      Great 

& 

nortli  into  the  British 

°  w 

numbers  of  dicotyledonous  leaves, 

o 

Possessions     to     un- 

1° 

stems,  etc.,  of  the  genera  Plata- 

known  distances  ;  also 

'a 

II' 

mis,  Acer,  Ulmus,  Populus,  etc., 
with  very  large  leaves  of  true  Ean- 
Palms.      Also,  fresh  or  brackish 
water  shells  of  the  genera  Helix, 

o 

1 

southward      to      Fort 
Clark;  seen  under  the 
White  -  River     group, 
on  the    North    Platte 

1 

HI 

>          0 

c 
H 

01"1 
H 

Melania,  Vi-vipararus,  Corbicula. 
*  Unio,   Ostrea,    Potamomya  ;   and 
scales  of  fishes,  Lepidotus  ;  with 

1 

River,  above  Fort  La- 
ramie;    also  on   west 
side    of  Wind  -River 

S( 

reptilian  bones  of  Trionyx,  Emys, 
Compsemys,  Crocodilus,  etc 

Mountains.                       I 

TERTIARY    SERIES.  323 

We  shall  describe  this  series  in  the  descending 
order,  in  accordance  with  this  classification. 

1.  THE  LOUP-RIVER  GROUP. — This  group  yields 
no  economic  materials,  but  the  entombed  mamma- 
lian remains,  as  determined  by  Leidy,  are  of  strik- 
ing interest.     Among   them    may  be    enumerated 
three  species  of  the  camel,  a  rhinoceros,  a  masto- 
don  smaller  than    the  M.  ohioticus,   an   elephant 
(Elephas    imperator)    a   third    larger    than    the 
Elephas  americanus^  four  or  five   species  of  the 
horse,    and    a    deer  allied    to    the    musk-deer   of 
Europe, —  all    extinct.     It   is    singular,   that  while 
there  was  no  living  representative  of  the  equine  or 
horse  tribe  on  this  Continent  when  first  known  to 
the  European,  there  should  be  found  not  less  than 
seventeen  species   in  a  fossil  state,  some  of  them 
having  teeth   not  distinguishable    from   the    living 
species.     Prof.  Marsh  has  lately  described  a  fossil 
horse  from  the  region  of  Nebraska  {Equus  par- 
vulus),  which  could  not  have  been  more  than  two 
or  two  and  one-half  feet  in  height,  although  full 
grown,  as    the    ossification   of  the   various    bones 
clearly  proves.  * 

2.  WHITE-RIVER  GROUP. — -On  the  White  River 
there  are  fresh-water  beds   of  drab-colored  clays, 
and  bands  of  sandstone  and  limestone,  which  have 
been  denuded  and  left  standing  in  a  thousand  fan- 

*  O.  C.  Marsh.     Silliman's  "American  Journal,"  Nov.,  1868. 


324  GEOLOGY. 

tastic  and  irregular  forms,  so  that,  viewed  at  a  dis- 
tance, they  resemble  the  ruins  of  a  mighty  city,  or 
more  appropriately,  the  tombstones  in  a  vast  ceme- 
tery. *  And  such  it  has  proved;  for  in  these 
deposits  are  entombed  some  of  the  most  wonderful 
forms  of  extinct  life  that  have  been  revealed  to  the 
gaze  of  the  palaeontologist.  The  orders  Mammalia 
and  Chelonia  are  largely  represented.  Not  less 
than  forty  species  of  the  former,  and  five  species 
of  the  latter,  have  been  discovered.  The  mamma- 
lian remains  include  Carnivores,  like  the  hyena, 
dog,  and  panther;  and  Herbivores,  like  the  rhinoc- 
eros, and  animals  allied  to  the  tapir,  peccary,  deer, 
camel,  and  horse. 

Many  of  these  extinct  forms  have  the  most  dis- 
cordant characters.  In  the  Archaeotherium  of 
Leidy,  are  united  the  molar  teeth  of  the  hog,  the 
canines  of  the  bear,  and  the  cheek-bones  of  the  cat. 
The  Oreodon  of  the  same  author,  had  the  grind- 
ing teeth  of  the  elk,  and  the  canines  of  the  thick- 
skinned,  omniverous  animals,  and  was  fitted  to  live 
on  both  flesh  and  vegetables,  and  at  the  same  time 
was  ruminant  like  the  ox.  Hundreds  of  fossil 
turtles  were  observed  by  the  early  explorers  scat- 
tered over  the  surface,  some  of  which  were  esti- 
mated to  weigh  a  ton,  whose  remains  it  was  found 
impossible  to  remove. 

*  Vide   Owen,  D.D.     "  Geological  Survey  of  Iowa  and  Minnesota." 


TERTIARY    SERIES.  325 

Cuvier  was  the  first  who  introduced  us  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  animals  of  this  era,  determined 
from  the  fragments  of  bones  collected  in  the  gyp- 
sum beds  of  Montmartre,  near  Paris.  Here,  he 
remarks,  he  found  himself  as  if  placed  in  a  charnel- 
house,  surrounded  by  mutilated  fragments  of  many 
hundred  skeletons,  of  more  than  twenty  animals, 
piled  confusedly  around  him.  "At  the  voice  of 
comparative  anatomy,  every  bone  and  fragment  of 
a  bone  resumed  its  place."*  So  conclusive  and 
exact  were  his  demonstrations,  that  we  know  what 
were  the  forms  and  habits  of  these  extinct  species, 
as  well  as  if  they  were  now  animated  with  the 
breath  of  life,  and  clothed  with  flesh  and  skin. 
Wonderful  as  were  these  revelations,  they  are  not 
only  paralleled,  but  surpassed  by  those  of  the 
Fresh- water  Tertiary  basins  of  the  Upper  Missouri. 

The  basin  of  Mauvaises  Terres,  or  Bad  Lands, 
is  estimated  by  Hayden  to  cover  a  region  at  least 
of  100,000  square  miles;  and,  from  isolated  patches 
on  both  sides  of  the  Missouri  River,  he  infers  that 
this  great  fresh-water  lake  must  have  spread  over 
150,000  square  miles, —  an  area  nearly  five  times 
greater  than  that  of  Lake  Superior,  the  largest 
fresh-water  lake  of  the  present  day. 

3.  THE  WIND-RIVER  GROUP. — These  beds  have 
no  great  geographical  range,  as  thus  far  determined, 

*  "  Ossemens  Fossiles."     Introduction. 


326  GEOLOGY. 

although,  locally,  they  attain  a  thickness  of  1,500 
or  2,000  feet.  They  furnish  no  materials  of  eco- 
nomic value,  nor  are  they  replete  with  forms  of 
organic  life. 

4.  THE  GREAT  LIGNITE  GROUP. —  This  is  the 
most  important  member  of  the  series,  both  by  rea- 
son of  its  geographical  range  and  its  economic 
materials.  It  has  been  traced  in  a  series  of  basins 
along  the  foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  from 
Pike's  Peak  (and  future  explorations  may  make  it 
continuous  to  Mexico)  to  the  Upper  Missouri  and 
into  the  British  Possessions;  and  from  the  testi- 
mony of  Sir  John  Richardson,  and  other  Arctic 
explorers,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  is 
almost  continuous  to  the  Arctic  Sea.* 

In  a  recent  report,  Hayden  gives  a  description 
of  the  lignite  deposits  of  the  Laramie  Plains. 

"  I  found,"  he  remarks,  "  the  lignite  of  excellent  quality,  in 
beds  of  from  five  to  eleven  feet  thick,  and  I  estimated  the  area 
occupied  by  the  basin  at  5,000  square  miles.  Its  most  eastern 
limit  is  about  ten  miles  east  of  Rock  Creek,  a  branch  of  the 
Medicine-bow  River.  Outcroppings  have  been  seen  all  along 
Rock  Creek,  Medicine-bow,  on  Rattlesnake  Hills,  on  the 
North  Platte,  Muddy  Creek,  Ham's  Fork,  Echo  Canon,  and 
all  along  Weber  River,  nearly  to  Great  Salt-Lake,  showing 
that  one  connected  series  of  deposits  covers  this  whole 
area."  f 

*  The  reader  is  referred  to  a  valable  paper  by  F.  B.  Meek,  on  the 
"  Geology  of  the  Mackenzie  River,"  determined  from  the  collections 
of  the  late  Robert  Kennicott.  "  Transactions  of  Chicago  Academy  of 
Sciences."  Vol.  I.,  p.  61. 

t  Silliman's  "American  Journal,"  March,  1868. 


LIGNITE    SERIES.  327 

On  South  Boulder  and  Coal  Creek,  between 
Denver  and  Cheyenne,  eleven  distinct  seams  of 
coal  have  been  explored,  one  of  which  is  eleven 
feet  in  thickness,  and  the  combined  seams  are  from 
thirty  to  fifty  feet.  Externally  these  lignites  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  a  light,  bituminous  coal,  and 
on  assay,  give  about  equal  parts  of  volatile  matter 
and  fixed  carbon,  and  only  two  or  three  per  cent, 
of  ash.  Like  most  of  the  coals,  more  recent  than 
the  Carboniferous  epoch,  they  contain  a  large 
amount  of  water,  ranging  from  twelve  to  twenty 
per  cent. 

In  the  Great  Basin,  lignites  have  been  observed 
along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  in  the 
Pine-Nut  Mountains;  in  the  volcanic  district  of 
Esmeralda;  in  El  Dorado  Canon;  and  at  Crystal 
Peak,  where  considerable  mining  has  been  done, 
but  with  indifferent  success.  Towards  the  eastern 
rim  of  the  Great  Basin,  the  deposits  are  more  abun- 
dant, and  promise  to  be  of  greater  economical 
value.  Lignite  occurs  west  of  the  Black  Hills, 
and  is  traced  almost  continuously  to  Salt-Lake 
Valley.  At  Argenta,  400  miles  from  Sacramento, 
'on  the  line  of  the  railroad,  a  deposit  is  reported  of 
such  excellence  as  to  fit  it  for  locomotive  use. 
The  principal  deposits  of  lignite,  so  far  as  known, 
are  indicated  on  the  Geological  Map  (p.  272),  by 
the  deeply-shaded,  oblique  lines. 


328  GEOLOGY. 

MARINE  STRATA  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. — On 
the  Pacific  Slope,  the  Tertiary  rocks,  which  are 
referred  to  the  Miocine  age,  appear  to  be  cotermin- 
ous with  the  Cretaceous.  They  enter  into  the 
frame-work  of  the  Coast  Ranges,  stretching  from 
the  Columbia  to  San  Louis  Bay,  and  probably  to 
Cape  St.  Lucas;  and,  throughout  the  entire  extent, 
the  strata  are  upheaved,  plicated,  and  metamor- 
phosed, and,  at  frequent  intervals,  invaded  by  igne- 
ous products.  They  repose  in  horizontal  strata 
upon  the  foot-hills  of  tr^e  Sierra,  but  are  in  a  dis- 
turbed position  where  they  fold  around  Shasta. 
The  entombed  fossils,  like  those  of  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  are  of  marine  origin. 

Like  the  Missouri  beds,  they  contain  valuable 
seams  of  coal,  restricted  for  the  most  part  to  the 
State  of  Oregon.  The  mines  in  the  region  of  Coos 
Bay,  according  to  Gabb,  are  in  this  formation,  and 
probably  those  of  the  Willamette  Valley. 

The  ancient  vegetation  of  the  Upper  Missouri, 
now  incorporated  into  coals,  consisted  of  crypto- 
gamic  land-plants,  fan-palms,  and  coniferous  trunks 
like  our  pines  and  firs,  and  of  yuglandacece^  like 
the  black  walnut,  and  of  Acerinece,  like  the  maple, 
all  allied  to  existing  forms. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  THE  TERTIARY  COALS. — 
Thus,  it  would  appear  that,  contrary  to  the  opinion 
formerly  entertained  by  geologists,  nature  has  not 


TERTIARY    IGNEOUS    ROCKS.  329 

restricted  the  useful  deposits  of  coal  to  rocks  of  the 
Carboniferous  epoch ;  and  that  while,  perhaps,  those 
of  the  true  Coal-Measures  are,  in  purity,  in  free- 
dom from  hygrometric  moisture,  in  ability  to  pro- 
duce concentrated  heat,  and  to  resist  atmospheric 
action,  superior  to  those  of  a  later  age;  yet,  in  our 
own  country,  valuable  coals  are  extracted  from  the 
Oolite,  the  Cretaceous,  and  the  Tertiary  formations. 
Tertiary  coals  are  now  successfully  employed  to 
propel  the  Pacific  steamers,  and  to  heat  the  dwell- 
ings of  the  Colorado  miners;  and  Providence,  as  if 
to  facilitate  the  intercourse  between  the  two  oceans, 
has  so  distributed  these  deposits  throughout  that 
vast  treeless  region  west  of  the  Missouri,  in  such 
accessible  positions,  and  in  such  a  state  of  purity, 
that  they  may  be  made  available  for  propelling  the 
locomotive  across  the  western  portion  of  the  Con- 
tinent. 

Tertiary  Igneous  Rocks. — The  Washoe  Moun- 
tains, according  to  Richthofen,  form  an  interme- 
diate link  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the 
ranges  of  the  Great  Basin.  "To  the  Sierra  Nevada 
they  are  related  by  the  metamorphism  of  their 
sedimentary  formations,  which  farther  east  appear 
more  regularly  stratified  and  less  altered.  With 
both,  they  have,  in  common,  the  considerable  part 
which  Tertiary  and  Post-Tertiary  eruptive  rocks, 


330  GEOLOGY. 

partly  of  pure  volcanic  origin,  play  in  their  archi- 
tecture." 

Mount  Davidson  is  lithologically  syenitic,  and 
probably  a  continuation  of  the  granitic  axis  of  the 
Pine-Nut  Mountains  which  are  flanked  by  a 
series  of  rocks,  as  determined  by  Whitney,  of  Tri- 
assic  age,  forming  the  ancient  series. 

"  They  partly  preceded,"  remarks  the  Baron,  "  and  partly 
were  contemporaneous  with  the  gradual  emergence  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  the  Great  Basin,  and  the  entire  chain  of  the 
Cordilleras  from  the  ancient  sea,  whose  traces  are  left  in  saline 
incrustations  and  salt-pools  at  the  bottom  of  the  numerous 
basins  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Rocky  Mountains, 
which  had  formerly  remained  filled  with  the  water  of  the 
retiring  sea.  The  Washoe  Mountains  formed,  undoubtedly, 
an  elevated  range  during  the  long  period  which  elapsed  till 
the  commencement  of  the  formation  of  the  recent  series  of 
rocks  which  are  eruptive  and  volcanic,  and  belong  to  the  latter 
part  of  the  Tertiary  and  Post-Tertiary  periods."  * 

In  a  volcanic  rock,  technically  called  -propylite, — 
a  paste  of  greenish  or  brownish  color,  with  imbed- 
ded crystals  of  feldspar, —  is  contained  the  far- 
famed  COMSTOCK  LODE  which,  in  the  short  space 
of  six  years,  has  yielded  $75,000,000  of  silver,  and 
whose  annual  product  is  equal  to  that  of  all  Mexico. 
And  yet,  this  magnificent  lode,  in  whose  success 
the  fate  of  an  entire  state  is  involved,  has  arrived 
at  that  pass  when,  at  the  depth  of  nearly  a  thou- 
sand feet,  by  reason  of  the  accumulation  of  water, 

*  Richthofen,  Baron.     "  Report  on  Comstock  Lode." 


COMSTOCK    LODE.  33! 

imperfect  ventilation,  and  increase  of  internal  tem- 
perature (90°  where,  after  brief  exertions,  the 
miners  are  required  to  repose),  the  explorations 
have  nearly  ceased  to  be  profitable,  with  the  cer- 
tainty that  they  will  become  absolutely  so,  if  the 
present  system  of  mining  is  persisted  in.  A  tunnel, 
(projected  by  Mr.  Adolph  Sutro,  and  bearing  his 
name,)  four  miles  long,  and  affording  drainage  into 
a  valley,  can  be  constructed  to  cut  this  lode  at  a 
depth  of  2,000  feet;  and  to  accomplish  this  object, 
national  aid  has  been  invoked. 

The  Comstock  vein,  while  pursuing  a  general 
course  of  north  and  south,  appears  to  partake  of 
the  flexures  of  the  inclosing  rock,  which  is  folded 
round  and  invests  the  syenitic  nucleus  of  Mount 
Davidson,  conforming  to  its  irregularities,  passing 
the  ravines  in  concave  bends,  and  inclosing  the 
foot  of  the  different  ridges  in  convex  curves.  It 
has  been  traced  for  about  19,000  feet,  and,  at  a 
depth  of  from  400  to  600  feet,  it  is  from  100  to 
even  200  feet  in  width,  but  contracting  in  places 
to  a  mere  seam.  Its  dip  is  far  from  uniform,  first 
inclining  to  the  east,  then  assuming  verticalness,  and 
finally  turning  to  the  west,  and  expanding  towards 
the  surface  in  a  fan-like  form.  It  has,  therefore, 
individual  features  which  detach  it  from  other  sys- 
tems of  veins.* 

*  Richthofen.     Ibidem. 


332  GEOLOGY. 

Drift- Epoch. — During  the  Tertiary  age  the  rela- 
tive area  of  land  and  water,  as  we  have  shown,  was 
different  from  what  we  now  behold.  The  ocean, 
on  the  east,  invested  the  land  up  to  the  flanks  of 
the  Appalachians,  and  on  the  west  up  to  the  flanks 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada;  while,  in  the  form  of  an  enter- 
ing bay,  it  extended  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio; 
and  fresh  and  salt-water,  as  indicated  by  the  brack- 
ish character  of  some  of  the  shells,  commingled 
far  up  the  Missouri.  The  Colorado  was  an  arm 
of  the  sea,  a  prolongation  of  the  Gulf  of  California. 
A  chain  of  great  fresh-water  lakes  stretched  along 
the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
penetrated  the  Great  Basin.  The  sun  glowed  with 
a  more  genial  heat,  and  a  semi-tropical  vegetation, 
such  as  that  which  flourishes  in  the  lower  latitudes 
of  the  United  States,  prevailed  as  far  north  as 
Disco  Island  and  the  sources  of  Mackenzie's 
River.  Immense  saurians  tenanted  the  sea,  and 
numerous  forms  of  pachyderms,  allied  to  those  of 
the  warm  climate  of  India,  roamed  over  the  land. 

But  a  change  was  at  hand, —  a  change  for  which 
science  has  thus  far  failed  to  find  a  satisfactory 
solution.  The  sun  was  shorn  of  a  portion  of  his 
vivifying  rays;  the  seas  became  cold;  shells  of  an 
Arctic  type  tenanted  the  waters,  and  an  Alpine 
vegetation  penetrated  far  into  the  Temperate  Zone. 
A  new  race  of  quadrupeds,  represented  by  the 


TRIASSIC    SERIES.  333 

mastodon  and  the  mammoth,  sprang  into  being, 
clothed  with  a  raiment  of  wool  to  protect  them 
from  the  rigors  of  the  climate,  and  furnished  with 
teeth  of  peculiar  complexity  to  enable  them  to 
browse  upon  a  sub- Arctic  vegetation;  and  the 
musk-ox  and  the  reindeer  roamed  south  to  where 
now  grow  the  olive  and  the  vine. 

In  order  that  we  may  realize  the  character  of  the 
climate  which  formerly  prevailed  over  what  are 
now  the  most  favored  portions  of  the  earth's  surface, 
we  need  but  go  north  and  plant  ourselves  on  the 
shores  of  Greenland.  Here  is  a  continent  which 
for  three-fourths  of  the  year  is  moulded  in  snow 
and  ice.  The  coast  is  lined  with  glaciers  which, 
descending  through  the  fiords,  jut  far  out  into  the 
sea,  and,  becoming  detached  by  tidal  action,  float 
off  in  the  form  of  bergs,  while  the  supply  is  kept 
up  by  the  melting  of  the  great  snow-fields  lying  in 
the  interior.  These  bergs,  freighted  with  masses 
of  rock,  earth,  and  gravel,  float  off  into  warmer 
waters,  where  they  dissolve  and  scatter  their  con- 
tents over  the  bed  of  the  ocean. 

What  can  be  more  desolate  than  an  Arctic  land- 
scape:—  the  flashing  splendors  of  the  Northern 
Lights;  the  gloomy  solitude  which  every  where 
reigns  unbroken,  except  by  the  cracking  of  the 
ice;  the  corruscations  of  the  stars  in  that  pure, 
cold  atmosphere;  and  the  strangeness  of  a  midnight 


334-  GEOLOGY. 

sun  hanging  like  a  great  fire-ball  in  the  southern 
sky,  lighting  up  the  pinnacles  of  icebergs  and 
causing  them  to  glitter  with  opalescent  hues. 

The  rigors  of  such  a  climate  reigned  over  what 
now  are  the  temperate  regions  of  both  hemispheres. 
Cold  oceanic  currents  swept  from  the  north,  float- 
ing innumerable  icebergs,  and  the  land  itself  was 
in  a  state  of  glaciation,  attested  by  the  striation  of 
the  rocks,  by  long  trains  of  boulders,  by  moraine- 
like  accumulations  of  gravel,  and  by  mingled  sands 
and  clays,  as  if  deposited  amid  turbulent  currents 
and  shifting  eddies.* 

*  If  we  read  the  narrative  of  Kane  and  other  Arctic  explorers,  our 
ideas  will  become  enlarged  as  to  the  extent  of  these  ice-fields,  and  the 
restless  energy  with  which  they  move.  Take  his  description  of  the 
great  glacier  of  Humboldt,  presenting  at  the  sea  a  perpendicular  cliff 
of  three  hundred  feet,  and  stretching  inland  as  far  as  the  eye  can 
reach,  in  the  form  of  a  great  table-land,  with  a  relief  and  depression 
corresponding  with  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

'•Repose,"  says  Kane,  "was  not  the  characteristic  of  this  seemingly 
solid  mass ;  every  feature  indicated  activity,  energy,  movement." 
While  the  external  air  might  have  a  temperature  of —  30%  the  glacier 
indicated  +  20',  yielding  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  water  during  the 
whole  year. 

The  glacier  is  a  viscous  mass,  slowly  advancing  to  the  coast,  urged 
on  by  a  power  behind,  until  it  is  forced  so  far  into  the  sea,  that  the 
water  becomes  capable  of  sustaining  the  projected  mass,  when  it 
becomes  detached  from  the  parent  glacier,  not  by  a  violent  debacle, 
but  quietly,  and  is  floated  off  in  the  form  of  a  berg,  to  be  dissolved 
in  the  milder  temperature  of  southern  seas.  Thousands  of  these 
bergs  are  thus  detached  and  throng  the  Arctic  seas,  freighted  with 
tons  and  tons  of  rounded  and  angular  blocks  of  stone,  and  other 
detrital  matter,  to  be  dropped  in  the  sea-bottom  of  lower  latitudes. 

Now,  if  the  ocean-bed  along  the  track  of  these  ice-rafts  were  ele- 
vated and  made  dry  land,  it  would  doubtless  exhibit  all  the  phenomena 
of  the  Drift, —  detrital  materials  almost  void  of  stratification,  long 
lines  of  boulders,  the  direction  in  no  degree  conforming  to  the  ine- 


DRIFT-EPOCH.  335 

DRIFT  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY. —  In  tra- 
versing the  prairies  the  observer  is  struck  by  the 
almost  entire  absence  of  those  long  trains  of  boul- 
ders, those  moraine-like  accumulations  of  rounded 
and  water-worn  pebbles,  and  those  heavy  beds  of 
sand  and  gravel  discordantly  stratified,  which  char- 
acterize the  the  Drift-phenomena  of  the  Atlantic 
Slope,  and  particularly  of  New  England.  Instead 
of  these,  he  finds  the  surface  sometimes  composed 
of  comminuted  materials  of  marly  clay,  and  at  other 
times  of  materials  more  silicious,  with  an  occasional 
boulder  standing  up  like  a  landmark.  This  diver- 
sity in  character  is  owing  probably  to  two  causes. 

i.  That  while  every  Drift-region  shows  the  intru- 
sion of  materials  of  a  northern  origin,  still  the  great 
mass  is  derived  from  the  destruction  of  the  rocks 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood;  and  we  should, 

qualities  of  surface,  and  grooved  and  polished  rocks,  where  the  bergs 
had  struck  and  become  stranded. 

The  lowest  temperature  of  sea-water  recorded  by  Kane,  amid  drift- 
ing ice-bergs,  is  between  28°  and  29°. 

He  describes  Cape  James  Kent  as  a  lofty  headland,  where  the  land- 
ice  was  covered  with  rocks  from  the  cliffs  above.  "As  I  looked,"  says 
he,  "  over  this  ice-belt,  loosing  itself  in  the  far  distance,  and  covered 
with  millions  of  tons  of  rubbish,  greenstones,  limestones,  chlorite 
slates,  rounded  and  irregular,  massive  and  ground  to  powder,  its 
importance  as  a  geological  agent  in  the  transportation  of  Drift  struck 
me  with  great  force.  Its  whole  substance  was  covered  with  these  contri- 
butions from  the  shore ;  and  farther  to  the  south,  upon  the  now  frozen 
waters  of  Marshall  Bay,  I  could  recognize  raft  after  raft  from  last 
year's  ice-belt,  which  had  been  caught  up  by  the  winter,  each  one 
laden  with  its  heavy  freight  of  foreign  material."  (  "Arctic  Expedi- 
tion.") 


33 6  GEOLOGY. 

therefore,  a  priori^  infer  that  the  ruins  of  the  Silu- 
rian and  Carboniferous  strata  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  would  present  a  soil  of  a  far  different 
mechanical  texture  from  that  derived  from  the 
crystalline  and  metamorphic  rocks  of  New  Eng- 
land; that  while  the  tremendous  energy  of  the 
Drift-agency  might  grind  the  one  class  of  rocks 
into  an  impalpable  powder,  it  might  leave  the 
other  of  a  coarser  texture,  together  with  innumer- 
able rounded  pebbles. 

2.  That  as  the  force  of  the  Drift-agency  sub- 
sided, there  was  probably  an  interval  sufficiently 
long,  during  which  only  the  finer  sediments  were 
deposited  upon  a  lacustrine  floor.  These  sedi- 
ments, for  thousands  of  years,  have  borne  annual 
crops  of  grass,  whose  ashes  or  decaying  leaves 
have  mingled  each  year  with  the  soil,  and  contri- 
buted to  its  fertility;  and  hence  it  has  the  lightness 
and  almost  the  mobility  of  an  ash-heap. 

The  materials  composing  the  Drift-series  are 
loam,  sand,  and  gravel  more  or  less  stratified,  and 
yellow  and  blue  clay, —  the  latter  resting  on  rocks 
previously  grooved  and  polished  where  sufficiently 
firm  to  retain  the  impressions.  The  maximum 
thickness  of  the  Blue  clay  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Michigan,  is  at  least  one  hundred  feet,  and  the 
combined  thickness  of  these  superficial  materials 
is  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Boulders  are  found 


DRIFT-SERIES.  337 

embedded  in  the  Blue  clay,  as  well  as  reposing  on 
the  surface  of  the  prairies,  but  more  abundantly 
near  the  base  of  the  series.  The  Blue  clay  may 
be  regarded  as  a  slow  deposit  of  mud  produced 
by  the  shifting  action  of  tides,  while  the  boulders 
were  dropped  from  floating  ice-bergs;  for  it  is  very 
evident  that  both  classes  of  materials  could  not 
have  been  accumulated  by  the  same  set  of  cur- 
rents. 

