os)
THE
AMERICAN JOURNAL
OF
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY
PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr.,
JAMES D. DANA,
IN CONNECTION WITH
PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE,
PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE,
DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK.
SECOND SERIES.
VOL. XXXIV—NOVEMBER, 1862.
? 4
Ae
WITH SIX PLATES.
NEW HAVEN: EDITORS.
1862.
OO ees
PRINTED BY E. HAYES, 426 CHAPEL sT.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIV.
NUMBER C.
Arr. I. Description of the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian (Eo-
saurus Acadianus), from the Coal Formation of Nova asia
by O. C. Marsn, B.A.—With Plates, - . -
If. The Physiology of Sea-sickness; by Ricnarp MEADE Bicas:
If. On the Empirical splerpelaiien of Observations in rae
and Chemistry ; by W. P. G. Barrett, -
IV. On Electrical currents circulating near the Earth’s vinta:
and their connection with the phenomena of the Aurora Po-
laris—9th ArticLe; by Prof. Er1as Loomis,
V. Observations on the Saltwaters of the Alleghany and Keske-
minetas Valleys; by Dr. Epwarp Stieren, - -
VI. A Sketch of the’Mandan Indians, with some Observations
illustrating the Grammatical Structure of their Language ;
by Dr. F. V. Haypen, - - - - -
VII. On Triethylamine ; by M. es Lea, -
VIII. Notes on American Fossil Fishes; by Dr. J. S. aan.
IX. Experiments on the formation of Infusoria in boiled solutions
of organic matter, enclosed in hermetically sealed vessels,
and supplied with pure air; by Prof. Jerrrres Wyman, M.D.,
XI. Geographical Notices. No. XVII, - -
Kilimanjaro, the snow covered Equatorial Peak of Aiea,
Livinestone’s Expedition. —The Rovuma River, 89.
—Yoruba and the Niger Valley, 93.—Dr. Hayes’s Arctic
Voyage, 95.—Meteorological record at Kanagawa, Japan,
1860: Scutacintwetr’s India and High Asia, 96.—United
States Government Surveys, 98.
XII. H. and R. de Scutacintweirt on the ican sae b
rations of India and High Asia, - .
XIIL On the Detection of Picrotoxine ; by Jonn W. Likeiie et Bu.
XIV. Some contributions to a knowledge of the constitution of
the Copper Range of Lake Superior; by C. P. Mbgereet
A.M. and J. F. Branvy, M. and C.E.,~ - -
46
112
iv CONTENTS.
XV. Correspondence of Jerome Nickiés, dated Nancy, France,
May 6, 1862—Obituary—J. B. Biot, 120.—Isidore Geoffroy
St. Hilaire, 122.—Acclimation—Disease of Silkworms, 123.
—Astronomy, French Bureau of Longitude—New Observa-
tories—International College, 125.—Manufacture of Alu-
minium, 126.—Culture of Cotton—Scientific News, 127.—
Bibliography, 128.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Physics——On the Spectrum afforded by solution of Nitrate of Didymium, (from a letter
__ of Professor O. N. Roop to Dr. Wo.cort Grass, 129.—Effect of powdered Ire in water
boiling in Glass Vessels; by Prof. P. A. Cuapsourne: Galvanic Experiment, 130
emistry n the Oxyd of Ethylene, Wurtz, 130.—On new modes of forming certain
ayn Wuerrz: On H Hype rehloric Acid, Ros scoE, 131.—On ea acid :
Soi Chemistry —The Tint Process ; by Prof. Epowarp Emerson, 134.
Geology.—Geology of Vermont: Mastodon Tooth in Amador Co., California, 135.—New
pecies of Silurian fossils; by E. Bruiines, F.G.S.: True position of iG so-called
Waskake Limestone of Wdecseg by Dr. C. Rominaa: Note on the Description of
Lingula polita, 136.—-Deserip of new Lower Silurian (Primordial), Jurassic, Creta-
ceous, and Sere Fossils, one in Nebraska, by the sy tetey Expedition under
the momar of Capt. Wm. F. Ray nolds, U.S. Top. Engrs.; by F. B. Mzxx and F. V.
Haypen, 137.
Bisa aa Bats the Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids
are Fertilized by Insects, and the Good Effects of Intercrossing ; by CHARLES Darwin,
A., F.R.S, &c., 138—Outlines of the Distribution of Arctic Plants; by Jos. D.
Hooker, M.D., F.R.S., 144--On the Cedars of Lebanon, Taurus, Algeria and India ; by
J. D. Hooker, M.D., F_R.S., 148.—Weddell’s sey Andina, 150,—Histoire Naturelle
des Zoophytes ee M. F. Dusarvin et par M. H. Huss, 151.
Meteorology.—Meteorology, Witt1am Harpinaer, 152
Miscellaneous Scientific Iandlipeace Fhe Ca lifornia Betlogicnl and Natural History Sur-
vey: os Sra ie ania — a nation of types of American Reptiles by the
Smithso Civico of Milan, 159.—Obituary.—Edward C. Her-
tick, 159.
NUMBER Cl.
Anr. XVL On the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland ; by
_ Joun Lussock, Esq, F.R.S., - oe 161
. Upon the structure of the Brain in Man
CONTENTS, ¥
XVIII. On some Stereoscopic Fis iics by Professor O. N. ve
Roop, of Troy, N.Y., - 199
XIX. Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Minsratoyy§ by ional 1
Brusu, Professor of Metallurgy in Yale College, - 202
XX. On scars Heb Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean; by J. D.
Hacue, - - - - 224
XXI. Oinialallads foil the Sheffield baton of Yale Col-
lege.—IlI. On milan Se from Hebron in ve ¥
Georce J. Brusu, - 243
XXII. On a constant Aspirator and Bowes by M. aie isi,
Philadelphia, - - 245
XXII. Enumeration of ihe Plaid of Dr. Parry’ s Collection in
the Rocky Mountains, (continued from vol. xxxiii, p. 411);
by A. Gray: with oo by G. ENGELMANN and A.
Gray - 249
XXIV. A takin of a discussie of ie Blereshtel Cues of
the Maguetic Force, from observations made at the Girard
College Observatory, Philadelphia, in the years 1840—"41—
42-43-4445; by A. D. Bacne, LL.D., F.R.S,etc, - 261
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Physics——The Saltness of the Sea, Forcnnammer: Saltness of the Ocean, 272—Salt-
ness of Oceanic Currents, 273.—Counter-currents: Composition of the salts, 274.—
Density of Ice, Darour, 275.
Chemistry —Thallium, a new metal, Crooxgs, 275.
Technical Chemisiry.—On Siemens’ Regenerative Gas Furnace, Farapay, 277.—Note on,
280.
—Dyas, oder die Zechstein Formation und das Rothliegende, by Dr. Hanns
Bavso A ssen:tend sii oer inary — of some of the species of Crinoidea known
the ips of New York; by James Hatt: Dana’s
Geology: “The Student’s s Manual of Geology; by J. Beets Jukes, 282.
Botany and Zoology.—Antherology : Note on the Structure of the Anther, by Prof. Oxt-
ver of King’s College, London, 282.—Wood-cells of Hamamelidee imitate Coniferous
markings, 284.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Botany : On two
forms of Dimorphic Condition in the species of Primula; = Cuarres Darwin: West
African ae Orchids ; by Dr. Linptey: On Inocarpus; by Mr. Bentnam, 285.—
Address of Geo. Bentham, Esq, read at the aa ietng of the Linnean Soci-
ety: Botany of Northeastern Asia, 286.—Cork: De la Production Naturelle et Artifi-
celle du Liége dans le Chéne-Liége, par M. Casimtr pe Canpo..e, 287. —-Martius,
Flora ere Grisebach’s Flora of the British Wen Indian Islands: On the genus
Euphorbia in andolle’s Prodromus; by G. Enceimann, 288.—Carex, 292.
aoa St. Hilaire’s System of Zoology, 292.
“
vi CONTENTS.
Astronomy and Meteorology.—Account of the great comet of 1858, being vol. 3d of the
Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of eee College ; by G. P. Bonn, ae
roe met 62: Companion to Sirius; by Lewis Rutuerrurp, 294.--The
rs of nape 10th, 1862, communicated by Prof. é C. Twinine, with letters en
i B. V. Marsa and Mr. F. W. Russe, 295.--On some North American Meteorites,
by C. F. Rammetspere, 297-—comprising the so-called Meteoric Stone from Waterloo,
Seneca Co., N. Y.: the so-called Meteoric Stone from Richland, near Columbia, S. C.:
the ncugalied Meteoric Iron from Rutherford, N.C.: Bullettino teres ahes dell’ Os-
servatorio del Collegio Siac: etc., 298.
Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Euitorial Correspondence—The Spectroscope, by
f. J. P. Cooke: On prisms of Bisn|phid of Carbon for optical purposes, by Prof. O. N
p, 299.—Ascent of the Voleano of Candarave, in a Jetter from WaLTeR STuarT
Cucrecn, 300.—Retorts, 302.——Old friends with new faces, 303.—-Obituary --Marcel
de Serres, 303--H. . de Senarmont: Dr. Henrich Georg Bronn, 304.--General Isaac
I. Stevens, U.S. A.,
Proceedings of Societies: Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.: Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 305.
NUMBER Cll,
Page.
Art. XXV. On.the Saliferous Rocks and Salt ee of Michi-
gan; by ALEXANDER WINCHELL, -
XXVI. On the Perception of Relief; by Prof. avin Puileew: 312
XXVII. On the Relations of Death to Life in Nature; by J.D. Dana, 316
XXVIII. On the Carbonates of Alumina, Glucina and the sesqui-
oxyds of Iron, Chromium and Uranium; mY. THEODORE
Parkman, Ph.D., - -
XXIX. Supplements to the Bierce of Piss of Dr. Sars s
Collection in the Rocky Mountains.—Supplement I, Co-
nifere; by Drs. Parry and Encetmann, 330.—Supple-
ment II, Revision of the QSnothere of the subsection
Onagra; by Dr. Encetmann, 332.—Supplement III, Re-
vision of the genus Castilleia; by A. Gray, 335.—Supple-
ment |V, Review of the genus Mertensia; by A. Gray, 339.
XXX. Researches on the Platinum Metals; by Wotcort Gisss,M- Wide 341
ane Geographical Notices. No. XVIII.—Return of Hall’s —
_ Arctic Expedition, 356.—Anniversary of the Royale
| ; _ graphical Society: Ordnance Survey of Great Britain and
Ireland, 358.—Topographical Survey of Spain, 361.—
Khanikoff’s Researches in Persia, SS recent
English Surveys in China, 363.—
the Kara on
_
in hei to ‘Mount Everest,
CONTENTS. vil
XXXII. Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale Col-
lege.—IV. Observations on Caesium and oo by
Oscar D. Auten, Ph.B., - - 367
XXXII[. Abstract of an investigation of ies ti diured variation
and of the annual inequality of the Horizontal Component
of the Magnetic Force, from Observations made at the Gi-
gard College Observatory, between 1840 and 1845; by
TAs D Bacue, LL.D., F.R.S., Sup’t U. 8. Coast Survey, - 3873
XXXIV. Abstract of the investigation of the influence of the
Moon, on the Horizontal Magnetic Force, from observations
made at the Girard College Observatory, in the years 1840-
1841-42-"43-"44-"45; by A. D. — LL.D., saa
Sup’t U. 8. Coast Survey, - - 381
XXXV. On Arithmetical Relations between Chemical Equine
lents; by M. Carey Lea, -
XXXVI. Description of Calamopore, found i in a cael dios
near Ann Arbor, Michigan, with some ora remarks ;
by Cart Romincer, M.D., 389
XXXVII. On a remarkable form of eee in the a oats of
Saururus cernuus; by Georce C. Scnazrrer, M.D., - 400
XXXVIIL. On the occurrence of Triphyline at Norwich, in i Mani
sachusetts ; by Georce J. Brusu, - 402
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Physics. i cocina: to = = Analysis, 403.—Researches on the Solar Spec-
trum, 404. f the Solar Spectrum, Werss: Note by W. G., 406.--
On the Blue Lithium line, Hiantiann: On the projection of the colored rays of Me-
tallic —_ DEBRAY, wee
sion of Phenylic into Rosalic acid, etc., B. Binper: On the transformation of Phenate
into Rosalate of Lime, B. BinpEr, 408.—Thallium, Crookes, 409.—Oxyds of Thalli-
um, 410.—Thallic Acid: Chlorid of Thallium: Sulphid of Thallium: Carbonate of
Thallium: Sulphate of Thallium: Todid of Thallium: Phosphate of Thalliam: Ferro-
cyanid of Thallium, 411.—Cyanid of Thallium : Chromate Thallium, 412.
Technical Chemistry —Photography.—For Photographie copying in pure Black and White,
413,
—Observations on the Appalachian region of = eee by J. P. Les-
Ley, 413.—Dyas, oder die Zechstein formation und das Rothliegende, von Dr. Hanns
Bruno Geinitz, etc.,415—On the footprints of Limulus as irae with the Pro-
ites of the Potsdam Sandstone, by J. W. Dawson, 416.—Note on the above, by
J.D. D., 417.—Fifteenth Annual Rpeort of the Regents of the University of the State
Vill CONTENTS.
of New York on the condition of the State Cabinet of Natural History, &c.: Letter
from E. Jewerr on the age of the Catskill Group of rocks, 418.
Botany and Zoology. ipa m in the Genitalia of Flowers, 419.—Fertilization of Or-
chids through: the Agency of Insects, 420.—Platan me onbiealata, wa tae nthera
ciliaris and P. blephariglottis: Pinsinbaes fimbriata —-Pla-
tanthera lacera: Platanthera dilatata, 425. -cPlafanthiers hy porbenea gee tri-
dentata, 426.—Goodyera: G ra pubescens, Spiranthes cernua and gracilis, 427.—
pon a new species of mausiter: WiC.
Astronomy and Meteorology.—Name of Asteroid (56): The Asteroids Feronia and = be :
Name of Asteroid (73) : onaeiaid of Asteroid (74): Discovery of Comet I, 1862, 480.—
Comet II, 1862: Minima ei Algol: Maximum of Omicron Ceti: Detonating ease
fireball of Dec. 3d, 1851,
iscellaneous See eee —The Thirty Second Meeting of the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of. Scien nce, 432.—-Physical Section: On the extent of the
Earth’s Atmosphere, by Prof. Cuatuts: On the Augmentation of the Apparent Diam-
eter of a body by its Atmospheric Refraction, by the Rev. Prof. CuHavuts, 434.—Pro-
visional Report on Thermo-electric Currents in Cireuits of one Metal, by F. Jenkin:
On the Zodiacal Light and Shooting Stars, by Prof. Cuatuis, 435.--On Autographs of
Sun, by Prof. Setwyn, 436.—-Some Peculiar Features in the Structure of the Sun’s
Surface, by James Nasmytu: Chemical Section: On the Luminosity of Phosphorus,
by Dr. Morrat, 437.—Geology: On the last eruption of Vesuvius, by Dr. DauBENY,
439.-—Zoology: On the Zoological Significance of the Brain and Limb-characters of
- Man, with Remarks on the Cast of the Brain of the Gorilla, by Prof. Owen, 440.—Cor- 3
respondence of Sir oe Reid and W. C. Redfield, 442.--Supposed fall of Meteoric —
Tron at St. Louis, Mo., 2
Book Notices—Dana’s Manual of Geology, 444.—Contributions to the Ethnography and
Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley ; by Dr. F. V. Haypen, 446.—
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 447 canned Report of the Board
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1861, 4 48.—Journal of the Academy of
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 450.
Obituary—Death of General O. M. Mitchel, 451—Newton Spaulding ems 452,
—
ERRATA. :
Se “nu-mamk,” read “nu mank.”. —Samé page, 1. 11 from
bottom, for “ nash- -ka-,” read “ kAsh-ka-—P. 101 yin title be article, for “ Schlangintw
11 from bottom, for leon,” read “
THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS,
[SECOND SERIES.} —
ie L—Description of the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian
(Eosaurus Acadianus), fies the Coal Formation of Nova Scotia ;
by O. C. Marsu, B.A ae f the Sheffield Scientific School,
Yale College. —With Pla
[Communicated to the staat Society of London, May, 1862.]
THE Berta ae remains from the Coal-measures , hitherto ae
less of even this low form of ella life during the Car.
boniferous period was unsuspected by most geologists, as
discavary in the Bhenish’ ass: Conbancaaactel of a Téptile
allied to the S ibed under the
A
alamanders, which he descri : name
ie, ete., 1844, page
erod tom dh
; » M.D.
2 O. C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian.
: have a
reptiles,
nd
hians.*
e re
___ tion are of great interest, since they indicate the existence during
the Paleozoic period of a group. of highly organized marine
: eptiles of large size, which have previously been found only in
econdary strat ese remains consist of two vertebrz, or
pearance, w .
them, is well represented in the first of the accom anying Plates,
gures 1 and 2. The vertebre were dinodwaned by the writer
in August, 1855, while examining the Coal-measures of Nova
sotia in company with his friend, Mr. William E. Park, of
Andover, Mass. Their resemblance in form and appearance to
the vertebrie of an Ichthyosaurus was so marked, that at the time
but without success, As soon as an opportunity occurred, the
fossils were compared with the vertebrae of Jchthyosauri from the
portant a discovery.
ticed b a
~ 0.€, Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian, 8
the Chiegnecto channel, a branch ot . Ba a! i Pandy. he 2
Coal-measures at this place, accordi gan,*
| hag e a vertical thickness of 14,570 feet be: nearly < miles ;
; contain seventy-six distinct seams 0 coal, with erect trees
and plants at twenty-two different levels. The sean dip to vie
south at an angle of about 25°; and the destructive tides of the
bay are constantly undermining the high cliffs, and exposing ~
for miles along the coast fresh sections, rich in fossil treasures of
vegetable and animal life.
The present remains were imbedded in a stratum of argilla-
ceous chocolate-colored shale, which forms part of group XXVI.
in the elaborate section of this formation made in 1852 by Sir
Charles Lyell and Prof. J. W. Dawson.t The position of this
the is a little more than 10. oe feet above the I lower limits of
early 5,000 feet of coal strata,
separa e veins of coal. It is about
Sivas or flaviatile sediments coverin 9 ae hich were at
times dry, or nearly so, and at others panda. “One one of the
—o sandstones he noticed - eae of footprints, which he
rius attached to plants and trun
The vertebrae, as already stated,
discovered were attached to e:
and 2. sai
well preserved ; and this results
sap nataral aot as well as
4 0O.C, Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian.
ment of the vertebra; and, as no similar remains could be found
in the vicinity when these were discovered, it is quite probable
contour of the centra a subhexagonal appearance. They are
much flattened in the direction of the “= manne diameter,
which has to the transverse diameter abou:
to 3. Both the articular terminal facets are deeply and equally |
_€oncave in an antero-posterior direction. This concavity is
greater in the upper half of the vertebra, and was undoubtedly
im iginally than at present, since the
eee
the a ce of
fa oes cular
O. C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian. 5
which served ce their articulating surfaces. These depressions
are situated on the superior surfaces of — centrum, interme-
eupy about one- third of the distance between the margins of the
articular extremities, indicating that the base of the neural arch.
was of less antero-posterior extent than the centrum. The floor
of the spinal canal is narrow, being but five lines in breadth ;
and its surface in the posterior sensi is broken by the frac-
nS previously mentioned, which passes lengthwise through its
r. No neu rapophyses were found with these fossils, but
the nature of the superior arch is indicated by the articular sur-
faces which served for its attachment. Without doubt its ossi-
fication was complete, since the neurapophyses are never inferior
in this respect to the body of the vertebra. It is also probable
that in the present case these parts were anchylosed to each
other and to their spine, as in the neural arch of the Ichthyo-
saurus.
imentary transverse process, or exogenous we is
sent off thei each lateral surface of the centrum, at points equi-
distant from the =e of the vertical diameter (Plate i 8
figures 1 and 2,b and 2’). Their position is near the margin
anterior ‘etietlar? Sparta: and the edges of these parapophyses,
make the transverse diameter of this extremity somewhat
than that of the corresponding posterior facet. At the surface =
the vertebra, each of these tubercles is about six lines in diamete
but they rapidly diminish in size as they extend outward, aiid
a distance, = Bier and a half lines from the centrum terminate
arti
7 osed of radiating fibres
ibt § erved for the attachment
which oe Baty expect
he "4 of the spinal column
aeons wae
and also by the
6 O.C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian.
absence of a lateral compression of the centers, which, in the
Ichthyosauri, marks the posterior caudal vertebrze. Both of the
fossils are nemesnakd injured on their inferior surfaces, and hence _
it is impossible to ascertain from the specimens ‘themselves _
whether hzemapophyses originally existed. :
The following admeasurements were taken from the nearly
perfect vertebra of the Hosaurus. For the e purpose of compari-
son, the corresponding dimensions of an anterior caudal vertebra
of an Ichthyosaurus are added. It will be seen that the most
farted differences are in the position and dimensions of the
pits for the articulation of the neural arch, and in the depth of
the terminal concavities.
ADMEASUREMENTS OF VERTEBRA.
Eosaurus. |Ichthyosaurus.
inches. lines,| inches. ca
ies vg diameter of centrum on anterior
ok EE ee 9 ee ep CO a 2 4 2 6 |
Ditto of posterior SUTURES, “kop ere st esis oT oe
Ditto including the parapophyses eccscee tos Ot Ss 7
Vertical diameter on anterior tn as F 2 2 2 3
Antero-posterior diameter on superior sartace, be ack. 3
On inferior sirface; oii SR BS ae hee 1
Ditto between centers of articular facets, ses 1 4
Length of pits for articulation of neural arch, 3 9
Breadth of “ito, a Sia Hes oe CS 3 2
| Depth Of, DiRO: sasqrend he pea KC wie twee 1 Ll
Distance See Geta centers of ditto, re 4 B.4on3 1
Ditto and centers of parapophyses, ........ : ee —
_ The dimensions of the other vertebra of the Zosaurus, so far
‘as they can be ae ascertained, coincide almost exactly
with those given a
the margin of one of the vertebree there is an angie
Be ee ee ae
O. C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian, 7
a casual examination of the vertebre, expressed the opinion that
he notch and elevation were organic, rather than accidental; and
-: Mr. Marsh hd ane me to-day tnd vertebre from the Coal Forma-
tion of the Joggins, which have excited my interest in the highest degree,
I have never seen in the body of a vertebra such characters combined,
singular notch in the body of the vertebra itself such as I have never
seen in Reptiles, though this character is common in F sale We have
here vedi tas a nearer gireay gy a a synthesis between Fish and
Reptile than has yet been The discovery of the
Ichthyosauri mica Pa mo re baiboriaat has that of these ree 4
* Ido not believe that eg is a vertebra known thus far,
which are combined features of so many vertebra, i in which these feo.
tures appear separately as characteristic of their type.”
#
At the time Prof. Agassiz saw these remains, they were only
peels — from the shale in which they had been im-
ded, and consequently his sg We could not be perfect]
Sse Pum Since then, the matrix has been carefully remov
and an opportunity affordéd for. punpetiog the other similar
parts of both vertebre. This comparison, however, shows n
corresponding notch or elevation at the otber v points of the
same centrum; and none whatever on the other ae where
for many valuable suggestions in ie to cae cone
any purely accidental; and a result of the same fracture
which has displaced the articular pits of the superior arch. It
is also the opinion of this eminent anatomist that the notch would
not be — pee’? z it were organic, to to affect at all
character of the remains.
the Enaliosauri
A microscopic ager or oF, the osseous structure of these
oT — the Hosaurus —_ bits Selisharked Reptilian char-
1a ~~ in number, but large in
. bt although saneaiins
slongte, and show very little re-
= stellate form of the bone cells in
and ue not numerous, but ap
those i in most poses They do not pet
ee Ree ee a ee es Bah |: ®
“ee
8 0O.C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian.
and ramify, as in the bones of fishes, nor anastomose with the
corresponding tubes from the neighboring cells, although in one
of the longitudinal — pa are a few indications of ouek
a connection. me other sections examined show
cae number of eatin than those in Plate IL.; but pie
there are only a few of these tubes attached to each lacuna, and
in some cases they appear to be entirely wanting. As the cana-
liculi vary much in number in different saurians, and also with
the age of the animal, their paucity in this case is not remarka-
ble. It is oe however, that the method employed in pre-
paring the sec was not well adapted to rendering these
minute tubes visible. In a part of the transverse section shown
in Plate II. figure 5, a structure is seen which is quite different
rom the surrounding osseous substance. is may ue
the presence of a small cavity in the bone before the introduc-
tion of the mineral matter, or to an imperfect ossification at that
ge more probably the latter, as these vertebra, like those of
he Plestosaurus, show in their interior structure a degree of
guchomicn somewhat inferior to that at the articular terminal
surfaces.
The vertebrz of the Hosaurus, in their biconcave centers,
exhibit a structure which prevails in the class of Fishes; in the
Labyrinthodonts, as ~ | as in a few genera of extinct Saurians;
and which is seen in existing reptiles only in the Geckos, an
the perennibranchiate division of Batrachians. These v ertebra,
however, present such marked characters in their very short
antero-posterior diameter, in their deep and regular terminal con-
cavities, and in the separate condition of their neurapophyses,
that, in ‘determining the position to which their anatomical fea-
tures entitle them to be assigned, we may safely limit our com-
parison to the Fishes, and to those genera of extinct Saurians
which possessed similar characters
In comparing these remains with the former class, there is at
once apparent a much closer resemblance in the above res
to the vertebrae of the Plagiostomi, than to those of any other 4
order, The remains of these fishes have been found in all fossil-
iferous strata above the Lower Silurian, but no vertebra except
in the more recent rocks. In the Cretaceous and Tertiary forma-
tions one family of this order, the Szualide, have left numerous
and well rved vertebre; and the writer has carefully com-
ees di mor
3
a
__ with the neural arc
parison wi
O. C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian. 9
structure is firm and compact, as in the corresponding parts of
ee Ichthyosaurus. Moreover, the articular faces at shy —
these centra present no indications of the concentrie r
fat ed by the partial seusiiin of the osseous laminz, siieean so
generally exist on the vertebree of fossil and existing Shar
é comparison of these remains of the Hosaurus-with those
of oa ee the contrast becomes still more marked as we proceed
toward the older formations, The ossification of the vertebral
column in the Mesozoic fishes was much less complete, and in
some orders almost entirely wanting; while in all the Palzeozoic
species, yet discovered, the notochord was persistent, and con-
sequent] no bodies of stir lt have been preserved. Nega-
tive evidence, ea would strongly indicate that these per-
fectly ossified rema s should be referred toa higher grade of
2.
We
ae
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5
os
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3
5
centrum, in the dept
5 1, mthat: we may evidently terminate the com-
with the important genus on which that order has been
| nt edly be seen from the previous description, that a
se Panties exists between these vertebre and those
n. Scl.—SEconp Sexes, VOL. XXXIV, No. 100.—Juxr, 1862. —
Eosaurus, and those of the Ichthyosauri, which they most resem-
ble, clearly indicate that they belong to the same natural group |
distinct; as might naturally be expected from the vast peri
of time that separated their existence
Since the genera of Enaliosaurians from the Secondary forma- —
tions, although contemporaneous, differed so widely in form and
structure, analogy would lead us to infer that a Palsozoie rep-
resentative of the family would present still more marked pecu-
liarities in these r . is
=
Sana
ae
It is, therefi perkicolas interest-
0. C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian. Mi
These vertebra of the Hosaurus, although the bs a
of the cee at present known, are so characteristic and well pre-
t they afford considerable evidence in a to the
! éisenti habits of the animal to which they belonged.
Th indicate that _ at" ie —_ — En ears
concavities; the separate condition of the neural are and its
short longitudinal extent at the base,—all are consistent with
the conclusion that the Hosawrus was capable of rapid progress
through the water in pursuit of its prey, which was probabl
fishes; and since it had then, according to our present knowl-
edge, no superior in point of size, it must have reigned supreme
in the waters of the Carboniferous era.
As the vertebrae which have been described in oa a giee ae
pare eters in 1855, they are, consequently, so far as the
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tion of any form of. animal or vegetable life. They prove, ome
over, that during the deposition of the Coal-meas atmos-
phere was sufficiently free from the destructive peat which, as
many suppose, had contaminated it, to permit the existence of
a high type of air-breathing _ tiles. This period was, in fact,
the foreshadowing of an age, then far in the future, when
tilian life should hold undisputed sway upon the aaa until in
turn supplanted by a higher and a nobler form of existence.
* If we suppose the number of ee erence De heenat
this saurian to have been the same as in the Jchthyosaurus, its entire
have been between twelve and fifteen by labioge Ba pads ones ashe tie extent
of any reptile hitherto found in »z0ic
+ Although the strata which contained the vertebre are probably fluviatile or
Sepak this would not preclude the possibility of their containing marine
remains ; as the waters from which they cel ee ee were undoubted?, so
connected with the sea that an occasional of inhal
might readily be made: analogous
ae eS ee ee ee ee ee Me ne ae een
a aR a et
12 0.C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian.
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE REMAINS OF THE EoSAURUS —
ACADIANUS,
A comparison of the composition of recent and fossil bone is
interesting, both in a chemical and a physiological point of view;
and has already attracted some attention. As it is desirable to
add to the limited amount of data on this subject hitherto col-
lected, the writer has analyzed a portion of a vertebra of the
Hosaurus, and the results obtained are given below.
A preliminary qualitative examination of the fossils having —
shown the presence of iron, manganese, aepper, alumina, lime,
nesia, potash, soda, organic matter, an
The following is a general outline of the methods ok ape in
ried over
chlorid, and added to the preceding filtrate; the resulting phos-
of iron was then precipitated ammonia; ignited,
weighed, and the amount added to the weight of the oe Maley -
cipita jric acid,
molybdate
ed in caustic —
rae
‘-* ; |
0. C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Enaliosaurian. 18
he quantity of sulphur contained in the substance was not
estimated directly; but was calculated from the amount of cop-
r present, with which it was united in the form of copper
yrites, as ascertained by the preliminary examination. The
alumina was estimated by deducting the amount of the other
ingredients from the weight of the two ammonia precipitates.
€ manganese, magnesia, chlorine, fluorine, and sulphurie aci
were not present in sufficient quantities to admit of accurate
determination. ie 2
second portion of the original substance was dried at 100°
er ee
In a third portion of the original substance the carbonic acid
was estimated in the usual way, from the loss of weight after
treatment with dilute chlorhydric acid.
The material taken for analysis was part pee from
pari e t
characters: Compact, with uneven frac
Specific gravity at 2
Opaque.
* Tt is not unlikely that a portion of the loss by this process was merely water,
so combined with sasett the conliplaite of ike substance that it was not ex-
pelled below the heat of ignition.
_ ents of the remains were derived directly from this source by
The results of the analysis were as follows: -
SUT, 6 op so ce te eee ese ek ss a MD tec ctes *82
Organic matter, and combined water? ......... 2°39
Peroxyd of iron, ........-. Bcvccwsevcesvares 10°21
Protoxyd of manganese, ......+..+++seeee . trace.
Alumina, 26603 So ea ee ere ee 20°15
ime,
- Magnesia, ;
Potash;: «. 2 39
ee a ee er, ee :
COPPET, tee ceerecesscteers 1°22
Copper pyrites, + iron, . 2.06... ev ewehws oes 1:07
BUIDBUY, io oss 000 eo ae 1-20
I Sil Ms Siva 96 6-6-So wine 0 co ue Ge vot xx SCE
NG a i or cea ook 6K ae weke a Picks oats trace. :
SONOS MOTOS 9 is sin OCe eras kein cc evbecnes 11:40
NS ee res eee po oe his iee otis 20°89
Silicic Min we sv Lsaee es cop eh Seee eee mys 5°04
cad nacre trace.
100-84
The matrix of the fossils was an argillaceous shale, colored
with peroxyd of iron; and without doubt many of the constitu-
infiltration, the silicic acid, alumina, peroxyd of iron, and alka »
lies, resulting from the decomposition of clay. :
The small amount of manganese in the substance was found
bo
e amount obtained by Baumert, ie. found 16°67 per cent of
fluorid of calcium in the remains of the Zeuglodon.* The results
of —— analysis tend to confirm the opinion of Middleton
and others that the presence of fluorine in fossil bones is acci-
dental; and that the large amount of this substance oceasionally
und is due to infiltration; and is not, as some writers have
affirmed, an original constituent of the remains. a
The organi nic matter in these ins may have been partially
' surrounding matrix of shale: a careful examination, h
* Liebig und Kopp, Jabresbericht fir 1851, p. 594,
as the amount of nitrogen obtained would indicate a much la
a a ee Co ee —_— is iss
oe ps = ' :
; 4, C. Marsh on the Remains of a — a
seemed to indicate that a portion of it was of animal origin;
d this has probably been preserved from the original substance
he vertebree. .
and the results thus obtained are worthless in this respect, un-
less the existence of this substance has been otherwise ascer-
tained. The nature of the organic matter also should be deter-
mined; as in animal remains from the older rocks it is occasion-
ally due to infiltration, and may be entirely of vegetable origin.
In the present analysis the following method was employed
for the detection of the animal organic matter supposed to be
present in the fossils: A portion of the finely powdered mate-
rial, between one and two grammes in weight, was placed ina
er, and a small quantity of distilled water added ; the vessel
was then closely covered, and left on a sand bath where the tem-
eb wale was just sufficient to cause a gentle ebullition. The
eat was continued, and the water renewed from time to time,
for several days, to effect the solution of any animal organic
matter the fossils might contain. The insoluble portion was
then filtered off, and the liquid evaporated to dryness in a plati-
num capsule, when the residue, on gentle ignition, carbonized, |
and distinctly afforded the characteristic odor of burning nitro-
genous tissue. This, or some equivalent method of proving the
presence of animal organic substances, should always be em-
ployed in analyses of this kind, especially where a complete
separation of the organic ingredients is not attempted.
A ni n determination was made on a portion of the ma-
terial somewhat different from that used in the preceding analy-
sis, and gave -776 per cent. for the amount of that substance in
the remains. This corresponds essentially with the results ob-
tained by M. Delesse, who has made somewhat extensive re-
searches on this point; and who considers that the quantity of
nitrogen in fossil bones is, within certain limits, a reliable indi-
-_ eation of their age.* The substance used in the above deter-
. .
mination
was evidently different from that previously employed;
larger
quantity of gelatigenous tissue than the analysis showed to be
— y Comptes Rendus de I'Acad. des Sci. de Paris, 1861, tome lii,, p. 728.
=
=
16 _ O. C. Marsh on the Remains of a new Bnaliseaitrialt
ecg in the portion first examined. Part of the nitrogen may ‘ .
have been derived from ammonia, which is sometimes intro-
duced into fossils by the infiltrating waters. A want of sufii-
cient material pr ren tes fuller scearinallts of the organic ele- ;
ments in these re
The f
main :
ossil bones hishaadie analyzed appear to have been all
from the more recent formations; the present analysis, however,
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE L
Vertebre of the Hosaurus Acadianus (natural size).
Figure 1. Oblique lateral view of the vertebrae, with the posterior artic-
urfaces aboy
a. Pits for the articulation of the neurapophyses.
b. quartet 4 ansverse process on the right lateral surface
of the c
e. Notch, or ‘depression, i in the posterior margin of the centrum.
Figure 2. Oblique view of the vertebre, with the anterior articular sur-
aces in front.
a, a’, Pits for the articulation of the neurapophyses.
b. Rudimentary transverse process on left lateral surface,
b’. Ditto on right lateral surface.
PLATE IL ~
ertebree of Hosaurus (natural size), with magnified sections.
Figure 1, fs a view of the more perfect vertebra,
a. Pits for articulation of neurapophyses.
6. Rudimentary transverse soe process on left lateral surface.
6’. Ditto on right lateral su
c. Notch, or aon gt in the margin of the centrum.
Figure 2. Paes sverse section of the same vertebra, showing the deep
vities ror thé Reins abit facets, and the rudi-
ry processes at 6 a’
Figure 3. Longitudinal taierogropic section, from near the lateral surface
of centrum, showing the mage lacunz
concentrically around an Haversian canal. anal. (Magnified 350
| diameters.) |
Figure 4. View of the reticulated osseous texture on the lateral surface :
centrum. (Maguitel five diameters.)
‘not differ ae in most respects —
7 obtained. :
Sree ae
ae aa eae
Figure 5. Transverse microscopic section, from near the articular sur-
erie — me:
|
|
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Photo.by MW. Filley. " Enetty af Rite
VERTEBRAE OF EOSAURUS ACADIANUS
«
|
3 4 R. M. a iia 17
ART. H—The Physiology of Sex-scknes i nem MEADE
ACHE, Assistant U. 8. Coast S
(Read before the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, pot 15,°1862,)
ALL that is known about sea-sickness is, that certain involun-
ness. The question is not solved, as to the manner in which the
nervous impression is produce
It is generally supposed, that sea-sickness is produced by the
mere motion of the body, and consequently of the stomach.
That it is produced de motion, is not to be denied, but as wher-
ever sea-sickness occurs, motion is the rvading concomitant
of existence—the thing most patent of all that is anager va a
senses, and the body is so unpleasantly subjected to it,
sight of the fact, that with the body are also subjected ‘all the
senses or perceptive faculties, and that these are called upon
to comprehend an entirely novel state of existence
I have said, that the mere action of motion upon = body is
supposed to produce the nausea called sea-sickness. I hope to
e able to overthrow this theory by the arguments and proofs of
ancthex theory, which I am about to advance
e points which I intend to prove are—that the éable-
ness of motion is a mere matter of habit—that motion however
violent is not nauseating “per se” but only inasmuch as it pro-
duces an impression conflicting with its ordinary contrasted
the result of concurrent testimony of the senses—and, that in
novel motions, there is a violation of the conception of motion
derived from the habitual concurrence of the testimony of the
senses—that as the result of this violation, a conflict of impres-
sions ensues, and the brain is affected—thence the nervous sys-
tem, and nausea results, In fine, I maintain that sea-sickness is
a disease of the brain, and not of the stomach, except incident-
ally, or as affected by os — although, it is true, that the
stomach reacts upon the
I now meet my cacainen in which I have attempted a
procedure, w I trust, cannot fail to bring conviction of the
truth of the i ny to any one who will carefully analyze it.
In all statements o
the experience of others, as well as m
The appearance of motion when the observer knows that his
own body is at rest, is not nauseating. To ascertain the effect of
the mere appearance of motion under these circumstances, we
can take no better example, than that of a train of cars drawn
by a locomotive at full speed. The more fips ec — of the
Ax. Jour, Sct.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXIV, N
facts which I have introduced I have taken ©
°
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18 R. M. Bache on Sea-sickness. - oi
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aave escaped notice, but for the faint oscillation of a chandelier —
which calls attention to the existence of an earthquake—this
scillation through the impression which it gives the observer,
a body is in motion, often causes the sensation of naus
ds
[t is impossible that the motion of the body of the observer could — :
¢ause the sensation, for the case spoken of is one where the ex- _
*
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_ sR. M. Bache on Sea-sickness. 19
roborate and “vice versa.” In the first case, neryous impression
was produced by doubt in the mind of the observer as to whether
his body was or was not in motion, and in = second case,
by the consciousness of motion of the bod , which motion was
not felt. In neither case, did the senses keep pace, consequently
the nervous impression ensued, and consequently nausea. It is
evident, although the sight was the agent in these results, that it
was only the agent, and it was the imagination which produced
the effects. Sight was the intermediary. It may be safely in-
ferred from the effect of the appearance of er | in the two
cases just cited—that if " man aaa 8 himself in his senses,
should see a landscape glide by, he would become nauseated, yet
it is evident that the nausea would proceed from the involved
idea of motion—the idea that he might be in motion without
feeling it—for if he knew it was only the landscape which he
saw that was in motion, he would regard it with terror, but with-
out other sensation, and it would affect him as a passing train of
cars when he knew that his own body was at rest—that is, it
sige'cs not affect rte at all, as far as nauseation is ——
see then, that the appearance of motion ” does not
lantete and we see too, how the 6 tena agate is impressed
by the imagination so as to bring about n
The senses from the earliest infancy pier grown up and been
educated together, to actin harmony. It requires habit to render
them — of —— ace together in a novel condition of
existence. The on Sate anted to the body by riding in
a cartiage, is poe no a violent, notw Feneed ke which, per-
the plea that it makes them ies to do so. It doubtless sa that
effect, but it is impossible for the effect to be ete - the
mere motion in that position, for it is impossible 1 sce
motion in the dark, to decide in what position sy is ahmed
relation to the line of progress, unless some obstacle should inter-
pose, or the road should be so bad as to afford an equivalent to
a number of obstacles in the way, or unless the driving is of
such a character, by sudden turnings and abrupt increasing or —
slackening of speed, as to indicate to the occupant of the carriage
the position in which he must be sitting. In a word, in ordinary
conditions of progress in a carriage, it is impossible in the dark to
etermine in what position one is sitting. This is not to
own. Experiment will _ my assertion to be true —
It has been already sh appearance
cereal does not onunate nn Pra pein person, accustomed
20 R. M. Bache on Sea-sickness.
to riding in a carriage, nauseated by riding with the back to- 7
wards the direction in which he is proceeding, for the appear
ance of motion ‘per se” does not nauseate, nor can motion
erse” nauseate in that instance. The effect is derived from
consciousness of motion perceived by two senses at least, while _
at the same time, the appearance of objects violates the habitual —
ee produced by the sight of them. In the dark, the —
ffect e derived from pure imagination. If we grant then, 4
that a SRE He mode of progress in a carriage can nausea’
one accustomed to a carriage (and it is often seen) and we
t at the same time, that appearance of motion “per se” is
not nauseating (and this I have proved) a and we know Ue in
the case spoken of, that motion “per se” could not have pro- —
duced the sensation of nausea (because the motion is the same
in any position, and the person is habituated to one) we must
then acknowledge that the nausea is produced neither by the
otion “per se,” nor by the ‘appearance of motion “ “ se,” but
by a conflict of the two senses of feeling and sight. If this |
can be inferred in the case of one accustomed to the motion of &
carriage, it must apply with more force to one unaccustomed to it.
So thoroughly have the senses created a conception of mo
tion, that the exclusion of sight does not alter the idea of its —
appearance, nor alter the idea of the appearance of violation
of preconceived effects. The mental picture is always present.
If the exclusion of the sight did alter these ideas, the closing —
of the eyes would in one of the cases just mentioned, save
from nausea a — aati to riding in a certain po
e other case, would secure immunity from nav —
sea to the person Sisaconstrnill to riding atall, But it does —
not save them, which shows that the mental picture of progress —
sition, and in
and of unwonted effects, takes the place of that produced by ac
tual vision. It is immaterial whether the sight is acting or not
acting. Whatever senses exist in an individual, have conjointly
ereated a well defined idea of the contrasted effects of motion, —
and this conception is always evident to the mind eich the —
continued intervention of all the authors of the conception.
n motion is nauseating, but is not
vast
5
*
R. M. Bache on Seu-sickness. Q1
If such effects as those just described in the case of riding in
a carriage can nauseate, when the roduced by compara-
tively slight changes i in“ the habitual conception of contrasted
motion” it is not surprising, that the effect of motion
at sea Shoald bring the great and continuous nausea called sea-
sickness. The motions of a ship vary infinitely. As soon asa
certain kind of motion has lasted for a long time, the voyager
omes accustomed to it, and he has no more tendency to amr
these persons and those who do succumb, is that their organi-
zations in physique and temperament enable them to resist
the inclination to nausea and the education of the senses is com-
pleted before nausea has been able to overcome a ——
it always attacks. There is no one, who in a first experience at
sea, is not disposed to nausea, but there are some few w persons,
who possess such organizations, that with the aid of a firm de-
termination to resist an attack of sea-sickness they are enabled
to escape it, and to. pass the ordeal of the novel motion at sea
without manifest inconvenience.
t sea, motion immediatel even when it is much less
than may be experie in aswing without the slightest impres-
sion. In a swing, motion is com ively regular. It requires
paratively
little education of the senses to enable them to keep pace with
each other. The evidence of the sight is nearly the same as that
greatest
depression—secondly, the corres ondin ng i rvals of aaa
thirdly, the perception of the rush in arene through the
atmosphere, for not only does the cessation of the rush indicate
the points of greatest elevation, but its increase or
salon: continuously all other points. Hearing may also be
‘the conviction of the mind as to a
es
Peek. oe ne
ih ee
3 R. M. Bache on Sea-sickness.
» L have been told by a person who attempted to prepare himself ~
nur
which affects us, but inequality of motion, and that it is not the —
rapid motion, even when driven by his own master, and what
1akes him eventually delight in riding? Preconceived ideas of
habitual conception of motion, they must be affected at
sea as human beings are—in the same manner if not in the same —
he tumbler pigeon precipitates itself with a revolving
motion towards the earth, but does not appear to be at all af-
fected by the motion which its body has undergone. If the same —
bird is taken in the hand and its head placed under one of it8—
wings and it is then whirled around, it may be placed on a ta-
A prea afew moments it will appear lifeless. Aquatic —
birds of the greatest vigor in flight, and habituated to floating on
me nauseated on the decks of vessels.
Tay ere ae
e)
sa
J: I Delle Recivichacis. -
time, to reconcile the evidence of his senses, If he
si
et us now consider the peculiar effect of unequal motions
upon the human body. It is my conviction that motion is nau-
seating whenever the estimate of its extent does not correctly
precede it. The mind mechanically calculates what is to take
-
q
j
violence, and yet causes many to give involuntary evidence of
the occupancy of their state rooms. The strain of fancy is ever
exerted and solicitous to imagine and attain the turning point,
although after it is gained, the motion, as in a descent, may be
still more rapid. Let any one who has been at sea, recall how
trying was a continuous movement in one direction, even a long
‘ise upon a wave, when the motion is certainly not as swiftasin
24 R. M. Bache on Sea-sickness.
a descent, and at the same time remember, how small the motion —
of a long gliding rise or descent is, as compared to much that ~
ere is no motion at sea which by habit will not cease to appear
undefined, but if it were possible for a ship to mount heaven: —
ards, and to sink rapidly near to the bottom of the sea in
alternate movements, it is my belief, that the hardiest sailor
would become sea-sick.
The summary of what I have attempted to demonstrate is this,
that sea-sickness is not the result of motion “ per se,” nor of the —
appearance of motion “per se,” but is the result of the senses
‘violating the habitual conception of contrasted effects of mo-
tion” and producing on the brain the idea of undefined motion. —
When the senses are educated to form codperating and agreeing -
measures of the novel condition of existence at sea, nausea ends.
If they never formed these measures nausea would never end.
For another proof of this theory, take the case of an infant —
Instances of children in arms being sea-sick are very rare.* —
A child certainly feels the motion, that is to say its body is sub-
ject to the motion equally with that of the oldest passenger. But —
achild undergoes motion without feeling it. It sees too, without —
percetvi n its case nothing conflicts. It is as ready to be —
rocked on the billows as in its cradle. Its youth precludes the —
possibility of its having any habitual conception of motion from
the education of the senses, and if it feels any sensation, that sen-
sation is at variance with nothing. As soon as children begin t0 —
“take notice,” as it is called, the education of the senses begins, —
and thus we find, that children shortly afterwards, at the age of
long before adults are secure from it. The case of a blind man, |
use he cannot see, and consequently cannot perceive, is not j
- * A medical friend has handed us the following note on a case of his own ob |
servation.—Eps. :
ant packet ship “ Webster,” (1861,) I recollect ® 4
i The child was perf q
rged our Pilot at Holy Head. On we 4
R. M. Bache on Sea-sickness. 25
in any ntl pe similar to that of an infant, for I have shown, that
hee ae picture may: conflict with reality, a ees blind man
mental picture—the idea of space—
sor aclu eta ‘aden Not only are bation i ef usual]
afflicted with sea-sickness, but just in propersey to the youth of
children, are they exempt from it. Since my own observation
indicated what has been asserted in sea to the immunity of
babies from sea-sickness, I have en wigs et? # agiaiion of experi-
- whether their observation tende e same direction,
I have been confirmed in my belie
‘i has been asked by a friend, to whom I communicated this
theory of sea-sickness, whether the insane are sea-sick, and an
heres under the “mania a potu.” ese persons not
come sea-sick. Another case of which I have reliable informa-
tion, is that of a young girl, who was insane, and who was taken
* Among the latest testimony which I have received, is a letter written by Cap-
tain R. P. Manson of Bath, Maine. This letter is subjoined. Much other testimony
has been received verbally, or is my own testimony derived from close observa-
pep and comparison during a series of years. The remark that it is impossible, in
motion in the aed for the occupant to decide in what direction he is
ich I made by my
of progress, is one which }
father many years 5 con when I was but a praia Memory tr ‘this
ago, at
alleged fact, and not suspecting for a moment, that the determination of its trath
tions, and thus I was generally enabled to avoid what might prove leading questions.
Letter of Capt. R. P. Manson. ;
Bath, Oct. 14th, 1861.
R. M. Bacue, _
“Dear Sir:—Your letter regarding sea-sickness has been received, and I most
cheerfully comply we your request—offering any eatin Vahey has sunt
thirty years actual services as er
ing
tashiness} which you may deem relative or iateretiog to that subject.
uestions ildren—I have wn an infant,
phon hig’ ae Stee tee p to four or five
years, are not often sea-sick, when so, the att but short, slight, and seldom
returns. S ve, is in conformity with your own views: it is what I have
invariably observed with many hundred emigrant families.
knew t cases of sea
will a-sickness completely
and almost instantly cured by fear. Respectfully your ob’t sery't,
BF “Manson?
AM. Jour. Sc1.—Seconp Sertzs, er XXXIV, No. wees 1862.
4
26 R. M. Bache on Sea-sickness.
to sea by her father, who was the captain of the ship. ‘She too
was not sea-sick. I ‘should be very sorry to mar a strong case of
evidence in favor of the theory which I have advanced, by an —
assertion of the truth of which I am not positive, even if were _
willing to state any thing of which I am not absolutely certain.
give my a. of this subject, for what itis worthin _
the thoughts of those who may read this article. I shall not
port my theory te any measure whatever upon the result of
that slight investigation. radghe I do not assert, that the in-
sane are not liable to sea-sickne
- I think it sufficiently clear froin all that has been said, that im-
ion of the brain is the cause of nausea on the ocean, since
I have shown, that iit is not motion “per se” nor the appearance
of motion “per se” which causes it, but an zdea, which I have
termed one of undefined motion, derived when the body is sub-
jected to motion in an unusua manner, from the “ violation of
the habitual conception of contrasted effects of motion.” There
are minor causes of sea-sickness, or rather, not so much causes as
= ae ha of it. These are close cabins, smell of bilge- be |
vee food, and as I have said, the stomach reacts upon t
or
ry precaution bij miter $ taken by people about to commence
a sea-voyage, is to eat nothing or scarcely any thing. Another
precaution taken, is to get immediately into a berth. Neither
is therefore more liable to be acted upon in chy st ca ‘of
nausea, and if nausea should ensue, retching is probably more
distressing without than with food. Lying g down is an excellent
plan to adopt for the purpose of avoiding nausea, but when the
posture is assumed in a berth with the nauseous smell of bilge
water around and as is often the case, with a tin vessel of ques-
tionable nicety, a on the edge of the berth, the plan is no
better than the firs
Persons frequently i imagine that some particular article of food
cured their ema nyg It is a general rule, that pk a
eae
iny reas to render the deck of a vessel in any
ng |i aye tae geen place to remain, either to
-sicl or to recover from it. It is there, that the
woe
_ W.P.G. Bartlett on Interpolation in Physics and Chemistry. 27
sight can be more quickly educated to the movement, than it can
be in the cabin. The crests and troughs of the seas can be ob-
all will then have been done, that can one, to prevent, to
cure, or to alleviate sea-sickness, until the education of the senses
18 completed. . .
Arr. IIl.—On the Empirical Interpolation of Observations in
Physics and Chemistry; by W. P. G. BARTLETT.
THE object of the present paper is to bring to the notice of
physicists some methods of interpolation; not that there is any
principle in them new to mathematicians, but use no proper
methods appear to be practically within the reach of many of
those engaged in making such observations in physics and chem-
as require interpolation. .
' Whatever difficulty'there is in the problem arises from our
entire ignorance of the form of the function which the observa-
tions follow, and from the necessarily irregular intervals at which
are made. aie
Kvery method of interpolation under these conditions amounts
“are “ee gen these by elimination from the equa
_ t0 assuming some formula involving arbitrary constants, and de-
o ;
28 W. P. G. Bartlett on Interpolation in Physics and Chemistry.
If all the observations are ig See to be rigorously satisfied,
Lagrange’s formula,
(-=t,)(t—t.)(t—t5) ,_(¢—to)(t*=t2)(t—ts) --
ee —t)(t —te)(to =i): it 1—fo)(ty —te)(t, = a
(t—t,)(¢—t, )(t—t i es
(t2 to )(to 4s (te se rin o
a
oO
oO
=
oO
ba]
mn
fo)
a
S
ta
pS)
=.
oe
Nj
oO
#8
‘3
es
S
o
ge
ey
ct
is
“oO
x)
:
®
latter is ip gdarady seaprabtioable in a direct form, unless the con-
stants enter linearly into the equations, in which case the method
of least squares will always give good results; but it besides
pa the successive terms in the development, either of y, or of
err function of y, form a convergent series, it will gene-
be advantageous to use Cauchy’s method, which, notwith-
ina us violation of the law of probable error, is Practically
sufficient, and indeed far the best, for almost all t aghorae'
porn that it is worth while to develop at all in an ng ap lota
wT his method not being, like least squares, generally accessible
in a working form, it is proposed to devote special attention to
its operation. Tis principle is to neglect at each step all the
terms of lower orders, leaving in general a form
z= au,
soit then of all the values
Kozy +h 21 +4222 ke.
Rtg Hh yU, thot. + ke-
2 which might be given to the constant a, by assigning different
gets of values to the k’s, to select that in which the #’s are all so
taken (=+1) that the denominator above written becomes the
_. # Tf there are m+-1 observed values of y, there will be Pec ha able
faci idaat from the theory of eqantions, hat th of the formula above written; and
W. P. G. Bartlett on Interpolation in Physics and Chemistry. 29
absolute sum of the special values of u.* To show more dis-
tinctly how the numerical application is to be made, we shall
ere rap some formule for computation, changing for this
of Cauchy’s notation and giving the development
an entirely different form.
it be assumed, as usual, a the observed quantity y, con-
Sie 28h developed i in the fo
(1) aE POM &e.
If this assumption does not give, on trial, a convenient formula,
the logarithm or any other function of y may be tried in the
ed of y, and its development made in precisely the same way.
t will be easy to see, moreover, that any Me we please
may be substituted for the different powers of t, provided only
hind ws convergent. The function will first be Aavalined in
e
(2) Y=A4+B4H4+-€ 222+ 4212+ ke.
in which 42, 42/?, &c., are functions of the form a+bt-+ct? +&e.
and are respectively of the first, second, &c., degreesint. The
numerical values of A, 3%, &c., and the ex sressions for Ji, &e.,
ing found, the series (2) i is immediately reducible to the form
(1). Tet r be the number of observations given to determine
A, B, &.; then the formule required in practice are
ae f Zi2 zi3 ae ok -
§ eet Fae £.——=—, ose ee ee wees ere way
P _ sat? z'4t3 Lined
a Fai’ Assays thee eee ee ee a Siar Sy ¥
4212—412_8 dt, Cet tet 11s Ata — Bd
ad
Pe bad
Some Fae Aa aie ge
(8) 4 43 {84213 —y,42t? a (Asta A2— yd “-
ayy
aly!
Bs 5; tae”
a
: €= = ‘=y" —€2471?
zuyn
i =y"— 378
= 214343 Bion: tile
* For the complete analysis, whiah ia quite simple, the reader is referred to the
phed memoir published in 1835, or to its republication in 1887 i
ce Peradd thatiun ei 193. The same thing is also
: aed
translation
30 W.P.G. Bartlett on on in Physics and Chemistry.
these values heael gia must be tenet Similarly before
=", =", &., signs must be changed ‘throughout for the
quantities. The Liisieing equations
4 ximl4” gp —0, poner 7 )
are true for all values of n greater than and may therefore
be u Each of the conditions 4) pre up (except
the case in which n=1) into two more convenient partial sums;
for, denoting the sum of all the values of a function correspond-
ing to positive values of 4” by 2(1(+), and of those corres-
ponding to negative ones by ='"(—), the equation
rad is btn were} to ree i dh )=0, and
zim zim}(+-) — —)=0; whence
(5) ata | Be
which may take the places of > and =! in the form (4). There
might occur cases in which this principle of subdivision could
be carried on still farther. The advantage of using (5) instead
of (4) lies in the narrower limits within which it is necessary to
look for an error discovered by means of (5).
The special forms of the various functions are written out in
Os as ic. as will suffice for determining four terms in the value
and computing y'¥ so as to test the accuracy of the approxi-
mation and acply the checks (5) to it. An inspection of (8) will
show
1st, that the first term, @, is simply the average value of y.
ae ea to pei the second term it will be necessary to
17 4, an
ora for Ae ‘hind term, Ss , %, dt?, B,, 422, and @:
4th, for the fourth term, y’”, «, At Ba 423 om 433, and
and so on till the residual quantities, yim, are seen to be small
enough to be neglected.
If more special forms are desired besides those written out
in (8), the law of their formation is obvious from an inspection
of peel developed there. It is such that, in general,
if . and $% be the mth letters in their respective — then
m-1}gn-1 yn
Pa Fom-lgm iy? ara" 1d 1
J
W. P. G. Bartlett on Interpolation in Physics and Chemistry. 31
To get out symmetrically the see of (1) itis easy to
find that they are of the following for
ASAHI) + 3] B+ &e.
B= B+[2"]€+|3'] B+ é&e.
@-+[3' :
(8) C= ]+ &e
Dat 0+ ke.
i . etc. etc. etc.
in which
[1] ve
[2]=—«,—
8.[1] [2J=
<a "s—9eL']—ral?] e-? fore [3’ domes
EXAMPLE.
[Léwel’s operat = ee NaO SO, in water, developed in powers of
— Annales de Chimie et Physique, xlix, 50.]
t t? t3 y’ Te
— 32°00 | 10240| — 8276814 487°5| — 27°684|+ 400°9|-— 39445
27000] 4 25° 16:
0-0) 70 38°5 i
25°00} 625°0 15625] 315°5| 20684 2302
24:00} 576-0 18824] 293°5| 19°684 471 20501
200 so00} 199°5 15°684 2231 14677
17:00 | 289°0 4913] 133°5| 12684 11
1 2560 4096] 115°5} 11°684 3671 10773
98 564+ 40°5 5584 526 :
— 496|° 246{/=—. 1 65|- 0644 598-5 6
+ 0-40 2 155°5|+ 4°716 622°9
49| 9581+ 295°5| 141 5273|- 5739
20°6 4:8 8755} 4025} 24-926] — 3
84-42 | 1184-7 40779] 541°5| 38736'+ 5616) 34102
+5317 | 2827-0 | + 150314] — 572°5 | + 57-486 | + 2203°9 | + 148637
— 60°42 | 8724:1/4+ 93482 O}+ O&O + ONS oes
39850] 279-936 | + 28888 | + 984798 |
Azt2 At? yi we) oy
9841+ 6812|/-— 6335] + 63 |-—18220; + 838 SE dane
7 536-9|- 2959] + 49 12326} + 63 |a,==+ 623
48 2113|+~ 2486] — 38 |- 1251) = 387 ‘ae. poe
168/}+ 152-2 $041 $8 1+ S8EP uu SF
210;- 64:3 4081 123 5203 129 |3,==+ 107125
+8 205°7 $580 17-0 7169 178 |8,=+ 1196-0
. a)
3} 4701)/— 1014] +263 4188 | +255 | ys==+ 17447
} 6029 13°8
198171 + 15 |— 617; + 16 |= 48375
16 5
r1i— 4007| 27733] + 88 19870| +110 | %=—- 14°057
-4|/—- 12227) -—199 |-15182| -182
1621-9|+ 74884] +162 |+46587, +110 | €=+ 01352
we Sr Oo 1+ 2 0 a
“be a 9) — -g | W=+0000111) —
+ O1F O7]+ 2} -
+9119! 6745°2/+117681}-"1 -"1 -6 -1|-‘l-'1
. Bas +174 | 1567671 -"1 <2} 2
32 W.P.G. Bartlett on Interpolation in Physics and Chemistry.
Baht BAt At | y,A2e? | Cate? | Ware?
1. | - 280°3 | — 33110 | + 889°1 | + 11885 {+ 921] —2°0 | [1]—=+4°316 |
2 260°0 30718 361°0 9267 726 14 2]= — 666°8 -
3. 209°4 24738 290°7 3687 286 | -O'1 Re -—-206 «| ae
4 199°3 23542 276°T | + 2655 | + 206 0-0 ee
5 158°8 18758 220° |- 1122/- 87} +06 | [2’/]—=-10125 |
6 128-4 15170 178°3 3589 278 0°8 He -1019 ‘
4 1183 13974 164°2 4341 33°6 0's
8. 560 6619 iTS 8202 63°6 08 | [3"’J=-17T4
9,1- 65
10, |+ 47°7|+ 5640/- 663] 11700 907 | -O'1 | A= 4686°6
11.| 1498| 16871| 1983] 11694] 906} 1:2 | B= - 15-539
12.| 9524| 29811| 3504/- 7863|- 609) 22 | C=+ 01333
| 3922] 463 544°5 | + 2955 229| -1°7 | D=+0-000111
- 14. [4582-0 | + 68753 | — 808'0 | + 28297 | +2193 | + 5°2
cients a, }, &c., at all. In taking the sum 2’ the signs are to be
braic sum of the last five cases, and =’(—) that of the first nine.
=’(+) is the algebraic sum of the Ist, 2d, 3d, 4th, 13th and 14th
cases, and 2”(—) of the rest. 2’”(+) includes the 4th, 5th, 6th,
7th, 8th, 9th, and 14th, and =’”(—) the rest. The values of
>"(+) and 2”(—) are written on the same horizontal line oppo-
site the argument 2”; similarly with =””(+) and 2’"(—) for yr.
M. Bienaymé has shownt that if each case of the equations,
y= A+Bi+Ci?+&e.
y= Bai+Cdi?+d&e.
y= C4?(2-LD4213-4-de.
os etc. ete. ete.
were multiplied by the proper Jeast-square factor (different for
each case and for each of these equations) before taking the sums
z, 2’, &c., the process would become merely another form for
expression of the elimination in least-squares given by Ga
advantages of Cauchy’s method are its simplicity, the ease
to Léwel, Annales de Chimie roma Sa _xlix, page 50.
Rendus, tome xxxvii, 4 Juillet 1853; and Liouville’s Journal de Mathé-
lso Cauchy's Note, Comptes Rendus, xxxvi, 27 Juin,
ae
W. P. G. Bartlett on Interpolation in Physics and Chemistry. 38
“interpolation-formula” satisfying the whole or even any great
number of the observations. For this purpose the observed
quantities must first. be reduced to equidistant values of the
variable, and then these may easily be interpolated to as frequent
intervals as we please by the methods in common use. ee
To accomplish the first object there are several methods. The
mechanical one of plotting a curve (however valuable in suggest-
ing the true physical law of the phenomena) cannot often be used
_ in which A is obviously the required value of y eorresponding
d ned in each case from as man )
_ # See Lacroix, Calcul, tom. ili, p. 31, §908; or De Morgan, Calculus, p. 550.
Am. Jour. Sct—Srconp SERtEes, VoL. XXXIV, No, 100.—Juny, 1862
5
ris.—9th ARTICLE; by Extas Loomis, Professor of fie
Pidosuhy. and Astronomy in Yale College.
In vol. xxxii, » PP. 324-835 of this Journal, I have shown the 4
existence of a stream of electricity drifting across Central Eu-
rope in a divostion from about N. 28° E. to S. 28° W. che
ington also. The cher aione at the first three stations were
made with needles mounted in the manner recommended b
Gauss; but those at Washington were made with a declination
compass having a needle of eleven inches in len h, whose mo-
tions were much less free than those of Gauss’ construction, and
with equal precision. For this reason the last column in the
following table eae a large number of blanks, The table
exhibits a list of all those cases in which there was a well
oncked maximum or ee value of the magnetic declina-
—. Be when this maximum or minimum value was of short
dura All the dates are expressed in the mean time of
Gétangen.
OBSERVED DEFLECTIONS OF THE HORIZONTAL MAGNETIC NEEDLE.
Toronto, Cambridge. ) Philadelphia. , Washington.
h. h, m. i. ™m. h. m.
1840. May 29. Maximum, 10 55. 10. «(55 10. (55
inimum, 30 1] 5 The)
ax. 1° 35 12225 1 30
Min. LL 0 11. 80 1 35
Max. iE. 60 11 35-40 1 45
Min. 12 0 11 660 1 55
Max. 2 16 12 56-10 i2 +36
in, 12. 36 12 30 2 35
8 45 8 40 8 45
4 15-20 4. 415 4 15
5 0 5 0 5 0
15 15 465 15 50 ‘4
if 156 «2565 5 55
16 . 16 ; 20
; 16 85 5 «BB
; 45 3 «645
4 Se ee ey
l 17-8 ..4 17.10
cat Wy: Pooks A ae
1t Ay. 30 30-35
36 20 30 ) 30-35
and the motion of Auroral Beams. 35
Table continued.
Toronto, Cambridge: Philadelphia. Washington.
' m. h. m. h. m. h. aie
1840, May 30. Max. 0 50-55 0 50 0 50
: Min. 2 2 5 2 5
Max. 2:= 20 25-20 2:20
Max. 9 30 9 380 9 26
Min. 9 35 9 35 9 85
Jun Max. 16 40 16 35-40
June 25. Min. 5 10 6 10
July M 16 26 16 25
in 19 0
M 19 20 19 20
in 19 40 19 40
July 23. M 5 10 5 10
. 28. Max 0 45-50 0 40-45 10 «45
Min. 1 36 [1 80-35 11 80-85
M 1 50 L269 Pks560
Min. $< 26 $ 2-85 13 425
Max. 4 40 4 35-40 14 40
Min. 5 5 5 5 15 5
Max. & = 16 5-270 15 10
Min. 5 40 5 35 15 35
Min. 6 20-25 6 20 16 20
Max. 6 35 6 380 $s 80
Min, 6 45-50 40 16 40-45
M 7 5 0 0-5
Min, =~ 1 26 20 E20
M: 7-240 85 ij 40
Min. 8 5 55 3 0
8.235 } 5 :. 10
Min. 8 380 3 «620 5. 86 s
Max, 8 35 y 30 3
Min. is 50 3. 45 3.6 («BO
li9 20 y 10 9 16 :
Max. 19 50 9 50 > 50
Max. 1028 226 33 225 99:2 26
Sept. 23. Max. 1 10 40 }{' 10 40 ») 40 10 45
Max. 13 3 40-50 8. 50 13 56
Min. 15 45-50 5 45 5... 55 15 650
Min, eo -60 22 50-55 22°. 50 22 «#250
Sept. 24. Min, 0 85 0: 85 0. 85 0 30
Min. 2 5 S i165 Bie moan 24 2 15
ax. 2 85 Ss 80 2 30-35 2 $6
Min. 4 30 4 30 4 80. 4 83
Oct. 21. Max. 10 50 10 45 10 «45 10 45-50
Min, 41 220 1] 5 1]
Max. 14 50 4 60 14 60
Min. 5 5 15 10-15 15° 15
Max. 16 0 16 0 16
: Min. 16 35 16 25-30 | 16 380 16 35
7 Oct.22. Min. $ <85: }.-8 8. 35
| Noy, 28. Max, 9. 236 2 <5 15 2
: Dec, 23. Max. 11 45 1 45 IL 46 11 46
Max. 18° 30 I 10 13 #10 18 16
3 Min. 15: 726 18 -96 18°25 13 - 2
| Max. 13 40 13 35 13 35 13 385
z Min. 14 20 14 15 1 15 4 15
Max. 15 0 14 -55 14 55-60 15 0
: Max. 15 20 35. 220 15
: Min. 18 50 18 18 50 18 50
Max. 30 23. 20 22 20-25
Prof. E.. Loomis on the action of Electrical Currents,
36
Table continued.
Philadelphia. | Washington. —
h. m. h. m.
1840. Dec. 24. Max. 30
Max. 2 55
in. 3 5
1841. Jan. 20. Max. 15 25
Jan. 21. Min, hx 6 10
_ Min. 8 50 8 50-55
Feb. 26. Max. 18 15 78 16
Min, 13 50 13 650
Max. 15 10 15 10 1
Min, 15. 80 15 +30
Max. 16-22-06 16 0
Min, ‘ 30 21 30
March 24. Max. 12 19.) 5
Min. 12 12 20-25
Max. 12 5 12 40 }
Min, : ; 1 25
Max. 15 45-50 16 285 15. 465
Max. 16 i6 20 16 25
Min. i825 iS 25 18:5 85
April 21. Max. - $1: 2036 di. 36 Li235 ki dp
Max. 14 50 14 50 14 5O 14 45-50 :
Max. 15. 220 15 15 ei)
i 15 80 15 80 & 30
Max. 5 45 15 40 |). 15 45
Mia. 5 5b 5 55 5 55 15 55-60
Min. $:-=20 ig 20 18 20
May 28. Max. 2 225 [2 2.20 2 20-25 13 «35
Max. 3 45-50 3 45 3 45 18 50
Min. 4 15 4 15 4 15 14 #15
June 23. Max. 10 40 10 40 10 40 1 40
M 32 30 12 ~-10 12-340
Min. 19 10 19 5-10 19.:70
Min. 23 215 23 10-15 93 #15
June 24. Max. 1 40 1-240 | 640
Min. 8 45° $34 8-46
July 21. Max. 14 35 14 30-35 14 80-35 4 85
Min. 14 55 14 14 50 14 50
Max. 15 «(25 15 20 1hc335 25
Min. 1 5 16 10 16 10-15 16 10-15
Min. 17 45-5! 17 45-50 172560 50
Min. 19 10-15 19 #]j 19 10-15 19 15
20 19 55 20: 0
. jie t Sgees 3S 21.316 SL 46 21 15
July 22. Min. 3 40 3 «640 8 35
Aug. 27. Min. 10 50 10 50 ») 50 10. 50
Mi 12 5 50
. 15 18. 18
L 55 14 55
19 380 =
2 8S
: a.
18 40
) 380
oe ae
14. 45
18 45
19.20
5
and the motion of Auroral Beams.
Table continued.
Toronto. Cambridge. Philadelphia.
m, h m. h, m,
Oct, 20. Min. 80 19 30 19 30
Max, 19 50-55 19 60 19 60
Min. 5 23: & tee
Oct. 21. Min. 5 1 ee im
Max, 3 10 $8 10 3 10
Nov. 26, Max, 14 40 14 35-45 14 30-40
Dec, 22, Min. 5 20, 25 90; 6
Min. 22 15-20 22 15-20 22 15-20
1842, Jan.19. Max. 12 24 12 20 12 24
Max, 16 42 16 40 16 «42
Min, 17 12-18 ty fee | 17 12-18
Feb. 25. Min. 36 11 30 11. 30
Max. 12 0-6 12 oO 12 0-6
Max. 0 16° 0 0
Min. 19 42-48 19 45 19 42-48
Feb. 26. Min. i pas 0.0 0; 0
March 23, Max. 15: 20 is. o 1820
Min. 14 12 14 10 14 12
Max. 17 12-18 jy ae it><8
2 March 24, Max. 0 4 0 4 0
in. 8 36 8 35-40 8 36
April 20, Max. 18 30 13 30 13 30
Min. 14 O 14 #O 13 «+54
Min. 15 48 15 50 15 48-54
Max. 16 24-30 16 20-25 16 424
30 30 19 30
5 Min. 19 48-54 19 «55 19 54
April 21. Max. 0 5.0 £3
May 27, Max, 14 54-60 55 14 64
Max, 19 24- 19 25-30 19 24-30
June 22. Min. 14 18-24 20 14 #18
Max, 1 6 14 55 165.8
Max, 16 42 16 40-45 16 42
Max, iT. 238 1°40 li ois
Max, 17 6 17 «50 17 «+54
Max. 19 36-48 19 30 19 36-42
Max. 20 36 20 35 20 36
June 23. Max. oe ee Q 23 54-60
ax, 8 36 35 8 36
July 20. Max, 13 #18 18 36 13 18
Aug, 26. Max, 11 ll 45 11 48
Max, 14 18 14 10 14 }
i 14 380 14 25 14 )
15 «36 15 30 15 )
Aug. 27, Min, 4 3 55 3 54
Sept. 21, Min, 12 54-60 12 55 12 :
Max, 30 18 20-25 13 :
Max, 17 +54 17 45-50 17 48
Min. 19-2 19 165 1]
Max, 21 54-60 | 21 55 21. 54
Sept. 22, Max, 0 3 55 3 54.
Max, 8 12-18 s. & S212
Oct.19. Max, 13 380 13. 25 13. 24
Min. 18 0-6 18 90 18 0
Max. Q1. 24 oi 35 21. 24
Max, 22 «24 22 25 22. 24
Oct. 20, Max. 0 30 0 30 0 30
Noy. 25. Max, 15 18 15 #15 15 18
Dec. 21. Max. 4 .48 14 45 14 48
eR 17-48-54 | 17 45-50 ' 17
37
Washington.
b. m.
19 50-55
Oo: «
8 10
14 40-45
0 5
12 5-10
15 0
19 +45
eee
13 0
14 #15
ane.
4 0
8 80-35
13.. 30
14 0
15 50
16. 26
19 30
19 «55
6 0
15 0
19 30
14 20
16° S
16 445
37°80
17 55
19 45
. 85
e. 6
8 40
38 Prof. E. Loomis on the action of Electrical Currents,
The following table shows in how many cases the maximum |
deviation of the magnetic needle occurred earlier at Cambridge,
Philadelphia or Washington than it did at Toronto; in how
Philadelphia were made at intervals of 6 minutes. The differ-
= therefore in the times of maximum deviation are generally
; or 10 minutes; but when at one of the stations the indi-
pe of the needle were sensibly the same at two successive
observations, we may obtain differences of 24 or 74 minutes.
In the few cases in which other differences are obtained, they
have been classed with the numbers in the table to which they
approached nearest.
Maximum deviation of the magnetic needle.
Cambridge. Philadelphia. Washington.
124 minutes earlier, 3 i
10 - 4 “
14 A os 6 1 1
- = 34 19 2
24 @ a 16 25 M3
At the same instant, 44 40 28
_ 24 minutes later, 2 1 7
“ “ i 5 y;
Average result, 3™11 earlier. | 140 earlier. {| 016 later.
These observations indicate that the maximum deviation of
the magnetic needle advances like a wave over the earth’s sur-
face; and that the direction of its motion is from N. 68° E. to
S. 68° W. A comparison of the Cambridge and Toronto ob- —
servations indicates a velocity of progress amounting to 113
minute; while a comparison of the Philadelphia and
neg observations indicates a velocity of only 75 miles per
min
The following table shows in how many cases the minimum
deviation of the magnetic needle occurred earlier than at Toronto;
in how many cases it occurred at the same instant; and in how
many cases 1t occurred later than at Toronto.
Minimum wrt of the oe =
and the motion of Auroral Beams. 39
These observations indicate that the minimum deviation of
the magnetic needle advances like a wave over the earth’s sur-
face ; that the direction of its motion is from N. 69° E. to
Pe: 8, 69° . A comparison of the Cambridge and Toronto ob-
ng to 15
miles per minute; while a comparison of the Philadelphia and
Toronto observations Sndiciatee a Pilocity of only 103 miles per
minu
We thus see that the average progress of the maxima and
minima deviations of the magnetic needle was very nearly in
the same direction and with the same velocity. Assuming that
the average direction of both classes of waves is the same, we
find their } progress to be from N. 68° E. to S. 68° W.; and the
velocity of their progress deduced from a gr of the
Cambridge and Toronto observations is 134 miles per minute;
while the velocity deduced froma akg se a the Philadel-
seas a Toronto observations is 89 miles
mined that the direction of this motion in gland a from
N. 42° E. to S. 42° W.; and we now find this direction in the
ncighborhood of New York to be from N. 68° E. to S. 68° W.
At the time of a considerable number of the receding ob-
Servations, auroras were recorded at some one of the stations.
The following are the auroral notices at Toronto, corresponding
to some of the Pesaig dates. The dates are all given in the
mean time of Gottingen
earch observations at Toronto.
1840, May 29, 15h, Balas. light in north.
15h 16™, faint streamers shot up from NE. to altitude
i a most brilliant aurora followed.
16h, aurora most brilliant.
16" 5m, a perfect arch from NW. to N.E. Splendid
So of light from the incessant flashes or p
7h, Streamers anenere faint patches of pee and
a few pulsations.
1gh, Very faint light arch, dark clouds rising in N.
20h, com Ae
Aug. 28, 14h 30m, Splendid aurora.
1 , :
17 30m, Aurora very splendid. ~
18h, hate fe obscured by the clouds.
seks up}; aurora again visible. —
ie
40 Prof. E. Loomis on the action of Electrical Currenis,
1840. Oct. 22. From 154 to 18} faint auroral light.
Dec. 23. 174, Bank of auroral light in N.; fain i
184, Auroral light in N. Patches of light = streameny 7
194, Faint auroral light in N. =
1841, April 21. 15, sna! idee in N. horizon; a few faint stream-
on rane oan
Faint aie light to N. ae
July 21. ve 30". Bright bank of, auroral light in N. ;
194, Faint auroral light in N.
20%, Faint auroral light in N. :
h, Faint auroral light in N.
Oct. 20. 145 35™. Auroral light in N.
155 20™, Very faint auroral light along N. horizon.
The following notices of the aurora were recorded at Wash-
ington. The dates are given in the mean time of the place.
Auroral observations at Washington.
1840. Aug. 28. From 8* 30™ to 95 45™ p.m. the aurora distinctly visi-
ble, extending from N.E. by N. to N.W. by N.; faint
yf ae ces of it at irregular Sntherals until 1» 458
29th.
Sept. 23. At ry 40" P.M. a ee of an auroral arch, extend-
ing from N.N.E. to N.N.W.; centre or highest point,
Ny by E.; altitude 8°.
The mcg, Pm oe notices are from the register kept at
New Haven by M Herrick.
Auroral observations at New Haven,
1840. May 29. A aeons ge aurora. A narrow belt overhead be
and 108; and ees 108 auroral waves a8
he i as roak ;
Aug.. 28, A considerable aurora visible. An — 40° high
N. be . Few streamers.
Oct. 22. A distinct aurora. An arch 2° or 3° high lying 30° or
4 ong the northern horizo
Dec. 24. During most of the evening there ‘seemed to be a faintly
luminous ya ge particularly in the N., but also more
. or less else’ :
1841. March 24. = auroral rs low in N. horizon all evening ; about
2° high; bright. I saw no streamers.
July 21. A faint auroral illumination at 10 p.m. and also at 2
the
.M. -
Oct. 21. About L 4 M.a brilliant auroral dis lay, not extending
higher than streamers rapidly shifting.
1842. April 20. =a aurora abost a and faint traces, through the
tscee dates at which | a j
4
ies
a
| ee
and the motion of Auroral Beams. 41
bridge on an average 3™-88 earlier than at Toronto, and at Phil-
adelphia 1™-87 earlier than at Toronto. These results are a little
_ greater than those obtained from a comparison of all the obser-
‘yations, and indicate a motion somewhat more nearly east and
‘west; but the general character of the results is the same. We
seem ‘authorized then to infer that in the eastern part of the United
Slates the trregular deflections of the magnetic mee whether attended
or not by ok auroral exhibition, are generally propagated in a di-
rection from N. 68° Lf. to Be ae 'W., and with an average velocity
of about 112 miles per min
During the exhibition ae brilliant auroras, auroral beams do
not ordinarily continue stationary for many minutes. They
generally exhibit a movement of translation towards the south,
and frequently also a movement to the east or west of the me-
ridian. In order to determine whether there is any uniform-
ity in the direction of this motion, I have collected together
all the notices of this kind which I could find recorded in the
Am. Journal of Science, in the Reports of the N. Y. Regents,
and in various other works. The following is the result of this
examination
Notices of lateral displacement of the auroral beams.
From the American Journal of Science.
Vol. xiv, p. 92. 1827, Aug. 28. New York City. Waves of light
to flow from the eastern toward the oe part of the Juminous
The whole arch moved towards the
et xiv, p. 94. Troy, N. Y. The sowihe of the light from E. to W.
nstant.
Vol. xiv, p. 104, Canandaigua, N. Y. About the time that the arch
ke up into columns, it seemed to move back towards the north. Soon
ater i it moved again to the south, apparently with a more rapid motion
ever.
pee
Vol. xiv, p. 105. 1827, Sept.9. Canandaigua, N. Y. A light cloud,
moved gently to the west, and gradually put on the appearan
of light. Proceeding still west, and po little south, they seemed
to “en and descend toward the western rn horizon. The movement
westward was distinct, but not Mee so to enable me to estimate
Ee the last beam vanishing after appearing to move wes
Scr.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XXXIV, No. 100.—Junr, 1863. :
6
42 Prof. E. Loomis on the action of Electrical Currents,
Vol. xxx, p. 135. 1835, Dec. 11. Toronto, Canada. All these rays
moved in a very stately march from east to west.
Vol. xxx, p. 231. 1835, Sept. 4. New Haven,Conn. The streamer —
all ate to the east about 6°, Beams shot up about 30° high, and
moved laterally to the east.
ol. xxxii, p. 178, 1837, Jan, 25. New Haven. The twilight of ©
: d at x
Vol. xxxii, p. 221. 1836, Aug. 12. ‘Ib. Over head the arch moved
southward. In the east it also advanced southw
ol. xxxii, p. 222. Ib. Parallel fleeces, distinct from each other,
Vol. xxxii, p. 225. 1836, May 8. New Haven. The arch advanced
southward.—The bow moved slowly south—The arch had advanced
southward.
Vol. xxxii, p.394. 1836, May 8. Toronto, Canada. A shining broil
column of light passed very slowly and bodily to the westward.
Vol. xxxiii, p. 212. 1837, July 29. Burlington, Vt. A luminous
Vol. xxxiv, p. 275. 1837, Nov. 14. Geneva, N. Y. A bright white
streamer passed the north star, on its way to the wes
Vol. xxxvili, p. 262. 1839, Sept. 3. Nashville, Tenn. A westward
motion was observed in three principal ¢ columns.
Vol. xxxviii, p. 376. 1839, Sept. 3. Middlebury, Vt. The belt moved
south—rapidly at first, then more slowly.
Vol. xxxix, p. 194. 1840, May 29. New Haven. The belt drifted
Vol. iii, n.s., p. 440, 1847, Apel 7. New Haven. The auroral belt
Vol. xiii, n. 8. p. 427. 1852, Feb. New Haven. Streamers be-
gan to shoot upward, having a holiontal movement from KE, to W.
ol. xiv, n. 8. p. 131. 1852, April 22. New Haven. The ile
beam slowly moved southward.
Vol. xxviii, n.s., p. 391. 1859, Aug. 28. ne Haven. Auroral arch
advanced 18° toward the south in fifteen m
Vol. xxviii, p. 394. 1859, Aug. 28. West Point, 2. A yellowish —
cloud advanced southward with an even undary.
Vol. gi , 394, . e streamers in the a were numerous =
and w re perceived universally to move towards th
Vol. xxviii, p. 395. Ib. The entire expanse of Feloud § in the south was —
making a similar fae. west, at the rate of forty degrees in about two -
minutes. At 3 a.m. the streamers in the north moved across the col-
stellation FRE ea yon west to east, contrariwise to the motion in every —
instance I have before observed in any aurora.
Vol. xxviii, p. 396. Ib. The southern streamers were also moving to
pee
‘Vol. xxviii, p. 404. oige per 2. Havana, Cuba. The summit of
the arch had a movement = # brightemaes ;
4
a ee
te
Page 491
the horizon moved sensibly to the
and the motion of Auroral Beams. 43
Vol. xxix, p. 252. 1859, Aug.28. Halifax,N.S. The streamers ap-
peared to work from W. by N.tosouth. I think they worked along from
E. to W., but another observer said from W. to E.
Vol. xxix, p. 257. 1859, Aug. 28. Steubenville, Ohio. At 7} P.M.
the aurora moved to the south. At 9 p.m. the light advanced again and
passed clear to the south as before.
Vol. xxix, p. 260. 1859, Aug. 28. Sacramento, Cal. Lambent
streamers were noticed to shift gradually from west to east and vice versa,
Vol. xxix, p. 263. 1859, Aug. 28. Galveston, Texas. Stately col-
umns of light reaching up about 45° from the horizon, moved westward
about one degree for every ninety seconds of time—The columns drifted
westward and faded.
.
lle, N. Y. The are began to move
in a southern direction. ...it broke up into parallel pieces which moved
“Majestically westward.....At 11 its motion was mainly south.
tos.
Page 491. 1835, Sept. 9. Albany, N. Y. A faint white arch in the
northern hemisphere which
. 1836, April 12. Cazenovia, N. Y.
sou
44 Prof. E. Loomis on the action of Electrical Currents,
Page 493. 1837, Nov. 14. Buffalo, N. Y. Red streams further east —
appeared moving slowly eastward. |
Page 493. 1837, Nov. 14. St. Lawrence, N. ¥. Tall columns of —
silvery light were seen in the northern horizon, sometimes shooting up to
e zenith, and again moving slowly from E. to W. as if impelled bya
gentle breeze. ?
Page 496. 1842, a 4, Rochester, A fine arc rose N. of
E. and moved southwa .Grew te poe slowly southwards,
pr down to the on, began to move in slow portions to the
ee 497. 1847, March 19. North Salem, N.Y. Streamers as-
* cende na to the height of 20°; all of which had a slow motion to the
eastw.
ie 497. 1847, March 19, Woodstock, Vt. Pillars moving some-
times eastward and then westward, and sometimes rapidly passing each
other.
Page 498. 1847, Nov. 25. North Salem, N. Y. A few streamers
rose to the height of 45° , having a slow motion westward.
age 493. 1848, April 1. Rochester, N. Y. Luminous white pil-
lars; white pencils in the N.E. gradually passing westward and vanish-
th.
Page 498. 1848, April 6. New York City. Streamers shooting up
~ and moving westwar :
ag 1849, Ma rch 18. North Salem, N. Y. Streamers chia 7
up: at first generally et occasionally a tinge of red. The wh .
had a slow motion to the west,
From Arago’s Meteorological Siege
Page 448. 1827, Aug. 27. New York. A great number of bright
streamers, which underwent a very rapid horizontal or lateral movement
from east to west.
Page 449. 1827, Aug. 28. New York. There were in the north ©
two concentric arches. The upper arch rose gradually higher above the
horizon ; reached the zenith; passed beyond it and then broke up. V:
tical columns of light, having rather a rapid movement of translation,
carrying them from E. to W., showed themselyes below the great arch.
From newspaper records.
the Noy. 18. an . H. Very brilliant streamers appeared —
to chase each other, running rapi ipidly from W. to E. and back again from
E. to W. a
1839, Sept. 8. Middlebury, Vt. The auroral belt moved south, ra rap
idly at fi rst, then more slowly. Five parallel streamers, about a* long, 4
moved to the west, but not so apidly as to be directly seen in motion. =
1839, Sept. 14. Middlebury, Vt. There were, seen’ in the arch pris-
matic streamers in active motion. Some Se vers from west
; for Haven, Conn ‘There were two zones in the |
seen: |
and the motion of Auroral Beams. 45
From the Record of Auroral Phenomena by Peter Force.
towards the south. It passed to the western horizon in ten minutes,
Page 42. 1820, Dec. 4. Ib. A broad arch passed gradually to the
southward.....A bright arch had a direction from N. to S.....A well
d
Page 44. 1820, Dec. 11. Ib. The arches moved slowly to the
Page 62, 1850, Jan. 1. Fort Franklin, lat. 65°, long. 123° W. e
eta changed its position, progressing regularly and gradually towards_
é south
The preceding catalogue includes 36 cases in which the motion
of auroral arches and beams was described as from N. toS., and
only three cases of a motion from S.to N. In the aurora of
Aug. 28, 1827, at Canandaigua, N. Y., the arch seemed to move
back towards the north; and soon after it moved again to the
south more rapidly than ever. In the aurora of Nov. 17, 1835, ~
at New Haven, the auroral zone, after moving for some time
toward the south, began to recede northward; and also in the
aurora of Feb. 10, 1820, at Winter Harbor, the auroral pencils”
ad a slow lateral motion from N. to S. and vice versa, —
e may hence conclude that in the United States, great auro-
ras almost invariably exhibit a motion from N. to S. with occa-_
it aoeg and temporarily a slight retrograde movement from S.
: The preceding catalogue includes 31 cases in which the mo-
tion of auroral beams was described as from E. to W.; and 15
Cases of a motion from W.to E. If auroral streamers had a
cluded between the N. and E. points of the horizon would have
: rs which
PS
8
S
5
2
5
+ Os
S
®
te
4
By,
o
—
ani ‘
a ve an apparent motion towards the west. It seems
probable that the apparent motion from E. to W. and from W.
to E.is frequently due to an actual motion from N. to S.; but
displays of the aurora, and the motion of the auroral beams.
Tn the United St es former move from about N. 68° E. to
S. 68° W., while the latter move from about N. 30° E. to S. 30° W.
- 46 On Saltwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas Valleys.
Art. V.— Observations on the Saltwaters of the ei and
Keskeminetas Valleys; by Dr. Epwarp S
— I. Preliminary remarks.
WITHIN a distance of about 35 miles above the city of Pitts-
burgh there have been bored, on both sides of the Alleghany
and Keskeminetas rivers, more than thirty saltwells, the greater
part of which are used for the manufacture of common salt.
These valleys belong to the coal period and the strata have a
‘gentle dip to the southwest. There is no rock- ori Pp: no de-
posits of gypsum have ever been found in this distr
In gee iet these wells we pass through sandy bile fire-clay,
limestones, and different kinds of marl and clay-slates, through
porous, white and red sandstone in strata of various thickness,
and several veins of bituminous coal, from two - seven feet in
thickness. One of these sandstones is from 70 to 100 feet in
thickness, and is usually found at a de th of from 200 to 250 feet;
this rock contains small quantities of carbonate of lime, baryta
and strontia.
~ These mineral waters are, we believe, formed by the percola-
tion of meteoric waters through the superincumbent beds of
marls and clays, from which, assisted by the carbonic acid
‘received from the atmosphere, and by pressure, they dissolve
— matters till an impenetrable stratum is reached, where they
ain, saturating the porous sandstone and filling’ the fissures
of t the surrounding beds.
water, a _ superior quality of petroleum, which has been in-
troduced into commerce, and for many years used for medical,
illuminating, and lubricating purposes. They also give off an
aoa gas.
These brines are eg all alike, but not in the quanti-
_of their constituents. Their specific gravities are from
Sse t0-2:008, that is from 24 to 13 degrees of Beaumé’s hy-
nthe | brines of all the saltworks — both a are without
from the pump to the
colored sedi- —
itis i
. created in the apant, |,
boiling pan,
On Saltwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas Valleys.
but in the boiler itself a much re Na ict of the yellow-
dish sediment is precipitated, which when ex
to the air for a few days, of a deep red color. The natural brine
Sons boiled down to a specific gravity equal to from 1124 to
1:160, (=16 to 20° B.) is then drawn off into a wooden cistern,
where it is mixed with a thin lime-milk, and te beh After
clearing, this brine is drawn off or pumped into the grainers
where after the well known process the salt is ptr’ either
fine or coarse. Both pans are heated by the same fire and so
placed that the grainer is behind the boiler. Bituminous coal is
exclusively used as fuel. %
During a period of four years I have eae key Veoguabecaa
brine from several wells of the Alleghany a kemin
Valleys, but I shall here give only the spelyaie of water which
— — from the salina of Mr. Peterson, in the vicinity of
arentu
Il. Physical properties.
When freshly pumped this saltwater appears turbid, owing to
petroleum which is suspended in it, though after standing a little
while it becomes clear and the petroleum floats on the surface,
forming a scum, thicker or thinner, according to the propornss ae
of petroleum which is seg in the brine, which is of a red-
dish-yellow color. Its taste is saline, afterwa rds_ bitter, pee it
smells slightly of petrolénn: The averag "85 ecific gravity,
m my experiments, is found to be att to 10352, at +18°5°
C. The temperature of the water is equal to 175° C., at 20°
oe erature of the atmosphere. If exposed to < air, the water
egrees becomes turbid from loss of gas (CO?) and deposits a
ae ae yellow-colored precipitate, on the sides san bottom of the
er-glass, changing after : few days to a reddish-yellow color,
a change hastened by boilin
Ill. ped phe
A. Qualitative Analysis.
The solid constituents of this water are divided into two classes, like
} those of almost all other brines
1. Such as are of themselves insoluble in water, nnd which sre kept
in solution by the free carbonic
2, as are soluble in water.
a. Properties of the fresh water.
1. Blue and re paper abd fresh prepared tnctare of ita, re not
: in the least chan
2. Strips of paper - moistened with a solution of acetate of lead were
not at the least least changed to a blackish or gray color, but became covered
vi pe wha pda th ed in the water retained its
. of bismuth sus in the wai
white. lies €E is
48 On Saltwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas Valleys.
When the gas obtained by boiling the water is conducted into a
solution of sugar of lead, sr with acetic acid, no change of color,
and no Ltpamagew is produced i e lead solution.
e gas “—_- pe irae the water reddened litmus paper in-
stantly, but not permanently. The same gas conducted into limewater
caused a strong tees oti and afterwards produced a precipitate which, —
i
6. The addition of acids Spy a Bae escape of air bubnies.
ing a very small quantity of-a white sediment. This sediment coved 8
@ ta when treated before the flame of the blowpipe, and particularly
when some chlorate of potash was added; the pee eS color of the
flame ce me that the sediment also contained strot )
8. Lime-water made the brine turbid, but by erie an excess of the |
latter the sets ape became clear again. .
9. S chlorid of iron produced a red-brown tint.
10. Caustic ammonia produced a dirty white precipitate, which was
partly soluble in a solution of salammoniac.
11. The egies of potassa and ammonia produced permanent
rag precipitat
: . Chlorid of ‘faviam produced a strong gone which by adding
™ itd ety acid disappeared, air bubbles | being expelled,
te of ammonia produced a copious shite rosie j
tf Tn ie “liquid filtered from the precipitate of 13 a crystalline pre
me was formed by the addition of caustic ammonia and phosphate of
15. Nitrate of silver produced a copious, whitey se 2 precipitate,
soluble in caustic ammonia, and giving an opalescent liquid. Nitrie
acid had but a very slight effect upon the precipitate.
16. Gallic acid produced, after some standing, a violet tint.
17. Tannic acid produced, after some standing, a reddish-violet tint.
18. Ferrocyanate of potassa produced, after standing, a slight bluish tint.
19. Sesquiferrocyanate of potassa produced, after standing, a greeni
tin
20. HydrosuJphuret of ammonia produced, after standing, a greenish — |
tint.
21, When some of the brine was slightly en by muriatic acid,
and some of the reagents mentioned under added to it, then
the different tints were produced instantly. “ No. 30 was formed, mp: 4
a few hours, a blackish precipitate, in voluminous flocks.
22. A solution of gypsum produced in the brine, when slightly acidu-
lated with nitric acid, a marked turbidness, which after a few hours settled t
into a precipitate. This precipitate, when washed with water and dried, .
and treated before the flame of the blowpipe, showed to be a mixture
and :
25, the chords of platinum and gold, had not the slightest effect on
“ luced in the rine, after the latter had |
tric acid an — a short
On Saltwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas Valleys. 49
time, a brown ee which soon settled to the bottom in form of
flakes of a blackish co
25. Molybdate of ammonia had no effect upon the brine, either in the
_ cold nor by boiling it, after being acidulated with nitric acid.
26, Chlorid of Time produced a brown turbidness, and after —
a good while longer, a voluminous precipitate of the same colo
27. When the brine was mixed with strong chlorine-water and a little
carbonate of soda, a white turbidness was produced, which by heating in-
creased, turning to a yellow color
aah
b. Properties of the brine after nention
eS eee ea re
§ 3
nae
bes 3
&.
3
:
of
+
fi
a
«Oo
a J
> 2.
St
= a
oo
= gg
oO
es
=.
Gu ¢
4
&
Ss
oS
oe
zt
= 3
2
oe
'
a, a, The solution, or the ae &, a. Was peat pe to the following experiments.
“s Reaction perfectly neutral.
2. Causti tic ammonia produc ced a eh ahi we 3 faa white pre-
Carbonate of po uced @ pantecaly white precipitate, which
Increased when the mixture was boiled
4. Chlorid of barium produced no chan dis
5. Oxalate of ammonia produced a ie white precipitate.
6. By adding to the liquid, filtered from the precipitate of No. 5, caus-
tic ammonia and phosphate of soda, and then stirring it well, a erystal-
bee white precipitate was obtained.
7. Nitrate of silver produced a white precipitate with a slight yellow-
ish tint, This precipitate when mixed with nitric acid and well stirred
and filtered, and submitted to a slow and very pete semen nent with
ammonia, no yellow Prom theo ae be p
8. Gallic and tannic acid, ferrocyanate and staciuiterroeyiiante of po-
eee = rine are of ammonia, ‘id not change the solution in
rae alo
proda d, w consisted of a combination of chlorid of potassium and
ee together with a combination of chlorid of ammonium and
20, Another part of the filtrate was evaporated almost to dryness, and
| *Y Reating it in a test tube, with a concentrated solution of caustic po-
b eS Jour. Sor.—Srconp SERIEs, oo XXXIV, No. 100.—Jvxy, 1862.
a 7
ol
50 On Saltwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas Valleys.
a gas was expelled which turned curcuma paper brown , and whie
formed white vapors when a glass-rod moistened with muriatic pet was |
brought in contact with the gas. The same was also the case when the |
brine was acidulated with muriatic acid and evaporated to dryness, and
ieee treated exactly as before mentioned. 7
1. A solution of gypsum produced a strong turbidness which soon _
hae as a precipitate, this was entirely insoluble in nitric acid. The
precipitate well edulcorated was treated with carbonate ad potassa
melted in a silver crucible, then the melted mass soaked in water. The
insoluble matter was collected upon a filter and well waked, then dis —
solved in muriatic acid ; he solution obtained evaporated to dryness, and
the dry salt treated with alcohol, in which a portion of it was dissolv
The spirituous solution contai ined chlorid of HeOnEND and the parts ii-
perebin. re alcohol consisted of chlorid of bar :
A portion of the filtrate was slightly pistes and the erystal
lized “ehlorid of sodium was separated from the concentrated Ke
This solution when shaken in a bottle with eM NA became of af
ee brownish-red color. By the treatment with ether this mixture
colorless, while the ether itself was colored.
rhe en by a cautious evaporation of a somewhat larger a of the
filtrate (a.a.) the chlorid of sodium was separated as as possible
and the concentrated liquid evaporated until completely fa again dis-
solved in water, and the solution exsiccated in a temperature of from 120
to 130° C., and after this operation had been repeated eight times, thea
not the slightest trace of bromine could be dete |
13. One part of the solution (a. a.) was - vith some fresh boiled
starch, and some drops of ee aor added, which turned the mixture.
instantly to a deep dark blue
14. Another part of the pat was boiled with phosphate of silver}
the liquid | filtered from the chlorid of silver formed was evaporated to on
da
TEVRSET TRE TIE: :
Absence of nitric aie
15. Some of the solution was acidulated with muriatic acid, and thea
evaporated slightly, Curcuma-paper dipped into the liq nid was nob |
eed | by it, but kept its natural color.—Absence of boracic acid. &
1 a part of the solution was added caustic potash-liquor ins &
rh aia then heated and filtered. When a solution of salammo —
wee was added to the filtered liquid neither turbidness nor a precip pitate
uced.—Absence of alumina. 4
= In order to dasicnas n the he (boiled) brine contains lithium, asut
ficient quantity of carbonate of to the remaining and
antity of the solution a. eee nd then oiled After the precip:
and the residue, geatly,heatd
pe ead
On Saltwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas Valleys. 51
this heated substance with water a turbid solution was obtained, which,
after filtering, appeared clear and colorless ; the contents of the filter con-
sisted of magnesia. As caustic soda in the cold, and carbonate of soda
by boiling, did not produce the slightest changes in the filtered solution,
phosphate of soda was added to the bulk of the liquid and then evapor-
ated to dryness. This exsiccated salt mass was soaked in water, in which
: it was dissolved, leaving only a very small quantity of light white pow-
der. After the powder had settled in a high glass cylinder, and the
several hours, during which time the bottle was often shaken. One part
of the filtered aleoholic solution was evaporated, by adding some water
olved. The n
to it, and then redissolved
soda and heating it in a test-tube a white turbidness
duced. The other part of the alcoholic solution inflamed, burnt with a
These experiments seem to prove the presence of lithion in the salt
Water, in the shape of chlorid of lithium.
b. b. Examination of the dried precipitate (b.b.) insoluble in water.