THE  DRIFT-PHENOMENA  are  by  no  means  con- 
spicuously displayed  on  the  Plains.  We  have 
never  noticed  the  etching  of  the  rocks,  or  the  dis- 
tribution of  boulders  at  points  far  west  of  Leaven- 
worth.  Dr.  Hayden  remarks,  that  on  the  Platte, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Elkhorn,  there  is  a  ledge  of 
limestone  which  has  been  planed  so  smoothly  by 
glacial  action  that  it  makes  a  most  excellent  mate- 
rial for  caps  and  sills,  without  further  working, —  a 
phenomenon  which  he  has  not  before  observed  in 
any  part  of  the  far  West.  Sometimes  there  are 
deep  grooves  and  scratchings,  all  of  which  have  a 
direction  northwest  and  southeast.  The  evidences 
of  glacial  action  are  also  to  be  seen  at  Plattsmouth, 
and  if  the  detrital  covering  were  stripped  off, 
the  limestones  would  appear  to  be  planed  in  this 
way.* 

*  "Report  to  Commissioner  of  General  Land  Office,"  1867,  p.  129. 
22 


338  GEOLOGY. 

EROSIVE  ACTION  ON  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. — The 
great  swell,  on  which  rise  the  crested  ridges  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  appears  to  have  acted  as  a  bar- 
rier against  the  encroachments  of  the  Northern 
Drift.  All  traces  of  its  existence,  also,  are  absent 
on  the  Pacific  Slope. 

"  The  explorations  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  California," 
says  Whitney,  "  have  demonstrated  that  there  is  no  true  North- 
ern Drift  within  the  limits  of  this  State.  Our  detrital  mate- 
rials, which  often  form  deposits  of  great  extent  and  thickness, 
are  invariably  found  to  have  been  dependent  for  their  origin 
and  present  condition  on  causes  similar  to  those  now  in  action, 
and  to  have  been  deposited  on  the  flanks  and  at  the  bases 
of  the  nearest  mountain  ranges,  by  currents  of  water  rushing 
down  their  slopes. >  While  we  have  abundant  evidence  of  the 
former  existence  of  extensive  glaciers  in  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  ice  was  to  any  extent  an 
effective  agent  in  the  transportation  of  the  superficial  deposits 
now  resting  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountains.  The  glaciers 
were  confined  to  the  most  elevated  portions  of  the  mountains, 
and  although  the  moraines  which  they  have  left  as  evidences 
of  their  former  extension,  are  often  large  and  conspicuous,  they 
are  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  detrital  masses  formed 
by  aqueous  erosion.  There  is  nothing,  any  where  in  Califor- 
nia, which  indicates  a  general  Glacial  epoch,  during  which  ice 
covered  the  whole  country  and  moved  bodies  of  detritus  over 
the  surface,  independently  of  its  present  configuration,  as  is 
seen  throughout  the  Northeastern  States."  * 

The  same  condition  of  things  prevails  through- 
out Oregon,  British  Columbia,  and  Alaska. 

The  configuration  of  the  whole  coast  is  such  as 

*  "  Proc.  Cal.  Acad.  Nat.  Sciences."    Vol.  III.,  p.  272. 


DRIFT-SERIES.  339 

to  protect  it  from  the  ice-floes  of  the  Polar  Sea, 
and  such  an  event  could  not  take  place  without 
presupposing  a  very  great  change  in  the  relative 
level  of  land  and  water.  And  yet,  perhaps,  there 
is  no  region  of  the  earth  which  bears  such  unmis- 
takable evidence  that  the  mountains  were  once 
"  moulded  in  ice,"  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  at 
this  time;  none  which  shows  such  wide-spread 
denudation  and  such  deep  accumulations  of  detrital 
materials.  On  the  plains  of  Los  Angeles  they 
reach  300  feet  in  depth,  and  at  Table  Mountain,  as 
before  shown,  200  feet,  with  a  denudation  of  2,000 
feet.  In  this  tremendous  erosive  action  nature  has 
broken  up,  pulverized,  and  assorted  those  mate- 
rials charged  with  gold,  constituting  "  placer  "  or 
"  gulch  diggings,"  and  thereby  relieved  man  of  an 
infinitude  of  toil  in  gathering  the  precious  metal. 

In  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California,  according 
to  Gabb,  there  are  extensive  deposits  of  gravels  in  a 
horizontal  position,  filling  or  bordering  on  all  the 
valleys,  capped  by  porphyries  and  other  volcanic 
rocks,  one  hundred  or  more  feet  in  thickness,  and 
extending  over  immense  areas. 

The  great  canons  of  the  Colorado,  forming 
gorges  from  3,000  to  6,000  feet  in  depth,  amid 
whose  intricacies  the  traveler  is  liable  to  become 
almost  hopelessly  involved,  are  regarded  by  New- 
berry,  as  belonging  to  this  vast  system  of  erosion, 


340  GEOLOGY. 

and  wholly  due  to  the  action  of  water.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  we  see,  for  instance,  along  the 
rock-bound  coast  of  Lake  Superior,  upon  which 
the  waves  have  dashed  for  thousands  of  years,  the 
most  delicate  etchings  on  the  rocks  perfectly  pre- 
served, we  confess  that,  in  running  water,  we  fail 
to  recognize  an  adequate  cause  to  account  for  the 
excavation  of  these  profound  gorges;  and  although 
the  geologist,  like  the  actor,  should  ever  have  in 
mind  the  advice  of  Horace, 

"  nee  Deus  intersit 
Nisi  vindice  nodus," 

yet  here  is  an  instance  in  which,  we  think,  the 
Fire-God  may  be  properly  invoked,  and  to  his 
interposition,  these  tremendous  events  may  be,  in 
part,  ascribed, —  or  in  other  words,  that  the  form 
and  outline  of  these  chasms  were  first  determined 
by  plutonic  agency.  Every  explorer  describes 
the  heavy  accumulations  of  volcanic  matter  which 
cover  the  most  superficial  materials  in  the  elevated 
region  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Colorado 
Desert,  and  in  fact  throughout  the  entire  range  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 

It  would  thus  seem  that  while  aqueous  causes 
were  in  full  activity  over  all  these  regions,  igneous 
causes  exhibited  an  activity  equally  conspicuous. 

Anticipating  the  order  of  succession,  it  may  be 


RECENT    DESSICATION.  34! 

stated  that  almost  every  where  in  the  Great  Basin, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  Colorado  Plateau, 
there  are  observed  the  evidences,  within  a  recent 
period,  of  a  climate  much  more  humid,  and  of  a 
soil  much  more  fruitful  than  now  prevail.  On 
some  of  the  mountain  sides  are  seen  yet  standing, 
considerable  tracts  of  dead  forests;  the  borders  of 
the  lakes  and  streams  show  water-lines  two  and 
three  hundred  feet  above  their  present  levels;  allu- 
vial bottoms,  now  bare  and  desolate,  contain  the 
entombed  remains  of  a  luxuriant  arborescent  vege- 
tation; canons  which  must  have  been  the  channels 
of  abundant  streams,  are  either  dry,  or  discharge 
an  insignificant  flood;  springs  originating  in  the 
melting  snows  are  absorbed  as  soon  as  they  reach 
the  thirsty  plain;  and  in  certain  parts  are  the 
remains  of  populous  towns,  where  now  it  would 
be  difficult  for  man  to  eke  out  a  subsistence.  All 
these  phenomena  attest  that  this  wide-spread  deso- 
lation is  of  extremely  recent  origin,  but  for  which 
it  is  difficult  to  offer  a  satisfactory  solution.  With 
the  relative  area  of  land  and  water  as  at  present 
maintained,  we  must  suppose  that  the  conditions 
of  climate  have  remained  constant;  but  with  a 
depression  of  the  country  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
admit  of  the  flow  of  the  ocean  through  the  Col- 
orado Desert  to  the  rim  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  if 
we  suppose  that  throughout  this  basin  there  existed 


342  GEOLOGY. 

a  series  of  lakes  two  and  three  hundred  feet  in 
depth,  we  can  conceive  that  the  climate  would  be 
essentially  modified.  No  currents  of  air  would 
arise  from  a  heated  expanse  to  dissipate  every 
forming  cloud;  evaporation  from  large  surfaces  of 
water  would  reduce  the  temperature  and  moisten 
the  atmosphere;  and  trees,  clothing  the  slopes  of 
the  hills,  would  shade  the  fountains  and  render 
them  perennial.  We  are  disposed  to  believe, 
therefore,  that  the  volcanic  action,  of  which  Mount 
Shasta  is  but  an  example,  combined,  perhaps,  with 
a  gradual  elevatory  movement  exerted  within  the 
historic  period,  has  so  far  changed  the  relative 
level  of  land  and  sea  as  to  produce  this  dimin- 
ished moisture. 

Terraces  of  Modified  Drift. — Loess. —  If  we  ex- 
amine the  shores  of  our  Great  Lakes,  we  find  them 
bounded  at  intervals  by  stair-like  ridges  known  as 
terraces,  often  three  in  number,  the  uppermost 
attaining,  as  at  Mackinac,  an  elevation  of  one  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  present  water-level,  and  a  still 
higher  elevation  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior. 
The  same  appearances  are  observed  in  the  prin- 
cipal river-valleys.  We  here  find  ordinarily  an 
ancient  Drift-terrace  indenting  the  hills,  next  a 
terrace  of  Modified  Drift,  and  at  last  the  Alluvial 


TERRACES. 


343 


Bottom  which  is  often  ridged  with  numerous  steps, 
indicating  successive  levels  in  the  river-channel. 

These  phenomena  are  represented  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  subjoined 


SECTION   OF   A   RIVER  VALLEY. 


1  2  3  3 

I.  ANCIENT  DRIFT.  2.  MODIFIED  VALLEY  DRIFT. 

3.  ALLUVIAL  BOTTOM. 

These  terraces  would  indicate  a  gradual  emerg- 
ence of  the  land  from  the  ocean,  with  sufficient 
pauses  in  the  movement  to  admit  of  their  forma- 
tion. When  we  consider  the  topographical  fea- 
tures of  the  country,  it  is  evident  that,  during  this 
emergence,  the  relative  area  of  land  and  water 
throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley,  must  have  varied 
very  much,  and  have  been  far  different  from  what 
we  now  behold.  But  the  terraces  along  the  Great 
Lakes  do  not  represent  the  whole  emergence. 
Observations  on  the  raised  beaches,  both  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Slope,  indicate  that  the  sub- 
mergence was  not  less  than  2,000  feet,  which  would 
be  sufficient  to  cover  the  great  plateau  in  which 
the  four  great  rivers,  the  Mississippi,  the  Saskatch- 


344  GEOLOGY. 

awan,  the  Mackenzie,  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  have 
a  common  source,  though  flowing  in  different  direc- 
tions, and  to  create  an  open  sea  between  the  Arctic 
Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  When  we  exam- 
ine the  structure  of  the  terraces  and  bluffs,  we  find 
that,  in  northern  latitudes  above  the  parallel  38°, 
and  where  the  Drift-action  is  conspicuous,  they  are 
made  up  of  beds  of  gravel  and  sand  rudely  strati- 
fied, the  pebbles  for  the  most  part  of  foreign  origin, 
with  large  angular  blocks  from  the  vicinage,  indi- 
cating that  the  ice-action  had  not  altogether  ceased. 

In  lower  latitudes,  and  along  the  Upper  Mis- 
souri, remote  from  the  Drift-influence,  the  bluffs  of 
the  great  rivers  consist  of  a  yellowish  loam,  almost 
impalpable  in  its  divisions,  and  resembling  the 
Loess  of  the  Rhine, —  a  term  which  Western  Geolo- 
gists are  disposed  to  naturalize. 

LOESS,  OR  BLUFF  FORMATION, — The  Loess,  as 
observed  by  Hayden  on  the  Missouri,  commences 
at  about  the  foot  of  the  Great  Bend  (latitude  44°), 
and  continues  thence  with  occasional  interruptions 
to  its  mouth.  At  Council  Bluffs  and  Sioux  City, 
in  Iowa,  it  forms  a  conspicuous  feature  in  the  land- 
scape, and  in  its  thickness  is  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet.  This  deposit  is  not  restricted  to  the 
main  valley,  but  lines  the  valleys  of  very  many  of 
the  principal  affluents.  It  is  for  the  most  part 
devoid  of  stratification,  and  the  enclosed  remains 


SAND-DUNES.  345 

of  shells  are  all  of  fresh-water  origin,  and  belong 
to  existing  species.  The  remains  of  Mammalia, 
however,  such  as  the  mastodon,  peccary,  horse, 
lion,  musk-ox,  etc.,  belong  to  extinct  species,  thus 
showing  that  the  fresh-water  fauna  survived 
changes  which  were  fatal  to  many  of  the  air- 
breathing  animals. 

Swallow,  in  his  Survey  of  Missouri,  was  the  first 
to  recognize  this  deposit  in  all  its  importance,  and 
gave  it  the  distinctive  name  of  the  "  Bluff  Forma- 
tion." 

On  the  Lower  Mississippi  it  is  well  developed, 
extending  from  above  the  junction  of  the  Missouri 
to  its  delta.  In  the  river  counties  of  the  State  of 
Mississippi,  according  to  Hilgard,  it  occupies  a 
belt  ten  .to  fifteen  miles  in  width,  and  in  places  is 
seventy  feet  thick,  running  parallel  with  the  stream. 
In  its  lithological  character,  it  resembles  that  of 
the  Upper  Mississippi  and  Missouri,  being  a  fine, 
silicious  loam  of  a  buff  color. 

The  loess  is  undoubtedly  a  lacustrine  formation, 
and  to  account  for  its  present  level  we  must  pre- 
suppose an  elevation  of  the  land  to  an  extent  of  at 
least  two  hundred  feet. 

SAND-DUNES. — As  among  the  phenomena  of  the 
Post-Pliocine  epoch,  for  it  was  one  of  long  continu- 
ance, may  be  included  the  Sand-dunes  which  often 
form  conspicuous  landmarks  along  the  eastern  shore 


346  GEOLOGY. 

of  Lake  Michigan.  They  consist  of  irregular  heaps 
of  sand  which  have  been  accumulated  by  the  winds 
blowing  in  a  certain  direction,  and  upon  specific 
shores.  Hence,  their  accumulation  is  confined, 
almost  exclusively,  to  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
lake. 

In  many  countries  these  dunes  exercise  an  impor- 
tant influence  on  the  national  industry.  Holland 
owes  its  prosperity  to  the  shelter  which  they  afford 
to  navigation,  by  forming  a  natural  barrier  against 
the  sea;  whereas,  in  other  countries,  they  are 
dreaded  on  account  of  their  encroachments  on  the 
cultivable  land. 

The  dunes  of  Cape  Cod  rarely  exceed  eighty 
feet  in  height;  and  there,  perhaps,  they  are  as  con- 
spicuously developed  as  upon  any  portion  of  the 
Atlantic  Coast.  The  dunes  on  this  inland  sheet 
of  water  are  equally  high,  and  even  higher, —  ex- 
ceeding, in  some  places,  one  hundred  feet.  It  is 
generally  found,  too,  that  they  assume  a  lee  and 
strike  side, —  the  gentle  and  long  slope  being  to 
the  windward,  and  the  steep  acclivity  towards  the 
sheltered  position.  The  Sleeping  Bear  and  Pointe 
Aux  Chenes,  near  the  foot  of  Lake  Michigan,  are 
conspicuous  examples  of  these  dune-like  forma- 
tions,— while  at  the  head,  at  New  Buffalo  and 
Michigan  City,  they  are  equally  conspicuous. 
Sand-ridges  extend  from  the  head  of  the  lake  far 


SAND-DUNES.  347 

into  the  interior,  as  far  even  as  Tippecanoe,  Indiana, 
having  great  uniformity  in  direction,  and  resem- 
bling what  the  Swedish  geologists  denominate 
osars. 

In  searching  for  the  origin  of  these  silicious 
materials,  it  may  be  asserted  that  the  rivers  which 
enter  the  lake,  transport  at  this  day  only  line,  argil- 
laceous sediments,  and,  therefore,  their  accumula- 
tion is  not  due  to  existing  causes.  The  Potsdam 
sandstone  which  skirts  the  southern  flanks  of  the 
Azoic  system  of  Lake  Superior,  is  a  slightly-cohe- 
rent rock,  which  must  have  been  powerfully  acted 
on  during  the  denuding  agency  of  the  Drift-epoch; 
and  it  is  to  this  source  that  we  may  look  for  the 
origin  of  these  materials.  As  to  the  mode  of  their 
accumulation,  it  may  be  said,  that  the  waves,  in 
positions  where  the  winds  have  full  sweep,  car- 
rying the  suspended  particles,  strike  the  shore 
with  a  momentum  greater  than  the  recoil,  which 
admits  of  a  deposit  of  the  materials  held  in  suspen- 
sion. Thus  each  wave,  as  it  expands  itself  upon 
a  shelving  beach,  makes  a  deposit  of  sand.  After 
the  waves  have  delivered  their  freight  upon  the 
shore,  it  is  taken  up  by  the  winds.  The  particles 
of  sand  drifted  inland,  are  subject  to  the  same  laws 
which  control  the  drifting  of  snow.  The  strike- 
side  of  a  dune  is  an  inclined  plane,  with  an  inclina- 
tion not  to  exceed  5°  or  10°,  up  which  the  sand  is 


34$  GEOLOGY. 

driven,  while  the  lee  side  may  exhibit  an  angle  of 
30°.  Wherever  there  occurs  an  obstacle  like  a 
tree  or  a  rock,  a  deposit  is  made,  and  this  process 
goes  on  until  the  general  level  of  the  obstacle  is 
attained.  As  the  wind  shifts,  particles  are  borne  in 
a  different  direction,  so  that,  instead  of  a  continu- 
ous bank,  the  sands  are  generally  arranged  in  a 
series  of  conical  hills. 

All  dunes  are  found  to  be  moist  to  within  a  few 
feet  of  the  surface,  as  though  derived  from  capil- 
lary attraction,  and,  hence,  they  become  clothed 
with  an  appropriate  vegetation,  of  which  the  pine- 
tribe  is  the  most  conspicuous.  The  slopes  present 
the  same  ripple-marked  surface  observable  on  a 
shelving  shore,  which  is  the  result  of  the  assort- 
ing of  the  materials  according  to  their  specific 
gravity, —  the  lighter  portions  forming  the  crests, 
and  the  heavier  the  troughs. 

Between  the  parallel  ridges  which,  as  before  re- 
marked, extend  far  inland,  and  have  become  clothed 
mainly  with  pines  and  aspens,  ponds  have  been 
formed,  which,  from  their  sheltered  position  and 
slight  currents,  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  peat-producing  plants,  such  as  the  sphagnous 
mosses,  and  of  the  order  Nymphceacece,  etc. 

The  ancient  channel  by  which  a  portion  of  the 
waters  of  the  Upper  Lakes  was  formerly  discharged 


THE    GREAT    LAKES.  349 

into  the  Mississippi  through  the  Illinois  River,  is 
clearly  indicated. 

THE  GREAT  LAKES. 

Drift- Phenomena. — The  Great  Lakes,  whether 
we  consider  their  area,  depth,  or  the  facilities  for 
inter-communication  which  they  afford  to  the  inte- 
rior of  the  Continent,  form,  one  of  the  grandest 
features  in  the  geography  of  North  America. 
They  may  have  existed  from  a  remote  geological 
epoch,  as  longitudinal  valleys,  determined  by  the 
different  systems  of  mountain  chains;  but  that  their 
respective  areas  were  greatly  modified  and  enlarged 
during  the  Drift-epoch,  admits  of  no  doubt, —  for  all 
along  their  shores,  the  rocks  where  sufficiently 
firm  to  retain  the  markings,  have  been  planed 
down,  grooved,  and  striated,  by  a  tremendous  force 
which  appears  to  have  operated  over  the  entire 
area  of  their  connected  basins.  This  planing  pro- 
cess was  not  restricted  to  the  subjacent  rocks,  for  at 
Marquette,  and  at  other  points  on  Lake  Superior, 
may  be  seen  mural  faces^of  highly-metamorphosed 
slates  which  have  been  polished  and  grooved  by 
a  force  acting  longitudinally,  and  Newberry  has 
observed  similar  markings  on  the  limestone  cliffs 
of  Lake  Erie. 

The  grandest  exhibition  of  the  Drift-phenomena 


350  GEOLOGY. 

which  it  has  been  my  fortune  to  observe,  occurs  on 
the  southern  coast  of  Lake  Superior,  between 
Granite  Point  and  Dead  River.  The  rocks, —  a 
tough  feldspathic  porphyry,  almost  indestructi- 
ble,—  are  not  only  simply  polished,  but  some  of 
the  grooves  are  four  feet  wide  and  two  feet  deep, 
with  all  the  markings  as  sharp  as  though  done  but 
yesterday  by  some  great  planing-machine.  Here 
are  two  sets  of  striae,  one  running  north  and  south, 
and  the  other  north  20°  east,  south  20°  west.  Ex- 
amples of  this  character,  nearly  equally  conspicu- 
ous, are  to  be  seen  in  the  limestone  surfaces  at 
Sandusky  and  Buffalo. 

Denudation. — That  there  was  a  wide-spread 
denudation  of  the  lake-beds  during  the  Drift- 
epoch,  as  before  suggested,  admits  of  no  doubt. 

Lake  Superior  occupies  an  immense  depression, 
which  has,  for  the  most  part,  been  excavated  out  of 
the  Potsdam  sandstone,  and  a  few  islands  of  this 
material,  like  Caribou,  Maple,  Parisien,  and  the 
Apostles,  have  escaped  the  general  ruin.  The  out- 
lines of  its  shores  have  been  mainly  determined 
by  the  presence  of  the  igneous  rocks  which  opposed 
an  effectual  barrier  to  the  glacial  action.  The  con- 
figuration of  Keweenaw  Point  is  due  to  a  trappean 
range  which  juts  far  into  the  lake;  and  the  fiord- 
like  character  of  much  of  the  Northern  Shore  and 


THE    GREAT    LAKES.  351 

Isle  Royale,  results  from  banded  trap '  of  unequal 
hardness  and  firmness,  which  opposed  an  unequal 
resistance  to  the  denuding  process. 

The  basins  of  the  two  great  lakes,  Michigan  and 
Huron,  and  this  observation  will  apply  to  Erie  and 
Ontario,  appear  to  have  been  excavated  out  of  that 
series  of  rocks  included  between  the  Niagara  lime- 
stone and  the  Portage  and  Chemung  groups,  con- 
sisting of  the  Onondaga  salt-group,  the  Coniferous 
limestone,  and  the  Hamilton  and  Marcellus  shales, 
which  are  slaty,  or  slightly-coherent  in  structure, 
and,  therefore,  little  fitted  to  withstand  denudation. 
The  Niagara  limestone,  as  before  shown,  is  a 
firm  and  comparatively  indestructible  rock,  which 
stretches  in  an  almost  unbroken  belt  from  the  Great 
Falls  to  the  head  of  Lake  Michigan,  giving  con- 
figuration to  the  whole  northern  shore  of  Lake 
Huron,  and  the  western  shore  of  the  former  lake. 
Green  Bay  is  excavated  in  the  soft,  marly  shales 
of  the  Cincinnati  Blue  limestone. 

Their  Area  and  Elevation. — The  combined 
area  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  approximately  estimated 
to  exceed  90,000  square  miles,  and  the  depression 
in  most  of  them  is  sufficiently  profound  to  reach 
below  the  sea-bed.  The  following  table,  though 
not  strictly  accurate,  is  believed  to  embrace  their 
principal  features. 


352 


GEOLOGY. 


TABLE— SHOWING    THE  AREA,    DEPTH,   AND  ELEVA- 
TION OF  THE  GREA  T  LAKES. 


THE  GREAT  LAKES. 

GREATEST 
LENGTH. 

MILES. 

GREATEST 
BKEADT11. 
MILES. 

GREATEST 
DEI'TII. 
FEET. 

HEIGHT 
ABOVE 
SEA. 
FEET. 

W    • 

•<     5  ^ 

HZ*  « 

*  ~  3.d 
<     at? 

to  * 

SUPERIOR,     -     - 

355 

160 

9OO 

605 

32,000 

MICHIGAN,    -    - 

310 

84 

6OO 

583 

22,000 

HURON,    -    -    - 

168 

1  20 

6dO  ? 

578 

20,400 

ERIE,  -    -    -    - 

246 

60 

300 

564 

9,600 

ONTARIO,      -    - 

190 

50 

800 

233 

6.300 

TOTAL  AREA,      --------        90,300 

Col.  Whittlesey,  who  has  studied  the  regimen  of 
these  lakes  more  thoroughly,  perhaps,  than  any 
other  physicist,  has  kindly  furnished  me  with  the 
following  notes: 

"It  is  not  practicable  to  fix  the  elevation  of  the  surface  of 
these  lakes,  until  their  mean  fluctuation  is  known.  The 
results  I  propose  to  give,  are,  therefore,  only  approximate. 

"  From  observations  made  on  Lake  Erie  since  the  year  1796, 
an  extreme  though  transient  change  of  level  is  known,  amount- 
ing to  seven  feet,  and  a  secular  or  permanent  change  of  five 
feet.  Of  the  variations  on  Lake  Huron  little  is  known.  Obsei"- 
vations  on  Lake  Michigan  have  been  made  with  great  care, 
but  they  cover  only  a  few  years  of  time.  An  extreme  fluctua- 
tion of  six  feet  has  been  observed. 

"On  Lake  Superior,  the  greatest  known  range  of  level  is 
three  feet,  with  indications  of  a  much  greater  range.  Lake 
Ontario  has  a  variation  of  four  feet  nine  inches,  well  deter- 
mined by  water-registers,  since  the  year  1812. 

"  The  Surveys  of  the  Upper  Lakes,  by  the  United  States 


THE    GREAT    LAKES.  353 

Government,  now  in  progress,  will  eventually  fix  the  mean 
level  of  all  the  lakes,  by  observations  which  are  made  twice 
each  day. 

"  For  present  use,  I  give  the  mean  results  of  instrumental 
surveys  between  tide-water  and  the  lakes,  and  between  the 
different  lakes. 

"  Before  doing  this  I  must  remark,  that  in  none  of  them  is 
the  stage  of  water  noted,  whether  above  or  below  the  mean. 
There  is,  therefore,  room  for  a  plus  or  minus  error  of  two  or 
three  feet,  when  referred  to  a  place  which  shall  be  fixed  upon 
as  the  mean  level  of  each  lake.  There  is  also  another  ground 
of  error.  The  lakes  are  not  strictly  level,  but  have  an  inclina- 
tion or  descent  towards  their  outlets,  though  this  may  be  small 
and  in  part  corrected  by  the  action  of  winds. 

"  To  fix  the  elevation  of  the  lakes,  I  begin  at  those  nearest 
the  sea,  to  which  instrumental  surveys  have  been  made.  The 
Upper  Lakes  are  not  thus  connected  by  direct  lines,  but  their 
height  above  tide  is  determined  by  reference  to  those  below. 

"  There  is  quite  a  discrepancy  in  the  results  which  can  be 
accounted  for 'as  I  have  above  stated. 

LAKE    ONTARIO. 

"By  lockage  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Canals,  above  mean  tide,  234^  feet. 
By  Canal  Surveys  of  New  York,  above  mean  tide,  -  -  232  " 

Mean  elevation,       -----___        233^  feet. 

LAKE   ERIE. 

By  Canal  Survey  of  New  York,  1817,        ....  561. 20  feet. 

By  Capt.  Williams's  Report  ot  1834,  Niagara  Ship-Canal,  563.00    " 

By  Surveys  of  Catskill  and  Portland  Railway,  1828,  565-33    " 

By  locks  of  New  York  Canal,     ------  567.00    " 

Mean,  .........        564.13  feet. 

LAKE   HURON. 

S.  W.  Higgins,  (Geological  Report  of  Michigan,  1838),  -  577  feet. 
A.  Murray,  (Geological  Report  of  Canada,  1849),  -  -  S7§  " 

Mean, 577$  feet. 

Lake  St.  Clair,  (Geological  Report  of  Michigan),     -        -        570     " 

23 


354  GEOLOGY. 


LAKE    MICHIGAN. 

Michigan  Southern  Railway,  J.  H.  Sargent,  Engineer,  sur- 
vey of  1856,  south   end,         ......     583    feet. 

LAKE    SUPERIOR. 

By  Capt.  Bayfield's  Barometical  Measurements  in  1824,  627 

feet,  evidently  too  great. 
A.  Murray's  determination,  (Geological  Survey  of  Canada, 

1849),  599-41  fget5  sav     -------    600    feet. 

Survey  of  Bay  de  Noquets  and  Marquette  Railroad,  1859,     610      " 

Mean,          ..-.-....-    605      "  " 
RESUME. 

It  is  deemed  needless  to  enter  further  into  the 
physical  history  of  the  revolutions  of  the  earth's 
surface,  as  attested  by  these  geological  monuments, 
which  reach  back  to  the  dawn  of  organic  life. 
While  to  some  they  may  indicate  the  reign  of 
waste  and  chaos,  yet,  throughout  all  these  phases, 
we  can  detect  design;  —  in  the  concentration  of 
the  useful  metals  in  veins  and  beds;  in  the  storing 
away  of  vast  supplies  of  fossil  fuel;  in  the  consoli- 
dation and  upheaval  of  the  strata,  giving  relief  and 
depression  to  the  surface;  in  their  subsequent  ero- 
sion and  dispersion  to  form  soil;  and  in  all  the 
changes  which  these  material  elements  have  under- 
gone;—  a  design  to  fit  the  earth  for  the  habitation 
of  man,  and  to  afford  him  useful  materials  for  the 
exercise  of  his  industry,  and  the  promotion  of  his 
comforts  and  conveniences. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

INFLUENCE    OF    CLIMATE    ON    MAN. 

GEOGRAPHICAL    RANGE    OF   MAN,    AS  COMPARED  WITH  THAT  OP 

PLANTS CONDITIONS    OF    HUMAN     LIFE    UNDER     DIFFERENT 

ZONES ARCTIC  LIFE TROPICAL  LIFE LIFE  IN  NORTHERN 

TEMPERATE     ZONE  HUMAN     ENERGY     DISPLAYED    WITHIN 

CERTAIN      ISOTHERMAL      LINES IN      EUROPE IN      NORTH 

AMERICA CLIMATE    OF   THE     SOUTHERN    STATES    AND    THE 

CONDITION      OF      SOCIETY CLIMATE      OF      THE      NORTHERN 

STATES     AND     THE     CONDITION     OF     SOCIETY EFFECTS    OF 

THESE    DIFFERENCES     SEEN    IN    THE    REBELLION PHYSICAL 

DEVELOPMENT. 

Geographical  Range  of  Man. —  Every  living 
organism,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  has  a  cer- 
tain geographical  range  which  is  determined  by 
the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate.  Within  a  par- 
ticular zone,  certain  animal  and  vegetable  forms 
attain  their  full  development,  but  deteriorate  when 
transferred  to  a  different  zone.  Man  is  not  an 
exception  to  this  great  law,  and  "  the  same  influ- 
ences which  keep  the  smallest  moss-plant  to  its 
rock,  bind  man  to  his  mountain  side  or  valley."  * 

*  Johnson.     "Physical  Atlas." 


356  CLIMATE    ON   MAN. 

These  influences  are  less  apparent  when  traced 
along  a  line  of  latitude  than  along  a  line  of  longi- 
tude, for  the  reason  that  the  conditions  of  climate 
are  less  abrupt.  It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  it 
is  only  under  peculiarly  favorable  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate,  and  embracing  only  a  limited  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface,  that  man  has  developed,  to 
the  full  extent,  his  physical  and  intellectual  vigor. 

Man  is  by  nature,  perhaps,  the  weakest  and  most 
defenceless  of  the  Mammalia.  For  a  long  time  after 
birth,  he  draws  his  nutrition  from  the  mother,  and 
it  is  a  long  time  before  he  acquires  the  ability  to 
walk.  His  food  must  be  artificially  prepared  and  his 
body  artificially  clothed.  Other  animals  surpass 
him  in  keenness  of  vision,  in  rapidity  of  movement, 
in  strength,  and,  in  fact,  in  the  acuteness  of  most  of 
the  senses.  But  he  is  endowed  with  reason,  by  the 
exercise  of  which  he  can  make  up  for  all  these  defi- 
ciencies, can  repel  or  subdue  all  other  animals,  and 
make  them  subservient  to  his  use.  He  can  clothe 
himself  to  endure  the  rigors  of  an  Arctic  winter, 
and  can  shield  himself  from  the  burning  rays  of  a 
tropical  sun;  he  can  lay  up  a  stock  of  provisions 
in  one  quarter  of  the  globe  to  be  consumed  in 
another;  and,  in  fact,  at  this  day,  the  intellectual 
man,  so  intimate  are  his  commercial  relations,  com- 
mands the  luxuries  of  every  climate.  Other  ani- 
mals live  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  region 


NATIONAL    IDIOSYNCRACIES.  357 

which  affords  them  the  means  of  subsistence,  and 
hence  their  migrations  are  determined  by  this 
cause. 

While,  therefore,  the  range  of  man  is  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  organism,  whether  vegetable 
or  animal;  yet,  outside  of  certain  lines  of  tempera- 
ture, that  range  is  at  the  expense  of  his  physical 
and  mental  powers.  At  one  extreme,  he  becomes 
effeminate  and  incapable  of  vigorous  and  pro- 
longed exertion;  at  the  other,  he  becomes  dwarfed 
in  stature,  and  so  unremitting  are  the  exertions 
required  to  procure  the  means  of  subsistence,  that 
his  animal  propensities  are  developed  at  the  ex- 
pense of  his  intellectual,  and  his  instincts  become 
little  exalted  above  those  of  the  beast  of  prey. 
In  the  region,  however,  embracing  the  happy  mean, 
where  the  climate  is  such  as  to  invigorate  the  sys- 
tem, and  nature  is  so  far  genial  as  to  require  the 
appropriation  of  a  part  of  his  time  only  to  secure 
the  means  of  support,  leaving  a  portion  to  be 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  intellect,  man 
attains  his  full  physical  and  intellectual  develop- 
ment; and  here  we  meet  with  that  system  of  arti- 
ficial wants  and  refinements  which  is  peculiarly 
the  offspring  of  a  high  civilization.  External 
nature,  also,  undoubtedly  moulds  the  character  of 
the  individual  and  determines  the  idiosyncracies  of 
a  people.  So  intimate  is  this  relation  that  man 


35 8  CLIMATE    ON    MAN. 

"Becomes 

Portion  of  that  around  him  ;  and  to  him 
The  mountains  are  a  feeling." 

The  Swiss  villagers,  brought  up  beneath  the 
shadow  of  the  Alps,  must  have  far  loftier  ideas  of 
the  grandeur  of  the  universe  than  the  Bushmen  of 
the  Cape,  who  are  so  degraded  that  they  can  not 
even  build  huts,  —  "  the  burning  sky  being  their 
canopy,  and  the  scorching  sand  their  bed."  In 
ever}'  age,  the  Swiss  have  been  noted  for  their  love 
of  liberty,  and  among  all  the  partitions  of  Europe, 
they  have  been  able  to  preserve  their  national 
independence.  While  such  traits  have,  with  them, 
remained  constant  through  many  generations,  it  is 
probable  that  the  traits  of  the  Bushmen  have  been 
equally  constant,  and  that  it  would  require  a  sys- 
tem of  training  persevered  in  for  generations,  to 
lift  them  out  of  their  degradation,  and  bring  them 
to  realize  their  true  position  in  the  scale  of  cre- 
ation. 

Arctic  Life. — The  Esquimaux,  living  upon  the 
dreary  ridges  or  boundless  ice-fields  which  gird 
the  Arctic  shores,  are  compelled  to  maintain  a  con- 
stant struggle  with  nature  for  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence. The  active  exercise  and  the  out-door 
exposure  which  they  undergo, —  the  thermometer 
often  dropping  to  —  40°, —  is  attended  with  an  enor- 


ARCTIC    LIFE.  359 

mous  loss  of  carbon  in  the  system,  which  must  be 
supplied  by  the  most  concentrated  animal  food.* 

Burrowing  in  their  snow-covered  huts,  and  deriv- 
ing their  artificial  heat  from  oil  burned  in  the  kot- 
luck,  by  which  the  temperature  within  is  raised  to 
+  90°  while  without  it  may  be  —  40°,  with  an 
ample  supply  of  walrus-meat,  the  Esquimaux  re- 
cline, in  puris  naturalibus,  and  realize  the  height 
of  human  felicity. 

But  this  dream  is  of  short  duration.  Soon  they 
are  compelled  to  wander  in  quest  of  their  precari- 
ous food,  and  there  are  long,  dreary  intervals, 
dependent  upon  the  ice-floe,  in  which  they  experi- 
ence the  pangs  of  an  all-consuming  famine.  In 
this  primitive  and  abject  state,  generation  succeeds 
generation,  without  producing  any  elevation  of  the 
race.  A  few  hundred  words  comprise  the  vocabu- 
lary to  express  their  wants,  their  desires,  their 
hopes,  their  aspirations.  The  means  of  multiply- 
ing the  race  are  limited  by  the  austerity  of  the 
climate.  Arts,  laws,  and  society  are  unknown,  and 
the  individual  is  slightly  distinguished  in  intel- 


*  Dr.  Kane  estimates  the  Esquimaux  ration  at  eight  or  ten  pounds 
of  animal  food  a  day,  with  soup  and  water  to  the  extent  of  half  a  gal- 
lon. The  walrus,  the  seal,  and  the  bear,  are  the  staples  of  life ;  and 
it  is  a  matter  of  indifference  to  them  whether  the  flesh  of  the  animals 
be  eaten  cooked,  or  raw.  In  fact,  Arctic  navigators  find  that  the  raw 
walrus-meat  is  a  rare  tit-bit,  and  it  is  the  best  remedy  for  those  scorbutic 
diseases  which,  in  that  region,  result  from  intense  cold  and  the  long 
exclusion  of  the  sun  from  the  heavens.  (Arctic  Expedition.) 


360  CLIMATE    ON    MAN. 

lectual    endowment   above    his    congeners    of  the 
animal  kingdom. 

Tropical  Life. —  In  intertropical  America,  on  the 
other  hand,  so  prodigal  is  nature  of  her  bounties, 
that  man  has  but  slight  incentives  to  labor.  A  few 
posts  driven  into  the  ground,  secured  at  the  tops, 
and  over  all  a  roof  thatched  with  branches  of  the 
palm,  furnish  his  shelter.  The  hammock  is  his 
lounge  by  day,  his  bed  by  night.  An  acre  of  land, 
reclaimed  from  the  forest  and  set  out  with  plain- 
tains,  will,  within  a  few  months,  furnish  the  staple 
of  his  food  for  life.  If  luxuriously  disposed,  he 
may  cultivate  some  beans,  tobacco,  a  few  bushes 
of  coffee  or  pepper,  perhaps  some  Indian  corn,  and 
raise  a  few  chickens.  The  forest  furnishes  him 
with  game,  the  river  with  fish.  He  has  no  strug- 
gle with  nature  for  the  means  of  subsistence;  his 
wants  are  simple,  his  surroundings  primitive. 
Clothing  for  himself  and  family  causes  the  slight- 
est concern  of  all.  Wealth  has  no  attractions, 
ambition  no  incentives.  He  lives  a  life  of  inaction; 
he  dies,  is  forgotten,  and  is  succeeded  by  children 
but  too  well  contented  to  pursue  the  same  routine. 
So  much  for  the  dwellers  in  the  valleys  of  the 
great  rivers  in  the  tropics. 

Upon  the  plains,  the  ranging-ground  of  the  vast 
herds  of  cattle  and  horses,  the  desire  for  ownership 


TROPICAL    LIFE.  361 

in  them  naturally  arises;  but  life  remains  very  much 
the  same.  The  cattle  increase  with  but  slight 
care,  and  wealth  is  still  comparatively  valueless; 
for  when  the  native  has  gained  enough  for  the  pur- 
chase of  the  long  sword  in  its  silver  scabbard,  the 
bit,  stirrups,  and  spurs,  all  of  silver,  and  the  bridle 
and  saddle,  profusely  ornamented  with  silver  dol- 
lars, his  ambition  is  gratified;  and  on  gala  days  he 
appears  well  mounted,  with  embroidered  shirt  flut- 
tering outside  his  other  garments,  his  naked  feet 
adorned  with  the  precious  spurs,  and  thrust  into  the 
equally  precious  stirrups, —  content  to  employ  his 
brief  hour  in  useless  display,  and  then  lay  aside  shirt 
and  ornaments,  for  his  daily  avocation  of  swinging 
in  the  hammock.  The  long,  listless  days  of  sultry 
heat,  pass  away  in  sleeping  and  smoking;  his  habits 
are  irregular, —  now  a  feast,  again  nothing  but 
parched  corn  or  beans.  The  family  occupy  but 
one  room,  shared  also  by  the  passing  traveler. 
All  the  household  implements  are  of  the  rudest 
description,  and  life  is  but  existence  after  all. 

Upon  the  rivers,  during  the  rainy  season,  the  sul- 
triness is  indescribable.  Insects  torment  the  body, 
and  utter  idleness  corrodes  the  mind.  On  the 
return  of  the  dry  season,  with  the  subsidence  of 
the  waters,  and  the  decay  of  the  accumulated  vege- 
table matter  exposed  to  the  sun,  miasma  stalks  up 
and  down  the  valleys  like  an  angry  fiend,  with 


362  CLIMATE    ON   MAN. 

wasting  disease  and  delirious  death  following  in 
his  train.  Thus  the  climate  lays  its  embargo  upon 
the  best-devised  plans  of  man.* 

Life  in  the  Northern  Temperate  Zone. — Eu- 
rope.—  If  we  examine  a  chart  of  the  world  and 
trace  the  isotherms  40°  and  70°  across  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  we  shall  find  that  they  include  China, 
Thibet,  the  region  of  the  Caucasus,  Greece,  Italy, 
that  portion  of  Africa  bordering  the  Mediterra- 
nean which  is  separated  from  the  Desert  by  the 
High  Atlas,  the  Germanic  States,  the  southern 
peninsulas  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  France,  Spain, 
and  the  British  Isles.  Now  it  may  be  confidently 
asserted  that,  within  this  belt,  the  human  form  has 
been  developed  in  all  of  its  perfection,  and  the 
human  intellect  has  put  forth  its  most  vigorous 
manifestations.  Here  has  originated,  almost  with- 
out exception,  every  name  associated  with  great- 
ness, whether  in  art,  literature,  poetry,  painting,  or 
sculpture;  in  fact,  in  all  those  pursuits  which  dig- 
nify and  adorn  life.  Among  the  warriors,  we  find 
Alexander,  Caesar,  Alaric,  Attila,  Charlemagne, 
Charles  XII.,  Frederick  the  Great,  Napoleon,  and 
Wellington:  Among  the  poets,  Homer,  Virgil, 


*  These  notes  on  tropical  life  were  communicated  by  my  old  and 
valued  friend  J.  B.  Austin,  Esq.,  whose  pursuits  have  led  him  to  pass 
many  years  in  that  region. 


TEMPERATE    ZONE.  363 

Dante,  Shakspeare,  Milton,  and  Goethe:  Among 
the  sculptors,  Phydias,  Praxiteles,  Angelo,  and 
Canova:  Among  the  painters,  Raphael,  Reubens, 
Titian,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Turner:  Among 
the  philosophers,  Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Pliny, 
Copernicus,  Galileo,  Bacon,  Kepler,  Newton,  Lieb- 
nitz,  Des  Cartes,  and  Cuvier:  Among  the  orators, 
Demosthenes,  Cicero,  Bourdaloue,  Massillon,  Mira- 
beau,  Chatham,  and  Burke:  Among  the  historians, 
Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Livy,  Tacitus,  Rollin,  Gib- 
bon, Hume,  and  Macaulay:  Among  the  inventors, 
Faust,  Watt,  Hargreaves,  Arkwright,  Cartwright, 
and  Stephenson:  And  among  the  navigators, 
Columbus,  Magellan,  Sebastian  Cabot,  and  Gama. 
In  fact,  what  name  is  there,  illustrious  in  art  or 
science,  whose  birth-place  is  not  to  be  found  within 
this  zone?  The  art  of  printing,  the  mariners'  com- 
pass, and  the  science  of  alchemy  subsequently 
transformed  into  chemistry,  may  have  been  derived 
from  the  East;  but  their  uses  and  applications  were 
developed  by  the  people  of  the  West.  They,  too, 
may  claim  the  invention  of  the  telescope  and  micro- 
scope; the  investigation  of  the  laws  of  heat,  light, 
and  magnetism;  of  the  rotation  of  the  aerial  cur- 
rents; of  the  mathematical  figure  of  the  earth,  and 
the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies;  and,  in  fact, 
of  nearly  all  of  the  great  phenomena  of  the  universe. 
They  invented  the  steam-engine,  the  steam-ship, 


364  CLIMATE    ON   MEN. 

the  power-loom,  the  telegraph,  and  the  railroad; 
they  discovered  and  applied  illuminating  gas,  the 
explosive  properties  of  gunpowder,  and  the  expan- 
sibility of  air  and  water,  as  practically  applied. 
These  are  they  who,  in  the  application  of  the  arts, 
have  done  so  much  to  mitigate  human  suffering, 
and  contribute  to  the  comforts  and  conveniences 
of  man.  These  are  they  who  have  established 
such  close  ties  of  commercial  intercourse  with  the 
whole  habitable  globe,  bringing  the  products  of 
every  clime  within  this  zone  for  consumption  and 
re-distribution.  Every  steam-ship  or  sailing  ves- 
sel, to  whatever  region  she  may  go,  is  owned  here 
and  returns  to  some  port  within  these  lines.  Here 
is  accumulated  capital,  invested  in  manufactures, 
in  mines,  in  railroads,  and  in  navigation.  Here  are 
brought  the  crude  materials  to  undergo  additional 
processes  and  to  receive  an  enhanced  value,  before 
they  are  finally  consumed;  —  the  furs  of  Hudson's 
Bay,  the  wools  of  South  Africa,  the  cotton  of  Egypt 
and  India,  the  copper  of  Chili,  the  gold  of  Aus- 
tralia, the  sperm  of  Behring's  Sea,  and  the  ivory  of 
Africa.  Among  these  nations  alone,  we  find  stable 
governments  for  the  administration  of  justice  and 
the  preservation  of  order.  The  rights  of  life  and 
property  are  adjusted  by  judicial  forms,  and  public 
faith  and  public  credit  are  not  obsolete  virtues. 
How  different  this  social"  economy  from  that  which 


TEMPERATE    ZONE.  365 

prevails  outside  of  this  zone!  And  to  what  cause, 
other  than  climate,  shall  we  attribute  this  differ- 
ence? Even  those  nations  occupying  its  borders, 
have  not  the  methodical  industry,  the  persevering 
application,  or  the  business  capacity  of  those  who 
occupy  a  central  position  in  this  zone.* 

*  This  point  has  been  well  illustrated  by  Buckle,  in  his  "  History 
of  Civilization."  (Vol.  I.,  Chap.  2). 

"Climate  influences  labor  not  only  by  enervating  the  laborer,  or 
invigorating  him,  but  also  by  the  effect  which  it  produces  on  the  regu- 
larity of  his  habits.  Thus  we  find  that  no  people  living  in  a  very 
northern  latitude,  have  ever  possessed  that  steady  and  unflinching 
industry  for  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  temperate  regions  are 
remarkable.  The  reason  for  this  becomes  clear,  when  we  remember 
that  in  the  more  northern  countries,  the  severity  of  the  weather  and, 
at  some  seasons,  the  deficiency  of  light  render  it  impossible  for  the 
people  to  continue  their  out-of-door  employments.  The  result  is  that 
the  working-classes,  being  compelled  to  cease  from  their  ordinary 
pursuits,  are  rendered  more  prone  to  desultory  habits;  the  chain  of 
their  industry  is,  as  it  were,  broken,  and  they  lose  that  impetus  which 
long-continued  and  uninterrupted  practice  never  fails  to  give.  Hence, 
there  arises  a  national  character  more  fitful  and  capricious  than  that 
possessed  by  a  people  whose  climate  permits  the  regular  exercise  of 
their  ordinary  industry.  Indeed,  so  powerful  is  this  principle,  that  we 
may  perceive  its  operation,  even  under  the  most  opposite  circum- 
stances. It  would  be  difficult  to  conceive  a  greater  difference  in  gov- 
ernments, laws,  religion,  and  manners,  than  that  which  distinguishes 
Sweden  and  Norway  on  the  one  hand,  from  Spain  and  Portugal  on 
the  other.  But  these  four  countries  have  one  great  point  in  common. 
In  all  of  them,  continued  agricultural  industry  is  impracticable.  In  the 
two  southern  countries,  labor  is  interrupted  by  heat,  by  the  dryness 
of  the  weather,  and  by  the  consequent  state  of  the  soil.  In  the  two 
northern  countries,  the  same  effect  is  produced  by  the  severity  of  the 
winter  and  the  shortness  of  the  days.  The  consequence  is  that  these 
four  countries,  though  so  different  in  other  respects,  are  all  remark- 
able for  a  certain  instability  and  fickleness  of  character;  presenting  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  more  regular  and  settled  habits  which  are 
established  in  countries  where  climate  subjects  the  working-classes  to 
fewer  interruptions,  and  imposes  on  them  the  necessity  of  a  more 
constant  and  unremitting  employment." 


366  CLIMATE    ON    MAN. 

North  America. — The  same  diversity  in  the 
habits  of  the  people  and  their  business  pursuits,  is 
to  be  found  as  we  trace  the  isotherms  40°  and  70° 
across  the  North  American  Continent.  The  line 
of  40°  mean  temperature  nearly  intersects  Quebec, 
and  thence  strikes  north  of  Lake  Huron  and  the 
extremity  of  Keweenaw  Point,  on  Lake  Superior; 
when,  leaving  that  lake,  it  is  rapidly  deflected 
northwardly  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  reaches 
the  Pacific  Coast  at  or  near  Sitka.  The  line  of 
70°  mean  temperature,  starts  on  the  Florida  Coast 
below  latitude  30°;  ranges  along  the  northern 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is  protracted 
west  until  it  strikes  the  highlands  of  New  Mexico; 
when  it  curves  rapidly  north  as  high  as  latitude 
35°;  then  it  curves  south,  crossing  above  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  strikes  the  Pacific 
about  latitude  30°. 

The  region  of  the  British  Possessions,  north  of 
the  isotherm  40°,  is  doomed  to  everlasting  sterility. 
Its  only  available  wealth  is  its  fur-bearing  animals; 
its  only  inhabitants,  apart  from  the  Indians,  are  rov- 
ing bands  of  trappers, —  the  employes  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Fur-Company.  It  has  no  villages,  except 
what  are  called  Fur-Factories,  which  are  depots 
for  receiving  and  forwarding  supplies.  Nature  is 
every  where  so  inhospitable  that  there  is  no  induce- 
ment to  exercise  that  methodical  industry,  charac- 


NORTHERN   ZONE.  367 

teristic  of  a  more  temperate  climate.  At  Quebec, 
even,  the  business  of  the  year  is  compressed  within 
the  short  summer  of  ninety  or  one  hundred  days, 
succeeded  by  a  long  winter  which,  to  the  inhabi- 
tants is  a  period  of  listless  inactivity,  when  all  the 
streams  are  bridged  with  ice,  and  the  highways  are 
obstructed  by  deep  snows.  An  embargo  is  laid 
upon  every  thing.  No  rivers,  no  ships,  no  animals 
are  to  be  seen,  but  an  unbroken  sheet  of  snow 
prevails,  except  where  the  forests  and  houses 
break  the  monotony.  But  this  climate  has  its 
compensations.  To  the  inhabitants,  winter  is  the 
carnival  season.  They  sally  forth  with  horse  and 
cariole,  well  protected  from  the  frosty  air  by  ample 
buffalo  robes,  and  drive  over  the  snowy  plain, 
where  the  course  is  indicated  by  pine  branches, 
stuck  up  at  frequent  intervals.  The  long  winter 
evenings  are  given  up  to  social  amusements,  often 
enlivened  by  the  dance,  and  every  one  considers 
it  a  duty  to  contribute  something  to  break  the 
otherwise  listless  tedium.  In  April  the  streams 
are  unloosed,  and  the  St.  Lawrence  is  filled  with 
floating  masses  of  ice,  freighted  with  fragments  of 
earth  and  rock  gathered  from  its  upper  source. 
Business  is  at  once  resumed  with  an  activity  which 
indicates  an  awakening  from  a  long  hybernation. 


368  CLIMATE    ON    MAN. 

Social  Organization  of  the  Southern  States. — 
Directing  our  attention  to  the  southern  portion  of 
this  zone,  embracing  what  are  known  as  the  Plant- 
ing States,  we  find  that,  before  the  Rebellion,  a  far 
different  social  organization  prevailed  from  that 
characteristic  of  the  Northern,  Middle,  and  West- 
ern States.  The  climate  is,  during  the  summer,  so 
hot  and  enervating,  that  it  is  shunned  by  the 
stranger  of  European  descent,  and  even  the  accli- 
mated planter  would  fain  seek  the  cool  and  invig- 
orating breezes  of  the  north.  The  whole  white 
population  were  averse  to  out-door  labor,  believing 
it  ignoble;  nor  did  they  exhibit  any  aptitude  for 
those  mechanical  and  manufacturing  pursuits  which 
form  so  important  an  item  in  the  industry  of  more 
temperate  climes.  Although  nature  had  supplied 
a  fruitful  soil,  and  capable  of  producing  those  raw 
materials  which  enter  so  largely  into  commerce 
and  manufactures,  yet  we  find  that  they  were 
exclusively  raised  by  the  physical  exertions  of 
those  who  had  little  or  no  share  in  the  proceeds  of 
sale ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  business  of  convey- 
ing them  to  market  and  converting  them  into  use- 
ful forms,  was  confided  to  strangers. 

Society  was  separated,  by  an  impassable  gulf^ 
into  two  classes, —  the  planter  and  the  slave.  The 
planter  possessed  a  sort  of  suavity  of  manner  that 
passed  for  high  breeding.  He  was  generous  in 


SOCIETY    AT    THE    SOUTH.  369 

his  hospitalities  and  profuse  in  his  expenditures. 
While  exhibiting  a  certain  degree  of  intellectual 
vigor,  he  was  averse  to  that  patient  study  and  that 
continuous  train  of  thought,  by  which  substantial 
results  are  wrought  out;  and  hence,  his  contribu- 
tions to  science  and  literature,  but  above  all,  to 
the  practical  arts  of  life,  have  been  insignificant. 
Possessed  of  an  abundance  of  leisure,  politics  be- 
came to  him  a  source  of  excitement,  and  place  an 
object  of  ambition.  Accustomed  to  rule  over 
slaves,  he  firmly  believed  in  the  miserable  soph- 
ism of  Burke,  that  where  slavery  prevails,  "  those 
who  are  free,  are  far  more  proud  and  jealous  of 
their  freedom;  and  that  the  haughtiness  of  dominion 
combines  with  the  spirit  of  freedom,  fortifies  it,  and 
renders  it  invincible."  This  spirit  was  carried 
into  the  halls  of  national  legislation,  and  its  display 
was  often  offensive  to  the  representatives  of  other 
sections. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  gulf,  was  the  slave 
whom  a  long  course  of  oppression  had  rendered 
docile,  and  wholly  subservient  to  the  will  of  his 
master.  "  His  only  business  was  to  labor,  his  only 
duty  to  obey."  The  negro,  undoubtedly,  is  far  bet- 
ter fitted  for  a  southern  climate  than  the  white 
man.  He  will  toil  beneath  a  hot,  burning  sun, 
when  the  white  man  will  wilt,  or  in  the  rice- 
swamps  of  the  Carolinas,  whose  miasms,  generated 
24 


370  CLIMATE    ON    MAN. 

in  stagnant  waters,  are  shunned  even  by  the  accli- 
mated planter.  Patient  of  toil,  confiding,  and  sus- 
ceptible of  strong  personal  attachments,  with  a  vein, 
too,  of  deep  religious  feeling,  he  has  ever  been  the 
faithful  ally  of  the  white  man,  and  has  manifested 
no  desire  to  strike  out  independent  paths  for  self- 
exertion.  While  the  former  was  restless  under 
imaginary  grievances,  and  plunged  the  country 
into  war  for  the  maintainance  of  a  theoretical  senti- 
ment, the  latter  did  not  repine  under  his  unmiti- 
gated lot;  and,  throughout  the  Rebellion,  with  the 
prospect  of  freedom  within  his  grasp,  in  no  instance 
did  he  turn  upon  his  task-master.  He  organized 
no  conspiracy,  he  committed  no  atrocity,  but  was 
content  to  cultivate  the  field  while  his  master  went 
to  the  war;  and  in  those  instances  where  he  sought 
his  freedom,  it  was  by  flight  to  the  lines  of  the 
invader. 