1. This precipitate or sediment formed a reddish-yellow powder which
or giving any smell resembling that of burning or or
ng moistened curcuma-paper into brown or reddening litmus-paper
brought near the mouth of the crucible f eated
z ®, Soaked in water, gave a solution which showed a strong i
a reaction. aa
Standing for several days. The same was the case with the sediment
Which was separated from a sufficient quantity of brine by boiling, and
Which had not been washed with water. It was also used in the dry
—s but was not heated. In neither of the experiments could fluorine
+
52 On Saltwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas a
3. The rest of the dried precipitate (5. 6.) was treated with mu
acid in excess, in which it was dissolved, all but a small quantity of i in-
soluble substance; the inilieeed solution was then evaporated to on
i i i some
change of the liquid which came from the filter. By treating the contents
of the filter with diluted muriatic acid, and by adding some fluosilicic acid
to the solution, the characteristic rystals of baryta were produced.
solution from which the crystals were obtained was evaporated to dryness.
In testing the dry mass by the blowpipe the poagenee. sk pashan was |
ss and i detected by the purple- sie tint of the fla
potassium colered the liqui¢
Ferrocyanate of potassa produced a deep eines blue tint, and soon after
a precipitate of the same color.
clear filtered, — solution of chlorid of lime, of the strength
of 36 p.c. produc ed a small quantity of voluminous brown flakes.
Molybdate of ammmonia did not produce the slightest change in
color,—Absence of phosphoric acid.
The greater part of the solution (65,3.) was subjected to an examina
tion in order to ascertain if the brine contained a combination of lithion
which oa be insoluble in water, but all experiments nis that
was not
thier pounds of mother-lye, (from Peterson's works,) of a specific
gr ed with a sufficient q ee ored cartee
On Saltwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas Valleys. 53
Caustic potash and oxalate of ammonia caused no changes whatever
in the sention 5 but phosphate of soda pagsuced by heating a strong
white turbidne
The very va quantity of the dry white substance, from the evapor-
ating dish of five of those larger trials treated by the blowpipe flame,
did not contain the smallest quantity of lithium
. The change produced by phosphate of soda proceeded from traces of
magnesia; and the red tint which was observed in the alcohol-flame
(aa, 17) must therefore have been deceptive
An examination of the mother-liquor fro om the Salinas by means of
the Spectroscope in the Sheffield Laboratory failed to detect the least
traces of ben new metals caesium and rubidium.—£ds. }
The preceding preliminary trials show the ‘saltwater to con-
tain :-—
Potassa, Lime, ; Chlorine,
Magnesia, Bromine,
Ammonia, Alumina, odine,
Baryta, Protoxyd of iron, Carbonic acid,
Strontia, Protoxyd of ibaupiiien Silicic acid.
Sulphuric, nitric, phosphoric and boracie acid, organic sub-
stances, fluorine, and sulphur, are absent from the brine.
Ta fe reference to the bromine contained in the brine, it may be
observed that it is combined with magnesium, as the experiment
(aa, 12) eevee Basico And in the examination of iodine,
T combine it w i]
A berfectly neutral iodid of calcium gives a clear and colorless
sintag solution ; the same is the case with the iodid of mag-
nesi
The iodid of calcium is partly decomposed at a temperature
of from 120 to 160°C. The refu use, of course, eae an alka-
line reaction ; ing the turbid liquid. is ima the ible the evap-
B. Senile of the nisneliates analysis.
- 1. Total quantity of the solid constituents.
tom 113:40 grammes of brine 5°5 grammes solid matter was
obtained, dried at 100° C. temperature = 4°85 percent, that is,
- in 1000 parts, in one pound = 7680 grains,
48°50, 372°48 grains,
54. On Saltwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas Valleys.
2. The separate constituents of the saltwater accounted by themselves.
In 1000 parts. "rea0 i,
Eee ere, eae ae were i o veawl BTIGTTSG6 307° 963400
Browne, @ . oi «<0 ca news we eed Saas 0°098992 0°760258
dodine:: ce sciSe eb ce eis HS 8 vei eeds | -OVCSLIC 0°531271
Carbonic acid, . oc. cees se rece veces’ 3-929016 | 30°174843
Sibeic actd, + sweet tas yes ios eeNweC EES -| 0°125000 0°960000
SU) VS RGA S 606A ob eis Se eee sce ef 18058203 100°294672
ee rere eee 0°021290 0°163507
Ce ag ee erent aerate ae os 0002184 0:016773
a Ser PIP RP my sre r ge. VES YY 0057192
OME, Coes ccs Ve biN eta e eee Sees 0°104094 0°799442
oS eS eee ese .| 5832120] 44790683
ee ee ee ee acsvceesese | 2510055 | 12°0580Z2
RS ree eve ce sO] COI8270 0°140313
Protoxyd of iron, ..... is Oe a Ueaie ees 0°023928 0°183767
Protoxyd of manganese, .....-..-+-++ traces. traces,
51°938040 | 398°'884147 |
3. Statement of the constituents, in the state as contained in the brine.
In 1000 parts. gi for ot
are grains >
Chlorine, ~ ee SS ere ee ee -% 27077266 207°953404
BPOmne, 60s SS es os os Be ee ce oes 0-098992 0°760258
INES os As A es PoC eee es 0°069176 0°531271
Carbonic acid, .....eeeeesereeeees ees 3°929016 | 30°174843
‘GSilicie acid, .......- seeeccvecccesees | 0°125000| 0°960000
Sodium. sic vess Pweiesc cess wseessees | 13°059202 | 100°294672
Potassium, ...++++++- Shins 4k cebereen | OO21200 0°163507
Ammonium, .......+.++- (eke ee 0:002184 0016773
Baryta (as such), (is oct pees wera = be 0°002948 0022640
( ryta as) barium, vans Uhkven> hoekt | -eeene 0-030996
S 0:041493 | 0-318666
0°053005 0°407078
1549614 | 11°901035
3:117665 | 23:943667
0°655495 5°034201
0°564284 4333701
0°018270 0°140313
0°023928 0183767
traces, traces.
50-412864 | 387-170795
On Saliwaters of Alleghany and Keskeminetas Valleys. 55
4, Statement of the — which these ew mentioned in No. 2 and
might form in the saltwa
Tn 1000 Call er) peg
. are grains:
Chlorid of sodium, ............- eeees | 82°977788 | 253°269374
. iu Ceehivavectewe 0°040702 0°312592
2 BONNTOIAY sha 5 ceive sees 0°006709 0°051525
3 oe RE Ess REE IO . | 0°006121 0°047009
= Sha, SSS Ns 0095876 0°736327
“ Me os acters ; 8578099 | 65°879800
* magnesium, ...... FAykoe rarireerye gs 2°166399 | 16°637945
Bromid of magnesium, .........++.+++ 0°115014 | 0°873307
Todid of calcium, ....... Pech ihe hab oe 0°080397 0°617448
Carbonate of baryta, ..... tesestescees | 0008784} 0°029062
TNR hr eree. ee ees. 0°059276 0°455239
- WON Fin OES 2 Spe ae 2°763699 | 21°225208
- ee MO ee PELE Ee 1°376540 | 10°571828
Ny cee cue vewsicee es ee - | 0°038419 0°295057
A Manganese, ....eeeseeces traces. traces.
Silicate of alumina, .........+.+++.-- | 0°040830 0°313575
Free Free silicic ee ee see eer ee, 0°102440 0°786739
48-452088 | 372°112036
Carbonic acid, oeny NOUN... chs cea 1952889 | 14°998187
pnlly- free, |. s0,9.5.. 0% 0h Par 0007887 0:060572
on ame 50°412864 | 387°170795
5. If the carbonates are Macounted as se as they are contained ¢ in the salt
ater, then the proportions will be as follows
ene pound =
In 1000 parts. 7680 grains,
are grains:
Chlorid of WOdiRi O64 ae Co Se Se 32°977783 | 253°269374
bn ya ue sewacese | 0040702 | 0°312592
- ammonium, ...seesseeeeees | 0°006709 | 0051525
. berinum, .«.0ssseencs-penyn| 0 OUeIeE 1 COneeee
by strontium, ...ssececeeesess | 0°095876 | 0°736227
. CHUM, 2.2 Wag esecereeees | 8'578099 | 65°879800
. ium, .. ses | 99166899 | 16637945
Bromid of magnesium, ....+++- veseess | 0°115014| — 0°873307
lodid of calcium, .........+seereeee++ | 0°080397 | 0°617448
Bicarbonate of baryta, ....-+.++++++++ | 0004682 | 0-035574
z strontia, .-.-s-ceeeese+ | OO77015 | 0°591475
“ Hine, Sti ssigeercase® 3°971630 | 30°502119
e magnesia, ...-+-+-+--++ | 2088071 | 16°036385
: On FC Es PO OBT250
a a a traces. traces,
Silicate of Wining, 262.5 346 veeecees | 0°040830} 0°318575
Free silicic acid, .......+-++ Sa a 2 0°102440| 0786739
—————————
50°404977 | 387°110223 |
0007887 | 0°060572
50°412864 | 887°170795.
vt are But by eal me loss upon the si wid
have the following prop
In one pound =
To 1000 parts. _ gine
e grains
Chlorid Of edie og it eee Aes «++ | 88°010394 | 253°519827
potassium, ..-..seeseee eee 0040748 0°312945
- emthnnd, wc cec eves = 0006715 0°051571
cg Es a ra beers eves 0°006127 0°047055
= stromliuM, «+ ++++esesese eee 0°095970 0°736949
~ oe a Gari 8586581 | 65°944942
o , Magnenum,, «.-.....6.005% .. | 2168541 | 16°654496
Bromid of gor be ici genbaeiautys 07115127 | 0884175
Todid ES EE ee oreo yr 0:080476 0°618055
Carbonate of ples Lotkcapeevuiue st a 0:003787 0029084
; Ate es: 0059334 | 0°455685
re pe oe PEE hep eae 0s 2°766431 | 21°246190
= magnesia, eebbeesscne 1377901 | 10°582281
bad POR ore vi ev eevee eens 0°038457 0°295349
= ANGANESE, «2... -sesee'ee traces traces.
Silicate of chenind. es lacaee tan ke wee 0040870 | 0°313881
ey ee ee 0°102541 | 0°787515|
Md mmebter, FE ik Wg. 48500000 | 372-480000|
Carbonic acid aiconely bound, as bicarbonate, | 1°952889 | 14°998187
TOGHVTIOR, .. 605 cnciec nn 0:007887 0-060572
50°460776 | 387°538759
most in- :
—
oe : AM. Jour. Scr.—Secomp Seams, VOL. XXXIV, No. 100.—Juxr, 1862.
F. V. Hayden on the Mandan Indians. 57
veterate scrofulous affections have been radically cured by using
baths of the brine and mother-lye under my direction.
In conclusion I may remark that the inflammable gas alluded
to consists essentially of ‘marsh gas’ (C,H,), with some carboni¢
acid and traces of oxygen and nitrogen.
No olefiant gas (C,H,) could be detected.
-Tarentum, Alleghany county, Penn., March, 1862.
Art. VI.—A Sketch of the Mandan Indians, with some Observa-
Tr illustrating the Grammatical Structure of their Language ;
by Dr. F.
F. V. HAYDEN.*
THE Indians of the Missouri valley are divided into the no-
madic and stationary tribes. The first class includes by far the
greater number, who live mostly by the results of the chase,
occupying skin tents and moving about from place to place, as
eir caprice or physical wants may dictate. Of the latter class,
the Minnetarees, Arickaras, and Mandans are the best examples.
The Minnetarees or Gros Ventrees, as they are called by the
Canadian Voyageurs, reside in a village of dirt lodges, near Fort
Berthold, in lat. 47° 30’, lon. 102°. The village is surrounded
by a rude stockade formed of cotton-wood logs, about fifteen feet
In height, placed in the earth in an upright position.
Indians raise corn, beans, pumpkins, &Xc., to a considerable extent,
even more than they need for their own support. They now
number from 600 to 800 souls, but are decreasing slowly from
ase and other causes. i
fully, and in this way add largely to their means of comfort and
support. The number of people comprising this tribe at the
ren.
_ The Mandans or Mi-akh-ta-nis, “people on the bank” (of the
Tiver), as they call themselves, must have resided on the banks
of the Missouri at a very remote period, perhaps not near their
Present residence, but in several places along the river. It is
also Probable that if they migrated at all, they came from a
~ athern direction, as the sites of different villages of very an-
tient date are seen alon g the Missouri, as low down as the pres-
ent boundary between the United States and the Dakota country.
th ne ‘of these antique ruins are said to have been Arickara vil-
ities Sketch is taken in part from a Memoir by the author entitled “Contribu-
lew?
to the Ethnography aud Philology of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Val
; Now in course ‘i y au sy . . hical _ phe
publication by the American Philosop
Ts]
Fe,
a F..V. Hayden on the Mandan Indians, with
lages, which is doubtless the case. The observations thus far
made, point to the conclusion that all these stationary tribes mk —
grated in the same direction, from southeast to northwest along
this river, which may be inferred from the circumstance that no
remains of their villages are to be seen along any other stream
than the Missouri.
Prior to the visit of Lewis and Clarke in the autumn of 1804,
we possessed very little information of a reliable character in Te
gard to the origin and early history of the Mandans, Col. D,
Mitchell, in a letter addressed to Mr. H. R. Schoolcraft, and pub
lished in the 3d part of the ‘“‘ History of the Indian Tribes,” re
fers to an early writer by the name of Macintosh, who it seems
was connected with a French Trading Company as early as 1772.
From his own account he left Montreal in the summer of 1778,
crossing over the intervening country, reached the Mandan Vil
lages on Christmas day. He says that at that time the Mandans
occupied nine large towns, situated very near each other, and
that at short notice they could muster 15,000 warriors. This 8
- doubtless a great exaggeration, but that they were a formidable
nation the ruins of numerous villages, along both sides of the
Missouri, bear ample testimony.
_ The following extracts from the well-known work, “Travels
of Lewis and Clarke to the Source of the Missouri,” show very
mene the condition of the Mandans and other stationary tribes
He i
and
are the residence of three distinct nations; the Mandans, the Ahnabe
ways, and the Minnetarees. The history of the ived
miles below, and situated seven on the west and two on the east side % |
the Missouri. The two finding themselves wasting away before the small fF
he two villages on the northwest side of the Missouri, while the
village took a position on the southeast side. In this situaffon wee
those who visited them in 1796; since which the two Vr
)
f
:
|
|
;
Observations on their Language. — 59
second, the same number, and both may raise about three hundred and
fifty men.
“On the same side of the river, and at the distance of four miles from
the lower Mandan village, is another called Mahaha. It is situated on a
high plain at the mouth of Knife-river, and is the residence of the Ahna-
haways. This nation, whose name indicates that they were “ people whose
village is on a hill,” formerly resided on the Missouri, about thirty miles
below where they now live. The Assiniboins and Sioux forced them toa
spot five miles higher, where the greatest part of them were put to death,
and the rest emigrated to their present situation, in order to obtain an
asylum near the Minnetarees. ‘They are called by the French Soulier
Noir, or Shoe Indians; by the Mandans, Wattasoons, and their whole
foree is about fifty men.
haps possess
Our knowledge of this sation obtained from the American
ee
ee For Company, commences in the year 1829, when, through that
60 -_F. V. Hayden on the Mandan Indians, with » a a
putting therein a trader and a few men, with a small supply of
goods, and abandoning the post in the spring, taking with them
down the river their returns of furs and skins. The Arickaras
at this time were residing in their village near Grand river, the
ruins of which are still visible. In 1829 Fort Clarke was erected
for the express purpose of trading with the Mandans and Minne-
tarees. ‘I'he former tribe then possessed a population of about
1800 persons, and the latter about half that number.
It is somewhat remarkable that notwithstanding all the mis
fortunes that have overtaken the Mandans for so many yeals,
they even to this time preserve their independence and individ
uality as a nation. Nearly all the Mandans speak the Minnitareé
language, and many of them are familiar with the Dakota and
Arickara tongues, but very few, if any, of the surrounding
tri ve acquired that of the Mandans. But one white man
has ever learned to speak the language fluently and he resided
among them upwards of twenty years. I cannot ascertain that
there are any peculiar difficulties in the pronunciation or struc
ture of the language which should prevent individuals of other
nations from aequiring it readily; indeed I think that the evi
dence is quite clear, as suggested by Mr. Gallatin, that it 18
remotely allied to the Dakota stock and presents few, if any
iore obstacles to its acquisition than the other dialects of that _
group.
In the year 1833 the Mandans were in their most prosperous
state, weil armed, good hunters, good warriors, with herds of
buffalo within sight of their village—large cornfields and &
trading post from which they could at all times obtain need
supplies. In their personal appearance prior to the aldo 30 |
small-pox, they were not surpassed by any nation in the North-
west. The men were tall and well made, with regular features
young women, and each year a ceremony was per i:
presence of the whole village, at which time all females who had
their virginity, came rd, struck a post, and chal’
A Ul a eda eal roght erogatory of their character. AS
1s a religious ceremony, any persons preecnt st ey t
Bons tie above brief sketch of the Mandans, the inference is
Observations on their Language. 61
detected in a false statement, the female lost her standing forever
rward among the young of both sexes. In ordeals of thi
kind it was remarked that more than two thirds of the Mandan
females came off victorious which is regarded as a great propor-
tion, when the early training and the influences that surround
them are taken into consideration. The fact that a ceremony
of this kind exists among savages, tending to promote virtue
and discourage vice, is, of itself, sufficient evidence of their mental
as well as moral superiority.
Much more might be said in regard to the habits and charac-
teristics of this tribe, which is one of the most interesting in the
West, but we prefer to occupy the space allotted in some illustra-
tions of the grammatical structure of their language. At this
time the Mandans cultivate the soil and hunt buffalo when these
animals are near their homes. The destructive influences of the
and will doubtless before many years become extinct, or fall a
prey to some superior force of Dak
‘Weather their decomposition has a tendency to render the atmo-
Sphere unhealthy and engender disease, but no persuasion can
induce them "oe oe ground according to the custom of
62 F. V. Hayden on the Mandan Indians, with
om that, although they possess all the characteristics of the
No
a)
2,
oO
Q
oF
°
Lar)
et
= a
oO
“4
a
)
oF
i]
M wae
ag
3
ry
ae
a
n
4
2
~”
ot
vo
(a)
2)
s)
poo]
——
°
|
°
car}
latin although he was unable to make the proper comparisons.
These I shall endeavor to make in detail at some future time.
In the summer of 1855 I made a few observations in regard to
the grammatical structure of this language, an abstract of which
may be of some interest to those who are curious in sué
matters.*
I. Nouns.
1. With few exceptions, Mandan nouns have both a singular and plural
form, as is shown by their termination: as, a-pe, @ leaf, a-pish, leaves ;
ma-he, a weed, ma-hdsh, weeds ; si, a feather, si-ish, feathers.
2. The gender of nouns is indicated by the use of different words to
express the sex: as, nu-madn-ke, a man; mi-he, a woman ; hé-ro-ke, @
. II. Apsecrives.
4, Adjectives always follow the nouns which they describe: as, mi-he-
shi-na-shish, a handsome woman ; nat-kan-ka-sish, a hard heart.
5. The numeral adjectives of the cardinal kind are as follows:
1, mah-a-na. 13, a-ga-nd-me-ni.
2, ni’m-pa. 14, a-ga-to’p.
3, nd-me-ni. 15, a-ga-hi’n.
4, td-pe. 16, a-ki-ma.
5, kéh-tin. 17, a-ki-pa.
6, ki-ma. 18, ak-ti-tuk-e.
7, ku-pa. 19, a-ga-mah-pe.
8, té-tuk-e. 20, ni/m-pa-pi-rah.
- ; 21, nii/m-pa-pi-ra-ka-ro-m4h-a-na.
10, pi-rah. 30, n4-me-ni-am-pi-ra-kosh.
11, a-ga-m4h-a-na. . 40, té-pa-pi-ra-kosh.
12, a-ga-nii‘m-pa. 50, keh-tin-am-pi-ra-kosh.
® In the “Contributions” a plan of orthography has been adoptes corresponding
as closely as ible with the one prepared by the late Prof. W. W. Turner for the
nian tution. ;
*
_ All the vowels have ip continental sound, as @ in father, e in face, iin marine, 0
in go, note, u like oo in When a vowel terminates a syllable it is long, but if
onsonant i short. Exceptions to this remark are indicated
: an
ae
Observations on their Language. 63
60, ki- -ma-am-pi-ra-kosh. 1000, i-sti-ki-ka-ku-hi.
70, ku-pa-am-pi ra-késh. 100,000, i-sti-ki-ka- ini hi dit iol -a-na.
te-tuk-e-am-pi-ra-késh. nd-ka-mah-a- na, first one, or first time,
mah-pe-am- Pena hits i-ké-ha-sha-mah-a-na, last one, or last
100, i-si’k-mah-a time,
Ill. Apverss.
6. The following are some of the principal adverbs: tash-hak-tosh,
perhaps ; hé-ra-ke-ku-sér-o, day before yesterday ; mat-khé-o-mas to, day
after to-morrow ; tén-hdsh, afar off.
TV. PREposITIONS.
% “ay follow the nouns they govern: as, péh- -ti, by, mi-péh-
ti-nak-ta, sit by me; mun-i-ki'sh-ta, through the water ; ti- rovk-ta, in the
V. Conscnctions.
8. kén-i and i ahs ee and ; kén-i-6-pish, and I said ; kén-i-wa-ki-wé-
wa-rish, and J told h
VII. Pronouns.
9. Pronouns are simple or fragmentary. The fragmentary pronouns
are used in the declension of nouns and adjectives and in the conjugation
:
j
:
4
7
of verbs. The spans =y be regarded as an example of the intensive
form of the simple pron
: mi-o-na, J, myself, or Te am. nti-o-na, we, ourselves, &c.
ni-o-na, thou, thyself, &c. ni-A-o-na, you, yourselves,
2 delge he, himself, &e. i- -4-o-na, they, themselves, &e.
‘Mi-hi’n-de, my mother.
ni-hi/nde, thy mother.
thivn-de, his mother.
Ons, my wife, mon-kér-ish, my wives.
nOns, thy wife, non-kér-ish, thy wives.
kins, his wife. kon-kér-ish,
- Min-i-ke, my son. min-i-késh, my sons.
nin-i-ke, thy son. nin-i-késh, thy sons.
-k6-ni-ke, his son, i-ko-ni-kish, his sons.
ma-shish, J am good. nu-shish, we are good.
ni-shish, thou art good, niashish, you are good,
in-shish, he is good, : -a-shish, they are good.
: VERBS.
The following examples show the changes in the form . the verbs.
* Fwa-seh-osh, Id. any- sie tise ash, they
z LSete Ha cram we both do,
hee.
j-wa-seh-tosh, J, &c.
ni-de-seh-tish, es &e.
wot he, &
64 F. V. Hayden on the Mandan Indians, with
nu-i-seh-tish, we, dc, ni-a-he-seh-ta (imperative), do it all
ni-a-seh-tésh, you, &ec. of you.
j-o-na-seh-tdsh, they, &c. i-sek-ta (imp.), do.
wa-wa-ka-pu-sosh, ) J paint or write, nu-ka-pu-sosh, we, &e.
wa-ka-pu-sosh, } or am painting. ni-a-pu-sdsh, you, &e.
tha-ka-pu-sdsh, thou, &e. j-a-pu-sdsh, they, &c.
in-ka-pu-sdsh, he, &c. nu-ndmp-sha-pu-sdsh, we both, de.
wa-ka-pis-tosh, J will paint or write. i-a-ka-piis-tish, they, &c.
ma-ka-piis-tésh, thou, &e. wa-ka-pu-se, @ painting or writing.
in-ka-pis-tish, he, &e. ka-piis-ta, (imp.) wr?
nu-ka-piis-tosh, we, &e.
ni-a-tha-ka-piis-tish, you, &c.
ImpEeRSONAL VERBS.
kap-késh, if snows. ktan-hosh, it freezes.
kap-ke-kosh, it will snow. ktan-tosh, it will freeze.
kap-ke-a-man-ka-hosh, i¢ is snowing ra-pa-na-rish, tt haz/s.
while, — ra-pa-nak-tish, it will hail.
ra-she-de-hiish, ¢¢ thaws or melts, he-i-ni-hish, it thunders.
ra-she-déh-tish, it will thaw or melt.
The most reliable account of the manners and customs of the
Mandans which has ever been published may be found in
. a magnificently illustrated work entitled “Reise des Prinsen
Maximilian zu Wied. Is. 4to.” e Prince of Neu Wied
resided one winter with this tribe, and obtained his information
under the most favorable circumstances, and therefore I regard it
as entitled to great confidence. In the same work may be found
tions may be made, have induced some authors to complicate
greatly the declension of the nouns and adjectives and the con-
jugation of the verbs. Sometimes the moods and tenses of verbs
are multiplied to an almost indefinite extent, and the six cases — '
the Latin given to the substantives. I do not dispute the ac ia
curacy of any author on this subject; but simply say that [have |
not yet been able to find a grammatical system so complete 10
any of the Indian languages of the Northwest. So far asI can —
ascertain there are three moods to the verbs, indicative, impe!
te. ‘
a-he-ka-piis.ta, (imp.) write, all of
you. |
tive, and infinitive; three tenses, past, present, and future; and
Observations on their Language. 65
moir. To one unacquainted with the native languages of this
country, it would seem hardly possible to find a grammatical
structure so complicated and still so complete and systematic, yet
perhaps there is no cultivated tongue among the civilized nations:
of the world more regular than that of the Chippewa and its cog-
nate dialects. In the Dakota there are three numbers, singular,
dual, and plural. In the Eskimo, according to Biier, nouns have
| SIX cases, the same as Latin nouns, and three numbers, through
all of which they are inflected. In the Yakama, one of the nu-
merous dialects on the Pacific coast, as given by Father Pandosy,
nouns and adjectives possess the six cases mentioned above, but
only two numbers, the singular and plural, and the verb is con-
Jugated with greater minuteness of detail. We can thus see that
a careful study of our own aboriginal languages becomes a sub-
ject of the highest interest and importance to every professed
Philologist. ~ .
Dectsnsions or Nouns.
Sing. Sing.
nt-man-ka, the man. wo-ra-e-rui-pa, the bow. 4
nu mank-d-da, of the man. wo-ra-e-rti-pa-da, of the bow.
O-nu-mank, to the man. wo-ra-e-ri-pa-a-ta, to the bow.
ni-man-ka, the man, wo-ra-e-ri pa, the bow.
numank, O man, wo-ra-e-ri-pa, O the bow, —
nti-man ka, with the man. wo-ra-e-rli-pa-ta, with the bow.
Plur. Plur. a
hu-man-ké-ra, the men. wo-ra-e-rii-pa-ke-résh, the bows, —
O-nu-man-ka, of the men. wo-ra-e-ri-pa-ka-ra-ta, of the bows.
u-man-ka-ra-ta, to the men we-pa-e-ri-pa-ka-ra-a-ta, to the bows.
hu-man-ka-ra, the m -wo-ra-e-rti-pa-ke-ré/sh, the bows.
nu-man-ka-ke, O the men wo-ra-e-rti-pa-ke-ré’sh, O the bows.
monk wo-ra-e-rti-pa-ka-ra-ta, with the bows.
i Remarks in regard to Adjectives.
The adjective follows the noun which it-qualifies or describes: as, mi-
Ws, shé-ta, the white horse, or horse-white, nu-mamk-, ha-ra-ka, the bold
pa-san-, psish, swift-river. :
The comparative degree of adjectives is furmed by the addition of the
__ Nord o-péh-a-désh, “more,” and the: superlative by the addition of the
¥ hae Bekash, “ most,” as, shish, good, shi-, 0 pah-a-désh, better, shi-, mi-
sh, best ; ka/sh-ka, great, nash-ka-, o-pah-a-désh, greater, kAsh-ka-, mi-
', greatest, ath-, ha/sh-kash, this is.great. ath-, shish, this ts good.
The verbs also are conjugated with remarkable regularity. A few
forms given: ;
eaten; wa-wa-rik-tash, [ shall or will eat; i-u-acha-ra-posh, J would
et eaten ; wa-riis-t&, eat (imperative); w4-ra-te-nis-ta, eaten ; wa-ri-ta-
Series, Vou. XXXIV, No. 100.—Jury, 1863,
Pris
- The preceding examples, of which many more might be given,
2 oe ic : ‘ ee se
A Jon So.
-
=
ove
pd
:
fa)
oO
°
=]
q
N<
(ag
)
co
oo
oO
Lor
fa")
pes]
Qu
oO
le}
i)
jas}
he
Qu
oO
2
()
ar)
cr
a
oO
tj!
et
3
i=
ed
=
i)
a
owas, and speaks their language with great fluency. In the
he remarks that “the barrenness which is supposed to belong
most Indian languages, does not result from the structure or n&
ture of the language, but from the want of ideas in those who use
it. So far as they have ideas, they do not lack words to express
them, though the mode of expression, among them, is often as dif-
—
. - o .
ferent from that in use among us, as their language is from ours.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., May 20th, 1862.
ae wa
Art. VIL—On Triethylamine ; by M. Carry Lua, Philadelphia
THE ate Ley which served for the following examinations
was obtained, by the action of nitrate of ethyl upon ammonis,
making the alkaloids thus obtained react upon fresh portions
of the compound ether. The following was the course of the
volumes of nitrate of ethyl mixed with two of absolute alcohol, 5
kept cool by a freezing mixture. At the close of the operatioR |
it was necessary to add a little water to the contents of the fast
For the convenience of those who may use this method } qi
bases, I give the res ts which I observed as _
of tube necessary: cee t
zp gr
generally resisted, but not always. —
‘were found safe .
oe
as eS eae oe
M. C, Lea on Triethy amine.
67
This refers to tubes charged from three-sevenths to one-half.
Beyond this charge, greatly increased strength becomes neces-
sar
The disposition to burst appeared to be greater in the second
heating than in the first. It is therefore better to heat for 11
fa’
8 &:
Eb
a
ang
ae
o
o
pe?
PY
B.
5
@Q
.
A
oO
po
>
g
5
oO
io")
opud
=
=
ps)
3
se
So
* Tt has been ver i books t tubes
re y generally recommended in text 0 wrap pressure tuve
n cloths to prevent the eeohios of one from destroying the .rest. “When this is
lone, the extremities of the tube should always be left clear. It is at the extremity
explosi i i
reas, since I have adopted the plan of leaving the ends
Ww
soluble,
Ses by conversion into picrates, I s
a have been published before, others not:
1. : ploroplatinate gave Pt, 2552
(2) 706 Oe = 8549
)
3
- (3.) ‘B884 “ a 1377
(4) 19129 ” + 6764
These corres e
| 2) Per cent platinum, eh s ore
ey * « Pee Se 86-45
(6). Ses" es oe wc BEE
Theory requires (Pt=98'7) - - > 85°35
“ ~ (Pt=99) - - -, @ts
68 M. C. Lea on Triethylamine.
proportion, cannot be as satisfactorily effected, as when it is pres
ent in small quantity only. It therefore became necessary to
and spontaneously evaporated, gave only crystals of triethylam- —
ine salt, which is easily distinguished from the platinum salt of
ethylamine: no traces of the presence of the latter were observa
ble. It therefore seemed worth while to test the process by a care
ful series of analyses, which was done with the following results.
The moderately strong aqueous solution of the mixed bases;
about ,!; its bulk of ether and left some time to separate thor
oughly, after which the ether was removed by a separating fun-
nel. is was repeated three or four times. It was evident
if these ethereal solutions of triethylamine thus obtained wer
of bichlorid of platinum.
“7031 gms. substance gave metallie platinum, "2264
A pe
7 2) 12084. “ “ 3873
__.__ These correspond to . :
1.) percent platinum, - - - - 32°20
2h _ * - - - - 32°06
Mean of two analyses, - sf 32°13
Theory requires (Pt=98-7)*- --. S214
Aneminently satisfactory result. = ae :
In order to cone if the oe the eatlggee oe ee 3
removed by this proceeding, the aqueous solution, atter our
washings with ether, was submitted to analysis. Its chloroplatt
Pt as that adopted by the last numbers of the
Eve
M. C. Lea on Triethylamine. 69
6373 substance, platinum, - - + - =
orresponding to, per cent platinum, - 39°02
ires, = - - . i
heory requir
_ The number found falls a little below the theoretical propor-
tion, and may indicate that a trace of triethylamine remained in
the aqueous solution. I may however remark that this slight
discrepancy is within the error of a careful analysis, particularly
with substances whose analysis requires so much circumspection
as these. ‘T'wo analyses of chloroplatinate of ethylamine of
which the alkaloid had been separated by picric acid gave re-
Spectively 39-02 and 39-23, the first of which numbers is identi-
cal with that above found.
Kther appears therefore to afford a convenient mode of sepa-
rating ethylamine and triethylamine, after diethylamine has been
eliminated by means of picric acid. This is a necessary condi-
hon: when observed, the process gives, so far as my experiments
£0, good results, ,
Properties of Triethylamine.
. Triethylamine is an oily fluid lighter than water, and float-
ing on its surface when the water present is insufficient in quan-
to hold it in solution. When therefore the crystallized »
hydrochlorate is added to a concentrated solution of caustic
Soda, the triethylamine separates and rises to the surface. It
a8 an agreeable ammoniacal odor, which appeared to me to be
Pleasanter and more aromatic than those of ethylamine and die-
thylamine. This however is a matter on which it is difficult to
Speak positively, as the odor of ammonias appears to be influenced
by adventitious circumstances. Stas found the oder of perfectly
ordinarily recognized as characteristic of the substance. =
it It is not very soluble in water, but emulsifies very easily with
of
to produce a complete emulsion, and a considerable time elapses
be the stratum separates again. It is eapable of acting under
Reactions of Triethylamine with solutions of metallic bases.
ube following reactions were obtained with a saturated aque-
ed solution of pure triethylamine: .
irconi sulphate of Zirconia, White precipitate, insoluble in excess of
ae recipitant. ‘ : ined
ium, tersulphate alumina, White precipitate, dissolving readily and
x be 2 ae completely in excess of the precipitant,
.
ee
Glucinum, sulphate of glucina,
Cadmium, sulphate,
Zine, sulphate.
Nickel, shiorid,
Cobalt, protochlorid,
Lead, neut. acetate,
Tin, protochl sh orid,
“ pichlorid,
Silver, nitrate,
Gold, terchlorid,
es
ne
M. C. Lea on Triethylamine.
d “aqueous me
oy ethylamine gives no precipitate w with |
a concentrated solution of ae
platinum. —
White eeaniintss insoluble in excess of
precipita
White precipitate insoluble in excess of |
Same jae on.
Green precipitate, insoluble in excess of
cipitan
Greenish blue ns insoluble in
excess of preci
The white sredighats eltdioleaa’ in excess
of lead solution, but is insoluble ia
any excess of triethylamine.
White a insoluble in excess of
precipitant.
White precipitate, dissolving completely
in excess of precipitan
Brown BF ireciviea somewhat soluble in
excess of prec
i]
iy
_
ie]
°
3.5
o
ag
=
&
i]
E.
aS
°
precipitate, which in a m
arkens an ap’
examined in thin Jayers is foand tobe |
dark bluish g This ipitate
7 being
For a after é
standing a few minutes, a bright film of |
gold collects on the surface of ate wor :
and after a few hours the sides of the
test glass “to be covered with
a brilliant “speculum of metallic oe
o precipitate.
sir of the gold
solution
M. C. Lea on Triethylamine. aa
Palladium, protochlorid No precipitate.
Ru uthenium, sesquichlorid, No eee precipitate. The liquid
however soon begins to darken, and
a black precipitate falls, which grad-
uall yi increases until the liquid is de-
colorized. ,
Antimony, terchlorid, Reddish paar precipita’
Uranium, nitrate, psetink reste pated precipitate,
nsoluble in excess of precipitant.
Mercury, ternitrate, Yellowish white precipitate, insoluble in
excess,
Molybdenum, protochlorid, Becomes opalescent and “he standiag
deposits a yellowish pow
" bichlorid, —— yellow precipitate, insoluble
in excess of prec
Chromium, potash chrome alum, Greyish green se Se insoluble in
excess of precipitant.
Iron, ferric ammonia alum, _ Brown, insoluble in excess.
Copper, sulphate, Blue precipitate of which not a trace
redissolves in excess of the alkaloid.
The precipitate after treatment with
a large excess of saturated aqueous
solution of triethylamine, was filtered
and the filtrate ips with sulphy-
drate of ammonia, which gave not —
the pent ineation of the pres-
en
a protosulphate, Browaish wrhite, anole in excess of
precipitan
Cen ia, sulphate, White precipitate, insoluble in excess. ©
| um, feeeecebiond, White precipitate, ineaegaes in excess of
e precipitant. .
nitrate of protoperoxyd, Same reaction. —
7
‘
.
Reactions with Hydroftuosilicie Acids.
Aqueous vost aeons treated with ordinary erwin
= HF, SiFl,, gives, when the alkaloid is in — recipi-
te which really dissolves in an excess of the ac
With Knop’s hydrofluosilicic acid 2HFI, Si, Fl, oe immediate
Precipitate is formed even when the alkaloid is in excess, but
: after Standing some hours, it becomes a slightly opalescent en
’ transparent jelly, so stiff that the test glass may
sy ‘ieee without spilling it.
= n these ‘ons—I have already pointed out
fore Seti of redissolving precipitates of alumina, hereto-
oth di considered as characteristic of ethylamine, is shared b by
pay eeains and ee and expressed the opinion
=, ine also precipitates solutions of this salt. My correction of the con-
tin the lat number ofthis Journal (p. 369 69) reached the editors when
Was too far advanced to alter it.
72 M. C. Lea on Triethylamine.
that it might probably be found to extend to the other ethyl and —
methyl bases. ‘The result above stated affords a confirmation of
this view as regards the base now under examination.
The most important points deducible from the above described
reactions may be summed up as follows: Towards solution of
aluminium, cadmium, nickel, protochlorid of cobalt and bichlorid
of tin, the behavior of triethylamine is the same as that of ethyl
amine and diethylamine, and differs from that of ammonia
With respect to zinc, the behavior of triethylamine resembles
that of diethylamine and differs from that of both ammonia and
ethylamine. In speaking of the reactions of diethylamine, I
pointed out that the oxyds of silver and copper were the oun
ones redissolved by all three bases, ammonia, ethylamine an
diethylamine. We now see that only one, silver, is dissolved by
all four, including that here investigated.
Extending the comparison to methylamine and denoting by
(W.), reactions observed and recorded by its discoverer, ™
Wurtz, with respect to that substance, we find that gold precipr
tates redissolve in excess of methylamine, but not in excess of
triethylamine. Protochlorid of palladium is precipitated by
methylamine, and not by triethylamine. Alumina is precipitated
‘and redissolved by both. Zine, silver, and copper precipitates
, are redissolved by excess of methylamine (W.) but are insoluble
in triethylamine. With respect to cadmium, nickel, and cobalt
the precipitates from solutions of these metals are insoluble 12
methylamine (Ww. and in triethylamine. ;
Finally we observe that those reactions which may be consid-
ered as being eminently characteristic of triethylamine, are thos?
which it exhibits with gold and with copper. These and these
only, differ essentially from the reactions of ammonia, othiy or
diethylamine and methylamine respectively. That with gol
solution is especially interesting.
—s
Dr. J. S. Newberry on American Fossil Fishes. 73
Nitrate—The nitrate of triethylamine appears to be liquid at
ordinary temperatures, and is obtained by neutralizing aqueous
triethylamine with nitric acid, gently evaporating at a low tem-
perature until the solution is somewhat concentrated, and then
placing in vacuo over caustic soda for some weeks. A thick
rupy liquid is thus obtained which does not crystallize. When
ltering paper is imbued with this liquid and brought near to a
flame, it deflagrates with a sudden flash. .
A double sulphate of zinc and triethylamine isomorphous
— the double sulphates of Mitscherlich’s group does not appear
exist.
Arr. VIIL.—Notes on American Fossil Fishes; by Dr. J. S.
NEWBERRY.
Iv the progress of geological investigation in North America
the remains of a large number of fishes have been brought to
| light, and are now preserved in the various collections, public or
| eng in different parts of the country. Most of these have been
bed by Redfield, Gibbes, Jackson, Leidy and myself, but as
the descriptions given of them are scattered through a multitude
_ Of works, some out of print, and most not readily accessible to
the student, I have been frequently requested to publish a resumé
What is known of our fossil fishes, with references to the
i388 in which they are described.
4 propose, as briefly as possible to do, and for con-
venience, will divide the subject into several parts, according to
the formations in which fossil fishes have been found.
I. Fisnes or tne DevontAn Formation. |
P to the present time no well marked remains of fishes have
been discovered in the Silurian rocks of this continent, but, as
in the old world, in the Devonian strata they are not unfrequent.
B far the largest number of specimens and species have been
ained from the Corniferous limestone of western ork
Ohio, and Indiana. The Portage group in Ohio, and the Catskill
a York and Pennsylvania have also furnished a number of
te
- D. D. Owen and Dr. J. G. Norwood: “Description of a new fossil
Fish from the Paleozoic Rocks of Indiana.”—Amer. Jour. Science, [2],
Vol. i, p. 367. 1846,
Prof. Joseph Leidy : “ Description of some remains of fishes from the
_ Carboniferous and Devonian Formation of the United States.”—Journal
_ Acad. Nat. Sciences Phil., [2], vol. iii, p. 159, 1856. fo
Xt Jour. 8cr—Srconp SeRtes, Vor. XXXIV, No. 100.—Juny, 1862
10 ‘ts
74 Dr. J. S. Newberry on American Fossil Fishes.
Prof. Wm. Hopkins, “On a remarkable fossil,” &¢.—Proc. American ne
i . 287.
r. J. S. Newberry : Fossil res of the Cliff Limestone of Ohio.—
got: of Science, vol. i 3.—Proc. Amer. Assoc., 1853, p. 166;
Bulletin of the National aa 1857, p. 119.
Of these the last contains descriptions of all the species which
up to that time had been collected in the Corniferous limestone
of Ohio, about a dozen in ge including representatives of
three genera supposed to be new. "These species are as follows:
Epocsnchthys a a : (SMacropetalichthys,
Sulliva
Machaeracanthu us aga oN.
peracutus
ht N.
Onyehodus eee
samm
Oracanthus fragilis, N.
granulatus, N,
abbreviatus
“ multiseriatus
_ The three genera proposed in this paper, namely, Agassichthys,
a large ccelacanth ganoid; Onychodus, —— by a group of
placoid teeth, and ‘Machaeracanthus, based on some remarkable
unsymmetrical double-edged spines, as they are characteristic of
_ the formations in which they are found, and of considerable
zoological interest, seem to require a few words of descriptive
mment.
_Of these, the first, I am now satisfied includes the ichthyic cl®
: ail of which to sitifely es 3 tics of the |
large —— of “ieee i I = examined, 5 iitieg from, |
1e same formation, an udging from a plaster cast® |
ne my, OS : pe sot lly identical ith
Dr. J. 8S. Newberry on American Fossil Fishes. 75
- This fish, which must now be known by the name of Macrope-
talichthys, is not only of interest to the paleonsdteplis and zoolo-
gist as the most characteristic vertebrate of the epoch of the Cor-
niferous limestone on this continent—the ganoid monarch of our
Devonian seas,—but also as furnishing additional evidence of the
parallelism of our lower Devonian strata with the limestones of
the Kifel; for a species of this genus, probably identical with
one of ours, has been discovered in that formation and locality,
and is described and figured by the distinguished palzeontologist
Hermann von Myer, (Paleontographica, vol. i, p. 102, T. xii).
National Institute, von Myer, misled by the distortion of his
specimen, has mistaken the occipital for the nasal extremity of
the cranium; and further that it could not be included in Placo-
aa, but must be referred to another genus and another family.
The present state of our knowledge of this genus may be com-
prehended at a glance from the following description and figure.
Genus MacroPerTAaLicHutTnys, Owen. :
Agassichthys, Newb.
Placothoraxz, v. Myer, not of Agassiz.
Desc.—Ccelacanth ganoids of large size, cranial surface cov-
ered with thickly set stel- L
late tubercles “in lines
lating from various
Centres, or without regu-
lar arrangement. Cra-
ly
br aeubl
- portion orna-
dened with small tuber-
i = fine divergent
ium of Mareen alichthys Manni, N. _
— half natural size.
76 Dr. J. 8, Newberry on American’ Fossil: Fishes.
Of Macropetalichthys there are now enumerated four species, viz:
MM. Manni, Newb. M. Agassizii, v. Myer, sp.
M. Sullivanti, Newb. MM. rapheidolabis, Owen.
It is however possible that the last two are identical with the
two former, but just what Owen’s species is we shall probabl,
never know, as his description does not tell us and the origina
specimen has been lost sight of—neither does ven Myer’s figure
and geonripaen furnish the means of making an accurate com
e American fossils.
Genus Macnxnscawruns, Newb.
ace ak with a thin coating of enamel, in some :
8
pare
seen es gs a Newb.
—_ of the hapa this genus is that described ©
wily svg the American Association,
vil — repressed oes accompanying wood cut, take? —
a
Dr, J. S. Newberry on American Fossil Fishes. 17
decidedly of the opinion that they could not have belonged to
4 crustacean,
Genus Onycnopvus, Newb.
2Y dentine, simple
m structure, the ex-
78° Dr. J. S. Newberry on American Fossil Fishes.
In addition to the fishes of the Corniferous limestone enumer-
ated in the preceding pages, fragments of the armor of large Pla-
coderm Ganoids have been found which have been referred to
Coccosteus and Cephalaspis, but more and better specimens will
be necessary to prove that these genera were represented in our
Devonian seas. A number of placoid spines and teeth have also
been taken from the Cliff limestone of Ohio, which have not yet
been described.
In the upper members of the Devonian ee the num-
ber of fossil fishes yet discovered in this country is small. A
species of Paleoniscus obtained by Prof. ER from the Port-
age group in northern Ohio, (P. Brainard); two species of Ho-
loptychius from the Catskill of New York, another with a placoid
spine from the same formation in Pennsylvania, complete the
catalogue.
Of these the sacohapeie described by Mr. Thomas, is appa
rently a good species, and is interesting from its antiquity. ‘The
two New York aoaen of so-called Holoptychius have, I believe,
never been critically examined, and itis by no means certain
that they are such. That described by Dr. Leidy from Penn
sylvania is a well marked species of this genus, ishenly closely
alli . nobihssimus of Europe.
It will be noticed in the foregoing sketch that no mention 8
made of many 2 of the most characteristic genera of fishes of the
have no proof that any of the rms, Asterolepis (Pterichthys
of nia Coccosteus, halaspis, Pteraspis, &c., of the Coela-
cant lomostius (Asterolepis of Miller), Bothriolepis, Dendrodus,
Psammosteus, &c., of the Dipterians, Dipterus, Osteolepis, Diplop-
pe ee ee = ‘Acanthians, Acanthodes, Diplacanthus, ‘Cheirole:
re gern any existence in America.
e Nath Hoe on this point is of course as yet only negative
and may all be soon reversed, but it is nevertheless rather Te
markable that while most of the Devonian molluscous. genera,
and many species are common to the two continents, the fishes |
so far as known are all specifically distinct, and the larger pat
of them = aaa different.
(To be continued.)
Dr. J. Wyman—Experimenis on Infusoria. 79
Arr. IX.—EHxperiments on the formation of Infusoria in boiled
solutions of organic matter, enclosed in hermetically sealed vessels,
and supplied with pure air; by JEFFRIES WyMAN, M.D., Her-
sey Prof. of Anatomy in Harvard College.
ASTEUR in his admirable researches on formentation has
brought forward experimental evidence to show that this process
depends upon the presence of minute organisms in the ferment-
ae and that the source of all such organisms is the atmo-
ere. In support of this opinion he asserts, that when a fluid
Containing organic matter in solution is ut into a flask and
“boiled two or three minutes,” and mcuied only with air which
has been filtered by passing through a tube heated to redness,
and oe eal is then Se sealed, no fermentation takes
to the lesice of the flask, even then no Srmenie ies takes
place and no organisms appear. His explanation of this is, that
the air which enters first, — erie the hot steam, and the spores
or organisms contained in it are killed; while those which enter
the tube later move more oeky and are deposited on the moist
Walls of it without entering the body of the flask.?
most of the experiments given below the results have been
quite different, and living organisms have made their appearance,
in some instances where even greater precautions were
those mentioned by Pasteur. In order that the reader may
a the what es a were taken we — first describe
the manner in which the experiments were
_(L) In some instances (as in Expts. i to v, vil to xl, xiii to XV,
mang ¢ arrivée d’avoir
me tee en rh oe gn ie Soe
a douteux.”— Annales des Sciences Naturelles, T. xvi, ivme Serie, 1861,
dit tit aie iver tot brat es ae ies Oe badiinigd ong : resent on Ti un iqide
temperature de Yebullition. La rentrée de I
eak ave pl a de lenteur et, a ue le liquide est assez refrotdie shai ne gr poli
donne dane. germes leur vitalité, la rentrée de lair est assez relontte pau q'il aban-
ee cee ena na aed
Tayi, p. 60. y determiner des productions
80 Dr. J. Wyman—Experiments on Infusoria.
xxix and xxx inclusive) they were prepared as in fig. 1. The ma
terials of the infusion were put into a flask, and a cork a, through
which was passed a glass tube, drawn to a neck at b, was pushed
deeply into the mouth of it. The space above the cork was filled
with an adhesive cement d, composed of resin, wax and varnish.
The glass tube was bent at aright angle, and inserted into at
iron tube e, and cemented there with plaster of parise. The
iron Oe was filled with wires J, leaving only very narrow pas |
age ways. between them. * t
hers (as in Exps. vi, xii, xvi to xxiv, and xxxi toxxxill F
eclusive) were prepared as in fig. 2, in which the joining at@ |
cided, and the iron tube is cemented directly into |
i Kags & of the flask, the neck of which is drawn out at 0, to
render the sealing of it easy; otherwise the conditions are the
ke
(3.) In other experiments (as in Exps. xxiv to xxviii, =
Xxxiv to xxxviii inclusive,) the flask, fig. 8, was sealed at the
ordinary temperature of the room, and submerged during the |
period of the experiment in boiling water. This was the method 3
fol owed by Needham and Spallanzani and has the merit of elim fF
inating all suspicions of error which might be supposed to arise |
from some imperfections in the joinings. t
In the first and second methods, the solution in the flask 18 fF
bub f ny i the red eo which is kept a up, so that all organisms
tained in the airare burned. In both methods the flask 18 |
dvantag: in preparing z the experiment i in this way is, that the same flask | i
Dr. J. Wyman—Experiments on Infusoria, == 81
allowed to cool very slowly in order that the entering air may
be as long as possible in passing through the iron tubes, and thus
the destruction of its organic matters insured. When cold the
flasks are sealed at }, figs. 1 and 2, with the blowpipe.
In experiments xxix and xxx, a glass tube filled with asbestos
and platinum sponge was used instead of the iron tube filled
with wires.
The time during which the infusions were boiled varied as will
beseen by the records, from fifteen minutes to two hours, and the
amount of infusion used was from one-twentieth to one-thirtieth
of the whole capacity of the flask, the object being to have the
materials exposed to as large a quantity of air as possible.
n the account which follows, especial mention is made, in
Most instances, of the time of the formation of the “film.” This
1s always the first indication which can be had, without opening
the flasks, that minute organisms are developed; it is in fact
made up entirely of them, as has been proved by repeated ex-
aminations with the microscope. It may first be detected in
small patches, but soon covers the entire surface, and if the
flask is gently moved so as to cause the infusion to change its
.
a the film adheres to the glass and is left by the liquid.
ay to a temperature of between 70° and 80° F. throughout
day and nearly the same during the night. ” ace
Exp. 1.4 (1.)* “Feb. 3d, 1862. A few grains each of sugar,
gelatine and fine cut hay were introduced into a flask of 500 cub.
_ Exp. n. (1.) Feb. 3d. This was prepared in the same w
: e Od. pared in Way
ne precedin , excepting that sare was added to the solu-
€ flask was opened on the 29th day and Bacteriums
din great numbers.
- (1.) Feb. 4th. A few grains of cheese, sugar and
gelatine were dissolved in 17 ¢.c. of water, filtered and boiled in
ea 500 c.c. capacity. A film formed on the 19th day,
eS Was opened on the 86th and found to contain Bacte-
Stagg Iv. (1.) Feb. 4th. Twelve cubic centimetres of a solu-
a2 the preceding, with the addition of a small quantity of
first seven experiments the time which the contents were boiled is not
s in no instance less than fifteen minutes.
ures in brackets following the number of the experiment indicates which
modes of pre ing the experiment was made use of. ie. code
R. Scl—Szconp Sentes, Vou. XXXIV, No. 100.—Juxy, 1862.
ll ‘
—_
82 Dr. J. Wyman—LExperimenis on Infusoria.
pepper was boiled in a flask of 250 ¢.c¢. capacity. It was opened
on ae ose day, _ no living organisms were found.
v. (1. . Sth. solution of sugar, gelatine, and
dates was boiled and filtered, and again boiled in the flask,
which pr Actes ~ the 29th da ay, and no organisms detected.
Exp. vi. (2.) Feb. 10th. A solution of gelatine and sugar to
which site cobded 3 a = drops of urine and milk, were put into a
bolt-head, the tube of which had been drawn to a neck, ane after
oiled and 0% The flask was opened on the 15th day ; ; 00
pea were found.
Exp. 1x. (1.) Teo. 25th. The same as the preceding, without
the dition of the flesh; this solution was boiled 40’ and opened
on the thi Beas ; no organisms were found.
in the x. (1.) March. 6th. Three flasks, abe, were pre
ane: and at a tata period ind, They were all pot a few e
afterwards and found to contain Bacteriums, Vibrios and ferment
cells,
a a <1. ot March 12th. An ounce of meat was suspended
sk 0: cub. cent. capacity with about 40 c.c. of water
inv it This see boiled 20’, during which time the meat was ex
rer to the steam in the flask. The juice which dropped from
the meat was coagulated in the water Leneath, and the meat itself _ 4
was thoroughly cooked ; on the second day the meat was cove
with a gelatinous exudation, and on the third a film was formed — :
on the surface of the water. The flask was opened on ‘the fifth
day and found to contain Vibrios, Bacteriums, and a few fer — F:
ment cells. The gelatinous exudation on the surface of the meat
also contained the same organisms, and appeared to be wholly — :
ie ep them
i he gah (2.) March 15th. ees ore of het 4
and 40 c. c. of water was
‘seale
- A film formed |
oo day, when there |
umbers of Bacte
Pe er
Dr. J. Wyman—Exzperiments on Infusoria. 83
ance.
Exp. xv. (1.) March 19th. Fifty cubic centimetres of beef
were boiled 40’ in a flask of 800 c. ¢. capacity. The film began
xviii was boiled 15’, the fluid having been pre-
a e flask was
‘boiled 15’. ‘Tho film formed on the 5th, and the flask
= isappeared, and some of the
ot % become nearly black.
and the darker shreds
oes
1: Sari ae
84 Dr. J. Wyman—Experiments on Infusoria.
Exp. xxu. (2.) April 2d. Beef juice and fragments of beef
were boiled 15’, and the air was introduced through a much
the preceding experiment. The iilm formed on the 6th day,
and the flask was opened on the 17th. The sealed end was
melted in the flame of a spirit lamp, when the gas escaped with
force. Bacteriums were foun
xpts. XXIV, XXV, XXVI, (3,) were all prepared in the same
way, April 16th. The capacity of the flasks was 550 . ¢.; the
contents were beef juice and water 17 c.c, urine 7 ¢. ¢. e
_ flasks were folded in a napkin, immersed in water, which was
enigoolly heated to the boiling point, and each then exposed to
it for 30’. The film formed in xxvi on the 4th day, and m
xxiv and xxv on the 5th, and were all subsequently found to
contain Bacteriums.
Expts. xxv, xxvu. (3). April 24th. Two flasks, each of
550 ¢. ce. capacity, and each containing about 20 ¢. ¢. of beef
juice and urine, were hermetically sealed at the temperature of
the room, wrapped in cloth, and exposed for two hours to boil-
ing water. The film formed on the 4th day; one of them was
opened on the 5th and the other on the 11th, and both found
to contain Bacteriums,
Expts. Xxx, xxx. (1.) February 17th. In both of these the
contents of the flasks were solutions of sugar and gelatine in
water, to which fragments of cabbage leaves were added.
air was introduced through a Bohemian glass tube, filled with
asbestos and platinum sponge, and heated to redness. The
materials were boiled 30’. In xxix the film was formed on the
n Xxxil was
tained ferment cells and monads. — F
Dr. J. Wyman—Experiments on Infusoria. 85
found to contain Vibrios and Bacteriums, some of them moving
with great rapidity. ne
xp. XXXv. (8.) The same as the preceding, and boiled in
Papin’s digester 10’ and under the pressure of 5 atmospheres,
No film was formed. The flask was opened on the 41st day.
Monads and Vibrios were found, some of the latter moving across
the field. No putrefaction ; the solution had an alkaline taste.
Exp. xxxvi. (3.) March 28th. Beef juice was filtered and
boiled, as in the preceding experiment, 15’, under 2 atmos-
pheres, Opened on the 41st day, and no evidence of life was
found. When the end of the flask was heated, previously to
Opening, it collapsed. 2
Exp. xxxyi. (3.) March 28th. The same as the preceding;
boiled 15’, under 5 atmospheres. Opened on the 41st day, and
No evidence of life was detected.
| minutes to 2 hours, and exposed to air purified by heat. In
| Instances, viz., in Expts. iv, v, vili, x, the contents of the
Ks were unchanged at the time they were opened; but in all
of the rest, Bacteriums, Vibrios, or other organisms app
In nearly every instance their presence was indicated, in the -
lovements. Those forms which were observed the most
quently are among the lowest, if not the lowest of all known or-
Tn many instances, a solution like that in the sealed flasks, and
oiled for the same length of time, was exposed to the ordinar.
air the room, in an open flask. Although the same forms
Were found in the two, they appeared much more rapidly in the
than in closed vessels, and the contents of the former soon
3 y, under 2 atmospheres, and xxxv and xxxvul, und 5 at- ,
meres for 10’ and 15’ respectively. Evidence of life, con-
86 Dr. J. Wyman—Exzperiments on Infusoria. %
sisting of caer ome and Vibrios, was found in xxxiv and xxxy,
ut none in the others.
The result of the experiments here described is, that the boiled
solutions of i bey matter made use of, exposed only to air which
has ough tubes heated to redness, or enclosed with air in her-
metically sled vessels and exposed to boiling water, became the seat
of tnfusorial life.
The experiments which have been described throw but little
light on the immediate source from which the organisms in
question have been derived. Those who reject the doctrine of
spontaneous generation in any of the forms in which it has been
ane forward, will ascribe them to spores contained either im
enclosed in the flask, or in se materials of the solution.
various kinds of oe pat consisting of minute fragments
of dead animals and plants, also the spores of cryptogamous
plants, and certain other Seti, the appearance * which, as
Quatrefages says, suggests that they are eggs. *® ave made
some examinations of our own on this subject, but’ it would be
unnecessary to give the results in detail. We will simply state,
that we have carefully examined the dust deposited in attics,
also that floating in the air collected on plates of glass covered
with glycerine, ‘and have found in such dust, in addition to the
ebris of animal and vegetable tissues, which last were by fat
in the greatest weakens the spores of Cryptogams, some
closely resembling those of Confervoid plants, and with —_
be said to be of rare occurrence. We have not in any instance?
animalcules which were resuscitated by moisture,
‘inc when the dust has been macerated in water none have ap>
‘days afterwards, until after a lapse of time,
when hey 9 would ordinarily appear in any organic solution.
ose who advocate the theory of spontaneous generation, OP
the other hand, will doubtless find, in the e “file the here re
d, evidence in support of their views. While they admit
spores and minute eggs are disseminated through eet aif,
ahke hs no spores or eggs of any kind have been
zak ‘researches hohe seed cen i :
Geographical Notices. 87
ally proved by experiment to resist the prolonged action of
boiling water. As regards Vibrios, Bacteriums, Spirillums, etc.,
it has not yet been shown that they have spores; the existence
of them is simply inferred from analogy. It is certain that
Vibrios are killed by being immersed in water, the temperature
of which does not exceed 200° F. We have found all motion,
except the Brownian, to cease even at 180° F. We have also
proved by several experiments that the spores of common mold
are killed, both by being exposed to steam and by ing
through the heated tube used in the experiments described in this
article. If, on the one hand, it is urged that all organisms, in
So far as the early history of them is known, are derived from
ova, and therefore from analogy, we must ascribe a similar ori-
these minute beings whose early history we do not know,
it may be urged with equal force on the other hand, that all ova
and spores, in so far as we know anything about them, are de-
stroyed by prolonged boiling: therefore, from analogy we are
equally bound to infer that Vibrios, Bacteriums, &c., could not
ve been derived from ova, since these would all have been de-
sttoyed by the conditions to which they have been subjected.
The argument from analogy is as strong in the one case as in
the other,
Cambridge, May 9th, 1862.
——
Art. XI.— Geographical Notices. No. XVII.
KILIMANJARO, THE SNOW COVERED EQUATORIAL PEAK OF
" AFRICA
THE proceedings of the London Geographical Society, vol. vi.
No, 2, 1862, one a very egestgan Dates from Mr. R. Thorn-
i F.RGS., (lately attached to Dr. Livingstone’s Zambesi
“xpedition as Geologist) respecting his visit, in company with
ron Carl yon der Decken to the much talked of snow-covered
Suntain, near the equator on the eastern coast of Africa.
The existence of such a mountain, named Kilimanjaro, was
_ Sebmann, saw the snowy peak for the first time in May, 1848,
is ubsequently saw te The next year in November,
mountain re
to €
88 Geographical Notices.
ence of a snow peak was declared by excellent authority tobe |
_ highly improbable; the story of the natives was laughed at, and
the missionaries were said to have mistaken white stones and rock
for snow. Dr. Petermatn however and some others defended
the probability that the missionaries were right, but on b
sides there has been a desire to have the question settled.
At last we have a satisfactory confirmation that there is such
“Our route lay from Mombas to the southwest over the Shimba, theneé
northwest to the Kadiaro, then southwest to the Pare, then north to the
Lake Yipe, thence through Dafeta to Kilema, where we made one attempt
to ascend the Kilimanjaro, but had to turn back at about 8000 feet. We
varying from 15 to 50 miles. From these I believe the height of the
Kilimanjaro to be about 20,000 feet. Its shape varies much, as see?
of this cone is m ch
bitles. ortheast of the top 4
L7,000 feet; and about 50 miles to the
Livingstone’s Expedition.—The Rovuma River. 89
west of Kilimanjaro a great conical mountain, named Meru, rises from
the great plain of the Massai to perhaps 18,000 feet.
As seen from the east, the snow forms only a thick cap to the Kili-
the dome. Inone evening, at Madjami, we saw three such slips
of snow in about an hour’s time. On the eastern peak a few patches of
snow are seen when the sun is high.
We have not reached the axis of structure of Eastern Africa; but very
far to the south west from Kilema are seen, on a clear day, three very high
tugged mountains (as high as the Meru mountain), with conical tops,
which, if not voleanice—and I think their sides are too steep and shapes
rele for ordinary voleanoes—may be composed of the axial
__ The Lake Yipe is shallow, and rapidly filling up. You will see its size
and position best when I send youour map. On its north side it receives
River Loomi (of Rebmann), and at its west end sends out a river which,
after joining the Jagga river, flows south through the plain lying between
Sona and Anuisha ranges to the river of Pangani. between the
“imanjaro and Anuisha ranges is a small watershed, which sends the
Hers of Western Madjami to the west.
OM; fs nn’s map and description, as given in the first volume of the _
., ssionary Intelligencer, give a very fair idea of the country, and, con-
dering he had no instruments, his map is very accurate.” _
LIVINGSTONE’S EXPEDITION.—THE ROVUMA RIVER.
4 The following letter has been published from Dr. Living-
Stone April 9, 1861. It ap ears in the Proceedings of the
®ndon Geographical Society, vol. vi, No. 1.
of
90 Geographical Notices.
wane a a2
6 or 7 inches a day. They had found some parts carrying no more than
5 or 6 feet of water, and as they drew nearly 5 feet, they had to return,
of
— r-boats. On the question whether it actually derives its waters
he discovered, but from some other lake. The reasons he adduces are?
the Nyassa is already known to give off one large river the Shiré. 14
river never rises nor falls more than 3 feet, nor is its water ever discolored.
The Rovuma rises and falls 6 or more feet, becomes very muddy, and 00 7
instance is known of one lake giving off two large rivers, The probabil- |
ity, therefore, is, that if the Rovuma does come out of a Nyassa or Nyanzs
(lake, or piece of water), it is some other than that discovered by the
expedition. It is well known that lakes having no outlets become brackish
in the course of ages. This is the case with Shirwa, but Nyassa @l
Tanganyika are sweet. The former owes its sweetness to the Shiré
flowing out of it. Does Tanganyika owe its sweetness to the Rovuma!”
,.
2. The same number of the Proceedings contains an interesting
report, extending through several pages, from Mr. John Kirk,
Botanist of the Livingstone expedition, chiefly in respect to such
vegetable products of the Shiré and lower Zambesi Rivers, 4%
re in demand in Europe. He reports much of this region 9 _
t says of the cotton culture.
countries examined have those bordering the Zambesi from
1ekée, a Makolo town, situated in the centre of the
ontinent; likewise the valley of a tributary river, the Shiré, from
sa to its confluence with the Zambesi near Moramballa Hill.
nds of the Batoka and. ja countries have also been vis
the east coast to Sesh
1,
_Livingstone’s Expedition.—The Rovuma River. 91
8
of the other vegetation. The labor required to cultivate cotton
and various other sorts of native corn, the Delia also yields wheat duriz
Co: n. Rice of good quality is also cultivated. Tropical fruits
imes.
The climate of the Delta is mild, presenting neither the excessive heat
hor cold of the interior; the atmosphere is much moister, and heavy
Ws are frequent ; the prevalence of a sea breeze renders the parts near
the coast more healthy than those within the mangroves. The malaria,
although an obstacle to the settlement of Europeans, is by no means so
Intense as that of the west coast; and we have not found a case which
state.
tivated in the
; it is found everywhere, but is being replaced by a
I which signifies foreign cotton, and is of
farther east on the Zambesi than the
92 - Geographical Notices. j
prone of the Kafué. This may have been introduced from the west
"The Tonje Kaja is, according to ae either perennial or annual;
on the Manganja Hills it is an ann m 2 to 4 feet high, sown in
March and gathered in pert In the veils it Snhs a shrub, remain-
ing several years in the soil. It is readily known from the other sort by
leaf and seed. The cotton is of very short staple, seldom exceeding hal
an inch; it very much resembles wool, and adheres strongly to the seed,
“The le is much less prolific than the other, and the only good
quality possessed by it is superior strength, on which account some still
pe it. Itis the most universally distributed, being seen everywhere
m the coast to the valley above the Victoria Falls and along the course
of the Shiré. In the region shut off from the coast b Lake Shirwa, it
becomes the only sort grown; but the foreign kind is advancing from
both north and south, and fast displacing it. -
or-perennial ; it is superior in every respect, and attains a much greater
Egyptian, and might be improved by the judicious selection - seed.
there is no necessity for the introduction of new seed, what is now grown
on the Shiré being of good quality and very prolific. The variety of
Tonje ie found in the central African valley above the Victoria Falls
and as far down as the confluence of the Kafué, differs in the cohesion ef 3
the seeds of sete cell which form a mass, from ‘the rare of which the
cotton separates easily. The plant ent a great size, and continues
seemingly for an indefinite time. ong the ruins of “he old town of
96 Sipe ton 2 of an inch in fiber.
Having found cotton throughout the whole extent of country —
we know what quality may certainly be obtained, while much more ™:
be e | from careful oo The only cotton seed broug ot BP
* operon to that already in the country, was the asc Island sty
his yielded excellent cotton 14 inch long when
us circumstances, and the plant still continues at Tetté,
h uncared for. Nowhere have we seen cotton which would not
be worth ex rtation, but the best is that of the Mapgenye country, where
the people have cA it pe attention ; thence it might also be ©
ported with least expense, while Europeans, settled in t ae
ands, could direct and superintend the natives of the valleys.
unfit f Europeans, a
eet
interior, showing that the cotton grown there is but little inferior.”
8. Following this report of Mr. Kirk, is an entertaining
account by Mr. Charles Livingstone of the Batokas and the coun-
try they inhabit, lying between the 25th and 29th degrees E.
epat 16th and 18th degrees §. lat.,—west and north of the
YORUBA AND THE NIGER VALLEY.
M. R.
elany and Mr. Robert Campbell, having visited the Yoruba
district with a view to ascertain its fitness for African colonists
eS ahs en such as to absorb completely the attention of those
. . s n ir
But public men in England, with their usual commercial sagacity,
_ “ave been quick to recognize the opening of a new and ric
Centre of e, and to appreciate the importance of establishing
g Jt the influence if not the dominion of British aah
94 Geographical Notices. |
Delany’s observations, the British —_ seized the little
ren of Lagos, which is the key to the rich Yoruba lands.
ent country. Itis not the place to discuss here the
tale objects of these investigations, but they are well worthy
of no
3. Car tain Richard Burton, the well known traveler, having
ot to England from his visit to Salt Lake City, Utah, has
been appointed British Consul at Fernando Po. His energy an
his practical acquaintance with the difficulties of African travel
will enable him to help forward efficiently, from that post, im
vestigations of the interior. He has signalized the beginning of
Pageeeciship by visiting Abeokuta, and making in connection
aptain Bedingfield, a minute survey of the River Ogun,
on which the town is situated. His visit was made in Octobet
and November last. The mouth of the Ogun or Abeokuta he
ood
one hundred yards broad, skirted by fine forests a little
affected by the tide. A brief account of his j journey was com
municated in a letter to Dr. Norton Shaw and printed in the
Proceedings of the London Geog. Soc., vol. vi. no. 2
impressions of Abeokuta were not very agreeable, but he con-
firms the estimate of its immense size, saying that travelers _
underrated its population at 100, 000, —it is probably 150,
Dr, Delany estimates the number of inhabitants at 110,000 ;
Bowen, in his ‘Central Africa,” at from 60,000 to 100, 600. The tr
extreme circumference of the walls is about 27 miles. We an
one extract from Burton’s short and rambling letter.
“There is no mistake, however, about cotton growing in these regions |
It can be carried out all over Yoruba; a kingdom once extending from
the Volta river to the eae poe including Benin and Dahomey: but, 10
give it due extension, wars must cease and treaties must be made wi
the several chiefs. I would here correct a mistake, universally made by
those who have written upon the subject. The land is not, as stated by
Mr. praia and others, common Property, nor will the people allow
send it to me, nea
Afri r the Came |
I will (D. V.) enter telly into the subject
: Lagos r
natorium—
:, and the Oil rivers want f
Dr. Hayes’s Arctic Voyage. 95
key, after losing Fernando Po. At Abeokuta the cotton is grown in the
farms. I was shown the green seed or upland (short staple), and the
black seed or long staple. There is, moreover, a very valuable kind,
called “akashe,” soft as silk. Eight seeds are sold for a penny. Before
that it cannot prosper without seaboard, and then the war began.
men went up the river in October last. The party ascended the
120 miles when their voyage was brought to an abrupt
lose by rapids,
. “Though impracticable to ship’s boats, the rapids are not absolutely
impassable, for the small strong native canoes can be forced th
hest point reached by the expedition. Above Pong the Volta is again
ble. Its stream was considerable. Immediately below the rapids
6
The
96 Geographical Notices. _
cially. The land which I discovered and surveyed during this
cruise is the most northern land known on the globe. I have
traced it to 82° 40’ and have planted the flag of she Union (‘ with
not a single star erased’) upon it.”
METEOROLOGICAL RECORD AT KANAGAWA, JAPAN, 1860.
e absence of much trustworthy information in respect to
the setecrolies of Japan, the following table, recently commu- [|
nicated to us in the Japan Herald, vol. i, , No. 2, posdedeen ileal rt
e Register was kept by Rev . Mr. Hepburn, a missionary of |
the American inte ie Board. e understand that he
continues to keep a like record. It is to be regretted that a
barometric register does not accompany the other” observations.
ia saat
Table of Meteorological Observations at Kanagawa, from 1st November, 1860, t
lst November, 1861.
‘4 1 a) !@ b- a
ge |g, (24 (22 | Pa ;
eo ie. sf si 3)8) 2) 8 12818) 8
ge ioe (eset StS) a |S (SES
ceslSSalzezises| S| 2] 2) 2 (te) Fla
aPRicheigtRi ee 261 a8 2" ie ee
1860.
November 45°80'58°36/68-00/36°00) 18 ¥ 6 1 185| 4l sta
December .. . ..| 38'86/50°87/71°00|22°75; 19 | 4{ 7 | 3-40; 2 | 1 [50°00
1861.
anuary. 33:00/43°30 55° 26°50} 12} 12 | g | 421] 1] 4 | 850
‘ebruary 37°50/47-00'69-00/27-00} 12 | 4 {11 | 4°20] 4 | 1 | 225
Marthe. sca “| 39-00/52-00/64-00/31-00/ 13 | 8 9 | 8°95} 2| 1 |--r
P 3:00 62-30/73-00/39°00 Il.| 15 |. 9°26; 2 |... | sees
re 60°00 69°30) 76 00; 10 | 10 | 11 | 5-42; 1 | .. [ee
2 ee «++ |69:00/79-00/88-00| 60°00 81 12)9 Bees.
eee sees Raby 91°30/71-00! 15 | 8 | 8 | 1°88] 2] .. | +s
August ....... 79°00/87-00|90°00|75°00| 17 | 4 | 10 | 4°79) 1 | .. joer
September 2. 7100 87-00|89°00/61°00| 18 | 6 | 11 | 4°54} 2 | -. | ooes}
October 5 0|67-30/75°00/47-00 ll q 13 6°50 4 28° ea i
Yearly average. {550slas-70l 159 | 84 1115 159-28 “ae 7 Nir) L
SCHLAGINTWEIT’ S INDIA AND HIGH ASIA, VOL. ha
The second volume of the text and the second number of the
det ypsometry
tains in i ee ieiptie of 3,495 points, of which 1,615 belong to
es on to High "Asia, the area over which they are
d poe from the southern od of C —o n to the
‘Ka in Tur (from 6° lat.
to 39°
to Sindh (from 97° t
authors state that of the 3,495 ae
re ‘are 1118, “for which they had no
Schlagintweit’s India and High Asia. 97
determination than their own; of these new data 378 belong to
India and 735 to High Asia. Besides these they had occasion
to add 144 points, some of which were determined anew and
others were points for which differential values only had been
formerly given and which were now connected with the level of
the sea. It is said to have been a matter of serious consideration
how to arrange so large a number of heights,—and the plan
finally adopted does not seem to us free from weighty objections.
India and High Asia are divided into Areas, upon principles
which the authors do not mention. Through each of these eleven
areas, a line is drawn connecting some of the principal aig and
the succession of the heights determined to the right and left of
this line, follows its mean direction as indicated by an arrow.
hese areas are designated as meridional, longitudinal, diagonal
or transversal according to the Pay position of the leading
lines, and are enumerated as follow
A, India.
Areal. Assim and delta of the Brahmapttra and Ganges, with the
aga, Khassia and GArra hills, and some remarks about the
vadi.
See Pe
Longitudinal, from east to west: Brahmaktnd vid Rajmahal to
rbans.
_ Ganges vid uae a and Chanda to Koringa.
“ an isstir. Diagonal, from northwest to southeast:
Pi mbay vid Piina and Belléri to Madras.
VL Karnatik and N mie net an appendix on Ceylon. Longitu-
inal, from west to east: Madras vid Bangalur and Utakamand
to Kalikat.
B. High Asia.
Ava VIL. Himalaya of Bhutdn, Sikkim, and Nepal. Longitudinal,
from east to west: Bhutdén vid Darjiling to west of Kath-
mandu.
eeagtis Western Himalaya, from Kamd4on to Hazara. Diagonal, from
Southeast to northwest : Alnéra vik 4 Simla and Srinagger
“ to Rajaur.
m2 tee chain of Westeta Tibet. From southeast to northwest :
chain,
e of the lake Sirikul.
Tour. Sci.—Szconp Suntes, Vor. XXXIV, No. 100.—Joux, 1862,
13
i
98 Geographical Notices.
Area XI. Teaver ppstions across ‘Tibet, we —— ACTOS
e Kuenlien. a. Niti—Gartok. 6. V —Pangk Me
A Kardo iets Pewee chain. d. Padu stint e.
be—Kiutk Kiol—Elchi. jf. Dras——Shigar—Yarkand. a-,
are diagonal lines from southwest to northeast, f, is a merid-
ional line from south to north.
These lines are considered to be situated in ahs centre of
an area, limited by half their mutual distance
At the conclusion of the tables of measurements iit occupy
the greater portion of the volume, some general remarks are
made in respect to “(A .) the different varieties of Elevated Habi
Bran, (2 ee the Geographical Configurations, and (C.) Physical
enom
The yanie of plates which accompanies this text contains
several Panoramic Profiles of the snowy ranges of High Asia,
and six landscapes beautifully printed in ‘oil colors
Following these Geographical Notices, will bs aad an extract
from the text presenting in a condensed form the general col
clusions of the authors on the Indian Fimaleyay hypsometry,
with comparisons of the Alps and Andes.
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT SURVEYS.
For the following information the readers of the Journal are |
ayden.
indebted to Dr. F. V. Ha t
The following is a brief synopsis of the contents of the several sciel- |
tific reports, either already Pere or in an advanced state of prepare j
> for the U. S. Governm 7
North-Pacifie Robang Expedition, under the command of Com |
sal Joun Ropgers, U.S.N. The war has interfered with the |
completion of this report, as the Commander of the Expedition, with
several of his officers, are in active servicé on the Southern coast, and
narrative by Capt. Rodgers has not yet been written. Many charts of "
—— of the Chinese and Japanese seas, oe ae of parts of the N. B a
tic coast to the Aleutian Islands, are finis.
The following reports on the Natural aay are in progress :
On the |
Zoology, by Dr. Wm. Stimpson, assisted by Dr. A. A. Gould, Mr, John
cease Dr, Hallowell, Dr. Uhler, Mr. Barnard and Prof, Theo. ‘Gill.
Pape n will probably comprise about 3 vols. 4to, with an atlas
‘ war Report on one Botany, by Prof. Asa Gray and, Charles Wright, is t
a) San Juan Exploring Expetition—Col. J. Macon, U, 8. Tope t
Re Monin and
‘hon hoes ole ting Norden
United States Government Surveys. 99
iferous fossils and fossil plants are described by Dr. Newberry, and» the
Cretaceous fossils by Mr. F. B. Meek. The whole occupy ten quarto
(3.) Report on Wagon-road Routes in Utah Territory, under the com-
mand of Capt. James H. Smrson, Topographical Engineer, U. 8. A.
This report is quite voluminous, 2 vols. 4to, finely illustrated with plates
of scenery, Indians, d&c., including a narrative, itineraries, tables of tem-
perature and weather, vocabularies of the Indian languages, maps and
charts, by Capt. Sumrson; a detailed Geological memoir by Mr. H.
Enczimayn ; Palentology, by F. B. Meek, with 5 quarto plates of fos-
0.
sor. I’. Barrp; Botany, by Dr, Gzorez Enceimany, of St. Louis.
This report has been completed for over a year, and is now in the hands
of one of the Congressional Committees, awaiting the order of Congress
for its publication. ;
(4.) Explorations in Nebraska and Dakota, in the years 1855-56-57,
by Lieut. G. K. Warren, Topographical Engineer, U.S. Army. Two
different expeditions—three in number,—Astro :
Meterological observations, and maps, profiles, &c., by Lieut. Warren;
4 report on the Geology of the district traversed, by Dr. F. V. Harpen,
over 1,000 figures, between 400 and 50U species new to science,
» B. Meex and F. V. Haypen, (completed); report on the F
i Plants, by Dr. J. S. Newzerry, about 25 plates, 4to, and from 60 to 70
new to sei port on the Fossil Vertebrata, by Prof. Joszra
I to science; Re
» 10 plates, 4to, (prepared); Reports on the Zoology and Botany,
by various authors,
Teport, embracing the country from the Pacific Coast to the summit of
the Rocky Mountains, cutaadind to the north and south of the 49th
~ rallel, north latitude. Astronomical observations locate the Boundary
fothecting these points, extending over 9° of longitude, embrace
ography on and near the line, while the reconnaisances extend to the
north and south, thus affording data for the mere mo “ =
Progress to illustrate th rt. The report will consist of magnetic
banat ¢ sei s Tone for dip and horizontal
100 Geographical Notices.
years and at Colville pene gee eighteen months, er corres fF
ponding observations for the barometrical readings y the different 7
parties along the line and aba routes of travel, sien affording the —
material not “only for a report on the Meteorology of the abet but also
for barometrical profiles of the different routes. The work will also be _
illustrated by a number of views, showing the iyieat pr cs of the
count 4
During the progress of the work the eclipse of the sun of July 18th, |
1860, occurred, and every exertion was made to secure observations a
complete as possible, with-a view not only to the difference of longitude
along the line, but also to their value as a contribution to science. As the
eclipse occurred early in the working season, and the parties were at that
eli sh
only one of the parties succeeded in obtaining observations, an |
were made at Camp Mooyie in approximate lon. 116° 10’, west f -
Greenwich,
Wn. SriMrsor, with Neue Recent Shells, "with ates, by Pattie B m4
fusoria, Mr. "Artaor M. Epw : Fishes, with. the eaaonen of the
Relidionide, Taropore GILL, with labs Monograph of the Salmonid,
Dr, Georce Svucxtey, with plates of new and unfigured species ; Birds, —
by Dr. GzorGE Svoxter and Extiort Cowes, with special monographs of tr
the Grouse family, by Dr. S., and of the Gulls, Divers and Grelles, by Me fo
C., illustrated with plates showing the specific differences of these compli- |
ilies ; Report on Mammals, by Dr. Sucgkiey, with monographs :
of some of the smaller animals, by Prof. S. F. Batrp; Coleopterous
insects, by Dr. J. L. Leconrz, and non-Coleopterous, by Mr. PB OF
Unter; seeds reports om the Geology of the country ree by ft
ce Grpss.
yore a of the Upper Missouri and Yellow Stone, — the
ith profiles, é&cc., are completed. The following —
: {Reports on the aire of the district exami
‘alzzontology, by Prof. Lempy, Dr, Newserry and
pieceoy ae ss b aa V. Haype¥s
THEo. ny, by Messt
_Tuox a Report on the
e India ries of th the Missburi —
Schlagintweit’s Geographical Configurations, etc. 101
sos consideration as demonstrated by the campaign experiences of the
fifteen months. ]
Arr. XI.—H. and R. de Schlangintweit on the Geographical Con-
Jigurations of India and High Asia.*
1, PLATEAUX AND LAKES.
“0—irrespective of its form.
_ In India there are many plateaux, which, for the most part,
lie in the Dékhan, Maissir, and Malva; they are well defined,
ut of low elevation, and very limited in extent as compared
With those of the Andes or Turkistan. Among the most im-
portant are Mahabaléshvar (4,500 ft.), Amarkantak (8,590), and
is frst observers, though Humboldt, with his usual mee,
wad early pointed out the error of this belief, Plateaux certainly
yy) Extracted tracted from the Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia by
Rand A. de Schlagintweit, vol. ii. 4°. Leipsic, 1862.
oe. plateau having a mean height of 1,460 ft., the Suevo-Bavarian |
102 Schlagintweit's iain Configurations
138
ge
E
S
[> af
®
te
a
o
1
ae fh
38
ao)
5
mn
aa
°
rm
fh
=
o
SS
ar
a
a, &.
S
R,
In its eastern part it 1s drained by the rig an affluent of i
i dssa, may be esti-
Soe
Its central pat is formed by the gradual rising of the ground —
in the environs of the lakes Mansaraur and Rakus Tal, the aver
age height being 15,400 ft
The western fie is a by the Indus and Satlej rivers, with
their affluents; it comprises Gnari Khérsum, Ladak and Balti
The prin cipal owns of these provinces are: Gartok (15,090 ft),
Leh (11,527 ft.), and Skardo (7,255 ft.).
The unusual height of some of the valleys of Western Tibet,
as compared with those in other parts of the globe, may not |
improbably have a considerable share in the erroneous belief —
deduced from — reports as to this country being almost ex-
clusively a plateau
Instances of two river -systems belonging to one general lon
pascinel depression are not unfrequent on a minor scale, though
et must be considered perhaps as the largest form of this
kind. In the Alps, the Upper Engadin. with the Val Bergell,
and the valley of the Vorder- Rhine with that of the Rhone, cal
be mentioned as somewhat analagous.
; “the Andes are to be found, if not the highest, at least the f-
most extensive plateaux of our globe, which generally lie Bi i7
the very ridge of the mountains. Their areree?. height ‘
but little from those of the towns mentioned a
There is also a large plateau surrounding the gee lake |
Titicaca (12,843 a
the Alps, plateaux occur only at their base; the Swiss f
ux of 1,420 ft.* It ishere that the principal Alpine lakes —
‘situated. In the Himalaya there are no such picturesque j
yrning the foot of the mountains. The watershed 1G
: Ind the See is potatoe upon a lower lev
! the Hi rt a exists, similar to that
copay Vai port
of India and High Asia. 103
and Brahmaptitra. For the most part they are not very
deep; their surface is very variable, and many of them are en-
tirely dry during the hot season. Yanks are frequently met
ment
G
lacier lakes—accumulations of water formed by one glacier
obstructing the outlet of a higher one—are of much more fre-
na occurrence. At times, the wall of ice breaks away before
he
suddenly inundated, and the torrent rushes on with uninter-
down to the lower parts of the rivers.* Two of the most elevated
glacier lakes are the Déo Tal, in Garhval (17,746 ft.), and the
°
a]
i
oc
Co
Os.
5
=a
Ho
rx)
=2
°
—
o
_
On
Or
~I
te
Y
Aksie Chin.......... 16,620 ft. | Nima Kar......---- 15,100 ft.
nn ee 15,693“ | Hanle .....+--+-+-- 14,600 *
| Wyeth ot Khéuri Talud 15,684“ | Tso Gam...-+--0+++ 14,580 “
fle Taos: 2.5, oe 15,517 * | Tso Rul.....-+.-++ 14,400 *
a Kitk ae 60 “ | Tso Mitbl...----+e- 14,167. *
15,460 s
. > ur,orTso Mapan 15,250 “ | Upper Tsomognalari. . 14,050
oe Rakus Tal, or Tso lane 15,250 * | Lower Tsomognalari-. 14,010 “
tt Tsomoriri 15,1
30 “
bstied woth i ek ae a ee
erie
ee, 2. PASSES.
ltt India, the highest pass is the Sigur, in the Nilgiris (7,204 ft.)
bs Sigur, in the. ilgiris ( ,204 ft.).
The Rangbédde cai Y Ceylon (6,589 ft.), is little inferior in
“gat. Of the numerous passes (Ghats) occurring in the West-
m Secured in Tibet. paige = 's Kashmir,” vol. ii, 362, 2
' Pp. 99, et seq. and “Capt. Mo erie’s cent
§ ons, them of a most destructive character, have several
Cunningham’s
104 Schlugintweit’s Geographical Configurations a
ern Ghats, the Bapdéo and the Katrij both exceeded 3,000 fe, :
the former being 3,499 ft., the latter 3,019 ft.
For Ligh Asia, the mean of a sufficient number of such passes |
which lead over the three rincipal erests is napucolaste tobe F
taken into consideration, it beng or ber pense’ proportaa
a
numerous—cannot be included i e gen neral means, being
geographically of gi sk ore Gopattses
The mean height+ of passes is as follows, the value being based
-on the heights contained in the table at p. 106. t
Me POs TA TIIMALATE SS i Se . » 17,800 ft.
From m to Kishtvé; Bhut4n and Kashmir being excluded; the
former for want of materiale, and Kashmir on account of the Himalaya —
there losing the character of one well defined and predominant chain.
O:: Row The EARAKORUM oo ciow'g se we ved nae e civic 18,700 ft.
We have data only from Long. E. Gr. ‘aa 6° to 794°, the heights in the
eastern continuation being quite “unknown,
& FOR Tae KUENLUENW ...0 600.553 eevee wes 17,000 ft.
Here we know ee height of two passes only. As they are e situated,
however, in parts not differing, in any important particular, from the gem —
eral character of this chain, they may be looked upon as representatives
of the others. fh
From these numbers it appears, that the Karakorim — :
far the greatest mean height of passes; but the one pass which —
we must still consider the highest is situated in the Himalaya
This is the [bi Gamin pass (20, 459 ft.), leading from Garhval |
Gnari Khérsum, which we crossed August 22,1855. It ® |
See eee
about 36 years ago, once ventured to cross it with their laden
sheep. The Mana pass at that time was infested by robbers, and
the di culties encountered, as also the loss of sheep and mer
dize experienced on this occasion, were so considerable 4
to induce se natives to give up all idea of using the route as &
— . commerci of
ee “Some + touihenoues with other and more familiar instances
elevation will tend to furnish a more adequate idea of the ex
a ry height of this pass. The one coming nearest to*”
ae Ghai i in height, the Mustagh pass in Balti, is 1,440 ft. lowe"
_ We may remark necenialy: that the Ibi Gamin pass is ony
below the h ia oe attained by us on the
exceeds the ects in eine seniies |
of India and High Asia. 105
4,869 ft., Mont Blanc by 4,676 ft., and the highest pass in the
Alps by 8,580 ft.
The Mustigh pass (19,019 ft.) and the bi Gamin pass (20,459 ft.)
are, however, the only two as yet known above 19,000 ft.
The third in height is the Changchénmo, (18,800 ft.), in the
Karakortim chain, but none of these, it should be borne in mind,
are generally used, or crossed as commercial roads; they ar
evidently too high and too difficult of access. The highest pass
as yet known to be regularly crossed with horses and sheep, for
urposes of commerce, is the Harang pass, in Spiti (18,500 ft.);
' and between this height and 18,000 ft. are situated several of the
most important and frequented passes, as the Mana (18,406 ft.),
the Karakoriim (18,345 ft.), and the Kidbrang (18,318 ft).
Over none of these, or other high passes, however does anything
lead at all approaching to the European idea of a road, Though
below the glacier region a kind of foot-path is certainly discern-
ible—very often a row of-small stripes running parallel to each
—yet as soon as a glacier is ascended, or one of its ancient
often removed by the appearance of the numerous skeletons
beasts of burden which distinguish the tracks of former caravans.
Solate quantity of snow falling so small, even in pa at
the passes )
eS 8 be crossed even with horses, and the caravan road from
ue | December, 1845, when the Chinese fought a battle near Tirthapari, in Gnari
Ehérsum, the garrison of Takla Khar fled across the pass near the head of the Kali
Fiver, rer. Even in thi unop: fight, half of the men were killed by frost, and
Safed remainder BS their fingers and toes. See “ Canningham’s Ladak,”
Serghaus : “ Zeitschrift fur Erdkunde,” vol. ix, pp. 3:
22-6.
Scl.—Seconp Serres, Vor. XXXIV, No. 100.—Juxy, 1962.
4
+
wae
106 Schlagintweit’s Geographical Configurations
For the Western Andes 14,500 ft.
For the Eastern Andes 13,500 “ :
The highest passes are: Alto de Toledo (15,590 ft.),* Lag: 7
unillas (15,590 ft.), and Assuay (15,526 ft.).
In the Alps, we adopted as the mean for the passes 7,550 ft.
As the highest Pees, at si in one times, _ ae
TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL PASSES.
A. Ln India. j
1, Dékhan. 2. Malva.
: Name. Feet.| Name. Feet. | Name. Feet,
Bapdéo....... +++» 3,499} Pochama .-. 2,446] Péndera.....-- wo» 848
Katratj 019] Nana Se eG) Gill ae 1,92
Rees ee $698) Jam. ..... canccss S808) MGNdIBs 5 isos 5. oe 1,626
Nagchérri,........ 2,645] Malsej 2,062| Péppera.....++-+ « 3,560
Whe. padi sy . 2,617) Ta: 1,912| Gamba......-++ ~» 1,688
Sapi.... SATE inn cones 1,798| Singrampur ....--- 148T
3, Karndtik, Nilgiris, and Ceylon. ia
cir eg 7,204| Rangbédde....... . 6,589] Gantvarpilli,.....- — tt
Sispara. ee eee e eee . 6,742 Kodtr . 2,401 Kistnaghérri. . eeore
B. In the crest of the Himalaya.
From Sikkim to Kishtvaar.
Ibi Gamin. . . ie tips 20,400). Uiheis oie oo. -- 18,123) we civiees ed i
kin... ..0ie-«. 18,488) Léngpia....... +2. 17,750) Mili... .ccsnenete ey
5 OR 18,529] Mayang....... Fp ie iy "700 Yalan cecbost is
eae ee ee eee 18,506 Lipu eacee ereeer 17,67 eases eovree 6.684 q
Mana... ceceuans ca KOON, Uta Dhara....... rest Hae AER pe 1686 Be
Nélong....-.-+- pte Birmkénta........ 17,615 Bara Lacha....-.- 160" FF
Kidbrang ......... 18,318 |
C. In the crest of the Karakorim.
: From long. E. Gr. 76° to 79° 30’. 7
Mustégh......... 19,019| Changchénmo ,... 18,800] Karakoriim ....+-. Ce
: D. In the crest of the Kuenlien.
From long. E. Gr. 78° to 80°
17,379| Yurungkash...... 16,620 t
n de poe oo aap Yueay, call 4a
of India and High 4 107
E. Jn the Andes,
Alto de Toledo... 15,590] Langunillas....... 15,590] Assuay.....+... . 15,526
F. In the Alps.
St. Théodule..... 11,001] New Weissthor... 12,136] Old Weissthor.... 11,871
3. PEAKS.*
_ In India, the highest peak, Dodabétta (8,640 ft.),+ is situated
in the Nilgiris, in Southern India.
Of the peaks in the central parts of Ceylon, the Péduru talla
galle reaches about the.same height, rising up to 8,305 ft.; the
-. phy Samanila, or Sripada (Adam’s Peak), attaining
) .
In the mountain chains of Central India, in the Vindhya and
Aravéili ranges, the peaks are considerably lower (Abu, 3,850 ft.,
—-Rajmirgarh, 3,758 ft.). |
py ee nenisi, the highest peak of the Dékhan, attains only
)
High Asia. In the beginning of this century the Andes were
Nig er than the dominating peak of the Andes, and 13,220 ft.
Move the most elevated parts of the Alps.
Tn the been discoyered which
ae scarcely inferior in height to the loftiest in the Himalaya,
oe h only its western part has as yet been explored. Wit
4 Tegard to the heights of its eastern continuation, there is not
} tough known to allow even of an estimate being made. )
is ne highest peaks of the Karakoriim are the vg ag’ (patel
| Pig limited, as we have not even itinerary reports of former
ff "Sigil assist us. None of the peaks seen there by ourselves
“ed 22,000 ft.
3 ie “We here ‘ s
'a . exclude, as not belonging to the regions to be compared, the
¥ 7€8 Northeast Of Amer, wit the Gri peak (15,300 ft.), and the Séli pee
_ ie west of the Indus, of which the highest peak, the Sufed Koh, rises to 14,839 ft.
ish es thstanding their great none of the peaks of the Himalaya are
from the sea, in consequence of their continental position.
wt
108 Schlagintweit’s Geographical Configurations, etc.
Our volume contains the geographical co-ordinates (latitude, ia
longitude, and height) of 132 peaks belonging to these three |
them actually reaches 29,000 ft. (Gaurisénkar, or Mount Everest),
and two range between 29,000 and 28,000 ft. (Dapsang and Kan-
chinjinga).
The relative numbers of the others are:
Relative Numbers. From To Relative Numbers. From
2 28,000 ft. 27,000 ft. 14 24,000 ft. 28,0008
6 27,000 “ 26,000 “ 26 23,000 * 22,000*
10 26,000 * 25,000 “ 23 22,000 * 21,000*
10 25,000 “ 24,000 “ 38 21,000 “ — 20,000*
In the Andes, important alterations have recently been made
with reference to the succession of peaks when arranged according
to height, and even now the same amount of accuracy cat
be ascribed to the hypsometrical determination of its principal
(21,422 ft.).
In the Alps, Mont Blanc (15,784 ft.) and Monte Rosa (15,228
ft.) are well known to be the bighest peaks. In the tables of
comparison, we have added a list of peaks above 14,000 ft., but
have given the highest summit only in every group, in order nd
to extend the space unnecessarily.
TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL PEAKS.
A. In India.
1. Nilgiris. 2. Ceylon.
Name. Feet | Name. Feet.| Name.
Doddabétta........ 8,640] Kundaméya....... 7,816] Péduru talla galle..
Bevoibétta........ 8,488| Tamberbétta....... 7,299] Kirigalpétta....--
iiss bs oe es 02} Kokalbétta. ..+. 7,267| Totapélla....++++>
Daversolabétta..... 8,380) Urbétta........--- 6,915| Samanala, or
Kanda... 8,353| Daverbétta.,...-.. 6,571| _ Adam's Peak...
Namina a
3. Central India. 4. Dékhan.
Parietal i5 005s. 4,469] Kalenbai.,......-. 5,410] Pitta...+.-+e++*"
Abu .. 8,850! Dhérup.......--+- 4,745] Ikbdra ...++--++0%* 9%,
— 3.758) Varada. ..6.eceses 4,655 Aunda. ce enue
Balbul 54| Térna, ....+< veupee 4,619] MAndvi .....-+++*
26,680] Nanda Dévi....-+ 9 fe
seooenreert
‘ O AS oe
J. W. Langley on Detection of Picrotoxine. 109
C. In the Karakorim. eee
Dapsang......... 28,278| Diamer 26,629! Masheribram..... 25,626
D. In the Kuenlien.
The peaks seem not to exceed 22,000 ft.
E. Jn the Andes.
Authorities: H=Humboldt; K=Kellet and Wood; P=Pentland.
Aconeagua..... 23,004 | Gualateiri..... 21,960 P| Sorata or
Sahama....... 22,350 P| Pomarape..... 21,700 P|} Ancohuma... 21,286 P
Parinacota ..... 22,030 P| Chimborazo.... 21,422 H| Illimani....... 21,145 P
F. Jn the Alps.
Mont Blanc. ...... 15,784, Weisshorn........ 14,813] Grand Combin*.. 14,184
Monte Rosa....... 15,228; Mont Cervin*..... 14,787} Strahlhorn...... 14,100 ?
. 14,
Dent Blanche*.... 14,805) Finsteraarhorn ... 14,039
or
Lagerhorn...... 14,954
Arr. XIII.—On the Detection of Picrotoxine; by JouN W.
LanGLey, 8.B.
THE seeds of the Menispermum Cocculus, known in commerce
by the name of Cocculus Indicus, or popularly as “ Fish berries,”
Contain several active organic bodies. One of these, picrotoxine,
~ mia poisonous and, it has been asse in
for this purpose. While the composition and properties of picro-
toxine have been long known, a process has been hitherto dis-
Covered by which it may be detected with certainty and confi-
dence, the only method now employed being the recognition of
ts crystals under the microscop
_* The ‘
oe” ts
a TBatt, ondon, 1859; the o which no modificati
| Mikasa ine eee de
eC. #
_. When picrotoxine obtained by any of the oo. usually °
are taken from p. 511 of “ Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers,” edited
Len NUR ghee ote, 4
ites
110 J. W. Langley on Detection of Picrotozine.
remove the organic base by ether from an aqueous solution, while —
ive same course pursued with picrotoxine would fail to remove
of it from the water, it being positively necessary that the
ection should be neutral or aid to enable the ether to dis — |
solve it.
Picrotoxine is soluble i in one hundred and fifty parts of cold
water, but if a small quantity of caustic alkali is aac it re 7
readily dissolve in six or eight times its volume.
pape is gently heated it becomes yellow and on latina fal
w ignition assumes a brick-re
phate of potassa which lies on the bottom of the or oe
e hue
: " Other E oae oxydizing agents will produce the same result —
ea with equal facility ; chlorine nd it -we over the moistene®
idity p opo rtioned ea
tness
dding is lee lt fon any cera is present.