But  this  system  of  oppression  has  been  swept 
away.  The  negro  is  now  invested  with  citizen- 
ship. He  has  a  voice  in  the  making  of  the  laws 
by  which  he  is  governed.  He  is  free  to  appropri- 
ate the  wealth  which  his  own  industry  creates. 
The  vision  of  the  poet  has  been  realized:. 

"  Their  vines  a  shadow  to  their  race  shall  yield, 
And  the  same  hand  that  sowed,  shall  reap  the  field." 

Let  us  trust  that,  in  the  new  relations  he  assumes, 


SOCIETY    AT    THE    NORTH.  371 

he   will    acquit   himself  as   a  worthy  and   dutiful 
citizen. 

Social  Organization  at  the  North. — Turning 
now  to  the  central  portion  of  this  belt,  embracing 
New  England,  the  Middle,  and  Western  States,  we 
find  society  organized  on  a  basis  of  equality,  with 
far  different  social  and  business  pursuits.  The  peo- 
ple exhibit  methodical  industry,  provident  habits, 
and  a  spirit  to  adopt  and  improve  upon  the  practi- 
cal arts  of  life.  This  spirit  is  manifested  in  accu- 
mulated wealth,  in  inventive  capacity,  in  labor- 
saving  machinery,  and  in  associated  capital  to  carry 
out  gigantic  schemes,  beyond  the  means  of  a 
single  individual  however  opulent.  Their  prac- 
tical benevolence  and  desire  for  improvement,  are 
exemplified  in  the  various  institutions  founded  for 
intellectual  culture  and  for  the  relief  of  the  ills 
incident  to  humanity.  To  labor  is  not  ignoble,  and 
the  climate  is  such  that  while  the  labor  enriches, 
it  does  not  exhaust. 

Here  are  brought  the  crude  materials  of  other 
zones  —  the  products  of  agriculture,  of  the  forests, 
of  the  sea,  and  of  the  mines, —  to  undergo  mechan- 
ical and  chemical  processes  preparatory  to  their 
distribution  and  application  to  human  comforts. 
The  dense  cloud  of  smoke  that  hangs  over  every 
city,  the  ringing  sound  of  the  anvil,  the  loaded 


372  CLIMATE    ON    MAN. 

trains  which  constantly  arrive  and  depart,  and  the 
thronged  streets  where  each  passenger  seems  intent 
on  some  business  errand,  all  indicate  that  a  spirit 
of  restless  activity  pervades  and  permeates  the  mass 
of  inhabitants.  Between  the  prosperous  merchant 
and  the  day-laborer  there  exists  a  great  dispropor- 
tion of  wealth,  but  the  lapse  of  a  single  genera- 
tion ordinarily  scatters  the  most  colossal  fortune. 
Besides,  those  who  possess  such  wealth,  have  been, 
for  the  most  part,  the  architects  of  their  own  for- 
tunes, and  the  same  avenues  through  which  they 
passed,  are  open  to  all. 

This  belt  necessarily  receives  the  -bulk  of  immi- 
gration from  the  Old  World,  which  now  exceeds 
three  hundred  thousand  souls  each  year.  The 
Gulf-Stream  is  not  more  accurately  defined  than 
this  flow  of  human  life.  The  ports  of  this  belt  are 
open  at  all  seasons;  those  of  the  St.  Lawrence  are 
blocked  by  ice  one-half  the  year,  while  those 
of  Charleston,  Norfolk,  and  New  Orleans  are, 
for  an  equal  length  of  time,  scorched  with  heats 
so  oppressive  that  the  immigrant  does  not  care  to 
encounter  them.  Besides,  he  who  has  forsaken 
friends  and  country,  often  with  nothing  to  rely 
upon  but  the  full  possession  of  his  physical  facul- 
ties—  his  ability  to  toil, —  will  naturally  seek  a 
new  home  where  the  climate  is  agreeable,  and 
where  labor  is  honorable.  Hence,  the  South  has 


THE    REBELLION.  373 

heretofore    held  out  few  inducements  to  this  class 
of  population. 

There  is  no  portion  of  the  earth  where  man  is 
so  well  clothed  and  fed,  where  the  rewards  of 
industry  are  so  certain,  and  where  life  and  property 
are  so  secure  as  here;  and  society  may  be  said 
to  have  attained  the  highest  degree  of  perfection. 
Artificial  distinctions,  arising  from  the  accident  of 
birth  or  the  accumulation  of  wealth,  are  not  recog- 
nized; and  the  unrestrained  freedom  of  the  indi- 
vidual, in  the  exercise  of  his  physical  and  intel- 
lectual powers  in  a  manner  not  inconsistent  with 
the  public  welfare,  is  amply  secured. 

Effect  of  these  Differences,  seen  in  the  Rebel- 
lion.— The  differences  in  the  local  organization 
between  the  two  sections  of  the  Republic,  were  so 
great  as  to  be  irreconcilable;  and  every  calm 
observer  of  events,  foresaw  that  whatever  tempo- 
rary expedients  were  resorted  to,  there  must  ulti- 
mately come  a  rupture.  The  South,  though  out- 
numbered in  population,  through  their  unity  of 
action  and  compact  organization,  had  been  able  to 
possess  the  Government  and  to  dictate  its  policy, 
almost  uninterruptedly,  from  its  origin;  but  when 
they  saw  that  the  sceptre  of  their  power  was  about 
to  depart,  they  took  the  initiative,  fully  believing 
that  they  could  found  a  government  based  on 


374  CLIMATE    ON    MAN. 

human  slavery.  They  overestimated  the  value 
of  their  products,  because  they  went  abroad  to 
adjust  national  balances.  They  also  believed  that 
commercial  necessity  would  sanction  a  system  of 
compulsory  labor,  which  was  condemned  by  the 
enlightened  sentiment  of  every  Christian  commu- 
nity. They  underestimated  the  force  of  that  great 
moral  sentiment  underlying  all  legislation,  before 
which  human  statutes,  conceived  in  a  spirit  of  tem- 
porary expediency,  and  however  solemnly  enacted, 
must  sooner  or  later  give  way.  They  underrated, 
too,  the  strength  of  the  people  of  the  North,  who, 
though  less  impulsive  and  mercurial,  had  an  indom- 
itable will,  a  tenacity  of  purpose  backed  by  num- 
bers, and  a  fertility  of  resources  in  skilled  labor, 
machinery,  and  in  reserved  capital  brought  out  and 
tendered  to  the  Government  in  the  hour  of  need, 
which  gave  assurance  that,  however  protracted  the 
contest,  the  issue  could  not  be  doubtful.  Great  as 
was  the  expenditure  of  treasure  and  of  blood,  it 
was  incurred  without  repining.  There  was  one 
all-prevailing  sentiment,  originating  in  convictions 
of  temporal  prosperity,  and,  also,  in  the  higher  con- 
victions of  religious  duty  and  of  national  grandeur, 
that  the  Republic  must  be  preserved,  —  and  pre- 
served, too,  stripped  of  those  elements  which,  from 
its  origin,  had  been  the  source  of  its  weakness. 


PHYSICAL    DEVELOPMENT.  375 

RESUME. 

From  this  survey  it  will  be  seen  that,  only  under 
certain  favored  latitudes,  has  man  attained  to  his 
full  physical  development,  and  exhibited  that 
"sanctity  of  reason" — that  divinity  of  mind, — 
which  distinguishes  him  so  preeminently  above 
the  brute. 

The  region  of  the  Black  Sea  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  original  seat  of  the  Caucasian  race, —  a 
race  in  which  the  moral  feelings  and  the  intel- 
lectual powers,  as  well  as  the  beauty  and  perfection 
of  the  physical  structure,  have  been  in  the  highest 
degree  displayed.  Between  this  region  and  the 
prairie  region  of  the  West,  the  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate  are,  in  a  marked  degree,  similar.  If,  to 
climatic  causes,  we  are  to  attribute  the  diversities  of 
character  in  the  great  family  of  man,  it  may  be 
said,  that  here  exist  those  conditions  best  fitted  for 
the  development  of  his  physical  and  intellectual 
nature.  * 

*  In  a  region  which  has  been  populated  so  rapidly  as  the  Western 
States,  and  where  immigrants  form  so  large  an  element  of  that  popu- 
lation, it  would  be  unsafe  to  draw  conclusions  as  to  the  effects  of  the 
climate  on  physical  development;  but  it  may  be  stated,  that  the  aver- 
age height  of  nearly  26,000  recruits  to  the  volunteer  regiments  of  the 
United  States,  during  the  late  Rebellion,  (three-fifths  of  whom  were 
gathered  in  the  States  of  Michigan,  Iowa,  Indiana,  and  Minnesota, 
and  two-fifths  from  the  New  England  States),  was  68  yVcr  inches. 

The  average  height  of  nearly  28,000  soldiers  recruited  for  the  British 
Army,  for  1860,  was  66  y2^  inches. 

The  average  height  of  French  conscripts  for  thirty  years, — 1831-62 — 
was  65  i*j^0  inches. 


376 


CLIMATE    ON    MAN. 


Unfortunately,  we  have  not  measurements  of  the  circumference  of 
the  chest,  weight,  tests  of  muscular  lifting-strength,  and  capacity  of 
chest,  as  determined  by  the  spirometer,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  Western 
recruits,  for  the  purposes  of  comparison  with  the  recruits  and  con- 
scripts of  other  nations;  but  the  facts  already  quoted,  show  that  in 
height,  at  least,  they  are  superior.  (See  an  elaborate  paper  by  E.  B. 
Elliot,  submitted  to  the  International  Congress,  at  Berlin,  1863,  on 
"The  Military  Statistics  of  the  United  States.") 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ORIGIN    OF    CIVILIZATION. 

VALLEY  OF  THE    MISSISSIPPI,  ITS    PROSPECTIVE    POPULATION 

GREECE,  THE  CRADLE  OF  CIVILIZATION ROME,  THE  INHER- 
ITOR OF  THAT  CIVILIZATION ORIGIN  OF  TEUTONS  AND 

CELTS CHARACTERISTICS    OF  EACH    RACE COLONIZATION 

OF  NORTH    AMERICA TEUTONIC  AND  CELTIC  COLONIZATION 

CONTRASTED NATIONAL  UNITY CAUSES  WHICH  PROMOTE 

IT ENGLISH  CHARACTER ITS  HOMOGENEITY  AS  COM- 
PARED WITH  THAT  OF  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  —  THE  CIVILIZING  EFFECTS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN 
RELIGION. 

THE  valley  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  are  destined,  before  the  close  of  the 
century,  to  become  the  abode  of  fifty  millions  of 
the  Teutonic  race,  speaking  the  English  language, 
and  developing  a  peculiar  civilization.  Since  first 
known  to  history,  they  have  exhibited  certain  idio- 
syncracies,  both  as  individuals  and  as  members  of 
the  body  politic,  which  have  widely  separated  them 
from  the  Celtic  or  Latin  race.  It,  therefore,  be- 
comes a  matter  of  interest  to  inquire  into  the  origin 
of  that  civilization,  of  which  they  are  the  peculiar 
exponents.  In  tracing  up  the  stream  of  history,  it 


37^  ORIGIN   OF    CIVILIZATION. 

will  be  found  that  they  have  always  displayed  a 
sturdy  independence,  a  freedom  of  will,  and  a  self- 
governing  capacity  which  belong  to  no  other  race. 
They  are  the  only  people  who,  in  modern  times, 
have  founded  stable  governments,  either  of  repre- 
sentative monarchy  or  representative  democracy. 

Greece,  the  Cradle  of  our  Civilization. — Our 
civilization,  appropriating  the  term  to  the  advance- 
ment which  modern  nations  have  made  in  art, 
science,  and  literature,  is  directly  traceable  to 
Greece.  In  her  we  recognize  the  source  from 
which  we  derive  our  knowledge  of  all  those  arts 
which  embellish  civilized  life.  She  communicated 
the  first  impulse,  by  which  the  human  mind  was 
lead  to  enter  upon  those  trains  of  thought,  which 
have  resulted  in  our  social  and  intellectual  eleva- 
tion. She  has  been,  in  fact,  the  mother  of  nations, 
teaching  her  offspring  those  great  principles  of 
public  faith  and  public  honor  which,  though  often 
violated,  have  yet  influenced  the  conduct  of  the 
world's  affairs.  And  when  we  consider  the  topo- 
graphical features  of  that  wonderful  country,  its 
soil  and  climate,  we  shall  see  that  they  were  such 
as  to  make  her  the  most  favored  of  nations;  and 
that  she  occupied  a  position  to  collect  and  absorb 
whatever  of  art  or  science  there  was  in  the  bar- 
baric world. 


GRECIAN    CIVILIZATION.  379 

It  is  true  that  she  recognized  human  slavery,  but 
this  blot  upon  her  career  is  compensated  by  the 
nobler  gifts  of  virtue  and  genius.  "  Each  of  her 
citizens  was  a  freeman,  who  dared  to  assert  the 
liberty  of  his  thoughts,  words,  and  actions;  whose 
person  and  property  were  guarded  by  equal  laws; 
and  who  exercised  his  independent  vote  in  the 
government  of  the  Republic."* 

The  inhabitants  of  Greece  possessed  a  soil  of 
great  natural  fertility  which  was  rendered  more 
fruitful  by  cultivation.  They  dwelt  beneath  a  sky 
of  great  serenity,  and  in  a  climate  which  was  favor- 
able to  the  full  development  of  the  physical  and 
intellectual  man.  The  relief  and  depression  of  the 
surface  was  such  as  to  give  origin  to  a  diversified 
landscape;  —  rugged  peaks,  thickly- wooded  slopes, 
luxuriant  meadows,  precipitous  water-falls,  running 
brooks,  and  an  ocean  sublime  in  the  play  of  its 
constantly-changing  tints;  and  thus  they  were 
brought  in  intimate  communion  with  the  noblest 
aspects  of  nature,  which  left  an  indelible  impress 
upon  their  imaginations,  reflected  in  their  poetic 
works,  their  oratory,  and  even  their  architecture. 

Her  deeply-indented  shores,  washed  on  the  one 
hand  by  the  Adriatic,  and  on  the  other  by  the 
yEgaean,  with  its  archipelago  of  islands, —  serving 
both  as  landmarks  to  guide  the  adventurous  navi- 

*  GitTbon.     "  Decline  and  Fall."     Chap.  48. 


380  ORIGIN    OF    CIVILIZATION. 

gator  in  his  course,  and  as  places  of  refuge  in  a 
storm, —  tended  to  develop  a  maritime  spirit  among 
her  people,  which  led  them  gradually  to  extend 
their  voyages  to  the  entire  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Black  Seas.  Commerce,  thus  inau- 
gurated, was  the  great  civilizer.  In  this  intercourse, 
they  became  acquainted  with  the  discoveries  and 
inventions  of  surrounding  nations,  which  they 
adopted  and  improved  upon;  and  even  the  ele- 
ments of  their  philosophy  were  derived  from  for- 
eign sources.  So  humanizing  has  this  spirit  proved, 
that  it  may  be  said  that  no  nation,  isolated  from  the 
sea,  has  ever  attained  to  a  high  state  of  civiliza- 
tion. 

Under  such  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  the 
Greeks  developed  a  degree  of  culture  whose  influ- 
ence has  attended  the  intellectual  man  in  all  of  his 
migrations.  Whatever  there  is  of  heroic  action  in 
human  conduct;  whatever  there  is  of  intensity  of 
expression  in  the  passions;  whatever  there  is  of 
sublimity  in  poetic  diction  or  oral  discourse;  what- 
ever there  is  that  relates  to  the  beauty  of  the  human 
form,  or  the  just  proportions  of  human  structures, 
as  manifested  in  sculpture  and  architecture;  was 
displayed  in  all  of  its  perfection  by  these  Hellenic 
tribes. 


ORIGIN    OF   TEUTONS    AND    CELTS.  381 

Rome,  the  Inheritor  of  this  Civilization. — From 
this  source,  the  Romans  derived  their  civilization 
and  their  knowledge  of  the  arts;  and  even  after 
they  had  subdued,  by  the  power  of  numbers,  that 
magnificent  territory,  their  statesmen  and  poets 
did  not  hesitate  to  resort  to  the  vanquished  for 
instruction,  and  adopt  their  illustrious  names  as 
exemplars  for  their  own  guidance.  At  the  dawn 
of  the  Christian  Era,  the  Roman  Empire  is  com- 
puted to  have  extended  over  400,000  square  miles. 
It  reached  from  the  western  extremity  of  Europe 
to  the  Euphrates,  and  from  Gsetulia  south  to  the 
confines  of  the  Libyan  Desert,  comprehending 
the  greater  portion  of  the  known  world.  In  their 
career  of  conquest,  the  Romans  had  annexed  not 
only  Greece,  with  all  her  art  and  refinement,  but 
also  that  region  which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  cradle  of  the  race,  and  where  God  had  conde- 
scended to  hold  intercourse  with  man,  and  pro- 
claim His  will.  Every  known  tribe  and  kindred 
rendered  tribute  to  the  Caesars,  and  even  our 
Saviour  recognized  the  civil  obligation. 

Origin  of  Teutons  and  Celts. — To  the  north 
of  Italy  and  beyond  the  Alps,  lay  a  country  divided 
into  several  principalities,  known  as  Celto-Galatia, 
Germania,  Cimbrica,  and  Scandiae  Insulae,  compre- 
hending northern  France,  Germany,  and  Sweden, 


382  ORIGIN   OF    CIVILIZATION. 

whose  people,  born  beneath  a  cooler  sky,  and  in  a 
less  enervating  climate,  and  nurtured  in  a  manner 
which  required,  from  necessity,  the  practice  of  the 
hardier  virtues  of  temperance,  both  in  eating  and 
drinking,  were  destined  to  subvert  the  Roman  Em- 
pire and  establish  dynasties  of  their  own  upon  its 
ruins,  and  to  become  even,  the  dominant  race  of 
the  world.  Little  is  known  of  these  people  prior 
to  the  invasion  of  their  country  by  Caesar.  He 
found  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  mainly  occupied  by 
tribes  of  the  Celtic  family,  while  the  frontiers  were 
possessed  by  the  Teutonic  or  German  tribes. 
Thus,  the  population  was  partly  Celtic  and  partly 
German,  but  both  were  branches  probably  of  the 
great  Indo-European  family  of  the  Caucasian  type. 
Motley  thus  describes  the  characteristics  of  each: 

"Physically  the  two  races  resembled  each  other.  Both 
were  of  vast  stature.  The  gigantic  Gaul  derided  the  Roman 
soldiers  as  a  band  of  pigmies.  The  German  excited  astonish- 
ment by  his  huge  body  and  muscular  limbs.  Both  were  fair, 
with  fierce  blue  eyes,  but  the  Celt  had  yellow  hair  floating 
over  his  shoulders,  and  the  German  long  locks  of  fiery  red, 
which  he  even  dyed  with  ivoad  [a  plant  growing  in  the  tem- 
perate zone  from  which  indigo  is  extracted]  to  heighten  the 
favorite  color,  and  wore  twisted  into  a  war-knot  upon  the  top 
of  his  head."  * 

The  Roman  Empire  contained  the  elements  of 
its  own  dissolution;  and  it  is  well,  perhaps,  for  the 

*  "Dutch  Republic."    Vol.1. 


ORIGIN    OF    TEUTONS    AND    CELTS.  383 

progress  of  the  race,  that  this  vast  fabric,  reared 
with  so  much  toil  and  cemented  by  so  much  blood, 
was  leveled  to  the  ground  by  the  pressure  of  its 
own  weight.  When  the  Roman  soldier  was  so  far 
enervated  by  luxury  that  he  could  not  sustain  the 
heavy  armor,  or  wield  the  heavy  weapons  of  his 
ancestors,  he  became  an  easy  victim  to  the  missile 
weapons  of  the  Goth  and  Hun.  The  short  sword 
and  the  pilum,  with  which  the  ancient  Romans  had 
subdued  the  world,  dropped  from  the  nerveless 
arms  of  their  effeminate  descendants.  They  were 
fain  to  recruit  their  armies  from  the  ranks  of  the 
Barbarians,  and  confide  to  them  the  public  defence. 
The  foreign  soldiers  who  had  thus  been  incorpo- 
rated into  the  Roman  army,  and  subjected  to 
its  discipline,  were  they  who  subverted  the  Empire 
and  founded  dynasties  on  its  ruins.  The  victori- 
ous Goths,  fortunately  for  the  cause  of  humanity, 
renounced  their  ancient  superstitions,  and  adopted 
the  Christian  faith;  aqd,  at  the  same  time,  they 
received  the  use  of  letters  so  essential  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  Sacred  Book,  nor  did  they  reject 
the  inestimable  treasures  of  ancient  learning,  pre- 
served in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages.  Thus 
the  vanquished  Romans  communicated  to  the  vic- 
tors their  religion,  their  language,  their  laws,  and 
whatever  of  constitutional  liberty  they  possessed.* 

*  Vide   Gibbon's  "Decline    and    Fall."     Passim,   Chap.    XXVIII., 
XXX.,  XXXVI. 


384  ORIGIN    OF    CIVILIZATION. 

At  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  we  find 
the  scale  of  their  dominion  contracted  to  the  nar- 
row limits  of  a  small  tract  in  Southeastern  Eu- 
rope,—  to  the  lonely  suburbs,  as  the  great  historian 
expresses  it,  of  Constantinople;  and  in  the  mean- 
while were  laid  the  foundations  of  those  govern- 
ments, carved  out  of  Roman  territory,  which,  in 
modern  times,  have  monopolized  the  arts,  the 
sciences,  and  the  civilization  of  the  world. 

Theodoric,  Clovis,  and  Alboin,  who  thus  founded 
dynasties  out  of  the  conquered  provinces  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  were  of  Teutonic  origin. 

At  this  day,  the  Celtic  division  of  the  Indo-Eu- 
ropean family  occupies  Spain,  Portugal.  France, 
and  parts  of  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  Britain; 
while  the  Teutonic  division  occupies  Norway, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  Germany,  Holland,  and  parts 
of  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  Britain.  Each,  too, 
has  distinct  national  characteristics  which  have 
clung  to  him  in  all  of  his  subsequent  migrations. 

The  Teuton. — The  Teuton  is  fond  of  independ- 
ence, and  is  little  disposed  to  surrender  his  will  to 
the  control  of  another.  He  is  restless  under  even 
venial  grievances,  and  claims  to  be  heard  in  the 
making  of  the  laws  by  which  he  is  to  be  governed. 
Hence,  the  governments  founded  by  him,  are  either 
a  representative  monarchy,  or  a  representative  de- 


CELTIC    CHARACTERISTICS.  385' 

mocracy.  He  makes  a  good  colonist,  adapts  him- 
self readily  to  altered  conditions,  and  evinces  a 
power  for  self-government.  Wherever  settled,  his 
love  of  free  thought,  and  his  disregard  of  cere- 
monies, have  made  him  a  Protestant  in  religion, 
with  a  strong  tendency  to  divide  into  a  multiplicity 
of  sects,  and  upon  points  of  doctrine  which,  we 
would  fain  believe,  are  not  essential  to  salvation. 
While  the  invigorating  climate  of  the  temperate 
zone  is  best  adapted  to  his  full  development,  he 
has  pushed  his  conquests  to  the  remotest  parts  of 
the  earth;  and  wherever  he  has  come  in  conflict 
with  other  races,  he  has  proved  himself  the  victor. 

The  Celt. — The  Celt  has  never  exhibited  the 
same  desire  for  personal  freedom  and  civil  liberty. 
He  has  been  content  to  live  under  an  absolute 
or  slightly  limited  monarchy;  and  in  those  in- 
stances where  he  has  thrown  off  the  yoke  of 
oppression  and  founded  republics,  as  in  South 
America,  they  have  proved  but  another  name  for 
anarchy  and  misrule.  With  a  disposition  to  super- 
stition and  a  blind  observance  of  forms,  he  is  every 
where  found  the  zealous  and  devoted  adherent  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  whose  imposing  ceremonies 
awe  his  imagination,  and  captivate  his  judgment. 
Without  protest,  he  surrenders  his  individual  will 
to  that  of  rys  superior,  and  submits  to  his  teachings 
25 


386  ORIGIN    OF    CIVILIZATION. 

with  an  unquestioning  faith.  Hence,  the  uniformity 
of  belief, — -hence,  the  universality  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  Its  doctrines  are  the  same,  whether  ex- 
pounded beneath  the  vaulted  dome  of  St.  Peter's, 
beneath  the  palm-thatched  hut  upon  the  banks  of 
the  Amazon,  or  in  the  log-cabin  beneath  the  hyper- 
borean sky  of  Lake  Superior. 

It  is  a  striking  historical  fact,  that  the  principles 
of  the  Reformation  have  never  taken  root  in  the 
purely  Celtic  regions,  while  they  were  at  once 
accepted  in  those  of  the  Teuton,  and  have  accom- 
panied him  throughout  all  of  his  migrations.  In 
the  Old  World,  the  boundaries  between  Catholi- 
cism and  Protestantism  remain  about  the  same  as 
at  the  death  of  the  Great  Reformer;  and  in  the 
New  World,  the  currents,  springing  from  two  dis- 
tinct fountains,  have  flowed  side  by  side,  without 
any  tendency  to  commingle. 

The  Celt  loves  the  soft  and  balmy  air  of  the 
tropics;  and  hence,  in  the  New  World,  he  relapsed 
into  a  life  of  luxurious  ease,  which  the  equable 
climate  and  the  profusion  of  nature  greatly  encour- 
aged; and  to  attain  this  end,  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
press  into  his  service  the  unrequited  toil  of  an 
inferior  race.  But,  beneath  the  glare  of  a  Northern 
sky,  where,  to  sustain  life,  were  required  unremit- 
ting exertions,  all  of  his  attempts  at  colonization 
have  proved  signal  failures.  In  his  contact  with 


COLONIZATION  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.  387 

the  aboriginal  tribes,  he  has  evinced  a  disposition 
to  descend  to  their  level,  rather  than  to  exalt  them 
to  his  own  standard  of  excellence. 

Colonization  of  North  America. — On  the  7th 
of  October,  1492,  in  mid-ocean,  Pinzon,  the  com- 
panion of  Columbus,  observed  a  flight  of  parrots 
winging  their  way  to  the  southwest,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  course  of  the  exploring  expedition  was 
changed  to  that  direction;  and  ere  long,  instead  of 
the  "solid  continent,"  the  West-Indian  Isles  greeted 
the  longing  gaze  of  the  adventurers.  This  appar- 
ently insignificant  event,  as  remarked  by  the  histo- 
rian, had  an  all-controlling  influence  upon  the  desti- 
nies of  the  people  of  this  Continent.  It  diverted  the 
Celtic  or  Latin  colonization,  represented  by  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  nations,  to  the  tropical  and 
southern  portion  of  the  hemisphere,  while  it  left 
open  to  the  Teuton,  represented  by  the  English  and 
the  German,  the  northern  portion. 

Thus,  then,  to  these  two  great  branches  of  the 
human  family,  was  confided  the  task  of  subduing  a 
hemisphere.  Although  the  French  and  Spanish 
acquired  a  foothold  upon  the  northern  portion,  and 
invested  the  narrow  belt  of  Teutonic  settlement  on 
the  Atlantic  border,  yet  they  were  ultimately  ex- 
pelled, and  the  whole  Continent  was  surrendered 
to  the  dominion  of  the  Teutonic  race;  and  now, 


388  ORIGIN   OF    CIVILIZATION. 

after  the  lapse  of  less  than  four  centuries,  how  dif- 
ferent have  been  the  results! 

The  Celt  had  the  advantage  in  the  race,  for  the 
United  States  were  not  colonized  until  a  century 
later  than  Spanish  America.  Nature,  too,  had 
apparently  dealt  more  kindly  with  the  one  region 
than  with  the  other.  In  the  one,  there  were  luxu- 
riant forests  of  extraordinary  beauty,  and  bearing 
fruits  most  grateful  to  the  appetite;  and  its  fertile 
valleys  and  slopes  were  capable  of  rearing  the 
coffee-plant  and  sugar-cane,  whose  products  are  so 
highly  prized  by  all  civilized  nations.  The  tempe- 
rature of  the  one  was  so  mild  and  unvarying  that 
little  protection  was  required  beyond  a  tent,  or  a 
thatch  of  palm-leaves;  but,  above  all,  and  this  was 
the  most  attractive  feature  to  the  adventurers,  nearly 
all  the  streams  rolled  down  their  golden  sands. 
Thus,  in  this  serene  and  equable  climate,  sur- 
rounded by  a  profusion  of  vegetable  forms  which 
yielded  their  spontaneous  fruits,  and  with  a  soil 
whose  quickening  powers  produced  those  luxuries 
most  highly  esteemed  by  man,  nature  offered  to  the 
colonist  an  easy  and  indolent  life. 

The  other  region  furnished  a  soil  of  indifferent 
fertility,  covered  with  a  forest  which  must  be  sub- 
dued before  it  was  fitted  for  cultivation ;  and  its 
•wealth  was  extracted  only  after  long  and  assiduous 
labor,  going  through  the  routine  of  seed-time  and 


MODERN    CIVILIZATION.  389 

harvest,  and  garnering  up,  with  economic  care,  and 
storing  away  the  crops  for  future  use.  The  climate 
was  so  inhospitable  that  elaborate  houses  were  to 
be  constructed,  and  every  precaution  taken  to  keep 
out  the  wintry  blasts. 

Thus,  the  differences  of  soil  and  climate  were 
calculated  to  generate  differences  in  the  character 
of  the  two  races.  In  the  one  case,  with  habits 
of  order  and  intelligent  industry,  and  with  an  apti- 
tude for  self-government,  the  people  have  built  up 
a  social  system  the  best  ever  devised  for  the  happi- 
ness of  man,  and  developed  a  strength  and  unity 
which  have  made  them  the  most  powerful  nation 
of  the  earth ;  while,  in  the  other,  whatever  devel- 
opment of  material  resources  has  been  made,  is  the 
result,  in  the  main,  of  compulsory  labor,  extorted 
from  an  inoffensive  race;  and  whatever  govern- 
ments have  been  instituted,  by  whatever  name 
called,  they  have  afforded  little  security  to  life  or 
property. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen,  that  our  modern  civiliza- 
tion has  been  a  plant  of  slow  growth,  originating 
under  peculiar  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  and 
propagated  only  over  such  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface  as  afforded  similar  conditions.  Personal 
servitude  was  a  part  of  the  civilization  of  Greece 
and  Rome;  and  the  Barbaric  tribes,  in  their  primi- 
tive settlements,  were  accustomed  to  reduce  not 


390  ORIGIN    OF    CIVILIZATION. 

only  their  captives,  but  their  criminals,  and  even 
those  who  had  incurred  the  obligation  of  debt 
which  they  could  not  discharge,  to  this  condition. 
Hence,  then,  among  every  nation,  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  continued  until  times  comparatively 
recent,  slavery  has  been  the  lot  of  the  greater  por- 
tion of  mankind.  Its  abolition,  by  the  most  en- 
lightened nations  of  Christendom,  certainly  affords 
substantial  evidence  of  the  progress  of  humanity. 

National  Unity. —  European  philosophers,  spec- 
ulating on  the  origin  of  our  people,  derived  from 
so  many  sources  and  composed  of  elements  so 
discordant,  have  predicted  for  the  American  Re- 
public a  short-lived  career.  The  only  disturbing 
cause  —  human  slavery  —  which,  from  the  outset, 
has  proved  the  source  of  deep-seated  discord  and 
internecine  strife,  and  which,  in  its  culmination, 
threatened  the  disruption  of  the  Republic,  has  hap- 
pily been  removed;  and,  great  as  has  been  the 
expenditure  of  treasure  and  blood,  no  true  patriot 
can  regret  the  sacrifice,  in  view  of  the  permanent 
benefit  which  has  resulted  to  the  cause  of  free 
institutions. 

There  are  several  causes  which  have  contributed 
to  the  fusion  of  our  people  into  a  nearly  homoge- 
neous union.  Among  these  may  be  enumerated 
the  democratic  tendencies  of  our  institutions,  where 


NATIONAL    UNITY.  39! 

each  elector  is  required  to  pass  upon  the  measures, 
not  only  of  the  National  and  State  legislatures,  but 
even  those  relating  to  the  details  of  township  organ- 
izations; and  if  he  fail  to  arrive  at  independent 
conclusions  by  reading  and  reflection,  he  has  at 
least  the  advantage  of  hearing  such  measures  dis- 
cussed by  those  who  have  informed  themselves. 

Next  may  be  mentioned  the  system  of  common 
schools,  where  all  of  the  youth  are  brought  under 
such  a  system  of  instruction  as  to  qualify  them  for 
the  ordinary  pursuits  of  life.  This  tends  to  fix  the 
principles  of  the  language  and  produce  a  uniformity 
of  pronunciation.  Webster's  Spelling  Book  was 
issued  as  far  back  as  1783,  and  since  that  time 
probably  more  than  fifty  millions  of  copies  have 
been  published,  and  it  is  yet  retained  as  a  text- 
book in  the  schools. 

Next  may  be  mentioned  the  press,  whose  free- 
dom is  expressly  guarded  by  constitutional  enact- 
ments. The  conductors  of  the  press  not  only 
inform  the  people  of  current  events,  but  they 
express  the  public  sentiment  and  often  create  that 
sentiment.  Every  projected  measure,  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  is  fully  discussed  outside  the  halls  of 
legislation,  before  it  becomes  incorporated  into  the 
statute-book.  The  power  thus  wielded  over  the 
morals,  the  intelligence,  the  habits,  and  pursuits  of 
the  people,  is^a  tremendous  one;  and  the  experience 


392  ORIGIN    OF   CIVILIZATION. 

of  nearly  a  century,  since  all  restrictions  were 
thrown  off,  has  proved  that  little  is  to  be  feared 
from  its  licentiousness.  The  electric  telegraph, 
too,  has  become  its  ally  in  the  diffusion  of  intelli- 
gence, and  there  is  hardly  a  well-to-do  farmer  on 
the  verge  of  settlement,  who  is  not,  at  the  end  of 
the  week,  fully  advised  as  to  what  has  transpired  in 
the  busy  world.  A  free  press,  having  the  ear  of 
the  whole  community,  and  acting  as  a  public  in- 
structor, is  essentially  an  American  institution. 
Wherever  a  colony  is  planted,  and  the  people 
aggregated  into  a  village,  there,  too,  is  to  be  found 
the  newspaper. 

Last,  but  not  least,  may  be  mentioned  the  close 
commercial  relations  which  exist  between  widely- 
separated  parts,  and4  the  ease  and  expedition, 
through  navigable  rivers  and  innumerable  rail- 
roads, by  which  those  relations  are  maintained. 
There  are  few  Americans  who  do  not  visit  some 
one  of  the  commercial  centres  at  least  once  a  year, 
while  the  mercantile  class  penetrates  to  the  re- 
motest hamlets.  This  direct  intercourse  tends  to 
break  down  provincial  antipathies,  to  produce  a 
homogeneity  of  character,  and  to  bind  together  all 
classes  and  conditions  of  men.  The  infusion,  too, 
each  year,  of  large  bodies  of  immigrants  into  the 
New  States  from  regions  widely-separated,  destroys 
all  tendency  to  a  clannish  spirit,  and  leads  to  the 


NATIONAL    UNITY.  393 

formation  of  new  associations,  independent  of  birth 
and  nationality.  Thus,  it  may  be  said,  that  the 
Western  people  exhibit  a  far  more  cosmopolitan 
spirit  than  those  of  the  Older  States.  In  such  a 
mixed  community,  provincialisms  of  speech  are  at 
once  observed  and  criticised;  and,  without  criti- 
cism, the  provincial  man  is  insensible  to  his  errors. 
Language  is  the  strongest  bond  of  union,  and  it  is 
spoken  with  the  greatest  purity,  where  the  inter- 
course between  the  different  parts  of  the  country 
is  most  intimate.  The  attrition,  so  to  speak,  which 
is  constantly  going  on  between  the  individual  mem- 
bers of  a  society  thus  constituted,  tends  to  rub  off 
the  angularities  of  character  and  produce  a  homo- 
geneous union. 

In  the  higher  walks  of  science  and  literature, 
while  we  have  accomplished  much,  yet  it  must  be 
confessed,  that  we  have  not  attained  to  that  com- 
manding rank  which  is  to  be  desired;  but  in  a 
country  where  there  are  few  hereditary  fortunes 
which  permit  the  inheritors  to  indulge  in  a  course 
of  travel  or  learned  ease,  and  where  the  investment 
of  capital  is  so  remunerative,  it  is  idle  to  expect 
that  a  large  body  of  men,  corresponding  to  what 
are  known  as  "German  students,"  should  be  ab- 
stracted from  the  active  pursuits  of  life.  "  The 
state  of  a  nation,"  as  long  ago  remarked  by  Dr. 
Johnson,  "is  tlie  state  of  common  life;" — and  if 


394  ORIGIN   OF    CIVILIZATION. 

we  go  to  our  farm-houses,  our  work-shops,  and  fac- 
tories, and  inquire  into  the  condition  of  those  who 
hold  the  plough,  or  forge  the  iron,  or  weave  the 
warp,  we  shall  find  a  degree  of  thrifty  industry,  of 
sturdy  independence,  and  general  information,  such 
as  are  possessed  by  no  other  people.  Combining 
the  land-grants  of  Congress  for  agricultural  col- 
leges, and  the  school-funds  of  the  several  States,  as 
well  as  the  voluntary  endowments  of  individuals, 
it  may  be  boldly  asserted  that  no  nation  has  made 
such  liberal  appropriations  for  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion as  the  United  States. 

Under  these  influences  the  American  character 
has  already  acquired  a  distinctive  national  type, 
whose  elements  are  not  a  conglomerated  mass,  but  a 
crystallization  into  definite  forms  and  angles.  Take 
such  an  assemblage  as  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States.  Trace  back  the  ancestry  of  each  individual 
member  for  a  few  generations,  and  see  the  differ- 
ent stocks  from  which  they  draw  their  origin.  He 
may  be  the  descendant  of  one  of  the  Puritans  who 
came  over  in  the  Mayflower;  of  a  substantial 
burgher  of  Bruges,  who  loaned  his  credit  to  the 
Prince  of  Orange;  of  a  God-fearing  Huguenot, 
driven  out  of  France  by  the  treachery  of  Henry 
of  Navarre;  of  an  Irish  Catholic  who  fought  the 
"  bloody  Oliver  "  at  Drogheda,  or  William  III.  at 
the  Boyne ;  or  of  the  peace-loving  courtier,  William 


NATIONAL    UNITY.  395 

Perm;  or  of  the  gentle-minded  Roger  Williams, 
who  founded  Rhode  Island;  —  yet,  among  these 
men  there  is  as  strong  a  spirit  of  national  pride  as 
among  the  peers  of  England,  who  can  trace  their 
lineage  to  William  the  Norman. 

In  the  settlement  of  the  United  States,  there  have 
been  no  barriers  sufficiently  formidable  to  check, 
except  temporarily,  the  flow  of  population.  Those 
barriers  are,  or  soon  will  be,  effectually  overcome, 
and  intimate  commercial  relations  will  be  estab- 
lished with  every  part  of  the  Republic,  producing 
homogeneity  of  character.  Go  into  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland,  and  you  will  see  at  this  day  some  de- 
scendant of  the  Graeme,  or  the  Campbell,  clothed 
in  his  kilt;  go  to  the  miner's  cabin  in  Colorado, 
and  you  will  see  the  mistress  of  that  rude  abode 
wearing  a  bonnet  of  a  fashion  received  in  New 
York  a  month  previously.  Discordant,  then,  as  the 
elements  of  our  population  may  seem,  there  is  an 
all-pervading  spirit  whose  influence  is  to  blend  and 
harmonize  the  materials  into  a  homogeneous  union. 

Our  population,  then,  may  be  compared  not 
inaptly  to  the  Great  River,  whose  regimen  we 
have  attempted  to  describe.  Its  waters,  springing 
from  fountains  far  remote,  and  under  different  con- 
ditions of  sky,  are  first  gathered  into  trickling  rills 
which,  increased  by  fresh  affluents,  expand  into 
brooklets,  and  then  into  broad  streams.  As  the 


39^  ORIGIN   OF    CIVILIZATION. 

river  advances  in  its  course,  it  absorbs  tributary 
after  tributary,  each  nearly  as  large  as  itself,  until 
its  rolls  on  a  uniform  volume,  broad  and  deep, —  the 
emblem  of  restless  power, —  floating  upon  its  sur- 
face richly-laden  barges,  supporting  on  its  banks 
populous  cities,  and  diffusing  blessings  over  a  con- 
tinent. 

Other  nations  have  attained  to  greatness,  or 
maintained  it,  through  the  power  of  their  aristocracy, 
or  the  far-seeing  sagacity  of  a  single  controlling 
mind,  like  that  of  Alexander,  or  Caesar,  or  Charle- 
magne, or  Napoleon.  While  we  have  produced 
great  men,  it  may  be  said  that  we  have  produced 
no  one  man,  (not  excepting  Washington),  who 
has  impressed  his  policy  on  the  nation.  While  we 
have  developed  such  marvelous  resources,  such  a 
commercial  spirit,  such  a  productive  industry,  and 
such  a  power  to  subjugate  a  continent,  —  these 
results  have  been  achieved  by  the  recognition  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  and 
their  will  as  supreme  in  the  legislation  of  the 
country. 

English  Character. — The  English  are  regarded 
as  a  homogeneous  people;  and  the  Englishman  has 
peculiarities,  both  mental  and  corporeal,  by  which 
he  can  be  recognized  the  world  over;  yet  in  his 
veins  flows  the  mingled  blood  of  Celt,  Goth,  Saxon, 


ENGLISH    CHARACTER.  397 

Dane,  ana  Norman;  and  out  of  this  amalgamation 
of  races,  has  sprung  a  nation  with  a  distinctive  char- 
acter, which  is  perpetuated  from  one  generation  to 
another. 

While  a  fusion  so  thorough  and  effectual,  had 
taken  place  centuries  ago  among  the  people  of  the 
Lowlands,  beyond  the  Cheviot  Hills,  amid  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland, —  about  the  same  distance 
from  London  that  the  Adirondacks  are  from  New 
York, —  there  dwelt,  and  yet  dwells,  a  race  of  men, 
under  different  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  who 
have  persistently  clung  to  the  traditions  of  their 
ancestors,  and  resisted  all  attempts  to  intermingle. 
It  is  only  as  far  back  as  1773,  that  Dr.  Johnson 
published  his  "  Tour  to  the  Hebrides,"  in  which  he 
describes  the  manners  and  customs  of  a  people  as 
different  from  the  English,  as  though  they  belonged 
to  the  antipodes. 

In  another  portion  of  the  empire,  embracing 
seven  millions  of  people,  there  has  been,  for  centu- 
ries, a  war  of  races  and  religions,  at  times  so  fierce 
as  to  lead  to  the  distraction  of  the  country  and  the 
depopulation  of  its  cities;  and,  at  this  day,  the  feel- 
ing of  discontent  towards  the  throne  is  as  deep- 
seated  and  intense  as  at  any  time  in  the  previous 
history  of  the  union.  A  native  historian  has  had 
the  boldness  to,  expose  the  national  crimes  and 
follies  which  have  been  practiced  upon  this  mem- 


398  ORIGIN    OF    CIVILIZATION. 

ber  of  the  empire, — "  but  a  withered  and  distorted 
member,  adding  no  strength  to  the  body  politic, 
and  reproachfully  pointed  at  by  all  who  feared  or 
envied  the  greatness  of  England."  * 

The  diffusion  of  language  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
conclusive  evidence  of  the  homogeneity  of  a  peo- 
ple; and  we  venture  the  assertion,  that  the  tongue 
of  Shakspeare  and  of  Milton,  is  spoken  with  greater 
precision  and  purity  by  the  mass  of  the  people  of 
the  United  States,  than  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
British  Isles.  In  estimating  their  intelligence,  we 
are  apt  to  form  our  own  conclusions  from  our  knowl- 
edge of  those  who  have  graduated  in  the  univer- 
sities, and  have  had  the  benefits  of  foreign  travel 
and  observation.  But  this  view  is  erroneous. 
When  we  descend  to  the  sub-stratum  of  society  to 
determine  the  degree  of  intelligence,  we  shall  find 
that  it  is  to  be  rated  by  a  much  lower  standard. 
In  Ireland,  throughout  pretty  extensive  districts,  a 
dialect  of  Gaelic  is  spoken  almost  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  English;  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  the 
Erse;  and  in  Wales,  a  dialect  different  from  both. 
But  coming  to  England  itself,  the  provincialisms 
of  the  districts  of  Northumberland,  Yorkshire,  and 
Cornwall,  are  broader  and  more  uncouth  than  pre- 
vail in  any  portion  of  the  United  States. 

*  Macaulay.     "  History  of  England." 


THE    CHRISTIAN    RELIGION.  399 

"  Language,  more  than  any  other  attribute,  forms 
a  binding  link  among  a  people ; — by  its  idiomatic 
properties  it  severs  them." 

Civilizing  Effects  of  the  Christian  Religion. — 
In  tracing  the  career  of  a  people  —  their  progress 
in  moral  and  intellectual  development,  in  these 
modern  times,  no  candid  observer,  even  in  a 
purely  philosophical  treatise,  can  justly  ignore  the 
influence  of  the  Christian  religion.  And  while  it 
is  to  be  deplored  that  the  full  force  of  those  doc- 
trines,—  first  promulgated  by  Him  who,  in  a  human 
light,  was  the  son  of  a  carpenter  of  Nazareth,  and 
which  were  propagated  by  the  humble  fishermen 
of  Galilee, —  has  been  greatly  impaired  by  the  dis- 
sensions of  the  Christian  church  and  its  division 
into  a  multiplicity  of  sects;  yet,  as  a  -political  ele- 
ment, Christianity  has  tended  to  make  better  citi- 
zens, more  orderly,  more  sedate,  and  less  given  to 
turbulent  passions;  it  has  tended  to  awaken  a 
spirit  of  national  unity  by  making  even  the  hum- 
blest feel  that  they  were  co-heirs  in  a  common 
inheritance,  and  had  a  common  object  to  accom- 
plish; and,  at  the  same  time,  it  has  tended  to 
establish  a  bond  of  unity  between  nations  geo- 
graphically separated,  by  inculcating  the  doctrine 
that  the  rights  pf  a  people  are  not  to  be  ruth- 
lessly stricken  down  by  mere  brute  force.  And 


400  ORIGIN    OF    CIVILIZATION. 

while  this  sentiment  has  not,  in  the  conduct  of  the 
world's  affairs,  found  its  full  expression,  it  has  so 
far  acquired  a  foothold  that  no  ruler  at  this  day, 
however  powerful,  dare  venture  upon  a  step  which 
shall  shock  the  enlightened  sentiment  of  mankind. 
Christianity,  in  the  general  diffusion  of  its  doc- 
trines among  the  people,  has  awakened  thoughts  of 
a  nobler  origin;  has  brought  man  within  the  sphere 
of  higher  impulses;  has  given  him  clearer  ideas  of 
his  duties  here  and  of  his  destiny  hereafter;  has 
laid  the  foundation  of  every  scheme  of  practical 
and  all-comprehensive  benevolence;  and  has  com- 
bined and  crystallized  a  public  sentiment,  that  gov- 
ernments are  not  instituted  for  the  benefit  of  a 
particular  class,  but  for  the  prosperity  and  well- 
being  of  the  people;  and  finally  and  preeminently, 
it  recognizes  the  common  humanity  of  the  whole 
family  of  man,  and  inculcates  the  necessity  of 
breaking  down  those  barriers  which  pride,  and 
prejudice,  and  power,  have  been  able  to  erect, 
throughout  the  world's  history,  to  hamper  the 
human  race  and  to  prevent  them  from  assuming 
that  position  in  the  scale  of  creation,  for  which  they 
were,  of  a  aforetime,  designed. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

PROGRESS    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 

ORDINANCE    OF    1787    FOR   THE    GOVERNMENT    OF   THE    NORTH- 
WESTERN   TERRITORY ITS    EFFECT    UPON  THE   CHARACTER 

OF    THE     COLONIZATION FIRST     SETTLEMENT    OF    THE    RE- 
GION    RELATIVE      GROWTH      IN      POPULATION  AREA     OF 

WESTERN  STATES AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS THEIR  RAPID 

INCREASE THE  ASSESSED  VALUE    OF   REAL  AND    PERSONAL 

PROPERTY INDIANS THEIR  HABITS GOVERNMENT  POLICY 

TOWARDS  THEM' — THE    MOUND-BUILDERS THEIR    CIVILIZA- 
TION   ANTIOJJITY  OF  THEIR  WORKS CONCLUSION. 

Ordinance  for  the  Government  of  the  North- 
western Territory,  and  its  Effects  on  the  Char- 
acter of  Colonization. — On  the  nth  day  of  July, 
1787,  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  sitting  at 
New  York,  passed  "An  Ordinance  for  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Territory  of  the  United  States,  north- 
west of  the  Ohio."  This  region,  at  that  time,  was 
an  unreclaimed  wilderness  —  unvisited  by  the  white 
man,  if  we  except  a  few  Moravian  missionaries, 
who  had  penetrated  to  near  the  sources  of  the 
Muskingum,  and  established  a  mission  on  its 
banks,  at  a  point*  above  the  present  town  of  Cos- 


402       PROGRESS  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

hocton,  in  the  State  of  Ohio.  The  passage  of  this 
Ordinance,  as  justly  remarked  by  Hildreth,*  was  a 
a  measure  second  in  importance  only  to  the  Con- 
stitution itself;  for,  by  the  sixth  clause,  the  whole 
of  this  territory,  out  of  which  have  been  carved  the 
five  great  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michi- 
gan, and  Wisconsin,  was  irrevocably  dedicated 
to  free  labor.  It  was  the  turning  point  in  the  con- 
troversy which  even  then  had  enlisted  the  action 
of  the  statesmen  of  the  two  divisions  of  the  Union, 
and  which  subsequently  found  its  solution  in  the 
sword, — whether  the  States  should  exist  all  free  or 
all  slave.  The  South  consented  to  its  passage 
with  the  understanding,  afterwards  acted  upon,  of 
securing,  under  future  cessions,  the  extension  of 
slavery  into  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio  River. 
This  Ordinance  was  a  measure  of  profound  politi- 
cal sagacity,  and  one  which,  in  the  lapse  of  years, 
proved  the  salvation  of  the  Republic.  But  for  that, 
the  people  of  the  Border  States  of  Virginia  and 
Kentucky,  would  have  crossed  over  the  boundary 
thus  established,  with  their  slaves,  and  the  institu- 
tion of  slavery  would  have  taken  root  and  flour- 
ished in  a  fertile  soil,  and  amid  a  genial  climate. 
As  it  was,  when,  in  1861,  this  question  culminated, 
there  were  found,  within  this  territory,  seven  mil- 
lions of  people,  educated  in  the  belief  that  labor 

*  "  History  of  the  United  States."     Vol.  III. 


FIRST    SETTLEMENT.  403 

was  honorable,  who  rallied  almost  unanimously  to 
uphold  the  Government,  and  evinced  their  patriot- 
ism by  contributing  to  the  army  a  relative  numeri- 
cal strength  far  in  excess  of  that  of  the  New  Eng- 
land or  Middle  States;  and  with  no  vaunting  spirit, 
it  may  be  said,  that  the  men  thus  contributed,  and 
the  services  which  they  performed,  broke  the  power 
of  the  Rebellion. 

At  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  Ordinance, 
the  Government,  by  treaties  with  the  Six  Nations, 
the  Wyandots,  the  Delawares,  and  the  Shawanese, 
had  extinguished  the  Indian  title  along  the  northern 
bank  of  the  Ohio,  and  for  a  considerable  distance 
inland,  as  far  west  as  the  Wabash;  and  the  territory 
thus  secured,  embraced  seventeen  millions  of  acres. 
Thus,  this  region  became  open  to  American  coloni- 
zation only  through  the  channel  of  the  Ohio  River. 
The  French,  however,  as  far  back  as  1720,  built 
several  forts  within  the  present  limits  of  the  State 
of  Illinois,  of  which  Fort  Chartres  was  the  princi- 
pal. This  was  one  of  a  chain  which  stretched 
from  Canada  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 

First  Settlement. — There  is  not,  in  the  whole 
history  of  the  colonization  of  man,  so  striking  an 
instance  of  the  increase  of  population  and  of  mate- 
rial wealth,  as  is  exhibited  in  those  States  which 
occupy  the  Upper  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  and  the 


404        PROGRESS  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

region  adjacent  to  the  Great  Lakes,  comprehend- 
ing Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Kansas.  In  1778, 
within  the  memory  of  men  yet  living,  the  first  col- 
onists of  English  extraction, —  gathered  in  Massa- 
chusetts, under  the  leadership  of  Rufus  Putnam, — 
entered  this  region  and  established  themselves  at 
Marietta,  where  the  Muskingum  unites  with  the 
Ohio.  This  was  the  origin  of  that  colonization 
which,  in  ninety  years,  has  peopled  this  region  with 
more  than  twelve  millions  of  souls;  has  subdued 
and  brought  under  cultivation  an  area  nearly  twice 
as  great  as  the  cultivated  land  of  England;  has  con- 
nected together  the  principal  commercial  points  by 
a  net- work  of  railroads  more  that  12,000  miles  in 
extent,  at  a  cost  exceeding  $413,500,000,  and 
whose  annual  earnings  reach  nearly  $50,000,000; 
and  has  built  up  a  domestic  industry  whose  annual 
value  is  in  excess  of  $300,000,000,  giving  origin  to 
an  internal  trade  far  greater  than  the  external 
trade  of  the  whole  country. 

In  order  to  show  the  relative  growth  of  the  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  United  States,  the  following 
table  is  submitted,  compiled  from  the  Census  Re- 
turns of  1860,  in  which  the  several  States  are 
grouped  in  reference  to  geographical  position, 
climate,  productions,  and  the  business  pursuits  of 
the  inhabitants: 


GROWTH    OF    POPULATION. 


4°5 


TABLE— SHOWING    THE    GROWTH   OF  POPULATION 
AND  THE  RATIO  OF  INCREASE. 


STATES. 

•   p 

2  *§ 

B.    £ 

£  2 

it 

RATE  OP 
INCREASE. 