However prod ee Silas but will aos
ee OES
Ei le
J. W. Langley on Detection of Picrotoxine. Ww
It is extremely probable that this color is produced from a
trace of some nitrogenous body which pertinaciously adheres to
the picrotoxine, as, on analysis, traces of nitrogen can be de-
ected; but this body powerfully resists all attempts at separa-
tion, for when repeatedly crystallized the picrotoxine still retains
_ @minute portion of it. It can be obtained perfectly free from
nitrogen only by dissolving it in potassa and precipitating it by
acids. When thus prepared its properties are the same as before
with the exception of the purple color produced by oxydation
and subsequent treatment with alkalies.
There is no substance at present known to the writer which
tha this shade of color under these circumstances. There are two
owever which communicate a brownish-yellow to the fluid, and
would, if present as an impurity, interfere with the distinctness
of the reaction, these are sugar and strychnia; from the first we
eed suffer no inconvenience as it is perfectly separated in the or-
dinary method used for isolating the alkaloids; from the latter,
toxine is most completely removed by treating an acidu-
aqueous solution of the two bodies with ether, the’strychnia
Temaining as a salt dissolved in the water and the ether contain-
flee or nearly all, of the picrotoxine. To prove this the
fo Owing experiment was tried. A quart of ordinary ale was
divid t into equal portions; into one 045 gram. of picrotoxine
and a little strychnia were introduced, the other was unadultera-
a; both were acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and agitated
ether; the ethereal solutions on evaporation yielded, in the
_ texine can be ted 2, of a gramme of it was dissolved in a
. Pint of ale ; was acidulated and treated as above; the ethe- -
Teal extract furnished ample proof of the poison when tes
“= : *
ned was emptied of its contents so that only the do. egg
same way gave no discoloration.
ga liquid for picrotoxine it should first be rendered
a :
112 C. P. Williams and J. F. Blandy,
the ether examined with the microscope for small prismatic crys-
tals; if a few drops of sulphuric acid diluted with its volume of
water are added in the cold and there are alkaloids present, they
will dissolve, only so much picrotoxine passing into solution as
is due to the water present, about one part for one hundred and
fifty of water. A few drops of an alkaline fluid will dissolve —
the crystals and on applying heat the fluid will become first yel-
low and when more strongly heated will become brick-red. A
small portion ground in a watch-glass with nitrate of potassa al
sulphuric acid gives a solution which when rendered alkaline by
potash or soda becomes a bright-red.
" ‘University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, March 26th, 1862,
>
Arr. XIV.—Some contributions to a knowledge of the constitution f
the Copper Range of Lake Superior; by C. P. WILLIAMS, AM
and J. F. Buanpy, M. and C.E.
THE enterprise and vigor with which the exploitations of the
Portage Lake District of the Copper region of Lake Superiot
have been carried on within the last few years, have developed
many facts of great interest and importance in the constitutiod —
and structure of the Trap range of that place, beyond what have
been made public through the medium of the excellent work; [|
“The Metallic Wealth of the U.S.” by J. D. Whitney, Esq: _
and the reports of the geologists having in charge the examine |
tions of the Lake Superior mineral districts. . |
The Trap range at Portage Lake has a width, as far as know?,
of about three miles, and is made up of a series of compact, gral
lar, amygdaloidal traps, with occasional intercalations of san€
stones and conglomerates, the whole having a strike of N. 32 E.
and S, 82° W., with a dip of from 16° to 75° N.W.—the highest |
angle of dip being near the southeastern boundary of the rang |
while towards the northwestern limit, the rocks become more
and more horizontal, until, finally, the sandstone which succeeds
it becomes absolutely so.
Coincident, both in course and dip, with the rocks of the range |
7
3
On the Copper Range of Lake Superior. 113
opened have shown an amount of this metal sufficient to war-
rant exploitation. However, on account of the very great ex-
tent linearly to which these beds are developed over the coun-
try, their persistence in thickness, and their well marked and
constant characters, they become a valuable guide in explora-
tions, and a convenient reference in the location of the various
mining region
tion of the heavier description of copper being greater in
In the other series.
Sct.—Szcoxp Serres, Vou. XXXIV, No. 100.—Juxy, 1862.
114 _ ©. P. Williams and J. F. Blandy,
Thus the Isle Royale lode yields in the following proportion; |
of mass and barrel (heavy) copper 60 per cent, stamp (fine) cop fF
per 40 per cent, whilst the great metalliferous deposit of the
second series produces of mass and barrel copper 48 per cent, and
of stamp copper 56 per cent. This comparison has been found
to bclidsond through a series of years. All the intercalationsof _
conglomerate opened in this zone, from its western to its easterl
undary, are cupriferous, and most of them have overlying
them contact deposits of good width in which this metal has beet
concentrated, while not one bed of the sedimentary rocks found
west of the conglomerate forming the western boundary of the —
zone, has been found to contain a trace of cupreous mineral.
__ Near the eastern limit of this zone several of the lodes have
been found to contain a small amount of the sulphuretted ores,
and a large amount of quartzose vein matter with arsenids of
copper (whitneyite and domeykite) has been found in angulat
_ fragments on the surface in the same vicinity, pointing to the
ee proximity of veins of an age and composition different to any —
thing yet opened in the Portage Lake District, and most probe —
ble synchronous in formation and repletion with the veins mined —
in the Southern or Bohemian range of Point Keweenaw.
y
RQ
=.
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=
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Q
°
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BR
o conglomerate intercalations occur in the space occupied -
these rocks, though it is limited on the west by a belt of s!
rock of 40 feet thickness, which, though opened at several point —
bas shown no trace of copper. The character of the copper PO -
. s. |
Hancock Zone.—The rocks comprised within this zone have? 5
-
fag
Ek the same rock of a width of about 45 feet.
g largely into the
On the Copper Range of Lake Superior. 115
8 found again in a horizontal position. ee.
_ , the occurrence of this chlorite rock in proximity to those
_ Ses of rock which form the base of the Isle Royale series, and
Contain sulphids and arsenids of copper, would appear to point
a identity of the rocks of this zone with those forming the
er beds containing the ores of that metal. There are
‘ss many rocks occurring in the Bohemian Range, in the
r of
*veloped in the Portage Lake District, but this does not affect
Lac la Belle, porphyritic in character, which are not
ee
is much broken up and fissured by cross-courses at the places /
4
s
hts
—_—
Ee T16 C. P. Williams and J. F. Blandy,
the question of the identity of the rocks of the eastern portion —
of the Isle Royale series with some of those known to occur in t
the Sulphuret range, since instances of the thining out of belis |
of trap have been observed and well proven by explorations a —
Portage Lake, as well as elsewhere. The Isle Royale series of
rocks widens out northeasterly from Portage Lake towards Point |
Keweenaw. The Pewabic series widens out towards the north |
east, and thins out southwesterly at the rate of over sixty feet
to the mile; and the Hancock zone also becomes wider towards —
Point Keweenaw, but the rate of increase is much less than m
the case of the Pewabic rocks—amounting to but about fifteen
feet.in the mile.
_ In the Keweenaw Point District it has been shown b
researches that the series of rocks in which the Cliff vein has
been found most highly productive, recedes from the greenstone
in its easterly prolongation, other belts of compact and amygaa
loid traps being introduced between the crystalline belt and that
series, the rate of increase being in all probability much greatel |
than anything noticed above. . ; |
Towards the Ontonagon District the trap range again widen |
out, and at its southern boundary we find a series of ridges made
up of rocks analogous in structure and identical in mineralogical 1
composition with the belts found making up the Isle Royale
zone. The mineral accumulations here are also in the form @ —
segregated deposits, called “epidote lodes”—that mineral enter
ing largely into their composition. The so-called veinstone isof :
_such appearance as to be readily confounded, even by the expe
rienced eye, with matter from the Isle Royale lode at Portage? |
oped, as is shown by the
.
ks at the Norwich mine, but little is known of the relatio®
at the ra limit of this series &
at the mouth of the adit of the Windsot
ee sis =
On the Copper Range of Lake Superior. = =&IT
belts or series of belts may be introduced between them.
Fissure veins, Segregated and Compact deposits.
issure Veins.—This class of veins are almost entirely devel-
oped on Point Keweenaw. In their course they may be traced
across the whole width of the mineral formation, from the Bohe-
mian or South Range to the north shore of the Point, cutting
the sedimentary beds without a deviation of course, and even
breaking through the pebbles of the conglomerate. They gen-
erally show small displacements of the beds, both horizontally
and vertically, although there are some marked exceptional ex-
amples. The largest ‘heave’ yet noticed is that at the Humboldt
mine, near Eagle River, where the “ Ash bed”* is found on the
tast side of the fissure vein, about 350 feet north of its position
on the west side. |
course of these veins varies from N. 16° E. to N. 58° W.,
the average of the seventeen principal ones now worked being
N. 18° Ww They are nearly perpendicular, with a slight under-
lay to the east.
_ Evidences of the existence of a later and distinct line of frac-
ture are i of N. ab
€ver, that one member of this system has been opened in the
Portage Lake District, but presented no features to warrant any
Xamination, so that nothing is known of its composi-
ae, :
ana 2 8tegated deposit situated north of the tone axis of Point Keweenaw,
pi Fielding 1-2 per saree peaaaad It has been extensively mined at the Copper
4 , Phoenix and Garden City locations, and has been traced for 12 miles over the
‘ae
118 C. P. Williams and J. F. Blandy,
In the Ontonagon region but few fissure veins have been
opened, and most of these have a course of from 60° to 70° -
ton property, which was transverse to the line of bedding of the ©
trap, and is necessarily of different origin.
On account of the variation of the meridional course, as wel
as the direction in comparison with the bearing of the beds of —
rock, it is difficult properly to classify the fissure veins of the
different districts. An exainination of them in connection with
the tepographical features of the country would seem to point t0
various causes of occurrence, arising from the method of eleva
tion of the trappean range. The curvature of the range on Ke
weenaw Point —— the centre of elevation of the South or F-
Bohemian Range, would appear to account for the radial frae F
tures, embracing ants all the veins of the first class, the co’ .
of the veins changing from E. of N. at the east end of the Poi
to N. 58° W., at the North American Mine, at the west end
the eérvatote: Variations from the general rule of radial frae FF
occur, but it is a question whether these cannot be account
for by local — or whether they are not fractures betweet
e main
From oa North American Mine to a few miles southwest of
Portage Lake the Range holds a very direct course, showing 00 —
conspicuous elevations, and the topography of the country de
notes no disturbances in the formation with the exception ¢ of the
deep gorge of Portage Lake. In this section no fissure veins
the first class have yet been found. - _
— fissure veins of the first class in the Ontonagon District 7
o be due to the warped position in which the elevating — :
tc coe left the strata. The range is broken by many :
gorges, marked by the passage of the rivers. The best example -
we have of the warped position is in the division of the range —
between the Flint Steel, and the Ontonagon Rivers, the dip of :
rocks at the east end or in the Flint Steel mine being q
and gradually rising to about 57° at the National mine near the —
west end. The small number of fissure veins which have bee? &
Opened in pees: cistriey and the limited extent of the oe
upon coederstneg epic soe any positive ee al |
pro
ne entaeh h many ~ found ary in sett eee
The co mates vein is 60° E. ee
res int ¢ TS a, & tio i @
On the Copper Range of Lake Superior. 119
stances in layers raised in a position to form a warped surface,
similar to the one referred to, have been made to show that frac-
tures would be formed in exactly the same manner as those ex-
isting at this locality. In the process of elevation it would be
natural to suppose that the greatest amount of lateral motion
would take place along the surfaces of the sedimentary beds, for
the reason of their lesser adhesion, and besides that they =
a comparatively smooth surface, whereas the surfaces of the trap
ds are rough and irregular as shown in the amy galoidal beds,
which have been mined. _It is also to be supposed that the length
these veins will be found comparatively short, and would
show a displacement at the intersection of other sedimentary
The veins of the second and third class are mostly known in
the Portage Lake District.. These may be due to a second ele-
vation of the mineral range, evidences of which, we see in the
position of the terrraces on the shores of Portage Lake. Th
‘Tan,
Well Supported by the results obtained in exploring at the Daco-
.
location on the south side of the Lake for the Pewabic lode,
the two shores the lode was found to be at a point 1300 feet east
_ the continuation of its direct course as pointed out by the sur-
Yeyor, the distance between the two points being about one half
‘mile and nearly the whole being oceupied by the gorge of Port-
ok No prominent veins of this class have been found in
us district, except on the hill sides bounding the Lake. Veins
of the same class may yet be discovered at a greater distance
So pealeko although not necessarily parallel with the ones
amygdaloid coincident in strike and dip w
ning. They are as before stated cwey beds of
cian, Savart, may serve as an example. We have previously noticed (this
pointed Professor of Zoology in the Faculty of Science at Bordeaux, after
wards he became Professor of Zoology at the
was much indebted to the patronage and reputation of his father, yet he
made great and successful efforts to sustain the honor of his name and
the great ideas put forth by his father. He was also engaged in making
cal applications of zoology by multiplying the species of animals
useful to man for food, clothing, and labor. It was this purpose wi!
led him to found the “ Société Zoologique dAcclimatation” which has
Jn 1836 he delivered at the Museum, a course of “Legons de Tere — :
tologie,” which were reported and published in one volume octavo PY
ictor Meunier, a young man of great romise whom Etienne
which were reported by Paul Gervais. His
” were publi ‘
8 He also pub
P t
he same year he delivered a cours? of
mifers, ae
vacated by Latrielle as member of the Academy of Sciences of which his |
useum, Director of the |
ire,” 1847, in 8vo.—* Catalogue Méthodique du Museum d@’ Histoire
Naturelle,” 1851, in 8vo.—“ Domestication et Naturalization des Ant-
mau Utiles,’” 1854.—“ Histoire Naturelle Générale des Regnes Organ-
igque, Principalement chez ? Homme.” 1854-1857. 5 vols. in 8vo. Besides
appreciated because they have not equalled those of his father. But
Id.
Acclimation.—We cannot better conclude the obituary of Isidore Geof-
- Hilaire than by noticing the one great work of his life, the
ware and more remarkable, thanks on the one hand to its organization
Sion the other to the zeal and the talents of the men who com it,
and who, like Messrs. Richard (of Cantal)* and Guerin Meneville, devoted
ves to natural history from the love of it, having made great
| a such studies long before the establishment of the Society of
P.
+ . 101 ni . .
Ns Disease of Silkworms,—-Coincident with the formation of this Society
1854, was the appearance of a scourge W ich has several times
“i athy produces
We import about 60,000,000 francs value more. This silk after being
fait 810,000, 000 of francs. The disease of the silkworm becomes there-
bee to these manufacturing centres a perfect scourge ; hence from its very
. * This Journal, [2], xxviii, p. 431.
124 Correspondence of J. Nickles.
origin the Society of Acclimation has undertaken to examine the causeof
this disease among the silkworms. In this investigation the Society has
been id seconded oy M. Guerin Méneville who had made these insects
tudy.
we find reported in the Bulletin of the Society. “ From these r
it appears that the disease of the silkworm is caused principally bya
disease of the mulberry trees, on the leaves of which the silkworm is fed
This disease can be cured by placing the infected eggs for some time ins
box containing a little a of i aee But this treatment Frese:
vent the reappearance of the age upon the worms when
upon the leaves of diseased ensiben trees.”
In reference to ~~ introduction of new species of silkworms, we have
mentioned in previous a ge 0 the Bombyz cynthia, a silkworm
which feeds upon ao Ailanthus glandulosa. More than two t thousand
amateurs are this year en a in efforts to rear this worm which
freely upon the Ailanthus trees ; these experiments have not all resulted
satisfactorily, the insect-eating birds have made a war of extermination
upon the Bombyx cynthia. Nevertheless the degree of success is 80
that, according to M. seer . is now practicable to carry on with some
success experiments on a lar:
But the principal difficulty niet’ with this es arises from
the difficulty of separating [reeling] the silk from cocoo the B _
cynthia. This difliculty has at length been overcome sigs
hile experiments are continued upon a mixed breed between the
silkworm of the Ricinus and that which feeds upon the Ailanthus, on the
other hand, experiments are in progress with the silkworm which
upon the oak, also upon the Bombyx hesperus: in an experiment at Cope
This Bombyx does not succeed in France because it hatches at a sesso”
of — year when all pte a pe is arrested. The plant — which ot
chlez discovered that the pants sath’ dh Will bebian, =e yo it pe
- itself perfeetly upon this tree. In - ears of silkworm eggs seit
ae Society « of i Reseeet by the h Consul in Japan, (M. ial
shew de Bellecourt) Guérin Mén sake some a new kind of silkwort™-
wn mt Japan under mes name of yam
a-mai, feeds
~The silk which i it produces is of a very beautiful quality.
d and pees tof other species of ee
eee
New Observatories—International College. — 125
n members, and adding some new names from among the
contestants. The class of assistant members is suppressed and all the
members are made equals. The Bureau as now constituted comprises
3 Members of the Academy of Sciences, viz:—Liouville, Le Verrier
and Delaunay, |
5 Astronomers, viz :—Messrs. Mathieu, Laugier, Yvon de Villarceau,
Faye and Foucault.
3 Members from the Navy, viz :—Admirals Mathieu, Deloffre, and
_dnternational College-—For some time there has been a project con-
Sidered which will be laid open for concours through the medium of the
Universal Exposition of London. It relates to the establisment of an
‘a; al College to be organized simultaneously at Paris, Oxford,
— and Rome or Florence. :
an 4p ncipal_of this unique College 1s ; )
or | eou be conducted simultaneously in four
hyn and langu
tstudy. The initiative of this measure has been taken by M. Barbier, a
"Manufacturer of Clermont-ferrand. In order that this question may
126 Correspondence of J. Nickles.
receive the consideration which it merits, M. Barbier has laid it open for
cours accompanied with the sum of 5,000 francs. A commission
chosen by the Jury of the Exposition of 1862 will give its advice upon
the classification in the order of their merits of the memoirs which may
be presented upon the subject by different competitors
memoirs written * Fea se into French are to be delivered
before the 31st of May 1862 at Paris at the Palace of pairs or at
London at the hotel of ihe Imperial ee ssion. The authors of
four memoirs classed in rst. rank will receive prizes of 2000, 1500,
1000, and 500 francs comcats
y- '
is concours has created some sensation and it is hoped that it willbe |
followed by useful results. It should be remembered that in 1855 the
oject of an international college engaged the attention of Fortoul
fey of Public Instruction pny sudden death in 1856 delayed the
progress of the enterprise. His attention had been directed to this su
ject by Eugéne Rendu, the cans General of the University. A ©
plete programme of studies was proposed for this project which has fora A
considerable time been executed though imperfectly in severa] counties.
Thus = is at Paris an Egyptian school supported by the va
: Se up
ceived, Thus we see that “ aie of Rendu and Barbier existed
prevowly ee only in the
Manufacture of Aluminium. owe have reppin mentioned to our
e progress of the manufacture of Aluminium since St. Claire
Deville discovered the.method of obtaining it on a commercial
They have learned to forge aluminium, to file, roll, Sap and to engrare
it with any design the workman may select. The method of drawing it
into fine wire has remained hitherto an unsolved problem, though not for
the want of diligent efforts to accomplish it. The superintendents the
two manufactories of aluminium ig comprehending the importance
of being able to draw this metal into fine wire have made great sacrifices
to resolve the problem. They es “applied to the manufacturers of gold
wire both at Paris and at Lyons, but all their efforts have failed. The
aluminium has so little : that its texture is at once broken up and
it mes as friable as o that it leaves upon the draw-plate ® -
arapon, n of Pari
operation in a truly weak atin manner. He furnishes the aluminiu®
wire at from 60 to 100 per cent cheaper than silver wire of the
The price of sso is pie about 200 francs per kilogra™
it into wire they commence with rods of
For the purpose of dra
ov of one metre in ie length and 12 millet fa eth these the |
any hundred
uces to wires of the si ze of a hai
si ah hal
Culture of Cotton—Scientific News. = = 127
in France if the French were accustomed to act for the ves,
without the aid of the government. The culture of cotton in Algeria in
the vicinity of Mortaganem has received a great impetus from the estab-
lishment of an English company in that country so favorable to the
growth of cotton. Other experiments have been made in Senegal by
both the French and the English. In India already a million kilograms
of this textile material have been collected, and the present year the pro-
introduce the culture of cotton on a grand scale. This plant was culti-
vated there a long time since, but the culture having been badly man-
aged it was for a time abandoned.
_ The question has arisen of reopening the culture in that region. Two
reasons principally determine the resumption ; first cotton succeeds there
remarkably well and it is of excellent quality, secondly there are found
there, what is wanting in other climates, plenty of laborers. ides the
small proprietors who live there, and who ask for nothing more than
some lucrative culture, there is the penitentiary occupied by 10,000 or
12,000 convicts who are already accustomed to toil, and who have re-
cently performed well the work of clearing the land.
_ On all sides then there is: an effort to provide against the crisis tro
i
More interested to produce, of th
Suez, with that which is obtained in India and Algeria, with the plant-
Ns which are made or increased in Senegal, Soudan and Cambodi:
and lastly in Guyana, European industry hopes to free itself completely
rulings tribute which it has hitherto paid to the United States for
n,
_ Scientific News—We here place on record certain scientific facts of
ue importance which have recently transpired. Among these are (1)
ee
Means of amalgam of sodium. (4) The magnificent researches of Hof-
po
of ulcers by (solid) carbonic acid which is the most powerful
atrizing agent known. ‘S) e construction of a telescope with a silver
~« tor of 80 centimetres (=314 inches) diameter and with a focal length
iy £5 metres (=173 feet) by Foucault. (7) A new system of railways
a
128 Correspondence of J. Nickles.
called “Chemin de Fer Glissant” a railways) by M. Girard. In this
system there are neither wheels nor axles; t e carriages are true sledges
Bibliography.
The following works have been pone i Hacuerte, rue ae erre Sarrazin, Paris:
J. Ney gga aIsomorphism qui Ex istent e Les Métauc de
Groupe de Azote,” 1862. The fundamental conelasion of. this work is that bis-
ought ie te hereafter ni
i taken
work which is devoted principally to the practical application of scientific facts
ty tl is in its sixth year and its success is alre a ed.
istori: ie? II.—This sncholliedl takes the sweet in reference to
Mish that the Année Scientifique holds in reference to seb plied — It
oy) r, ssor of Histo
School of Paris and ee himself by pocition as Mt Aw from preference profo'
versed oe ose subjec het ay he _ s in this re
Pietra Santa—* ns de et Santé é Publique ” 1861, 12mo. This work
devoted chiefly to the hygiene « - fraellers by railways po ame that of employés
railways) draws eon ion that:—Railroads ex a happy influence
= n health. He examines reflly all that relates to pedions 44 example
par ee os aes
ded with danger when it is arailea employée who is affe ork closes
: oes :
condition .
M. Jules Simon gives th fe to th turers of Mulhouse, orga
ized under the ditotical of the Industrial Socaty of this aaa manufacturing
- Cournet.—Traité de ? Enchainement des Indées dans les Sciences et dans? Histoire
2 vols. 8vo. 1861. Boe ee Jour., xxxi, 111.
Charles : Sa Vie; ses tag oof oe pes @ Apris des Texte
ts, Ee Bvo. 18% 1861. See this Jour. a
ofa: Unité de 0 Espéce ree rt 1861.—This work is
Professor
sree a iss ay
Scientific Intelligence. _ 129
work is especially designed for the use of the masses. The vegetation o of the entire
globe is passed in Syson and considered in its relations both to men animals,
an easy task for Mr. ot since he is at once a botanist, physiologist and ae slogiake
and he is the one who has made known to the scientific world the central platea au
Paul Marcoy.—Scines et Paysages dans les me Andes. —Eight 1 sojourn in the
Cordilleras of the Andes has enabled Mr. Marcoy to study the manners of the in-
habitants of those elevated regions, He visited the principal mountains and was
the first to en the ascent of the Urusayhua. This a“ traveller has pub-
lished ventures and observations in a style at once picturesque and enter-
Chez H. BOSSANGE, Librarie Quai Voltaire 4 Parts.
on De e.— Etudes sur le Métamorphisme des Roches, Large Quarto. 18
is Work contains the i important researches which we hate formerly reported and
have been honorably noticed by the Aviat of Science, Mr. Delesse
rphis 7"
‘ epee UOrfévrerie Elec o- Chem emique; Histoire et Descripiion. 1 vol.
*mo, 1861.—It is 3 very gen ant nlmitted That electro- erates Lame. was in-
Vented by de Binh. and ‘in France especially this name has become prov
e c
Sa dias
Mr, Vietor
ie eae
book is tain phen er read and it uces &
weal be anticipated cing his a ES t to overthrow "the honor of a name whick
already become e popular,
—
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. PHYSICS AND “CHEMISTRY.
Purstcs,
1. On the m afforded by solution of Nitrat e of Didymium.
vie A ‘li rated oO. N. Be to 1 Wo LCOTT Gisns.}—You
l remember ealling my ed to the curious fact; that Gladstone had _
’ throust two dark lines in the spectrum furnished by light transmitted
> etm solutions of he nitrate of didymium.
_ ae iy : repeated the experiment with poset %. peace
you “A laced at my di |, using quite strong §
_ Sonsiderable thie ae: ; below ‘4 teak of 5 Penlia obtained, which
ay prove of interest. to
rod the light of a fag or sunlight is transmitted through a tube 12
gan ey containing a strong solution of the salt in quesions and
p 8 analyzed by the spectroscope of Bunsen and hof, the
is seen crossed by twelve distinct lines or bands, ~
“<3 Jock. Scr.—secoxp Serres, Vor. XXXIV, No. 100.—Jurr, 1862.
17
130 Scientific Intelligence.
very broad, while others are quite fine and require a prism of high dis
persive power to effect their resolution.
Annexed is a drawing obtained by micrometrical measurements, show-
ing their position as compared with some of the fixed lines in the solar
spectrum.
D =z F G
h whit
altered in tint. This, I think, is the only case we know of where
orange ray is cut off by a nearly colorless medium.
Very sincerely, O. N. Roop.
Troy, May 21st, 1862,
2. Effect of powdered Ice in water boiling in Glass Vessels ; by Prof.
. A. Cuapsourns, of Bowdoin College.—The common experiment of
pouring iron filings into water slowly boiling in smooth glass veseels to
perfectly dry,
flask nearly filled with water slowly boiling, intense ebullition at onc
es place, a portion of the water being thrown out of the flask.
particles of ice thus act like particles of iron or sand, before they bavé
time to melt and set. free the steam.
3. Galvanic Experiment.—lIt is well known that the directions for re
ing this experiment are, that one metal shall touch the nerve of the 1
contraction, one end of the nerve may be separated and wound like @
By touching one wire to the muscle as generally directed we have the
“contrac ¢
tions of course, because the moist muscle acts as a conductor ; but
ese experiments it would seem that. ti only by
Cuemistey. es mere.
4. On the Oxyd of ie
peat
f
| L of Ethylene—Worrz has obtained a i
pound of bromine with oxyd of ethylene by mixing the two substanc®
| §
| 3
ie oe
Chemistry. . 181
ina sealed tube and allowing the mass to stand over night in a cooling
mixture, Ruby-red prisms are formed which melt at 65° C. and boil at
75°C. They are insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether and
have a penetrating smell. Wurtz assigns to this body the formula
C,H,0 ©, 4,6
sH,03 Ba esuzo |B
Treated with metallic mercury these crystals yield bromid of mercury
and a colorlesss liquid which has a faint but agreeable smell, solidifies
after fusion at 4-9° C. and boils at 102°C. The formula of this liquid is
C,H,0,
4,0, .
and the author considers it as the ether of diethylene alcohol; its deri-
Vation from this last may be represented by the equation
CH, C,H,0O
OH 0,—2H0=6' 546? t
Dyoxyethylene is soluble in all proportions in water, alcohol and ether,
aud combines with difficulty with anhydrous acetic acid.
an aqueous solution of oxyd of ethylene is treated with an amal-
gam of sodium ordinary alcohol is formed, the equation being
tion of amylene may be represented by the equation
bs C,H +C,H,=C,.H,1o
The other substances are ‘produced by the reaction indicated by the
€quation
H, ,.— Comptes Rendus, liv, 387.
On Hyperchloric Acid.—Roscok has carefully studied the hydrates
m .
pass off while a yellow insoluble liquid condenses
drops:pass over and condense to a crystalline mass.
ure :
aqueous solution of hyperchloric acid contains from 71-72 per centol —
ClO, H and boils at 203° C. The author describes the hyperchlorates of |
ammonium, copper-ammonium, protoxyd of iron, suboxyd of mercury aud
lead.— Ann. der Chemie und rmacie, exxi, 346. W. G
7. On hyponitrie acid.—Mé.uer has studied the action of chlorhydr¢
acid upon hyponitric acid obtained by the distillation of nitrate of lead
Crystallized hyponitrie acid, NO,, was found to melt at 11° 5-12°!
it absorbs chlorhydric acid readily at + 22° C, and gives a yellowish-red
liquid which toward the end of the operation gives off chlorine. By
repeated and careful distillations two liquids/were. obtained, the boiling
ote of which were respectively — 5° C. and +5° C., and nearly constant
Of these the more volatile proved to be Gay Lussac’s compound NOI:
the other had the formula NO,Cl. The density of this liquid was found
calculation. The comp NO, Cl is instantly decomposed by w
yielding chlorhydric and nitric acids according to the equation
hie } 2H0=004 t 05--HCl |
The author suggests that the molecule pag ' may serve to introduct
({NO,) into organic compounds. Pentachlorid of phosphorus acts ¥i0"
upon hyponitrie acid, the reaction being expressed by the equatio®
NO,+PCl,=NO,Cl+P0,Cl,+Cl
The vapor-density of hyponitric acid was found to be 2-70 at 28° C. and
1°84 at 79° C.; the formula NO, requires 1:59; the formula N,05
7. Méuuer considers it desirable to write the formula of the
“formed while deutoxyd of nitrogen is set free, this er
Chemistry. 133
0,+NO,. The action of hyponitric acid upon metallic oxyds yields a
nitrate and nitrous acid. The action of hyponitric acid upon sulphuric
acid has been studied by Weltzien. In repeating the experiments of this
chemist Miiller obtained the same crystalline compound an same
formula, SO, HO+-SO,NOj.—Ann. der Chemie und Pharm., — E
q 8. On the sulphids of the alcohol radicals. —Cartvs and Ferrein eel
obtained two oxysulphids of glycerin to which they give the names, of
glycerin-monosulphydrate and glycerin-disulphydrate. The compounds
in question are obtained by the action of monochlorhydrin nh tot
7 C,
| and me 1 GF upon an alcoholic solution of sulphid of potassium.
| Both are oily Sy ere having a faint odor of mercaptan ; they are meer
in water and decomposed by distillation. The first compound h
the formula “a t O,S.; the second is represented by Ce a } 0,S,.
| Bator mercury acts upon the disulphur compound as upon mereaptan
and forms a white salt having the formula He a Lo, S,.—Ann. der
Chemie und Pharm., xlvi, 71. .G.
9. On certain Ammonia- ruthenium Bases.—Cxavs has Sopeel and
/ 2 x Aan author considers these bodies as containing the conjugate
= radicals NH “ki, and 2NH,Ru, which unite with an equivalent of oxygen
2 ‘chlorine, etc, The salts of vuthenamiak alone are described in detail ;
: oma oni, gRuCl is easily formed by boiling a solution of ehlor-ru-
of ammonium RuCl,,NH,Cl with ammonia, evaporating the
og yellow solution to dryness and washing the dry mass to remove
. e. The chlorid is a teattifit yellow crystalline salt, having
formula 2NH_.RuCil-+3HO. The sulphate of this bees contains
four, the nitrate two, and AR carbonate five equivalents of water. The
pte exists only in solution; it has a strong alkaline ees and its
"ution can be tasted only with the utmost caution, as it reali aired
-
moe HO, and is fee when a solution of the last base is
bad and crystalline; it
7 n yel
‘Spears to be still more caustic than the oxyd of rathenbiamink and pro-
tongue when tast n the
a. sit is, Journal fii kt. Chemié, 85
separati tals.—Journal Jur pra ie
> 129, aes on the LI OE pT sciences de St. Pie Be iv.
; sreparing Chlorinated Organic Bois —Hicoo
: op finds that on Gee of nea organic bodies by
simply as a condenser of chlorine, and compares the reaction with that
the super-chlorids of phosphor rus and antimony.—Zeitschrift fir
Chemié und Pharmacie, 1862, p. 99. w. G
Appiiep CHEMistT
ll. The Tonpin Process ; by Prof. Eow1n Emerson, Troy.—Photogra-
phy on dry plates ossesses so many adv vantages over the wet prowess
phers to ex xperiments in this naka with a view Siac devise some
entirely new method which should not be subject to - defects attending
the old methods, or so to improve some one of the known processes as to
Among the ae processes, the Collodio-Albumen and the nae
have, until very recently, received the most attention, and in the hands of
ts have given excellent results. ut as success in these meth
eeteds greatly upon.the mechanical state of the eolledicl: and the
favorable geo of the sensitizing bath, it is evident that 7
through five or six years, has perfected a dry isiedie , now y kno wn as the
Tannin Process. Its siiera ie may be briefly summed up as follows *—~
As might have been eipeciad this 8 pr ocess has excited great interest in
thf photographic world. s Many ms. rsa bare hes made upon it,
lio S aaoem the in the same manner as os ie a
see rere in pure water, with five or
oe 2s of water; a a good plan is to have a succession of baths of pure
= eee be ania age ed without removing
Geology. 135
heated 90° F., but using the developing solutions at the usual temperature,
= ommended by Dr. Draper, of New York, and others, shortens the time
exposure necessary, so that this process may be worked almost as
‘apidly as the wet. 4, By the use of honey in combination with the
Tann
acid for every twelve ounces of bath. 7. This process is peculi
afford; the production of glass transparencies for the Stereoseo
ing great beauty and richness of tone.
II, GEOLOGY.
fs Geology of Vermont.—We would call attention again to the Report
rea Geology of Vermont, noticed in our last volume. The work is in
a volumes quarto, in all 990 pages, with numerous illustrations, besides
Of five 2: seological map of the State, and is offered for the moderate sum
a the dollars, “The geology of Vermont has a special interest on account
phi intimate connection within the borders of the State, of metamor-
tne’ fossiliferous rocks, and in some cases the occurrence of the latter
of the of the economical products of the state. With regard to copies
t Sa vege letters should be addressed to Albert D. Hager, Proctorsville,
don Mastodon tooth in Amador Co., Califormma..—Bernsins of the ae
ha, t¥e been very rarely found in California. Dr. Logan of Sacr
~~ Sent us two photographic views of what appears to be the 6th upper
136 Scientific Intelligence.
molar of Mastodon giganteus. This tooth was found by a miner some
twenty feet below the surface, while digging for gold on Indian Creek,
one of the tributaries of the Cosumnes River near Drytown, Amador
county, at an elevation of about 900 feet above the sea. This discov
is interesting as showing the geographical range of the Mastodon to have
been coéxtensive with the continent and not limited as some have sup-
posed to the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains.
3. New species of Silurian fossils ; by E. Brurnes, F.G.S., Paleontok
ist G.S. Canada. Montreal, 6th June, 1862. pp. 67-168, 8vo.—This
— published. The new genera proposed are (1) LicropHycvs
or a group of fucoids; (2) Saumarp1a, a genus of minute trilobites allied
Agnostus; (3) Expymion for a genus of trilobites allied to both
Ampyse an Trinucleus and apparently standing between these two
and was consilered as being the base of the thick bedded fossiliferous
lime rocks, considered as synchronic with the Niagara limestones. ;
A careful examination proves beyond all doubt, that the Waukesha
limestone is in reality the superincumbent rock, and that the Niagara
imestone only in disseminated spots protrudes by volcanic action in dome
like knobs through the otherwise nearly horizontal or merely undulatiog
strata of the Waukesha limestone.
5. Note on the Description of Lingula polita.—We have received the
following statement called out by a charge made in the paper by
Billings, in the last volume of this Journal, page 420.—Ebs.
Albany, May 12, 1862.
I certify that on the ninth day of February, 1861, I sent to Captai@
James Anderson, at that time of the Cunard Steam Ship “Canada, ®
the name Lin
Geology.
6, Descriptions of new Lower Silurian (Primordial), rare Creta-
cond Tertiary Fossils, collected in Nebraska, by the loring Expe-
nd of
by F. B.
Meex and F. V. e valuable
memoir with the above ttle, from which we copy the following sections :
GENERAL SECTION OF THE CRETACEOUS ROCKS OF NEBRASKA.
Divisions anp SvuBpIvIsIons.
| Locauixs. |
| _| Gray, ferroginous and yellowish sandstone and
S/arenaceous cla ays, containing Batengirolia pine trey
$ se teagan , Ammonites ange A. lobatus,
onradi, S.Nic ollet , Bac ulites tg bane
Fox Hills, near Mo-
_|reatr River, — near
aw. |1 ot
con Bairdi, Fusus C on Lake above Fort
F dbekone, ecride Linlinass Pie Along base
y , Cardium sub-|Big Horn Mouritaits s,
ratum, and a great number. ~ other biel: and on North and
Iascous fori, is, together with bones of Mos gs |South Platte Rivers.
—souriensis, de.
Dark gray and ue h plastic clays, containing
somdeg ag an per part Nawitlus Deka Ammonites
phi ites ovatus. B. compressus, Sca-| 5ag e Creek, Chey-
htte a dda Dentalium gracile, “Crassatella enne “River and on
ansi, Cucullea Nebrascensis, a:|White River ase
‘erres
nd en I. Vanuzemi, Bones of Mo-|the Mauvaises
Missouriensis, &c., &c., &c.
Fort Pierre and out
's,—down
wih Bad Lands,—do
Middle zone nearly barren of fossils. Missouri on the
high coapiry to Great
Low: lr Bend.
er alan zone, containing Ammonit
complerus, compressus, Heli-
A. umbilicatum, H. eat Bend of the
, Fusus vincu- Mizecurl below Fort
mauropsis paludini-| Pierre.
bs sg peo neatus,
bed of very as aaciious yelay, eonkitniss ng
9 peer onaceon matter, with veins and seams| Near mie Hill, on
um, masses re sulphuret of iron and numer~ the Misso
sles Local; filling sieht
he iia a
yel-
Con- Bluffs along the Mls-
es w the Great
n pentle Sioux River;
e itis ogi vat “also ot there 00
rs of Inoceramus problemati-'the tops of th i
Epeeudermy aides I. aviculoides and Os-
Exieusi
Dark nc gin laminated clays, sometimes alternat-|oped near Fort Benton |
“ar the upper part with seams and layers of|on the Upper Missou-
<i light-co ored limestone. Inoceramus|ri; also along the Jat-
tus, I.latus? I. fra-\ter, from ten sone
i, ado-|aboye James River
reari-| Big snare Bian Be
eo Warton, S. al along easte
Rocky
is;|slope Pg the
*” Motintains, as ro! as
e Black Hilis.
i-f
— be
3 igar sae nse tecamre armg white, sa sand-
= of various col-|in
mpure lignite.
ers of ee
vely devel-
Estim’d
thickn’s.
500 feet.
700 feet.
200 feet.
800 feet.
-_—_—
400 feet.
| ea Upper or
or White Chalk and Maestricht beds, (Senonien, D’Orbigny.)
(Turonien and Cenomanien? of D'Orbigny.
ver or Gray Chalk (and Upper G. Sand?) of British Ge-
ow
sts.
aires of Reiekax It It is on the authority of Mr. Gabb that it is here regarded
Sap oneg of M e should —— have ben ogo this from Dr.
at ee i sous ae us” Pig after a careful comparison with Dr. Morton’s
ference.
Serres, Vou. XXXIV, No. en Sete S 1862.
138 Scientific Intelligence.
GENERAL SECTION OF THE TERTIARY ROCKS OF NEBRASKA.
| Foreign
Names, SUBDIVISIONS, Titckidéen:| LOCALITIES. equiva-
ents. |
- Fine loose sand, with some lay- yee 4
| 3 jers of limestone,—contains bones; Loup fork of
2 of Canis, Felis, Castor, us, Mas- 2 Ipintte River; extend- g
8 4 , &e., some of which g ing no Nic ie &
ra _ scarcely ciateenehnle from) River, snd alg a to 2
cles. te) Sal 2 an w stance) 3
& |Suceinea, probably of recent spe- 3 beet | the Platte. Pa
3 cies. All fresh water and land 4
dig ‘ t
ea White and light drab clays, with ;
s |some beds of sandstone, and tea 2
= jlayers of <one seee Fossils, g ee Lands of hago Fa
o don, Titanotherium, “+ ce hed 5 Riv under a 1
£ inoceros, 5 Anchitheriu nage 8 Loup Ri ‘River beds, a g 0
a irodus, Trionyx, Tes- and across; 6. |
a tudo, Helix, Planorbis, Limne i, pet- 2 the coun ry the! 3
& jrified wood, &c. &c. All extinct. Platte.
3 _|No brackish water or marine re- 3
= mains a
5 Light gray and a ~
> 2% jstones, with more or less arg! . S
fa jeeous layers. Fossils, fragments off 93 P ivigunteeigge ere a“
38, |Trionyx, Testudo, with Het, 5 (River Mountains.
£2 | Vivipara, petrified wood, &c. Ss
=A Imarine or brackish water types 8.
cm Beds of clay and sand, with Oceupies the whole
3 round ferruginous concretions, country around Fort
oN numerous beds, seams 3 ion, — extending
aor cal deposits of Lignite; great m e north into the Fos
oe of dicotyledonous fos qj ossessions, Oe
ze stems, a the — i thee ra aveenieest aie a
3 Acer, Ulmus, Populus, &c. with = ote 2 = ort) §
S% |very lar oe Wh cleaves of true fan-palms, 2 under g
‘ a5 arg rad aig cosa Cor. & the Whiteriver Ge Opn
: 5 bier no on Nort te River
c and pall ve ot Lepi sate, with bone 2 above Fo mie
i) of mL: ica , Compsemys, so on west =
Fe | Crocodilus, & Wind river mountains.
Ill, BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
On the Various Contrivances by which British and Forei
are Fertlized by Insects, and mat the Good Effects of Intercrossing. By
CHARLES wi, M.A., F.R.S., &c. With illustrations. [34 figures, 0
wood.]} Laaiaa! : Murray, sae: 24mo, pp. 365.
Of all books relating to the realm of co perhaps the most
old and young are those (such as the wri of Reaumur an
describe the habits and genes of i insets ere isa new volum
to view some of
d and Huber) rebich
Botany and Zoology. 139
have for ‘ail main object “nol rae of each flower by the verge of
another flow Adaptation f them truly exquisite—and ‘ec
a
are analogous arrangements in the animal kingdom, from which intention is so
Ear beck’ Ricriea. Tndeods had Mr. Darwin begun with this little ae and
oO
of observed facts, of curious interest, irrespective of all theories of origination,
perhaps as readily harinonined with old views as with new—with direct as
Well as with indirect cre
The Bele vo to the e gen ed Eber: and high enj
n
master the details,
Orchids illustrated are mainly British species ; b
___-Epresentatives a toes United States, a few even are
___ Darwin’s treatise as a guide, the study of t! ve
| ; hee be difficult, will even he all hn more enticing for the chance
|‘ Some novelty in the exploration of a new field.
ceil the fertintion of = Orchids peculiar to this country, ge
| hes ch 4 tile , ON a tribe, ech which ch thie
ae ti in the Ariadne the roper O ,
treatise commences, © Opry ‘easy of section and yield to none in curious
Test.
A
re
aE
BS .
Eas
=
"O
ie]
a
oO
feet
SS
j=)
S
o
aa
3
Pa]
&"
ot
2
emt
is}
Ag
o
n
oO
Be
=
o
rey
$3
3.3
8
&
g
*
he nr try, will b Se of fl e these pages:
mt In print. ni i o ecu. *s graphic account of the contrivance by.
h the pollen of one flower of O. mascula is :
‘nother flower, may be verified in all — particulars upon our own
Species. The structure of the blossom being unde
. cant Potanical works, it will be peepee tater note how the pollen i in each
anther, tied b e threa :
Placed just above and ca lizingly close Guty enn recto
Reaching It; cu the common oe - Lap mass 1S oa
ihe gland, b uppe oO! x e Ww x
ot balls of viesid mat or, standing side. by side, are pine soft and moist
ae
ress r spur,
! S g tube or
tor border of the entrance into the oad ts ag he visit, to
Git the rectars how’ bristle, represen siting the LM
tod ti the head of an insect, inserted into ©
‘the pouch, come into contact with the glands; w
Whoever shall nse —_
.
140 Scientific Intelligence.
matter, promptly hardeping, like a cement, will adhere firmly to what they
touch; and how, on withdrawal, one or both pollen paral attached to the
ms by their tale or caudi cle, will be drawn out of ‘their cells and carried
way ; how, through a curious, proba bly hygrometic change of form or unequal
Soeceality ‘of the viscid gland, now attached to the Ses hie the pollen-masses
turn forward or beco ina deaebaee ed, within a minute o ow, on
ing the bristle or oeneipa nt to its former peattion:, inserting it into the
nectar of another flower, a pollen This now be almost surely ite into
1 road viscid s a
sua
elastic threads which bind t ue num gta packets hd eel : their common |
on.
wise "contrivance here is obvious and admirable. ‘The hollow spur
seoreting nectar attracts insects, — will = habitually visited MM bape fur-
<
—
=
~
oe
Ss
=
°
a
i>)
Qa
oe
Mm
bo“)
= a5
iy
oe
car)
ous
3
©
im
aa
oO
es]
ot
co
Fs
oO
a.
<
ia)
bom
2
.
oO
Pee
~~
3
oS
@
mn
oO
oi
|
Ee
oO
mH
on
2 gs
is oO
By
28 :
5°
Le}
ao
ban 3
oO
5
*]
S
oO
=]
co
=
Oo
:
ui
s
useful account. e pollen masses pee cted from one flower must needs be
conyeyed to other flowers and other plants, and applied to their stigmas;
the cohesion of the packets of pollen, by ve —— threads, to the mass is 8?
codrdinated to the glutinosity of the stigma, as generally to ensure that
We los ats a a having Orchis pyramidalis in this country ; for its com
Aeon as tah ibed by Mr. Darwin, are indeed exquisite. The figures that
accompany Mr. Darwin’s account render it very clear; without them @ brief
abstract may be bapiily satel gibi Hic flower differs from that of other true
Orchises in having two quite distinct oval stigmatic surfaces, separated by the
pouch, which is here pots inher phase ds than usual, Ae ii into the
3 is
Foe one, of the shape of a aaadle, carrying oP orally
consists on af ame ers of minute cells, and is therefore rather thick Pr
lined beneath with a layer of highly adhesive ’ is ready,
the lip of the pouch be depressed, for which the slightest touch suffices,"
under surface of the disc, still remaining in its place, is UF
d, almost certain to adhere to the touching object. Even ®
human hair, when pushed into the nectary, is stiff enou the z
or and the viscid surface of the saddle sponge’ to it. If, however,
stant it springs back, and re-covers the under side ofthe f
oh yen sora ying ot ne =
nepal ie ied eer ely see
5 may easi
nd th : =. Sarre (or pouch) may ofa
Botany and Z oology.
furnished with two Revninnns ew sloping down to the middle and expand-
ing outwards, like the mouth o coy. These ridges perfectly serve to
guide an uy Aexibl body, like a ne betetle * bai, es the minute and rounded
the nectary, which, small as it is, is partially choked up by the ros-
Shin. ‘This Eiseiivance of the guiding Haves may be compared to the little
nt s used for guiding a thread into the fine eye of a needle.
Ww, “ see how et a insert its proboscis (and
; between the guiding ridges of the labellom, vaio nsert a ih bristle, eats
' th
press the lip of the rostellum. This ay ceeds the ee stle oo
: contact with the now naked and sticky under-surface of the =a mie
formed disc. When the bristle is agacaipa the s with the attached
is removed. Almost instantly, as soon e saddle is exposed to the
air, a rapid movement takes place, and the ee flaps curl inwards and embrace
the bristle. When the pollinia are pulled out by their caudicles, by a pair of
s nothing t
int
solid ball. * * * Of course this rapid clasping movement helps to fix the
saddle with its pollinia isso the proboscis, which is very important; but
the viscid matter, rapidly setting eet would probably suffice for this end,
the real object gained is Aa ee of the pollinia. — These being attached
flat” top or seat of the saddle, project at first straight up, and are nearly
Parallel to each other ; ‘bu as the flat top curls round the cylindrical and thin
is, or round a e, the Lg ee necessarily diverge. As soon as the
Hi v
BEBE
if mee gr € L
‘ ai * lie a the same plane with the needle. In three specimens this
ovement was offe cted i in from 30 to 34 seconds after the removal of
the soln > ne ag and, therefore, in about 15 seconds after eae!
Clas stle.
The use of oa ubio movement becomes evident if a bristle with
Seta to it, which have diverged and become depressed, be ec
the guiding ridges of the labellum into the nectary of the far
: quired -— _ ; .... for the two ends of the pollinia will be found to have ac-
a [as accompanying figures show] exac ctly such a position that the end
ona ane ae strikes against the stigma on the one side, and the end of ag wei
Same moment, strikes against the stigma on opposite side. _ These
Be liv liest admiration at the perfection of the contrivance
ne erg :
ni daptations of
in no other plant, or indeed in hardly any animal, can ad 3
one part to another, and of the whole to other ongenized wig atm somes
i s the flowers are
do not pees:
not at specially developed for
odor the night-fliers. The
sui. Foe labellum is developed into a
142 Scientific Intelligence.
long ni tary, in order to attract Lepidotera; and we shall presen tly give 5
reason for suspecting that the nectar is purposely so lodged that it can be
i ive time
sntie surface ;
Then we — the on secon race the — me nectary,
the
to ey But if this did fail to occur, the elastic lip would rise again and re-cover
and keep p the viscid surface. We see the viscid sacs within the ros-
tellum shiched = the saddle-shaped disc alone, and su nie tg ie po
that the viscid matter does not set hard till the disc is orithadra
h e, with its attached saotioine also "ken
damp within the basis of the sey Dea until withdrawn, when the curious
i ssapine inp mtd scone os diverge fol-
oe
=
ao
oO
o
oo
na
Oo
4
oO
a
es
A ois
Ee
co
ag
°
G
AF
a
oO
B
3
og
ss
|
ry
=
Le}
oo
2
rm
g
io]
’ is ha
ge majority ca or
rs, and another no less than eleven pairs, all invariably at-
the a is 0
reached the conceding 4 of the nectary, and would soon
“These moths must have prorcees many more than the
elven flowers, of whic they bore the trophies; for the earlier attached “ipl
had lost much of their pollen, | — that they had touched many
“In the ave examined spikes, in which every
expanded flower had its voltinia removed. The 49 lower flowers 8
from Fo moe aon rd me by Sir Charles Lyell) actually produced #°
in th = ther spikes, seve?
of the 69 lower flowers in spikes, s¢
les.” rr emer _— on stigm®
emoved, while it
on their
nce of design
e Orchis we hay e been
Some ancestor which, like eae:
in close apposition, and thatthe pr coe of another, which, like most species, had
tr them distinctly separate? it being premised that both the ancestral gy were
as perfect in their che. and a as well adapted to their surroundings, as the
species with which we have compared them octal _ But = have no
desire nor particular occasion to reopen this questio
To return to our Orchids. The plan or general structure of the flower is
eli
A ove in w ee same Orchid-structure ordinarily
copa to insect irae Rae sc is made o its ‘ete Sepcomy and do it well, as-
the broad stigma, and there is nofpouc ane but the pots dae i i
Species, looking like a little pearl but is perfect ctly naked ; and pa the
flower-bud opens stands direc sald in og way of the oad of a moth or bee
ag its proboscis into the nectar-bearing spur. And here he viscidity of
, or gland, is beautifully adapted Hs ‘that state of things. For, although
filly exposed t to the air, instead of setting hard at , as in Orchis, the disc
Tetains its viscidity during the whole period of anthesis, awaiting the coming
of the i Jnsect, and quite sure to stick fast to the side of the face of the —— one
that dips its proboscis into the attractive nectary. ec analogues we
have of the British Habenaria loresetl, Se 5 a described ed by 6 3
i, upon which (as our delighted ‘pis ma tea) y;) Mr. tae 8 details
contrivance for the fertilization and p re intercrossing of the in-
at
fete fen lyin of the finger or a small slip of glass to the
f the Raules os Sacracttas the pollinia, and noticing that the latter, if
uld b lied to the ce
after the lapse of a minute or less. they have so chan eir ar
now a return of the finger to the same place will pretty surel
ating
two particulars our P. Hookeri differs most obvious Habenaria
: its anther cells are stil] more widely divergent, nf ond the labellter | is
‘instead of being dependent. And these two particulars seem
cessible by a a front approach; and an insect whose face
and extract ts pollinia, might, Paty that posit, fail to hit
sacs 0
Size a ae sieceds iabellum of the neater , using it as . —
ae
a
144 Scientific Intelligence.
Our 3 sapyteninie racteata, which is early flowering, serves completely to ex-
win’s account of the mechanism o vu
and the whole leaves scarce a doubt of the specific lien ntity of the Amer jean
pean plants, which ener enn se — . :
Our Fringe Orchises ated other Platantheras, blossoming 1 n the sum-
mer, will doubtless s furnish in interesting and vasied ilnetratione, of fertilization
have iceked | into batten —relating in “on taste ropical forms,—seem to be no less
captivating than those which have _ such new aad ceapabing wer to
our most familiar Setlideeen plan
2. Outlines of the Distribution of Arctic Plants, with a map. y
Jos. D. Hooxsr, M.D., F.R.S. (Extr re Trans., vol. xxiii, pp. 261-
348. Read, June, 1860 ; issued, Oct. 1861.)
We have ae pgs this important memoir already in the May number of
this pte See! a ; have commented upon certain details as they came in the
nogamous species known at Stee spontaneously zn ay within the Arctic
circle; the eographical distribution of which, so far as known, is carefully im-
ge 1. Loot the Arctic region, under the esd divisions Europe
a, W.A a (Behring’s Straits to the Mackenzie River), E. America
Ceatkonis ‘River to Baflin’s Ba y), me Arctic Greenland. 2. Without this
circle, and under the ral divisions of N, and Central ee eee oP N.
meri
ongitudinal zones, and for what is a far
ihe same arctic genera by closely allied poster |
r. Darwin’s | pageee Sot peat vari
in Various alpine and arctic regions of the abe, bY
-
Botany and Zoology. 145
the zone from which their ancestor started, present there a plexus of closely
allied but more or less distinct varieties, or even species, whose geographi
= overlap, and whose members, very probably, ert breed toge-
2 pena flora is present in ae intitede of the vlobe, and is the only .
one
4 Moreover, Dr. Hooker discovers in the flora of Greenland a state of things
: explicable upon this hypothesis, but hardly by any other, viz.: its almost com-
“4 ys
rther adv
) a fact brought out by Dr. Hooker a former pu ablicatiots, vins:“
rarest Greenland and Scandinavian species in enormously remote alpine local-
ities of West America and the United States. Onur author reasons thus: * If
0 or
and, , consequently, no selection of better adapted varieties. On the return of
heat — — — travel northwards, anaccompanied by the plants
inva those aja ent continents on either se hate ‘seen é
and — much improvement and diversity thereby. Considering the nt
climate of d, isotherm of impinging upon its
point, its moderate summer and low autumnal temperature, we should
rather have su the complete extermination of the Greenland ante-gl
— and have referred the Sca vian character of the Sontine flora (all
— oO arctic s , and
ing Euro lants,) directly to u m
eastern continent. Several oaen cad considerations, and the course of the
currents, which gs to view on p ; would go far towards ex-
? 4 .
tion, and render it most probable that the diffusion of species
les the Old works to the New was secwaieeied through Asia, for the arctte no
than (as has elsewhere been shown) for the temperate plants. Was it that
ann and the adjacent ane of the eoyiese continent remained glacial
ger than the rest of the zone? And if our northern regions were thus =
ti r the gle ; ee s
) grave sf glacial per pes? ae at they bs vias . ie
iu “ Jour. Sc1.—Szconp ae Pa SERTY, No, 100.—JuLy, 1862.
19
146 Scientific Intelligence.
who still hesitate to accept these propositions, as there are one or t
deny them; but these or similar conclusions ae evidently _ reached ys
ensued under such grave changes and perils, during such lapse of time, may
serve to sbctaia a3 — ee of arctic species and the rete dis-
one
~~, of many of
we must all agree, whether we one Darwinian hypo eses or not. How well
it ret in the present trial we could not venture to pronounce without @ fat
more critical exanination than could now be undertaken. But there are
circle number ViZ.!
ios <a
Arctic — or > Linea
the tic
ora, amounting three-fourths of the w al A
appon ian ;” so that tl
iS the nay on the local es tion of plants within the arctic oc
ane ga ete that there
1
hether Raced - ‘monthly).an and the amount of igs bees es
ne pears fact that the scantiness of the Siberian flora iated W
the
northwards in pa rom
ce wg which is the scantier of the two; and it passes to the the
ce cnemeeys ne is mheh poorer in ape: than those parts of fan to,
nc e June isotli i as indi cy
i eet (when all vegetation is torpid for ni
stimulated during three others) have been expected t 9 ind
a better the Sat of the most
isothemal o
hole, the artic flora is decidedly rae geo for
la
enquiry is a legitimate and a hopefa
The
g t
luxuriant vegetation. But neither is this
Fig , which lies wi
n the desc
pian
Seventy flowering plants are found in Sitahergens and Sabine and Ross col-
lected 9 on Walden Island, —- its northern extreme, but none on Ross’s
Islet, a further to the north.” i
raga oppositifolia is pale the most oa and may be consi-
dered the commo: ee ge P eee owering pla There are only eight
or nine phenogamous aplia anil r to the Seal zone, and o ive one pecu-
liar genus, viz. : the grass, Pleuropo, . Of the 762 found south of the circle,
a all but 150 have advanced beyond lat. 40° N., in some part of the world;
| : pc of them are identified as aaa of the _ ntainous regions of the
:
Fe
g
a
8 3
ot.
.
50
RM
]
5 5
oe
~
BOB es
ou aes
o
S
eu
]
&°o
5
+O
5 8,
Pew
Qo
2
2.2 8
5 Sp
S
<4
es
"3
S
8g
co
°
g 5
“a §
OS ee
as
oo
n
a 800 or more, a ber of the synon:
ore, and would not have recognized a goodly number © ynonyms
adduced, thereby considerably affecting the sangeet ranges, especially into
s titude ae regal
on the whole, but with differences and with questionings—with halt-
ing steps following his bold and free aves but probably arriving at the
: — le ae Indeed, we oe _ ive the view _ Dr. Hooker
express} ap to his particular pu ee a
‘wlien ¢ an on of our bnowledge of aa pect 0
0. ocat ed j dea n W. C ASE
That ia: « if, with een ce ‘oosider a closely allied eat on
tt compar as derived by variation nai Aine Popes one parent
‘Comparatively modern epoch, we Ww wiht va F ’
‘ * Dougl asia is esoartioa in another ney ( P. sy ae os ly pees ar
idern2ticalpine genus of E. America, But we have considered this genus
Teka ith Gregoria, of Duby. It oak pant ese two genera were e3-
Ablished in the since "pon l sais refers
ry Lindley himself, in Poe anica
Brande’ carat ber | 18 8. fo his original article. this article
Z 1827; so that. the ae Douglasia
i from ndrosace,
tion and synonymy of ——
mys opin :
to be held as distinct seme * My main sheik is to show the affin-
ties of the polar plants, and J can ee st do this by keeping the specific idea
hensive.” And further: “I wish it | to be clearly specie he
i
as
a race even,” while Limosella tenwifolia coul or ~ dat — a race,
and while septentrionalis and no i ce
wever distinct in mp single character, C. pallid er on fetid anouaeiaat) in the
ielitiva developm e galea, we think it likely that Pedicularis lant
Wil oes not rightfully iene { in P. hirsuta this side of the glacial period,
although it perhaps may into P. Langsdorfit, and that into P. Sudetica. |
r =
visal. Nor does the —_— of ae Pp — at all depend upon the settle
ist,
3. On the a = Lebanon, Taurus, Algeria and India, By J. D.
on KER,
S paper, aed from the Natural History Review for eerie 302
twit 3 plates,) is one of the results of a visit to Mount Lebanon, in the autumd
of 1860, upon the jal of Capt. Washington, ps i to the British
Navy, for the purpose, among other things, of examining the famous Cedst
Grove,— which we have all heard so much and know so little. An in!
account is given of the grove and of the _— it occupies, mpon the floor‘
a basin, “ cr abrw
rang
moraines .... perhaps feet high... which have been deposites
ae that, un — very different “gadis of shirts once filled the basil |
above them, and comm a the perpetual with which the whole
Spor gy So nd they are disposed in nine a
ling Fo Fe bod hummocks of the range of moraines ; they maf
fares, Bote shout <2 18 inches to upwards of 40 feet in girth; but
ificant fact ¢ ted wi ir size,
, is that there is no tree of less than 18 oa
trees, bushes,
Botany and Zoology. 149
tree, cut at the time, is eight inches in diameter (exclusive of bark); presents
an extremely firm, compact, and close-grained texture, and has no less t
and are no guide to the quanti character of the wood on the Lebanon, and
both estimates no sae widely far from the mark. Calculating from
trunks of eee nyt. +9 7 their ages a be calculated as
low respectively as 5 and 200 years; while from the rate of growth of the
Chelsea the yates pats may be 22, a the oldest 6 to 800 years
“The positions of the oldest trees (of the 400) afforded some seers data
telative to the ages of the different parts of the grove, and the direction in -
mentioned. There were i clumps containing 156 trees, none of which
was above 12 feet in girth, and these were all to the westward, (or
Pa side of the — On this side, therefore, the latest addition to ye
ni ve :
fall here of its trees, that only about 15 exceed as many feet in girth, and 385
I below 12 feet t girth. Upon this point I have collected some curious cor-
€ evidence, from the works of old travellers.
Ww tward almost to ! :
, Or sera ©. Denar, “ toe a much more pendulous leader and end
to its branches, an d longer leaves, of a more glaucous hue than C. Libani,
tose of 6 hot such silvery leaves as the oe Atlantica. TT:
C. Libani, but the
wail pro
“pees it may reasonably be assumed that
nginally sprang from one. eee should a aie ba there are no a,
: ‘structure or duration, the es
oe od Also, mote gra ory variable inh
‘graphically? The answer to — question he derives from a consideration of
account for the present separation and for the present differences o: wa ye
150 Scientific Intelligence.
se much so, indeed, is this the case with the Deodar, which is the most distinct
of all-in sa that though it was not introduced much more than prec years
ag — already five distinct varieties sold by nurserymen, some as
as uae colored, and others as short-leaved as the Lebanon Cedar.
yo “that a the difference i in the shape of the scales and seeds of Deo-
a are very marked, they vary much; many forms of each over-
lap; and fanthor oe between the most disimilr, may be eatablichod ie
a of era scales from C. =
lantica has been almost u ens sally considered a variety of
Libani aa °C. fieokaia's.: a different specias ; habit having ees relied — ex-
clusively, and peg a characters neglected ; for a glance at the
shows that is an obvious and marked difference, in the ‘ater reabeclll be-
tween the common states of Atlantica sea Inbani, and none between
and Deo. This is perplexing, for, as I have said Pei C. Libani holds
pei intermediate position, a geographically and in characters of rier be-
n the two that agree e most important characters ; , we
poo account, in “7 8 measre, for the didlerendes of habit, i the ‘climate of
.
fluence of the great Sahara assert se remains, then, but to regal
as — or all as varieties, or = ba Peder and Ailantica as varieties of
one species. Labani as another. The hitherto adopted and — alterna-
tive, of regarding Libani and Atlantica as varieties, an ies,
must be give
Dr. Hooker accotdiigly regards rs three Cedars as three well-marked
forms, usually very distinct, and co ar permanent that, although is common
origin, 30% a not revert again Aen the other, or all vio a common ancestral
pre Upon his view, therefore, here are three forms, which, under variation,
ome sei int segregation, and the suppression of fateseshente states, have be-
what are generally called nearly related, representative
nabs
Finally he asks, how does it happen that they are now so sundered ge”
the glacial ‘ore when the Cedars of Lebanon must have been fully 4000
t
feet lower than they are now, and continuous with those of Taurus, which also
nded to ; same lower level, and along the Persian ee were con-
their ren, which also, upon evidence
Phe Als must then have descended to fully 4,000 feet below their r presente?
‘he Algerian forests p more difficulty. For their solution -
veries of een bemea t tively modern changes i “ore — form and extent
of the Mediterranean are confidently appealed to; the re of the Africat
Hifipobotamue: and Rhinoneroted in Sicily so heres usly i sedisaaing a continents
extension from the Tunis coast to that Island, and the soundings lending oor"
northward and up the mountains, with the consequent extinctions, may
eer — fad ina has’ Magen to the close of the aie
, issued Nov. 1861, = Seosoigg te Monopet-
o Plantago, whi
2 most oe ov Polypetaious orders. . As t le adopt!
s Decaisne’s hint that the 7 Syerdone in the
the di
country has long
Botany and Zoology. 151
: as Kalm, the founder of the genus, wrote the name, being dedica-
ted to Dr. Gealthicn it is a good idea of Weddell’s to insert the missing vowel,
; thus by a slight change making the name of the genus, Gaulthieria, conform
; with that of the person commemorated. That it sh hould have been so written
‘ in the first instance is clear enough; but it is doubtful <i be now worth
while to change the original orthography, ‘whieh is not far a
is by no means peculiar to South nr i Dr. Weddell esi t hkve caseally
oveooked the North American spec
mark that the seeds afford ahabatteie by which the species of Epilo-
bum may be eeeecled, is worthy of attention. They do afford good
nother
esi 5
Characters in
Wee -aleripg agree with Dr. Weddell in —— the genus Malvastrum to
: that marked group the Phyllanthophora. Thus re tricted it would none "the
ntrorsely sti
teal affinities—that, in fact, Malvastrum, as a wide e, and especially those
ies which are referred back by Weddell to “asia are really more closely
Sida and to Spheralcea than to the genuine, old-world Malva.
— Lag is overlooked that Myosurus apetalus, Gay, is often petaliferous, and
ur remarks naturally run to criticisms of certain details. There rein no
question that the Flora Andina is a work of a high order of merit. ee
per
M. F. Dusarprn et ar M. H. Huss#, Paris. neyelopédie Roret. 1862.- —
:
5. Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes Echinodermes.
:
aie pleasure without attempting to combine what there may be of
ag different writers. The literature of later years seems to
‘have escaped their notice entirely. Their ignorance of what has been
y pierce, eres can —— be excused .
ientific literature.
oe cal have in a compilation in which we are told
ee an is found in ine Holland ; that ———
vi th .
3 ugh ove we had been informed that | uated
Tepresentative of the genus Better was found in Ned Holland, :
152
have been simply copied ; they
their quotations :
referr S:
nothing in
has bee
have been pointed out here are as numerous throughout the rest
book as in the few genera we have so briefly examined. As Ae
IV. METEOROLOGY.
Meteorology.—Director Wiuram Harmryerr continues to give his
particular attention to the investigation of Meteoric subjects, and has ®
they heard a single clap, similar to the report of a musket, then § ;
somewhat rumbling noise. Looking in the direction of it, they saw, at
estimated at one mound = 74% Ibs., avd
2 y Biiog, omy a at ‘
since meteorites
i asa
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 153.
the report was so unexpected and surprising, that the herds were fright-
ened and ran away. No phenomena of light were observed. Haidinger
suggests that the fall took place perfectly vertically. This would give for
season and geographical latitude of Nellore of 14° 23’, N., about
three days after the entrance of the sun into the sign of Aquarius, and
for 44. p.m, about in the direction south from Ophiuchus towards the
earth; and the Yatoor stone can be considered as having come pretty
nearly from this direction.
ing to Dr. Andrew Scott, it contains silicic acid, alumina,
magnesia, lime, sulphur, iron and nickel.
(2.) At the meeting of July 4th, 1861, he gave some additional infor-
mation about the Parnallee meteorite, (this Journal, [2], Xxxii, re,
elustre. It shows the common roundish depressions, but remarkably
enough, some only one half or even one quarter of an inch in diameter,
hot be determined therefrom. The whole piece is pretty flat. ;
: Numerous pale gray, partly whitish portions, mostly quite roundish,
mbedded through the mass, can be observed on a acture ; on polished
Planes the structure becomes more perceptible, a homogeneous matrix
does not really exist, and a lens shows even the minutest portion to be a
same size, but remarkably angular, remind us of the peculiar Cold-Bok-
Keveld I cesta hen there are, in the mixture, metallic, compact or
quantity, h speci i orm a eraeous= 33
Yet the stone was porous, and continually giving ve nieve ete ter’
tenths
154 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
the same manner as that by metallic iron ; the particles of matter—what-
ver may have been the e agency require ed to dissolve the metallic ironyar
a suphi of it, and Deesipiiste the same—were moveable and co
stone of Assam and that of Chantonnay, ot it is distinguished by its
greater poresiiy and a less compact structur
drew S. Scott mentions the ‘elise constituents as the result
of a a, qualitative analysis: Silicie acid, alumina, ferric oxyd, magnnen
lime, 1 HES, nickel, sulphur, and traces of cobalt and chrome
(3.) e meeting of October 17th, 1861, he made a. communication
regarding the meteorites of Montpreis, which fell tia 31st, 1859. A
letter of Mr. Mischitz, of Montpreis, to Prof, Suess, of Vienna, dated
June Aube eins the following data
h Kozel, Francis Romich oo myself observed the ball on dl
31st, 1859, about 9} p.m., when suddenly the sky towards north, in
0
Ded and fell me in front of the church of rire and the wa
of the churchyard, partly upon white sandstone, partly upon the solid
gravelly soil. This fall produced a small excavation of searcely the depth
of half’ a nut-shell, burned the sandstone and soil as large as a silve
All the fragments were visible in a glowing state, during 5 o 8
seeonds, and when F. Romich Bakes one up he burned his fingers oof
siderably, so that we were afraid to pick them up. A Petters: of an
hour later I picked up the pieces yet warm and three in number;
nately, beer @ fi e mass was rather more sob proba n red,
The fall, when honclang the und, was aceompanied by a little
similar to that uced when rockets filled with at hee and yet burl
ing, touch the fa ry The pieces picked up looked like ps
ate
a thin black crust. Although nothing has been pr reserved of
fall, js fully authenticated, and shows, besides, some importan
mre is Diciteuledly remarkable that the three pieces showed |
hheat a few seconds after their fall. The * were certainly stone and not
lly not warmer than if they had hee lying i
very cha stone of Dhurmsala. The stone of cede weig
te more than 140 grammes. We might i imagine that a-small stom’
aliy if pretty well intermixed with metallic iron,
" a
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 155
The stone appears not to have had much of a fireball, but mom 4 to
have been red hot, the only, and at that very insignificant, noise pro-
duced by its str iking the stone and soil, the surface of which it perietveted
ne very little, showing that it could not have come down with cosmical
"The fall took place obliquely, in the direction from north to south, but
much deviating from a vertical line.
he geographical situation of Montpreis is about 46° 7 “N. latitude, 15°
21 E. of Greenwich. Adding the northern zenith distance of nearly 7°
to the latitude, we obtain the altitude of 53°, from which the meteor de-
scen: An astronomical map, set for July 31st, gh 30™, gives the
sition of the meteor at 270°, very eae in the foot of ae next to
was merely effected by the translatoric motion oo our solar system. =
to the motion of the earth in its position in s tween Aries
Sikaitiesticn of Dr. Kreil to a Suess mentions several meteors,
which were observed pencly on the same date
At Kre n the 29th, in SSE, a large fireball, with a bright
5 al tail, which fell almost vertically towards the horizon. It lasted
nds,
At Laibach, on =e 29th, at 8h 48™, a meteor in S. Mis —s on.
At Ede ar Montpreis, (in Lower Styria,) to S.W., a fire-
ball, followed by three shooting stars; much hissing, ips fall, but
nothin was fou titi
eustadtl, (Krain,) a meteor, like that at
(4.) At the iin) f October 17th and Novant 7th, 1861, he
Gran additional information about the metallic iron pe from
a (near Melbourne, Rhein (this Journal, [2], xxxii, 441—
The smaller mass, of about 3,000 lbs., Is exhibited in Melbourne
pg to be a to the ne World's Fair, pine is to take place
om ph suimlare its t position at
h ts it in its presen
Walious, otographi view gi given sbocg sages ipasusl ae ‘the following
ePproximate m Measurements were sent by Dr. Neumayer, and refer to tha
in its original ;
_ Tawed from NE. to S.W. = ft. 1 ing SE. to N.W. =I nth =
=2 ii 8 4 aad ““ 9 “
oF RK Oe « Se
The inner structure of the smaller piece could not well be determined
from the ¢ few chips cut off with a chisel. Here and there was a wire-like
Structure visible, and richly disseminated through the he whole mans, slr silver-
of schreibersite, showing but crust
156 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
observed, but a ew! et coating of kate ferric oxyd, a proof
es a very long period si ts fall. In the known roundish de
pressions was an Searels saioeaeiae co wae ee as containing ferrous
chlorid. The sp g gr. found by Dr. Neumayer from 7°51 to 7-60; that of
the coats om
Som he in sent to Vienna, showed Realy: we sufficiently
etched, ao si edges of schreibersite; well polished plates, when
expose ed to hea eat, beautifully the pale yellow lines of ‘rehome in the
darker violet and blue ground. An analysis, made by Karl von Hauer,
gave :—very little iso residue, 95°43 p. ¢. of iron, and 3°40 p. « of
nickel, with a little cob:
The approximate mesrement of the oti hal yet unmoved and appa
of
rently immovable mass make it in the directio
NS sks 5 feet, — inches.
= 3 “ 1 “
= 3 4 Bis
A part of the mass has been aiid and ie jie up.
In re given in H.’s communica ewed ve the
strong north pole and the lower a south pole, numerous subordinate
poles are distributed over the whole sg
The positions of the two masses are given more accurately and com
pletely than before. Their + -aivedsbns't in an astronomical line, is from 8.
34° W. to N. 34° E.; their distance from each other 3°6 miles, (60 to Yr
of the equator,) the smaller be of the larger. The geographical
position of the smaller mass is 38° 8’ S, lat., and 145° 22’ E. of Greet
wich ; ‘that of the I larger, 38° 1 8. lat., and 145° 20’ E, of Greenwich.
(5. ) At the same meeting (Nov. 7th, "1861 ,) he mentions a magni
meteor, observed by many persons in Southern Australia, on March 4th,
1861, at Bey daylight, (on 38m 58, Melbourne mean time,) of which
Dr. Neu mayer made a report to a Melbourn e paper, computed .
vations. When first seen it was 50 miles above the ocean, and ata
point of the ocean 30 miles from Cape Otway; it passed through the
zenith ; its diameter has been calculated at about 1,900 feet. From Net
mayer’s continued investigations (during the last 3 years) of shooting
stars and meteors, it follows that this meteor a from a point of .
motion ; a fact which, if investigations were pursued, might throw some
upon this subject.
‘There are > are, according to Neumayer, other points of radiation for the
southern ee and. the periodical appearance of these ce celestial
ean with that for the northern ; there is n
oA
Gra.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 157
V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. The California Geological and Natural History Survey.—Good
as been made in this important work, during the year and a
in which it has been in progress. We have received copies of a “ Let-
commenced on a scale of half an inch to a mile. The map of the region
about San Francisco Bay comprising but a little corner of California
ts. A
of Shasta about which such contradictory reports exist will be this sum-
phony object of special barometrical examinations. ‘Large collections
ts
tk ip satisfactory to know that the floods have not been however,
i there is every prospect of a
anes, its area being twenty times that of M
united area of Great Britain, Ireland, Belgium,
i i the extent
diminished appropriation—the finances of the State being so. deran
_Prevent even the prompt payment of the mon
bithey has wisely concentrated his remainng fore t
determined to make the reconnaissance as complete as possible before the
Publication of the first volume of the report. i
2 Lyman'e Tri ii pens Josiah : Lyman of Lenox, Mass., has
made a ry valuable addition to our instruments Sor Sxect newer
irawing. Tt consists in a happy combination of the protractor, straight
158 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
edge and scale of equal parts.
to be used in connection witha
It
draughting board which has its as adjustable. The instrument is best
0 on the ruler slides a scale plate for measuring distances or for ig
ere are six oa Se rhegak divisions of |
8,
hiding rule come down over ts
per, and fine marks on thes
| e paper the
Miscellaneous —— 159
red, i im a very short time, with an meat far greater
than that ordinarily used in the field work of a surve
© pains have been spared in the mechanical peace oA to make the
instrument accurate. The methods of using it are fully detailed in an
accompanyi ng manual, This manual forms of itself, in fact, almost a
complete treatise on land surve eying.
8. Donation of types of American Reptiles by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution to the Civico Museo of Milan.—In the May number of this Journal
We published a note from Prof. Henry, in reply toa statement, by our
aris correspondent, that the ie sagas Institution, eee ing the
British Museum,) was almost the only great establishment that had not
contributed materials towards the work on ser a Prot Jan of Milan.
tiiibos fek of. Hallowell and cop. Nearly all the specimens sent a the
Museum of W i
owledge, and of according to all those dates g in suc pursuits, an
efficient assis stance and the a ost ample ary a an establishment, of
its kind, not only rare but Re 8 in the world.”
OBITUARY.
Edward C. Herrick, died in ve Haven his native place, June 11,
r. Herri
tostomi in connection with Prof. Dana. It is worthy of no-
“ passing, that the first contributions to science Lange y a
who have since been known as amon,
Contributors, viz: Profs. Gray and Dae pe Mr Honick, a a
in the same number of our first o viz: vol. ea Ligation aa 2
of those
Herrick’s 8 favorite stud , in Zoology, insects. His researches a
gene hi istory, bikes had oars s of the oe Heasian Fly, ( Cecidomyia des-
seu’ Say) are well knowh to peat ists. His principal published
we ts insect, appeared in 1841, “ but his researches were contin-
, rough life. His last contribution to this Journal was
- seventeen-year — and a critical soties of the new edition of
*s Insects injurious to 2 Bui
Mr. Herrick has been much
(:) This Journal, xli, 153. (2) nai ea 433-484,
160 Miscellaneous Inielligence.
better known to our readers by his very numerous contributions to
meterology and astronomy. He was one of the first to point out the ex
istence of the August eriod of shooting stars,®) his observatious having
been published before reports of European discoveries had reached this
no in December an i
or many years tie was a constant observer of the Aurora eet
by his ped influenced many others to make similar observations. He
first called attention to the frequent occurrence of this meteor in meet
at # time when the opinion was general that it was chiefly if not entirely
confined to the winter months, a — bia | bbe to his notice
by a remarkable Aurora on the Ist of J uly, 18
Science, with Mr. Herrick, was only the alte of a laborious life of
business. Trained as a bookseller, and for a time conducting that business
n his own account, he was in 1843 chosen Librarian of Yale College
ai po 1852, Rreenute of the same Institution, holding the latter "office
until his death. r. Herrick was eminent for his knowledge of books
nd precise memory of all that related to them. We copy the following
from an appreciative notice of Mr. Herrick which appeared in the “ Daily
Journal,” for June 12th, 1862
“In that varied and Mibeelanebel knowledge which was congenial toa
person of his comprehensive curiosity, his active habits, and his iron dili-
gence, he had scarcely his equal in the University, and the xtensive
correspondence which he maintained for years with persons of varied
pursuits, residing in every part of the country, and in Europe, is both at
evidence that his knowledge was extensive and highly ging and a mone
ument to his industry and his disinterestedness. Asa m b
he was distinguished for quickness, sagacity, and the sii integrity.
The whole community knew him as one of the few in whom al all might
confide, and whom none could possibly silaptot His reputation in the
ts was such as but few mortals attain or deserve.
As afriend he was affectionate and true—spending his services and his
care for all that needed them, and often doing this with a lavis band.
Few men have cherished so sacredly, and have exemplified so
the saying of the Lord Jesus: “It is more blessed to give than to receive:
His habits of life, interesting and pevilier as they Ween be genial seve
ities, and his good-natu tured asceticisms,—his charming simplicity,—bs
se in nature,—his eae readiness to serve his friends,—his
ness to td ed ;—his genuine, yet never geen hatred of oppressiots
injustice ; trickery,—hia pining love for his mother, with many _
nal, [1]. xxiii, 17
‘ an of) es gree
en a ee eee
#, 354,401, (*) (pgm i ss af
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[SECOND SERIES.]
Art. XVI.—On the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland ; by
JoHN Luspock, Esq., F.R.S.*
all access orlot, w resear
alluded to in this article, will be well remembered by the read-
&ts of this Journal from his paper entitled ‘General views on —
tTeheology,’ published in vol. xxix.
the past and the present. If in its more recent portions it is
scarcely distinguishable from History, yet when we pass back to
re into the domain of Geology, without noticing any bosndary
Separate the one from the other. The begining of Archeol-
ie, ng, in fact, but the end of Geology, it is not surprising
they should, in the course of their development, have pre-
Some remarkable analogies. M. Morlot has well pointed
=
5
“O
A?)
=)
Fe
2
4
om
:
==
=]
=]
:
na
5
=
be
bs]
=]
&
5
Ft.
] cademie de Lausanne.” ss |
indeed, as the remains of extinct animals were at first
nee, are gradually presenting themselves
| Loth, however, to distrust the existing
| sg -_.* From the Natural History Review for January, 1862, p- 26.
‘At Joon, Sct.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XXXIV, No. 101—Szpr., 1862.
Q1
162 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland.
chronology, our antiquaries long referred all the most beautiful
and well made weapons to the Romans, just as all fossils were
attributed to the action of the deluge. Passing on, then, witha
savages, has thrown much light upon the manners and customs
our:
selves against any hasty conélusions and generalizations butit
seems now to be well established that a considerable elongation
of the received chronology is required in Archeology as decid:
edly, though not of course to such an extent, as in Geology.
Perhaps, also, we may regard it as, to say the least, highly
probable, that in Northern Europe there have been three great
epochs in the history of man—primary, secondary, and tertiary
—the first of Stone, the second of Bronze,* and the third of Iron.
This conclusion, which we owe in the first instance to the
ern and especially to the Danish Archeeologists, has been
strengthened by the recent researches in the lakes of Switzerland.
t is however probable, as was mentioned in our last number,
that the Stone period will require much sub-division. In all
classifications we are apt, at first, to take the apparent, for the
real dimensions of the more distant portions, and it is only ®
we obtain a closer acquaintance with them, that we discove
their real proportions. Thus, it would appear, that the Stomé
e must be divided into at least two periods; that of the drift
on the one hand, and on the other hand, that to which the Da
te Kjékkenméddings and the Swiss Lake Habitations appeat ® —
ong.
These Lake-dwellings or “ Pfahlbauten,”—a term whose nea”
est English equivalent is “ Pile-works”—were made known 0 —
r.
us in the following manner. of
In consequence of the extraordinary dryness and coldness
the weather during the winter months of 1853 and 1854, the
rivers of Switzerland did not receive their usual supplies, and the
-_ * Inagrave at Mare Hill in Staffordshire, Mr. Carrington found a piece of lest
_ having the appearance of wi
: Bi sala
* Shi Besa RA 0
% a
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. 168
water in the lakes fell much below its ordinary level, so that in
some places a broad strand was left uncovered along the margin,
while in others shallow banks were converted into islands. ‘The
water level of this season was, indeed, the lowest upon record.
The lowest level marked on the so-called stone of Stifa was that of
1674, but in 1854 the water sank a foot lower. These unusu
early inhabitants of Switzerland constructed some, at least, of
their dwellings above the surface of the water, as is done in the
os day by savages in various countries, as for instance the
mud, and connected with the land by a narrow ridge.
_ This method of construction, indications of which are found
Water by great piles. Each cabin had a trap-door opening on to
lake, cad fre mys settlement aaa aids the main
land by ‘a brid
The §
Seribed by M. Keller, in three memoirs presented to the Antiqua-
ran Society of Zurich, i 5
hop done in Switzerland, and compares the result obtained in
AUS 1.
bs
Thea: tan i, rf have been described
he discoveries in Lake ronan (Die Pfahlbaual-
Bern, 1857); and we owe to M,
* Her. Book V, ch. 16. |
164 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland,
Riitimeyer to works on the animal remains from the Pfahlbauten
the first “‘ Untersuchung der Thierreste aus den Pfahlbauten der
Schweiz,” published by the Antiquarian Society of Zurich, in
1860; and still more recently a larger work*—Collections of
objects from these localities have also been made by many Swiss
Archeologists, :
The Flora has been studied by M. Heer, whose results are
contained in the last memoir published by M. Keller. Nor must
we omit to mention M. Morlot’s short paper in the “ Bulletin de
la Societe Vaudoise,” and his more recent “ Lecon d’Ouverture
d’un cours sur la haute Antiquité fait al’ Académie de Lausanne.”
From the conclusion of this lecture, indeed, I must express my
dissent: not that I would undervalue what M. Morlot calls the
fable, it may be in the false hopes of finding a concealed treasure:
The Swiss Archzologists have, indeed, made the most of a golden
opportunity, Not only in Lake Zurich, but also in Lakes Com
stance, Geneva, Neufchatel, Bienne, Morat, Sempach, in fact
most of the large Swiss lakes, as well as in several of the smaller
ones (Inkwyl, Pfaffikon, Moosseedorf, Luissel), similar lake hab-
itations have been discovered. In the larger lakes, indeed, not
one, but many of these settlements existed; thus, M. Keller mei
tions, in Lake Bienne, eleven; in Lake Neufchatel, twenty-six;
in the Lake of Geneva, twenty-four; in that of Constance, si
teen ; and many more, doubtless, remain to be discov ae
The dwellings of the Gauls are described as having been ar
cular huts, built of wood and lined with mud. The huts of t
Pileworks were probably of ‘a similar nature. This suppositio
is not a mere hypothesis, but is confirmed by the preservation ¢
ieces of the clay used for the lining. Their preservation 18€¥
ntly due to the building Tt been destroyed by fire, whie
has hardened the clay and enabled it to resist the disegl ying
of the water. These fragments bear, on one side, the marks *
interlaced branches, while on the other, which apparently forme
the inner wall of the cabin, they are quite smooth. Some ®%
ee are so large and so reg
ee Bee 6
J. Inbbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. 165
very simple, still the weight to be sustained on the wooden plat-
forms must have been considerable, and their construction, which
have required no small labor,* indicates a considerable
population. It would, indeed, be most interesting if we could
construct a retrospective census for these early periods, and M.
Troyon has made an attempt to do so, though the results must
naturally, besomewhat vague. The settlement at Morges, which
is one of the largest in the Lake of Geneva, is 1200 feet long and
150 broad, which would give a surface of 180,000 square feet.
Taking the cabins as being 15 feet in diameter, and supposing
they occupied half the surface, leaving the rest for gang-.
Ways, we may estimate the number of cabins at 311, and if we
Suppose that, on an average, each was inhabited by four persons,
we shall have, for the whole, a population of 1244. Starting
the same data, we should obtain for the Lake of Neufcha-
tel, a population of about 5000. Altogether, 68 villages, belong-
Ing to the Bronze Age, have been discovered in Western Switz-
, and by the same process of reasoning they may be sup-
sed to have contained 42,500 persons; while for the preceding
mae the population may, in the same manner, be estimated at
878.
For a moment it may surprise us that a people so uncivilized
should have iectinkenntd seat dwellings with immense labor on
? water, when it would have been so much more easy to have
built them on dry land. The first settlers in Switzerland, how-
Pg had to contend with the Boar, the Wolf, the Bear, and the
Tus; and subsequently, when the population increase and
tes arose, the lake habitations, no doubt, acted as a fortifi-
i and protected man from man, as they had before preserved
m from wild beasts. eae
Switzerland is not, by any means, the only country in which
04 dwellings have been used as ——— — ee a
mi . . . 3 ‘ ran ‘
. ore or less artificial islands, : cam “ag ae
tty chiefs. They are —— of earth and stones, strengt,
eel by Stmierous piles, and have supplied the Irish Archeolo-
RD. Rumerous weapons and bones. From the Crannoge
t Dunshuglin, indeed, more than 150 cart loads eens
b tained, ese lake d
Ireland, and were used as manure! seinen a
! ed in early aeons
accordine to Shirely, “One Thomas Phelliplace, in his
ania raises Government, as to what castles
i
S
a
S
=
Be,
ee
°
B
4
@
5B
tt ane uCreasing density of population is ivalent to increasing facility be
| ~~ Bastiat, Haronies af Political Geconomy, p. 12. foe
| 1 88 Wilde's Catalogue, vol, i, p. 220.
166 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland.
tain a firmer foundation for the piles. At the present time the
highest part is eight feet below the surface of the water, and
made use of fire, in the same manner as is done by exis!
in felling trees canoes. Burning t
ee
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. 167
ysis poll and badly cut. Draging the ene lake, =
ng them firmly, must have required much labor, especi
Yrt q ’ M Lo hie
groom was expected to add a certain number of piles to the com-
Mon support. In some localities, as at Robenhausen, on Lake
Pfeffikon, the piles were strengthened by cross beams. The
Pileworks of subsequent periods differ little from those of the
tone age, except, perhaps, that they are more solidly constructed.
the Piles, also, are less decayed and project above the mud far-
OT
of four rectangular divisions, separated by narrow channels, over
Which, no donbe, bridges ei of se and through which ea-
ett pass. The piles were less numerous than usual, and
Tn this case they have been preserved by peat; they are
three to four ot a half alle in diameter, all rounded, and :
formed of split timber. In order to ascertain their ee
Suter dug up two of them; the longest penetrated four feet
through the peat, and ten feet six inches into the ancient ve of
Eri abe other, also four feet through the peony four
;tSix inches lower. M. Suter e Pp uny,
but fruitlessly, to ascertain any manner in W the platform
*an have been attached to them.
Y
168 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland.
The platform itself consisted of five layers of trees, curiously
and carefully fastened together by clay and interlaced branches
of trees, but like the perpendicular piles they were examined i
vain for any traces of notches, mortises, holes, ligatures, bolts,
or any contrivance, by which the upright piles and the platforms
could have been fastened together. :
Not only were the debris of their repast, and other rubbish
thrown into the water, but more or less valuable weapons and
instrumeuts must have been sometimes lost in this manner, &
pecially as children formed, of course, the usual proportion of
the population. Many of the articles presently to be mentioned,
were however, in all probability, engulphed at the destruction
of the Pfahlbauten, some of which were perhaps burnt and 1
built more than once.
finding any of the large, flat axes which are so characteristic @
northern Europe, and especially of Denmark. At Wangen, the
two places. One or two bits, however, consisted of Orient
ard:
ness, and if these really belonged to the Stone age, the fact ®
very remarkable, as this substance, according to Swiss mineral’
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Swittérland, 169
mers, axes, knives, saws, lance heads, arrow heads, corn crush-
ers, and polishing blocks. Some of the hammers were made of
serpentine with a hole pierced through one end, and are, like all
pierced stones, of very great rarity, belonging perhaps only to
the end of the Stone period. Some of them are cylindrical,
others more cubical in shape.
The axe was preéminently the implement of antiquity. It
Was used in war and in the chase, as well as for domestic pur-
»and great numbers have been found, especially at Wangen,
(Lake of Constance) and Concise (Lake of Neufchatel). With
afew exceptions they were surprisingly small, especially when
compared with the magnificent specimens from Denmark ; in
length they varied from six inches down even as low as one,
While the cutting edge had generally a width of from 15 to 20
lines, Flint was sometimes used, and nephrite, or jade, in a few
cases, but serpentine was the principal material. Most of the
larger settlements were evidently manufacturing places, and many
spoilt pieces and half finished specimens have been found. The
cess of manufacture is thus described by M. Troyon. After
ving chosen a stone, the first step was to reduce it by blows
with a hammer to a suitable size. Then grooves were made
artificially, which must have been a very tedious and difficult
Operation, when flint knives, sand, a little water, and an unlim-
ited Amount of patience, were the only available instruments,
Having carried the gooves to the required depths, the projectin,
portions were removed by a skillful blow with a hammer,
de implement was then sharpened and polished on blocks of
sandstone, :
Sometimes the hatchet thus obtained was simply fixed in a
handle of horn or wood. Generally, however, the whole instru-
ment consisted of three parts. A piece of horn, two or three
inches in length, received the stone at one end and was squared
«the other, so as to fit into a longer handle either of wood or
orn. These intermediate pieces present several variations, some
are simply squared, others have a puseting wing which
against the handle, some few are forked as if to receive a wedge,
i one had a small transverse hole apparently for the insertion
a
The knives may be considered as of two sorts. Some differ
ftom the axes, endigelly in having their width greater than
their length. In other cases they were made of flint uk In
’ manner also were obtained the saws, which in addition had
edges somewhat rudely dentated; they were fixed into
handles of wood by some sort of cement; but we do not find
11 Switzerland any of the semilunar saws, which are frequent in
mark :
Am. Jour, Sct.—Szcoxp Series, Vor. XXXIV, No. 101.—Szrr., 1862,
22
170 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland.
The arrow heads were made of flint, or in some cases of rock
crystal, and were, as in Ireland, of three principal sorts, between
which however, there were a-great many varieties. The fim
sort had a diamond shape, the posterior half of which was, m
some specimens, shorter and rounded off. The second sort
the posterior margin more or less excavated, so that the angles
being produced, as it were, into wings, clasped the sbaft ander
abled the arrow head to be more firmly fixed. In the third sort,
the middle part of the posterior side bad a projection which sunk
into the shaft. There are also found rounded stones, pi
with one, or sometimes with two holes. The use of these 1s Uh
ery but they may perhaps have been used to sink fishing
ines.
“ Waste not, want not,” is a proverb which the Lake dwellers
thoroughly appreciated. Having caught any wild animal, except
the hare, they ate the flesh, used the skin for clothing, pick
every fragment of marrow out of the bones, and then in many
cases, fashioned the bones themselves into weapons. The Jarget
and more compact ones served as hammers, and, as well as horns
of the deer, were used for the handles of hatchets. In somé
cases pieces of bone were worked to a sharp edge, but they @
only have been used to cut soft substances.* Bone harpoon
poignards, arrow heads, and javaline heads also occur, and pits
and needles of this material are very common. Teeth also, and
particularly those of the wild boar, were used for cutting, 8”
were also, in some cases, worn as ornaments or armlets. 400
can be little doubt that wood was also extensively used for differ
ent purposes, but unfortunately most of the implements of this
material have perished. A wooden mallet, however, was found
at Concise. ae
For our knowledge of the animal remains from the Pileworks
we are almost entirely indebted to Prof. Riitimeyer, who bas
published two memoirs on the subject. (Mittheilungen des A®
tig. Gesellschaft in Zurich, Bd. xiii, Abth. 2, 1860; and, a
recently, a separate work, Die Fauna des Pfahlbauten ™
Schweiz, 1861). The bones are in the same fragmentary COP”
tion as those from the Kjékkenméddings, and have been © na
in the same manner for the sake of the marrow. There 8 ®*
the same absence of certain bones and parts of
. .
of bones,
is impossible to reconstruct a perfect skeleton even of the comm
-monest anima ee
The total number of species amounts to about 66, of which }
are fishes, 3 reptiles, 17 birds, and the remainder quadruf
Of the latter, eight species may be considered as having
icated, namely, the Dog, Pig, Horse Goat, Shee ep
| * According to Sir E. Belcher, cher, however, , ieces of horn are aby
cere
bones, so thatlt |
—
si
NE ek
os
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. 171
and at least two species of Oxen. The bones very seldom occur
in a natural condition, but those of domestic and wild animals
are mixed together, and the state in which they are found, the
marks of knives upon them, and their having been almost al-
ways broken open for the sake of the marrow, are all evidences
of human interference. ‘ .
Two species, the one wild, the other domestic, are especially
numerous,—the Stag and the Ox. The remains of these two
_ Next to those in order of abundance is the Hog. More spar-
nes often present the marks of knives, and have been opened
for the sake of the marrow. While, however, itis very frequent
in the Pileworks of the Stone epoch, it has not yet been found
in any settlement belonging to the bronze period. Oddly enough
the Dog is, at least in the lake dwellings of the Stone period,
Tarer than the Fox, though more common than the Horse or the
Ass; and of other species but few specimens have been met with,
though, in some localities, the Beaver, the Badger, and Hedge-
hog ap ar in some numbers. : a
The Bear and Wolf, as well as the Urus, the Bison, and t ie
seem only to have occasionally been captured ; it 1s pro ble
that the latter species were taken in concealed pits. :
From the small lake at Moosseedorf, M. Riitimeyer has identi-
fied the following list :—Of the Dog, 3 specimens, Pash tc’
; Beaver, 5 specimens; Roe, 6 specimens; Goat a Fat
oo: Cow, 16specimens; 110g; 20 specimens; Stag,
mens, . :
It is certain! iking to find two wild species repre-
Sented by the oreatent pokes. of specimens, and ee ae
80, since this is no exceptional case ; but the whole sum of the
Wild, exceeds that of the domesticated individuals, a result more-
eg Which is confirmed by the other settlements of this epoch,
Pe pee does this indicate a great antiquit
rvations, not only from the necessary uncertainty of supplies
“i obtained, bar L. because we cannot suppose that foxes would
have been eaten except under the pressure of hunger.
172 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland.
In his first memoir, Prof, Riitimeyer gives an interesting table
which I here subjoin, premising that 1 denotes a single individ-
livid
while Meilen, and Concise were also inhabited during that of
the Bronze, and Auvernier and Steinberg have even produced &
few weapons of iron.
.
~
.
.
+:
.
—_—_—
.
.
.
.
tee
STONE. BRONZE. IRON:
Semana ee Mercer eye es ON:
=| {i
8
Belg
Sie Is
° =) 2
°o s [=]
ee
1 The Brown Bear . 'Ursus Arctos . . eee ee
2 The Badger ; Meles vulgaris. 272/11}
3 The Martin . . « |Mustela Foina BP aoe st
4 The Pine Martin . . s¢. - Martes Oh Bistcvse
5 The Polecat hte . Putorms 2 +2: >*
6 The Ermine Tae inea Laas
% The Otter... Lutra vulga i ae
3 The Wolf . |Canis Lupus eet 1
) The Fox 8 res ie ‘ Sis Tt
WO The Dow. gov as “fam 2122
ii The Wild Gat. :<.. -.| Felis Catus *.°5,. Leto vy
12 The Hedgehog . . j|Erinaceus europeus. | 1 |} + |+
13 The Beaver ieee astor ‘fibér =i. «4 3:) 24s
14 The Squirrel . . . |Sciuruseuropeus . | 2/2...
15 The Marsh Boar . |Sus Scrofa — ; 51515
> The Wild Boar a ed “ ferus j 242)2
17 The Domestic Hog . | “ “ domesticus |...) ?1)...
18 The Ho: . . |Equus Caballus . . [?1/2 1...
19 The Elk .. aor e Ale ‘ eS ea
pane Stag 2 .oo8 or. 5 Elaphus . . |5|5|5
The Roe. 5 3 es . Capreolus . | 4 {2/2
22 The Fallow Deer . Pu hs PE Gas Oe
The Ibex =. sac + 6. OODPA ADCS ek och ee ie
are ONE as : Hirenrs « . 1212) 2
}TheSheep .. . . |Ovis Aries ith oe eae
FOS, 5, ecw ee pena “oid bel 2
The European Bison . “ Bis os hare
Ox pees “Taurus domesticus} 5 | 5 | 5
Pete Be ik cy alco milvus : eg ae
) The Goshawk “ palumbarius 2 \1
e mae ‘ 2
2 The Ringdove . .. olumba palumbus ie *
3 The Wild Duck . . /|Anas boschas or eee &
34 The Garganey . . . “ qnerquedula?. | 2
35 olperee 5 co bas he <
+
3
oh
8
2
1
.
*
.
.
.
=
—_
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland, 173
The additional species added since this table was published
are :—
42. The Mouse, M. sylvaticus. <A single specimen, from Robenhausen.
Our common house-mice and rats seem to have been unknown, and even
this species is at present represented by but a single specimen.
4 H imi
a piece of skull from Robenhausen.
45. A second race of domestic Oxen.
46. The Ass,
The additional birds which have been geo thy are :—
Aguila fulva, Meyer. The Golden Eagle. At Robenhausen.
Aquila baltectan” A single bone found at Moosseedorf is rather doubt-
fully referred to this species by M. Riitimeyer.
Strix alves. From Concise.
Sturnus vulgaris, “ Robenhausen.
— aquatinus * ‘
‘etrao bonasi “
Ciconia alba. Not unfrequent at Moosseedorf and Robenhausen.
-Fulica atra. Robenhausen.
j “
is. Sp. in
Cygnus musicus “
A tu it
The additional species of fish are:—
Perea fluviatilis. Robenhausen.
Scardinius erythropthalmus. “
Chon nasus. _
vulgaris, i: nali
And one or two species belonging to the genus cig rer
he do-
The common Mouse and our two House rats, in —. =
4 “
Semb]. cles, (M. Riitimeyer describes 1t as re-
retibling the Jendnana’ and the « Wachielbund.”
174 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitattons of Switzerland.
The Sheep of the Stone period differed from the ordinary form,
in its small size, fine legs, and short, goat-like horns: particulars,
in which it is nearly resembled by some northern, aiid mountain
varieties at the present day, as for instance by the small sheep of
Shetlands, Orkneys, Welsh hills, and parts of the Alps. At
Wauwy]l, however, M. Riitimeyer found traces of an in ividual
with large horns.
The number of Wild species of Sheep is so great, and our
knowledge of them is so deficient, that M. Riitimeyer does not
venture to express any opinion concerning the origin of our do
mestic varieties except that he is inclined ‘to trace them up
several wild races.
It is singular, that though remains of the Horse have yet been
found in all the Pileworks, they are so rare that their presence
may almost be considered accidental: thus Wangen has only pro
duced a single tooth, Moosseedorf, a metatarsal bone, which has
been polished on one side, Robenhausen, a single os naviculare
tarsi and Wauwyl, only a few bones, which may all have be
longed to a single specimen. On the other hand, when we come
to the Bronze period, we find at Steinberg, numerous remains 0
this species, so that, as far as these slight indications go, the Horse
though undoubtedly present in the Stone age, seems to have
been rarer than it became at subsequent periods, All the te
mains of the Horse belonged undoubtedly to the domestic specie
Though he refers some bones to the Wild Boar, and others 0
the Domestic Hog, yet he considers that the greatest numbers
the remains of this genus belong to a different race, which he calls
Sus scrofa palustris. This variety was, in his opinion, less pow
erful and dangerous than the Wild Boar, the tusks being much
smaller in proportion ; in fact he describes it as having with the
molar teeth of an ordinary full grown Wild Boar, the premolars,
. eanines, and incisives of a young Domestic Hog. He considers
that all the bones of this variety from Moosseedorf, belonged
wild individuals, while of those from Nidau-Steinberg, Robe
wusen, Wauwy], and Concise, some bore in his opinion evider:
ces of domestication. It has been supposed by some naturalists
that this variety was founded only on female specimens, but in bis
last work, M. Riitimeyer combats this opinion at some length, and
- copious descriptions and measurements of different par
Je also points out numerous sexual differences in the 8. |
ris, of the same nature, but not so well marked, as those of the
Vild Boar. lying also on its well defined geographical and
historical range, he denies that it can be SEE os as across be
ween the Wild Boar and Domestic Hog, or that the differences
* ae a peel a er Sea
dividual peculiarities. He considers, indeed i
animal it became extinct at a very early period, though the tamé
ad
J, Iubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland, 175
Swine of India which agree closely with this race may perhaps
have been descended from it.
Our Domestic Hog first makes its appearance in the later Pile-
works, as for instance at Concise. M. Riitimeyer dves not, how-
ever, consider that it can have been derived from the Wild Boar
(Sus scrofa), nor does he think that it was tamed by the inhabi-
tants of Switzerland, but is rather disposed to look upon it as
having been introduced, and the more so, as he finds at Concise
traces of an Ox (B. trochoceros) which does not occur in the
earlier Pileworks. In considering whether a given animal was
wild or domesticated, we must be guided by the following con-
siderations; the number of individuals represented; the relative
Proportions of young and old; the absence or presence of very
old individ uals, at least of species that served for food ; the traces
of long, though indirect, selection, in diminishing the size of any
natural weapons which might be injurious to man ; the direct
action of man during the life of the animal; and finally the text-
ure and condition of the bones. - :
Apply ing these considerations to the Sus palustris from Moos-
Seedorf, it is evident, firstly, that the argument derivable from the
humber of young specimens loses much of its force on account of
the great fertility of the Sow, and the ease with which the young
can be found and destroyed; secondly, in_the number of indi-
animal. Finally, none of the teeth show traces of any filing or
other Preparation, except such as may have taken i after the
death of the animal, fois all of which reasons M. Riitimeyer
infers that the inhabitants of Moosseedorf had not yet succeeded
i taming either the Sus scrofa palustris or the Sus scrofa ferus.
dition of the bones themselves, and in many cases can from these
_ *one belonged to a wild or a domesticated animal.
11 wild animals the bones are of a firmer and closer texture,
al animal: | tomed eye very charac-
; i 2 Araceae but to the accustomed ¢y i by the
is i an exaggerati ll projections and ridges, and a dimi-
ution of Pipe ees Bape ha In the consideration of the
176 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland,
remains of Oxen, these distinctions have proved of the greatest :
importance. By their assistance, and this is in some respects the —
most interesting part of the work, M. Riitimeyer has convinced |
himself that besides the two wild species of Bos, namely the >
rus (B. primigenius) and the Aurochs (B. bison or bison Bure |
peus), three domestic races of Oxen occur in Pileworks.
he second or Trochoceros race, he correlates with a fossil spe
| spe
cies described under this name by F. von Meyer, from the Dilavk _
um of Arezzo and Siena. This variety has hitherto only beet
tion of the existing races of European Oxen. The old Trocho —
ceros race he considers to be extinct, but he sees in the great
Oxen of Friesland, Jutland, and Holstein, the descendants of the
rimigenius, is race does not now occur in Switzerland,
of Lak rally
agrees in its general osteological characters with the Bos longiftore
he other or spotted variety, which is generally 0
Owen
details
ene
ee a
‘ pee ites 5
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. 177
Human bones occur in the Pileworks but very seldom, and
may no doubt be referred to accidents, especially as we find that
ose of children are most numerous. One mature sk
however discovered at Meilen, and has been described by Pro-
t His, who considers that it does not differ much from the
ordinary Swiss type. And while his work was in the press, M.
Riitimeyer received from M. Schwab four more skulls, two of
oe obtained at Nidan Steinberg, one at Sutz, and one
iel.
M. Troyon has a very interesting chapter on the different
modes of burial; he points out that the disposition of the co
into her bosom the remains of their dead, fortunately ignorant of
the deduction that as we brought nothing into the world so we
which are gone down to hell with their weapons of war.”
In tombs of the Stone age the corpse appears to have been
and American tombs. M. Troyon, quotes the following passage
from a work published by André “ Quan
an ils les courbent dans un bloc et monceau dans la
o_o tout |
mére, puis ainsi enveloppés, liés et garrottés de cordes, ils les
Mettent dans une prada gai! de care. M. Troyon adds, ‘ ae
certains Indiens, les méres, aprés avoir donné a Yhomme, avan
de linhumer Vattitude qu'il avait dans le sein maternel, epanchent
* See for Denmark, Worsane’s Antiquities, Eng. Edit, p. 89. To judge from
Mr. Bateman ates volume just pu ished, “ Ten years diggings in Celtic and
ills,” tion Ww:
“ounts of ancient graves, showing the ornaments
With die. , showing
different of interment. —
AM. Jour, Scr—s Seems, Vou. XXXIV, No. 101.—Szpr., 1862.
es]
178 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland,
leur lait sur latombe. Cet usage des méres, qui assimile homme
aprés sa mort au petit enfant qu’elles nourrisent de leur lait, sest
conservé, sauf l’attitude, il est vrai, jusqu’au commencement de ce
siécle, dans le centre de |’Europe, dans la vallée alpestre des Or-
monts;” making this laststatement on the authority of M. Ter
rise, who was hinself an eye witness of this extraordinary custom.
Making allowance for the marine animals, such as the seals and
oysters, the cockles, whelks, &c., the fauna thus indicated by the
remains found in the Swiss lakes, agrees remarkably with that
which characterizes the Danish Kjékkenméddings, and peer
evidently to a far later age than that of the celebrated stone hatel-
ets, which were first made known to us by the genius and perse-
verance of M. Boucher de Perthes.*
Instead of the Elepkant and Rhinoceros we find in the latter
or second Stone period, in that namely of the Kjokkenmaiee
e
from Western Europe even earlier than the Urus. There is 20
historical record of its existence in England or Scandinavia. In
Switzerland we cannot trace it later than the tenth century, but
it is mentioned in the “ Niebelungen Lied,” of the twelfth cel
tury, as occurring in the Forest of Worms, and in Prussia
last was killed in the year 1775. At one period indeed, ye!
Europe, to the imperial forests in Lithuania, where it is p i |
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. 179
The Ibex disappeared from most of the Swiss Alps, perhaps
not much later than the Elk. It lingered longest in the West.
In Glarus the last one perished in 1550, though near Chiavenna it
existed until the commencement of the 17th century, and in
‘ Tyrol until the second half of the 18th, while it still maintains
itself in the mountains surrounding Mont Iséran.
The extermination of the Bear, like that of the Ibex, seems
to have begun in the East, and not yet to be complete, since this
animal still occurs in the Jura, in Wallis, and in the South East-
ern parts of Switzerland.
The Fox, the Otter, and the different species of Weasels, are
still the common carnivora of Switzerland, and the Wild Cat,
the Badger, and the Wolf still occur in the Jura and the Alps,
the latter in cold winters venturing even into the plains.
The Beaver on the contrary has at last disappeared. It has
long been very rare in Switzerland, but a few survived until the
beginning of the present century, in Lucerne and Wallis. Red
t were abundant in the Jura and Black Forest in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries, though they do not appear to have been
80 large as those which lived in earlier times. ‘The last was shot
In Basle, at the close of the eighteenth century, while in Western
Switzerland and Wallis they lingered somewhat longer. The
Roeder still occurs in some places.
The fauna thus indicated is certainly very much what might
ve been expected. We find most of the species which char-
terize the post-tertiary epoch in Europe. Some of the larger
ones have since fallen away in the struggle for existence, and
others are becoming rarer and rarer every year, while some main-
tain themselves even now, thanks only to the inclemency and
ibility of the mountainous regions which they in abit.
The gradual process of extermination which has continued ever
Since, had however even then begun. gine
aken as a whole, therefore, the animals of the Swiss Pile-
Works belong evidently to the Fauna, which commenced in pos
€rilary times with the Mammoth, the Rhinoceros tichorhinus,
the Cave Bear and the fossil hyena. These extinct species ap-
Pear to have coéxisted in Europe with all of its present indigen-
*us inhabitants; it was, indeed, long supposed that man belonged
that pesequent period, but recent investigations have shown,
3 Whi oes mar eg ep he Fauna of the Stone age
ee with that of the later
the other; we
180 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland.
ent Fauna of Switzerland in the possession of the Urus, the
Bison, the Elk, the Stag, and the Wild Boar, as well as by
more general distribution of the Beaver, the Wolf, the Ibex, the
Roe, &c., they differ equally from the drift gravels in the absence
of the Mammoth, the Rhinoceros, the Cave Bear, and the Cave
yena.
M. Riitimeyer, however, thinks that we may carry this divis-
ion farther, and he considers that some of the Pileworks present
ing a more archaie character than others, they may be |
as follows :—
1stly, Moosseedorf.
2ndly, As being somewhat more recent, Wauwyl, Robenhaw-
sen, Wangen, and Meilen.
3dly, The Lake habitations of Western Switzerland.
It is of course unnecessary to point out the interest and import
anee of such a distinction, which aceords so well with that indi
settlements. :
The evidence derived from the distribution of the domesti®
animals is perhaps more satisfactory. The Sheep is present eve?
at Moosseedorf, though not so numerous as at the Steinberg. . On
the other hand, the Horse is frequent at the Steinberg, W rs
) : and even this
ileworks of the Stone per"
pore: the one at Wauwyl, and becomes frequett
g
Steinberg. indi
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland, 181
Rare, indeed, as they may have been, Oxen, Horses, Sheep
and Goats could not be successfully kept through the winter in
the climate of Switzerland, without stores of provision and some
sort of shelter. A pastoral people, therefore, must have reached
a higher grade than a mere nation of hunters. We know, more-
over, in another manner, that at this period agriculture was not
entirely unknown. This is proved in the most unexpected man-
ner, by the discovery of carbonized Cereals at various points.
Wheat is most common, having been found at Meilen, Moossee-
dorf, and Wangen. At the latter place, indeed, many bushels
were found, the grains being united in large thick lumps. At
other times the grains are free, and without chaff, resembling our
present wheat in size and form, while more rarely they are still
intheear. Ears of the Hordeum hexastichon L. (the six rowe
Barley) are somewhat numerous. This species differs from the
.
the grains. According to De Candolle, it was the x goes gene-
Egyptians.
mode of preparing grain was used 1
as yet been found except
; itis probable however that bent stakes supplied the place
he plough.
Cherry, or the Dam-
but stones of the Wild Plum and
ive been found. Seeds of the Raspberry and
and shells of the Hazel nuts and beechnuts occur
mud. . i,
182 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland.
From all this, therefore, it is evident that the nourishment of
the dwellers in the Pileworks consisted of corn and wild fruits,
of fish, and the flesh of wild and domestic animals. Doubtless
also milk was an important article of their diet.
The list of plants found in the Pileworks stand as follows:—
Pinus abies. Corylus avellana.
“ picea. Prunus spinosa.
“ — sylvestris. “ adus.
Quercus Robur. Rubus idzus.
Fagus sylvaticus. “ — fruticosus,
Populus tremula. eat.
Betula alba. Hordeum distichum.
Alnus glutinosa. “ ~~ hexastichon.
Trapa natans.—This species was supposed to be extinct in Switzerland;
but, as M. Troyon informs me by letter, it has recently been discovered i
a living condition. 1t has, however, become very rare.
Flax, Hemp, Juncus, Arundo.
Neither Oats nor Rye have yet been found. Small pieces of
twine and bits of matting made of hemp and flax may have
been Pole of some article of clothing. For the latter purpose
also there can be little doubt that the skins of animals were :
and some of the stone implements seem well adapted to assist 1
their preparation, while the bone pins, and the needles made from
the baking was very imperfect. The form was frequently cyl:
indrical, but several of the jars were rounded at the base, and
Several of the vessels are ornamented with simple markings
.
generally mere impressions of the finger or of the nail. Ne!
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. 183
The lakes on which Pileworks of the Stone era have as yet
been found, are Constance, Zurich, Bienne, Neufchatel, Geneva,
Inkwyl, Nussbaumen, Pfeffikon, Moosseedorf, and Wauwyl.
Settlements of the Bronze period existed on the Lakes of Geneva,
Luissel, Neufchatel, Morat, Bienne, and Sempach, but none have
as yet been found on Lake Constance. It has been suppo:
from this that the age of Stone lasted longer in Eastern than in
estern Switzerland, and that flint and serpentine were in use
on Lake Constance long after Bronze had replaced them on the
estern Lakes. We can hardly suppose that the inhabitants of
Inkwyl and Moosseedorf in Berne, who imported flint from
structions of the latter period are more solidly built, but do not
otherwise appear to have differed materially from those of the
he age. They are often, however, situated farther from the
land and in deeper water, partly no doubt on account of the
cause more protection was needed as the means of attack were
improved. The principal implements of Bronze are, swords, dag-
ihe axes, spear heads, knives, arrow heads, pins, and ornaments.
he number of these weapons which have been discovered is al-
y very great.
From the settlement at Estavayer, in Lake Neufchatel, the fol-
lowing collection of bronze implements has been obtaine see
Pins with large spherical and ornamented heads, 36; Pins with ordin-
ary heads, 92; Knives, 26; Bracelets, 15; Sickles, 5; Axe, 1; Hook,
1; Chisel, 1; Small rings, 27; Buttons, 2; Dagger blade, 1; Arrow
nom 1; Pieces of spiral wire, 6; making altogether, 214 objects of
ze,
forty-two bronze hatchets
a iin iver ieee peat Wor the Steinberg M.
Ee were, however, made in Switzerland, as is shown by the
othe ag Morges of a mould for celts, and at Estavayer of a
Of tin
The potte of this period was more varied and more skillfull
made thea that of shes baoas age, and the potter's wheel was A
“J in use. Rings of earthenware are common, and appear
) have been used as supports for the round botto —
184 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland.
bronze implies the existence of commerce. It is difficult to say
whence the copper was obtained, but Saxony and
wall are the only parts of Europe which produce tin, It is how
ever, possible that Asia may have supplied both the one and the
other. The presence of amber shows that there must have been
a certain amount of communication with Northern Europe.
The Pileworks of Switzerland appear to have become
ually less numerous. During the Stone age they were spread
over the whole country. Confined during the Bronze era to the
es of Western Switzerland, during that of Iron, we find
them only on the Lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel. In these
settlements not only has a new substance made its appearance
but the forms of the implements are different. We have indeed
copies of the bronze axes made in iron, just as we found before
that the early bronze celts were copies of the still earlier stone
axe, but these are exceptional cases, The swords have larger
handles and are more richly ornamented; the knives have straight
edges; the sickles are larger ; the pottery is more skillfully made
and is ornamented with various colors; the personal ornaments
are also more varied, and glass for the first time makes its ap
ears, and divisions of thirty years, because it has then s iat
all in their language.” This name has generally been referred
man . as
e
wiss archzeologists consider that this is a mistake, and
J, Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitattons of Switzerland. 185
than thirty pieces of Gaulish and Massaliot money anterior to our
era, enable us to refer this battle field to the Roman era.
After this period we find no more evidences of Lake habita-
tions on a larger scale. Here and there indeed a few fishermen
may have lingered on the half destroyed platforms, but the wants
and habits of the people had changed, and the age of Pileworks
was at an end.
e have, however, traced them through the Stone and Bronze
down to the beginning of the Iron period. e have seen evi-
must be the date of their commencement. So varied however
are the conditions of the human mind, so much are all nations
Tesponding to the three epochs of human development, and we
know that the extermination of one species of forest tree and its
_ The torrent of the Tinidre® at the point where it falls into the
Lake of Geneva, near Villeneuve, has gradually built up a ees
of gravel and alluvium. In the formation of the railway this
cone has been bisected for a length of one thousand feet, and to
a dent i
above the level of the rails. The section of the cone thus
“d shows a very regular structure,
gradual. It is composed of the s
gravel, and larger blocks) as are even now brou f cola
m. The detritus does indeed differ slightly from y
whole mass, the influences of these temporar. ee
ch arise from meteorological causes, altogether disappear, and
ee * See Morlot, Legon d'Ouverture, dc.
AY Jour. Sct.—Srconp Serres, Vou. XXXIV, No. 101.—Szrr., 1962.
: 24
186 J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland.
need not therefore be taken into account, Documents preset
ved in the archives of Villeneuve show that in the year 1710 the
stream was dammed up and its course a little altered, whi
makes the present cone slightly irregular. That the change was
not of any great antiquity is also shown by the fact that on the
side where the cone was protected by the dykes, the vegetable
soil, where it has been atiected by cultivation, does not ex
two to threeinches in thickness. “On this side, thus protected by
the dykes, the railway cutting has exposed three layers of veg
etable soil, each of which must, at one time, have formed the
surface of the cone. ‘They are regularly intercalated among the
gravel, and exactly parallel to one another, as well as to the pres
ent surface of the cone, which itself follows a very regular curve,
The first of these ancient surlaces was followed on the southside
of the cone, over a surface of 15,000 square feet ; it hada thick
ness of four to six inches, and occurred at a depth of about four
feet (1-14 metre measured to the base of the layer) below the
present surface of tie cone. This layer belonged to the
period, and contained Roman tiles, and also a coin. i
. ‘The second layer was followed over a surface of 25,000 square
feet; it was six inches in thickness and lay at a depth of 10 feet
(2 97 metres, also measured to the bottom of the layer). Init
have been found several fragments of unvarnished pottery, and
a pair of tweezers in bronze, which to judge from the style ber
longed to the Bronze epoch. The third layer has been followed
fur 8500 square feet; it was six or seven inches in thickness,
lay at a depth of 19 feet (6:69 meters) below the present surface;
in it were found some fragments of very rude pottery; some
pieces of charcoal, some broken bones, and a human skelel\
with a small, round, and very thick skull, Fragments of char
coal were even found a foot deeper, and it is also worthy of no
tice “— no trace of tiles was found below the upper layer
‘earth. ‘ <
_ Towards the centre of the cone, the three layers disappeas
since, at this part, the torrent has most force, and has deposited
the coarsest materials, even some blocks as much as three feeti0
diameter. The farther we go from this central region the $
are the materials deposited, and the more easily might a layer of
earth, formed since the last great inundations, be cove over
by fresh deposits. Thus, at a depth of ten feet, in the gravel oa
the a < the cone, om a ie where the layer of earth belong:
| é bronze age had already disappeared, two unrot™
bronze di ae They had. probably bee®
} th, which once covers
r disappearing 1
e jayers reappear on
ay
J. Lubbock on the Ancient Lake Habitations of Switzerland. 187
and the same relative position. The layer of the Stone age was
but slightly interrupted, while that of the Bronze era was easil
distinguishable by its peculiar character and color.
Here, therefore, we have phenomena so regular, and so well
enotes that there was a town here even before the Roman pe-
od. In order, however; to form an idea of the time at which
the dwellings at Chamblon were left dry by the retirement of the
Ke, we must have in the valley a point of determined age, to
Serve as a term of com arison, and such a point we find in the
ancient city of Bhivedanuns (Y verdon), which was built ona
; Between this dune
é extendi Thiéle.
nding from Jorat to the *hie by the city of Yver-
and the lake, on the site at present occupied
no traces of Roman antiquities have ever been discove
from which it is concluded that it was at that period under water.
fourth century the lake
we shall ee
iod i effect this change. The
Sesh ake 500 feet in
*
188 On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys.
years must have elapsed since they were left dry. This Lake
dwelling belonged to the Bronze period, and the date thus ob-
tained, agrees pretty well with that obtained from the examina
tion of the Cone de la Tiniére. M.Troyon adds that “rien ne
fait soupgonner, pendant l’époque humaine et antérieurement a
notre ére, des conditions d’accroisement differentes de celles qui
ont eu lieu posterieurement aux Romains; le résultat obténuest
méme un minimum, vu que la vallée va se rétrécissant du cété du
lac et que nous avons admis la présence de celui-ci au pied méme
d’Eburodunum dans le IV® siécle de l’ére chretienne, tandis qu'il
est probable que la retraite des eaux n’a pas été insensible depuis
le moment ot les Romains se sont fixds sur ce point.”
However this may be, and while freely admitting in how many
respects this calculation is open to objection, we may still observe
that the result agrees in some measure with that given by the
Cone de la Tiniére. The ancient history. of Greece and Rome,
as far as it goes, tends to confirm these dates, since we know that
at the time of Homer and Hesiod, arms were in part at least,
made of iron, and as we know that at a very early period, ther®
was a certain amount of commerce between Helvetia and
shores of the Mediterranean, we can hardly suppose that a metal
so immensely important as iron, can have remained unknown in
the former country, long after it was generally used throughout
the latter.
Still, though we must not conceal from ourselves the imper
fection of archeological record, we need not despair of event
ually obtaining some more definite chronology. Our knowledge
of primitive antiquity has made an enormous stride in the last
ten years, and the future is full of hope. Iam glad to hearfrom
M. Troyon that the Swiss archeologists are continuing theif
labors. They may feel assured that we in England await with
interest the results of their investigations.
Art. XVIL-—Upon the structure of the Brain in Man and Mon-
» and tts bearing upon classification, with special reference o
the views of Owen, tushy and Gratiolet ; by R. WAGNER.”
_ OWEN has proposed a subdivision of the mammals [see ne
Journal for 1848, pp. 7 and 177] founded upon the structure ¢ i
e brain and more particularly upon that of the cerebrum a
© presence or absence of gyrations upon it. The two lower
our sub-classes he makes, the Lyencephala and Lissenee
cluding the Monotremata, Marsupialia, Rodentia, Insect
£ Naturgeschichte, 1861.
’
= °
ee
2 lg ae ;
Ra
On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys. 189
brain smooth or nearly so and the corpus callosum wanting or
rudimentary, in which characters they approach the Ovipara and
especially the birds. Some orders are thus removed from their
former higher position. The Quadrumana, Carnivora, Solidun-
gula, Ruminantia, Pachydermata, and Cetacea, form the second
of his upper sub-classes or the Gyrencephala. In them the brain,
excepting in the small clawed monkeys [Lemurs and Ouistits?],
is strongly grooved and has a well developed corpus callosum,
and by their higher faculties they are connected with man as his
servants and companions. In man the cerebrum ata still higher
stage of development spreads itself to a greater degree over the
ethmoid lobe, [Riechlappen] and the cerebellum and even devel-
Ops into the so-called third lobe of the cerebrum. This third
or posterior lobe together with the posterior horn of the lateral
Ventricle and the pes hippocampi minor he regards as peculiar
to man, who therefore constitutes not as hitherto merely an order,
but a sub-class, the Archencephala. Owen remarks further that
he cannot regard man and monkeys so distinct as does the au-
thor of Records of Creation, but as Linné and Cuvier have done,
ihust consider them fit subjects for zoologic comparison and
classification, especially as he is unable to distinguish in the men-
phenomena of a chimpanzee and a bushman or half formed
aztec other than differences of degree. pe i:
Owen’s views appear to me somewhat altered in his communi-
Cation at the last meeting of the British Association at Oxford, as
Teported in the Atheneum. He there said that the brain of the
Sorilla differed more from that of man than did that of the low-
&st and most problematic quadrumane, since there were parts
in the human brain wholly wanting in the gorilla. ;
t the same meeting Huxley, in opposition to the views of
Owen, denied that there is any such vast difference of structure
between the brain of man and monkeys and referred to the dis-
‘ections and figures of Tiedemann in support of his statement.
He thought the difference between man and the highest apes in
: eveloped the same
argument quite at len gth. Huxley maintains against Owen: Pe
That the posterior lobe is not peculiar to man an
€Xists also in the hi ris uadrumanes; an
the case with the =) Siopaskangs minor. Further that the two
latter on the general testimony of human anatomuists are variable
and inconstant in man, so as be of little value as dis-
t tinctive characteristics; and hence Huxley concludes that it
: may fairly be questioned whether the ration of man as a sub-
190 On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys.
however, that there still remain the following distinctions be
tween the brains of men and monkeys: 1. In anthropoid apes
the brain is smaller in proportion to the nerves having origin im
it; 2. The cerebrum is smaller in proportion to the cerebellam,
and 8. the gyrations of the hemispheres are shallower and more
symmetric; while 4. in man the proportions of the various lobes
to each other differ from those of corresponding lobes in
quadrumanes.
~ The first of these has been known since Soemmering, the three
relative size of the nerves and the brain in the higher and lower
and concludes that as the brains of Lemur mungos, Slenops tard
gradus and Perodicticus, differ so greatly from those vP other
monkeys, it is clear that the Quadrumana differ more among
themselves in brain structure than some of them do from mam,
and that the separation of Homo and Pithecus in distinct su-
classes while Pithecus and Cynocephalus are in one order is 1
compatible at least with the affinities of their brain structure.
M. Gratiolet’s classic work, “Mémoire sur les plis cérébraux de
Yhomme et des primates” has so completely described the brats
of the Quadrumana that their brain structure, at least as rega”
the external gyrations and lobes, is known better than that of
any other group of animals. This work fairly surpasses all th
has ever been done in this direction hitherto. M. Gratiolet has
the braia
de Ja So
—
On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys. 191
evident. “TI have found by a careful comparison of adult brains
in men and monkeys, that they are arranged on the same plan as
to the gyrations, and when the view is thus limited to the adult
structure there is no marked ground for separating them. But
in studying the development I find that in apes the gyrations of
© posterior lobes appear before those of the anterior lobes
which is just the reverse of their succession in man, In one the
developement is from « to o, in the other from » to a, and hence
it follows that no arrest of the development of a human brain can
make it resemble that of an ape. ‘This conclusion is borne out
by a study of the brains of human microcephals. At first view
one of them might be taken for the brain of a new species of ape,
but the least. observation corrects the error. In apes the fissura
longitudinalis® js always long and deep; in the human microce-
phal, this fissure is always incomplete and often wanting, the
Sphenoid lobe being wholly smooth. Further, in the microce-
hal, the second connectin g gyration (le deuxiéme pli de passage)
tween the occipital and parietal lobes which is a special char-
acteristic of man is visible on the surface. In the orang brain
on the contrary it is constantly concealed under the operculum
of the posterior or occipital lobe. In its atrophied condition the
mecrocephal brain, though it may be smaller and have fewer
8yrations than the brain of an orang or chimpanzee, still shows
tts human character. The microcephal or idiot however low is
Ro animal, he is only a reduced human being. Agi
_ “I have endeavored to ascertain whether microcephalia pre-
cedes birth or not. In some microcephals the form of the brain
and of the fissure of é
arly as the fifth month, Its cause is to be sought perhaps in
ing, for it is a proportion that puberty
i i to the theories of Gall in
aa iaeh 3s cbs but on the other hand
192 On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys.
with certainty, speed, and by an harmonious control of his mus
cular system. e strong relative development of the myelon
or spinal cord is in conformity with these facts.
“The atrophy then in these creatures is confined almost en
tirely to the hemispheres of the brain. The organs of sense are
large and well developed and the nerves which supply them have
usually a proportional development far surpassing a norm ne,
“I may remark here that as microcephals have the material
and zodlogic marks of man, so have they also man’s distinctive
ulties. Most have a language, not rich it is true, but still ar
ticulate and distinct. Their brains in appearance below those of
or Imbecility, man is still human, not an ape.
__ “The microcephals wanting a part of their brain gyrations, are
all small. I may mention in this connection the proportion that
has been observed for some time between the complexity of the
brain gyrations and the general size of the animal. It is true
that all large animals have gyrations, whilst the greater propor
: ey
rations indicates not so much the great size of the individual
very observation confirms the view that degraded forms of a8
species tend toward extinction. __ oes
- Gratiolet concludes that “ man is separated from the animals
site
as completely by his physical organism as he is by his mental
phenomena.” | ee
me very general remarks of Dr. Wagner are here omitted.)
i re Tt oe 5 ere as 4 : 2 L ‘. 1 fal nen ae
habet tise dent, RE nna Hits . ‘ y i. 5h pc I: ng rodents. , ; J "
Pee cw
On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys. 193
As regards the application of the brain structure to zocdlogic
classification, which I believe Leuret first,* and more recently
Agassiz in regard to the turtles, suggested, the attempt of Owen
among mammals shows its failure to be that of any other single
anatomical character so used. As with the classification
fishes proposed by Miiller and that by Agassiz, every application
of a single organic character fails when carried out, leaving gaps
that destroy the uniformity of the whole. It is the sum of
the mutual relation of the individual parts of the structure that
measures affinities, rather than individual marks of structure
through the highest. The very objections, which Miiller
against Agassiz’s classification by scales, may be applied with
equal force to Miiller’s classification, based on the valves of the
us arteriosus, fe
There is much that suggests thought in Owen’s application of
the brain structure to classification. The importance of the organ
Sone to expect beforehand that it should, better than any
other individual character, mark the scale of the being. But the
stinctions between morphologic and physiologic equivalents
‘ogies, homolgies, &c.), are still so indefinite and disputable
a to demand the greatest caution; and though I accept, I must
vec regard them as obscure conceptions rather than as scientific
Lot know what relation the terminal gray substance of the sur-
e nerve origins of the
brain and spinal cord, nor their special psychical significance.
On the other hand the typical arrangement of the gyrations
and the formation of the lobes of the cerebrum are certainly in
intimate relation to the systematic division of the groups, orders
and families, j i
Tangement. B .
ly, and especially those of a marked natural group, that may
be justly compared as to the relative development and arrange-
Ment, and in the number and details, of their gyrations.
ourdan before that, (Comptes Ren-
a Soto on heaters se ed by him
structure of the nervous system, and in the
.
194 On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys.
So then we say that in a broad point of view man forms one
group with the monkeys, in a narrower sense he forms a group
by himself. And this from the structural arrangement of his
brain and the configuration of its gyrations.
I do not understand how so much emphasis has been given
to unessential parts that vary even among men; as the posterior
‘ horn of the lateral ventricle, the pes hippocampi minor and even
the emminentize candicantes [corpora mammilaria] as distinctive
of man. [Reference is here made to Serres’ view, that the se
called corpora mammillaria of animals really represent the tuber
cinereum. |
The plan and arrangement of the lobes* is one for man and
the monkeys, and the fissures and the position of the various
rts make a striking resemblance between even the lowest ap
orain and that of man. 3
_ Even if the difference of development pointed out by Gratio-
let be given its utmost force, there is still a striking resemblance
between the early stages of the human brain and the various
while the highest anthropoid apes are brought still nearer by :
symmetry and number and depth of their gyrations, and by =
p i insula Reilii.
and especially to the cerebellum, whilst essential differences Reet!
as to the order, size and limits of the occipital lobes, fori”
[* The division of the brain into lobes as proposed by Gratiolet is as follows’
The central lobe is the insula Reilii. - The Fst of Sylvias running outward, HP
ward and backward from this separates the temporo-sphenoidal or tempor lobe :
aa from the frontal and parietal lobes above, and finally terminates in the ¢ al
e of Gratiolet. This er sing o down lobe
ian line ur inner surface of the hemispheres separates the eage 0
above, and the temporal lobe below, from the occipital lobe, The ascending it 38
Int front of the fissure of Rolando separates the in which oo
i, from the frontal /obe. The continuation t
the mesial surface of the hemispheres is
8 nas the internal vertical fissure artly
operculum is the superior sharply defined edge of the occipital lobe, which catiolet
verlies the parietal lobes in orangs. The external vertical fissure of Gra’.
appears to be rarely if ever filled up by connecting gyrations (plis de passer)
quadrur in the mature in it is yg. 1
eZ
On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys. 195.
orang these lie lid-like [operculum] upon the gyrations that Gra-
tiolet has called connection folds [plis de passage]. I may note
here what Gratiolet has not mentioned, that the gyri breves of
the insula Reilii are present in the orangs, and that, as 1 have
elsewhere shown—“ Vorstudien zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mor-
phologie des Menschlichen Gehirns,”—the gyrations of the pos-
terior lobes cannot be absolutely compared with those of man.
I however agree with Gratiolet, that there is no absolute identi-
fication of the human brain, not even of the microcephal, with the
uadrumane brain. In a cast of a microcephalous brain, I find
the occipital and parietal lobes quite small, the first indeed is
almost wanting, so as to leave the cerebellum exposed. The cere-
bellum is however strougly developed. In the orang the occipital
lobes are large and as is the case I believe in all brachycephalous
and dolichocephalous races of men it completely overlaps the cer-
ebellum. There is no closer approximation between the brains
of men and monkeys than there is between their skulls. In the
human microcephalus and the anthropoid apes, the brain pan
(Schadelkapsel) is of a like size or even larger in the latter, the
Jaws project similarly, the arched line of the origin of the tem-
poral muscle is higher and forms, even in the microcephal, a
Sort of crest or ridge, the proportions of the supra and inter max-
anes, the form of the nasals the canines (Eckzihne) and the chin
are alike ; but the whole shape, arrangement and connection of
the fucial bones of the microcephalus are yet so clearly recon
that typical comparison separates them from the most anthropoid
apes, and that on fundamental grounds. From all we know
of the normal and abnormal human and ape structure, the two
ate separated as widely as birds and mammals, as monotremes
(Schnabelthier) and ostriches or ducks since these show a super-
ficial relation in bill, cloaca, and clavis. All I know of zoology
and physiology is opposed to any such transmutation as Darwin
Suggests. Men and apes without any consideration of their men-
I Phenomena are primitively and absolutely different in mate-
4! structure,
{In a later number of the same Journal, Dr. Wagner makes
_ Some further observations upon the microcephalous brain, and
‘ams up in the following interesting conclusions. fae
1. In adult and strong microcephals the brain 1s Jess in weight
and size than in a 2S hl child, This reduction of the brain
mass is not however uniform in all its parts. hild
, 2. For while the cerebrum is less than that of a new-born child,
the cerebellum is larger. The proportion of the perp bnlare, cor-
Pora quadrigemina, medulla and pons varolii, to the cerebrum
1 Well formed adults is as 1 to 7 or 8 in man, as 1 to 5 in orangs,
myo 8 or 4 in adult microcephals.
i Farther, while the four lobes of the
es of the cerebrnm are stunted,
temporo-sphenoid lobe is least affected, the frontal next, and
196 On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys.
the parietal and occipital lobes are most so. The central lobe—
insula Reilii—with its gyrations appears to be wanting or very
rudimentary in the lower suiubuee shin as is also the operculum
(Klappdeckel), while all of these are present in the orang. ;
4. Though the gyri are smaller, stunted or wanting, and the
gray layer is thinner in the brains of microcephals, yet so far as
the gyri are present they show the same relation and order as in
the normal human brain. This normal arrangement, so far a31
may judge from casts of the hollows of skulls and from a few
dissections, is the same in type for all races of men. ,
5. The lateral ventricle appears relatively larger in the micro-
cephal, and this shows that there is an early arrest of develop
ment, usually occurring in the third or fourth month, at whi
time the parietal and occipital lobes begin to grow, the central
lobe is still rudimentary and the frontal and temporal lobes,
especially the latter, have quite a development. The embryonal
condition of some bones of the skull confirms this view. But
this arrest is not so much arrest of growth as of development,
the gyri and lobes increasing slowly in size and the atrophy of
limitation being mostly shown in those parts that are-undevel
oped at the time of the arrest,
6. The resemblance to the brain of apes and particularly to
that of the chimpanzee is only apparent, and consists mainly m
the lesser size of the gyri and their consequent symmetry, while
at all deficient. It is true microcephals usually learn to walk
late and have an uncertain or stumbling gait, but they are
quick and nimble in climbing. The complete integrity of the
senses, especially of sight and hearing, favors the view that
the transformation of sensations into perceptions, (Vorstellunge?
The relation between the cerebrum and the intelligence i8 °
On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys. 197
faculties.* The microcephals wee in this point of view to be
below all mammals and birds, ‘The idioti
han is distinct from the Quadrumana, has not met the objections
of Huxley; nor are we aware that Gratiolet has given any data
for clearing up the apparent inconsistency in separating man as
asub-class, upon the structure of his brain, from the quadrumanes,
while as great or greater differences exist among the genera of
organ is peculiar to man
that the Sich exercise of its function is one of his most rom
traits. As such, a variation and especially a variation in the
‘ante’ a Oe Te - ts of the brain gi j th place is illus-
‘ills tina Breadth. Height.
Gauss the mineralogist, 165 7 125
_ Dnteh, 168 116
‘Tonguse, 165 143 120
Russian, 167 ibe 115
egro,
Microcephal aged 31 years, 102 = a
‘ ao “« 98° & 101 108 87
Thee Orang Outang 101 ;
bones in the
198 On the Structure of the Brain in Man and Monkeys.
method of development, as shown by Gratiolet, is really of great
force: granting however that if the distinctive faculties of mind
did not follow this variation as a norma result, the mere varia-
tion in itself could not have such weight. Hence we think Hux
ley’s objections are rather against the separation of man as
Archencephala, than against the separation itself; and as such
more specious than real, for it would be of equal force in logic
to object against it that the ruminant or cetacean brain differs
more from the quadrumane than that of man does from the
chimpanzee’s,
But the brain, however important in function, is really an ob-
scure internal organ, and since there is so complete a relation
between the external form and the mind even, some extera
feature would better have been chosen as characteristic of the
su
characterized by his great toe than by his thumb, by his foot
than by his hand, since the former imply the erect attitude.
When we see how the gradual elevation of the brain end of the
motive function is performed by the spine and mesial fins i
lower vertebrate forms is gradually sh a
on the mesial line, and becomes more and more exclusively the
work of these members, while the spine is successively short
ened, until in man we have only the posterior pair of members
a
this posture. Carus has remarked that in using only one pail
of members for locomotion, and leaving the other pair free to sel”
sation and esthetic uses, man stands alone among animals. More
recently Prof. Dana has mentioned the same idea to the Wr es
and has farther emphasized it by observing that this application
of members to the uses of the head in man is analogous to that
cephalization which he has long ago shown to be a principal of
elevation in the Crustacea. st
To sum up then in regard to the order Bimana: the thant
and hands of the gorilla are far more powerful than those
nd ght. eo
are peculiar to man among the vert
y 200logic grounds he is clearly seP* = |
O. N. Rood on Stereoscopic Experiments. 199
tated from other mammals, and justly forms a sub-class by
himself, even without regard to his mental phenomena—if it
were posssible to conceive of their absence in such a structure.
The significance of the other sub-classes also is more evident,
when we consider their size and organic’ development rather
than their mere brain structure. Hence Prof. Dana has sug-
gested to the writer the terms Macrencephala and Micrence-
phala for Gyrencephala and Lissencephala, the one being prin-
cipally of large forms and the other—with the exception of the
dentata which however show a sluggish overgrowth—of cor-
responding small forms.
he Lyencephala would seem also to be better characterized
by the short gestation and the premature birth of their young,
than by the greater or less development of their corpus callosum ;
though such indications of an unfinished structure are interest-
ing confirmations of their premature condition. It might also
be objected that the term is too much like Lissencephala to be a
Teally good one. :
It is interesting to observe, in the phenomena presented by
microcephals, that the typic development may be arrested, while
4 Vegetative growth or mere increase in size may still continue
In the part so arrested; indicating two kinds of forces, typic or
formative, and nutritive. The former of these is essentially
hereditary, governs the embryonic life and form, and gives rise
More especially to the varieties of a Ls eee the latter produe-
tive of growth and health is rather influenced by the conditions
of life, food, &.—w. c. M. :
New Haven, Aug., 1862.
hone
Arr. XVIIL—On some Stereoscopic Experiments; by Professor
O. N. Roop, of Troy, N. Y.
1, On the Binocular Combination of Drawings in fine and thick linva.
SEVERAL years ago, Dove studied the curious effects produced
by the stereoscopic at of linear drawings, in which the ad
Parts consistin o of fine and thick lines. ak
I made in this manner, on a white ground, two pee of
4 convex pyramid; the lines of the right hand picture having
three times the diameter of the corresponding lines of the left.
Both sets of lines were black. In the stereoscope the relief was
found to be but little impaired, although no proper fusion of
the fine and thick lines had taken place: it was found, that
the fine lines of the n ‘ection combined with the edges
: Pas oe
200 O. N. Rood on Stereoscopic Experiments.
of the thick lines in the other, where the former remained plain
ly
distinguishable. With another drawing, in which the thick
ines were six times as broad as the fine, the latter still combined
I
ing to the inner diameter of II; the smaller circle is seen to lie
in the plane of the paper, while the larger circle is considerably
inclined to it.*
The analysis of this singular fact seems to be as follows:
when we place in the stereoscope a slide such as that in fig. 2,
the difference in the diameter in the circles being ;'5 of an 10
combination alternately and rapidly takes place between @ all
(fig. 2) 6, and between a and 0’, the resultant impression bo
according to the principles so ably developed by Prof. Wm. ».
Rogers, that of two circles intersecting at a certain angle,
smaller one being situated in the plane of the paper. | |
Now, when the drawings are made in fine and Wl lines, |
in fig. 1, the fine line combines alternately with the exterior
pe the inner edge of the thick line, and produces the 8
ect.
2. On the Production of Lustre in the Binocular Combination of small
and large Surfaces.
By far the most valuable observations on the binocular com
bination of large and small drawings with which I am _%
quainted, are those made by Prof. William B. Rogers. | ~
important distinction between the union of drawings differing
in size in a horizontal or vertical direction, was first pointed 0
by him, as well as the fact, that
while the former case is norm
alesis
OU. N. Rood on Stereoscopic Experiments. 201
I combined two such black surfaces as A and B (fig. 8); the
ground was white. Now it is evident that when the edgescc
and hh coincide, dd cannot coalesce with 77, consequently the
narrow band, included by the dotted line, appears white to one
eye and black to the other; in spite of this, however, the play
of the ocular axes was so rapid, and the two combinations so
ay effected, that no lustre on this band was perceptible.
imilar experiments with yellow squares on a blue ground gave
alike result. When, however, the inequality was in a vertical
direction, the unmatched band or edge showed lustre with dis-
netness,
As Dove* has pointed out that the stereoscopic experiments
published by me in this Journal+ still further confirm his posi-
tion in opposition to some distinguished physicists, that lustre
does not necessarily depend upon an idea of solidity or depth, I
Will here mention two additional experiments, which would
: remove the last shadow of dota on this point. I com:
bined in the stereoscope black surfaces $ inch square with various
tinted papers 14 inches square, when lustre resulted, although
the two figures totally refused to unite into one. Finally, a
Plece of red or white paper, 1 inch square, was pasted on one
side of a blackened stereoscopic slide, which was then placed in
ereoscope. Here but one figure was present; to the other
eye merely a dark field was presented ; consequently, the diffi-
perioualy described by Dove and myself, simply because it is
3. Production of Lustre by the convergence of the Ocular Axes.
in the followi iful riment the idea of solidity is
taded, Moats ato is seen detatched even from a
in such a manner that the aperture appears black to o
White to the other; the Sculls gi fre then converged on the
* P as i, May, 1861.
‘ogg. Annalen, vol. cxiv, p. 165... + Vol. xxxi, May,
AX. Jour. Scr.—Sxconp SeRtEs, VoL. XXXIV, No. 101.—Szpt., 1862.
os
202 ‘Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
needle, which is attentively regarded. The open aperture now ”
mes a lustrous appearance, and one is tempted to believe
that it encloses a plate of very clear polished glass; but as an
instinctive search for minute particles of dust on this imaginary
surface fails to detect them, the idea is gradually forced on the
mind that it is the air itself which now has become lustrous, By
shading the black paper the effect is much heightened, Corres:
ponding effects are- produced by the use of blue with yellow
paper, ete.
ove suggests,* that the peculiar lustre of the deep blue sky
is caused by light from different distances falling on the eye;
Troy, N. Y., August, 1862.
sf
Art. XIX.—Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy; by GE
J. Brusu, Professor of Metallurgy in Yale College.
List of Works, etc.
A. Kennoorr: Uebersicht der Resultate mineralogischer Forschungen im Jabre
1860. 8vo, pp. 217. Leipzig, 1862, ae
H. Kopp H. Wiz: Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der Chemie,
verwandter Theile anderer Wissenschaften. 8vo, pp. 906. Giessen, 1861.
H. Gimarp: Handbuch der Mineralogie, 8vo, pp. 656. Leipzig, 1862.
F. v. Koseti: Die Mineralogie—Populire Vortrige. Frankfurt a.M. 186%
H, O. Lenz: Mineralogie der alten Griechen und Rémer. 8vo, pp. 194.
1861.
in Tyrol; American Chrysoberyl; Datholite from Bergen Hill; :
from Kahl; Barytes from Ober Ostern; Brucite from Texas, Pennsylvania;
clase from Baveno. y Be
A. Scuravr: Monographie des Columbit. 8vo, pp. 20, mit 7 Tafeln. Wien, z
H. Davuser: Ermittelung Krystallographischer Constanten, und des Grades
Zuverlissigkeit (22. Rothbleierz). 8vo, pp. 53, mit 12 Tafeln. Wien, 1860. :
Perens K. F.: Mineralogische Notizen. I, Zin Beitrag zur Entwicklungs-@ ;
des Azurits und des Maluchites von Moldava im Banat, IL, Ueber Kaleit und d@
thombvedrischen Karbonspathe im Allgemeinen, III, Miscellaneen—Neues J#?*
buch fiir Mineralogie, etc., Jahrgang, 1861, pp. 278-285, 434-455, 655-666.
——— Geologische und Mineralogische Studien aus dem siidéstlichen ae mr i
eS01 aus d von Retzbanya. Sitzungsberichte der WieD-
der Wissenschaften, xliii, 385-463, xhv, 81-187. me
_H Satste C ‘Devittz: la présence du Vanadium dans un MN
eux du midi de la France. Etudes analytiques sur les matiéres alumineus®*
et de Physique, (3,) Ixi, 309.”
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 203
H. vowel Crarre Devittr: Observations sur la présence a Bee éléments
ordinairem Same ober dans des substances plus communes. n. de Chimie et de
Hipsiane, (3), xi,
Du a ee formation de la Topaze et du Zircon. Compt. Rendus, lii, 780.
erent Doda ie de la Willémite et de quelques Silicates métalliques.
Comptes. Renin hel
production oe Fer oxydulé, de la rag et de la Périclase—Protoxyde
de Manganése sootattng Comptes Rendus, liii, 199.
H. St, Crane Devitur er Troost: oe la reproduction des Sulfures métalliques
7 SR Com mee s Rendus, lii, 9
rvations sur les th lithes formées dans un béton romain par
les “tg era ae Luxeuil (Haute-Saéne). Bull. Soc, Geol., xviii, 108.
—— Betrachtungen und Versuche iiber den pkg ac ayreng und iiber
; ng der Seaulitecher Gesteine. Aus dem x der Mémoires pe
st divers savants a l’Académie des Neely Bt “1860, iibersetzt v:
in, 1861,
A. Des Crotzeaux: etm sur un ere Procédé propre i a -‘mesurer V'Indice
Moyen et Beartement ne Axes optiques dan ob cet écarte-
rés-grand, et sur la Séparaton de plusieurs: gee jninttales regardées
jus'qu’ ici comme i: sae ptes Rendus, lii, ci
7 ——— Sur les Modifications ain 3 e odification permanente 7”
Action de la Somer tae ere A quelques propalkee phere du Feldspath orthose.
Comptes es Rendus, li
—— Notice sur “a8 Travaux minéralogiques et géologiques. 4to, pp. 37. Paris,
a
A. Detessr: De l’Azote et des Matiéres organiques dans I’Ecorce terrestre. 8vo,
pp. 176. Paris, 1861.
——— Etudes sur le Métamorphisme des Roches. 4to, pp. 95. re 1861,
— Hireacock, E. Hircucoce, Jr., C. H. Hrrescock ap A. D. Hacer
de 4to, pp. 988. Claremont; 1861. ; so
D. Wan Re of a Geological Survey of the Lea efits of t P-
View Msspp. Eitiated fr from the vist Volume of the Geological Survey of
p. 73-4 apes!
Reports on the Geology and
port
E, :
OLMES AND mea ayes
Natural pW of a ee ey ge ae ook <i Annual Re
Maine Boa of Agric ulture. 8vo, pp. 464 Augusta, 18
A. cake First biennial Res of the Aaa of 2 sah rat Fe of
tishigan, embracin g observations on the Geology, Zoology and
Peninsula. ate pp. 3 anaogs 1861.
| Description of Species.
Adamsite. —See ee a
ified this mineral as occurring with
yire). It is fsimore granular than the
thitneyite from Ie
= 84 ior (see WH
Polish ed whi > ches a ae aes colo 2 lustre, and when
hit is almost silver white est of it forms the lining of little cavities as
ws 00 indistinct to determine their form. ny shows that
compositi ry nearly t nite, slight admixture of
writneyite generally gives the arsenic a little too low. ie Genth has also
Chile Chile: mine ag nee a. ieee that of flane
: er he “4
na, a a alt : tle; lustre, on
, steel. idal; brittle; lustre, on fresh
fracture, saah ate i ya or tea ng cl om enone associated with cuprite, barytes,
Malachite, etc, Analysis of the mineral from the two loealities gave:
204 Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
As Cu Ag
1. Lake Superior, 15°30 84°22 032 = 99.84
s. be undet. 84°10 03
3. be 16°72 82°35 030 = 99°37
> Chile, 17°46 81°82 fr, a Oe
re 16°94 82°33 tr = 9927
- _ 16°44 83°11 f= eee
and 2 appear to have contained a small admixture of whitneyite, Nos. 3,
oF and 6 give eee coll exactly the formula Cu,, As==As 16 50, Cu 8350—(this Journal,
Autsonrre [Suppl. VII].—F, Field gives a new analysis of this species, in which
he found;
Cu Pb
17°69 53°28 28:81 == 99°78
This agrees very closely with the former analysis, and tp the formula 3€uS+
Pb S=S 1778, Ca 53°34, Ph 28°88.—(Quar. Jour. Chem. Boc., xiv, 160.)
Attanite [p. 208, I—VI, VIII].—D. M. Balch _ aga orth, associated
quartz and feldspar, at Swampscot, Mass, It is massiv et black; sek
gray G.==369-371 at 18°C. BB. fases toa black Minar 8 ass; with borat
soda gives reactions for iron and manganese.
es Posh). iF M. eg H
1. 33°31 sah Pas 2194 132. 7:85 126 undet. 149=:9771
e
2. 82-94 33°60 907). 109..781 147. *. oe
The mineral in its natural state is pager Se by i acid, but after ign
tion is not affected by it. It very pearl rresponds in composition ion with
orthite from Hitteroe~(this pee [2], xxiii, i, 850),
Analysis of allanite from Franklin, New Jersey. by T. 8. Hunt (Proe. : ae
Nat. Hist,, viii, 57). Oe is pasa ares with feldspar, ‘ad - igs by
son, in the o Jron Mine at Franklin, S
Jac
decomposed by hot shiohrdtie acid, with separation of Rowlett silica. ia
positi
a a fe iabi a Mg Mo in
"3020. 1805 1825 1660 690 1178 170 &
Atunirs [p. 388, V].—Analyses of native alunite, from Talfa, Italy, and Musssh
Hungary, by A. Mitscherlich, - (Jour. pr. Chem., lexxiii,
Ol Na se
Tolfa, 8683 3863 070 029 899 1°84 phe:
Muzsai, 39:15 3693 049 O19 196! — 1%
Mitscherlich considers that the rational com is best expressed by
formula K $+! $?+241 H3, as the water is serrata pa below » coer
—— = ex and moreover, when expelled, the residue co
um and
Ane.esire om 376, Il, pec Field has examined a black amorphous
sulphate of ance _ a mine near Coqui' abe, Chile. It oceurred in op oot
masses, in of ‘which tansll Yo vein of galena was running. It ha a
ane, and was without metallic lustre. The vy, Pi tiferous rous galen cot
eus of the mass, contained appreciably more silver than the o
“20. Composition :
Ag
3:16 ir. me 99°90
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 205
on eepr dpe 297, I}. ~—Ealeunene gives analyses of a mineral resembling
aphrosideri wo iron 3; one at Muttershausen, in Nassau, the “anual
at Balduinsteiae “the streak of the mineral from both localities i is apple-green
Si xl = #Fe Mg H
1, Muttershausen, G.=2: oA oe af 20:69 4°01 2 "19 11°70 re
aut Balduinstein, G.=3-0 — 413 2760 1393 10
esponding very closely with the aphrosiderite bie by v. Hauer, from
Types Styria (Supp. I).—(Kopp's Jahresbericht, 1860, 773.)
Arornyttire [p. 804, V].—Analysis of the pink apophyllite, from Andreasberg,
by H. Stélting;
Si Oa kK Ht
5173 25°02 5-10 1573 == 99°68
No fluorine is given, —(B. and H. Zeitung, xx, 267.)
ARsEnicat- ANTIMONY {p. 22].—An interesting variety of this mineral, from the
Ophir Mine, Nevada Territory, has been described and analyzed by F. A. Genth,
curs in reniform finely crystallized sian at radiated masses lor on fresh
ane en os n-white and iron-bla ck but t grayis ivh-black on ape Com
ARsErNOLITE nm 139,].—Dr. death has yee: arsenolite, ctuiey oh th arseni-
eee y. in daria, from the Ophir Mine, Nevada Territory—(this Journal,
aaa Srrnet.
BIHARITE [K. F. Peters Ber. Wien, Akad. wae sips ee ge this name
to @ mineral from Werksthal near Retzbanya, as previously passed under
_hame of agalmatolite. It is a massive, aia line substance as-
Seclated with fine granular limestone. The mass sae asy feel and adheres
bak tu the mgs lars It is slightly brittle, fracture uneven to splintery conchoi-
; 5. G.=2°787 (yellow variety). Color yello green——from brown
‘¢loudy wine-yellow to leek Raed all song are transparent, all varieties
translucent, St} k white. Lustre, greasy to pearly, with polarization micro-
Stope shows double refraction. Rubbed with sk gives aren electricity. B.B. in
ube yields water and becomes white or grayish white. green variety
eile and the yellow variety fuses onl the edges. With cobalt solution
og rose-red pe after : pi fom only a violet color. Does not gelatinize
homogeneous
nd Aclils, A Wiectinee of an ate variety of a wine-y:
‘Breen color analyzed by M. Soltesz gave
BS a py day ig te © s
e a M. a
3980 1283 tr. =668 on49 468 ft. 424 2:05=97°72
The carbonic acid was due ms grate mechanically as ay whos the mineral.
necessary to have
P : Se ture in giving it a new name. We question ve of ad
5 4 hew name $8 hikes, without full fad; just grounds, under the plea o beessnies 3
the bur investigation. It is gxi ning the credit of naming a species, while throwing
den of in nvestigation on others.
beceuore [ p. 20, VIIT.—A abe vein, containing metallic opera has
ths opened at the Atlas Mine, in Devonshire. The vein is three feet i width. and
the constitutes one-sixteenth of the whole mass, having a a value of ie to
fathom.—(Dingler’s Polytechnisches Journal, clix, 76.)
- Bonaorz [p. 11, ILI-VII1].—Analysis of sare ialeig
20 Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
ee Jahresbericht, 1859, 816). The mineral was washed with cold water, to free
from adhering chlorid of magnesium. The insoluble portion ty
Mg Cl Mg H
997 24-93 6°20 oa
@ By difference.
giving the formula 2(Mg?B++H)+MgCl, H or two equivalents more of water than
obtained by Heintz and Potyka.
Boronatrocaterre [see Harestve, p.394, V, VIIT].—H. How has given the name
eryptomorphite to a h dros borate of lime and soda, which is found in Sf eee neat
woe ta aSeaann sa acid, On exposure to the air, loses 18°36 per cent of water.
i ifying power of 350 diameters Prof. Robb pees the mineral to be
aistnety crystalline, i with a ructure, and differing in form very ced |
from the
mineral :
tro-borocalcite found at the same locality, Composition of the
Ca Na 8 Mg Tr B
1421 725 3°98 0°62 19:96 53°98
pono A the magnesia and sulphuric acid to be accidental, and, deducting the
+7H, and the remaining slp acid as Na S, How obtaits
©a 15° 85, Na 5°61, H 19° 73, BS 910, corresponding to the formula Na, 30a, oB+
ao NaB+ +a 3B5+12 aq. [We have placed this mineral under boronatre
cite ; d
which prove the definite ne invariable composit ition of the mineral from any gived
locality, we may well hesitate before ‘waka or ca er ng any more new species
The hydrous borates of fen and soda have al already rather an excess of aynonyms; oF
the lime borate we have hayesine, borocalcite and hy droborocalcite ; for the lime
and soda borate: beschahebcabidia ulexite te, tinkalzite, cone natroboroca eite, and now
i That there are two distinet species, hayesine and 1 horoatronlg
ailmit oe
t of a doubt, but as the poscagesich of er ee ese is definite
= we are not yet willing to admit that these names, pee present ap
each represent three or four distinct mineral mborendiarn J oy
Bovuryonite [p. 80, V].—F. Field has found this species at a mine near =
asco, in northern Chile. The : speci imen was cr stallized. H=2'6, Gs * .
resembled in every respect the bournonite from Seo sem Field gives analyses
both the Chilean and Cornish minerals, with e follow’
ithe Sb Pb Cu
Huasco, 20°45 26°21 40°76 1252 = 9994
Cornwall, 20:30 26°30 40°80 1270 == 10010
These analyses correspond in a most remarkable manner with Rose’s analysis of the
158.)
Pfaffenberg bournonite.—(Quar. Jour. Chem. Soc., xiv
Baverre [p. 133, I, I[-I[X]—R. Hermann has ime the name Tezalite to
ydrate of m magnesi esia from Hany By pacer vania, and has attempted to show
y dim: of
ift der Geol. Gesellschaft, xiii, 178).
ae eae dn { here, or it would have been uoted 1
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 207
Fes. with rhombohedral planes R and -1R. Since the yetoniiee of these results,
nberg has published, in No, 4 of his “ Notizen,” an ination of the crystal-
line form of this species, which also shows it to be aeoheader a* this we my
= that Dr. Auerbach found that its optical properties were pee a rhom
ea
substance
With such an accumulation of facts from five different peer tec Pa it may safely
be assumed that texalite does not differ from SOE rhombohedral drucite,
An analysis of the Texas mineral gave Her
Mg Mn H
68°87 0°80 80°33
Catautee [p. 313, II-VIT].—The name eo has been given by Radoszkovski,
to a coner ona silicate of zine from Nijni-Jagurt, in the Ural (Comptes Rendua,
liii, 107), Tt occurs in concretionary crusts, which, when examined by the magnifier,
show indistinct seep Color, light blue to green. H.=5, Sp. gr.=2°707. Soluble
in acids, Com positi
Si Oa Zn H OuFe
26-00 155 66:90 470 be. 7, = BOIS
Oxygen, 13°87 44 13-21 4:18
giving the = for Bh Zn,H, 3:38:14. The author, by an error in calculation
es the ra ete ; the composition and ratio wes 's0 a — of Calamine.
that for the ag ay safe nsider wagite a S species,
ae tomaln pr propery is the ie gravity, which ts is tects less than that
Canorintre [238, Eth —G. Meine sta has examined ¢ cancrinite, from Ditro
in Siebenbii is found in with sodalite, el. tet ortho-
clase, Color, pale tere ‘loures y partectly; tly, yielding hexagonal i=
55, G2. 42, Compositi
1 Na H 6
37-2 80°3 Bl 17-4 40 5:3... 90-2
Meine + momma from the composition of cancrinite from the Ural and from
en. Akad., xliv, 134.)
wtund A 41].—T. L. Phipson has examined a native oxyd of antimony
from Borneo, h is identical with. this species (Com - —— hii, ses It is
srratted with a stibnite, and occurs as a comupert ok bstance, of a yellow-
é ted
pears mboidal prism, terminated by two " planes with ee they had a
Lavan and were horizontally st ; e mineral was
non-volatile. ind unaltered, thus icingishing it from SbO3. B.B. infusible, thus
gage im tirely pata in the flame,
but unaltered in the fre para me, These pees: in connexion with the follow-
mg, analysis, show mineral to be SbO,. With soda a gives pate
Pittitins, analysed, contained ‘stibnite, sulphur, oxyd of iro’ n and alumina as im-
ee SbO, H fei Si, S, ete.
G=4-64-4-68 6500 $75 1000 21°25 = 10000
[Phi 'pson considers the water as combined with the antimony, giving the ben
ants HO, and refers the mineral to Beudant’s en page yee conite, but as wi Pate
ription that the pure mineral was un: i closed tube, w
sume that the water was Pvcdooer ss ith the iron, alumina, and other impurities
x
Ceanazire [p. 819, IT].—Analysis of chabazite from Oberstein gave G. Schroeder:
‘ Al Sr Na K Mg :
— 5019 145 Mee 048 082 212 062 &. 220910040
208 Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
ortre [p. 294, IV, heh —Genth has described te-like min
eral wees Webster, N. C., which he considers a result of the sheer of chrysolite,
It occurs in what ap o . rhom plates, and the er: s, though indis
tinct, present triangular basal and rhom ral planes. Cle : highly
ze ect. H==2:5. Color, dark bluish to brownish-green ; transluc B.B.
iates slightly and becomes silver- — Infusible, The material for analysi was
too small to have it of uniform
Si €r e* Ni 6a kK Ign.
1. 8115 1870 416 488 016 undet. 0°17 undet., 3°29
S: 31°75 1245 wundet. 494 undet. 43°10 undet. 006 undet,
Mean,3145 1808 416 488 0°16 4310 O17 006 829==10036
These results place the mineral near pyrosclerite and chlorite. The small amount
of water is remarkable, especially when taken in ¢ - with the anh
same 1
Shepard's rastolyte, from Monroe, New York, is own by Pisani to be a ferrw
ginous chlorite (Comptes Rendus, liv, 468). Pisani observes, that although the
mineral is - oop acted upon, it is not entirely decomposed by ac acids. After de
duction he sear ag pyrites with which it is intimately associated, the composition
Si mame Fe Mg H
34.98 sot ~ he 9°22 = 10076
All the iron was in the of pr former ven he by Shepard made
the wt gn on near that of religions (ce Suppl. IV); but this analysis is un
doubtedly incorrect, as Pisani has proved that the mineral is only partially decom
: acid, so that ag mt obtained from an attempted decomposition by acids
must be erroneous. ysical prapertics and chemical ¢ compose of the mine
ral render it exireasaly pesbabie that it is an impure variety of chlor:
Carvsocotta [p. 309, II-VIIT].—F. Field b blished an interesting paper
the silicates of — from Chile ie e (L. E. D hi hil. Mag, [4 pew i i, 361 ey 7
from Tambillos, near Coquimbo, having a abc blue color, ‘perfectly amorphots
opaque, gave on ra a Si reich Cu 3950, H 2459, Be 2:80, 1497 Be
eluding Fyre iron and alumina, as foreign to the mineral, we have Si 30°59, “ta 4288,
H 2658 or Ou Si-3H. Other 1: snap are given of substances which do ne
appear to he definite compounds.
Caersouns [p. 184, LIV, VI}—F. A Genth bas analyzed two. are .
chrysolite, occurring in tale ‘slate, at Webster, Jackson Co., N. Carolina: 1. pale
gtayish-green, granular and er i Gs 38 (12° 6); 2, less friable, of darker
yellowish olive -green color, G.=
Si Fe Ni & a Chrome-iron Ign.
and quartz,
1. 4189 739 035 4913 006 O58 0g2==1002!
240k | hee OM So 1:27 o5U
2.(5) 4074 726 ig 4918 002 1-83 o-76=10018
with traces of alumina, ie Sosy cobalt and manganese, associated with chrome
talc, serpentine, and a mineral resembling pyroscerite Dr. Genth expresses nl
opinion, 2 the a akiione give evidence that chrysolite is probably the jae |
ale-slate, and many of. the serpen iis have been formed—(this
analysis ms a ogy from Thringen, in Breisgau, by Lewinsteim, *°
— [p. 293, I, 1, x 2 of clinochlore from Achmatows
Mg Oa
13°54 36°20 0-05 i274 = 100.;
13°96 612 35°68 0°05 12°67 = 100
Ji ae eee He a, ee Oe -.
—
Tenth Supplement to Dana's a 209
Corrrr ee 17, IV, VI-I seudomorphots crystals of co after
aragonite, ee “e wee Ke von (Sappl V), ha hive sees ekaraiseel by DF Forbes,
J. nk London woot _ Crystals are found in the copper mines
of Corcoro, in Pe me consist entirely of copper, while
dius ié f carbonate of rome from which Forbes infers that the pseu-
orphs have been formed by the action of a solution of copper on ie of
carbonate of lime, and by some e subsequent che mical wea the repay r
analysis of one o
reson gave: < yi
Cu Si Ag Fe Insol.
98°605 0-015 tr. 1376 0004 == 10000
* By difference .
Alger has described what he considers to tea rhombohedron of copper, from
Cope Falls Mine, (Lake Superior). It is ass senpe m with aia tenia mechs
pe of lime, and the copper is thought by Alger to be pseudomorphous ©
it ee Suggests that the crystal may be a ude which slightly ene en
4 thombohedral aspect (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., viii, 171).
Corr AG. 505 ].—Dr. as ey has made a very elaborate series
+ Ta of the sevcalled ‘havris 2 East Tennessee Mine, Polk Co,
it it etind substantiate his Tormer pe hat “harrisite was copper-
ee pee udomorphous after galen Genth mentions that Dr. Torrey first
inal ered specimens of harrisite peel Canton Mine, which contained a nucleus of
5 after Mr. Trippel, of the Tennessee C M
itis found in a feldspathic rock, associated with ok pyrites, blende, garnet
= fime-epidote, The Tennessee specimens have a color between dark-lead gray
ie black. They frequently contain es of almos ter lena ;
, rend almost pure copper Serie dove others are intermediate be-
o
z 2. 3 . 4,
9741 2693 1450 = 18°14
cilverglance, O83 O24 O87 0
opperg vee 10-26 ie ae Pe 89 98
—— — 48°82 peed 4 :
Pyntes, 0-48 32 1:09 0°86 0-86 1:39
Analysis 2 by Trippel, th hether alisonite,
e others by Genth. The author ee w . ’
wate bS, and expropi mbite Gags P2PbS ma may not also prove t o be pseudo-
rei, 1 cae glance aft se galetih’ in an unfinished condi tlow-—(this ‘Toure, [2],
IOKEL lp. 52, VI-VUT}. ria of copper-nickel from Andreasberg
wi Haha 0 (B. and H. Zeitung, xx, 2
oa = 10082
i As Insol.
275 460g: soot 0 (‘iSO OO =
nS hite.—See BoronaTROCALcirvE.
Ptr sragl g =. L-IV, VI, VII poten Tschermak hag analyzed the
212, ava ie nd Si $8°2, Oa 348, 57, oon
Cm. —( Kenragott, Uebersicht, breyani
AM. Jour. Scr.—Szcosp Serms, VoL. XXXIV, No. 101.—Sept., 1862,
27
210 Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
The peculiar massive datholite yom by J. D. er (this loner
xxviii, 13), has been further examined b A. Hayes ( Proc. Bost. 8
ties of Wedgewood-w B.=26°6. Other "ys sea i properties es the same as
given by Whitney. basen of two specime
si B Ca Be Al tse it quartz,
8832 2264 8282 104 O80 398 080 = 99°68
8792-2216 «= 8864 ——- =8§ —— ss 396 208 = «9916
It contains less water than is given for crystallized cane and Dr. Hayes suggests
the possibility that in former analyses the water ma e been given too high,
owing to loss of boric acid by -~ we 3 — ignit be
Dr. Hayes calls attention t as being sometimes confounded with
ten this eti
pectolite. It is quite Tacuba that ceaiite peetolite - wollastonite are all
found ” agror oe or in compact masses, differing entirely in appearance
these m
g¢ the pa bser i
Portage Lake, Keweenaw _ Ontan —— districts, Very fine specimens occur
the Superior Mive near Ontanagon.—e. J. B.]
Decaentre [p. 362, "tip vi Pub: 98 —The rhombic vanadinite from Kappel in
ree a deseribed by been analyzed by @. Yschermak ( Wien. Akad.
+» Xivi, 157).
Pb
G.=5'83. 64°3
A trace of zinc was also found. Tschermak ‘nies it as cyanate with dechenite.
DELEMINZITE--Breithaupt, Berg und Hiittenménnische Zeitung, xxi, 8—
Breithaupt gives this name to what he considers to be a new form of sulphid of sil-
a is i wi
glance. The angle of the prism bid et ele to be 116°. G.=702. hee
but it is probably from Freibe
Diayite [Suppl. IX]. ni aoe and Deville have shown that v. Kobell’s ae
acid is identical with hypocolumbie acid, consequently this mineral can ne no longer be
considered as distinct from tantalite—( Comptes us, liii, 1,044.)
c tre [p. 36, V].—F. A. Genth confirms the observations of Hunt and Whit:
ney in regard to the occurrence of a mixture of domeykite and coppe in
the ore f picot land gives analyses of the d meykite ™
cently found on the Sheldon location at Portage Lake, It is ive;
a little below of fluor. yor, fresh frac
16 Color, on ture, Ua
white to steel- gray, uickly tarnishing, first into yellow an and pinchbeck, afterwards
wing pa tinea, and finally becom ming brown, Lustre, metallic when fresh,
but dull after exposure. . Fracture uneven, subchonchoidal. _A'ssociated. with que"
and orien of copper. Analyses ;
As Ca
x 29:25 70°68 4 44 93
2. 29-48 F001 = 59
Analysis I contained 0°55, and If, 6°71 pr. ct. quartz. Exc ce g the q
give the fort rmula Cu°As==As 29-25, Ou hance Joora xexii )
Mines, by D, Forbes (Quar. Jom:
Geol, Soc., xvii, 44):
Cu —_ ca
TL13
Wind te am fray malig inten ao
were [p. 427 WV, Pisani has analyzed dufrenite, from ne go
‘bihe Posen) where: seam in deck groen Kidney shaped mast
iene mp
|
|
Pe
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 211
é Fe Al H
28 53 54°40 4°50 1240 = 99°83
grin Bg. He b saeco ratio for ®, #e, H, 10: 12:7, or 2(Fe Siipyik” Bowe,
Phi ZtIROoN,
Eripore [p. 206, II-VII, IX]. —Dr. Genth has aga - inhenen ee. variety of
lime sid, ior the Polke County Mine, Tennessee. It occurs in large but indis-
tinet crystals, lengthened parallel to i#, which plane is best “developed ‘an ean be
non eby crysta ; some crystals also show the plan Cleav
very distinct parallel to ii. The color is gray, with a binish; sree or greenish-
brown tint, specimens are white, with a tinge of pink.— iz G.==3'34:
The larger ory are frequently intermixed with Ei Foe oat and quartz.
rt ses No. 1, by Genth, No. 2, by T rrippet, of a coarse grained, conan crys-
ihe variety, partially decomposed, an d associated with blende, ‘harrisit ite, garnet,
#e Mn Ga Mg Ou K_ Ign.
1.4004 38063 2-28 vit ook tr. 0.24 — 071==99°20, Genth.
2. 4320 29°60 2°88 272 056 —— tr. 0°26=99°22, Trippel.
Other partial analyses are sh Journal, [2], xxxiii, 197).
ar [p. 228, I-III, IX]—S. D. Hayes has investigated the properties of
fused | fkd-par (Po ogg: a 7 Rye! 468). He results show that feldspar suffers no
— change in its ts compos ore by fusion. [It is well known that feldspar is
a furnace-pr
For analyses of Smee s “from Lauterb2rg and Holzemmenthal, made in the
Clausthal Laboratory, see 7. d H. Beet 265, Analysis of aga a idspar,
Lites ee by G. vom Reik, Zeitse. Geol. Ge selisch., xii, 44. other
8, see Kenngott, Uebersicht, 1860, eas.
a... [p. 472, V].—T. E. Clark shows the crystals of this resin to be
clinic, The crystals ‘obinnad were from a solution in alcoliol and ether aan’.
Chem. w, ~
Pharm., cxix.
Fivor [p. 94 st id fluor from Walsendorf, in the Palatinate, in
Which Schafhautl thought to ied discovered hypochlorite of lime (Min. 94), has
n examined by ‘Stter, (Sitzungsber. Acad. xli), who an-
Rounces that the so-called hy pochlorous acid is ecentl me
Yariety of fluor has been examined by bein, and, according to ‘his vie
called ozone is ee 4a alu gf iH Ixxxil, 95 in timates that
the mineral co sob part its weight ( : ct.) of this substance
Suggests that ee variety of fluor kesy d pnennes Th enient
designation should not be receiv dnt into — gical nomenclature as a sypomym
of fluor, much less as the name
REIESLEB announces the discovery of this
Tare mineral, pit Sak i, i= It is rah in isolated Is, from two to
Six lines in length ; Seiad afr erystals are wined. reer sea cleavage, perfect
, Uneven to sub-conchoidal, H=253. G.=6: steel-gra ry to ble
ale ia A oy ee ig gives reactions fo sane antimon
= Sg A Pb Fe
rll (1841 “As, 3077 «0638. = «10000
Totos, 1859, p. 51-56, in Jahrb. Min, 1860, 579.
Fournetite. —See TrerraHEDPRITE.
donors, 89, AV, voy —Breithnupt es examined the so-called pect
wisi Bemkastel, on he Mosel, and concludes
of sul of lead. He
pseudomorphs,
212 Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
cleavage and an im The crystals > oceur with pyro
sorphite. Some Siena of oan sulphid of lead, examiged by Breithaupt,
were also found to have this peculiar cleavage. Breithaupt come that the low —
specific gravity of the crystals, 6°82 to 687, is remarkable, but he gives no che
analysis to prove that _— nee = examined was pure sulphid of lead ; it may have
contained unalter omorphite. He ree the name sexangulite for
bat of galena (B. and H. Zeitung, xxi, 99).
eet r. Genth’s paper on copper-glance, pseudomorphous of galena, see COPPER:
pea —See Hornsienpe.
_ Garver . -IX].-—Analysis of green garnet, from serpentine at Dobschaw
iastsonpaess oy 3 —— ~ Py 38, Fe 28, Al 3, Ga 30,Mg2=101. G=372—
io opp's Jahresbericht, 1
EriTe [p, 374 mete has found a brick-red a and resinouslike
variety of Le gins rag with lowe 8 ee oar in common salt,
at Varengeville, n 0, CaS g 48°78, clay ross
99°68,—( Comptes Rendus, Vi, li, 731, in in Ropp'e J icine 1860, 788
- Glossecollite—See Hatuoystre.
Gotp [p. 7, I, II, V-VII, IX].—0. C, Marsh, in a ree on the Gold of Nova
Scotia, gives analyses of gold from Tangier and Lunen urg?
Au Ag C
Tangier, G.==18°95 98°13 1:76 “05 ir, == 99°94
Lunenburg, G.=18'37 92°04 4-16 ‘ll tr. == 9991 ,
pecimen from Lawrencetown hada density of 18°60, indicating a composi ge
tween that of the Tangier and the e Lunenburg specimens, The Tangier ew b
remarkable - its purity, en ey surpassed in this respect by that from
s Jo Xxii
Genth has found Gold pseu fens web of aikinite. The exact leon
he specimen was doubtful, but was s to be from Georgia. ies portion of
aikinite was unaltered, but it was Bit om erted into the well-known pseu dife
3 cupreous carbonate of bismuth. This latter w. as found in sender ye of
‘ '
: pu waxy ; colo t's
sh-white. In the centre of many of the crystals w bright ) y' cellow g gol, pens
high degree of fineness, in some cases Ragen Bowie’ the rhombic form of
original mineral (this Journal, nae xxxiii, 19 ustralia,
_ J. Tennant describes a mas gold found at womene S a boner > A ed {0
in 1858, which weighed 2217 ounces, or 184 pounds _
London, “ me ember, 1859, and tons £8,376 10s, oa. wuslibg of Gold. —(Pogy
Ann., cx 4, Brit. Assoe. Report, 29th Me eeting, p. 85.)
gees bp #t 305, I].—H. How has discovered gyrolite near Margaretville.
Scotia. I Sedies ie in crystalline 1 apoph llite in apherieat sre
pearly tastroia oL bletag varying in size from a pin’s-head to nearly half an inch
ameter. Composition:
Bi Oa Al Mg kK H
51°90 29°95 37 008 1°60 1505 = 99°85
g the formula, Ca Bite, and rth? nt nearly salt age tere 8 analysi
of the mineral from the om th Bes : calls attention Aries! relation
this mineral to apophyllite d suggests teal the existence of artes e of from
eg with ¢ the pyenlies: would seem to show that the oa Be is formed ‘he
Spophyllite by the waters which deposited the carbonate of lime, reacting oD
silicate of pe sia sot ak the same paemapesD cst Be f ealeium (this
Journal, [2], xxxii, 13).
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 213
the mineral. It is compact, with conchoidal fracture ; dull, but becomes on
rubbing; color, white ; soft and very friable ; adheres strongly to the tongue In
water does not soften, but becomes translucen opal
a few bubbles of air and an argillaceous odor. Heated in the closed tube gives off
water, and becomes bluish-gray. B.B. infusible, — cobalt solution
olor, Decomposed by sulphuric acid. Composition:
Si Al Mg H
40°4 878 05 218 = 1005
Shepard described it as pure hydrated silicic acid (SiO 3, HO).
Harrisite—See Correr-GLance.
Havyne [p. 230, [X].—Analysis of hauyne, from the lava of Melfi, by Ram-
melsberg :
8 Si Xi Oa Mg Na eae tt
G@=2466 11:08 3488 2934 554 O70 1447 3°76 tr. = 99°77
(Zeitschr. geolog. Gesellsch., xii, 273, in Kopp’s Jahresbericht, 1860, 776).
Horntene [p. 170, I-IV, VI-VIIT].—Breithaupt has given the name gamst
gradite to a black hornblende from Gamsigrad, in Ser via. It hasa Vroom te
Yelvet-black color, a greenish-gray streak, and is opaque. aye Sa prismatic
H=6. G=312. Analysis by R. Miiller (B. a wad H. Zeitung, xx, 53):
Bi Re ee olin! Gas Big ia
4658 13°63 1229 600 883 844 B17 100 = 99°94
[The large amount of manganese is quite Porqioniset the oxygen ratio, as given by
the author, for the jhevatand silica, is as 16-98: 24°04 or 2:3. It is noteworthy that
Rammelsberg, i extended researches on hornblende, ylang invariably found
that a portion of thei iron in the ferruginous-aluminous varieties was in the state of
Sesquioxyd.—e. 3, B,]
} iy [p. us, V, VII]—Analysis of titanic iron, from Maxhofen, Bavaria, by
Ti Fre Mn #1 Si Oa
51°60 41°79 400 1°57 0°90 0:30 == 100-166
a With ¢r. ree
Occurs in Li pal ae 0 sad of an iron-black color, black streak and sub-me-
tallic lustre, “H.=5 92 (Kopp, ison tabericht, 1859, 778).
asi 214, VII ae Vv. = kscharow has found iolite at Mursinska, in the
4 : s size of a walnut, associated with sa ~
the
sei lucent ; peta Mah agee de:
605. ‘Chen reich brown s eorlinnd eated in age closed a abe ie
Water, and n by
oe cole: from aa fs light cee “BB.
Si Xl as iim Mg hee
606s 20-06. 410 080. 1100 004. 386 = 10000
—Mat. Min, Russiands, iii, 253, in Kopp’s Swe 1860, 167.
, Trrre [ 103].—Claus considers that this mineral, described by Hermann as a
“i of ab dized platinum metals with the oxyds of iron and
i ix
e' f such a com
mixture as ee Patina eid, Claus made a microsco pg examination of the sub-
oe a fe ste mire hae i pape ais iron.—(J
but A
se: ance, 285. consisting ciety
». 17, II, Sei has found traces of nitrogen in the meteoris
(Ann. Phen. (3,) Ixiii, 336.)
214 Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
KAwuerrarre [p. 291].—N. B. DeMarny has found kédmmererite with chrome
iron in the does of Ufaleisk, in the Ural ee ull. Soc. Nat., Moxcou, 186, p.
200). The mineral occurs in imbedded crystals, which in their physical charac
ter, very much resemb!e the clinochlore from Achm atowsk. The erystals have a
— cleavage, and the prismatic faces are seallebataliy striated. The lai
inch in diameter, and
taste planes oa a pearly lustre a violet color. The small crystals are trans
parent, and are of a carmine-red color. Sp. Gr. 2°731
Kerouite (p. “in —Analysis of a bluish- — belt from Harford County,
Maryland, by F . A, Genth (this Journal, [2], xxxiii, 203):
Si Ay H
1. 51:20 0°22 26°81 undet.
2 6109 0°23 28-28 2091 = 10051
3. 51:02 0-26 27°91 undet.
KIESERITE.— Reichardt, Das meagan vig ag re Magdeburg, 18
Kopp’s Jahresbericht, 1860, p. 788.— e has been given by robin toa
salt tre rth, j i
Mg H
i 58°98 2851 13:47 eee
3, 58°90 28°61 a *
8. 57°78 28°78 1413 Leopold
These give the “— 54 S+H.
Koéwcenree [p. 472, According t inations of J. J. Fite
hydro-carbon retén, C., H,,, and ae this species ako oce —_ at Uzn ach. At “at the
ocali onleinit ;
el,
witz it is accom
panied by fichtelite. It was questioned whether sone and fichtelite #7"
entice but this was not determined. The so-called phylloretin was also prov
be identical me kinleinite. ~ (Bull. A ca St. Petersbourg, ii, 88,
Uebersicht, 1860, 116.)
Laseanorrre [p. 237, Vix) — —For analyses of labradorite, from the vin
phyry of of Elbingerode and R made in the Laboratory at Clausthal under
irection of AL Streng, see 3 are Zeitung, xx, 265.
gs rea erg do (Hermann, J. pr. Chem:, \xxxii, 406).—In a ip 8 on as
Hermann ts that nae minerals I —_ — by this name. the acid,
pate; ued or laplttai m 5 to 6 pr. et., contains only a tle cat
and but 7 to 8 pr. ct. of “‘ ae of bebame sand era hi while it Cea
n gives no physical characters to disti inguish this w species, amd
gues hi ie ination of the Min., p. 812, Anal. 2, under Cerie: with merely the ps
ermination of the relative
follows:
“see amounts of the oxyds of lant thanui |
Si +
: es te ~~ nh & 6
68 2655 i638 15058 OST an 856 125 462 810 —
cobalt and and copper,
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 215
H es the formula: 4(R? Si+H)+(2k,0+3H).
Tt seems oo Seereeite that oo mineral may be an altered substance, or, ania
a mixture of cerite and lanthan
Lapis- ay [p. 229, VI, VII, IX].—Analysis of aria from Ditro, in Sie-
benbiirgen, by C. v. Hauer (Kenngott, Uebersicht, 1860, 54):
‘Si Al Fe Ca Na 5S
G. = 2°31 40°54 43:00 0°86 114 12°54¢ 1-926
@ By the difference. 5 Loss on ignition.
Found in a hornblendic vein in syenite, associated with pyrites and sphene,
Lazuurre [p. 404, II, VI1].—E. J, Chapman has published an article on the /azu-
_ lite from Graves’ Mountain, Georgia, in which he endeavors to show that the form is
trimetric instead of monoclinic (Canadian Journal, July and Septeu
rst article on the subject, Prof. Chapman erroneously considered the erystals as
coming from Sinclair county in North Carolina, and fact that the
crystals had already been figured by Prof. Dana in Prof. She ee mee on lazu-
lite in this Journal [2], xxvii, 36. "The habit of the crystals and the modifications
are monoclinic, and this evidence appears to core that from mean rents of
crystals having so une lustre. It seems to be a case like et ate for a
time was thought to be trimetric, but is now eee to be mon
_Lavuosnrre [p. 7, I-VI] —Analyses of altered laumontit soe or Tak Su-
Perior, by Le iat ‘show that the erystals are partially Soiiyastod into feldspar
(orthoclase 1) Kop p Jaro 1860, 771.
Leriouire [p. 226, 50 ay connec with the discovery of the two new
alkaline metals carn an bidium by Bunsen and Kirchhoff, a new analysis =
the Rozena lepidolite has been made in Bu nsen’s Laboratory by Cooper.
mine the rubidium with t accuracy 13°509 grammes of tepidotive were used.
Si Al Fe Oa Me Rb Cs Li LiFl NaFl KFl H
5032 2854 0-73 1-01 O51 O24 tr 070 099 177 1206 38:12=99-99
The total amount of fluorine replacing oxygen is 548 per cent.—(Jour. Prakt.
Chem., \xxxv, 125.)
pesst® 0. D. Allen and J. MB Blake, of the Sheffield Labo ratory, have examined
he lepidolite one Helse ad Paris in Maine, and found it to contain very consid-
erable quautities of exsium and rubi Fichs m.
Leverr As from Vi lava of
1858 by by Rat mobi ete II, a ee: 1X].—Analysis of leucite from Vesuvian lava o'
K Na Ca
5724 22-96 18°61 0-93 0-91 = 100°65
Zeitschr. Geolog. Gesellsch. xi, 496, in Kopp's Jakresbericht, 1860, 760.
itive te * Lp. 262, IV].—For an article by E. J. Chapman on ie ipa of this
mineral serie s, see Canadian Journal for January, 1
Liwarire 0.)—Th al has been found by von cer among the
d ores “ och ie agra Nertschinsk District, Siberia, (J. Pr. Chem.,
ee ed ll ery azure-
ang Cu ane — “4 Cl !
76-41 17°43 6 100-00
on Kobell pe ys ie the eb excess of aie of lead and water, was due
an admixture
sloewtorrs pecker! r. Chem., xxiii, 474] — as been
ban oul ich to the yee a alunite, analyzed ie Bes Tawi ( (Sup vy. pg is
nhoncegpas at Tolfa ungary, as as
same constituents as alunite with the exception of nin So instead of ax
216 Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
equivalents of water. This water is expelled “> : aaa nse — in the case of
alunite, — the resultant compound instead of co’ ure of soluble alum
and insoluble alumina, consisted of a mixture of oulphians of sctiate with subsul
of abe It is asters soluble in chlorhydric acid, while alunite is perfectly
insoluble. Analyse
i.e um ke H Si x@ 2)
, 930 039 3495 O68 3481 foes 0-55 O44 0-28 0:26 047 —
Tabrze
Tolfa, 717 —— 2629 —— 2763 321 0-07 — 2359
a naa ge “rani 6 Silicates.
Excluding the silicates in Tolfa mineral, calculation gives K 9°63, 601,
ee ior 1650. ‘The rate 8 K $+sk18+of—=K 10-66, 1 3484, 3 s6i8
Marearire CS; an, "ve An analysis of so-called margarite from Pfitschthale
ellacher is given in senor s “Uebersicht bor 1860, p-
49, It differs tay in seeapenitiog n from the true margarite as analyzed by by Her-
mann, Smith and Brush. Composit
Bi Mt Fe «(Ca $i Sr Mg Fe Mn K Na oa ft
G.=2°894 4259 30°18 0°91 1-03 465 0°09 485 1:74 012 761 1°42 031 443
[A special oes for gpa earths in the Sterzing margarite made under
my direction by Mr. O. D. Allen, proves that it contains no baryta, and only 4 faint,
ie te trace rt strontia. A soidian of the alkaline earths from a grammé
rie after long standing, a slight turbidity with sulphate of lime.
wed the presence of strontia and lime, but not any trace of baryta.
—G. J.B.
Marearopire |p. 223, VITI].--A variety x Pec from Derby, Vt., has been
named adamsite by Prof. 0. U. Shepard, on unt of some supposed
valiat
physical properties ( Hitchcock's Geol Ve L 484), It is found io
thickly di Ad of “ermont, vo i, p. 48 ). + its chet talline
form is that of mica and but for ie sper fark inelasticity and ater hardness, | it
pcre with this species.” [W understand Teeaetiy, what be meant bby this
species,” as every one knows that then ere se several es of mica. ‘The specimens
of maaerat from Derby, Vermont, received from Pr: Ptr and examined by the
writer, have the same hardness, —— elasticity, cleavage, rag earaviy blowpip®
characters and —— composition as margarodite. Analysis ga
47°76 36-29 0-24 1°85 STTa 509 = 10000
rresponds very closely with the anal rodite from Monroe, Cty
- Smith and Brush. This identity, and diggers Brerpoadeste of its physical
properties with margarodite from different localities, leave no doubt as to the pre
priety of classing the so-called adamsite wah _ kind of —=G. J.B.
J. Apjohn describes (Dub. Quar. Jour. Sci. i, 119) a new locality of margaroai
at Ross-Hill, near Maum, rare It hasa curved, foliated ibpsatiaie, the laminae?
lel in masses of any size, but in arious angles. Color pie
with ta of yellowish- ‘green: "aire pea, ” subteranslucent. Hardness over
G.=2°802. Difficultly fusible. Compositio:
Re ee ae ee
4642 8792 046 067 O17 9°68 154 440=101%
Maetrre [p. 102, VII]. A - described - octahedral sesquioxyd
iron from Frassem near Arlon in Luxem Occurs in regular
sandstone. Color bet: lustre generally dull. fracture cartivy; showing M33 ee
? 1°35 ; 75. Composition Fe, with 0"
037 FE, and traces of Oa and Mg with 02S. The sulphur indicates it to bea a
luct of the decon ‘of pyrites,—(Kopp, Jahresbericht, 1860, 77
|
|
|
.
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 217
Murer [p. 49, I].— Genth has given analyses 0 lerite from
sep Mine, Lai neaster ninety ennsylvania. (This Journal [2], rex, ode 5) there
orcurs in coatings of a radiated structure of 7g to } of an inc in thickness or
centrically radiated semi ‘globular masses or tufts, It is frequently yom pe |
i T e
blak c n into copper-glance, they are dull, of a
black color at the upper part of the tufts or little crystals, while the lower a
the y = — and mill wo analyses—No, 1 t
sy u i Co Fe Tnsol.
l, 35:14 0-87 63:08 058 0°40 0°28=100°35
~ = — 132 0410005
Moxazrre [p. mentions a _ of this species
the gol acing of Toads ‘rune, "Meckle nburgh county, associated with
is } inch set a littl ver 4 w
and s
ae The cryst stal ‘being slightly waterworn has t
eee somewtat Mamita uF which some other planes may have been obliterated,
G, at 12° C.=5-203. (This Journal [2]: XXxxiii, cts:
Nacyaerre [p. 65, VIIT]—An ana ted through a rock
from Nagyag gave S.J. he after pases oni matter,
Pb
Fe Se g
“56 12: 3 1511 166 182 60:10
Kopp, hel Sait 770.
Ege oap 151, III, IV, VI].—A variety of rete psec from the meerschaum
Thebes (Gen analyzed by G. Tschermak gave.
G.= 2-11 (at 0° ©.) 85° 8 _ 94=100'1 .
Wien. Akad. Ber. xiii, 381.
Orrnociase [p. 242, IT. Biles Bal Se 6. + ni Ralls gives, in Fg. Aaar
xiii, 425, “gepetl L ements of crystals of adulari: a from R
Atalyses of totes ra ey the granite of Cusitens; Soildinl sy S. Haughton (Jour.
Geol. Soc. Soe, Dublin, v. 59). 2
l "ye Ca Mg kK Na Ign.
os 19°12 rt 045 tr. 1252 $824 © 0°16=100°58
Ma Hovearre [p. 251, VIII, IX].— Analysis of preiasie from Lodéve, Dept. Herault
(France), by F. Pearl Fite Rendus, liii, 1072),
i
89°4 144-1008
sats [p. 45] —A. Streng has coramunicated an analysis of a nS which | he
ePoses tu be identical with Knop’s pinitoid (onal, 1). It. oceurs
‘0 physical cha: 3 iven ex t gravity, *, 216. Sees
Sives an analysis of pinite (anal. 2) from Miblentbal, ae pa sips hon _
In greenish- twelve sided lustreless prisms ©
pystals are often cov an po thin brownish crust. G== 262.—(B. & H. Zei-
> or 266
nee of similar — from the
by Sandbenger (1 nal, 3), by whom it was co
of oliguclase (Kenngutt, Uebersicht, 1860, 39).
1. 59 95 : 4s 5 Pen
: 80 62 248 035 é
2 4761 (31-17 186) «(1-24 «2155 728 «015-90
hyritic atep ph e Sasbachwald
naidered-s pibdud composition
kK Na ‘Ign
974 O12 525 = 9986
= 99-72
3. 50-43 28-89 345 512 868 S84 = 9744
For Sonie's snake of vosite, a pinite-like substance from Oosthal near —
om 101,—S=Pt. 1962,
Ane Jour, ee SERIES, Vou. XXXIV, No.
28
218 Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
Pratinum [p. 12, TI, IIL, VT, bane rien veoh has observed platinum,
with chrome-iron, in what appear a yel sere peor: from the corr’
district of Nischne-Tagilsk (Kopp, Vébuebenhe 1860, 743).
fr Potyzasire [p. 85]—Analysis of polybasite, from Przibram, in Bohemia, by
onner :
Ag Cu Fe Sb NS)
G.=6:08 68°55 3°36 0°14 11°53 1555 = 9913
Lotos, 1859, 85, in Jahrb. Min., 1860, 716.
Preunite [p. 3 ey Re EE describes the occurrence of of probit, associated
+ Aebagar: uor-spar, from Fassathal, i en Gesell,
8).
- Proustite {P. 48 eS os —Dr. Genth has discovered microscopic crystals of proustité,
associated with native silver, at the McMakin Mine, Cabarras Co., North Carolina,
[this sonar [2], xxxiii, 195),
mae [p. 135].—Analysis of psilomelane, from Loeh Mine, near Olpe, by
Mn¥n 0 ju Go Ga Kk nsol.
4699 85:17 449 128 081 037 136 402 2961
List gives the formula, Mn?, Mn? +H. The mineral examined was remarkably pure.
—(Jour. prakt. Chem., \xxxiv, 60).
Pyropre [p. 194].—F. A. Genth has analyzed the e ao eee Sante Fé, New
Mexico. he has a Setl blood-red, somelinoas bowneh el color, and forms ‘mal
ar grains, from % to } inches in diameter. G. is 188 . Compositivn:
Bi or Pe ee | Bg gt
4211 1935 262 1487 0°36 623 1401 045 = 9900
Considering the eahe as pap ei ge: and the iron as protoxyd, the oxyge0 ratio for
Bi, % R, isas 20°86: 9°47, or rey nearly 2:1:1=R? 8i+RSi, the formula of
PatnetiYthia J aaa, [2h, xxxiii, 196).
Pyrosmauite [p. 310.—This rare species has been reéxamined by J. Lang (Jew.
rake. . Ixxxiii, 424]. It is only found at the mines nea r Philipstedt :
d d, and occ ere in hexagonal prisms, of sometimes - inch in beng
imbedded in calcite. Color, blackish-green to liver-brown, H.=4 5. G=3'168- 4
Decomposed by both nitric and chlorhydric acid, The mean o fall t tbe determi
tions, including two comp lete ng gave:
Si Fe
Al Ca cl H
$548 8072 «2051 siotkSsikSCsiTSC«STS
A special determination showed tha f the iron was sesquioxyd; =
small amount was thought to be due to sos he ath alteration ‘ot “the mineral. of, Pt
Prot he or in Sout g considers, therefore, that the miner pore
protochlori ron, and a silicate of protoxyd of i The formula ma. wri
3Fe picks (ke SiR 8: 246H). ssh
of
noxene [p. 158, I, II, V-IX].—Analysis of pyromene, from the Vesuvian lav8™
185 gave Rammelsberg Si wea #1 4-42, Fe Wt. Gn23 22 83, Mg 14 22, en
; Cloizeaux a shown, by entice examination, that enstati
thene and wollastonite are distinct from pyroxene in their tli form rage see
..o (Comptes et Hens i lii, 1) For analysis of a pyroxene
mee [p. per I, a vh, VIT}.—In an examination of diferent vat
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 219
them many specimens of this compact pyrophyllite. Among these specimens is
80 called , from Deep River, Moore sia No 0 Carolina. It has a schis-
imperfect y la seme structure, resembling talcose-slate. Laminz, not suf-
freatly idistinct to be separable ; brittle. ae grenish to a ae nape
very mr ee taleose slate. H= Sp. gr. Be he
blowpipe, in tube, yields att in a ‘pla atinum flees exfitiates
slightly, and nas Pp rolaged heating, rebar with difficulty on the thin edges. With
me solution yives a reaction for “alumina.
T received a secon aoa n, of asimilar character, from Dr. F. A. Genth, who
has see +e hed me “ee several interesting steatitic noe for examination.
Dr. Genth informs me that it was found at Carbonton, Moore orth Carolina.
It is ond distine etly Tosiouated than the specimen from Deep pivie and was some-
What whiter in color, and had a density o
ese minerals have been analyzed, hes my direction, in ee pera Labora-
4g Yale College, No. 1, by Mr. Samuel T. Tyson; No. 2, by Mr. Oscar D.
Si Al Fe H
1. Deep River, 65-98 29°54 5:40 Tyson.
2. Carbonton, 66°25 2791 1:08 5°25 Allen,
composition is the same as that of the radiated and es 0 Lichen wey and
this new and interesting variet y is intermediate between the t struc-
e. It arb additional evidence that the peculiar oevtigacstis grime of
the lamellar-radiated variety are due entirely to the structure of ve mineral. My
attention was first called to this substance by Mr. George Munger : f the firm of
ean & Munger, of this city, who have brought it into use extensiv rp in the form of
yet — ting on slates and blackboards, for which purpose it gly
ing series of experiments on the po of caustic potash o varieties of
silicic acid ( Po, 1g. A ee he ats ars =) Fuchs and Rose,
that caustic potash very perceptibly attacks quartz, and shows the impossibility of
se elative -_ f amorphvus silica rp ta ste agate, chry
Prase, ete. is mea minerals consist chiefly of quartz, as H.
already dj determined : their deny pocigt is generally near 2° 6, ay saa this conclu-
ny Ww their density is there
ent i
treatment with potash, a residue which amounted to only 6°12 per cent of the ori-
ginal cesses also were ee en hig uf dteetiery wi uch in their ae
tai
Mexico ileo, in
: agsice i crystallized quartz in the metallic iron of Xiquipi
Mexico. The crystal x oan cure was } of a line in diameter (Pogg. Ann... exili, 184).