NEW  ENGLAND  STATES  —  Maine,  New 

Hampshire,    Vermont,    Massachu- 

setts, Connecticut,  &  Rhode  Island, 

2,728,116 

3,135,283 

J4TV 

MIDDLE  STATES  —  New  York,   New 

Jersey,     Pennsylvania,     Delaware, 

6,573,3oi 

8,258,150 

»5A 

CENTRAL  STATES  (Slave)  —  Virginia, 

North    Carolina,  Tennessee,    Ken- 

.             1                              j       A        1                 t-       o 

4,485,719 

5,289,875 

'7-rV 

PLANTING  STATES  —  South  Carolina, 

Georgia,  Alabama,    Florida,    Mis- 

sissippi, Louisiana,  and  Texas, 

3,770,640 

4,969,142 

3JTV 

PACIFIC    STATES  —  California,    and 

105,891 

432,439 

T 

124,618 

295,275 

I-37TV 

WESTERN  STATES  —  Ohio,  Michigan, 

Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Min- 

nesota, Iowa,  Missouri,  and   Kan- 

5,403,595 

9.064,896 

67T 

23,191,876 

31,445,080 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  ratio  of  increase  in  the 
Western  States,  between  1850-60,  was  more  than 
two-fold  greater  than  in  any  other  section,  except 
in  the  Pacific  States  and  Territories,  where  the 
population  was  too  insignificant  to  form  a  basis  of 
comparison. 

That  increase  was  3,661,301,  which  is  three-fold 
greater  than  the  whole  population  of  the  Colonies 


406       PROGRESS  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

in  1750,  and  more  than  1,500,000  greater  than  the 
whole  population  of  the  United  States,  when,  in 
1776,  they  declared  their  independence. 

With  regard  to  the  relative  progress  of  settlement 
in  the  northern  and  southern  belt  of  the  Western 
States,  it  may  be  said,  that  population  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  origin*  began  to  flow  into  the  latter  region 
as  early  1778,  and  continued  without  interruption. 
The  region  adjacent  to  Lake  Erie  was  not  sought 
by  the  immigrant,  to  any  considerable  extent,  until 
after  the  completion,  in  1825,  of  the  New  York  and 
Erie  Canal,  opening  the  lake-region  to  the  sea- 
board,—  a  work  which  will  stand  as  an  imperis-h- 
able  monument  to  the  genius  of  Clinton.  The 

*  The  Romanic  or  Latin  race  was  the  first  to  discover  and  establish 
posts  in  the  Great  Valley. 

In  1541,  De  Soto,  then  Governor  of  Cuba,  made  an  overland  expedi- 
tion from  Florida  to  the  Mississippi  River,  which  he  reached  about 
latitude  35°,  and  was  the  first  white  man  to  gaze  upon  its  turbulent 
flood.  Crossing  the  river,  he  explored  the  country  as  far  west  as  the 
Boston  Mountains  of  Arkansas,  and  south  to  the  Washita.  Seeking 
to  retrace  his  steps,  he  was  stricken  down  by  death,  and  his  followers 
consigned  his  body  to  the  middle  current  of  the  Great  River  which  he 
had  discovered. 

The  discovery  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  is  to  be  ascribed  to  Mar- 
quette,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  and  to  Joliet,  an  envoy  of  France,  of  whom 
little  is  known  except  in  connection  with  this  event.  On  the  tenth  of 
June,  1673,  with  five  French  voyageurs  and  two  canoes,  they  crossed 
the  portage  between  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin,  and  descended  the  latter 
stream  to  the  Mississippi.  Thence  continuing  the  voyage,  they  reached 
Arkansas  (about  latitude  33°),  when,  finding  the  Indians  hostile,  they 
retraced  their  course.  Arriving  at  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois,  they 
passed,  by  that  stream  and  the  Des  Plaines,  to  Chicago.  Thus,  then, 
they  were  the  first  white  men  to  survey  the  site  of  what  is  now  a 


EARLY   SETTLEMENT.  407 

region  west  of  Lake  Michigan,  was  not  open  to 
settlement  until  after  the  close  of  the  Black-Hawk 
War,  in  1832.  Thus,  the  southern  belt  had  nearly 
a  half  century  the  start  in  the  career  of  coloniza- 
tion; and,  taking  the  National  Road  as  the  dividing 
line  through  the  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illi- 
nois, the  population  south  of  that  line,  in  1830, 
largely  preponderated,  and  maintained  its  ascend- 
ency up  to  1840;  but,  in  1850,  the  conditions  were 

magnificent  city.  Before  the  close  of  September  they  reached  Green 
Bay.  Joliet  hastened  to  Quebec  and  there  embarked  for  France. 

La  Salle,  residing  at  Fort  Frontenac,  inspired  by  the  report  of 
these  discoveries,  matured  a  plan  to  follow  in  their  wake,  and  open  the 
region  to  European  commerce.  Having  received  the  sanction  of  the 
French  minister,  in  1679,  he  built  the  Griffin  on  the  Upper  Niagara, 
the  first  vessel  of  any  considerable  size  that  spread  her  canvas  on  the 
Lakes.  In  this  bark,  he  proceeded  with  a  colony  of  fur-traders  and 
attendants  to  Green  Bay.  The  Griffin  was  despatched  back,  freighted 
with  furs,  but  was  never  heard  of  afterwards.  La  Salle  then  voy- 
aged to  St.  Joseph's,  near  the  head  of  Lake  Michigan,  where 
Alloiiez  had  planted  the  cross  and  gathered  around  him  the  Miamis. 
Penetrating  the  Illinois  valley,  he  established  Fort  Crevecoeur,  below 
Peoria,  and  thence  despatched  Hennepin  to  explore  the  Upper  Missis- 
sippi. In  1682,  he  descended  the  Great  River  to  its  mouth.  In  1685, 
with  a  fleet  sent  out  from  France,  he  attempted  the  colonization  of  the 
Lower  Valley",  but  the  colonists  were  carried  beyond  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  landed  on  the  Texas  coast.  Two  years  after,  he  was  assas- 
sinated in  attempting  to  return  to  Quebec. 

The  French  kept  up  their  military  occupation  in  Illinois.  Kaskaskia 
is  the  oldest  permanent  settlement  in  the  Great  Valley.  Fort  Chartres 
was  a  principal  rendezvous;  Cahoika  was  founded  below  St.  Louis, 
and  Vincennes  on  the  Wabash. 

By  the  peace  of  1762,  France  ceded  the  territory  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi to  Great  Britain,  but  formal  possession  was  not  had  until  1765. 

During  the  colonial  period,  the  British  government  endeavored  to 
restrict  settlements  to  the  east  of  the  Alleghanies,  but  while  emigra- 
tion found  its  way  through  the  passes  to  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  and 
Western  Pennsylvania,  the  North  West  remained  sealed  to  Anglo- 
Saxon  settlement. 


408  PROGRESS    OF    DEVELOPMENT. 

reversed;    and,   in    1860,   the    preponderance    was 
largely  in  favor  of  the  north. 

The  southern  region  has  a  climate  less  rigorous, 
and  a  soil  more  fruitful  and  better  adapted  to 
stock-raising  and  the  growth  of  Indian  corn;  but 
to  the  mass  of  immigrants  the  pure  waters  and  the 
invigorating  air  of  the  lake-region  have  proved 
more  congenial  and  attractive. 

Area. — The  area  of  the  eight  Western  States 
is  525,301  square  miles,  which  is  equivalent  to 
326,192,640  acres,  of  which  52,199,050  acres  are 
"  improved,"  but  far  from  being  cultivated  in  a 
manner  to  bring  out  the  full  capabilities  of  the  soil. 
This  would  make  the  improved  land  equal  to  18 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  area.  Portions  of  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  adjacent  to  Lake  Supe- 
rior, are  not  attractive  to  settlement  by  reason  of 
the  inhospitable  climate,  and  the  western  half  of 
Kansas  by  reason  of  the  deficiency  of  rain;  but, 
with  suitable  cultivation,  it  may  be  safely  asserted 
that  this  area  is  capable  of  supporting  50,000,000 
of  the  human  family. 

Agricultural  Products. — The  principal  products 
of  these  States,  in  animal  and  vegetable  food,  are 
embraced  in  the  table,  page  241.  They  comprise 
more  than  550,000,000  bushels  of  cereals, more  than 
11,000,000  head  of  swine,  and  more  than  7,200,000 


MATERIAL    RESOURCES.  409 

head  of  horned  cattle.  Relatively  this  group  fur- 
nished 59  per  cent,  of  all  the  wheat,  39  per  cent, 
of  all  the  oats,  56  per  cent,  of  all  the  corn,  40 
per  cent,  of  all  the  tobacco,  28  per  cent,  of  all  the 
cattle,  and  33  per  cent,  of  all  the  swine,  raised  in 
the  United  States.  The  total  value  of  the  agricul- 
tural products  in  1860,  was  $1,159,605,660. 

The  amount  of  cereals  which  annually  flows  out 
of  this  region  to  the  Eastern  markets,  is  not  less 
than  100,000,000  bushels,  and  the  product  of 
pork  is  not  less  than  100,000,000  pounds.  To 
move  this  large  surplus  of  vegetable  and  animal 
food,  gives  employment,  during  the  season  of  navi- 
gation, to  more  than  1,200  vessels,  and  to  five  lines 
of  trunk  railways,  to  say  nothing  of  that  portion 
which  finds  an  outlet  through  the  Mississippi 
River,  or  is  sent  to  the  Plains  to  supply  the  Mili- 
tary posts.  The  commerce  of  the  Mississippi 
itself  gives  employment  to  about  1,200  steam- 
vessels,  besides  a  large  number  of  barges. 

Assessed  Value  of  Property. — The  assessed 
value  of  real  estate  and  personal  property  in  these 
States, — 1860, — was  nearly  $4,000,000,000, —  an 
increase  during  the  decade  of  more  than  250 
per  cent.  The  cash  value  of  farms  was  nearly 
$2,500,000,000;  of  farming  implements  and  ma- 


410        PROGRESS  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

chinery,  $80,275,000;  and  of  live  stock,  $382,- 
400,000. 

These  facts  render  it  obvious  that  the  centre  of 
population  and  productive  industry,  has  already 
crossed  the  Alleghanies,  and  has  become  seated 
for  all  time  in  the  Great  Valley.  Under  a  new  ap- 
portionment of  representation,  the  political  power 
of  this  region  will  be  dominant  in  shaping  the 
legislation  of  the  country.  The  physical  combi- 
nations, which  we  have  endeavored  to  elucidate, 
are  such  as  to  make  it  the  seat  of  the  most  power- 
ful organization  of  men  that  has  ever  been  formed. 
This  people  will  impress  their  peculiar  civiliza- 
tion upon  the  whole  country,  and  their  influence 
will  be  felt  and  acknowledged  by  the  nations  of 
the  earth. 

Having  thus  given  a  sketch  of  the  progress  of 
development  in  population  and  material  resources 
under  the  colonization  of  the  white  man,  it  will 
not  be  deemed  out  of  place  to  refer  to  the  charac- 
teristics of  that  people  who  formerly  asserted  their 
dominion  over  the  whole  of  this  region,  but  are 
now  contracted,  within  narrow  limits,  on  the 
Western  Plains;  and,  also,  to  refer  to  that  mys- 
terious race,  of  whom  little  is  known,  apart  from  the 
tumuli  and  embankments  which  are  scattered  along 
many  of  the  river-valleys.  A  century  hence,  per- 


INDIAN    CHARACTER.  4!  I 

haps,   the    memorials    of  the  Indian   will   be   less 
conspicuous  than  those  of  the  Mound-Builders. 


THE  INDIANS. 

During  the  whole  history  of  the  colonization  of  the 
white  race  on  this  Continent,  a  serious  impediment 
has  existed  in  the  Indian,  whom  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  subdue  and  even  to  exterminate;  — 
and  a  great  deal  of  misplaced  sympathy  has  been  ex- 
pressed for  his  apparently  irrevocable  fate.  There 
is  not  a  State  whose  sod  has  not  been  drenched 
with  the  blood  of  the  white  man,  shed  in  some 
border  strife.  Even  now,  not  a  year  passes  by 
without  the  perpetration  of  atrocities  shocking  to 
humanity.  The  sums  which  have  been  spent  in 
Indian  wars,  and  paid  out  under  treaties,  would 
cancel  the  national  debt.  The  whole  breadth  of 
this  Continent  must  now  be  appropriated  to  com- 
mercial intercourse,  sure,  safe,  and  expeditious. 
That  intercourse  must  necessarily  destroy  the 
hunting-grounds  of  the  Indian,  and  it  becomes  a 
question  of  a  very  serious  character  whether  the 
policy  heretofore  pursued  by  the  Government,  is  to 
be  persisted  in.  Thus  far,  while  we  have  prohib- 
ited other  powers  from  trading  or  holding  inter- 
course with  the  red  man,  we  have  so  far  recog- 


412  THE    INDIANS. 

nized  his   nationality  as  to  consent  to   enter  into 
treaty  stipulations  with  him. 

At  the  time  of  the  occupancy  by  the  European, 
of  that  portion  of  the  Continent  out  of  which  have 
been  carved  the  United  States,  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants did  not  exceed  300,000,  and  that  is  the 
estimated  number  at  this  time,  the  greater  portion 
of  whom  dwell  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Great 
Valley.  If  they  were  all  aggregated  in  one  place 
and  furnished  with  houses,  they  would  form  a  city 
a  little  more  populous  than  Chicago.  They  are, 
and  always  have  been,  separated  into  numerous 
tribes,  between  whose  members  there  was  no  per- 
manent bond  of  union,  but  oftener  open  feuds. 
Having  no  knowledge  of  the  arts  beyond  fashion- 
ing a  canoe,  or  chipping  from  flint  or  obsidian  an 
arrow-head,  no  agriculture  apart  from  cultivating 
patches  of  corn,  no  constructive  faculty  other  than 
setting  up  poles  and  covering  them  with  hides  of 
buffalo  or  sheets  of  bark,  they  live  a  listless  and 
degraded  life,  roaming  in  small  bands  from  place 
to  place  in  search  of  food,  and  regulating  their  mi- 
grations by  those  of  the  animals  on  which  they 
subsist.  Often  subject  to  the  gnawings  of  long- 
continued  famine,  when  the  means  of  appeasing  it 
are  presented,  they  gorge  themselves  like  beasts 
of  prey,  and  then  relapse  into  inaction,  utterly 
improvident  of  the  future.  With  such  habits,  and 


INDIAN    CHARACTER.  413 

with  means  of  subsistence  so  precarious,  the  Indian 
can  not  live  in  large  communities  and  occupy  fixed 
habitations. 

His  contact  with  civilization  has  not  elevated  his 
condition.  He  has  readily  imbibed  its  vices,  while 
he  has  shown  no  disposition  to  practice  its  virtues. 
Drafts  have  been  made  upon  his  moral  and  intel- 
lectual faculties,  which,  in  mercantile  phrase,  he 
has  invariably  allowed  to  go  to  protest,  with  the 
indorsement,  no  assets. 

The  Indian  was  never  a  formidable  antagonist, 
until  he  became  possessed  of  the  weapons  of  the 
white  man;  and  even  then,  he  did  not  exhibit  the 
steady  valor  and  efficient  discipline  of  the  Ameri- 
can soldier;  and  to  day,  on  the  Plains,  Sheridan's 
troopers  would  not  hesitate  to  attack  the  bravest 
band,  though  outnumbered  three  to  one.  The 
Indian  has  never  .risen  to  the  higher  arts  of 
strategy,  such  as  handling  large  bodies  of  men, 
the  carrying  or  maintaining  of  a  position,  or  con- 
ducting those  evolutions  which  appertain  to  a 
pitched  battle.  The  ambush  and  surprise  are  his 
modes  of  warfare,—  to  strike  and  retreat  before  his 
foe  can  rally.  The  knife,  the  gun,  and  the  horse, 
obtained  from  the  white  man,  are  the  only  gifts  of 
civilization  that  he  esteems,  and  the  effect  of  con- 
ferring them  upon  him,  has  been  simply  to  make 
him  more  powerful  for  evil. 


414  THE    INDIANS. 

Commercial  necessity  requires  the  appropriation 
of  these  lands  to  other  purposes  than  hunting- 
grounds.  We  may  talk  of  their  rights  to  the  soil, 
acquired  by  immemorial  use  and  enjoyment;  but 
to  make  that  right  valid,  there  must  be  some  act 
of  conversion  or  appropriation,  beyond  the  mere 
pitching  of  a  lodge,  the  cultivating  a  patch  of  corn, 
or  roaming  over  the  surface  in  pursuit  of  game. 
Population  presses  too  closely  on  the  heels  of  pro- 
duction, to  admit  of  the  setting  apart  ten  miles 
square  for  the  support  of  a  single  life,  which  is 
required  in  the  hunter-state,  when,  with  proper 
cultivation,  half  an  acre  would  yield  a  less  preca- 
rious support.  It  would  have  been  better,  perhaps, 
at  the  outset,  but  certainly  now,  for  the  Government 
to  assume  the  full  relation  of  guardian  and  ward, 
and  to  treat  the  Indian  as  the  States  treat  the  feeble- 
minded and  incompetent, —  by  providing  asylums 
where  they  shall  be  cared  for,  or  rather  place  them 
on  reservations,  under  close  surveillance,  where 
the  experiment  may  be  tried  of  instructing  them 
in  the  arts  of  agriculture.  If  they  die  out  under 
the  experiment,  we  may  console  ourselves  with  the 
reflection,  that  their  case  is  but  an  illustration  of  a 
law  of  nature,  where  the  weaker  and  more  sickly 
organisms,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  are  com- 
pelled to  give  way  before  the  hardier  and  more 


THE    MOUND-BUILDERS.  415 

The  Cherokees  afford  about  the  only  example 
where  a  whole  tribe  has  emerged  from  barbarism, 
and  successfully  adopted  the  arts  of  civilized  life. 
One  of  their  number  clomb  to  the  conception  of 
an  alphabet  and  reduced  it  to  form.  Situated  in 
one  of  the  most  favored  regions  of  the  United 
States,  where  the  extremes  of  temperature  are  not 
excessive,  where  the  relief  and  depression  of 
the  surface  is  such  as  to  give  origin  to  running 
streams,  and  where  the  vegetable  covering  is  about 
equally  divided  between  prairie  and  forest, —  the 
Cherokees  have  developed  a  capacity  for  farming 
of  the  highest  order,  and  their  surplus  herds,  in 
part,  find  their  way,  even,  to  the  New  York  mar- 
ket. Their  government  is  republican  in  form,  and 
the  will  of  the  tribe  finds  full  expression  in  their 
legislation.  This  example  encourages  the  belief 
that  the  Indian  can  be  redeemed  from  barbarism, 
and  the  policy  of  placing  him  on  a  reservation  and 
subjecting  him  to  a  system  of  training  in  the  arts 
of  civilized  life,  is  the  only  one  which  can  rescue 
him  from  swift  and  certain  annihilation. 

THE  MOUND-BUILDERS* 

At  frequent  intervals  throughout  the  region  of 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi, 

*  Abstract  of  a  paper,  by  the  author,  on  the  "Antiquity  of  Man  in 
North  America."  Trans.  Chicago  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Vol.  I. 


416  THE    MOUND-BUILDERS. 

occasionally  upon  some  crowning  eminence,  but 
for  the  most  part  in  the  rich  alluvial  valleys,  there 
are  found  tumuli  of  earth — the  highest  of  which 
reach  from  seventy  to  ninety  feet, —  long  lines  of 
embankments,  often  circular  and  often  square,  en- 
closing many  acres,  and  pierced  at  intervals  with 
entrances,  and  parallel  roads  connecting  together 
the  several  parts, —  the  whole  occupying  leagues 
in  extent,  and  bearing  evidence  of  having  been 
constructed  according  to  well-devised  plans. 
.  When  the  white  man  first  penetrated  the  Ohio 
Valley,  he  found  growing  upon  them,  a  forest 
which,  in  the  size  of  the  trees  and  in  their  charac- 
teristic forms,  differed  in  no  degree  from  those  of 
the  surrounding  region.  Upon  the  origin  of  those 
structures,  by  what  people  built,  and  the  causes 
that  led  to  their  extinction,  the  Indian  occupants 
of  the  country  could  throw  no  light;  except,  per- 
haps, the  obscure  tradition  communicated  to  Hecke- 
welder,  a  Moravian  missionary,  that  the  Algonquins 
and  Wyandots  had  expelled  from  the  valley  of  the 
Ohio  its  former  inhabitants,  who  had  descended 
the  Mississippi. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  accomplished  histo- 
rian* of  the  United  States,  basing  his  information 
on  a  hasty  generalization  of  the  late  Professor 
Hitchcock,  who,  at  the  time,  had  never  personally 

*  Bancroft.     "  History  of  the  United  States."     Vol.  III.,  Chap.  22. 


EXTENT    OF   THEIR    WORKS.  417 

inspected  these  structures,  should  have  indorsed 
and  perpetuated,  in  a  work  to  which  every  one  refers 
as  the  standard  of  authority,  the  grave  error,  that 
the  Mississippi  Valley  has  no  monuments;  —  and 
that  where  the  antiquarian  of  a  vivid  imagination 
sees  the  vestiges  of  artificial  walls,  the  geologist 
sees  but  crumbs  of  decaying  sandstone;  that  where 
the  one  sees  parallel  entrenchments,  the  other  sees 
but  a  trough  that  subsiding  waters  have  ploughed 
through  the  centre  of  a  ridge;  and  that  where  the 
one  sees  a  tessellated  pavement,  the  other  sees  but 
a  layer  of  pebbles  aptly  joined  by  the  water.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  select  from  an  ample  store- 
house, the  facts  to  refute  these  assertions.  Suffice 
it  to  say,  that  the  geologist  and  the  antiquary,  side 
by  side,  and  with  pains-taking  care,  have  explored 
very  many  of  these  structures,  and  both  accord  in 
the  verdict,  that  these  are  the  works  of  human 
hands. 

This  region,  then,  has  its  monuments,  whose 
origin  goes  back  to  a  remote  antiquity, —  reared, 
too,  by  a  people  who  had  at  least  emerged  from 
barbarism.  These  works  are  first  met  with  in 
Western  New  York,  and  are  continued  through 

7  O 

Northern  Ohio  to  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota. 
While  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior  no 
traces  of  earth-works  have  been  observed,  there  are 

abundant  evidences  of  ancient  mining,  extending 

27 


41 8  MOUND-BUILDERS. 

over  the  whole  Copper-region,  and  there  is  a  chain 
of  proof  which  connects  these  exploitations  with 
the  Mound-Builders. 

The  valleys  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  how- 
ever, afford  a  climate  more  equable,  and  a  soil 
more  genial  for  the  cultivation  of  maize,  which  was 
undoubtedly  the  great  staple  of  food  and  the  basis 
of  their  civilization;  and  hence,  in  these  regions, 
we  find  these  earth-works  vastly  multiplied.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Grave  Creek,  below  Wheeling;  at 
Marietta,  and  up  the  valley  of  the  Muskingum,  and 
its  tributary,  the  Licking;  at  Gallipolis;  at  Ports- 
mouth, Piketon,  Chillicothe,  and  Circleville,  in  the 
rich  valley  of  the  Scioto;  at  Cincinnati,  and  through 
the  equally  rich  valley  of  the  Miami; — the  number 
and  magnitude  of  these  works  indicate  that  here 
were  the  sites  of  populous  settlements,  whose  in- 
habitants must  have  been  maintained  by  other  pur- 
suits than  those  of  hunting  and  fishing.  Earth- 
works occur  at  Vincennes,  Indiana,  and  at  other 
points  in  the  Wabash  Valley;  in  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Northern  Mississippi,  and  vestiges 
have  been  observed  in  the  Gulf  States  —  Ala- 
bama, Georgia,  and  Florida, —  as  far  east  as  South 
Carolina. 

The  original  site  of  St.  Louis  was  dotted  over 
with  numerous  mounds,  and  the  Illinois  shore 
opposite,  in  what  is  known  as  the  American  Bot- 


EXTENT    OF   THEIR   WORKS.  419 

torn,  contains  some  of  the  largest  thus  far  ob- 
served. *  The  Rock- River  region  of  Northern 
Illinois,  embracing  Sterling,  contains  many  of  these 
earth- works,  some  of  which,  like  those  of  Wiscon- 
sin and  Minnesota,  represent  the  form  of  animals. 

We  are  not  aware  that  the  Missouri  Valley, 
above  the  mouth  of  that  river,  contains  any  vesti- 
ges of  the  Mound-Builders. 

I  do  not  propose  to  describe  these  works,  as  that 
task  has  been  executed  by  Atwater,  Squier  and 
Davis,  Whittlesey,  Lapham,  and  others;  but  suffice 
it  to  say,  that  they  appear  to  have  been  constructed 
to  subserve  a  variety  of  purposes, —  such  as  military 
defence,  in  which  case  they  were  undoubtedly 
crowned  with  palisades;  for  places  of  sepulture; 
for  sacrificial  altars;  and,  perhaps,  the  more  con- 
spicuous were  erected  as  monuments  to  commem- 
orate some  signal  event  in  their  history. 

The  Mound-Builders,  in  the  selection  of  the  sites 
for  their  habitations,  appear  to  have  been  influenced 
by  the  same  motives  that  governed  the  white  man, 
for  we  find  that  many  of  the  most  flourishing  towns 
and  cities  in  the  West,  occupy  these  identical  sites; 
for  example,  Marietta,  Portsmouth,  Circleville, 

*  That  of  Cahokia  is  90  feet  high,  and  has  a  base  of  666  feet;  while 
the  famous  mound  at  Grave  Creek,  Virginia,  is  70  feet,  with  a  base  of 
333  feet;  and  the  next  in  rank  is  that  at  Miamisburgh,  Ohio,  which  is 
68  feet,  with  a  base  of  284  feet. 


420  MOUND-BUILDERS. 

Piketon,  Chillicothe,  Cincinnati,  Vincennes,  Chat- 
tanooga, St.  Louis,  Sterling,  Beloit,  etc. 

When  we  consider  the  magnitude  and  extent  of 
these  works, —  those,  for  instance,  near  Newark, 
Ohio,  with  its  circles  and  squares,  and  its  parallel 
roads  and  tumuli,  extending  over  leagues  of  ground 
(and  whose  cubic  contents  exceed  those  of  the 
great  pyramid  of  Cheops) ;  or  the  great  mound  of 
Cahokia,  and  the  subordinate  mounds  in  the  Ameri- 
can Bottom,  and  on  the  site  of  St.  Louis, —  the 
whole  series  extending  over  a  breadth  of  ten 
miles, — we  draw  the  inference,  that  these  struc- 
tures could  never  have  been  erected  by  a  people 
who  depended  on  the  chase  or  the  fisheries  for  the 
means  of  subsistence.  Mere  roving  bands,  like  the 
Indians  on  the  Plains,  can  not  aggregate  in  com- 
munities, nor  can  they  accumulate  a  stock  of  pro- 
visions so  as  to  admit  of  the  expenditure  of  vast 
labor  upon  unproductive  works;  and  besides,  the 
history  of  all  nomadic  tribes,  whether  in  Scythia 
or  North  America,  shows,  that  they  are  averse  to 
that  patient  and  long-continued  labor  which  is  im- 
plied in  such  structures.  They  are  the  memorials 
of  the  persevering  industry  of  a  people  who  occu- 
pied fixed  habitations,  and  whose  agriculture  was 
so  far  successful,  as  to  admit  'of  the  appropriation 
of  a  portion  of  their  labor  to  other  objects  than  pro- 
curing the  necessaries  of  life.  They  imply,  too, 


THEIR    AGRICULTURE.  421 

a  consolidated  and,  perhaps,  a  despotic  govern- 
ment, under  which  a  single  mind  directed  that 
labor  to  the  accomplishment  of  a  well-devised 
plan.  There  is  a  unity  of  purpose,  carried  out  in  all 
of  its  details,  which  could  only  be  successful  under 
such  a  political  organization. 

The  civilization  of  Egypt  resulted  from  the  cheap 
food  furnished  by  the  date,  which  grows  spontane- 
ously in  the  valley  of  the  Nile;  and  to  bring  up  a 
child  to  manhood,  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus, 
who  wrote  more  tjian  two  thousand  years  ago,  cost 
not  more  than  twenty  drachmas,  or  less  that  three 
dollars.  Hence,  then,  under  a  despotic  govern- 
ment, nearly  the  whole  labor  of  the  country  could 
be  employed  in  constructing  such  works  as  the 
Pyramids,  and  such  cities  as  Thebes,  Karnac,  and 
Luxor. 