Rastolyte—See Cuore.
pBnoconrre | is of rhodonite, from Shibenholz, near Elbin-
p. 167, III].—Analysis of r "
—. — é
Fe Xi Os FeS,
aie on 3.06 a 152 (O74 040 095=10085
PONE H, Zeitung, 2x, BOT. oo eh ar
220 Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
+ as a ag a > Ble Jahresber. d. Wetterauer oe 1861, 32).—This
n give m to a new hydrous arsenia magnesia, rae the
Rarptorsbiefor of se It, is a tie d in thin crystalline erase or with a columnar to
fibrous structure, and sometimes in vermi efflorescences. istinet 10
one direc H 2-3. Translucent to opaque; lustre, vitreous to dull. The
translucent seats on — re loses its vitreous lustre, becomes opaque, dull and
white. white enamel, and in the closed tube gives water.
in chlorhydric a Analy is by Delffs :
Mg s isi
pile vi f cE
giving the ‘endl ot ieee tdi, Ks 39.65, ry ee 100:00.—Jahrb.
in., 1861, 334.
Scneetire [p. 347, VIIT].—Analysis of a very pure variety from Traversella, by
Bernouilli, gave, . rag ;
W Ca
80-70 19° 25 = 99°95
Taking the cag of tungsten at 93°4, the fort ula Ca W — W 8074, Os
19°26.—( Pogg. , exi, 607, in Renna Uebersicht, 1860, 31.)
oe
SERPENTINE ce -IX] ti - resulting from the alteration
of chrysolite, from Webster “North Coiotins gave Genth
Bi a. Be: Me Me RE Oe Chrome iron Ign.
4387 O31 717 8862 t. 027 002 057 955 = 10088
Dr. Genth remarks, that in the change of chrysolite ees al or serpentine, a portion
of the magnesia is eliminated, sshd apiece cs phe tet site, magne
site, or ar minerals which occur more or —_ gi & principal serpentine
localities. For fur , is thio
Soureai [2], xx iA 2 on serpentine, see ‘Dr. Genth’s pape
_ Servinstein has an & serpentine pseudomorph of phingormy from
Somerville, New York Gata Sitr Chemie und Pharmacie, 1860, iii, 15).
angulite.—See GALEN
Spiautrite.—See Wobeiira
. Ge m the Canton
Mine, Georgia. The crystals are of a deep leek-green color tt 9 vine ous lustre,
etl presen nt octahedral, and dodecahedral planes, the latter ‘Seeole ata Com
3i Cu Al Fe Fe Mg
237 123 5337 668 301 3027 090 $22 = 10035
(This Journal, [2], xxxiii, mietl
ete
terial - composition. The following varieties were examined:—I. From © 44!
_ chuse occurs in black and brownish-black k crystals, rhombic prisms of 129 pees
with leslscemant' of the acute edges and terminal plane on the obtuse edges,
ciated w ek Mesicenion and malin oh magnet extracted from the
oe © Fragments we’ bee ee
ponder, yellowish-brown color. ‘Sh >. gr=—$-12-—11, St. Gotthardt. | This Bo
well-known variety of brown sta otide, associated with poner and A comp
is eoaibly sacs oas
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 221
tain. The locality, St. son has att isapplied to thts, as also to other
edges. :
Wn crystals, in a reddish-brown se 9 slate, ociated with white or red quartz,
with single small garnets, The staurotide pesca tled the St, Gotthardt vino in
lucency, but the Spe i often cov oboe externally with mica. Streak, yel-
lowish brown, G.= —VI. Litchfield. Connecticut. _ Black crystal in
mica-slate ; streak, brownisigry. + Phage VI I. Airolo. e same variety as
yzed b Jaco’ erystals in a gray mica-slate, associated with brown
ets, Color, in thin sce, yellow ish-gray ; and although the magnet takes up
nothing from the powde neg ph ul, stil it does not appear to be entirely pure. G.=
868-39 13 (Jacobson ).— Lisbon, New Hampshire. Pretty large yellowish-
brown crystals in a gray aictene with garnets of an amethystine tinge (this local-
ity is known among American mineralogists as Mink-Pond.—e. J. B.). G.=3'413.
- Brittany, A twin crystal, with rounded edges. G.=3°527-3°529 (Jacobson).
—X. Pitkdranta, Finland. Large crystals in gray mica-slate ; the eo are usually
“ae With glistening scales of mica. Str vane ellowish-gray. G.=3-265.
oliowing
mt «GO ~T OF
to
i
3
A
[sa
ifn
oO
oa
Q
iv)
-~JI
I
o
a
wo
3
bed
oa
ERS
2
oo
- Bri ae rues
0. Pitkéranta, 5132 3430 —— 1101 042 2°32
Oxygen ratios are as follows:
1-9
2-49
237
re
>
oo oe ee
re
—_
Sear es
a
o
Hn aa oe
co 09 09 bh
¢ : 9.05 :3: 08 :
R 2°65 13674 | 10. 0°65: > 760 O73:
elsberg ie ifies these under four heads: (A,) incl a dope a 5 (BS, 8,
he 8; (C) 7; (D,) 8, 9, 10; and considers that sd reas pi obo lation bet
different varieties similar to e rae ke s members of the fi fe
ula may be written,
Dr. Genth has publ re his “ ayers a to pease a descri ro: and
mii, 19 3 of the so- atid staurotide, from Canton Mine, Geo., (chi is Journal,
t i tals, s
tone a d-brown or mon-brown color, cet right rhombic prisms, similar to
of stau not, ‘with soi Iand i. G. at 27° C=3792, associated with cop-
and lead on ean result of analyses was,
ar ars Mz Cu Ag Ign.
_ 2882 084 49°21 951 at ‘std $22 tr. ee = — si
is, when compared w e above mentioned results of Rammeisberg, show
ein to be my exceatingly interesting variety of staurotide, in which a portion of
the protoxyd of replaced by zinc.
eSZAIBELYITE BELYITE F. Peters, Ber. Wien, Akad. xiv, 148) se wi has disere,
exceedingly interesting borate in a gray granular limes’ one from
a Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy.
near Retzbanya, to which he gives the name szaibelyite. The tener of the lime:
stone somewhat resembles a coral, showing on the fractured surface numerous }
stone was dissolved rie eaving cuaagh weg peed Ne crystals, in some cas
el
oO
e log,
but suggests also that it may be classed nearer Volger’s parasite or
ata If the soda is an unimportant Rrasthen, it may possibly ‘fe iene
Taro [p. 275, V, IX]—A tale from Webster, Jackson Co., N. 0., which
ne considers the, result of the alteration of chrysolite, gave on analysis sis (
rnal, [2 <Soras
* Fe Mg H
0-48 1:39 0°23 83°19 0:34 = 100°07
The absence of water is remarkable,
82, I, II, V, X].—Ch. Méne gives rgccn ae a a
Cu Pb Fe As Sb
G.=430 3080 11°50 “6 450 1000 21°50 = 10000
giving the formula 3Cu,8+2Sb, rrigy seeds. Ass, —— that from baer
gave sh pee $,+PbS+Fe As h varieties contained silver; that
Ardillats, 0°05 to 0°21 pr. et., and from Val acouen 0-08 re Ol
Texalite—See Bavcire,
Toraz [p. 259, IV].—Analyses of topaz, by H. St. Claire Deville (Comptes Ber
dus, lii, 782) :
Si A Si Fl
1, Saxony, 22:3 543 6°5 173 = 1004
2. Brazil, 2571 53:8 5°8 by = ae
Trrromire oe III].—F. P. Miller has analyzed this mineral in 148
Laboratory, with following results. G.=426: 8i 15°38, Sn 0-74, Ta me 8 363, be ol
‘Mn 0-49, Pe er #1 1-61, Ce 10°66, os 44-05, ¥ 0-42, Oa 6-41, Ba 0-19, Br
Mg 0-16, K 2-10, Na 056, H 5-63=99
The 3°63 pr. ct. tantalic and zirconic ad was called so with a query, there ba
been anomalous in its reactions, fara esults pout ss beet
‘from the earlier analyses oy Berlin and ‘For bes, fd eat care nap rg of
taken in obtaining accurate results, especially in Bag oot 28k of the Chem.
: on of me bases. Miiller gives the formula pean $i9-+6H.—Anm.
Cxx,
Tp. 490, TV. Fengy Cloizenx has already shown, by optic tical examinatiot
1 chalcolite belong to differen ithe ay systems, uranite ie ani
haleolite is dimetric. Pisani has no re-examined the vin, when
8 wo minerals, and nds hat the uranite of Aut
Tenth Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 223
has 12 atoms of water, the amount remaining — even after months of
exposure, while chaleolite, from Cornwall, has but 8 atoms, When uranite is
heated to it loses 4 atoms of water, but Pisani Pll Bo this as constitutio:
and not as hades water. Analyses gave,
P G a Ga HH Sand
1. Uranite, Autun, 13-4 5647 560 —- 20:00 3820 = 9867
2, Chalcolite , Cornwall, 140 5967 —— 850 1500 040 = 97°57
No. 1, excluding sand and calculating -* * dete gives P 14:0, apts 0a 58,
ae 212; No, 2, setealeted in the same r, equals P 14-4, Gr6 Gu sé,
‘ 155, giving the formula a uranite, (Ga “er? )P+12H; for j dv (a, Br}
+8. 8H, (Comptes Kandi lii, 817).
Wagite—See Catamine.
Watrvevire [VIT, IX].—Dr. F. A. Genth has paises seein pie of
this rare species (this aa xxxiii, 191). Thes vished
by Prof. Bowth of the U.S, Mint, and was thought ce he. eo ong sgh dine of
Lake Superior, On examination it proved to consist of two mi ial whitneyite and
algodonit he whitneyite is oo with a fine grained structure, reddi:
to grayish white color, and Bp Me on surfaces of fresh gg are Scratching de-
velopes a strong metallic lus ante a reddish-white color, but it svon tarnishes.
G.=8246-8-471, the vaiaton robably due to sity. H i little |
a porosity. Hardness a little less
than that of fluo Slightly ee “aie sub-chonchoidal. Analysis
Cu
g
1, 10924 8764 Ole = 98:75
2, 12:29 87:48 004 = 9981
3. 12:28 87:37 008 = 99:68
a@ Too low.--F. A. G.
te specimen nalyzed was not viagan% oo ip slodonite, but gives very nearly
© com n, Cu,, As==As 11°64, Cu
[While on a Cae to hein tnpediots foes sihieched T learned from Mr. A. B. Wood
mass of whitneyite, weighing about 15 » had been found on the
Of whitneyite mixed with mite, similar to that eden ie = Dr.
Bont 's In the Yale College Cabinet, and was ree ived some years since from |
remarks on h ke it from a mass weighing 50 lbs. It
Who re
thus seems that these arsenids of copper must occur in considerable abundance, and
“ee r, they have not been found in place, we may hope that explorations
us the exact locality.—e
tere [p. 851, I-IV, VIIL, IX}. aes of wolfnes by F. A. Bernouilli
Ann, cxi, 603, in a Ubersicht, 1860, 98)
L Fe Mn be Cb ao
Chantelou Ad - 1877 501 —— = 996
8. Pe hehe (Outs BIS OE ee
- Traversella, poh 1629 345 403 —— = 9976
: Zi mowold, 75°15 972 13°99 tr. 1:10 = 9996
76-20 560 1794 —— —— = 2
tala 4598 1851 502 —— 052 0°52 =100°03
Mos colt 1618 1849. 5610 — = 99°72
weg that the bases s replace each ed in all Sigh picegaten and that even from the
locality the composition of different specimens
Wottastosrre {p. 156, eile of wollastonite, sai i cade limestone
- Hampe :
* Aurich, by
#l
oe 1°87 = 101°55
224 J.D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
WURTZITE [C. es Comptes a li, 983].—This new species is
a silver mine near Oruro, in Bolivia. It is hexagonal sulphid of zine, coer
with greenockite. The following = its baraetars: Color, brownish-black; lustre,
vitreoe, streak, brown. — e blowpipe, and with reagents, gives es the —
reactions as blende, The rete nee double hexagonal pyramids, in some ee
mca the faces of the hexagonal prism, which are striated parallel to bir =
The angle between the prismatic and pyramidal planes could rn be meas aa
accuracy, but the mean of several measurements gave about 1 Bo is near
of the same angle in ee, te ° 45’). Cleavage, yee hs ¢ and. prismatic
G=398. H=35—4. Com
) i ee Pb Sb ris
32°6 55°6 8-0 2-7 02 = 991 eA
The lead and antimony are due to the gangue, ga? mineral wis g associated
the presence
of a small amount of pyrites, the presence of white was distinguished by roe
nifier. The composition is essentially that of blend, hile the hexagoua >
proves that natural sulphid of zinc fact before established in Bigs
to the artificially ssa Pe gees It is tiated in honor of Adolph Wurtz,
distinguished French chem 98, the
Breithaupt has piloted in the Berg und Hiittenmannische Zeitung, xxi. ee
fact that we years since he discovered that the radiated bler ide from dere 5 a
xagonal, and he gave it in his lectures the name spiautritz. More recently he
found that the some blende from Albergaria Velha i in Porgal | is also dey pe
—The name wurtzite has the priority in Eoeeetes and consequently will
for the ee nal ome of sulphid of z
Yrrro-raNytatite 9, IV, IX]. hae of ee brown
from Kararve Sats are Oy Ta 56-44, Zn 0-42, 71 30°43, Ca 2°21, wire
se 0 1:19, H 483=99'12 —Kenngott’s Uebersicht, 1860, 93.
eats 4 II, Il, sgl oe per Snags Ruby-Zinc has been pro posed
an Se species by F. Alger. roc. Bos: oc. Nat. Hist., viii, ae. in
Zircon [p. si IV}. ee fo Rate that oe a engethardite
Iiginsk is identical with zircon.—Kopp’s Jahresbericht,
Nore a new edition of the Mineralogy is now in asset of ead"
is the last : eenuceue which will be issued before its publication.
Sheffield Laboratory, Yale College, June 16th, 1862.
Pa
*
Arr. XX.—On Phosphatic Guano Tilands of the Pacific Ocean
: by J. D. Haau
DvRING a few years past the attention of scientific men and of
agriculturists has been called to some varieties of Phosp wi
Guano found on several small islands of the tropical ra
impaled to this country and to Europe under the 2
“ American Guano. of
The principal ingredient of these guanos is the phen
_lime, with which is combined in the various sorts m
if
* one ae chemical investigation a on the results are dee in i
‘Lm in the Shetield -y of Yale College, the facilities of which 7"
and
J.D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 225
phosphate of magnesia, sulphate of lime, organic matter and
water. They generally contain traces of ammonia with a small
eenetage of soluble salts, but these, which, without doubt,
rmed an important part of the guano as it originally existed,
have now almost entirely disappeared in consequence of the va-
nous changes to which the deposits have been subjected.
The first samples of these guanos were taken from Jarvis’ and
Baker's Islands in 1855 and sent to the United States for exam-
ination, the results of which led in 1858 to the occupation and
working of the deposits. The importance and value of these
having once become evident, the Pacific, within a few de
north and south of the equator, was carefully explored and
many other islands were visited, on a few of which beds of gu-
ano of some extent were discovered.
In the following paper I propose to describe some of these.
Ishall have reference chiefly to Baker's, Howland’s and Jarvis’
Islands, on each of which I resided several months for the pur-
of studying the character and formation of their ——
L also spent some months in exploring this region of the Pacific
courtesy I am permitted to publish these results.
These islands are all of coral formation. They are situ
' the equator and between the meridians of about 155° and
Baker's Island.—This island possesses the most important of
these deposits, It is situated in lat. 0° 13’ north and long. 176
west from Greenwich. Excepting Howland’s Island, forty
mniles distant, it is very remote from any other land. It eter
€ usual features of an ordinary coral island. fe rage ae
bo
West. The surface is nearly level, the highest poin
twenty;two feet above i of the sea, showing some evr
dences of elevation.*
The
— i
| wacat bog : . LL is the level of the reef of which the seaward
* Be ss See cea gackeotived at high tides by five and a half feet
AAt Jour. Sct.—Seconp SxRms, VoL. XXXIV, No. 101—SEPt., 1862
2
226 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
h formations. This margin is partially covered with a rauk
growth of long, coarse grass, portulacca, mesembryanthemut,
and a few other species of plants.
Encircled by this ridge lies the guano deposit occupying the
centre and the greater part of the island. The surface of this
deposit is nearly even, but the hard coral bottom which forms
its bed has a gradual slope from the borders towards the centre,
or, perhaps more properly, from northwest to southeast, giving
the guano a variable depth from six inches at the edges to se
feet at the deepest part. None of the grass that grows
abundantly on the margin is found on the guano, but there are
one or two species of portulacca occurring in certain parts, (Pa
ticular] y where the guano is shallowest and driest), and to this
is owing the presence of the fine roots and fibres in some of the
oO
posi to twe
is generally quite dry, and is a dark brown pulverulent substan?
of rather coarse grain or texture, containing many thread-like
roots and fibres and whitish particles, among which Prof. Liebig
a
consists of large and small coral fragments and shells beneath which the sand lies
pact strata, This f tion was evidently once the surface of the ae
may be traced from a to 6, where the rests upon it, Above it lies 4°
me SS, a eo eaeieg new beach accumulation rather indistinctly st@" 5
t i i
the commonly acce theor t the sea-made coral land dves does not exses
ten feet in ws ge would, of itself, be an evidence of elevation and, consequent'Y:
seas have had much to do w
yinion that the sea-made = et E
(wee e feet. 4 t ore Se .
8 toy slg egal ahd ot
nat ds on
m Patan body
"7
r
J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 227
a
ammonia.* It is closely though not hard packed, and is readily
removed by shovels without the aid of picks, In this part
the deposit the portulacca flourishes most.
The guano on the southern side is of reddish color, of finer
texture, much damper, and of less specific gravity than that just
described. There is much less vegetation in this part of the
deposit, and the guano here contains scarce any roots or fibres.
Chemically these varieties do not differ very much, Usually
the darker sort contains less water and more organic (vegetable)
observed scattered crystals of the mete of magnesia and
Sposited guano ;
deeper part of the deposit, and No. III of the dark guano from
shallow part.
IL.
Moisture expelled at 212° Fahr,....-s+++++ 10°40 2°92 =
seed igoiion,.. ee ie. 36°88 8°32 850
nsol. i 1 ignition),..+++ a ae ne
fine ge (unconsumed by recht? ts lasers perry 4034
ia, leew ey Gy oi 254 -
Sulphuric acid bs eenaee 2: 1:30 :
Phosphoric acid. paeape ow 21°27 ph . seg
Carbonic acid, chlorine and alkalies, undet.,. . 4:44 24
Jou00 100°00 10000
Sol. in water remaining after ignition,..---- 3 63
ctual ammonia and all con-
No. I contai “82 3
No. I contained 3-82 per cent of a sample 1. a strong reaction
traces of iron. I also obtained in
vie BG's jes Peruvian guano in many re-
_ 4+his sample (No. I) resembles Peruvian o..
ects, and ee to the conclusion that the difference between
that and the American guano is mainly owing to “ire
Lieb s Report on Baker and Jarvis Guanos, Aug. 7th, 1860.
228 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
In some parts of the deeper deposit a light scale or crust has
formed over the surface, which is generally very thin thongh
occasionally hard pieces are found varying from half an inch to
an inch in thickness. The thin scale is met with particularly
where there is, or has been, any moisture, and, after showers,
where pools of water have been standing for some time, sucha
crust appears on drying. There seems to have been a similar
process in the formation of the thicker crust, for it is found only
occasionally in places of which the dampness and general appear
ance indicate that water may have assisted at its formation.
The thinner pieces are found not only on the surface, but
certain localities form strata at various depths, usually about
an inch apart, with intermediate layers of guano. These strata
seem to have been formed at intervals during the accumulation of
the guano deposit each one at some time having itself formed the
surface and now marking a period in its age.
Hach of the localities where these strata occur, although 02
posite sides of the deposit are at the edges and immediately
joining the marginal ridge already described and from their
proximity to the shore it seems possible that these may have beet
subjected to occasional floods by high seas washing over the
crown of the beach.
The following is an analysis of a thick and hard piece of crus
found on the surface :-—
Loss by ignition (water and little organic matter) ........ 11°7500
Lime 40°93
Magnesia “74
pine acid .. 40°47
Sulphuric acid... : . 566
Loss and undetermined sits Se
10°00
The small amount of magnesia and the excess of sulphuric
rthwest
0° 51
J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 229
features of the island resemble those of Baker’s. Its surface, at
least on the western side, is somewhat depressed and much of it
is covered by a growth of purslane, grass and other vegetation
like that on Baker’s Talandy but considerably more abundant.
ear the centre of the island there are one or two thickets of leaf-
less trees or brushwood, standing eight or ten feet high and oc-
cupying an area of several acres. The tops of these t i
which the birds roost, are apparently quite dead but the lower
parts near the roots, show signs of life after every rain.
windward side of the island is formed by a succession of ridges
composed of coral debris with some sand and shells, running
parallel to the eastern beach, each one of which may, at earlier
‘Stages of the island’s growth, have successively formed the weath-
er shore. Occasionally among these ridges a sandy bed is met
with in which some little guano is mixed. On the lee side there
18 also a sandy margin of considerable width. Bits of pumice
and pieces of driftwood are scattered all over the island’s surface.
€ main deposit of guano occupies the middle part of the isl-
and and stretches, with some interruptions of intervening sand,
nearly from the north to the south end. Its surface is even and
im many places covered by a thick growth of purslane whose
thread-like roots abound in the guano where it grows. The
posit rests on a hard coral bottom and varies in depth from six
inches to four feet. The fact, already observed at Baker’s, that
tween the guano of the deep and shallow parts is ey
No. 1 2
Moisture at 212° Fahr. ......20+eee+008 1°83 412
ty Speniatin SS a bo oot sess cues poe
Insol. in HCl (unconsumed organic) matter 1°95 2
me eeeeeoer?
OO cs cs os ineeicls apnoea 9-65 1-24
Riis bd ace ec aes 33 58
Phosphoric acid "TTT, 39°65 30°89
Carb. acid, chlorine and alkalies undeterm’d, 1°94 1°67
100-00 100-00
__ It will be seen that the main difference in these samples is in
the volatile matters present. Discarding the water and the or-
anic matter, comparative analyses of the ash would vary but little.
_, Some interesting peated go occur buried in the guano o
this island. Coral fragments of various species were found that
230 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
undergone some elevation. It the inl
. e : refore presents a basin-l
form, the surface being depressed from the outer edge towards
emum,
jsland
less guano, In the central and lower parts the surface is co
posed of the sulphate of lime, and it A pes this foundation that
between the guano found on it and that on Baker's Island, for :
readily explains the presence, in much of the Jarvis Guan, of
the great excess of sulphate of lime, remarked by all who have
investigated it, while the unequal mechanical mixture of the
guano with the underlying sulphate accounts for the lack of ¥*
in dif Odean oye Baker's
mining the foundation of the guano deposit on Baker
nd’s “lnias by sinking a shaft vertically, the hard
eens di ‘he gua
rectly underlying the gua
no has undergone onl such
uced. On Jarvis’ Isl. , bow :
is Wi oo
J. D, Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 231
stratum of sulphate of lime (sometimes compact and crystalline,
sometimes soft and amorphous) frequently two feet thick, beneath
which are successive strata of coral sand and shells deposited one
os the other in the gradual process by which the lagoon was
up.*
ged slightly depressed from the outer edge towards the
middle, ro ; :
£ypsum and common salt, ripple marks and similar evidences of
the graduall disappearing lake. The whole is com of a
eady observed, is mixed with some common salt, while near
the centre, where rain water sometimes collects after a heavy
Shower, the salt is almost entirely washed out, leaving the gyp-
Sum by itself. It is closely, but not hard, packed, and is sti
gging 18 or 24 inches down, salt water may
171 Hese facts understand the varying conditions in
Which we ag 2 to guano beds, since the most important
Part, and that from which the importations have thus far come,
ts on a bed of sulphate of lime, of an earlier but similar origin
that just described above: a part rests on a coral formation,
While still another part, covering a large tract, has been by
“Hon of water mixed with coral mud.
oe
232 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
The following is an analysis of a piece of pure crust. The
Moisture at 212° Fahr eo
by ignition, (combined water with little organic matter), Be
ime, .... 3
Sulphuric acid 1°63
Phosphoric acid, 50-04
enough of the latter to form ninety per cent of the salt 2020,
, t of p?
phoric acid, which would suggest the possibility that a part of the
phosphoric
So small -
1 of Jarvis guano which usually contains a large Pf
case it is owing to e a
ly mixed sulphate is
I have
pee and
J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 233
sis of Jarvis guano in his “ Report on the Guanos of Baker’s
and Jarvis’ Islands, Aug. 7th, 1860.”
The following presents some of the results obtained by these
two chemists :
Liebig. Johnson.
Average of four samples.
Lime, ‘ve 34839 34°79
Phosphoric acid, 17°601 18:48
Sulphuric acid, 27-021 20°75
_ In Johnson’s samples nearly the whole of the phosphoric acid
is combined with the lime as 2CaO, HO, PO,, while Liebig finds
for the above,
8CaO, PO,,
20a0, HO, PO,,
« 17-897 per cent,
16026 “
3 z n acted upon by sea eae seems to me
Singular feature is presented by t
of so-call Z Wariindooles an idea of which may be better obtained
ftom the accompanying cuts than from words. These ‘hummocks
in diameter from ten inches and in height fro
Vary meter from one to or is composed of the
, without aguas
there is a central mass of soft, amorphous and nearly pure by-
drated sulphate of lime. When one of these 1s cut through ver-
UR. Sct.—Szconp Senies, VoL. XXXIV, No. 101.—SEPr., 1862.
30
Ax. Jour,
234 J.D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean,
phosphoric acid. The surface guano was probably wet and in
plastic state like thick mud, and the ascending ‘carbonic acid,
fiiding no other means of escape, and exerting an upW
force, produced these hammocks, which have since become dy
an :
In those parts of the crusted deposit where there are no “ hum
mocks” the surface is usually a little higher and the deposit be
low drier than where the hummocks occur, and this would fur
Kean’s and Phoenix Islands, described below, are likewise old lagoons not
ed so high as Jarvis’s. Their basins are sometimes flooded at high oe
seas of clerne® Thus we may suppose that Jarvis, in an earlier 138°
J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 235
[have said that there was beneath the crust a stratum of gu-
ano of variable depth. Frequently it is wanting altogether, the
whole being taken up in the crust and lying in immediate con-
tact with the bed of gypsum. Where there is such a layer of
guano it is variable in composition, being mixed with more or
less sulphate of lime.
ae generally contains from sixty to seventy per cent phosphate
ime.
I come now to speak of that part of the Jarvis deposit which
rests on a coral foundation. This is of limited extent, but is of
great interest because of its similarity to the Baker guano. It
is about two feet deep; is a dry powder of dark brown color, of
rather lighter shade than the Baker guano, owing to the pres-
ence of less vegetable matter. It contains very little coral sand
mixed with it. The following is an analysis:
Moisture at 212° Fahr.,, 5-02
E . . Opes ae 845
Lime, |... : 42-17
; * 102
Sulphuric acid, ., 3-06
Phosphoric acid, 84-01
Carbonic acid, . “81
Insol. residue, (organic matter unconsumed by ignition),...... “60
orine, alkalies, iron, etc., 4°86
100 00
This gypsum or sulphate of lime is usually soft and amor-
Phous, ssdheweinen eryetadline and, at a depth of eighteen inches
or two feet, occurs in hard, compact, crystalline beds. Itis ofa
light snuff color, and where it underlies guano, 18 mixed with
Considerable phosphate of lime, which has been washed down
from the surface, Similar deposits of sulphate of lime 10 38 hoe a
many other elevated lagoon-islands of the Pacific, some of which
Ishall allude to below. I have also seen gypsum, of similar
depressions in the now elevated portions of
ots: Sandwich Islands, and doubtless due to the same source,
€vaporation of sea water. ‘
__ Unfortunately for the commercial interests of the Jarvis guano,
. goes (the first one or two) that wore brovgt thence
Were selected without the aid of chemical analysis, an' Lastag =
ge mistaking the gypsum for guano, sent Cargits, A
236 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
greater part of which was far from being worth the expense of
et: SEN The repetition of this error was promptly
ed against by sending a chemist to the island, but it 1
quired a longer time for the reputation of the article in the mar
ket to recover from the ill effects of such a mistake.
limate-—The climate of these three islands is similar and
ingly even, ranging from 76° at sunrise to 88° Fahrenheit at the
hottest part of the day in theshade. In the sun at noon it
1
Rain falls in light showers not infrequently. Heavy showers
are rare and rainy days are unknown in my experience there.
During four winter months at Baker’s Island, from October J,
1 ; measured
by conical rain gauge, amounted to ;,°,; of an inch ona levels
-and the greatest on December 19, 1859, was 23,8, of one Ie
much less than that which falls in winter, there are, nev
days in summer on which showers have fallen as heavy 28 9°
_ Rain falls most frequently in the night and just before a9
r } &
Overcast, a rain cloud passes over the island, but I have often
d the remarkable phenomenon of a rain squall appt
~
: | a before reaching it, separating not
J.D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 287
_ The position of these islands near the equator and their re-
moteness from any high land make them favorable places for
studying the meteorology of this region. The equatorial cur-
Tent isa matter of great interest. It has a general direction of
west southwest, and runs with a great velocity, sometimes ex-
ceeding two knots per hour, and, at times, suddenly changing
and running quite as rapidly to the eastward. 3
During the winter months there are days when the swell is
very heavy, and the surf breaks violently on the reefs, but in
summer there is little or no surf, and especially on the lee side
of the island, the water is very smooth. These periods in the
Winter occur usually at intervals of a few days and prevail dur-
ing two or three and sometimes more days. In this connection
-may allude to the shifting sands at Baker’s, which, as I o
served there, change their place twice in the year. The western
Shore of the island trends nearly northeast and southwest; the
Southern shore east by north. At their junction there is a spit
sand extending out towards the southwest. During the sum-
mer the ocean swell, like the wind, comes from the southeast, to
the force of which the south side of the island is exposed, while
the western side is protected. In consequence the sands of the
beach that have been accumulating during the summer on the
South side are all washed around the southwest point, and are
aped up on the western side, forming a plateau along the beach
two or three hundred feet wide, nearly covering the shore platform,
and eight or ten feet deep. With October and November comes
the winter swell from northeast, which sweeps along the western
ore and from the force of which the south side is in its turn pro-
Then the sand begins to travel from the western to the
Southern side, and after a’ month or two nothing remains of the
_ sand plateau but a narrow strip, while on the south side
he beach has been extended 200 or 300 feet. This lasts until
February or March when the operation is repeated. .
_,, Birds, ete-—From fifteen to twenty varieties of birds may be
distinguished among those frequenting the island of which the
pa zcipal are Gannets and Bean Frigate Birds, Tropic Birds
dern, Noddies, Petrels, and some game birds as the Curlew,
Snipe and Plover. Of terns there are several varieties. The
238 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. —
the contents of their stomachs, the capacity of which 1s some
times very astonishing. They are gross feeders, and I have
hover over the island —— lying in wait a = —
ey give chase, and the pu
e above are the kinds of birds most numerously represente :
and to which we owe the existing deposits. When the islands
were first occupied they were very numerous but have sin
Besides these are the Tropic Birds which are found in OP
siderable numbers on Howland’s Island, but seldom on Jarvis
or Baker's. They prefer the former because there are“ o.
s or fragments of beach rock, scattered over the
J.D. Hague on the Guano Islands in the Pacific Ocean. 239
ment succeeded so well that, subsequently, these birds were
carried from Howland’s to Baker's Island, (forty miles distant),
, on being liberated there, one after the other, as occasion de- .
manded, brought back messages, proving themselves useful in
the absence of other means of communication.
There are several varieties of tern, those described above,
however, being the only kinds that are found in very considera-
blenumbers, The game birds, snipe, plover and curlew, frequent
the islands in the fall and winter, but I never found any evi-
dence of their breeding there. They do not leave the island in
-_ of prey but may be seen at low tide picking up their
on the reef which is then almost dry.
Some of the social habits of these birds are worthy of remark.
The gannets and boobies usuall y crowd together in a very ex+
On Jarvis’ Island they were much less numerous,
y y * ie
Probably brougt shi wrecked there thirty years
: rought by a ship that was year
tely overrun the island, and on its first occupation by men
Were a great annoyance. "yar many nights in ee a barrel
“ontaining a few oats caught over 100, and I have ete: al
240 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
8,300 to have been killed in one day by a few men employed
for the purpose. ;
A species of small lizard was also found in great numbers on
Howland’s Island, some specimens of which I had preserved in
spirit, but the package containing them was lost on the voyage
e
mains of former visitors.—There are some interesting traces
on this (Howland’s) island of former visitors or residents. Ex
cavations and mounds in the centre of the island, among the
thickets of brushwood, referred to above, are evidently the work
of man. The most extensive of these excavations is sev
hundred feet long, and about one hundred feet wide, and ten of
fifteen feet deep, forming a gully or ditch, on each side of which
the sand and gravel is carefully banked up and kept in its place
by walls laid up of coral stone, (blocks of beach and reef rock).
The trees themselves may possibly owe their existence
to the originators of these works, for the sides of this gully are
covered Py a growth of wood which, unless younger than
uld show the trees to be of more recent origin than the
excavation.
It is said to be of a species called by the natives of the Sand-
wich Islands ‘ Kou,”* which abounds on many islands of the
Pacific. In the same Vicinity there are also the remains of what
sand, a human skeleton, the greater part of which, on pro
to the air, crambled to dust, leaving only two or
nes in condition to be pr
a bed of coral debris or beach accumulations. The edges of
corals being rough, sharp and painful to the feet, the paths
‘twee, Thave seen the Kou alluded oy Bie com soles of cordia.
J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. 241
» It is not unlikely that the lizards which abound on the inhab-
ited islands of the Pacific were brought here by these people,
and the rats, possibly, came from the same source.
Other Islands.—As already observed, the discovery of these
deposits of guano, the extent and value of which were at first
greatly exaggerated, induced fortune-seeking parties to explore
the Pacific in the hope of finding many more of similar charac:
=
os
5
=]
—
Or
oS
°
2
=
fu
—
co
=
@
oO
o
~~
~
om
n
ra)
dD
er
oO
Qu
&
SS
5
oi
oO
n
ar
i
Q
Qu
Oo
be 2 |
—_
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3)
and valuable article, entitled “Das Amerikanische Polynesien,’
1859.
_, Of these islands, a number of which I have myself examined,
It is safe to assert that some, although having a place on
Those named in the first column are
islands whose existence and position is well authenticated, and the apssge part of
tioned in the second column are known certainly to exist, and are deseri
Tous navigators, while others are doubtful, but I am unable to add any positiee in-
formation concerning any of them. The existence cf those in the thi column is
considered as highly improbable, at least in the position —— assigned to them.
i I
naira Carolin Danger, (69 30’ N., Arthur's
bt : a = eo ay W.) Favorite,
Molen M Staver’s, in, Pakeerts
Birnie’ 8, Flint, {10° 32’ S,, Matthew's, migiee pepe
Pee 151° 05’ W.) ~—— Barber's. Flint, (11°
E; irs, Baumann’s, Pag W.)
wnderbury's, Rogewein’s, Walker's,
iran Gronique, Sarah Anne,
pike of York, quae David's
yn’s,* Low,
Rierson’s,# 1
P
Humphrey’s,*
MEL 8 Baa
ra +)> Letitia’
, America,
A Jour. Sci.—Szconp Sens, Vou. XXXIV, No. 101.—Szrt., 1862.
ee
242 J. D. Hague on the Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean,
The following named islands, in particular, have been sup-
posed, erroneously, as regards some of them, to have guano
eg :
deposits
Latitude. Longitude.
. ( McKean’s, $°'35' S., 174° 17" W.
ay i 3° 40’ S., 170° 52’ W,
£ ) Enderbury’s, 3° 08’ S., 174° 14! W.
© ( Birnie’s, 8° 33/8, 171° 33’ W
alden’s, a” tbo,
Johnston’s, 16° 53 'N., 169° 31’ W.
Christmas, 1° 53’ N,, 157° 32’ W.
Starve, Starbuck or Hero, 5° 40’ S., 155° 55’ W.
Of the above those of the Phoenix group are probably the
most important. McKean’s Island has been occupied since 1858,
and several cargoes of guano of good quality have been brought
from it to this country. It is a low island, circular in form, ne
exceeding three-fourths of a mile in diameter. Like Jarvis, it
sin, forming the foundation on which the guano rests; and ow
ing, probably, to frequent inundations, the two have become 80
intimately mixed that the quality of much of the guano 1s Com
siderably impaired. The better specimens contain about aifty
ed cent phosphate of lime mixed with much sulphate of limé
uch of the deposit is covered by a foot of coral mud, which
as been spread out over the part adjacent to the beach. A
Phcenix’s Island is likewise very small, nearly circular, is
less than a half mile in diameter. “The centre is considerably
it is often flooded at high tides. I was unable to land on .
island, and my opportunities for observation were confined ‘és
Malden’s is a large island, ten miles lon and said to be 4
I believe it is an elevated ]
G. J. Brush on Amblygonite from Maine. 243,
are described as three small islands (probably islets of one atoll)
containing but little guano and that much mixed with coral sand,
d
=r
be]
oR
©
b-]
=F
be]
3B
Qu
=
o
”
Fr
5
=
=)
0g
5
¢
re)
4
oR
Q
s
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4
a
islands of similar structure, it contains a large eg of gypsum.
Its supposed guano I have found to consist of t
than 4° or 5° heavy rains are frequent, and this circumstance is
hot only directly unfavorable to the formation of guano deposits
but it encourages vegetation, and when an island is covered
with trees and bushes, the birds preferring to roost in them,
ere is no opportunity for the accumulation of guano eposits.
New York, August, 1862.
eS
Arr. XXT.— Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale
College —III. On ye from Hebron in Maine; by
Grorcr J. Brusu.
of alumina and lithia,
d some water. This
to refer it to the rare species amblygonile.
_ Lepidolite occurs at Hebron in large masses
inin i i ie erystals of a hair-browt
containing minute prismat 5 Kissin in auffleians
tity to determine fully its characters.
| ineral, which I have not yet been able to
244 G. J. Brush on Amblygonite from Maine.
The Hebron amblygonite is translucent, and has a white color,
sometimes with a tinge of gray or brown. Cleavage equal, and
perfect in two directions meeting at an angle of 73°-74° or 106°=
107°. Lustre, on cleavage surfaces vitreous to sub-adamantine,
and on the uneven fractured surfaces faintly greasy. Specific
gravity 3046, Hardness = 6. A small fragment held in the
ame of an ordinary stearine candle fuses readily to an fe 4
white enamel; fusibility =2 on y. Kobell’s scale. Heated ina
oxydizing and reducing flame. With soda effervesces, and forms
a difficultly fusible mass, which, even after addition of nitre, shows
actions for alumina and phosphoric acid. These characters and
Feactions are sufficient to prove the identity of the mineral with
Breithaupt’s amblygonite. The only difference between the He-
bron mineral, and the amblygonite from Penig in Saxony, is that
the former contains so little soda that it imparts a pure Jithia-red
color to the flame, while the latter gives a flame tinged with
yellow. As soon as I can obtain enough of the mineral for zed
purpose, I hope to examine the alkalies more minutely, ¥!
alkaline metals have been found in comparative abundance if
the Hebron Lepidolite by Messrs, O. D. Allen and J. M. Blake
of as Laboratory, H bron
__ itis an exceedingly interesting circumstance that the en
mineral should oceur associated 8 other minerals in a mapt
oe é y analogous to the Saxon amb] ygonite, the latter being
0 found in a coarse granite and frequently imbedded 10
_ dolite cont ming quartz and tourmaline. The Hebron amblyg°
Bes
Ta oa
4
‘laa
i aa
a Oe Smear
ee ee eee
M. Cary Lea on a Constant Aspirator and Blower. 245
pearto be rough prisms of from half an inch to an inch in diam-
eter. One of these gave an angle of 106° to 106° 30’.
Since writing the above, I have discovered amblygonite in
specimens of lepidolite from the tourmaline locality at Paris,
eight miles from the Hebron locality.
Sheffield Laboratory, Yale College, June 25, 1862.
Art. XXI.—On a Constant Aspirator and Blower; by
M. Carzy Lexa, Philadelphia.
Various modes of producing a blast of air by means of the
flow of water have been proposed for laboratory use. A some-
what complicated system involving the use of two fluids, me
cury and water, was published in the Philosophical Magazine
some years ago, and more recently an application by Dr. Sprengel
of the well-known principle of the Catalonian blast furnace was
described in this Journal. .
It occurred to me that this principle might be made use of for
aspirating, as well as for driving, a current of air, and experiment
fully confirmed the idea. I have also modified the shape
the arrangement for catching the air described by Dr. 2
Sprengel, introducing the current of water horizontally
tastead of vertically. I shall first describe the instrument
itended for aspirating, and next the complete appara-
tus for all purposes. Sais
The aspirator is extremely simple. It is nothing more
than a tin tube represented he fig. 1, about two feet lon
and four-tenths of an inch internal diameter, with a bran
ree-tenths of an inch in diameter and 4 inches Jong, in-
ferted horizontally at a distance of four inches fromthe |
>
vpet end
_or use, the tube is supported vertically in any convenient
Manner over a sink. An india-rubber 2.
. © Communicating with a water-faucet
ee over the end of the smaller hori-
Zontal tube A. Another india-rubber tube
Connects the opening B with the appara-
tus through which air is to be drawn. As
ie 8 the current of water is established,
the air is aspirated. In the figure sub-
Joined, the air enters at D after being as-
Pirated through the Wolfe’s bottle, or
other apparatus through which it is de-
Sired to pass a current of air, enters the
hn tube at B, and is drawn through with —
the water supplied by the pipe A and, es-
“ping at C. The power of this instrument
246 M. Carey Lea on a Constant Aspirator and Blower.
one no larger than here described, a column of water of fifteem
inches was easily displaced. The end C may be inserted 6
the funnel of a Liebig’s condenser, and the water employed or
cooling may be made at the same time to keep the aspirator im
action.* 1
The aspirating tube (which may also at need replace the b Ww
ing tube subsequently to be described) may be easily 3%
made by the manipulator himself. A stout cork is bored
parallel to its axis and to one side of the centre (not 1n
the middle as in the figure,) and then a smaller bole 1s
made at right angles to the first, communicating with it
but not passing further. Three pieces of tube are then
fitted into the cork, not allowing either to extend as far in
as the junction. The cork is then brushed over with seal-
ing wax dissolved in alcohol.
It is, however, a more convenient plan to construct an aier
ratus capable of combining both the functions of — and
aspirating. Such an arrangement is exceedingly useful, ana can
made with very little trouble. For this purpose, a tin pipe,
AB, about three feet in length and half an inch internal diam
ter, has two smaller pipes 4 to 6 inches long soldered mto ™
These are three-tenths of an inch in internal diameter.
CD, is inserted at right angles, about
four inches from the end; the other is
inserted about an inch lower, and makes
an angle of about 45°. The lower end
of the tube passes through the cork of
a tolerably wide-mouthed gallon bottle
extending rather more than half way
wn. ‘The tubes may be made of
smaller calibre and shorter, even 18
inches answers very well, but the sizes
given are those which I have found to
afford the best results. The tin pipes
can be made by any tinsmith in a few
minutes.
Two glass tubes also pass through
the corkt+ of the bottle, a short small
tube, G, over the outer end of which
an india-rubber tube is passed, and a
large tube, H, about half an inch in
Ore, extending to the bottom of the
bot Its outer end bends over and
4s connected by six inches of india-
: ee erst ime at
. rm of aspirator (the tube ) has been in use for some time ©
yb Noe Bite ee pi
G should extend 6 or 8 inches above the cork, and should no¥ PI"
M. Carey Lea on a Constant Aspirator and Blower. 247
rubber tube with a straight tube of equal diameter. This last
arrangement forms the siphon.
When the apparatus is to drive a blast, an india-rubber tube
is connected with a hydrant and attached to the open end of the
short horizontal branch of the tin tube. When the water is
turned on, the india-rubber tube, GI, is closed for a moment
with the finger and thumb. ‘This starts the water through the
siphon, and then a continuous and powerful blast of air is
driven through the tube, GI, which may be attached to a blow-
Pipe, a Herapath burner, or be used in any way desired. The
main point is this, that the siphon must be capable of carrying
off a larger stream of water than that which is allowed to enter:
in this way there is never more than an inch or two of water in
the bottle, and some air escapes through the siphon, but without
be driven through GI. The proper balancing is easily attained
and then the apparatus may be put in motion or stopped in a
Single apparatus shall produce all degrees of action, a tin tube,
like that fore dentuited but a little larger in all its parts, ma.
be provided, with a cork fitting its upper extremity. Throu
@ hole in this cork passes a thick glass rod, or tube sealed at one
end, of the same length as the tin tube. The introduction of
this cork and rod diminishes the effective calibre of the tube,
enables it to blow or aspirate a gentle current of air with a
__ Stream of water which would otherwise have failed to set the
‘apparatus in motion; at the same time it can easily be removed
When a powerful air-current is desired. The air in this case 1s
‘tived wholly from the small inclined tube.
248 M. Carey Lea on a Constant Aspirator and Blower.
I have found this instrument to be of the greatest utility and
convenience; so much so that I have two of them permanently
fitted up in my laboratory. One valuable application is for get-
ting rid of poisonous vapors. In any distillation, for example, the
recipient or Wolf’s bottle may be made to communicate wi
the open air or with a chimney, a cork with a tube may be in-
serted into the retort, or an extra tube through the cork of the
flask in which the distillation is performed, and the flexible tube,
passed over it and a current of air be driven through during
the whole operation. Or, if the products of distillation are val-
uable, the tube may be closed at I by one of Mohr’s stop-cocks
during the distillation, and at the end a current of air may be
Pas through the apparatus, sweeping it perfectly clean. In
this way I have been able to dissolve oxyd of iridium containing
osmic acid, in aqua regia, and drive off the osmic acid without
suffering any inconvenience from the latter. The chemist who
as once used this arrangement will find it so simple and effica-
cious that he will be led to employ it when manipulating with
substances much less deleterious than osmic acid. It is very
ul
For driving a blow-pipe, an apparatus of this sort, put togethet
with a bottle and a few pieces of tube, is infinitely more conven:
below. Thick brass wire was melted off in drops, etc.
__It is not necessary that the instrument should adjoin a
wan .
ve current produced by the tube A B, tivo qe +
: about sixteen feet, and might
carried farther without important loss of power.
Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains. 249
Art. XXIII.—Hnumeration of the Plants of Dr. Parry's Collection
tn the Rocky Mountains, (continued from vol, xxxiii, p. a
on A. GRaY: with Supplements, by G. ENGELMANN and
WE are happy to state that Dr. Parry, assisted by Mr. E. Hall,
is now again in the Rocky Mountains, and at the last accounts
was about to ascend Pike’ s Peak. An interesting botanical col-
fe may be expec
Sambucus racemosa, L. Appatently just the European plant, and
a cei state of S. pubens, Michx.
ymphoricarpus montanus, a. — ew to our flora; well
marked by its elongated corolla. S. glaucescens, H.B.K., appears, in
probably authentic specimens, “ to be ‘ally “different.
24. Lonicera involucrata,
225. Viburnum m pauciflorum, Dylan
226. Vaccinium — a Michx. Just like the White-Mountain
yo “Strictly alpi
Vaccinium Myrtillus s, L. var. microphyllum, Hook. Fi. Bees Am.
Surely a ae variety of V. Myrtillus, the flowers as small in pro-
Portion as the leaves. According to Dr. Parry, it is the “usual alpine
‘form, » growing in closely branched masses, in the shade of stunted ever-
ns, taking the place of 298, which is found lower down, in pine woods.
it small, purplish, without bloom, mild and rather insipid in taste.”
Dr. 5 Hayden gathered it on the Black Hills of the Platte.
Vaccinium Myrtillus, var.? The —— less rite tS
and ae leaves less reticulated and toothed than in the European
tillus. In the flowers, &c., it is as if ntrmaite beta at tons 9
d V. cespitosum. Fuller specimens, and the fruit, are wante
lee. Prom minor, L. Collected by Fendler (No. 644) as far south
ta Fé,
230. Pyrola rons an Dr. Hooker is A in his ee
that — reenland plan r. Kane, referred by Durand to P. chloran-
Ig +e se is quite ~— as I think, in referring P.
chloranths to P. rotundifolia, of which P. grandiflora is evidently a
Mere y,
231, Pipyiade (Moneses) uniflora, L. “In deep pine woods.”
a 232, P. yrola rotundifolia, L. var. uliginosa. (P. uliginosa, Torr.
= Moist, shady woods; flowers rose-color.” This is certainly connect,
Pe P. rotundifolia thro P. asarifolia. To the synonyms of P. ro-
ifolia, Dr. Hooker Taig t have added P. occidentalis, R. Br, P. bracte-
a Hook,, P. picta, wo Ps but should exclude, as I suppose, both
a secunda, we leis
284. Guultheria Mireynites, Hook. rere and pecelior F Scale
SS A slender form
Ant, Jour, Scr.—Szcoxp Sans, Vou. XXXIV. 7, No, 1L—Serr, gee
32
250 Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains.
237. Veronica alpinus, L.
238. Gerardia aspera, Benth. Valley of the Platte.
239, 240, 241. Castilleia pallida, Kunth. —— red bracts, there-
Sapplement TIL, salons
astilleia pallida, Kunth; nearer the type of the species (C. Si-
birien, ‘Lindl, and C. occidentalis, Torr.
245. Castilleia pallida ; the taller and broader-leaved form with longer
galea, like the plant of the White Mountains of New Hampshire, C. sep-
tentrionalis, Lind).
aa Castilleia breviflora, Euchroma breviflora, Nutt. in herb. Acad,
244, Castilleia integra, Gray, |.
246. Castilleia linariifolia, Chath, The same as Fremont’s plant.
247. Orthocarpus luteus, Nutt.
248. Pedicularis racemosa, Benth. in Hook. Fl., dc. Fine specimens
of a rare and interesting species. “Grows in patches near ‘the limit of
trees. Leaves es dark-green and shining. Fawen yellowish-white. July,
ugust.
249, Pedicularis bracteosa, Benth. 1. ¢. “Near the foot of alpine
ridges ; rare.”
_ Pedicularis Gronlandica, Retz. Obs. 4, t.1. P. surrecta, Benth. |
re sch-porple”
251. Pedicularis Parryi, (sp. nov. sect. ihanelanlS. Bunge, 8
tularum, inter Unciatas et Scapiformes, Benth.): glaberrima;
Se potoletic eas subnudo ; foliis lineari-lanceolatis real oa
to superan roducta; filamentis glaberrimis. “On alpine
Flowoee of a a aiey or faded yellow,” > about half the size of shia —
Siberian P. compacta ; the shape an size ofthe beak nearly the oa
‘which is apparently P. pedicellata, Bunge (P. s¥b#
Spike naked, 2 to 4 inches long; the lover flowers FF be
win yates i seineth <The
Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains. 251
ts
pinnatifid or incised, the flowers of the dense spike sessile, the calyx
more inflated, the lower lip of the corvlla nearly equalling the galea, and
two of the filaments slightly bearded.
252. Pedicularis procera, (sp. nov. Bicuspidatarum): caule 14-3-pe-
dali crasso foliato superne cum spica densiflora 9-18-pollicari molliter
~seeaaee foliis glabris pinnatipartitis, (radicalibus seepe sesqui i
leafy-stemmed, the cauline leaves sessile, their much |
M. Bigelow; but only in fruit. A striking species, quite distinct from
any other known
F ossica.
254. Synthyris plantaginea, Benth. Wholly below the alpine region.
The same as Fendler’s No. 582. Radical leaves mostly obtuse o
rounded (rarely at all cuneate) at the base; scape multibracteate. Flow-
ets all short-pedicelled; sepals ovate, obtuse, villous-ciliate, ng
nearly glabrous with age. Corolla pale, very deeply 2-parted or pid
divided, the upper lip cuneate-obovate, entire or obscurely erose, = re
: rae al length, the lower not
Manual, but the lips or divisions nearly of equ a (either 4woior
- Synth i .): spi
ticis a Smeal 3 a adus crenatis mox rrimis ;
superne foli ; spica. brevi ; sepalis lanceolatis
‘xtus presertim ad margines cum bra 3; corolla
252 Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains.
bipartita, labio superiori latissimo eroso, inferiori multo minori 2-8-par-
tito, lobis angustis ; stigmate capitato. “Growing in crevices of rocks,
from No. 254, strictly confined to the high alpine region, with glossy
14 to 2 inches
nus. e only known original specimen, and a very scanty one, 18 10
the Hookerian herbarium, to which it was contributed by Dr. Torrey,
lemon it, i i
olate-spatulate. Scape 2 to 4 inches high, puberulent, Flowers solitary
in aie axils of the small floral jeaves, on very short and ebracteolats
ice
- 267. Vide after 261, 262, P.
_258. Pentstemon acuminatus, Dougl. in Bot. Reg. t. 1285, vat 68,
nitidus, Dougl., Benth. P. Fendleri, Gray in Paci. R.R. Reps 2 Pelé
ri P
nto sterili filiformi glabro.” But Lindley, in Bot. Reg, where the
Species was published, says “ apice leviter pilosum, aduncuin ;” and
ecies on
tainly P. nitidus. P. cyananthus, Hook. Bot. Mag., which in the Bota"Y
of the Mexican Boundary I had referred here, ace figured as having
ry anthers, like those of P. glaber, and with such a corolla as the lati
has, but with narrow sepals, It may be a very well developed :
- sermon sega maes manioky of the foregoing, clearly of the sare
‘Pe, cs “trom plains east of Denver, with numerous bright blue How"
and narrow linear leaves.” Similar specimens from Eureka, Mr. How
Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains. 253
ard, but only a span high, as well as others before ra (among on
Geyer’s No. 154, and some of Hooker's P. acuminatu us, var. minor, fro
Carlton eagle manifestly connect this species with P. pondrsaeg Nutt,
the oldest — | these names, P. secundiflorus, Benth., is another con-
necting for
259. Purest — Pursh, var. alpinus. P. alpinus, Torr. in Ann.
Lye, N.Y. Only an alpine form of the next, with more attenu —_ se-
pals, on particular ite of which is inconstant in the genus. Dr,
remark: o doubt a variety of P. glaber, being almost ex wats
dwarfed: deitresentitve of that elegant rem and its alpine situadion
a Seamer rcp d account for its stunted s
P. glaber, Pursh, (P. erianthera, Tein Nutt.) “Common on
dey ila along the valley of Clea r Creek; a splendid species, its
nage, , brilliant, inflated, blue corolla siikeakied with reddish-purple stains.”
this species; since the an nthers are but slightly hairy, in comparison
With those of the section Hrianthera, and are s Saamadily glabrous, “3
e
beard at the top of the sterile filament is sotmatitite almost wantin ng,
and sometimes sparsely extended downwards. I cannot doubt that the
figure of P, s spectosus in Bot. Reg., t. 1270, represents this species, and,
Teturning to an old opinion in this regard, should reduce that to the
Present species,
_ — 261, 262. Pentstemon glaucus, Graham in Edinb. Phil. Jour. July,
1829, p. 348; Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1286. “Rather abundant at the foot
alpine r ridges, above the limit of seme the taller specimens from a
sower elevation in the valley of Clear Cre The more common form
pale cream-colored ei with Pasi stripes, an. green
es; there is a more re, purple-flowered variety ; both quite bila-
biate.” Small specimens ita this are found in James’s collection, mixed
With P. Jame esii, Benth., and formerly confounded by Dr. Torrey with
P. albidus,—to both of “which they have some resemblance. The
Cies, however, is more allied to P. graci lis, bss “ee but it has a more in-
the Botan ical Magazi ne Recoeing os “ee naar t is: — common
tin n speci
te a Brosey and bright seni ; ae varying fro
inh
sel-
ies. Pent pnisincls proderan Do About a span high, and it is
dom Yery much taller. There gt doubtless some — in the im-
Position of this name; but it is surely only a variety © congestus,
with od le-blue fi Jai
a i Pinte vad conia-aien Nutt. A com ea i om at Fr Fremont’s
ral eae arts is is perhaps an i aa state
Specimens, , appear to belong
to P. pumilus by Bentham, -*
254 Enumeration of Plants of the -— Mountains.
which Dr. Parry has de tected the e present season, and sent in a letter:
266. Campanula Langsdorfiana, faker Trauttv. & Meyer, Fl
Ochot., p. 60. C. heterodoxa, Bong. Fi. Sitch., an Vest.? Probably
re
size of the fi to C. uniflora than to C. rotundifolia, The calyx-
lobes are eae mgr from a broad base, nearly equalling the =
and more or oothed. Additional specimens, needed to up
the species, it is a beped may be obtained this summer. It i a said to be
“common in moist, grassy places on the borders of Upper Clear Creek,
Flowers ae blue than those of C, rotundifolia,” far larger than those
of the next.
267. Campanula uniflor
268. Campanula <a L.; alpine form, like that of the White
en of New Hampshir
271. Gilia spicata, Torr, & Gray, stad Elaphocera spicata and E.
opine, Nutt. in herb. “Growing, with a deep tap- see in the dee Ni sandy
bottoms o Den
274, Polemonium pulcherrimum, Hook.; with lobes of the corolla
rounder. A form of P. pulchellum. “ A charming alpine plant, _
ing the high slopes with its deep blue, nodding flowers; whole plan
beset with resinous glands, exhaling a strong odor of f musk”
275. Polemonium ceruleum, “At ieee stations.”
276, Polemonium pulchellum, Bunge; nearly P. commer Hook.
- “Growing in shade at the farthest, limit of bushy *s
Flowers delicate faded = .” The limits of species (if on they be)
this ge are indeterm
7. Ipomea top, "Torr. Sand hills of the Platte; a charac
sake plant of the plai 3
. Eritrichium sretiaicen; DC. Myosotis nana, Torr. in Aun. Lye.
with a Title of ives yeas fruit, which, if normal. will distinguish this
from the European #. na nanum, The corolla is a little smaller. 1 sup”
to be £. ! :
mee is undescribed. This Dr. Hooker re ads as an vet state
with the last. Flowers dull a, cha apie” An i
wers du = changing to” ae
fediscovery of one of James’ ging Aes
Pema ame
Se ns reel 8, Dougl.
Gita pinnate, Natt, ined The same as No. 655, Fendler.
$e me cei aggregata, Spreng. @. pulchella, Dovgl-
Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains. 255
284. Mertensia alpina, Don.; a loosely paniculate, branching, evolute
variety. “Common in the valley of Clear Creek, on gravelly banks,
wing in irregular clumps, 12 to 18 inches high; flowers dull blue, in
Hay and June.”*
285. Mertensia Sibirica, Don. pro parte. Pulmonaria Sibirica, Linn,
& Pursh, quoad syn. Gmel. Lithospermum denticulatum, Lehm. Asperif,
L. Sibiricum, Ledeb. Fl. Alt., & Ic. Pl. Fl. Ross. t. 207. Pulmon
denticulata, Roem. & Schult., Cham., &c. Mertensia dénticulata, Don.,
DC, Ledeb. Fl. Ross. Pudmonaria ciliata, James, Torr. in Ann. Lye,
N.Y. 2, p. 224. Mertensia ciliata, Don. &c. Besides the greater
smoothness, which is variable, this is distinguished from IM. panicu
by the much shorter and blunt segments of the calyx, and the leaves
are glaucescent beneath. No doubt the Linnean name must
stored to this (the Pulmonaria Sibirica of Pallas resuming the name of
M. Pallasii, Don.) ; for it is clearly the plant of Linneus, and perhaps
Pursh’s from Canada (but more probably that is M. paniculata), and I
L ‘
of the present species. It is, writes Dr. Parry, “the common brook-
side Mertensia, found everywhere along the margins of ice-cold, dashing
streams, up to the snow-line, delighting in situations where its
foliage and delicate blue flowers are bathed in the spray. It grows to
the height of 14 to 3 feet; the stems succulent, the lower radical leaves
@ and cordate.” :
286. Mertensia iculata, Don. A reduced and alpine, glabrate
Tanges from Hud
Fé (626, Fendler) and northwestward. The foliage, calyxes, &c., vary,
48 In other species, from smooth or glabrous to hirsute, but the narrow
and acute segments of the deeply 5-parted calyx are always hispid-ciliate.
It obviously Includes M. cory d M. pilosa, Don., the Li
g- 3
, Don. monaria alpina, Torr. in Ann. Lye,
N.Y. “The small-flowered alpine Mertensia ; flowers dull ero
288, Eritrichium glomeratum, DC. sine
®n gravelly hill-sides and rocky place
to the upper valleys.”
¥ om Phacelia circinata, Jacq. Leh In Pent
0. Echinospermum floribundum, Lehm. in Pacif. R.R. Exped.
256 Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains.
295. Lit ree pe ean Nutt. ex char. This is Fendler’s No.
626 atid Wright’s 1
296. iecasies ‘(dilploce, Nutt.) convolvulaceum, Gray.
297. Paronychia, n. sp. apparently, “—a single patch only, found
: ; on
rigida, Benth.? P. brev sila, Nutt. in Heke P. muscoides and P.
bryoides of Nuttall both belong to P. Hoodii.
299. Gilia ee ee pungens, Benth.
300. Silene acaulis, L.
301. Dracocephal um _parviflorum, Nutt. ‘The only representative of
Labiate in the mountain region.’
802. Salvia Pitcheri, Torr. Prairies in Kansas. This must be
S. elongata of Dr. Torrey i in James’s icalbonion: It is peers > be-
tween S. azurea and S. farinacea,—two Salvias which would seem to be
See enough.
Scutellaria resinosa, Torr. in Ann. Lyc. N.Y. Upper Platte.
oe Gentiana Parryi, sp. nov., Engelm. in Trans. St. Louis a 2,
p.t. 10. “Near the foot of alpine slopes.” pee is, says Dr. Engelmann, ‘it
‘ta very handsome species, growing in tufts, each stem bearing sever
large, purplish- — flowers with bifid fo lds, nd enclosed by a palr
boat-shaped bracts. Leaves rounded, fleshy, glaucous. Nearly allied to
G. calycosa and @. Menziesii, which, ‘however, have single flowers, with-
out the calyculate bracts peculiar to our species, and to the Siberian @
septemfida, with long folds slit into numerous bristling Jobes.”
The plant of Kreusfeldt, in Gunnison’s Expedition, referred to @. aginis
in the second volume of the Pacific Railroad Report, is of this species,
but with narrower leaves, and Fremont’s No. 360 (1845) is a small-
leaved form of se which also occurs in Mr. —— collection n (Herb.
only 4or5i gh; the haaieoace narrower ; devas st cod
806. Gentiana prostrata, var. America: a, Engelm m. 1. ¢. t. 9, fig. 10-15
“A very small form, single or with few ea branches, 1-1} inches
high, found with No. 309. Distinguished from the European ae
forms by the small, 4-parted deeply blue rset nearly entire pls an
ang _— ce attenuated at the base into a short stipe. a
Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains. 257
with white folds.” —“ Many leafy, one-flowered, erect or ascending branches,
2-5 inches high, from the base. Distinguished from the allied ssn
rata, b
which, as well as the oblong-linear cauline leaves, are cuspidate and often
mucronate. The capsules on the taller branches are more or less exsert,
on the lower ones I find them often enclosed, or bursting sideways through
the integuments. Siberian specimens are absolutely identical with the
Rocky Mountain plant.” Hngelm.
307. Gentiana acuta, var. stricta, Griseb. “Rather common in shady
pine woods and moist places on Upper Clear Creek. In shaded places
the leaves are pale-green on both surfaces, aa and mostly obtuse; the
ers very pale-blue; in more open loca oe leaves are dark-green
above, pale below, earns the upper aN the flowers darker.”
a foot high, leaves 1-19 inches long, ar lines (the lower ae
unequal, the two longer and broader ones exceeding the tube of the co-
rollas lobes of the corolla acutish or almost obtuse, half as long as the
e corolla. The very
809. Gentiana acuta, va nana, Engelm. io. Tranancta-fie. Loti Acad.,
2, t. piv fig. 6-9. “Tn the niger alpine regions, together with @. pros-
trata, in icradien of Silene acaulis.” ‘A diminutive form, 14-2 inches
high ; flowers few, smaller; picw.ee f 4-5-parted corolla obtuse;
consisting of Presi distinct fibres.” Engelm. This, from the obtuse lobes
of the corolla, would appear to confirm Dr. Hooker’s view that @. acuta
isa form of @, Amarella, represe nted in Lapland by G. sp
can specimens (No. 686) have large and obtuse radical leaves (12-16
inches long, 4~5 inches vide); even the cauline leaves are re broadly oval
only the uppermost being lance-linear; the infloresvem vere u
—s much larger. Dr. Parry's plant e oo iD
oker’s flora. The cup uniting the base
edge in this species. eens Carolin nensis has large, obovate-spatulate,
“SLl. Primula rier (sp. abe P. nivalis — eximiz —
lls rubra te; corollee lobis .
- theeaecorraed diameter. | Pedicels one to neat two inches
long. - This magnificent Primrose needs to to be mee Leer’
Att. Jour, Sc1.—Seconp Sens, Vor. XXXIV, No. 101.—Serr., 1
33
258 Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains.
P: orhiza (a very rare and little known species from the Cancasts,
pieeinteen eon too like P. algida), and it doubtless lies between
that species and P. nivalis: but it can hardly be referred to either, al
though possibly, all these species may be found to merge in one. vf
Parry remarks that “This fine species is quite constantly met with on t
borders of alpine streams near the snow line; its knotted fibrous =
matted together, and constantly bathed in ice- cold water. Its usual beigh
about 12 to 18 inches flowers & a deep ag red (fading to open
een, It flowers in Jul uly, "It must be clea pt prey in :
peculiar localities, and it is a wonder it has not been found before. 0
my sketch map I have named one mountain stream Primrose Creek, 00
account of the abundance of this plant. ; this
312. Dodecatheon Meadia, L. A slender, few-flowered variety of
lymorphous s
= 31 de a septentrionalis, L. Both alpine and in the rer .
Bi. Phacelia Popei, Torr. & Gray in Pacific R. R. Rep. 2, p. 172 lb
10. “Whole plant of a brownish-green color, often robust, 8 0
inches high.” 41,8
315. Eriogonum umbellatum, Torr. in Ann. Lyc. N. Y., 2, p: 24 slow
in Sitgreaves, Rép. t. 12. Flowering sa oe flowers bright —
as 4 are in Hayden’s and other specimen Jlow
6. The same as 315 in fruit; the ssamth changed to pale ye
tring brownish. but the
8. The same species, apparently, as the two foregoing, ant
ste in the fine and well preserved specimens are obviously ¥ [am
cream color. Which form is the original of James’s leery
320. Hriogonum annuum, Nut eee
321. 5 oh effusum, Nutt Flowers white: those of 2
Nutt., are yellow.
(822. 2. Polygonum tenue, Michx. leiden near Central City.
323. Montelia tamari scina, eae ees plant.
324. Euphorbia mar.
325. Croton (Hendicondna) sateen Nutt.
(326. Frelichia Florida
» 827. Cycloloma sans ey Mog.
828. Eurotia lanata, Mo oq. Diotis, Pursh.
is 28. Euphorbia }
Polyge m Bistortay Lay -oblongifel i Meien
01 u et tu
on
nag Eo age a am st gooey
Enumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains, 259
5. Asclepias verticillata, L., dwarf waa
at Abronia ( Tripteroe alyz) cycloptera, Gray.
Abronia a Nat, figured in yee second volume of the
Paste Rail Road Repor
338. Acer glabrum, Torr. var. A. tripartitum, N
339. Betula alba, L. var., ’ glutinosa, forma latifolia, "Regel, or nearly.
340. Alnus viridis, DC.
342. Salix cordata, Muhl. ?
343. Salix reticulata, L. (S. sericea, Pursh.) Alpine.
_ 844, Salix discolor, Willd.
345. Populus tremuloides, Michx.
346. Lloydia serotina, Reich. Anthericu m, L.
847. Calochortus — Benth., ex pred The species greatly need
revision and diagno
348. Streptopus aniplesijalie us, DC.
349. Leucocrinum montanum, ‘Nutt. in Greg, Melanth., p.110. A rare
plant, one of the many which go to demonstrate the futility of an ordi-
he Liliacee. Also collected
by Mr. Howard. The specimens in both cases not in good state for
examination.
“om Allium cernuum, Roth.
351. Zygadenus glaucus, Nutt.
352. Corallorhiza ign nata,
. Listera cordata ta,
854 Calypso borealis, Salisb. In spruce woods; not uncommon. —
855. Platanthera obtusata, Lin
356. panes hyperborea, Lindl. To-this, as I suspected long ago
(im Ann: N. Y., when endeavoring to distinguish this species from
the: eet) ‘longs ‘the Habenaria dilatata of Hooker's Exot. Fl., t. 95.
oa dilatata, Pursh. ——
“In subalpine swa mps.” Flow
wo species, made almost thirty
when superficially examining
dried specim ens, been tem| ted to re-unite them. 3 Dr. H
og Pleteathera dilatata, Lindl.
: Gray, in Ann. Lye. N. Y.
ere
ition
of their sealer ou pices neat ot seems Is SO aiderent,
rol ile P, then ee eed read ome h in the mannar of neg
apifera as rene illustrated by Vipin: the former Ne ead
anther-cells, with a narrow stigmatic surface and a isc os orge, made by
between their bases and below, of within the ays labellum and other
are the large and age linear-oblong, viscid eaves ae par
"hip the | pace a trope the by
260 LEnumeration of Plants of the Rocky Mountains.
ir Wm. Hooker in Exot. Fl, t. 95, under the name of Habenaria dila-
tata), the glands are smaller aed orbicular, t the beak wanting, the anther-
cells more divergent, and, from the curvature of the flower, more over-
hanging, and the stalks of the pollinia very attenuated and weak. reer
disposed, the pollinia very commonly —- ut of the anther-cells a
tip of the labellum is still e engaged und oe point of the up r
and petals, or even in the closed Sides “and when the Jabellum is dis-
engaged and becomes recurved, or even " hefond: the ce are — to
topple over and fall upon the broad stigma beneath.* That our P. coer
_ is the Orchis dilatata of Pursh I am assured. Our gr are h
s should be re-compared with the Iceland P. hyperborea, and mete
this the Iceland Orchis Kenigii (described originally by Retz —
“labio tripartito,” but referred by Linneeus to O. hyperborea, and nun
by me to a probably quite different species from Unalaschka) sho
be colla
358. 2 oe castaneus, Sm.; an alpine form.
359. Juncus triglumis, L. With the last.
360. Juncus arcticus, var. gracilis, Hook. ? Alpine; too young.
361. Juncus # Menzies, R. Br. ex Hook.
362. Luzu flora
392. Diisuls spicata, DC, var., approaching L. Peruviana. Alpine.
363. Poa alpina, L.? «At the foot of the snow banks; July.” ail
364, Munroa squarrosa, Torr. Crypsis, Nutt. Deep sand beds,
of Denver.
365. Calamagrostis sylvatica, Trin, “ Dry hathotns of Clear Creek}
Jul
y<
368. A purple variety of = above (nearly C. purpurascens, R. Br)
in an older state. “ Alpine; Augus Pl
366. Muhlenbergia gracilis, “Trin, Calycodon montanum, Nutt.
Gamb., ex Thurber, R.Br.
367. Aira ceespitosa, var. arctica, Trin. Deschampsia brevifolia,
Alpine
369. Buchiie oe “Bi Engelm.; both sexes of the Buffalo-Gras.
“Plains of the Plat
Boutelona seiuesittges Torr.
371. Eriocoma cuspidata, Nutt. Stipa membranacea, Pursh.
372. Aira cespitosa,L. “ Alpine rid.
. om at een La Too young; “alpine ridges.”
‘ aie. Poa intiaiaslas L., or one of the species referable to this.
acts ridges.”
of ioanother North American Orch Orchid, which self-fertilizes, and that “ag
er ridentata. In this the anther. cells dehisce ¥
Bower ml is Reopened, and some ne the erga of pollen (in this species easily
found to have reac
A. D, Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 261
_ 879. Poa andina, Nutt. in herb. Acad. Philad. “Upper Clear Creek,”
376. Poa arctica, R. Br.? (P. flexuosa, Wahl.); a form of P. laza?
“ Alpine ridges.
$77. T; seal subspicatum, Beauv. “ Alpine ridges.”
378. Bromus Kalmii, Gray, Man. “8S. Clear Creek; July.”
380. Festuca ovina, L, “ Alpine.”
381. Triticum egilopoides, ‘Turez. Perhaps a variety of 7. caninum,
as Ledebour has it. “ Alpine.”
382. Phleum alpinum, L. “ Subalpine.”
383, 387, 389. Carer atrata, L., var. nigra, Boott. (C. nigra, All.),
cept that the perigynia are light-colored. From the var. ovata,
= ovata, oni eg differ in the sessile and crowded spikes.
y Carex
Hooker to A, cri he ay in
397. Notochlena dealbata, scat. Near Idaho.
[Concluding observations in next number. ]
—L
Arr. XXIV.— Abstract of a discussion of the Horizontal Compo-
nent id the Magnetic Force, from observations made at the Girard
College Observatory, Philadelphia, in the years 1840-’41~’42-
4844745 - by A. D. Bacue, LL.D., F.RS. Mem. Corr,
Acad. Se. Basia Sup’t, U. S. Coast Survey.
Parr Yaron. vow: of the eleven (or ten) ede ing and of the
dis nces of the horizontal ea
a follow this catadant as a pane to Table No.L, 7
=n contains the recapitulation of the monthly mean readings
of Sapa bifilar ar magnetometer, co orrected He - to present a continu-
us seri tures.
In appl Its, b cata Sof the fo
Soachenee at? sure results, y eq set nb 2b A
found e ent to omit
iam re of agli, hee Thelromiaig four
p= Swain results gave 16:5 scale divisions for the monthly
the change of magnetic horizontal intensity, and of the magnet-
262 A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Fore.
ism of the bar and 1:8 divisions for the effect of one degree of
temperature of Fahrenheit’s scale.
A new term involving the difference between the square of
mean epoch and any single epoch with a coefficient, was found
to improve this result giving for the monthly change 17°6 scalt
divisions, for the effect of one degree of Fahrenheit, 1°62 divi-
sions, and for the coéfficient of the term involving the square
031. This gives for the annual progressive change 2112 scale
divisions, and for the effect of one degree of the thermometer, 7=
1-62 x 0-0000365 = 0:0000591 in terms of the magnetic moment
of the bar. This agrees with the best direct determinations, be-
ptr in which the Observatory was alternately heated and
cooled.
oronto observations, in those at Makerstoun, and in those at
Helena, and has been the subject of comment by General Sabine
r. Broun, and Dr. Lamont. - 1 geale
Table No. IT, of the full memoir, contains the results 1
divisions after correcting each value of the former table for
perature. e
Table No. III gives the resulting monthly means for each y=
of the whole series from 1840-’41 to 1844—’45 both inclusive
_ The corrections for regular progressive changes of I ead ct
in the horizontal force, and for certain irregular changes are eet
carefully studied and appended in Table No. IV which store
the monthly means of the bi-hourly and hourly readings °
bifilar magnetometer referred to 63°-0 Fahrenheit, and corre?”
for irregularities in the progressive change. The monthly Table
for each year and for the five years are given in abstract 10 *9°
No. V. that
ie differences in the successive annual means indicate
al change of horizontal magnetic force is deter™"” +
tem
|
A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 263
change shown by the observatory bifilar, 203'5 is due to the loss
of magnetism of the bar.
Separation of the larger disturbances.—The observations having
been referred to a uniform temperature and corrected for pro-
gressive change, Peirce’s criterion was applied separately to each
month. For this purpose a systematic application was made
extending over the whole series of observations commencing
with the hour 0 and the month of J uly, next with hour 2 and
August followed by hour 4 and September, and so on in regular
progression. This process eliminates from the result the diurnal
Variation and the annual variation of the disturbances them-
selves. The value for 04 in July, 1840, was omitted as affected
by two very large disturbances. The following table shows the
limiting value of difference from the mean (the monthly mean
for the respective hour), also the number of observations in each
year subjected to the process.
Limits of rejection by Peirce’s criterion.
. Divis. No.
1840-41 excludes 53 241
1841-42 44 312
1842-43 37 309
1843-44 28 313
1844-45 33 313
Mean value 39 Sum. 1488
The limiting value derived from nearly 1500 observations is 39
Scale divisions and the separate annual values show plainly the
effect of the eleven (ten ?) year period, the year 1843-44 being a
minimum year. Certain limits in the adoption of a each,
value are allowable and upon trial as to the actual number o
disturbances separated, the value 33 scale divisions was finally
adopted. Any observation differing 33 divisions or more from
its respective monthly mean was therefore marked and excluded
m the mea
12
fa of the horizontal force equal to 0-004 in the ie
vol. IIT of the Toronto Observations).
Table No. VI, of the full memoir, shows the number of obser-
vations and the number of the larger disturbances, separated
the value 33, as the limits for each month, year, and the whole
Period. :
The total number of observations is 24,231, and of disturb-
ances, 1,698. The limiting value therefore separates one in
every 14°3 observations. At Toronto, one in every 125 was
ra a disturbance. having been excluded, new monthly
‘ ; 1aving been
were taken, and the process was repe
264 A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force.
when required, until all readings differing 88 scale divisions or
more had been exclude ble No. VII, of the full memoir,
contains the normals thus found, showing the monthly normals
of the bi-hourly and hourly readings of the bifilar magnetometer,
reduced to a normal temperature, and corrected for irregularity
in the progressive change.
Investigation of the 11 year (ten?) period, as shown in the changes. of the
amplitude of the solar diurnal variation of the horizontal force.
The variation in the amplitude of the diurnal motion of the
horizontal force is subject to the same inequality of about eleven
years as the declination, and the means of investigation will be
analogous to those used in part I. of this discussion. For greater
convenience, the Lae eames monthly normals were united into
annual means, and the results put into an analytical form, using
Bessel’s function applicable to periodical phenomena, and deter-
mining the numerical quantities by the application of the method
of least squares. | :
Table No. VIII, of the full memoir, shows the regular solar
diurnal variation of the horizontal magnetic force for each year
of observation, expressed in scale divisions of the instrument.
tained, the differences, using three terms in the equations, being
within the uncertainty of the observed values, The probable
ots. ¥
‘The curves show a double progression in the daily motion,
with a principal maximum of horizontal force in the morning, &
principal minimum before noon, and a secondary maximum !0
the afternoon; the precise epochs (to the nearest 5 minutes) and
poeta values were computed by means of the precedi
Principal a.m. Secondary P M.
min. of horizon. Diurnal range in max. of horizon | Less
force. forre, vad
Value io pone
Epoch. | Amt. |Seale! Parts of jabsolute| Epoch. | Amt. by
Div: | Div. |hor.force,} scale. ar
—!
xq H
-5| 6-2
IL 246° 1|38-8 |o- oor 42/0 4 05 | 213°5
11 5 | 565-5}23-8lo 0008710 0036 3 50 | 545°t a
10 55 803 24 i 88 0037 is 50 7840 o3 4
10 5o 1010 v5: 2\0 00055 j 0023 4 oO 1002°0 v4 1
10 50 |1206-6|24-2 88j0-0037} 4 0 |1184°9) ZN
| vs lee | :
ea
be
N t
i :
3 ‘ » ;
aI ie * |
se : DISCUSSION OF THE MAGNETIC AND
: « . th: i outs a Z E é
Inequality ™ the diurnal variation of the A METEOROLOGIC AL OBSERVATIONS MADE. AT
a Hori: , sntal force s |
gees ate SO Z THE GIRARD COLLEGE PHILADELPHIA
a : “5 R IN 1840 41 42 43 4 £45
. j —H is | ;
= ul A.D. BACHE L LD. SUPERINTENDENT
/| See DIAGRAMS TO PART IV
; : — a oe sowed 1862
a a hea 42
— B a!
a 2 _hig42-43 Distribution of the number of disturbances
in the several months of the year
= Full line for Hort force
=| ed
— Med a =
SR OR Causa ea ED: Fo | 2°00 |—1-_-.__
= 80 - | a
2 60 | ie
— “sO By pee
a 20 “4
= so. | / \
ahs “60 + KA or
a8 rae d
| E 20 L -
: 1 ool ed aot Got Se Se
M3 14 15 16 17 18 18 20 21 22 23 26 ns — rue 2 coat re
(eneeh gene S S8dagigzbseds -
" phia mean time * wee
A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 265
The secondary minimum is reached about 8 30™ Pp. w., witha
comparatively small range.
e mean value of the force is attained about 75 55™ a.m., and
again about 1 55™ p, ., with considerable regularity ; it is again
reached at 624, and at 114 P. M., though with less regularity.
At Toronto (see vol. II. of the Toronto Observations) the
diurnal variation of the horizontal force has a principal maxi-
mum at a little after 4 P.M., and a principal minimum at 10 or
lL 4.M.; the secondary maximum occurs about 6 4.M. There is,
therefore, this specific difference in the diurnal motion at these
two stations: in that at Philadelphia the morning maximum is
the higher of the two, while at Toronto it is the afternoon max-
imum. The difference between the two maxima, as shown abov
Is almost nothing in the maximum year 1843-44, but increases
before (and after) this epoch in proportion to the interval.
At Toronto the daily range seems to be slightly greater. The
secondary minimum at Toronto occurs about 2 or 3 A.M, or
about 6 hours later than at Philadelphia; this is a second though
less significant point of difference. j
The minimum daily range occurs in 1843-44, and is then less
than one half of what it was in 1840-41. Sees ts
The equation for the diurnal range in scale divisions gives the
following results:
R=+19°68—8°78 (t—1848)+ 2°77 ((— 1843)
it represents the observed values as follows:
Observed R. Computed R.
January, 1841. | 38°8 38:3
se 23°8 26-2
“ 1843. 241 19°7
“3844. «152 18°7
* 1845. 24°2 23°2
The minimum range, as given by the formula, is in September,
1843. In part I of the discussion we found the minimum range
of the declination in May, 1 and the minimum from the dis-
ces of the declination in August, 1843.
Investigation of the eleven (ten?) year inequality in the disturbances of the
horizontal magnetic force.
In table VI the number of disturbances in each month has
266 A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force.
pestieelys the number of disturbances after October, 1843 were
alved to make them comparable with the bi-hourly series.
mean of 64, whereas in the same months in the following year
they amount to only 26, and 26 respectively, with an ann
mean of 27. mean annual difference 37 was applied to the
numbers found in 1841, which gives 63, and 63 asa substitute
for the anomalous values in July and December, 1840. he
anomaly does not exist in the phenomenon itself, but 1s unques-
tionably due to the irregularity in the progressive change.
Table No. LX, contains the number of disturbances as distri
uted over the several years and months; all referred to a unk
form series of bi-hourly observations. To this table the monthly
means and their ratio, when compared with the annual meaQ,
have been added ; also, for comparison, the corresponding ratios
found in part I. of the discussion of the disturbances of the
declination.
Hox foros) Decl |
18401841) 1842 1843 18 or ;
_ MONTE. 1841 Te 1343 ‘Bid 1815 | Mean. | ratio. | rl
July. (63) 26 24 She meee. r oe
August. 73 17 3 It 2 a1 | 089 36
September. 54 | dt 16 | 13 | 34 | Re
October. 6B | 282) 53 | 2 | 296 4:88} 190 ee
November. 4 32 15 ° 21 24 | roo |} ns
ber. (63) 5 ) 23 23 h een
January, 35 14 8 I 13 4 | O87 bat
February. 50 37 20 3 9 24 1°00 63
March, 6 25 20 14 2 25 1-06 wal
April. 48} 38 | 14 8 16 = 1°06
.. --May. 46 a5 2 10 2 ef
wee x Sa 18 16 4 o 28 13 obs fet
aaa eo ee Le ee a4
me 3 ee @ { 33 | 34 1) he
In the columns of ratios the principal maxima and minima are
indicated by an asterisk. ae
The annual means exhibit — the eleven year inequalitys
the formula:
they have been represented by
“© N=+144—102 (¢—1848) +48 (¢—1848)?
Observed N. Computed N.
- January, 1841 52 : 640
ee SRB AR. 5 bi: 88 br
Soa ARAB, 20
oo
©
A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 267
igang to the formula, the minimum occurs in January,
We have next to consider the eleven year inequality in the
magnitude of the disturbances of the horizontal force. Table
o. X contains the aggregate amount of the disturbances, ex-
emai in scale divisions, and also their mean amount obtained
y eaten of the number of disturbances already given in
table VI.
For reasons already explained, the amount of disturbances in
July, 1840, equal to 10761 scale divisions, has been diminished
in the ratio of 165: 63. The ratio of each monthly mean to the
mean amount of the year is also given, together with a column
1 of corresponding ratios, derived from the disturbances of the de-
| clination as made out in part I. of the discussion.
j Tape No. X.— Aggregate and mean amount of the disturbances of the horizontal
force exp le divisions.
: ressed in
o +944 | 1944.45 | Mean - sce | Deelin,
sata 1840-41 | 1941 4 emonst:| 80°!) Tat b
ie :
nba 089)| 1157 | 1295 | 669 o| 56 | 1°10] 0-87}
August, Cap 35 131 | 471 t4a | 52 | 1-03 | 1*6s
September, 2 660 | 1228 | 56 | 1°11*} 3° ou
ctober, 3720 | 1284 | 2 169 | 1412 | 49 | 0°97 | 2°
November, ne g9t |} 91 34 | 2173 | 54 | 1-06} 1+06.
ecem ber, 6515 | 1225 | 239 o | 2283 | 52 | 1°03 | 1-00 |
January, 1186 I o | rit | 1402 | 49 | 9°97 | 0-72
4 February, 54 | 1822 806 | 50 | 0°99 | o 54
h, 3112 | 1176 1412 | 127 | 49 | 9°97 | 0°66
April, 2138 | 2075 | & 861 | 1604 | 49 | 9°97 oe
May, 2456 | rain | 1187 | 132 | 789 | 47 ne o
June, » 560 | 794 | 164 a3g0 | 44 | 0°87%| 0-4
RE Ye eee ere ean) en Lee fi s .
| Mean amount, | 53-9 | 52-0 | 48-6 | 46-3 | 46°8 |50°6 1-00 |
: ; :
Maxima and minima in the columns of ratios are marked with
0 asterisk,
: The inequality in the mean amount of the horizontal force
: disturbances in ‘each year, indicates the year 184 as the
minimum year.
| _ From the preceding results, we may assume the mo of No-
} _‘-Yember, 1843, as the epoch for the minimum of the eleven (ten
t T, ; 2 7
Year?) inequality, as far as indicated by the differential obser-
Vations of the horizontal force.
Further Analysis of the Disturbances of the Horizontal rhb :
The distribution of the disturbances in number and mean
_ &mount over the several months of the year has been given in
res LA an ; i
_ From table IX we learn that the disturbances are eri be
Rumber in September and March, or April, or about i e time of
the equinoxes, and Jeast in number about January and , ane,
about the time of the solstices. At the autumnal equinox
268 A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force
numbers exceed those of the vernal equinox. The same law
was found at Toronto. Also, the numbers are smaller at the
summer solstice than at the winter solstice, in perfect’accordance
with the result found at Toronto. These results are shown
graphically on the accompanying diagram (fig. B), Col
tains also the ratio of the disturbances for the declination,
smaller amount occurring near the summer solstice. The aver
age magnitude of the disturbances of the declination was found
subject to the same law.
we separate the disturbances which increase the force from
those which decrease it, we may form the two following tables
of the distribution of the disturbances in number and average
amount over the several months of the years.
Taste No, XI—Annual inequality in the number of disturbances increasing and
easing the horizontal force.
enece el
1840-41 {1841-42} 1842-43 ) 1843-44 | 1844-45 | Sam, ) Ration
Ine, ; Dec | Inc. } | ec.| Inc. ; Dec.| Inc. | Dec'| Inc. Dec | Inc. Dee. tne. Leos
July, (38) |(25) a0] 5} a9] a] 14] 0 So | 78) bee
Aug.| 18) 55{; 6/11] 2]: 2] 2] 9], 0} a] 27 a =
Sept.) 25 | 29| 5| 36/38] 6]11] 5 4 | 88 weg ict
Oct. | 18 | 50} a1 | 17] 37/16} 2] ot 3 8 | 75} 92} 18 |
Nov. | 13-| 36 Piogid AA Ol @ 04:41 1 18 0-4 | 19")
(25)|(38)} 8| 18} o| 5] of of 15| 8| 48 ge
Jan. | 19/16] 6] 8] 31 5] of £| 3 10] 31 | 40] % i.
Feb. | 15 | 35] 4] 33] 2] 18} of 3] 0] gj 21| 98/091 38
7 ait sO tet ST ist er iss Ce se Ba a
April] 18 | 30 | 14] 24] 1 | 33 ty 1.64.96 1 34 el ne
y,| 241 924 16) 23 ).10] a5] 1foad 5 6) hr o6*
Jone} 9} 9| 6] 10] 1] 3] of of 7] a1 | 23 J ral
Sum,! 239| 389) 93 1237} +05| 130] 17 | 55 | 48 | 105 [502 | g16/ 12°0| 128
In each year the number of disturbances: increasing olen
is less than the number which decrease it; the numbers of in eres
are to the numbers of decrease as 1:1:8. The numbers © nes
monthly ratio for the increasing disturbances exhibit the ie
law as found in table No, IX. With respect to the pun ee
: the decreasing force, the law is apparently less distinctly ei efre 4
The maximum seems to occur about two months later ( force
* __ the winter solstice) at a time when the number for increasing may
_- apparently atitsminimum. This indistinctness in the law the
Le ssib) y be ‘due to an irreg istribution in reference ner
day, and would probably disappear in a longer °°"
A.D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 269
Tante No. X1I.—Annual inequality in the mean amount of the distar rbances of the
tal force. A agregaie amount for increasing and decreasing disturbances
expressed in n Scale divi
unt of a disturbance aa the horizon-
tal force is 45 scale divisions or 0°0069 in absolute measure ; the
average amount of a disturbance decreasing the same is 54 scale
divisions or (0082 in the value of X. The ratio of these num-
rs is as 1: 1-2, whereas at Toronto the ratio is 1:
= average amo
or decreasing disturbances is, as in the preceding case, very in-
distinct and farther obscured by the small absolute amount t of
Variation.
Tn the following table, No. XII, the larger disturbances have
been distributed over the different hours of their ga wane in
is combination the bi-hourly series (of the even hours) of ob-
ation has been used throughout.
Aggregate | number of | Average | Ratio of
— amount 10 |oceurrences.| amouut.
scale div’ns 2
midnight, eee 57 112
2 3 : 55. o86
4 4961 of 53 o73#
6 475% 94 51 o74
8 556: 104 0°83
19 721% 146 53 15
12 noon, 6825 161 4 127%
. 6636 127 53 00
16 6634 135 49 1-07
18 132 7 : ‘
ang 574 139
22 3 139 53 Be Be
| our attention to the columns of aggregate —
oe rats
and of ratios of number of occurrence, we
mum about 11 a. m., which seems to correspond to sho soooniey
; nding ratios at Toronto, occurring &00
inimum occurs
1842-43, | 1843-44. | 1844-45. egies Ay kone oa
Ine ; Dec. | Inc. | Dec Ine. Dec.) Ine, | Dec.
43 2 21003 Ai} pete 551) 574) pea} ar
1; 80 44 | 54 | 1-0} 1-0
2869 1857 242| 452 208 4) 45 | 56 | a-o} ast
863 1685| 714) 128) 41 44 | 53 | 1-o! 1-0
1956 185) 730) =O 3} 41 | 56 | og 11
36 g 0 47. | 56] ro 11
mo] 0] .. O} © Oo} III 48 | 50 | 11] 08
pe o 44 ) 2 42 | 52 | ro} 1°0
3g) 01412 39 | 52 | og 1-0
1595, 54| 622} 75, 786 40 } 52 | so] ro}
15) 412) 775) 83 42 | 52 | 1-0, to
114, ol 663} 44 1-0] 08
2113, 444 4586} 4602 848 12°0|)12°0
237) 95 pt, PIR, GE?
"| 47| 5o} 42
“4,
The law of the mon thly inequality for amount of increasing —
270 A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force,
which corresponds to the secondary minimum at Toronto, oc
curring between 5 and 6 A.M.; again at Philadelphia the sec-
ondary maximum at midnight is about two hours earlier than
the principal maximum at Toronto, and the secondary minimum
about 4 P. M. co rresponds i in time to the principal minimum at
_peveati occurring between 2 and 6 P.M. Thus the curves at
the two stations representing the diurnal variation of the dis-
In eg next table, No. XIV, the diurnal variation of the dis-
turbances is exhibited separately, for disturbances increasing, and
disturbances decreasing the horizontal force.
eee
Disturb. increasing h. f. Disturb. decreasing h. f. perry en
Hour. Number Number
weary, | seouwe | Ratio! of | “Edom | Ratio. |e
0 midnight,| 57 2878 | 128 85 5238 1°21
2173 | 097 || 65 37 o 87 1621
4 42 I 0-89 51 2963% 068
6 28 12138 | 0-54 || 66 3538 | o81 2325
8 48 2345 | 1-04 56 3217 074 x
10. 61 2732 22 85 4989 mi5 2257
12 noon, 74 3134# | 1:39 87 0°85
48 2239 | 100 |} 79 4397 1°01 2158
16 4 22 ‘98 86 44 1-03 2234
18 4 2005 | 0-89 || 87 4889 113 2884
20 1758 | 078 || 100 581 1°34 4058
22 50 2296 | 1-02 || & 5062 118 ae
Sums, 585 wie 12-00 || 936 | 52028 | 12°00 Be
n
ing disturbances (at 8 P. mM.) corresponds to a er
minimum of the increasing disturbances. In reference.
__- IMcrease occurs at 11 a.M., and the maximum in : the ¢
Mianatses decrease occurs about 6 or 7 P. M. (See $< Iho
ons.
a the St. Helena Observatio
ae
"contains: ates a _ hourly excess at the he ager
‘ rs shina te a If wo divide the ame
A, D, Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 27%
by the whole number of days of observation, (nearly 1,500),
we obtain the diurnal disturbance variation expressed in scale
visions. ‘
Taste XV.--Diurnal disturbance variation.
I I if In value of
ad. isbealess seals 8.4. shesleas orale,
oh midnight,) 1-6 0°00024
2 zt 17
4 07 iI
6 16 24
8 06 fore)
10 LS 43
The average amount by which the disturbances tend to de-
crease the diurnal variation of the horizontal force is 1°4 scale
divisions or 0-00021 in the absolute scale. The maximum ef-
a 8 P.M, at exactly the same hour when the
declination disturbances reach their greatest effect.
In the preceding tables, Nos. XIII, XIV and XV, to the
hours indicated, 214 minutes should be added, the ubservations
eing made so much later than the even hours, The preceding
discussion shows that for two stations, even at a comparatively
short distance, as for Philadelphia and Toronto, there are gener-
For the purpose of obtaining a better view of the einolats
amount of the disturbances and their frequency of occurrence,*
8 A table analogous to that given above, showing the distribution of the disturb-
ances in declination, is here added for comparison :
Limits adopted. Number of
In scale divis. |In minutes of arc.| disturbances.
272 Scientific Intelligence.
they were classified in nine groups of equal differences of 20
scale divisions; the number of disturbances in each was found as
follows :
Limits adopted. | nr:
In scale divisions.|[n parts of hor. force. In the abso. scale. |; +urbances.
33 to 53 jo-0012 to o-o019 0005 to 0-008 115
S30" 1.95 ig 27 08 “ It 3
72. ¢ Oo 2° 34 A Pie 14 93
a. is 34. 4 14..* 17 45
F713: “ 338 ar 48 7 20 2
40a. 9538 48 * 55 20 * 23 14
153.“ 253 3 ey 62 aa 26 4
oc: cele 62 26 “ 29 6
193 “ 213 |o-0070 “ 00077 0°029 “ 0-032 2
Beyond, | °
The numbers in the last column cannot be considered as en
tirely independent of the eleven year period, and in attempting
to apply the theory of probabilities in reference to the numt
of disturbances which ought to occur between the assigned lim
its, it became apparent that the larger disturbances greatly pi
ponderated, a fact no doubt intimately connected with the iff
culty in correctly allowing for the progressive change during
the first year of observation.
——— ee
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
1. The Saltness of the Sea: Foronuammer.—In the course of the
last twenty years this distinguished geologist and chemist has exe he
about two hundred complete analyses of water from all parts of
ocean, but in particular from the Atlantic and the north European tl
connected with it. At the eighth meeting of the Scandinavian nat <
ists, at Copenhagen, in 1860, the important results of these laborious
searches were communicated.* ie
(1.) Saltness of the Ocean.—The mean of 140 complete analyses a
34204 of salt in one thousand parts of water, unequally distributed ov des,
regions. But the specimens being principally taken at lower latit
this mean is too high. e take 34 in one thousand parts 9 1
mean saltness of the sea at the mean atmospheric pressure, and give be
results in differences of ten thousandths from this mean, they will
come more perspictous, : aia
oh — oe of the Atlantic (35.17 Esmee Fi 5, In-
: ‘7; of the Californian Pacific 4+-12.2, Japanese Pacific +44
oe +1.3. fe ee Pi +} P lusion of Lenz (Pose:
© UULYS
Physics and Chemistry. 273
Ann, xx; 73). The Atlantic system of rivers drains by far the greater
portion of the continents and has the same position in latitude; thus
the evaporation in the Atlantic must be greater than in any other part
of Es Gea,
The Atlantic is divided into five regions, viz:
Reg. III, Arctic region, mean of 16 analyses, +156
i II, North temperate, “ “ 24 «+195
“c ie “ tropical, La 6 “c +211
“~~ -X,Sonth * a @ ¢° °° (ee
ETL tehpet, * & 6% Ute
“« XVI, Antarctic éaan. eis ap . —544
Thus the tropical part of the Atlantic is the saltest, and the amount
of salt regularly decreases toward the poles; yet the northern Atlantic
is more salt than the southern (an influence of the Gulf Stream).
The first great circulation of terrestrial water is represented in these
numbers: only a part of the water evaporated between the tropics di-
tectly returns to land and sea in form of rain; another part is carried
«
208. On th
lat. 12-14° N, +219 and 194; thus the current is less salt than the
ocean near it—indicating the freshening influence of the great rivers of
Guinea. Near St. Thomas, West Indies, the saltness is only +17—the
€normons amount of fresh water from the Amazon and Orinoco reach-
ing thus far—since a few degrees north of the current the saltness_ of
the ocean is again +27. At the Bermuda Islands the saltness is 4-188
the Mississippi. Northward the Gulf stream increases to 210, 22s, and
236; but at lat. 43° 26/, long. 44° 19/ W. where the St. Lawrence emp-
Forchhammer represents these num-
a ore breadth of the current Gove! for negative values)
~ aus showing at a glance this most impo aw. ae
. The mean saltness of the polar pets of Baffin’s Bay is +-82, but
Mereasing towards north, :
Latitudes, 58° 53! 64° 6or
ness, + 15s +103 +4
showing how the water of the Arctic sea is freshened by the northern
Tivers, Greenlan i the
| lat, 24° 13’ N., long. 23° 11’ W.
Ant. Jour. Scr.—Szconp SzRixs, VoL. XXXIV, No. 101.—Szrt., 1862.
274 Scientific Intelligence.
The southern polar or Humboldi’s Current (Region XV) gave +03;
it a A waters from the Antarctic ocean, where —54 (Reg. XVI)
as been observed.