In  South  America,  the  cheap  food  furnished  by 
the  cultivation  of  corn  or  maize,  enabled  the  Incas 
of  Peru,  to  build  up  a  great  empire,  and  construct 
those  works  whose  ruins,  at  this  day,  excite  the 
admiration  of  every  beholder. 

Maize  probably  constituted  the  staple  of  the 
Mound-Builders'  crop,  and  a  single  acre  of  ground 
well  cultivated,  would  have  supported  from  thirty 
to  fifty  people,  with  such  animal  food  as  they  may 
have  derived  from  the  forests  and  the  streams. 
Vestiges  of  their  garden-plots  may  be  seen  in  the 


422  THE    MOUND-BUILDERS. 

valley  of  the  St.  Joseph's,  Michigan,  and  carbon- 
ized corn  has  been  revealed  in  the  mounds  at 
Grave  Creek  and  Cincinnati.  And  yet  they  must 
have  tilled  their  fields  at  a  disadvantage,  for  there 
is  no  evidence  of  their  having  availed  themselves 
of  the  patient  labor  of  the  ox  or  the  horse,  which, 
on  the  European  Continent,  have  proved  the  faithful 
servants  of  man, —  for  neither  of  these  quadrupeds 
existed  on  the  American  Continent  at  the  time  of  its 
discovery  by  Europeans.  There  were,  it  true,  two 
representatives  of  the  bovine  tribe, —  the  musk-ox, 
which  never  wandered  as  far  south  as  their  habita- 
tions, and  the  buffalo,  which  has  hitherto  resisted  all 
attempts  at  domestication.  In  the  absence,  then, 
of  the  horse  and  ox,  which  mainly  constitute  the 
herds  of  a  pastoral  people,  the  Mound-Builders 
must,  in  the  progress  of  their  history,  have  passed 
directly  from  a  hunter-life  to  one  of  agriculture. 

Their  stone-implements  consisted  of  spear  and 
arrow-heads  chipped,  with  much  skill,  out  of  horn- 
stone  or  chert;  of  hammers,  generally  of  porphyry, 
grooved  near  the  head  for  the  attachment  of  a 
withe;  of  fleshing  instruments  of  the  same  mate- 
rial brought  down  to  a  blunt  edge;  of  pestles  for 
cracking  and  grinding  corn;  of  tabular  plates  of 
steatite  or  chlorite  slate,  pierced  with  holes  to 
gauge  the  size  of  the  thread  in  spinning;  of  circular 
discs,  like  weights,  and  concave  on  both  surfaces, 


THEIR    MINING.  423 

ordinarily  of  porphyry,  and  ground;  ornaments 
like  plumb-bobs,  double-coned  or  egg-shaped,  and 
pierced  or  grooved  at  one  end  for  the  attach- 
ment of  a  string, — the  material  being  specular  iron, 
like  that  derived  from  Lake  Superior  or  the  Iron 
Mountain,  but  sometimes  limestone;  and  lastly, 
there  are  occasionally  found  elaborately-wrought 
pipes,  which  show  that  they  indulged  in  the  luxury 
of  tobacco. 

In  the  fabrication  of  these  implements  they  ex- 
hibited a  skill  far  superior  to  that  belonging  to  the 
Stone  Age  of  Europe,  rivaling  those  elaborately- 
wrought  and  polished  stone-works  which  are  desig- 
nated as  "  celts,"  and  which  are  referred,  by 
European  ethnologists,  to  a  more  advanced  state 
of  civilization. 

They  mined  extensively  native  copper  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior,  and  wrought  it  into 
knives,  spear-heads,  chisels,  bracelets,  and  other 
personal  ornaments;  but,  having  no  tin,  they  could 
not,  like  the  ancient  dwellers  on  the  Swiss  lakes,  or 
like  the  inhabitants  of  Nineveh,  of  the  valley  of  the 
Nile,  or  of  Peru,  impart  to  the  alloy  almost  the 
hardness  of  steel.  It  is  doubtful,  even,  whether 
their  metallurgic  art  extended  to  the  smelting  of 
copper;  for  it  often  happens  that  the  native  copper 
of  Lake  Superior  encloses  native  silver, —  both 
metals  existing  side  by  side  chemically  pure, — 


424  MOUND-BUILDERS. 

which,  if  smelted,  in  whatever  proportions,  would 
form  a  homogeneous  compound.  Bracelets  have 
been  found  in  the  mounds,  in  which  this  peculiarity 
is  preserved,  thus  showing  that  the  material  had 
not  been  smelted  but  simply  hammered;  and  the 
ends  are  brought  together  by  bending,  without  any 
evidence  of  having  been  soldered. 

Their  mining  operations  were  on  a  scale  of  mag- 
nitude, of  which  no  one  can  form  a  just  conception, 
except  from  personal  observation.  There  are  few 
productive  copper-veins  now  wrought  upon  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior,  which  were  not  known 
and  explored  by  the  Mound-Builders.  Continuous 
lines  of  ancient,  but  now  nearly  filled  pits,  are  ob- 
served, not  only  on  Keweenaw  Point,  in  the  On- 
tonagon  region,  but  even  on  Isle  Royale;  and  to 
reach  the  latter  point  involved  a  passage  of  forty- 
five  miles,  across  a  lake  by  no  means  placid  in  its 
disposition.  Their  method  of  mining  was,  proba- 
ably,  to  build  fires  on  the  rock  and,  when 
thoroughly  heated,  to  dash  on  water,  and  thus 
fissure  it  in  parts,  when  it  was  broken  up  with 
hammers  of  porphyry  weighing  from  five  and  even 
up  to  forty  pounds,  which  were  derived  from  the 
rounded  masses  on  the  Lake-shore.  Cart-loads  of 
hammers  were  taken  out  of  some  of  these  excava- 
tions by  the  modern  explorers. 

Heaps  of  rubbish  line  the  course  of  the  veins; 


THEIR    TEXTILE    FABRICS.  425 

and  in  the  bottom  of  some  of  the  pits,  have  been 
found  the  remains  of  ladders  by  which  they 
ascended  and  descended,  the  bowls  with  which 
they  bailed  the  water,  and  the  copper-gads  by 
which  they  forced  the  rocks  apart.  At  the  Minne- 
sota mine,  the  workmen  in  re-excavating  one  of 
these  ancient  pits,  at  the  depth  of  eighteen  feet, 
came  upon  a  mass  of  copper  ten  feet  long,  three 
feet  wide,  and  nearly  two  feet  thick,  and  weighing 
not  far  from  two  tons,  which  the  ancient  miners,  after 
having  raised  about  five  feet,  and  propped  with 
billets  of  wood,  had  abandoned,  having  first,  how- 
ever, removed  all  of  the  projecting  points  which 
were  accessible. 

They  clothed  themselves,  in  part  at  least,  not  in 
skins  like  the  Indian;  not  like  the  Sandwich 
Islander  in  the  macerated  bark  of  certain  trees; 
not  like  the  dwellers  on  the  Swiss  lakes,  in  matted 
sheets  of  vegetable  fibre;  but  in  cloth  of  a  texture 
approaching  hemp,  spun  with  a  uniform  thread, 
and  woven  with  a  warp  and  woof.  The  texture, 
while  coarse,  is  uniform,  and  the  border  is  often 
ornamented  with  tassels.  It  is  not  such  a  fabric 
as  a  European  manufacturer  would  make  to  traffic 
with  a  barbarous  nation,  for  cotton  would  be 
cheaper,  and  wool  would  afford  more  warmth; 
and,  besides,  this  cloth  was  found  under  such  cir- 


426  THE    MOUND-BUILDERS. 

cumstances  as  to  preclude  the  idea  of  its  being  a 
modern  substitution. 

In  the  plastic  arts,  they  attained  to  considerable 
proficiency.  While  the  Indian,  before  his  contact 
with  the  white  man,  was  in  the  habit  of  bending 
up  birch-bark  so  as  to  hold  water,  and  then  casting 
in  hot  stones,  and  thus  bringing  it  to  a  boiling  point; 
the  Mound-Builder  moulded  his  pots  in  clay, 
tempered  with  sand  or  shells,  and  baked  them  so 
far  as  to  make  useful  utensils  in  most  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  cooking.  Not  content  with  the  useful, 
he  aspired  to  the  ornamental.  From  a  mound  in 
Missouri,  I  have  seen  a  water-cooler  in  the  form 
of  a  compressed  globe,  the  neck  surmounted  with 
the  similitude  of  a  human  head.  The  features  are 
symmetrically  moulded,  and  the  facial  angle  indi- 
cates intelligence.  The  features  are  not  those  of 
the  red  man,  but  such  as  distinguish  the  enlight- 
ened races.  There  is  a  statuette  taken  from  the 
same  mound,  representing  a  captive  bound  ;  and 
while  portions  of  the  figure  are  well  moulded, 
taken  as  a  whole,  it  is  grossly  incongruous. 

They  must  have  maintained  a  commercial  in- 
tercourse with  the  most  distant  parts  of  North 
America,  for  the  same  mounds  have  often  afforded 
plates  of  mica  from  a  region  as  remote  as  New 
England;  copper  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior; marine  shells  {Busy con  petversuin)  from 


EXTENT    OF    THEIR    WORKS.  427 

the  Gulf  or  Atlantic  Coast;  and  steatitic  and  por- 
phyritic  implements,  the  materials  of  which  must 
have  been  derived  from  a  region  equally  remote. 

The  crania  which  have  been  exhumed  from  the 
mounds,  as  determined  by  Morton,*  differ  in  many 
respects  from  those  of  the  North  American  Indi- 
an;—  in  the  wider  expansion  of  the  forehead,  the 
larger  facial  angle,  the  less  obliquity  of  the  orbit 
of  the  eye,  the  narrower  nose,  the  less  prominent 
projection  of  the  jaws,  the  smaller  dimensions 
of  the  palatine  fossa,  and  the  flattened  occiput. 
Many  of  these  peculiarities  are  displayed  in  the 
head  from  the  Missouri  mound,  before  spoken  of, 
moulded  by  the  unknown  artist  who  had  the  skill 
to  impress  upon  the  plastic  clay,  the  features  of  his 
race. 

Although  the  Mound-Builders,  from  the  absence 
of  tin,  made  no  use  of  bronze  implements,  yet, 
when  we  regard  the  vast  number  and  magnitude 
of  their  structures,  their  perfection  in  weaving,  in 
pottery,  in  the  fabrication  of  stone-implements,  the 
extent  to  which  they  employed  copper  in  the  place 
of  bronze,  and  the  communication  which  they 
maintained  between  widely-separated  portions  of 
the  country,  we  can  not  but  ascribe  to  them  a 
place  in  the  scale  of  civilization,  as  high  as  the 

*  "Crania  Americana."     p.  208. 


428  CONCLUSION. 

people  of  the  Bronze  Age  on  the  Eastern  Hem- 
isphere. Their  exclusion  from  the  beautiful  valley 
of  the  Mississippi,  which  contains  so  many  memo- 
rials of  their  industry  and  greatness,  is  not  the  only 
example  which  history  affords  of  the  extermination 
of  a  people  considerably  advanced  in  civilization, 
by  a  people  more  vigorous,  and  less  inclined  to  the 
arts  of  peace. 

We  have  no  chronometer  by  which  to  measure 
the  lapse  of  time  since  these  excavations  were  made, 
and  these  structures  were  reared,  except  the  char- 
acter of  the  arborescent  vegetation  with  which  they 
are  now  covered.  This  is  in  every  respect  like 
that  of  the  adjacent  forest.  When,  therefore,  we 
see  growing  upon  these  mounds,  trees  four  centu- 
ries old,  and  the  prostrate  and  moldering  trunks 
of  others,  which  once  flourished  on  the  same  sites, 
we  are  justified  in  assuming  that  these  works  are 
at  least  a  thousand  years  old;  but  in  attempting  to 
determine  their  absolute  age  we  are  lost  in  the 
mazes  of  conjecture. 

CONCLUSION. 

We  here  bring  to  a  conclusion  our  sketch  of  the 
physical  geography  of  the  GREAT  VALLEY.  We 
have  endeavored  to  portray  its  configuration, —  the 
mountain  chains  by  which  it  is  bounded,  the  dif- 


CONCLUSION.  429 

ferent  epochs  of  their  elevation,  the  heights  to 
which  they  attain,  the  diversity  of  climate  to 
which  they  give  origin,  and  the  influence  which 
they  exert  on  the  distribution  of  moisture.  The 
boundaries  of  forests,  prairies,  and  arid  wastes  have 
been  traced,  and  the  causes  to  which  they  owe 
their  origin,  have  been  investigated.  The  condi- 
tions of  soil  and  climate  essential  to  the  growth 
and  perfection  of  those  plants  adapted  to  human 
food  and  human  raiment,  have  been  pointed  out, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  materials  which  make  up 
the  great  frame- work  of  the  region, —  the  rocks 
from  whose  abrasion  the  soil  has  been  derived, 
and  whose  recesses  are  the  repositories  of  the  use- 
ful metals,  and  the  store-houses  of  fossil  fuel, — 
all  have  passed  under  review.  And,  finally,  we 
have  recounted  how  this  Great  Valley,  within  the 
memory  of  living  men,  has  been  reclaimed  from 
the  wilderness,  and  been  made  the  abode  of  twelve 
millions  of  human  beings,  who  have  developed  an 
internal  industry,  and  attained  to  a  degree  of  pros- 
perity, of  which  the  annals  of  the  past  afford  no 
parallel;  and,  indulging  in  visions  of  coming  great- 
ness, we  have  predicted  the  time,  and  at  no  remote 
date,  when  this  people  would  impress  their  laws 
and  civilization  upon  the  Continent,  and  make 
their  influence  felt  in  the  conduct  of  the  world's 
affairs. 


43°  CONCLUSION. 

We  close  with  the  consciousness  that  our  task 
has  been  but  imperfectly  executed.  While  we 
have  endeavored  to  avoid  those  specialities  which 
are  required  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  pure  science, 
we  have  endeavored  to  introduce  those  general- 
izations which  may  be  comprehended  and  appre- 
ciated by  the  intelligent  reader. 

No  one  can  rise  from  the  study  of  the  physical 
geography  of  our  country,  without  its  awakening  in 
his  mind  a  nobler  sphere  of  thought,  and  creating 
a  profounder  impression,  as  to  the  ultimate  destiny 
of  the  human  race  in  those  arts  which  dignify  life 
and  mitigate  its  sufferings. 

If  Burke,  during  the  last  century,  in  surveying 
the  magnitude  of  the  French  empire, —  the  public 
works,  the  charitable  foundations,  and  other  institu- 
tions,—  confessed  that,  in  all  this,  he  beheld  "some- 
thing which  awed  and  commanded  the  imagina- 
tion; "  how  much  more  profoundly  would  he  have 
been  impressed,  if  he  could  have  witnessed  the 
growth  and  present  position  of  the  feeble  colonists 
whose  conduct  he  so  ably  defended.  He  would 
have  seen  those  colonists,  numbering  at  the  time 
they  asserted  their  independence,  less  than  three 
millions,  expanded  to  forty  millions;  occupying  a 
country  stretching  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and  so  far 
diversified  by  soil  and  climate,  as  to  produce  most 
of  those  plants  which  enter  into  human  food  and 


CONCLUSION.  43 1 

raiment;  intersected  by  great  navigable  rivers, 
spanned  by  bridges  of  iron,  and  dotted  with  popu- 
lous cities  upon  their  banks;  with  an  area  greater 
than  that  of  France,  subdued  and  brought  under 
cultivation,  and  yet  with  a  capacity  for  expansion 
almost  unlimited;  with  artificial  communications, 
undreamed  of  in  his  day,  between  every  principal 
commercial  point;  and  with  one  iron-road,  stretch- 
ing like  a  girdle  across  the  "  solid  continent."  He 
would  have  seen  this  people  living  under  a  form  of 
government  the  best  ever  devised  for  the  security 
of  personal  freedom  and  the  display  of  human 
energy,  and  with  an  inherent  strength  to  with- 
stand shocks,  as  evinced  in  the  late  Rebellion,  under 
which  any  other  government  would  have  crumbled. 
He  would  have  seen,  in  each  State,  ample  provi- 
sion for  the  education  of  every  child;  and  hospitals 
and  asylums,  erected  by  public  or  private  contri- 
butions, for  the  alleviation  of  all  the  ills  incident 
to  humanity. 

With  such  elements  of  national  power  and 
future  greatness,  let  us  hope  that  the  virtue  and 
intelligence  of  the  people  will  advance  with  equal 
pace. 


INDEX. 


ABB 

A. 

Abbot,  cited,  see  HUMPHREYS  AND 

ABBOT. 
Adirondack    Mountains,    age    of, 

266. 
Africa,  desert  of,  131. 

sources  of  the  Nile,  132. 
rain-fall  of  Sierra  Leone,  134. 
region  of  the  Mediterranean, 

135- 

atmospheric  currents  of,  ib. 
Agassiz,   Louis,  cited,  on   Prime- 
val Continent,  255. 
Age  of  rocks,  see  SYSTEMS  OF  UP- 
HEAVAL. 

Age  of  metals,  269. 
Alaska,  climate  of,  199. 
Alleghany,  or  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains, 27. 

height  of,  ib. 
age  of,  255. 

range  and  structure  of,  28. 
coal-field  of,  297. 
Alluvium  of  the  Mississippi,  16. 
Alps,  different   lines  of  upheaval 

recognized  in,  32. 
Altai  Mountains,  129. 
Alternate  wood  and  prairie,  region 

of,  81. 

Amazon,  basin  of,  113. 
vegetation  of,  114. 
America,  see  NORTH  AMERICA. 
Amygdaloid  of  Lake  Superior,  275. 
Andes,  range  of,  in. 

effects   in    modifying  climate, 

112. 

highest  peaks  of,  ib. 
Anthracite  of  Pennsylvania,  301. 

of  New  Mexico,  313. 
Antisell,  T.,  cited.  36. 

on  the  rains  of  California,  168. 
Appalachian  system,  225. 
Arabia,  desert  of,  130. 
Arctic  climate,  333. 

28 


B  E  A 

Arctic  life,  358. 

Argentiferous  veins  of  New  Mexi- 
co, 294. 

of  Nevada,  330. 
Artemisia,  characteristic  of  a  dry 

climate,  86. 
Asia,  central  plateau  of,  129. 

mountains  of,  130. 

rainless  and  profusely-watered 

belts  of,  ib. 

Atacama,  desert  of,  119. 
Atlas  Mountains,  135. 
Atmosphere,  currents  of,  173 ;  186. 

height  of,  183. 

Auriferous  slates  of  California,  308. 
Auriferous  veins,  Azoic,  268. 
Auroras.  201. 
Austin,  j.  B.,  cited,  362. 
Australia,  its  flora  and  fauna,  135. 

its    deserts,    mountains,    and 

winds,  136. 
Axis  of  elevation,  250. 

of  the  Alleghanies,  255. 

of  Lake  Superior,  254. 

of  Rocky  Mountains,  257. 

of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  258. 

of  the  Coast  Range,  260. 
Azoic  system,  defined,  264. 

its  range,  265. 

B. 

Bancroft,   George,   cited,   on    the 
ancient  monuments  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  416. 
"Barren  Grounds"  described,  78. 
Basalt,  of  Table  Mountain,  261. 
of  Lower  California,  262. 
of  New  Mexico,  262. 
of  Oregon,  36. 
Basins,  river,  of  the   Mississippi, 

35  43- 

of  the  Missouri,  39. 
of  the  Ohio,  42. 
Beaumont,  Elie  de,  cited,  251. 


434 


INDEX. 


Becquerel,  on  forest-barriers,  160. 
Bigelow,  J.  M.,  cited,  88;  89. 
Big  trees  of  California,  94.  . 

Bituminous  coal,  of  Carboniferous 
age.  301. 

of  Cretaceous  age,  312. 
of  Tertiary  age,  326. 
Blake,  W.  P.,  cited,  46. 
Blodget,    Lorin,    Climatology   of 
United  States,  96. 

his  tables  of  temperature,  207. 
of  rain  fall.  96;  208. 
on  the  winds  of  the  Gulf,  104. 
Blue  (Cincinnati)  limestone,  range 

of,  283. 

Borlander,  H.  N.,  cited,  154. 
Botanical   Geography,   region   of 
mosses,  78. 
of  conifers,  So. 
of  deciduous  trees,  81. 
of  the  grasses,  84;  89. 
of  the  cacti  and  artemisise.Sy. 
arborescent  forms    of   Pacific 

Slope,  92 

of  Mississippi  Valley,  5. 
Boulders,  see  DRIFT. 
Brande's  Dictionary,  cited,  219. 
Brazil,  forests  of,  113. 

atmospheric  currents  of,  121. 
British  America,  lignites  of,  326. 
climate  of,  366. 
of  the  Saskatchawan  region, 

62. 

Bross,  Gov.  Wm.,  cited,  233. 
Brown,  J.  Ross,  cited,  91 ;  308. 
Buckle,  H.  T.,  cited,  365. 
Buckland,  Wm.,  cited,  300. 
Burlington    limestone,    range   of, 

289. 
Buenos  Ayres,  pampas  of,  117. 

C. 

Cactus,  distribution  of,  87. 
Calciferous    sandstone,   range   of, 

280. 
California,  Carboniferous  rocks  of, 

259- 

basaltic  rocks  of,  261. 
Cretaceous  of,  313. 
gold-bearing  rocks  of,  308. 
copper-bearing  rocks  of,  308. 
coal  deposits  of,  313. 
quicksilver  deposits  of,  314. 


CL  J 

Triassic  rocks  of,  258;  30)". 
Tertiary  rocks  of,  328. 
erosive  action  in,  338. 
its    mountain    chains,    Sierra 

Nevada,  34. 

Coast  Ranges,  36;  260. 
height  of  principal  summits, 

35!  37- 

vegetable  productions  of,  92. 

Yosemite  Valley  in,  95. 

wheat-culture  of,  168. 

climate  of.  101. 

periodic  rains  of,  106;   168. 
Canada,  climate  of,  366. 
Caflons  of  the  Colorado  plateau, 

339- 

Caraccas,  llanos  of,  114. 
Carbonic  acid  gas  in  air,  142. 

how  generated,  145. 
Carboniferous  series,  range  of,  287. 
Caribbean  Sea,  winds  of  the,  103. 
Carolina,  pine  barrens  of,  319. 
Cascade  Range  of  Pacific,  36. 
Caspian  Sea,  region  of  the,  125. 
Catholicism,  universality  of,  386. 
Caucasian  type,  characteristics  of, 

375- 

Caucasus,  region  of  the,  128. 
Celts,  their  origin,  381. 

their  characteristics,  385. 

their  colonization,  386. 
Cerealia,  range  and  cultivation  of, 

See  CLIMATIC  RANGE. 

Chaco  Gran,  described,  116. 
Chester  group,  range  of,  288. 
Christianity,  effects  of  the  spread 

of,  399. 

Cinnabar  of  California,  314. 
Civilization,  origin  of,  377. 

Grecian,  378. 

Roman,  381. 

Teutonic,  ib* 

Celtic,  /*. 

contrasted   with   that  of    the 

ancients,  69. 
Classification  of  rock-formations, 

246. 
Climate,  definition  of,  172. 

atmospheric  currents,  173. 

oceanic  currents,  Gulf  Stream, 
188. 

rains  and  winds,  178. 

isothermal  lines,  186. 

of  the  United  States,  192. 

of  the  Pacific  Coast  and  Great 


INDEX. 


435 


CL  I 

Basin,  180;   197. 
of  the  Plains,  204. 
table  of  temperatures  in  Uni- 
ted States.  207. 
table    of   rain-fall    in   United 

States,  208. 

its  influence  on  man,  355. 
in  the  Arctic  regions,  358. 
in  the  temperate  regions,  362. 
in  the  torrid  regions,  360. 
phenomena  of  the  seasons  in 

North  America,  200. 
Climatic  range  of  cultivated  plants, 
209. 

of  maize,  213. 

of  wheat,  215. 

of  oats,  rye,  and  barley,  218. 

of  rice,  222. 

of  sugar-cane    and    sorghum, 

224. 

of  the  potato,  226. 
of  cotton,  227. 
of  tobacco,  230. 
of  the  grasses,  231. 
tables  of  annual   production, 

240. 

Climatology,  of  the  United  States, 
182. 

of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  180. 
of  the  Gulf  Coast,  195. 
of  the  Pacific  Coast,  198. 
of  the   Saskatchewan  Valley, 

194. 
of  the  United  States  compared 

with  Europe,  187;  190. 
Cloud-bursts,  phenomena  of,  182. 
Coal,  its  uses,  295. 

mode  of  formation,  299. 
of  tne  Carboniferous  age,  296. 
of  the  Cretaceous  age,  312. 
of  the  Tertiary  age,  326;  330. 
anthracite    of    Pennsylvania, 

362. 

of  New  Mexico,  313. 
analyses  of,  317- 
Coast  Ranges  of  the  Pacific,  36; 

260. 
Colonization  of  United  States,  387. 

of  Western  States,  403. 
Colorado,  desert  of,  46. 

canons  of.  339. 

Comstock  lode  described,  330. 
Columbia,  basin  of,  46. 
Columbus,  diversion  in  his  course, 

effects  of,  387. 
Coniferous  limestone,  range  of,  80. 


Constant    precipitation,    zone   of, 

177; 

Continents,  formation  of,  245. 
Continent,     Primeval    of     North 

America,  254. 
Cooper,  J.  G.,  cited,  82. 
Copper,  annual  product  of,  280. 
Copper-region  of  Lake  Superior, 

279. 

of  California,  308. 
Cordilleras  of  South  America,  112; 

"7- 

Corn,  a  generic  term,  219. 

Corn,  Indian,  range  of,  213. 
Cotton,  range  of.  227. 
Cretaceous  system,  range  of,  310. 

groups  of  Missouri  Basin,  311. 

of  the  Atlantic  Slope,  310. 

of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  14; 
310. 

of  the  Pacific  Coast,  310;  313. 

of  the  Colorado  Plateau,  ib. 

flora  of,  316. 

coals  of,  313. 
Crofts,  Capt.,  cited,  233. 
Crystalline  rocks,  range  of,  249. 
Cultivated    plants,   see    CLIMATIC 

RANGE. 

Currents,  air  and  oceanic,  see  CLI- 
MATE. 

Cuvier,  cited,  325. 

Cypress-swamps  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, 6. 

D. 

Dakota  group,  311. 
Dall,  W,  H.,  on  the  northern  ex- 
tension   of    the    Rocky    Moun- 
tains, 62. 

Dana,  J.  D.,  cited,  on  the  structure 
of  continents,  253. 

on  the  origin  of  the  prairies, 

109. 

on  the  Australian  Alps,  136. 
Davidson,  on  the  range  of  fossils, 

247. 

Delta  of  the  Mississippi,  16. 
Denudation,  in  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  350. 
in  California,  338. 
in  the  Colorado  Plateau,  340. 
Densely-wooded    belt,   in   United 

States,  78. 

Deserts,  origin  of,  71. 
of  Arabia,  130. 


436 


INDEX. 


of  Atacama,  119. 

of  Australia,  136. 

of  Colorado,  46. 

of  Gobi  129. 

of  Patagonia,  118. 

of  Sahara,  131, 

of  Salinas,  116. 

of  the  Great  Basin,  37;  90. 
Development,  physical,  in  Western 

States,  375. 
Devonian  system,  range  of,  285. 

economic  materials  in,  285. 
Drift  series,  332. 

in  Mississippi  Valley,  335. 

absence,  of  on  the  Plains,  337. 

in  California,  338. 

in  Lower  California,  262. 
Dunes  of  Lake  Michigan,  345. 


E. 

Earth,  effects  of  the  obliquity  of 

its  axis,  177. 