Counter-currents—The Sound, between Zealand and Sweden, ex-
ways nai into the Baltic. According to observations made
April to Sept. 1846, the direction and saltness of these currents “a
in thousandths :
re To oi Baltic. — os Baltic. No at
ays, a - -
Sees | saltness, - - - 15994 13342 11s01
Bottom, - - 19002
mean saltness of Reg. Vit the Baltic, enh of VI, Cattegat and
Sound 15126 and North Sea (Reg. V)3 2806 thousandths,
Thus the bottom current contains banmnnard by far the hats
amount of salt, even in winter, when it erature is 2-3° F. b igh her
Tn Davis Strait and Baffins Bay, no rer difference of saltness
for different depths is observed; but n the adjacent Atlantic the lower
water is less salt than the warmer SNe e it: and this same cold and
t bottom current may be traced along eid asuatle: except where great
+ se of eo water are ae by European and American
Cu, Pb, pe Co, Ni; but only those peng am Capitals are -
the
be determined with g great exactitude. Co: Senakan “all analyses of
i i -° we Sea) it is found that the relative prop? rion
e eee is nearly constan ing:
> Chiori orine 100, sulphuric acid 1191, lime 295, magnesia 1108. Tots
aepsdeys each 100 of ington a
the ora of Jand, greatest in gulfs and bays, as may be be seen ie
resting comparison of the composition of the salt from
ieee the Baltic to the ocean-
aa 1491 :
Physics and Chemistry. | | 275
’ Lime. Sulph. ac. Total.
elt of Finland month, 37 1223 ase
ound (at Copenhagen), 328 1257
Cattegat, at Anholt Isld., _ 1209 ~_
North Sea, 50 miles W. of Jutland, 319 1 1816
95
Thus, the animals extract a great part of the solid matter washed
down to the sea by the rain, before it reaches the great ocean. G. H.
2. Density of Ice—Durovur has determined the density of ice by
Which the ice could just float, and then determining by the usual methods
the density of this liquid. Every possible care was taken to eliminate
ered to be equal to 0-002. The ice used was carefully deprived of air
by long boiling of the distilled water from which it was frozen. Twenty-
two experiments by this method gave a mean density of 0°9175, with a
nn
The expansion of a volume of water in the moment of freezing is there-
fore 185, or +; of the volume of the water at 0° C. . The former de
Minations of this constant are chiefly, Placidus Heinrich, (1807), 0-905;
Thomson, 0°940; Berzelius, 0916; Du 950; Osann, 0°927;
, 0-920; C. Brunner, 0°918 ; and Kopp, (1855,)
0'909.—( Comptes Rendus, May 19, 1862.)
Cuemisrry,—
3. Thallium: a new metal.—The discovery by Crookes of a new ele-
Was referred by him to the sulphur group. More recently M. Lamy, @
French chemist, without a gin of Mr, C.’s prior researches,” made
the discovery of its existence (also hice
+ roperties of Thallium.—Thallium has all the ae of a pe
communicated his researches in a memoir to the Royal Society
. Mr. Crookes has re ns
of Ty : ing he eR PE in the Chemical
London, J 2 of which will soon appear
XN ee ee , veptie aioe thallium
by Dr. Owen (this Journal [2] xii, 420, 1852)—os.
276 Scientific Intelligence.
|
y :
by the nail, and cut with a knife, It marks paper, leaving a yellowish
streak. Its density (11-9) is a little higher than that of lead. It fuses
at 290° C., and volatilizes at a red heat. Lastly, thallium has a great
ized in a compound. : :
Thallium tarnishes rapidly in the air, becoming covered with a thin
at the ordinary temperature
he metal then melts, yen
we ate i
trate, crystallizing readily, and a slightly solu
Technical Chemistry. 277
ture. The chlorine may also be separated from its chlorids by pota
or sodium, under the influence of heat; in this latter case the reaction is
very energetic.
The small ingot, weighing fourteen grammes, which I had the honor
of exhibiting to the Academy, was entirely isolated by a battery of a few
Bunsen elements, first from the chlorids originally obtained, and then
from the crystallized sulphate formed directly by the solution of this
thallium in pure sulphuric acid. * *
In a subsequent communication I will endeavor to fill up some of the
ps at present wanting in its history — Chemical News, July 19, 1862.
Teouytca, Carmistey.—
4. Regenerative Gas Furnace—Mr. Stemens of London has contrived
what he calls regenerative gas furnace adapted to glass houses, iron
Work once has been carried back in part to the place from whence it
came to repeat its service; but Mr. Siemens has combined these two
points, and successfully applied them in a great variety of cases—as the
Potter’s kiln, the enameller’s furnace, the zine-distilling furnace, the tube-
4gement, and with great economy (one-half) of fuel. The glass-furnace
described had an area of 28 feet long and 14 feet wide, and contained
eight open pots, each holding near two tons of materi
; The gaseous fuel is obtained by the mutual action, at a moderate red
heat, of coal, air, and water. A brick chamber, perhaps 6 feet by 1
and about 10 feet high, has one of its end-walls converted into a fire-
state; 4. e. about halfway down it is a solid plate, and for the rest of the
consists of strong horizontal plate-bars where air enters, the
.
into carbonic oxyd, and mingles in the upper part of the chamber
hydrocarbons. ‘The w
278 Scientific Intelligence.
purposely introduced at the bottom of the arrangement, is first vaporized
by the heat, and then decomposed by the ignited fuel and rearranged as
hydrogen (qu. also carburetted hydrogen, CH?) and carbonic oxyd; and
only the ashes of the coal are removed as solid matter from the ch
at the bottom of the fire-bars.
These mixed gases form the gaseous fuel. The nitrogen which em
through one of these chambers, whilst air ascends through the neighbor-
ing chamber, and both are conducted through passage outlets at one end
t
chemical action. Passing onwards to the other end of the furnace, they
carrying off the expanded fuel, can in a moment be used for conducting
Ways pass upwards through the regenerator; so that they attain 4 1m:
perature equal to white heat before they meet in the furnace, and shee
add to the carried heat that due to their mutual chemical action. *¢¥
greiserrs that, when the furnace is in full order, the heat carried
ion of
fuse furnace and all exposed to its action. if
_ Thus the regenerators are alternately heated and cooled by pea
Hy entering gas and air; and the time for the alternation § Boas
alf an hour to an hour, as observation may indicate. The motive pov
fee oe is of two kinds—a slight excess of pressure within 1s kept uP
Technical Chemistry. 279
at abundant supply of gas and air is given; when the glass is made, and
the condition has to be reduced to working-temperature, the quantity of
fuel and air is reduced. If the combustion in the furnace is required to
be gradual from end to end, the inlets of air and gas are placed more or
less apart the one from the other. The gas is lighter than the air; and
if a rapid evolution of heat is required, as in a short puddling-furnace,
the mouth of the gas inlet is placed below that of the air inlet; if the re
verse is required, as in the long tube-welding furnace, the contrary ar-
Tangement is used. Sometimes, as in the enameller’s furnace, which is a
long muffle, it is requisite that the heat be greater at the door end of the
mufiie and furnace, because the goods, being put in and taken out at the
sane end, those which enter last and are withdrawn first, remain of
course, for a shorter time in the heat at that end; and though the fuel
and air enters first at one end and then at the other alternate y, still the
difference of temperature is preserved by the adjustment of the
apertures at those ends.
Not merely can the supply of gas and air to the furnace be governed
by valves in the passages, but the very manufacture of the gas fuel itself
can be diminished, or even stopped, by cutting off the supply of air to
the grate of the gas-producer; and this is important, inasmuch as there
18 No gasometer to receive and preserve the aériform fuel, for it proceeds
at once to the furnaces.
Some of the furnaces have their contents open to the fuel and com-
bustion, as in the puddling and metal-melting arrangements; others are
ployed, such as slack, &c., which can be converted into a clean gaseous
Pe a distance from t
epany themselves in this part of the arrange
. It will be seen that the system depends, in a great measure, upon the
re it m pon
it have occurred, although its application has been
280 Scientific Intelligence.
bons, decomposing water, &c. The whole mixed gaseous fuel can evolve
about 4000° in the farnace, to which the regenerator can return about
3000° more.”—Phil. Mag., Au 2s
[The readers of this Journal will ps a my description of the fur-
naces of Moses Thompson for the combustion of wet fuel, (this io |
ene in the two cases are quite identical—the slow combustiol
regenerator, in fact, if nie in name. If Mr. Siemens pr not a
Thompson’s plans and specifications, or my description e referred t0,
he will find in them vaca wrmek of the old adage that “ ane is nothing
wholly new under the su S. By
II. GEOLOGY.
1. Dyas, oder die Zechstein Formation und das Rothliegende ; by Dr
Hanns Bruno Getnrrz, Leipzig. 13 pp. 4to, and 23 plates. Lapa
1861. (Second notice)—In the former mention of this work (¥
oe by Mr. A. Schott. The citations are such as bear directly :
e question as to whether the Permian is Paleozoic “ Mesozoic 10?
relations—the former being the view ney generally he d by fase?
and sustained by Dr. Geinitz. The work is mpg te oy many P
” have beet
iy to thrice the at ey number. The recent work by Dr. a
pelea types that are especially characteristic of the Palmozoic erBy
dang the preceding Carboniferous presented
tribe of Saurians, the tery species seer are oe
by 9 or cat species, Tayeey Esch are Lacertians and sion
he se time during ‘the Carboniferous age
ch their pet ot Seriya during the Trias
s, 43 species ribed, amo which heterocercal nit
no sil specion occurs, “Phe smoot! thecaly specs
iegende” and Acanthoides gracilis bere PO
on with the Carbonifero
Geology: 281
he Tetradecapod described
and figured is the Prosoponiscus problematicus first described by Schlo-
species of the Pinnotheres family.
Only three species of Annelids have yet been observed.
The species of Cephalopods in the Zechstein are thtee in number.
They do not assist in determining the relations of the Permian period ;
asters are three species of Pteropods which again point to the Pale-
oic era,
Part in this period as Conchifers during the Mesozoic era. Besides
Credneri of th
Ryhope near Sunderland. These various yc as forms so closely
a: each other, that Davidson and Kirkby pronounced them
among the Radiates, Cyathocrinus ramosus belongs to a genus only
es, Cya nus belo gent
citi belonging to older formations; Zocidaris Keyserlingt stands
to .
. y co}
eaten corals, all related to enestella, 7 hae aig oi
in, wi peci int to the
with other species of Stenopora, all po Ascent is
Ss. Our knowledge of these tribes in the Zechstein is yet very
; We come now P .
2 to the pages on the Plants of the Permian.
Seneral aspect of the Flora is beyond question Carboniferous and not
See Kirk the of Lingula Credneri in the Coal-measures of Duy
~ Sosy Awl geht 1860, xvi, p.412 andf Dr. Geinitz dissents
mM some of the views her
AX. Jour, Sct—Szcoxp Senres, Vor. XXXIV, No. 101.—Szr7. 1863.
on tt
282 om Intelligence.
matus, etc. The Flora of the Rothliegende very closely a approaches
that of the Coal-measures, although along with the characteristic Paleo-
zoic genera, there are some ot thers that have their largest expansion i
e Mesozoic. The Dyas or Permian is hence pronounced to be Paleo
a as well on the — of its organic remains as its ee
relation
3. Preliminary notice of some of the species of Crinoidea known
the Upper Helderberg weltinenteies meee! New York (ted
oa 2.); by James Hatt—from the 15th aaa on the Cabinet ¥
of s species of the following genera. The new genera are printed in ni
Epriocrinus, Hall, Cheirocrinus, (Hail), Ancyrocrrncs (Hall),
Platycrinus, (Miller), Poteriocrinus, (Miller), Cyathocrinus, For ;
fe. (De Koninck), Rhodocrinus, (Miller) [subgenus] Acanthoerious
ote Trematocrinus, (Hall), Actinocrinus, (Miller), oo :
crinus, (Owen), Cacabocrinus, (Troost, Catalogue) Dolatocrinus? (Ly )
ae tee — ger), Haplocrinus, (Steinberger), ‘a
Conrad, ended, Pentremites, Olivanites, (Z'roost), Eleeacrinus
oo P vacretniten, abe Sabon dian ae co
5. The Student's Manual of Geology; by J. Beers Joes,
F.R.S.E., Local director of the déclorichi Survey of Ireland,
new edition, partially recast and supplied with lists and figures of
acteristic fossils, Edinburgh: Adam é& Chas. Black. 1862. 120%
M.A,
&e. A
of cbat-
new edition of this standard work has just reached vai
Sictnls afar in facts drawn from Great Britain, but will be
generally with interest.
il BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
logy.— Note on the Structure of the Anther,” is the
aston paper read by Prof. Oliver of King’s eur London, a
title
before
n Society last November, and printed in e 23d volume ¢
m a th
Botany and Zoology. 2838
may serve to give a clear conception of the probable relation, than that
which can be said to be conclusively made out. The present r, upon
the strength of an interesting monstrosity in the flowers of a Geraniu
controverts the current view in some respects, mainly in that point which
identifies the line of the dehiscence of the anther cell with the margin of
the blade of the leaf. As to this, it is obvious enough that the lines of
dehiscence in the outermost and less complete anthers of WVymphea are
really not continuous with the margins of the petal-like filameut, and also
that the cells appear to belong to the upper stratum of the stamineal leaf.
et we are not clear that the current hypothesis, liberally interpreted,
t it is curious that Prof. Oliver, who quotes this remark,
Seems not to have noticed that it, in connection with the context, by im-
ion must assign to Brown the paternity of the current hypothesis,
at least as respects the point which is here controverted. And this hy-
Pothesis accords so well with nine anthers out of ten, and those the most
normal, that, with Mohl, we are not yet inclined to abandon it. _ “That
the Septa of ‘untransformed tissue’ may be regarded morphologically as
as
him in his estimate of the peculiar theory of Mr. Bentham, broached sev-
Fears ago, and recently explained and defended, (in Jour. Linn. Soc.
8p - 118, 122), viz., that anthers are homologous with petiolar glands, the
lamina in stamens being either wholly absent, or represented by a a
". “Ppendage of the connective, of which we suppose that of most om-
osete and in Asclepias would be good examples. Viewed 9 toro
ally or physiologically, this seems to us equally a retrograde step. But
f we did receive this hypothesis, we should be led thereby to believe
“ag | now we do not) that a petal with a stamen before it might some-
284 Scientific Intelligence.
explanation of the andreecium of certain Sterculiacee. We are not pre-
to discuss the points here involved, not only because this would
require time and space which we cannot now afford, but also more
edge than we can now pretend to. But we would remark:—
(1.) That we are well satisfied in finding that Mr. Bentham fully ae
eepts the view that a single leaf of the andrecium m resented
a phalanx of stamens (this, indeed, he had previously favored), or by 8
cluster of stamens and a scale or loid body, such for instance as We
have in an American Tilia ; also “that a dédoublement of the petal may
produce the inner petaloid scale of some Sapindacea, Violacece, Bivacet,
&c., or the fimbriate scales in the tube of Cuscuta and other gamopetal-
ous flowers.” That is about as far as we incline to go in this direction.
But, as Mr. Bentham homologizes these scales or appendages with petio-
Jar glands on the one hand and with anthers on the other, he ought not
greatly to object when some convert to his theory imagines such poten
tial anthers to become actual one
7
a J pentandrous
Parvonia on the one hand, and the American section of Zila —
only a single stamen stands before each petal, unless these
conceived to be double, as is supposed of Fremontia. |
_ (4.) Apropos to the latter, and much inclined to accept Mr. Bentham’s
views in regard to the andracium of Bombacee, we remark ron ee .
adopted in explanation, the position of the stamens relative to adjac Os
parts of the flower is important. On this and other accounts, 12 al
of th e@ to Malvacea, we could not hesitate eee ;
Ki ot
* On Sycopsis,” 2 new Hamamelideous genus, published by £ ger’
‘Oliver, in the by volume of the Linnzan Transactions, brings =
this order, that the wood-cells exhibit marie
to those of the so- ‘
~ As Prof, Oliver hints at an affinity to oF P*
Botany and Zoology. 285
sible remote derivation from Coniferee being indicated thereby, it
neat to note that Mr. Brown, in the 19th volume of oe Linnean
proportion of vessels, d:c., Prof. Oliver intimates, as well he may, that it
offers “a higher measure ‘of specialization” than that of Conifere, even
although the latter has been “ designated by a distinguished naturalist as
the highest specialized tissue known.” Interesting remarks are psbes —_
the OS Ory Soe of this order.
- Jou roceedings of the een Society, Botany. Nos: 22,
28.—Having suey drawn upon articles contained in these numbers,
Wwe need only enumerate the contents, viz. :
pore. “note Identification of the Grasses of Linneus'’s Herbarium is
ra Behan — Notes on ep Portulacee and some
_~ Orders ; also Notes on Malvacee Sterculiacee. The results
“ome name now being vacant, Dr. re
oe S| . us Leguminosa, with a
~Proves in Mr. Bentham’s hands to a Czsalpineous ee
Fug Petslous corola, allied to th to the South A American
known Bocoa of Aublet.
286 Scientific Intelligence.
naturally and properly takes up his own department for his illustra-
i asses in review the principal
tecting “ the wonderful contrivances for the cross-fertilization of Orehids,”
“has revealed to us so much of surprising novelty in the economy of na-
thoroughly sifting every circumstance that appears to militate against it
It is indeed to be hoped that, without saignadar the completion of the
great work that is to embody the whole series of his pidces justificalives
Mr. Darwin will continue to illustrate separate portions of his subjech
each one of which is sufficient to give a lasting name to its author.
and devote our attention to their economy and development, to the cot
plicated structures disclosed by the microscope, and to those innumerable
influences which we term accidental, but which appear all to form part
of one general plan for the balance of power in the natural world.”
- These remarks, from one who is supposed by no means to favor 7
.
the Primitie Flore Amurensis, (1859), are now followed by Dr. Bese”
Tentamen 4 Flore Ussuriensis, — ~ 228, imp. 4to, wit 12 platess
Separately issued from the Memoirs of the Imperial Academy, St. io
5"), an account of the plants collected in the district of the Uss ,
taut regard with peculiar interest...'The Flora Ajanensis, (1858)» and
Botany and Zoology. 287
Ost-Sibirien, im Auftrage der Kaiserlichen Russischen Gesellschaft, aus-
gefihrt in den Jahren, 1855-1859, durch G. Radde, Bot. Abth. Moscow,
1861, 8vo), by the same indefatigable author. Of the latter we have
only the first part, of 211 pages, and five 4to plates. It is a more ex-
tensive work than the general title would denote, being a kind of supple-
ment to the Flora Rossica, for all accessions from the wide regions east of
the Altai, including Kamtschatka and even Sitcha. Its fullness may be
estimated when we state that the 211 pages before us extend only from
the Ranunculaceee to the Crucifere inclusive; and also that, in the form
of notes, Dr. Regel gives new and complete revisions (at least for the
Russian Empire) of many of the larger or more difficult genera, or their
more troublesome sections. Pulsatilla, Adonis, Aconitum, Corydalis,
read, and a part of Draba are thus revised, on the author’s own
Proper observations, and apparently upon excellent principles. Among
other things which attract our attention, we note that he replaces the
hame Ranunculus Purshii, Hook., by the earlier R. radicans, C. A.
arry’s collection, is truly a denizen of North America. These publica-
Hons are all full of matters of immediate interest to us, and suggestive of
Tous particular enquiries; and their continuation with the same
i ‘ses much for the advancement of our knowl-
pecies. ee Aine Pia
5. Cork.— De la Production Naturelle et Artificielle du Liége dans le
pine Liiége, par M. Casimmm pe Canpoute. (Ext. fi
ys. et d’Hist. Nat., Genév., vol. xvi, 1860), with 3 plates. This
— interesting as the first botanical publication of the inheritor of
honored name in the third eration of botanists, and n ac
the
bark down to the subjacent cellular envelope or green layer; Ww
done in Algeria, where young De Candolle’s observations were made),
denuded surface, This grows by annual layers upon its 1
re4 as the original and worthless corky layer did; but :
Bg much more elastic, and is the commercial article, When this valua-
‘Se cork has attained sufficient thickness, ordinarily after seven or eigh
«Years, it also is “with the same result as before, i. e., still
288 Scientific Intelligence.
new corky stratum is formed below; and so successive crops may be
taken off the trunk every seventh or eighth year for along while, or even
indefinitely. A.
6. Martius, Flora Brasiliensis, fase. xxix, and fasc. xxx; both issued
iculus, a comparatively small one, is devoted to the Serophae
elaborated by Prof. J. A. Schmidt, of Heidelberg, to the illustration
which 18 plates are devoted. So this great work makes very ya
A
much to clear up our knowledge of West Indian Rubiacea, and_to i”
prove or complete the characters of the tribes and subtribes. Pay
lensi. Linnzeus we have taken:to be something wiagey
here. Dianthera of Gronovius and Linpeeus js rightly taken up. Lir-
nean genera are not to be superseded by later names. a a
8. On the genus Euphorbia in DeCandolle’s Prodromus ; by %
GELMANN,
After an interval of five years a continuation of the Prodromus, constituting
a part of the 15th volume, just made its appearance, containing 4 vy
graph of the suborder Euphorbiee by E. Boissier. The celebrated author!
in this work described and arranged with adinirable care, conscien
and lucidity the heretofore almost unapproachable ma with
most numerous genera of » ote spread over the whole globe. He has, ¥#
reat propriety retained this eminently natural genus as Linneus c
it, retaining as subdivisions some of the numerous into which former
from Haw i
greatest had seen
and adds 30 others as incompletely knowns
rous after Panicum, of
f
£
ages,
inhabit the Old World. This division of the genus is probably t
that could be made, though the first five species of the divisio™
gM Boomer het es , thus referring them properly
Botany and Zoology: 289
the second division, arid though other closely allied forms, such »s EF. corolata
and E. cuanhee, had to be widely separated on aécount of the difference
in 2" partial.
Appendiculate are divided into 11 sections, the first and largest of
vik is Anisophyllum with 176 species, the best kiiown representatives of
which with us are E. maculata and E. hypericifolia, ‘ere c lled E. Preslii. We
have in our flora 36 species of este section; one of these, 7. Bp is s spread
over the whole of North ——— 6 are found im the M « or
st of it; 3 common in the West Indies, exteniing into Florida of pier
E. hypercifotia, L., proper, is not mentioned as a Florida lant by Mr. Boissier)
lymorphous species Thus the old
leony olia comprises his nator ered and fruited tropical ifolia
Proper, our larger-flowered, larger and darker-seeded E. P reslit, ‘and several
tropical i einen forms, as the hairy-fruited E. lasiocurpa, the large seeded
E. and others. E. zygophylloides was very properly — Ning
E. petaloiden, | bat E. polyclada suspect is only a form of ed latter
mera, which I had taken ~ a form of E. polycarpa, seems well distinguished,
nel add here that the western E. serpyllifolia, formerly settle by me to seve
of the old world nate the name of E. inequilatera and E. glyptosperma,
have late ately been found by Mr. T. J. ‘Halen Wisconsin, as’aleo-Bi: Geyer: Grek
discovered in Illinvis; which last seems to preserve its distinction from E.
a.
ihe second section, Zerg et: comprises 4 species, of which 3 be-
to the southwest and one to Mexi
€ 25 species of not 3d section, Cyttar ospermum, are all inhabitants of the
weep rts of America, 13 being Mexican, and only on of our ies, E.
teri an imermediate ‘link between this and the former section,
iS doubtfally. ve ferred
Sections 4 and 5 nhaiae few, only American species, none of them belong-
our
Becton 6, Petaloma, consists of 3 species, two of which, E. marginata and
mer belong to the west and. southwest, and the third is a clusely allied
—- a7 and 8 are small and almost entirely South American.
, The 9th section, Tith ymalopsis, on the contrary, is entirely North eee
7 species belonging to our flora and one to ico. E. corollata, inc uding E.
Pre ata, is is the wide-spread and well-known ——— of this section.
E. mercuriatina have bedi restored by Mr. Boissier, avin a careful exania
of the original specimens in Richard’s ars now in the
Mr. Franqueville of Orleans. ‘The ovo , however, may be a variety of E. cor-
ollata, Mr. Boissier has from the same source e ascertained gine 5% potgonfotiat
is a form of E. Curtisii thong his other specimens, in the herbarium,
ofthe Jardin des Plantes in Paris, is a form of -
: . the I ion, 5 species, all of them -eogiie
Mexican, two of — sores et non boundaries. ‘ The 2 species
‘Section
deal is divided into 36 sections, 2 of
hict only are orth Arerican Flora.
a eld einer seth none of them» ;
“Section ‘ I epee entirely North American, or
Aa. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Serms, Vor. XXXIV, No. 101.—Sert., 1862.
37
290° Scientific Intelligence.
properly Mexican; I ar 2 species extending farther south, and 6 reaching:
Into our flora. The best known representative of this section, E. hyll
has 45 restored, recognizing E. cyathophora and E. graminifolia as varieties
of the Linnean species. Tha. New Mexican E. cuphosperma, which | per de-
alee as a form of edentata, is here described asa distinct species, ervan-
ought to have been mention as af m ancairing ip Arizona. It may be
remarked that the name of Arizona does not occur in this or other botanical
publications, as a district formerly of the Mexican State of Sonora; just as
Lo yet, aft separate existence, sometimes is used in
botanical works for the Up A at countr
Sections 16-25, with iS saving almost all belong to the Old World; they
inglang tne Euphorbie with succulent stems, those with the forms of Cacti.
n 26, Tithymtlus, comprises the great mass of the Euphorbie of the
Old World Or the 302 species constituting it we furnish only 23, most of
which belong tothe ny ety 5. others have been sparingly introduced from
Europe into the eastern Sta
noe sub-sect Sg ier -the only sub-section of Tithymalus, whose
cies, 19 in number, all 8 sag to the New World: 4 of them are peculiat
t 5 the & Southeast ; one comes over from the West Indies to the southern osnnes
ity of ae aioe, te allied, as it appears, to the Chilian forms, is peculiar to
Southeastern New Mexico.
Of the sub-section Galarrhei (with obtuse glands), out of 108 species we have
only 5 native ee distributed from the Alleghany Mountains to western
The largest sub-section, Esule, (with two-horned pens omminaee 139
pecies, counts in our 12 species, 2 of them in the and
States, and all the rest belosgicn to Texas, New Mexico — Cali form
th section is constituted by asin ao species, an Australian sh
We find the name of two of our published species E. commutata Engl.
Gray’s Manual, and E. Floridana, Chapm. in his Southern Fait replaced
E. Ohiotica, Steud. & Hochst. and E. spherosperma, Shutt = ae be 08
not bei mares for pos spent en bcd a
iscons
adopt, hoiever, Prof. ot 's limits, pi Hoo Misso
Il. Flora of the Southeastern and saline aon east of the Mississippi
imi an’s Fl
ra.
{. Flora of the Western Prairie Region from the British Possessions woe
IV. Flora of the Rocky Moun oe Seri the greater part of Washing-
ton and bie a whole of Utah, C o, New Mexicoand Arizona
Vv. Fi Pacific slope of i paiel nt.
species extend through most of these regions, while others mee
ver others again are limited to a single ones adja-
y be divided according to their
“pe it Ew
greater part of our territory. I ic ha
ik hate smi on to the eastern,
Botany and Zoology. 291
southern or western regions, and some extend only to the edges
of — of the floral Jintviotet ae : “!
2. Species es peculiar to the flora of the Northern and Middle g cys T refer
here a single species, E. Geyeri, somewhat artificially it must be confessed,
because it more properly belongs to the northwestern Prairie region ; “but thus
far it has been found nowhere but in northern Illinois and m Wiscons sin:
speci
3. Species common to Gray’s and ties 8 ‘agit on 6 species.
4. Species peculiar to the southeastern flora
5. Species common to the iain and os etal flora: 3 species.
6. West Indian species extending into pias 4 Spocions
i d southw
8. Species common to the last and the followin regi oS Mg speci
9. Species peculiar to the Mountain the apg rei west ;
sable of these, as well as of section 7, akan ed edtind into Mexico: 20
10. Wetton a ere into the last region: 3 species.
Il. Species co o the + oe mm Mountain region and the flora of the
pecies pel to the Pacific slope: 3 species.
Geographical Distribution of Euphordice within the Flora of the U. States.
De he
a j t 26. Tithymulus)
z g FI 2 B 6 z
Sis | & Si/sia!|«4
wee oe oe ee oe ee ee Ee
e/e/ 8) al eld 2) sie 4
2121/31 si/2\/E13) 814i
eee eee eee ee
ain Ole) Se letcl= waif
Be ee eames sie l| ae ae ee
1 Common to make Looe fee et eR Ere Ss bom pee 3
Peculiarly nort 7] pa =- ido rae Per) Sikes ee
8, Northeast and southwest. Oe en Uo ed Ee d
1 Northeastern Flora. | 7} -| -|.-|-2| cj 21) 3/1/12
1. Common to whole ¢ ee Re DS Ae ea
; ‘ortheast and soukneaat 1b ie Ee eet re ee Wess ed @
“eculiar: rly sout, heastern, dda LE et ee pe : {
if et en eT ee ‘
6 rom West t Indice” Fale os ig gc BO Mec c Gets Men Be IE i
ws - Southeastern Flora. tn =f = Pit Ot e e412 ee
1. ommon to whole country, 4] -| -| -| 1|~} 2) - 1 1
utheast ) ra is abe hie * ag - ;
4 eculiar aioe pose ge dad 2 bo Sak £4 <3 be 19
moat tairieand Mountain Flora, SS Rr as ee ers eet pet Peet et
AL Western Prairie Flora [7 [i [71 | 2| 2 | =| 3 =| 5 4/3
. ommon to wh to whole count pag gre ee RR Pe Toe eas
| Pairieand Mountain Flora) §/ =] -| =| -|-) 3/7) =| 6 |a
Fro cian ra,| 9 a es hen ie oe aan Oe a
L Mountain & & Pacific la OE Bae ead) cage od a a sae Ha
Flora,| 2} - itl aan Ghat ees nae be aie
V. We Western Mountain Flor, i el Bie a
Common to whole country, 2] - sae Dope Care ae he pein pe
Mountain & Pacifi de ise ons Guten ak as en ES, OS EO :
re a ct aE eet ©
SS aa 6 6)| 5}12
[yee i Si 4e8
ee oF a
(lip Oh
292 Scientific Intelligence,
9. Carex.—In the third part of the Illustrations of Carex, by Dr. Boott
(Lond. 1862, p. 119) the C. argyrantha, Tuckerm. (Dew. in Wood's Bot.
p- 753) is referred, as stated in this Journal for May (p. 431) to the older
C. adusta, Boott. But it appears proper to add that the same splendid
work upon Carex, which is in few hands, refers (p. 118) the C. adusta of
Carey in Gray’s Manual of Botany (a plant supposed by the deseriber of
C. argyrantha, without any doubt, to be Boott’ s) to another species, and
it sites from this, on the high authority cited, that the plant called, as
above, C. argyrantha—the true C. adusta of Boott—was really, as sup-
a by its later describer, and others, a nondescript, as respects the
l.
The two ee here in question (C. adusta, ag c., == C, fonea,
7, Boott, and C. argyrantha, Tuckerman, |. ¢., = C. adusta, hoe are
nearly 7 but they appear to be quite eg
Zoo
ivin ed
ms Ta the second, the same reir characters as in the first, with
addition of sensibility and mobilit
“Tn the third, which embraces man alone, 8 same .e general characters
as in the second, with the addition of intelli igen
“Tn the first, life i is all vegetative.
“Tn the second, to vegetative life is added animal life.
“Tn the third, to vegetative an animal life, is added moral ly life
“* And to exhibit i in terms still more a Le not only this long chap
= but all that precedes, alt
“ The t lives ; the animal dives and faa: man lives and Je!
and thinks.
_ Life is simple in the first kingdom, double in the second, triple in the
“ Vegetability, avimality humanity ; three terms which in this wi
of | pegel succeed each other in a hierarchical order, manifestly a5
as om
“A series where not only no term could be transposed, but sp ines
a6-term te be added. this
For a synopsis of St. Hilaire’s course of Lectures on Zoology wee
2] Xxxii, 431.
ry. ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
j by . P, Bonne
College
swith 57 ah
account of the remarkable a eee |
Si eae Seer ae
se te ai
Astronomy and Meteorology. 293,
by the great comet of 1858, It is divided into XV sections. Section I
contains the details of observations upon the figure, dimensions and posi-.
tion.of the tail. The whole period of visibility of the comet extended from
June 2, 1858, to March 4, 1859, an interval of 275 days. It was seen
with the naked eye from Aug. 19 to Dec. 9, an interval of 112 4
The tail appeared first on Aug. 14, 1858, and was in sight until Feb, 9,
1859, or for 177 days.
Section IT comprises observations upon the secondary tails. These
consisted chiefly of long, narrow and nearly straight rays. They were
quite faint, and escaped general notice. ;
Section III gives the details of the reduction of the observations upon
the figure and position of the tail. ‘The maximum length of the tail was
ee the 10th of October; the greatest breadth was 18° on the day
wing,
_ In Section IV are considered the probable errors affecting the observa-
tions upon the tail.
Section V describes the deflection ofthe upper part of the tail. ;
Section VI. describes the columnar structure, or the division of the
Upper part of the tail into alternating dark and bright bands, disposed
transversely to the axis, at angles of 20° or 30°.
The original data relating to the envelopes and nucleus, and to the
Phenomena of the head of the comet generally, are comprised in Section
VIII. The citations are made from 71 authorities, representing 51
ns.
Nucleus, on the side nearest the sun, bending backward to form the two
ranches of the tuil.
tion IX treats of the outline of the head of the comet. The dis-
cussion is based upon 123 outlines, derived from the original drawings
or engraved figures. It appears that the limiting surface of the head of
me comet had a close resemblance to a surface generated by the revolu-
On of a catenary on its vertical axis.
‘he hemp iiens of the branching.and central darkness of the tail have
been considered in Section X. On the 24th of August, the right branch
already showed an excess of light, and the contrast in density went on
increasing until it reached a maximum about the time of the perihelion
; iputed by the usual formula, by 33 times. The difference is ———
8n increase in the aggregate reflecting surface a Section
_ The phenomena presented by the envelopes are nonsiaered ena
Elk. < One of the ahost importsatof thess ix their neg
294 Scientific Intelligence.
continuous ascent or expansion outwards from the nucleus. Seven dix
tinct envelopes have been recognized, and their history partially recovered.
he period between the elevation of the envelopes is found to have ¥.
irregular ly from 4 days 16 hours to 7 days 8 hours.
Section XIII gives an account of the outer faint veil.
Section XIV relates to the deviation of the initial axis of the tail from
the direction of the radius vector prolonged. This deviation was esti-
ted a 18
This volume contains a more thorough — of the physical pe
culiarities of the comet of 1858 than has e ver been published respecting
the Cambri ress,and the engraved representations of the comet have
not, —— far so : know, ever he caidas by any similar work at home
ora
2. oa II, 1862.—This comet was discovered, at the Dudley Obser
vatory, on the evening of July 18th by Mr. Thomas Simons.
hen first seen it appeared as a nebulz considerably condensed at
the centre, the light being intense il aig to be easily observed when the
wires of the micrometer were illuminated
On the evening of the 31st the embryo of a tail was distinetly seen,
and as early as the 25th the light was more concentrated on one side,
showing that the tail was already in process of formation.
As it is now eee both the earth and sun, and being so favora-
bly situated for observ ation, it will without doubt attain great wane
seg the o— time (Aug. ae the tail can be traced a distance of
udley Observatory, App. Dec.
1862, July 18 ‘Jai 20m 0366 gh Sha" Biess | Ler? 45 05" “
9 22 18:0 5 36 24°35 70° 13° 26 jae
o 9 2 45°1 8.38 4778 70 39 04 a
Aug.12 11 05 302 8 30 51°50 81 20 Ol
Tuly 18th. Comet compared with 10°5 Mag. star.
18 Comp. A. R. Al Ab somg Dec.
Aa = — 68-45 =+55”
The place of the star was determined Wis ree transits at the lower
culmination observed with the Olcott Meridian —
1862, July 18th. 10°5* App. A. R
5h 24m 048-03 467° "ta iom13
mag om of July 25,26 and Aug. 12, were made with oe
Circle at the lower culmination rded
ie er were observed for A. R. and the times of transit
hy hi the magnetic method.
are not corrected for rae
” ion rete Ed
. Sone wams toi the riaggeaes A by Lae
Astronomy and Meteorology. 295
Journal for that month, and from it learned for the first time that Mr.
Clark had discovered a companion to Sirius, The evening proved a
one, and I readily saw the new companion with my equatorial, by Fi
ista
meas-
ures were made at that time, but I find on examining the journal of the
observatory the following measures recorded; they were made with a
filar micrometer and powers of 200 and 400—Mr. Wakely preferring
the former and I the latter :
Date.
No. of meas. Dist. No. of meas.
March 11, 1862, 85° 16! 11 8-95 1
é = not taken. 10”-93
mee Reyel o# 85° 01 10 10-24 6
aay, iat 85° 01’ 6 GT 3
eek a 85° 24° 5 not taken.
as 85° 04’ 6 not taken.
po ee 0 ee 84° 20’ 10 not taken,
Since hearing of the existence of this star I have never looked for it in
vain; its difficulty is not occasioned by faintness, but by its proximity
to so bright an object as Sirius, I consider it decidedly a brighter
star than either of the close companions in the trapezium of Orion—no
reasonable amount of illumination in the field extinguishes it. On the
6th of April, within five minutes after sunset, I set the circles of the
equatorial and found Sirius, the daylight being abundant to read the di-
istons, the companion was then quite distinctly visible; and on the 10th
Wi 0" 72°. 124
present year was Winchendon, Mass., lat. 42° 40’, lon. 124,
ba: remark, in seabcipation’ of the observations given below, two points
“specially pent - ‘
First, The radiant on the morning of the 9th, re aaa “é
eluding delta Cassiopeie.” But on the morning of the 10th it was “in
A. R. 41° 40’, and N.P.D. 35° 15’.”. This a ve position, although
*Xcessive, coincides—to a near lelism—with marked and
“Uggested, as an invariable phase of these phenomena, upon our frag-
296 Scientific Intelligence.
mentary chart given last year at p. 445 of vol. xxii. The 8 subsequent
observations of the record do not particularly confirm this motion; neither
are they sw definite to discredit it.
teor appeared “in the radiant” as “a stationary point
of brightness.” “Thies 3 is a fourth instance added to the three narrated in
conn
re
ut one or two radiated about the constellation Cassiopeia but ex-
hibited no decide erhaps a large circle of 5° diameter, including
8, would embrace five ot six of the flights. 40
Sund: .—Two observers—W, G. i den nt be Rig i a 3h,
h
-E. and the remainder in the N.W. Of the meteors which I Sbeersdd | is Ot
east all but two were conformable, or at least approximately Fseageiertc
the last none passed more than one or two de f the circle de
largest — pane paler Mars in brightness, 1 15 having trains. 4
poin hlness was observed in the radiant once. This eres tf
forms very easy to that of pe and 11th of Aug., 1861, as stated b.
Marsh. (This Journal, , Sept., 1.)
P. mehr observing “3 oh 9h to 10h in east 13, all but one confor coat
ble, in west 10, one with train, 10h to 1lh in east Gin wes Prdptm
Short! sft the feaiee hour ‘the clouds, which had been increasing we
caused so much embarrassment that the watch had to be given ne wee
meteors to e position of the pe
morning, but the clouds prevented any very accurate determination of i ae
position. sides the ret while we were arranging for the watch, We §
seven of the ei meteors of the evening, two with trains, all
nee
Resume.—10th of Aug., 8h 40m to 11 p. m.—2h 20m—40 meteors. Of 20
al bu bohy two ‘conformable. three with trains. Evident radiant same as fie’
, 11th.—One hour. 8h to 9h p. m. 4 meteors. One W
three radiating from near 6 Cassiopeiw, and the other (the first rbserved) 0 coed
conformable. On
Clouds prevented observations on the mornings of 11th, 12th and 13th. re
the evening of 13th saw two meteors, within a few m minutes, radiate ara
seus. This shows that the thickness of the “ri ring” is probably near
ag of miles, the earth being six or seven days in passing Be
oped thee above record we remark farther that whether the soe
Astronomy and Meteorology. 297
Meteors observed at Germantown (near Philadelphia), Pa.
“1862, Aug. 1. From 05 30™ to 1h 0m a.m., 11 meteors.
0 “ 1 15 “
1 4
1 23 Fe 30 “ 7
ek a 5
ae ey 3
2° 44-R* 7
215 «2 30 “ 4
2.00 24655. = 4
2 45 - %348..4° 7
3 0. ! Bola oS 1
38315 «3 30 “ 4
! Total, 51 meteors in 3 hours.
Weather perfectly clear, full moon shining.
The most brilliant were as follows:
At 0 263, north of Capella.
0 284, in the north. ‘
210, near 3 Persei—splendid=left a wavy streak whieh was visible 5 or
ds.
secon
2 16, near 3 Persei—streak lasting 1 to 2 seconds.
2 34, in S.E.—streak lasting 1 or 2 seconds.
3 23, in Cassiopeia.
Much the finest was at 2 10.”
Ttis greatl i f the meteors above reported by
y to be desired that some of the meteors repor y
-. Marsh (particularly the 24 10™ near 6 Persei} may be identified by
Tesponding particulars on record with whieh a comparison may be made.
A.ex. C, Twintne, for the Com. of Conn. Academy.
5. On some North American Meteorites ; by CO: Bs RAMMELSBERG.—
re has communicated to the Beilin Academy of Sciences an
pe von Waltershausen. He concludes wt: the siliceous portion of
1€ stone is not a simple compound, but probably ae
’ssumption that it contains a trisilicate of A ES (Mg Si)—
u .
= chladnite of Shepard—is oe justified by the observ His
analysis of the stone gave, :
Bi Mn Ga = Na Ign.
5752 os if 0-20 Bs 066 114 070 080=99'79
; __Rammelsberg observes that this composition somewhat resembles that
mG of the iivine dibs cebcieaies from the Grimma meteoric-iron analyzed oa
yer in which the latter found $i 61°88, Mg 25°83, Fe 912, Mn 0°31
_ AM. Jour. Scr—Szconp Senms, Vor. XXXIV, No. 101.—Serr., 1862.
38
298 Scientific Intelligence.
€r 0°33, Ign. 0-45==97°92. The resemblance is more marked, if the pro-
toxyd of iron in the analyses be converted into its equivalent weight of
magnesia,
tainly not meteorites. The results were as follows:
I. So-called Meteoric Stone trom Waterloo, Seneca , County, New
York.—According to Shepard it contains: §i 78-8, Al 6-28, ¥e 8°72,
Si Al Fe M Oa Ign.
8042 15°68 =279 S070 S050 2s —— == 10009 Shep.
70°42 20°25 3°86 447 121 1:28 100°49
Rammelsberg found that chlorhydric acid had very little action on the Ps
stance. He considers that this is also 2 clay, and suggests that perhaps
rick “athe
IIL. So-called Meteoric Iron from Rutherford, North Carolina—
This mass, in which Shepard found, Fe 84-00, Si 13°57, P13], and aye
ing to a partial analysis made in Wahler’s Laboratory contains, Fe 8 1,
Si 10°6 i
SEES IS See aaa Ce ea
tion are of no optical importance.
‘faces had been worked nearly true, pl
cemented o oP the siden nithaent “ ‘the
- Disulphid of carbon was poured fenee an oe ning which was
Miscellaneous Intelligence. — 299
VY. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1. Editorial Correspondence—The Spect roscope.—The following letters
“ns Professors Cooke and Roop contain interesting observations with
® spectroscope, which is hereafter to be regarded as an indispensable
auxiliary in the working laboratory. The instrument. of Mr. Clark, with
which Prof. Cooke’s observations were made, has a prism of flint glass of
about four inches on each face which is built up of several thicknesses of
Plate glass cemented together by Canada balsam. This construction
facilitates the use of a a large prism at a small cost, and the lines of j june-
Camsripee, July 28, 1862,
My dear Silliman :—I have a few moments, before Tiga Bid ln,» for
the vacation, to make good my promise and ak be you the results of my experi-
sodium band is doubted, I have raiceined oy fad them, at least a six-
teenth of an inch still retaining good cinitiods The ine of pota
bands T have ht glimpses of simila
ertle that the saiiiee si de baa equally satisfactory. In order to see them
itis necessa ary to reduce the width of the slit to about the same size as that re-
aie to show the Fraunhofer lines, but with 1 the ordinary appliances long be be-
this y noi
be reeptib! e. I find that t by flashing the salts i into the flame the intensity of
the light is greatly increased and I ho; i
the dark lines of the salt spectra at least tolerably well.
mentary to the Fraunhofer lines, but as colored spaces themselves c
dark lines, The beatin * z of diana facts on the ingenious solar theory of Kirch-
Ver
hoff and Bunsen is osilen u P. Cooxe, Jz:
2 On ical purposes, ids a letter of
herd % 10h ON: us oats fil pr Jr.).
lar. ges cope with four
it apie eerengraph ve vo ar studies. Wale
_ Dear Mati
Prisms, which I: have lately constructed for use in my op
in his ment is similar in principle to that employed big muted
iis large instrument, the co ion of :
-i filled with bisulphid
prisms are hollow, and vty, OOF, OUP
rest to you. Three of the
of carbon, the fourth is of flint glass, the angles being respectively bee
60°, and 45°. The frames of the prisms were made of cast iron;
ane, parallel plates of glass were
‘ asses. After a few days
closed
att ttended with a
oe :
_ OY @ screw, So far the constriction was old, and ener hoes
tect which perha ted she
Sorit: the lght fom te alt be allowed f felons feof im th oles
pred, and reflected from it along the axes of the observing telescope, it
300 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
be found that the image of the slit is distorted to a greater or less degree; fat
ther examination shows that the glass plate has been slightly bent by the
hardening of the glue, and in those of my preparation the curvature was con-
cave. If two or more such prisins are — for the production of a
a sage amount of ere a is always seen among the fixed ges 3 plates of
glass of even ' of an in thickness die Sgabeped a n th )
and ne fa ban evil cates removed the prisms are of no great va
any vexatious failures z oe e pe cng tines thi s
avery simple manner: the prisms are finished i
with glass of good quality, then a few: ae of olive ‘oll pe froie on one of
four drops of melted wax and resin. Optical contact is thus secured, and the
ee curvature ee ach face is in turn thus dealt with. The substi-
devere! months to offer ined opinion on its merits. Large Pad of e+
s ye
even if the flint prism is of ¢ re size with that of bis hie of carbon, and
mei Hoegremioneble, the fact still remains that the dispersive power of
e latte reat
With thee peers prisms of 60°, and a flint glass prism of 45°, a.zay te
is refracted about 180°, a spectrum furnished which with the power I —
is ten feet long, the lines being as clear and sharp as whope in an engravil!
while the light is more than abundant. In examining the solar spectrum
this apparatus I have discovered many lines not laid down in Kirebhots new
and most admirable chart of the solar spectrum; I mention no erely two
new lines in the interior oF the line D, making in all three fine lines which are
enclosed in this double 1i
Encouraged by a excellent performance of these prisms, I am now engegel
in construct tions a large instrument in which the refrac’
is to be effected by from eight to ten of these prisms, carrying thus into ae
a suggestion made by Kirchhoff some few weeks ago in his paper 0 n the
m.
it is
= before closing this letter one practical point remains to be alluded to:
ssential that the plates of glass should have ahs hacia — =, pov
ma
hb eat of the prism. Sincere ys
Troy, Aug. 7th, 1 " O. N. Room
8. Ascent of i Yoeaw of Candarave, Peru, (about lat. 18° S., lon
70° W.), in a letter frome Water Srvain Cease Esq., Civil Engi of
ad a”
the volcano of ra eta on Monday, 12th of May with the me's
and Lieut. Governor of Candarave. Finding that it would be too much na
a single day, we started at 2 o’clock on Sunday to seek lodgings gn
base. The Governor was backing out at the last moment, when we®
an an opportune auxiliary in a Padre, who returning from mass stop’ Ah
us directions e best road, and urged the Governor to go ¥! aking
The Indian villagers however gathered about us, smiling at our ™
Se >it
: ee, in 1857, oid bet,» nema Prof. ang ts Ss od te at onc?
Miscellaneous Intelligence, 301
of some t
under the bed-clothes to have a ery, but the offer of bread, which it de-
Youred voraciously, and kindly treatment pacified it. The mother (an
ushed the poor beasts to their utmost capacity, far above the
ge-like looki
lowest edge of the crater’s lip, broken away by the huge rocks it had
heaved out. Respiration became difficult, and the poor arriéro could
the natives call it, overcame m affection is very similar to sea-
* it attacks some persons very violently, belching blood
Nose and ears,”
“In the heights of som Cordillera
the diminished atmospheric — — roomed ee
antimo: ich i i te ini i The first
ny, which is extensively used in the mining operations. fir
sym ptoms of the Veta are usually at the mage ge of 12,600 feet above
-
.
in the head and nausea. Blood flows from the ey
302 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
250 higher than the “ Misty” near Arequipa, as measured by Humboldt,
r view had widened into a command of the whole sierre and its rami-
D
ward stretched the Alto of Puma, and northeast, the red rocks of the
achita Pass peeping out from the snow in strong contrast. Just
outlets for the thaws through the rivers Totona, Caijasso and ree
Grande—and away beyond all, the blue sea, which they never 7
ing quite sem pg in irrigation 93
rs—no lageion or birds, as reported, ool a lite = ps the
cre
too
sand or Soe ashes which, as on Vesuvius, > a a ee ang is
sabia hive stipposed to be the entrance to a mine, the vent per rhaps of &
lateral eruption. Towards it we traced the huge tracks of & cougar
We continued on foot to the odie hovel, which we reached at yng
the little child was gone. We mounted our mules just as the full
rose and reached the village, 12 miles off, at 6, a. M.”
4, Retorts—The retort is one of the chemist’s fein useful instr
and yet, while such great improvemenis have been introduced into ule o
po nosey generally, it is still made of the old shape, with li
in Wit ay 7 little additional trouble, our glass houses might make retort et
would be of the greatest convenience to chemists. In @
pte tn the stem of the retort is raised, so that ligt oe mat a
beak and only gases pass over: in these cases it is difficult to
. line, and if much force is used the glass breaks. Retorts of : ;
eles for this express se re with the stem finished like 5 4
_ @Mask. Again, flat-bottomed flasks have almost entirely vas? _
3 why ¢ at-bott
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 303
This form would also be convenient for the purposes first above alateeh to.
It is true that this last form is often tse “ the necks fy retorts by the
be better done in the glass-house. Any manufacturer who would give
his attention to these matters would confer a benefit on ae some
would doubtless find ‘his account in doing so.
. Old friends with new faces pio labstatiane since it was cant a the
word “telegraph” as applied to the dispatch sent was ambiguous and
liable to be mistaken for the instrument itself, and the new ound “ tele
gram” was coined to remove the objection. Somewhat reluctantly the
assent to this innovation how can we object to paragramss
autograms ey lithograms?
OBITUARY.
Marcet pz Serres died on the 22d of July at Montpellier (France) in
Sie year of his age. He was a corresponding member of the Academy
culturist, Olivier de Serres, a family famous in civil life, he himself heteg
reed i blish
* vilae ae in 3 volumes entitled: Manuel des Cours Py a But his
rested chiefly upon his scientific labors, especially in the de-
pment of philosophical eee eet te He belo “ae to a class of
ae rare now-a-days, who embraced at one grasp all anches of sci-
me, seeking rather to eaten one by another than to apply himseif
exclusively to advancing the pro, of one alone. He thus studied plants
animals in their mutual relations to ae living and fossil species, the
laws of the succession of species on the globe, their geographic distribu-
» and in some cases their anatomy as well as their physiology. His
ts. He published an extended work on the ic C ny and
1's relation to Penegy: and others on pure Geology and earppoie
emoirs sur les —— du midi de la France occupy an important
Place in the hbiee: of Geo s the pupil of the most d
tinguished masters of the last gern, of Has Alex. Fe a and of
“ seen agriculture re and commerce of ow See
appe nate eae 1814 me
1823. t ng.)
Sea een came ai
duties as Professor, printing at the same time in the Scientific te od
Memoirs on zoology, paleontolology, geology, ¥ ‘bile be
ohaks Wa 1861, p. 479.
304 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
reached a high station in the State, but his desires were not in the diree-
tion of political distinction. Simple in his tastes, kind and polished in his
relations, more devoted to science than sensible to the honors to which it
, he seemed neither to doubt or to cultivate his own reputation ; happy
without applause and famous without ostentation.
H.
the 30th of June at 23 o'clock a. ., of syncope consequent on inveterate
Broxn: Professor of Natural History in the Un
versity of Heidelberg, Baden, died suddenly of disease of the heart ye |
ock, P.m., on the 5th of July, in the 62d year of his age. This death 4
I i . Bronn was a most successful and laborious
n Paleontology. Since 1824 his contributions to Zoology, ' of
ogy, Mineralogy and Paleontology have been unceasing. The list
Since
Treatise
ogicus, 3 vols., 1848-49. Part Ist, Nomenclater
‘or paloeontoto Ge
| bot Oaaee
the courage or knowledge to undertake, but the value of W
i lexicon is ji ’ l ght down
! (
* On the 23d of January, 1862, he lost his old teacher. colleague and
co-editor, Prof. Leonhard. The Journal (Neues Jahrbuch fir Mine
gle, etc. 1830-1862) so long associated with WC"
ill be continued by the same title and UN
aig amie AO ee
BD. ly
Proceedings of Societies. 305
Geyerat Isaac I. Srevens, U.S. A, — killed in an
near Fairfax Court House, Virginia, Se ept. , 1862. His labors in the
explorations and surveys on the 49th a north rok when Goy-
ernor of Washington Territory, form a valuable a n to our knowl-
edge of the Physics and Geography of the N orth Amati continent.
VI. PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
Proo, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. fenaee from p. 304, ies xxxiii) 1861. Vol. viii.
—NOVE EMBER—224, The Acalephan Fauna of the southern coast of Mass
On the pling, So of ges priest - Agassiz.—
239 cou.
258, Note on pra Wimeas : Arthu bg Edwards.—255, On Melania (Am-
nicola) Lapidaria; James g ae 56, ed gies of the bones of a supernume-
tary leg from a goose; exhibited by Prof. Wyman.—257, Report of the Building
Cisiitte ee, dope, g a plan for New Hall of the society, fire-proof, spacious,
‘0 2,000.—258, imen
sym ; WS.
and Gane of Shells; .4..A, Gould.—284, Discussion on the tooth at which animal
life exists in the sea; "Maveou. Gout Agassiz, ame Dr. J. Pickering.—285, On the
eyes of a Horse Mackerel, exhibited by Lr. B. J. Jeffries —285, On the geology of
Anticosti Island, in the Gulf of St FOIE Ks 8. Shaler—289, Observations
Pata ad Rocks of the Mississippi Valley an have eg — be e-
| ress of New York, together with ions of New
ory am etre at Burl ngton, Iowa; 0, A. White and R. P. Whitefield—
a a 1862. JANUARY.2, On the Stractute of the valve of the Diatomacer ;
8 Stodder.— PEBRUA ARY.—8, ymin of new species Soe from the
Devenan, and ir ccaetsgca Rocks of the Mississippi Valley; Charles A. White,
of Burlington, am
ee: ‘at, Sct. Pattap., 1861 (continued from vol. xxii, p. 160).
scriptions of Eleven new species of the genus Hind
ryon, Jr—494, ap ah pore anolop! ovens = ta
f the Saliaginat
and Spinrodacilan E. D. Cope-501, Serene o ste 9
505, Deseriptior ion of a new species of Si illago ; fn ae
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[SECOND SERIES.]
Arr. XXV.—On the Saliferous Rocks and Salt Springs of Michi-
gan; by ALEXANDER WINCHELL.
Would have existed; and it is doubtful whether in such case,
brines could have been retained to the present day, in any con-
siderable quantity. Our subterranean peninsular basins are
Comparable with the superficial basins in which the salt lakes of
the world are located. Neither class of basins has an outlet.
The basin of lake Superior was once filled with water as salt as
thay of the Great Salt lake. Both have received accessions
of fresh water: but while one has been drained by an efflux
Mek has continually carried away some portions of the chlorid
nd
Given the time i the Straits of St. Mary, of a vol-
required for the efflux through , &. :
ual to the usual contents of Lake Superior ; given also the min ute
ter of the lake; it is re-
: om, rid of sodium still os Spent ee ch
moet ine long the processes of dilu
ccnttion and drainage thromgh the Straits must have been continued to reduce the
“Water which originally fil the lake basin to the degree of weakness which it
now attained: disregarding the chlorids derived from the drainage waters flow-
AM. Jour. Sct—Szconp SeRiEs, Vor. XXXIV, No. 102—Nov., 1862.
308 A. Winchell on the Saliferous Rocks of Michigan.
actually been strengthened by the loss of more water than it has
received.
roup. : ae
- Seven hundred and fifty feet below this is the Onondaga a
group, the circuit of whose outcrop is traced from <%
county to Galt in Canada West, thence to Mackinac island, }
waukie and southward. The supply of brine in these 5
not been ascertained. They are well stocked with gypsum
are known to be saliferous.
Fay | iy
‘eee
It was indeed known that brine of feeble strength exists 1) ©
that the salt wells at Bay City and vicinity on the 9ag@®
river, are supplied from this source. It might have been sxc
from the first existence of these wells, if those having the ”
- 8. ; neat :
reservoir of this brine, as the Napoleon sandstone be :
“Michigan salt group is the reservoir of the brine from
ne has
e depth of 74 feet in this rock, brine has been
tely saturated, This occurrence, no less th
e first well bored in the valley, becomes
ation of geological inferences dra’
ds of square mi
F a
oe 5 eh eee a a
A, Winchell on the Saliferous Rocks of Michigan. 309
_- When the first geological survey of the state was organized in
1887, Dr. Houghton, the superintendent, was instructed to direct
his attention to the development of the “State salt springs.”
Tn pursuance of his investigations, and with the liberal codpera-
tion of the legislature, he began, in 1888, two salt wells—one
three miles west of Grand Rapids, and the other in Midland
county on the Tittabawassee river. The latter, after bein
prosecuted at intervals for four years, had reached the depth of
only 139 feet when the work seems to have been obstructed
a “quartzose” boulder. The Grand Rapids well was sunk
473 feet but without success. In the mean time Hon. Lucius
Lyon of Grand Rapids sank a well 661 feet at a point further
east; and, obtaining water about one-fifth saturated, succeeded
in manufacturing salt for a few years, at a time when salt was
selling for $3.00 per barrel.
The cause of these early failures is now apparent. Dr. Hough-
ton entertained erroneous views of the structural geology of the
the salt rock (Rep., 1838, p. 21; also ‘special Rep., 1839, pp.
and 8), and ae ‘he er es positions of the state wells on the
4 wassee and Grand Rivers
tt seq.)
Ttnow appears that while the
well on the Tittabawassee was
on the Grand River was
strata. ‘The brine at the lat-
310 A, Winchell on the Saliferous Rocks of Michigan.
onset; and within two years, twenty-three wells have been bored
along the valley of the Saginaw, and new ones are continually
undertaken.
The following is an average section of the rocks passed throug
in the borings in the vicinity of east Saginaw:
Bilites God Da eee ks... s nkaaee cae . 100 ft.
“ Woodville sandstone,” brown and coarse, ....--+ee+505 65 “
Coal measures, consisting of shales with some sandstones and
limestones an Bh ged Seo ere Si 30 “
“ Parma sandstone” white and porous, ....°°*'..eesees 115 “
Carboniferous limestome, often highly arenaceous; generally eae
ngs eho Le ERA RE ee ae ee ee 5
Pernt Cate PND 2 8S 02207 S50 EO 170 ~
“ Napoleon sandstone,” light buff, rather coarse and porous, 110
Total, 765
The Napoleon sandstone is underlaid by a red shale which has
been pierced 64 feet.
Frotn East Saginaw the depth of the wells increases southward,
toward the center of the general basin; and also northward, 80
that in the vicinity of mp City the bottom of the Napoleon
ous “Conglomerate” of Ohio, it seems that the supply of brine
at this horizon, bears a relation to the thickness of the overlying
rst 1 uBois of the University of Michigan, from
Napoleon sandstone; the second by Jen tt Chilton & Co., from
datone. |
“4g. 02 page 72, vol. i, Geolog. Rep. Wisconsin, Prof. Hall states, undoubtedly
hrough inadvertence, : that the * Hanilton group ie known upon Sagint P-coog
Hamilton group strikes the lake shores in Thunder and Littl et
A. Winchell on the Saliferous Rocks of Michigan. 811
Saginaw City. Bay City.
Specific gravity, 1/180 1:163
Chlorid of sodium, 19°246 19°692
: calcium, 2°395 0°742
ted magnesium, 1-804 0°432
oa potassium, 0°127
Sulphate of lime, 0°534 0°145
ed soda, 0-116
Bromid of magnesium, 0013
Compounds of iron, 0064
Total solid matter, 24170 21-140
The difference in the composition of these brines is in accord-
ance with their difference of origin.
The average supply of the Saginaw wells is at least 25,000
gallons each, in 24 hours.
The creation of this new branch of local industry is destined
to become a matter of very great general importance. Although
but two years have elapsed since the production of the first
bushel of salt in the Saginaw valley, there are now (Aug. Ist)
no less than 22 blocks of kettles in actual operation, turning out
1210 barrels of salt per day, or, making an allowance for the
elect of winter weather, 1,980,000 bushels per year. Here is a
Towth, at the end of two years, equal to that attained by the
Rondaga Saltworks in 1834, at the end of 38 years after the salt
Springs passed under the superintendence of the State. In two
Months, seven more blocks will come into operation, increasing
by nearly one third, the foregoing figures. :
uch is the strength and abundance of the brine and cheap-
hess of fuel, that a barrel of salt is made at a cost o
the cost of a barrel at Syracuse is at least 95 cents, so that Sag-
Maw salt would pay the manufacturer 48 per cent of profit if
the price were put down to the prime cost of the article at Syra-
fuse. Moreover the quality of the article has proved so supe-
Nor, that the market is actually clamorous for an adequate
* J: . .
en we consider the cheapness and quality of Saginaw salt,
the inexhaustibleness of the supply of brine and the excellent
acilities for shipment, it would ap pes: that there is little danger
Sf over estimating the future development of this new resource,
: University of Michigan, Aug. 4, 1862.
t
312 E. Emerson on the Perception of Relief.
ArT. XXVI—On the Perception of Relief; by Prof. Epwin
Emerson, of the Troy University.
peer make the impression of an entire countenance. When one
kes this experiment for the first time, says Prof. Cima, he will
Cornelius, Halle, 1861; and in Monographie du Stéréoscopé,
Blanchére, Paris, 1862. Seemingly endorsed by such 2 bi
i t through sch
enemies of relief. samt
_ When the experiment of Prof. Cima is carefully perfor™
and analyzed it will be found that the right eye sees the right
e picture, and the peryoce! upon exch eh
E. Emerson on the Perception of Relief. 313
ae
4 n
4
4
‘vision, but are merely joined together at the line passing
through the centre of the resultant picture, it is evident that if
such an effect is realized as that “the nose rises well from the face”
or that there is any “sensation of relief,” we have here an experi-
ment which refutes the established theory of binocular vision,
and leaves the effects of the stereoscope without any adequate
aeration.
The fact is, however, that in Prof. Cima’s experiment there is
no real perception of relief. All that is really seen is the per-
Spective, which is mistaken for relief or solidity. To prove this
—let the observer, while looking at the two half-pictures in the
mode alledged to produce the effect of solidity, close one eye, the
tight for instance, the right half of the picture disappears, but the
left retains exactly the same appearance it had before ; it loses no
rance of solidity simply because it had none. Or, let the
server join the two halves together and closely and continu-
ously observe them with one eye, the effect will be the same as
in Prof. Cima’s experiment. Or, to vary the test, take a single
photographic picture, for instance the right hand side of a stereo-
staph, cut it in two by a vertical line through the centre and
the halves the proper distance apart in a stereoscope, so as
to unite them readily into a whole, the same effect, claimed b:
| tof. C. to be a sensation of relief will be observed: that it is
egal will be most manifest by comparing it with a stereo-
of the same scene. ;
But the reader will very naturally inquire—‘ How did Prof.
.
Cima, and t ho h uestioningly quoted his experi-
ose who have unq rye: nd sensi of relief?
€xperience and is, therefore, 4 sme is opposed by the whole
analogy of our being. The in b we
hears, it hears intuitively, if it is a perfect child, but learns as it
grows to know what it hears; it feels a blow but may be too
and feeble to know what that blow is; so it has but to
Open its eyes and the scene enters, it is painted properly = _
Stantaneously upon the retina, but it may require a long educa-
s the child will have an intelligent } of what it sees;
Mdeed it may go through life and never be able to i.
than one name to.a great variety of very different colors, a
314 E. Emerson on the Perception of Relief.
and is beautifully illustrated by the stereoscope; but this has
no necessary connection with the question before us. W
Mozart could not know all this. So with the matter in question;
all men see solidity who have the proper use of their eyes; ne
few indeed know how it is effected, or are able to distinguis |
acutely between the perception of binocular relief and the per
ception of mere perspective, or the appearance of distance with-
out relief.
The perception of relief depends upon the angle formed by the
rays which proceed from any object of sight to the right and
left eyes respectively ; the larger this angle the more relief 18
apparent, provided the eyes can unite the dissimilar inages; but
when by reason of distance this angle becomes nothing, practl-
— the rays are parallel as they enter the eyes, relief
vanishes.
et a A Ret ease cat NE Tre et eo Ee
When we consider the matter it is not surprising that these
two modes of perception should often be confounded. True
relief diminishes so gradually, and melts so gently away, leaving
illusion is at an end, Hence, paintings ought
One point of view to obtain "™
E.. Emerson on the perception of Relief. 315
servers thus mistaken, but they constantly manifest an opposite
peculiarity, being unable to see the greatest relief when it is
exhibited in an unusual manner. In Das Stereoscop, V. G. Ruete,
Leipsig, 1860, Dove's illustration of this point is republished in
uch a way as to destroy the object in view, showing that his
commentator had not a fine perception of relief.
_Aremarkable instance of the uncertainty attending the per-
n cases
| _‘Bshown by the controversy now going on in Europe over The
= has : . ks he has in these
measurements; now place these two drawings in the stereoscope
e kind of effect seen in the Chimenti draw-
z
=
&
E
:
the d
less from each other; all that is necessary then to impose upon
eyes, is to find out which way the sum of :
apo rates; mount the drawings accordingly, and, mirabile
ctu! you have produced a stereoscopic picture (the pseudo-
Scopie portion being overlooked) drawn by hand; you have
done that very thing that Sir David Brewster has repeatedly
i man skill! If Prof. Wheatstone
a
_, “8 aturther ¢ y 70 t
act that but few persons can properly locate the optical position
AM. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Serres, VoL. XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
= 41 . ee
316 Dana on the relations of Death to Life in Nature.
of reflections from curved surfaces, and, in particular, the images
from concave surfaces.
During the last year or two large assemblages have been |
drawn together in our principal cities, to see with delight the ef !
fects produced by what is called the Stereopticon, which is ~—— |
were told they saw, excellent stereoscopic effect in the single
picture which alone is exhibited. The truth is they made the :
ular mistake; they saw nothing but perspective.
pt omaha effect i a large scale eit be obtained by exhib-
iting the right and left pictures of a glass view side by side, by
the magic-lantern, and then uniting the magnified pictures by
means of prisms. This I have recently demonstrated by exper
iment. The idea was also suggested some years ago, by Dr.
Wolcott Gibbs to Mr. Pike, of New York, but not put to the test.
We conclude, then, from the foregoing— :
1. t Prof. Cima’s experiment is only another instance
showing how easily we can mistake one thing for another, and
induce others to do the same. 2 :
2. That intuitive perception of relief may be indefinitely
increased in degree by exercise; showing that this sense follows
the same law under which we employ our other faculties.
———
ArT. XX VIL—On the relations of Death to Life in Nature; by
J. D. Dana.*
1. THE creation of a plant with “seed in itself,” as Moses
states in his concise description, was the simultaneous institulion
of life and death. It was the establishment of an incoming 4”
outgoing stream, to be in constant flow as long as the kingdoms
of life should last—an incessant renewal of youth, and rqye
tion of age. me
_ All life is a system of progressing change in cycles—the od
first, then the embryo, the young, the adult, and last, the : ae
or germ again, to continue the rounds; the adult sooner
ae ee ae ee eter es LO Se pena Vase
Dana on the relations of Death to Life in Nature. 317
later disappearing from the field of progress, and then from the
here of existence. Death is implied in the very inception of
e scheme.
Up carbonic acid from the atmosphere, appropriates t
Yet there is no tendency to an
exhaustion of the atmospheric carbonic acid, or an over-supply
ay, as much carbonic acid,
Thus, through death the compen
decay. The system is hence comp
another in perpetual interchange. _
sytem, and it would not work.*
Hy oa i 4 ved am 7 logists, there was
istory, — Bop Sa aremeed agret
318 Dana on the relations of Death to Life in Nature.
Animal life, as above stated, was made to subsist on plants.
But the scheme is so well managed as not to disturb the balance
made by the vegetable kingdom alone. For all the carbon of
animals comes from plants. The plants which feed an animal,
and which, on decay, would have turned into éarbonic acid, be-
come changed into carbonic acid in the course of the growth of
the animal, so that the whole amount of carbonic acid which
the animal makes, is only what the plants would have made if
left to natural decay. Thus the higher kingdom of life is intro-
uced and sustained, and yet the balance remains undisturbed.
The system is perfect.
sorium and maggot, to the lion and man. Some take what 1s
already dead or decomposing; others kill and eat. On this sub-
ject we observe:
(1.) Death is in the system of nature—death from earthquake,
lightning, and all moving forces, as well as by natural decay ;
and the creation of carnivorous animals was hence in harmony
with the system.
(2.) Various noxious animals are held in check by the carmlv-
pecies.
subsisting on a given amount of vegetation is vastly increased,
scavengers. who at the same time turn the flesh into food for
the vegetable kingdom; and thus plants feed animals, and ant
a
-
_ Zining of force in a still more concentrat
Dana on the relations of Death to Life in Nature. 319
There are thus five states of stored force in nature—three in the
tnorganic, the solid, liquid, and gaseous; and two in the organic,
the vegetable and animal.
Now what is the provision to meet this last and highest condi-
tion? Is this magazined force left to go wholly to waste by the
death and decomposition of the plant-eaters? Just the contrary:
an extensive system of flesh-eaters was instituted which should
live upon it, and continue it in action in sustaining animal life
among successive tribes. ‘T
. Sg is employed again aud again, and made gradually
ebb.
th by an arrangement which
eign i its aliment,
managed to secure it against death? It would be ne
to still the waves, for they are throwing animals and
plants on the coast to die; to still the winds, for they are ever
ying in some parts of their course; to still even the streams
and rains. With winds and waves, not only helpless animals
and plants, but men’s houses, ships, and boats, would now and
then be destroyed, in spite of prudent precaution and holy liv-
ing. But if we still the waves, the winds, and the streams, the
earth would rot in the stagnation, and here again is death! __
We thus learn, that in life the fandamental idea of reproduc:
tion implies death; the processes of life are the processes § aul
taneously of death; the stability of the system of life requires
death; the vegetable kingdom is made to feed animals, and
kingdom, while containing plant-eaters, dem :
eaters for its own balance, for the removal of the dead, and 0
make out of dead flesh the proper food for plants, thus to pa -
debt to the vegetable kingdom. Hence death pervades the W
system of life in its essence and physical laws; and it could 20
be prevented in a world of active forces except by constant.
miracle; and this would be an annihilation of nature, that is,
a system of law.
Carbonates of alumina, glucina, iron, chromium, etc. 321
Art. XXVIII.—On the Carbonates of Alumina, Glucina and the
sesquioxyds of Iron, Chromium and Uranium; by THEODORE
PARKMAN, Ph.D.
both acid and base, in each case, and is, I think, fully confirmed
the analyses which follow. .
1. Carbonate of the sesquioxyd of iron.
Fe,03, CO».
The precipitate, formed by mixing carbonate of potash with
Mitrate of the sesquioxyd of iron, after washing with cold water,
Consists, according to Gmelin,* of hydrated sesquioxyd of iron,
free from carbonic acid. Berzeliust considers that the compound
Fe,0,, 8CO, is formed, but that it exists only momentarily.
Tangloist gives an analysis of a precipitate, se by carbon-
ated alkali in a sesqui-salt of iron, perfectly freed from alkali
0° C. His results were 88°47 p. c.
washing and dried at 10
O
; O:
cording to Barratt, | the —— produced by carbonate of
2 Soda in sesquichlorid of iron, when dried in the air, has the for-
1. ae ae, O,,-CO,+8HO: when dried at 100°, 8Fe,0,,
‘the carbonate of iron which I have examined was precipi-
lated, at the ordinary temperature, from pure crystallized iron-
-alum by carbonate of soda in slight excess. The precipi-
tate was not washed or dried, but simply pressed between folds of
esas papers under a heavy weight, for about twelve hours,
and while still moist, introduced into a bulbed tube of hard glass,
and the whole weighed. It was then ignited in a slow stream of
+ Lebrb. der Chem., iii, 626.
322 Carbonates of alumina, glucina, iron, chromium, etc.
dry air and the water caught by a weighed chlorid of calcium
tube. The loss of weight in the bulbed tube and Snbeainers
simply the relation between the acid and the base, and a certain
amount of water must probably in every case be understood.
In every case, more than one preparation was analyzed, to ascer-
tain whether the precipitate had always the same composition.
Of the carbonate of iron four analyses were made, with
following results :
Calculated. Preparation I. Prep. Tl. i
Fe,0, 80 78°43 79°88 19°47 79°09
co, 22 21°57 2012 4 2058 20°91
102 10000 »~=S«10000 ~——« 100-00 100-00
2. Carbonates of the sesquioxyd of chromium.
r. GOs; 2C0,
Or203, CO.
Carbonates of alumina, glucina, iron, chromium, etc. 323
| donate of soda, in very dilute solution, and dries the precipitate
Over sulphuric acid. His results give the formula Cr,O,, CO
| 4H0. Barratt* proceeds in the same way as Wallace and ob-
gnition in the air in contact with alkaline carbonate,
Cipitated sulphur.
The analyses of a large number of preparations gave the fol-
lowing results :
: Prep. 1. Prep. IL. Prep. Il. Prep. IV. Prep. V.
Calculated. E rm 2. i. ya i
Cr.0, 77-4 63-76 6681 661 66:39 6753 6659 7303 7344 7255 73°84
200,” 44- 34-04 3319 3349 331i S247 S841 2697 56 W745 2616
—
121-4 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 10000 10000 10000 10000
Tutions of copper. To ascertain whether this was the case, an
analysis was made of a precipitate, produced by pouring chrome
* Chem. News, i, 110, in J. pr. Chem., 82, 61.
Ax. Jour. Sct.—SEconp SERIES, Vor. XXXIV, No. 102—Nov., 1862,
42
324 Carbonates of alumina, glucina, iron, chromium, etc.
Calculated from
Crg03, 2COg. L IL
Cr,0,. 63°76 65-03 64°96
200,. 36°24 84-97 35°04
0 100-00
This seems to prove pretty conclusively that there is a carbon-
ate of chromium, possessing the above formula, and that the
The agreement of the results of Lefort, Wallace and Ps oe
get
4HO, makes it probable that the bicarbonate, above deseribed,
tion of chrome alum is precipitated by carbonate of soda, a
shown by the following analysis of a precipitate thus prepared
Cc Found.
Cr.03 TT4 "86 78:68
CO, 22° * 29-14 21°32
99-4 100-00 100°00
tas 3. Carbonate of Alumina.
- Saussure* considers the precipitate, produced by iar gran
onates in the solutions of alumina, to be a pm Be of alumni
little alkaline carbonate. Musprattt finds that the HO.
carbonate of ammonia in alum is 3A1,0,,2CO, +1°
ii, 290, + Chem. Soc, Qu. J., ii, 216.
Carbonaies of alumina, glucina, iron, chromium, etc. 325
then with cold water, has the composition, Al,O,, 3HO+NH 72,
been formed and carbonic acid, therefore, driven out of the car-
bonate of soda. Attempts to overcome this difficulty, by taking
Weighed quantities of alum and carbonate of soda, in equivalent
Proportions, and by exactly neutralizing the solution of alum by
carbonate of seda, did not give good results. The method finally
dopted was to wash the substance with water saturated with
carbonic acid, until a portion of the filtrate, after being boiled to
€xpel carbonic acid, gave no alkaline reaction. This would
| Probably give correct results, since the water, being already sat-
‘ urated with carbonic acid, would hardly wash out any from the
substance, The latter, moreover, would hardly absorb any more
carbonic acid from the water, since, during the precipitation, free
arbonic acid is given off in great quantity and the alumina must
have combined with as much carbonic acid as it would be possi-
ble for it to take up. In other respects, the analyses were con-
ducted like those of the carbonate of iron. The following are
the results obtained:
— Hann eg abn sem
ee 61
; Co; te sone mos 1863 1809 2249 28°28
| 10000 10000 10000 10000
Prep. IV.
10000 10000 100-00
Ann., xcii, 452. } Ann. Chim. et Phys, [3] xlviii, 502.
Gaz., 1858, 410, in Jahresb., 1858, 70. ‘ § J. pr. Chem., xxxix, 1.
Cn, :
Chem, News, i, 110, in J. pr. Chem., Ixxxii, 6
326 Carbonates of alumina, glucina, iron, chromium, etc.
Preparation I. was analyzed in April: Preps. II. and III. in
summer: Prep. IV. also in summer; but, to avoid a possible loss
of carbonic acid in hot weather, it was precipitated from cooled
solutions of alum and carbonate of soda, washed with ice-water
saturated with carbonic acid, and pressed in a refrigerator. The
variable composition of the substance led me to suppose that it
was a mixture of more than one substance, and, for the same
reasons as in the case of the carbonate of chromium, Jed me
to make the following analyses of precipitates, produced by
uring alum into carbonate of soda, until the alkaline reaction
eame weak. Both were prepared in hot weather, but with the
precautions above mentioned. —
Prep. I. Prep. IL
Calculated. : : rt 2.
Ai,O, 514 70:08 70°44 41-06 "7-79 77°02
CO, 22° 29-97 29°56 28°94 22°21 22°93
134 100-00 100-00 100°00 100°00 10000
1€ composition of the first preparation comes pretty near the
formula, while that of the second is much like that of the
4, Carbonate of Glueina.
G,0;, CO2. al : sie
Schaffgotsch* gives an analysis of a carbonate of glucina, PI*
cipitated by sailing a solution of glucina in carbonate of ammo
nia. . 3 |
alyses of precip!
.
.
Carbonaies of alumina, glucina, iron, chromium, etc. 327
of soda, in slight excess, and analyzed in the same way as the
carbonate of ir ater from the ignited glucina
Prep. I. Prep. IL
Calculated. i 2. :
G,0, 38° 63°34 63°31 63°57 63°52
CO, 22: 36°66 36°69 36°43 36-48
60 100-00 100.00 100 00 100-00
Tf glucina be regarded as a protoxyd, as it has been by some
chemists, the above results would correspond to the formula,
)
?
3G0, CO, (calculated, G.=4'7, 63°40 GO and 86°60 CO,).
5. Carbonate of the sesquioryd of Uranium.
| fue 5
on, onic aci d the carbonic acid absorbed by
4 weighed soda-lime tube.+ In this way, the sesquioxyd is
f N. Ann. Chim. Phys., v, 189. ;
t + This method of absorbing carbonic acid by soda-lim
gh ae a tube, used for the fourth time, still absor
y. bya i
Carbone ..:3 ees er oe Se , pees
328 Carbonaies of alumina, glucina, iron, chromium, ete.
reduced to protoxyd, which does not drive out carbonic acid
from carbonate of soda. The residue in the bulb was washed
method for separating uranium from the alkalies.
The three following analyses were of precipitates from the
nitrate. The first two were dried: the last was not.
Prep. I. Prep. Hl.
Calculated. i 2:
80,0, 432 90-76 91°60 90°29 90°55
200, 44 9°24 8 9°71 9°45
476 100-00 100-00 100:00 10000
The five next analyses were of precipitates from the sulphate.
The last was precipitated by pouring the sulphate of uramum
into the carbonate of soda: the others, as usual, by pouring the
carbonate of soda into the uranium solution.
Prep. I. Prep. II. Prep. Hl.
Calculated. : i :
8U,0,. 432 9516 552 9460 9413 9468 9454
co,. 22 4°84 4:48 5°40 5:87 5°32 546
nc
454 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000
ing the presence of uranate of soda.t This result might in eed
be inferred, almost with certainty, from the very strong ie
pear to lose carbonic acid, the observed percentage of caret
acid should be less than the calculated. Instead of this, 1t 8 =
© Analytical Chemistry, French ed., ii, 252. : a
_ + The carbonates of “peteg uae cme alumina, after washing yi re 2
te of glucina
* “sittear drecthonged haeythien by further washing. tall the alka
oag og : cipiie
ball, Chem, Fe. ed, tn 252
Carbonates of alumina, glucina, iron, chromium, etc. 329
be obtained pure, may be with probability inferred from the
composition of its double salts with carbonate of potash and with
nate of ammonia, in which it exists, according to Ebelmen,*
asU,0,,CO,. On the other hand, as the salts of the sesqui-
oxyd of uranium, with the stronger acids, contain only one
equivalent of acid, instead of three like those of the other ses-
quioxyds, analogy with the carbonates just described should
__ make the carbonate of uranium contain less than one equivalent
‘ of acid to one of base. The first view is, however, I think, the
more probable one.
Summary of the above results.
The following is a brief summary of the principal results
arrived at in the foregoing pages:
1. All the carbonates in question, except, perhaps, the carbon-
ate of uranium, lose carbonic acid readily, during the processes
of washing and drying. To this may, in a great measure,
attributed the discordant results of previous observers.
The precipitate, produced by the alkaline carbonates in
solutions of the persalts of iron, has the composition Fe,O,, CO,.
3. The precipitate by the alkaline carbonates, in the violet
salts of the sesquioxyd of chromium, varies somewhat in com-
“ea but approaches the formula Cr,QO,, 2CO, and is proba-
ly a mixture of this with a little of the more basic salt next
mentioned. The results of previous observers render it nearly
certain that the above precipitate, by washing and drying, is
Converted into a more stable salt of the composition Cr,O,, CO,.
This latter is formed, when the precipitation takes place at the
boiling point. The precipitate in the green solutions of chro-
mium consists of carbonate, not of oxyd as stated by Lefort, and
has probably the same composition as in the violet salts.
4. The precipitate by the fixed alkaline carbonates, in the salts
Normal salt may be obtained nearly free from basic com-
Pounds, by pouring the alumina or chromium solution into that
of the alkaline carbonate, instead of the reverse, sO as to have
iWays an excess of the alkali. : :
5.'The precipitate by the alkaline carbonates, in the salts of
_ Bucina, has the composition G,O,, CO;.. :
_5. The precipitate by the alkaline carbonates, in solutions
of the Sesquioxyd of uranium, is undoubtedly a mixture of
Uranate of the alkali and carbonate of uranium. The latter, if
could be obtained pure, would very probably have the compo-
| * Ann, Chim. et Phys, [3], v, 206-208.
330 =» Plants of the Rocky Mountairs—Supplement 1.
sition U,O,, CO,, in which state it exists, according to Ebelmen,
in its double salts with the carbonates of potash and ammonia.
In conclusion, it will be observed that none of these carbon-
ates conform to the theory of Berzelius, that the number of atoms
of acid, in a neutral salt, corresponds to the number of atoms of
oxygen in the base. On the contrary, their composition is gen-
erally the same as that of the salts of the protoxyds, one atom
of acid to one of base.
Laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge, July, 1862.
Art. XXIX.—Supplements to the Enumeration of Plants of Dr. |
Parry's Collection in the Rocky Mountains, (continued from |
p. 261.) |
Suppiement I.— Conifere, by Drs. Parry and EncetMany.
Dr. Parry collected too few specimens of the following
Coniferse for distribution, but as his notes are replete with poor
est they are given here (under marks of quotation) together Wl
a few remarks of my own. G. E.
Abts Grannis, Lindl, Not common in this region, resembling much
the Eastern A. balsamea. Fendler’s N. Mex. No. 828 is the same.
ry : A,
distinguished from all our other Pines by the distinctly petioled leaves
Fendler’s N. Mex. No. 829. stiff
Asizs Menztestr, Lindl. “A finely shaped tree, though of rather tal
outline, of rapid growth; wood very compact, but rather coarse phage
__indric cones with thickened entire margin of the scales) seems to exle
g!
from Canada to the nortlrern Rocky Mountains, where it has been e
| by Bourgeau; but it has not fallen under Dr. Parry’s pel
’s observation, on the headwaters of the Kettle, Co ae
‘columbia Ri where Abies nigra seems to be abundant, exten"?
e sal
far
ibia Rivers, where Abies nigra
Santa Fe (Fendler, N. Mex. No. 833). Dr. Parry
oo ee ae OE ae
ib. Art. Cerium.
PS Re ey eRe ee aD
2 = per ee
Sow ie ins Fendler’s note. nus frexiies ¥:
Pee _ pendulous cones, widen 4 ce: and us of
Plants of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement I. 331
Middle Park about the head of Grand River: a magnificent tree, 80 to
dlicher’s section, Psexdostrobus, which comprises numerous Mexican, a
of a line, and none more than } of a line wide.
Pixus riextus, James. This species, discovered in the same regions
by Dr. James, has to some extent remained doubtful, as his description in
the account of Long’s Expedition, and Torrey’s diagnosis in the Annals
249) are based on notes only, no
m the appendix to Wislizenus’ Memoir of a Tour to New Mexico, ete.,
1848, Endlicher, in his Synopsis Coniferarum, 1847, does not enumerate
and Carriére in his Traité des Coniféres, 1855, credits it to Wislizenus,
esen
Pected finally to settle. My brother, H. Engelmann, collected it on the
‘head waters of the Yellowstone, Missouri and Columbia rivers.
extremity of the horizontal branchlets; while James gave his plant
“erect” cones, : at 000 or
ee
Aw Jour. gcr.—Seconp Sznmms, Vor. XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
332 Plants of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement II.
R. Rep., vol. vi, Bot., p. 44, not Zucc.,* if, indeed, this is not a mere form of
P. flexilis, approaching by its short cones close to P. Cembra. The large
seeds of P. flexilis are, as Dr. James already stated and as Dr. Hayden
confirmed, eaten by the Indians. They are distinguished from those “of
any other of our Pines by a persistent, sharp, keeled margin, representing
e wing.
Pixus ponperosa, Dougl., is “common through all the lower valleys
and less elevated districts of the mountains, associated with A. Doug-
lasit and A, Menziesiz; a most valuable timber tree.” Fendler’s N. Mex.
No. 831. Male aments cylindrical, several inches long.
Prxvus contorra, Dougl., “is quite abundant on the erest and slopes
of dry subalpine ridges, forming the principal part of the forest there, and
extending to near the snow line; a symmetrical tree of rapid growth, 30
or 40 feet high, with slim and tapering trunk a foot in diameter, 4
smoothish, grayish-brown bark, detached in thin scales, and tough but
coarse wood, which is liable to warp, and rarely cut into boards.”
Sopriement II.—Revision of the @nothere of the subsection Onagra ;
by D
r. ENGELMANN.
bicaulis are longer and smooth. Dr. Engelmann has recently correct
this oversight, and in the following memorandum has established the t
species upon a good foundation. I greatly doubt the distinctions D#°
upon the duration of the root, althongh @. albicaulis and GE, cor hile
la generally, if not always, have the appearance of being perennial, W
* Zuccarini’s plant of that name is one of the curious little group of peer
Nat-pines, including the following four species: Pinus mo q eee, Enea
mont, with single (not connate, as Endlicher would have it) leaves; P. edulis. Engt
\ leaves; P. cembroi i r. P ;
’ Plants of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement IT. 333
|. pinnatifida flowers early from a slender monocarpic root; I should
Mt rely much upon the — — size of the petals; and the luived are
most polymorphous. But, in brief,
% G CORONOPIFOLIA, Torr, sto Gray, is well marked by the strong vil-
wil ty of the throat of the calyx, the short and tlick, ovoid-oblong, or at
m rt Snipe apes ea Fer ne the large, oval or oblong, strongly cos-
ie. ribs tubereu
yy he vie following rg sa the calyx glabrous (rarely with a few
yi s) in the — much larger petals, and larger
q ( PINNATIF a, Nutt., has less elongated and stouter capsules, and
i ag svianeeusetiase seeds (with pits between the ribs), apicu-
ates At hilum
G5. auprcautis, Nutt , in all its forms, has elongated-oblong and perfectly
and its longer, linear, capsules are closely sessile by a broad
das $e, mtnaly porrected or divaricate from the axis which bears them,
en
Dr. Parry’s No. 116 is @. pocqnn eth a 117, probably a canescent
‘form . albicaulis ; neither are i
The following communieation from Aiea nn was received too late
for insertion in its proper place in the J aly No. of the Journal, a. ¢
“A large suite of specimens enables me to clear hue some difficulties
which have Avie the Allowing. species of a
“1, voupekiaes coronopiFo.ta, Torr. & Fi. 1, pe 45; Gray, Pl.
Fendl., p. 4 Per see “inti multicaulis, hhamilis, erecta oa erecto-
pu ‘ey ulo-canescens, strigosa seu hispida; foliis infimis lineari- “spa-
thls caeteris pectinato- pinnatifidis ; tubo ony cis ad faucem dense villo-
int na tibus pistillo brevioribus ;
casula ovato-seu linenri-oblonga torulosa fait nunc in pedicellem brevis-
simum, attenuata suberecta ; seminibus magnis ovatis turgidis subobtusis
oblique truncatis tuberculali Ss. specimens were collected by Mr,
Fendler (No. 222) near Santa Fe, along waterducts, and by Dr. Hayden
on the sandhills of the Loupfork, on “ Running Water. ” Stems 4-1 foot
‘Raking a pinwatiFipa, Nutt. Gen. 1, p. 245; Torr. & Gr. Fi. i
494. albicaulia, Pursh, Fl. 2, p. 783: DC. P
“ut. @. Purshii, Don. Sys re @. Purs 2,
P. 207 : a seu biennis, humilis, diffusa, cde erecta), puberula,
rarius a i iis imis obovato-spatulatis acutis seu obtusis inte-
! Stis, cacteris pinnatifidis sane! ciliatis ; =< alycis ad faucem and -
a Petalis la late obcordatis seu nd tis genitalia: a superant
ula lanceolato-lineari torulosa sessilt ules la; seminibus ovatis tur-
utrumque apiculatis tis im inter costas dispositis € 7
gehen Ke ady soil on White River, Upper Missouri, N uttall, Geyer in
salts eee Dr. Hayden; Las Vegas and Santa Fe, New Mex-
», Dr. Md us, a aed the latter’s be seen few in number,
were tri uted ers of next
334 Plants of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement II.
coronopifolia in Pl. Wright, 1, p. 69.) All the specimens I have seen aft
either annual (sometimes simple and one-flowered) or, usually, biennial,
with rosulate entire radical leaves; branching from the base, diffuse or
even decumbent; an erect form was collected by A. Gordon on the Uppe
Canadian River, No. 29, similar to the last species in habit. Stems usu
WwW
Steudel have changed Nuttall’s earlier name, but his must stand and
Humboldt’s plant, described five years later under the same name, may
receive the name of @. Humboldtii i
“3. CENoTHERA atprcautis, Nuttall in Fras. Cat., 1813, & Gen. 1,p
245; Torr. & Gr. Fl. 1,495; Gray Pl. Wright 1, p. 69, & 2, p. 58
Perennis, glabra, puberula seu hirsuta; caulis cortice albida membra
nitente ; foliis maxime variis; petalis orbiculato-ovatis in unguem plus
minus attenuatis iniegris stamina superantibus pistillum aequantibus;-
sapsula e basi crassiore sessili lineari divaricata saepe flexuosa seu deflera ;
ceminibus minoribus lineari-lanceolatis laevibus. ‘A common plant on the
western plains, extending intoOregon, New Mexico and Chihuahua, as vale
able in habit, growth and foliage as it is common, but always easily recog:
nized by the unvarying characters of the flower and fruit as above indicate,
and also by its white glistening stems and branches, the epidermis
which is apt to peal off in the manner of many Loasacer. The white
flowers, 14-14 inches in diameter, at last turn pale-red ; the ve i“<_
capsule, connected by a very thick base with the stem, is usual yl i
inches long, and spreads at right angles, or is curved or twisted in eee |
directions. Seeds smooth, dark-brown, lance-linear and usually very acu!
at one end, and 0°8 line long; var. 0, has smaller (0°6 line) and nr
seeds. According to foliage and pubescence I arrange the specimens
fore me under the following varieties :
a, Foliis basi in petiolum brevem attenuatis.
Var. «. Nurauut: erecta, glabriuscula seu puberula, simplex ene
- Mosa; foliis linearibus seu lanceolatis seu oblongis integris vel plus minus
dentatis. Here belongs @. pallida, Dougl., with its variety leplopa this
To i Prof. Gray. Nuttall desc va he
form as sometimes 3 feet high, and Geyer notes that in the sandy pia
i forms shrubby
branchiato-ramosa, patula, glabra, puberula seu
“a 3 is E. Pe
imens
the private number 243). Fendler g “
his 3d Expedition collected a glabrous (NO
(No. 178) form, the latter with 5188
capsules, scarcely 3 lines long. —
Plants of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement III. — 885
b. Foliis bast lata truncata sessilibus.
Var. 7. BREVIFOLIA: tota glaberrima, erecta, ramosissima ; foliis late
ovatis abbreviatis grosse dentatis. Sandhills south of El Paso, Dr. Wis-
lizenus, No. 99. Leaves dark green, while all the other forms are pale or
grayish, 4—6 lines long, acutish, or often rounded at the end,
Var. 0, TRICHOCALYX: erecta, parce ramosa, canescenti-hirsuta; fo-
liis lanceolatis seu lanceolato-oblongis sinuato-dentatis. Las Vegas, New
Mexico, Dr. Wislizenus, No. 473.—This is no doubt Nuttall’s @. tricko-
Suprtement III.—Revision of the genus Castilleia; by A. Gray.
CASTILLEIA, Linn. f.
ied npon
Although the latter af-
rived
specimens. Bentham’s four sections (in De Candolle’s Prodromus)
pecimens ntham’s fo ( ae
do not to be as distinct as they would seem. The seco
ati ween ery wae all our North
"$1. HEMICHROMA or EUCASTILLEIA. Calyx (sepe incurvus)
antice profunde fissus, postice leviter bifidus swpius 4-dentatus.
h., is one of the best characterized and the
ften 3-cleft or 3-
Parted, and more or less distinctly 3-nerved at the base. To this species
Clearly belongs C. fulgens, Nutt. in herb. Philad., and C. candens, Durand
In Pacif. R. RB. Rep. 5, p.12. (But No. 70 of the Californian (Fort Te-
) collecti Xan imens collected by Dr. Newberry in the
"ac istaken for C. candens, belong to C.
| “ffinis), This is No. 583 of Fendler’s New Mexican collection, and 246
of Dr. Parry’s Rocky Mountain collection.
336 = Plants of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement IIL.
C. Tenvuirtora, Benth. Pl. Hartw. No. 191, as Bentham intimates,
should probably include C. longiflora, Kunze, and C. canescens, Ben
(which is Grego’s No. 434, 610, and Coulter 's No. 1354), all from Mexico.
C. Onizas# I have not seen, unless Coulter’s No. 1852 and 1353 be
pe to it.
FoutA, Linn. f. (No. 835, coll. Venezuel. Fendler). To this
Weddell vin all the five other aoe American species of this section,
Pts even C. integrifolia, L
xa, Gray in Bot. Mex. Va p- 119, of Arizona (coll. C. Wright,
Sie 1490), has a Peni ealyx and corolla than any of its allies, the for-
ery thin-membranaceous, colored, and with obtuse teeth, the gales
slightly falcate ; thé leaves thin and not dilated at the insertion.
§ 2. EUCHROMA (incl. Callichroma). Calyx antice et postice fissus,
segmentis integris emarginatis vel bifidis,
I have nothing to say of the six Mexican and South American species
in the Prodromus. The proper North American ones I understand as
follow
* Radice annua vel bienni.
+ Integrifolia.
C, arriyts, Hook. & Arn. ” Folia lineari seu Janceolato-attenuata, flo-
wie raro trifida _flores pl. m. pedicellati: calyx usque ad medium bifidus,
yi tj wuch simplex and
E. lanceolata, Nutt. in herb. Acad. P Philad.), which has smaller wre
less colored floral leaves, a green and herbaceous calyx, the galea of
— lsat on ye
_C. coccrnga, Spreng. The only annual, or perhaps benrie bi
with laciniately cleft leaves; confined to North America ¢ oe a
y Mountains, and mostly east of the great plains, alec from
bats Land to Texas,
* * Radice perenni,
> Foliis floralibus superne pl. m. dilatatis et coloratis.
nad Kod smanenay vel es oe pube versus apicem cali ey
pa = pilo: $a vel hir sula sepi
PARVIF ot Bg ice a pie. paver vel hirsuta,
gk -trifida vel peer worries
Planis of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement IIL. 337
—This is apparently the commonest species and of widest range west of the
Rocky Mountains, extending from Russian America to Southern Califor-
nia. The name given b ngard is much the earliest, but not a good
Acad. Philad. 7, p. 44, 47 (1834), both hirsute forms with deeply cleft
and harrow calyx-segments. Castilleia hispida, Benth. in Hook. Fi. Bor,
m. & in DC. Prodr., 10, p. : . Douglasii, Benth. in DC. 1. ¢,
p. 530; the commoner form, with oblong or more dilated and slightly
obed or cleft calyx-segments. C. desertorum, Geyer in Hook. Kew Jour,
t. 5, p. 258, which is just Nuttall’s Z. angustifolia, but with partly
aah bracts. #, macrocalyz, E. villosa, EH. laciniata, and £. viscosa,
utt. in herb, Acad. Philad.
: . Inferne sepius glabra vel glabrata, caule versus
apicem calycibusque villosis: folia inferiora seepissime integra (e forma
lineari ad ovato-lanceolatam), floralia vulgo pl. m. incisa vel Jaciniata et
albido-colorata : calycis segmenta bifida seu biloba: galea aut breviuseula
aut elongata.—The most northern species, and extending round the world
on the borders of the aretic zone. Iam well sati fied (especially fi
ing nearly uniform,—and that, accordingly, C. Sibirica and C.
nalis of Li i pa
¢. acuminata, S
{a dwarf alpine form), Huchroma lutescens, Nutt. in herb. Acad. Philad.,
riety -—
Var. mrntata: viridior, inferne glabra; foliis floralibus pl. m. miniatis;
i . €.miniata, Dougl., Benth. Zuch
1@ With elongated galea, good C. se, tentrionalis, apparently, referred
Sentham to C. ‘cata: i re. 3; rations coll. in Palliser’s mah A
8 C. miniata with the upper cauline and floral leaves unusually cleft.
C. tartrotia, Hook. & Arn. Undique viscoso-hirsuta, Jaxe rai
folia brevia, obovata, obtusissima, plerisque integra, floralia apice dila-
tata, 3-5-lobata, rubro-colurata: calycis segmenta lata emarginato-bi joba:
orolla parva. A well-marked Californian species. The comparatively
short and broad calyx is sometimes equally cleft before and behind, some-
: times much deeper posteriorly.
+++ Tomentose, vel pube caulis molli impleza. Folia caulina linea-
via integra, vel trifida. . ,
*
.
338 = Planis of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement III.
a. Incane ; calycis segmentis dilaiatis ro
b. Cinereo-puberule vel subtomentosee ; cals anes scepissime bifi-
dis ; 39a alea exserta. — ae nunc glabra
trifida’: uipolli ares, 9: lies majore et labio breviore quam @.
pur, : he numbers already cited, this is No. 244 of Parry’s
Rocky ease collection (a dwarf or subalpine hg a ; and my C. tomen-
tosa, from Mabibi, Arizona, Thur rber, appears to be a more tomentose
state of the same species, the flowers in the panies not well develope
It is closely related to C. purpurea, and perhaps runs into it. To that, at
east, I now refer the undistributed. specimens of Wright’s first collection.
C. purpurea, Don. Caulis tomentulosus vel cinereus: folia pubera
glabrata, superiora vulgo cum floralibus trifida seu laciniata : oy polli-
cares, labio minus quam in affinibus abbreviato (2- ori lin. longo). Flo
ral Jeaves a from cherry-red to rp Te or Hans t yellow. cis
of the corolla by no means half the length o galea in well d elo
bri 3-5-fidis lobis linearibus) floralibus apice née
dilatatis nec Pais Calyx pat pe ualiter aut a) profundius us fissus,
segmentis alte bifidis. Corolle Jibei magis quam in ceteris trisaccato-
carinatum, lobis — dimidium adequantibus, shekitii humiles,
lose vel subcinereee
- SESSILIFLORA, Pursh. Calyx et corolla tubo elongato angusto ; labio
eens lobis lineari-lanceolatis. Corolla evoluta bipollicaris, eae
+ onga,
BREVIFLORA, Gray, Pl. Parry, No. 243. (Euchroma breviflora, Nutt
jn rors Philad ad.) Spithamza, spica densa, florescente vix pollicari
sg ovoideo-oblongo, lobis lanceolatis ; Gorollar luteze tubo fere incluso,
labio inferiore tri riplicato-saccato breviter trifido,
this genus; the lip of Rees corolla about as long in proportion to the galea
ame t more trisaccate,—t rho dad ota
Plants of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement Av. 339
Euchroma albida, Nutt. in herb. ne Philad., is Orthocarpus attenu-
atus, h Gray i in Bot. Whippl. Exped. Pacif. R. R. Rep. 4,p.121. This is
the “O, No, 1,” of Dr. Lyall’s sallaction on the Oregon Boundary, from
Lopez Island, distributed at Kew Gardens,
ELuchroma pallescens, Nutt. in herb. Acad. Philad., from the Rocky
Mountains, being a near relative of the receding and of Orthocarpus
densiflorus, and I believe not a described species, would take the name of
0. pallescens. The lobes of the lower lip of the corolla are so conspicu-
Near to this, if not the same, but more hairy, with deeper-cleit calyx-
segments, and yellowish corolla almost an inch long, are specimens
Geyer’s Rocky Mountain collection, distributed as No. 291, therefore
Seigrted those ne a in Hook. Kew Jour. Bot. 5, p. 259. Here
e lobes er lip are quite conspicuous, and the incom-
neal dereoped ioeccas might very readily be taken for those of a
SurrLement I[V.—Review of the genus Mertensia; by A. Gray.
MERTENSIA, Roth.
The s speci es of Mertensia which I have been able to examine, ——
not a hittle perplexing, may perhaps be “8e discriminated as follow
§ J. Filamenta gracilia antheris multo longiora: corolla tubo ies
alte 5-fido © pluries alli limbo levissime pr eh plicis faucialibus nul-
lis, Tota glaberri
LM. Van: De: The disk is annular, but on each side developed
into a large lobe or glandular appendage. That of M. Fendleri and of
Some specimens of M. paniculata a ole ah oaches it. Corolla villous inside
tube.
just above the obscurely 10-glandular base of the
inf ment antheris plus minus angustiora et longiora: corollz
lob:
| 2. M. warrrma, Don. Corolla tubo limbo breviore ealycem sub-5-
e Peto eben plicis conspicuis.
a M. Patzassu, Don. M. agttni DC., &e. Pulmonaria Sibirica,
) : “Pall non ion. Lala um Pallassi, Ledeb. Corolle tubo limbo
| 4-2-plo ate 3-plo longiore, pticis tenuibus. Siberia.
8 3. Filamenta magis dilatata, antheris equilata seu latiora et ee
Minus i Biivisea - corollz limbo 5-fido.
Pe Calyr haud ultra medium 5-fidus.
4. M. Fenpuerr (sp. nov.) : foliis subtus cauleque levibus supra cum
Dedicellis appresse hispidulis, caulinis oblongo-la neeolatis ; racemis pauci-
. Horis ; corollz tubo lobis calycis hirsuti Jato-lanceolatis limboque_vix
“giore intus supra basim annulato-villoso. New Mexico of hills
Fe Creek, Fendler No. 625. Discus pl. m. bilo bus.
Jour. Scr.—Seconp Sexiss, Vor. XXXIV, No. oe 1862.
oy :
340 Plants of the Rocky Mountains—Supplement IV.
* * Calyx 5-partitus, in M. oblongifolia et M. alpina quandoque alte
5-fidus.
+ Corolla tubo quam limbus (i. e. pars dilatata supra faucem) 2-8-plo
longiore.
urIcA, Don. Gracilis; ae Sonne linearibus np cum
calyce sobinenno hints borate Hk ima basi a nulato-pilosa, czt. glabra. Si-
beri
6. M. opLonerroura, DC., Hook. Kee “ci Bot. 3, p. 295. Pale
naria oblongifolia, Nutt. ! Lithosperm
Fi. Bor. a. Humilis ; foliis tilnk diviah vel spathnlato-lanceolatis
plerumque obtusis; segmentis calycis lanceolatis seu linearibus acutis
corolle tbe intus glaberrimo 2-3-plo brevioribus. Idtetite of Oregon,
Utah, &e. Varies with the sepals very narrow and ciliate with long and
rigid ‘bristles, as in Nuttall’s original a collected by Wyeth ; or
ese ciliz minute or sparse or obsolete, as in most specu | in
Geyer’s No. 316, the calyx is hardly 5 -parted, and its segments bro
in Spalding’s, from Clear Water, the leaves are un nusually broad. The
leaves resemble those of Heliotropium Curassavicum.
++ Corolla tubo quam limbus ad summum. sesquilongiore.
++ Elate, 1-3-pedales : folia caulina ovata seu ovato-lanceolata, acuti
sime aii ats vel acutata, costato-venosa ; corolle semipollicares seu
paullo longiores.
7. M. paytcunata, Don. MM. paniculata, pilosa, pubescens, lanceolata?
stylosa? & Kumischatica f DC. Hirsuta, hirtula, vel glabrata; seg-
mentis calycis lanceolatis seu tnisbisine breathes acutis hirsutis vel his-
ere tubo corollz intus sparsim piloso paullo vel dimidio brevior-
us—A specimen of ZL. denticulatum, Hook. & Arn. Kotzebue’
Séusd in n Beechey’s Voyage, p. 128, in herb. Torr., is certainly of this
species, which probably occurs in Northeastern Asia also. H. Engel-
‘ Iaann’s specimens ol Medicine-Bow Mountains and Dr. Parry’s No.
286 are glabrate and dwarf mountain forms of M. paniculata, with barely
sente leaves, and sees rsh’s Pulmonaria lanceolata, Nuttall’s P. mar
4 is much the sam
a ulm. Sheries, Linn.) Glaucescens, subpubescens, vel glabra; segmer”
tis calycis oblongis seu oblongo-linearibus obtusis ciliolatis tubo corolle
intus ~ apc piloso vel fere | glabro 2—4-plo brevioribus. Rocky Moun:
, Eastern Siberia. :
++++ Pumila: folia caulina obtusa vel deutbusiielas viz venosa: coral
4+4pollicares.
eo mondii, Don. Pulmonaria a Ipina, Tort. i$
‘ummondii, Lehm,, i in Hook. Fl. Bor.-Am. Spina
saat blongis lanceolatis vel supremis 0
_Segmen ealycis n nunc ovato seu oblongo-l
Tineari-lanceolatis acutis ciliatis corolla tubo a
nunc
8. M. Srsrrica, Deas. non DC. M. denticulata (Don.) & ciliata, DC.
W. Gibbs on the Platinum metais. 341
ety of this species. Contrary, however, to the dimorphism in other Bor-
raginee, Rubiacee, &c., the included stamens are here accompanied by
a short style.
§ 4. Filamenta antheris sublongiora et equilata: corollz limbo lobato:
achenia echinata!
| __*,* Dr. Hooker, in his Arctic Essay, received long since the above
tt Was written, adopting Sir William’s suggestion, refers the high arctic
| 4. Drummondii (Lithospermum Drummondii) to our M. Virginica.
Although Lehmann describes the corolla “fauce notata protuberantiis
‘guanque, T found no appendages in an original specimen in herb. Torrey,
Just as Dr. Hooker notes. But I also found them obsolete in specimens
of M, alpina and of other species in which they are sometimes evident.
herefore I rejected the character from the diagnosis of Section 3.
. Ann, XXX.— Researches on the Platinum Metals; by Wotcorr
oo Gipss, M.D.
(Continued from vol. xxxi, p. 71, Jan, 1861.)
" § 3.
THE mass of soluble chlorids obtained by the above method
htains all the platinum metals, although ouly traces of osmium
ja Palladium are present; in addition there is usually more or
*ss insoluble matter, consisting partly of the impurities of the
itself and partly of undissolved oxyds. A certain portion
0 also remains with the mass even after careful washing.
€ washings contain a very large quantity of iron, a little
ium-in the form of bichlorid of ruthenium and potassium,
342 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals.
and possibly a trace of palladium. When the washing with
ehlorid of potassium has been carefully executed with a cold and
saturated solution, the quantity of ruthenium dissolved is too
small to be worth separating. It only remains therefore to sep-
arate the metals in the mass of mixed double chlorids. Plati-
S
imself given in his elaborate and most valuable memoir already
cited.* For the details of Claus’ processes I must refer to his
metals by washing with a strong solution of sal-ammoniac. ‘A
filtrate from the chlorplatinate of ammonium contains iridium @
rhodium as sesquichlorids; the iridium is converted by weds
and nitric acid into bichlorid, and the insoluble chloro-iridate
pout the
Pearance from the iridium salt IrCI,,KCl; it possesses about the
ch <—
W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 343
8NH_,Cl, are quite soluble in water. Oxydizing agents readil
convert the proto-chlorid of ruthenium into sesqnichlorid, whic
is again precipitated in Claus’s process with IrCl,,KCl, in the
form of Ru,Cl,,2KCl. The portion of ruthenium which exists
in the mass of double chlorids in the form of RuCl,,KCl may be
easily and almost completely removed by repeated and careful
washings with a cold and strong—but not saturated—solution of
chlorid of potassium, in which the salt, RuCl,,KCl, is soluble,
while the other double chlorids remain undissolved. The small
quantity of ruthenium dissolved in washing out the sesquichlorid
ofiron may be recovered by precipitating the iron carefully with
4 solution of carbonate of potash, adding a slight excess of chlor-
hydric acid to the filtrate, and evaporating to dryness, when the
Tuthenium salt remains mixed with a great excess of chlorid of
Potassium. In Claus’s process however this method is of little
use since the greater part of the ruthenium is removed in the
of ruthenate of potash, while another portion remains as
‘Ru,Cl,,2KCI, insoluble in chlorid of potassium.
Another difficulty in Claus’s process arises from the fact that
rhodium salt, Rh, Cl,,3NH, Cl, is quite insoluble in a strong
Solution of chlorid of ammonium, while a weak solution of the
ame salt dissolves a considerable portion of the iridium an
tuthenium salts, IrCl,,KCl and Ru,Cl,,2KCl.
_ Claus's method of separating ruthenium—in the form of
8ives good results when the quantity of ruthenium is large +4
quantities of ruthenium cannot be separated at all by this process,
nor have I in any case been able to obtain iridium absolutely
ee from ruthenium by boiling: For these reasons, while doing
( full justice to the extraordinary skill and success of the Russian
} “temist, T have still thought the problem of the complete sepa-
a of the metals of the platinum group worthy of a new in-
— shigation, ; :
The method which I now use consists essentially in the em-
Ployment
parati gents; in addi-
ton however, I avail myself, as Claus has so skillfully done, of
344 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals.
Osmium.—A solution of osmic acid is reduced by addition of
nitrite of potash to osmious acid, which unites with ‘the alkali,
forming the well known beautiful red salt discovered by Fremy.
The solution may be evaporated to dryness without decomposi-
tion. The nitrite may therefore be added with great advantage
when solutions containing free osmic acid are to be evaporated,
o>
a
>
mn
9
5
i)
Qu
Qu
®
PB
a
o
<
9
mm
fo)
ong
=
is?)
Qu
m
s
ey
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5
a
Me
ps)
3
Q
ae
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a
addition of carbonate of soda or potash. I prefer to use an "0:
cess of alkali. Nitrite of potash in solution is then to be adde?,
the liquid boiled for an instant, allowed to be become pare
Bee and a drop or si of colorless sulphid es anmonnnns aadea.
King, the color appears and rapidly deepens to tne *
Sean ‘the quantity of ruthenium pant is very small, *.
large quantities of the other platinum metals at
metals are also
W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 345
Present, it is better, after adding the alkaline carbonate and nitrite,
to evaporate the whole to perfect dryness on a water-bath and’
treat the dry and powdered mass with a small quantity of abso-
lute aleohol. The alcoholic solution is then to be filtered off,
and tested directly with sulphid of ammonium. In this manner,
the smallest trace of ruthenium may be detected, even in the
presence of very large quantities of the other platinum metals,
A solution of the double nitrite of ruthenium and potassium is
_ completely precipitated by a long continued current of sulphy-
( drie acid gas. Sulphid of ammonium also precipitates the solu-
| hon after a short time, but when added in excess redissolves the
dark chocolate-brown precipitate. The addition of a slight ex-
cess of dilute chlorhydric acid then completely precipitates the
"6 me of ruthenium.
tndium—When a solution of nitrite of potash or soda is
added to one of chloro-iridate of potassium or ammonium,
the color of the solution instantly changes to olive-green, the
Indium being reduced from bichlorid to sesquichlorid. The
reduction takes place most rapidly in a hot solution, in which
tis almost instantaneous. When the solution cools, the new
double chlorid usually crystallizes. An alkaline nitrite is
&Jar more elegant and convenient reducing agent for the sepa-
fation of iridium from platinum than either sulphuretted hydro-
8en, sulphurous acid or cyanid of potassium. ‘I'he reduction in
question is expressed by the equation,
| 2([rCl,. KCl) +KO, NO,=Ir,Cly, 8KCI--NO,
A very different result is however produced when an excess
of nitrite of potash is added to a solution containing either of
z
S
B
3"
ee.
ta)
S
ai
5
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mr
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=)
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oad
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wa
—
er
=
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ie)
a
in’
c.
i=]
g
oO
5
=
z
ms with iridium a soluble orange-yellow
ouble nitrites of iridium and potassium
é on
346 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals.
boiling. The soda salt is easily decomposed by boiling with
chlorhydric acid, giving a solution of chloro-iridate: the potash
salt is decomposed with great difficulty.
Platinum.—Solutions of the alkaline nitrites exert a scarcely
sensible reducing action upon chlorplatinate of potassium or am-
monium, even after long boiling. ‘Ihe salt retains its color and
crystallizes unchanged from the solution on cooling. When
other metals belonging to the same group are present, and the
solution after adding the nitrite is boiled for some time, a small
quantity of platinum is dissolved, giving a yellow salt very sol-
uble in water and alcohol. When nitrite of potash is added to
a solution of platinum, sulphid of ammonium immediately throws
down a brown precipitate of sulphid of platinum: the same effect
is produced in a solution of the yellow salt-above mentioned.
Palladium.—A solution of either protochlorid or bichlorid of
palladium immediately becomes yellow or orange-yellow, when
excess of nitrite of poiash is added to it. Two different
double nitrites of palladium and potassium are usually form
in this reaction. Both are soluble and are precipitated in a cry
talline form by alcohol from concentrated solutions. One of these
as a deep orange-red color, the other is lemon-yellow; both
are readily soluble in water, and alkaline sulphids precipitate
soluble and an insoluble salt with solutions of rhodium, ba
for a short time with an excess of the alkaline nitrite. |
_ The application of these facts to the separation of the several
metals of the group is as follows:
_ Platinum from iridium.—The separation of platinum er
_ iridium for the purpose of obtaining the two metals in a state
Pe a Pogp Aen; beds, 118.
Weaeoes
W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 347
chemical purity may be effected by either of the‘ following pro-
cesses. The iridium is in the first place to be brought into the
form of bichlorid by means of a current of chlorine or by nitric
acid, and the two metals are then to be precipitated together as
PtCl,.KCl and IrCl,,KCl, by the addition of a concentrated
solution of chlorid of potassium. The color of the mixed salts
varies from orange to almost black, according to the quantity of
indium present. The mass of crystals is to be rubbed fine in
an unglazed porcelain mortar and boiling water added in the
Proportion of three volumes of water to one of salt. A dilute
solution of nitrite of potash is then to be added, until the liquid
becomes deep olive-green, carbonate of potash being thrown in
m time to time in quantity sufficient to prevent the solution
from becoming strongly acid. The iridium is instantly reduced
to sesquichlorid, while the platinum salt remains as a reddish
orange powder. ‘The deep olive-green solution is to be poured off
and the undissolved mass treated a second time with hot water
ash nitrite of soda may be employed in the above mentioned
h
g
&
(4?)
+2
5
=
poly
S|
°
My
3
pry
4
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B
2
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€ process just mentioned gives satisfactory results when
8nd sodium js decomposed by boiling with chlorhydric acid into
the double chlorid TCI, Nach, it is better to use nitrite of soda
348 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals.
tinum ores, that the quantity of platinum is very large when
t ‘iridium. The
compared with that of iridiu
"he above process is capable of giving chemically pure iridium
r P giving : ae io rarely
e case and the following method is usually more advantageous.
The greater part of the platinum is first to be separated in the
manner above pointed out. The solution of double chlorid of
iridium and sodium, Ir,Cl,,3NaCl, is then to be filtered, an eX
cess of nitrite of soda added and the solution boiled until 1
of sodium evaporated, precipitated by a cold and strong —
of chlorid of ammonium, and washed with the same. 18 all
ating the
sulphid of platinum by filtration, to neutralize the filtrate with
Platinum from ruthenium.—Ruthenium in the form of bichie”
rid may be approximately separated from platinum OY aad
tating the two metals together in the form of PtCl,, Cl, fee
— RuCl,,KCl, and washing out the ruthenium salt with cold he
_in which it is readily soluble. The mixed solutions shou”
pe to dryness with an excess of the alkaline chlorid
ty mass rubbed to fine powder in a mortar, after W witht
or with a cold and
W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 349
fied by crystallization but usually retains traces of ruthenium,
The rose-red solution of the ruthenium salt contains a small
quantity of platinum from which it cannot be wholly freed by
the difference in solubility of the two salts. Chlorid of ammo-
hium may be employed in this process in place of chlorid of
potassium.
| To obtain a complete separation the following process may be
| followed with advantage. The chloro-ruthenate of potassium,
_ Separated as far as possible from the platinum salt, is to be heated
with a solution of nitrite of potash in quantity sufficient to con-
vert the whole of the ruthenium into the soluble yellow double
nitrite of ruthenium and potassium, carbonate of potash being
added in small quantities so as to keep the solution neutral or
alkaline. The yellow or orange solution is to be evaporated to
hess in a water bath, the dry mass reduced to powder and
boiled with absolute alcohol until the ruthenium salt is completely
issolved. This is best effected in a flask furnished with a con-
densing tube bent upward so that the alcohol vapors may be
Condensed and flow back into the flask. The boiling need not
becontinued for a very long time as the ruthenium salt is readily
Soluble in alcohol. The solution is then to be filtered off from
the undissolved salts and these are to be washed with absolute
‘cohol until the washings are colorless, or until they no longer
Sve the characteristic ruthenium reaction with sulphid of am-
Monium. The filtrate and washings may then be distilled to
Separate and save the alcohol, water being first added in small
quantity. The residue in the retort or flask is then to be evapo-
tated with chlorhydric acid which readily decomposes the double
‘Ultrite and yields a fine deep rose-red solution of the chloro-ru-
thenate of potassium, containing at most only a trace of platinum.
The mass of salts undissolved by the alcohol contains nearly all
¢ _ the platinum in the form of chlorplatinate of potassium which is
easily separated. The solution of chloro-ruthenate of potassium
‘8 now so pure that it gives the reactions of a chemically pure
| Slt. To obtain the ruthenium in a state of absolute purity the
| Solution is to be evaporated to dryness with a saturated solution
Pe sal-ammoniac in excess, redissolved, again evaporated and the
dry mass washed with a little cold water to remove the alkaline
_ thlorids. The chloro-ruthenate of potassium is in this manner,
for the most part at least, converted into chloro-ruthenate of am-
350 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals.
repeated crystallization. !
ridium from ruthenium.—The separation of these metals cam
not be effected by igniting them with a mixture of saltpeter
orhydrie acid, salts of both se :
‘
W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 351
ee and bichlorid of ruthenium are invariably present,
0 part of the present investigation has cost more labor than the
complete separation of iridium and ruthenium, the properties of
Mixtures of the salts of these metals having sometimes almost
te a conviction of the existence of new metallic elements in
the osmiridium.
A perfect separation of ruthenium from iridium may be easily
effected by the following process which is applicable to all cases,
_ Without reference to the state of oxydation in which either metal
(May exist. To the solution containing the two metals nitrite of
soda is to be added in excess, together with a sufficient quantit
of carbonate of soda to keep the liquid neutral or alkaline. The
Whole is to be boiled until the solution assumes a clear orange-
yellow or orange color. If a green tint should be perceptible
more nitrite of scda must be added and the solution again boiled,
th ruthenium and iridium are converted into soluble double
nitrites, A solution of sulphid of sodium is then to be added in
small quantities at a time until a little of the precipitated sulphid
of ruthenium is dissolved in the excess of alkaline sulphid. The
frst addition of the sulphid gives the characteristic crimson tint
due to the presence of ruthenium, but this quickly disappears
and gives place to a bright chocolate-colored precipitate. The
Solution is then to be boiled for a few minutes, allowed to ecome
Perfectly cold, and then dilute chlorhydric acid added cautiously
until the dissolved sulphid of ruthenium is precipitated and the
Teaction is just perceptibly acid. The solution is then to be fil-
tered through a double filter, and the sulphid of rutheniam
Washed continuously and thoroughly with boiling water. The
filtrate is perfectly free from ruthenium: it is to be evaporated
With chlorhydric acid and treated with sal-ammoniac in the. man-
_ ‘heralready pointed out in speaking of the separation of iridium
«from latinum. The washed sulphid of ruthenium is to be
si together with the filter with strong chlorhydric acid and
chemi ,
Compound of chlorid of mercury and ruthen-diamin, 2NH,RuCl+
Hed, by the process already described. From this salt chemi-
pure ruthenium may be obtained by ignition, which is best
in an neeten of hydrogen, as the reduced metal is
352 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals.
It may happen that the precipitated sulphid of ruthenium
contains traces of iridium. This can only arise from imperiect
washing or want of proper care in precipitating with sulphid of
sodium. In this case the washings from the chloro-ruthenate of
ammonium are yellow and contain sulphate of iridium, probably
Ir,0,,3SO,. The quantity of iridium in such cases is too small
to be worth the trouble of separate treatment.
When a solution contains iridium and ruthenium in the form of
bichlorids, the ruthenium may be easily and completely separated
by boiling the solution with nitrite of potash in excess, adding
at the same time enough carbonate of potash to give an alkaline
reaction, evaporating to dryness and dissolving out the double
nitrite of ruthenium and potassium by means of absolute alcohol,
in the manner recommended for the separation of ruthenium
from platinum. The undissolved mass in this case contains the
two double nitrites of iridium and potassium. By adding a strong
solution of chlorid of ammonium, evaporating to dryness, 1gnh
ting the dry mass in a porcelain crucible, and dissolving out the
soluble salts, metallic iridium remains in a state of purity. This
method may be used for the quantitative separation of iridium
from ruthenium, but when the object is simply to prepare bot
metals in a state of chemical purity I prefer the separation by
means of sulphid of sodium.
Iridium from rhodium.—Iridium may be approximately sep
rated from rhodium by the process recommended by Claus, which
consists in taking advantage of the solubility of the double chlo-
rid of rhodium and ammonium, Rh,Cl,,3NH, Cl, in moderately
strong solutions of chlorid of ammonium in which chloro- —
of ammonium is nearly insoluble. This method is difficult ©
application when the quantity of rhodium is small, and is at best
tedious and unsatisfactory. A better method is that given above
for the separation of iridium from ruthenium. The mixed solu-
tions of iridium and rhodium are to be treated as above wer
tioned with nitrite of soda, the rhodium precipitated by sulphi
The filtrate is perfectly free from rhodium and is to be treated im
Rh,Cl,,3NH,Cl, which is insoluble in a cold saturated solution
of sal-ammoniac, in which it may be washed once OF eS
remove alkaline salts and any traces of iridium which may
‘present as sulphate. The rhodium salt is then to be purified bY
crystallization, or converted into the chlorid of Claus’s rode
mmonia base by eva ion on a water-bath with a solution
ia. The sulphate of iridium, Ir,0,,3SO,, does not g¥°
W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 353
abasic compound under these circumstances. The chlorid5NH,,
Rh,Cl,, is then to be further purified by crystallization.
Lhodium from ruthenium.—The separation of rhodium from
Tuthenium is best effected by means of nitrite of potash. The
mixed solution of the two metals is to be boiled for a short time
with an excess of the nitrite together with a little carbonate of
potash to keep the solution neutral or slightly alkaline. The
yellow or orange-yellow solution is then to be evaporated to dry-
ness upon a water bath, the dry mass rubbed to fine powder and
i then treated in a flask with absolute alcohol in the manner
pointed out for the separation of platinum from ruthenium,
After filtration and washing with absolute alcohol, the rhodium
Temains undissolved in the form of a mixture of the two double
nitrites of rhodium and potassium. These may be ignited with
a large excess of sal-ammoniac so as to yield, after washing, me-
tallic rhodium, or the nitrites may be dissolved in hot chlorhydric
acid, ammonia added, and the rhodium precipitated as sulphid,
Which is then treated in the manner already pointed out, so as
to convert the rhodium into the double chlorid of rhodium and
ammouium. To remove the last tracesof ruthenium the rho-
dium salt may be a second time treated with nitrite of potash, as
above, and again washed with alcohol. The presence of the least
of ruthenium is easily detected by adding a drop of color-
less sulphid of ammonium to the alcoholic solution. The method
of obtaining pure ruthenium from the double nitrite of ruthe-
nium and potassium has already been given.
- For the separation of osmium from the other metals of the
gtoup I have no better method to offer than that which is uni-
versally employed, namely, the volatilization of the osmium in
the form of osmic acid. ‘The separation of palladium is in all
_ €a8es also best effected by the processes commonly employed,
( Specially by taking advantage of the solubility of the double
~ of ‘protochlorid of palladium in solutions of the alkaline
ids
With these preliminary and general statements the method
| Which I seein, in ns ith the different metals of the plati-
} Mm group from each other will be intelligible. | The mass of
double chlorids, obtained as already mentioned, is to be rubbed
‘0a fine powder; introduced into a deep porcelain opening:
issolves: it is advantageous, when the quantity of the ween
orids is 1] i appears
wated and to repeat the operation with a fresh quantity of water.
ff
354 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals,
The undissolved mass, which consists chiefly of the impurities
of the ore, when these have not been removed before the process
of oxydation, is then to be thrown upon a filter and washed with
boiling water until the washings are colorless. By keeping the
solution somewhat alkaline the whole of the iron remains upon
the filter as sesquioxyd with the other impurities. The filtrate
contains iridium and rhodium as sesquichlorids, ruthenium part] :
as bichlorid and partly as protochlorid, platinum as bichlori
When the operations already mentioned have been well per
formed, no determinable quantities of osmium and palladium
are present. On cooling the greater part of the platinum 18 de-
posited as PtCl,,KCl, mixed with a little of the corresponding
iridium salt, and is to be separated by pouring off the olive-green
supernatant liquid. The quantity of the alkaline nitrite to
added in this process need not exceed half of the weight of the
mass of double chlorids, but with a little experience it will be
found unnecessary to weigh the nitrite added, the process of
the reduction of the iridum salt, IrCl,KCl, being evident to
the eye.
- To the filtrate a solution of nitrite of soda is to be added and
the whole boiled until the liquid assumes a clear orange color.
Nitrite of soda should be used in this process because the result-
ing double nitrite of iridium and soda is easily decompo:
boiling with chlorhydric acid, which is not the case with the
potash salt. When nitrite of potash is used a small quan
the white insoluble double salt already mentioned is ust
formed and renders the solution turbid. ‘ ‘d.
To the clear yellow or orange-yellow boiling solution sulphi
dissolved with a brown-yellow color, and an excess of the arn
line sulphid is consequently present. The liquid is then to
allowed to cool and treated with dilute chlorhydrie acid until @
Sit gM ee a ae
W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 355
The filtrate is to be evaporated and boiled with an excess of
strong chlorhydric acid which completely decomposes the double
nitrite of iridium and soda, yielding the salt, IrCl,,NaCl, which
8 very soluble in water. An excess of a pure and strong solu-
tion of chlorid of ammonium is then to be added, the whole
evaporated to dryness, and the dry mass washed with cold water
and then with a cold and strong solution of the ammonium salt.
ere remains a mass of pure chloro-iridate of ammonium which
may be advantageously rubbed to a fine powder, dissolved in
boiling water and allowed to crystallize. he resulting salt is
chemically pure and the crystals possess an extraordinary beauty
and lustre. The mass of mixed sulphids together with the filter
are to be treated with strong chlorhydric acid, and nitric acid
added in small portions at a time. By the aid of a gentle heat
the sulphids are readily oxydized and dissolved. After sufficient
dilution the liquid is to be filtered, the pulp of undestroyed filter
aper washed, the filtrate evaporated to dryness, the dry mass
gested with concentrated chlorhydric acid and again evaporated
todryness. The dry mass of chlorids and sulphates is to be re-
Issolved in water and the platinum, ruthenium and rhodium
py ipitated by metallic zine, after addition of — > acid.
lhe finely divided metals after filtration washing and drying, are
then to be mixed with chlorid of potassium and treated with dry
chlorine at a low red heat. In this manner the metals are again
ught into the form of double chlorids and the difficulties
which arise from the presence of the sulphates are avoided.
The mixed double chlorids are to be boiled with nitrite of
Manner described in speaking of the separation of ) pms
pure by
3
oO
g.
0g
big
5 .
ct
ie)
co
bo
RQ
S
a2)
oO
=
i)
.
Qu
B
B
a
S
ta
bo]
So
2.
5
‘
diamin already mentioned. : :
by alcohol consists of chlorplatinate of
of potassiu then. after reducing the mass to fine powder,
T cat by beal Zz the rhodium salt remains
crystalline powder. This may be
XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
356 Geographical Notices.
dissolved in hot chlorhydric acid, evaporated to dryness with an
excess of pure chlorid of ammonium and ignited in a clean
porcelain crucible, when pure metallic rhodium remains as a
porous mass mixed with chlorid of potassium.
When the process above described has been carefully con-
ducted, and especially when the quantity of nitrite of soda add
is sufficient, the mixed sulphids will be found to contain only
platinum, rhodium and ruthenium, and to be free from iridium.
If however, after converting the sulphids into double chlorids in
the manner pointed out, iridium is found to be present) the pro-
cess to be pursued is still the same so far as regards the separa-
tion of the ruthenium; the remaining mass is then to be dissolved
in water with addition of chlorhydric acid, the solution nearly
neutralized with ammonia, the platinum and rhodium separated
as sulphids in the manner already pointed out, brought!into the
form of double chlorids and then separated. by nitrite of potash
as EN
For the complete success of this method it is absolutely neces
sary that the mass of mixed double chlorids be freed from osml-
um as completely as possible. This is to be done in theu
anner by repeated evaporation with nitro-muriatic acid,
n place of the method above given the following may also
be employed with success and are sometimes more convenient.
(To be continued). gee
—————)
Art. XXXI.— Geographical Notices, No. XVIII.
RETURN OF HALL’S ARCTIC EXPEDITION. j
THE latest, it is doubtful whether we can say the last, of ane
Arctic explorers has safely returned to this country. We os »
that at an early day he is to present the results of his a
tions in a paper to be read before the American Geograp®
. pr ‘ : kee
owe the following sketch of his journey to one of his advisers
and friends, a public spirited gentleman in New London. —
It may be recollected that in the year 1860, Mr. C. F. Hall, of
Cincinnati, planned and started an expedition, on a plan oe and
what novel, for the purse of exploring the regions nort Gf
west of Hudson’s Straits, in British America, and to arte
pos e reg relics and remains of the lost and mourned ~™
ohn Franklin and his crews. an eee
; peculiarity of Mr. Hall’s efforts were that dispensing witt
oW-fields alone, or with companions found among
meau Ewhase habits"and mode of life he pro
%
Oe a
i hs
Return of Hall's Arctic Expedition. . 357
posed t
0 ado
ent as they.
| _ Aided by a few friends, supplied with a boat, a few necessa
‘| ~~ “lentific instruments, guns and ammunition, he sailed as passen-
ee the whaling Bark George Henry, of New London, Ct.,
une 29, 1860, for the scene of his labors.
The vessel in which he took passage prosecuted her voyage
pt to the extent that should render him as independ-
| Miles west, and about seventy-five miles south from the place of
hai ig. ‘This area of country so far as our knowledge extends
iyiB.6 been seen or examined by any white man since the years
Hakluyt’s Voyages, published in London in the year 1600, gives
al.account of the voyages of Sir Martin. Frobisber to these re-
ce
=
PS
oS
=
ey
; a
3
=
S
eMpted to found a colony. An examination of the English
Admiralty Chart ef 1858, sheet one, or the fine American Chart «
from the United States Hydrographic Office, published with the
show in faint outline the so-called Frobisber’s Straits, sup-
Posed to afford a passage from the ocean westward to the further
_ Patt‘of Hudson’s Straits. Navigators however have always
| “esen the latter in passing to and from Hudson’s Bay and vi-
| Ginity, and it may be well that they have done so, for the travels
; « Mr. Hall have proved this to be not a strait but a bay or in-
it, similar to Cumberland Inlet, just north on the same coast.
;
“Thost part to correspond with the descriptions of the ancient nay-
had he found alse indiibitable preofs of the temporary set-
“Hement of the whites nearly three hundred years ago, and heard
onitinis rid
‘Mong the Esquimeaux well a eated traditions of their at-
‘empt and its failure. Pe a Led woos Saree
_ the entrance to this bay is just north of Resolution Island, at
‘Me mouth of Hudson’s Straits,—a large island nearly blocks the
Passage, but once past this it stretches away west-northwest
about two hundred miles, with an average width of about fifty
Miles. Numerous islands stud the coasts; an immense glacier is
the southern side, a mountain full of fossils at the western ex-
*
ny
358 Geographical Notices.
native inhabitants from long distances resort here to fish and
hunt, and all things considered it may be called a favored local-
ity for such dreary regions—for about eight months of the year
ice and snow are masters of the field. Sia
Mr. Hall spent about twenty months in and about this region.
He brings home a carefully prepared chart showing his discov-
eries and travels, also many relics and curiosities of the country.
He has learned the Esquimeaux language and formed many
friends among this simple-hearted and generous people. He pen
poses, by a volume or public lectures, to give the details and in-
eidents of his journey, some of which have a romantic and
thrilling interest.
Mr. Hall proposes to prosecute another voyage northward. By
perseverance and pluck he has accomplished much that ve
prove of interest to the cause of science. Such energy shoul
meet a suitable reward. R. H. C.
_ ANNIVERSARY OF THE RoyaL GEOGRAPHICAL Soctgry.—
_At this meeting, held in May last, the retiring President, Lo
Ashburton, delivered an address, from which we make several
extracts, containing more full and exact information than has
reached us from any other souree. Sir R, I. Murchison suce
Lord Ashburton as President, ;
The Founder's Gold Medal was awarded to the representative
of Richard O’Hara Burke, in remembrance of that gallant ex-
orer, who with his companion Wills perished after having
traversed Australia from south to north. A gold watch was
also awarded to Mr, John King, the sole survivor of the say
dition under Burke, The Patron’s Gold Medal was awarded (0
Capt. Blakiston, R. A., for the survey of the River Yang-
miles beyond the farthest point previously reached by English
men. We quote the following information from the address.
1, Orpwayce Survey or Great Brrrain anp Irecanp.—The
of ‘The Tri
cation rigonometrical Survey of the United Kingdom’ is 2°¥
completed, and is comprised in seven quarto volumes, viz.-— | oak
_L The Principal Triangulation, with the Figure,
Mean Specific Gravi the Earth derived therefrom, 2 vols.
_ IL. Levelling, taken in Ireland, 1 vol,
TIL Levelling, taken in England and Wales, 2 vols.
__ IV. Levelling, taken in Scotland, 2 v -- Genel
> hus this great work, which was commenced in 1783, under :
*
i ht cas
eet SSE eo
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain and Ireland. 359
__ In last year’s estimates the sum of 1000Z. was taken to enable the di-
rector of the survey to extend the triangulation of England through
France to the frontiers of Belgium, so as to form a connection between
the triangulations of England and Belgium. This operation has been
completed. The stations selected to form the connection across th
Channel were St. Peter's Church, between Margate and Ramsgate ; Cold-
m, on the high ground north of Folkestone; and Fairlight, a few miles
of Hastings. From these three stations observations were taken
to the church at Gravelines, to Mont Couple, near Wissant, and Mont
Lambert, near Boulogne.
kirk, Cassel, and Mont Kemmel, is common to the triangulations of
able to finish it this summer. :
During last year the Belgian geometricians were engaged in connecting
their triangulations with that of Prussia, and the Prussians in connecting
theirs with that of Russia; and thus we shall shortly have a connected
triangulation, extending from the west of Ireland to the Oural moun-
My ~ the means of computing the length of an arc of parallel of
t 75° in length.
The electric a aa now furnishes the means by which the differ-
ence of longitude between distant places can be determined with greater
Precision than they could formerty be by the transmission of chronome-
og one station to another. eas ae.
Th -al wil re this year re-dete -
e Astronomer Royal will therefo ¥ sleek: sted tlie
Country to recommence their work, and it is to be hoped they will be
‘nee of longitude between Valentia, in the S.W. of
servatory at Greenwich, by means of the electric telegraph; and as it
Will be necessary for the director of the survey to connect the station se-
lected by the Astronomer Royal at Valentia with the triangulation of the
kingdom, a joint expedition is now about to proceed to Valentia for this
ble purpose, and to complete the quota of work assigne to us for
meas — of this —— —
/ engraving of the complete map of 1
i finished last year,
in outline, on the scale
of one inch to a mile, was fini
and the hill features are now
bei : 205 sheets in this map.
ee Survey in the north of England and
360 Geographical Notices.
of one inch to a mile only,” have reported in favor of it, the cost of the
surveys made for the defenses will go to diminish the cost of the Cadas-
tral Survey.
In the north of England, Yorkshire and Lancashire have been pub-
lis on the 6-inch scale; Westmoreland and Durham on the 25-inch
scale; and the survey is in progress in Northumerland and Cumberland.
A large portion of each of these counties has already been published,
and they will be finished this year, The last sheets of the 1-inch map of
England and Wales are in the hands of the engravers; we may, there-
fore, expect that this map, which was begun in 1784, will now be soon
finished.
ling, and Dumbarton are in course of publication ; and the survey 1s pro-
ceeding in Perthshire, Kincardineshire, and Buteshire. The 1-inch map
of Scotland is also in course of publication. ;
The plans of the eight northern counties of Ireland have been revised
Estates Court, the cost of preparing the plans for the court being charged
to the carriage of the sale of the property; and the same arrange ‘ae
will doubtless be introduced here as soon as some progress is made in
Cadastral Survey. ical
Sir Henry James has this year published six sheets of the Margin’
Lines for the sheets of a map of the whole world, on the scale of 2 penn
to a mile; the object in view being to have a map constructed on .
discussion upon the relative merits of several. projections for ae
vortions » which has been published in the last num
Der of the: Ph: gazine,’ it has been demonstrated, that
rene
orn
1 Ei Reset rt a
Topographical Survey of Spain. 361
must necessarily have, viz., distortion in form distortion in area,
are equally objectionable, the distance of the point of projection adopted
by Sir Henry James in his geometrical hie ae of two-thirds of the
sphere, will, for the projection of a hemis sphere, give the least possible
distortion of form and area, and that the misrepresentation will os a min-
imum. If we draw a circle and two diameters in it at right ngles to
each other, one _ be taken to represent the plane of projection for the
concave hemis sphere above it, and the point of sight or eee is at
the distance of oan the radius in the prolongation of the other beyond
its circle. It is now demonstrated that this is the best possible projection
for a pile se and it should therefore be adopted by all geographers.
_ 2. Topocrarnicat Survey or Spain. arabs learn from our correspond-
ci M. Coe Coello, the ne geog rapher, who is now directing i
eg of that capital, have nearly all _ measured, and will be comple-
ted before the end of the present yea
_ The parallel of Madrid to the eit hike been finished as far as the fron-
tier of Portugal; and the measurement of the ea of the parallel
of Ciudad Real to Badajoz has been commence ced. angles required
to complete the spaces to the west oe the meridian sr Madrid have been
laid down as far as that of Salaman
The Sh opubaoare of the second adie | is finished for the whole province
of Mad , as well as that for a part of the adjacent ep
Which have just been completed, in order to fix the length "of aaa eget
base "abs ang and begin the long calculation of the work w
This year eshaiat different Leona will be continued, and signals
Will be fixed for the measu of the parallel to the east of Madrid,
with the intention of et eonourrenty with this work, simultaneous
om observations to determine the geodistic level, and settle
with accuracy the elevation of Madrid emt the Mediterranean, pre-
sumed at at presen he most received existing ae to be 660
metres, which is, pane within ten inches of the tr
The to eal labors thus undertaken in the siieus of Madrid
land registration
; pograp:
‘ will be continued. during the year. The correspondin,
fully the sam time be ironed witb intl the levels will be very care-
@ maps are on the seale of lye» and of sy for cities and buildings.
ss ie fo ake territorial valuations, and dispositions in the public
archive, will co mene as soon a8 potion ofthe province i completed.
ted with very grea
paring the p ear a portion of the aie, apr its tributary the Gallo,
is talaga Dia aietios of the hydrography of Spain.
362 Geographical Notices.
The geological department has completed its work in the provinces of
Burgos, Santander, and Madrid, and has commenced with those of Leon,
Zamora, and Avita. ‘
In the department of Woods and Forests various topographical details
have been obtained in the provinces of Santander, Burgos, Valencia, As-
turias, Oviedo, and Leon.
All these works have been executed under the direction of the Funta-
General of Estadistica, who is appointed by the Government to
charge of scientific researches regarding the Spanish territory.
3. Kaantxorr’s Researcuss in Persta.—The Russian traveller, N. de
Khanikoff, who has been engaged in making up the deficiencies in our
imperfect knowledge of the Aderbeijan, in Persia, has made a new map
of that region, which he has had engraved at Berlin. He has distribu-
ted several copies of it, and transmitted his observations regarding that
interesting mountain district to the Academy of Sciences in Pa and
ee to our secretary, Dr. Shaw, for the use of the Royal Geographical
slety.
An uncommon degree of regularity characterizes the mountain-ranges
of this province of Persia, which is bounded both on the east and on
rate it from the basin of the Caspian; and to the west the chain
i To the north and
hend and the Kandilan chain. The lowest point of this part of Persia,
at is to say, the level of the Lake of Urmia, is 1250 métres above
the level of the sea; and the highest point in the province of Aderberyan
is the summit of Ararat, 5169 métres high. The line of perpetual sn0W
varies in elevation from 3600 to 3800 metres, This regular spire
state of the atmosphere is generally so clear that one is never long bi
: : as
deavored to execute the work of laying down the itineraries of @ the
regions, it would be impossible to combine these independent labors bres
_ out the basis of some well-determined astronomical geometri ional
tions, These happily were not wanting, as he had latitudes and sig
tudes in Persia which had been settled by M. Lemm, and_the results ©
| of the ¢ | | ° Chosdako
yrmer gave a series of fixed points in the nei hborheod 4
; and the latter supplied the like data, rigorously established,
ain,
es
vows
ie gta
Recent English Surveys in China. 363
.
inthe north and middle of Khanikoff’s map have their exact bearings ;
and it is only in the south that he had no other data than such as were
obtained by azimuths measured with the help of the magnetic needle.
The errors to which such observations are necessarily liable will be cors
rected when the Anglo-Russian commission for defining the Turkish and
Russian boundary shall have published its numerous astronomie data.
That part of the map which is strictly new is the southern portion, in
Which is situated the Lake Urmia, with its islands; the itinerary frony
arand to Khoi: and the topographical details in. the two provinces of
Persian Kurdistan, Lahijan and Ushnu, in whieh he had the good fortune
tocomplete the researches of his predecessors, Generals Monteith and
Rawlinson.
J e f
that have been formed of the capacity of that great central mart being
onths of the opening of that port it had
364 Geographical Notices.
scendants, a family with a pedigree of 2500 years, dating from the time
of the sage himself. Mr. Morrison also visited Tsenan, the capital, and
ern provinces of China, Pe-chih-le and Shan-se, was undertaken by
Messrs. Richards and Slossin. Starting from the same point—Teentsin—
crossed the Great Wall four times, finding it in a state of decay that may
be feared is typical of the country of which it is the chief monumé
and they estimate the total length of their journey at 1560 Eng
The flourishing and populous condition of most of the country through
@
In the centre of China, four gentlemen—Messrs. Dickson, see
Beach, and Bonney—travelled, in the month of April, from Canton
rsi-n
Seang river in the latter, they thus traversed both those provinces
south to north, and were-the first modern explorers of the great ed
In Che
| gain gone over
ound previously travelled by Mr. Fortune, but to find in this 1s iets |
the previous tea di kee
eared before the rebel scourge, and that scenes of industry °°"
d by desolation and destrustion. tie
Font, Woe goat river in. she Kwengeng.ey
Measurement of a Peak in the Karakorum range. 365
to a distance of about 300 miles; and the Rey. Mr. Irwin and compan-
lons have penetrated up the west river, in the same province, to a some-
What higher point than that reached by the expedition under Captain
McCleverty in the spring of 1859, for a description of which we are in-
tea to our associate Lieutenant Brine. The opening of Formosa to
foreign trade gives promise also of our shortly obtaining further informa-
tion from that island, which is interesting not only from its commercial
productions, but also from the presence of aboriginal tribes in its centre
and eastern coas n
China is now thrown open to
searches of the traveller, subject, however, to the difficulties arising out
of the deplorable disorders which are at present rife in so many of its
Provinces, Different parties of rebels or robbers, all acting independently
Without falling in with any of these destructive hordes; and Messrs, Rich-
ards and Slossin traversed the provinces of Shan-se and Pe-chih-le under
Similar favorable circumstances.
regarded as king of the Northern Himalayas, as Mount Everest,
having a height of 29,002 feet, is king of the southern Himalayas,
ex
minished. In the progress of the survey
- One of those already determined on
g which runs the boundary between
366 Geographical Notices.
the sea level at Karachi, now in progress, are completed). None
y me nearly be
generally a little over twenty-six thousand. This is probably
the second highest mountain in the world, as it exceeds Kan-
chinginga by 122 feet, but is lower than Mount Everest by 724
eet, as measured by the Surveyor General in 1847.*
It is expected that Captain “Montgomerie will be able to fix
points up to 86° 30’ N. latitude, but it is doubtful whether he
will be able to get in all the Topography quite as far as that, m
consequence of the wild and Yaghi state of some of the people.
A sketch showing the position of this mountain, and its en-
Virons, is given in Petermann’s Mittheilungen, 1861, p. i.
pendency of the British Crown. An expedition was sent to the
islands under Col. Smythe, R.A., to investigate the circumstan-
ces under which the proposal was made. Dr. Seemann, a mem-
r of the Commission, has given the following Report to the
Royal Geographical Society :
At See,
appearance is tropical. The mangrove-swamps are confined to the ene
of th
Their fertility may be estimated from the fact. that, though aegatl
and imperfectly cultivated, they support a population of 200,000,
Supply provisions to foreign vessels and yield an immense export of
bt. *.
‘But-oil, obtained by a wast process. Their fertility appears —
ful to tobacco are cultivated me
as
ras
a ee
O. D. Allen on Caesium and Rubidium. 367
They promise an excellent field for the best qualities of cotton; the
undulating ground, the neighborhood of the sea, and the absence of frost
being cogent reasons in favor of its growth: the inhabitants are also be-
Binning to work for wages. Experiments in raising cotton have already
=
n tried with remarkable success, both by Dr. Seemann and by others.
Dr. Seemann bears witness to the laudable influence of the Wesleyan
missionaries over the islanders, who recently were savage cannibals. He
considers the religion which Christianity is beginning to supplant, as well
worthy of philosophical study. Their belief is in a Supreme Deity, and
in future rewards and punishments. They worship their ancestors, e
chiefs are a taller, better developed, and in every respect a more able
caste of men than the rest; it follows from this that mere height of
stature in a stranger is an important claim upon the consideration of the
islanders,”
Art. XX XII.— Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale
College. —IV. Observations on Caesium and Rulrdium; by
Oscar D. ALLEN, Ph.B., Assistant in the Sheffield Labo-—
ratory.
ast autumn by Mr. John M.
?
used for decomposing this mineral
tte-—The process :
Was based upon that delved by Prof. J. Lawrence Smith for
< : . . - lk lies if 2 .
quieklime, with hydrochloric acid sufficient to form from six to
#* This Journal, [2], xxxiv, 243.
368 O. D. Allen on Caesium and Rubidium.
as
more finely pulverized, the fact being that the foliated struc-
ture of the mineral exposes a large surface to the decomposing
agency of the lime mixture. :
The mixture was heated to redness for six to eight hours in
hessian crucibles. Care was taken to avoid a heat much above
redness, as otherwise alkali-chlorids volatilize in dense clouds,
and the mass fusing, is absorbed to a considerable extent into the
crucible and lost. The long duration of the ignition was a mat-
ter of convenience, due to the character of the furnace employed,
and probably not necessary to the decomposition of the mineral.
The agglomerated product obtained from the ignition of this
mixture was detashed’ from the crucibles and boiled with water
a quarter to half an hour, and leached till all but a trace of the
chlorids was removed. The solution thus procured, containing
chlorid of calcium and: the chlorids of the alkali-metals, was
evaporated till crystals began to form, then sulphuric acid bie
added as long as sulphate of lime separated, taking care to avol
an excess, and the whole mass was evaporated to dryness, an
strongly heated to expel free hydrochloric acid. The reas
was treated with water, and the small quantity of sulphate °
lime which went into solution, was precipitated by carbonate
ammonia, the filtered solution was again evaporated to dryness
ignited. hie gk igh
__Ten and a half kilogrammes of lepidolite treated in oct ee
afforded 2169 grammes of salts consisting of chlorids, with §
small admixture of sulphates, of sodium, lithium, potassiu™,
rubidium and caesium. This quantity of salts subjected ie J
sen’s process of fractional precipitation with - bichlorid of pla!
and rubidium in which no potassium could be detected with re
ct The platincblorids were very gently bee phe
num took place, and the chlorids were then extracted with water.
al by this process were calculated fom the amoun
contained in these mixed chlorids. igs
5 grm. dissolved in water and precipitated with nitrate of age
en ee vite epee Es
O. D. Allen on Caesium and Rubidium. 369
These numbers furnish the following equations:
(1) Rb+4+Cs=0'5825—0-1439
‘ (2) ie 4: noth sin Bees
85°36* © 123°35* 35°5
an alcoholic solution of picric acid was added. The liquid im-
mediately fled with fine acicular crystals. These were rinsed
with water and successively recrystallized from fresh portions of _
Water eleven times. Portions of the 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 7th, and
lth crops of crystals were separately examined in the spectro-
Scope, the picrates being converted into chlorids for this pur-
Pose, by treatment with aqua regia. No difference being ob-
Servable between the spectra of the various crops, DO further
experiments were made in this direction. It may be here re-
marked that the mixed picrates crystallize with great facility by
Needles an inch in length, and perfectly resemble the correspond-
1g potassium salt.
es Combining proportions of = paige determined by Bunsen.—Pogg.
a pipe . Chem., Ixxxv, 125.
370 O. D. Allen on Caesium and Rubidium.
A second series of trials was made with the platinbromids of
potassium, rubidium and caesium. The platinbromid of
sium is known to be readily soluble in water. The platinbro-
mids of caesium and rubidium readily separate from dilute solu-
tions of these three metals, but carry down pvutassium with them.
For the removal of the latter metal from the new alkalies the
platinbromids appear to have no advantage over the platinehlo-
rids, while they are equally inadequate to the separation of cae-
sium and rubidium from each other. In external characters the
repared from the chlorids by converting them into sulphates,
separating the sulphuric acid with caustic baryta, and removing
the excess of baryta by carbonic acid. To the alkaline solution
thus obtained, twice as much tartaric acid was added as was ne-
cessary to neutralize it. This solution was concentrated till it
was nearly saturated at 100°C. The crystals which deposited
aa
ined by the spectroscope gave only the lines belonging ws
g
salt
by t e spectroscope directly, i.e. after conversion by ignition
a a
* :
ae the instrument used was a
gob devised b Prof, J. P. Cooke, and manufactured by
O. D. Allen on Caesium and Rubidium. 371
spectroscope of ordinary power.* The rubidium salt was also
more carefully tested in the same manner, but was found to be
entirely pure. |
The process above described thus furnishes a simple and easy
method of separating in a perfectly pure state a large share (in
these trials about 90 per cent) of a mixture of the two alkalies,
It requires no great expenditure of time, since the solutions em-
can be concentrated at high temperatures, and on cooling
_ emposition and solubility of the Bitartrates of Caestum and Ru-
bidium.—Bitartrate of rubidium crystallizes from hot solutions
quantities of solution. They remain unaltered in the air and
aiso are unchanged at a temperature of 100°C. The pulver-
ized salt dried at 100°C. was burned with chromate of lead in
the usual manner,
L 0-
eres! gm. gave 0°354 “ carbonic acid.
_ To determine the base, the salt was heated to a temperature a
little below redness, the resulting carbonate extracted with water
; 0:0902 grm. water, and
II, 1:3772 grm. gave 0-7149 grm. chlorid of rubidium.
In the following statement these results are reduced to per
cents, and compared with the calculated composition of bitar-
tate of rubidium as expressed by the formula
C,H, 0
' net Os
Calculated. Found.
Se ees ee:
C, 4800 - 20-48 20°62 ee
HE, 5°00 2:18 2°17 ee
0, 88:00 37°55 eae es
RbO 93°36 ~—- 39°84 Pe 40°09
234:36 100°00
The solubility of this salt in hot and cold water was deter-
ined by evaporating on the water-bath, solutions saturated at
‘ae given temperatures and weighing the residues.
L 11-9254 grammes of solution saturated at the boiling point, gave a
Tsidue of 1:2555 grammes.
i jon of Bunsen and Kirchhoff’s spectro-
ip gis goat Messrs. Alvan Cart &
Ax. Journ. Scr_-Secoxp Sexres, Vor. XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
372 O. D. Allen on Caesium and Rubidium.
One part of the salt accordingly requires 8°5 parts of boiling
water for solution.
II. 17-535 grms. of solution saturated at 25° C. gave a residue of
0-205 orm.
II. 16-094 grms. of solution saturated at 25° C. gave a residue of
0°188 orm.
One part of the salt thus required respectively 84:53, and 846
parts of water at 25°C. for solution. :
The bitartrate of caesium forms crystals closely resembling the
rubidium salt, but in my experiments they were usually of
smaller size. : s
The salt obtained by concentrating the solution from which
all the rubidium had been separated, was to all appearance
pure. It was recrystallized, and after drying at 100° C., at which
temperature it suffered no loss of weight, was analyzed in the
same manner as the bitartrate of rubidium.
: 00786 grm. water, and
BOA TIS gem, ears } 0'294 “ earbonie acid.
and
0372 “ earbonic acid.
III. 1:3086 grm. gave 0°7708 grm. chlorid of caesium.
Assuming the combining proportion of caesium to be 123'89,
as determined by Bunsen, the following statement exhibits the
composition of the salt, according to the formula,
Cr Hs Oho,
IL. 05966 grm. gave | a hh enna
H
Calculated. Found.
eCeoro Hh - Po
£ Il. Ul.
G, 48:00 17°62 16°99 17:02 eee
1: @ 5:00 1°83 1°85 1°88 cien
Bo. 88°00 B2°St Syiex ee
CsO —-231°35 48°24 aN ea 48°70
272°35 100:00
_ The discrepancy between the composition as calculated om
found is perhaps due to a slight admixture of the neutral om
trate which might possibly have been present, owing to the,
of insufficient tartaric acid. ws a ie
__ The solubility of bitartrate of caesium was determined are
the same temperature and by the same methods as were
_ ployed in case of the rubidium salt. So
__L. 2-998 grms. of solution saturated at the boiling point gave a residue ;
A.D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 378
II. 11:931 grms. of solution saturated at 25° C. gave a residue of
1054 gorms. -
III, 8:7625 grms. of saturated solution at 25° C. gave a residue of
07727 grm.
Tt One part of the salt accordingly requires 10-32 parts of water
at 25° C. for solution
The fact that bitartrate of rubidium requires about eight times
as much water for solution as bitartrate of caesium, explains the
facility with which these salts can be separated from each other
by crystallization.
In these experiments I have received the advice and assist-
ance of Profs. Johnson and Brush, for which I here take pleas-
ure in expressing my most grateful acknowledgments.
New Haven, Aug. 12th, 1862.
u
and washings of the 132 grms, platincblorids of caesium and rubidium first ob-
g to 40 5 | : ‘
lepidolite. Most of this remained in solution from the use of insufficient bichlorid
of platinum in some of the precipitations. The content of rubidium in
lepidolite thus appears to be not less than in that from na.
Arr. XXXIIL.— Abstract of an investigation of the solar diurnal
variation and of the annual inequality of the Horizontal Compo-
nent of the Magnetic Force, from observations made at the Girard
College Observatory, between 1840 and 1845; by A. D. Bacug,
LL.D., F.R.S., Sup’t U. S. Coast Survey.
Parr V.— Of the discussion of Magnetic and Meteorological Observa-
tions made at Girard College, Philadelphia.
Observations and the like, explained in Part II, has been in gen-
eral followed, The irregularities of the first month of observa-
on were, however, such as to papa it expedient to omit these
Tesults and in the year with July.
The aot ema of. the monthly normals are taken from
fable VII, Part IV, the correction shown in the remarks to
Table V, Part IV, to be necessary, having been applied.
It will be recollected that the observations were made 21¢
Minutes after the hour of mean local time, counting from mid-
yay
874 A.D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force.
night to midnight. Increase of scale readings correspond to de-
crease of horizontal force. One scale division was equivalent
measure 4°176, Proper weights, peer N to the number of
observations were given to the results for the even and
hou fe
rene “The numbers tty contain the sale progressive
rom these detailed tables are formed ag following :—
Taste No. eign gaapene bh the hourly normals of the horizontal —
oree, expressed in sions. Increase of poo readings correspon
crease of force. The aed ehiian were made 211 minutes after the hours post at
the heads of the several columns,
6 8 |) 9 | 10 }.114 Hele
664 |} 673 :
02} 71
= 7a1| 935
729 | 734| 739
728 | 732 | 737
756 | 758) 761
786 | 784| 786
791 | 793} 79
797 Pha 799
oO 817| 817} 820} 829
: 834 | 833 | 830} 829| 829; 826| 824| 829} 838
June, 858 | 858 | 858 | 858 | 855! 852 849} 855 | 861
ear, 15/789 8/769 1176. *4|765-7/763-7/761 91766 7'773°7
Summer, battle er 81759-7766 7/777" 2/785
Winter, ~3°81771 770°3 5°7|764 21566 770°3
1940-45. |, oy) 13 | 14 | a5 | a6 | a7 | 18 | 19 | 2
July, | 683 | 672 | 663 | 660 | 659 | 666| 675 | 677 | 679
Ba 708 | 698 | 689 | 688 701
Sept. 736 | 726 | 720] 718| 719| 723/ 724} 725| 723
751 | 747 | 743 739} 738 732 40
746 | 740 | 738 | 737 739 736 | 736 | 737
el lglg
1 790 | 787] 790 bad ek
|| 808 | 804 | 860 | 801 | 800} Bor | 804! 806
2 814} 806} 801 | 804 &10| 808 | 804
839 | 827} 824| 822| 822 827 | 827] 830
830 | 825 | 824| 823} 825| 831 | 832| 835
855 | § 847 | 847 | 851 | 856| 858 | 8 898
1776 + Gg 5/76 6:5| 66°2/768 6'971-6.772°6/773°4)
‘é cto Peach aot an A yeaa. 7
season, reckonin ng as the summer
il to on eke inelusive, ‘and seg ie win
ber to Marc!
h inclusive.
A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 375
Taste No. IL
Rtsde cmt vtec
July, 676:
Aug, 702°2
Sept. 9724-6
Oct. 738-2
Noy. 738-5
Dec 768°
| 1840-45, | Normal.
Year, | 7721
Summer,} 770°1
Winte 41
To obtain the regular solar diurnal variation for each month
and Season of the year, we subtract the numbers in table I. from
their respective monthly and season and yearly mean values
given in table II. After converting these numbers into parts
the absolute horizontal force, table No. III. of the memoir
shows the results, the significant numbers being expressed in
units of the sixth place of decimals and the sign + indicating a
value greater than the mean, and the sign — one less than the
mean. ‘Three decimals 0°000 are placed at the side of the table.
This table is omitted in the present abstract.
Table No. IV. shows the results obtained in table III, con-
verted into absolute measure by multiplying by 4176 the abso-
lute horizontal foree. Two places of decimals 0°00 are placed
at the side of the table cat are to be understood as preced-
ing each nu
mber. ae ;
The annual inequality in the daily variation of horizontal
derived from table No. IV, is shown in d AS
The annual mean shows a maximum value about 6 A. M., a mini-
18 stationary throughout the year. The morning minimum is
lower during the summer when the sun’s declination is north,
and the afternoon maximum is higher, thus increasing the daily
ge. The converse takes place in winter. The average sum-
mer range is 0-0046, and the average winter range 0:0025. Th
average range between the morning maximum and the morning
Minimum in summer is 0°0045 and in winter 0°0036.
The half yearly change is better represented in the annexed
eC .
iagram with the corresponding one in Part Il. tor ;
change in the diurnal Senation of the declination is of consid-
rable interest. es
At 64. m. there is scarcely any change during the year. The
‘Maximum change occurs about 9 4.M., the range being about
376 A.D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force.
Tastt No. IV.
000194 in absolute measure. About 113 A. M. mee pe an
of no variation. At 2 P.M. a second maximu
' ‘Tastz No. V.— Annual variation at the hours of 9 a.m, and & P.M. compared with
the annual mean.
1840-45.| U* | 1 2 3 4 | | 6 4 8 9 } 10 | 11a 219”
July, 071|- 041|-010/+020|+050/+1 27|+188/+050] - 147|- 239] - 270|- 208)
Aug. +064 +048 +046) +064.+048 sect 140|+ 003} - 180| -332| - 362) - 242
Sept $070|+101/+070|-+171|416 \4 +055) - 159) - 296/- 372|-326
Oct. +048 |+109 +109|+100|4+201 155|4140}+064 ieee Bb Foe
Nov. - 008 /+008/+038/+068)4083 ate 29|+160 +09g/+022)- ~114}-190
Dec. -055|+021|+037|+067)-+113)|+143|4+189/4+159}+113|+037|- 101 -223
Jan. -010/+020|4020/+050/+081 |}+096/4111/+141/+11 1|-025|-132}-224
$ |Feb. +009|+040|+061 +070}+085 ee, +116) +085/4 113)-14
o March, } 4 ink ; LARK 2/4+163/-41 +0945 096 —_72 248
April, [4066/4081 /+081|+127 159/+ 17 pe Bid ea +127] - 010|-193/-315}-346
: y, 027\-012\+o033/t+o +094/+125/+048| - 088) - 210 — ar
une 018}-o018)-018 oreles +02 +119|4+027} - 064) - 155) - 186)-140
, VIVO cs PIg|+02/ 4
Year, +009|+034/+045)}+07 4 96/4 £27 +155|+083) - 025) - 141|-213)-22
fi v4 2A nk Q trast id AQ 108' - 938}. 28 -2
t + a / PhI/TVysy wy or FA
ot Winter, | +004/+042/+056 +086) 4111/4129 4152/4114] -058} -044 138|-205|
ee a
1840-45. Saar 1s | 14 | 15 | 16 { 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 284 +208
July, | 102/4 065 hi C) Peery eo reaper a fs O10 O4t o7! 102|/-102
Lug. 088/406 6)+155 94 £.018|-012|-027|-01 3|-027} +003
ept. 174 O?1 +070 } Atk 4 Fliask 006 +040 +040)
et. 195|-134|-o Seth lor sich ol dnaal ors 37|-012|—-01 2/4003
lov. 175|-114 008)4038)+-038)-+022|-008|-038|-022
253|-146 +006|4+-067|4+.052/-+021|-+006| -040| -055| -055|-040
Bias. adie 13414 OSoLe DAE LoSol cost 55-01 0l-010|-O41
° iFeb. 189 113|-052 $00 > y 09!—006|-052|-082|-021 9. +00
fare 203|/-127 E ARE 2 4 c10i+02
April, |-254|-163 +-065|-+006|4-006 0201 -025|-025}+005/+020
May, pes 3'+033 +109 +125 } 140 hi ws Lor ae | 043 058 —043|+003
June, 048|+027|+134/+149|+149| +088|4012| -018|-033)-018 -033)-033
Year, 165, 063)+040)+ 5|+090|+053!4008| -008|—020|-021/-021)-O1H
mmer, | -123)+001|4+123}+151|4+148|+095|4+015|-004| -024] -032/-027|-OF9)
Winter, |~206 128) ft 12|—000|—-011|-016,-o011/-016) ete ee
ge
e
i
the
when best
ere taken from table No. IV. and again compared
‘with the ond mean as in the following table.
ee
Mean differ.
0°00
tt
A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 377
This table shows by the change of sign and progress of values,
that the epoch of change occurs some time after the equinoxes,
and that the maximum of variation is reached about the time of
rived from the discussion of declination in Part II. Represent-
ing the average of the results for each half year by the usual
analytical formula, we find that the change takes place about
twenty-two days after the equinoxes which is about twelve days
later than we found for the declination.
To obtain the best result from observations, the values of
table No. I were thrown into the usual analytical form, equa-
tions for each month, for the half year, and for the year’s results
having been obtained. The analytical results for a determinate
hour of any month differ but slightly from the observed results,
For example the differences for August between the computed
those for the winter in diagram (D). ‘The ng yea hs ~
e variation o
mum are taken from the diagrams. The time of the a. M. maxi-
( mum and minimum is within the nearest eighth minute, that of
the P. w@. maximum within the nearest tenth minute, that for the
- Aours occur in the summer season. T
Tange, expressed in scale divisions, parts of the horizontal force
sec
These two amplitudes for A. M. and for A. M. and P. M., are further
illustrated in di =), which shows the curve to be double
“etested ‘with macina egr the time of the equinoxes and the
Greater of these near the autumnal equinox.
378 A. D, Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force.
Taste No. VIIL
nterval
Morning maxi- Morning mini- Afternoon prnanngy FR A.M. min,
mum, mum. max. Afternoon min to
M, max.
Ah. m. d h d. ™ d, h. d. A, ™,
January, | 7 10) - g:2 |} 11 50 | +157 || 410] — 5:3 |] ur | 42 4 20
Februry, | 7 15/ - 96/| 11 40 | +12°7 || 4 00 °9 7 | 42 4 20
March, 6 15} = 92]| 11 16:4 || 3 20] - 6 | 43 3 50
April, 6 vo | -12°3 || 11 20 | +225 |} 3 55) - 66 9 | +3 43
May, 5o|- 7 10 25 | +155 || 3 10| -— 98 9 | 44 44
June, 50} — 6 10 30 | +12°5 || 3 20| -10°4 || 8 | 43 4 5o
July, 35|-9 10 30 | +19°3 || 325} -17°5 || 9 | 46 4 55
ugust, 55 8 10 10 | +248 || 2 45 | -14:2 9 | +3 435
September) 5 35 | -149 || 10 20 | +259 || 305 | - 67 e joa 4 4
r, ) 26 || 11 15 | +13°7 |} 5-10} - oF 9 | +2 5 55
|November,| 6 00 | — 98 |} 11 25 | 411-0 |} 515; - 3-0 |] 11 | 40 5 50
December, | 7 05| -—12°1 || 12 05 | 4161 || 435) — 51 10 +4... 4 30
Summer, 50| - 98 || 10 30 | +196 || 3 25 | -10°5 |} 204 | +3 455
Winter, 6 15) - 94]| 11 45 | +139 || 4 10| — 2°2 || 21 4 .
ear, 55) - 96 |} 11 156 || 335|— 60 || 208 | +25 |] 4 39)
Taste IX.— Amplitude of the diurnal variation of the horizontal force.
OT eee
For a.m. |For a.m. & p. «|| For a.m. |For a. M. & p.m.For A.M. | For a.M. & P.M
dese Pe om O
= HES a.
Jan., 249 | 21°0 o 1 0°00077 00038 00032
Feb., Cee 136 wa 050 34 at
M 25°6 18-7 093 068 Be ‘a
April, 34:8 29'1 127 106 38
ay, 23:4 23:3 085 2 36 35
une, 18-8 22° 08 2 56
July, 292 36 I 134 4
t 1-333 39:0 122 142 51 4
pt, 40°8 32°6 149 119 62
Oct., 26:3 136
Nov., 20°8 140
; 28°2 212
mmer,} 294 30-1
Winter, 23°3 161
Year, 5-2
Tn scale divisions.
The next table (X) contains the epochs when the mean horizon-
sjthe nest able each day, as = uted by the he preceding
ule. The diurnal curves intersect the axis of absciss® ae
times, of which the table contains only the a. M. and first P- o
intersection, those later in the afternoon and near marae a
in summer, winter and the whole year at 7 P. M., a
63 ¥. -~ respectively, and at 114 p.m, 12 P.M, 11¢ P. a.
| The above times are generally correct within 2 one
cording to the formule). The morning hour of scorns
rizontal force is less variable in the course of a y
m @) exbibins the changes in the horizontal force in ab-
re m the monthly normal value es
A. D. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force. 379
Taste X.—Principal epochs of mean horizontal force,
i A. M, | P. M.
mf anuary, - - gt 20" 2h 362
February,- = - 9 23 2 58
March, - - js 42 2 28
April, ve - 8 14 2 19
May, « a 7 44. o 59
June, - : 7 47 9 4
July, - : 1 a oa
® August, 2 7 28 o 44
September, . 7 42 t 29
October, - 8 08 5
November, - 8 fo 3 28
December, - - 9 34 3 03
Summer, . 7 45 eee |
4 int 4 cere} 3 O7
Yen, 75 14 : 34
Taste XIL
Corr. for | Corrected Differences or anova! variation.
Normals. prog. change.| normuls. oe
‘duly, S63 | 48sa | 9615 | +106. | +39 | +16
August, 702'2 +69°7 771°9 +02 +or +00
September, 7246 +542 778 - 67 -24 -10
October, 382 | 4387 | 7769 | - 48 -17 -07
November, 738-5 +23-2 760-7 | (+10°4) (+38) (+16)
December, 768-4 +77 776° - £0 -15 -06
January, "| 7933 | - 77 | 7856 | -135-}- 49 -20
February, | 8006 | -232 | 7774 | - 53 ~19 08
‘March, 805-7 7 767 0 +51 +19 +08
| April, 828-3 542 7741 -~ 20 -7 -03
| May, 832°2 27 762°5 +96 435 415
Sune, 8568 eel 7716 +05 +02 +o1
Fae
Mean, suaeg oo. | 77x12 | Inreale jin parts of In absol,
A, Jour, hector ions, Vor. XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
49
380 A. B. Bache on the Horizontal Component of Magnetic Force.
With the exception of the month of November, the values given
above for the annual variation are tolerably regular in their pro-
gression, and considering the delicacy of the test applied to the
observations in deducing the annual variation, this exceptional
irregularity in the November value will not affect the general
conclusion. We have as the general results a greater horizontal
force in summer (April to August), and a smaller horizovtal
force in winter (from September to March) than the average an-
nual value. e maximum oceurs in July (at Toronto in June)
and the minimum in January (at Toronto in December).
For Toronto we have the expression for the annual variation,
3°531-+0-002 sin (6-+-3U6°)
For Philadelphia: (omitting the November value),
4176-40-00] sin (6-+-312°),
the angle @, in both equations counting from Jan. 15th. :
The annnal range is 00021 (in absolute measure) the transt-
tion appears to take place about the time of the equinoxes or &
short time before. :
Table XIII contains the monthly normal values of the hort
zontal force in absolute measure obtained by adding (algebra
ically) 41760 to the values in the last column of table XIL
ese numbers, it will be observed, are corrected for secular
change; if we apply the same we obtain the resulting monthly
mean values of the horizontal force answering to the epee
January 1843. The quantity A, mentioned in the explanatory
remarks to table No. VII, is given in the last column of table
0.
Taste No. XII.
Normals. Monthly means
: Corr. for secular change.| affected with sec. ch.
July, ee 41776 4 1787
August, - - 41760 41769
September, - 41750 4:1757
October, - 471753 41758
November, - 41776 41779
December, - 4:1754 4175)
January, - - 41740 41739
February, - = - 4:1752 78
rch, . . 41768 41
April, bo Sy 41757 41750
May, ees 41775 41766
June, ns 41761 4:1750
ies 4.1760 $1760
Influence of the Moon on the Horizontal Magnetic Force. 381
Art. XXXIV.— Abstract of the investigation of the influence of the
Moon, on the Horizontal Magnetic Force, from observations made
at the Girard College Observatory, in the years 1840-’41—42~’43
~'44-"45; by A. D. Bacue, LL.D., F.R.S., Sup’t U.S. Coast
Survey.
Parr VI—Of the discussion of Magnetic and Meteorological Observa-
tions made at Girard College, Philadelphia.
THE method pursued in the investigation of the lunar effect
on the horizontal force is, in general, the same as that explained
in Part III of the discussion of the Girard College observations,
The process may be briefly recapitulated as follows. Each observ-
ation for horizontal force after being corrected for the effect of dif-
erence from the standard temperature, and for progressive change,
the disturbed readings being omitted (as fully explained in Part
.V), was marked with its corresponding lunar hour. The observa-
hon nearest to the time of the moon’s upper transit over the true
; ny tw :
lunar hours was omitted. Each observation and reduced eat
thus marked with its corresponding lunar hour was subtract ;
382 A. D. Bache on the influence of the Moon, on the
eleven (or ten) year inequality, and secular change, are all elim-
inated, leaving numbers fitted for the research of the lunar effect.
The readings taken in the month of June, 1840, have not
been used in the discussion, nor in ut two preceding parts, be-
cause of the imperfect manner in which the allowance for the
pene change could only be made at that time. For the
unar hour 21 in July, 1840, the number of differences is s0
small that the mean had necessarily to be reduced, and only
one fourth of its amount was set down in the table. In Jan-
uary, February, and March, 1848, the observations were discon-
tinued, exceptiug a single daily reading. Those months are
therefore not included in the lunar discussion.
Eh: No. 8.—Recapitulation of the annual means exhibiting the lunar diurnal
ariation from 22045 observations between 1840 and 1845, expressed in m seal
Bovisione
U.Cul
July to July.| rots | =
1840-41 | -0°4 | +0°5| +1°5 | -0-3 | -o-1 | 40-3 | -2°4 -1°3, -1°5] -0 2) +13) ve
184142 | +11 | +2°0|4+25 +09 40°3/ 41-1 $07, -1'1| -0-4 -13| -¢
1842-"43 | +0 7 | -o-g | -1°c 29 +01 | +16 | 40-7) +19, -1°2) 40°77) VO
1843-44 | +0 9 | +0°4| +0°8 | +1° +0'9 | -0°3| +0°4 +33 +01 08 <1) dy
184445 | -0'9 | +06 | +0°5| +03) 0-0/|+0°6| +0°6 +09 +071 aes pre
lot
Mean, +0°3 | +05 | 40-9 +11 | 40°2|407| oo +01,
L. Cul.
July to Jaly-| 12, | 18 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 2 i
1840-41 | +1-0| +0°8 | 40:1 | 404 | -0-2 | 40:6 | 2-3) -1-3) +0°6| -2°1| +06 +19
1841-42 | +1-2| -o-1 | -o-2 | —1°5| -o0'6 ~2°4| =-1°1| -o-2 -o3 -o3, -ro 404
1842-43 | +0°1 | +0°1 | +1°4 | -0°6 | +0°8 | -o-g | -1°9| +0°1| -0°3 ae
1843-'44 | +0°3| -0°2 | +0-2 | +0°3| 41-3 | -0'6 | -0-g, -0-7| -0'9/ -0°8} © ‘6
1844-45 | +1-0|+0-4|+0°5| 0-0| -0-7| -o-1 | -0-3) -0°8) —1°8) -1°2) = VO)
Mean,! +0 7 ' +0°2 | +0°4 |] -0 3| 40-1 | -o°7 | -1°3 -o6| +05 -1 5-2"
If we give weights to the annual means according t0 v4
number of observations, they would be one for the fi Jageloe
second years; three-fourths for the third year; one and t pee
essive change, the monthly means are very mg
of equal value, derived either from the bi-hourly or - from iat
rahe series. It is also shown in the sequel that the og
— variation is nearly the same in the summer and Wi
: res comparison of the values of table No. VIII. among ‘fom
selves, shows them to be very irregular, although coon
_ Seems barely sufficient to exhibit a —— pi a sat og
__ In the following table two groups have been fo
gee omens 1840 to 1848, pliner beer
ve two years, comprising
Horizontal Magnetic Force. 383
observations. From these it appears, that the lunar diurnal
variation during these two periods exhibit the same general
character.
Lunar Diurnal variation during the periods 1840-"43 and 1843~45,
——$__.
Groups. | 0* | 1 2 8 4 6 1 | 2 twee {iis
184u-'43. | +0°5| +0 5| +1 0| +1°2| +0°1 | +1 | -0'3} -0°2) -1'0; -0'3 o| +03
1843-45.! o i +0°7 | +0°9 | +0°4 | +0°3! +0°5! +0 6! +01! -o'6| -0-6} -o 2
|_Groups. 124) 13 1 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18) 19) 20) Qty Bz y oBa |
1840-43, +0°8 | +03) +0-4|-06| 0-0 | -o-9 -1°8) — 0 0] -1°2| 40'2| 40°9
1843-45. | 40°71 401] +0 4] +0°2| +0°3' -0°4| -0-6) -o-7! -1°3! -1-ol -o0°5 -0'9
greater than the winter range. As to the epoch there is no
doubt that in winter the lunar maxima and minima are earlier
an in summer. It is a remarkable fact that the same feature
shows in the lunar effect on the declination, namely, a greater
amplitude in summer and an earlier occurrence 0 the maxima
and minima in winter. The amount of the shifting of the two
than in winter. : fa
Recurring to the final values of the Junar diurnal variation of
the horizontal force, as given in table No. 8, they can be repre-
Sented by the usual Besselian form of periodic functions.
The curve is double crested and is exhibited together with
the observed values in the aay is a presents two
Maxima and two minima. ( iagram
The lunar effect on the on we have found also to pre-
Sent two maxima and two minima as stated in Part IIL. of the
An examination of the diagram just referred to, shows ;—
Principal maximum, 2% 52™ after upper culm.; + 0°78 scale divisions.
Be mee " & Jowrr “ 3 +051 “
hin nnice, 6 a = * "5 —o8T
‘Secondary “ ts 8 19 « upper * 5 — 0°45 -
884 A. D. Bache on the influence of the Moon, on the
The epoch of the horizontal force tide for the high values is
nearly two hours after the culminations, and for the low values
it is seven and a half hours after the sare phases
or Makerstoun in Scotland, at Sir Thomas M. ‘Brisbane's ob-
servatory in 18438—46, Mr. J. A. Broun found (Trans. Royal Soe.
Edinburgh, vol. xix, p. 2, 18 49) t the smaller maximum of the
horizontal ‘force two hours after the upper culmination, io
mination.
At Prague all extremes appear from two to three hours oe
Mr. Kreil | (Denkschriften of the oo a a of Sciences at
enna, vol. v, 1853) found from the ten years series at Progt
1840-49) maxima of horizontal Tones between four and five
hours after the upper an lower roan the latter being the
greater of the two, and minima betw i ten and eleven hours
after the same epochs, that after the hone culmination being the
greater of the two.
From the Toronto observations Major General Sabine dedu-
ced a formula giving a curve of which the general features are
in exact accordance with those deduced from the Philadelphia
observations, namely, a principal maximum after upper cu! min
ation, followed by the secondary minimum; the secondary max
oe after the lower culmination followed by the principal min-
mum mes and rete of these values are compared in
the following table (N (No
TaBte No. 10.—Comparison of the lunar niente variation of the horizontal com
ponent of the magnetic force, as deduced from 22045 observatt et alle ne
and 1845 at Philadelphia, and as deduced from $4508 observations
a 5 year series) at Toronto, Cana
pe ee
Philadel phia. Toronto. i
“Time of principal maxima, | 2-9 after U.O. | 3+ after U.0.”
= money minimum, 8: “ “ 9 “ “
maximum,| r-r “ LC. {2 * L. ¢.
i « principal minimum, | 6-7 “ ut g « “
___ Iu parts of the F the horizontal force _
Amount of _— Nas oo os, +0 000046
ON TRI. 6 ca -o 000016 —0 000019
ie " fess. mee 4. +0°000019 +0-000024
a fo BA ne -0'000032 -0'000041
| In absolute measure.
+0 000133
000068
-O
+0°000078 ‘
syoonss | 2
Horizontal Magnetic Force. 385
Probable error of any single representation of the Philadel-
phia values =+0°254iv= +0-000009 parts of the horizonta! force
=+0:000038 in absolute measure.
Investigation of the horizontal force in reference to the lunar places.
The following process of reduction has been adopted. After
marking the days of the full and new moon and also the days
preceding and following, the daily means of the horizontal force
readings were taken (already corrected for difference of tempera-
ture and progressive change) for the place of any disturbed obser-
vation, the monthly normal, belonging to the respective hour,
was substituted before taking the daily mean. All accidental
Omissions in the record of the hourly or bihourly series were
supplied by the hourly normal of the month. The means thus
obtained, are independent of the solar diurnal variation. The
monthly normal was next compared with each daily mean and
the differences (normal minus mean) were tabulated.
A positive sign signifies a greater, a negative sign a less force
than the normal value. As the results deduced from a single
year are yet too much affected by the incidental irregularities of
the observations, the collective results from the five year series
(1840-45) are herewith presented.
Taste No. 11—ZJnjluence of the lunar phases on the horizontal force,
One day befvre full moon, —1-0 | —0-0000 — "000 es
Onthe day of “ “ —1°5 | —o-000055 | —0'0002
after 2% * —o'2 | —0-000007 | —oO
One day before new moon, +00 “Fo-000000 pete
nthe day of =” | +24 | -peononge | tooooNe
CU One day after “ “ +09 | +0000 -+o
Difference for new-full moon, 39{ oo00r46 000061
The average number of
| the above six means were
a minimum at the time :
mum at the time of the new moon; Kreil, fro
_ Servati 1843-46 :
Servations, between however, = after the year 1848,
éeh-and
. It must be remarked,
reil fe nat the signs were reversed, i
Pears that the nae japuanse on the horizontal force is subject
toa cycle of short period. This last remark does not apply to
the effect of the moon’s declination and variation in distance.
386 A, D. Bache on the influence of the Moon, &<.
Influence of the moon’s changes of declination on the horizontal force.
The method of investigation is precisely the same as that
adopted for the phases. We find:
Taste No. 12,
Ss.
ne day —— the greatest nor rth declination, +08
On ]
On the da ay o +06 ’
One day ase “ “ “ “ 42-2 + Mean +rr.
Two days after “ “ “« « +o9 |J
, F Probable error of any
On the day of the moon’s crossing the equator,| —1-2 } oneal aaa
One day oeleet the greatest south declination, —s4 |)
On the day of -o9 és
One day ned Ge ize & “ 409 eer o'6.
after “ 66 “ “ + ro
It seems probable that the greatest effect takes place rather @
day after than on the day of the moon’s greatest declination.
aking means as indicated in the above table we find about the
time of — maximum north declination an increase of horizontal
force of 1-1 scale division we 0 000040 parts of eb horizonta:
— at the time of the moon’s crossing the equator the force
reased 1-2 scale ean (or 0 000044 parts of the horizon-
tal force). The horizontal force also appears decreased about
the time of the moon’s greatest north pap epan = amount is
about half that of the other two cases and is somewhat doubtful,
by an apparently excessive value on the proaiior day. ;
According to Broun there is at Makerstoun a maximum oor
zontal force at the time of the moon’s greatest north and eer
pce with a minimum force at the time of her crossing ‘
n two cases, therefore, viz: for north declination a”
no atcuan the Makerstouh and Philadelphia results is
while in the third case they disagree or remain dou btful. Kreil’s
results, from the Prague observations, do not appear to me §
cie! ently nb and regular to admit of comparison.
Influence of the moon’s variation in distance on the horizontal Soret.
By a similar process of tas as that followed in the pr&
ating investigation we find
sd
One da iy before ‘igee, mE} ad
‘|One day after « ae
One day sgh apogee, “ey tt
On the da ie {mean +2°4.
One day after ba a at
, — error of any one result is about the same 45 In
pee ee Xt aad XII). The results for ¥*
7
_ Arithmetical Relations between Chemical Equivalents. 387
riation in the moon’s distance are more consistent and satisfactor
than those depending on the phases and declination changes.
The lunar effect is to diminish the horizontal force by its 0000066
part in perigee and to increase it by it 0000088 part when she
18 in apogee.
The Prague results are the same, viz: a greater horizontal
force at and after the moon’s apogee than at and after her perigee;
a three years series of observations at Milan, however, do not
agree therewith. In no branch of magnetic research would ad-
ditional results from independent observations, particularly at
stations widely apart, be more acceptable and valuable than in
the study of the lunar effect in its various manifestations.
Arr. XXXV.—On Arithmetical Relations between Chemical
Equivalents ; by M. Carty Lea, Philadelphia.
In previous numbers of this Journal I have published a series
of papers on this subject, one point of which has been subjected to
criticism ; namely, that I have introduced, in order to complete
certain series, negative equivalents, as is alleged, without giving
any explanation of such a conception. 5
n answer, I may observe, that I have not used the expression
attributed to me. I have never once in the whole series of
Papers referred to, spoken of negative equivalents. Such an
expression would I conceive, be an absurdity. Any negative
tering negative numbers. Nevertheless there remains er
“aR or the group, nitrogen, intimately bound to it. Is it
hot then a matter of great interest to observe that this last mem-
ber of the group, apparently cut off from it, is reached, although
r negative sign, by simply carrying the series another
388 Arithmetical Relations between Chemical Equivalents.
There next arises the question “What signification is to be
attached to a quantity presenting itself under these circumstances
with a negative sign? I need not remark that the theory of
negative signs has been a stumbling block in the way of mathe
maticians and has given rise to long disputes between men of the
most exalted intelligence; such as those which occurred between
Leibnitz and Bernouilli, and between Euler and D’Alembert.
But the ideas which prevail at the present day are sufficiently
clear to throw a light on this subject, and I cannot do better
than quote verbatim the following passage which I translate
from Carnot. i
“The true sense which is to be attached to this expression,
(that of a negative quantity), is that this absolute quantity does
not belong to the system on which the reasonings have
established; but to another which stands with it in a certain Te
lation; such that in order to render applicable to it the formulas
as become negative; but only that, as has just been proved, 1618
the difference between two other quantities a, z, of which that
which was the greater in the system on which the reasoning “A
established and the formulas found, has become the least in t
the
w a2,
w z—a, according as 2 is less or ter than a; but in “
eases it will be the greater of these two quantities less the lesser,
and consequently always positive, and the expression ats
never be anything more than a simple algebraical express!
at least were not included in those on which the reasoning was
primarily established.”* stills
The above is precisely the case in the question of equivalen
that ae
ow the sign of y depends upo just
bo:
by y has become negalive.
ring ta probably been
{
|
.
On Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich. 389
have deceived many eminent mathematicians and even Newton
m d Carnot have
pointed out its erroneous nature. D’Alembert states the pro-
portion 1:—1::—1:1, and observes that if —1 be less than
nothing, then it must be less than +1, and we should have a
greater number standing to a less in the same relation as a less
to a greater, which would be an absurdity. Therefore —1 is not
a less number than +1. Carnot considers this reasoning of
D’Alembert unanswerable, and has himself proved the same in an
equally ingenious manner. If —8 be less than nothing it must
be less than +2. But (—8)?=9 and (+2)?=4. Therefore the
square of the less number would be greater than the square of
the greater, which is absurd.* :
Clearly, therefore, it cannot be maintained that negative num-
ts are less than nothing. Taken in an isolated sense, they are
mere mathematical abstractions, but considered in connection
with the operations by which they were produced, they are fall
of significance.
Philadelphia, Sept. 26, 1862.
Arr. XXXVI.—Description of Calamopore, found in the gravel
deposits near Ann Arbor, Michigan, some introductory re-
marks; by CARL RominceEr, M.D.
Tux alluvial deposits are to me at present the only accessible
Source for valiogiiscloaped! study, the nearest stratified rocks be-
ing 40 miles distant from my location. In passing a gravel-pit,
I used to feel a sort of dissatisfaction, beca - de-
its were hidden from my view, but now, by necessity, | have
i as a sort of a cabinet,
Comprising the whole Paleozoic fauna. It is true, that cabinet is
bad order, but fortunately its specimens are so well labelled,
that even the effects of a deluge could not destroy the mar
* Anothe advanced by Carnot and which is equally cogent, is the fol
lowing a pera: rigi “Je dis d'sbord que la premidre de cvs nos-o0s
est absurde, ur la détruire, il suffit de remarquer gies soe treet. 4
tne eest dire les quantités negatives; ce qui est certainement, '
‘Quuntités negatives ne sont pas moindres que0.” Op. Cit. ix. See alo Maseres,
“On the use of the Negative Sign.” : aT aan caneainet id
Mechanar tape as 0 =e
way in panes Diesvosry, Art, Negative Numbers.
390 On Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich.
The following pages will be a description of these remains, and
I hope that my observations, although concerning objects which
are generally well known, will add something to our knowledge.
Calamopora is defined by Goldfuss as a corallum composed of
tubes, which are connected by lateral perforations in the walls,
and divided into compartments by transverse diaphragms.
Within these limits he included the genus Chaetetes or Sten-
opora, supposing its walls to be perforated, but it is now suffi-
ciently ascertained that the coral described by him as Calamopora
Jibrosa has no lateral communication between its tubes.
Milne Edwards, in his Monograph of British Devonian corals,
describes and delineates a Favosites fibrosus, with lateral pores,
and identifies his specimens with Goldfuss’s figs. 8a and b, Tab. 28,
but the correctness of this observation is very doubtful; at all
events, the specimens from the Eifel, and those which Goldfuss
ad from Lexington, Kentucky, do not exhibit such perforation.
The distinction made between Chaetetes and Stenopora brings
all the American forms, and those from the Eifel, to the latter
genus, leaving for Chaetetes only the Russian specimens, which
have never had an opportunity of seeing. :
ides the exclusion of those forms to which the established
similar cell-mouths opening obliquely to the surface, and form-
half The connecting pores
are proportionally larger and more irregular than in ordin
Calamopore, and also the diaphragms are less regular. Its tubes
are frequently flexuous, with the ae i ete
part of the younger tubes appear to be side branches of the ol “i
tubes, but simple side-walls and an increase by division of 0d
older tubes are never observed, the walls having always 1m ©
centre a distinct line of demarcation. ‘ito
Alveolites forms generally incrusting masses of lamin A
structure, but occurs also in the ramose form, which latter is omy
with difficulty distinguished from a second subgenus, the hich
Limaria or Cladopora, Striatopora and Conates, all of W
names are designed for fossils of the same organization. | ;
Limaria is a Calamopora growing in small branches, with very
massive tube-walls, and expanded cell-mouths of rounded poisons”
gated sha ts side pores are large and not
erse diaphragms perfect, or rep.
guiform projections, but frequently wanting.
sitar eal by es
, . Voom Jha
shape of
On Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich. 391
_ Striatopora is separated on account of its having longitudinal
strie on the inside of its tubes, but this character is essential to
Calamopora and to all its sub-genera. In some specimens or
a this striation is somewhat obscure, but this does not alter
e general rule.
Michelinia includes Calamopore with very large tubes and
compound vesicular diaphragms. The longitudinal striz in its
e more numerous than in other Calamoporz an
' side pores are remarkably small and irregularly disseminated.
( The separate tubes of some corals, connected by lateral pro-
cesses and with constrictions at various intervals, named by Bil-
lings Haimeophyllum, under certain circumstances coalesce, and
come connected by lateral pores, assuming altogether the form
of a Michelinia.
little constant that, in the same tubes, a succession of perfectly
regular simple diaphragms may be observed, while in previous
or subsequent periods of growth only compound and partial dia-
phragms were deposited. ie
Astrocerium is not entitled to more credit; it is based upon the
presence of rows of spinules on the inner surface of its tubes.
Spinules are decorative organs, noticed in a number of other
Calamoporse, which the author allows to bear their old name ;
these spinules are also not equally well developed in all peer
mens of the same species and are often obliterated by the effects
of petrification. Annan meted
_ A character upon which alone a generic distinction is based
should not be subject to obliteration by want of development
Or by the effects of petrification. re
Before entering upon a detailed description of species, I have to
_ make some remarks upon the value of the number and disposi-
| tion of the lateral pores, for specific distinction. It is desirable,
that each species of Calamopora should have certain pecul
Seem to be constant, for the circumference of a tube. on
ted : t 6f precision exists with regard to the position
392 On Calamopore ix. gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich.
The organization of the animal does not seem to have been
such as to determine, by a sort of mathematical necessity, the po-
sition of the pores; on the contrary, it appears that the animal
be at perfect liberty to leave ad libitum such openings in its
walls.
Calamopora favosa Goldfuss, Tab. 26, f. 2.
Bb
2
b
(a)
ral
&
Z “
=
3
dQ
=|
77)
=)
3
oe
=
°
2)
°
@
o
~
=)
=
wa
°
Fr
i)
the sides in 1, 2, or 3 irregular rows, but not as Goldfuss asserts,
in pairs; pores placed in pairs are sometimes seen, but this 18
by no means the rule.
, Metis Be 1
I g bject to man y variations, some are almost
flat, others form a high, rounded or transversely elongated
cone, the top of which is often deeply impressed; this impres
sion protrudes on the lower side as a rounded elevation, of W ich
Golafuss gives a good representation, Tab. 26 fig. 2, 6. Some
times in the centre of this depression a hole is left open, oF it 8
found closed up subsequently with a solid globular piece. e
_ Marginal depressions in the diaphragms, similar to those fig-
ured by Goldfuss in his Calamopora alveolaris, are seen in differ-
ent degrees of development. Sometimes they are hardly to ps
me at others they become large and give the end cells #
pearance. Frequently 12 such depressions enct
¥
F | On Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich. 393
Characteristic of this species, are obtusely polygonal concen-
tric rings of growth marking both faces of the diaphragms,
and an obscure radial striation, which becomes more distinct on
the eroded surfaces.
Usually three or four diaphragms are placed in a space equal
to the diameter of a tube, but sometimes only one, for the same
distance. The corallum is found in tabular fragments of several
inches thickness and nearly parallel tubes, or in biconvex cakes
with the lower side surrounded by an epitheca, which however
is rarely well preserved.
— Calamopora Niagarensis Hall, and part of favosa Hall; Calamopora
: Gi 2
othlandica auctorum: Dania Huronica !
_ Pores are small, not crowded, and with no elevated border,
from 1 to 4 rows may be counted on a side, the number of rows
on the circumference of a tube does not seem to exceed 15, more
uently a smaller number occurs. Diaphragms flat, sometimes
slightly concave, or flexuous, in consequence of the development
of a few marginal depressions; or stellate, if these depressions
- have become more numerous and more regular. Most frequent]
| from 5 to 12 such depressions are observed, but in some tubes
fave noticed more than 12. .
All these variations in the diaphragms can be observed at once
in a single specimen, but most frequently the diaphragms are.
oy flat, horizontal, or occasionally oblique, their upper
is also decorated with spinules, which however are seldom
preserved, : a
_ Distance of diaphragms variable from the thickness of paper to
More than the diameter of a tube. ‘his variation occurs some-
_ times in the prolongation of one and the same tube, or cluster
of tu
A number of specimens, and those with closely approximated
- diap! Se de tg a laminated structure, and the
Side pores are disguised by the densely crowded diaphragms, or
391 On Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich.
by incrustation. I strongly suspect that by misapprehension
of such specimens the genus Dania has been called into existence,
and will finally have to be erased from the list of names. ‘
e corallum is found in tabular undulated fragments, with
parallel tubes; or in placentiform expansions, with flattened or
ore
low excavation, from the upper end of which a large spine gen-
erally protrudes. :
Calamopora venusta Hall.—Astrocerium venustum Hall, is a very
near relative of the two former species. Its tubes are about one
millimeter wide, sometimes less. :
welve longitudinal rows of spinules are planted on the inner
circumference of the tubes, which often grow so long as to rea
the centre. The upper face of the diaphragms is also spinulous.
The diaphragms are flat, but often also of warped aspect, from
the presence of lateral depressions. Pores are disposed along the
sides in one or two rows,
so :
wide, and the spinules not so largely developed, but otherwise
they do not seem to differ much. It occurs in our gravel banks
usually in fragments of larger masses, or in placentiform laminate
expansions with an epitheca on the lower side, The rock jae
ing the three preceding Calamopore is so similar to the —
of Drummond’s Island that specimens laid side by side cann
be distinguished from each other. - ‘
he following species of Calamopora occur in a siliceo-calea
reous rock, which, judging from the character of ‘its a
erence! with the Corniferous limestone of New York ant
ada.
more or less regularity in the diaphragms,
pore-rows on par all of which charac:
r ngle specimens, and conse
ns with tubes nearly three
On Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich. 395
_ this kind of diaphragms, speaks of “12 vertical lamell reach-
Ing to the bane ofthe tabule,”” but the vertical lamelle and
the tabulz are in this case one and the same thing.
_ The pores form from 8 to 12 rows on the circumference of a
ube, are large and numerous; surrounded by a prominent rim,
or not. They seem to be more numerous in the tubes wi
Complicated diaphragms, than in those which have them more
Simple.
Au, Seni Sci—Sxnconp Serres, Vou. XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
51
396 On Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich.
By disease, parts of some specimens of this coral have become
so transformed that they would not be suspected to be Calamop-
ore, if they were not connected with tubes of regular form.
Casts of such specimens are represented by a network, compose
of geniculate, nodose, vertical columns, which are connected oy
numerous horizontal side branches, equally thick with the col-
umns. The walls of the tube and its lamella are thickened enor-
mously at the expense of the openings, while at the same time,
the side-pores enlarged, and assumed the form of connecting
tubes. similar disease is noticed in some ramose specimens
of Calamopora, from the Eifel, which appear like solid branches,
perfectly, penetrated by tortuous worm holes. :
The external form of this coral is indicated by its name.
Rarely remainders of an epitheca can be noticed, which seemed
to be restricted to a small root portion.
Calamopora epidermata ; Calamopora Gothlandica Billings, Canad. Jour-
na . 104,
e mother expansion, as well.
the terraces, is covered with a concentrically wrinkled epitheca.
The tubes which have in C. hemispherica an inclination to form
an arch directed outwards, are in this species more ben! ,
wae which is the cause of its having a flattened placentiform
It is already mentioned, that lamelliform horizontal projeoye
entirely similar to those of C. hemispherica are placed on =
inside of the tube-walls, but these remain in the form of lingu!
form squamz, and do not often help to form the diaphragms
_ which are perfectly regular, flat, or warped by the developme
of some lateral depressions. These depressions are in t mais
Cies never so numerous and so regular as to give the end cells
= : we - 2 of dia poragms n gia usually three or four in the
| space of tabe-diameter, which varies from two to three mil
:
iu
| Op Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich. 397
meters, in the same specimen. Twelve longitudinal linear sulci
are well marked.
The pores are moderate in size and in number, surrounded by
& prominent rim and forming one or two irregular rows on
each side.
Calamopora Winchelli, n. s.
_ Tubes rounded, or obtusely polygonal, from three to four mil-
limeters wide, interspersed with many smaller ones. Walls
marked with 12 longitudinal sulci but otherwise smooth. Dia-
phragms distant, simple, flat, promiscuously horizontal, or in all
degrees of obliquity; frequently they become flexuous, by lateral
depressions, or one of these depressions is so strongly developed
. to pn ts the whole diaphragm, and to transform it into a
‘unne
Pores are large, surrounded by a rim, moderately numerous,
forming from 8 to 12 rows on the circumference of a tube
he corallum occurs in irregular subglobose masses. A piece
of epithecal crust preserved in a specimen has, besides the con-
centric lines of growth, also fine longitudinal striz. It is found
enclosed in the same rocks with the formerly described species ;
One specimen I took from a sandstone boulder, containing a
number of fossils characteristic of the Oriskany sandstone.
Calamopora Canadensis ; Fistulipora Canadensis Billings, Canad. Journ.
1859, p. 98, fig. 1.
_ It grows in large undulated expansions, of a thickness variable
from a few lines to more than an inch. From the surface of
ones are perfectly round, and measure about one millimeter, the
smaller ones are angular, and are only half a millimeter wide.