Earth's  crust,  effects  of  the  con- 
traction of,  177. 

Earthquakes  at  New  Madrid,  18. 
Egypt,  effects  of  the  Nile's  inun- 
dation on,  133. 

ancient  irrigation  practiced  in, 

1 66. 

Elevation,  systems  of,  250. 
of  Lake  Superior,  254. 
of  the  Appalachian,  255. 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  257. 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  258. 
of  the  Coast  Ranges,  260. 
England,  climate  of,  124. 
English  character,  397. 
Eocine-Tertiary,  range  of,  319. 
on     the    Atlantic    and    Gulf 

Coasts,  319. 

in  the  Missouri  Basin,  322. 
Erosion,  see  DENUDATION. 
Erratic  blocks,  see  DRIFT. 
Eruptions,  see  VOLCANIC  ACTION. 
Esquimaux,  habits  of,  358. 
Europe,  climate  of,  as   influenced 
by  the  Gulf  Stream,  123. 

compared  with  that  of  North 

America,  187. 
races  of  men  in,  382. 
Evaporation,  amount  of,  in  Uni- 
ted States,  190. 


F. 

Flint,  Timothy,  cited,  on  the  for- 
ests of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  8. 
on    the   earthquakes    of   New 

Madrid,  22. 

Fluor  spar  veins  of  Southern  Illi- 
nois, 293. 

Forests,  distribution  of,  in  North 
America,  78. 

in  South  America,  113. 
in  Europe,  124. 
their  range  dependent  on  mois- 
ture, 81. 
their  effects  on  health,  141. 

on  animal  life,  149. 
rapid   destruction  of,  in  Uni- 
ted States,  155. 
they  modify  climate,  160. 
their  lessons,  159. 
they  retain  moisture,  148;  161. 
tree-planting,  effects  of,   146; 

152. 
effects  of  disrobing  a  country 

of,  152. 

they  absorb  noxious  gases,  145. 
Fresh-water  Tertiaries  of  Missouri 

Basin,  322. 

Fractures  of  earth's  crust,  see  ELE- 
VATION. 
Fre'mont,  J.  C.,  cited,  87;  233. 
Gabb,  W.  M.,  cited,  on  the  Post- 
Pliocine  of  California,  262. 
on  Cretaceous  of  California, 

3i5- 

on  the  gravels  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, 339. 
Galena,    occurrence     of,     in     the 
Northwestern  States,  283. 
in  Southern  Illinois,  293. 
in  Missouri,  280;  294. 
Galena  limestone,  range  of,  282. 
Geological    Sketch    (Map)   of  the 

United  States,  272. 
Geology,  objects  of,  245. 

subdivisions  of  strata,  246. 
Gibbon,  cited,  130;  283. 
Glaciers  of  Greenland,  333. 
Glacial  action  in  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, 335- 

Gobi,  desert  of,  129. 
Gold  product  in  the  United  States, 

308. 

Golden  Age,  270. 
Grama-grass,  described,  89;  233. 
Granite,  origin  of,  253. 


INDEX. 


437 


G  R  A 

Grasses  for  pasturage,  231. 
Gravel-washes,  39;   183. 
Great  Basin,  character  of,  39;  90. 
Great  Lakes,  349. 

their  influence   in   modifying 
climate,  203. 

how  formed,  350. 

altitude  above  ocean,  352. 

area  of,  ib. 

Great  lignite  group,  326. 
Greece,  early  intellectual  develop- 
ment in,  379. 
Guinea,  climate  of,  134. 
Gulf-coast,  climate  of,  195. 
Gulf-stream,  action  of,  124;  188. 

effects  of  diversion,  190. 
Guyot,  A.,  cited,  27. 

H. 

Hall,  James,  cited,  285;  286. 
Hayden,   F.  V.,   cited,   278;   305; 

326;  337!  344- 

Heat,  internal,  of  earth,  252. 
Heights  of  mountain  peaks  : 
in  the  Andes,  112. 
in  the  Cascade  Range,  36. 
in  the  Coast  Range,  37. 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  31. 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  35. 
in  the  Alleghanies,  27. 
of  the  Alps,  36. 
of  the  Caucasus,  128. 
Heights  of  water-sheds,  3. 
of  the  Mississippi,  ib. 
of  the  Missouri,  ib. 
of  the  Ohio,  26. 
of  the  Great  Plateau,  33. 
of  the  Great  Basin,  37 ;  45. 
of  Lake-terraces,  343. 
Henry,    Joseph,    on    atmospheric 

currents,  173. 
Herodotus,  cited,  125. 

on  the  ancient  corn-trade,  218 
Herschel,  Sir  John,  on  solar  influ 
ence,  198. 

on  tree-planting,  154. 
Hewit,  A.  S.,  cited,  271. 
Hilgard,  cited,  320. 
Himalaya  Mountains,  129. 
Hood,  Mount,  height  of,  36. 
Humphreys  and  Abbot,  cited,  40 
169. 

on  the  physics  of  the  Missis 
sippi  River,  3;  5;   16;  17. 


j  o  H 

on   the   winds    of   the    Gulf- 
Coast,  105. 
lumboldt,  Alexander  Von,  cited, 

on  the  structure  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  33. 

on  the  llanos  of  Caraccas,  114. 

on  solar  influence,  139. 

on  Central   Plateau  of  Asia, 
129. 

on  nocturnal  life   of  animals, 

IS1- 
his  system  of  isothermal  lines, 

187. 

I. 

[cebergs,  drifting  of,  334. 
[ce-action,  see  DRIFT. 
[gneous  action,  249. 

in  Azoic  epoch,  264. 

in  Silurian  epoch,  275. 

in  Triassic  epoch,  308. 

in  Cretaceous  epoch,  313. 

in  Tertiary  epoch,  330. 

in  Quatenary  epoch,  339. 
Illinois,   galena   deposits    in,  283; 

293- 

coal-field,  297. 
Indiana  coal-field.  302. 
India,  rains  of,  130. 
Indians,  North  American,  411. 

their  character,  412. 

policy  pursued  towards,  413- 
Indian  summer,  described,  205. 
Indo-European  race,  382. 
Insect-life    in    northern    latitudes, 

203. 
Ireland,  climate  of,  124. 

language  of,  398. 
Iowa,  coal  of,  302. 
Iron,  its  uses,  270. 
Iron  Region  of  Lake  Superior,  266. 

of  Missouri,  267. 

characteristic  of  the  Azoic,  265. 

annual  product  of.  261. 
Irrigation,  practiced  by  the  Orien- 
tals, 165. 

by  the  Peruvians,  166. 

feasibility   of,   on   the  Plains, 

169. 
Isothermal  lines  of  United  States, 

See  METEOROLOGY. 

J- 

Johnson,  Edwin  F.,  cited,  61. 
Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  cited,  393. 


438 


INDEX. 


J  U  R 

Jurassic  and  Triassic  systems,  305. 
range    of,    on  Atlantic   Slope, 

306. 

in  Rocky  Mountains,  307. 
in  California,  ib. 


K. 

Kane,  E.  K.,  on  Arctic  night,  148. 

on  glaciers  and  drift,  334. 

on  Esquimaux  rations,  359. 
Kansas,  physical  features  of,  75. 

coal-field  of,  298. 

Permian  system  in,  305. 
Keokuk  limestone,  range  of,  288. 
Keweenaw  Point,   trap   range  of, 

279. 
Kinderhook  group,  290. 


L. 

Labrador,  currents  of,  189. 
Lakes,  Great  American,  349. 

effects  in    modifying  climate, 
203. 

fresh-water   of  Tertiary    age, 

325- 

Great  Salt  Lake,  90. 
Slave,   Bear,  and  Athabasca, 

263. 

Lake  Superior  system,  254. 
Lake  Michigan,  dunes  of,  345. 
Language,    a    bond    of    national 

unity,  398. 

Lapham,  I.  A.,  cited,  204. 
Lead  ores,  vide  GALENA. 
Le  Conte,  J.  L.,  cited,  56;  312. 
Leidy,  J.,  cited,  on  mammals  of 
the  Loess,  15. 

of  the  Missouri  Basin,  323. 
Lesquereux,  Leo,  on  the  origin  of 

prairies,  73. 

Lignites,  of  Mississippi  Valley,  320. 
of  the  Missouri  Basin,  326. 
of  the  Columbia  Valley,  328. 
of  the  Great  Basin,  327. 
Llano  Estacado  described,  44. 
Llanos  of  Caraccas,  114. 
Loess  of  Mississippi  and  Missouri 

Valleys,  15;  342. 
Loup-river  beds,  323. 
Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  division  of  Ter- 
tiary, 320. 

on  the  Loess  of  Natchez,  15. 


MIS 
M. 

Magnesian  limstone,  range  of,  280. 
Maize,  botanical  range  of,  213. 
Malaria,  origin  of,  147. 

arrested  or  modified  by  tree- 
planting,  147. 
generated  by  the  first  breaking 

of  the  soil,  148. 

Mammalian    remains  in  Missouri 
Basin,  323. 

in  Loess  at  Natchez,  15. 
Marine  formations  of  Tertiary  Age, 

228. 

Man,  effects  of  climate  on,  355. 
geographical  range  of,  356. 
effects  of  external  circumstan- 
ces on,  357. 
Arctic  life  of,  358. 
life  of,  in  Temperate  Zone,  362. 
in  North  America,  366. 
Map  of  geology  of  United   States, 
272. 

of  isothermal  lines,  208. 
of  distribution  of  forests,  prai- 
ries, and  deserts,  140. 
Marsh,  George  P.,  cited,  man  and 

nature,  152. 

Marsh,  O.  C.,  cited,  323. 
Mauvaises  Terres,  described,  325. 
Mediterranean,  basin  of,  135. 
Meek,  F.  B.,  cited,  326. 
Meek  and  Hayden,  cited,  265  ;  298 ; 

305;  310;  321. 
Metamorphic  rocks,  254. 
Meteorology,    system    of   air-cur- 
rents, 173. 

of  isothermal  lines,  187;  208. 
of  winds  and  rains,  120. 
Mexican  Gulf,  winds  of,  103. 
Mexico,  formations  of.  259. 
Michigan,  coal-field  of,  298. 
Michigan,  Lake,  sand-dunes  of, 

345- 

Miocine,  see  TERTIARY. 
Mississippi  River,  regimen  of,  3. 

approaches  to,  12. 

magnitude  of,  2. 

origin  of  name,  ib. 

area  of  valley,  3. 

length,  height  of  sources,  vol- 
ume, etc.,  ib. 

sources  of,  43. 

internal  navigation  of,  4. 

character  of  Lower  Valley,  5. 

typical  vegetation  of,  ft. 


INDEX. 


439 


bluffs,  levees,  overflows,  of,  10. 
phenomena  of  waters,  13. 
outlets  of,  ii. 
geology  of  bed,  14. 
geological  structure  of,  242. 
alluvium  of,  16. 
depth  and  slope  of,  17. 
earthquake-action  in,  ib. 
drift-action  in,  335. 
Missouri,  iron-region  of,  267. 
Azoic  series  in,  265. 
occurrence  of  tin  in,  268. 
lead-region  of,  280;  294. 
coal-field  of,  297. 
Missouri  River,  description  of,  39. 

water-shed  of,  26. 
Missouri,  basin  of  the,  39. 
Triassic  series  in,  306. 
Cretaceous  series  in,  311. 
Tertiary  series  in,  322. 
Moisture,    sources    of,   in   United 

States,  92. 

Morton,  S.  G.,  cited,  427. 
Mosses  and  saxifrages,  region  of, 

78. 

Motley,  J.  L.,  cited,  382. 
Mound-Builders,  415. 

extent  of  their  works,  418. 

their  agriculture,  421. 

their  implements,  422. 

their  mining,  424. 

their  commerce,  426. 

their  crania,  427. 

antiquity  of  their  works,  428. 
Mountain  ranges,  Altai,  129. 

Andes,  112. 

Appalachian,  27. 

Atlas,  135. 

Cascade  Range,  36. 

Coast  Ranges,  ib. 

Caucasus,  128. 

Himalaya,  129. 

Kuen-lun,  ib. 

Panine",  La,  114. 

Rocky  Mountains,  30. 

Sierra  Nevada,  34. 
Mountain  Heights: 

Mount  Baker,  36. 

Blanc,  ib. 

Brewer,  35. 

Clingman's,  27. 

Diablo,  37. 

Elbrouz,  128. 

Gray,  31. 

Fremont,  ib. 

Hamilton,  37. 


O  C  E 

Hood,  36. 
Illampu,  112. 
Lassan's  Peak,  35. 
Olympus,  36. 
Long's  31. 
Pike's,  31. 
Ranier,  36. 
San  Francisco,  31. 
Shasta,  35. 
Silliman,  ib. 
Spanish  Peak,  31. 
Taylor,  ib. 
Tyndal,  35. 
Washington,  27. 
Whitney,  35. 
Mullan,  Capt.,  cited,  40. 

on  the  warm   air-currents  of 
the  Upper  Missouri,  192. 

N. 

National  unity,  causes  which  pro- 
duce, 390. 

Negro,  characteristics  of,  369. 
Newberry,  Dr.  J.  S.,  cited,  170. 
on  the  Canons  of  the  Colora- 
do, 340. 
on  the  alluvial  of  the  Rocky 

Mountain  Slope,  89. 
on  the  origin  of  prairies,  109. 
on  the  Cretaceous  flora,  316. 
New  Madrid,  earthquakes  at,  18. 
erosive  action  of  river  at,  9. 
New  Orleans,  approaches  to,  12. 
New  York,  sources  of  her  great- 
ness, 48. 

Niagara  limestone,  range  of,  284. 
Nile,  valley  of,  132. 

ancient  canals  of,  166. 
Niobrara  group,  311. 
North  America,  physical  features 
of,  i. 

mountain  ranges  of,  27. 
climate  of,  182. 
vegetation  of,  81. 
river-systems  of,  263. 
colonization  of,  387. 
progress   of  development  in, 

307- 
geology  of,  242. 

O. 

Oak-openings  described,  83. 
Ocean,  the  great  source  of  mois- 
ture, 178. 


440 


INDEX. 


O  H  I 

Ohio,  basin  of,  42. 

coal-field  of,  302. 
Ohio  River,  3. 
Oil  springs,  origin  of.  286. 
Onondaga  salt-group,  285. 
Ordinance  of  1787,  401. 
Oregon,  climate  of,  199. 

coals  of,  328. 

Organic   remains,  range    of,  243 ; 
247. 

absence  of  in  Azoic,  264. 

first   appearance    in    Silurian, 

273- 

in   the   Loess   of  the   Missis- 
sippi, 15. 

flora  of  the  Carboniferous,  299. 
of  the  Cretaceous,  316. 
of  the  Tertiary,  322. 
Oronoco,  basin  of,  113. 
Oscillations  of  the  earth's  surface, 
251. 


P. 


Pacific  Coast,  climate  of,  197. 

elevation  of,  252  ;  257. 
Pacific.  Ocean,  source  of  moisture, 
101. 

periodic  winds  of,  106. 
Pacific  railroads,  51. 
Pampas  of  La  Plata,  116. 
Pahranagat,  described,  38. 
Parry,  C.  C.,  cited,  60;   107;  313. 
Passes,  mountain  : 

Cadotte,  Snoqualmie,  61. 

South  Pass,  26. 

St.  Bernard,  51. 

Evans's,  61. 

Passes  of  the  Mississippi,  12. 
Patagonia,  climate  of,  118. 
Peat,  origin  of,  74. 
Pembina,  region  of,  217. 
Pennsylvania,  coal-field  of,  297. 
Permian  system,  range  of,  304. 
Peru,  mountains  of,  112. 

rainless  district  of,  118. 

ancient  works  of,  116. 
Petroleum  springs,  origin  of,  285. 
Pictured    Rocks,    Lake    Superior, 

276. 

Pierre,  Fort,  group,  311. 
Pineries,  Western,  their  rapid  de- 
struction, 155. 

Pine-Barrens  of  the  South,  319. 
Pines,  botanical  region  of,  80;  92; 
379- 


character  of  soil   essential  to 

their  growth,  80. 
Plants,  how  they  grow,  141. 

chemical  constituents  of,  142. 
cultivation  of  those  useful  to 

man,  209. 
soil     in     reference     to     their 

growth,  210. 
maize,  range  of,  213. 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  range 

of,  215. 

their  origin,  218. 
rice,  sugar,  sorghum,  222. 
potato,  range  of,  226. 
co'tton,  range  of,  226 
tables  of  production,  240. 
extension  of  plant-culture  by 

irrigation,  84. 
plants  peculiar  to  the  prairies, 

86. 
moisture    as    connected   with 

their  distribution,  84. 
cactus,  81. 
artemisia,  86. 
bunch-grass,  89. 
Plata,  La,  pampas  of,  116. 
Pliny,  cited,  i. 
Pliocine,  see  TERTIARY. 
Pope,  Gen.,  quoted,  43. 
Post-Pliocine,  see  DRIFT. 
Potsdam  sandstone.  275. 
Potato,  range  of,  226. 
Prairies,  origin  of,  71. 
their  distribution,  ib. 
not  due  to  peat-growth,  73. 
not  due  to  texture  of  soil,  76. 
not  due  to  annual  burnings,  ib. 
due  to  conditions  of  moisture, 

109. 

vegetation  of,  84. 
characteristic  plants  of,  86. 
facilities  for  cultivation,  235. 
Prairies  in  North  America,  71. 
in  Caraccas  (llanos),  114. 
in  La  Plata  (pampas),  116. 
in      the      Black -Sea      region 

(steppes),  125. 
in  Central  Asia,  129. 
how  far  modified  by  tree-plant- 
ing, 161. 

by  irrigation,  169;   181. 
Primeval  Continent,  254. 
Progress  of  development  in  West- 
ern States,  401. 

effects  of  Ordinance  of  1787,  ib. 
first  settlement  of,  405. 


INDEX. 


44I 


PRO 

population  in,  240;  408. 
agriculture  of,  241  ;  408. 
Protestantism,    where     prevalent, 
386. 


Quicksilver  of  California,  314. 


R. 

Railroads : 

Union  Pacific,  51. 

Central  Pacific,  54. 

Union  Pacific,  E.  D.,  57. 

Northern  Pacific,  61. 

their  effects  on  the  progress  of 

development,  65. 
Rain-phenomena    in    the   United 

States,  181. 

Rains,  whence  derived,  178. 
mode  of  formation,  179. 
as  connected  with  the  distri- 
bution of  plants,  77. 
tables  of  the  mean  annual  pre- 
cipitation at  various  stations 
in  the  United  States, 97  ;  208. 
sources  of  moisture,  103. 
periodical  rains  of  California, 

101. 

Raised  beaches,  349. 
Rawlinson,  on   the   ancient  corn- 
trade  of  the  Black  Sea,  220. 
Redfield,  W.  C.,  cited,  104. 
Rebellion,   the   Great,   causes   of, 

373- 

Religion,  civilizing  effects  of,  388. 
Remond,  A.,  cited,  on  the  geology 

of  Mexico,  259;  309. 
Rice-culture,  222. 
Richardson,   Sir  John,   cited,   78; 

151;  203;  326. 
Richthofen,  Baron,  cited,  on    the 

Washoe  Mountains,  38. 

on  Comstock  lode,  330. 
River-systems    of    United    States, 

263. 

Rocks,  their  physiognomy,  210. 
Rocky  Mountains,  their  range  and 

extent,  30. 

their  elevation,  257. 
Rocky  Mountain  Valleys,  45. 
Rogers,  W.  B.  and    H.  D.,  cited, 

on  the  structure  of  the  Appala- 
chians, 27. 
Roman  Empire,  extent  of,  381. 


SLA 

Russel,  Robert,  cited,  104. 
Russia,  forests  of,  124. 
steppes  of,  125. 

S. 

Sahara,  desert  of,  131. 
Salt,  of  Michigan,  286. 

of  Nevada,  91. 

efflorescences  of  the  Plains,  86. 

of  the  Great  Basin,  91. 

of  the  Black  Sea  region,  128. 

of  South  America,  116;   119. 

of  Central  Asia,  129. 
Salt  Lake  described,  90. 
Salt  Lake,  desert  of,  45. 
Saskatchawan,   basin    of  the,  62 ; 

194. 
Schacht,  on  the  effects  of  forests 

in  attracting  moisture,  162. 
Scotland,  Highland  races  of,  398. 
Scratches,  or   striation,   of  rocks, 

3375  350. 
Sand-dunes,  345. 
Seasons,  phenomena  of,  200. 
Section,  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  292. 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  15. 
Sedimentary  rocks,  described,  272. 
their  distribution,  246. 
See,    also,   SILURIAN,   DEVON- 
IAN, CARBONIFEROUS,    etc. 

Shasta,  height  of,  35. 
Shumard,  B.  F.,  cited,  305. 
Sierra  Nevada,  height  of,  35. 

vegetation  of,  92. 
Sierra  Leone,  climate  of,  134. 
Silurian  system,  explained,  273. 
first  traces  of  organic  life,  274. 
distribution  of  the  strata,  ib. 
embraces  the  copper-region  of 

Lake  Superior,  279. 
and    the   lead-bearing   region 
of  Missouri  and  Wisconsin, 
280. 

recognized  in  the  Black  Hills 
and  on   the  Colorado   Pla- 
teau, 278. 
Silver-mines  of  Mexico,  259. 

of  Nevada,  330. 
Sitka,  climate  of,  199. 
Sky,  serenity  of.  in  Peru,  118. 

of  the  United  States  as  com- 
pared with  England,  191. 
Slates,    auriferous,  of    California, 
308. 


442 


INDEX. 


Smith,   Dr.   Angus,    on    Sanitary 
Economy,  146. 

Soil,  whence  derived,  210. 
exhaustion  of.  334. 

Solar  influence,  139. 

Somerville,  Mrs.,  cited,  66. 

Sorghum,  culture  of,  225. 

South  America,  features  of,  HI. 

South  Pass,  height  of,  26. 

Squier,  E.  G.,  cited,  on  the  Andes, 
112. 

Stansbury,  Capt.  H.,  his  explora- 
tion of  Salt  Lake,  90. 

Staring,  on  peat-growth,  74. 

Steppes,  of  Black-Sea  region,  125. 

Stephenson,  George,  value  of  his 
invention,  236. 

St.  Lawrence,  basin  of,  47. 

St.  Louis  limestone,  range  of,  288. 

St.  Peter's  sandstone,  range  of,  281. 

Sugar-cane,  cultivation  of,  224. 

Sun,    universal    influence    of,    on 
matter,  139. 

on  organic  matter,  143 ;   147 ; 

ISO- 
Systems  of  rocks,  246. 

Azoic,  264. 

Silurian,  273. 

Devonian,  286. 

Carboniferous,  287. 

Triassic,  305. 

Permian,  304. 

Cretaceous,  310. 

Tertiary,  318. 

Post-Pliocine,  332. 

Recent,  340. 

Swallow,  S.  G.,  on  geology  of  Mis- 
souri, 280;  284;  298;  345;  306. 
Systems  of  elevation,  254. 

Appalachian,  255. 

Rocky  Mountain,  257. 

Lake  Superior,  254. 

Coast  Ranges,  259. 
System,  river,  263. 

T. 

Table-lands  of  the  United  States, 

33- 

of  South  America,  113. 

of  Central  Asia,  129. 
Table  Mountain,  described,  261. 
Tables  of  temperature,  207. 

of  precipitation,  208. 

of  rock  formations,  246. 


of  agricultural  products,  240. 

of  population,  241. 
Temperature,  lines  of,  208. 

causes  which  modify,  177. 

agency  of  oceanic  currents,  199. 

that  of  the  Pacific,  198. 

of  the  Gulf  Stream,  188. 

effects  of,  on  forest  range,  79. 
Temperate  Zone,  life  in,  362. 
Terraces  of  Modified  Drift,  342. 

along  the  Great  Lakes,  ib. 
Tertiary  deposits,  318. 

change  in  animal  life  indica- 
ted, ib. 

marine  of  Atlantic  Coast,  320. 

divisions  of  Eocine,  Miocine, 
and  PHocine,  320. 

fresh-water  series  of  Missouri 
Basin,  321. 

Loup-River  group.  323. 

White-River  group,  324. 

Wind-River  group.  325. 

Fort  Union  or  Great  Lignite 
group,  326. 

Lignites  of  the  Great  Basin, 

327- 
Miocine  beds  of  Pacific  Slope, 

328. 

coal-deposits  of,  ib. 
igneous  products  of,  329. 
silver-ores  of  Washoe,  330. 
Teutonic  race,  origin  of,  381. 

characteristics  of,  384. 
Texas  coal-field,  298. 
Tin,   occurrence   of,   in   Missouri, 

268. 

Titicaca,  lake  of,  112. 
Tobacco,  culture  of,  230. 
Trappean  rocks  of  Lake  Superior, 
275;  277. 

of  the  California  Coast,  261 ; 

339- 

of  the  Great  Basin,  329. 
of  the  Colorado,  261. 
Trees,  range  of  in  United  States, 
7*« 

character  of  Northern  forests, 

80. 

of  the  Appalachian  Slope,  79. 
of  the  Pacific  Slope.  92. 
their  effects  on  health,  144. 

on  climate,  159. 
how  they  grow,  141. 
effects  of  destroying  the  for- 
est, 152. 


INDEX. 


443 


Tree-planting,  effects  of,  162. 
Trenton  limestone,  range  of,  282. 
Triassic    system,   range    of,   258; 

3°5- 

on  Atlantic  Coast,  306. 
on  Pacific  Coast,  307. 
Tropical  climate,  on  life,  360. 
Turchin,  T-  B.,  cited,  on  the  steppes 
of  the  Black  Sea,  128. 

U. 

United  States : 

geological  map  of,  272. 

isothermal  lines  of,  208. 

winds  of,  103. 

rain-fall  in,  96. 

vegetation  of,  71. 

climatology  of,  182. 

geology  of,  209. 
Upheaval,  see  SYSTEMS  OF. 
Upper  Silurian,  range  of,  284. 

V. 

Vegetation,  zones  of,  78. 
Volcanic  products,  261. 
Volcanoes  of  United  States  : 

in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  31. 

in  the  Great  Basin,  330. 

in  the  Colorado  Plateau,  31. 

in  the  Cascade  Range,  36. 
Volney,  cited,  104. 

W. 

Warren,  G.  K.,  cited,  30. 
Washington,  Mount,  height  of,  27. 
Washoe  Mountains,  27;  330. 

silver-ores  of,  ib. 
Water-sheds,  of  the  Mississippi,  26. 

of  the  Missouri,  39. 

of  the  Ohio,  26. 

of  the  St.  Lawrence,  47. 

of  the  Canadian,  26. 


z  o  N 

Wheat,  culture  of,  215. 
White-River  group,  323. 
Whitney,  J.  D.,  cited  : 

on    the   Trias    of  California, 

258;  307- 

on  the  Coast  Ranges,  260. 
on  structure  of  Table  Moun- 
tain, 261. 

on  the  measurement  of  Shas- 
ta, 35- 
on  quicksilver  of  California, 

314. 

on  Drift  of  California,  338. 
Whittlesey,  Charles,  cited  : 

on  wheat-culture  in  Pembina, 

217. 
on  height  of  the  Great  Lakes, 

352. 

Winchell,  cited,  285. 
Wind-River  group,  325. 
Winds,  region  of,  120. 

of  Caribbean  Sea,  103. 
systems  of,  173. 
map  of,  140. 

of  North  America,  103 ;  195. 
of  South  America,  120. 
as  disinfectants,  146. 
their  evaporative  power,  190. 
Wisconsin,  Lead-region  of,  282. 
Worthen,  A.  H.,  cited,  on  the  Ge- 
ology of  Illinois,  284;  285;  288; 
321. 

Y. 

Yosemite  Valley,  95. 
Youkon  River,  62. 


Z. 

Zinc-ores,  distribution  of,  294. 
Zones    of   vegetation     in    United 
States,  78. 


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