‘Twelve distinct longitudinal ridges can be observed on the
f the smaller tubes longi-
a
2}
at
a
o
:
“
of
S
oO
P
2
=)
Ru
e
°
8
Inthe larger tubes, the intervals between the Sy oe a
&
c.
er
>
nm
:
&
=
=
_&
5
€<
2
pangs
5
eo)
g.
3
Calamopora. heliolitiformis, n. 8.
_ Differs from the former species by having larger tubes, and by
its growth in subglobose masses and not in flat expansions.
398 On Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich.
The larger round tubes measure not quite two millimeters, the
smaller angular tubes one millimeter. Diaphragms of the smaller
tubes simple, straight, and somewhat distant, in the larger tubes |
simple and compound or imperfect diaphragms are intermingled
as in Calamopora hemispherica.
Pores are large and numerous, surrounded by a prominent |
rim, placed in a single row on the sides of the smaller tubes; the |
number of rows on the circumference of the larger tubes I could
not accurately ascertain. Also longitudinal sulci are noticed,
t in the specimens they are not plain enough to be counted.
Calamopora basaltica, Goldfuss Tab. 26, fig. 4.
Occurs in tuberose or pyriform, glandular masses, with more
or less unequal polygonal tubes, from one to two millimeters
wide, ascending in a gentle curve, from the interior to the
outside. j
Diaphragms flat, simple, or more frequently compound, distant
about one millimeter. In parts of the surface, all the tube-
mouths are found closed up by opercula of a more substantial
and more regular construction than the ordinary diaphragms.
e latter are compounded of from five to eight linguiform
lamella, unequal in size and in level, so as to form by coa
|
;
|
|
|
posing the external ring. pees:
A similarly constructed opereulum is described in Callopora
elegantula by Hall (Paleontology of New York, vol. il, p- 144).
The opercula, as well as the ordinary diaphragms, can sometimes
be observed in the young state, in which the constituent lamelle
have not yet grown so far as to become contiguous, therefore 10
centre a corresponding stellate opening is seen. :
The compound diaphragms of this species are always in Teg”
ular superposition, and do not exhibit the cellulose confused wes
dition which was described in Calamopora hemispherica. From
the side view they appear to be simple, and only rarely some
isolated lamelle are found protruding in the intervals betwee?
7 il ies ieee
_ Pores form one, sometimes two, rows on each side.
, \. The adjoining tube-walls are rated at the surface by
sepa J
plain lines of demarcation which are sharpl polyg nal, W
openings of the tubes often have a more round
On Calamopore in gravel deposits near Ann Arbor, Mich. 3899
Calamopora turbinata Billings, Canad. Journ., 1859, p. 109; Ib. 1860,
May number.
This peculiar Calamopora is a very near relative to C. basaltica,
and differs from it only in external form, which is either turbi-
nate, like a turbinate Cyathophyllum, or it forms large lenticular
masses, with coarse rounded folds on the lower side which i
adhering to the enclosing rock; or in other cases, the intern:
portions of the coral are decomposed, and only the external ends
of the tubes, which are strengthened by their massive opercul
are left in the form of excavated horns, or more expand
funnels or dishes. Billings has described the corals so well that
any farther remark is superfluous. He calls the appearance of
an eperculum an epitheca, which word should be restricted to
a different sort of an envelope. ee
It is rarely found silicified, in association with the other Cor-
niferous limestone fossils; it is very common in calcareous frag-
ments containing immense numbers of broken Brachiopods,
the Helderberg group.
Culamopora polymorpha belongs to more destructible caleareo-
argillaceous strata, and is very poorly pres in our gravel.
2 tC
dubia, with a number of allied forms, are found finely preserved,
but I reserve their description for some future communication,
which will also embrace the numerous varieties of Limaria, and
€ ramose forms of Alveolites.
Michelinia convera D’Orbigny; Billings, Canad. Journ., 1859, p. 112,
Michelinia conveca and also M. favosoidea have the inside cove
| with just as many rows of spinules as they have longitudinal
Striz, because every interval between two striz D ro
a On the other hand the strie are also well enough
veloped in Calamopora, only less numerous than in Michelinia.
Michelinia intermittens Billings; Canad. Journ., 1859.
A coral which corresponds perfectly with the description given
by Mr. Billings is not rare here
; dia gitudinal | indis
iiatles treawately dispered over the interior of the side-walls.
400 On Rotation in the pith cells of Saururus cernuus.
Art. XXXVII.— On a remarkable form of Rotation in the pith
cells of Saururus cernuus ; by GEORGE C. SCHAEFFER, M.D.
As a mere microscopical curiosity the fact might be deemed wor
thy of notice, but the remarkable similarity to a motion which
for the true advancement of vegetable physiology.
he Saururus cernuus, like many other aquatic or marsh
re. :
_ The cells in which the above mentioned motion occurs are not
those from which the party walls of each air passage diverge,
but forming the middle of the wall between any two are
tiguous channels; they seem to be smaller and younger ¢
than the others.
In all ordinary cases of cyclosis the motion is along ihe
of the cell, coming and going in paths which are, for the time ab
st, Permanent. But in the Saururus the granules lie in the
of the cells above described and their motion is of a qul
nt character. To those familiar with microscopic obser 1
we may best describe this motion as perfectly ide lester
im the, so-called, vesicles, in the ends of @
On Rotation in the pith cells of Saururus cernuus. 401
rium, which has been aptly styled “swarming” by the English
and Germans. The granules are quite minute, rounded in form
been referred. With a somewhat extensive experience I am:
able to say that nothing of the kind has before been observed i
pheenogamous plants; yet it must be admitted that one single
instance among them is sufficient to invalidate the inferences for-
merly drawn from alge, as to the true meaning of this peculiar
kind of motion.
Tam more earnestly disposed to insist upon this, apparently,
€xceptional case because it confirms views long held and taught
by myself as to the purely physico-chemical interpretation of
most of the phenomena of vegetable life.
_ Washington, D. C., September, 1862.
402 G. J. Brush on Triphyline at Norwich, Mass.
¢
Art. XXXVIII.— On the occurrence of Triphyline at Norwich, in
Massachusetts; by GEoRGE J. Brusu.
be
=]
=
2.
i)
a
aa
i
n
©
is?)
=
Sy
:
177]
Be)
bec |
°
3
ie)
S
a2
oO
a
&
5
=
2
—
3.
cr
ma
2.
=
eS
lustre vitreous inclining to greasy. H. = . :
feated in the closed tube decrepitates, blackens, and gives &
faint. trace of moisture. On charcoal fuses readily to & black
gives copious fumes of phosphuretted hydrogen. Dissolves in
borax, soda, and salt of phosphorus, reacting for iron and maa
ese.
_ These characters are identical with those of the triphyline from
Rabenstein in Bavaria, and the source of the altered phosphates
of manganese and iron found at Norwich is thus shown to be
riphyline. This fact is also of further interest, as being the me?
time that triphyline has been identified as occurring in this
[ee ory, Yale College, Oct, 17th, 1862. : pee
~
Scientific Intelligence. 403
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENGR.
I, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
1. Contributions to the Spectral Analysis.—In examining with the spee-
__ troscope a substance containing baryta, A. Mitscherlich observed two bright
metal,
of barium with 20 parts of a solution of sal-ammoniac and 20 parts
of chlorhydrie acid containing about 20 parts of real acid gives the
Wo green lines above mentioned. By employing solutions of the chlo-
rids of calcium or strontium mixed with sal-ammoni » hew spectra are
addition of sal-ammoniac. From this it follows that the spectrum of the
metals of the alkaline earths, is different from that of their chlorids. That
I e of sal i ithout chemical action is not the cause
of this ditference, is shown by the fact that the ordinary or metallic spec-
tra are not changed by passing the light through a flame containing
“ammoniac. The spectra of protochlorid and subchlorid of copper
Were found to be different though usually more or less mixed in conse-
— of the reduction of the chlorid to subehlorid by heat. By iatro-
cing several substances into the same flame particular lines often vanish ;
the blue strontium line disappears when chlorid of copper, sal-am-
Moniae and chlorid of strontium are mixed. The chlorids of potassium
d sodium give no spectra as such. The potassium spectrum vanishes
eé mere NHrocan.
dium reaction is too delicate for this experiment, but the author found
that light transmitted through the vapor of the ignited chlorid gave no
Sodium line. :
From the above it follows that the metals do not give a spectrum in
all their compounds, and that they do not give the same spectrum in dif-
. by decomposition, m
= — of its own. Metallic compounds are so easily reduced by the
appears
“ave @ spectrum other than that produced
um btain only the spectra of the metals themselves.
Light passed through ignited soda vapors, or vapors of the carbonate of
Soda, does not give css sodas line D, but the vapor of metallic sodium
At Jour. Scr.—Seconp Sexms, Vor. XXXIV, No. 102—Nov., 1862.
52
that we usually °
404 3 Scientific Intelligence.
at a low red heat exhibits this line distinctly. From this it follows that
in those flames which exhibit the sodium line, metallic sodium, as such,
etal
we may hereafter, conversely, determine the temperature of the 8 u's
atmosphere from the nature of the chemical compounds which exist in it,
provided that we succeed in obtaining an approximately high temper-
ature.
its : “Joeations. For
ion does not appear to us justified upon chemical considerations.
yds, sulphids, chlorids, ée., of sodium and potassium ones
into their elements at the temperature of the sun’s pagerey in
asequently sodium, potassium, oxygen, sulphur, chlorine, dc., may
the free state in the sun’s atmos there may be far more than iy
oxygen, &c,, to combine with all the potassium and sodium. It Megat be u :
gue that is the most abundant terrestrial, it must ates
be the most abundant solar element, yet such is possibly the case. Moreover it ®
P ey r ee bins 33 <3 ee : a se }
dium must exist in th sat "
in a free etate because the masses or abso-
gray iat ideration in judg-
i
a a
Physics, ; 405
which was complete. The solar lines are, for convenience, represented
upon the charts together with the chemical lines, as we may term them,
the author giving all the most characteristic lines presented by iron, cobalt,
nickel, zinc, cadmium, gold, silver, arsenic, antimony, tin, bismuth, lead,
copper, potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, alu-
minum, cesium and rubidium, at least those which lie between the lines
Dand G. While the charts are very admirable and reliable, they still
leave much to be desired in a chemical point of view and for the
of analysis, because a separate chart is needed for the spectrum of each
element to give a clear view of its optical characteristics. The author
does not state in what manner the elements were obtained in the state of
completed the instrument. e distances of the lines were meas-
ured by means of a micrometer screw by which the observing telescope
accompanied by a millimeter
he suggests that these may be only apparent and that separation might
be ellected by a ter number of prisms, equally
by passing an intense light through | ing the metallic
by Seni «tall “fact. The author refers this it to a general
he a en suialaipewer of uheorpalen
the power of radiation and the power of absorptior
. = ihe ane temperature. The mathematical demonstration of : a-
ciple forms an appendix to the second edition of the memoir. From this
incipl sly follows that an ignited gas, in whose spectrum
oo aa
it immedi
406 Scientific Intelligence.
colors, and that it exerts upon rays of any color present in its spectrum
an absorption which is powerful in its proportion to the brightness of this
color in its own spectrum. It also follows that when the source of light
which produces a continuous spectrum by which the spectrum of an ignited
gas is inverted, is an ignited body, its temperature must be higher than
that of the ignited gas. :
The application of these principles to the determination of the chemical
constitution of the sun’s atmosphere is well known. The author caleu-
lates the probability that the coincidence of 60 iron lines with 60 dark
lines of the spectrum is simply accidental to be less than (4)°°, that is,
z
He considers the existence of iron, chro-
1.000.000.000.000.000.000°
examine the thickening of the dark lines in the solar spectrum eg od
by atmospheric absorption. The thickening of the lines in the r
ved. e au : +
servations establish the fact that the thickening of the dark lines proc". = )
towards the violet end of the spectrum in each instance, precisely ” |
the case of hyponitric acid and chlorophyll. The instrument employed .
was a Soleil’s spectroseope and the observations were made at gee’
sunset, the clearness of the atmosphere being extremely favorable.— badd
Ann. exvii, 191. oe |
jses to give
mena of
the
go the vapors which it contnnn, A carta study of Oe <8
‘ may explain the appearance of particular
Chemistry. 407
lines in the spectrum itself. Sufficient light may in all these cases be
obtained by the use of a condensing lens. The spectra of several fixed
stars have recently been studied by a zealous amateur astronomer in the
city of New York, provided with excellent instrumerts, and we hope soon
to lay his results before the public. | WwW. G.
4. On the Blue Lithium line —FRANKLAND, in a letter to TYNDALL,
describes a magnificent blue line in the spectrum of lithium. This line
does not appear when an ordinary Bunsen’s burner is employed but is
‘seen, although faintly, when a hydrogen flame 1s used, an omes very
brilliant when the lithium salt is heated in the oxyhydrogen flame, From
this it appears that a very high temperature is necessary to bring out the
as given some interesting notes on the projection of spectra by employ.
ce >
essentially identical with those obtained by means of the electric spark.
This result had also been obtained by Bunsen and Kirchhoff.—Ann. de
Ww. @.
aS ae lothydric acid acts directly upon glass, is it not
Note——<As strong chlorhydric acid acts direcuy upo
Possible that the alkalies in the solution may have been derived from the
glass botil
examination of the purity of
is —Granpeav has
408 Scientific Intelligence.
8. On a presumed conversion of Phenylic into Rosalic acid, and some
applications of this acid and compounds in the production of various col-
ciently interesting and new to communicate. To decompose the phenylic
acid as above, 1 proposed to bring sulpho-phenylic acid into contact with
of sul-
in boiling water; when purified and dried, is of a bright dark arnorpnoes
look, with slight greenish metallic lustre; its powder is of a ig oa
produce orange-red, purplish-red to crimson shades, of very ee
grades. While this salt directly applied will not dye fast pewter |
Biyver. (Communicated by the author).—Referring to my former ed
cle, on the presumed conversion of phenylic into rosalic acid, faming)
observed that phenate of lime placed over concentrated (not ! of five
The salts thus formed ar?
and saturating the lime
to the surface,
: Chemistry. 409
filter, and can then be purified by proper treatment, when it will have all
the chemical properties mentioned in my former article of what I pre-
sumed to be rosalic acid obtained from the treatment of phenylic acid.
Tacony Chem. Laboratory, (Bridesburg,) Philadelphia, Aug. 7, 1862.
10. Thallium.—Crooxss has sent us an early copy of his “Preliminary
rches on Thallium” from the Proceedings of the Royal Society.
of early spring. ‘
It appears from Crookes’ researches that thallium is by no ns a
very rare substance; he has found it in many mineral ores from various
h n
large collection of cupiferous pyrites from different parts of the world—he
has rarely found it however in pyrites in which copper was absent. In
ost cases it is only necessary to powder a small fragment of the mineral
that in some of the large English copper, sulphur and sulphurie acid
inm in copper ores it is very probable that this element may sometimes
present in commercial copper and may give rise to some of the well
known but unexplained differences of quality.
~ The author finds the following the most advantageous method for ex-
tracting the new element from sulphur or pyrites -—
Powder the ore very finely, and dissolve it as completely as possible in
in ‘orm of insoluble sulphate. Dilute th ate c [
add a solution of c te of _ reaction is distinctly alkaline
d an excess of solution of cyanid of potassium (free from sulphid
Potassium). Heat gently id filter. The prec.
be nt as
through the liquid thallium, whilst the
the sulghid of mercury by being boiled in moderately dilute nitric acid, in
which then sulphid “+ gi Ms om i iabatatle. These two metals are, however,
410 Scientific Intelligence.
seldom — with thallium in the ores which I have examined. The nitric
acid solution is now to be evaporated to dryness, the residue dissolved in hot
dilute sulphuric acid, Fete a piece of pure metallic zinc placed in the liquid;
the thallium will be at once sa ge in the form of a Oras rae
cording to the strength of the current. i have not been very successful in
reducing the me ie? hydrogen. oe, ent of gas carries the volatile oxyd
away from the part of the tube before complete reduction place.
It is, however, ote solsebles from an obsery ation made towards the conclusion of
this experiment, that, with a longer tube in proportion to the quantity of ma-
terial, kept at a good heat shindgh out We its length, this plan might give good
results, e metal being considerably less volatile than the o xyd.
Mr. Crookes adds the following description of thallium and its chemi-
cal ronchions and sepa which we copy in sans from his apie
seve
Yat. There is, however generally a loss = ore vice , owing to its ore
i
. ma
pure re metal lic state and exhibited it to several friends as early as January last,*
and should then have published an account of it, had it not been for t or
sons already mentioned. Thallium is soluble in nitric, hydrochloric, and of
cee acids, the former attacking it t with greatest energy, with evolution
Orgs of Th Thallium.—Thallium forms two, and probably three oxyds: on€
Possessing basic properties, which I shall call the oxyd; another + coe —
more oxygen, possessing acid properties, which may therefore bec be called e
1C e first
acid; and most likely a third, or suboxyd, whi rtions of
precipi d by zi soluti lao this ; the first site being @
larke of the solution, and the production of a deep-brown powder,
by lo ntact with zinc turns to a dense black prec
_ Upon carefully evaporating the nitric acid solution upon a
Rot carrying it to dryness, 2 mass of deliqu ry:
ing, wh dec ed upon —— vd water with se
ee le ecipitate, w which « bnitrate, and an
fe Novi vol. ¥, pp. 349, 350.
Chemistry. 4ll
Thallic Acid.—This acid is soluble in “a % and a be obtained in the
crystalline form from its aqueous solution. It then forms crystals, which are
permanent in the air, and have an acid reaction to test-paper, The thallates
ay be prepared — i
= s
o
Qu
oF
8
rt]
Aa
3
al
=
oO ‘
mn
@
@)
cr
°
a3
>
val
et
<5
°
2
te
partia ally dissolves this, with aes of a white insoluble residue,
Die ot a acid added to a turbid solution immediately renders it
upon evaporating this solution over 4 wa er-bath, white crystals of
chlorid are deposited. When the “atthe acid solution of thallium or its sulphid
this is chlorid of Se . is — or nearly so in eae: but ae ly
itric ac
ages ciishaestiead by drogen is passed through the
acid an of chlorid of thallium, a paral ecipitation of a reddish-brown
Powder takes place; this 5 Conbiiabol of the chlorid and sul-
id, and the metal is ne ly removed fro yt -
it assumes a bro mg a which ap rapidly m and bag intense, espe-
sulphid of, the llium se the
a deep a heavy precipitate which fogs a rent tendency to col-
ba topethier | in clots at the bottom of the vesse rmation of a He pei
Sulphid of tala is insoluble in an ex-
tassium. ie co siiidets
cess of sulphid of ammonium, ammonia, or cyan!
Precipitation as sulphid from Jutions rete reg x excess of ecyanid of p
™ alior y means of se ng th m several metals with
Which it is fi ntly associated. It is difficultly soluble in hydrochlorie or
c acids, but readily so in nitric acid. dry, a deep-brown,
pone black powder, fusi d volatilizing when when pure, it is
i : but when it occurs with an excess
te from it by sublimation.
of ing an alkaline hiry aerseoten
the acid chlorid feces it is modera y soluble in an excess —
of ammonia, a = eer This isa pee
ion, et hee fog “ste . de ted with accuracy from lead and
ismuth.
Sul ‘um.— When the b bpdene tare or nitric aval is a ok
“Tate plage ices acid is driven off and the
sulphate is left behind. It is crystalline and soluble in water.
is itat i pow | cautious
addition of iodid of potassium to solution of thallium. eis readily soluble
in excess of jodic potassi hea a colorless sol
thon ome a ee flocculent cg soluble in min-
- eral acids, but ringly #0 eienie in acetic aci
id. .
te and insoluble in water.
Aa. Jour. “aol aaa nego ll ag XXXTV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
53
412 Scientific Intelligence.
Cyanid of Thallium is precipitated as a white or light-brown powder upon
cautious addition of cyanid of eerorhy to a solution of thallium. It is
readily soluble in an excess of the prec
Ci eof Thallium is a pale-yeliow preciptt soluble in acids and re-
precipitated upon neutralization with am
No precipitates are produced var PF aenlastin of thallium is eee with
id of tin, oxalic acid, carbazotic acid, sulphurous acid, or protosul
The reactions are Shai to prove chemically that the body under
examination is a new element. Its behavior in the spectrum apparatus is
rhaps the most conclusive test upon this point. When a minute pe
Hom) is introduced into the flame of the s ectroscope, it inane
ainter,
bys rking on a small scale, it is not easy to obtain these compounds
free from soda; but when that is effected, and a ite avanti of
substance is held on a loop of platinum sare in a flame,
is most brilliant, and produces very extraordinary effects u
ance of surrounding objects. If thallium could be ctiadees in qn
this ready means of producing an intense ‘a eae PT green light
ee not fail to be applicable to some useful purpose. ‘ed |
The green line of the thallium spectrum appears to be am fs |
by any line or band in other parts of the spectrum. A _
ie 4
mJ mh Prot Bum ad ii 3
Geology. 413
taking accurate measurements of the distance between the thallium-line
and the principal lines of the solar spectrum. |
_ This green line is an exquisitely delicate test for the presence of thal-
lium, and shows it to be a somewhat widely distributed element. M
specimens of crude sulphur contain it (especially when rather dark-look-
ing). In most cases it is only necessary to set fire to as large a piece of
sulphur (less than a pea) as the platiniam loop will hold, and when it
has nearly burned away to blow it out, and then introduce it at leisure
into the flame of the spectroscope, for the thallium to show its presence
by a bright-green line which will flash for an instant into the field of
view.
Tecaxtcat Caemtstey.—
11. For Photographic copying in pure Black and White.—In copying
maps, printed matter, engravings, é&c., the following will be found an ex-
cellent method. After fixing a delicate negative, wash very carefully.
grains of the iodid to one grain of the iodine in the ounce of water.
Dilute with water to a sherry pale color, or dark, as may be found neces-
Wash well and fix. Repeat the process, if necessary. The in-
acid to six ounces of water. Wash very thorou i with weak
iodid of um, adding gradually to its strength until the deepest
yellow with a tinge of olive color is obtained by transmitted light.
Was in, and treat with chlorid of gold, one grain to the ounce of
wa E.
| Ii. GEOLOGY. '
It furnishes species of semi anthracite and semi-bituminous fon ec
etrates
Ridge, at Lynchburg, and then follows the course of the Great Valley,
th xvi ; nessee.
uthwestward, to Knoxville and Chattanooga, in Eastern Ten
This Great Valley, of Lower Silurian limestone, extends from Newberg
— a, n the eastern Se ater tion
j een Mountains of Vermont, and consist of ebec group or
Tas a a a dersccd by Loess to be a thickening of the low-
est Silurian (Calciferous Sandrock and Potsdam Sandstone or Primal
414 Scientific Intelligence.
Slates).* The Appalachian Mountains on its western side are Middle and
Upper Silurian and Devonian formations. West of these rises the long
high escarpment of the Carboniferous formation, forming the mountain
plateau of Western Pennsylvania, Western Virginia, Eastern Kentucky,
Central Tennessee, and Northern Alabama. The escarpment of this vast
plateau, facing the east, and overlooking the Appalachian ranges, w
their narrow, parallel, interval valleys, is the so-called Backbone. Alle-
ghany Meuntain, beginning at Catskill on the Hudson, and ending m
Alabama. The northern portion of this plateau is drained eastward by
the branches of the Susquehanna, and westward by the branches of the
Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers. All the waters of Middle Pennsyl-
vani, Maryland, and Northern and Middle Virginia flow from the foot
this escarpment towards the Atlantic, breaking successively through the
parallel Appalachian ridges of the subcarboniferous formations, The
waters of the Tennessee River head also at the eastern foot of this escarp-
ment, and flow along its base for several hundred miles southwestward,
versed. The New River heads in the Blue Range, crosses the Great Val-
ley westward, breaks indo (not out of ) the Appalachians, striking the ¢&
, across it the
The Appalachian Mountains of Southern Virginia and Eastern png x
see are grouped in pairs by these faults. The country for three or i
hundred miles northeast and southwest, and from thirty to forty muss
from southeast to northwest, is fractured in parallel strips from five to *)
miles wide. Each strip is tilted at such an angle (dipping a
rocks) abuts against the bottom or Lower Silurian edge of the strip next
Silurian, and No, xX, Upp Devonian, there cial
each pair of faults a pair of parallel moutains, The Palaozolc
therefore, included between the Great Valley and the Backbone agi
I | ; as
, ee 7, ; . joht lines at 0!
_* parallel faults: and as these faults range in straight arkable
equ each other, these mountai . remm per
eigae , side by side, for a hundred or two hundred miles,
: ‘in the courses of the great faults. Thus we get
intnined substantially this
ee van enlargement
Geology. 415
very unusual arrangement of the head waters of the Tennessee River, in
long parallel branches, with few subordinate affluents, suddenly uniting
ns.
In each pair of Paleozoic mountains the eastern one carries a coal
The coal here, however, is not the coal of the Carboniferous formation,
commonly so called.
Underneath the true coal measures of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and North-
western Virginia, and underneath the Millstone Grit Conglomerate (No.
XII) at its base, and the Red Shale formation (No. X1), which underlies
the last, there begins, even in Pennsylvania, to appear an older coal forma-
tion, connected with the uppermost Devonian, white, mountain Sand-
, No. X. It is seen in one or two beds two feet thick at the head
waters of the Juniata. It is mined where the Monongahela waters cut
e-
velopment in Montgomery county, on the New River, in Southern Vir-
ginia, near the line of our section. Here it is seen to consist of two prin-
cipal coal-beds and several minor seams. The Jowest bed reaches t
thickness of four feet, and the next one above it is in some pl ni
feet thick. In the Peak Hills, just east of Wythe, along the line of the
des Kon. Min. Mus., und Professor an
er Dyse und Geologisches. 210 pp. 4to,
416 Scientific Intelligence.
with 19 lithographic plates——This volume is a rere part of the
great work on the Permian, noticed in the mber number of this
Journal. It contains an account of the Fossil “eon of the ips
illustrated by 11 quarto plates; and following this, descriptions of
Permian formation in Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Thuringia, Western Ger
many, Russia and other parts of Europe, and Great Britain. An Appen-
dix includes an Index Plantarum and a long table showing ee geolo-
gical and geographical distributien of the Permian in Europe. This
work of Dr. Geinitz meena be in = hands of all who would ‘understand
anal ome with the former, it is the sage nse! get between
the two, The recent discovery of Permian beds w mu Mississippi
renders the work of additional interest to Cibetioah na ie ogists
3. On the footprints of Limulus as compared with the ‘Protichnites 7
the Potsdam Sandstone ; by J. W. Dawson, (Canadian Naturalist) —
= paper Mr. Dawson compares s the impressions called Protichnites ake
r, Geol. Soc. London, vol. viii) with the tracks of a modern Limulus,
ilasivating the subject with figures. The following are his conclusions
regard to these Potsdam impressions :—
“(1.) The conjecture of Owen that the ey may have been made by &
creature somew me a esembling Limulus, is verified by the impressions
made by that a
(2.) The reat view of Owen that the grouping of the impressions
depended on multifid limbs, and that the number of te Ne in &
group might indicate specific diversity, is also vindicated by the
with this limitation, Prego by Prof. Owen, that tracks like P. lineatus,
might have been made by any of the animals which made the other im-
pressions, and that if like Limulus they possessed one large pair need
making the principal marks, and smaller ones occasionally used, the num-
rs of marks may have somewhat differed in different Cire
Still it is evident that a species of Limulus having a different number ‘
oo age of the posterior toes, from that to whi ch these remarks relate,
t be distinguished by its footprints.
mG.) The animal or animals producing the Protichnites geen!
the <
i size of et foe bl produced
4.) Some at “ai of the Protichnites were probably
creeping on wet sand ; but P. lineatus and the indi
with the view entertained ny Sir W. E. Logan as to the conditions es
208i: Potsdam sandstone; and it is probable that these @ ae
Jrustaceans, like the sodas Limulus, frequented the sandy beac: the
a of spawning, and may sometimes have been left dry by ™
fF
5. "The suppositions above stated would account for the ages
ty of remains of the animals which produced the Proti ene
i — enaine beach ee —— ,
Geology. 417
except on the dry sand above high-water mark.
driven on shore only in storms, and then, owing to the lightness of their
crusts, are drifted high on the beach. The remains are probably to be
found in circumstances favorable to their preservation, only on the muddy
bottoms at a distance from the san y shore. Young individuals appear
to frequent the sand ouly in summer, and occasionally to be imbedded
in it.
™
own trilobites. In this last case I should sup that the animal in
question had a flatter or more shallow cephalo-thorax than that of Lim-
ulus, proportionately stronger and perhaps more divided feet, and a stouter
caudal spine.
- Rupert Jones, in _the * Is
seems disposed to compare Climactichnites Wilsonii ; but this appears to
me to have more the character of a surface impression, though what
author, also resemble in some respects the sub-aquatic trails of Limulus,
and may be the work of Trilobites; and the same remark applies to
some of the markings from the Clinton of New York, figured by Hall,t
and referred to Crustaceans and w . ‘
orms.
able that the fossil Paradoxides, like
=,
Geol
Just now leaving the press.
* Agriculture of New York, vol. i.
+ Palxontology of New York, vol. ii, Pl 18 to 16.
418 Scientific Intelligence.
4. Fifteenth Annual Report. of the Regents of the University of the
State of New York * a condition of the State Cabinet of Natural
History, déc., made t e Legislature April 12, 1862; 8vo, pp. 170.
. Albany: C. Van sian Sinca 1862.—This Report contains the continua-
tion of Prof. Hall’s Paleontological researches. The larger part of the
memoir has been already noticed briefly in former issues of this Journal,
vol. xxxii, 430, Nov., 1861, and in this volume, p. 282. It is enriched
Modiol
The last page of the report contains a letter from Col. E. Jewett,
Curator of the State Cabinet, announcing an important Leppiblr made
by that gentleman on the age of the “ Catskill group.” The same informa-
tion has been communicated to us in a letter from Col. Jewett but we
copy from the official document as follows :
“ Albany, September 20, 1862.
ee ee Labi tke Secretary of Regents, &c.—Sir :—Agreeable
to your directions, I went arabe county, to calieel fossils from the
Catskill group, or Old Red ‘Sandeto
At Frankliu I found Mr. J. M. Wa a gentleman who for years h
Lieee Pasir ix the rock and ety the fossils; and although he is
borhood and collecting many fossils. With his assistance, I was able
make a section from the Oleout creek to the top of a hill about three
miles southwest of the village of Franklin, more than 800 feet in —
base is a brick red shale, with occasional red argillaceo
more numerous. Spirifers, Rhynconellas, Pectens and Athyres are
in all the strata of the >i gr three hundred feet, and the whole formation
is undoubtedly Chem
I examined other localities with the same result. ‘los
Mr. \ Way has examined the rock as far as Deposite (twenty-five eine
pei Be with great care, and finds the same formation. He
collected the same fossils at Delhi, seventeen miles southwest. sais
: _From my investigations, I aes that thers is no Old Red Sands
Catskill formation] in this Stat
a “ * * *
Respectfully, dc.
SO ne ee ee ae ee ae ee
Botany and Zoology. 419
III. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.
of
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The dicecio-dimorphous species of Plantago had seemed to confuse this
ease with the next. That is, the short-stamened flowers appeared to be
fertilized in the closed flower, and the long-stamened and generally ster-
P. heterophylla, having the corollas of the short-
_ stamened form open in anthers, and the stigma projecting, evidently be-
q long. It is to be noted that dimorphism, both of this and of the follow-
: or in degree in different
f
B
Fy
8
g
z
e
@
usually active, sending out its tu é
thereby A tapi hee, attaching the anthers to the stigma. In the
first case Nature takes great pains to secure the cross-fertilization of indi-
viduals of the species: in the other, on the contrary, she takes equal pains
to secure self-fertilization. The end in the first case, as Mr. rwin main-
tains, (we believe upon good philosophical grounds, now in the course of
_ vindication by experiment) is to ensure the perpetuation of the species,
‘Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serms, Vou. XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
54
420 Scientific Intelligence.
since close-breeding or continued self-fertilization tends to sterility, while
wider breeding is recuperative. e leave it to Mr. Darwin’s sagacity to
ascertain the end in the opposite case, noting that here the most un-
doubted close-fertilization for indefinite generations shows no apparen
tendency towards sterility, but rather the contrary.
From another point of view which we are accustomed to take, how-
ever, we may suppose that, as one result the cross-fertilization must needs
be to keep down variation by repeated blendings, so the design of close-
in the same way tends to perpetuate a variation once originated from that
form, and also, along with selection (natural or artificial), to educe and
further develope or confirm said variety. On the other hand, free cross-
breeding of incipient varieties inder se and with their original types 18
just the way to blend all together, to repress all salient characteristics as
ast as the mysterious process of variation originates them, and fuse the
us resume the subject.
n.
In de which we should
prefer if we had them, we borrow the cuts with which the author illus-
San
a, anther; r ema agp 5, vir l, a n, nectary; p, pollinium
or polle c, caudicle of pollinium ; d, viscid dise of pollinium.
A, is a side view of a flower of bes with al petals and
‘Sepals cut off except the iabettute’ of which the near half is cut away, as well
____ 88 the upper portion of the near half of the nectary.
the belo, view of the flower, with all the sepals eats ed petals removed, except
a C. One e pollinium, or 2 ay showing the packets of pollen-grains,
the eandicle, and the viscid disc.
_ __D. Front view of the discs and caudicles of both pollinia within the rostel-
lum, with ts lip depress Ogg
E. Sec oh thrateh one ailievof ts rostellum with the included disc and
e ier one pollinium.
_ F. Packets of pollen-grains, tied together by elastic threads, here extended.
‘The general structure of the flower in this species will be found to
_ Correspond very well with that of our O. spectabilis.
Now, anrppeing one of the pollen-masses to be removed from the flower
by the insertion of the a0 of a pencil into the orifice of the nectary, on
422 Scientific Intelligence.
5S
withdrawing the pencil, the pollen-mass, adhering by its viscid disc, will
be found to stand as represented in
The following figures relate to Orchis pyramidalis, and our extracts
should be read anew in connection with the illustrations, The small
a fe :
the fertilization of Platanthera Hookeri (this volume, p. 143), we will
worth mentioning that these spikes, stuck into a glass of water -
7 ee ,
inch and a half long, and the divergent bases of the apther-cells so cae
Hooker’s figure of this species, in the Fi 8
do not | outwardly in the manner there ig A
e, being affixed to the stalk of the pollen-mass laterally, bY
or . than in P. Hookeri, reall forward and inwar®~
: - d that they will neues to stick one to each side of the .
Botany and Zoology. 423
head of a humble-bee or of a large moth that visits the flower, and thrusts
- a. down into the spur so as to reach the nectar.
ents of rotation and depression in our flowering specimens (all re
ceived
from a distance) were pretty slow, but distinct. ts
tbat ahiagh einallailb cata,
A
A. Front view of a flower of Orchis pyramidalis, with all the sepals and
petals removed except the labellum.
e view of the — rage bisected, and
B. Sid same, with the
with the near side of the upper part of the nec way.
C. The two pollinia, attached to the eat viscid disc, which an-
Swers to the two separate discs in O. and other species of Orchis, &c.
D. The disc after the first act of contraction. with no object seized.
E. The dise seen from above, and flattened by force, fo stn Sa one soc
—showing the depression by which the second
F. The pollinia removed by the insertion of a needle into the nectary,
has the needle by the first act of contraction: side view.
ction and depression.
it
. The same pollinia aft er the second act of contrac
424 Scientific Intelligence.
are to be stuck to the face or head of some nectar-sucking insect, of ap-
propriate size, that visits the flowers. The stigma, which is rather small,
is between the lateral arms, in the same horizontal line with the discs:
the discs are small, but quite sticky, and directly affixed to the extremity
apart; the slender spur an inch long ;—from which somewhat of ibe
nature and size of the insect adapted to the work in hand may be ¢s
ted. :
Platanthera fimbriata, the earlier Purple Fringed Orchis. In this the
contracted base of the labellum is grooved, or with incurved margins,
the trough leading as a sure guide to the narrow orifice of true 2
e two anther-cells are widely separated, but little divergent; ai
anterior ends projecting strongly forward, the naked discs are brought jus
with the orifice or the nectary. The pointed tip of a pep a
brought to the orifice of the latter, neatly catches the sticky discs am
P - ther
result wholly from its change of form, the portion towards the ant
ore ‘ a var
riety sty of it. It is more decidedly sweet-scented; and the claw-like base
of the labellum is
col mn as a a
’
Botany and Zoology. : 425
will not touch the viscid discs, they lying a little too far back: but on
pushing it down deep into the long and curving spur (only the lower half
or quarter of which is filled with nectar) it has to be bowed ba me-
what, when it catches the discs. So that before an insect ean have
drained the nectary, the pollinia will be affixed to the base or upper part
of its proboscis, or to the forehead of an insect of smaller size. When
extricated, the movement of depression is prompt—within a few seconds,—
and on re-application the pollen is accurately brought in contact with
the stigma. The discs in place look forwards and downwards. We find
in this species and in P. lacera (both common species and flowering at
@ same time in the latter part of summer), that the nectar appears to
be much more plentiful in the spurs of older than of freshly-opened blos-
soms, most so indeed in flowers which had their pollina removed and
their stigma fertilized several days before, and which were oming
effete. In such flowers the spur was often half full in the present spe
and sometimes almost full in P.lacera. But although little had dripped
down to the bottom of the spur in freshly-opened blossoms, the walls
bove supporting the anther, while its inner and concave face bears t
remarkably long and narrow viscid discs :. posteriorly, on its upper mar-
gin, asort of cellular crest is developed. These guards come forward in
front to within half a line of each other at the level of the discs; whil
above and below the space is wider. The viscid disc which adheres to
a
=)
S
=
Re
=e
s
8
=
@®
3
sj
2
“3
&
=
rd
Sn
*
:
=a
a’
1 S83 are— y
as | as the pollen-mass and its stalk together; the latter is short and
Pe is sieechied to its dise just below the summit of the latter. No
movement of depression or of rotation was detected. The throat of tho
chamber, bounded by the connivent-erect bases of the
and the stigma and the discs lie so low in this
-
ee narrow process of the rostellum which rises between the two ISCS,
426 Scientific Intelligence.
n be giv of a proboscis e find accordingly that
a pig’s bristle cannot be thrust down to the bottom of the spu and
withdrawn without bringing away one of the pollinia. But the anther
cells are very early dehiscent, and the pollinia are often dislodged as soon
as the flower opens. Yet from the arrangement of the parts, we think
they can never fall over upon their own stigma, as they habitually do in
the allied—
—Plutanthera hyperborea. We have elsewhere stated (this volume,
page 260) this species readily, and so far as we could ascertain from
a few specimens, regularly se/f-fertilizes and without extraneous aid.
We have nothing important to add t brief account of the struc
ture and process already described,—except that the packets of pollen are
leaving some packets of pollen behind), and apply them in succession to
eee ous ail ademeriaus de stieds dole
ore se!
there will be no
abound;
Natura
non agit saltatim, and is more flexible and diversified in her ways thao
bitual self-fer-
markable that we hesitate to bring forward our too scanty 0
until another summer affords an opportunity to test them.
Ss ae g upon the ¢
ther and adjacent parts, and especially upon the naked-cellular tip of a
sends down pollen-tubes freely into their sus ag
ear to act as stigmas; although the normal stigma 15 7°"
ce and ae * th the discs.
vip of the
Botany and Zoology. 427
Having room for only two or three more brief notes, one of them shall
era. We can only refer our readers to Darwin’s description of
G. repens, which is common in all our northern forests,
before we read Mr. Darwin’s conjecture (on p. 114) “that the labellum
moves farther from the column in mature flowers, in order to allow in-
sects, with the pollina adhering to their heads or probosces, to enter the
flowers more freely.” Except that, if we mistake not, it is the colamn
which changes its position, rather than the labellum. All freshly-opened
blossoms have the column so directed—a little bowed forwards—that the
tip of the disc and of the anther are presented to view as you look into the
narrow opening of the flower; and a proboscis or bristle, introduced, an
room enough between it and the labellum for the pollinia to pass ; indeed
now the pollinia will regularly hit the
bees.
d so on!
Goodyera pubescens, although specifically quite distinct, accords with
its position, but we have not been able to demonstrate } :
We are obliged to defer all account of observations upon native Orchids
iped i which we must hazard a few
cies, and those incompletely. 3 § !
one of Northern harope would probably have modified his conclusions.
In none of our ies is the pollen “so glutinous that it can be drawn
out into threads.
In C.acaule it is granular, pulverulent,
Am. Jour. Sci.—Szconp Sentes, VoL. XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
is
428 Scientific Intelligence.
will bring away a piece of pollen of corresponding size; one of larger
surface, like the tip of the finger or the head of a fly, brings away the
whole mass of pollen of one or both cells. In the wild plants we find
that the pollen is often carried off, either bodily or piece-meal. The stig-
ma is rather concave than convex, and is slightly viscid.
In C. pubescens, parviflorum and spectabile, the whole pollen (equally
exposed by the destruction of the face of the anther after dehiscence) 18
pulpy but very little glutinous.
In all the species it is impossible that fertilization should be effected
without extraneous aid. That aid may perhaps be given in the manner
that Mr. Darwin supposes (but hardly in C. spectabile), that is, by a large
insect inserting its proboscis into either of the lateral entrances at the
base of the labellum, under the anther, and so thrusting some of the pol-
Jen forwards to the stigma, or more likely carrying some away to another
flower, and leaving it on its stigma while attempting to gather the slight
glutinous exudation that moistens the beard of long hairs which line the
Jabellum underneath. But an attentive consideration of the a Sag tite
i on
pollen they would convey to the stigma of the next flower. Now ”
stigma offers no slight confirmation of this hypothesis, in @ pent
which has never before been noticed, but which is very striking " ra
dm *
.
Z . id
- } i ‘ ?
back (to which alone it could be expected to adhere) would be ese
carded off by and left upon the stigma. The beauty of these adaptatio i
_ an be appreciated only by actual inspection of the parts or of a Ser me
@ cannot close without an expression of gratitude to Mr. Dar re
ving brought back teleological considerations into botany. 5° perl
the study of functions in plants, so impossible often to find ou!
eaning of the various modifications of organs, and 80 a
1¢ conjectures which are apt to be hazarded upon '°
ee ee ee ee és
= Ce ET ea er ee
oe 8 Es ase = 3s
is ae
a
Botany and Zoology. 429
whether ascertained or not, in every ‘
organ. In all this we faithfully believe that both. natural science and
ease as in the other. A. &
ZooLogy—
mard, in the Ann. des Sci., 1t¢ Sér., T.
x,) it differs very markedly. It will be
garded as the young condition of 7.
which are also reported aracterize
the young, make it highly improba-
ble that we have here an immature
placed at the disposal of the writer his
occasional observations oe ee pe p>.
nelids made during the Wilkes Ex-
ploring expedition, saibiag which the above figure occurs, the name of
Tomopteris Dane is pro} for this new species. It was found by him
rs of each arm
forked extremity to the arm, the forks lying nearly in the same vertical
plane and diverging about 60°.” w.
Ne
ovember 3, 1862
430 Scientific Intelligence.
III. ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
1, Name of Asteroid (56).—In vol. xxxii, p. 438, was given an ac-
count of the re-discovery of asteroid (56) to which the name of Pseudo-
Daphne had been provisionally given. M. Schubert has since selected for
rected elements of Melete have been furnished by R. Luther.
Epoch 1861, Oct. 24, 04, m. t. Berlin.
Mean longitude at epoch, 823° 22’ 5249
Longitude of perihelion, 293 39 30 ‘00
Longitude of ascending node, 194 24 17 °03
Inclination of orbit, 8 1 49 05
Excentricity, 0°2368702
Mean daily motion, 847'"49126
Mean distance, 0°2597651
When in opposition and at its mean distance, this planet is equal to a
star of the 12th magnitude
(11), while Niobe is designated by the number (72).
3. Name of Asteroid (13).—In vol. xxxiii, p. 436, was announced the
discovery of asteroid (73). To this planet has been given the name of
Clytia. The following elements were computed by T. H. Safford.
Epoch 1862, May 2d, 04, m. t, Washington.
Mean longitude at epoch, 184° 30’ 53'°6
Longitude of perihelion, 61 11 13 °5
Longitude of ascending node, 7 $2 23° 4
Inelination, 2 24 49 6
Excentricity, 0°0439797
Mean daily motion, 815-029
Mean distance, -2666177
4. Discovery of Asteroid (74).—This planet was discovered by Henry
M. Parkhurst of New York, Sept, 25, 1862, The following observations
e been furnished by Mr. Parkhurst.
Washington m. t. A 3 pp. Dee.
Sept. 25, 7h 46m 23h 46m 365 41°" 5
26, “7 42 45 6 0 58
ee 6-77 45 17 0 51
The brightness of this planet is equal to that of a star of the eleventh
862.—On the 2d of July, M. Tempel at
Cassiopeize, a comet which had the bright
; he same evening ©”*
vered at Athens by M. Schmidt. Its apparent diameter
On the 3d of July, the same comet was dIscoY ee -
the Cambridge Observatory. Between the 3¢ an®
‘
| 3 Astronomy and Meteorology. 431
4th of July was by computation only-nine millions of miles, The follow-
ing elements have been computed from observations of July3, 13, and 23d.
= 1862, June 22°06776 Berlin.
am == 299° 20’ 27’°0
Q = 326 82 53 °5
ea 7 54 26 *1
q = 9°991818
Motion retrograde.
6. Comet IJ, 1862.—The discovery of this comet, July 18th, at the
Dudley Observatory, was mentioned in the last number of this Journal,
p. 294. On the same evening this comet was discovered at the Cam-
bridge Observatory by H. P. Tuttle. On the 22d of July it was discov-
ered at Florence; on the 25th it was discovered at Rome; and on the
26th it was discovered independently at Copenhagen. ;
The following elements have been computed from observations of
July 24, 31, and Aug. 6th.
T 1862, Aug. 23°08967. m. t, Milan.
33 287
log.
344°
m = 344
OC = a sae e
‘ = 66 12.50%
log.g = 9983886
Motion retrograde.
On the 15th of August this comet attained a north declination of 82°,
and for five weeks from its first discovery, it remained within the circle of
perpetual apparition. It was nearest to the earth on the 31st of August,
when its distance was thirty-three millions of miles; and it would have
appeared to great advantage had it not been for the light of the moon,
then at the first quarter.
7. Minima of Algol.—The following are the computed dates of mini-
mum brightness of Algol for November and December, 1862, exp
in Greenwich mean time.
Nov. 2. 18h 36™ | Nov. 25. 17h 7m Dec. 18. 155 39m*
oo 138 56* 21. 32: 37"
8. 12 14* | Dec. 1. 10 45 3. €
i 1. 24
14,: «864 ts + 22 :
The dates marked with an asterisk will be convenient for observation
in this country, and it is hoped they will not entirely escape the attention
of observers. : :
8. Mazimum of Omicron Ceti.—The brightness of Omicron Ceti was
carefully observed during the past summer by M. Schmidt, at Athens, .
and the time of its maximum fixed at July 2d. It was then slightly
i. the period of this star is 332 days, the next
| maximum will occur May 30, 1863, which probably however cannot be
| ___ observed on account of proximity to the 7
"9, Detonating Meteoric fireball of Dec. 3d, 1861.—Prof. E. Heis pub-
lishes in his “ Wochenscrift fur Astronomie, dc.” a detailed account of a
ight meteoric ball which exploded with a loud detonation a few miles
N.E. of Halle, about 7 o'clock, P. M., Dec, 3d, 1861. It was seen through-
432 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
meteor’s path. Few of these bodies have been better observed.
Prof. Heis concludes that it first appeared at an altitude of 130 Eng-
lish statute miles over N. lat. 52° 30/, E. long. 11° 55’, that is, a few
miles N.E. of Magdeburg. It exploded, breaking into two or three parts,
at an altitude of 57 miles, over N. Jat. 51° 38/, E. long. 12°10! The
length of path was 88 miles, and the course sharply downwards, ma-
king an angle of about 50° with the horizon. It moved about 10° east
of south
The interval of flight was variously estimated, but most of the obser-
vers called it from three to five seconds. Four seconds gives a relative
velocity of 22 miles. The diameter of the meteor he estimated at more
an 900 feet.
_ This address was devoted to a statement of the objects of the Association, ©
, and a detailed account of the various grants oe
th y y' .
i re
geography e it may be added with truth, ~ ed
@ very small p atin of this eighteenth has been allotted to the first of
‘sciences. TI share assigned to the first secti
| 7 Thirty-second Meeting of the British Association. 483
world, and for the construction of instruments, and a series of observations and
surveys in connection with meteorology and — magnetism. 2600/. have
been expended on geology; 1600/. of which were employed in the completion
of the fossil ichthyology of Agassiz, and Owen’ s reports on fossil mammalia
and reptiles; and 900/. had been paid oe cia ae con nae ted by Mr, Scott
Russell on the forms of vess rserl Proton sults of thes wd oh experiments
x
much of it on dredging committees for obtaining specimens of the mari
zoology of our own coasts. may hav to ‘dish ursed by a committee formed
in 1840 to make experiments on the preservation of the vegetative power in
seeds, which have reinitied in the discovery, that the greatest age at which
rt
S is usual on these sino the Predindees i in his address, passed in
view the principal ro events of the year, chemistry being referréd, 6 as
follows :—* In chemistry the grea nero advance which has been made during
the past year is probably the formation of compounds of carbon and hy-
drogen oe ~ direct union of those gras M. Berthelot has succeeded
the simpler compounds of carbon an drogen
hy the action tor carbon Sitauiely heated by electricity or hydrogen gas; an
inorganic sources all ee sasen re of carbon and hydrogen which have
i 11S:
hitherto been only known as products of organic origin. Mr, Maxwell Simp-
son has also added to ‘ee former researches a step in the same direction, pro-
ing some organic pro y a synthetical mts u important
researches will be fully laid before you in the lecture on Organic ees
which Dr. Odling has wend ‘tena for Eien | evening next. as
continu os _ inde eg oly s well rise on
of spectrum analysis, ot now in everybody’s hands, and have already produced
many siderentihg resu
a After a short notice of some public hese the learned eae alluded to
|. the patie death of Prince Albert, and the loss of Professors Cummings
: Henslow, hg filled the chairs of oat and Botan nea = Cambridge, and
so concluded an address which was generally thought to be decidedly dry and
somewhat dull.
In proposing a vote of thanks the Dean of Ely amused the audience by
wishing Professor Willis life, cn ries and prosperity till he had completed
report on “Acoustics” (a siete begun in n 1832); and the learned Dea
os that all would agree with him, that he who desired the ‘hugedt life
coul peepee et n he wiched the essor.
vari tions commenced their sittings on Thursday soem to be
been th Bee hep deat aeeenen, be Gone ee to be
excited by the discussions in Section D, which on the Darwinian theory,
most of the visitors, scientific and no raed ia lay a - : neat ret" oa
female, appearin, icularly anxious to learn the exact relations ip. any
which exter Secreen am oid and a monkey.—Section B, Chemical Science,
had the usual select audience. It was presided over by Professor W. H. Miller,
Secretaries were Dr. Professor Roscoe, and
the Odling,
presi M.A.
434 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
We add a few notices of some of the papers read before the various
sections :—
it was argued, that, as the moon would in that case attach to itself a con-
siderable portion by its gravitation, which would necessarily have some
connection with the rest, there would be a continual drag on the portion
more immediately surrounding the earth, and intermediately on the earth
itself, which would in some degree retard the rotation on its axis. Hence,
if, as there is reason to suppose, the rotation be strict] y uniform, the earth’s
atmosphere cannot extend to the moon. The author also stated that if
by balloon ascents the barometer and thermometer were observed at two
heights ascertained by observation, one considerably above the other, and
both above the region in which the currents from the equator influence
Two cases of refraction were considered: in the one, the sake’
ture of the course of a ray through the atmosphere was assumed to
curvature of the globe might be the greater. The former is known to be
the case of the earth’s atmosphere ; and it was supposed that, ph
this must be the case with respect to any atmosphere the moon may
Thirty-second Meeting of the British Association. 435
that especial attention should be directed to this point on the next occur-
rence of a solar eclipse. The case in which the curvature of the path of
the ray is greater than that of the globe was assumed to be that of the
Provisional Report on Thermo-elec
elal ; b
ciation at their previous meeting, as due to loose contac :
unequally heated wires of one metal. Experiments were then deseri
sion. It was, however, sti
be included in a true thermo-electric scale. It was s t
had, in 1853, anticipated some of these results. A suggestion was then
made that the current observed by Magnus and others at the first metallic
contact of unequally-heated wires of one metal may be due to me fact
Soe oe
contacts are not instantaneous, as gen-
jeast, five minutes after contact has
q a . : cates hi a from a maximum a m
been made, gradually — me sy {mae a
both in northern and in southern latitudes, were stated to be as follows :—
As seen in north latitudes, it appears in th he
twilight, as a very faint light, stretching along the ecliptic, about 10°
a. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Series, Vou. XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
56
436 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
sunrise and after sunset.
On Autographs of the Sun ; by Prof. Se.wyn.—Prof. Selwyn showed
several “autographs of the sun,” taken with his “ heliautograph,” by Mr.
Titterton, photographer, Ely, which consists of a camera and instantane-
ous slide, by Dallmeyer, attached to a refractor of 23 inches aperture, by
Dolland ; the principle being the same as that of the instrument made,
at the suggestion of Sir J. Herschel, for the Kew Observatory ; and the.
Professor expressed his thanks to Mr, Balfour Stewart and Mr. Buckley
towards the edges of the disc is a real phenomenon, and not wholly due
ties; but eye observations and measurements by the Rev. F. Howlett, and
hers, tend to show that this evidence is not conclusive, for haat
of Sir J. Herschell, that the two parallel regions of the sun
appear, are like the tropical regions of the earth,
ose
brea that immense waves of luminous matter are thrown UPs
— appear the dark cavities of the spots, whose slopin,
ad
| Thirty-second Meeting of the British Association. 487
Some Peculiar Features in the Structure of the Sun’s Surface; b
James Nasmyra.—The author said the subject was in itself most interest-
ing, but had been rendered much more so by the researches of Bunsen and
others upon the solar spectrum. He himself had paid much attention to the
structure of the sun and moon, but lately more particularly to that of the
sun. He had been fortunate enough to secure some exceedingly perfect
instruments, and a very favorable condition of the atmosphere. His first
observation of the phenomena he was about to describe was made on
July 20, 1860. It is still a mooted point as to what the spots on the sun
really are, but it is generally supposed that they are openings on the
luminous surface. When observing these appearances he noticed that
ie age
light-giving substance. The willow-shaped filaments mentioned are not
distributed in symmetrical order, but in a heterogeneou is
Mr. Nasmyth, in answer to some questions put to him, stated that he
had used Sir John Herschel’s eye-glass, of which he detailed the construe-
tion. The size of the willow-shaped filaments he should imagine, ata
rough guess, to be 1000 miles long by 90 broad. The most suitable mag-
nifying power for observing this phenomena is 200; for, as the air is
seldom tranquil with a higher magnifying power, it is difficult to retain
distinctness. The luminous tracts composing the outer envelopes seem
be in motion among themselves, moving with enormous velocity; and
when a spot upon the surface of the sun ceases to be so any longer, they
come sailing across to fill up the space, like (said Mr. Nasmyth) a shoal
¢ of herrings,
B. Caemroat Sectiox.—President, W. H. Mirrer.— On the Lumin-
‘With ‘the readin of the barometer, the temperature and degree of
humidity of neat: with directions of the wind, for a period of eighteen
™ i i
e
438 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
(superoxyd of hydrogen) is formed, which is analogous to if not the
same as atmospheric ozone, and it can be detected by the same tests.
spheric conditions, and the conditions of non-luminous periods and
periods of non-atmospheric ozone are the same. From the author’s
observations in connection with this matter, which extend over sev-
eral years, it appears that 99 per cent of luminous periods and 91
d
e part performed by ozone in the atmosphere as being similar to that
performed by protein in the blood; the latter giving oxygen for the dis-
organization of worn-out tissues in the animal economy,—the former giv
ing oxygen to the products of decomposition and putrefaction, and reD-
dering them innocuous or salutary compounds. Wit ews he
as u phosphorus as a disinfectant; and from the results be has
obtained, he believes that by using ozone artificially formed by the action
of phosphorus in localities tainted with the products of putrefaction, Just 1B
sufficient quantity to tinge the usual test-paper, all diseases of the Py
ic class would be prevented. Although the data are too few to theo”
rize upon, Dr. Moffat hoped that he would be excused for pushing
matter beyond a simple statement of facts and observations, as many facts
had been observed in nature which strongly corroborated all h
advanced. Ozone, he observed, is in all probability formed wherever
nee; and this is by no means an uncommon |
i i
oo
kingdoms, in the mineral kingdom. Here many instances
horescen ies were enu sonst among which the night-slimpd
Neries was named as becoming particularly brilliant with a direction
-wind from points of the com tween east and south; and the
that the sea becomes luminous on the approach of storms by ee
ani on i noti orescent mip-
but
| seeded Meeting of the British Association. 439
~ variations of the surface called mountains, hills, cliffs, glens, valleys
ains were formed. He took, first, the formation of great plains,
eser showed that although some were formed as plains on horizontal beds,
few even of these retained the original surface of deposition, but had
more or less a denuded surface. Many equally level plains were low and
level, because mountainous masses of rock, often greatly disturbed and
contorted, had been removed from above the present surface. The central
plain of Treland, — other plains in the British Islands, were formed in
untains, except volcanoes or “hills of ejection,” were
either “ hills of cena formed by the wearing down and
removal of the rocks formerly — them, or “ hills of uptilting.” In
the latter, the lowest rocks appeared in vat central parts of the chain,
often reared into the highest peaks ; ea central beds dip on either
hand under higher and higher groups, wide come in as we recede from
the axis of the chain. The beds have been raised by mechanical fi
: his belief that all the striking gaoorcns hataren 8 were the result _ “a
t — — of the external forces called the “weather,” and we:
| sed by any direct action of the ee ert forces, which could sales om
he oi ribeongh the thickness of the crust. He then examined these
forces of erosion; and while he attributed to marine wrsgee all the greater
and more general features, the great plains, the ts, and
the general outline of the mountains, he believed it the valleys which
traversed the plains, the gullies that furrowed the sides of the hills,
and the glens and ravines on the flanks of the mountains, were all due
long atpticn! as to their se * now kak yeoord his conviction of
their truth. Mr. Prestwich, Prof. Ramsay and himself, while pursuing
different lines of investigation, had all been simultaneously compelled to
appeal to the sub-aérial action as the only method of explaining the ~
‘nomena they had met with; and Dr. Tyndal had since fallen into
same line ae agen
red to present some
novelty, and to have a bearing upon er eamaani theory of voleanic action.
aeoshits en sone ng the last = years to have entered upon a new
Its eruptions are more frequent but less violent than
hie ic eat tesek thais-they did akon
theme mig ey poe om certain new volatile or gaseous
440 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
principles, such as the vapor of naphtha and and light carburetted hydro-
gen, or marsh gas, never before detected. The last eruption has likewise
caused an elevation of the coast to the height of 3 feet 7 inches above the
level of the sea, which has not been observed on any preceding occasion.
In speculating upon the causes which have produced these changes in
the nature of the operations of Vesuvius, the author first considers the
heory which recognizes a second class of volcanoes distinct from those
ordinarily known as such, and designated by the name of mud voleanoes.
As these are characterized by the emissions of carburetted hydrogen and
naphtha, as well as of semi-fluid mud, it might be suggested by those
who regard them as partakers of the nature of volcanoes, that Vesuvius
was now passing into the condition of a mud voleano from its emit-
asks ‘
physical, which volcanoes present, instead of contenting themselves with
. . gr £ al hanges hich
-two casts, one of the human brain, which had been hardened in sp!
and had therefore not preserved its exact form, but to all intents
‘poses it would serve as an illustration of the human brain. The
ast was taken from the interior of the cranium of the gorilla. From an
examination of these, the difference between the brain of man and
)
is
na eh ee
lobes of the cerebrum ove to : iderable extent, the smal ;
or cerebellum rlapped, to a considera ’ , ,
.
?
Jobes
Thirty-second Meeting of the British Association. 441
eral ventricles, and the presence of a hippocampus minor in the posterior
able between their feet. The lecturer referred to a diagram which repre-
sented the feet of the aye-aye, the gorilla and man, poiuting out the chief
differences in the structure of the skeleton. ese differences he consid-
question was partly one of facts, and partly one of reasoning. The
question of fact was, what are the structural differences between man
and the highest apes ?—the question of reasoning, what is the systematic
value of those differences? Several years ago, Prof. Owen had made
three distinct assertions respecting the differences which obtained between
the brain of man and that of the highest apes. He asserted that three
Structures were “peculiar to and characteristic” of man’s brain—these
had not entirely borne out his statements and refuted those of Prof. Owen.
Prof. Huxley discussed the relations of the foot of man with those of the
ld be based upon them as
on the brain: that argument being, that the structural differences between
q
.
3
of the Association with the
_ human and the ape brain. For doing this we had been abundantly
_ shown that the hi pus minor and the posterior lobe were insufficient
As differentive, they must be given up at last. But as much had recently
been done for the descriptive anatomy of the brain by let and oth-
ee! ae a
442 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
absolute weight and the great height of the human brain; the two
morphotogical, the multifidity of the frontal lobes corresponding to the
forehead, usually, popularly, and, as this analysis shows, correctly, taken
as a fair exponent of man’s intelligence, and the absence of the external
perpendicular fissure. This had been abundantly shown by Gratiolet. No
reference to these most important matters had been made by Prof. Owen;
and this omission could not fail to put the British Association’s repute for
acquaintance with the works of foreign fellow-laborers at great disadvan-
’
gorilla; and last, the American howling monkey.—Prof. Owen replied,
aw of Storms, has presented to the Library of Yale College, >
original letters of Sir W. Reid to Mr. W. C. Redfield, and. copies of the
letters of the latter, to Sir William. The correspondence is arrange
ies of those written by the latter in reply. saul
Vil iam Reid (then a Lieutenant Colonel in owe!
appointed Governor of the Bermuda Islands at the ¢. od
.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 443
1838. In 1846 he was transferred to Barbadoes, having under his government
all the British Windward Islands of the West Indies. In 1848 id resi,
is post and returned to England, w where he was soon after put in charge of
the close of the Exhibition the — or of ood was conferred upon him,
and in the beginning of 1852 he w pete Goveeins of Malta, where he re-
mained till the close of 1857, hen. ‘the health of a Reid had suffered so
much from the debilitating climate that he was compelled to resign his post
and return to England. These letters therefore cover the ac period of hig
: : et t
“te the e man of science howev a thee a interest of
another kind. In 1831 Mr. Redfield had oan "that the phenomena steandieg
the gales of the Atlantic coast of the United States all unerringly testi
that these storms were great whirlwinds moving from the tropical ttn the
i i t
winds, to point out to navigators the means of eluding the violence
and deitmng the duration of these gales. These earlier papers of Mr. Red-
field fell under the notice of Col. Reid, while stationed at Barbadoes as an
engineer officer, and were to him the first satisfactory s colotion of a problem
which had long engaged his il of inet From this time Co]. Reid pees Big
‘h e le fore in a peculiar pri r illustrative of the aie of
the i —— ey i a 7 —- variable oven — — are
<s
nder the whge nivel nia and are hohner
her ivacious style, but beca ee her er com-
own pti would @ hardl
Mr. Re eld’s lette ly re been copied from his own letter-book, and are
therefore i nd copies, but Oe ee differ ener fom
the originals. The copying of these letters, and the arrangement o
Spetian have been okie’ ’ty lie eldest son, and the hours spent in this labor
have been sweetened by the memories of a revered parent, to whose virtues
best knew hi ify.
‘Steam wes At startled the people in the Heige
followed by a crash through one of the large wi windows |
Am. Jour, Sci.—Seconp Series, VoL. XXXIV, No. 102.—Nov., 1862.
a7
444 ' Book Notices.
John Riggin, Real Estate Agent, on the North side of Chestnut street.
A crowd of curious persons rushed to the spot, to find out something
more of the unusual occurrence, when they were rewarded by the discoy-
ery that a piece of solid iron—or rather what appeared to be a mixture
of iron and other substances—weighing about a quarter of a pound, had
fallen from the upper regions. We learn that the piece of iron will be
handed over to the Academy of Science.”— St, Louis newspa:
. . Shumard, to whom we are indebted for this information,
adds: “The specimen has the appearance of meteoric iron, and when
found, weighed 25°375 mm. gr. measured one inch me! a half in length,
about ten lines in width and a half an inch in thic
“Tt is stated to have come from a south inaneeeaaly dinetion, passing
over some i on the south side of Chestnut street, betwen 2d and
3d streets, striking the window of the office of Mr. Joh hn Rin, Real Es-
.tate broker on the north side of Chestnut street, shatte a large
of glass a few inches above the ground floor and then bovine obliquely
backwards several feet. Mr. Eugene Riggin was in the office at the time
of the fall, three or reed feet from the window, and immediately ran out
ae vege sis of a part of the epecett but cou ile not find any nickel.
wii intra of Prof. Dana's Geshe. Before these lines are seen by
our readers the book will be issued. Favored by an inspection of the
advanced sheets ide are able to give some notice of the scope and con-
tents of the volum
The first hathre oo the work which arrests attention is its thoroughly
American mabe We copy from the Preface what the author phe
on this sere
e best Las for a text Dak of the ee
aa fore, written out American Geology by itself, as a continuous
thou: mostly from American sources,
c ‘ls & Co London: Tritbner & a es ts
Book Notices. 445.
Facts have, however, been added from other continents so far as was
to give completeness to the work and exhibit strongly the comprehensiveness
of its principles.”
It has long been a just source of complaint that the students of geology
must seek in vain-for any compact and well arranged view of the system
of American Geology, and few but professional geologists have had the
courage to wade through the voluminous mass of matter embraced in the
official Reports of the various State Geologists; while still fewer have felt
themselves able to reconcile the numerous discrepancies growing out of a
want of unity in plan and nomenclature among the authors of these
report
S.
Prof. Dana, with that methodizing skill and philosophic power which
ind. i u
of familiar domestic scenes. Such a service has Prof. Dana rendered to
audience than can be asked for any mere text-book or local manual. It
marks an era in the history of geological literature, and as an Epic of
earth will be read with interest everywhere. Few geologists have seen
more of the earth’s surface than Prof. Dana, and his powers and oppor-
tunities as an original observer have been second only to his power of
analysis of the true value of the labors of others. The same cha
istics of accurate and exhaustive statement and lucid order, which have
made Dana’s Mineralogy an authority in all countries, will carry the
Geology home to the tables of a yet Jarger constituency. :
The spirit in which the book is written is well expressed in the con-
cluding lines of the preface.
“ Geology is rapidly taking its place as an introduction fo the higher history
See pl —
The sources from which Prof. Dana has drawn his materials as well as
a the geologists to whom he is indebted for assistance, are thus acknowl-
446 _ Book N olices.
“In the preparation of the American part of the volume, the author has
freely used the reports of the various geological surveys of the country, the
memoirs published in the different scientific journals and transactions, and
General Features of the Globe, and their o American geological his-
tory,—and the Temperature of the Globe, as : cabin on the Physiographic
The sami Pisa American Paleozoic life have been largely copied from
sor Hall. A few of the Paleozoic figures, and many of
later finde are i ste original drawings made by Mr. F. B. Meek, to whose
artistic skill and paleontological science the work is, throughout, greatly
indebted. The drawings were waltes all made on the wood for engraving by
rinsing it this yes ace. 1
In selecting figures of foreign fossils for the Manual, those used in Lyell’s
and other standard English works have, with few exceptions, been avoided, so
that the student Shani any of those volumes will have additional illustration
of the foreign figures are fret the beautifully illustra
“ Paléontologie et ‘Guologie” of Alcide d’Orbi di
The author would make acknowledgments * his countrymen for the pa I-
ness with which they have es aid, whenever appealed to, and especially,
for oft-repeated favors, to P. Lesley, of Philadelphia; J. 8. Newberry, of
Cleveland, Ohio; «ate f Princeton, N ux. Y.:
umbus, Ohio; E. Billings, of Montreal, Canada; E. Jewett, of Albany, N. Y.;
inor and Frank H. Bradley, of New Haven. Mr.
given freely his constant assistance during the progress of the volume through
the pre
The work is divided into four parts. Part I, Physiographic AOE
Part II, oe Geology. Part III, Historical Geology. Part
Dynamical Geo,
i not familiar with Zoology, a review of the classification
ta scenes with many ayers is given before entering upon the
tory of the ancient life of the w
— printing the details in a hia, type the book has been adapted to of
wo classes of students—the literary and scientific. The convenience
a vagy class has been further provided for by the addition of nt
synopsis of the work in which each head is made to present gehes <
or question for special attention. A catalogue of American local! of
of fossils is also in the Appendix and will _ aid the researches
young neta
The
print
this volume a attractive and wi seful, The w _ -cuts in rea =
ee fg aes Valley. By Dr. F. V. Haypex. 230
map and two plates. From the Transactions of the American
oir, which forme Part 24 of the XUth vol. of
1erican Ph, Society. Dr. Hayden
Society, 1862.—We have received a separate ory of Bes
Book Notices. 447
excellent opportunities for the study of the languages and habits co our
North American Indians, while engaged in the geological explora
the Upper Missouri. Our readers will recall his article on the ee
Indians on page 57 of this volume. The contents of the present memoir,
after au introduction, embrace the following pe
ALGONKIN GROUP,
‘ARAPOHO GROUP, B.
X. Arapohos—Ethnographical cag and Remarks on the Gram-
matical Structure of their Language; X. Vocabulary of the Arapoho
Language; XI. ‘isda Sl mearipien History and Vocabulary.
PAWNEE GROUP, C.
XII. Pawnees—Ethnographical pred bor #8 atl XIE Ari-
karas—Ethnographical History and Vocab
DAKOTA GROUP, D
n the
XXL Vocabulary of the Mandan Language; XXII. Sketch of the
Omé-ha, and Iowa or Oto Indians, with Vocabularies.
Fifty copies of this memoir were printed at the author’s expense, which
he desires to dispose of at two dollars per copy. Those desiring the
work can obtain it by addressing Prof. S. F, Baird, Assistant Sect. Smith-
sonian Insti Washington
oe Pea of the Goma oe Philosophical Society, held at le
delphia, gx promoting useful knowledge. ol. xii, new series. Parts
d 1, pp. 461. Philad., 1862.—The contents of this volume are,
Article I, On the Geology a Natural Ebsary of the Upper Missouri ;
with a map. By F. V. Hayden, M.D.
II, Experiments and observations upon the Circlation Pee ping
Turtle Chelonura serpentina), with especial referen
is F the arteries ne veins. e° P. Weir Mitchell, MLD. pp-
sitese
IIL. On the Ethnography and Philology of the Indian Tribes of the
Missouri Valley ; with a map and plates. By F. V. Hayden, M. D. pp.
231-461,
Tt. will be seen from the above titles that much of the sutstance of
this volume has already appeared in this Journal in the various papers
Dr. _ Hayden which we have published. The Philosophical Society well
maintains the objects for which it was founded, “for promoting useful
knowledge.”
-_
448 Book Notices.
4, Annual Report of the Board of Renett of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution for 1861: Washington, D. C., 1862. 8vo, pp. 463.—In his Re-
port to the ‘Board’ as Secretary of the cue, Prof. Henry remarks:
“It could scarcely be expected that during the existence of an intestine
war, and almost in the presence of two contending armies, if _—
should be able to conduct its affairs with the same persistence and s
cess as in the tranquil years of its previous history. The pa
and embarrassments, however, although frequent, and in some cases
plexing, have not prevented the continuance of the general operations: of
the Institution, or the prosecution of most of the special objects which
had previously been determined upon as falling within the scope of the
plan of its organization.”
However this may be we are struck in examining this report with its
great interest as a record of the progress of science as well as an index of
the value of the important achievements made by the Institution itself in
furtherance of = eh design of its founder to “increase and diff
knowledge amo
The Report of the cSeadalgns addressed to the Regents, reviews the
present condition of the fund, the income of which has been dim inished
by non payment of interest on about $60,000 of bonds of ag states,
while a substantial addition to the fund ‘has occurred of about $25,00
from the falling in of an annuity heretofore paid to a relative of Smnitiaot
now deceased. While the active operations of the Institution will not
curtailed by the existing state of civil war, no new NT a of magni-
tude will at present be begun. The Secretary, as is his custom, reviews
the contents of the publivations of the Taseleution for the year, giving
an analysis of the concluding papers eps the results of Dr.
Arctic observations, and of a series of papers on the meteorological oF
servations made during the patel of Sir F. L. ” McClintock i in search
Sir John Franklin in the Fox—1857-1859. ‘These papers form part of
the XIIIth volume of the “Contributions.” .
The Miscellaneous Collections invlude works intended to ee ee
study of the various branches of natural history, to “ — ctio >
the methods of observing natural phenomena, and riety of sa .
matter connected with the progress of science. Very spell in x
ares value as a key to 0 the sf aaa eats of ee the Sno
in number. as s follows, vi
Ist. Elementary fatroduction to the study of conchology, by P.P.
Carpenter, of Englan Jor-
2d. List of the species of shells collected by the United States ¢*P
ing expedition, by the same author. ‘
3d. Diiciiptive catalogue of the shells of the west coast of the United
Ristes, Mexico, and — America, by the same author.
_ 4th. Bibliography of North pel eonchology, by W. G. Binney
gt Descripti mn Sameete of the air-breathing shells of North America,
same auth
Sacoesey 3 nabcdanan that the illustrations presented from the wood
the British Museum Catalogue by Dr. Gray, and boris 2
rs ion, a
Book Notices. 449
| The Smithsonian is also engaged in developing the history of Ameri-
can Entomology in a thorough and systematic manner, the details of
, which are given in the Secretary’ s report.
; Ethnology also receives particular attention and a large number of
, collaborators are engaged in working up this department of knowledge on
7 which indeed the earlier volumes of the Contributions are particularly full.
The system of meteorological observations inaugurated by the Smith-
sonian at the outset of its career is still maintained and the 2d volume of
the Observations is nearly ready to be issued. ‘The state of war has seri-
ously impaired the receipt of records from the states in rebellion and to
a good degree too — up the system of returns from the military
oe of the Pacific
e magnetic ‘aanatael sent to Key West have been constantly
observed and the photographic records uninterruptedly kept up in spite
of their nearness to the seat of war, at the joint expense of the Smith-
sonian and Coast Survey.
Under the rea of Laboratory, Explorations, Collections of Natural
History, Museum, Exchanges, Literary, Gallery of Art, and Lectures, val-
resentatives of the United Sta
The General Are hore a number of voluable memoirs, some
of them seepareal 1 or the Report by their authors, others translated from
the French or German. These are preceded by an abstract of the Lee-
tures given before the ‘ociuaiien, by their authors. We subjoin the con-
tents of this Apppendix.
ures.—On the Construction of Bridges, by Prof. F. Rogers. On
the Relations of ipo and Space, by Prof. S. Alexander. On Arctic Ex-
plorations, by Dr. I ayes
Memoir of Geutties Saint Hilaire, by M. Flourens.*
The Sun: Its Chemical Analysis, by Auguste a
Progress of Astronomical Photography.
Smail planets between Mars and he by Prof Lespiault.*
Scintillation of the stars, by C. H. Duft
Synthetical Studies and Experiments on Meta morphism and on the
formation of Crys ex Rocks, by M. Daubrée; translated for this Re-
port by T. lesto
te on Nitr ification, by Dr. B. F. Cra
n the history of Petroleum or he oil, by T. Sterry Hunt.
Explosiility of coal oils, a Z. Allen.
tructive effect of iron rust.
reheeology.—Lacustrian Cities of Switzerland. Fauna of Middle Eu-
rope during the Stone Age. Report upon the Antiquarian and uneg4
cal Collections of the Cantonal Museum at Lausanne.
missioners of the Museums of the Canton of Vaud on the inher aa
t Concise. Ancient Mounds at St. Louis, Missouri. Instructions
_* Translated for this Report by O. A. Alexander.
450 Book Notices.
for Archzwological Investigations in the United States. Circular on the
Ancient Mining Operations of the Lake Superior Copper Region. Sug-
gestions relative to an Ethnological Map of North America.
Natural History.—List. of Birds of the District of Columbia, by EB
— and D. W. Prentiss.
Prize Questions of — Societies —Holland Society of Science at
Harlem. Batavian Society of Experimental Philosophy at Rotterdam.
“nae of Arts and Sciences at Utrecht. Royal Academy of the Nether-
lan
We have to thank Prof. Henry for bringing together for convenient
reference the lists of Prize Questions of scientific societies. We do not
e
aoe merely ‘science’ in a technical wo tead which may be propos
where. now o a. no more acceptable service which the pears
can perform. . We give in this connection a —- from a letter of a
ries in light and heat, of the — susaent ; if not others
cal premiums of Fiske and Bo
lie dormant and be lost to mankind, but the more Sine td as it seems to
myself, in affording indications to young experimenters of the paths to
chosen,—of the subjects to be worked upon, by them. For the questions
are propounded, for the most part, by committees composed of tra fT
ists,—of eminent men pecilinely fitted to point out the actual desiderata
the branches of science or art with which they are oce
t,
ing a trial of the plan just proposed, during a decade or two at least.
but believe but that it would prove to be a valuable aid to the progress a
science.
5. Journal ef the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. New
series, Vol. V, Part II. Philadelphia: printed for the Academy, Oct
1862, Ato, p Ah 1-216, with 33 plates—The contents of this part a
; _ Art. * este sierra the fossil BE hey of the Reconaary | and G. I
escrl x “Sao Pl from ita By Toh & the Museum
remy of Nat. Sci. Philadel hia. ohn Cassin. =
Obituary. 451
The Academy of Natural Sciences nobly maintains its prominence
among the publishing Societies of the United States, surpassing them all
in the beauty of its quarto Journal and of the numerous plates with which
its articles on natural history are illustrated. We are particularly struck
with the drawings (on stone by Ibbotson from Gabb’s originals) illustrat-
ing the fossil Polyzoa, which for perfectness have not been sur
in his own cabinet 30; and for North America, known to inhabit Mexico,
Honduras, Central America, and one in Canada—Unio 29, Anodonta
8 = 37, making the grand total at that date 617. Since then he has
added the contents of the two papers now noticed.
OBITUARY.
Death of General O. M. Mrrcnet.—Science mourns the sudden death,
by yellow fever, of the patriot-soldier and eminent scientist, Major General
Okxmssy McKniear Mircuet, which occurred at Beaufort, S. C., on the
30th of October.
He had just entered, with his accustomed zeal and energy, upon the ar-
duous duties of this difficult Military Department, when he fell a sacrifice
to that fearful scourge, the general absence of which among our armies
on the southern coast has been among the most noticeable bygienic facts
of the campaign.
General (Prof.) Mitchel was born on the 28th of August, 1810, in
Union County, Kentucky. His early life was checkered ; and his love of
learning made the boy the father of the man, even before the period of
olescence. He graduated as a cadet at West Point Military Academy
in 1829, where he served for two after, as Assistant Professor of
. He subsequently studied and practiced law in Cincinnati,
aud in 1834 accepted a chair of mathematies and astronomy in the Cin-
cinnati College, which he held until 1844. He aided the development
the Railway system of Ohio, by constructing two of the most import-
ant lines of Railway in that State.
“The Cincinnati Observatory owes its existence to the labors of Prof.
O. M. Mitchel. In the years 1841 and 1842, a society was organized in
Cincinnati, called the Cincinnati Astronomical Society, the object of
i ity with an observatory. Eleven thousand
and a site for
Esq. It consists of
of the highest hills on the eastern side of
the town. In June, 1842, the society being fully organized, Professor
, XXXIV, No. 102—Nov., 1862.
452 Obituary.
Mitchel sot i to purchase a telescope. At Munich, he found an
object glass of twelve inches aperture, which had been tested by Dr.
Lamont, and cenen one of the ng ever manufactured. This was
subsequently ordered to be mounted, was be rehased for $9,437.
This instrument arrived in Cincinnati in Fiebaanng 33 845. In November,
1843, the corner-stone of the observatory was laid by the venerable J one
Quiney Adams. The building is eighty feet long and thirty feet broad.
Here, as Director, he afterwards perfected his well known system of
Astronomical Observations, and published for a time the Sidereal Mes-
also Ibany. | His
“ a Pinneiary, and Stellar Worlds” and his “Popular Astronomy ie
among the best known of his writings. a
Probably no discourses on so abstruse a science as astronomy i
created such an impression on the public mind, as his well remembered lec-
tures in 1859 in the N. Y. Academy of Masic, where by the se
his descriptions—using no diagrams but such as he described in the = 4d
a wand—he held vast audiences in the most wrapt attention, unaid Jn
any of the usual accessories of scientific demonstration. The sa ihe
passioned eloquence pein his hearers, when the peril of his sage
led him to abandon the Observer’s chair and his equatorials to Z
armies. The record 7 his remarkable military exploits belongs elsew poe on
Suffice it to say that dying he leaves a record as — nt in arms, a8
been his career in other and more peaceful pursui ua k
ewton Spautpine Manross.—We have ae. to eit o ie
ae war of another of our respected collaborators whose na sing
peared in these woman on Spautpine Mane caenbe seit tog
Tone of Chemistry at Amherst, was killed in the battle of Anti 60
September 17th, while gallantly = a charge at the head of his
y in — 16th a Volunt |
"D r. Manross was a graduate of Yale ( College in 1849, and uae
re of Doctor of Philosophy at Gottingen in 185 852. ee it
mining engineering were his special pursuits. He has ecaachs ‘ee the
pied in the aie ye of the Isthmus of Panama with reference
‘proposed -section of that neck of land by an interoceani¢ eana pe ot
L description of. ae Pitch lake of Trinidad, which he visited in 185 > ed
: de fo in vol. xx, p. 153 of this Journal. His Inaugural Thesis oP”
ial Production of Minerals’ will also be recalled for its merits.
‘Loomis's History of Astronomy in the United States, p. 452.
INDEX TO VOLUME XXXIV.
A
ener of get eo Philadelphia, Pro-
ceedings o 450.
cual of the, noticed, 450.
Allen, O. D. m and rubidium, 367.
Aluminium, dendtabinted of, J. Nickles, 126.
Mom of Philosophical Society, Transac-
ions
ee lake habitations of Switzerland,
gra of the volcan of Candarave,
Pern, W.
Ashbutton’ 8 adress ‘to the Royal Geo-
phical Society, 358.
ASTRONOMY—
Asteroids, 430.
ugmentation a Se Latins diameter 0:
a body by atmospheric refraction
Challis,
Clytia, asteroid (73), elements of, T.
oe Hough, 294.
Elements of, 43
Companion to een, 8. on ‘ord, 294.
ae rome fireball of Dec. 3,
Discovery of A ppt? (74), H. ML Park-
Discovery of Comet I, 1862, If Tempel,
Elements of Melete, asteroid (56), 2.
Luther,
430.
Extent of the Earth’s atmosphere, C/al-
Comet II of 15
Great Comet of 1858, G. P. Bond, 292.
Haidinger’s investi A of jeateor
Genth, 1
stones cole oe
ma of Omricon Ci i Shit
Melete, name of asteroid (56),
eae ts ‘supposed fall of, at St.
ouis
Meteors of Aug. 10th, 1862, A. C. Twi-
ning, 295.
J. Ni
a Shooting Stars,
e, A. D., Moon’ we er upon hori-
site tal m magnetic fo
| Bache, R. M. Physiology ‘of of sea-sicknens,17.
Bacon, C.K. Ouvrages des
Doctrines, 18
. P. G., empirical interpolation
of observations in physics and chemis-
try, 2
Britham, Geo., Address to the Linnzan
ety, age
Bibliography Nickles, 1
a der, conversion 0 enylic in
osalic ania, and the siaton of this
atid coloring wool and silk, 408.
oe nate transfermed into te. of
|Biot, ray 4 B. obituary of, J. Micklés, 120.
‘| Blanay, J. F., copper range of Lake Supe-
rior, 112.
, Great Comet of 1858, 292.
Book Notices,
nical 2 ae and reviews, A. Gray,
1
Carex, illustrations of, Dr. Boott, 292.
Cedars of peo Taurus, Algeria and
n .
in the genitalia of flowers,
A. Gray
Fertilization of orchids by insects, C.
Darwin 420.
Genus Euphorbia in a Pro-
di G. Engelman:
jsebach’s ol of oe oe British West
Chelle, 435.
Auroral beams —— with electrical
Currents near th 's surface, 2.
Loomis, 34.
: B
ry A. D., horizontal component 0
magnetic force, from observations |):
at Girard College, 261, 373.
454
Bronn, H. G., Index lenge te 304.
Bron, H. G. -, obitua
Brush, G. J, wailayaeenl ‘all Hebron,
Me.
Tenth supplement to Dana’s Mineral-
riphyline occurring at Norwich,
Mass.} 402.
eaaencaee Geological and Natural History
u
Cari fo: ee "hordes sulphids of alcohol
rai
hadbourn Pp A., effect i ice in water
boiling i = glass vessels,
lis, augmentation of ‘emsait a
2, 434,
semis ul light and shooting stars, 435,
CHEMI
INDEX.
bservatio: ons on
— culture of, J. Nicklés, 127.
Cournet, Traité de I’Enchainement des
I
Grecben Researches on thallium, 409.
Dana’s Lenape of Geology, 282, 444.
relations of Death to Life in
ids fertilized by eye
ercrossil
ius, 439.
poEBeabks
compared wlth Protichnites of Potsdam
sandstone, 416.
Death, relations of, to Life in pik 316.
A smacustt Aspirator and Blower, MM.\| Deby. rojection n of colored rays of me-
C Lea, 245. tallic pect
onia-ruthenium bases, Claus, 133. || DeCandolle, C., Dela roduetion naturelle
Arithmeti relations of Chemical!’ et artificielle du ae
equivalents, ‘are , 3st, four, density of ice e, %
Caesium and rubidium, . Allen, 367.|| Delesse, A.,, Etudes sur le ie Métamorphisme
Carbonates of alumina, glucina and the|! des Roches, 129.
om a9 oo iron My Pegenctes and|| Dujardin et Husse, Histoire oe des
uranium, : Zoophytes Echinodermes
Chlorinated organic Dodias. HH, Miiller, ci i bina z
E
Conversion of phenylic into rosalic acid
and its application to coloring wool Emerson, £., ch me of Papen ack
and si nder, 408. bciagrapie c ying in
a 9 bons, new modes of forming, rocess in Photogrs phy. phy, 194
Hype erchloric acid, Roscoe, 131. peahoeanran Tes — Oe se
Hyponitric acid, Miller, 132. tion of Nova i, 0. conitiean ieee
Lithium and strontium’ in a meteorite, —- lithium and stro
nis
ie ia Worse in Me
ylene, Wurtz, .
age “reap ae into rosalate of lime, Pavan Euphorbia in DeCandolle’s
cneoeed Indian
ogra’ [Ethnography and philol fea the
me ae. ~ a oni of the Missouri y, F. V. Hay
Photography by the tannin process, E,||_ 4” r Miscouri and Yel-
= “rome W. Or olds, 1
Picrotoxine, detection of, J. W. Lang-
nee sor agp ge tec
paration of chlorinated Bama bod-
ies, H. Miiller,
Retorts, improved, M. C. Lea, 302.
‘Ain ges
oe
gina projection _ come ray3
spectra, 407.
F
Favaday, on Siemens’ regenerative £38
furnace, alcohol
Ferrein and fates sulphids of
radicals, 133,
Figuier, ie ger Scientifique Indus-
d Sana?
| Sonar goa the Sea, 272. of
INDEX.
GrocRAFHICAL Not
—— paar ‘neterologia re-
Khanikot 's researches in Persia, 362.
Kilimanjaro, the ug lang equato-
oe 8 Expedition, the Royuma
Measurément of a Peak in the Karako-
ru
edennee We Survey of Great Britain and
Trelan
ait h Surv rveys in Chin;
ie cork Arctic Caasttion, 06.
s India and High Asia,
‘opogra: phical Survey of Spain, 361.
ited § States Government Surveys, 98.
ruba + ae the Niger Valley, 93.
455
Gray, A Po epee notes and reviews,
138, 282, 4
a me of Dr. s Plants
poe he Rocky Mountai weg 330.
ere Istanas (pom irhosphatie of the Pacific
Et
J. D., any Guano Islands of
ley,
Mandan Indians and their Language,
ge calected in Nebraska, 137.
- ie meteoric fireball of
ginia, J. P
California Ease and Natural His-
ory
Calomopor found in gravel near
Arbor, Mich. inger, 389.
Ann
7
Copper range of
Williams and J. F
er pag ince
das Rothliegende i. B.
Euali uw m. coal forma-
tion of N va Scotia, my c Marsh, 1.
erst jolisehed tik Nebraska, Meek and
Ponta of Limulus compared wi
protichnites of Pots ang err
*., Dawson, 416.
Index Palxontologicus, H. G. Bronn,
Mastodon tooth in Amador Co., Califor-
New species of Silurian fossils, Z. Bil-
Phosphatic Guano Islands of the Pacific
= on New York State Cabinet of
ural History, 418.
Sattmerues te and salt springs of Mi-
chigan, A. — 807.
Student’s cepa ne
Wau!
er pot, ag
eon Platinum metals, BE
a * lm a A aia lz
i ceeinger, 1k
Physics and Chemis-|| Loomis,
Cause of variations of the earth’s sur- Hoan ~ anaes,
e, J. B. Jukes, 439.
Lake Superior, PA ok uae, ie ihe stru
Lingula polita, note on description, Z.||
Jukes, 282.
secaetans es coe)
Lee nar sterlions Danibeny, =
Histoire Santis des
es Echinodermes, 151.
eture of "nae brain in
and monkeys, ics:
OW. Com
=
perros pone in
etically seal
International Call e, J. vee 125.
a
~ee ° ations in |
P.-¢. ao partiet, OP
gol oa solutions her-
hj Jenkin, F., binging eg currents in cir-
cults of one xe of oad ill group, 41
Jewett, E,, ts
Jukes, 7H, Cause of of the Variations “of the
earth’s surface,
Student’s Social of Geology, 282.
K
sii ad Researches on Solar —
Thallium
J. W. aie oe afer icrotoxine,
Lamy. us new metal 275.
Lan 7
ag 8 on the genus Unio, 451.
. Carey, a cons aspirator
thmetical relations between chem-
i yam . Bt.
rina , 66.
es Flenrs, 128.
ra Ving nis, notices by, =
*clectrical currents and motion of au-
cae senna
da = lake habitations of
por ns nd, 161.
cite, How, Robb, 206.
= oma froin. northern Chile, F
456
father R., elements of Melete, asteroid
( :
Lyman’s trigonometer, 157,
M
ey ene and their language, / V.
Manross, y i uary of, 452.
Marcel de Serres, ‘obituary of, 303
‘arcoy, e Scénes et Paysages ‘dans les
erage
0. ‘t. enaliosaurian remains from
Novn 8 Scotia, d.
Meek, F. B., fossils from Nebraska, 137,
Meteoric iron, so-called, from Rutherford,
es ” supposed fall of, at St. Louis, Mo.,
Meteoric stone, so-called, from Richland,
8. C., ie
.» from Waterloo, N. Y., 298.
Sceesiteen,. North American, C. F. Ram-
19:
see Axtronom omy.
Meteorological record at Kanagawa, Ja-
pan, Hepburn,
Bullettino Collegio co ig! Pichi
torio del Col toma:
rres Se ar Vin. Fela and)
W. C. Redfield, Esq.,
Meteorology, W. — ger, 152,
ique: Histoire et Deseri ription, 1%
Mineralogy, Dana’s tenth supplement,
. Brush, 202.
MINER
AL!
Adamsit Soa te oy Margarodite.
aieuasatia: Gen
Alisonite, F.
Allanite from al, 3k Mass., D. I.
from ranklin, N. J., 7. S. Hunt, 204.
Alunite, 4 Mitse herlich, 204.
‘in Maine, from Hebron and Paris
G. J. Brush, 243.
Anglesite, F. Field, 204
Antozonie, see Fluor. oes
rosiderite, Hrlenmeyer, 205.
a oo "from Andreasberg, i.
Arsenical Antimony, from Nevada, F.
Arsenolite, from Nevada, F. A. Genth,
Automoli 0
Bil ——
INDEX.
MINER
Chior! ite sec Monroe, N. cma Ne a
copper-Nickel from Andreasberg, H.
Grypsomorpiite, How, see Boronatrocal-
cite.
Datholite, @. Tschermak, J. D. Whitney,
Dechenite e, G. ‘ae : reg hg
Deleminzite, Breithaupt,
Dianite identical with tantalite, Damour
an
Dom raloon e, FA. ‘Genth, D. Forbes, 210.
Dufrenite, /. Pisana, 210.
Engethardite, see Zircon.
Sanka . A. G enth, 211.
Feldspar
Fientelte, T. BE. Clark, 211.
Fluor from Wéls =e 2h
Freieslebenite
Fournetite of Wane, 86 birahedene. a
Galena, so-called Peeaaomorghs
A Aa samt malig Breithay,
Gamsi — dite, Pecabeven
blen
Garank, green from ae Tscher-
mak, ae
ites beri a e, Pisani. + oe Hoyett
— ite, one
, 0. C. Mar: ete A,
nugg t from en 4. Genth 8
G Beet H. How, 212.
= = Pisani, a
zee cheno es
Iron, meteoric, ‘containing traces of ni-
cee eee See IY Si ee OPEC a ey Ne eee
INDEX.
rite, so-called, from ape:
acher,
J. Brush, 216.
Remrodiy from Derby, Ntyo-G. 0.
irae Ross-Hill Ireland, a Ser mato
or Tae ite, Lux urg
Mica, from Canton, Ireland, 8. a
ton,
Millerite, 'F. A. Genth A, 217,
Monazite, F. A. Gerth, ” 217.
457
Mebrasks re —s explorations, 99.
merican fossil fishes, 73.
> North Pac ifie Serle expedition, 98.
North-west boundary survey, 99.
‘Obituary, 120, 159, 803, 451.
Nag agite & J. Kappel, 217. Ocean, saltness of, 274.
pal, &. Tsche , 217. Old frien oP de new faces, 303.
Orthoclase, G. v. Rath, S. Haughton, 217. Oliver, ntherology, structure of
Pholerite, 7. Pisani, the anther, 989.
nite, A. Streng, pay anger wood-cells of beg ame imitate
Platinum with chrome-iron, B. toa. 218. ee marking:
Polybasite, Tonner Beta re of ihe prahi in man and
ecko with fluor-spar, Nog erath, 218.
Proustite from North Carolina, FP. A.
Psilomelane, K. List.
“ir * elas m near oie re, F. A, Genth,
Pyrosmalite, .7. a
Pyroxene, Aammelsberg, Des Cloizeaux,
Pyrophyllite, from Moore Co.. North
Carolina, G. J. Brush, 218.
vara, auod or caustic potash on,
Spiautrite, Breitha 8
Spinel, / A. Genth, 3
Stassfurthite, see Boracite.
— "Rammelsberg,
enth,
stibiconise, see — ~ ee
Szaibelyite, Peter:
Tale from Wobates: N. C., F. A. Genth,
Tetrahedrite, Ch. Mene, :
of Hermaph, # see vag ae
Clai
To OL re Deville, 222.
Triphyline from Norwich "Mass., @ J.
, 402.
Tritomite, FP. Moller, 2228
Uranite, Des Cloizeau: ‘
ite ouski, see Calamine.
Whitneyite, F A. Genth, @. J. Brush,228.
Volfram, F. A. i.
nee fay W. Ham, 233,
rttro-Tantalite, C jydenius, 224.
Sag? or a a F,. Alger. 224.
non, WC age pagel pecave of tomop-
toupee on brain of man and mon-
i el 437.
=
Pyy-s dak at a
io
neue bya,
brain and climb characters of man—
rain of gorilla, 440.
Parkhurst, H. M., discovery of asteroid
(74), 430.
Parkman, T., carbonates of alumnia, glu-
cina and the me ee ds of iron, chro-
mium an
Parry's collection ofp f plants from the Rocky
rape reer ns, 249, 35!
ph gg a 5 copying - pure black and
nite,
Photozraphy, b by mage prone process, E.
Emerson,
Puysics—
ugmentation of the apparent diameter
of a body by atmospheric refraction,
a
Aut raphs of the sun, br a a 436.
Blue lithium line, Frankland,
Dessay o of ice, Dufour,
= . t of —s ice rl water bicaat cag |
essels, P. A. C
Extent of of the earth’s ran fey nae eet
jeone "experiment, 130.
orizontal component of the fen
foree, A. D. Bache, 261 373.
H Tssherps
spectra, A
taicaeen Gl of the sea,
Solar — Weiss, 406.
Solar spectrum, |
458
Pursic
Zodincal light and shooting stars, Prof.
Chali
Prize aiestious of scientific societies, 450.
SS)
Cage lagen, Yate de l’Espéce Humaine, ||
R
Rammelsberg, C_ F., some North American
Ponce age 297.
Spontaneous Gen
- INDEX.
Socrettss, proceedings of—
ee: d. pine bes Sci.,
e Siar ;
pectral analysis, A. Mitscherlich,
Spectrum by solution of nitrate of didy-
mium, 0. N.
observations of the solar, Weiss, 406,
researches on the solar, Kirei a 404.
Spores Jr.
or 0. f
ration, experimen
xplorations of Upper!
Winoda and Tyan Stone, 100. ae formation of infusoria in organic solu
Redfield and Wm. Re id, Corres-||, tions, J. W, an, 308:
pondene of, oe ee nae
HA ilaire, G. T st
core sable rotation * her 00 ean St. Hilaire, Isidore Geoffroy, obituary of,
eanpen a SF in gore, te bor, rNaicha thor Hs Stieren, ee saltwaters of the ——
rue position of so-called Waukesha
oo of Wisconsin,
go N., Prisms of Bisulphid of Car-
ctrum 12 solution of nitrate of
ompanion to Sirius,
8
wore e . H., Elements of Clytia, aster-
Saliferous rocks of Mt
gs
and Keskeminetas valleys,
T
1, M., discovery of comet I, 1862, 430.
Twi ioisine, A. C., meteors of Aug. 10th, 1862,
295.
United States Government Surveys, F: V-
Hayden, 98.
per Missouri and Yellow Stone, explo-
rations, 100.
Utah Tertiary, wagon-road routes in, 99.
igan, 807.
brain in man an
Salt springs of Michigan oak its bearing upon cnsieation, mn 188
Salt waters of the Alleghany and Keske- Weddell’s Chloris Andina, 1
minetas volleys, J. Stieren, Weiss ag spectrum
Saltness of the s , Forchha ee ; ay note on " description of
San Juan Exploring Expediti lita, ta, 136,
Santa, P—Chemins de Fer et Santé Pub- ae ul polite P., Copper Range of Lake 8u-
soa erior, 112.
Scheffer, G. wi,
C., rotation in pith cells of
Saururus. cernuns, <y
Se. weit, H. and R. de, so peg
‘ontigurations of aie and High A
Sel
4
mci M., maximum of Omicron Ceti,
name (Melete) for asteroid 56 ane.
Winchell a, ee and Salt
rings of Mich
Wares new modes sof forming certain hy-
— ons,
of "Ethylene, 130.
fryman. f. formation 0
ganic solution: 8, 79.
f Infusoria in or-
Schubert, M., name of Asteroid
Scientific News, J. Nicklés, 127 _ a Zological significance 0 of: breim and itind
Seasick pha eee ae oi ac
ckness, p! aig UL he, 17.
ton f se ‘ ager sun ea Zeller, y be Historique, 128.
si ont. e, obituary o ;
Serres, i I de, obituary of, ob Donation of be dae of American ee
Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College, con- nian Institution
_tributions from, 1, 243, 367, fe Civico of M . » 159.
ilkworms, di Wie Geoffroy St. Hilaire’s System of Zoology;
Simon, Jules, VOuvriere, 128, cs Beh :
titution a aport for 1861,|| Histoire Natuirelle di des er
nod
oe nati’ Gherfatione on om genus Unio, = Lat
i. of works on Seouioes pub- a and Mon-
: : DISCUSSION OF THE MAGNETIC AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT THE GIRARD COLLEGE PHILADELPHIA - ep
: . IN 1840 41 42 43 442 45 DIAGRAMS TO PART V. 1862 A.D.BACHE LL.D. SUPERINTENDENT
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